,,woman',s ,,institute ,,library ,,of ,,cookery ,,volume ,,one ,,essentials ,,of ,,cookery ,,cereals ,,bread ,,hot ,,breads ,,woman',s ,,institute ,,of ,,domestic ,,arts ,,and ,,sciences1 ,inc4 ,,preface ,the ,woman's ,institute ,library of ,cookery consists of five volumes that cover the various phases of the subject of cookery as it is carried on in the home4 ,these books contain the same text as the ,instruction ,papers of the ,institute's ,course in ,cookery arranged so that related subjects are grouped together4 ,examination questions pertaining to the subject matter appear at the end of each section4 ,these questions will prove helpful in a mastery of the subjects to which they relate1 as they are the same as those on which students of the ,institute are required to report4 ,at the back of each volume is a complete index1 which will assist materially in making quick reference to the subjects contained in it4 ,this volume1 which is the first of the set1 deals with the essentials of cookery1 cereals1 bread1 and hot breads4 ,in ,essentials of ,cookery1 ,parts #a and #b1 are thoroughly treated the selection1 buying1 and care of food1 as well as other matters that will lead to familiarity with terms used in cookery and to efficiency in the preparation of food4 ,in ,cereals are discussed the production1 composition1 selection1 and care and the cooking and serving of cereals of all kinds4 ,in ,bread and ,hot ,breads are described all the ingredients required for bread1 rolls1 and hot breads of every kind1 the processes and recipes to be followed in making and baking them1 the procedure in serving them1 and the way in which to care for such foods4 ,whenever advisable1 utensils for the preparation of food1 as well as labor-saving devices1 are described1 so as to enable beginners in the art of cookery to become acquainted with them quickly4 ,in addition1 this volume contains breakfast1 luncheon1 and dinner menus that will enable the housewife to put into practical1 every-day use many of the recipes given4 ,it is our hope that these volumes will help the housewife to acquire the knowledge needed to prepare daily meals that will contain the proper sustenance for each member of her family1 teach her how to buy her food judiciously and prepare and serve it economically and appetizingly1 and also instil in her such a liking for cookery that she will become enthusiastic about mastering and dignifying this womanly art4 ,,contents ,,essentials ,,of ,,cookery ,the ,problem of ,food ,selection of ,food ,food ,substances ,food ,value ,digestion and ,absorption of ,food ,preparation of ,food ,methods of ,cooking ,heat for ,cooking ,utensils for ,cooking ,preparing ,foods for ,cooking ,order of ,work ,table for ,cooking ,foods ,care of ,food ,menus and ,recipes ,terms ,used in ,cookery ,,cereals ,production1 ,composition1 and ,selection ,cereals as a ,food ,preparation of ,cereals for the ,table ,indian ,corn1 or ,maize ,wheat ,rice ,oats ,barley ,rye1 ,buckwheat1 and ,millet ,prepared1 or ,ready-to-,eat1 ,cereals ,serving ,cereals ,italian ,pastes ,breakfast ,menu ,,bread ,importance of ,bread as ,food ,ingredients for ,bread ,making ,utensils for ,bread ,making ,bread-,making ,processes ,making the ,dough ,care of the ,rising ,dough ,kneading the ,dough ,shaping the ,dough ,into ,loaves ,baking the ,bread ,scoring ,bread ,use of the ,bread ,mixer ,serving ,bread ,bread ,recipes ,recipes for ,rolls1 ,buns1 and ,biscuits ,toast ,left-,over ,bread ,,hot ,,breads ,hot ,breads in the ,diet ,principal ,requirements for ,hot ,breads ,leavening ,agents ,hot-,bread ,utensils and ,their ,use ,preparing the ,hot-,bread ,mixture ,baking the ,hot-,bread ,mixture ,serving ,hot ,breads ,popover ,recipes ,griddle-,cake ,recipes ,waffle ,recipes ,muffin ,recipes ,corn-,cake ,recipes ,biscuit ,recipes ,miscellaneous ,hot-,bread ,recipes ,utilising ,left-,over ,hot ,breads ,luncheon ,menu ,,index 99 99 99 99 99 ,,essentials ,,of ,,cookery 7,,part #a7 ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,food #a4 ,without doubt1 the greatest problem confronting the human race is that of food4 ,in order to exist1 every person must eat2 but eating simply to keep life in the body is not enough4 ,aside from this1 the body must be supplied with an ample amount of energy to carry on each day's work1 as well as with the material needed for its growth1 repair1 and working power4 ,to meet these requirements of the human body1 there is nothing to take the place of food1 not merely any kind1 however1 but the right kind4 ,indeed1 so important is the right kind of food in the scheme of life that the child deprived of it neither grows nor increases in weight1 and the adult who is unable to secure enough of it for adequate nourishment is deficient in nerve force and working power4 ,if a person is to get the best out of life1 the food taken into the body must possess real sustaining power and supply the tissues with the necessary building material2 and this truth points out that there are facts and principles that must be known in order that the proper selection of food may be made1 that it may be so prepared as to increase its value1 and that economy in its selection1 preparation1 use1 and care may be exercised4 #b4 ,probably the most important of these principles is the cooking of food4 ,while this refers especially to the preparation of food by subjecting edible materials to the action of heat1 it involves much more4 ,the cooking of food is a science as well as an art1 and it depends for its success on known and established principles4 ,in its full sense1 cookery means not only the ability to follow a recipe1 thereby producing a successfully cooked dish1 but also the ability to select materials1 a knowledge of the ways in which to prepare them1 an understanding of their value for the persons for whom they are prepared1 and ingenuity in serving foods attractively and in making the best use of food that may be left over from the previous meals1 so that there will be practically no waste4 ,thus1 while cookery in all its phases is a broad subject1 it is one that truly belongs to woman1 not only because of the pleasure she derives in preparing food for the members of her family1 but because she is particularly qualified to carry on the work4 #c4 ,the providing of food in the home is a matter that usually falls to the lot of the housewife2 in fact1 on her depends the wise use of the family income4 ,this means1 then1 that whether a woman is earning her own livelihood and has only herself to provide for1 or whether she is spending a part of some other person's income1 as1 for instance1 her father's or her husband's1 she should understand how to proportion her money so as to provide the essential needs1 namely1 food1 clothing1 and shelter4 ,in considering the question of providing food1 the housewife should set about to determine what three meals a day will cost1 and in this matter she should be guided by the thought that the meals must be the best that can possibly be purchased for the amount of money allowed for food from the family income and that their cost must not exceed the allotment4 ,to a great extent she can control the cost of her foods by selecting them with care and then making good use of what her money has bought4 ,it is only by constant thought and careful planning1 however1 that she will be able to keep within her means1 and she will find that her greatest assistance lies in studying foods and the ways in which to prepare them4 #d4 ,a factor that should not be disregarded in the problem of food is waste1 and so that the housewife can cope with it properly she should understand the distinction between waste and refuse4 ,these terms are thought by some to mean the same thing and are often confused2 but there is a decided difference between them4 ,waste1 as applied to food1 is something that could be used but is not1 whereas refuse is something that is rejected because it is unfit for use4 ,for example1 the fat of meat1 which is often eaten1 is waste if it is thrown away1 but potato parings1 which are not suitable as food1 are refuse4 ,in connection with the problem of waste1 it may be well to know that leakage in the household is due to three causes4 ,the first one is lack of knowledge on the part of the housekeeper as to the difference between waste and refuse and a consequent failure to market well4 ,as an illustration1 many housewives will reject turkey at a certain price a pound as being too expensive and1 instead1 will buy chicken at1 say1 #e cents a pound less4 ,in reality1 chicken at #e cents a pound less than the price of turkey is more expensive1 because turkey1 whose proportion of meat to bone is greater than that of chicken1 furnishes more edible material2 therefore1 in buying chicken1 they pay more for refuse in proportion to good material4 ,the second cause for this leakage in the household is excessive waste in the preparation of food for the table1 arising from the selection of the wrong cooking method or the lack of skill in cooking2 and the third cause is the serving of too large quantities and a consequent waste of food left on individual plates and unfit for any other use in the home4 #e4 ,another matter that constantly confronts the housewife is what foods she shall select for each day's meals4 ,to be successful1 all meals should be planned with the idea of making them wholesome and appetizing1 giving them variety1 and using the left-overs4 ,every woman should understand that food is cooked for both hygienic and esthetic reasons2 that is1 it must be made safe and wholesome for health's sake and must satisfy the appetite1 which to a considerable degree is mental and1 of course1 is influenced by the appearance of the food4 ,when the housewife knows how to cook ordinary foods well1 she has an excellent foundation from which to obtain variety in the diet--by which in these lessons is meant the daily food and drink of any individual1 and not something prescribed by a physician for a person who is ill--for then it is simply a matter of putting a little careful thought into the work she is doing in order to get ideas of new ways in which to prepare these same foods and of utilizing foodstuffs she has on hand4 ,however1 ample time must always be allowed for the preparation of meals1 for no one can expect to produce tasty meals by rushing into the kitchen just before meal time and getting up the easiest thing in the quickest manner4 ,well-planned meals carefully prepared will stimulate interest in the next day's bill of fare and will prove extremely beneficial to all concerned4 #f4 ,in the practice of cookery it is also important that the meals be planned and the cooking done for the sake of building the human body and caring for it4 ,as soon as any woman realizes that both the present and the future welfare of the persons for whom she is providing foods depend on so many things that are included in cookery1 her interest in this branch of domestic science will increase2 and in making a study of it she may rest assured that there is possibly no other calling that affords a more constant source of enjoyment and a better opportunity for acquiring knowledge1 displaying skill1 and helping others to be well and happy4 ,the fact that people constantly desire something new and different in the way of food offers the housewife a chance to develop her ingenuity along this line4 ,then1 too1 each season brings with it special foods for enjoyment and nourishment1 and there is constant satisfaction in providing the family with some surprise in the form of a dish to which they are unaccustomed1 or an old one prepared in a new or a better way4 ,but the pleasure need not be one-sided1 for the adding of some new touch to each meal will give as much delight to the one who prepares the food as to those who partake of it4 ,when cookery is thought of in this way1 it is really a creative art and has for its object something more than the making of a single dish or the planning of a single meal4 #g4 ,from what has been pointed out1 it will readily be seen that a correct knowledge of cookery and all that it implies is of extreme importance to those who must prepare food for others2 indeed1 it is for just such persons--the housewife who must solve cookery problems from day to day1 as well as girls and women who must prepare themselves to perform the duties with which they will be confronted when they take up the management of a household and its affairs--that these lessons in cookery are intended4 ,in the beginning of this course of study in cookery it is deemed advisable to call attention to the order in which the subject matter is presented4 ,as will be seen before much progress is made1 the lessons are arranged progressively2 that is1 the instruction begins with the essentials1 or important fundamentals1 of food--its selection1 preparation1 and care--and1 from these as a foundation1 advances step by step into the more complicated matters and minor details4 ,the beginner eager to take up the actual work of cookery may feel that too much attention is given to preliminaries4 ,however1 these are extremely essential1 for they are the groundwork on which the actual cooking of food depends2 indeed1 without a knowledge of them1 very little concerning cookery in its various phases could be readily comprehended4 #h4 ,each beginner in cookery is therefore urged to master every lesson in the order in which she receives it and to carry out diligently every detail4 ,no lesson should be disregarded as soon as it is understood1 for the instruction given in it bears a close relation to the entire subject and should be continually put into practice as progress is made4 ,this thought applies with particular emphasis to the ,sections relating to the essentials of cookery4 ,these should be used in connection with all other ,sections as books of reference and an aid in calling to mind points that must eventually become a part of a woman's cookery knowledge4 ,by carrying on her studies systematically and following directions carefully1 the beginner will find the cooking of foods a simple matter and will take delight in putting into practice the many things that she learns4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,selection ,,of ,,food ,,matters ,,involved ,,in ,,right ,,selection #i4 ,each one of the phases of cookery has its importance1 but if success is to be achieved in this art1 careful attention must be given to the selection of what is to be cooked1 so as to determine its value and suitability4 ,to insure the best selection1 therefore1 the housewife should decide whether the food material she purchases will fit the needs of the persons who are to eat it2 whether the amount of labor involved in the preparation will be too great in proportion to the results obtained2 whether the loss in preparation1 that is1 the proportion of refuse to edible matter1 will be sufficient to affect the cost materially2 what the approximate loss in cooking will be2 whether the food will serve to the best advantage after it is cooked2 and1 finally1 whether or not all who are to eat it will like it4 ,the market price also is a factor that cannot be disregarded1 for1 as has been explained1 it is important to keep within the limits of the amount that may be spent and at the same time provide the right kind of nourishment for each member of the family4 #aj4 ,in order to select food material that will meet the requirements just set forth1 three important matters must be considered2 namely1 the substances of which it is composed2 its measure of energy-producing material1 or what is called its food1 or fuel1 value2 and its digestion and absorption4 ,until these are understood1 the actual cost of any article of food cannot be properly determined1 although its price at all times may be known4 ,however1 before a study of any of these matters is entered into1 it is necessary to know just what is meant by food and what food does for the body4 ,as is well understood1 the body requires material by which it may be built and its tissues repaired when they are torn down by work and exercise4 ,in addition it requires a supply of heat to maintain it at normal temperature and provide it with sufficient energy to do the work required of it4 ,the material that will accomplish these important things is food1 which may therefore be regarded as anything that1 when taken into the body1 will build and repair its tissues or will furnish it with the energy required to do its work4 ,,food ,,substances #aa4 ,although1 as has just been stated1 food may be considered as anything that the human engine can make over into tissue or use in living and working1 not all foods are equally desirable any more than all materials are equally good in the construction of a steam engine and in the production of its working power4 ,those food substances which are the most wholesome and healthful are the ones to be chosen1 but proper choice cannot be made unless the buyer knows of what the particular food consists and what it is expected to do4 ,to aid in the selection of food1 therefore1 it is extremely necessary to become familiar with the five substances1 constituents1 or principles of which foods are made up2 namely1 water1 mineral matter1 or ash1 protein1 fat1 and carbohydrate4 ,a knowledge of these will help also in determining the cooking methods to adopt1 for this depends on the effect that heat has on the various substances present in a food4 ,of course1 so far as flavor is concerned1 it is possible for the experienced cook to prepare many dishes successfully without knowing the effect of heat on the different food constituents2 but to cook intelligently1 with that success which makes for actual economy and digestibility1 certain facts must be known concerning the food principles and the effect of dry and moist heat on foods4 #ab4 ,water4--,of the various constituents that are found in the human body1 water occurs in the largest quantity4 ,as a food substance1 it is an extremely important feature of a person's diet4 ,its chief purpose is to replenish the liquids of the body and to assist in the digestion of food4 ,although nature provides considerable amounts of water in most foods1 large quantities must be taken in the diet as a beverage4 ,in fact1 it is the need of the body for water that has led to the development of numerous beverages4 ,besides being necessary in building up the body and keeping it in a healthy condition1 water has a special function to perform in cooking1 as is explained later4 ,although this food substance is extremely essential to life1 it is seldom considered in the selection of food1 because1 as has just been mentioned1 nearly all foods contain water4 #ac4 ,mineral ,matter4--,ranking next to water in the quantity contained in the human body is mineral matter4 ,this constituent1 which is also called ash or mineral salts1 forms the main part of the body's framework1 or skeleton4 ,in the building and maintaining of the body1 mineral salts serve three purposes--to give rigidity and permanence to the skeleton1 to form an essential element of active tissue1 and to provide the required alkalinity or acidity for the digestive juices and other secretions4 ,the origin and distribution of these mineral substances are of interest4 ,plants in their growth seize from the earth the salts of minerals and combine them with other substances that make up their living tissue4 ,then human beings1 as well as other living creatures1 get their supply of these needed salts from the plants that they take as food1 this being the only form in which the salts can be thoroughly assimilated4 ,these salts are not affected by cooking unless some process is used that removes such of them as are readily soluble in water4 ,when this occurs1 the result is usually waste1 as1 for instance1 where no use is made of the water in which some vegetables are boiled4 ,as is true of water1 mineral matter1 even though it is found in large quantities in the body1 is usually disregarded when food is purchased4 ,this is due to the fact that this important nutritive material appears in some form in nearly all foods and therefore does not necessitate the housewife's stopping to question its presence4 #ad4 ,protein4--,the food substance known as protein is a very important factor in the growth and repair of the body2 in fact1 these processes cannot be carried on unless protein is present in the diet4 ,however1 while a certain quantity of protein is essential1 the amount is not very large and more than is required is likely to be harmful1 or1 since the body can make no use of it1 to be at least waste material4 ,the principal sources of protein are lean meat1 eggs1 milk1 certain grains1 nuts1 and the legumes1 which include such foods as beans and peas4 ,because of the ease with which they are digested1 meat1 fish1 eggs1 and milk are more valuable sources of protein than bread1 beans1 and nuts4 ,however1 as the foods that are most valuable for proteins cost more than others1 a mixed diet is necessary if only a limited amount of money with which to purchase foods is available4 #ae4 ,so much is involved in the cooking of foods containing protein that the effect of heat on such foods should be thoroughly understood4 ,the cooking of any food1 as is generally understood1 tends to break up the food and prepare it for digestion4 ,however1 foods have certain characteristics1 such as their structure and texture1 that influence their digestibility1 and the method of cooking used or the degree to which the cooking is carried so affects these characteristics as to increase or decrease the digestibility of the food4 ,in the case of foods containing protein1 unless the cooking is properly done1 the application of heat is liable to make the protein indigestible1 for the heat first coagulates this substance--that is1 causes it to become thick--and then1 as the heat increases1 shrinks and hardens it4 ,this fact is clearly demonstrated in the cooking of an egg1 the white of which is the type of protein called albumin4 ,in a raw egg1 the albumin is nearly liquid1 but as heat is applied1 it gradually coagulates until it becomes solid4 ,if the egg is cooked too fast or too long1 it toughens and shrinks and becomes less palatable1 less attractive1 and less digestible4 ,however1 if the egg is properly cooked after the heat has coagulated the albumin1 the white will remain tender and the yolk will be fine and mealy in texture1 thus rendering it digestible4 ,similar results1 although not so evident to the sight1 are brought about through the right or wrong way of cooking practically all other foods that contain much protein4 ,milk1 whose principal ingredient is a protein known as casein1 familiar as the curd of cheese1 illustrates this fact very plainly4 ,when it is used to make cottage cheese1 heating it too long or to too high a degree will toughen the curd and actually spoil the texture of the product1 which will be grainy and hard1 instead of smooth and tender4 #af4 ,,fats4--,the food substances just discussed--water1 mineral matter1 and protein--yield the materials required for building and repairing the tissues of the body1 but1 as has been explained1 the body also requires foods that produce energy1 or working power4 ,by far the greater part of the total solids of food taken into the body serve this purpose1 and of these fats form a large percentage4 ,although fats make up such a large proportion of the daily food supply1 they enter into the body composition to a less extent than do the food substances that have been explained4 ,the fats commonly used for food are of both animal and vegetable origin1 such as lard1 suet1 butter1 cream1 olive oil1 nut oil1 and cottonseed oil4 ,the ordinary cooking temperatures have comparatively little effect on fat1 except to melt it if it is solid4 ,the higher temperatures decompose at least some of it1 and thus liberate substances that may be irritating to the digestive tract4 #ag4 ,,carbohydrates4--,like fats1 the food substances included in the term carbohydrates supply the body with energy4 ,however1 fats and carbohydrates differ in the forms in which they supply energy1 the former producing it in the most concentrated form and the latter in the most economical form4 ,so that the term carbohydrate may be clearly understood and firmly fixed in the mind1 it is deemed advisable to discuss briefly the composition of the body and the food that enters it4 ,of course1 in a lesson on cookery1 not so much attention need be given to this matter as in a lesson on dietetics1 which is a branch of hygiene that treats of diet2 nevertheless1 it is important that every person who prepares food for the table be familiar with the fact that the body1 as well as food1 is made up of a certain number of chemical elements1 of which nitrogen1 carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen form a large part4 ,protein owes its importance to the fact that of the various food substances it alone contains the element nitrogen1 which is absolutely essential to the formation of any plant or animal tissue4 ,the other three elements1 carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen1 go to make up the carbohydrates2 in fact1 it is from the names of these three elements that the term carbohydrate is derived4 ,the carbohydrates include the starches and sugars that are used and eaten in so many forms1 and these contain the three elements mentioned1 the hydrogen and oxygen contained in them being in the proportion that produces water4 ,thus1 as will readily be seen1 by separating the name into its parts--carbo 7carbon7 and hydrate 7hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion of two parts of hydrogen and one of oxygen1 that is1 in the form of water7--carbohydrate is simply carbon united with water4 ,while the facts just brought out have much to do with food economy1 they are of interest here chiefly because they help to make clear the term carbohydrate1 which1 as will be admitted1 is the only correct name for the food substance it represents4 #ah4 ,,starch1 one of the chief forms of carbohydrates1 is found in only the vegetable kingdom4 ,it is present in large quantities in the grains and in potatoes2 in fact1 nearly all vegetables contain large or small amounts of it4 ,it is stored in the plant in the form of granules that lie within the plant cells4 ,cooking applied to starch changes it into a form that is digestible4 ,moist heat cooks the granules until they expand and burst and thus thicken the mass4 ,dry heat changes starch first into a soluble form and finally into what is called dextrine1 this being the intermediate step in the changing of starch into sugar4 #ai4 ,,sugar1 another important form of carbohydrate1 is mainly of vegetable origin1 except that which is found in milk and called lactose4 ,this1 together with the fat found in milk1 supplies the child with energy before it is able to digest a variety of foods4 ,the sap of various plants contains such large quantities of sugar that it can be crystalized out and secured in dry form4 ,the liquid that remains is valuable as food1 for1 by boiling it down1 it forms molasses4 ,sugar is also present in considerable amounts in all fruits1 and much of it is in a form that can be assimilated1 or taken up by the body1 quickly4 ,a sugar very similar to this natural fruit sugar is made from the starch of corn and is called glucose4 ,much of the carbohydrate found in vegetables1 especially young1 tender vegetables1 is in the form of sugar1 which1 as the vegetables grow older1 changes to starch4 ,sugar melts upon the application of heat or1 if it is in a melted condition1 as sirup or molasses1 it boils down and gives off water4 ,when all the water has boiled away1 the sugar begins to caramelize or become brown1 and develops a characteristic flavor4 ,if the cooking is continued too long1 a dark-brown color and a bitter taste are developed4 ,because the sugar in fruits and vegetables is in solution1 some of it is lost when they are boiled1 unless1 of course1 the water in which they are cooked is utilized4 #bj4 ,,cellulose is a form of carbohydrate closely related to starch4 ,it helps to form the structure of plants and vegetables4 ,very little cellulose is digested1 but it should not be ignored1 because it gives the necessary bulk to the food in which it occurs and because strict attention must be paid to the cooking of it4 ,as cellulose usually surrounds nutritive material of vegetable origin1 it must be softened and loosened sufficiently by cooking to permit the nutritive material to be dissolved by the digestive juices4 ,then1 too1 in old vegetables1 there is more starch and the cellulose is harder and tougher1 just as an old tree is much harder than a sapling4 ,this1 then1 accounts for the fact that rapid cooking is needed for some vegetables and slow cooking for others1 the method and the time of cooking depending on the presence and the consistency of the cellulose that occurs in the food4 #ba4 ,,importance ,,of ,a ,,variety ,,of ,,foods4--,every one of the five food substances just considered must be included in a person's diet2 yet1 with the exception of milk1 no single food yields the right amounts of material necessary for tissue building and repair and for heat and energy4 ,even milk is in the right proportion1 as far as its food substances are concerned1 only for babies and very young children4 ,it will thus be seen that to provide the body with the right foods1 the diet must be such as to include all the food substances4 ,in food selection1 therefore1 the characteristics of the various food substances must be considered well4 ,fats yield the most heat1 but are the most slowly digested4 ,proteins and carbohydrates are more quickly digested than fats1 but1 in equal amounts1 have less than half as much food value4 ,water and mineral salts do not yield heat1 but are required to build tissue and to keep the body in a healthy condition4 ,in addition1 it is well to note that a well-balanced diet is one that contains all of the five food substances in just the right proportion in which the individual needs them to build up the body1 repair it1 and supply it with energy4 ,what this proportion should be1 however1 cannot be stated offhand1 because the quantity and kind of food substances necessarily vary with the size1 age1 and activity of each person4 ,,food ,,value #bb4 ,nearly all foods are complex substances1 and they differ from one another in what is known as their value1 which is measured by the work the food does in the body either as a tissue builder or as a producer of energy4 ,however1 in considering food value1 the person who prepares food must not lose sight of the fact that the individual appetite must be appealed to by a sufficient variety of appetizing foods4 ,there would be neither economy nor advantage in serving food that does not please those who are to eat it4 ,while all foods supply the body with energy1 they differ very much in the quantity they yield4 ,if certain ones were chosen solely for that purpose1 it would be necessary for any ordinary person to consume a larger quantity of them than could be eaten at any one time4 ,for instance1 green vegetables furnish the body with a certain amount of energy1 but they cannot be eaten to the exclusion of other things1 because no person could eat in a day a sufficient amount of them to give the body all the energy it would need for that day's work4 ,on the other hand1 certain foods produce principally building material1 and if they were taken for the purpose of yielding only energy1 they would be much too expensive4 ,meats1 for example1 build up the body1 but a person's diet would cost too much if meat alone were depended on to provide the body with all the energy it requires4 ,many foods1 too1 contain mineral salts1 which1 as has been pointed out1 are needed for building tissue and keeping the body in a healthy condition4 #bc4 ,to come to a correct appreciation of the value of different foods1 it is necessary to understand the unit employed to measure the amount of work that foods do in the body4 ,this unit is the ,,calorie1 or calory1 and it is used to measure foods just as the inch1 the yard1 the pound1 the pint1 and the quart are the units used to measure materials and liquids2 however1 instead of measuring the food itself1 it determines its food value1 or fuel value4 ,to illustrate what is meant1 consider1 for instance1 #a_/b ounce of sugar and #a_/b ounce of butter4 ,as far as the actual weight of these two foods is concerned1 they are equal2 but with regard to the work they do in the body they differ considerably4 ,their relative value in the body1 however1 can be determined if they are measured by some unit that can be applied to both4 ,it is definitely known that both of them produce heat when they are oxidized1 that is1 when they are combined with oxygen2 thus1 the logical way of measuring them is to determine the quantity of heat that will be produced when they are eaten and united with oxygen1 a process that causes the liberation of heat4 ,the calorie is the unit by which this heat can be measured1 it being the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of #a pint of water #d degrees ,fahrenheit1 which is the name of the thermometer commonly used in the home4 ,when burned as fuel1 a square of butter weighing #a_/b ounce produces enough heat to raise #a pint of water #djj degrees ,fahrenheit1 and it will yield the same amount of heat when it is eaten and goes through the slow process of oxidation in the body4 ,on the other hand1 #a_/b ounce of sugar upon being oxidized will produce only enough heat to raise the temperature of #a pint of water about #bcj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,thus1 as will be seen1 #a_/b ounce of butter has a value of approximately #ajj calories1 whereas #a_/b ounce of sugar contains only about #eg-a_/b calories4 ,other foods yield heat in varying degrees1 and their food value is determined in exactly the same way as that of butter and sugar4 ,to give an idea of the composition of various food materials1 as well as the number of calories that #a pound of these food materials will yield1 food charts published by the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture are here presented4 ,as an understanding of these charts will prove extremely profitable in the selection of food1 a careful study of them at this time is urged4 ,in addition1 reference to them should be made from time to time as the various kinds of foods are taken up1 as the charts will then be more easily comprehended and their contents of more value4 ,,digestion ,,and ,,absorption ,,of ,,food #bd4 ,the third requirement in the selection of food1 namely1 its digestion and absorption1 depends considerably on the persons who are to be fed4 ,food that is chosen for adults entirely would not be the same as that intended for both young persons and adults2 neither would food that is to be fed to children or persons who are ill be the same as that which is to be served to robust adults who do a normal amount of work4 ,no hard-and-fast rules can be laid down here for this phase of food selection1 but as these lessons in cookery are taken up in turn1 the necessary knowledge regarding digestibility will be acquired4 ,illustration3 ,composition of food materials ,illustration3 ,composition of food materials 99 99 99 99 99 ,,preparation ,,of ,,food ,,reasons ,,for ,,cooking ,,food #be4 ,the term cookery1 as has been explained1 means the preparation of both hot and cold dishes for use as food1 as well as the selection of the materials or substances that are to be cooked4 ,the importance of cooking foods by subjecting them to the action of heat has been recognized for ages2 and while it is true that there are many foods that appeal to the appetite in their raw state and still others that can be eaten either raw or cooked1 there are several reasons why it is desirable to cook food1 as will be seen from the following3 #a4 ,cooking makes foods more palatable4 ,this is true of such foods as meat1 cereals1 and many vegetables1 which would be very unappetizing if they were eaten raw4 #b4 ,cooking renders foods more digestible4 ,for instance1 the hard grains1 such as wheat1 and the dried vegetables1 such as beans1 cannot be readily digested unless they are softened by cooking4 ,but while cooking makes such foods more digestible1 it renders others more difficult of digestion1 as in the case of eggs1 the degree of digestibility depending somewhat on the cooking method used and the skill of the cook4 ,an egg in an almost liquid form1 or when only slightly cooked1 as a soft-boiled egg1 is more easily digested than when it becomes hardened by cooking4 ,then1 too1 a properly prepared hard-cooked egg is more digestible than an improperly cooked one1 although the degree of hardness may be the same4 #c4 ,cooking gives foods greater variety4 ,the same food may be cooked by various methods and be given very different tastes and appearances2 on the other hand1 it may be combined with a large number of other foods1 so as to increase the variety of the dishes in which it is used4 ,the large number of recipes found in cook books show the attempts that have been made to obtain variety in cooked dishes by the combining of different foods4 #d4 ,cooking sterilizes foods either partly or completely4 ,many foods need partial or complete sterilization for safety4 ,they must be completely sterilized if the germs that produce fermentation or putrefaction and thereby spoil food would be destroyed4 ,this is done when fruits and vegetables are canned for keeping4 ,foods that are exposed to dust1 flies1 and improper handling should be thoroughly cooked in order to destroy any pathogenic germs that might be present4 ,by such germs are meant disease-bearing germs4 ,they differ from germs that produce fermentation and putrefaction1 or spoiling1 and that must in general be considered as a help1 for these play an important part in the raising of bread and the preparation of various foods1 as is pointed out later4 #e4 ,cooking develops flavor in many foods4 ,in the case of some vegetables1 the flavoring substance is given off in the air by certain methods of cooking and a better flavor is thereby developed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,methods ,,of ,,cooking ,,cooking ,,processes #bf4 ,food is cooked by the application of heat1 which may be either moist or dry4 ,while it is true that the art of cooking includes the preparation of material that is served or eaten raw1 cooking itself is impossible without heat2 indeed1 the part of cooking that requires the most skill and experience is that in which heat is involved4 ,explicit directions for carrying on the various cooking processes depend on the kind of stove1 the cooking utensils1 and even the atmospheric conditions4 ,in truth1 the results of some processes depend so much on the state of the atmosphere that they are not successful on a day on which it is damp and heavy2 also1 as is well known1 the stove acts perfectly on some days1 whereas on other days it seems to have a stubborn will of its own4 ,besides the difficulties mentioned1 the heat itself sometimes presents obstacles in the cooking of foods1 to regulate it in such a way as to keep it uniform being often a hard matter4 ,thus1 a dish may be spoiled by subjecting it to heat that is too intense1 by cooking it too long1 or by not cooking it rapidly enough4 ,all these points must be learned1 and the best way to master them is to put into constant practice the principles that are involved in cookery4 #bg4 ,without doubt1 the first step in gaining a mastery of cookery is to become familiar with the different methods and processes1 the ways in which they are applied1 and the reasons for applying them4 ,there are numerous ways of cooking food1 but the principal processes are boiling1 stewing1 steaming1 dry steaming1 braizing1 fricasseeing1 roasting1 baking1 broiling1 pan broiling1 frying1 and sauting4 ,which one of these to use will depend on the food that is to be cooked and the result desired4 ,if the wrong method is employed1 there will be a waste of food material or the food will be rendered less desirable in flavor or tenderness4 ,for example1 it would be both wasteful and undesirable to roast a tough old fowl or to boil a tender young broiler4 ,the various methods of cookery just mentioned naturally divide themselves into three groups2 namely1 those involving dry heat1 those requiring moist heat1 and those in which hot fat is the cooking medium4 ,,cooking ,,with ,,dry ,,heat #bh4 ,cooking with dry heat includes broiling1 pan broiling1 roasting1 and baking2 but1 whichever of these processes is used1 the principle is practically the same4 ,in these processes the food is cooked by being exposed to the source of heat or by being placed in a closed oven and subjected to heated air4 ,when dry heat is applied1 the food to be cooked is heated to a much greater temperature than when moist heat is used4 #bi4 ,,broiling4--,the cooking process known as broiling consists in exposing directly to the source of heat the food that is to be cooked2 that is1 in cooking it over or before a clear bed of coals or a gas flame4 ,the aim in broiling is to retain the juices of food and develop flavor4 ,as it is a quick method1 foods that are not tender1 as1 for example1 tough meats1 should not be broiled1 because broiling does not help to render their fibers more tender4 ,in applying this cooking process1 which is particularly suitable for tender portions of meat and for young fowl1 the food should be exposed to intense heat at first in order to sear all surfaces quickly and thus retain the juices4 ,at the beginning of the cooking1 the article that is being broiled should be turned often2 then1 as soon as the outside is browned1 the heat should be reduced if possible1 as with a gas stove1 and the article allowed to cook until done4 ,if the broiling is done over coals1 it is necessary to continue the turning during the entire process4 ,while broiling produces an especially good flavor in the foods to which it is applied1 provided they are not tough1 it is not the most economical way of cooking4 #cj4 ,,pan ,,broiling4--,pan broiling is an adaptation of the broiling method4 ,it consists in cooking food in a sissing-hot pan on top of the stove without the use of fat4 ,in this process the surfaces of the steak1 chop1 or whatever the food may be1 are quickly seared1 after which the article is turned frequently and cooked more slowly until done4 ,the object of pan broiling is the same as that of broiling1 and it is resorted to1 as a rule1 when the fire is not in the right condition for broiling4 #ca4 ,,roasting4--,originally1 the term to roast meant to cook before a fire1 because1 before the time of stoves1 practically all food was cooked in the fireplace4 ,food that was to be roasted was placed before the fire in a device that reflected heat1 this device being open on the side toward the fire and closed on that toward the room4 ,the roast was suspended in this device1 slowly turned1 and thus cooked by radiant heat--that is1 heat given off in the form of direct rays--the principle being the same as that of broiling1 but the application different4 ,nowadays1 the term roasting is almost universally applied to the action of both hot air and radiant heat4 ,however1 much of what is called roasting is in reality baking4 ,foods cooked in the oven of an ordinary coal or gas range are really baked1 although they are said to be roasted1 and a covered roasting pan is a misnomer4 ,food must be exposed to the air in the process of cooking if it is to be roasted in the true sense4 ,it may be well to note that successful roasting or broiling depends more on the shape of the article to be roasted or broiled than on its weight4 ,for this reason1 thick1 compact cuts of meat are usually selected for roasting and thin cuts for broiling4 ,good results also depend very much on the pan selected for the roasting process4 ,one of the great aims in cooking should be to save or conserve all the food possible2 that is1 if by one process less waste in cooking results1 it should be chosen rather than one that will result in loss at the end of the cooking process4 #cb4 ,,baking4--,by baking is meant cooking in a heated oven at temperatures ranging from #cjj to #ejj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,as the term baking is frequently used in a wrong sense1 the actual conditions of the process should be thoroughly understood4 ,in both broiling and the original method of roasting1 the heat is applied directly2 that is1 the food is exposed directly to the source of heat4 ,actual baking differs from these processes in that it is done in a closed oven or by means of heated air4 ,starchy foods1 such as bread1 cakes1 and pastry1 are nearly always baked1 and gradually other foods1 such as meats1 fish1 and vegetables are being subjected to this method of cooking4 ,in fact1 persons who are skilled in cooking use the oven more and more for things that they formerly thought had to be cooked in other ways4 ,but the name that is applied to the process depends somewhat on custom1 for while meat that is cooked in the oven is really baked1 it is usually termed roasted meat4 ,it seems strange1 but it is nevertheless true1 that ham cooked in the oven has always been termed baked1 while turkey cooked in exactly the same way is said to be roasted4 ,,cooking ,,with ,,moist ,,heat #cc4 ,the methods of cooking with moist heat1 that is1 through the medium of water1 are boiling1 simmering1 steaming1 dry steaming1 and braizing4 ,in every one of these processes1 the effect of moist heat on food is entirely different from that of dry heat4 ,however1 the method to be selected depends to a great extent on the amount of water that the food contains4 ,to some foods much water must be added in the cooking process2 to others1 only a little or none at all4 ,if food is not placed directly in large or small quantities of water1 it is cooked by contact with steam or in a utensil that is heated by being placed in another containing boiling water1 as1 for example1 a double boiler4 ,as water is such an important factor in cooking with moist heat1 something concerning its nature and use should be understood4 ,therefore1 before considering the moist-heat cooking processes in detail1 the function of water in the body and in cooking and also the kinds of water are discussed4 #cd4 ,,function ,,of ,,water ,,in ,,the ,,body4--,water supplies no energy to the body1 but it plays a very important part in nutrition4 ,in fact1 its particular function in the body is to act as a solvent and a carrier of nutritive material and waste4 ,in doing this work1 it keeps the liquids of the body properly diluted1 increases the flow of the digestive juices1 and helps to carry off waste material4 ,however1 its ability to perform these necessary functions in the right way depends on its quality and its safety4 #ce4 ,,kinds ,,of ,,water4--,water is either hard or soft4 ,as it falls from the clouds1 it is pure and soft until it comes in contact with gases and solids1 which are dissolved by it and change its character4 ,it is definitely known that the last of the water that falls in a shower is much better than the first1 as the first cleanses not only the air1 but the roofs and other things with which it comes in contact4 ,in passing through certain kinds of soil or over rocks1 water dissolves some of the minerals that are contained there and is thus changed from soft to hard water4 ,if sewage drains into a well or water supply1 the water is liable to contain bacteria1 which will render it unfit and unsafe for drinking until it is sterilized by boiling4 ,besides rain water and distilled water1 there is none that is entirely soft2 all other waters hold certain salts in solution to a greater or less degree4 ,the quality of hardness1 which is present in nearly all water1 is either temporary or permanent4 ,water is temporarily hard when it contains soluble lime1 which is precipitated1 that is1 separated from it1 upon boiling4 ,every housewife who uses a teakettle is familiar with this condition4 ,the lime precipitated day after day clings to the sides of the vessel in which the water is boiled1 and in time they become very thickly coated4 ,permanent hardness is caused by other compounds of lime that are not precipitated by boiling the water4 ,the only way in which to soften such water is to add to it an alkali1 such as borax1 washing soda1 or bicarbonate of soda4 #cf4 ,,uses ,,of ,,water ,,in ,,cooking4--,it is the solvent1 or dissolving1 power of water that makes this liquid valuable in cooking1 but of the two kinds1 soft water is preferable to hard1 because it possesses greater solvent power4 ,this is due to the fact that hard water has already dissolved a certain amount of material and will therefore dissolve less of the food substances and flavors when it is used for cooking purposes than soft water1 which has dissolved nothing4 ,it is known1 too1 that the flavor of such beverages as tea and coffee is often greatly impaired by the use of hard water4 ,dried beans and peas1 cereals1 and tough cuts of meat will not cook tender so readily in hard water as in soft1 but the addition of a small amount of soda during the cooking of these foods will assist in softening them4 ,water is used in cooking chiefly for extracting flavors1 as in the making of coffee1 tea1 and soups2 as a medium for carrying flavors and foods in such beverages as lemonade and cocoa2 for softening both vegetable and animal fiber2 and for cooking starch and dissolving sugar1 salt1 gelatine1 etc4 ,in accomplishing much of this work1 water acts as a medium for conveying heat4 #cg4 ,,boiling4--,as applied to cooking1 boiling means cooking foods in boiling water4 ,water boils when its temperature is raised by heat to what is commonly termed its boiling point4 ,this varies with the atmospheric pressure1 but at sea level1 under ordinary conditions1 it is always #bab degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,when the atmospheric pressure on the surface of the water is lessened1 boiling takes place at a lower temperature than that mentioned1 and in extremely high altitudes the boiling point is so lowered that to cook certain foods by means of boiling water is difficult4 ,as the water heats in the process of boiling1 tiny bubbles appear on the bottom of the vessel in which it is contained and rise to the surface4 ,then1 gradually1 the bubbles increase in size until large ones form1 rise rapidly1 and break1 thus producing constant agitation of the water4 #ch4 ,boiling has various effects on foods4 ,it toughens the albumin in eggs1 toughens the fiber and dissolves the connective tissues in meat1 softens the cellulose in cereals1 vegetables1 and fruits1 and dissolves other substances in many foods4 ,a good point to bear in mind in preparing foods by boiling is that slowly boiling water has the same temperature as rapidly boiling water and is therefore able to do exactly the same work4 ,keeping the gas burning full heat or running the fire hard to keep the water boiling rapidly is therefore unnecessary2 besides1 it wastes fuel without doing the work any faster and sometimes not so well4 ,however1 there are several factors that influence the rapidity with which water may be brought to the boiling point2 namely1 the kind of utensil used1 the amount of surface exposed1 and the quantity of heat applied4 ,a cover placed on a saucepan or a kettle in which food is to be boiled retains the heat1 and thus causes the temperature to rise more quickly2 besides1 a cover so used prevents a loss of water by condensing the steam as it rises against the cover4 ,as water boils1 some of it constantly passes off in the form of steam1 and for this reason sirups or sauces become thicker the longer they are cooked4 ,the evaporation takes place all over the surface of the water2 consequently1 the greater the surface exposed1 the more quickly is the quantity of water decreased during boiling4 ,another point to observe in the boiling process is that foods boiled rapidly in water have a tendency to lose their shape and are reduced to small pieces if allowed to boil long enough4 ,besides serving to cook foods1 boiling also renders water safe1 as it destroys any germs that may be present4 ,this explains why water must sometimes be boiled to make it safe for drinking4 ,boiled water1 as is known1 loses its good taste4 ,however1 as this change is brought about by the loss of air during boiling1 the flavor can be restored and air again introduced if the water is shaken in a partly filled jar or bottle1 or beaten vigorously for a short time with an egg beater4 #ci4 ,,simmering1 ,,or ,,stewing4--,the cooking process known as simmering1 or stewing1 is a modification of boiling4 ,by this method1 food is cooked in water at a temperature below the boiling point1 or anywhere from #ahe to #bjj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,water at the simmering point always moves gently--never rapidly as it does in boiling4 ,less heat and consequently less fuel are required to cook foods in this way1 unless1 of course1 the time consumed in cooking the food at a low temperature is much greater than that consumed in cooking it more rapidly4 ,aside from permitting economy in the use of fuel1 simmering1 or stewing1 cooks deliciously certain foods that could not be selected for the more rapid methods4 ,for example1 tough cuts of meat and old fowl can be made tender and tasty by long cooking at a low temperature1 for this method tends to soften the fiber and to develop an excellent flavor4 ,tough vegetables1 too1 can be cooked tender by the simmering process without using so much fuel as would be used if they were boiled1 for whatever method is used they require long cooking4 ,beets1 turnips1 and other winter vegetables should be stewed rather than boiled1 as it is somewhat difficult to cook them tender1 especially in the late winter and early spring4 ,if dry beans and peas are brought to the simmering point and then allowed to cook1 they can be prepared for the table in practically the same length of time and without so much fuel as if they boiled continuously4 #dj4 ,,steaming4--,as its name implies1 steaming is the cooking of food by the application of steam4 ,in this cooking process1 the food is put into a steamer1 which is a cooking utensil that consists of a vessel with a perforated bottom placed over one containing water4 ,as the water boils1 steam rises and cooks the food in the upper1 or perforated1 vessel4 ,steamers are sometimes arranged with a number of perforated vessels1 one on top of the other4 ,such a steamer permits of the cooking of several foods at the same time without the need of additional fuel1 because a different food may be placed in each vessel4 ,steaming is preferable to boiling in some cases1 because by it there is no loss of mineral salts nor food substances2 besides1 the flavor is not so likely to be lost as when food is boiled4 ,vegetables prepared in this way prove very palatable1 and very often variety is added to the diet by steaming bread1 cake1 and pudding mixtures and then1 provided a crisp outside is desired1 placing them in a hot oven to dry out the moist surface4 #da4 ,,dry ,,steaming4--,cooking foods in a vessel that is suspended in another one containing boiling water constitutes the cooking method known as dry steaming4 ,the double boiler is a cooking utensil devised especially for carrying on this process4 ,the food placed in the suspended1 or inner1 vessel does not reach the boiling point1 but is cooked by the transfer of heat from the water in the outside1 or lower1 vessel4 ,a decided advantage of this method is that no watching is required except to see that the water in the lower vessel does not boil away completely1 for as long as there is water between the food and the fire1 the food will neither boil nor burn4 ,because of the nature of certain foods1 cooking them by this process is especially desirable4 ,the flavor and consistency of cereals and foods containing starch are greatly improved by long cooking in this way4 ,likewise1 custards and mixtures containing eggs can be conveniently cooked in a double boiler1 because they do not require a high temperature2 in fact1 their texture is spoiled if they are cooked at the boiling point4 ,to heat milk directly over the flame without scorching it is a difficult matter1 and1 on the other hand1 boiled milk is hard to digest4 ,because of these facts1 food containing milk should not be boiled1 but should be cooked at a lower temperature in a double boiler4 #db4 ,,braizing4--,cooking meat in an oven in a closed pan with a small quantity of water constitutes braizing4 ,this cooking process might be called a combination of stewing and baking1 but when it is properly carried out1 the meat is placed on a rack so as to be raised above the water1 in which may be placed sliced vegetables4 ,in this process the meat actually cooks in the flavored steam that surrounds it in the hot pan4 ,the so-called double roasting pans are in fact braizing pans when they are properly used4 ,a pot roast is the result of a modification of the braizing method4 ,,cooking ,,with ,,hot ,,fat #dc4 ,of the three mediums of conveying heat to food1 namely1 hot air1 hot water1 and hot fat1 that of hot fat renders food the least digestible4 ,much of this difficulty1 however1 can be overcome if an effort is made to secure as little absorption of the fat as possible4 ,if the ingredients of the food are properly mixed before applying the fat and if the fat is at the right temperature1 good results can be obtained by the various methods of cooking with hot fat1 which are frying1 sauting1 and fricasseeing4 #dd4 ,,frying4--,by frying is meant the cooking of food in deep fat at a temperature of #cej to #djj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,any kind of fat that will not impart flavor to the food may be used for frying1 but the vegetable oils1 such as cottonseed oils1 combinations of coconut and cottonseed oils1 and nut oils1 are preferable to lards and other animal fats1 because they do not burn so easily4 ,foods cooked in deep fat will not absorb the fat nor become greasy if they are properly prepared1 quickly fried1 and well drained on paper that will absorb any extra fat4 #de4 ,,saut,,ing4--,browning food first on one side and then on the other in a small quantity of fat is termed sauting4 ,in this cooking process1 the fat is placed in a shallow pan1 and when it is sufficiently hot1 the food is put into it4 ,foods that are to be sautd are usually sliced thin or cut into small pieces1 and they are turned frequently during the process of cooking4 ,all foods prepared in this way are difficult to digest1 because they become more or less hard and soaked with fat4 ,chops and thin cuts of meat1 which are intended to be pan-broiled1 are really sautd if they are allowed to cook in the fat that fries out of them4 #df4 ,,fricasseeing4--,a combination of sauting and stewing results in the cooking process known as fricasseeing4 ,this process is used in preparing such foods as chicken1 veal1 or game1 but it is more frequently employed for cooking fowl1 which1 in cookery1 is the term used to distinguish the old of domestic fowls from chickens or pullets4 ,in fricasseeing1 the meat to be cooked is cut into pieces and sautd either before or after stewing2 then it is served with a white or a brown sauce4 ,ordinarily1 the meat should be browned first1 unless it is very tough1 in order to retain the juices and improve the flavor4 ,however1 very old fowl or tough meat should be stewed first and then browned4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,heat ,,for ,,cooking ,,general ,,discussion #dg4 ,inasmuch as heat is so important a factor in the cooking of foods1 it is absolutely necessary that the person who is to prepare them be thoroughly familiar with the ways in which this heat is produced4 ,the production of heat for cooking involves the use of fuels and stoves in which to burn them1 as well as electricity1 which serves the purpose of a fuel1 and apparatus for using electricity4 ,in order1 therefore1 that the best results may be obtained in cookery1 these subjects are here taken up in detail4 #dh4 ,probably the first fuel to be used in the production of heat for cooking was wood1 but later such fuels as peat1 coal1 charcoal1 coke1 and kerosene came into use4 ,of these fuels1 coal1 gas1 and kerosene are used to the greatest extent in the ,united ,states4 ,wood1 of course1 is used considerably for kindling fires1 and it serves as fuel in localities where it is abundant or less difficult to procure than other fuels4 ,however1 it is fast becoming too scarce and too expensive to burn4 ,if it must be burned for cooking purposes1 those who use it should remember that dry1 hard wood gives off heat at a more even rate than soft wood1 which is usually selected for kindling4 ,electricity is coming into favor for supplying heat for cooking1 but only when it can be sold as cheaply as gas will its use in the home become general4 #di4 ,the selection of a stove to be used for cooking depends on the fuel that is to be used1 and the fuel1 in turn1 depends on the locality in which a person lives4 ,however1 as the fuel that is the most convenient and easily obtained is usually the cheapest1 it is the one to be selected1 for the cost of the cooked dish may be greatly increased by the use of fuel that is too expensive4 ,in cooking1 every fuel should be made to do its maximum amount of work1 because waste of fuel also adds materially to the cost of cooking and1 besides1 it often causes great inconvenience4 ,for example1 cooking on a red-hot stove with a fire that1 instead of being held in the oven and the lids1 overheats the kitchen and burns out the stove not only wastes fuel and material1 but also taxes the temper of the person who is doing the work4 ,from what has just been said1 it will readily be seen that a knowledge of fuels and apparatus for producing heat will assist materially in the economical production of food1 provided1 of course1 it is applied to the best advantage4 ,,coal ,,and ,,coke #ej4 ,,varieties ,,of ,,coal4--,possibly the most common fuel used for cooking is coal4 ,this fuel comes in two varieties1 namely1 anthracite1 or hard coal1 and bituminous1 or soft coal4 ,their relative cost depends on the locality1 the kind of stove1 and an intelligent use of both stove and fuel4 ,hard coal costs much more in some places than soft coal1 but it burns more slowly and evenly and gives off very little smoke4 ,soft coal heats more rapidly than hard coal1 but it produces considerable smoke and makes a fire that does not last so long4 ,unless a stove is especially constructed for soft coal1 it should not be used for this purpose1 because the burning of soft coal will wear it out in a short time4 ,the best plan is to use each variety of coal in a stove especially constructed for it1 but if a housewife finds that she must at times do otherwise1 she should realize that a different method of management and care of the stove is demanded4 #ea4 ,,sizes ,,of ,,coal4--,as the effect of coal on the stove must be taken into consideration in the buying of fuel1 so the different sizes of hard coal must be known before the right kind can be selected4 ,the sizes known as stove and egg coal1 which range from about #a-c_/h to #b-c_/d inches in diameter1 are intended for a furnace and should not be used in the kitchen stove for cooking purposes4 ,some persons who know how to use the size of coal known as pea1 which is about #a_/b to #c_/d inch in diameter1 like that kind1 whereas others prefer the size called chestnut1 which is about #c_/d inch to #a-c_/h inches in diameter4 ,in reality1 a mixture of these two1 if properly used1 makes the best and most easily regulated kitchen coal fire4 #eb4 ,,quality ,,of ,,coal4--,in addition to knowing the names1 prices1 and uses of the different kinds of coal1 the housewife should be able to distinguish poor coal from good coal4 ,in fact1 proper care should be exercised in all purchasing1 for the person who understands the quality of the thing to be purchased will be more likely to get full value for the money paid than the one who does not4 ,about coal1 it should be understood that good hard coal has a glossy black color and a bright surface1 whereas poor coal contains slaty pieces4 ,the quality of coal can also be determined from the ash that remains after it is burned4 ,large chunks or great quantities of ash indicate a poor quality of coal1 and fine1 powdery ash a good quality4 ,of course1 even if the coal is of the right kind1 poor results are often brought about by the bad management of a fire1 whether in a furnace or a stove4 ,large manufacturing companies1 whose business depends considerably on the proper kind of fuel1 buy coal by the heat units--that is1 according to the quantity of heat it will give off--and at some future time this plan may have to be followed in the private home1 unless some other fuel is provided in the meantime4 ,mixed with poor coal are certain unburnable materials that melt and stick together as it burns and form what are known as clinkers4 ,clinkers are very troublesome because they often adhere to the stove grate or the lining of the firebox4 ,they generally form during the burning of an extremely hot fire1 but the usual temperature of a kitchen fire does not produce clinkers unless the coal is of a very poor quality4 ,mixing oyster shells with coal of this kind often helps to prevent their formation4 #ec4 ,,coke4--,another fuel that is sometimes used for cooking is coke4 ,formerly1 coke was a by-product in the manufacture of illuminating gas1 but now it is manufactured from coal for use as a fuel4 ,because of the nature of its composition1 coke produces a very hot fire and is therefore favorable for rapid cooking1 such as broiling4 ,however1 it is used more extensively in hotels and institutions than in kitchens where cooking is done on a small scale4 ,,gas #ed4 ,,value ,,of ,,gas ,,as ,,fuel4--,as a fuel for cooking purposes1 gas1 both artificial and natural1 is very effective1 and in localities where the piping of gas into homes is possible it is used extensively4 ,of the two kinds1 artificial gas produces the least heat2 also1 it is the most expensive1 usually costing two or three times as much as natural gas4 ,both are very cheap1 however1 considering their convenience as a kitchen fuel4 ,heat from gas is obtained by merely turning it on and igniting it1 as with a lighted match4 ,its consumption can be stopped at once by closing off the supply1 or it can be regulated as desired and in this way made to give the exact amount of heat required for the method of cookery adopted4 ,neither smoke nor soot is produced in burning gas if the burners of the gas stove are adjusted to admit the right amount of air1 and no ashes nor refuse remain to be disposed of after gas has been burned4 ,because gas is so easily handled1 good results can be obtained by those who have had very little experience in using it1 and with study and practice results become uniform and gas proves to be an economical fuel4 #ee4 ,,measurement ,,of ,,gas4--,gas is measured by the cubic foot1 and a definite price is charged for each #a1jjj cubic feet4 ,to determine the quantity used1 it is passed through what is called a meter1 which measures as the gas burns4 ,it is important that each housewife be able to read the amount registered by the meter1 so that she can compare her gas bill with the meter reading and thus determine whether the charges are correct4 ,if only the usual amount of gas has been consumed and the bill does not seem to be correct or is much larger than it has been previously1 the matter should be reported to the proper authorities1 for the meter may be out of order and in need of repair4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,gas ,meter ,dials #ef4 ,,reading ,a ,,gas ,,meter4--,to register the quantity of gas that is consumed1 a gas meter1 as is shown in ,fig4 #a1 is provided with three large dials1 each of which has ten spaces over which the hand1 or indicator1 passes to indicate the amount of gas consumed1 and with one small dial1 around which the hand makes one revolution every time #b cubic feet of gas is consumed4 ,this small dial serves to tell whether gas is leaking when the stoves and lights are not turned on4 ,above each large dial is an arrow that points out the direction in which to read1 the two outside ones reading toward the right and the center one toward the left2 also1 above each dial is lettered the quantity of gas that each dial registers1 that at the right registering #a1jjj cubic feet1 that in the center #aj1jjj cubic feet1 and that at the left #ajj1jjj cubic feet4 ,to read the dials1 begin at the left1 or the #ajj1jjj dial1 and read toward the right4 ,in each instance1 read the number over which the hand has passed last4 ,for instance1 when1 as in ,fig4 #a1 the hand lies between #e and #f on the left dial1 #e is read2 on the center dial1 when the hand lies between #e and #f1 #e is read also2 and on the right dial1 when the hand lies between #b and #c1 the #b1 which is really #bjj1 is read4 #eg4 ,to compute the quantity of gas used1 the dials are read from left to right and the three readings are added4 ,then1 in order to determine the quantity burned since the previous reading1 the amount registered at that time1 which is always stated on the gas bill1 must be subtracted from the new reading4 ,to illustrate the manner in which the cost of gas consumed may be determined1 assume that gas costs #ij cents per #a1jjj cubic feet1 that the previous reading of the gas meter1 say on ,may #ae1 was #eb1fjj cubic feet1 and that on ,june #ae the meter registered as shown in ,fig4 #a4 ,as was just explained1 the left dial of the meter reads #e1 the center dial #e1 and the right dial #bjj4 ,therefore1 put these figures down so that they follow one another1 as #e-e-bjj4 ,this means then that the reading on ,june #ae is #ee1bjj cubic feet4 ,with this amount ascertained1 subtract from it the previous reading1 or #eb1fjj cubic feet1 which will give #b1fjj cubic feet1 or the quantity of gas burned from ,may #ae to ,june #ae4 ,since gas costs #ij cents per #a1jjj cubic feet1 the cost of the amount burned1 or #b1fjj cubic feet1 may be estimated by dividing #b1fjj cubic feet by #a1jjj and multiplying the result by #ij2 thus #b1fjj #a1jjj #b4f1 and #b4f x 4#ij #b4cd #eh4 ,,prepayment ,,meters4--,in many places1 gas concerns install what are called prepayment meters2 that is1 meters in which the money is deposited before the gas is burned4 ,such meters register the consumption of the gas in the same way as the meters just mentioned1 but they contain a receptacle for money4 ,a coin1 generally a quarter1 is dropped into a slot leading to this receptacle1 and the amount of gas sold for this sum is then permitted to pass through as it is needed4 ,when this amount of gas has been burned1 another coin must be inserted in the meter before more gas will be liberated4 ,,kerosene #ei4 ,in communities where gas is not available1 kerosene1 which is produced by the refinement of petroleum1 is used extensively as a fuel for cooking1 especially in hot weather when the use of a coal or a wood stove adds materially to the discomfort of the person who does the cooking4 ,kerosene is burned in stoves especially designed for its use1 and while it is a cheap fuel it is not always the same in quality4 ,it contains water at all times1 but sometimes the proportion of water is greater than at others4 ,the greater the amount of water1 the less fuel will be contained in each gallon of kerosene4 ,the quality of kerosene can be determined by checking up the length of time the stove will burn on a specified quantity of each new purchase of it4 ,another product of the refinement of petroleum is gasoline4 ,however1 it is not used so extensively for fuel as kerosene1 because it is more dangerous and more expensive4 ,,electricity #fj4 ,the use of electricity for supplying heat for cooking is very popular in some homes1 especially those which are properly wired1 because of its convenience and cleanliness and the fact that the heat it produces can be applied direct4 ,the first electrical cooking apparatus was introduced at the time of the ,world's ,fair in ,chicago1 in #ahib1 and since that time rapid advancement has been made in the production of suitable apparatus for cooking electrically4 ,electricity would undoubtedly be in more general use today if it were possible to store it in the same way as artificial gas1 but as yet no such method has been devised and its cost is therefore greater4 ,electricity is generated in large power plants1 and as it is consumed in the home for lighting and cooking it passes through a meter1 which indicates the quantity used in much the same manner as a gas meter4 ,it will be well1 therefore1 to understand the way in which an electric meter is read1 so that the bills for electricity can be checked4 #fa4 ,,reading ,,an ,,electric ,,meter4--,an electric meter1 which is similar in appearance to a gas meter1 consists of three or four dials1 which are placed side by side or in the shape of an arc4 ,in the usual type1 which is shown in ,fig4 #b and which consists of four dials placed side by side1 each one of the dials contains ten spaces and a hand1 or indicator1 that passes over numbers ranging from to #i to show the amount of electricity used4 ,illustration3 ,fig #b4 ,the numbers on the dials represent kilowatt-hours1 a term meaning the energy resulting from the activity of #a kilowatt for #a hour1 or #a watt1 which is the practical unit of electrical power1 for #a1jjj hours4 ,since #a1jjj hours equal #a kilowatt1 #a1jjj watt-hours equal #a kilowatt-hour4 ,it will be observed from the accompanying illustration that the dial on the extreme right has the figures reading in a clockwise direction1 that is1 from right to left1 the second one in a counter-clockwise direction1 or from left to right1 the third one in a clockwise direction1 and the fourth one in a counter-clockwise direction2 also that above each dial is indicated in figures the number of kilowatt-hours that one complete revolution of the hand of that dial registers4 ,to read the meter1 begin at the right-hand dial and continue to the left until all the dials are read and set the numbers down just as they are read2 that is1 from right to left4 ,in case the indicator does not point directly to a number1 but is somewhere between two numbers1 read the number that it is leaving4 ,for example1 in ,fig4 #b1 the indicator in the right-hand dial points to figure #d2 therefore1 this number should be put down first4 ,in the second dial1 the hand lies between and #a1 and as it is leaving #j1 this number should be read and placed to the left of the first one read1 which gives #jd4 ,the hand on the third dial points exactly to #f2 so #f should be read for this dial and placed directly before the numbers read for the first and second dials1 thus1 #fjd4 ,on the fourth and last dial1 the indicator is between #d and #e2 therefore #d1 which is the number it is leaving should be read and used as the first figure in the entire reading1 which is #d1fjd4 ,after the reading of the electric meter has been ascertained1 it is a simple matter to determine the electricity consumed since the last reading and the amount of the bill4 ,for instance1 assume that a meter registers the number of kilowatt-hours shown in ,fig4 #b1 or #d1fjd1 and that at the previous reading it registered #d1eei4 ,merely subtract the previous reading from the last one1 which will give #de1 or the number of kilowatt-hours from which the bill for electricity is computed4 ,if electricity costs #c cents a kilowatt-hour1 which is the price charged in some localities1 the bill should come to #de ,x 4#jc or #a4ce4 ,,principle ,,of ,,stoves #fb4 ,before stoves for cooking came into use in the home1 food was cooked in open fireplaces4 ,even when wood was the only fuel known1 a stove for burning it1 called the ,franklin stove1 was invented by ,benjamin ,franklin1 but not until coal came into use as fuel were iron stoves made4 ,for a long time stoves were used mainly for heating purposes1 as many housewives preferred to cook at the open fireplace4 ,however1 this method of cooking has practically disappeared and a stove of some kind is in use for cooking in every home4 #fc4 ,for each fuel in common use there are many specially constructed stoves1 each having some advantageous feature2 yet all stoves constructed for the same fuel are practically the same in principle4 ,in order that fuel will burn and produce heat1 it must have air1 because fuel1 whether it is wood1 coal1 or gas1 is composed largely of carbon and air largely of oxygen1 and it is the rapid union of these two chemical elements that produces heat4 ,therefore1 in order that each stove may work properly1 some way in which to furnish air for the fire in the firebox must be provided4 ,for this reason1 every stove for cooking contains passageways for air and is connected with a chimney1 which contains a flue1 or passage1 that leads to the outer air4 ,when the air in a stove becomes heated1 it rises1 and as it ascends cold air rushes through the passageways of the stove to take its place4 ,it is the flue1 however1 that permits of the necessary draft and carries off unburned gases4 ,at times it is necessary to regulate the amount of air that enters1 and in order that this may be done each stove is provided with dampers4 ,these devices are located in the air passages and they are so designed as to close off the air or allow the desired amount to enter4 ,by means of these dampers it is possible also to force the heat around the stove oven1 against the top of the stove1 or up the chimney flue4 ,a knowledge of the ways in which to manipulate these dampers is absolutely necessary if correct results are to be obtained from a stove4 ,the flue1 however1 should receive due consideration4 ,if a stove is to give its best service1 the flue1 in addition to being well constructed1 should be free from obstructions and kept in good condition4 ,indeed1 the stove is often blamed for doing unsatisfactory work when the fault is really with the flue4 #fd4 ,probably one of the most important things considered in the construction of stoves is the economizing of fuel1 for ever since the days of the fireplace there has been more or less of a tendency to save fuel for cooking1 and as the various kinds grow scarcer1 and consequently more expensive1 the economical use of fuel becomes a necessity4 ,while most stoves for cooking purposes are so constructed as to save fuel1 many of them do not1 especially if the method of caring for them is not understood4 ,any housewife1 however1 can economize in the use of fuel if she will learn how the stove she has must be operated2 and this can be done by following closely the directions that come with the stove when it is purchased4 ,such directions are the best to follow1 because they have been worked out by the manufacturer1 who understands the right way in which his product should be operated4 ,,coal1 ,,stoves ,,and ,,their ,,operation #fe4 ,,general ,,construction4--,in ,fig4 #c is illustrated the general construction of the type of coal stove used for cooking4 ,the principal parts of such a stove1 which is commonly referred to as a cook stove1 or range1 are the firebox a2 the grate b2 the ash pit c1 which usually contains an ash-pan d2 the oven e2 the dampers f1 g1 h1 and i2 the flue opening j and flue k2 openings in the top and suitable lids1 not shown1 for kettles and pans2 and the air space extending from the firebox around three sides of the oven1 as shown by the arrows4 ,to prevent the stove from wearing out rapidly1 the firebox1 in which the fuel is burned1 is lined with a material1 such as fireclay1 that will withstand great heat4 ,the fire in the firebox is supported by the grate1 which is in the form of metal teeth or bars1 so as to permit air to pass through the fuel from underneath4 ,the grate is usually so constructed that when the fire is raked it permits burnt coal or ashes to fall into the ash-pan1 by means of which they can be readily removed from the stove4 ,the oven1 which lies directly back of the firebox and is really an enclosed chamber in which food may be cooked1 receives its heat from the hot air that passes around it4 ,the dampers are devices that control the flow of air in and out of the stove4 ,those shown at f and g serve to admit fresh air into the stove or to keep it out1 and those shown at h and i serve to keep heated air in the stove or to permit it to pass out through the flue4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c #ff4 ,building a ,coal ,fire4--,to build a coal fire is a simple matter4 ,so that the draft will be right for rapid combustion1 it is first necessary to close the dampers f and h and to open the bottom damper g and the chimney damper i4 ,with these dampers arranged1 place crushed paper or shavings on the grate2 then on top of the paper or shavings place kindling1 and on top of the kindling put a small quantity of coal4 ,be careful to place the fuel on the grate loosely enough to permit currents of air to pass through it1 because it will not burn readily if it is closely packed4 ,light the fire by inserting a flame from below4 ,when this is done1 the flame will rise and ignite the kindling1 and this1 in turn1 will cause the coal to take fire4 ,when the fire is burning well1 close the dampers g and i so that the fuel will not burn too rapidly and the heat will surround the oven instead of passing up the chimney2 also1 before too much of the first supply of coal is burned out1 add a new supply1 but be sure that the coal is sufficiently ignited before the new supply is added so as not to smother the fire4 ,if only a thin layer is added each time1 this danger will be removed4 ,experience has proved that the best results are secured if the fire is built only #d inches high4 ,when hot coals come near the top of the stove1 the lids are likely to warp and crack from the heat and the cooking will not be done any more effectively4 ,another thing to avoid in connection with a fire is the accumulation of ashes4 ,the ash-pan should be kept as nearly empty as possible1 for a full ash-pan will check the draft and cause the grate in the firebox to burn out4 #fg4 ,,adjusting ,,the ,,dampers4--,to get the best results from a cook stove1 and at the same time overcome the wasting of fuel1 the ways in which to adjust the dampers should be fully known4 ,if it is desired to heat the oven for baking1 close dampers f and i and open dampers g and h4 ,with the dampers so arranged1 the heated air above the fire is forced around the oven and up the flue1 as is clearly shown by the arrows in ,fig4 #c4 ,a study of this diagram will readily show that the lower left-hand corner of the oven is its coolest part1 since the heated air does not reach this place directly1 and that the top center is the hottest part1 because the hottest air passes directly over this portion of the oven and the heated air in the oven rises to it4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d ,if it is desired to heat the surface of the stove1 so that cooking may be done on top of it1 close dampers f1 h1 and i and open damper g4 ,with the dampers so arranged1 the heated air does not pass around the oven1 but is confined in the space above it and the firebox1 as shown in ,fig4 #d4 ,while the damper i in the flue is closed in order to confine the heated air as much as possible to the space under the top of the stove1 it contains openings that allow just enough air to pass up the flue to maintain the draft necessary for combustion4 ,when the dampers are arranged as mentioned1 the hottest place on the surface of the stove is between the firebox and the stovepipe1 and the coolest place is behind the damper h4 #fh4 ,,banking ,a ,,coal ,,fire4--,to economize in the use of fuel1 as well as to save the labor involved in building a new fire1 it is advisable to keep a fire burning low from one meal to another and from one day to the next4 ,as the nature of hard coal is such that it will hold fire for a long time1 this can be done by what is called banking the fire4 ,to achieve this1 after the fire has served to cook a meal1 shake the ashes out of the grate so that the glowing coals are left4 ,then put fresh coal on this bed of coals1 and1 with the dampers arranged as for building a new fire1 allow the coal to burn well for a short time4 ,finally1 cover the fire with a layer of fine coal and adjust the dampers properly2 that is1 close dampers g and h and open dampers f and i4 ,if the banking is carefully done the fire should last #h or #aj hours without further attention4 ,care should be taken1 however1 to use sufficient coal in banking the fire1 so that when it is to be used again the coal will not be completely burned1 but enough burning coals will remain to ignite a fresh supply4 ,when the fire is to be used again1 rake it slightly1 put a thin layer of coal over the top1 and arrange the dampers as for starting a fire4 ,as soon as this layer of coal has begun to burn1 add more until the fire is in good condition4 ,,gas ,,stoves ,,and ,,their ,,operation #fi4 ,,gas ,,ranges4--,a gas stove for cooking1 or gas range1 as it is frequently called1 consists of an oven1 a broiler1 and several burners over which are plates to hold pans1 pots1 and kettles in which food is to be cooked4 ,as is true of a coal range1 a gas range also requires a flue to carry off the products of unburned gas4 ,gas stoves1 or ranges1 are of many makes1 but in principle all of them are practically the same2 in fact1 the chief difference lies in the location or arrangement of the oven1 broiler1 and burners4 ,in ,fig4 #e is illustrated a simple type of gas range4 ,the oven a of this stove is located above the top of the stove1 instead of below it1 as in some stoves4 ,an oven so located is of advantage in that it saves stooping or bending over4 ,the door of this oven contains a glass1 which makes it possible to observe the food baking inside without opening the door and thereby losing heat4 ,the broiler b1 which may also be used as a toaster1 is located directly beneath the oven1 and to the right are the burners c for cooking4 ,the gas for these parts is contained in the pipe d1 which is connected to a pipe joined to the gas main in the street4 ,to get heat for cooking it is simply necessary to turn on the stop-cocks and light the gas4 ,the four burners are controlled by the stop-cocks e1 and the oven and the broiler by the stop-cock f4 ,the stove is also equipped with a simmering burner for the slow methods of cooking on top of the stove1 gas to this burner being controlled by the stop-cock g4 ,to catch anything that may be spilled in cooking1 there is a removable metal or enamel sheet h4 ,such a sheet is a great advantage1 as it aids considerably in keeping the stove clean4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e #gj4 ,some gas stoves are provided with a pilot1 which is a tiny flame of gas that is controlled by a button on the gas pipe to which the stop-cocks are attached4 ,the pilot is kept lighted1 and when it is desired to light a burner1 pressing the button causes the flame to shoot near enough to each burner to ignite the gas4 ,however1 whether the burners are lighted in this way or by applying a lighted match1 they should never be lighted until heat is required2 likewise1 in order to save gas1 they should be turned off as soon as the cooking is completed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f ,to produce the best results1 the flame given off by gas should be blue4 ,a flame that is yellow and a burner that makes a noise when lighted1 indicate that the gas flame has caught in the pipe1 and to remedy this the gas must be turned out and relighted4 ,when the gas flame coming from a new burner is yellow1 it may be taken for granted that not enough air is being admitted to make the proper mixture4 ,to permit of the proper mixture1 each gas pipe extending from the stop-cock and terminating in the burner is provided with what is called a mixer4 ,this device1 as shown in ,fig4 #f1 consists of several slots that may be opened or closed by turning part a1 thus making it a simple matter to admit the right amount of air to produce the desired blue flame4 ,if burners that have been in use for some time give off a yellow flame1 it is probable that the trouble is caused by a deposit of soot or burned material4 ,such burners should be removed1 boiled in a solution of washing soda or lye until the holes in the top are thoroughly cleaned1 and then replaced and adjusted4 ,as long as the flame remains yellow1 the gas is not giving off as much heat as it should produce and is liable to smoke cooking utensils black4 ,therefore1 to get the best results the burners should be thoroughly cleaned every now and then in the manner mentioned4 ,likewise1 the pan beneath the burners1 which may be removed1 should be cleaned very frequently1 and the entire stove should be wiped each time it is used1 for the better such a stove is taken care of1 the better will it continue to do its work4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g #ga4 ,,fireless-,,cooking ,,gas ,,stoves4--,a style of gas stove that meets with favor in many homes is the so-called fireless-cooking gas stove1 one style of which is shown in ,fig4 #g4 ,such a stove has the combined advantages of a fireless cooker1 which is explained later1 and a gas stove1 for it permits of quick cooking with direct heat1 as well as slow cooking with heat that is retained in an insulated chamber1 that is1 one that is sufficiently covered to prevent heat from escaping4 ,in construction1 this type of stove is similar to any other gas stove1 except that its oven is insulated and it is provided with one or more compartments for fireless cooking1 as at a and b4 ,each of these compartments is so arranged that it may be moved up and down on an upright rod1 near the base of which1 resting on a solid plate c1 is a gas burner d1 over which the insulated hood of the compartment fits4 ,when it is desired to cook food in one of these compartments1 the hood is raised1 as at b1 and the gas burner is lighted4 ,the food in the cooker is allowed to cook over the lighted burner until sufficient heat has been retained or the process has been carried sufficiently far to permit the cooking to continue without fire4 ,then the insulated hood is lowered until the compartment is in the position of the one shown at a4 ,it is not necessary to turn off the gas1 as this is done automatically when the hood is lowered4 ,,kerosene ,,stoves ,,and ,,their ,,operation ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h #gb4 ,as has been mentioned1 kerosene is used considerably as a fuel in localities where gas cannot be obtained4 ,kerosene stoves are not unlike gas stoves1 but1 as a rule1 instead of having built-in ovens1 they are provided with portable ovens1 which are heated by placing them on top of the stove1 over the burners4 ,such stoves are of two types1 those in which cotton wicks are used1 as in oil lamps1 and those which are wickless1 the former being generally considered more convenient and satisfactory than the latter4 ,in ,fig4 #h is shown a three-burner kerosene stove of the first type mentioned4 ,oil for the burners1 or lamps1 a is stored in the container b1 which may be of glass or metal1 and it is supplied to the reservoir of each burner by the pipe c4 ,each burner is provided with a door d1 which is opened when it is desired to light the wick4 ,the flame of each burner is controlled by the screw e1 which serves to raise or lower the wick1 and the heat passes up to the opening f in the top of the stove through the cylindrical pipe above the burner4 ,the arrangement of a wickless kerosene stove is much the same as the one just described1 but it is so constructed that the oil1 which is also stored in a tank at the side1 flows into what is called a burner bowl and burns from this bowl up through a perforated chimney1 the quantity of oil used being regulated by a valve attached to each bowl4 #gc4 ,the burners of kerosene stoves are lighted by applying a match1 just as the burners of a gas stove are lighted4 ,in some stoves1 especially those of the wickless type1 the burners are so constructed that the flame can rise to only a certain height4 ,this is a good feature1 as it prevents the flame from gradually creeping up and smoking1 a common occurrence in an oil stove4 ,the kerosene-stove flame that gives the most heat1 consumes the least fuel1 and produces the least soot and odor is blue in color4 ,a yellow flame1 which is given off in some stoves1 produces more or less soot and consequently makes it harder to keep the stove clean4 ,glass containers are better than metal containers1 because the water that is always present in small quantities in kerosene is apt to rust the metal container and cause it to leak4 ,to prevent the accumulation of dirt1 as well as the disagreeable odor usually present when an oil stove is used1 the burners should be removed frequently and boiled in a solution of washing soda2 also1 if a wick is used1 the charred portion should be rubbed from it1 but not cut1 as cutting is liable to make it give off an uneven flame4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i ,,electric ,,stoves ,,and ,,utensils #gd4 ,,electric ,,stoves4 ,electric stoves for cooking have been perfected to such an extent that they are a great convenience1 and in places where the cost of electricity does not greatly exceed that of gas they are used considerably4 ,in appearance1 electric stoves are very similar to gas stoves1 as is shown in ,fig4 #i1 which illustrates an electric stove of the usual type4 ,the oven a is located at one side and contains a broiler pan b4 ,on top of this stove are openings for cooking1 into which fit lids c that have the appearance of ordinary stove lids1 but are in reality electrical heating units1 called hotplates4 ,heat for cooking is supplied by a current of electricity that passes through the hotplates1 as well as through similar devices in the oven1 the stove being connected to the supply of electricity at the connection-box d1 which is here shown with the cover removed4 ,the heat of the different hotplates and the oven is controlled by several switches e at the front of the stove4 ,each of these switches provides three degrees of heat--high1 medium1 and low--and just the amount of heat required for cooking can be supplied by turning the switch to the right point4 ,below the switches are several fuse plugs f that contain the fuses1 which are devices used in electrical apparatus to avoid injury to it in case the current of electricity becomes too great4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj ,it is not absolutely necessary to have flue connections for an electric stove1 as such a stove does not require a draft and gives off no products of combustion to be carried away4 ,in fact1 one of the favorable points about an electric stove is that it produces no dirt and causes no inconvenience4 ,when the cooking is done1 the electricity can be turned off1 after which the stove quickly cools4 ,when electricity is used for cooking1 cooking utensils1 methods1 and recipes can be applied in the same ways as when other means of producing heat are employed4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa #ge4 ,,small ,,electric ,,utensils4--,in addition to electric stoves1 there are a number of smaller electrical cooking utensils that can be attached to an electric-light socket or a wall socket4 ,among these are percolators1 toasters1 hotplates1 or grills1 chafing dishes1 egg poachers1 and similar devices4 ,an idea of such utensils for cooking may be formed by referring to ,fig4 #aj1 which shows an electric toaster1 and ,fig4 #aa1 which shows a hotplate1 or grill4 ,the toaster is arranged so that bread to be toasted may be placed on each side1 as well as on top1 of an upright part that gives off heat when the current of electricity is turned on4 ,the grill is so constructed that a pan for cooking may be placed under and on top of the part that gives off heat4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,essentials ,,of ,,cookery 7,,part #a7 ,,examination ,,questions 7#a7 ,give in its full sense the meaning of the term cookery4 7#b7 ,how may the housewife control the cost of her foods8 7#c7 7a7 ,explain the difference between waste and refuse4 7b7 ,to what is leakage in the household due8 7#d7 ,what three important matters enter into the problem of purchasing food8 7#e7 7a7 ,name the five substances that are found in food1 7b7 ,of what value is a knowledge of these food substances8 7#f7 7a7 ,what is the function of protein in the body8 7b7 ,mention the principal sources of protein1 7c7 ,explain the effect of heat on foods that contain protein4 7#g7 7a7 ,with what do carbohydrates supply the body8 7b7 ,mention the two forms of carbohydrates and also some of the foods in which each may be found4 7#h7 ,what is a calorie8 7#i7 ,give five reasons for cooking food4 7#aj7 ,mention the twelve principal processes employed in the cooking of food4 7#aa7 ,describe one method of cooking with3 7a7 dry heat2 7b7 moist heat2 7c7 hot fat4 7#ab7 7a7 ,at what temperature does water boil8 7b7 ,how is hard water affected by boiling8 7c7 ,explain the uses of water in cooking4 7#ac7 7a7 ,what generally controls the kind of stove to be used for cooking8 7b7 ,explain how it is possible to keep down the cost of cooking in using fuel4 7#ad7 ,mention the best way in which to become familiar with the operation of a stove4 7#ae7 7a7 ,of what value is gas as a fuel8 7b7 ,what kind of gas flame is best for cooking8 7#af7 ,suppose that a gas meter registers #gb1ejj cubic feet on ,march #a1 and that on ,april #a the hand of the left dial is between #g and #h1 that of the middle dial is between #e and #f1 and that of the right dial is at #e4 ,at #ij cents a #a1jjj cubic feet1 what is the cost of the gas consumed8 7#ag7 7a7 ,how is heat produced in a stove8 7b7 ,what is the purpose of the dampers of a stove8 7#ah7 7a7 ,how should the dampers of a coal range be adjusted so as to heat the oven for baking8 7b7 ,how should they be adjusted for cooking on top of the stove8 7#ai7 7a7 ,what is the purpose of a mixer on a gas stove8 7b7 ,how may a gas stove be kept in good condition8 7#bj7 ,how may the burners of a kerosene stove be kept clean8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,essentials ,,of ,,cookery 7,,part #b7 99 99 99 99 99 ,,preparation ,,of ,,food--7,continued7 ,,utensils ,,for ,,cooking ,,importance ,,of ,,utensils #a4 ,while success in cooking1 as has been pointed out1 depends to a considerable extent on the selection of materials and the proper cooking methods1 as well as on an understanding of the stove and fuel employed1 the importance of the utensils that are to be used must not be overlooked4 ,as is well known1 each cooking utensil is fitted to its particular use2 in fact1 the wrong kind of pan1 dish1 or other utensil will not bring about the same result as the right one4 ,this does not mean1 however1 that the housewife must possess a large supply of every kind of utensil1 for1 really1 the expert cook is known by the small number of utensils she uses4 ,of course1 the proper handling of utensils1 as well as the right selection of them1 will come with experience1 but before she starts to cook the beginner should endeavor to plan definitely what must be provided4 ,she should likewise remember that the use of an unnecessary number of utensils not only will increase the labor involved in preparing a dish1 but will affect considerably the amount of work required to clear them away and wash them after the cooking is done4 #b4 ,the materials of which cooking utensils are made1 as well as their shape and size1 have also a great bearing on the success with which cooking may be done4 ,as no one material is suitable for all utensils1 they are made of various materials1 such as wood1 tin1 glass1 enamel1 aluminum1 sheet iron1 and earthenware4 ,in the purchase of a utensil1 therefore1 it is well to have in mind the use to which the utensil will be put1 and then to select one that is made of durable material1 that can be easily cleaned1 and that will not affect the food that is cooked in it4 ,likewise1 the shape of the utensil should receive consideration1 for much depends on it4 ,to be satisfactory1 a utensil should be without seams or curved edges1 because it is difficult to remove particles of food that collect in such places4 ,a vessel that is hard to wash should be avoided1 and one that will tip easily is not desirable1 either4 ,the size of utensils must be determined by the number of persons for whom food is to be cooked1 for the amount of food to be prepared indicates whether a large or a small utensil should be selected4 ,on the other hand1 the length of time required for foods to cook depends to a large extent on the size and shape of the utensil4 ,when food is to be cooked a long time1 a deep vessel with a comparatively small surface exposed for evaporation should be chosen2 but for quick cooking1 use should be made of a shallow utensil that will allow a great deal of surface to be exposed1 as the evaporation will be accomplished more rapidly4 ,in furnishing a kitchen1 it is well to begin with a few essential utensils of the best quality that can be obtained1 and then1 as needed1 to add other well-selected utensils to the equipment4 ,,materials ,,used ,,for ,,utensils #c4 ,,aluminum4--,because of the properties of aluminum1 this metal is used extensively for cooking utensils4 ,it is more costly than most of the materials employed for this purpose1 but while the first cost of aluminum pans and kettles may seem large1 the extra expense is justified by the durability of the utensils4 ,they last much longer than utensils made of many other materials1 for when aluminum is hammered and rolled it becomes extremely hard4 ,some aluminum utensils are very thin1 and since they melt and dent very easily they are suitable for only light1 careful handling4 ,although heavier aluminum utensils are more expensive than the lighter ones on account of the metal required and the manufacturing process involved1 they are harder and more durable4 ,cast aluminum is used for large vessels1 such as those required in institutions where large quantities of food are cooked and where pots and kettles are subjected to extremely hard wear1 but this is the most expensive kind1 for in order to make the aluminum hard enough for casting some harder metal must be mixed with it4 ,one of the disadvantages of aluminum is that it is not always easy to clean1 but this is overbalanced by the fact that foods do not burn so readily in aluminum utensils as in other kinds1 since the heat is evenly distributed by this metal4 #d4 ,,enamel4--,good enamel cooking utensils are desirable for some purposes and are only moderately expensive4 ,utensils made of enamel are not so durable as those made of metal1 because excessive heat or a sharp blow will cause the enamel to chip4 ,enamel utensils come in various colors1 and all can be kept clean easily1 but the gray enamel is considered to be the best for wear4 #e4 ,,iron ,,and ,,steel4--,utensils made of iron and steel are usually inexpensive1 but some1 especially those of iron1 are heavy4 ,these metals are used principally for such utensils as frying pans1 or skillets1 griddles1 waffle irons1 and kettles for deep-fat frying4 ,sheet iron makes excellent shallow pans for baking cookies and other cakes1 very satisfactory bread pans1 and the best kind of pans for omelet and other frying4 #f4 ,,earthenware4--,a certain number of fairly durable earthenware utensils are necessary in a kitchen equipment4 ,mixing bowls are usually made of earthenware1 as are also casseroles1 which are covered dishes used for the baking of foods that require long cooking1 and other baking utensils4 ,meat1 fowl1 and some vegetables1 such as dried beans1 are delicious when prepared in a casserole1 as very little flavor or food is lost in such a dish4 #g4 ,,tin4--,the cheapest metal from which cooking utensils are made is tin1 but it is not generally used for utensils in which food is to be cooked1 because it melts at too low a temperature4 ,tin is used1 however1 for such small articles as measures1 cutters1 apple corers1 sieves1 strainers1 and other things of this kind1 and it is especially desirable for them4 #h4 ,,copper4--,before iron was known copper was the principal material for cooking utensils4 ,the chief point in favor of copper is its durability1 but utensils made of it are not practical for use in the ordinary kitchen because they are expensive1 heavy1 and very difficult to keep clean4 #i4 ,,glass4--,utensils made of heavy glassware are much used for cooking4 ,glass utensils are especially desirable for custards and other dishes that the cook likes to watch while cooking or that are to be served in the baking dish4 ,glass cooking utensils possess the advantage of retaining the heat well4 #aj4 ,,wood4--,certain utensils made of wood are required in a cooking outfit1 a molding board of hardwood and a smaller wooden cutting board being particularly necessary in every kitchen4 ,bowls in which to chop foods1 rolling pins1 and mixing spoons are usually made of hardwood1 and when such wood is used for them they are entirely satisfactory4 ,,labor-,,saving ,,devices #aa4 ,a ,,labor-,,saving ,,device is any apparatus that will permit a certain piece of work to be accomplished with less exertion than would be necessary to do the same thing without it4 ,a sink and a dustpan are labor-saving devices just as truly as are a bread mixer and a vacuum cleaner1 but because a sink and a dustpan are necessities as well1 they are not usually thought of as true labor-saving devices4 ,the newer appliances for saving labor are often considered to be quite unnecessary1 and indeed some of them are4 ,it is only when such apparatus will1 with less labor involved and less time consumed in the process1 secure results as good as or better than will another device1 and when the cleaning and care of it do not consume so much time and labor as is saved by using it1 that it may be considered a true labor-saving device4 ,each housewife must decide for herself whether the expense of a so-called labor-saving device is greater than the value of the time and strength she would use without such a device4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a 7a7 7b7 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c #ab4 ,,common ,,labor-,,saving ,,devices4 ,every housewife does not have occasion to use all the devices that have been invented to save labor1 but a number of these are in such common use1 produce such good results1 and save so much time and effort that they should be found in every kitchen4 ,among them is the rotary egg beater shown in ,fig4 #a 7a74 ,this is so made that one revolution of the wheel to which the crank is attached does about five times as much work as can be done with a fork or with an egg whip1 which is shown in 7b74 ,another inexpensive device that is a real help is the potato ricer4 ,this device1 one style of which is shown in ,fig4 #b1 is really a press through which any fruit or vegetable can be put to make a pure4 ,it is used considerably for mashing potatoes1 as it makes them perfectly smooth and saves considerable time and labor4 ,still another useful device is the meat chopper1 or grinder1 which is shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,such a device clamped to the edge of a table takes the place of a chopping bowl and knife1 and in addition to being more sanitary it permits the work to be done in a shorter time and with less effort4 ,besides the devices mentioned1 there are many small labor-saving devices1 such as the apple corer1 the berry huller1 the mayonnaise mixer1 etc41 the merits of which every busy housewife will do well to consider4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d #ac4 ,,bread ,,and ,,cake ,,mixers4 ,where baking is done for only a small number of persons1 bread and cake mixers are not indispensable1 but they save much labor where baking is done on a large scale4 ,it is comparatively easy1 for instance1 to knead dough for three or four loaves of bread1 but the process becomes rather difficult when enough dough for eight to sixteen loaves must be handled4 ,for large quantities of bread and cake1 mixers1 when properly used1 are labor-saving4 ,in addition1 such devices are sanitary1 and for this reason they are used in many homes where the bakings are comparatively small4 #ad4 ,the type of bread mixer in common use is shown in ,fig4 #d4 ,it consists of a covered tin pail a that may be fastened to the edge of a table by the clamp b4 ,inside of the pail is a kneading prong c1 in the shape of a gooseneck1 that is revolved by turning the handle d4 ,the flour and other materials for the dough are put into the pail1 and they are mixed and kneaded mechanically by turning the handle4 #ae4 ,a cake mixer1 the usual type of which is shown in ,fig4 #e1 is similar in construction to a bread mixer4 ,instead of a pail1 however1 for the dough ingredients1 it has a deep pan a1 and instead of one kneading prong it has several prongs1 which are attached to two arms b1 as shown4 ,these arms are revolved by gear-wheels c that fit in a large gearwheel d attached to a shaft e1 which is turned by means of a handle f4 ,the large number of mixing prongs in a cake mixer are necessary1 because cake dough must be thoroughly stirred and beaten1 whereas in bread making the dough must be made to form a compact mass4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e #af4 ,,dish-,,washing ,,machines4--,although machines for washing dishes are to be had1 they are most helpful where large numbers of people are served and1 consequently1 where great quantities of dishes are to be washed4 ,such machines are usually large and therefore take up more space than the ordinary kitchen can afford4 ,likewise the care and cleaning of them require more labor than the washing of dishes for a small family entails4 ,large quantities of hot water are needed to operate mechanical dish washers1 and even where they are installed1 the glassware1 silver1 and cooking utensils must1 as a rule1 be washed by hand4 #ag4 ,,fireless ,,cooker4--,a device that has proved to be really labor-saving is the fireless cooker1 one type of which is shown in ,fig4 #f4 ,it consists of an insulated box a lined with metal and divided into compartments b1 with pans c that fit into them4 ,hotplates1 or stones1 as they are sometimes called1 are frequently used if the article to be cooked requires them4 ,these stones1 which are shown at d1 are supported in the compartments by metal racks e1 and they are lifted in and out by means of wire handles f4 ,illustration3 ,fig #f4 ,to use a fireless cooker properly1 the food must be cooked for a short time on the stove2 then it must be tightly covered and placed in one of the insulated compartments4 ,if hotplates are to be used they must be heated in the same manner4 ,the food loses its heat so gradually in the fireless cooker that the cooking proceeds slowly but effectually4 ,when the previous heating has been sufficient1 the food will be cooked and still warm when the cooker is opened hours later4 ,some articles of food occasionally need reheating during the process4 ,by this method of cooking there is no loss of flavor or food value1 and the food usually requires no further attention after being placed in the cooker4 ,it also permits of economy in both fuel and time4 ,,utensils ,,for ,,furnishing ,a ,,kitchen #ah4 ,as a guide in purchasing equipment for a kitchen1 a list of utensils is here presented4 ,this list is divided into utensils that are necessary and those that are convenient and only at times necessary4 ,in any case1 however1 the number of utensils and the size must be determined by the quantity of food that is to be prepared4 ,,necessary ,,equipment ,baking dish with cover ,bread box ,bread knife ,bread pans ,can opener ,cake knife ,chopping bowl and knife or food chopper ,coffee mill ,coffee pot ,colander ,cookie cutter ,corer1 ,apple ,cutting board ,dishpan ,double boiler ,egg beater ,flour sifter ,forks ,frying pan1 large ,frying pan1 small ,garbage can ,grater ,kettle covers ,kettles1 two or more ,knife sharpener ,knives ,lemon squeezer ,long-handled fork ,measuring cup ,meat board ,meat knife ,mixing bowls ,mixing spoons ,molding board ,muffin pan ,paring knife ,pepper shaker ,pie pans ,potato masher ,rinsing1 or draining1 pan ,roasting pan ,rolling pin ,salt box ,saucepans ,spatula ,tablespoons ,teakettle ,teapot ,teaspoons ,toaster ,wire strainer ,wooden spoon ,,convenient ,,equipment ,bread mixer ,cake coolers ,cake mixer ,cake turner ,casseroles ,clock ,coffee percolator ,containers for spices and dry groceries ,cookie sheets ,cream whip ,egg whip ,fireless cooker ,frying kettle and basket ,funnel ,glass jars for canning ,griddle ,ice-cream freezer ,ice pick ,jelly molds ,nest of bowls ,pan for baking fish ,potato knife ,potato ricer ,ramekins ,quart measure ,scales ,scissors ,set of skewers ,steamer ,waffle iron ,wheel cart 99 99 99 99 99 ,,getting ,,foods ,,ready ,,for ,,cooking ,,preliminary ,,preparation #ai4 ,before foods that require cooking are cooked or before foods that are to be eaten raw are served1 they must be properly prepared1 for their palatability and their value as food depend considerably on the way in which they are made ready for cooking or for eating4 ,of course1 the way in which food should be prepared will depend on how it is to be served1 but in any event all foods1 for the sake of cleanliness1 must first be washed with water or wiped with a clean1 damp cloth4 #bj4 ,the ways in which vegetables and fruits are made ready for cooking vary4 ,sometimes such foods are cooked with the skins on1 and sometimes certain vegetables1 such as new potatoes1 young carrots and parsnips1 vegetable oysters1 etc41 are made ready in an economical way by scraping off their skins with a knife4 ,vegetables are also peeled1 and when this is done a very sharp knife with a thin blade should be used and as little of the food removed as possible4 ,still another way of removing the skins of such foods as tomatoes1 nuts1 and some fruits is by blanching4 ,in this process1 the skins are loosened so that they may be removed easily1 either by immersing the foods in boiling water or by pouring boiling water over them and allowing them to stand in the water for a few minutes1 but not long enough to soften them4 ,blanching used in this sense should not be confused with the same word when it means to take color out and has reference to a process of bleaching4 ,only when the word means to remove the covering of can it be applied to the peeling of tomatoes1 fruits1 and nuts4 ,vegetables and fruits may be cooked whole or they may be cut into chunks1 or pieces1 or into slices4 #ba4 ,in order to get meats ready for cooking1 it is necessary to wipe them clean and usually to trim off all unnecessary bone1 fat1 and skin4 ,meats may be cooked in large pieces or small pieces or they may be ground1 depending on the cooking process to be used4 ,before cooking poultry and fish1 they should be thoroughly cleaned and then trimmed and cut to suit the cooking process chosen4 ,if desired1 the bones may be removed from poultry or fish before cooking1 and sometimes it is advantageous to do so4 ,cream and raw eggs may be whipped or beaten light before they are served or cooked1 and after such foods as fruits1 vegetables1 meats1 and fish have been cooked1 they may be sliced1 chopped1 ground1 mashed1 or cut into dice1 or small pieces4 ,,mixing ,,of ,,food ,,ingredients #bb4 ,,processes ,,involved ,,in ,,mixing4--,in cookery1 the mixing of ingredients is done for several purposes--to produce a certain texture1 to give a smoothness or creaminess to a mixture1 or to impart lightness4 ,various processes are involved in the mixing of ingredients1 and the results that are accomplished depend entirely on the method that is selected4 ,the most important of these processes with brief explanations of what they mean follow4 ,,beating is a rapid motion that picks up material from the bottom and mixes it with that nearer the surface4 ,it is done with a spoon1 a fork1 an egg whip1 or1 if the mixture is thin1 with a rotary egg beater4 ,sometimes beating is done for the purpose of incorporating air and thus making the mixture light4 ,,stirring is usually done with a spoon1 and is accomplished by moving the spoon in circles1 around and around1 through ingredients contained in a pan or a bowl4 ,this is the method that is generally applied to the simple mixing of ingredients4 ,,folding is a careful process whereby beaten egg or whipped cream is added to a mixture without destroying its lightness4 ,it is accomplished by placing the egg or cream on top of a mixture in a bowl or a pan1 and then passing a spoon down through both and bringing up a spoonful of the mixture and placing it on top4 ,this motion is repeated until the two are well blended1 but this result should be accomplished with as few strokes as possible4 ,,rubbing is done by pressing materials against the side of a bowl with the back of a spoon4 ,this is the process that is applied when butter and other fats are to be mixed with such dry ingredients as sugar and flour4 ,,creaming consists in continuing the rubbing process until the texture becomes soft and smooth and is of a creamy consistency4 ,,cutting-,,in is a method used to combine butter with flour when it is desired to have the butter remain hard or in small pieces4 ,it is done by chopping the butter into the flour with a knife4 ,,sifting is shaking or stirring material through a sifter having a fine wire mesh4 ,it is done to remove foreign or coarse material1 to impart lightness1 or to mix dry ingredients together4 ,,ricing is a process whereby certain cooked foods1 such as fruits1 vegetables1 meats1 and fish1 may be reduced to the form of a pure4 ,this result is accomplished by forcing the cooked material through a ricer4 #bc4 ,,application ,,of ,,mixing ,,processes4--,in applying the various mixing processes1 it is well to bear in mind that good results depend considerably on the order of mixing1 as well as on the deftness and thoroughness with which each process is performed4 ,this fact is clearly demonstrated in a cake in which the butter and sugar have not been actually creamed1 for such a cake will not have the same texture as one in which the creaming has been done properly4 ,it is also shown in angel food or sunshine cake1 for the success of such a cake depends largely on the skill employed in folding in the whites of eggs or in beating the yolks4 ,on the other hand1 the lightness of pastry and the tenderness of cookies depend on how each is rolled out1 and the kneading of bread is a process that demonstrates that many things can be learned by actually doing them4 ,as progress is made with these cookery lessons1 therefore1 the application of the mixing processes should not be overlooked4 ,beginners in cookery1 owing possibly to the fact that at first they cannot handle soft material skilfully1 are liable to make the mistake of getting the ingredients too stiff4 ,yet no beginner need feel the least bit discouraged1 for ability in this direction comes with experience2 indeed1 just as skill in sewing1 embroidering1 and other processes comes about by practice and persistent effort1 so will come skill in cooking4 ,,measuring #bd4 ,uniform results in cookery depend on accurate measurement4 ,of course1 there are some cooks--and good ones1 too--who claim that they do not measure1 but as a matter of fact they have1 through long experience1 developed a judgment1 or sense1 of measurement1 which amounts to the same thing as if they actually did measure4 ,still1 even these cooks cannot be absolutely sure of securing as satisfactory results time after time as are likely to follow the employment of a more accurate method4 ,therefore1 to secure the best results1 every kitchen should be supplied with the proper measuring utensils1 which are scales1 a measuring cup1 and a set of measuring spoons1 or a standard tablespoon and a standard teaspoon4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g #be4 ,,scales4--,in ,fig4 #g is shown the type of scales generally included in the kitchen equipment4 ,the material to be weighed is placed on the platform at the top1 and the weight of it is indicated on the dial by a pointer1 or hand4 ,sometimes these scales are provided with a scoop in which loose materials may be placed in weighing4 ,such scales furnish a correct means not only of measuring materials1 but of verifying the weights of foods from the market1 the butcher shop1 or the grocery4 ,to use them properly1 the housewife should learn to balance them exactly1 and when she is weighing articles she should always allow for the weight of the container or receptacle1 even if it is only the paper that holds the food4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h #bf4 ,,measuring ,,cups4--,weighing the articles called for in a recipe is often a less convenient method than measuring2 therefore1 in the preparation of foods1 measuring is more often resorted to than weighing4 ,as accuracy in measurement is productive of the best results1 it is necessary that all measures be as accurate and definite as possible4 ,for measuring the ingredients called for in recipes1 use is generally made of a measuring cup like that shown in ,fig4 #h4 ,such a cup is designed to hold #b gills1 or #a_/b pint1 and it is marked to indicate thirds and quarters1 so that it may be used for recipes of all kinds4 ,if a liquid is to be measured with such a cup1 it should be filled to the brim1 but if dry material is to be measured with it1 the material should be heaped up in the cup with a spoon and then scraped level with a knife1 in the manner shown in ,fig4 #i4 ,in case fractions or parts of a cup are to be measured1 the cup should be placed level and stationary and then filled evenly to the mark indicated on the cup itself4 #bg4 ,many times it will be found more convenient to measure dry materials with a spoon4 ,this can be done with accuracy if it is remembered that #af tablespoonfuls make #a cup1 or #a_/b pint2 #ab tablespoonfuls1 #c_/d cup2 #h tablespoonfuls1 #a_/b cup2 and #d tablespoonfuls1 #a_/d cup4 ,if no measuring cup like the one just described is at hand1 one that will hold #af level tablespoonfuls of dry material may be selected from the kitchen supply of dishes4 ,such a cup1 however1 cannot be used successfully in measuring a half1 thirds1 or fourths2 for such measurements it will be better to use a spoon4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i ,as a rule1 it will be found very convenient to have two measuring cups of standard size1 one for measuring dry ingredients and the other for measuring moist or wet ones4 ,if it is impossible to have more than one1 the dry materials should be measured first in working out a recipe1 and the fats and liquids afterwards4 ,whatever plan of measuring is followed1 however1 it should always be remembered that recipes are written for the definite quantities indicated and mean standard1 not approximate1 cupfuls1 tablespoonfuls1 and teaspoonfuls4 #bh4 ,,measuring ,,spoons4--,in addition to a measuring cup or two1 a set of measuring spoons will be found extremely convenient in a kitchen4 ,however1 if it is impossible to obtain such a set1 a teaspoon and a tablespoon of standard size will answer for measuring purposes4 ,three level teaspoonfuls are equal to #a tablespoonful4 ,when a spoon is used1 it is heaped with the dry material and then leveled with a knife1 in the manner shown in ,fig4 #aj 7a74 ,if #a_/b spoonful is desired1 it is leveled first1 as indicated in 7a71 and then marked through the center with a knife and half of its contents pushed off1 as shown in 7b74 ,fourths and eighths are measured in the same way1 as is indicated in ,fig4 #aa 7a71 but thirds are measured across the bowl of the spoon1 as in 7b74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj #bi4 ,precautions to ,observe in ,measuring4--,in measuring some of the materials used in the preparation of foods1 certain points concerning them should receive attention4 ,for instance1 all powdered materials1 such as flour1 must first be sifted1 as the amount increases upon sifting1 it being definitely known that a cupful of unsifted flour will measure about #a-a_/d cupfuls after it is sifted4 ,lumps1 such as those which form in salt and sugar1 should be thoroughly crushed before measuring2 if this is not done1 accurate measurements cannot be secured1 because lumps of such ingredients are more compact than the loose material4 ,butter and other fats should be tightly packed into the measure1 and if the fat is to be melted in order to carry out a recipe1 it should be melted before it is measured4 ,anything measured in a cup should be poured into the cup2 that is1 the cup should not be filled by dipping it into the material nor by drawing it through the material4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa #cj4 ,,tables ,,of ,,weights ,,and ,,measures4--,as foods are sold by weight and by measure1 and as recipes always call for certain weights and measures1 it is absolutely necessary that every person engaged in the purchase and preparation of foods should be familiar with the tables of weights and measures in common use for such purposes in the ,united ,states and practically all other ,english-speaking countries4 ,in addition1 it will be well to have a knowledge of relative weights and measures1 so as to be in a position to use these tables to the best advantage4 #ca4 ,the table used ordinarily for weighing foods is the table of ,,avoirdupois ,,weight4 ,another table of weights1 called the table of ,troy weight1 is used by goldsmiths and jewelers for weighing precious metals4 ,it should not be confused with avoirdupois weight1 however1 because its pound contains only #ab ounces1 whereas the avoirdupois pound contains #af ounces4 ,the table of avoirdupois weight1 together with the abbreviations of the terms used in it1 is as follows3 ,,avoirdupois ,,weight #dcg-a_/b grains 7gr4744444 #a ounce4444444444444 oz4 #af ounces4444444444444444 #a pound4444444444444 lb4 #ajj pounds444444444444444 #a hundredweight44444 cwt4 #bj hundredweight 4444444 #a ton444444444444444 ,t4 #b1jjj pounds _/ ,although #b1jjj pounds make #a ton1 it is well to note that #b1bdj pounds make #a long ton 7,l4,t474 ,the long ton is used by coal dealers in some localities1 but the ton1 sometimes called the short ton1 is in more general use and is the one meant unless long ton is specified4 #cb4 ,the table of ,,liquid ,,measure is used for measuring all liquids1 and is extremely useful to the housewife4 ,this table1 together with the abbreviations of its terms1 is as follows3 ,,liquid ,,measure #d gills 7gi4744444444444 #a pint44444444444444444 pt4 #b pints44444444444444444 #a quart4444444444444444 qt4 #d quarts4444444444444444 #a gallon444444444444444 gal4 #ca-a_/b gallons4444444444 #a barrel444444444444444 bbl4 #b barrels 444444444444 #a hogshead4444444444444 hhd4 #fc gallons_/ #cc4 ,the table of ,,dry ,,measure is used for measuring dry foods1 such as potatoes1 dried peas and beans1 etc4 ,the table of dry measure1 with its abbreviations1 follows3 ,,dry ,,measure #b pints 7pt4744444444444 #a quart4444444444444444 qt4 #h quarts4444444444444444 #a peck44444444444444444 pk4 #d pecks44444444444444444 #a bushel444444444444444 bu4 #cd4 ,tables of ,,relative ,,weights ,,and ,,measures are of value to the housewife in that they will assist her greatly in coming to an understanding of the relation that some of the different weights and measures bear to one another4 ,for example1 as dry foods are sold by the pound in some localities1 it will be well for her to know the approximate equivalent in pounds of a definite quantity of another measure1 say a quart or a bushel of a certain food4 ,likewise1 she ought to know that when a recipe calls for a cupful it means #a_/b pint1 as has been explained4 ,every one is familiar with the old saying1 ,a pint's a pound the world around1 which1 like many old sayings1 is not strictly true1 for while #a pint is equal to #a pound of some things1 it is not of others4 ,the following tables give approximately the relative weights and measures of most of the common foods3 ,,approximate ,,measure ,,of #a ,,pound ,,of ,,food ,beans1 dried444444444444444444 #b ,,cupfuls ,butter444444444444444444444444 #b ,coffee1 whole44444444444444444 #d ,corn meal444444444444444444444 #c ,flour4444444444444444444444444 #d ,milk44444444444444444444444444 #b ,molasses4444444444444444444444 #a-a_/b ,meat1 chopped1 finely packed44 #b ,nuts1 shelled44444444444444444 #c ,oats1 rolled444444444444444444 #d ,olive oil444444444444444444444 #b-a_/b ,peas1 split4444444444444444444 #b ,raisins44444444444444444444444 #c ,rice44444444444444444444444444 #b ,sugar1 brown444444444444444444 #b-b_/c ,sugar1 granulated4444444444444 #b ,sugar1 powdered444444444444444 #b-c_/d ,,approximate ,,weight ,,of #a ,,tablespoonful ,,of ,,food ,butter444444444444444444444444 #a_/b ,,ounce ,corn starch4444444444444444444 #c_/h ,flour4444444444444444444444444 #a_/d ,milk44444444444444444444444444 #a_/b ,sugar4444444444444444444444444 #a_/b ,,approximate ,,weight ,,of #a ,,cupful ,,of ,,food ,butter444444444444444444444444 #h ,,ounces ,corn meal444444444444444444444 #e ,corn starch4444444444444444444 #f ,flour4444444444444444444444444 #d ,milk44444444444444444444444444 #h ,molasses444444444444444444444 #aj ,nuts1 shelled44444444444444444 #d ,raisins44444444444444444444444 #e ,sugar4444444444444444444444444 #h ,in measuring1 you will find the following relative proportions of great assistance3 #c tsp4 #a ,tb4 #af ,tb4 #a c4 #ce4 ,,abbreviations ,,of ,,measures4--,in order to simplify directions and recipes in books relating to cookery1 it is customary to use the abbreviations of some weights and measures4 ,those which occur most frequently in cook books are the following3 tsp4 for teaspoonful pt4 for pint ,tb4 for tablespoonful qt4 for quart c4 for cupful oz4 for ounce lb4 for pound ,,order ,,of ,,work #cf4 ,for successful results in cookery1 the work to be done should be planned beforehand and then carried on with systematic care4 ,by following such a plan1 a waste of time and material will be prevented and good results will be secured1 for there will be little chance for mistakes to occur4 ,the order of work here outlined will serve to make clear the way in which cooking processes can be carried out satisfactorily4 ,first1 read the quantity and kind of ingredients listed in the recipe1 and study carefully the method by which they are to be prepared and combined4 ,in so doing1 determine whether the dish is too expensive and whether the amounts called for will make a dish sufficient in size for the number of persons to be served4 ,if they are too large1 carefully divide them to make the right quantity2 if they are too small1 multiply them to make them enough4 ,the heat itself1 which plays such an important part in cooking1 should receive attention at the proper time4 ,if the fuel to be used is coal or wood and baking is to be done1 build the fire long enough before it is needed1 so that it will be burning evenly and steadily4 ,then1 while the recipe is being prepared1 provided it is to be baked1 regulate the heat of the oven4 ,if gas or kerosene is to be used1 light it after the recipe is read1 and regulate it during the measuring and mixing of the ingredients4 ,before proceeding to prepare a dish1 clear enough working space for the utensils that are to be used1 as well as for carrying on the various operations without feeling crowded4 ,then1 on the cleared space1 place the necessary measuring utensils1 such as a measuring cup1 a knife1 a teaspoon1 and a tablespoon4 ,select a bowl or a pan for mixing1 a spoon for stirring1 and1 when needed1 an egg whip or beater for eggs and separate bowls in which to beat them4 ,choose the utensil in which the mixture is to be cooked1 and1 if necessary1 grease it4 ,during the process of preparing the dish1 measure accurately all the ingredients to be used1 and check them up with the recipe1 so as to be sure that none are missing and that each one is in its proper amount4 ,if all these steps are accurately taken1 the mixing1 which is the next step1 can be accomplished quickly and without error4 ,with all the ingredients properly combined1 the mixture is ready for the last step1 the cooking or the baking4 ,this must be done with the utmost care1 or an otherwise properly prepared dish may be spoiled4 ,,table ,,for ,,cooking ,,foods #cg4 ,so that the beginner in cookery may form a definite idea of the length of time required to cook certain foods1 there is presented here what is commonly known as a cookery time table4 ,it should be remembered that the time required to cook food is influenced by many factors4 ,for instance1 the age of vegetables and fruits very largely determines how long they should be cooked2 tough meats and fowl require longer cooking than tender ones2 and the heat of the oven has much to do with the length of time required for cooking1 especially the process of baking or roasting ,therefore1 while this time table will prove of great help to beginners1 it can serve only as a guide4 ,to determine whether or not foods have been cooked long enough1 it is advisable to apply the proper tests1 which are given later in discussing the various foods rather than to depend solely on the time table4 ,in this table1 the length of time for cooking is given in minutes 7abbreviated min47 and hours 7abbreviated hr47 ,,cookery ,,time ,,table ,,meats ,,and ,,fish ,broiled ,bacon44444444444444444444444 #c to #e min4 ,chicken44444444444444444444 #bj to #be min4 ,fish44444444444444444444444 #ae to #bj min4 ,fish1 slices444444444444444 #aj to #ae min4 ,fish1 very small444444444444 #e to #aj min4 ,lamb chops444444444444444444 #f to #h min4 ,quail or squabs4444444444444 #h to #aj min4 ,steak1 thick444444444444444 #aj to #ae min4 ,steak1 thin44444444444444444 #e to #g min4 ,veal chops444444444444444444 #f to #aj min4 ,boiled ,beef1 corned4444444444444444 #c to #d hr4 ,chicken1 #c lb444444444444444 #a to #a-a_/d hr4 ,fish1 bluefish1 cod1 or bass1 #d to #e lb4444444444 #bj to #cj min4 ,fish1 slices1 #b to #c lb4444 #bj to #be min4 ,fish1 small4444444444444444 #aj to #ae min4 ,fowl1 #d to #e lb4444444444444 #b to #c hr4 ,ham1 #ab to #ad lb444444444444 #d to #e hr4 ,mutton1 leg of44444444444444 #b to #c hr4 ,tongue4444444444444444444444 #c to #d hr4 ,roasted ,beef1 rib or loin1 #e lb41 rare44444444444444444444444 #a hr4 #e min4 ,beef1 rib or loin1 #e lb41 well done444444444444444444 #a hr4 #bj min4 ,beef1 rib or loin1 #aj lb41 rare44444444444444444444444 #a hr4 #cj min4 ,beef1 rib or loin1 #aj lb41 well done444444444444444444 #b hr4 ,beef1 rump1 #aj lb41 rare444 #a hr4 #cj min4 ,beef1 rump1 #aj lb41 well done44 #b hr4 ,chicken1 #d or #e lb44444444 #a-a_/b to #b hr4 ,duck1 #e to #f lb44444444444 #a-a_/d to #a-a_/b hr4 ,fish1 #c to #e lb44444444444 #de to #fj min4 ,fish1 small444444444444444 #bj to #cj min4 ,goose1 #aj lb44444444444444 #b to #b-a_/b hr4 ,lamb1 leg of44444444444444 #a-a_/d to #a-c_/d hr4 ,mutton1 saddle444444444444 #a-a_/d to #a-a_/b hr4 ,pork1 rib1 #e lb44444444444 #b to #b-a_/b hr4 ,turkey1 #aj lb4444444444444 #b-a_/b to #c hr4 ,,vegetables ,boiled ,asparagus44444444444444 #bj to #cj min4 ,beans1 lima or shell4444 #dj to #fj min4 ,beans1 string4444444444 #cj to #de min4 ,beets1 old444444444444444 #d to #f hr4 ,beets1 young44444444444 #de to #fj min4 ,brussels sprouts4444444 #ae to #be min4 ,cabbage4444444444444444 #ce to #fj min4 ,carrots444444444444444 #c_/d to #b hr4 ,cauliflower4444444444444 #bj to #cj min4 ,green corn444444444444444 #h to #ab min4 ,macaroni4444444444444444 #cj to #dj min4 ,onions444444444444444444 #de to #fj min4 ,peas44444444444444444444 #be to #fj min4 ,potatoes4444444444444444 #cj to #de min4 ,rice44444444444444444444 #bj to #cj min4 ,spinach44444444444444444 #bj to #cj min4 ,turnips4444444444444444 #a_/b to #a-a_/b hr4 ,vegetable oysters444444 #c_/d to #a-a_/b hr4 ,,baked ,,foods ,beans444444444444444444444 #f to #h hr4 ,biscuits1 baking powder 444 #ae to #be min4 ,biscuits1 yeast44444444444 #aj to #be min4 ,bread1 ginger4444444444444 #bj to #cj min4 ,bread1 loaf444444444444444 #dj to #fj min4 ,cake1 corn4444444444444444 #bj to #cj min4 ,cake1 fruit444444444444 #a-a_/d to #b hr4 ,cake1 layer444444444444444 #ae to #bj min4 ,cake1 loaf4444444444444444 #dj to #fj min4 ,cake1 pound444444444444 #a-a_/d to #a-a_/b hr4 ,cake1 sponge44444444444444 #de to #fj min4 ,cookies44444444444444444444 #f to #aj min4 ,custard4444444444444444444 #bj to #de min4 ,muffins1 baking powder4444 #ae to #be min4 ,pastry44444444444444444444 #cj to #de min4 ,potatoes444444444444444444 #de to #fj min4 ,pudding1 ,indian444444444444 #b to #c hr4 ,pudding1 rice 7poor man's74 #b to #c hr4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,care ,,of ,,food ,,reasons ,,for ,,care #ch4 ,although1 as has been explained1 the selection and preparation of foods require much consideration from the housewife who desires to get good results in cookery1 there is still one thing to which she must give attention if she would keep down the cost of living1 and that is the care of food4 ,unless food is properly taken care of before it is cooked1 as well as after it is cooked--that is1 the left-overs--considerable loss is liable to result through its spoiling or decaying4 ,both uncooked and cooked food may be kept wholesome in several ways1 but before these are discussed it may be well to look into the causes of spoiling4 ,with these causes understood1 the methods of caring for foods will be better appreciated1 and the results in buying1 storing1 and handling foods will be more satisfactory4 #ci4 ,to come to a knowledge of why foods spoil1 it will be well to note that nature abounds in micro-organisms1 or living things so minute as to be invisible to the naked eye4 ,these micro-organisms are known to science as microbes and germs1 and they are comprised of bacteria1 yeasts1 and molds1 a knowledge of which is of the utmost importance to the physician and the farmer1 as well as the housewife4 ,just in what ways these are beneficial to the farmer and the physician is beyond the scope of the subject of cookery1 but in the household their influence is felt in three ways3 ,they are the cause of the decay and spoiling of foods2 they are of value in the preparation of certain foods2 and they are the cause of contagious diseases4 ,it will thus be seen that while some microbes are undesirable1 others exert a beneficial action4 #dj4 ,it is only within comparatively recent years that the action of micro-organisms has been understood4 ,it is now definitely known that these minute living things seize every possible chance to attack articles of food and produce the changes known as fermentation1 putrefaction1 souring1 and decay4 ,micro-organisms that cause fermentation are necessary in bread making and vinegar making1 but they are destructive to other foods1 as1 for example1 those which are canned or preserved4 ,organisms that cause putrefaction are needed in the making of sauer kraut1 salt rising bread1 and cheese4 ,molds also help to make cheese1 but neither these nor putrefactive organisms are desirable for foods other than those mentioned4 ,it should be remembered1 however1 that even those foods which require micro-organisms in their making are constantly in danger of the attacks of these small living things1 for unless something is done to retard their growth they will cause food to sour or decay and thus become unfit for consumption4 ,some foods1 of course1 withstand the attacks of micro-organisms for longer periods of time than others4 ,for example1 most fruits that are protected by an unbroken skin will1 under the right conditions1 keep for long periods of time1 but berries1 on account of having less protective covering1 spoil much more quickly4 ,likewise1 vegetables without skins decay faster than those with skins1 because they have no protective covering and contain more water1 in which1 as is definitely known1 most micro-organisms thrive4 #da4 ,if food is to be kept from decaying1 the housewife must endeavor to prevent the growth of micro-organisms1 and she can best accomplish this if she is familiar with the ways in which they work4 ,it is for this reason that1 whether she possesses a scientific knowledge of bacteria or not1 an understanding of some practical facts concerning why food spoils and how to keep it from decaying is imperative4 ,in this part of cookery1 as in every other phase1 it is the reason why things should be done that makes all that relates to the cooking of food so interesting4 ,in all parts of the work there are scientific facts underlying the processes1 and the more the housewife learns about these1 the more she can exercise the art of cookery1 which1 like all other arts1 depends on scientific principles4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,methods ,,of ,,care ,,classification #db4 ,as has been pointed out1 it is not the mere presence of micro-organisms that causes the spoiling of food1 but their constant growth4 ,therefore1 to keep milk from souring1 meat from spoiling1 bread from molding1 canned fruit from fermenting1 and so on1 it is necessary to know what will prevent the growth of these minute organisms4 ,different foods require different treatment4 ,some foods must be kept very cold1 some must be heated or cooked1 others must be dried1 and to others must be added preservatives4 ,an unwarrantable prejudice has been raised in the minds of many persons against the use of preservatives1 but this is due to the fact that the term is not properly understood4 ,in this use1 it means anything that helps to preserve or keep safe the food to which it is added4 ,sugar1 salt1 spices1 and vinegar are all preservatives1 and are added to food as much for the purpose of preserving it as for seasoning it4 ,,canning ,,and ,,drying ,,of ,,foods #dc4 ,among the common methods of caring for foods that are to be used at a future time are canning and drying4 ,,canning1 which is discussed fully in another ,section1 consists in preserving sterile foods in sealed cans or jars4 ,the aim in canning is to prevent the growth of micro-organisms1 and to do this the process known as sterilizing--that is1 the destroying of bacteria and other micro-organisms by means of heat--is resorted to4 ,canning theories are different now from what they were in former times4 ,for example1 housewives formerly made heavy1 rich preserves of available fruits because it was thought that sugar must be used in large quantities in order to keep or prevent them from spoiling4 ,while it is true that the sugar assisted1 science has since proved that sterilizing is what must be done1 so that now only the sugar desired for sweetening need be used4 #dd4 ,the other method of keeping food1 namely1 ,,drying1 depends for its success on the fact that such micro-organisms as bacteria cannot grow unless they have a considerable quantity of moisture or water4 ,molds grow on cheese1 bread1 damp cloth or paper1 or articles that contain only a small amount of moisture1 but bacteria need from #bj to #cj per cent4 of water in food in order to grow and multiply4 ,this explains why in high altitudes and dry climates foods keep for a long time without artificial means of preservation4 ,it also explains why the old-fashioned housekeeper dried fruits and why the preservation of certain meats is accomplished by the combined methods of smoking and drying1 the creosote of the smoke given off from the wood used in this process acting as a preservative4 ,all the grains1 which are very dry1 keep for long periods of time1 even centuries1 if they are protected from the moisture of the air4 ,peas1 beans1 and lentils1 as well as dried biscuits and crackers1 are all examples of how well food will keep when little or no moisture is present4 ,,keeping ,,foods ,,with ,,ice #de4 ,although1 as has just been pointed out1 moisture is required for the growth of some micro-organisms1 both moisture and warmth are necessary for the growth of most of the organisms that cause molding1 putrefaction1 and fermentation4 ,it is definitely known1 also1 that in winter or in cold climates food can be kept for long periods of time without any apparent change2 in fact1 the lower the temperature the less likely are foods to spoil1 although freezing renders many of them unfit for use4 ,these facts are what led up to the scientific truth that keeping foods dry and at a low temperature is an effective and convenient method of preventing them from spoiling and to the invention of the refrigerator and other devices and methods for the cold storage of foods4 #df4 ,,the ,,refrigerator4--,for home use1 the refrigerator offers the most convenient means of keeping foods in good condition4 ,as is well known1 it is a device that1 by means of air cooled by the melting of ice or in some other manner1 keeps food at a temperature near the freezing point4 ,all refrigerators are constructed in a similar manner1 having two or more layers of wood between which is placed an insulating material1 such as cork1 asbestos1 or mineral wool4 ,the food compartments are lined with tile1 zinc1 or other rust-proof material1 and the ice compartment is usually lined with rust-proof metal1 so as to be water-tight and unbreakable4 ,any refrigerator may be made to serve the purpose of preserving food effectively if it is well constructed1 the ice chamber kept as full of ice as possible1 and the housewife knows how to arrange the foods in the food chambers to the best advantage4 ,the construction and use of refrigerators are based on the well-known scientific fact that air expands and rises when it becomes warm4 ,this can be proved by testing the air near the ceiling of a room1 for no matter how warm it is near the floor it will always be warmer above4 ,the same thing occurs in a refrigerator4 ,as air comes in contact with the ice1 it is cooled and falls1 and the warm air is forced up4 ,thus the air is kept in constant motion1 or circulation4 ,illustration3 ,fig #ab4 #dg4 ,many refrigerators are built with the ice compartment on one side1 as in the refrigerator illustrated in ,fig4 #ab4 ,in such refrigerators1 there is usually a small food compartment directly under the ice chamber1 and this is the coldest place in the refrigerator4 ,here should be stored the foods that need special care or that absorb odors and flavors readily1 such as milk1 butter1 cream1 meat1 etc41 because at this place the air1 which circulates in the manner indicated by the arrow1 is the purest4 ,the foods that give off odors strong enough to taint others should be kept on the upper shelves of the refrigerator1 through which the current of air passes last before being freed from odors by passing over the ice4 #dh4 ,in ,fig4 #ac is shown a type of refrigerator in which the ice chamber1 or compartment1 extends across the entire top4 ,this type is so built as to produce on each side a current of air that passes down from the ice at the center and back up to the ice near the outside walls1 as shown by the arrows4 ,a different arrangement is required for the food in this kind of refrigerator1 those which give off odors and flavors being placed in the bottom compartment1 or farthest from the ice1 and those which take up odors and flavors1 on the top shelf1 or nearest the ice4 ,a careful study of both ,figs4 #ab and #ac is advised1 for they show the best arrangement of food in each type of refrigerator4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac #di4 ,,care ,,of ,,food ,,in ,,refrigerator4--,the proper placing of foods in a refrigerator is extremely important1 but certain precautions should be taken with regard to the food itself4 ,cooked foods should never be placed in the refrigerator without first allowing them to cool1 for the steam given off when a dish of hot food comes in contact with the cold air makes the refrigerator damp and causes an undue waste of ice by warming the air4 ,all dishes containing food should be wiped dry and carefully covered before they are placed in the refrigerator1 so as to keep unnecessary moisture out of it4 ,as butter and milk are likely to become contaminated with odors given off by other foods1 they should be properly protected if there is not a separate compartment in which to keep them4 ,the milk bottles should always be closed and the butter carefully wrapped or put in a covered receptacle4 ,onions1 cabbage1 and other foods with strong odors1 when placed in the refrigerator1 should be kept in tightly closed jars or dishes1 so that the odors will not escape4 ,before fresh fruits and perishable vegetables--that is1 vegetables that decay easily--are put into the refrigerator1 they should be carefully looked over and all decayed portions removed from them4 ,no food should be placed in the ice chamber1 because this will cause the ice to melt unnecessarily4 #ej4 ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,refrigerator4--,it is essential that all parts of the refrigerator be kept scrupulously clean and as dry as possible4 ,to accomplish this1 nothing should be allowed to spoil in it1 and anything spilled in the refrigerator should be cleaned out immediately4 ,the foods that are left over should be carefully inspected every day1 and anything not likely to be used within a day or so should be disposed of4 ,at least once a week the food should be removed from all compartments1 the racks taken out1 the drain pipe disconnected1 and each part thoroughly washed1 rinsed with boiling water1 and dried4 ,the inside of the refrigerator should likewise be washed1 rinsed1 and wiped dry1 after which the drain pipe should be connected1 the shelves put back in place1 and the food replaced4 ,the ice chamber of the refrigerator should also be cleaned frequently1 the best time to do this being when the ice has melted enough to be lifted out conveniently4 ,to prevent the ice from melting rapidly when it is out of the refrigerator1 it may be wrapped in paper or a piece of old blanket1 but this covering must be removed when the ice is replaced in the chamber1 in order to allow the ice to melt in the refrigerator4 ,otherwise1 it would be impossible to chill the refrigerator properly1 the temperature remaining the same as that outside1 for it is as the ice gradually melts that the air in the refrigerator becomes cool4 ,of course1 every effort should be made to keep the ice from wasting4 ,therefore1 while the refrigerator should be kept in a convenient place1 it should not be exposed to too great heat2 also1 the doors should be kept tightly closed1 and1 as has already been explained1 hot foods should not be put in until they are sufficiently cooled4 ,attention must be given to the care of the refrigerator1 for only when it is clean and dry can the growth of bacteria that attack foods be prevented4 ,,keeping ,,foods ,,without ,,ice #ea4 ,while a refrigerator simplifies the preserving of cooked foods and those subject to quick decay1 there are many communities in which it is not possible to procure ice conveniently1 thus making it necessary to adopt some other means of keeping food4 ,then1 too1 there are generally quantities of foods1 such as winter vegetables1 apples1 etc41 that cannot be stored in a refrigerator1 but must be taken care of properly4 ,in such cases1 the method of storing depends to a certain extent on conditions4 ,on many farms there are spring houses in which foods may be stored in order to keep them cool during very warm weather2 but in the majority of homes1 the cellar1 on account of its being cool1 is utilized for the storage of large quantities of food and even for keeping the more perishable foods when ice cannot be obtained4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad #eb4 ,,storing ,,foods ,,in ,,cellars4--,in order that a cellar may furnish a safe place for keeping food1 it must be well built and properly cared for4 ,if it is dug in wet ground and is not well drained1 it will become musty and damp1 and fruits and vegetables stored in it will be attacked by mold4 ,a small part of the cellar should be without a floor1 as many winter vegetables seem to keep better when placed on dry ground1 but the remainder should have a flooring of either well-matched boards or cement that can be kept clean and dry4 ,ventilation must also be supplied2 otherwise1 odors will be retained that will taint the food kept in the cellar4 ,to allow the passage of air and light from the outside and thus secure proper ventilation1 the cellar should be provided with windows4 ,these will also assist very much in the cleaning and airing of the cellar1 processes that should never be overlooked if good results are desired4 ,in addition to the cleaning of the cellar1 constant attention should be given to the foods kept there4 ,foods that have spoiled or are beginning to spoil should be disposed of quickly1 for decayed food that is not removed from the cellar will affect the conditions for keeping other foods and may be injurious to the health of the family4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae #ec4 ,all foods likely to be contaminated by dust and flies in the cellar must be carefully covered4 ,a screened frame fastened to the wall with brackets1 like the one shown in ,fig4 #ad1 is excellent for this purpose1 because it prevents the attack of vermin and permits of ventilation4 ,if canned goods are to be stored1 a cellar cupboard like that shown in ,fig4 #ae is a very good place in which to keep them4 ,separate bins should1 if possible1 be provided for fruits1 potatoes1 and other winter vegetables1 and1 as shown in ,fig4 #af1 such bins should be so built as to allow air to pass through them4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af #ed4 ,,window ,,boxes4--,the woman who lives in an apartment where there is no cellar and who does not wish to keep ice in the refrigerator through the winter will find a window box a very good device in which to keep food4 ,such a box is also a convenience for the woman who has a cellar1 but wishes to save steps4 ,a box of this kind is built to fit a kitchen or a pantry window1 and is placed outside of the window1 so that the opening comes toward the room4 ,such an arrangement1 which is illustrated in ,fig4 #ag1 will make the contents of the box easily accessible when the window is raised4 ,a box for this purpose may be made of wood or galvanized iron1 and it is usually supported by suitable brackets4 ,its capacity may be increased by building a shelf in it half way to the top1 and provided it is made of wood1 it can be more easily cleaned if it is lined with table oilcloth4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag ,,storing ,,of ,,non-,,perishable ,,foods #ee4 ,it may seem unnecessary to give much attention to the storing of foods that do not spoil easily1 but there are good reasons why such foods require careful storage4 ,they should be properly cared for to prevent the loss of flavor by exposure to the air1 to prevent the absorption of moisture1 which produces a favorable opportunity for the growth of molds1 and to prevent the attacks of insects and vermin4 ,the best way in which to care for such foods is to store them in tightly closed vessels4 ,earthenware and glass jars1 lard pails1 coffee and cocoa cans1 all carefully cleaned and having lids to fit1 prove to be very satisfactory receptacles for such purposes4 #ef4 ,unless coffee1 tea1 cocoa1 spices1 and prepared cereals are bought in cans or moisture-proof containers1 they should be emptied from the original packages and placed in jars that can be tightly closed1 so that they will not deteriorate by being exposed to the air or moisture4 ,for convenience and economy1 these jars or cans should be labeled4 ,sugar and salt absorb moisture and form lumps when exposed to the air1 and they1 too1 should be properly kept4 ,a tin receptacle is the best kind for sugar1 but for salt an earthenware or glass vessel should be used4 ,it is not advisable to put these foods or any others into cupboards in paper bags1 because foods kept in this way make disorderly looking shelves and are easily accessible to vermin1 which are always attracted to food whenever it is not well protected4 ,canned goods bought in tin cans do not need very careful storage4 ,it is sufficient to keep them in a place dry enough to prevent the cans from rusting4 ,foods canned in glass1 however1 should be kept where they are not exposed to the light1 as they will become more or less discolored unless they are stored in dark places4 ,flour1 meals1 and cereals stored in quantities develop mold unless they are kept very dry4 ,for the storing of these foods1 therefore1 wooden bins or metal-lined boxes kept in a dry place are the most satisfactory4 ,,storing ,,of ,,semiperishable ,,foods #eg4 ,practically all vegetables and fruits with skins may be regarded as semiperishable foods1 and while they do not spoil so easily as some foods1 they require a certain amount of care4 ,potatoes are easily kept from spoiling if they are placed in a cool1 dry1 dark place1 such as a cellar1 a bin like that shown in ,fig4 #af furnishing a very good means for such storage4 ,it is1 of course1 economical to buy potatoes in large quantities1 but if they must be kept under conditions that will permit them to sprout1 shrivel1 rot1 or freeze1 it is better to buy only a small quantity at a time4 ,sweet potatoes may be bought in considerable quantity and kept for some time if they are wrapped separately in pieces of paper and packed so that they do not touch one another4 ,carrots1 turnips1 beets1 and parsnips can be kept through the winter in very much the same manner as potatoes4 ,they deteriorate less1 however1 if they are covered with earth or sand4 ,sometimes1 especially in country districts1 such winter vegetables are buried in the ground out of doors1 being placed at a depth that renders them safe from the attacks of frost4 ,cabbage will keep very well if placed in barrels or boxes1 but for long keeping1 the roots should not be removed4 ,pumpkin and squash thoroughly matured do not spoil readily if they are stored in a dry place4 ,apples and pears may be stored in boxes or barrels1 but very fine varieties of these fruits should be wrapped separately in paper4 ,all fruit should be looked over occasionally1 and those which show signs of spoiling should be removed4 ,,menus ,,and ,,recipes #eh4 ,as practically every woman knows1 a ,,menu1 or bill of fare1 consists of a certain number of dishes given in the order in which they are to be served2 likewise1 she knows that the dishes called for in a menu must be prepared according to a ,,recipe1 or receipt1 which is the list of ingredients of a mixture giving the exact proportions to be used1 together with proper directions for compounding4 ,in all good recipes the items are tabulated in the order in which they are needed1 so as to save time and produce good results4 ,items tabulated in this manner also serve to minimize the danger of omitting some of the ingredients of a recipe1 for they can be easily checked up when they are given in the proper order4 #ei4 ,in preparing recipes1 the beginner in cookery usually has difficulty in judging the size of a recipe4 ,the experienced housewife will not follow a recipe exactly when she thinks it will produce more food than she needs to meet the requirements of her family2 instead1 she will reduce the quantities to suit her wants4 ,likewise1 if a recipe will not provide enough1 she will increase the quantities accordingly4 ,just how to judge whether or not a recipe will make what is wanted comes only with experience1 but the beginner may be guided by the fact that it is never wise to prepare more than enough of one kind of dish1 unless1 of course1 it can be used to good advantage as a left-over4 ,on the other hand1 if a recipe is for food that can be kept and used for another meal later1 it often pays to make up more1 so as to save time1 fuel1 and labor4 ,in any event1 it is always advisable to follow explicitly the directions that are given1 for if the recipe is of the right kind they will be given so that success will result from carrying them out in detail4 #fj4 ,in order that the beginner in cookery may form a definite idea of the manner in which the dishes of a menu1 or bill of fare1 may be prepared so that they will be ready to serve in their proper order at meal time1 there is here given a simple dinner menu1 together with the recipes for preparing the dishes called for and the order in which they should be prepared4 ,while these recipes are not intended to teach methods of cookery1 which are taken up later1 the student is advised to prepare the menu for her own satisfaction and so that she will be able to report on the success she has had with each dish4 ,,menu ,pan-,broiled ,chops ,mashed ,potatoes ,creamed ,peas ,cabbage ,salad ,orange ,fluff with ,sauce 99 99 99 99 99 ,,recipes ,,pan-,,broiled ,,chops ,buy the necessary number of pork1 veal1 or lamb chops1 and proceed to cook them according to the directions previously given for pan broiling4 ,season with salt and pepper just before removing the chops from the pan4 ,,mashed ,,potatoes ,peel the desired number of potatoes1 put to cook in a sufficient amount of boiling salted water to cover well1 and cook until the potatoes are tender enough to be easily pierced with a fork4 ,remove from the fire and drain off the water4 ,mash the potatoes with a wooden or a wire potato masher1 being careful to reduce all the particles to a pulpy mass in order to prevent lumps1 or put them through a ricer4 ,when sufficiently mashed1 season with additional salt1 a dash of pepper1 and a small piece of butter1 and add hot milk until they are thinned to a mushy consistency1 but not too soft to stand up well when dropped from a spoon4 ,then beat the potatoes vigorously with a large spoon until they are light and fluffy4 ,,creamed ,,peas ,boil until they are soft1 two cupfuls of fresh peas in #a quart of water to which have been added #a tablespoonful of salt and #b of sugar1 and then drain2 or1 use #a can of peas1 heat them to the boiling point in their liquid1 and then drain4 ,a part of the water in which the fresh peas were cooked or the liquid on the canned peas may be used with an equal amount of milk to make a sauce for the peas1 or all milk may be used4 ,,sauce ,,for ,,peas #a c4 of milk1 or #a_/b c4 liquid from peas and #a_/b c4 milk #a ,tb4 butter #a_/b tsp4 salt #a ,tb4 flour ,melt the butter in a saucepan or a double boiler1 work in the flour and salt until a smooth paste is formed1 and add the liquid that has been heated4 ,stir until thick and smooth4 ,add to the peas1 reheat1 and serve4 ,,cabbage ,,salad #a_/b medium-sized head of cabbage #a_/b tsp4 salt #a small red or green sweet pepper ,dash of pepper #a small onion ,salad dressing ,shred the cabbage finely by cutting across the leaves with a sharp knife or a cabbage shredder4 ,chop the pepper and onion into very small pieces and add to the cabbage4 ,mix well and add the salt and pepper4 ,,cabbage-,,salad ,,dressing #c_/d c4 vinegar #a_/b tsp4 mustard1 if desired #a_/d c4 water #a_/b tsp4 salt #b ,tb4 butter #c ,tb4 sugar #a ,tb4 flour ,heat the water and the vinegar2 melt the butter in a saucepan1 add to it the flour1 mustard1 salt1 and sugar1 stir until well blended1 and then pour in the hot liquid4 ,cook for a few minutes1 stirring constantly to prevent the formation of lumps4 ,pour over the cabbage while hot2 allow it to cool and then serve on plates garnished with lettuce4 ,,orange ,,fluff #a_/b c4 sugar #a_/d c4 orange juice #e ,tb4 corn starch #a ,tb4 lemon juice ,pinch of salt #b egg whites #a pt4 boiling water ,mix the corn starch and sugar and salt1 stir into the boiling water1 and cook directly over the fire until the mixture thickens4 ,continue to cook1 stirring constantly for #aj minutes1 or place in a double boiler and cook #a_/b hour4 ,beat the egg whites until they are stiff4 ,when the corn starch is cooked1 remove from the fire and mix thoroughly with the fruit juices4 ,pour over the beaten egg whites and stir slightly until the eggs and corn starch are mixed4 ,pour into sherbet glasses or molds wet with cold water and set aside until ready to serve4 ,,sauce ,,for ,,orange ,,fluff #a ,tb4 corn starch #c_/d c4 boiling water #b ,tb4 butter #c_/d c4 sugar #b egg yolks #a_/d c4 orange juice #a ,tb4 lemon juice ,moisten the corn starch with a little cold water and stir in #a_/b cupful of the boiling water4 ,cook for #aj or #ae minutes4 ,cream the butter1 add the sugar and egg yolks1 beat the mixture with a fork1 and add the remaining #a_/d cupful of boiling water4 ,stir this into the corn starch and cook until the eggs thicken slightly4 ,remove from the fire and add the orange and lemon juices4 ,serve cold over the orange fluff4 #fa4 ,in the preparation of a meal1 it is impossible to follow the order of service given in a menu1 because of the different lengths of time required to prepare the different dishes4 ,the order in which the menu here given should be prepared will therefore serve to show the way in which other meals may be planned or other menus carried out4 ,each recipe for this menu is planned to serve six persons1 but it can be easily changed in case a different number are to be served4 ,for instance1 if there are only four in the family1 two-thirds of each ingredient should be used2 and if only three1 just one-half of each4 ,if eight are to be served1 one-third will have to be added to each of the amounts4 ,as has been pointed out1 just a little thought will show how other numbers may be provided for4 #fb4 ,in preparing the foods called for in this menu1 the dessert1 which is the last thing given1 should be prepared first1 because time must be allowed for it to cool before serving4 ,in fact1 it may be prepared a half day before it is to be served4 ,so as to allow sufficient time to mash the potatoes after they have boiled1 they should be made ready to put on the stove about #c_/d hour before the meal is to be served4 ,after the potatoes have been put on to boil1 the peas1 provided fresh ones are to be used1 should be put on to cook1 and then the sauce for them should be made4 ,if canned peas are to be used1 the sauce should be made after the potatoes have been put on the stove and the peas should be heated and combined with the sauce just before broiling the chops4 ,the cabbage salad may then be prepared1 and put in a cool place until it is to be served4 ,the chops should be broiled last1 because it is necessary that they be served immediately upon being taken from the fire4 ,,terms ,,used ,,in ,,cookery #fc4 ,it is important that every person who is engaged in the preparation of food be thoroughly familiar with the various terms that are used in cookery4 ,many of these are not understood by the average person1 because they are foreign terms or words that are seldom employed in other occupations4 ,however1 as they occur frequently in recipes1 cook books1 menus1 etc41 familiarity with them will enable one to follow recipes and to make up menus in a more intelligent manner4 ,in view of these facts1 a table of terms that are made use of in cookery is here given1 together with definitions of the words and1 wherever it has been deemed necessary1 with as accurate pronunciations as can be obtained4 ,the terms are given in bold-faced type1 and for easy reference are arranged alphabetically4 ,it is recommended that constant use be made of this table1 for much of the success achieved in cookery depends on a clear understanding of the words and expressions that are peculiar to this science4 la2 au2 aux 7ah lah2 o2 o74--,with2 dressed in a certain style2 as1 smelts la tartare1 which means smelts with tartare sauce4 ,au gratin 7o gra-tang74--,literally1 dressed with brown crumbs4 ,in actual practice1 also flavored with grated cheese4 ,au naturel 7o nat--rayl74--,a term applied to uncooked vegetables1 to indicate that they are served in their natural state without sauce or dressing applied4 ,potatoes au naturel are served cooked2 but unpeeled4 ,bchamel 7bay-sham-ayl74--,a sauce made with white stock and cream or milk-named from a celebrated cook4 ,biscuit ,glac 7bis-k-ee glah-say74--,ice cream served in glacd shells1 sometimes in paper cases4 ,bisque4--,a thick soup usually made from shellfish or game2 also1 an ice cream to which finely chopped macaroons have been added4 ,bouches 7boosh-ay74--,small patties2 literally1 a mouthful4 ,boudin 7boo-dang74--,a delicate side dish prepared with forcemeat4 ,bouquet of ,herbs4--,a bouquet consisting of a sprig of parsley1 thyme1 and sweet marjoram1 a bay leaf1 and perhaps a stalk of celery1 tied firmly together and used as flavoring in a soup or stew4 ,arranged in this way1 the herbs are more easily removed when cooked4 ,caf au ,lait 7ka-fay o lay74--,coffee with milk4 ,caf ,noir 7ka-fay nooar74--,black coffee4 ,canaps 7kan-ap-ay74--,small slices of bread toasted or sautd in butter and spread with a savory paste of meats1 fish1 or vegetables4 ,they are served either hot or cold as an appetizer or as a first course for lunch or dinner4 ,canard 7kan-ar74--,duck4 ,capers4--,small pickled buds of a ,european shrub1 used in sauces and in seasoning4 ,capon4--,a male fowl castrated for the purpose of improving the quality of the flesh4 ,caramel4--,a sirup of browned sugar4 ,casserole4--,a covered earthenware dish in which foods are cooked4 ,champignons 7shang-pe-nyong74--,the ,french name for mushrooms4 ,chartreuse 7shar-truhz74--,a preparation of game1 meat1 fish1 etc41 molded in jelly and surrounded by vegetables4 ,the name was given to the dish by the monks of the monastery of ,chartreuse4 ,chiffonade 7shif-fong-ad74--,salad herbs finely shredded and then sautd or used in salads4 ,chillies4--,small red peppers used in seasoning4 ,chives4--,an herb allied to the onion family4 ,chutney4--,an ,east ,indian sweet pickle4 ,citron4--,the rind of a fruit of the lemon species preserved in sugar4 ,collops4--,meat cut in small pieces4 ,compote4--,fruit stewed in sirup4 ,coquilles 7ko-ke-yuh74--,scallop shells in which fish or oysters are sometimes served4 ,crole1 la 7kray-ol1 ah lah74--,with tomatoes4 ,croustade 7kroos-tad74--,a thick piece of bread that has been hollowed out and then toasted or fried crisp4 ,the depression is filled with food4 ,croutons 7kroo-tong74--,bread diced and fried or toasted to serve with or in soup4 ,curry4--,an ,east ,indian preparation made of hot seeds1 spices1 and dried herbs4 ,demi-,tasse 7duh-mee tass74--,literally1 a half cup4 ,as commonly used1 it refers to a small cup in which after-dinner coffee is served4 ,deviled4--,highly seasoned4 ,dill4--,a plant used for flavoring pickles4 ,en coquille 7ang ko-ke-yuh74--,served in shells4 ,entres 7ang-tray74--,small made dishes served with lunch or dinner4 ,they are sometimes served as a course between the main courses of a meal4 ,escarole 7ays-kar-ol74--,a broad-leaved kind of endive4 ,farce or ,forcemeat4--,a mixture of meat1 bread1 etc41 used as stuffing4 ,fillets 7fe-lay74--,long1 thin pieces of meat or fish generally rolled and tied4 ,fillet ,mignons 7fe-lay me-nyong74--,small slices from fillet of beef1 served with steak4 ,fondant4--,sugar boiled with water and stirred to a heavy paste4 ,it is used for the icing of cake or the making of ,french candies4 ,fondue4--,a dish made usually with melted or grated cheese4 ,there are several varieties of this preparation4 ,frapp 7frap-pay74--,semifrozen4 ,fromage 7fro-magh74--,cheese4 ,glac 7glah-say74-,covered with icing2 literally1 a shining surface4 ,glaze4--,the juices of meat cooked down to a concentration and used as a foundation for soups and gravies4 ,goulash 7gool-ash74--,a ,hungarian beef stew1 highly seasoned4 ,gumbo4--,a dish of food made of young capsules of okra1 seasoned with salt and pepper1 stewed and then served with melted butter4 ,haricot 7har-e-ko74--,a small bean2 a bit2 also1 a stew in which the meat and vegetables are finely divided4 ,homard 7ho-mar74--,lobster4 ,hors d'oeuvres 7or-d'uhvr'74--,relishes4 ,italiene1 la 7e-tal-yang1 ah lah74--,in ,italian style4 ,jardinire 7zhar-de-nyayr74--,a mixed preparation of vegetables stewed in their own sauce2 also1 a garnish of various vegetables4 ,julienne 7zh-lyayn74--,a clear soup with shredded vegetables4 ,junket4--,milk jellied by means of rennet4 ,kippered4--,dried or smoked4 ,larding4--,the insertion of strips of fat pork into lean meat4 ,the fat is inserted before cooking4 ,lardon4--,a piece of salt pork or bacon used in larding4 ,legumes4--,the vegetables belonging to the bean family2 namely1 beans1 peas1 and lentils4 ,lentils4--,a variety of the class of vegetables called legumes4 ,macdoine 7mah-say-dooan74--,a mixture of green vegetables4 ,marinade 7mar-e-nad74--,a pickle used for seasoning meat or fish before cooking4 ,marinate4--,to pickle in vinegar or ,french dressing1 as meat or fish is seasoned4 ,marrons 7ma-rong74--,chestnuts4 ,menu4--,a bill of fare4 ,meringue 7muh-rang74--,a kind of icing made of white of egg and sugar well beaten4 ,mousse 7moos74--,ice cream made with whipped cream and beaten egg and frozen without turning4 ,nougat 7noo-gah74--,a mixture of almonds and sugar4 ,paprika4--,hungarian sweet pepper ground fine and used as a seasoning4 ,it is less stinging than red or ,cayenne pepper4 ,pt 7pa-tay74--,a little pie2 a pastry or patty4 ,pimiento4--,sweet red peppers used as a vegetable1 a salad1 or a relish4 ,pistachio 7pis-ta-shioh74--,a pale greenish nut resembling an almond4 ,potage 7pot-azh74--,soup4 ,pure 7p-ray74-,a thick soup containing cooked vegetables that have been rubbed through a sieve4 ,ragot 7ra-goo74--,a stew made of meat or meat and vegetables and served with a sauce4 ,ramekin4--,a preparation of cheese and puff paste or toast1 which is baked or browned4 ,this word is sometimes used to designate the dish in which such a mixture is cooked4 ,rchauff 7ray-sho-fay74--,a warmed-over dish4 ,rissoles4--,small shapes of puff paste filled with some mixture and fried or baked4 ,it also refers to balls of minced meat1 egged1 crumbed1 and fried until crisp4 ,roux 7roo74--,thickening made with butter and flour4 ,salmi 7sal-mee74--,a stew or hash of game4 ,salpicon 7sal-pee-kong74--,minced poultry1 ham1 or other meats mixed with a thick sauce4 ,sauce ,piquante 7sos-pe-kangt74--,an acid sauce4 ,shallot4--,a variety of onion4 ,sorbet 7sor-bay74--,a sherbet1 frozen punch1 or water ice2 the same as sherbet4 ,souffl 7soo-flay74--,literally1 puffed up4 ,as generally understood1 it is a spongy mixture made light with eggs and baked1 the foundation of which may be meat1 fish1 cheese1 vegetables1 or fruit4 ,soy4--,a ,japanese sauce prepared from the seed of the soy bean4 ,it has an agreeable flavor and a clear brown color and is used to color soups and sauces4 ,stock4--,the foundation for soup made by cooking meat1 bones1 and vegetables4 ,sultanas4--,white or yellow seedless grapes1 grown in ,corinth4 ,tarragon 7tar-ra-gonk74--,an herb used in seasoning certain dressing and sauces2 it is also employed in flavoring tarragon vinegar4 ,tartare ,sauce 7tar-tar sos74--,a mayonnaise dressing to which have been added chopped pickle1 capers1 and parsley in order to make a tart sauce for fish4 ,timbale4--,a pie raised in a mold2 also1 a shell filled with forcemeat or ragot4 ,truffles4--,a species of fungi growing in clusters some inches below the soil1 and having an agreeable perfume1 which is easily scented by pigs1 who are fond of them1 and by dogs trained to find them4 ,they are found abundantly in ,france1 but are not subject to cultivation4 ,they are used chiefly for seasoning and garnishing4 ,vanilla4--,the bean of the tropical orchid or the extract obtained from this fruit4 ,used in flavoring desserts1 etc4 ,vinaigrette ,sauce 7ve-nay-grayt sos74--,a sauce made with oil and vinegar1 to which are added finely minced chives1 peppers1 or other highly flavored green vegetables and spices4 ,vol au ,vent 7vol o vang74--,a crust of light puff paste4 ,also1 a large pt or form of pastry filled with a savory preparation of oysters1 fish1 or meat and a cream sauce4 ,zwieback 7tsouee-bak74--,bread toasted twice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,essentials ,,of ,,cookery 7,,part #b7 ,,examination ,,questions 7#a7 ,what points must be kept in mind in the selection of cooking utensils8 7#b7 ,mention three materials used for cooking utensils and explain their advantages4 7#c7 7a7 ,what is a labor-saving device8 7b7 ,describe one of the labor-saving devices mentioned in the text and tell why it saves labor4 7#d7 ,what kind of utensil should be used for3 7a7 the rapid boiling of spaghetti2 7b7 the slow cooking of cereals8 7#e7 ,tell how the following are prepared for cooking3 7a7 vegetables2 7b7 meats2 7c7 fish4 7#f7 ,describe3 7a7 sifting2 7b7 stirring2 7c7 beating2 7d7 creaming2 7e7 folding4 7#g7 ,why is it necessary to measure foods accurately in cooking8 7#h7 ,describe the measuring of3 7a7 cupful of flour2 7b7 one-half teaspoonful of butter2 7c7 #a teaspoonful of baking powder4 7#i7 7a7 ,why should a systematic plan be outlined before beginning to carry out a recipe8 7b7 ,give briefly the order of work that should be followed4 7#aj7 ,what factors influence the length of time required to cook foods8 7#aa7 ,tell why foods spoil4 7#ab7 7a7 ,mention the usual methods by which food is kept from spoiling4 7b7 ,what is meant by the term preservative8 7#ac7 7a7 ,what is the aim in canning foods8 7b7 ,on what principle does success in drying foods depend8 7#ad7 ,explain the construction of a refrigerator and the principle on which it is based4 7#ae7 ,describe the placing of the following articles in the refrigerator and tell which should be covered and why3 7a7 milk2 7b7 butter2 7c7 cooked fish2 7d7 cooked tomatoes2 7e7 melons2 7f7 cheese4 7#af7 ,explain how a refrigerator should be cared for4 7#ag7 ,name the ways in which foods may be kept from spoiling without ice4 7#ah7 ,how should a cellar in which foods is to be stored be built and cared for8 7#ai7 7a7 ,why is it necessary to store non-perishable foods8 7b7 ,tell the best ways in which to preserve such foods4 7#bj7 7a7 ,what is a menu8 7b7 ,explain the meaning of the term recipe4 7c7 ,in what order should the recipes of a menu be prepared8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,report ,,on ,,menu ,after trying out the menu in the manner explained in the text1 send with your answers to the ,examination ,questions a report of your success4 ,in making out your report1 simply write the name of the food and describe its condition by means of the terms specified in the following list4 ,thus1 if the chops were tender and well done1 write1 ,pan-broiled chops1 tender1 well done2 if the potatoes were sufficiently cooked and creamy1 write ,mashed potatoes1 sufficiently cooked1 creamy2 and so on4 ,pan-,broiled ,chops3 tough8 tender8 underdone8 overdone8 ,mashed ,potatoes3 sufficiently cooked8 creamy8 lumpy8 too soft8 ,creamed ,peas3 tender8 tough8 properly seasoned8 improperly seasoned8 ,sauce for ,peas3 smooth8 lumpy8 thin8 of correct thickness8 too thick8 ,cabbage ,salad3 properly seasoned8 improperly seasoned8 crisp8 ,orange ,fluff3 stiff enough8 too soft8 flavor agreeable8 flavor disagreeable8 ,sauce for ,orange ,fluff3 smooth8 lumpy8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,cereals 99 99 99 99 99 ,,production1 ,,composition1 ,,and ,,selection ,,production ,,of ,,cereals #a4 ,,origin ,,of ,,cereals4--,cereals1 which is the term applied to the edible seeds of certain grains1 originated with the civilization of man4 ,when man lived in a savage state1 he wandered about from place to place and depended for his food on hunting and fishing2 but as he ceased his roaming and began to settle in regions that he found attractive1 it was not long before he became aware of the possibilities of the ground about him and realized the advantage of tilling the soil as a means of procuring food4 ,indeed1 the cultivation of the soil for the production of food may be considered as one of the first steps in his civilization4 ,among the foods he cultivated were grains1 and from the earliest times to the present day they have been the main crop and have formed the chief food of people wherever it is possible to produce them4 ,the grains belong to the family of grasses1 and through cultivation their seeds1 which store the nourishment for the growth of new plants1 have been made to store a sufficient amount of nourishment to permit man to collect and use it as food4 ,the name cereals was derived from the goddess ,ceres1 whom the ,romans believed to be the protector of their crops and harvests4 ,numerous grains are produced1 but only eight of these cereals are used extensively as food1 namely1 wheat1 corn1 oats1 rice1 barley1 rye1 buckwheat1 and millet4 #b4 ,,abundance ,,of ,,production4--,with the exception of the desert lands and the ,arctic regions1 cereals of some kind are grown over the entire world4 ,some varieties thrive in the hot countries1 others flourish in the temperate regions1 and still others mature and ripen in the short warm season of the colder northern climates4 ,in fact1 there is practically no kind of soil that will not produce a crop of some variety of grain4 ,since grains are so easily grown and are so plentiful1 cereals and foods made from them furnish a large part of the world's food supply4 ,indeed1 about one-fourth of all the food eaten by the inhabitants of the world1 when it is considered as a whole1 is made up of cereals4 #c4 ,,economic ,,value ,,of ,,cereals4--,the abundance of the world's grain supply makes the cost so moderate that many of the poorer classes of people in various countries1 especially those in the ,far ,east1 live almost entirely on cereals4 ,still there is another factor that controls the low cost of cereals and grains and keeps them within the means of all classes of people1 and that is their excellent keeping quality4 ,they require very little care and will keep for an indefinite period of time4 ,because of their unperishable nature1 they may be stored in large quantities and distributed to consumers as they are needed and at a price that is fairly uniform4 ,since the cost of cereals is moderate1 they should form a large proportion of the diet of the entire family1 especially if the family's income will allow only a limited sum to be spent for food4 ,some cereals1 of course1 are much cheaper than others1 and in purchasing this kind of food the housewife should be governed accordingly4 ,those which require an elaborate manufacturing process in their preparation for the market are the most expensive1 but they have an advantage in that they require practically no preparation before serving4 ,for the varieties that must be cooked1 the cost of preparing the dish1 especially if the price of fuel is high1 must be taken into consideration1 for unless some thought is given to the economical use of the fuel1 as well as to the method of cooking employed1 the cost of the prepared dish may be greatly increased4 ,however1 in the preparation of cereals1 very little skill or energy is required and a general knowledge of the best methods for one of them can1 as a rule1 be applied to all4 #d4 ,,cereal ,,products4--,besides the cereals already mentioned1 a number of products of cereals are extensively used in cookery1 chief among them being flour1 corn starch1 and other starches4 ,although every housewife should possess knowledge of the uses of each of these1 instruction in them is not given until later4 ,this ,section includes particularly the study of grains--whole1 cracked1 flaked1 and those made into grits or meal--and the use and the serving of them1 as well as ready-to-eat cereals1 which are commonly referred to as breakfast foods4 ,the only additional foods to which attention is given at this time are macaroni1 spaghetti1 and foods of a similar nature1 for as these are made from wheat they are truly cereal products4 ,in their preparation for the table1 the rules that govern the other cereal foods apply also in a large measure to them4 ,,composition ,,of ,,cereals #e4 ,the composition of all cereals is similar1 yet each one has its distinguishing feature4 ,while all the five food substances--water1 mineral matter1 protein1 fat1 and carbohydrate--are to be found in cereals1 they occur in different quantities in the various kinds4 ,some contain large quantities of protein and others practically none1 and while certain ones have considerable fat others possess comparatively small quantities4 ,a characteristic of all cereals1 however1 is that they contain a large amount of carbohydrate and a small amount of water4 ,it is well to remember1 though1 that while the food substances of cereals are found in sufficient quantities to sustain life1 they will not permit a person to live for long periods of time exclusively on this form of food4 ,likewise1 it will be well to observe that the foods made from a certain grain will be quite similar in composition to the grain itself2 that is1 any change in the composition of the foods must be brought about by the addition of other substances4 #f4 ,all grains are similar in general structure1 too4 ,the largest proportion of carbohydrate lies in the center1 this substance growing less toward the outside of the grain4 ,the protein lies near the outside1 and grows less toward the center4 ,fat is found in small amounts scattered through the entire grain1 but most of it is found in the germ1 which is a tiny portion of the grain from which the new plant sprouts4 ,the mineral matter of cereals is found chiefly just inside the bran1 or outer covering1 so that when this covering is removed1 as in the process of preparation for food1 a certain amount of mineral matter is generally lost4 #g4 ,,protein ,,in ,,cereals4--,the cereals are essentially a carbohydrate food1 but some also yield a large proportion of protein4 ,in this respect they differ from the animal foods that produce the principal supply of protein for the diet1 for these1 with the exception of milk1 do not yield carbohydrates4 ,the grain that contains the most protein is wheat1 and in the form in which protein occurs in this cereal it is called gluten1 a substance that is responsible for the hardness of wheat4 ,the gluten1 when the wheat is mixed with water or some other liquid1 becomes gummy and elastic1 a fact that accounts for the rubbery consistency of bread dough4 ,cereals that contain no gluten do not make bread successfully4 ,next to wheat1 rye contains protein in the greatest amount1 and rice contains the least4 ,although protein is the most expensive of the food substances1 the kind of protein found in cereals is one of the cheaper varieties4 #h4 ,,fat ,,in ,,cereals4--,the fat of cereals helps to contribute to their heat-and energy-producing qualities1 and1 besides1 it is one of the cheaper sources of this food substance4 ,of the eight grains1 or cereals1 used as food1 oats and corn contain the most fat1 or heat-producing material4 ,the oil of corn1 because of its lack of flavor1 is frequently used in the manufacture of salad oil1 cooking oil1 and pastry fat4 ,the fat that occurs in cereals becomes rancid if they are not carefully stored4 ,in the making of white flour1 the germ of the wheat is removed1 and since most of the fat is taken out with the germ1 white flour keeps much better than graham flour1 from which the germ is not abstracted in the milling process4 #i4 ,,carbohydrate ,,in ,,cereals4--,the food substance found in the greatest proportion in cereals is carbohydrate in the form of starch4 ,cereals contain many times more starch than any of the other food substances1 rice1 which is fully three-fourths starch1 containing the most1 and oats1 which are less than one-half starch1 the least4 ,starch is distributed throughout the grain in tiny granules visible only under the microscope1 each being surrounded by a covering of material that is almost indigestible4 ,in the various grains1 these tiny granules differ from one another in appearance1 but not to any great extent in general structure1 nutritive value1 or digestibility1 provided they are cooked thoroughly4 ,the large amount of carbohydrate1 or starch1 in cereals explains why they are not hard to digest1 for1 as is well known1 starch is more easily digested than either protein or fat4 ,this and the fact that some grains contain also a large amount of fat account for the high energy-producing quality of cereals4 ,while it is safe to say that cereals are chiefly valuable for their starch1 the tissue-building material in some grains1 although in small proportion1 is in sufficient quantity to place them with the protein foods4 #aj4 ,,mineral ,,matter ,,in ,,cereals4--,cereals contain seven or eight of the minerals required in the diet4 ,such a variety of minerals is sure to be valuable to the human body1 as it is about one-half of the whole number required by the body for its maintenance4 ,since1 as has already been explained1 much of the mineral matter lies directly under the coarse outside covering1 some of it is lost when this covering is removed4 ,for this reason1 the grains that remain whole and the cereal products that contain the entire grain are much more valuable from the standpoint of minerals than those in which the bran covering is not retained4 ,if a sufficient percentage of minerals is secured in the diet from vegetables1 fruits1 and milk1 it is perhaps unnecessary to include whole cereals2 but if the diet is at all limited1 it is advisable to select those cereals which retain the original composition of the grain4 #aa4 ,,water ,,in ,,cereals4--,cereals contain very little water in their composition4 ,this absence of water is a distinct advantage1 for it makes their nutritive value proportionately high and improves their keeping quality4 ,just as the strength of a beverage is lowered by the addition of water1 so the nutritive value of foods decreases when they contain a large amount of water4 ,on the other hand1 the keeping quality of cereals could scarcely be improved1 since the germs that cause foods to spoil grow only in the presence of water4 ,this low proportion of water also permits them to be stored compactly1 whereas if water occurred in large amounts it would add materially to their bulk4 #ab4 ,,cellulose ,,in ,,cereals4--,in addition to the five food substances that are found in all cereals1 there is always present another material known as cellulose1 which1 as is pointed out elsewhere1 is an indigestible material that occurs on the outside of all grains1 as the bran covering1 and covers the starch granules throughout the inside of the grain4 ,in fact1 it forms a sort of skeleton upon which the grains are built4 ,as long as the cellulose remains unbroken1 it prevents the grain from being digested to any extent4 ,however1 it forms a valuable protective covering for the grain and it has a certain value1 as bulk1 in the diet1 a fact that is ignored by some persons and overrated by others4 ,it is well to include at least some cellulose in cereal foods when they are taken in the diet1 because its presence tends to make food less concentrated4 #ac4 ,,table ,,showing ,,composition ,,of ,,cereals4--,not all grains1 or cereals1 contain the same amount of food substances and cellulose2 that is1 while one may be high in protein it may be lacking in some other food substance4 ,the relation that the various grains bear to one another with regard to the food substances and cellulose is clearly set forth in ,table ,i4 ,in this table1 under the various food substances and cellulose1 the grains1 with the exception of millet1 are mentioned in the order of their value1 ranging from the highest down to the lowest in each of the food substances and cellulose4 ,thus1 as will be seen1 wheat is highest in protein and rice is lowest1 oats are highest in fat and rye is lowest1 and so on4 ,also1 as will be observed1 while wheat is highest in protein1 it is1 as compared with the other cereals1 sixth in fat1 fourth in carbohydrate1 fourth in cellulose1 and fifth in mineral matter4 ,in this way may be compared all the other cereals to see in just what way they are of value as a food4 ,,table ,i ,,composition ,,of ,,cereals ,protein ,fat ,carbohydrate ,cellulose ,mineral ,matter or ,ash ,wheat ,oats ,rice ,oats ,oats ,rye ,corn ,rye ,buckwheat ,barley ,oats ,barley ,corn ,barley ,buckwheat ,barley ,buckwheat ,wheat ,wheat ,rye ,corn ,rice ,barley ,rye ,wheat ,buckwheat ,wheat ,buckwheat ,corn ,corn ,rice ,rye ,oats ,rice ,rice 99 99 99 99 99 ,,cereals ,,as ,a ,,food ,,uses ,,of ,,cereals #ad4 ,cereals and cereal products play a very important part in the food problem1 for the prosperity of a country depends on its grain crops and the people of all classes are dependent on them for food4 ,this is evident when it is known that they form a greater proportion of the food consumed than any other single food material4 ,in their widespread consumption1 they have many and varied uses4 ,in truth1 a meal is seldom served without some cereal food1 for if no other is used1 bread of some description is almost always included4 ,besides bread1 a cooked or a dry cereal is usually served for breakfast1 and for some persons this constitutes the main breakfast dish1 providing a nourishing and easily digested food when served with milk or cream4 ,this food is especially desirable for children1 and for this reason is always among the first solid foods fed to them4 #ae4 ,while to most persons the word cereal suggests the idea of a breakfast food1 because cereals are used most often for that purpose1 they find their place in other meals than breakfast4 ,although they are used less often on the dinner table than elsewhere1 they frequently have an important place there1 for a number of them are commonly used as dinner dishes and others might be used more frequently1 and to advantage1 too4 ,in this connection1 they are used in soups1 and in certain forms1 usually the whole or slightly crushed grain1 they take the place of a vegetable4 ,some of them1 particularly rice1 are often used with meat or cheese in making an entree or in combination with eggs1 milk1 fruit1 or various flavorings as a dessert to be served with a heavy or a light meal4 ,cold cooked cereal is often sliced and sautd and then served with meat or some other heavy protein dish4 ,cereals are also used for lunch or supper1 perhaps more often than for dinner1 and because of their easy digestion they are to be recommended for the evening meal for all members of the family1 but especially for children4 ,when used in this way1 they may be served with cream1 as for breakfast1 or prepared in any other suitable way4 ,whenever cereals are served1 whether alone or in combination with other foods1 the result is an economical dish and usually an easily digested one1 unless1 of course1 the food with which they are combined is expensive or indigestible4 ,but1 to whatever use cereals are put1 unless they are thoroughly cooked they are not easily digested and they lose much of their value4 ,in fact1 the ready-to-eat cereals1 which have been thoroughly cooked1 are preferable to those which are poorly cooked in the home4 ,,selection ,,and ,,care ,,of ,,cereals #af4 ,preparation of ,grains for the ,market4--,so that the housewife may go about the selection of cereals in an intelligent manner1 it may be well for her to know how they are prepared for market4 ,after the grains are harvested1 the first step in their preparation consists in thrashing1 which removes the husks from the outside4 ,in some countries1 thrashing is done entirely by hand1 but usually it is accomplished by machinery of a simple or a more elaborate kind4 ,occasionally no further treatment is applied1 the whole grains being used as food1 but generally they receive further preparation4 ,sometimes they are crushed coarsely with or without the bran covering1 and in this form they are known as grits4 ,at other times they are ground finer and called meal1 and still finer and called flour1 being used mostly in these two forms for the making of various kinds of breads4 ,then1 again1 grains are rolled and crushed1 as1 for example1 cracked wheat and rolled oats4 ,various elaborate means have been devised by which cereals are prepared in unusual ways for the purpose of varying the diet4 ,sometimes they are used alone1 but often certain other materials are used in their preparation for the market4 ,for example1 the popular flake cereals1 such as corn flakes1 are cooked with salt and sometimes with sugar and then rolled thin4 ,some of the cereals are thoroughly cooked1 while others are malted and toasted1 but the treatment to which they are subjected is generally given to them to improve their flavor and to aid in the work of digestion4 #ag4 ,,factors ,,that ,,govern ,,cereal ,,selection4--,besides knowing about the ways in which cereals are prepared for market1 the housewife should be familiar with the factors that govern their selection for use as food4 ,in the first place1 cereals should be chosen to suit the needs and tastes of the members of the family1 and then attention should be given to the forms in which they can be purchased4 ,some cereals are sold in sealed packages1 while others can be bought in bulk4 ,each1 however1 has its advantages4 ,those sold loose are often lower in price than those sold in package form1 but there is a question as to whether1 with the chances for incorrect weight1 the bulk foods are really much cheaper4 ,cleanliness is1 of course1 of greater importance with cereals that do not require cooking than with those which are subjected to high temperatures in order to prepare them for the table4 ,therefore1 from the standpoint of cleanliness1 there is no advantage in purchasing rice and similar raw cereals in packages4 #ah4 ,the next thing to consider in the purchase of cereals is their cost4 ,they vary considerably in price1 but it has been determined that in food value there is little difference1 pound for pound1 between the cheap and the expensive cereals1 the variation in price being due to their abundance or scarcity and the method used in preparing them for market4 ,the entirely uncooked ones are the cheapest1 the partly cooked ones are medium in price1 and the thoroughly cooked ones are the most expensive4 ,this difference1 however1 is practically made up by the expense of the fuel required to prepare them for the table1 the cheapest cereal requiring the most fuel and the most expensive1 the least4 ,besides varying in price1 the different kinds of cereals offer the housewife an opportunity to select the one that is most convenient for her4 ,those which are ready to serve are the best for the meal to which the least possible amount of time can be given for preparation4 ,the other kinds require cooking1 of course1 but this need not be a hindrance1 for they can be prepared on one day and reheated for breakfast the following day1 or they can be cooked overnight by the fireless-cooker method4 ,in the case of such cereals1 long cooking is usually necessary for good flavor and easy digestion2 consequently1 the cooking method that will accomplish the desired result with the least expenditure of fuel is the most economical one and the one to select4 #ai4 ,,table ,,of ,,grain ,,products4--,as a further aid in coming to an understanding of cereals1 or grains1 and their value1 there are given in ,table ,,ii the various uses to which grains are put and the forms in which they occur as food4 ,in this table1 as will be observed1 the form of the grain product is mentioned first and then the grain from which it is made4 ,a careful study of this table will be profitable to the housewife4 #bj4 ,,care ,,of ,,cereals4--,as carriers of disease1 cereals are a less dangerous food than any other4 ,this characteristic of cereals is due to the fact that the cooking all of them require in some part of their preparation destroys any disease germs that might be present4 ,they are not likely to be adulterated with harmful material1 either2 and1 in addition1 the sealed packages in which many of the cereals are put up keep them clean and free from contamination4 ,however1 care must be given to both the uncooked and the factory-prepared varieties of this food4 ,the packages containing ready-to-eat cereals should not be allowed to remain open for any length of time if it is desired to keep them fresh and crisp1 for they absorb moisture from the air very quickly4 ,if they do become moist1 however1 drying in the oven will in most cases restore their freshness4 ,if it is necessary to open a single package of prepared cereal and all of the contents cannot be utilized at once1 as1 for instance1 when only one or two persons are to be served with that particular cereal1 the best plan is to empty the remainder into cans or jars that are provided with covers4 ,uncooked cereals1 which are used less quickly than the prepared kinds1 are often attacked by mice and other vermin1 but such an occurrence can be prevented if the cereal is poured into jars or cans that can be kept tightly closed4 ,considerable care must be given to flour and cereal products purchased in large quantities1 for if they are allowed to collect enough moisture1 they will become moldy and lose their flavor1 and thus be unfit for use4 ,to preserve them well1 they should be kept in metal-lined bins or in bins made of carefully matched boards and in a cool1 but not damp1 place4 ,,table ,,ii ,,grain ,,products _/ ,pearl barley ,hulled wheat _/ ,whole ,grains ,hominy3 ,corn ,corn ,rice _/ ,farina3 ,wheat or corn ,cream of ,wheat3 ,wheat ,crushed ,grains ,cracked ,wheat3 ,wheat ,hominy ,grits3 ,corn ,wheat ,grits3 ,wheat ,samp3 ,corn ,cereals _/ ,corn ,meal ,barley ,rice ,oats _/ ,flaked3 ,rye1 wheat1 rice1 corn ,prepared ,cereals ,shredded ,grain3 ,wheat ,malted ,grain3 ,rye1 barley1 wheat1 and corn ,puffed ,grain3 ,corn1 rice1 wheat _/ ,corn ,starch ,rice ,wheat _/ ,macaroni ,wheat ,vermicelli ,spaghetti ,glucose ,usually corn ,sirup _/ _/ ,wheat ,cereal ,coffee ,rye ,barley _/ ,wheat ,rye ,flour ,corn ,buckwheat ,rice ,liquors ,malted ,drinks ,all grains ,beer ,whisky _/ ,alcohol3 ,all grains ,feed for animals3 ,all grains 99 99 99 99 99 ,,preparation ,,of ,,cereals ,,for ,,the ,,table ,,methods ,,of ,,cooking ,,cereals #ba4 ,,purpose ,,of ,,cooking4--,as the so-called ready-to-eat cereals require practically no further preparation1 attention is here given to only those cereals which need additional treatment to prepare them properly for the table4 ,raw grains cannot be taken into the body1 for they are neither appetizing nor digestible4 ,the treatment to which they must be subjected is cooking1 for the structure of grains is such that cooking is the only means by which the coverings of the starch granules can be softened and broken to make them digestible4 ,but this is not the only effect produced by cooking2 besides making raw cereals digestible1 cooking renders them palatable1 destroys any bacteria or parasites that might be present1 and1 by means of its various methods1 provides a variety of dishes that would otherwise be very much limited4 #bb4 ,,changes ,,that ,,cereals ,,undergo ,,in ,,cooking4--,in the process of cooking1 cereals undergo a marked change1 which can readily be determined by performing a simple experiment4 ,place an equal amount of flour or corn starch--both cereal products--in two different glasses2 mix that in one glass with cold water and that in the other with boiling water4 ,the mixture in which cold water is used will settle in a short time1 but if the substance that goes to the bottom is collected and dried it will be found to be exactly the same as it was originally4 ,the mixture in which boiling water is used1 however1 will not only become a sticky mass1 but will remain such2 that is1 it will never again resume its original form4 ,this experiment proves1 then1 that grains that come in contact with water at a high temperature1 as in cooking1 absorb the water and burst their cellulose covering4 ,this bursting frees the granulose1 or the contents of the tiny granules1 which are deposited in a network of cellulose1 and as soon as this occurs it mixes with water and forms what is called soluble starch4 ,starch in this state is ready for digestion1 but in the original1 uncooked state only a very small part of it1 if any1 is digestible4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a #bc4 ,,preparation ,,for ,,cooking ,,cereals4--,before the cooking of cereals is attempted1 it is advisable for the sake of convenience to get out all utensils as well as all ingredients that are to be used and arrange them so that they will be within easy reach4 ,the way in which this should be done is illustrated in ,fig4 #a4 ,the utensils and ingredients shown1 which are suitable for most methods of cooking cereals and particularly for cooking them by the steaming process1 consist of a double boiler a2 a measuring cup b1 a knife c1 and spoons d and e1 for measuring2 a large spoon f1 for stirring2 a salt container2 and a package of cereal4 ,the housewife will be able to tell quickly from a recipe just what ingredients and utensils she will need1 and by following the plan here suggested and illustrated she will find that her work can be done systematically and with the least expenditure of time4 #bd4 ,,first ,,steps ,,in ,,the ,,process ,,of ,,cooking4--,while cereals may be cooked in a variety of ways1 the first steps in all the processes are practically the same4 ,in the first place1 the required amount of water should be brought to the boiling point1 for if the water is boiling the cereal will thicken more rapidly and there will be less danger of lumps forming4 ,then salt should be added to the water in the proportion of #a teaspoonful to each cupful of cereal4 ,next1 the cereal should be stirred into the boiling salted water slowly enough to prevent it from forming lumps1 and then1 being constantly stirred1 it should be allowed to cook until it thickens4 ,the process up to this point is called setting a cereal1 or grain4 ,after the cereal is set1 it may be boiled1 steamed1 or cooked in the fireless cooker1 but the method of cookery selected should be chosen with a view to economy1 convenience1 and thoroughness4 ,the terms setting and set should be thoroughly fixed in the mind1 so that directions and recipes in which they are used will be readily understood4 #be4 ,,cooking ,,cereals ,,by ,,boiling4--,very often the cereal1 after it is set1 is allowed to cook slowly until it is ready to serve2 that is1 the method of boiling is practiced4 ,this method1 however1 is not to be recommended1 because it is not economical4 ,cereals cooked in this way require constant watching and stirring1 and even then it is difficult to keep them from sticking to the cooking utensil and scorching or becoming pasty on account of the constant motion4 ,sometimes1 to overcome this condition1 a large quantity of water is added1 as in the boiling of rice2 still1 as some of this water must be poured off after the cooking is completed1 a certain amount of starch and soluble material is lost4 #bf4 ,,cooking ,,cereals ,,in ,,the ,,double ,,boiler4--,probably the most satisfactory way in which to cook cereals1 so far as thoroughness is concerned1 is in a double boiler1 one style of which is shown at a1 ,fig4 #a4 ,this method of cookery is known as steaming1 or dry steaming1 and by it the food itself1 after it is set1 never comes within #f or #h degrees of the boiling point4 ,in this method1 the cereal is first set in the small1 or upper1 pan of the double boiler4 ,this pan1 which is covered1 is placed into the large1 or lower1 pan1 which should contain boiling water1 and the cereal is allowed to cook until it is ready to serve4 ,the water in the large pan should be replenished from time to time1 for if it is completely evaporated by boiling1 the pan will be spoiled and the cereal in the upper pan will burn4 ,this method of cooking has several advantages that should not be disregarded4 ,cereals to which it is applied may be partly cooked on one day and the cooking completed the next morning before breakfast1 or they may be completely cooked on one day and merely heated before they are served4 ,then1 when cooked at a temperature slightly below the boiling point1 the grains remain whole1 but become thoroughly softened1 because they gradually absorb the water that surrounds them4 ,in addition1 the long cooking that is necessary to prepare them at a low temperature develops a delicious flavor1 which cannot be obtained by rapid cooking at the boiling point4 #bg4 ,,cooking ,,cereals ,,in ,,the ,,fireless ,,cooker4--,in a kitchen that is equipped with a fireless cooker1 it is advisable to use this utensil for cereals1 for cooking them by this method secures the greatest economy of fuel and effort4 ,as in the preceding methods1 the cereal is first set in the pan that fits into the cooker compartment4 ,while the cereal is at the boiling point1 this pan is covered tightly and placed in the fireless cooker1 where it is allowed to remain until the cereal is ready to be served4 ,the heat that the cereal holds when it is placed in the cooker is retained1 and this is what cooks it4 ,therefore1 while this method of cooking requires considerable time1 it needs neither additional heat nor labor after the cereal is placed in the cooker4 ,in reality1 it is an advantageous way in which to cook cereals1 since1 if they can be set and placed in the cooker in the evening1 they will be ready to serve at breakfast time on the following day4 #bh4 ,,cooking ,,cereals ,,by ,,dry ,,heat4--,an old method of cooking cereals or starchy foods is called browning1 or toasting1 and it involves cooking them by dry heat4 ,a thin layer of grain is spread in a shallow pan and this is placed in a slow oven4 ,after the grains have browned slightly1 they are stirred1 and then they are permitted to brown until an even color is obtained4 ,by this method the flavor of the cereals is developed and their digestibility increased4 ,since grains keep much better after they have been subjected to the process of toasting1 this means is used extensively for preserving grains and cereal foods4 #bi4 ,,points ,,to ,,observe ,,in ,,cooking ,,cereals4--,in cooking cereals by any method1 except browning1 or toasting1 it is always necessary to use liquid of some kind4 ,the quantity to use1 however1 varies with the kind of cereal that is to be cooked1 whole cereals and those coarsely ground requiring more liquid than those which are crushed or finely ground4 ,if the liquid is to be absorbed completely when the grain is cooked1 it should be in the correct proportion to the grain4 ,to be right1 cooked cereals should be of the consistency of mush1 but not thin enough to pour4 ,much attention should be given to this matter1 for mistakes are difficult to remedy4 ,cereals that are too thick after they are cooked cannot be readily thinned without becoming lumpy1 and those which are too thin cannot be brought to the proper consistency unless the excess of liquid is evaporated by boiling4 ,gruels are1 of course1 much thinner than the usual form of cereal4 ,they are made by cooking cereals rapidly in a large quantity of water1 and this causes the starch grains to disintegrate1 or break into pieces1 and mix with the water4 ,the whole mixture is then poured through a sieve1 which removes the coarse particles and produces a smooth mass that is thin enough to pour4 ,the length of time to cook cereals also varies with their kind and form1 the coarse ones requiring more time than the fine ones4 ,because of this fact1 it is difficult to say just how much time is required to cook the numerous varieties thoroughly4 ,however1 little difficulty will be experienced if it is remembered that cereals should always be allowed to cook until they can be readily crushed between the fingers1 but not until they are mushy in consistency4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,indian ,,corn1 ,,or ,,maize ,,origin1 ,,classification1 ,,and ,,use #cj4 ,the word corn has been applied to various grains and is now used in a variety of ways in different countries4 ,in ancient times1 barley was called corn1 and at the present time1 in some countries1 the entire year's food crop is referred to by this name4 ,the ,english apply the name corn to wheat1 and the ,scotch1 to oats4 ,in the ,united ,states1 corn is the name applied to the seed of the maize plant1 which is a highly developed grass plant that forms the largest single crop of the country4 ,the seeds of this plant grow on a woody cob1 and are eaten as a vegetable when they are soft and milky1 but as a grain1 or cereal1 when they are mature4 ,corn is native to ,america and was not known in ,europe until ,columbus took it back with him4 ,however1 it did not meet with much favor there1 for it was not grown to any great extent until within the last #ej years4 ,those who took it to ,europe gave it the name ,indian corn1 because they had found the ,indians of ,america raising it4 #ca4 ,of the corn grown in the ,united ,states1 there are three general kinds3 field corn1 sweet corn1 and pop corn4 ,field corn1 as a rule1 is grown in large quantities and allowed to mature2 then it is fed to animals or ground and cooked for the use of man4 ,this corn consists of three varieties1 which are distinguished by the color of the grain1 one being white1 one yellow1 and one red4 ,all of them are made into a variety of preparations1 but the white and the yellow are used as food for both man and animals1 whereas red field corn is used exclusively for animal food4 ,white corn has a mild flavor1 but yellow corn is sometimes preferred to it1 because foods made from the yellow variety have a more decided flavor4 ,the two principal varieties of field corn1 when prepared as cereal food for man1 are hominy and corn meal4 ,sweet corn is not grown in such large quantities as field corn4 ,it is generally used for food before it is mature and is considered as a vegetable4 ,pop corn1 when sufficiently dry1 swells and bursts upon being heated4 ,it is used more as a confection than as a staple article of food4 ,therefore1 at this time1 consideration need be given to only the principal varieties of field-corn products1 which1 as has just been stated1 are hominy and corn meal4 ,,recipes ,,for ,,hominy ,,and ,,corn ,,meal #cb4 ,,hominy is whole corn from which the outside covering has been removed1 and for this reason it is high in food value4 ,corn in this form may be procured as a commercial product1 but it may be prepared in the home at less expense4 ,as a commercial product1 it is sold dry by the pound or cooked as a canned food4 ,dry hominy requires long cooking to make it palatable1 and this1 of course1 increases its cost2 but even with this additional cost it is cheaper than canned hominy4 ,sometimes corn from which the covering has been removed is ground or crushed to form what is called samp1 or grits1 and when it is ground still more finely ,,corn ,,meal is produced4 ,corn meal is made from both white and yellow corn1 and is ground more finely in some localities than in others4 ,it is sold loose by the pound1 but it can also be bought in bags or packages of various sizes from #a pound up4 ,corn meal should be included in the diet of every economical family1 for it yields a large quantity of food at a moderately low cost4 ,if it is prepared well1 it is very palatable1 and when eaten with milk or cream it is a food that is particularly desirable for children1 especially for the evening meal1 because of its food value and the fact that it is easily digested4 #cc4 ,so that the importance of these corn products may be understood and the products then used to the best advantage in the diet1 recipes are here given for preparing hominy in the home1 for dishes in which hominy forms the principal part1 and for dishes in which corn meal is used4 ,to get the best results from these recipes and thereby become thoroughly familiar with the cooking processes involved1 it is recommended that each one be worked out in detail4 ,this thought applies as well to all recipes given throughout the various ,sections4 ,of course1 to prepare each recipe is not compulsory2 nevertheless1 to learn to cook right means actually to do the work called for by the recipes1 not merely once1 but from time to time as the food can be utilized to give variety to the daily menus in the home4 #cd4 ,,hominy4--,although1 as has been mentioned1 prepared hominy may be purchased1 some housewives prefer to prepare it themselves4 ,hominy serves as a foundation from which many satisfactory dishes can be made1 as it is high in food value and reasonable in cost4 ,this cereal can be used in so many ways that it is advisable to prepare enough at one time to meet the demands of several meals4 ,the following recipe for making hominy should provide #c quarts of this cereal2 however1 as is true of other recipes--a point that should be remembered throughout the various lessons--the quantities given may be increased or decreased to meet with the requirements of the household4 ,,hominy 7,sufficient for #c ,quarts7 #b qt4 water #a ,tb4 lye #a qt4 shelled corn #c tsp4 salt ,put the water into a large kettle or saucepan1 and into the water put the lye4 ,allow the water to come to the boiling point1 and then add the corn and let it boil until the skins will slip off the grains when they are pressed between the thumb and the finger4 ,take from the stove1 stir sufficiently to loosen the skins1 and then remove them by washing the grains of corn in a coarse colander4 ,cover the grains with cold water and return to the fire4 ,when the water boils1 pour it off4 ,repeat this process at least three times1 so as to make sure that there is no trace of the lye1 and then allow the grains to cook in more water until they burst4 ,season them with the salt1 and while the hominy thus prepared is still hot put it into a jar or a crock and cover it tight until it is to be used4 ,the water in which the hominy is cooked should remain on it4 #ce4 ,,buttered ,,hominy4--,perhaps the simplest method of preparing cooked hominy is to butter it4 ,in this form it may be served with cream as a breakfast or a luncheon dish1 or it may be used in the place of a vegetable4 ,,buttered ,,hominy 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a pt4 cooked hominy #c ,tb4 butter #a tsp4 salt ,allow a few spoonfuls of water to remain on the cooked hominy4 ,add the butter and the salt1 and then heat all thoroughly1 stirring the hominy gently so as to incorporate1 or mix in1 the butter and the salt4 ,serve while hot4 #cf4 ,,creamed ,,hominy4--,the addition of a cream sauce to cooked hominy not only adds to the palatableness of this cereal1 but increases its food value4 ,when hominy is served with a sauce1 it may be used as a dinner vegetable or as the main dish in a light meal4 ,,creamed ,,hominy 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a c4 milk #b ,tb4 butter #a tsp4 salt #a ,tb4 flour #a pt4 cooked hominy ,heat the milk1 and to it add the butter and the salt4 ,then thicken it with the flour4 ,to this sauce add the hominy and allow all to cook slowly for #aj or #ae minutes4 ,serve the creamed hominy hot4 #cg4 ,,hominy ,,grits4--,the cereal sold under the name of hominy grits is prepared commercially by crushing dried hominy grains4 ,it has practically the same food value as hominy1 and in appearance resembles cream of wheat4 ,the following recipe shows the simplest way in which to prepare this food1 it being usually served as a breakfast cereal in this form3 ,,hominy ,,grits 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a tsp4 salt #d c4 water #a c4 hominy grits ,add the salt to the water and bring it to the boiling point4 ,stir the hominy grits into the water and continue to boil for #aj minutes4 ,then place in a double boiler and cook for #c to #d hours4 ,serve hot with cream or milk and sugar4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b #ch4 ,,left-,,over ,,hominy4--,no waste need result from hominy that is not used at the meal for which it is prepared1 for it may be utilized in many ways4 ,for example1 it may be served cold with fruit and cream1 made into croquettes with chopped meat or cheese and either sautd or baked1 or used in soups to increase materially their food value4 ,a dish prepared by combining cooked or left-over hominy with other ingredients to form hominy and cheese souffl1 which is illustrated in ,fig4 #b1 will prove to be very appetizing4 ,,hominy ,,and ,,cheese ,,souffl 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a-a_/b c4 cooked hominy #a_/b c4 hot milk #a_/b tsp4 salt #a_/b tsp4 paprika #a c4 grated cheese #b eggs ,work the hominy smooth by mashing it with a fork1 and then add the hot milk1 salt1 paprika1 and grated cheese4 ,separate the eggs1 beat the yolks thoroughly1 and stir them well into the mixture4 ,next1 fold in the whites1 which should be stiffly beaten1 pour the mass into a buttered baking dish1 and bake until it is firm in the center4 ,serve hot4 #ci4 ,,corn-,,meal ,,mush4--,since corn meal is comparatively inexpensive and high in food value1 the housewife can make frequent use of it to advantage4 ,in the form of mush1 corn meal is easily digested2 besides1 such mush is a very good breakfast cereal when served hot with milk or cream4 ,although the recipe here given makes a sufficient amount for six persons1 a good plan is to increase the quantities mentioned so that there will be enough mush left to mold and use in other ways4 ,,corn-,,meal ,,mush 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a tsp4 salt #c-a_/b c4 water #a c4 corn meal ,add the salt to the water and bring the salted water to the boiling point4 ,when it is boiling rapidly1 sift the corn meal slowly through the fingers into it1 and at the same time stir it rapidly so as to prevent the formation of lumps4 ,any mush that contains lumps has not been properly made and should not be served in this condition1 as it is unpalatable4 ,keep stirring constantly until the corn meal thickens2 then place it in a double boiler and allow it to cook from #b to #d hours1 when it should be ready to serve4 ,this method of cooking mush is the most convenient1 because not much stirring is required after the corn meal is thickened4 ,a heavy aluminum kettle or an iron pot is a good utensil in which to cook mush1 as it does not burn easily in either1 although almost constant stirring is required4 ,when the mush becomes very thick1 the heated air1 in forcing its way through the mush in the process of boiling1 makes the mush pop and very often splash on the hands and burn them4 ,to avoid such an accident1 therefore1 it is advisable to wrap the hand used for stirring in a towel or a cloth4 #dj4 ,,saut,d ,,corn-,,meal-,,mush4--,mush cooked in the manner just explained may be poured into pans1 such as bread pans1 where it will harden and form a mold that can be sliced as thick or as thin as desired and then sautd4 ,corn-meal mush prepared in this way pleases the taste of many persons1 and while some persons find it harder to digest than just plain mush1 it serves to give variety to meals4 ,for sauting mush1 a heavy iron or steel frying pan or griddle should be used1 because utensils made of thin material will allow the mush to burn before it browns properly4 ,put enough fat1 such as lard1 cooking oil1 or drippings1 into the cooking utensil so that when heated it will be about #a_/d inch deep all over the surface4 ,when the utensil is very hot1 put in the slices of mush and allow them to brown on one side4 ,then turn the slices over carefully1 so as not to break them1 and brown them on the other side4 ,as will be observed1 corn-meal mush does not brown quickly in sauting4 ,this characteristic is due to the large amount of moisture it contains4 ,serve the mush hot1 and to add to its flavor serve with it sirup or honey4 #da4 ,,corn-,,meal ,,croquettes4--,croquettes of any kind add variety to a meal1 and because they are attractive they appeal to the appetite4 ,to make croquettes of corn meal1 mold mush as for sauting4 ,then cut this into slices #a inch thick1 and cut each slice into strips #a inch wide4 ,roll these in slightly beaten egg and then in crumbs1 and saut them in hot fat until they are crisp and brown4 ,serve these croquettes hot with either butter or sirup or both4 #db4 ,,left-,,over ,,corn-,,meal ,,mush4--,sautd corn-meal mush and corn-meal croquettes can1 of course1 be made from mush that is left over after it has been cooked to serve as a cereal2 however1 if there is only a small quantity left1 it may be utilized in still another way1 namely1 as a garnish for the platter on which meat is served4 ,to prepare corn-meal mush in this way1 spread it about #a_/c inch thick in a pan and allow it to cool4 ,then turn it out of the pan in a sheet on a board that has been floured2 that is1 covered thinly with flour4 ,cut this sheet of corn meal into small circles with the aid of a round cutter or into diamond shapes with a knife1 and then brown both sides of each of these in butter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,wheat ,,origin ,,and ,,use #dc4 ,,wheat1 owing to the fact that it is grown in all parts of the world and forms the basis for a large amount of the food of most people1 is a very important grain4 ,it was probably a native grass of ,asia ,minor and ,egypt1 for in these countries it first received cultivation4 ,from the land of its origin1 the use of wheat spread over all the world1 but it was not introduced into ,america until after the discovery of this country by ,columbus4 ,now1 however1 the ,united ,states raises more wheat than any other one country1 and nearly one-fourth of all that is raised in the world4 ,wheat is universally used for bread1 because it contains a large amount of the kind of protein that lends a rubbery consistency to dough and thus makes possible the incorporation of the gas or air required to make bread light4 ,the use of wheat1 however1 is by no means restricted to bread1 for1 as is well known1 many cereal foods are prepared from this grain4 #dd4 ,in its simplest food form1 wheat is prepared by merely removing the coarse bran from the outside of the wheat grain and leaving the grain whole4 ,this is called hulled1 or whole1 wheat1 and requires soaking or long1 slow cooking in order that all its starch granules may be reached and softened sufficiently to make it palatable4 ,the other preparations are made by crushing or grinding the grains from which some of the bran and germ has been removed4 ,besides flour1 which1 as has been implied1 is not considered as a cereal in the sense used in this ,section1 these preparations include wheat grits1 such foods as cream of wheat and farina1 and many ready-to-eat cereals4 ,in the preparation of wheat grits1 much of the bran is allowed to remain1 but neither cream of wheat nor farina contains cellulose in any appreciable quantity4 ,as the addition of bran1 however1 serves to give these foods bulk1 a much more ideal breakfast cereal will result if1 before cooking1 equal portions of the cereal and the bran are mixed4 ,in preparing ready-to-eat wheat cereals for the market1 the manufacturers subject the grains to such elaborate methods of cooking1 rolling1 and toasting that these foods require but very little additional attention before serving4 ,the only wheat products that demand further attention at this time1 therefore1 are those which must be cooked before they can be served and eaten4 ,,recipes ,,for ,,wheat ,,and ,,wheat ,,products #de4 ,,hulled ,,wheat4--,inasmuch as hulled1 or whole1 wheat requires very little preparation for the market1 it is a comparatively cheap food4 ,it is used almost exclusively as a breakfast cereal1 but serves as a good substitute for hominy or rice4 ,although1 as has been mentioned1 it requires long cooking1 its preparation for the table is so simple that the cooking need not necessarily increase its cost materially4 ,one of the advantages of this food is that it never becomes so soft that it does not require thorough mastication4 ,,hulled ,,wheat 7,sufficient to ,serve ,four7 #a c4 hulled wheat #c c4 water #a tsp4 salt ,look the wheat over carefully and remove any foreign matter4 ,then add the water and soak #h to #aj hours1 or overnight4 ,add the salt1 cook directly over the flame for #a_/b hour1 and then finish cooking in a double boiler for #c to #d hours4 ,serve with cream or milk and sugar4 #df4 ,,wheat ,,grits4--,the cereal known as wheat grits is made commercially by crushing the wheat grains and allowing a considerable proportion of the wheat bran to remain4 ,grits may be used as a breakfast cereal1 when they should be served hot with cream or milk and sugar2 they also make an excellent luncheon dish if they are served with either butter or gravy4 ,the fact that this cereal contains bran makes it an excellent one to use in cases where a food with bulk is desired4 ,the accompanying recipe is for a plain cereal2 however1 an excellent variation may be had by adding #a_/b cupful of well-cleaned raisins #a_/b hour before serving4 ,,wheat ,,grits 7,sufficient to ,serve ,four7 #a_/b tsp4 salt #c c4 boiling water #c_/d c4 wheat grits ,add the salt to the boiling water1 sift the wheat grits through the fingers into the rapidly boiling water1 and stir rapidly to prevent the formation of lumps4 ,cook for a few minutes until the grits thicken1 and then place in a double boiler and cook #b to #d hours4 #dg4 ,,cream ,,of ,,wheat4--,in the manufacture of cream of wheat1 not only is all the bran removed1 as has been stated1 but the wheat is made fine and granular4 ,this wheat preparation1 therefore1 does not require so much cooking to make it palatable as do some of the other cereals2 still1 cooking it a comparatively long time tends to improve its flavor4 ,when made according to the following recipe it is a very good breakfast dish3 ,,cream ,,of ,,wheat 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a tsp4 salt #d-a_/b c4 boiling water #c_/d c4 cream of wheat ,add the salt to the boiling water1 and when it bubbles sift in the cream of wheat through the fingers1 stirring rapidly to prevent the formation of lumps4 ,cook over the flame for a few minutes until it thickens2 then place it in a double boiler and cook for #a to #b hours4 ,serve hot with cream or milk and sugar4 #dh4 ,,cream ,,of ,,wheat ,,with ,,dates4--,dates added to cream of wheat supply to a great extent the cellulose and mineral salts that are taken out when the bran is removed in the manufacture of this cereal4 ,they likewise give to it a flavor that is very satisfactory1 especially when added in the manner here explained4 ,,cream ,,of ,,wheat ,,with ,,dates 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #c_/d c4 cream of wheat #a tsp4 salt #d-a_/b c4 boiling water #c_/d c4 dates ,cook the cream of wheat in the manner directed in ,art4 #dg4 ,wash the dates in hot water1 cut them lengthwise with a sharp knife1 and remove the seeds4 ,cut each date into four pieces and add them to the cream of wheat #aj minutes before serving1 stirring them into the cereal just enough to distribute them evenly4 ,serve hot with cream or milk and sugar4 #di4 ,,farina4--,the wheat preparation called farina is very much the same as cream of wheat1 being manufactured in practically the same manner4 ,it is a good breakfast cereal when properly cooked1 but it does not contain sufficient cellulose to put it in the class of bulky foods4 ,however1 as has been pointed out1 this bulk may be supplied by mixing with it1 before cooking1 an equal amount of bran4 ,in such a case1 of course1 more water will be needed and the cooking process will have to be prolonged4 ,plain farina should be prepared according to the recipe here given1 but1 as in preparing cream of wheat1 dates may be added to impart flavor if desired4 ,,farina 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a tsp4 salt #d c4 boiling water #c_/d c4 farina ,add the salt to the boiling water1 and as the water bubbles rapidly sift the farina into it slowly through the fingers1 stirring rapidly to prevent the formation of lumps4 ,then place it in a double boiler and allow it cook for #b to #d hours4 ,serve hot with cream or milk and sugar4 #ej4 ,,graham ,,mush ,,with ,,dates4--,graham flour is a wheat product that is high in food value1 because in its manufacture no part of the wheat grain is removed4 ,while the use of this flour as a breakfast cereal is not generally known1 it can be made into a very appetizing and nutritious dish1 especially if such fruit as dates is mixed with it4 ,,graham ,,mush ,,with ,,dates 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a-a_/d c4 graham flour #c c4 water #a tsp4 salt #a c4 dates ,moisten the graham flour carefully with #a cupful of the cold water4 ,when perfectly smooth1 add it to the remainder of the water1 to which the salt has been added1 and boil rapidly1 allowing the mixture to cook until it thickens4 ,then place it in a double boiler and cook #a to #b hours4 ,wash the dates1 remove the stones1 and cut each into four pieces4 ,add these to the mush #aj minutes before serving4 ,serve hot with cream or milk and sugar4 #ea4 ,,left-,,over ,,wheat ,,cereals4--,numerous ways have been devised for utilizing wheat cereals that are left over1 so that no waste need result from what is not eaten at the meal for which a cereal is cooked4 ,for instance1 left-over hulled wheat can be used in soup in the same way as barley and rice1 and plain cream of wheat and farina can be molded1 sliced1 and sautd like corn-meal mush and served with sirup4 ,the molded cereal can also be cut into #b-;inch cubes and served with any fruit juice that is thickened slightly with corn starch4 ,besides utilizing left-over wheat cereals in the ways mentioned1 it is possible to make them into custards and souffls1 as is shown in the two accompanying recipes1 in which cream of wheat may be used in the same manner as farina4 ,,farina ,,custard 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a c4 cold farina #b c4 milk #b eggs #a_/b c4 sugar #a_/d tsp4 nutmeg ,stir the farina and milk together until they are perfectly smooth2 then add the eggs1 beaten slightly1 the sugar1 and the nutmeg4 ,bake in a moderately hot oven until firm and serve hot or cold with any sauce desired4 ,,farina ,,souffl 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a c4 cold farina #a-a_/b c4 milk #a_/b tsp4 salt #a_/d tsp4 paprika #a c4 grated cheese #b eggs ,stir the farina smooth with the milk1 add the salt1 paprika1 grated cheese1 and egg yolks1 which should first be beaten4 ,then beat the egg whites stiff and fold them into the mixture4 ,pour all into a buttered baking dish1 place this in a large pan filled with enough hot water to reach almost to the top of the baking dish1 and bake in a moderately hot oven until the mixture in the dish is firm in the center4 ,serve at once upon taking from the oven4 ,,rice ,,varieties ,,and ,,structure #eb4 ,,rice1 next to wheat1 is used more extensively as a food than any other cereal4 ,it is a plant much like wheat in appearance1 but it grows only in warm climates and requires very moist soil4 ,in fact1 the best land for rice is that which may be flooded with about #f inches of water4 ,this cereal is of two kinds1 namely1 ,carolina rice and ,japanese rice4 ,carolina rice1 which is raised chiefly in the southeastern part of the ,united ,states1 has a long1 narrow grain1 whereas ,japanese rice1 which originated in ,japan and is raised extensively in that country and ,china and ,india1 has a short1 flat1 oval grain4 ,efforts made to raise the ,japanese variety in the ,united ,states show a peculiarity of this cereal1 for when it is planted in the same locality as ,carolina rice1 it soon loses its identity and takes on the shape of the other4 ,although vast crops of rice are raised in the ,united ,states1 a large quantity of it must be imported1 because these crops are not sufficient to supply the demands of this country4 #ec4 ,before rice grains are prepared for use as food1 they have two coverings4 ,one is a coarse husk that is thrashed off and leaves the grain in the form of unpolished rice and the other1 a thin1 brown coating resembling bran4 ,this thin coating1 which is very difficult to remove1 is called1 after its removal1 rice polishings4 ,at one time1 so much was said about the harmful effect of polished rice that a demand for unpolished rice was begun4 ,this feeling of harm1 however1 was unnecessary1 for while polished rice lacks mineral matter to a great extent1 it is hot harmful to a person and need cause no uneasiness1 unless the other articles of the diet do not supply a sufficient amount of this food substance4 ,after the inner coating has been removed1 some of the rice is treated with paraffin or glucose and talc to give it a glazed appearance4 ,this is called polish1 and is sometimes confounded with the term rice polishings4 ,however1 no confusion regarding these terms will result if it is remembered that rice polishings are the thin inner coating that is removed and polish is what is added to the rice4 ,in composition1 rice differs from the other cereals in that it is practically all starch and contains almost no fat nor protein4 #ed4 ,to be perfect1 rice should be unbroken and uniform in size1 and in order that it may be put on the market in this form the broken grains are sifted out4 ,these broken grains are sold at a lower price than the whole grains1 but the only difference between them is their appearance1 the broken grains being quite as nutritious as the whole grains4 ,in either form1 rice is a comparatively cheap food1 because it is plentiful1 easily transported1 and keeps perfectly for an indefinite period of time with very little care in storage4 ,before rice is used1 it should be carefully examined and freed from the husks that are apt to remain in it2 then it should be washed in hot water4 ,the water in which rice is washed will have a milky appearance1 which is due to the coating that is put on in polishing rice4 ,,recipes ,,for ,,rice #ee4 ,rice may be cooked by three methods1 each of which requires a different proportion of water4 ,these methods are boiling1 which requires twelve times as much water as rice2 the ,japanese method1 which requires five times as much2 and steaming1 which requires two and one-half times as much4 ,whichever of these methods is employed1 however1 it should be remembered that the rice grains1 when properly cooked1 must be whole and distinct4 ,to give them this form and prevent the rice from having a pasty appearance1 this cereal should not be stirred too much in cooking nor should it be cooked too long4 #ef4 ,,boiled ,,rice4--,boiling is about the simplest way in which to prepare rice for the table4 ,properly boiled rice not only forms a valuable dish itself1 but is an excellent foundation for other dishes that may be served at any meal4 ,the water in which rice is boiled should not be wasted1 as it contains much nutritive material4 ,this water may be utilized in the preparation of soups or sauces1 or it may even be used to supply the liquid required in the making of yeast bread4 ,the following recipe sets forth clearly how rice should be boiled3 ,,boiled ,,rice 7,sufficient to ,serve ,eight7 #a c4 rice #c tsp4 salt #c qt4 boiling water ,wash the rice carefully and add it to the boiling salted water4 ,boil rapidly until the water begins to appear milky because of the starch coming out of the rice into the water or until a grain can be easily crushed between the fingers4 ,drain the cooked rice through a colander1 and then pour cold water over the rice in the colander1 so as to wash out the loose starch and leave each grain distinct4 ,reheat the rice by shaking it over the fire1 and serve hot with butter1 gravy1 or cream or milk and sugar4 #eg4 ,,japanese ,,method ,,of ,,cooking ,,rice4--,rice prepared by the ,japanese method may be used in the same ways as boiled rice4 ,however1 unless some use is to be made of the liquid from boiled rice1 the ,japanese method has the advantage of being a more economical way of cooking this cereal4 ,,japanese ,,method 7,sufficient to ,serve ,eight7 #a c4 rice #a-a_/b tsp4 salt #e c4 boiling water ,wash the rice1 add it to the boiling salted water1 and boil slowly for #ae minutes4 ,then cover the utensil in which the rice is cooking and place it in the oven for #ae minutes more1 in order to evaporate the water more completely and make the grains soft without being mushy4 ,serve in the same way as boiled rice4 #eh4 ,,steamed ,,rice4--,to steam rice requires more time than either of the preceding cooking methods1 but it causes no loss of food material4 ,then1 too1 unless the rice is stirred too much while it is steaming1 it will have a better appearance than rice cooked by the other methods4 ,as in the case of boiled rice1 steamed rice may be used as the foundation for a variety of dishes and may be served in any meal4 ,,steamed ,,rice 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a c4 rice #a-a_/b tsp4 salt #b-a_/b c4 water ,wash the rice carefully and add it to the boiling salted water4 ,cook it for #e minutes and then place it in a double boiler and allow it to cook until it is soft4 ,keep the cooking utensil covered and do not stir the rice4 ,about #a hour will be required to cook rice in this way4 ,serve in the same way as boiled rice4 #ei4 ,,creamed ,,rice4--,to increase the nutritive value of rice1 it is sometimes cooked with milk and cream to form what is known as creamed rice4 ,these dairy products added to rice supply protein and fat1 food substances in which this cereal is lacking1 and also add to its palatability4 ,,creamed ,,rice 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #b-a_/b c4 milk #a c4 rice #a-a_/b tsp4 salt #a_/b c4 cream ,heat the milk in the small pan of a double boiler and add to it the rice and salt4 ,place this pan into the larger one and cook for about #a hour1 or until the rice is soft4 ,then pour the cream over the rice and cook a few minutes longer4 ,serve hot4 #fj4 ,,oriental ,,rice4--,as rice is a bland food1 practically lacking in flavor1 any flavoring material that may be added in its preparation or serving aids in making it more appetizing4 ,oriental rice1 which is prepared according to the following recipe1 therefore makes a very tasty dish and one that may be used in place of a vegetable for lunch or dinner4 ,,oriental ,,rice 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a c4 rice #b-a_/b c4 stock1 or meat broth #b ,tb4 butter #a slice onion #a_/b c4 canned tomatoes ,steam the rice in the stock until it is soft by the method given for steaming rice4 ,then brown the butter and onion in a frying pan1 add the tomatoes1 and heat thoroughly4 ,pour this mixture into the rice1 mix well1 and serve4 #fa4 ,,browned ,,rice4--,another way in which to add variety in serving rice is to brown it4 ,sufficient browned rice for six persons may be prepared by putting #a cupful of clean rice in an iron frying pan that contains no fat1 placing the pan directly over the flame1 and stirring the rice until the grains become an even1 light brown4 ,rice that has been treated in this way has additional flavor added to it and can be used in the same way as boiled or steamed rice4 #fb4 ,,savory ,,rice4--,rice browned in the manner just explained is used in the preparation of savory rice1 a dish that serves as a very good substitute for a vegetable4 ,savory rice may be prepared according to the following recipe3 ,,savory ,,rice 7,sufficient to ,serve ,eight7 #a c4 browned rice #b-a_/b c4 water #a tsp4 salt #a_/b c4 chopped celery #b ,tb4 butter #a small onion1 chopped #a_/b c4 canned tomatoes #a_/d c4 chopped pimiento ,steam the browned rice in the salted water as in steaming rice1 and cook the celery1 which should be chopped fine1 with the rice for the last half hour of the steaming4 ,brown the butter and add to it the onion finely chopped1 the tomatoes1 and the pimiento4 ,a few minutes before serving time1 add this to the rice1 mix well1 and serve hot4 #fc4 ,,left-,,over ,,rice4--,there are a variety of ways in which left-over rice may be used4 ,for instance1 rice that has been cooked and is not used may be utilized in soups1 combined with pancake1 muffin1 or omelet mixtures1 or made into puddings by mixing it with a custard and then baking4 ,it may be served with fruit1 made into patties1 or combined with tomatoes1 cheese1 or meat to form an appetizing dish4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c #fd4 ,as has been shown1 rice is one of the cereals that contain very little cellulose4 ,fruit added to it in the preparation of any dish makes up for this lack of cellulose and at the same time produces a delicious combination4 ,rice combined with pineapple to form a dish like that shown in ,fig4 #c not only is very attractive but meets with the favor of many2 besides1 it provides a good way in which to utilize left-over rice4 ,,rice ,,with ,,pineapple 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a c4 steamed or creamed rice #a_/d c4 sugar #f rings pineapple #c_/d c4 whipped cream ,stir the sugar into the rice and if necessary moisten with a little cream4 ,shape the rice into six balls of equal size1 making them so that they will be about the same in diameter as the rings of the pineapple1 and place one in the center of each pineapple ring4 ,whip the cream with an egg whip or beater until it stands up well1 and garnish each dish with the whipped cream before serving4 #fe4 ,another satisfactory dish may be made by combining eggs with left-over rice to form ,,rice ,,patties4 ,owing to the protein supplied by the eggs1 such a combination as this may be made to take the place of a light meat dish for luncheon or supper1 and1 to impart additional flavor1 it may be served with any sauce desired4 ,,rice ,,patties 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a c4 stale crumbs #a_/b tsp4 salt #a_/b tsp4 celery salt #b eggs #b c4 steamed rice ,add #a_/b cupful of the crumbs1 the salt1 the celery salt1 and the eggs1 slightly beaten1 to the cold steamed rice4 ,if more moisture seems to be necessary1 add a very little milk4 ,shape the rice with the other ingredients into round patties1 and then roll these in the remainder of the crumbs and saut them in hot butter4 ,serve the patties hot and with sauce1 if desired4 #ff4 ,besides left-over rice1 small quantities of one or more kinds of left-over meat and stock or gravy can be used to make a very appetizing dish known as ,,spanish ,,rice1 which may be used as the main1 or heavy1 dish in a luncheon4 ,,spanish ,,rice 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a small onion #b ,tb4 butter #a-a_/b c4 steamed or boiled rice #a c4 chopped meat #a_/b c4 meat stock or gravy #a_/b c4 canned tomatoes #b ,tb4 grated cheese #a_/d c4 stale crumbs ,chop the onion and brown it in butter4 ,mix well the browned onion1 rice1 chopped meat1 stock or gravy1 and tomatoes1 and pour all into a buttered baking dish4 ,then sprinkle the cheese and crumbs on top of the mixture and bake for #a hour in a slow oven4 ,serve hot4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,oats ,,composition ,,and ,,varieties #fg4 ,as an article of food1 ,,oats are used very extensively4 ,in ,scotland1 this cereal formed the principal article of diet for many years1 and as the hardiness of the ,scotch people is usually attributed to their diet the value of oats as a food cannot be overestimated4 ,this grain1 or cereal1 grows very much like wheat and yields an abundant crop in fairly good soil2 but it is unlike wheat in composition1 for it contains very little protein and considerable fat4 ,in fact1 it contains more fat than any other cereal4 ,because of its lack of protein1 it will not make raised bread1 and when it must serve the purpose of bread it is made into flat cakes and baked4 ,although it is used to some extent in this way1 its greatest use for food1 particularly in the ,united ,states1 is in the form of oatmeal and rolled oats4 ,in the preparation of oatmeal for the market1 the oat grains are crushed or cut into very small pieces1 while in the preparation of rolled oats they are crushed flat between large rollers4 ,,recipes ,,for ,,oats #fh4 ,the same methods of cooking can be applied to both oatmeal and rolled oats4 ,therefore1 while the recipes here given are for rolled oats1 it will be well to note that they can be used for oatmeal by merely substituting this cereal wherever rolled oats are mentioned4 #fi4 ,,rolled ,,oats4--,because of the high food value of rolled oats1 this cereal is excellent for cold weather1 especially when it is served with hot cream or milk and sugar4 ,it can be prepared very easily1 as the accompanying recipe shows4 ,,rolled ,,oats 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a c4 rolled oats #c c4 boiling water #a tsp4 salt ,stir the oats into the boiling water to which the salt has been added4 ,boil #b minutes1 stirring them occasionally to keep them from sticking4 ,then cook them in a double boiler for #b to #d hours4 ,during this time1 stir the oats as little as possible1 so as to prevent them from becoming mushy4 ,serve hot4 #gj4 ,,rolled ,,oats ,,with ,,apples4--,the combination of rolled oats and apples is rather unusual1 still it makes a dish that lends variety to a breakfast or a luncheon4 ,such a dish is easily digested1 because the apples supply to it a considerable quantity of cellulose and mineral salts4 ,,rolled ,,oats ,,with ,,apples 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #b_/c c4 rolled oats #b c4 boiling water #a_/b tsp4 salt #f medium-sized apples #a c4 water #a_/b c4 sugar ,stir the rolled oats into the boiling salted water and cook them until they set2 then place them in a double boiler and cook for #b to #d hours4 ,pare and core the apples1 and then cook them whole in a sirup made of #a cupful of water and #a_/b cupful of sugar until they are soft1 but not soft enough to fall apart4 ,to serve the food1 place it in six cereal dishes4 ,put a large spoonful of the cooked oats in each dish1 arrange an apple on top of the oats1 and then fill the hole left by the core with rolled oats4 ,over each portion1 pour some of the sirup left from cooking the apples1 and serve hot with cream4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d #ga4 ,,rolled-,,oats ,,jelly ,,with ,,prunes4--,if an appetizing dish for warm weather is desired1 rolled oats may be cooked to form a jelly and then have stewed prunes added to it4 ,such a dish is illustrated in ,fig4 #d4 ,when served with cream1 this combination of rolled oats and prunes is high in food value and consequently may be made the important dish in the meal for which it is used4 ,,rolled-,,oats ,,jelly ,,with ,,prunes 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a c4 rolled oats #c c4 water #a tsp4 salt #ab stewed prunes ,cook the rolled oats according to the directions already given1 and then force them through a fine sieve4 ,remove the seeds from the prunes that have been stewed by cooking them very slowly until they are soft in a sufficient quantity of water to cover them well1 drain off all the juice1 and place two prunes in the bottom of each of six cups1 or molds1 that have been moistened with cold water4 ,fill each with the rolled-oats jelly and set them aside to chill4 ,when ready to serve1 turn the food out of each mold into a cereal dish and serve with cream and sugar4 #gb4 ,,left-,,over ,,rolled ,,oats4--,every housewife should refrain from throwing away any left-over rolled oats1 because all of this cereal remaining from a previous meal can be used to good advantage4 ,for example1 it can be made especially tasty if1 before it is cold1 it is added to fruit1 poured into molds and allowed to stand in them until it is cold1 and then served with sugar and cream4 ,fruits of any kind1 such as cooked peaches1 prunes1 and apricots or fresh bananas1 may be used for this purpose by cutting them into small pieces4 ,another way of utilizing this cereal when it is warm is to pour it into a pan or a dish1 press it down until it is about #a inch thick1 and then1 after it is cold1 cut it into pieces of any desirable size or shape1 brown these pieces in butter1 and then serve them with sirup4 ,if the left-over cereal is cold1 a good plan would be to serve it with baked apple2 that is1 for each person to be served1 place a spoonful of the cereal in a dish with a baked apple1 sprinkle a little cinnamon or nutmeg over it1 and then serve it with cream4 ,still another very good way in which to utilize left-over rolled oats is to make it into croquettes according to the following recipe3 ,,rolled-,,oats ,,croquettes 7,sufficient to ,serve ,four7 #a_/b c4 grated cheese #c_/d c4 crumbs #a_/b tsp4 salt #a_/d tsp4 paprika #a c4 cooked rolled oats #a egg ,work the cheese with #a_/b cupful of the crumbs1 the salt1 and the paprika into the cold rolled oats2 then add the egg1 which should be slightly beaten4 ,if more moisture seems to be necessary1 add a little milk4 ,form the ingredients into small croquettes1 and then roll them in the remaining #a_/d cupful of crumbs and saut then in butter4 ,garnish with parsley and serve4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,barley ,,origin ,,and ,,use #gc4 ,,barley is a grain1 or cereal1 that grows very much like wheat4 ,however1 it is hardier than wheat or any other cereals and may be grown through a greater range of climates4 ,barley has been cultivated from the most ancient times2 in fact1 its cultivation can be traced as far back as man's occupations have been recorded4 ,the grain of this cereal has also played an important part in the advancement of man1 for1 according to history1 some of the present weights and measures originated from it4 ,thus1 the ,troy weight grain is said to have been first fixed by finding the average weight of a barley grain1 and the inch of linear measure1 by placing three grains of barley end to end4 #gd4 ,although several varieties of barley have been cultivated as food from the earliest times1 the grain is now used principally in the manufacture of malt4 ,in this form1 it is used for the malting of foods and in the making of alcoholic liquors4 ,to produce malt1 the barley grains are moistened and allowed to sprout1 and during this process of sprouting the starch of the barley is changed to sugar4 ,the grains are then dried1 and the sprouts1 which are called malt sprouts1 are broken off and sold as cattle food4 ,the grain that remains1 which is really malt1 is then crushed and combined with other grains for use as malted cereal food4 ,when barley is used to make malt1 or fermented1 liquors1 it is soaked in water1 which absorbs the sugar in it2 then yeast is added1 and this produces alcohol by causing the fermentation of the sugar4 #ge4 ,in the ,united ,states1 pearl barley is the name applied to the most common form of barley used as food4 ,in this form1 the layer of bran is removed from the outside of the barley grain1 but no change is made in the grain itself4 ,pearl barley is used for soups and as a breakfast cereal1 but for whatever purpose it is employed it requires very long cooking to make it palatable4 ,very often the water in which a small amount of pearl barley has been cooked for a long time is used to dilute the milk given to a child who has indigestion or who is not able to take whole milk4 ,,recipes ,,for ,,barley #gf4 ,,pearl ,,barley4--,as a breakfast cereal1 possibly the only satisfactory way in which to prepare pearl barley is to cook it in a double boiler1 although after it is cooked in this way it may1 of course1 be used to prepare other breakfast dishes4 ,barley is not liked by everybody2 nevertheless1 it is an excellent food and its nature is such that even after long cooking it remains so firm as to require thorough mastication1 which is the first great step in the digestion of starchy foods4 ,,pearl ,,barley 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a c4 pearl barley #a tsp4 salt #d-a_/b c4 boiling water ,look the barley over carefully and remove any foreign particles it may contain4 ,add it to the boiling salted water1 and cook it directly over the flame for #aj minutes4 ,then place it in a double boiler and cook for #c to #d hours4 ,for the barley to be cooked properly1 the water should be completely absorbed4 ,serve hot with cream or milk and sugar4 #gg4 ,,pearl ,,barley ,,with ,,fruit4--,cooked barley does not contain very much flavor4 ,therefore1 if a more tasty dish is desired1 it is usually necessary to add something1 such as fruit1 that will improve the flavor4 ,various fruits may be used with barley1 as is shown in the accompanying recipe4 ,,pearl ,,barley ,,with ,,fruit 7,sufficient to ,serve ,eight7 #a c4 pearl barley #a tsp4 salt #e c4 boiling water #a c4 dates1 figs1 or prunes ,examine the barley to see that it contains no foreign matter1 and then put it to cook in the boiling water to which the salt has been added4 ,after cooking directly over the flame for #aj minutes1 place it in a double boiler and cook it for #c to #d hours4 ,if dates are to be used1 wash them in warm water1 remove the seeds1 and cut each into four pieces4 ,in the case of figs1 soak them in hot water for #a_/b hour and then cut them into small pieces4 ,if prunes are desired1 stew them as explained in ,art4 #ga1 and when the seeds are removed cut them into small pieces4 ,add the fruit to the barley #aj or #ae minutes before removing it from the stove4 ,serve hot with cream or milk and sugar4 #gh4 ,,left-,,over ,,barley4--,cooked barley that is left over from a meal should not be wasted4 ,that which has been cooked without fruit may be added to meat stock or used with vegetables for soup4 ,also1 cooked barley that has had time to set and become stiff may be sautd in butter until it is slightly brown4 ,when served with meat gravy1 barley prepared in this manner makes a very appetizing and satisfying luncheon dish4 ,,rye1 ,,buckwheat1 ,,and ,,millet #gi4 ,,rye is a grain that grows very much like wheat1 but it can be cultivated in poorer soil and colder climates than this cereal4 ,it is not used alone to any great extent for anything except the making of bread1 but it is particularly well adapted for this purpose1 since it contains a large amount of gluten1 the food substance necessary for successful bread making1 and1 like wheat1 will make yeast bread when used alone4 ,bread made of rye flour has a dark color and a peculiar flavor1 and while these characteristics make it unpopular with some persons it is used extensively by certain classes1 especially persons from foreign countries4 ,besides its use for bread1 rye is frequently combined with other cereals in the manufacture of ready-to-eat cereal foods4 #hj4 ,,buckwheat is used less extensively than any of the other cereals already mentioned1 but it has an advantage over them in that it thrives in soil that is too poor for any other crop4 ,the buckwheat plant grows to a height of about #b feet and blossoms with a white flower4 ,its seeds1 which are three-cornered in shape1 bear a close resemblance to beechnuts1 and because of this peculiar similarity1 this cereal was originally called beech wheat4 ,practically the only use to which buckwheat is put is to grind it into very fine flour for griddle cakes1 recipes for which are given in another ,section4 #ha4 ,,millet as a cereal food finds practically no use in the ,united ,states2 in fact1 in this country it is grown almost exclusively for cattle food1 the stalk of the plant being large and juicy and containing a considerable amount of food4 ,the seed of this plant furnishes the smallest grain known for use as food1 and because of its size it is very hard to gather4 ,millet1 however1 is used extensively by some of the people of ,southern ,asia and ,india1 who depend on it very largely1 since1 in some localities1 it forms their only cereal food4 ,in these countries1 it is ground into flour and used for making bread4 ,,prepared1 ,,or ,,ready-,,to-,,eat1 ,,cereals #hb4 ,all the cereals that have been discussed up to this point require cooking2 but there are many varieties of cereal food on the market that are ready to eat and therefore need no further preparation4 ,chief among these are the cereal foods known as flakes4 ,these are first made by cooking the grain1 then rolling it between rollers1 and finally toasting it4 ,the grains that are treated in this way for the preparation of flake foods are wheat1 corn1 rye1 and rice4 ,it is well to remember this fact1 because the trade name does not always indicate the kind of grain that has been used to make the food4 ,in another form in which cereals1 principally wheat1 appear on the market1 they are cooked1 shredded1 pressed into biscuits1 and then toasted4 ,again1 cereals are made into loaves with the use of yeast1 like bread1 and after being thoroughly baked1 are ground into small pieces4 ,wheat generally forms the basis of these preparations1 and to it are added such other grains as rye and barley4 #hc4 ,the toasting of cereals improves their flavor very materially and at the same time increases their digestibility4 ,in fact1 cereals that have been subjected to this process are said to be predigested1 because the starch granules that have been browned in the toasting are changed into dextrine1 and this is one of the stages through which they must pass in their process of digestion in the body4 ,however1 the housewife should not allow herself to be influenced unduly by what is said about all prepared cereals1 because the manufacturer1 who has depended largely on advertising for the sale of his product1 sometimes becomes slightly overzealous and makes statements that will bear questioning4 ,for instance1 some of these foods are claimed to be muscle builders1 but every one should remember that1 with the exception of rye and wheat1 which build up the tissues to a certain extent1 the cereals strengthen the muscles in only a slight degree4 ,others of these foods are said to be nerve and brain foods1 but it should be borne in mind that no food acts directly on the nerves or the brain4 ,in reality1 only those foods which keep the body mentally and physically in good condition have an effect on the nerves and the brain1 and this at best is an indirect effect4 ,,serving ,,cereals #hd4 ,although1 as is shown by the recipes that have been given1 cereals may have a place in practically all meals that the housewife is called on to prepare1 they are used more frequently for breakfast than for any other meal4 ,when a cereal forms a part of this meal1 it should1 as a rule1 be served immediately after the fruit1 provided the breakfast is served in courses4 ,many persons1 of course1 like fresh fruit served with cooked or dry cereal1 and1 in such an event1 the fruit and cereal courses should be combined4 ,a banana sliced over flakes or a few spoonfuls of berries or sliced peaches placed on top afford a pleasing change from the usual method of serving cereals4 ,another way in which to lend variety to the cereal and at the same time add nourishment to the diet is to serve a poached egg on top of the shredded-wheat biscuit or in a nest of corn flakes1 especially if they have been previously heated4 ,in fact1 any of the dry cereals become more appetizing if they are heated thoroughly in a slow oven and then allowed to cool1 as this process freshens them by driving off the moisture that they absorb and that makes them tough4 ,to add to both dry and cooked cereals protein and fat1 or the food elements in which they are not so high1 milk or cream is usually served with them4 ,of these dairy products1 which may be served hot or cold1 milk adds more protein than cream1 and cream more fat than milk4 ,some persons1 however1 who do not care for milk and cream or cannot take them1 substitute a little butter for them or find fruit juice a very good accompaniment1 especially to a dry cereal4 ,sugar is generally served with both kinds of cereals1 as the majority of persons prefer them slightly sweet2 but there is no logical reason for its use except to add flavor4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,italian ,,pastes ,,preparation1 ,,varieties1 ,,and ,,composition #he4 ,in addition to the cereals that have already been discussed1 macaroni and foods of a similar nature are entitled to a place in this ,section1 because they are made from wheat flour and are therefore truly cereal products4 ,these foods1 which are commonly referred to as ,,italian ,,pastes1 originated in ,italy4 ,in that country they were made from a flour called semolina1 which is derived from a native wheat that is very hard and contains more protein than is required for the making of ordinary dough mixtures4 ,later1 when the manufacture of these foods was taken up in the ,united ,states1 the flour for them had to be imported from ,italy2 but it has since been discovered that flour made from the variety of wheat called durum1 which is grown in the spring-wheat territory of this country1 can be used for producing these pastes4 ,in fact1 this kind of flour has proved to be so successful that it now takes the place of what was formerly imported4 #hf4 ,to produce the ,italian pastes1 the wheat1 from which the bran has been removed1 is ground into flour4 ,this flour is made into a stiff dough1 which is rolled into sheets and forced over rods1 usually of metal1 or made into a mass and forced over rods1 and allowed to dry in the air4 ,when sufficiently dry1 the rods are removed1 leaving slender tubes1 or sticks1 that have holes through the center4 ,because of the manufacturing processes involved in the production of these foods for market1 they are higher in price than some cereals1 but their value lies in the fact that they are practically imperishable and are easily prepared and digested4 #hg4 ,italian pastes are of several varieties1 chief among which are macaroni1 spaghetti1 and vermicelli4 ,macaroni is the largest in circumference2 spaghetti1 a trifle smaller2 and vermicelli1 very small and without a hole through the center4 ,these pastes and variations of them are made from the same dough2 therefore1 the tests for determining the quality of one applies to all of them4 ,these tests pertain to their color1 the way in which they break1 and the manner in which they cook4 ,to be right1 they should be of an even1 creamy color2 if they look gray or are white or streaked with white1 they are of inferior quality4 ,when they are broken into pieces1 they should break off perfectly straight2 if they split up lengthwise1 they contain weak places due to streaks4 ,all the varieties should1 upon boiling1 hold their shape and double in size2 in case they break into pieces and flatten1 they are of poor quality4 #hh4 ,since the ,italian pastes are made from wheat1 their food substances are similar to those of wheat4 ,as in other wheat products1 protein is found in them in the form of gluten1 but1 owing to the variety of wheat used for them1 it occurs in greater proportion in these foods than in most wheat products4 ,in fact1 the ,italian pastes are so high in protein1 or tissue-building material1 that they very readily take the place of meat4 ,unlike meat1 however1 they contain carbohydrates in the form of wheat starch4 ,they do not contain much fat or mineral salts1 though1 being lower in these food substances than many of the other foods made from wheat4 ,,recipes ,,for ,,italian ,,pastes #hi4 ,in nearly all recipes for macaroni1 spaghetti1 and vermicelli1 as well as the numerous varieties of these foods1 the first steps in their preparation for the table are practically the same1 for all of these foods must be cooked to a certain point and in a certain way before they can be used in the numerous ways possible to prepare them4 ,therefore1 in order that success may be met in the preparation of the dishes that are made from these foods1 these underlying principles should be thoroughly understood4 ,in the first place1 it should be borne in mind that while the time required to cook the ,italian pastes depends on their composition and dryness1 the average length of time is about #cj minutes4 ,another important thing to remember is that they should always be put to cook in boiling water that contains #b teaspoonfuls of salt to each cupful of macaroni1 spaghetti1 or vermicelli1 and that they should be kept boiling until the cooking is done1 for if the pieces are not in constant motion they will settle and burn4 ,tests may be applied to determine whether these foods have been cooked sufficiently4 ,thus1 if a fork passes through them easily or they crush readily on being pressed between the fingers and the thumb1 they are done1 but as long as they feel hard and elastic they have not cooked enough4 ,in the majority of recipes here given1 macaroni is specified1 but spaghetti1 vermicelli1 or any of the fancy ,italian pastes may be substituted for the macaroni if one of them is preferred4 ,it should also be remembered that any of these1 when cut into small pieces1 may be used in soups or served with sauce or gravy4 #ij4 ,,macaroni ,,with ,,cream ,,sauce4--,possibly the simplest way in which to prepare macaroni is with cream sauce1 as is explained in the accompanying recipe4 ,such a sauce not only increases the food value of any ,italian paste1 but improves its flavor4 ,macaroni prepared in this way may be used as the principal dish of a light meal1 as it serves to take the place of meat4 ,,macaroni ,,with ,,cream ,,sauce 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a-a_/b c4 macaroni #c qt4 boiling water #c tsp4 salt #a_/d c4 crumbs ,,cream ,,sauce #b ,tb4 butter #b ,tb4 flour #a tsp4 salt #a_/h tsp4 pepper #a #a_/b c4 milk ,break the macaroni into inch lengths1 add it to the salted boiling water1 and cook it until it is tender4 ,to prepare the sauce1 melt the butter in a saucepan1 add the flour1 salt1 and pepper1 stir until smooth1 and gradually add the milk1 which must be hot1 stirring rapidly so that no lumps form4 ,cook the cream sauce until it thickens and then add it to the macaroni4 ,pour all into a baking dish1 sprinkle the bread or cracker crumbs over the top1 dot with butter1 and bake until the crumbs are brown4 ,serve hot4 #ia4 ,,macaroni ,,with ,,eggs4--,since macaroni is high in protein1 it takes the place of meat in whatever form it is served1 but when it is prepared with eggs it becomes an unusually good meat substitute4 ,therefore1 when eggs are added as in the following recipe1 no meat should be served in the same meal4 ,,macaroni ,,with ,,eggs 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a c4 macaroni #b qt4 boiling water #b tsp4 salt #a-a_/b c4 milk #b ,tb4 butter #b ,tb4 flour #a tsp4 salt #a_/h tsp4 pepper #d hard-boiled eggs #a_/d c4 crumbs ,break the macaroni into inch lengths1 add it to the boiling salted water1 and cook it until tender4 ,make a cream1 or white1 sauce of the milk1 butter1 flour1 salt1 and pepper as explained in the recipe given in ,art4 #ij4 ,when the macaroni is tender1 drain it and arrange a layer on the bottom of a baking dish1 with a layer of sliced1 hard-boiled eggs on top4 ,fill the dish with alternate layers of macaroni and eggs1 pour the sauce over all1 and sprinkle the crumbs over the top4 ,then place the dish in the oven and bake the food until the crumbs are brown4 ,serve hot4 #ib4 ,macaroni ,with ,tomato and ,bacon4--,macaroni alone is somewhat tasteless1 so that1 as has been pointed out1 something is usually added to give this food a more appetizing flavor4 ,in the recipe here given1 tomatoes and bacon are used for this purpose4 ,besides improving the flavor1 the bacon supplies the macaroni with fat1 a food substance in which it is low4 ,,macaroni ,,with ,,tomato ,,and ,,bacon 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a c4 macaroni #b qt4 boiling water #b tsp4 salt #b c4 canned tomatoes #h thin slices bacon ,break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it in the boiling salted water until it is tender4 ,place a layer of the cooked macaroni on the bottom of a baking dish2 over this layer put #a cupful of the tomatoes1 and on top of them spread four slices of bacon4 ,then add another layer of the macaroni1 the other cupful of tomatoes1 and a third layer of macaroni4 ,on top of this layer1 place the remaining four slices of bacon1 and then bake the food for one half hour in a slow oven4 ,serve hot4 #ic4 ,macaroni ,with ,cheese4--,cheese is combined with macaroni probably more often than any other food4 ,it supplies considerable flavor to the macaroni and at the same time provides fat and additional protein4 ,the cooking operation is practically the same as that just given for macaroni with tomatoes and bacon4 ,,macaroni ,,with ,,cheese 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a-a_/b c4 macaroni #c qt4 boiling water #c tsp4 salt #a-a_/b ,tb4 butter #a-a_/b ,tb4 flour #a tsp4 salt #a_/h tsp4 pepper #a_/h tsp4 paprika #a-a_/b c4 milk #a c4 grated or finely cut cheese #a_/d c4 crumbs ,break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it until it is tender in the #c quarts of boiling water to which #c teaspoonfuls of salt has been added4 ,melt the butter in a saucepan1 add the flour1 the #a teaspoonful of salt1 the pepper1 and the paprika1 stir until smooth1 and then gradually add the milk1 which should be hot4 ,allow to cook until it thickens4 ,arrange the cooked macaroni in layers1 pouring the sauce and sprinkling salt and cheese over each layer4 ,then cover the top layer with the crumbs and bake the food in a moderate oven for one half hour4 ,serve hot4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e #id4 ,macaroni ,with ,cheese and ,tomato4--,although the food combinations given are very satisfactory1 a dish that is extremely appetizing to many persons may be made by combining both cheese and tomato with macaroni4 ,such a nutritious combination1 which is illustrated in ,fig4 #e1 can be used as the principal dish of a heavy meal4 ,,macaroni ,,with ,,cheese ,,and ,,tomato 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a c4 macaroni #a c4 grated cheese #b qt4 boiling water #b ,tb4 butter #b tsp4 salt #a_/h tsp4 pepper #a #a_/b c4 canned tomatoes #a tsp4 salt ,break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it until it is tender in the boiling water to which #b teaspoonfuls of salt has been added4 ,put a layer of the cooked macaroni on the bottom of a baking dish1 pour one-half of the tomatoes and one-third of the cheese over it1 dot with butter1 and sprinkle with salt and pepper4 ,then add another layer of macaroni1 the remainder of the tomatoes1 one-third more of the cheese1 butter1 salt1 and pepper4 ,finally1 arrange another layer of macaroni1 put the remaining cheese and some butter on top of it1 and bake the food for #a_/b hour in a moderate oven4 ,serve hot4 #ie4 ,macaroni ,italian ,style4--,if small quantities of fried or boiled ham remain after a meal1 they can be used with macaroni to make a very tasty dish known as macaroni ,italian style4 ,as ham is a highly seasoned meat1 it improves the flavor of the macaroni and at the same time adds nutrition to the dish4 ,,macaroni ,,italian ,,style 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a c4 macaroni #b qt4 boiling water #b tsp4 salt #b ,tb4 butter #b ,tb4 flour #a-a_/b c4 scalded milk #b_/c c4 grated cheese #a tsp4 salt #a_/b tsp4 paprika #a_/b c4 finely chopped1 cold boiled ham #a_/d c4 crumbs ,break the macaroni into inch lengths and cook it in the boiling water to which has been added #b teaspoonfuls of salt4 ,drain1 and then reheat it in a white sauce made of the butter1 flour1 and milk4 ,add the cheese and season with salt and paprika4 ,arrange in layers in a baking dish1 placing the cold ham between each two layers of macaroni and having the top layer of macaroni1 sprinkle the crumbs on top of the upper layer1 and bake the food until the crumbs are brown4 ,garnish with parsley and serve4 #if4 ,,macaroni ,,and ,,kidney ,,beans4--,the combination of canned kidney beans and macaroni is a rather unusual one1 but it makes a very appetizing dish1 especially when canned tomatoes are added1 as in the recipe here given4 ,,macaroni ,,and ,,kidney ,,beans 7,sufficient to ,serve ,eight7 #a c4 macaroni #b qt4 water #b tsp4 salt #b ,tb4 butter #b ,tb4 flour #c_/d c4 hot milk #a_/b c4 canned tomatoes #a tsp4 salt #a_/d tsp4 pepper #a c4 canned kidney beans ,cook the macaroni in the salted water until it is tender and then drain it4 ,prepare the sauce by melting the butter in a saucepan1 rubbing the flour into it until a smooth paste is formed1 and then adding slowly the hot milk4 ,cook this sauce for #e minutes4 ,force the tomato through a sieve1 turn it into the hot sauce1 and season all with salt and pepper4 ,pour the sauce over the macaroni and the kidney beans1 and then heat all together4 ,when the food is thoroughly heated1 turn it into a dish and serve4 #ig4 ,,spaghetti ,,with ,,cheese ,,and ,,tomato ,,sauce4--,the accompanying recipe for spaghetti with cheese and tomato sauce will serve to illustrate that this form of ,italian paste may be prepared in the same manner as macaroni2 that is1 to show how simple it is to substitute one kind of ,italian paste for another4 ,any of these pastes1 as has been mentioned1 is especially appetizing when prepared with cheese and tomato4 ,,spaghetti ,,with ,,cheese ,,and ,,tomato ,,sauce 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a c4 spaghetti #b ,tb4 butter #b qt4 boiling water #b ,tb4 flour #b tsp4 salt #a_/b c4 grated cheese #a can tomatoes #a tsp4 salt #a small onion1 chopped #a_/d tsp4 pepper #a_/b c4 water ,boil the spaghetti in the #b quarts of boiling water to which has been added #b teaspoonfuls of salt1 and after it is tender drain off the water4 ,then proceed to make the sauce4 ,boil the tomatoes and the chopped onion in the #a_/b cupful of water for #aj minutes4 ,strain this mixture and to it add the butter and the flour1 which should first be mixed with a little cold water4 ,cook this until it thickens and then add the cheese1 #a teaspoonful of salt1 and the pepper4 ,pour the entire mixture over the cooked spaghetti1 reheat1 and serve4 #ih4 ,left-,over ,italian ,pastes4--,no cooked ,italian paste of any kind should ever be wasted4 ,any left-over macaroni1 spaghetti1 or vermicelli can be reheated and served as it was originally or it can be used in soups4 ,if a sufficient amount is left after a meal1 a good plan is to utilize it in croquettes4 ,to make such croquettes1 chop the left-over food fine and hold it together with a thick white sauce or with raw eggs4 ,then form it into croquettes of the desired shape1 roll these in bread or cracker crumbs1 and brown them in butter4 ,,breakfast ,,menu #ii4 ,a well-planned breakfast menu is here given1 with the intention that it be prepared and used4 ,this menu1 as will be observed1 calls for at least one of the dishes that have been described1 as well as some that have not4 ,directions for the latter1 however1 are given1 so that no difficulty will be experienced in preparing the menu4 ,after the recipes have been followed out carefully1 it will be necessary to report on the success that is had with each dish and to send this report in with the answers to the ,examination ,questions at the end of this ,section4 ,the recipes are intended to serve six persons1 but they may be changed if the family consists of fewer or more persons by merely regulating the amounts to suit the required number1 as is explained elsewhere4 ,,menu ,berries and ,cream or ,oranges ,cream of ,wheat or ,rolled ,oats and ,cream ,scrambled ,eggs ,buttered ,toast ,cocoa or ,coffee ,,scrambled ,,eggs #e eggs #a_/b c4 milk #a_/b tsp4 salt #b ,tb4 butter #a_/h tsp4 pepper ,beat the eggs slightly and add the salt1 pepper1 and milk4 ,heat a pan1 put in the butter1 and1 when it is melted1 turn in the mixture4 ,cook this mixture until it thickens as much as desired1 being careful to stir it and to scrape it from the bottom of the pan1 so that it will not burn4 ,remove from the pan and serve hot4 ,,buttered ,,toast ,bread for toasting should as a rule be #dh hours or more old4 ,cut the desired number of slices1 making each about #a_/d to #a_/b inch thick4 ,place the slices on a toaster over a bed of clear coals or on a broiler under a slow gas flame4 ,turn the bread frequently until it assumes an even light brown on both sides4 ,remove from the heat1 spread each slice with butter1 and serve while hot and crisp4 ,,cocoa #b c4 scalded milk #c ,tb4 cocoa #c ,tb4 sugar #a_/d tsp4 salt #b-a_/b c4 boiling water ,scald the milk in a double boiler4 ,mix the cocoa1 sugar1 and salt4 ,stir the boiling water into this mixture gradually1 and let it boil for several minutes over the fire4 ,then turn the mixture into the hot milk in the double boiler1 and beat all with an egg beater for several minutes4 ,a drop of vanilla added to the cocoa just before serving adds to its flavor4 ,,boiled ,,coffee ,scald a clean coffee pot1 and into it put #ab level tablespoonfuls of ground coffee4 ,add several crushed egg shells or the white of one egg1 pour in #a cupful of cold water1 and shake until the whole is well mixed4 ,add #e cupfuls of freshly boiling water and put over the fire to boil4 ,after the coffee has boiled for #e minutes1 pour #a_/d cupful of cold water down the spout4 ,allow it to stand for a few minutes where it will keep hot and then serve4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,cereals ,,examination ,,questions 7#a7 7a7 ,mention the eight cereals that are used for food4 7b7 ,how may the universal consumption of cereals be accounted for8 7#b7 7a7 ,explain why cereals and cereal products are economical foods4 7b7 ,what factors should be considered in the selection of cereals8 7#c7 7a7 ,why are cereals not easily contaminated8 7b7 ,what care in storage should be given to both prepared and unprepared cereals8 7#d7 7a7 ,explain briefly the composition of cereals4 7b7 ,describe the structure of cereal grains4 7#e7 ,what food substance is found in the greatest proportion in cereals8 7#f7 ,what characteristics of cereals make them valuable in the diet8 7#g7 ,what material1 besides the food substances1 is always present in cereals1 and what are its purposes8 7#h7 ,what is the purpose of cooking cereals8 7#i7 7a7 ,what occurs when starch is cooked in a liquid8 7b7 ,describe the process of setting a cereal4 7#aj7 7a7 ,mention the various methods of cooking cereals1 7b7 ,what are the advantages of the double-boiler method8 7#aa7 7a7 ,what influences the proportion of water required and the length of time necessary to cook cereals8 7b7 ,is it an advantage to cook cereals for a long time8 ,tell why4 7#ab7 ,mention the cereals that you would use in winter and tell why you would use them4 7#ac7 7a7 ,of what advantage is it to add dates to cream of wheat8 7b7 ,mention some of the ways in which left-over wheat cereals may be utilized4 7#ad7 7a7 ,explain the three methods of cooking rice1 giving the proportion of water to rice in each one4 7b7 ,how should rice grains look when they are properly cooked8 7#ae7 ,mention several ways in which to utilize left-over rolled oats4 7#af7 7a7 ,what advantages have ready-to-eat cereals over unprepared ones8 7b7 ,tell why cereals that have been toasted are said to be predigested4 7#ag7 7a7 ,what is the advantage of serving milk or cream with cereals8 7b7 ,how may variety be secured in the serving of cereals8 7#ah7 7a7 ,how are ,italian pastes made8 7b7 ,mention and describe the three principal varieties of ,italian paste1 7c7 ,what tests can be applied to judge the quality of these foods8 7#ai7 7a7 ,explain the first steps in cooking macaroni1 7b7 ,how much does macaroni increase upon being boiled8 7#bj7 7a7 ,why may macaroni be substituted for meat in the diet8 7b7 ,what foods used in the preparation of macaroni make it a better meat substitute8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,report ,,on ,,menu ,after trying out the breakfast menu given in the text1 send with your answers to the ,examination ,questions a report of your success4 ,in making out your report1 simply write the name of the food and describe its condition by means of the terms specified in the following list8 ,cream of ,wheat3 thin8 thick8 lumpy8 smooth8 salty8 well flavored8 ,rolled ,oats3 thin8 thick8 lumpy8 smooth8 salty8 well flavored8 ,scrambled ,eggs3 dry8 moist8 watery8 salty8 well flavored8 ,buttered ,toast3 thin8 thick8 crisp8 soggy8 browned8 not sufficiently toasted8 unevenly browned8 ,cocoa3 smooth8 strong8 weak8 thick8 scum formed on top8 ,coffee3 strong8 weak8 muddy8 clear8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,bread 99 99 99 99 99 ,,bread-,,making ,,requirements ,,importance ,,of ,,bread ,,as ,,food #a4 ,,bread is sometimes defined as any form of baked flour1 but as the word is commonly understood it means only those forms of baked flour which contain some leavening substance that produces fermentation4 ,the making of bread has come down through the ages from the simplest methods practiced by the most primitive peoples to the more elaborate processes of the present day4 ,in truth1 to study the history of bread making would amount to studying the accounts of the progress that has been made by the human race4 ,still1 in order that the production of bread from suitable ingredients may be fully understood1 it will be well to note the advancement that has been made4 #b4 ,in the earliest times1 what was used as bread was made in much the same way as it is today by many uncivilized and semicivilized people4 ,the grain was ground between stones1 usually by hand1 and then mixed with water to form a dough2 then this dough was formed into flat1 compact cakes and baked in hot ashes1 the result being a food very difficult to digest4 ,later on1 some one discovered that by allowing the dough to stand until fermentation took place and then mixing it with new dough1 the whole mass would rise1 and also that by subjecting this mass to the action of heat1 that is1 baking it1 the mass would be held in place and become a loaf of raised bread that was lighter and1 of course1 more digestible4 ,it was this discovery that led up to the modern bread-making processes1 in which substances known as leavening agents1 or ferments1 are used to make bread light1 or porous4 ,chief among the substances is yeast1 a microscopic plant that produces fermentation under favorable conditions4 ,indeed1 so important is this ferment that1 in the ,united ,states1 whenever the term bread is used alone it means yeast1 or leavened1 bread1 whereas1 when other leavening agents are used1 the bread is referred to as hot bread1 or quick bread1 as is fully explained in another ,section4 ,it will be well to note this fact1 for in all cases throughout these cookery lessons yeast1 or leavened1 bread is always meant when the term bread is used alone4 #c4 ,references in the history of the ancient ,hebrews show that bread made light by means of fermentation was known thousands of years ago1 but it was not until after the accidental discovery of the action of yeast that the making of wholesome and digestible bread became possible4 ,through this important advance in the making of bread came a demand for better grains and more improved methods of making flour4 ,indeed1 so much attention has been given to these matters that at present the three important processes relating to bread-making--the raising of wheat1 the milling of flour1 and the manufacture of yeast--are carefully and scientifically performed4 ,these industries1 together with the commercial manufacture of bread1 occupy an important place in the business of practically all civilized nations4 #d4 ,among people who are not highly civilized1 bread forms the chief article of food and often almost the entire diet1 even at the present time2 but as man progresses in civilization he seems to require a greater variety of food1 and he accordingly devises means of getting it4 ,since bread is only one of the many foods he finds at his disposal1 it does not assume a place of so much importance in present-day meals as it formerly did4 ,however1 it still makes up a sufficient proportion of the food of every family to warrant such careful and extensive study1 as well as such mastery of the processes involved1 that the housewife may present to her family only the best quality of this food4 ,although it does not have such extensive use as it had in the past1 bread of some description1 whether in the form of loaves1 biscuits1 or rolls1 forms a part of each meal in every household4 ,this fact proves that1 with the exception of milk1 it is more frequently eaten than any other food4 ,a food so constantly used contributes very largely to the family's health if it is properly made4 ,however1 there is possibly nothing in the whole range of domestic life that so disturbs the welfare of the entire family as an inferior quality of this food1 which1 besides proving detrimental to the digestion1 adds materially to the household expense4 #e4 ,of course1 in many bakeries1 bread of an excellent quality is made in a perfectly hygienic manner1 and to be able to procure such bread is a wonderful help to the busy housewife or to the woman who finds it inconvenient to make her own bread4 ,still1 practically every person enjoys home-made bread so much more than what is made commercially that the housewife will do well to make a careful study of this branch of cookery4 ,if it is properly understood1 it will not be found difficult2 but the woman who takes it up must manifest her interest to master a few essential principles and to follow them explicitly4 ,after she has obtained the knowledge that she must possess1 experience and practice will give her the skill necessary to prevent poor results and a consequent waste of material4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ingredients ,,for ,,bread ,,making ,,ingredients ,,required #f4 ,possibly the first essential to a correct knowledge of bread making is familiarity with the ingredients required4 ,these are few in number1 being merely flour1 liquid1 which may be either milk or water1 sugar1 salt1 and yeast2 but the nature of these1 particularly the flour and the yeast1 is such as to demand careful consideration4 ,it will be admitted that the more the housewife knows about bread-making materials and processes the greater will be her success in this work4 ,likewise1 it is extremely important that this food be made just as wholesome as possible1 for next to milk and eggs1 bread ranks as a perfect food1 containing all the elements necessary for the growth of the body4 ,this does not mean1 though1 that any of these foods used as the sole article of diet would be ideal1 but that each one of them is of such composition that it alone would sustain life for a long period of time4 ,,flour #g4 ,grains ,used for ,flour4--,as has been pointed out elsewhere1 numerous grains are raised by man1 but only two of them1 namely1 wheat and rye1 are used alone for the making of yeast1 or leavened1 bread4 ,the other grains1 such as corn1 rice1 and oats1 produce a flat1 unleavened cake1 so they are seldom used for bread making unless they are mixed with white flour4 ,wheat and rye have been used for bread making for a very long time1 and their universal use today is due to the fact that they contain considerable protein in the form of gluten4 ,this is the substance that produces elasticity in the dough mixture1 a condition that is absolutely essential in the making of raised bread4 ,in fact1 the toughness and elasticity of bread dough are what make it possible for the dough to catch and hold air and gas and thus produce a light1 porous loaf4 #h4 ,of these two grains1 rye is used less extensively in the ,united ,states for the making of bread than wheat1 although in some countries1 particularly the inland countries of ,continental ,europe1 considerable use is made of it4 ,its limited use here is undoubtedly due to the fact that when rye is used alone it makes a moist1 sticky bread1 which is considered undesirable by most persons4 ,the reason for this is that1 although rye contains a sufficient quantity of gluten1 this substance is not of the proper quality to make the elastic dough that produces a light1 spongy loaf4 ,therefore1 when rye is used1 wheat flour is generally mixed with it4 ,the result is a bread having a good texture1 but the dark color and the typical flavor that rye produces4 #i4 ,wheat1 the other grain used for bread making1 is an annual grass of unknown origin4 ,it is used more extensively for food than any other grain4 ,in fact1 it has been estimated that the average quantity consumed by each person is about #f bushels a year1 and of this amount by far the greater part is used in the making of bread4 ,since so much of this grain is used as food1 considerable time and effort have been spent in developing those qualities which are most desirable for the purpose to which wheat is put and in perfecting the processes whereby wheat flour of a good quality may be obtained4 ,this grain is particularly well adapted for bread making because of the nature of the proteins it contains and the relative proportions of these4 ,these proteins1 which occur in the wheat grain in the form of gluten1 are known as gliadin and glutenin4 ,the gliadin imparts elasticity and tenacity1 or toughness1 to the gluten1 and the glutenin gives it strength4 ,it is not1 however1 so much the quantity of gluten in the wheat grain that actually determines the quality of flour as the fact that the two varieties must be present in the proper proportions in order for the gluten to have the properties desired for bread making4 ,wheat consists of numerous varieties1 but only two of these are grown and used in the ,united ,states1 namely1 spring1 or hard1 wheat and winter1 or soft1 wheat4 #aj4 ,,spring1 ,,or ,,hard ,,wheat is so named because it is sown in the spring of the year and is very tough or firm4 ,before this variety was known1 the wheat used for bread making was not ideal1 and the efforts that were made to produce a grain that would be suitable for this purpose resulted in this variety4 ,to obtain its particular composition1 spring wheat must be grown under suitable climatic and soil conditions4 ,in ,north ,america1 it grows in the north central part of the ,united ,states and along the southern border of ,canada4 ,this variety1 which is harvested in the late summer1 is characterized by a large proportion of gluten and a correspondingly small amount of starch4 ,it is the presence of the gluten that accounts for the hardness of the spring-wheat grain and the tough1 elastic quality of the dough made from the spring-wheat flour4 ,bread dough1 to be right1 must have this quality1 so that the flour made from spring wheat is used almost exclusively for bread2 whereas1 for cake and pastry1 which should have a tender1 unelastic texture1 flour made from soft wheat is more satisfactory4 #aa4 ,,winter1 ,,or ,,soft ,,wheat derives its name from the fact that it is planted in the autumn and is soft in texture4 ,it is of less importance in the making of bread than spring1 or hard1 wheat1 but it is the kind that has been grown for centuries and from which the varieties of spring wheat have been cultivated4 ,it is a softer grain than spring wheat1 because it contains less gluten and more starch4 ,the flour made from it does not produce so elastic a dough mixture as does that made from the other variety of wheat2 consequently1 the finished product1 such as bread1 rolls1 etc41 is likely to be more tender and more friable1 or crumbly4 ,it is for this reason that winter1 or soft1 wheat is not used extensively for bread1 but is employed for pastry flour or mixed with spring wheat to make what is called a blend flour1 which may be used for all purposes4 #ab4 ,,structure ,,of ,,wheat ,,grain4--,in its natural state1 wheat contains all the food substances required for the nourishment of the human body in nearly the proper proportions1 and in addition it has in its composition sufficient cellulose to give it considerable bulk4 ,it has been estimated that the average composition of this grain is as follows3 ,,per ,,cent4 ,protein44444444444444444444444444444444 444444 #aa4i ,fat444444444444444444444444444444444444 444444 #b4a ,carbohydrates44444444444444444444444444 444444 #ga4i ,mineral salts444444444444444444444444444444444 #a4h ,water4444444444444444444444444444444444 444444 #aj4e ,cellulose444444444444444444444444444444 4444444 #a4h ,total4444444444444444444444444444444444 44444 #ajj4j ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,so that the composition of wheat and the making of wheat flour may be more clearly understood1 it will be well to observe the structure of a grain1 or kernel1 of wheat1 which is shown greatly enlarged in ,fig4 #a4 ,at a is shown the germ of the young plant1 which remains undeveloped until the grain is planted4 ,this part contains practically all the fat found in the grain1 some starch1 and a small quantity of protein4 ,at b is shown the inside of the kernel1 or the endosperm1 as it is called1 which is composed of starch granules interlaced with protein and mineral salts4 ,surrounding these1 as at c1 is a layer of coarse cells that contain mineral matter and protein1 and between these cells and the outer husk1 as at d1 e1 f1 and g1 are layers of bran1 which are composed of cellulose and contain mineral salts and small quantities of starch and protein4 ,enveloping the entire kernel is a husk1 or bran covering1 h4 ,this forms a protection to the rest of the grain1 but it cannot be used as food1 because it is composed almost entirely of cellulose1 which is practically indigestible4 ,the center of the grain1 or the heart1 is the softest part and consists of cells filled with starch4 ,from this soft center the contents of the grain gradually grow harder toward the outside1 the harder part and that containing the most gluten occurring next to the bran covering4 #ac4 ,,milling ,,of ,,wheat ,,flour4--,great advances have been made in the production of flour from wheat1 and these are very good evidence of man's progress in the way of invention4 ,the earliest method consisted in crushing the grain by hand between two stones1 and from this crude device came the mortar and pestle4 ,a little later millstones in the form of thick1 heavy disks were brought into use for grinding grain4 ,two of these stones were placed so that their surfaces came together1 the lower one being stationary and the upper one made to revolve4 ,early grinding apparatus of this kind was turned by human power1 but this kind of power was first displaced by domestic animals and later by wind and water4 ,out of this arrangement1 which is still used to some extent in small mills1 has grown the present-day complicated machinery of the roller process1 by which any part of the grain may be included or rejected4 #ad4 ,in the roller process1 the grain is crushed between metal rolls instead of being ground between stones4 ,it is first screened in order to separate all foreign matter from it1 and then stored in bins4 ,when it is taken from these receptacles1 it is put through another cleaning process1 called scouring1 or it is thoroughly washed and dried in order to loosen the dirt that clings to it and to free it entirely from dust1 lint1 etc4 ,as soon as it is completely cleansed1 it is softened by heat and moisture and then passed through a set of corrugated rollers1 which are adjustable as are the rubber rollers of a clothes wringer and which flatten and break the grains4 ,after this first crushing1 some of the bran is sifted out1 while the main portion of the grain is put through another set of rollers and crushed more finely4 ,during the milling1 these processes of crushing the grain and removing the bran are repeated from six to nine times1 each pair of rollers being set somewhat closer than the pair before1 until the grain is pulverized4 ,after the grain has been thus reduced to a powder1 it is passed through bolting cloth1 which acts as a very fine sieve and separates from it any foreign material that may remain4 ,the result is a very fine1 white flour4 #ae4 ,,graham ,,flour4--,sometimes the entire grain1 including the bran1 germ1 etc41 is ground fine enough merely for baking purposes and is used as flour in this form4 ,such flour is called graham flour4 ,it contains all the nutriment1 mineral matter1 and cellulose of the original grain1 and is therefore considered valuable as food4 ,however1 the objection to this kind of flour is that its keeping quality is not so good as that of the kinds from which the germ has been removed1 because the fat contained in the germ is liable to become rancid4 #af4 ,,whole-,,wheat ,,flour4--,the best grades of fine white flour make bread of excellent quality1 but such bread is not so nutritious as that made from whole-wheat flour4 ,in the making of this kind of flour1 some of the choicest varieties of wheat are first moistened in order to soften the woody fiber of the bran and are then sifted until the outer husk of the grain is removed4 ,after this treatment1 the grains are dried and then pulverized into various grades of so-called whole-wheat flour4 ,the name whole-wheat flour is misleading1 because it implies that all of the grain is used2 whereas1 since several of the outer layers of bran and the germ are removed in its production1 whole-wheat flour is merely flour in which practically all the gluten and the starch are retained4 ,because this variety is not sifted as are the white flours1 it is not so fine as they are2 but it is not so coarse as graham flour1 nor is bread made from it so dark in color4 ,both graham and whole-wheat flours produce a more wholesome bread than any of the varieties of white flour1 because they contain more of the nutritive elements and mineral salts1 which are necessary in the diet4 ,the bran that is retained in them is not used by the body as food1 but it adds bulk to the diet and assists in carrying on the normal functions of the digestive tract4 #ag4 ,,selection ,,of ,,flour4--,if a large quantity of flour must be bought at one time1 as1 for instance1 enough to last through an entire season1 it is advisable to test it carefully before the purchase is made1 so as to avoid the danger of getting a poor grade4 ,as a rule1 however1 housewives are obliged to purchase only a small quantity at a time4 ,in such cases1 it will not be necessary to test the flour before purchasing it1 provided a standard make is selected4 ,very often1 too1 a housewife in a small family finds it inconvenient to keep on hand a supply of both bread flour and pastry flour4 ,in such an event1 a blend flour1 which1 as has been mentioned1 is a mixture of flour made from spring and winter wheat that will do for all purposes1 is the kind to purchase4 ,while such flour is not ideal for either bread or pastry1 it serves the purpose of both very well4 #ah4 ,,quality ,,of ,,flour4--,flour is put on the market in various grades1 and is named according to its quality4 ,the highest grade1 or best quality1 is called high-grade patent2 the next grade1 bakers'2 and the next1 second-grade patent4 ,the lowest grade1 or poorest quality1 is called red dog4 ,this grade is seldom sold for food purposes1 but it is used considerably for the making of paste4 ,the quality of flour used in bread making is of very great importance1 because flour of poor quality will not1 of course1 make good bread4 ,every housewife should therefore be familiar with the characteristics of good flour and should buy accordingly4 #ai4 ,several tests can be applied to flour to determine its kind and its quality4 ,the first test is its color4 ,bread flour1 or flour made from spring wheat1 is usually of a creamy-white color1 while pastry flour1 or that made from winter wheat1 is more nearly pure white in color4 ,a dark1 chalky-white1 or gray color indicates that the flour is poor in quality4 ,the second test is the feel of the flour4 ,a pinch of good bread flour1 when rubbed lightly between the thumb and the index finger1 will be found to be rather coarse and the particles will feel sharp and gritty4 ,when good pastry flour is treated in the same way1 it will feel smooth and powdery4 ,the third test is its adhering power4 ,when squeezed tightly in the hand1 good bread flour holds together in a mass and retains slightly the impression of the fingers2 poor bread flour treated in the same way either does not retain its shape or1 provided it contains too much moisture1 is liable to make a damp1 hard lump4 ,the odor of flour might also be considered a test4 ,flour must not have a musty odor nor any other odor foreign to the normal1 rather nutty flavor that is characteristic of flour4 ,the bleaching and adulteration of flour are governed by the ,united ,states laws4 ,bleaching is permitted only when it does not reduce the quality or strength nor conceal any damage or inferiority4 ,such flour must be plainly labeled to show that it has been bleached4 #bj4 ,,care ,,of ,,flour4--,there is considerable economy in buying flour in large quantities1 but unless an adequate storing place can be secured1 it is advisable to buy only small amounts at a time4 ,flour absorbs odors very readily1 so that when it is not bought in barrels it should if possible be purchased in moisture-proof bags4 ,then1 after it is purchased1 it should be kept where it will remain dry and will not be accessible to odors1 for unless the storage conditions are favorable1 it will soon acquire an offensive odor and become unfit for use4 ,flour sometimes becomes infested with weevils1 or beetles1 whose presence can be detected by little webs4 ,to prevent the entrance of insects and vermin of all kinds1 flour should be kept in tightly closed bins after it is taken from the barrels or sacks in which it is purchased4 ,if newly purchased flour is found to be contaminated with such insects1 it should be returned to the dealer4 ,,yeast #ba4 ,,nature ,,and ,,action ,,of ,,yeast4--,how yeast came to be discovered is not definitely known1 but its discovery is believed to have been purely accidental4 ,some mixture of flour and liquid was probably allowed to remain exposed to the air until it fermented and then when baked was found to be light and porous4 ,whatever the origin of this discovery was1 it is certain that yeast was used hundreds of years ago and that its action was not at that time understood4 ,even at the present time everything concerning the action of yeast is not known2 still continued study and observation have brought to light enough information to show that yeast is the agency that1 under favorable conditions1 produces light1 spongy bread out of a flour mixture4 #bb4 ,it has been determined that yeast is a microscopic plant existing everywhere in the air and in dust2 consequently1 it is found on all things that are exposed to air or dust4 ,in order that it may grow1 this plant requires the three things necessary for the growth of any plant1 namely1 food1 moisture1 and warmth4 ,carbohydrate in the form of sugar proves to be an ideal food for yeast1 and #gj to #ij degrees ,fahrenheit is the temperature at which the most rapid growth occurs4 ,when these conditions exist and a sufficient amount of moisture is provided1 yeast grows very rapidly and produces fermentation4 ,the changes that take place when yeast causes fermentation can be detected very readily by observing the fermenting of fruit juice4 ,as every housewife knows1 the first indication of a ferment in fruit juice is the appearance of tiny bubbles1 which collect on the sides and the bottom of the vessel containing the fruit and then gradually rise to the top4 ,these bubbles are a form of gas called carbon-dioxide1 or carbonic-acid1 gas4 ,if1 after they appear1 the juice is tasted1 it will be found to be slightly alcoholic and to have a somewhat sour or acid taste4 ,the gas1 the acid1 and the alcohol thus produced are the three results of the action of the ferment4 #bc4 ,when yeast is used in the making of bread out of wheat flour1 the changes just mentioned take place4 ,to understand the action of this plant1 it will be necessary to remember that wheat contains a large proportion of starch4 ,this substance1 however1 cannot be acted on by the yeast plant2 it must first be changed into sugar4 ,the yeast that is added to the flour changes some of the starch into sugar and transforms the sugar into alcohol and carbonic-acid gas4 ,this gas1 which is lighter than the dough1 rises1 and in its efforts to escape expands the elastic1 glutinous dough into a mass of bubbles with thin walls until the dough is two or three times its original bulk4 ,the yeast plants1 though1 must be well distributed throughout the dough2 otherwise1 there are likely to be no bubbles in some places and large bubbles with thick walls in others4 ,the gas thus formed is prevented from escaping by the toughness or the elasticity of the gluten1 and the spaces that it leaves are what produce a light1 porous loaf4 ,when the expansion has gone on long enough1 the formation of gas is checked and the ferment is killed by baking the dough in a hot oven4 ,during the baking1 the alcohol is driven off by heat1 some of the starch is browned and forms the crust1 and so little acid is produced in the short time in which the yeast is active that it is not noticeable4 #bd4 ,commercial ,yeast4--,when yeast plants are deprived of water and food1 they cease to multiply4 ,however1 under these conditions1 they may be kept alive so that when water and food are again provided they will increase in number and carry on their work4 ,advantage has been taken of these characteristics of yeast1 for although at one time the making of yeast was entirely a household process1 it has now1 like butter1 cheese1 canned fruit1 etc41 become a commercial product4 ,the first yeast put on the market was collected from the surface of the contents of brewers' vats1 where it floated in large quantities2 but as this was an impure1 unreliable product composed of various kinds of bacteria1 it is no longer used for the purpose of making bread4 ,at present1 yeast is carefully grown as a pure yeast culture1 or product4 ,it is marketed in such a way that when proper food1 such as soft dough1 or sponge1 and a favorable temperature are provided1 the plants will multiply and act on the carbohydrate that they find in the food4 ,in fact1 the purpose of the well-known process of setting a sponge is to obtain a large number of yeast plants from a few4 ,commercial yeast is placed on the market in two forms--moist and dry4 ,each of these yeasts has its advantages1 so that the one to select depends on the method preferred for the making of bread as well as the time that may be devoted to the preparation of this food4 #be4 ,moist yeast1 which is usually called compressed yeast1 consists of the pure yeast culture1 or growth1 mixed with starch to make a sort of dough and then compressed into small cakes1 the form in which it is sold4 ,the moist condition of this kind of commercial yeast keeps the plants in an active state and permits of very rapid growth in a dough mixture4 ,consequently1 it proves very useful for the rapid methods of making bread4 ,it is soft1 yet brittle1 is of a grayish-white color1 and has no odor except that of yeast4 ,since the plants of compressed yeast require very little moisture to make them grow1 an unfavorable1 or low1 temperature is needed to keep the yeast from spoiling2 in fact1 it is not guaranteed to remain good longer than a few days1 and then only if it is kept at a temperature low enough to prevent the plants from growing4 ,this fact makes it inadvisable to purchase compressed yeast at great distances from the source of supply1 although it may be obtained by parcel post from manufacturers or dealers4 #bf4 ,dry yeast1 the other form of commercial yeast1 is made in much the same way as moist yeast1 but1 instead of being mixed with a small amount of starch1 the yeast culture is combined with a large quantity of starch or meal and then dried4 ,the process of drying kills off some of the plants and renders the remainder inactive2 because of this1 the yeast requires no special care and will keep for an indefinite period of time1 facts that account for its extensive use by housewives who are not within easy reach of the markets4 ,however1 because of the inactivity of the yeast plants1 much longer time is required to produce fermentation in a bread mixture containing dry yeast than in one in which moist yeast is used4 ,consequently1 the long processes of bread making are brought about by the use of dry yeast4 ,if moist yeast is used for these processes1 a smaller quantity is required4 #bg4 ,liquid ,yeast4--,some housewives are so situated that they find it difficult to obtain commercial yeast in either of its forms2 but this disadvantage need not deprive them of the means of making good home-made bread1 for they can prepare a very satisfactory liquid yeast themselves4 ,to make such yeast1 flour1 water1 and a small quantity of sugar are stirred together1 and the mixture is then allowed to remain at ordinary room temperature1 or #gj degrees ,fahrenheit1 until it is filled with bubbles4 ,if hops are available1 a few of them may be added4 ,when such yeast is added to a sponge mixture1 it will lighten the whole amount4 ,before the sponge is made stiff with flour1 however1 a little of it should be taken out1 put in a covered dish1 and set away in a cool1 dark place for the next baking4 ,if properly looked after in the manner explained1 this yeast may be kept for about #b weeks4 ,more certain results and a better flavor are insured in the use of liquid yeast if it is started with commercial yeast1 so that whenever this can be obtained it should be used4 ,then1 as just explained1 some of the liquid containing the yeast or some of the sponge made with it may be retained for the next baking4 #bh4 ,quality of ,yeast4--,of equal importance with the quality of flour is the quality of yeast used in the baking of bread4 ,yeast is1 of course1 accountable for the lightness or sponginess of bread1 but1 in addition1 it improves the flavor of the bread if it is of good quality or detracts from the flavor if it is of poor quality4 ,since the condition of yeast cannot be determined until its effect on the finished product is noted1 the housewife should take no chances1 but should employ only yeast1 whether she uses commercial or liquid1 that she knows to be good and reliable4 ,compressed yeast may be easily judged as to quality4 ,it should be grayish white in color1 without streaks or spots1 and it should have no sour nor disagreeable odor4 ,if home-made yeast is used and the results obtained are not satisfactory1 it may be taken for granted that a fresh supply should be prepared4 ,,yeast ,,aids #bi4 ,as has already been explained1 yeast1 in order to grow1 requires something on which to feed1 and the food that produces the most rapid growth is that which contains carbohydrate4 ,certain of the carbohydrates1 however1 prove to be better food and produce more rapid growth than others1 and these1 which are known as yeast aids1 are usually added as ingredients in the making of bread4 ,the ones that are most commonly used are sugar and potato water4 ,sugar is almost always added1 but it should be limited in quantity1 because a dough mixture that is made heavy with sugar will rise very slowly4 ,potato water has been found to be a very satisfactory aid1 because the starch of the potato is utilized readily by the yeast4 ,if this aid is to be used1 the water in which potatoes are boiled may be saved and1 when the ingredients required for the making of bread are mixed1 it may be added as a part or all of the liquid required4 ,if it is desired to increase the amount of starch in the potato water1 a boiled potato or two may be mashed and added to it4 ,,milk ,,and ,,fat ,,in ,,bread #cj4 ,milk is sometimes used as a part or as all of the liquid in bread4 ,while it adds nutritive value and is thought by many persons to improve the texture1 it is not absolutely essential to successful bread making4 ,whenever milk is used1 it should first be scalded thoroughly4 ,a point that should not be overlooked in connection with the use of milk is that the crust of milk bread browns more readily and has a more uniform color than that of bread in which water is used as liquid4 #ca4 ,like milk1 fat adds nutritive value to bread1 but it is not an essential ingredient4 ,if it is included1 care should be taken not to use too much1 for an excessive amount will retard the growth of the yeast4 ,almost any kind of fat1 such as butter1 lard or other clear tasteless fats1 or any mixture of these1 may be used for this purpose1 provided it does not impart an unpleasant flavor to the bread4 ,,proportion ,,of ,,bread-,,making ,,materials #cb4 ,no definite rule can be given for the exact proportion of liquid and flour to be used in bread making1 because some kinds of flour absorb much more liquid than others4 ,it has been determined1 however1 that #c cupfuls of flour is generally needed for each small loaf of bread4 ,with this known1 the quantity of flour can be determined by the amount of bread that is to be made4 ,the quantity of liquid required depends on the quantity and kind of flour selected1 but usually there should be about one-third as much liquid as flour4 ,the particular method that is selected for the making of bread1 as is explained later1 determines the amount of yeast to be used4 ,if it is desired not to have the bread rise quickly1 a small quantity1 about one eighth cake of compressed yeast or #b tablespoonfuls of liquid yeast1 is sufficient for each loaf2 but if rapid rising is wanted1 two1 three1 or four times as much yeast must be used to produce a sufficient amount of carbon dioxide in less time4 ,it should be remembered that the more yeast used1 the more quickly will the necessary gas be created1 and that1 as has already been shown1 it is the formation of gas that makes bread light and porous4 ,in addition to flour1 liquid1 and yeast1 #a teaspoonful of salt1 #a tablespoonful of sugar1 and #a tablespoonful of fat are the ingredients generally used for each loaf of bread4 ,,utensils ,,for ,,bread ,,making ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 #cc4 ,necessary ,equipment4--,not many utensils are required for bread making1 but the ones that are needed must be of the right kind if the best results are to be obtained4 ,the necessary equipment is illustrated in ,fig4 #b4 ,it includes a mixing bowl and cover a2 a flour sieve b2 measuring cups c of standard size1 one for moist and one for dry ingredients1 measuring spoons d1 and a case knife or a spatula e for measuring2 a long-handled spoon f for mixing2 and baking1 or bread1 pans g4 ,unless the table is such that it can be used as a molding board1 it will be necessary to provide in addition to the equipment mentioned1 a molding board of suitable size4 ,the mixing bowl may be an earthen one or a metal one like that shown in the illustration4 ,the size of the pans used and the material of which the pans are made should also receive attention4 ,the loaves will be found to bake more quickly and thoroughly if they are not made too large and each one is baked in a separate pan4 ,pans that are #h inches long1 #c #a_/b inches wide1 and #c inches deep are of a convenient size4 ,they may be made of tin1 sheet iron1 aluminum1 or heat-resisting glass1 the only requirements being that all the pans used at one baking be of the same material1 because1 as heat penetrates some materials more quickly than others1 the baking will then be more uniform4 #cd4 ,convenient ,equipment4--,while the utensils shown in ,fig4 #b are all that are actually required in the making of bread1 a bread mixer1 one style of which is described in ,essentials of ,cookery1 ,part #b1 will be found extremely convenient by the housewife who must bake large quantities of bread at one time and who has not a great deal of time to devote to the work4 ,this labor-saving device can be used and1 of course1 often is used by the housewife who makes only a small quantity of bread1 as1 for instance1 two to four loaves2 but it is not actually needed by her1 as she can handle such an amount easily and quickly4 ,a cooler1 which consists of a framework covered with wire netting and supported by short legs1 is also a convenient utensil1 as it serves as a good place on which to put baked bread to cool4 ,if one of these devices is not available1 however1 a substitute can be easily made by stretching a wire netting over a wooden frame4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,bread-,,making ,,processes ,,acquiring ,,skill ,,in ,,bread ,,making #ce4 ,the nature and the quality of the ingredients required to make bread1 as well as the utensils that are needed for this purpose1 being understood1 it is next in order to take up the actual work of making bread4 ,several processes are included in this work2 namely1 making the dough1 caring for the rising dough1 kneading the dough1 shaping the dough into loaves1 baking the loaves1 and caring for the bread after it is baked4 ,when the finished product is obtained1 the loaves are ready to be scored and served4 ,a knowledge of how to carry out these processes is of the utmost importance1 for much of the success achieved in bread making depends on the proper handling of the ingredients4 ,of course1 skill in manipulation is acquired only by constant practice1 so that the more opportunity the housewife has to apply her knowledge of the processes1 the more proficient will she become in this phase of cookery4 ,each one of the processes mentioned is here discussed in the order in which it comes in the actual work of bread making1 and while the proper consideration should be given to every one of them1 it will be well1 before entering into them1 to observe the qualities that characterize good wheat bread4 #cf4 ,good wheat bread may be described in various ways1 but1 as has been learned by experience and as is pointed out by ,united ,states government authorities1 probably the best way in which to think of it1 so far as its structure is concerned1 is as a mass of tiny bubbles made of flour and water1 having very thin walls and fixed in shape by means of heat4 ,the size of the cells and the nature of the bubble walls are points that should not be overlooked4 ,each loaf should be light in weight1 considering its size1 should be regular in form1 and should have an unbroken1 golden-brown crust4 ,the top crust should be smooth and should have a luster1 which is usually spoken of as the bloom of the crust4 ,taken as a whole1 the loaf should have a certain sponginess1 which is known as its elasticity1 and which is evidenced by the way in which the loaf acts when it is pressed slightly out of shape4 ,as soon as the pressure is removed1 the loaf should resume its original shape4 ,this test should produce the same results when it is applied to small pieces of the crust and to the cut surface of the loaf4 ,the internal appearance must also receive consideration4 ,to be right1 wheat bread should be creamy white in color and should have a definite sheen1 which can best be seen by looking across a slice1 rather than directly down into it4 ,as already explained1 the holes in it should be small and evenly distributed and their walls should be very thin4 ,these points can be readily determined by holding a very thin slice up to the light4 ,the flavor of bread is also a very important factor1 but it is somewhat difficult to describe just the exact flavor that bread should have in order to be considered good4 ,probably the best way in which to explain this is to say that its flavor should be that which is brought about by treating the wheat with salt4 ,while such a flavor may not be known to all1 it is familiar to those who have tasted the wheat kernel4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,making ,,the ,,dough ,,preliminary ,,treatment ,,of ,,ingredients #cg4 ,the first step in bread making1 and without doubt the most important one1 is the making of the dough4 ,it consists in moistening the flour by means of a liquid of some kind in order to soften the gluten and the starch1 to dissolve the sugar1 and to cement all the particles together1 and then combining these ingredients4 ,before the ingredients are combined1 however1 particularly the flour1 the liquid1 and the yeast1 they must generally be warmed in order to shorten the length of time necessary for the yeast to start growing4 ,much care should be exercised in heating these materials1 for good results will not be obtained unless they are brought to the proper temperature4 ,the flour should feel warm and the liquid1 whether it be water or milk1 should1 when it is added1 be of such a temperature that it also will feel warm to the fingers4 ,if water is used1 it ought to be just as pure as possible1 but if milk is preferred it should be used only after it has been scalded4 ,the yeast should be dissolved in a small quantity of lukewarm water4 ,hot water used for this purpose is liable to kill the yeast and prevent the bread from rising1 whereas cold water will retard the growth of the yeast4 ,,combining ,,the ,,ingredients #ch4 ,as soon as the bread ingredients have received the proper treatment1 they are ready to be combined4 ,combining may be done by two different methods1 one of which is known as the short process and the other as the long process4 ,as their names indicate1 these methods are characterized by the length of time required for the bread to rise4 ,each method has its advantages1 and the one to select depends on the amount of time and energy the housewife can afford to give to this part of her work4 ,persons who use the long process believe that bread made by it tastes better and keeps longer than that made by the short process2 whereas1 those who favor the short process find that it saves time and labor and are convinced that the quality of the bread is not impaired4 ,the more rapid methods of making breads are possible only when yeast in the active state is used and when more of it than would be necessary in the long process1 in which time must be allowed for its growth1 is employed4 ,however1 regardless of the method followed1 all bread mixtures must be begun in the same manner4 ,the liquids1 seasonings1 and fat are combined1 and to these is added the flour1 which should be sifted in1 as shown in ,fig4 #c4 #ci4 ,long ,process4--,by the long process1 there are two ways of combining the ingredients in order to make bread4 ,one is known as the sponge method and the other as the straight-dough method4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c #dj4 ,the long-process sponge method is employed when sufficient time can be allowed to permit the natural growth of the yeast4 ,to make bread according to this process1 start it in the evening by warming the liquid and dissolving the yeast and then adding these ingredients to the sugar1 salt1 and fat1 which should first be placed in the mixing bowl4 ,stir this mixture well1 and then add one-half of the quantity of flour that is to be used1 stirring this also4 ,place this mixture1 or sponge1 as such a mixture is called1 where it will remain warm1 or at a temperature of from #fe to #gj degrees ,fahrenheit1 through the night4 ,in the morning1 stir the remaining flour into the sponge and knead for a few minutes the dough thus formed4 ,when this is accomplished1 put the dough in a warm place and allow it to rise until it doubles in bulk4 ,when the dough is in this condition1 it is ready to be kneaded again1 after which it may be shaped into loaves1 placed in the pans1 allowed to double in bulk again1 and finally baked4 #da4 ,the long-process straight-dough method is a shortened form of the method just explained4 ,it does away with the necessity of one kneading and one rising and consequently saves considerable time and labor4 ,to make bread by this method1 combine the ingredients in the evening as for the sponge method1 but instead of adding only half of the flour1 put all of it into the mixture1 make a stiff dough at once1 and knead4 ,then allow this to rise during the night1 so that in the morning it can be kneaded again and put directly into the bread pans4 ,after it rises in the pans until it doubles in bulk1 it is ready to be baked4 ,the only disadvantage of the straight-dough method is that a stiff dough rises more slowly than a sponge1 but since the entire night is given to the rising no difficulty will be experienced in carrying out this process4 ,a point to remember1 however1 is that dough made according to this method must be kept warmer than that made by the sponge method4 #db4 ,quick ,process4--,in the quick process of combining bread ingredients1 there are also two methods of procedure--the sponge method and the straight-dough method4 ,the chief differences between the methods of this process and those of the long process are in the quantity of yeast used and the length of time required for the bread to rise4 ,more yeast must be used and much less time is required for the completion of the entire process4 ,this shorter period of time is doubtless due to the fact that throughout the process1 whether the straight-dough or the sponge method is followed1 the mixture must be kept at a uniform temperature of about #ij degrees ,fahrenheit4 #dc4 ,the quick-process sponge method requires only about #e hours for its completion1 and the bread may be started at any time of the day that will allow this amount of time for carrying on the work4 ,for this method1 warm the ingredients and then combine the sugar1 salt1 fat1 liquid1 and dissolved yeast4 ,into this mixture1 stir enough of the flour to make a sponge and put it where it will keep uniformly warm until it has about doubled in quantity and is full of bubbles4 ,then add the remainder of the flour1 knead the mixture1 and return the dough thus formed to a warm place4 ,when the dough has doubled in bulk1 remove it from the bowl to the kneading board1 knead it slightly1 and then shape it into loaves4 ,place these into the pans1 and after allowing them to rise sufficiently1 bake them4 #dd4 ,the quick-process straight-dough method differs from the quick-process sponge method in that the entire amount of flour is added when the ingredients are first mixed1 with the result that a stiff dough instead of a sponge is formed4 ,as has already been learned1 this stiff dough rises more slowly than a sponge1 but it requires one rising less4 ,it must be kept at a uniform temperature as much of the time as possible1 so that the rising will not be retarded4 ,when it has doubled in bulk1 remove it from the bowl and knead it4 ,then shape it into loaves1 place these in the pans1 allow them to rise sufficiently1 and proceed with the baking4 ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,rising ,,dough #de4 ,purpose of ,rising4--,rising is an important part of the process of bread making1 no matter which method is employed4 ,in a sponge1 its purpose is to blend the ingredients after they have been mixed1 as well as to permit the growth of the yeast2 in a dough1 after the gas has been evenly distributed by means of kneading1 the purpose of rising is to permit the incorporation of a sufficient quantity of carbon dioxide to make the bread light when it is baked4 ,as has just been explained1 three risings are necessary in the sponge method of both the long and the short process1 whereas only two are required in the straight-dough methods4 ,the last rising1 or the one that takes place after the dough is shaped into loaves1 is the one that affects the texture of the bread most1 so that it should receive considerable attention4 ,if the dough is not allowed to rise sufficiently at this time1 the bread will be too fine in texture and will likely be heavy2 and if it is permitted to rise too much1 it will be coarse in texture4 ,allowance1 however1 should be made for the fact that the rising will continue after the bread has been placed in the oven4 #df4 ,temperature for ,rising4--,as has been mentioned1 the best results are obtained if the bread dough is kept at a uniform temperature throughout its rising4 ,the temperature at which it rises most rapidly is about #hf degrees ,fahrenheit2 but1 unless it can be watched closely1 a better plan is to keep it1 especially if the long process of bread making is followed1 at a temperature that runs no higher than #hj degrees4 ,various methods of maintaining a uniform temperature have been devised1 but the ones usually resorted to consist in placing the bowl containing the sponge or the dough in a bread raiser1 a fireless cooker1 or a vessel of hot water4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d #dg4 ,bread raisers can be purchased1 but if desired a simple bread-raising device may be constructed from a good-sized wooden box4 ,to make such a device1 line the box with tin or similar metal and fit it with a door or a cover that may be closed tight4 ,make a hole in one side of the box into which to insert a thermometer1 and1 at about the center of the box1 place a shelf on which to set the bowl or pan containing the sponge or dough4 ,for heating the interior1 use may be made of a single gas burner1 an oil lamp1 or any other small heating device4 ,this should be placed in the bottom of the box1 under the shelf1 and over it should be placed a pan of water to keep the air in the box moist1 moist air being essential to good results4 ,where large quantities of bread must be baked regularly1 such a device will prove very satisfactory4 ,the temperature inside should be kept somewhere in the neighborhood of #ie to #aje degrees ,fahrenheit if the bread is to rise rapidly2 but it may be kept from #hj to #ie degrees if slower rising is desired4 #dh4 ,placing the bowl containing the dough mixture in a larger vessel of hot water is a simple and satisfactory way of obtaining a uniform temperature1 being especially desirable for a sponge in the quick-process sponge method4 ,the water in the large vessel should be at a temperature of about #aaj to #aae degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,after the bowl of sponge or dough is placed in the water1 the large vessel should be covered very carefully1 so that the heat from the water will be retained4 ,to maintain the temperature in the vessel and thus keep it right for the bread mixture1 the hot water has to be replenished occasionally4 ,if this is done1 the sponge or dough will be maintained at a temperature of about #ij degrees and will therefore rise rapidly4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e #di4 ,to insure the best results with the rising of bread mixtures1 it is advisable1 for the beginner at least1 to use a thermometer for determining the temperature of air or water1 as this instrument will save considerable time until experience in judging such matters has been gained4 ,a ,fahrenheit thermometer like that shown in ,fig4 #d is the ideal kind for use in bread making4 ,as an aid in this process1 there are indicated in this illustration the temperature at which dough should be kept for rising and the temperature at which water should be kept outside the bowl to maintain a temperature of #ge to #ij degrees in the dough when the plan mentioned in ,art4 #dh for keeping dough at a uniform temperature is followed4 ,in addition1 the oven temperatures for baking bread and rolls1 which are explained later1 are also shown4 ,the temperature of water can1 however1 be determined fairly accurately with the hands4 ,if it feels very warm but does not burn the hand1 it may be considered at about a temperature of #aaj to #aae degrees4 ,in order to prevent the formation of a hard surface on the dough1 the bowl in which it rises should be kept tightly covered4 ,a further means of preventing this condition consists in oiling the surface of the dough2 that is1 brushing it lightly with melted fat4 ,in case a crust does form1 it should be well moistened with water or milk and allowed to soften completely before the next kneading is begun4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f #ej4 ,time ,required for ,rising4--,no definite rule can be given for the length of time required for dough to rise1 for this depends entirely on the activity of the yeast4 ,if the yeast is active1 the dough will rise quickly2 but if it is not of good quality or if it has been killed or retarded in its growth by improper handling1 the dough will rise slowly4 ,usually1 dough should be allowed to rise until it has doubled in bulk4 ,a good way in which to determine when this takes place is to put a small piece of the dough in a glass1 such as a measuring glass1 a tumbler1 or a jelly glass1 and mark on this glass where the dough should come when it has increased to twice its size4 ,this glass set beside the vessel containing the dough will show when it has risen sufficiently4 ,this plan is illustrated in ,figs4 #e and #f4 ,fig4 #e shows a glass half filled with dough and a bowl of bread dough ready to be placed where they will keep warm for the first rising2 and ,fig4 #f shows the same dough after it has doubled in bulk1 as is evident from the fact that the glass is entirely full4 ,,kneading ,,the ,,dough ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g #ea4 ,purpose of ,kneading4--,as has been pointed out1 it is necessary to knead dough one or more times in the making of bread1 the number of kneadings depending on the method that is employed4 ,the purpose of kneading is to work the dough so as to distribute evenly the gas that is produced by the yeast1 to increase the elasticity of the gluten1 and to blend the ingredients4 ,it is a very important part of the work of bread making1 for to a great extent it is responsible for the texture of the finished product4 ,at first1 kneading may be found to be somewhat difficult1 but the beginner need not become discouraged if she is not proficient at once1 because the skill that is necessary to knead the bread successfully comes with practice4 ,so that the best results may be attained1 however1 it is advisable that the purpose for which the kneading is done be kept constantly before the mind during the process4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #h ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i #eb4 ,kneading ,motions4--,several motions are involved in the kneading of bread1 and these are illustrated in ,figs4 #g to #aj4 ,in order to carry out the kneading process1 first cover lightly with flour the surface on which the kneading is to be done2 this may be a suitable table top or a molding board placed on a table4 ,then remove the dough from the mixing bowl with the aid of a case knife or a spatula1 in the manner shown in ,fig4 #f1 and place it on the floured surface4 ,sift a little flour over the dough1 so that it appears as in ,fig4 #g1 and flatten it slightly by patting it gently4 ,next1 with the fingers placed as shown in ,fig4 #h1 take hold of the edge of the mass at the side farthest from you and fold the dough over the edge nearest you1 as ,fig4 #i illustrates4 ,then work the dough with a downward pressure and1 as indicated in ,fig4 #aj1 push it out with the palms of the hands4 ,with the motion completed1 turn the entire mass around and knead it in the same way in another direction4 ,continue the kneading by repeating these motions until the dough has a smooth appearance1 is elastic1 does not stick to either the hands or the board1 and rises quickly when it is pressed down4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aj ,to prevent the dough from sticking to the hands and the board1 flour should be added gradually during the process of kneading1 but care should be taken not to use too much flour for this purpose4 ,the lightness and sponginess of the finished loaf depend largely on the quantity of flour used at this time1 so that if the dough is made too stiff with flour1 the bread will be hard and close after it is baked4 ,as soon as the dough can be kneaded without its sticking to either the hands or the board1 no more flour need be added2 but1 in case too much flour is used1 the dough may be softened by means of milk or water4 ,such dough1 however1 is not so satisfactory as that which does not have to be softened4 ,,shaping ,,the ,,dough ,,into ,,loaves #ec4 ,after the dough is properly kneaded in the manner just explained1 it is placed in the mixing bowl and allowed to rise again4 ,when it has risen sufficiently for the last time1 depending on the process employed1 it should be kneaded again1 if it must be reduced in size1 and then shaped into loaves and put in the pans4 ,here1 again1 much care should be exercised1 for the way in which bread is prepared for the pans has much to do with the shape of the loaf after it is baked4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #aa #ed4 ,in order to shape the dough into loaves1 first loosen it from the sides of the mixing bowl1 using a knife or a spatula for this purpose1 and then turn it out on a flat surface on which flour has been sprinkled1 as in preparing for kneading4 ,knead the dough a little1 and then cut it into pieces that will be the correct size for the pans in which the loaves are to be baked1 as shown at the right in ,fig4 #aa4 ,dust each piece with a small quantity of flour and knead it until the large bubbles of gas it contains are worked out and it is smooth and round4 ,in working it1 stretch the under side1 which is to be the top of the loaf1 and form it into a roll that is as long and half as high as the pan and as thick at each end as in the center4 ,a good idea of the size and shape can be formed from the loaf held in the hands in ,fig4 #aa4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ab #ee4 ,as each loaf is formed1 place it in the pan in the manner shown in ,fig4 #ab and allow it to rise until the dough comes to the top of the pan1 or has doubled in bulk4 ,so that the loaf will be symmetrical after it has risen--that is1 as high at each end as in the middle--the shaped dough must fit well into the corners and ends of the pan4 ,at a1 ,fig4 #ac1 is shown how dough placed in the pan for rising should appear1 and at b is illustrated how the dough should look after it has risen sufficiently to permit it to be placed in the oven for baking4 ,to produce the result illustrated at b1 the dough must be kept in a warm temperature1 and to exclude the air and prevent the formation of a hard crust on the dough1 it must be covered well with both a cloth and a metal cover4 ,another way in which to prevent the formation of a hard crust consists in greasing the surface of the dough when it is placed in the pan1 as at a1 for rising4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ac ,,baking ,,the ,,bread #ef4 ,,purpose ,,of ,,baking4--,the various processes in the making of bread that have been considered up to this point may be successfully carried out1 but unless the baking1 which is the last step1 is properly done1 the bread is likely to be unpalatable and indigestible4 ,much attention should therefore be given to this part of the work4 ,so that the best results may be obtained1 it should be borne in mind that bread is baked for the purpose of killing the ferment1 rupturing the starch grains of the flour so that they become digestible1 fixing the air cells1 and forming a nicely flavored crust4 ,during the process of baking1 certain changes take place in the loaf4 ,the gluten that the dough contains is hardened by the heat and remains in the shape of bubbles1 which give the bread a porous appearance2 also1 the starch contained in the dough is cooked within the loaf1 but the outside is first cooked and then toasted4 #eg4 ,,oven ,,temperature ,,for ,,baking4--,in baking bread1 it is necessary first to provide the oven with heat of the right temperature and of sufficient strength to last throughout the baking4 ,as is indicated in ,fig4 #d1 the usual oven temperature for successful bread baking is from #chj to #dbe degrees ,fahrenheit1 but in both the first and the last part of the baking the heat should be less than during the middle of it4 ,an oven thermometer or an oven gauge is a very good means of determining the temperature of the oven4 ,but if neither of these is available the heat may be tested by placing in the oven a white cracker1 a piece of white paper1 or a layer of flour spread on a shallow tin pan4 ,if any one of these becomes a light brown in #e minutes1 the oven is right to commence baking4 ,every precaution should be taken to have the oven just right at first1 for if the bread is placed in an oven that is too hot the yeast plant will be killed immediately and the rising consequently checked4 ,of course1 the bread will rise to some extent even if the yeast plant is killed at once1 for the carbon dioxide that the dough contains will expand as it becomes heated and will force the loaf up2 but bread baked in this way is generally very unsatisfactory1 because a hard crust forms on the top and it must either burst or retard the rising of the loaf4 ,if the heat is not sufficient1 the dough will continue to rise until the air cells run together and cause large holes to form in the loaf4 ,in an oven that is just moderately hot1 or has a temperature of about #djj degrees1 the yeast plant will not be killed so quickly1 the dough will continue to rise for some time1 and the crust of the bread should begin to brown in about #ae minutes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ad ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ae #eh4 ,fig4 #ad illustrates a loaf of bread that has risen too much4 ,the inside texture is coarse and the shape of the loaf is not good4 ,fig4 #ae shows the result of uneven temperature4 ,the high side is caused by exposure to more intense heat than the opposite side1 and the crack is the result of a too rapid formation of the crust4 ,sometimes it is advisable to keep the crust from becoming hard too rapidly4 ,in order to do this1 and at the same time produce a more even color1 the top of the loaf may be moistened by brushing it with milk before it is put into the oven4 ,fig4 #af shows a well-formed loaf of bread that has had the right amount of rising1 and ,fig4 #ag shows the inside texture of bread for which the mixing1 rising1 and baking have been correctly done4 #ei4 ,,time ,,for ,,baking ,,and ,,care ,,of ,,bread ,,in ,,oven4--,the time required for baking bread and the care it should receive in the oven are also important matters to know4 ,how long the bread should bake depends on the size of the loaf4 ,under proper oven temperature1 a small loaf1 or one made with #a cupful of liquid1 ought to bake in from #ej minutes to #a hour1 while a large loaf requires from #a-a_/b to #b hours4 ,as has been explained1 the loaf should begin to brown1 or have its crust formed1 in about #ae minutes after it is placed in the oven1 and the baking should proceed rather slowly4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #af ,to get the best results in baking1 the pans should be placed so that the air in the oven will circulate freely around them4 ,if they are so placed that the loaves touch each other or the sides of the oven1 the loaves will rise unevenly and consequently will be unsightly in shape1 like those shown in ,figs4 #ad and #ae4 ,if the loaves rise higher on one side than on the other1 even when the pans are properly placed1 it is evident that the heat is greater in that place than in the other parts of the oven and the loaves should therefore be changed to another position4 ,proper care given to bread while baking will produce loaves that are an even brown on the bottom1 sides1 and top and that shrink from the sides of the pan4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag #fj4 ,,care ,,of ,,bread ,,after ,,baking4--,as soon as the bread has baked sufficiently1 take it from the oven1 remove the loaves from the pans1 and place them to cool where the air may circulate freely around them4 ,a bread rack1 or cake cooler1 like the one on which the loaf rests in ,figs4 #ad1 #ae1 and #af1 is very satisfactory for this purpose1 but if such a device is not available1 the loaves may be placed across the edges of the empty pans so that nearly the entire surface is exposed4 ,whichever plan is adopted1 it should be remembered that the bread must be carefully protected from dust and flies4 ,bread should never be permitted to remain in the pans after it has been baked nor to cool on a flat surface2 neither should the loaves be wrapped while they are warm1 because the moisture will collect on the surface and the bread will not keep so well4 ,after the loaves have become sufficiently cool1 place them in the receptacle in which they are to be kept4 ,this should have been previously washed and dried and then allowed to stand in the sunshine1 so as to be free from mold or any substance that will taint or otherwise injure the bread4 ,after the loaves have been put into it1 keep it well covered and allow no stale crumbs nor pieces of bread to collect4 ,to keep such a receptacle in good condition1 it should be scalded and dried every #b or #c days4 ,,scoring ,,bread #fa4 ,,object ,,of ,,scoring ,,bread4--,by the scoring of bread is meant simply the judging of its qualities4 ,persons who understand what good bread is agree very closely on the qualities that should characterize it1 and they make these qualities a standard by which any kind of bread may be scored1 or judged4 ,those who are not proficient in the making of bread1 as well as those who have had very little experience1 will do well to have their bread judged by experts or to learn how to score it themselves4 ,by following this plan1 they will be able to find out the good and bad points of their bread and then1 by ascertaining the causes of any poor qualities1 will be in a position to make improvements4 ,so that the beginner may learn how to judge the qualities of her bread1 she should study carefully the accompanying score card and its explanation4 ,,score ,,card ,external ,appearance3 ,,per ,,cent4 ,shape444444444444444444444444444444444 #e ,size4444444444444444444444444444444444 #b ,crust3 ,shade4444444444444444444444444444444 #b ,uniformity of ,color44444444444444444 #b ,character444444444444444444444444444 #b ,depth4444444444444444444444444444 #b--h ,lightness444444444444444444444444444444 #bj ,internal ,appearance3 ,even distribution of gas4444444444444 #aj ,moisture444444444444444444444444444444 #e ,elasticity4444444444444444444444444444 #e ,color44444444444444444444444444444444 #ae ,flavor444444444444444444444444444444444 #cj --- ,total44444444444444444444444444444 #ajj #fb4 ,,explanation ,,of ,,score ,,card4--,a study of the score card will reveal that a certain number of points are given to a loaf of bread for appearance1 both external and internal1 for lightness1 and for flavor4 ,to determine these qualities best1 allow the loaf to cool thoroughly after baking4 ,then consider the various points1 and decide how nearly perfect the loaf is in respect to each one of them4 ,add the numbers that are determined upon1 and the result obtained will show how the bread scores4 #fc4 ,the shape of the loaf1 in order to be perfect and to score #e1 should be uniform and symmetrical4 ,any such shape as that shown in ,fig4 #ae would fall below perfect4 ,the size of the loaf1 for which a score of #b is given1 is determined from the standpoint of thorough baking4 ,the exact size that a loaf must be is a rather difficult thing to state1 because the sizes vary considerably1 but a loaf of an ungainly size should be guarded against1 for it would not score well4 ,bread made in pans of the size already mentioned would score high with regard to size4 ,the crust1 whose combined characteristics score #h1 should be a golden brown in color in order to receive the score of #b for its shade4 ,a pale loaf or one baked too brown would not receive full credit4 ,if the required color extends uniformly over the entire loaf1 the bottom and the sides1 as well as the top1 #b more is added to the score of the crust for uniformity of color4 ,after these points are scored1 a slice of bread should be cut from the loaf in order that the remaining points may be scored4 ,as fresh bread does not cut easily1 and as a well-cut slice must be had for this purpose1 special care must be taken to obtain the slice4 ,therefore1 sharpen a large knife and heat the blade slightly by holding it near a flame2 then cut a slice at least #a_/b inch thick from the loaf before the blade has had time to cool4 ,with such a slice cut1 the character of the crust1 by which is meant its toughness or its tenderness1 may be determined4 ,a score of #b is given if it is of sufficient tenderness or is devoid of toughness4 ,the depth of the crust1 which depends on the amount of baking the loaf has had1 receives a score of #b if it is perfect4 ,a deep crust1 which is the preferred kind1 is produced by long1 slow baking2 bread that is baked only a short time has a thin crust1 which is not so desirable and would not score so high4 #fd4 ,the lightness of the bread can easily be scored when the bread is cut4 ,it is judged by the size of the holes1 and if it is perfect it receives a score of #bj4 ,if the bread is not light enough1 the holes will be small and the bread will feel solid and unelastic2 if it is too light1 the holes will be large and coarse4 #fe4 ,the internal appearance1 which is scored next1 includes several characteristics4 ,for the even distribution of gas1 which is determined by the uniformity of the holes1 #aj points are given4 ,if the kneading has been done right and the bread has risen properly1 the gas will be distributed evenly through the loaf1 with the result that the holes1 which make the bread porous1 will be practically the same throughout the entire loaf4 ,such a texture is better than that of a loaf that has some large and some small holes4 ,the moisture in the bread1 which receives #e if it is of the right amount1 is tested by pinching a crumb between the fingers4 ,if the crumb feels harsh and dry1 the bread is not moist enough1 and if it feels doughy1 the bread is too moist4 ,the elasticity1 for which #e is given1 is determined by pressing the finger gently into a cut place in the loaf4 ,the bread may be considered to be elastic if it springs back after the finger is removed and does not break nor crumble4 ,as compared with cake1 bread is always more elastic1 a characteristic that is due to the quantity of gluten it contains4 ,still it should be remembered that the elasticity must not amount to toughness1 for if it does the quality of the bread is impaired4 ,to score #ae for color1 the inside of the loaf should be of an even1 creamy white4 ,a dull white or gray color would indicate that flour of a poor quality had been used1 and dark or white streaks in the bread would denote uneven mixing and insufficient kneading4 #ff4 ,the last thing to be scored1 namely1 the flavor1 merits #cj points4 ,to determine this characteristic1 chew a small piece of bread well4 ,if it is not sour nor musty1 has a sweet1 nutty flavor1 and shows that the correct amount of salt and sugar were added in the mixing1 it may receive a perfect score4 ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,bread ,,mixer #fg4 ,the advantage of a bread mixer in bread making is that it practically does away with hand mixing and kneading2 however1 all the other steps described are the same1 depending on the process used4 ,as has been mentioned1 the housewife who bakes such a small quantity as three or four loaves of bread can get along very well without a bread mixer2 at least1 for so few loaves a bread mixer does not seem so necessary as when six or more loaves are to be made at one time1 when it is a decided convenience4 ,however1 bread mixers can be had in various sizes to meet the requirements of the housewife4 #fh4 ,in using a bread mixer like that described in ,essentials of ,cookery1 ,part #b1 the ingredients are placed in the mixer and thoroughly mixed together by turning the handle1 and after the sponge or the dough has risen1 the kneading is performed by again turning the handle4 ,the amount of turning to be done is1 of course1 regulated by the ingredients and the method that is followed4 ,in addition to the bread mixer mentioned1 there is another convenient type that is constructed in two parts1 the top part having a sifter in its bottom1 through which the flour or other dry ingredients are sifted4 ,the sifting is done with a crank1 which also operates a shaft to which is attached a number of knives extending in different directions4 ,these knives accomplish the mixing and the kneading4 ,the bread is allowed to rise in the lower part of the bread mixer1 the top part being removed after the mixing and sifting have been accomplished4 ,any of the bread-making methods described may be used with the bread mixer without change in the process1 and no kneading need be done by hand except a sufficient amount to shape the loaves after the last rising and before they are placed in the pans4 ,,serving ,,bread #fi4 ,bread is one of the foods that every one takes so much as a matter of course that little thought is given to its serving4 ,of course1 it does not offer so much opportunity for variety in serving as do some foods2 yet1 like all other foods1 it appeals more to the appetites of those who are to eat it if it is served in an attractive manner4 ,a few ideas as to the ways in which it may be served will therefore not be amiss4 ,as fresh bread is not easily digested1 it should not usually be served until it is at least #bd hours old4 ,before it is placed on the table1 it should be cut in slices1 the thickness of which will depend on the preference of the persons who are to eat it4 ,if the loaf is large in size1 the pieces should be cut in two1 lengthwise of the slice1 but in the case of a small loaf the slices need not be cut4 ,various receptacles for placing bread and rolls on the table1 such as a bread boat1 a bread plate1 and a bread basket1 are also used to add variety in serving4 ,whichever of these is selected1 it may be improved in appearance by the addition of a white linen doily4 ,for rolls1 a hot-roll cover is both convenient and attractive4 ,sometimes1 especially when a large number of persons are to be served1 a roll is placed between the folds of each person's napkin before they are seated at the table4 ,occasionally bread becomes stale before it is needed on the table4 ,such bread1 however1 should not be discarded1 especially if the loaves are uncut4 ,uncut loaves of this kind may be freshened by dipping them quickly into boiling water and then placing them in a very hot oven until their surface becomes dry4 ,if desired1 slices of bread that have become stale may be steamed in order to freshen them2 but unless great care is taken in steaming them the bread is liable to become too moist and soggy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,recipes ,,bread ,,recipes #gj4 ,in order that the beginner may bring into use the bread-making principles and directions that have been set forth1 and at the same time become familiar with the quantities of ingredients that must be used1 there are here given a number of recipes for the making of bread4 ,these recipes include not only white bread-that is1 bread made from white flour--but whole-wheat1 graham1 rye1 and corn bread1 as well as bread in which fruit and nuts are incorporated4 ,before these recipes are taken up1 though1 it will not be amiss to look further into the various ingredients used in the making of bread4 #ga4 ,the fat used in bread making may vary in both quantity and kind4 ,for instance1 if less than #b tablespoonfuls is called for in a recipe1 this amount may be decreased2 but it is not well to increase the amount to any extent4 ,likewise1 the fat may be of any kind that will not impart a disagreeable flavour to the finished product4 ,it may be left-over chicken fat1 clarified beef fat1 lard1 butter1 cooking oil1 or any mixture of clear1 fresh fats that may be in supply4 ,the sweetening for bread is1 as a rule1 granulated sugar1 although sirup1 molasses1 brown sugar1 or white sugar of any kind may be employed4 ,sweetening is used merely to give a slightly sweet flavour to the bread1 and the kind that is used is of slight importance4 ,the liquid1 as has been stated1 may be water or milk or any proportion of both4 ,the milk that is used may be either whole or skim4 ,in addition to these two liquids1 the whey from cottage cheese or the water in which rice1 macaroni1 or potatoes have been cooked should not be overlooked4 ,potato water in which a small quantity of potato may be mashed serves as a yeast aid1 as has been pointed out4 ,therefore1 whenever1 in a bread recipe1 liquid is called for and the kind to be used is not stated specifically1 use may be made of any of the liquids that have been mentioned4 ,the quantity of flour required for a bread recipe will depend entirely on the kind of flour that is to be used1 bread flour having a much greater absorbing power for liquid than has pastry or blend flour4 ,when1 in the process of mixing the bread1 the sponge is stiffened by adding the remaining flour to it1 the last cupful or two should be added cautiously1 in order not to make the mixture too stiff4 ,in some instances1 more flour than the recipe calls for may be required to make the dough of the right consistency4 ,the amount can be determined only by a knowledge of what this consistency should be1 and this will be easily acquired with practice in bread making4 #gb4 ,the beginner will find it a good plan to begin making bread entirely of white flour1 for the reason that it is easier to determine the consistency of the dough mixture at various stages1 as well as during the kneading1 if there is no coarse material1 such as bran1 corn meal1 nuts1 fruits1 etc41 in the dough4 ,later1 when a definite knowledge along this line has been acquired1 one after the other of the bread recipes should be tried4 ,they are no more difficult to carry out than the recipes for white bread2 indeed1 the woman who has had experience in bread making will find that she will be equally successful with all of them4 #gc4 ,,white ,,bread4--,bread made from white flour1 which is commonly referred to as white bread1 is used to a much greater extent than any other kind1 for it is the variety that most persons prefer and of which they do not tire quickly4 ,however1 white bread should not be used to the exclusion of other breads1 because they are of considerable importance economically4 ,this kind of bread may be made by both the quick and the long processes1 for the ingredients are the same1 with the exception of the quantity of yeast used4 ,the amounts given in the following recipes are sufficient to make two large loaves or three small ones1 but1 of course1 if more bread is desired1 the quantity of each ingredient may be increased proportionately4 ,,white ,,bread--,,long ,,process 7,sufficient for ,two ,large or ,three ,small ,loaves7 #b ,tb4 fat #b ,tb4 sugar #a_/b cake compressed yeast1 or #a cake dried yeast #a ,tb4 salt #a qt4 lukewarm liquid #c qt4 flour #a c4 flour additional for kneading ,put into the mixing bowl the fat1 the sugar1 the salt1 and the yeast that has been dissolved in a little of the lukewarm liquid4 ,add the remainder of the liquid and stir in half of the flour4 ,place this sponge where it will rise overnight and will not become chilled4 ,in the morning1 add the remainder of the flour1 stirring it well into the risen sponge1 and knead the dough thus formed4 ,allow it to rise until it has doubled in bulk and then knead it again4 ,after it is properly kneaded1 shape it into loaves1 place them in greased pans1 let them rise until they have doubled in bulk1 and then bake them4 ,combining the ingredients in the manner just mentioned is following the sponge method of the long process4 ,by adding all instead of half of the flour at night1 the straight-dough method of this process may be followed4 ,,white ,,bread--,,quick ,,process 7,sufficient for ,two ,large or ,three ,small ,loaves7 #b ,tb4 fat #b ,tb4 sugar #a ,tb4 salt #b cakes compressed yeast #a qt4 lukewarm liquid #c qt4 flour #a c4 flour additional for kneading ,put the fat1 the sugar1 and the salt into the mixing bowl1 and then to them add the yeast dissolved in a few tablespoonfuls of the lukewarm liquid4 ,add the remaining liquid and stir in half or all of the flour1 according to whether the process is to be completed by the sponge or the straight-dough method4 ,one yeast cake may be used instead of two4 ,however1 if the smaller quantity of yeast is used1 the process will require more time1 but the results will be equally as good4 ,after the dough has been allowed to rise the required number of times and has been kneaded properly for the method selected1 place it in greased pans1 let it rise sufficiently1 and proceed with the baking4 #gd4 ,whole-,wheat ,bread4--,bread made out of whole-wheat flour has a distinctive flavour that is very agreeable to most persons4 ,this kind of bread is not used so extensively as that made of white flour1 but since it contains more mineral salts and bulk1 it should have a place in the diet of every family4 ,when made according to the following recipe1 whole-wheat bread will be found to be a very desirable substitute for bread made of the finer flours4 ,,whole-,,wheat ,,bread--,,quick ,,process 7,sufficient for ,two ,small ,loaves7 #c ,tb4 fat #a_/d c4 brown sugar #a ,tb4 salt #a cake compressed yeast #c c4 lukewarm liquid #h c4 whole-wheat flour #a c4 white flour for kneading ,place the fat1 the sugar1 and the salt in the mixing bowl and add the yeast cake dissolved in a little of the liquid4 ,add the remainder of the liquid1 and then stir in half or all of the flour1 according to whether the sponge or the straight-dough method is preferred4 ,then proceed according to the directions previously given for making bread by the quick process4 ,the long process may also be followed in making whole-wheat bread1 and if it is1 only one-half the quantity of yeast should be used4 #ge4 ,graham ,bread4--,to lend variety to the family diet1 frequent use should be made of graham bread1 which contains even more bulk and mineral salts than whole-wheat bread4 ,in bread of this kind1 both graham and white flour are used4 ,since graham flour is very heavy1 it prevents the bread from rising quickly1 so the bread is started with white flour4 ,the accompanying recipe contains quantities for the short process1 although it may be adapted to the long process by merely using one-half the amount of yeast4 ,,graham ,,bread 7,sufficient for ,two ,loaves7 #b ,tb4 fat #a_/d c4 brown sugar #b tsp4 salt #a cake compressed yeast #b c4 lukewarm liquid #b c4 white flour #c c4 graham flour #a c4 white flour additional for kneading ,put the fat1 the sugar1 and the salt in the mixing bowl1 and to them add the yeast that has been dissolved in a little of the liquid4 ,pour over these ingredients the remainder of the liquid and stir in the white flour4 ,when the mixture is to be made stiff1 add the graham flour4 ,then knead the dough1 let it rise1 knead again1 place it in greased pans1 let rise1 and bake4 ,a point to be remembered in the making of graham bread is that sifting removes the bran from graham flour1 and if lightness is desired1 the flour may be sifted and the bran then replaced4 #gf4 ,graham ,bread ,with ,nuts4--,to increase the food value of graham bread1 nuts are sometimes added4 ,this kind of bread also provides an agreeable variety to the diet4 ,the following recipe is intended to be carried out by the short process1 so that if the long process is desired the quantity of yeast must be reduced4 ,,graham ,,bread ,,with ,,nuts 7,sufficient for ,two ,loaves7 #a cake compressed yeast #b c4 lukewarm liquid #a_/d c4 molasses #b ,tb4 fat #a ,tb4 salt #b c4 white flour #d c4 graham flour #a-a_/b c4 chopped nuts #a c4 white flour additional for kneading ,dissolve the yeast in a little of the lukewarm liquid and mix it with the molasses1 fat1 and salt4 ,add the remaining liquid and the white flour4 ,let this sponge rise until it is light4 ,then stir in the graham flour1 adding the nuts while kneading4 ,let the dough rise until it doubles in bulk4 ,shape into loaves1 place it in the greased pans1 and let it rise until it doubles in size4 ,bake for an hour or more1 according to the size of the loaves4 #gg4 ,whole-,wheat ,fruit ,bread4--,a very delicious whole-wheat bread is produced by combining fruit1 which1 besides improving the flavour1 adds to the food value of the bread4 ,thin slices of this kind of bread spread with butter make excellent summer sandwiches4 ,if the short process is employed1 the amounts specified in the following recipe should be used1 but for the long process the quantity of yeast should be decreased4 ,,whole-,,wheat ,,fruit ,,bread 7,sufficient for ,three ,small ,loaves7 #a yeast cake #b c4 lukewarm liquid #b ,tb4 fat #a_/d c4 brown sugar stoned1 chopped dates #b tsp4 salt #f c4 whole-wheat flour #a-a_/b c4 seeded raisins or stoned1 chopped dates #a c4 white flour for kneading ,dissolve the yeast cake in a little of the lukewarm liquid and add it to the fat1 sugar1 and salt that have been put into the mixing bowl4 ,pour in the remainder of the liquid and add half or all of the flour1 depending on the bread-making method that is followed4 ,stir in the fruit before all the flour is added and just before the dough is shaped into loaves4 ,after it has risen sufficiently in the greased pans1 proceed with the baking4 #gh4 ,,bran ,,bread4--,bread in which bran is used is proportionately a trifle lower in food value than that in which whole wheat or white flour is used4 ,however1 it has the advantage of an additional amount of bulk in the form of bran1 and because of this it is a wholesome food4 ,,bran ,,bread 7,sufficient for ,two ,loaves7 #b c4 milk #f ,tb4 molasses #a-a_/b tsp4 salt #a_/b yeast cake #a_/d c4 lukewarm water #b c4 white flour #d c4 graham flour #a c4 sterilized bran #a c4 white flour additional for kneading ,scald the milk and to it add the molasses and salt4 ,when this is lukewarm1 add to it the yeast cake dissolved in the lukewarm water1 as well as the white flour and #a cupful of the graham flour4 ,cover this mixture and let it rise4 ,when it has risen sufficiently1 add the bran and the rest of the graham flour and knead4 ,cover this dough1 and let it rise until it doubles in bulk4 ,then shape it into loaves1 place it in the greased pans1 let it rise again until it doubles in bulk1 and bake in a hot oven4 #gi4 ,,rye ,,bread4--,rye bread has a typical flavour that many persons enjoy4 ,when rye flour is used alone1 it makes a moist1 sticky bread2 therefore1 in order to produce bread of a good texture1 wheat flour must be used with the rye flour4 ,the recipe here given is for the short process of bread making1 but by reducing the quantity of yeast it may be used for the long process4 ,,rye ,,bread 7,sufficient for ,three ,loaves7 #b ,tb4 fat #a ,tb4 salt #b ,tb4 sugar #a cake compressed yeast #c c4 lukewarm liquid #f c4 rye flour #d c4 white flour #a c4 white flour additional for kneading ,into the mixing bowl1 put the fat1 the salt1 the sugar1 and the yeast that has been dissolved in a small quantity of the lukewarm liquid4 ,then stir in the flour1 one-half or all of it1 according to whether the sponge or the straight-dough method is followed4 ,when the dough is formed1 allow it to rise until it doubles in bulk2 then knead it and shape it into loaves for the greased pans4 ,when these have risen until they are double in size and therefore ready for the oven1 glaze the surface of each by brushing it with the white of egg and water and put them in the oven to bake4 ,if desired1 caraway seed may be added to the dough when it is formed into loaves or simply sprinkled on the top of each loaf4 ,to many persons the caraway seed imparts a flavour to the bread that is very satisfactory4 #hj4 ,corn ,bread4--,corn meal is sometimes combined with wheat flour to make corn bread4 ,such a combination decreases the cost of bread at times when corn meal is cheap4 ,bread of this kind is high in food value1 because corn meal contains a large proportion of fat1 which is more or less lacking in white flour4 ,the following recipe is given for the short process1 but it may be used for the long process by merely decreasing the quantity of yeast4 ,,corn ,,bread 7,sufficient for ,two ,loaves7 #a yeast cake #b c4 lukewarm liquid #b tsp4 salt #a ,tb4 sugar #b ,tb4 fat #d-a_/b c4 white flour #b c4 corn meal #a c4 white flour additional for kneading ,put the yeast to soak in #a_/d cupful of warm water and let it dissolve4 ,heat the liquid and cool it to lukewarm1 and then add to it the salt1 the sugar1 the dissolved yeast1 and the melted fat4 ,make a sponge with some of the flour and let it rise until it doubles in bulk4 ,then make a dough with the corn meal and the remaining flour4 ,knead the dough1 let it rise again1 and form it into loaves4 ,let these rise in the greased pans until they double in bulk2 then bake about #de minutes4 #ha4 ,rice ,bread4--,very often variety is given to bread by the addition of rice1 which imparts an unusual flavour to bread and effects a saving of wheat flour4 ,oatmeal and other cereals may be used in the same way as rice1 and bread containing any of these moist cereals will remain moist longer than bread in which they are not used4 ,,rice ,,bread 7,sufficient for ,three ,loaves7 #a_/b c4 uncooked rice #a-a_/b c4 water #a ,tb4 salt #a ,tb4 sugar #a ,tb4 fat #a_/b yeast cake #a c4 lukewarm liquid #f c4 white flour #a c4 white flour additional for kneading ,steam the rice in a double boiler in #a and a half cupfuls of water until it is soft and dry4 ,add the salt1 sugar1 and fat1 and allow all to become lukewarm4 ,dissolve the yeast in the lukewarm liquid1 and add it to the rice4 ,put all in the mixing bowl1 stir in #b cupfuls of flour1 and allow the mixture to become very light4 ,add the remainder of the flour and knead lightly4 ,let the dough rise until it has doubled in bulk and knead to reduce the quantity4 ,place in greased pans4 ,when the loaves have risen sufficiently1 bake for about #ej minutes4 #hb4 ,,salt-,,rising ,,bread4--,recipes for bread would be incomplete if mention were not made of salt-rising bread4 ,such bread differs from ordinary bread in that the gas that causes the rising is due to the action of bacteria4 ,salt-rising bread is not universally popular1 yet many persons are fond of it4 ,its taste is very agreeable1 and1 as a rule1 its texture is excellent2 however1 it always has an unpleasant odour4 ,the method given in the accompanying recipe for salt-rising bread differs in no way from the usual method of making it4 ,it is very necessary that the first mixture of corn meal1 salt1 sugar1 and milk be kept at a uniformly warm temperature in order to induce bacteria to grow4 ,any failure to make such bread successfully will probably be due to the violation of this precaution rather than to any other cause4 ,,salt-,,rising ,,bread 7,sufficient for ,two ,loaves7 #a c4 fresh milk #a_/d c4 corn meal #a tsp4 salt #b tsp4 sugar #b c4 lukewarm water #g c4 white flour #a_/b c4 white flour additional for kneading ,scald the milk and pour it over the corn meal1 salt1 and sugar4 ,allow this mixture to stand in a warm place for several hours or overnight1 when it should be light4 ,to this batter add the warm water and enough flour to make a drop batter4 ,allow this to stand in a warm place until it is light2 and then add the remainder of the flour so as to make a dough1 and knead4 ,allow this to rise1 shape it into loaves1 put it in pans1 let it rise again1 and bake4 ,,recipes ,,for ,,rolls1 ,,buns1 ,,and ,,biscuits #hc4 ,while the preceding recipes call for bread in the form of loaves1 it should be understood that bread may be made up in other forms1 such as rolls1 buns1 and biscuits4 ,these forms of bread may be made from any of the bread recipes by adding to the mixture shortening1 sugar1 eggs1 fruit1 nuts1 spices1 flavoring1 or anything else desirable4 ,since these things in any quantity retard the rising of the sponge or dough1 they should be added after it has risen at least once4 ,rolls1 buns1 and biscuits may be made in various shapes1 as is shown in ,fig4 #ah4 ,to shape them1 the dough may be rolled thin and then cut with cutters1 or the pieces used for them may be pinched or cut from the dough and shaped with the hands4 ,after they are shaped1 they should be allowed to rise until they double in bulk4 ,to give them a glazed appearance1 the surface of each may be brushed before baking with milk1 with white of egg and water1 or with sugar and water4 ,butter is also desirable for this purpose1 as it produces a crust that is more tender and less likely to be tough4 ,rolls1 buns1 or biscuits may be baked in an oven that has a higher temperature than that required for bread in the form of loaves1 as is indicated in ,fig4 #d1 and only #ae to #bj minutes is needed for baking them4 ,if such forms of bread are desired with a crust covering the entire surface1 they must be placed far enough apart so that the edges will not touch when they are baking4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ah ,so that experience may be had in the preparation of rolls1 buns1 and biscuits there are given here several recipes that can be worked out to advantage1 especially after proficiency in bread making has been attained4 #hd4 ,parker ,house ,rolls4--,of the various kinds of rolls1 perhaps none meets with greater favor than the so-called ,parker ,house rolls1 one of which is shown at a1 ,fig4 #ai4 ,such rolls may be used in almost any kind of meal1 and since they are brushed with butter before they are baked1 they may be served without butter1 if desired1 in a meal that includes gravy or fat meat4 ,,parker ,,house ,,rolls 7,sufficient for #c ,dozen ,rolls7 #a cake compressed yeast #a pt4 lukewarm milk #d ,tb4 fat #b ,tb4 sugar #a tsp4 salt #c pt4 white flour #a c4 white flour additional for kneading ,dissolve the yeast in some of the lukewarm milk4 ,pour the remainder of the warm milk over the fat1 sugar1 salt1 and dissolved yeast1 all of which should first be put in a mixing bowl4 ,stir into these ingredients half of the flour1 and beat until smooth4 ,cover this sponge and let it rise until it is light4 ,add the remainder of the flour1 and knead until the dough is smooth and does not stick to the board4 ,place the dough in a greased bowl1 and let it rise again until it doubles in bulk4 ,roll the dough on a molding board until it is about #a_/d inch thick4 ,then cut the rolled dough with a round cutter2 brush each piece with soft butter2 mark it through the center1 as at b1 ,fig4 #ai1 with the dull edge of a kitchen knife2 and fold it over1 as at c4 ,place the pieces of dough thus prepared in shallow pans1 about #a inch apart1 and let them rise until they are light1 when each roll will appear like that shown at d4 ,then bake them in a hot oven for about #ae minutes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ai #he4 ,dinner ,rolls4--,as their name implies1 dinner rolls are an especially desirable kind of roll to serve with a dinner4 ,they should be made small enough to be dainty1 and as an even1 brown crust all over the rolls is desirable they should be placed far enough apart in the pans to prevent them from touching one another1 as shown in ,fig4 #bj 7a74 ,if they are placed as in 7b71 that is1 close together1 only part of the crust will be brown4 ,when made according to the accompanying recipe1 dinner rolls are very palatable4 ,,dinner ,,rolls 7,sufficient for #a-a_/b ,dozen ,rolls7 #a cake compressed yeast #a c4 lukewarm milk #b ,tb4 sugar #b ,tb4 fat #a tsp4 salt #c c4 white flour #a egg white #a_/b c4 white flour additional for kneading ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bj ,dissolve the yeast in some of the lukewarm milk4 ,put the sugar1 fat1 salt1 and dissolved yeast in the mixing bowl1 and pour the remainder of the milk over these ingredients4 ,stir half of the flour into this mixture and allow the sponge to rise4 ,when it is light1 add the egg white1 which should first be beaten1 and the remainder of the flour1 and then knead the dough4 ,let the dough rise until it doubles in bulk4 ,roll out the dough until it is #a_/b inch thick1 and then cut out the rolls with a small round cutter4 ,place these in a shallow pan and let them rise until they are light4 ,then glaze each one with the white of egg to which is added a little water and bake them in a hot oven for about #ae minutes4 #hf4 ,,luncheon ,,rolls4--,if rolls smaller than dinner rolls are desired1 luncheon rolls will undoubtedly be just what is wanted4 ,since these are very small1 they become thoroughly baked and are therefore likely to be even more digestible than bread or biscuit dough baked in a loaf4 ,for rolls of this kind1 the following recipe will prove satisfactory3 ,,luncheon ,,rolls 7,sufficient for #b ,dozen ,rolls7 #a cake compressed yeast #a-a_/d c4 lukewarm milk #b ,tb4 sugar #b ,tb4 fat #a tsp4 salt #d c4 white flour #a egg white #a_/b c4 white flour additional for kneading ,combine the ingredients in the manner directed for making dinner rolls4 ,shape the dough into biscuits the size of a small walnut1 place them in a shallow pan1 spacing them a short distance apart1 and let them rise until they are light4 ,next1 brush the tops of them with melted butter1 and then bake them in a hot oven for about #ae minutes4 #hg4 ,,whole-,,wheat ,,rolls4--,rolls made of whole-wheat flour are not so common as those made of white flour1 and for this reason they appeal to the appetite more than ordinary rolls4 ,whole-wheat rolls have the same advantage as bread made of whole-wheat flour1 and if they are well baked they have a crust that adds to their palatableness4 ,,whole-,,wheat ,,rolls 7,sufficient for #c ,dozen ,rolls7 #a pt4 lukewarm milk #a cake compressed yeast #a tsp4 salt #c ,tb4 sugar #d ,tb4 fat #b c4 white flour #d c4 whole-wheat flour #a_/b c4 white flour additional for kneading ,set a sponge with the lukewarm milk1 in which are put the yeast cake1 salt1 sugar1 fat1 and white flour4 ,allow this to become very light1 and then add the whole-wheat flour4 ,knead this dough and allow it to double in bulk4 ,then shape it into rolls1 allow them to rise1 and bake for #ae to #bj minutes4 #hh4 ,,graham ,,nut ,,buns4--,buns made of graham flour and containing nuts are not only especially delightful in flavour1 but highly nutritious4 ,because they are high in food value1 they may be served with a light meal1 such as lunch or supper1 to add nutrition to it4 ,the recipe here given will result in excellent buns if it is followed closely4 ,,graham ,,nut ,,buns 7,sufficient for #c ,dozen ,buns7 #a cake compressed yeast #b c4 lukewarm milk #d ,tb4 brown sugar #b tsp4 salt #b ,tb4 fat #b-a_/b c4 white flour #a egg #a c4 chopped nuts #c-a_/b c4 graham flour #a c4 white flour additional for kneading ,dissolve the yeast in a little of the lukewarm milk4 ,place the sugar1 salt1 fat1 and dissolved yeast in the mixing bowl and add the remainder of the warm milk4 ,stir in the white flour and let the sponge thus formed rise4 ,then add the egg1 which should first be beaten1 the nuts1 and the graham flour4 ,knead the dough and shape it into buns4 ,let these rise and then bake them in a hot oven for about #ae minutes4 #hi4 ,,nut ,,or ,,fruit ,,buns4--,nuts or fruit added to buns made of white flour provide more mineral salts and bulk1 substances in which white flour is lacking4 ,buns containing either of these ingredients1 therefore1 are especially valuable in the diet4 ,besides increasing the food value of the buns1 nuts and fruit improve the flavour and make a very palatable form of bun4 ,buns of this kind are made as follows3 ,,nut ,,or ,,fruit ,,buns 7,sufficient for #b ,dozen ,buns7 #d ,tb4 sugar #a ,tb4 fat #a tsp4 salt #a cake compressed yeast #a c4 lukewarm milk #c c4 white flour #c_/d c4 chopped nuts or raisins #a c4 white flour additional for kneading ,add the sugar1 fat1 and salt to the yeast dissolved in a little of the milk4 ,then stir in the remainder of the milk and half of the flour4 ,allow this sponge to rise until it is very light1 and then add the remainder of the flour and the nuts or the raisins4 ,knead at once and form into buns4 ,let these rise until they are light4 ,then moisten them with milk and sprinkle sugar over them before placing them in the oven4 ,bake for about #ae minutes4 #ij4 ,,sweet ,,buns4--,persons who prefer a sweet bun will find buns like those shown in ,fig4 #ba and made according to the following recipe very much to their taste4 ,the sweetening1 eggs1 and lemon extract used in this recipe give to the white buns a delightful flavour and help to lend variety to the usual kind of bun4 ,,sweet ,,buns 7,sufficient for #a-a_/c ,dozen ,buns7 #a cake compressed yeast #a c4 lukewarm scalded milk #a_/d c4 sugar #b ,tb4 fat #a tsp4 #a tsp4 salt #c-a_/b c4 white flour #b eggs #a tsp4 lemon extract #a c4 white flour additional for kneading ,dissolve the yeast in a small amount of the lukewarm milk and add it to the sugar1 fat1 salt1 and remaining milk in the mixing bowl4 ,stir into this mixture half of the flour1 beat well1 and let the sponge rise until it is light4 ,add the eggs1 which should first be beaten1 the lemon extract1 and the remaining flour4 ,knead until the dough is smooth4 ,let the dough rise again and then shape it into rolls4 ,allow these to rise1 and then bake them in a hot oven for about #ae minutes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ba #ia4 ,,coffee ,,cake4--,when an especially good kind of biscuit that can be served for breakfast and eaten with coffee is desired1 coffee cake made according to the following recipe should be used4 ,cinnamon sprinkled over the top of such cake imparts a very pleasing flavour1 but if more of this flavour is preferred #a teaspoonful of cinnamon may be mixed with the dough4 ,,coffee ,,cake 7,sufficient for ,one ,cake7 #a cake compressed yeast #a_/b c4 lukewarm milk #a ,tb4 sugar #a_/b tsp4 salt #b c4 white flour #a egg #b ,tb4 fat #a_/d c4 brown sugar #a_/b c4 white flour additional for kneading ,dissolve the yeast in the lukewarm milk and add the sugar and the salt4 ,stir in #a cupful of flour and let the mixture rise4 ,when the sponge is light1 add the beaten egg1 the fat and the brown sugar creamed1 and the remaining flour4 ,knead until the dough is smooth and allow it to rise until it is double in bulk4 ,then roll the dough until it is #a_/b inch thick1 place it in a shallow pan1 and let it rise until it is light4 ,brush the top with #a tablespoonful of melted butter and sprinkle it with #c teaspoonfuls of cinnamon and #c tablespoonfuls of sugar4 ,bake #aj to #ae minutes in a moderately hot oven4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bb ,illustration3 ,fig4 #bc #ib4 ,,cinnamon ,,rolls4--,to make cinnamon rolls1 which are preferred by some persons to coffee cake1 use may be made of the preceding coffee-cake recipe4 ,however1 instead of rolling the dough #a_/b inch thick1 roll it #a_/d inch thick and brush it with melted butter4 ,then sprinkle it with #a tablespoonful of cinnamon1 #a_/b cupful of light-brown sugar1 and #a_/b cupful of chopped raisins4 ,next1 roll this as a jelly roll and cut the roll into #a_/b-;inch slices1 as shown in ,fig4 #bb4 ,place these slices close together in a shallow pan and let them rise until they are light1 as in ,fig4 #bc4 ,then bake them in a hot oven for about #ae minutes4 ,,toast #ic4 ,as every one knows1 ,,toast is sliced bread browned by means of heat4 ,to make toast is not a difficult process1 but a certain amount of care must be exercised if good results are desired4 ,the slices used for toast may be cut thick or thin1 depending on whether the persons for whom the toast is made prefer a soft or a dry toast and whether the digestibility of the toast is to be taken into consideration4 ,if thick slices are used and they are toasted the usual length of time necessary to make the surfaces brown1 the centre of the slices will remain soft4 ,toast made of thin slices and toasted over a slow fire becomes dry and crisp during the process of browning and is more digestible than that which is moist4 ,such toast will not lose its crispness unless the pieces are piled in a heap while they are hot and are allowed to soften from the moisture that collects4 ,while toast is usually served in the form of slices1 just as they are cut from the loaf1 the pieces may be cut into shapes of various kinds2 in fact1 toast becomes more attractive if it is cut in unusual shapes4 ,the crust of toast may be trimmed off or left on1 as desired4 #id4 ,if the best results are desired in the making of toast1 considerable attention must be given to the heat that is to produce the toast4 ,whatever kind is employed1 it should be steady and without flame4 ,before a coal or a coke fire is used for this purpose1 it should be allowed to burn down until the flame is gone and the coals are hot enough to reflect the heat for toasting4 ,if a gas toaster is used1 the gas should be turned sufficiently low for the bread to brown slowly4 ,very good results are obtained from the use of an electric toaster1 also4 ,this device has become a rather common household article where electricity is used in the home1 and by means of it the toast can be made on the table and served while it is fresh and hot4 ,in whatever way toast is made1 it will lose much of its attractiveness unless it is served while it is fresh and before it loses its heat4 ,if toast becomes burned1 either from a flame that is too hot or from inattention on the part of the person who is preparing it1 it may be made fit for use by scraping it lightly with a knife or by rubbing it across a grater1 so as to remove the burned portion4 #ie4 ,,milk ,,toast4--,milk and toast make a combination that is liked by many persons1 and when these two foods are combined the result is known as milk toast4 ,to make milk toast1 simply pour over the toast rich milk that has been heated and seasoned with salt1 a little sugar1 and a little butter4 ,thin white sauce may also be used for this purpose if desired4 #if4 ,,french ,,toast4--,possibly no dish in which toast is used is better known than the so-called ,french toast4 ,both milk and egg are used in making this dish1 and these of course add to the food value of the bread4 ,french toast made according to the following recipe will prove very satisfactory4 ,,french ,,toast 7,sufficient to ,serve ,eight7 #a egg #a c4 milk #b tsp4 sugar #h slices of bread #a_/b tsp4 salt ,beat the egg and add it to the milk1 salt1 and sugar4 ,dip each slice of bread into this liquid1 turn it quickly1 and then remove it4 ,place the bread thus dipped in a hot frying pan and saut it until the under side is brown2 then turn it and brown the other side4 ,serve hot with sirup or jelly4 ,,left-,,over ,,bread #ig4 ,bread that has become stale need not be wasted1 for there are many uses to which it may be put4 ,as such bread has lost much of its moisture1 it is desirable for toast1 for it browns more quickly and makes crisper toast than fresh bread4 ,thick slices of it may also be cut into cubes or long1 narrow strips and then toasted on all sides1 to be served with soup instead of crackers4 ,still another use that can be made of stale bread is to toast it and then cut it into triangular pieces to be served with creamed dishes or used as a garnish for meats1 eggs1 and various entres4 ,left-over toast may also be cut in this way and used for these purposes4 #ih4 ,the ends of loaves1 crusts trimmed from bread used for sandwiches1 or stale bread or rolls that cannot be used for the purposes that have been mentioned can also be utilised1 so none of them need be thrown away4 ,if such pieces are saved and allowed to dry thoroughly in the warming oven or in an oven that is not very hot1 they may be broken into crumbs by putting them through a food chopper or rolling them with a rolling pin4 ,after the crumbs are obtained1 they should be put through a coarse sieve in order to separate the coarse ones from the fine ones4 ,such crumbs1 both coarse and fine1 may be kept for some time if they are put into jars or cans4 ,it is a very good plan to keep a supply of bread crumbs on hand1 for there are numerous dishes that require the use of bread in this form4 ,for instance1 bread crumbs are used for all kinds of scalloped dishes2 for making puddings1 such as bread pudding1 brown ,betty1 etc42 for stuffing fish1 fowl1 and such vegetables as tomatoes and peppers2 for covering the top of baked dishes1 such as various egg and cheese dishes2 for breading steaks and chops2 and for covering croquettes or oysters that are to be fried4 ,they may also be added to muffins1 griddle cakes1 and even yeast-bread dough4 ,with so many uses to which bread crumbs can be put1 no housewife need be at a loss to know how to utilise any scraps of bread that are not1 for some reason1 suitable for the table4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,bread ,,examination ,,questions 7#a7 ,mention the ingredients required for bread making4 7#b7 ,from what kind of wheat is bread flour usually made8 7#c7 7a7 ,what is gluten8 7b7 ,why is it necessary for the making of bread8 7#d7 7a7 ,what is meant by a blend flour8 7b7 ,when is its use indicated8 7#e7 ,how may the kind and quality of flour be judged in purchasing it8 7#f7 7a7 ,what is yeast8 7b7 ,what things are necessary for its growth8 7c7 ,what temperature is best for its growth8 7#g7 7a7 ,what is produced by the growth of yeast8 7b7 ,what part does this play in bread making8 7#h7 ,what determines the quantity of yeast to use in bread making8 7#i7 7a7 ,what will hasten the bread-making process8 7b7 ,what will retard it8 7#aj7 ,give the general proportions of the main ingredients used for making a loaf of bread4 7#aa7 ,what are the advantages of3 7a7 the long process of bread making8 7b7 the quick process8 7#ab7 ,what is3 7a7 a sponge8 7b7 a dough8 7#ac7 7a7 ,why must bread dough be kneaded8 7b7 ,how is it possible to tell when dough has been kneaded sufficiently8 7#ad7 ,at what temperature should bread be kneaded8 7#ae7 ,how should bread be cared for after it is removed from the oven8 7#af7 ,what points are considered in the scoring of bread8 7#ag7 ,what part of bread making may be done in a bread mixer8 7#ah7 ,what are the differences in time and oven temperatures in baking rolls and bread8 7#ai7 ,mention briefly the procedure in making rolls1 buns1 and biscuits4 7#bj7 ,score a loaf of bread you have made and submit the points as you have scored it4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,hot ,,breads 99 99 99 99 99 ,,requirements ,,and ,,processes ,,for ,,making ,,hot ,,breads ,,hot ,,breads ,,in ,,the ,,diet #a4 ,closely related to yeast breads1 or those in which yeast is used as the leavening agent1 are breads known as ,,hot ,,breads1 or ,,quick ,,breads4 ,as these names indicate1 such breads are prepared in a very short time and are intended to be served while they are fresh and hot4 ,hot breads1 to call such breads by the name in common use1 are made by baking a batter or a dough mixture formed by mixing flour1 liquid1 salt1 and a leavening agent4 ,the nature of the mixture1 however1 is governed by the proportion of flour and liquid1 the two ingredients that form the basis of all bread mixtures2 and by incorporating with them such ingredients as eggs1 sugar1 shortening1 flavouring1 fruits1 nuts1 etc4 there may be produced an almost endless variety of appetising hot breads1 which include popovers1 griddle cakes1 waffles1 muffins1 soft gingerbread1 corn cake or corn bread1 ,boston brown bread1 nut loaf1 and baking-powder and beaten biscuit4 ,because of the variety these hot breads afford1 they help considerably to relieve the monotony of meals4 ,in fact1 the housewife has come to depend so much on breads of this kind that their use has become almost universal4 ,as is well known1 however1 certain kinds are typical of certain localities2 for instance1 beaten biscuit and hoe cake are characteristic of the ,southern ,states of the ,united ,states1 while ,boston brown bread is used most extensively in the ,new ,england ,states and throughout the ,east4 ,the popular opinion of most persons is that hot breads are injurious4 ,it is perhaps true that they may be injurious to individuals afflicted with some digestive disturbance1 but1 at any rate1 the harmful effect may be reduced to a minimum by the correct preparation and baking of these foods4 ,,principal ,,requirements ,,for ,,hot ,,breads #b4 ,hot breads are quickly and easily made1 but in this part of cookery1 as in every other phase of it1 certain principles must be understood and applied if the most satisfactory results are desired4 ,these principles pertain chiefly to the ingredients used1 the way in which they are measured and handled1 the proportions in which they are combined1 the necessary utensils1 and the proper baking of the mixtures that are formed4 ,in the first place1 the quality of the ingredients should be carefully considered1 because on this depends the quality of the finished product4 ,no one who prepares foods can expect good food to result from the use of inferior materials4 ,next1 the proportion of the ingredients demands attention1 for much importance is attached to this point4 ,for instance1 in making a certain kind of hot bread1 the quantity of flour to be used is regulated by the quantity of bread that is desired1 and the quantity of flour governs1 in turn1 the quantities of liquid1 leavening1 and other ingredients that are to be put into the mixture4 ,when the proportions of ingredients required for a hot bread are known1 it is necessary that the ingredients be measured very accurately4 ,leavening material1 for example1 will serve to make clear the need for accuracy in measuring4 ,a definite quantity of leavening will do only a definite amount of work4 ,therefore1 if too little or too much is used1 unsatisfactory results may be expected2 and1 as with this ingredient1 so it is with all the materials used for hot breads4 ,the handling of the ingredients and the mixture has also much influence on the success with which hot breads are produced4 ,a heavy touch and excessive handling1 both of which are usually characteristic of the beginner1 are more likely to result in a tough product than is the light1 careful handling of the expert4 ,however1 as skill in this matter comes with practice1 no discouragement need result if successful results are not forthcoming at the very start in this work4 ,a good rule to follow in this particular1 and one that has few exceptions1 is to handle and stir the ingredients only enough to blend them properly4 ,in addition to the matters just mentioned1 the utensils in which to combine the hot-bread materials and bake the batters or doughs are of importance4 ,while none of these is complicated1 each must be of the right kind if the best results are expected4 ,the final point to which attention must be given is the baking of this food4 ,proper baking requires on the part of the housewife familiarity with the oven that is to be used1 accuracy in judging temperature1 and a knowledge of the principles underlying the process of baking4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,leavening ,,agents ,,classes ,,of ,,leavening ,,agents #c4 ,as has been pointed out1 the ingredients that are actually required in the making of hot breads are flour1 liquid1 salt1 and leavening1 and to give variety to breads of this kind1 numerous other materials1 including sugar1 shortening1 eggs1 fruit1 nuts1 etc41 are often added4 ,with the exception of leavening agents1 none of these ingredients requires special attention at present2 however1 the instruction that is given in ,bread regarding flour should be kept in mind1 as should also the fact that all the materials for hot breads should be of the best quality that can be obtained4 ,as is known by this time1 leavening agents are the materials used to leaven1 or make light1 any kind of flour mixture4 ,these agents are of three classes1 namely1 organic1 physical1 and chemical4 ,the organic agent is the oldest recognized leavening material1 it being the one that is used in the making of yeast breads2 but as a complete discussion of this class of leavening agents is given in ,bread and as it is not employed in the making of hot breads1 no consideration need be given to it here4 ,physical leavening is accomplished by the incorporation of air into a mixture or by the expansion of the water into steam1 and chemical leavening agents are the most modern and accurate of all the agents that have been devised for the quick rising of flour mixtures4 ,,physical ,,leavening #d4 ,,physical ,,leavening consists in aerating1 or incorporating gas or air into1 a mixture that is to be baked1 and it is based on the principle that air or gas expands1 or increases in volume1 when heated4 ,it is definitely known that when air is incorporated into dough and then heated1 the air increases #a_/bgc of its own volume for each degree that the temperature is increased4 ,for instance1 if the temperature of an aerated mixture is #fe degrees ,fahrenheit when it is put into the oven1 the air or gas will have doubled in volume by the time it has reached #cch degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,thus1 the success of aerated bread depends to some extent on the temperature of the mixture when it goes into the oven4 ,the colder it is at that time1 the greater is the number of degrees it will have to rise before it is sufficiently baked1 and the more opportunity will the gas have to expand4 #e4 ,the air or gas required for physical leavening is incorporated into a mixture by beating or folding the batter or dough itself1 or by folding beaten egg whites into it4 ,if the mixture is thin enough1 the beating may be done with a spoon or an egg beater2 but if it is thick enough to be handled on a board1 air may be incorporated into it by rolling and folding it repeatedly4 ,if eggs are to be used for aerating the batter or dough1 the entire egg may be beaten and then added1 but as more air can be incorporated into the egg whites1 the yolks and whites are usually beaten separately4 ,to make the white of eggs most satisfactory for this purpose1 it should be beaten stiff enough to stand up well1 but not until it becomes dry and begins to break up4 ,in adding the beaten egg white1 it should be folded carefully and lightly into the mixture after all the other ingredients have been combined4 ,beaten egg white may be used to lighten any mixture that is soft enough to permit it to be folded in4 #f4 ,to insure the best results from mixtures that are to be made light by means of physical leavening agents1 certain precautions must be taken4 ,such mixtures should be baked as soon as possible after the mixing is done1 so that the gas or air will not pass out before the dough is baked4 ,likewise1 they should be handled as lightly and quickly as possible1 for a heavy touch and too much handling are often the cause of imperfect results4 ,for baking aerated mixtures1 heavy irons are better than tin muffin pans2 also1 the pans that are used should be heated before the mixture is put into them1 so that the batter or dough will begin to expand immediately4 ,gem irons should be filled level with an aerated mixture4 ,,chemical ,,leavening #g4 ,,chemical ,,leavening is brought about by the action of gas produced by an acid and an alkali4 ,all chemical leavening agents are ,similar in their action1 and they are composed of an acid and an alkali4 ,when an acid and an alkali are brought together in the presence of moisture and heat1 the result is the rapid production of carbon dioxide1 a gas that expands on being heated1 just as all other gases do4 ,in expanding1 the gas pushes up the batters or doughs1 and these1 when baked1 set1 or harden1 into porous shapes4 ,in addition to forming the gas1 the acid and the alkali produce a salt that remains in the bread1 and it is this salt that is responsible for the harmful effect usually attributed to chemical leavening agents4 #h4 ,the first chemical leavening agents were devised by housewives themselves4 ,they consisted of a combination of saleratus1 an alkali made from wood ashes1 and sour milk or molasses4 ,the results obtained were more or less satisfactory1 but never entirely accurate or certain4 ,later on1 chemists by employing the same idea combined an alkali with an acid in powder form and produced an accurate and satisfactory leavening agent in the form of baking powder4 ,the discovery of baking powder1 however1 has not displaced the use of other combinations that form chemical leavening agents1 for soda is still combined with sour milk1 molasses1 and cream of tartar in the making of various hot breads4 ,therefore1 so that a proper understanding of the various chemical leavening agents may be obtained1 a discussion of each is here given4 #i4 ,,soda ,,and ,,sour ,,milk4--,when soda is used with sour milk for leavening purposes1 the lactic acid in the milk is so acted upon by the soda as to produce gas4 ,however1 these two ingredients--soda and sour milk--do not make an absolutely accurate leavening agent1 because the quantity of acid in the sour milk varies according to the fermentation that has taken place4 ,for example1 sour milk #dh hours old contains more acid than sour milk that is kept under the same conditions but is only #bd hours old4 ,the proportion of these ingredients that is usually effective in batters and doughs for hot breads is #a level teaspoonful of soda to #a pint of sour milk4 ,so as to derive the best results in using these chemical leavening agents1 it will be well to observe that if they are mixed together in a cup the milk will bubble and may1 provided the quantity is sufficient1 run over4 ,these bubbles are caused by the gas that is formed when the acid and soda meet1 and when they break gas escapes1 with the result that some of it is lost4 ,formerly1 it was the custom to mix these leavening substances in this way1 and then to add them to the other ingredients4 ,now1 however1 in order that all gas produced may be kept in the dough mixture1 the soda is sifted in with the dry ingredients and the sour milk is added with the liquid ingredients4 #aj4 ,a point well worth remembering is that sour milk and soda may be substituted for sweet milk and baking powder in a recipe that calls for these ingredients by using #a teaspoonful of soda to each pint of sour milk4 ,this information should prove valuable to the housewife1 especially if she has accumulated a supply of sour milk that should not be wasted4 ,occasionally it will be found that baking powder and soda are required in the same recipe1 but this occurs only when an insufficient amount of soda to produce the desired result is specified4 #aa4 ,,soda ,,and ,,molasses4--,although molasses1 which is a product of sugar cane1 is sweet1 it contains an acid that is formed by the fermentation that continually occurs in it1 an evidence of which is the tiny bubbles that may be seen in molasses1 especially when it is kept in a warm place4 ,because of the presence of this acid1 molasses may be used with soda to form a chemical leavening agent1 and when they are combined in hot breads or cake1 the chemical action of the two produces carbon dioxide4 ,however1 accurate results cannot always be obtained when these ingredients are used1 for the degree of acidity in molasses is as uncertain as it is in sour milk4 ,molasses that is old or has been kept in a warm place will contain more acid than molasses that has been manufactured only a short time or that has been kept cool to retard fermentation4 ,the proportion of soda to molasses that can usually be relied on for hot breads and cakes is #a teaspoonful of soda to #a cupful of molasses1 or just twice the quantity of soda that is generally used with sour milk4 ,to produce the best results1 the molasses should be mixed with the liquid ingredients and the soda sifted in with the dry ones4 ,as molasses burns very quickly in a hot oven1 all breads or cakes containing it as an ingredient should be baked in an oven of moderate temperature4 #ab4 ,,soda ,,and ,,cream ,,of ,,tartar4--,some housewives are inclined to use soda and cream of tartar for leavening purposes2 but there is really no advantage in doing this when baking powder can be obtained1 for some baking powders are a combination of these two ingredients and produce the same result4 ,in fact1 the housewife cannot measure soda and cream of tartar so accurately as the chemist can combine them in the manufacture of baking powder4 ,nevertheless1 if their use is preferred1 they should be measured in the proportion of twice as much cream of tartar as soda4 ,as in the case of soda alone1 these leavening agents should be sifted with the dry ingredients4 ,a small quantity of cream of tartar is used without soda in such mixtures as angel-food cake1 in which egg white alone is used to make the mixture light4 ,the addition of the cream of tartar has the effect of so solidifying the egg white that it holds up until the heat of the oven hardens it permanently4 #ac4 ,,baking ,,powder4--,without doubt1 baking powder is the most satisfactory of the chemical leavening agents4 ,it comes in three varieties1 but they are all similar in composition1 for each contains an alkali in the form of soda and an acid of some kind1 as well as a filler of starch1 which serves to prevent the acid and the alkali from acting upon each other4 ,when moisture is added to baking powder1 chemical action sets in1 but it is not very rapid1 as is apparent when a cake or a muffin mixture is allowed to stand before baking4 ,the bubbles of gas that form in such a mixture can easily be observed if the mixture is stirred after it has stood for a short time4 ,when both moisture and heat are applied to baking powder1 however1 the chemical action that takes place is more rapid1 and this accounts for its usefulness in baking hot breads and cake4 #ad4 ,the price of the different kinds of baking powder1 which usually varies from #aj cents to #ej cents a pound1 is generally an indication of the ingredients that they contain4 ,powders that sell for #dj to #ej cents a pound usually contain cream of tartar for the acid1 the high price of this substance accounting for the price of the powder4 ,powders that may be purchased for #cj to #dj cents a pound generally contain acid phosphate of lime1 and as this substance is cheaper than cream of tartar1 a baking-powder mixture containing it may well be sold for less4 ,the cheapest grade of powders1 or those which sell for #aj to #be cents a pound1 have for their acid a salt of aluminum called alum4 ,still other powders that are sometimes made up to sell for #bj to #cj cents a pound contain a mixture of phosphate and alum4 #ae4 ,as baking powders vary in price1 so do they vary in their keeping qualities1 their effectiveness1 and their tendency toward being injurious4 ,most phosphate and alum powders do not keep so well as the cream-of-tartar powders1 and the longer they are kept1 the less effective do they become4 ,the powders that contain phosphate yield more gas for each teaspoonful used than do the other varieties4 ,much controversy has taken place with regard to the different kinds of baking powder and their effects on the digestive tract1 but authorities have not yet agreed on this matter4 ,however1 if foods made with the aid of baking powders are not used excessively1 no concern need be felt as to their injurious effect4 ,the housewife in her choice of baking powder should be guided by the price she can afford to pay and the results she is able to get after she has become well informed as to the effect of the different varieties4 ,she may easily become familiar with the composition of baking powder1 for a statement of what substances each kind contains is generally found on the label of every variety4 ,this information is invaluable to the housewife1 as it will assist her considerably in making a selection4 #af4 ,the proportion of baking powder to be used in a batter or a dough is regulated by the quantity of flour employed and not1 as is the case with soda and molasses or sour milk1 by the quantity of liquid1 the usual proportion being #b level teaspoonfuls to #a cupful of flour4 ,sometimes this proportion is decreased1 #f or #g teaspoonfuls being used instead of #h to each quart of flour in the making of large quantities of some kinds of baked foods4 ,in adding baking powder to a mixture1 as in adding other dry leavening agents1 it should be sifted with flour and the other dry ingredients4 #ag4 ,although baking powder may be purchased at various prices1 a good grade can be made in the home without much effort and usually for less than that which can be bought ready made4 ,for these reasons1 many housewives prefer to make their own4 ,the following recipe tells how to make a cream-of-tartar powder that is very satisfactory3 ,,recipe ,,for ,,baking ,,powder #a_/b lb4 cream of tartar #a_/d lb4 bicarbonate of soda #a_/d lb4 corn starch ,weigh all the ingredients accurately4 ,if the cream of tartar and the bicarbonate of soda are to be purchased from a druggist1 it will be better for him to weigh them than for the housewife1 as he uses scales that weigh accurately4 ,after all the ingredients are weighed1 mix them together thoroughly by sifting them a number of times or by shaking them well in a can or a jar on which the lid has been tightly closed4 ,the baking powder thus made should be kept in a can or a jar that may be rendered air-tight by means of a lid1 or cover4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,hot-,,bread ,,utensils ,,and ,,their ,,use ,,purpose ,,of ,,utensils ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a #ah4 ,the utensils required for the making of hot breads consist of two kinds3 those in which the ingredients are prepared and combined to form the mixture and those in which the mixture is to be baked4 ,as soon as it is known just what ones are needed to carry out the recipe for the hot bread that is to be made1 they1 together with the necessary ingredients1 such as milk1 fat1 flour1 baking powder1 salt1 eggs1 etc41 should be collected and arranged in the manner shown in ,fig4 #a1 so that they will be convenient4 ,usually1 much of the success of hot breads depends on the quickness and dexterity with which the ingredients are put together1 and if the person making them has to interrupt her work every now and then to get out a utensil1 she will find that her results will not be so satisfactory and that she will use up more energy than the work really demands4 ,the pans in which the mixture is to be baked need particular attention1 for they should be greased and ready to fill before the mixing is begun4 ,if they are to be heated1 they should be greased and put into the oven a few minutes before the mixture is ready to be put into them1 so that they may be taken from the oven and filled at once4 ,,utensils ,,for ,,preparing ,,the ,,mixture #ai4 ,fig4 #a serves very well to illustrate the utensils required for preparing hot-bread mixtures4 ,these consist of a bowl a of the proper size for mixing2 a smaller bowl b for beating eggs1 provided eggs are to be used2 two standard half-pint measuring cups c1 one for dry ingredients and the other for wet ingredients2 a tablespoon d1 a case knife e1 and a teaspoon f for measuring and mixing2 an egg beater g and a flour sifter4 ,of course1 if an egg whip is preferred1 it may take the place of the egg beater1 but for some hot-bread mixtures use will be found for both of these utensils4 ,,utensils ,,for ,,baking ,,the ,,mixture ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b #bj4 ,the kind of utensil required for the baking of hot-bread mixtures depends entirely on the nature of the mixture and the recipe that is to be prepared4 ,for popovers1 popover cups similar to those shown in ,fig4 #b or gem irons are necessary4 ,muffins require muffin pans like those illustrated at h1 ,fig4 #a2 ,boston brown breads need cans that have tight-fitting lids2 soft ginger bread1 nut loaf1 and corn cake are baked in loaf pans2 baking-powder or beaten biscuits are placed in shallow pans or on oiled sheets2 griddle cakes must be baked on griddles2 and waffles require waffle irons4 ,none of these utensils are likely to present any difficulty in their use except griddles and waffle irons1 so in order that these may be thoroughly understood and good results thereby obtained1 explanations of them are here given4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c #ba4 ,,griddles4--,a style of griddle in common use is illustrated in ,fig4 #c1 and while it is circular and has a projecting handle1 griddles of different shapes and fitted with different handles are to be had4 ,such utensils are made of numerous materials1 but the most satisfactory ones are constructed of steel1 iron1 soapstone1 and aluminum4 ,steel and iron griddles must be greased before cakes are baked on them so as to prevent the cakes from sticking2 for this reason they are less convenient than soapstone and aluminum griddles1 which do not require any grease4 ,the size of griddle to use is governed by the number of persons that are to be served4 ,one that is unusually large1 however1 should be avoided if a gas stove is used for cooking1 as it is difficult to heat a large griddle evenly on such a stove1 and even a small one must be shifted frequently so that some spots will not be hotter than others4 ,in this respect1 a griddle made of aluminum has the advantage over the other kinds1 for this material conducts the heat evenly over its entire surface4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e ,before a new steel or iron griddle is used1 it must be tempered so as to prevent the food that is to be baked on it from sticking4 ,if it is not tempered1 much time will be consumed before its surface will be in the right condition to permit baking to proceed without difficulty1 and this1 of course1 will result in wasting considerable food material4 ,tempering may be done by covering the griddle with a quantity of fat1 placing it over a flame or in a very hot oven1 and then allowing it to heat thoroughly to such a temperature that the fat will burn onto the surface4 ,this same precaution should be observed with new waffle irons and frying pans made of steel or iron if the best results from such utensils are desired4 #bb4 ,,waffle ,,irons4--,a waffle iron1 as shown in ,figs4 #d and #e1 consists of two corrugated griddles fastened together with a hinge in such a way that the surfaces nearly touch when the handles are brought together as in ,fig4 #d 7a74 ,these griddles are so suspended in a frame that they may be turned completely over in order to allow each side to be exposed to the heat4 ,the waffle iron illustrated in ,fig4 #d1 shown closed in view 7a7 and open in 7b71 is intended for a coal range4 ,in order to use it1 a stove lid is removed from one of the openings and the waffle iron is set in the opening1 which allows the griddle part to be turned4 ,the waffle iron shown in ,fig4 #e is intended for a gas range4 ,as will be noticed1 the griddle part rests on a base that is deep enough to permit it to be turned4 ,in using a waffle iron of either kind1 it should be heated while the waffle mixture is being prepared2 then it should be thoroughly greased on both sides4 ,no excess fat1 however1 should be used1 as it will run out when the griddle is turned over4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,mixture ,,varieties ,,of ,,mixtures ,,and ,,general ,,proportions #bc4 ,,batters ,,and ,,doughs4--,the mixtures from which hot breads are produced are of different consistencies1 and familiarity with them is necessary if good results in the making of such breads are desired4 ,this difference in the consistencies is due to the proportion of flour and liquid used1 a small proportion of flour producing a batter and a large proportion1 a dough4 ,it will be well to note1 however1 that some kinds of flour thicken a mixture much more readily than do others4 ,experience in the handling of flour teaches how to vary the other ingredients of a recipe in order to make them correspond to the difference in flour1 but the person who lacks a knowledge of cookery1 or has had very little experience in the handling of foods1 must know the general proportions that are correct under most circumstances4 ,the names of the mixtures that the ingredients produce are thin batter1 thick batter1 soft dough1 and stiff dough4 #bd4 ,a ,,thin ,,batter is one in which the general proportion of liquid and flour is #a measure of flour to #a measure of liquid4 ,such a batter1 when poured1 immediately seeks its own level and has the consistency of thin cream4 ,the most common examples of thin batters are popovers and griddle cakes4 ,a ,,thick ,,batter1 which is known as a drop1 or muffin1 batter1 is one that is made of #b measures of flour and #a measure of liquid4 ,a batter of this kind may be poured1 but it will not immediately seek its own level4 ,muffins1 gems1 puddings1 and cakes are made of thick batters4 ,a ,,soft ,,dough is one whose proportions are #c measures of flour and #a measure of liquid4 ,a dough of this kind will stand up alone--that is1 without support at the sides--and has more of the properties of a solid than of a liquid4 ,baking-powder biscuits1 tea rolls1 and certain kinds of cake are made of this form of dough4 ,a ,,stiff ,,dough is made of #d measures of flour and #a measure of liquid4 ,such a dough will not cling to the mixing bowl1 can be handled with the hands1 and will not stick when rolled out on a board4 ,pie crust1 hard cookies1 and beaten biscuit are made of such dough4 #be4 ,,applying ,,knowledge ,,of ,,general ,,proportions4 ,while the general proportions just mentioned remain the same in the majority of cases1 they vary somewhat when ingredients other than liquid and flour are added4 ,shortening and eggs in particular change the quantity of liquid required1 less liquid being necessary when these ingredients are used4 ,to get the best results from a new recipe1 it is always advisable upon reading the recipe to notice the proportions that are given and then to try to judge whether they bear a close enough resemblance to the general proportions to make a successful dish4 ,for instance1 if a griddle-cake recipe calls for #c cupfuls of flour and #a cupful of liquid1 the cook who understands what the general proportions for such a batter ought to be would know immediately that the recipe calls for too much flour4 ,likewise1 she would know that a recipe for baking-powder biscuits that calls for #b cupfuls of flour and #a cupful of liquid would make a dough that would be too soft to handle4 ,besides enabling a woman to judge a recipe1 a knowledge of the correct proportions for things of this kind makes it possible for her to combine the ingredients for a certain recipe without resorting to a cook book1 or1 in other words1 to originate a recipe4 ,because of the importance of such an understanding1 attention should always be given to details that will assist in obtaining a thorough knowledge of this matter4 ,,preparing ,,the ,,mixture #bf4 ,,preliminary ,,preparation ,,of ,,ingredients4--,before the mixing of the ingredients that are to be used in the batters and doughs of hot breads is begun1 all that are needed for the recipe selected should be collected and properly measured4 ,always sift the flour that is to be used for this purpose4 ,this is a rule that never varies with regard to flour to be used for any dough mixture or as a thickening agent4 ,then1 to prevent the flour from packing too solidly1 measure it by dipping it into the cup with a spoon4 ,to obtain the proper amount1 heap the cup and then level it with the edge of a knife4 ,measure with a spoon whatever dry leavening agent is called for1 and be sure that it does not contain any lumps4 ,if salt1 sugar1 and spices are to be used1 measure them carefully4 ,mix the leavening agent1 the salt1 the sugar1 and the other dry ingredients with the flour by sifting them together once or twice4 ,measure the butter or other fat by packing it in the spoon and then leveling it with a knife4 ,be particular in measuring the liquid1 using neither more nor less than is called for4 ,regarding this ingredient1 it should always be remembered that when a cupful is required1 a half-pint cup full to the brim is meant and that any fraction of a cupful should be measured with the same exactness4 #bg4 ,,combining ,,the ,,ingredients4--,the manner in which a batter or a dough is mixed is very important1 for much of the success of the finished product depends on the order in which the various steps are accomplished4 ,two general methods of combining the ingredients for such mixtures have been devised and either of them may be followed1 because they produce equally good results4 ,in one of these methods1 the fat is worked into the dry ingredients and the liquid then added4 ,as eggs are usually considered a liquid ingredient1 they are beaten and added to the rest of the liquid before it is mixed with the dry ingredients4 ,however1 if eggs are to be used for leavening1 only the yolks are added with the liquid ingredients1 the whites being beaten separately and folded in last4 ,the other method is used only when the mixtures are to contain a small quantity of fat4 ,in this method1 all the liquid ingredients1 including the eggs1 are first mixed together4 ,then the dry ingredients are combined and sifted into the liquid4 ,the fat is melted last and beaten into the dough mixture4 ,if the mixture to be handled is a stiff one1 the fat should be put in cold1 for adding melted fat makes the dough soft and sticky and therefore difficult to handle4 ,,baking ,,the ,,mixture #bh4 ,,regulating ,,the ,,oven4--,when the ingredients have been properly combined1 the mixture is ready to be baked4 ,with the exception of waffles and griddle cakes1 the baking of which is explained in connection with the recipes1 all hot breads are baked in the oven2 therefore1 while the mixture is being prepared1 the oven should be properly regulated in order that the temperature will be just right when it is time to start the baking4 ,particular thought should be given to this matter1 for if no attention is paid to the oven until the mixture is ready to be baked1 it will be necessary to allow the mixture to stand until the heat of the oven can be regulated or to put it into the oven and run the risk of spoiling the food4 ,to prevent either of these conditions and to insure success1 the fuel1 no matter what kind is used1 should be lighted before mixing is begun1 so that the oven may be heating while the mixture is being prepared1 unless1 as is sometimes the case1 there are steps in the preparation of the mixture that consume considerable time4 ,for instance1 looking over raisins and cleaning them or cracking nuts and picking the meats out of the shells should be done before the rest of the ingredients are prepared or the oven is regulated4 #bi4 ,,correct ,,oven ,,temperatures4--,quick breads that are to be baked in the form of loaves require an oven temperature of from #cej to #djj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,muffins1 biscuits1 and the smaller varieties of these breads need a higher temperature1 #dbe to #dej degrees ,fahrenheit being best4 ,as they are not so large1 the heat has less dough through which to penetrate1 and consequently the baking can be accomplished more quickly4 #cj4 ,,determining ,,and ,,regulating ,,oven ,,temperature4--,regulating the oven and testing its temperature present very little difficulty to the housewife of experience1 but they are not always easy problems for the woman who is learning to cook4 ,however1 if the untrained and inexperienced cook will observe her oven closely and determine the results of certain temperatures1 she will soon find herself becoming more successful in this matter4 ,to assist the housewife in this matter1 as well as to help in the saving of much loss in fuel and in underdone or overdone food1 many stoves are equipped with an oven thermometer1 an indicator1 or a thermostat4 ,the thermometer is more likely to be reliable than the indicator1 as it has a column of mercury like that of any other thermometer and is graduated2 also1 a certain kind may be secured that can be used with any sort of oven4 ,the indicator is in the form of a dial with a hand attached to a metal spring4 ,this spring contracts and expands with the changes in the temperature of the oven and thus causes the hand to point out the temperature4 ,the thermostat is a device that automatically regulates the heat of the oven4 ,on a stove equipped with a thermostat1 it is simply necessary to set the device at the temperature desired4 ,when this temperature is reached1 the device keeps it stationary4 #ca4 ,if neither an indicator nor a thermometer is available1 the heat of the oven may be determined in other ways4 ,some housewives test the oven with the hand1 and while such a test is more or less dependent on experience1 those who use it find it very satisfactory4 ,if the hand can be held in the oven while #ae is counted slowly1 the temperature is that of a moderate oven and will be right for the baking of loaves4 ,an oven that is of the proper temperature for muffins or rolls will permit the hand to be held in it while only #aj is counted slowly4 ,those who do not test with the hand find that placing a piece of white paper in the oven is an accurate way of determining its temperature4 ,such paper will turn a delicate brown in #e minutes in a moderate oven1 and a deeper brown in #d minutes in a hot oven4 #cb4 ,,proper ,,placing ,,of ,,the ,,mixture ,,in ,,the ,,oven4--,as is pointed out in ,essentials of ,cookery1 ,part #a1 the top of the oven is hotter than the bottom4 ,this truth and the fact that in an oven1 as in any other space1 air expands and rises on becoming heated1 are points that have much to do with the baking of quick breads1 for these are mixtures that rise after being placed in the oven4 ,so that they may rise properly1 they should be placed on the bottom first2 then1 as they become heated1 they will have a tendency to rise as the air does4 ,if the food is placed near the top first1 the heated air will be likely to press it down and retard its rising4 ,as soon as the rising is completed and the food has baked sufficiently on the bottom1 it should be moved up so that it will brown on the top4 #cc4 ,,testing ,,the ,,baked ,,mixture4--,recipes for baked dishes usually state the length of time required to bake them1 but such directions cannot always be depended on1 because the temperature of the oven varies at different times4 ,the best way in which to judge whether the food has baked the necessary length of time is to apply to it one of the reliable tests that have been devised for this purpose4 ,probably the most satisfactory test is to insert a toothpick as deep as possible into the center of the loaf4 ,the center1 rather than some other part of the loaf1 is the place where the testing should be done1 because the heat penetrates a mixture from the outside and the center is therefore the last part to bake4 ,if the toothpick comes out without particles of dough adhering1 the mixture is sufficiently baked in that place and consequently throughout the loaf4 ,in case the dough sticks to the toothpick1 the baking is not completed and will have to be continued4 ,since this is a test that is frequently used1 a supply of toothpicks1 preferably round ones1 should be kept in a handy place near the stove4 ,another fairly accurate means of testing baked mixtures that do not form a very hard crust consists in making a dent in the center with the finger4 ,if the dent remains1 the baking must be continued1 but if it springs back into place1 the baking is completed4 ,,serving ,,hot ,,breads #cd4 ,hot breads1 in contrast with yeast breads1 are intended to be eaten hot1 and1 to be most satisfactory1 should be served as soon as possible after they are baked4 ,they usually take the place of bread in the meal for which they are served1 but there are various ways of using them whereby variety is given to them and to the meal4 ,a favorite combination with many persons is hot biscuits or muffins served with honey4 ,if honey is not available1 jam1 preserves1 or sirup may be substituted to advantage4 ,a mixture made like baking-powder biscuits and baked or steamed is especially good when served with chicken or meat stew poured over it4 ,the same mixture sweetened and made a trifle richer may be served with fruit and cream for short cake4 ,for afternoon tea1 tiny muffins and biscuits about the size of a #ej-;cent piece are very attractive4 ,then1 too1 if they are split and buttered1 they may be served with salad for a light luncheon4 ,hot breads baked in the form of a loaf require some attention as far as preparing them for the table is concerned4 ,gingerbread and corn cake are better if they are broken rather than cut while hot4 ,in case they are preferred cut1 a sharp knife should be employed1 and1 to obtain slices that have a good appearance1 the knife should be heated and the cutting done before it cools4 ,usually1 gingerbread is served plain1 but the addition of icing improves it considerably and provides a simple cake that can be used for dessert4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,recipes ,,for ,,hot ,,breads ,,popover ,,recipes #ce4 ,,popovers4--,a delightful change from the puffs1 muffins1 and biscuits that are usually served for breakfast or luncheon is afforded by means of popovers1 one of which is illustrated in ,fig4 #f4 ,popovers are not difficult to make4 ,for them is required a thin batter in equal proportions of liquid and flour4 ,in giving the method for mixing popovers1 some of the older cook books recommend beating for #e minutes just before they are baked1 because the lightness was formerly supposed to be due to the air that is incorporated by this beating4 ,it is possible1 however1 to make very light popovers with only enough beating to mix the ingredients thoroughly1 and it is now known that the rising is due to the expansion of water into steam in the mixture4 ,this knowledge is useful in that it saves time and energy4 ,,popovers 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a c4 flour #a_/d tsp4 salt #a c4 milk #a egg ,mix the flour1 salt1 and milk in a bowl1 and then drop in the unbeaten egg4 ,beat all with a rotary egg beater until the mixture is perfectly smooth and free from lumps4 ,grease and warm gem irons or popover cups4 ,then fill them about two-thirds full of the popover batter4 ,bake in a moderate oven for about #de minutes or until the popovers can be lifted from the cups and do not shrink when removed from the oven4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 #cf4 ,,popovers ,,with ,,fruit4--,popovers made according to the preceding recipe are particularly good if fruit is added to them4 ,to add the fruit1 cut a slit in the side of the popovers as soon as they are removed from the oven and insert a few spoonfuls of apple sauce1 marmalade1 preserves1 jelly1 or canned fruit4 ,these may be served either warm or cold as a breakfast dish1 or they may be sprinkled with powdered sugar and served with cream for a dessert or a luncheon dish4 #cg4 ,,nut ,,puffs4--,an example of a thin batter not in equal proportions of liquid and flour is afforded by nut puffs4 ,in hot breads of this kind1 aeration is used as the leavening agent4 ,in order to assist with the incorporation of air1 the egg yolk is well beaten before it is added2 but the greater part of the lightness that is produced is due to the egg white1 which is beaten and folded in last4 ,the addition of nuts to a batter of this kind considerably increases its food value4 ,,nut ,,puffs 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a-a_/b c4 flour #b ,tb4 sugar #a tsp4 salt #a c4 milk #a egg #a ,tb4 fat #a_/d c4 chopped nuts ,sift the flour1 sugar1 and salt together1 and add the milk and beaten egg yolk4 ,melt the fat and add it and the chopped nuts4 ,beat the egg white stiff and fold it into the mixture carefully4 ,fill hot1 well-greased gem irons level full of the batter1 and bake in a hot oven about #bj minutes4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #g #ch4 ,,whole-,,wheat ,,puffs4--,puffs in which use is made of whole-wheat flour instead of white flour are also an example of a thin batter that is made light by aeration4 ,if desired1 graham flour may be substituted for the whole-wheat flour1 but if it is a coarser bread will be the result4 ,this coarseness1 however1 does not refer to the texture of the bread1 but is due to the quantity of bran in graham flour4 ,whole-wheat puffs1 as shown in ,fig4 #g1 are attractive1 and besides they possess the valuable food substances contained in whole-wheat flour1 eggs1 and milk4 ,,whole-,,wheat ,,puffs 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a-a_/b c4 whole-wheat flour #b ,tb4 sugar #a tsp4 salt #a c4 milk #a egg #a ,tb4 fat ,sift the flour1 sugar1 and salt together and add the milk and the egg yolk1 which should be well beaten4 ,melt the fat and stir it into the batter4 ,beat the egg white stiff1 and fold it in carefully4 ,heat well-greased gem irons1 fill them level full with the mixture1 and bake in a hot oven for about #bj minutes4 ,,griddle-,,cake ,,recipes #ci4 ,,procedure ,,in ,,baking ,,griddle ,,cakes4--,during the preparation of the batter for griddle cakes1 have the griddle heating1 so that it will be sufficiently hot when the cakes are ready to be baked4 ,each time1 before the baking is begun1 grease the griddle1 provided it is the kind that requires greasing1 by rubbing over it a rind of salt pork or a small cloth pad that has been dipped into a dish of grease4 ,in greasing the griddle1 see that there is no excess of grease1 as this burns and produces smoke4 ,when the griddle has become hot enough for the batter to sizzle when it is put on1 the baking may be started4 ,pour the batter on the griddle from the tip of a large spoon1 so that the cakes will form as nearly round as possible4 ,when the top surface is full of bubbles1 turn the cakes with a spatula or a pancake turner1 and allow them to brown on the other side4 ,by the time the cakes are sufficiently browned on both sides1 they should be cooked through and ready to serve4 ,if they brown before they have had time to cook through1 the griddle is too hot and should be cooled by moving it to a cooler part of the stove or by reducing the heat4 ,a very important point to remember in the baking of griddle cakes is that they should not be turned twice1 as this has a tendency to make them heavy4 #dj4 ,,griddle ,,cakes4--,as is generally known1 griddle cakes are thin batters that are made light with a chemical leavening agent4 ,eggs are often used in such batters1 but it is possible to make very excellent griddle cakes without the use of any eggs4 ,it should also be remembered that the use of too much egg is more certain to make the cakes tough and less palatable than if none is used4 ,the kind of flour used for griddle cakes has much to do with the consistency of the batter used for them4 ,if1 when the first cakes are placed upon the griddle1 the batter seems to be either too thick or too thin1 liquid or flour may be added to dilute or thicken the batter until it is of the right consistency4 ,for instance1 if bread flour is used1 more liquid may be needed1 and if pastry flour is used1 more flour may be required4 ,,griddle ,,cakes 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #c c4 flour #e tsp4 baking powder #a tsp4 salt #a_/d c4 sugar #a egg #b-a_/d c4 milk #b ,tb4 melted fat ,mix and sift the flour1 baking powder1 salt1 and sugar4 ,beat the egg1 add to it the milk1 and pour this liquid slowly into the dry ingredients4 ,beat the mixture thoroughly and then add the melted fat4 ,bake the cakes on a hot griddle as soon as possible after the batter is mixed4 #da4 ,,sour-,,milk ,,griddle ,,cakes4--,very delicious griddle cakes may be made by using sour milk and soda for the liquid and leavening instead of sweet milk and baking powder4 ,besides being particularly appetising1 such cakes serve to use up left-over milk that may have soured4 ,there is very little difference between the ingredients for this recipe and one calling for sweet milk1 except that sour milk1 which is a trifle thicker in consistency than sweet milk1 requires less flour to thicken the mixture4 ,,sour-,,milk ,,griddle ,,cakes 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #b-a_/b c4 flour #a_/b tsp4 salt #b ,tb4 sugar #a tsp4 soda #b c4 sour milk 7not thick7 #a egg ,mix and sift the flour1 salt1 sugar1 and soda4 ,add to these the sour milk and the egg well beaten4 ,if the milk is thick1 the quantity should be increased accordingly4 ,beat the mixture thoroughly and bake at once on a hot griddle4 #db4 ,,corn ,,griddle ,,cakes4--,the addition of corn meal to a griddle-cake mixture adds variety and food value and produces an agreeable flavor4 ,where corn meal is cheap1 it is an economical ingredient to use in griddle cakes and other hot breads4 ,,corn ,,griddle ,,cakes 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a_/b c4 corn meal #a-a_/b c4 boiling water #b c4 milk #b c4 flour #e tsp4 baking powder #a-a_/b tsp4 salt #a_/d c4 sugar #a egg #b ,tb4 melted fat ,add the corn meal to the boiling water1 boil #e minutes1 and turn into a bowl4 ,then add the milk4 ,next1 mix and sift the flour1 baking powder1 salt1 and sugar1 and stir them into the first mixture4 ,beat the egg and add to the whole4 ,finally1 stir in the melted fat4 ,bake on a hot griddle4 #dc4 ,,rice ,,griddle ,,cakes4--,if a change in the ordinary griddle cakes that are used for breakfast is desired1 rice griddle cakes should be tried4 ,besides lending variety1 the addition of rice to a griddle-cake mixture helps to use up any left-over rice that may have been cooked for another purpose4 ,steamed or boiled rice used for this purpose should be broken up with a fork before it is mixed in the batter1 so that the grains of rice will not stick together in chunks4 ,,rice ,,griddle ,,cakes 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #b-a_/b c4 flour #e tsp4 baking powder #a_/d c4 sugar #a_/b tsp4 salt #a_/b c4 cold cooked rice #a egg #a-a_/b c4 milk #b ,tb4 melted fat ,mix and sift the flour1 baking powder1 sugar1 and salt4 ,work the rice into the dry ingredients4 ,add the egg1 well beaten1 the milk1 and the melted fat4 ,bake on a hot griddle4 #dd4 ,,buckwheat ,,cakes4--,buckwheat flour is used for griddle cakes more than for any other purpose4 ,when used in this way it has a very typical flavor that most people find very agreeable4 ,many prepared buckwheat flours1 to which have been added the quantity of leavening agent necessary to raise the mixture1 are on the market for the convenience of those who do not desire to prepare the mixture at home4 ,as a rule1 these contain a combination of buckwheat and wheat flour4 ,to make cakes from these flours1 add the required amount of liquid1 either milk or water1 and a little sugar1 if necessary1 and then proceed to bake them on a griddle4 ,while there is no objection to the use of such flours if they are found agreeable1 it is more expensive to use them than to make up the buckwheat mixture at home4 ,a recipe for buckwheat cakes that proves very satisfactory is the following3 ,,buckwheat ,,cakes 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #b c4 scalded milk #a_/b c4 fine bread crumbs #a_/b tsp4 salt #a_/d yeast cake #c_/d c4 lukewarm water #a-a_/b c4 buckwheat flour #a_/b c4 white flour #a ,tb4 molasses #a_/d tsp4 soda ,pour the scalded milk over the bread crumbs and add the salt4 ,dissolve the yeast cake in #a_/b cupful of the lukewarm water and add this to the bread crumbs and milk4 ,stir in the buckwheat and the white flour1 and let the mixture rise overnight4 ,in the morning1 stir it well and add the molasses1 the soda1 and #a_/d cupful of lukewarm water4 ,bake on a hot griddle4 ,if cakes are to be baked the next day1 retain #a_/b cupful of the batter1 to which may be added flour1 milk1 salt1 and molasses4 ,by doing this each day1 a starter may be had for a long period of time4 ,if a strong buckwheat flavor is desired1 use all buckwheat flour1 but if only a slight buckwheat flavor is desired1 make the proportion of wheat flour greater and that of the buckwheat smaller4 ,,waffle ,,recipes #de4 ,,procedure ,,in ,,baking ,,waffles4--,the procedure in making waffles is very similar to that in making griddle cakes4 ,while the waffle mixture is being prepared1 heat the waffle iron4 ,then grease it thoroughly on both sides with a rind of salt pork or a cloth pad dipped in fat1 being careful that there is no excess fat1 as it will run out when the iron is turned over4 ,with the iron properly greased and sufficiently hot1 place several spoonfuls of the batter in the center and close the iron4 ,by so doing1 the batter will be pressed out to cover the entire surface4 ,in pouring the batter1 do not cover the entire surface of the iron with batter nor place any near the outside edge1 for it is liable to run out when the iron is closed4 ,in case this happens1 be sure to put in less batter the next time4 ,allow the waffle to brown on the side near the fire and then turn the iron1 so as to brown the other side4 ,when the waffle is sufficiently brown1 remove it2 then grease the iron and repeat the process4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 #df4 ,,waffles4--,the form of hot bread known as waffles1 which are illustrated in ,fig4 #h1 offers the housewife an excellent opportunity to add variety to meals4 ,practically no one dislikes waffles1 and they are especially appetising when sprinkled with powdered sugar or served with sirup4 ,they are often served with chicken or other gravy4 ,,waffles 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #b c4 flour #c tsp4 baking powder #a_/b tsp4 salt #b eggs #a-b_/c c4 milk #b ,tb4 melted fat ,sift the flour1 baking powder1 and salt together4 ,beat the yolks and whites of the eggs separately4 ,add the beaten yolks and the milk to the dry ingredients and then stir in the melted fat4 ,beat the egg whites stiff and fold them into the batter4 ,bake according to the directions given in ,art4 #de4 #dg4 ,,rice ,,waffles4--,rice waffles offer an excellent means of utilizing left-over rice4 ,such waffles are prepared in about the same way as the waffles just mentioned4 ,in working the cooked rice into the dry ingredients1 use should be made of a light motion that will not crush the grains1 but will separate them from one another4 ,left-over cereals other than rice may also be used in this way4 ,,rice ,,waffles 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a-c_/d c4 flour #b ,tb4 sugar #a_/b tsp4 baking powder #a_/b tsp4 salt #b_/c c4 cooked rice #a-a_/b c4 milk #a egg #a ,tb4 melted fat ,mix and sift the flour1 sugar1 baking powder1 and salt1 and then work the rice into the dry ingredients4 ,add the milk and the well-beaten yolk of egg4 ,stir in the melted fat4 ,beat the egg white stiff1 and fold it into the batter4 ,bake as previously directed4 ,,muffin ,,recipes ,illustration3 ,fig4 #i #dh4 ,muffins are examples of thick batters with variations4 ,this form of hot bread1 an illustration of which is shown in ,fig4 #i1 may be baked in a pan like that shown at h1 ,fig4 #a1 or in individual tins4 ,just as other forms of hot breads assist the housewife in making changes or additions to meals1 so do muffins1 as they are usually relished by nearly every one4 #di4 ,,plain ,,muffins4--,perhaps the simplest form of muffin is the plain1 or one-egg1 muffin1 which is illustrated in ,fig4 #i and made according to the accompanying recipe4 ,to a plain-muffin recipe1 however1 may be added any kind of fruit1 nuts1 or other ingredients to give variety of flavour4 ,likewise1 it may be made richer and sweeter and then steamed or baked to be served with a sauce for dessert4 ,if it is made still richer and sweeter1 the result is a simple cake mixture4 ,any given muffin recipe in which sweet milk is used may be made with sour milk by using soda instead of baking powder4 ,,plain ,,muffins 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #b c4 flour #b ,tb4 sugar #a tsp4 salt #d tsp4 baking powder #a c4 milk #a egg #b ,tb4 melted fat ,mix and sift the flour1 sugar1 salt1 and baking powder1 and to these add the milk and beaten egg4 ,then stir in the melted fat4 ,fill well-greased muffin pans about two-thirds full of the mixture and bake in a hot oven for about #bj minutes4 #ej4 ,,blueberry ,,muffins4--,muffins containing blueberries can be made successfully only in blueberry season1 but other fruit1 as1 for example1 dates1 may be used in place of the blueberries4 ,cranberries are often used in muffins1 but to many persons they are not agreeable because of the excessive amount of acid they contain4 ,,blueberry ,,muffins 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #c ,tb4 fat #a_/c c4 sugar #a egg #a c4 milk #b-a_/d c4 flour #a_/b tsp4 salt #d tsp4 baking powder #a c4 fresh blueberries ,cream the fat1 and add the sugar gradually4 ,then stir in the beaten egg and milk4 ,reserve #a_/d cupful of flour1 and mix the remainder with the salt and the baking powder4 ,stir the dry ingredients into the first mixture4 ,next1 mix the #a_/d cupful of flour with the berries and fold them into the batter4 ,fill well-greased muffin pans about two-thirds full of the batter1 and bake in a hot oven for about #bj minutes4 #ea4 ,,date ,,muffins4--,the recipe given for blueberry muffins may be used for date muffins by substituting dates for blueberries4 ,to prepare the dates1 wash them in warm water1 rinse them in cold water1 and then dry them between towels4 ,cut them lengthwise along the seed with a sharp knife1 remove the seed1 and then cut each date into three or four pieces4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 #eb4 ,,corn-,,meal ,,muffins4--,to many persons1 corn-meal muffins1 an illustration of which is shown in ,fig4 #aj1 are more agreeable than plain white-flour muffins4 ,corn meal gives to muffins an attractive flavour and appearance and increases their food value slightly2 but perhaps its chief value lies in the variety that results from its use4 ,,corn-,,meal ,,muffins 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a_/b c4 corn meal #a c4 flour #c tsp4 baking powder #b ,tb4 sugar #a_/b tsp4 salt #c_/d c4 milk #a egg #b ,tb4 melted fat ,mix and sift the corn meal1 flour1 baking powder1 sugar1 and salt4 ,add to these the milk and the well-beaten egg1 and stir in the melted fat4 ,fill well-greased muffin pans two-thirds full1 and bake in a hot oven for about #bj minutes4 #ec4 ,,graham ,,muffins4--,a pleasing variety in the way of muffins is produced by using part graham flour1 but whole-wheat flour may be substituted for the graham flour in case it is preferred4 ,sour milk is used in the recipe here given1 but if there is no sour milk in supply1 sweet milk and baking powder may be used instead1 with merely the correct proportion of soda for the molasses4 ,if the taste of molasses is undesirable1 liquid1 which may be either sweet or sour milk1 may be substituted for it4 ,it is an excellent plan to be able to substitute one thing for another in recipes of this kind1 and this may be done if the materials are used in correct proportion4 ,,graham ,,muffins 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a-a_/d c4 graham flour #a c4 white flour #c_/d tsp4 soda #a tsp4 salt #a c4 sour milk #a_/c c4 molasses #a egg #b ,tb4 melted fat ,mix and sift the graham and the white flour1 the soda1 and the salt4 ,put the bran that sifts out back into the mixture4 ,add the milk1 molasses1 and well-beaten egg to the dry ingredients1 and then stir in the melted fat4 ,fill well-greased muffin pans two-thirds full and bake in a moderate oven for about #bj minutes4 #ed4 ,,rice ,,muffins4--,rice may be combined with white flour in the making of muffins if variety is desired4 ,as rice used for this purpose is added hot1 it may be cooked either purposely for the muffins or for something else and only part used for the muffins4 ,cereals other than rice may be used in exactly the same quantity and in the same way in making muffins4 ,,rice ,,muffins 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #b-a_/d c4 flour #e tsp4 baking powder #b ,tb4 sugar #a_/b tsp4 salt #a-a_/d c4 milk #a egg #c_/d c4 hot1 cooked rice #b ,tb4 melted fat ,mix and sift the flour1 baking powder1 sugar1 and salt1 and to these add half of the milk and the egg1 well beaten4 ,mix the remaining half of the milk with the rice and add it to the mixture4 ,stir in the melted fat last4 ,fill well-greased muffin pans two-thirds full1 and bake in a hot oven for about #bj minutes4 #ee4 ,,bran ,,muffins4--,the particular value of bran muffins lies in the laxative quality that they introduce into the diet4 ,in addition1 they will be found to be very tasty and superior to many other kinds of muffins4 ,bran for such purposes as this may be bought in packages1 in the same way as many cereals4 ,,bran ,,muffins 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #a-a_/b c4 white flour #a_/b tsp4 soda #a_/b tsp4 baking powder #a tsp4 salt #b c4 bran #a-a_/d c4 milk #a_/b c4 molasses #a egg ,mix and sift the flour1 soda1 baking powder1 and salt4 ,then add the bran1 the milk1 the molasses1 and the well-beaten egg4 ,fill well-greased muffin pans about two-thirds full1 and bake in a moderate oven for about #be minutes4 ,,corn-,,cake ,,recipes #ef4 ,,corn ,,cake4--,corn cakes were among the first breads made of cereal foods in ,america1 being at first often made of only corn meal1 water1 and salt4 ,these cakes of corn meal were prepared and carried on long journeys made by people when there were no means of rapid transportation4 ,the cakes did not spoil1 were not bulky1 and contained a great deal of nutriment1 so they made a convenient kind of food for such purposes and were called journey cakes4 ,from this term came the name ,johnny cake1 which is often applied to cake of this kind4 ,the combining of flour1 eggs1 shortening1 and sugar makes a cake that does not resemble the original very much1 but in many localities such cake is still called ,johnny cake4 ,the proportion of corn meal to flour that is used determines to a large extent the consistency of the cake2 the greater the quantity of corn meal1 the more the cake will crumble and break into pieces4 ,the addition of white flour makes the particles of corn meal adhere1 so that most persons consider that white flour improves the consistency4 ,,corn ,,cake 7,sufficient for ,one ,medium-,sized ,loaf7 #c_/d c4 yellow corn meal #a-a_/d c4 flour #a_/d c4 sugar #c_/d tsp4 salt #d tsp4 baking powder #a c4 milk #a egg #b ,tb4 melted fat ,mix and sift the corn meal1 flour1 sugar1 salt1 and baking powder4 ,add the milk and well-beaten egg1 and then stir in the melted fat4 ,pour into a well-greased loaf pan and bake in a hot oven for about #cj minutes4 #eg4 ,,southern ,,corn ,,cake4--,in the preceding recipe for corn cake1 more flour than corn meal is used1 but many persons prefer cake of this kind made with more corn meal than flour4 ,southern corn cake1 which contains more corn meal and less white flour1 proves very satisfactory to such persons4 ,therefore1 which of these recipes should be used depends on the taste of those who are to eat the cake4 ,,southern ,,corn ,,cake 7,sufficient for ,one ,medium-,sized ,loaf7 #a c4 corn meal #a_/b c4 flour #c tsp4 baking powder #c_/d tsp4 salt #a_/d c4 sugar #c_/d c4 milk #a egg #b ,tb4 melted fat ,mix and sift together the corn meal1 flour1 baking powder1 salt1 and sugar4 ,add to them the milk and well-beaten egg1 and stir in the melted fat4 ,pour into a well-greased loaf pan1 and bake in a moderate oven for about #cj minutes4 #eh4 ,molasses ,corn ,cake4--,molasses corn cake1 just as its name indicates1 is corn cake containing molasses4 ,to those who find the taste of molasses agreeable1 this recipe will appeal4 ,others not so fond of molasses will1 without doubt1 prefer the plain corn cake4 ,besides adding flavour1 the molasses in this recipe adds food value to the product4 ,,molasses ,,corn ,,cake 7,sufficient for ,one ,medium-,sized ,loaf7 #a c4 corn meal #c_/d c4 flour #c-a_/b tsp4 baking powder #a tsp4 salt #c_/d c4 milk #a_/d c4 molasses #a egg #b ,tb4 melted fat ,mix and sift the corn meal1 flour1 baking powder1 and salt4 ,add the milk1 molasses1 and well-beaten egg and stir in the melted fat4 ,pour into a well-greased loaf pan1 and bake in a moderate oven for about #cj minutes4 ,,biscuit ,,recipes ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa #ei4 ,baking-,powder ,biscuits4--,the ability of the housewife as a cook is very often judged by the biscuits she makes2 but they are really very simple to make1 and if recipes are followed carefully and measurements are made accurately1 only a little experience is required to produce excellent ones4 ,the principal requirement in making baking-powder biscuits1 which are illustrated in ,fig4 #aa1 is that all the ingredients be kept as cold as possible during the mixing4 ,tiny1 thin biscuits may be split1 buttered1 and served with tea1 while larger ones may be served with breakfast or luncheon4 ,in order to utilise left-over biscuits of this kind1 they may be split and toasted or dipped quickly into boiling water and heated in a quick oven until the surface is dry4 ,,baking-,,powder ,,biscuits 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #b c4 flour #a tsp4 salt #d tsp4 baking powder #b ,tb4 fat #c_/d c4 milk ,mix and sift the flour1 salt1 and baking powder4 ,chop the fat into the dry ingredients until it is in pieces about the size of small peas4 ,pour the milk into the dry ingredients1 and mix them just enough to take up the liquid4 ,make the mixture as moist as possible1 and still have it in good condition to handle4 ,then sprinkle flour on a molding board1 and lift the dough from the mixing bowl to the board4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab ,,hot ,,breads ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,sprinkle flour thinly over the top and pat out the dough until it is about #a inch thick4 ,cut the dough with a biscuit cutter1 and place the biscuits thus cut out on baking sheets or in shallow pans4 ,if a crusty surface is desired1 place the biscuits in the pan so that they are about an inch apart2 but if thick1 soft biscuits are preferred1 place them so that the edges touch4 ,bake #ah to #bj minutes in a hot oven4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 #fj4 ,,emergency ,,biscuits4--,as shown in ,fig4 #ab1 emergency biscuits resemble very closely baking-powder biscuits1 and so they should1 because the recipe given for baking-powder biscuits may be used for emergency biscuits by merely adding more milk--just enough to make the dough a trifle too moist to handle with the hands4 ,when the dough is of this consistency1 drop it by spoonfuls in shallow pans1 as in ,fig4 #ac1 or on baking sheets4 ,then bake the biscuits in a hot oven for #ah to #bj minutes4 #fa4 ,,pinwheel ,,biscuits4--,to create variety1 a baking-powder biscuit mixture may be made into pinwheel biscuits1 a kind of hot bread that is always pleasing to children4 ,such biscuits1 which are illustrated in ,fig4 #ad1 differ from cinnamon rolls only in the leavening agent used1 cinnamon rolls being made with yeast and pinwheel biscuits with baking powder4 ,,pinwheel ,,biscuits 7,sufficient to ,serve ,six7 #b c4 flour #a tsp4 salt #d tsp4 baking powder #b ,tb4 fat f #c_/d c4 milk #b ,tb4 butter #a_/c c4 sugar #a ,tb4 cinnamon #c_/d c4 chopped raisins ,to make the dough1 combine the ingredients in the same way as for baking-powder biscuits4 ,roll it on a well-floured board until it is about #a_/d inch thick and twice as long as it is wide4 ,spread the surface with the #b tablespoonfuls of butter4 ,mix the sugar and cinnamon and sprinkle them evenly over the buttered surface1 and on top of this sprinkle the chopped raisins4 ,start with one of the long edges and roll the dough carefully toward the opposite long edge1 as shown in ,fig4 #ae4 ,then cut the roll into slices #a inch thick4 ,place these slices in a shallow pan with the cut edges down and the sides touching4 ,bake in a hot oven for about #bj minutes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 #fb4 ,,beaten ,,biscuits4--,in ,fig4 #af is illustrated a form of hot bread known as beaten biscuits4 ,such biscuits are used very extensively in the ,south2 in fact1 they are usually considered typical of the ,south4 ,formerly1 all the lightness of beaten biscuits was produced by beating1 but as the mixture is made today it may be run through a food chopper a few times before it is beaten4 ,if this is done1 the labor of beating is lessened considerably1 beating for #ae to #bj minutes being sufficient4 ,when the beating is finished1 the texture of the dough should be fine and close and the surface should be smooth and flat4 ,,beaten ,,biscuits 7,sufficient to ,serve ,twelve7 #a qt4 pastry flour #a tsp4 salt #a_/c c4 fat #a c4 milk or water ,sift the flour and salt and chop in the fat4 ,moisten with the milk or water and form into a mass4 ,toss this on a floured board1 and beat it with a rolling pin for #cj minutes1 folding the dough over every few seconds4 ,roll the dough #a_/c inch in thickness1 form the biscuits by cutting them out with a small round cutter1 and prick each one several times with a fork4 ,place the biscuits on baking sheets or in shallow pans1 and bake them in a moderate oven for #bj to #cj minutes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,,miscellaneous ,,hot-,,bread ,,recipes ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 #fc4 ,,soft ,,gingerbread4--,as a hot bread for breakfast1 soft gingerbread like that illustrated in ,fig4 #ag is very satisfactory1 and with or without icing it may be served as cake with fruit for luncheon4 ,sweet milk and baking powder are generally used in gingerbread1 but sour milk may be substituted for sweet milk and soda in the proper proportion may be used in place of baking powder4 ,if not too much spice is used in a bread of this kind1 it is better for children than rich cake1 and1 as a rule1 they are very fond of it4 ,,soft ,,gingerbread 7,sufficient for ,one ,medium-,sized ,loaf7 #b c4 flour #b tsp4 baking powder #a_/b tsp4 soda #a_/d c4 sugar #a_/b tsp4 salt #b tsp4 ginger #a tsp4 cinnamon #a egg #a_/b c4 milk #a_/b c4 molasses #a_/d c4 butter or other fat ,mix the flour1 baking powder1 soda1 sugar1 salt1 and spices4 ,beat the egg1 add the milk and molasses to it1 and stir these into the first mixture4 ,melt the fat and stir it into the batter4 ,pour the batter into a well-greased loaf pan1 and bake in a moderate oven for about #ce minutes4 ,if preferred1 the mixture may be poured into individual muffin pans and baked in a moderate oven for about #be minutes4 #fd4 ,,boston ,,brown ,,bread4--,a hot bread that finds favor with most persons is ,boston brown bread1 which is illustrated in ,fig4 #ah4 ,,hot ,,breads ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,such bread1 instead of being baked in the oven1 is steamed for #c-a_/b hours4 ,it may be made plain1 according to the accompanying recipe1 or1 to give it variety1 raisins or currants may be added to it4 ,boston brown bread may be steamed in an ordinary coffee can1 such as is shown in ,fig4 #ah1 in a large baking-powder can1 or in a can that is made especially for this purpose4 ,a regular steaming can for ,boston brown bread is1 of course1 very convenient1 but the other cans mentioned are very satisfactory4 ,a point to remember in the making of brown bread is that the time for steaming should never be decreased4 ,oversteaming will do no harm1 but understeaming is liable to leave an unbaked place through the centre of the loaf4 ,,boston ,,brown ,,bread 7,sufficient for ,one ,medium-,sized ,loaf7 #a c4 white flour #a c4 graham flour #a c4 corn meal #c_/d tsp4 soda #b tsp4 baking powder #a tsp4 salt #c_/d c4 molasses #a-c_/d c4 sweet milk ,mix and sift the flour1 corn meal1 soda1 baking powder1 and salt4 ,add the molasses and milk and mix all thoroughly4 ,grease a can and a cover that fits the can tightly4 ,fill the can two-thirds full of the mixture and cover it4 ,place it in a steamer and steam for #c-a_/b hours4 ,dry in a moderate oven for a few minutes before serving4 #fe4 ,,nut ,,loaf4--,the use of nuts in a hot bread increases the food value and imparts a very delicious flavour4 ,it is therefore very attractive to most persons1 but it is not a cheap food on account of the usual high price of nuts4 ,thin slices of nut bread spread with butter make very fine sandwiches1 which are especially delicious when served with tea4 ,,nut ,,loaf 7,sufficient for ,one ,medium-,sized ,loaf7 #b c4 flour #a_/b c4 sugar #d tsp4 baking powder #a tsp4 salt #d ,tb4 fat #a egg #a c4 milk #a_/b c4 ,english walnuts ,mix and sift the flour1 sugar1 baking powder1 and salt1 and then work in the fat4 ,add the egg1 well beaten1 and the milk1 and then stir in the nut meats1 which should be chopped4 ,turn into a well-greased loaf pan1 and bake in a moderate oven for about #de minutes4 ,,utilising ,,left-,,over ,,hot ,,breads #ff4 ,as a general rule1 not much consideration need be given to the utilising of left-over hot breads1 for these are not often baked in large quantities and consequently are usually eaten at the meal for which they are intended4 ,still1 if any should be left over1 they should never be wasted1 for there are various ways in which they may be used4 ,the small varieties1 such as muffins1 biscuits1 etc1 may be freshened so that they will be almost as good as when first baked by putting them into a hot oven for a few minutes4 ,if they are quite stale1 they should be dipped quickly into hot water before being placed in the oven4 ,the moisture on the surface is driven into the interior of the bread by the intense heat1 with the result that the biscuits become moist and appear as fresh as they did formerly4 ,if it is not desired to freshen them in this way1 biscuits1 muffins1 and even pieces of corn bread that have become slightly stale may be made delicious by splitting them and then toasting them4 ,,luncheon ,,menu #fg4 ,as in the preceding ,sections1 there is here submitted a menu that should be worked out and reported on at the same time that the answers to the ,examination ,questions are sent in4 ,this menu is planned to serve six persons1 but1 as in the case of the other menus1 it may be increased or decreased to meet requirements4 ,the recipe for macaroni with cheese and tomatoes may be found in ,cereals1 and that for baking-powder biscuit1 as well as that for popovers with apple sauce1 in this ,section4 ,recipes for the remainder of the items follow the menu4 ,,menu ,macaroni ,with ,cheese and ,tomatoes ,baking-,powder ,biscuit ,jam ,watercress-and-,celery ,salad ,popovers ,filled ,with ,apple ,sauce ,tea ,,recipes ,,watercress-,,and-,,celery ,,salad ,arrange on each salad plate a bed of watercress1 or1 if it is impossible to obtain this1 shred lettuce by cutting it in narrow strips across the leaf and use it instead of the watercress4 ,dice one or two stems of celery1 depending on the size1 and place the diced pieces on top of the watercress or the lettuce4 ,pour over each serving about #b teaspoonfuls of ,french dressing made as follows3 #a_/b tsp4 salt #a_/d tsp4 pepper #a_/d tsp4 paprika #f ,tb4 oil #b ,tb4 vinegar ,mix the salt1 pepper1 and paprika1 and beat the oil into them until it forms an emulsion4 ,add the vinegar gradually1 a few drops at a time1 and continue the beating4 ,pour the dressing over the salad4 ,,tea ,measure #a teaspoonful of tea for each cupful that is to be served4 ,scald the teapot1 put the tea into it1 and add the required number of cups of freshly boiling water4 ,allow it to steep until the desired strength is obtained4 ,serve at once1 or pour from the leaves1 serving cream and sugar with it if desired4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,hot ,,breads ,,examination ,,questions 7#a7 7a7 ,in what way do hot breads differ from yeast breads8 7b7 ,what are the principal ingredients of hot-bread batters and doughs8 7#b7 7a7 ,what is a leavening agent8 7b7 ,what is the effect of leavening agents on batters and doughs8 7#c7 7a7 ,how is physical leavening accomplished8 7b7 ,on what does the success of breads raised by physical leavening depend8 7#d7 7a7 ,how is chemical leavening brought about8 7b7 ,what two things must be supplied to produce the best action of a chemical leavening agent for making a flour mixture light8 7#e7 ,why are soda and sour milk and soda and molasses not accurate leavening agents8 7#f7 ,in making a batter or a dough1 how much soda should be used with3 7a7 each cupful of sour milk8 7b7 each cupful of molasses8 7#g7 ,how should soda and sour milk or soda and molasses be combined with the other ingredients of a hot-bread mixture8 7#h7 7a7 ,in hot-bread batters and doughs1 how much baking powder should be used to #a cupful of flour8 7b7 ,how should baking powder be combined with the other ingredients8 7#i7 ,mention1 in the order they should be carried out1 the steps for making and baking a dough mixture4 7#aj7 ,tell what general proportion of liquid and flour is usually used for3 7a7 a thin batter2 7b7 a thick batter2 7c7 a soft dough2 7d7 a stiff dough4 7#aa7 ,give examples of hot breads made from3 7a7 thin batters2 7b7 thick batters2 7c7 soft doughs2 7d7 stiff doughs4 7#ab7 ,what will cause a change in the general proportions of liquid and flour for a batter or a dough8 7#ac7 ,explain briefly the two general methods of combining ingredients for hot-bread mixtures4 7#ad7 ,what is the approximate temperature for3 7a7 a moderate oven8 7b7 a hot oven8 7#ae7 ,mention a simple test for3 7a7 a moderate oven2 7b7 a hot oven4 7#af7 ,how may hot breads be tested in order to determine whether or not they are properly baked8 7#ag7 ,why are baking-powder biscuits and popovers mixed differently8 7#ah7 7a7 ,why does a loaf of nut bread require longer baking than muffins8 7b7 ,which should be baked in a moderate oven8 7#ai7 ,why should gingerbread be baked in a moderate oven8 7#bj7 ,make a recipe for muffins1 using #b cupfuls of flour and sour milk and soda for liquid and leavening4 ,,report ,,on ,,menu ,after trying out the luncheon menu given in the text1 send with your answers to the ,examination ,questions a report of your success4 ,in making out your report1 simply write the name of the food and describe its condition by means of the terms specified here4 ,macaroni ,with ,cheese and ,tomatoes3 cooked sufficiently8 properly flavoured8 too much salt8 not enough salt8 too much liquid8 too little liquid8 ,baking-,powder ,biscuit3 tender8 tough8 light8 heavy8 good texture8 poor texture8 sufficiently baked8 underdone8 overdone8 sufficient salt8 ,watercress-and-,celery ,salad3 appearance attractive8 dressing well mixed8 properly seasoned8 ,popovers ,filled ,with ,apple ,sauce3 tender8 tough8 underdone 7this is observed by shrinking or falling after removing the popovers from the popover cups78 overdone8 ,tea3 strong8 weak8 clear8 hot8 bitter8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,index ,a ,abbreviations of measures1 ,absorption and digestion of food1 of food1 ,abundance of production of cereals1 ,acquiring skill in bread making1 ,action of yeast1 ,adjusting cook-stove dampers1 ,agents1 ,classes of leavening1 ,leavening1 ,aids1 ,yeast1 ,a la1 au1 and aux1 ,meaning of terms1 la creole1 ,meaning of1 ,albumin1 ,effect of cooking on1 ,aluminum cooking utensils1 ,anthracite1 or hard1 coal1 ,apple1 ,composition of1 corer1 ,artificial gas1 ,ash1 or mineral salts1 pan1 ,coal-stove1 pit1 ,coal-stove1 ,au gratin1 ,meaning of1 naturel1 ,meaning of1 ,avoirdupois weight1 ,b ,bacon1 ,composition of1 ,bacteria1 ,baked hot breads1 ,testing1 potatoes1 ,bakers' flour1 ,baking bread1 ,distinction between roasting and1 griddle cakes1 ,procedure in1 ,meaning of1 ,oven temperature for bread1 powder1 -powder biscuits1 ,baking powder1 ,recipe for1 ,purpose of bread1 the hot-bread mixture1 the hot-bread mixture1 ,utensils for1 ,time for bread1 waffles1 ,procedure in1 ,balanced diet1 ,elements of a1 ,banana1 ,composition of1 ,banking a coal fire1 ,barley1 ,left-over1 ,pearl1 ,recipes for1 ,use and origin of1 with fruit1 ,pearl1 ,batter1 ,thick1 ,thin1 ,batters and doughs1 ,bean1 ,composition of dry navy1 ,composition of fresh shelled1 ,composition of green string1 ,beaten biscuits1 ,beating of food ingredients1 ,bchamel1 ,meaning of1 ,beech wheat1 ,beef1 ,composition of dried1 steak1 ,composition of1 suet1 ,composition of1 ,biscuit glace1 recipes1 ,biscuits1 ,baking-powder1 ,beaten1 ,emergency1 rolls1 and buns1 ,recipes for1 ,bisque1 ,meaning of1 ,bituminous1 or soft1 coal1 ,blanching foods1 ,blend flour1 ,blueberry muffins1 ,body1 ,function of water in the1 ,boiled coffee1 rice1 ,boiler1 ,cooking cereals in double1 ,boiling1 ,cooking cereals by1 on foods1 ,effect of1 point1 rice1 to sterilize water1 ,boston brown bread1 ,bouches1 ,meaning of1 ,boudin1 ,meaning of1 ,bouquet of herbs1 ,boxes1 ,window1 ,braizing1 ,bran bread1 muffins1 ,bread1 after baking1 ,care of1 and cake mixer1 as food1 ,importance of1 ,baking1 ,baking hot1 ,boston brown1 ,bran1 ,composition of corn1 ,composition of rye1 ,composition of toasted1 ,composition of whole-wheat1 ,convenient equipment for making1 ,corn1 ,distinction between hot and leavened1 dough1 ,care of the rising1 dough1 ,kneading1 dough1 ,motions used in kneading1 dough1 ,purpose of kneading1 ,graham1 ,hot1 ingredients1 ,quick-process1 sponge method of combining1 ,leavened1 ,left-over1 ,long-process1 sponge method of making1 making1 ,acquiring skill in1 making1 ,combining the ingredients in1 making1 ,convenient equipment for1 making1 ,ingredients for1 making1 ,long process of1 making1 ,long-process1 sponge method of1 making1 ,long-process1 straight-dough method of1 -making materials1 ,proportion of1 making1 ,necessary equipment for1 -making processes1 making1 ,quick process of1 making1 ,quick-process1 sponge method of1 making1 ,quick-process1 straight-dough method of1 -making requirements1 making1 ,utensils for1 ,milk and fat in1 mixer1 ,use of1 mixers1 mixture1 ,preparation of hot-1 ,object of scoring1 ,oven temperature for baking1 ,purpose of baking1 ,quick1 recipes1 ,rice1 ,rye1 ,salt-rising1 ,scoring1 ,serving1 sponge1 ,utilizing left-over hot1 ,white1 ,whole-wheat1 ,whole-wheat fruit1 with nuts1 ,graham1 ,breads1 ,correct oven temperature for hot1 ,distinction between yeast and hot1 ,general proportions used in hot1 ,hot1 in the diet1 ,hot1 ,mixtures used for hot1 ,principal requirements for hot1 ,purpose of utensils for making hot1 ,quick1 ,recipes for hot1 ,requirements and processes for making hot1 ,serving hot1 ,varieties of mixtures in hot1 ,breakfast food1 ,composition of cooked oat1 foods1 ,meaning of1 menu1 ,broiling1 ,pan1 ,brown bread1 ,boston1 ,browned rice1 ,browning1 or toasting1 of cereals1 ,buckwheat1 cakes1 ,composition of1 ,description of1 rye1 and millet1 ,building a coal fire1 ,buns1 ,fruit or nut1 ,graham nut1 ,nut or fruit1 rolls1 and biscuits1 ,buns1 ,sweet1 ,butter1 ,composition of1 ,composition of peanut1 ,buttered hominy1 toast1 ,buttermilk1 ,composition of1 ,c ,cabbage salad1 -salad dressing1 ,caf au lait1 ,meaning of1 noir1 ,meaning of1 ,cake1 ,coffee1 ,corn1 mixers1 ,molasses corn1 ,southern corn1 ,cakes1 ,buckwheat1 ,corn griddle1 ,griddle1 ,procedure in baking griddle1 ,rice griddle1 ,calorie1 or calory1 ,definition of1 ,canaps1 ,meaning of1 ,canard1 ,meaning of1 ,candy1 ,composition of stick1 ,canned fruit1 ,composition of1 ,canning of foods1 ,capers1 ,meaning of1 ,capon1 ,meaning of1 ,caramel1 ,meaning of1 ,carbohydrates1 ,composition of1 ,elements in1 in cereals1 ,carbon1 ,carbonic-acid1 or carbon-dioxide1 gas1 ,card1 ,explanation of score1 ,care of bread after baking1 of bread in oven1 of cereals1 of flour1 of food1 of food in refrigerator1 of food1 ,methods of1 of the refrigerator1 of the rising bread dough1 ,carolina rice1 ,casein1 ,effect of cooking on1 ,casserole1 ,definition of1 ,use of1 ,celery1 ,composition of1 ,cellars1 ,storing food in1 ,cellulose1 ,cooking foods containing1 ,definition of1 in cereals1 in the diet1 ,place of1 ,cereal flakes1 products1 selection1 ,factors that govern1 ,setting a1 ,cereals1 ,abundance of production of1 as a food1 ,browning1 or toasting1 of1 by boiling1 ,cooking1 by dry heat1 ,cooking1 ,carbohydrates in1 ,care of1 ,cellulose in1 ,composition of1 ,economic value of1 ,fat in1 for the table1 ,preparation of1 ,left-over wheat1 ,methods of cooking1 ,mineral matter in1 ,origin of1 ,points to observe in cooking1 ,preparation for cooking1 ,prepared1 or ready-to-eat1 ,production of1 ,protein in1 ,purpose of cooking1 ,ready-to-eat1 ,selection of1 ,serving1 ,table showing composition of1 undergo in cooking1 ,changes1 ,uses of1 ,water in1 ,champignons1 ,meaning of1 ,chartreuse1 ,meaning of1 ,cheese1 ,composition of cottage1 ,composition of cream1 ,chemical composition of food1 leavening1 ,chestnut coal1 ,composition of1 ,chiffonade1 ,meaning of1 ,chillies1 ,meaning of1 ,chives1 ,meaning of1 ,chop1 ,composition of lamb1 ,composition of pork1 ,chopper1 ,meat1 ,chops1 ,pan-broiled1 ,chutney1 ,meaning of1 ,cinnamon rolls1 ,citron1 ,clinkers1 ,coal and coke1 ,anthracite1 or hard1 ,bituminous1 or soft1 ,chestnut1 ,egg1 fire1 ,building a1 fire1 ,building a1 ,pea1 ,quality of1 ,coal range1 ,sizes of1 ,stove1 -stove dampers1 -stove firebox1 stove for cooking1 ,general construction of1 -stove grate1 stoves and their operation1 ,varieties of1 ,cocoa1 ,coconut1 ,composition of1 ,cod1 ,composition of fresh1 ,composition of salt1 ,coffee1 cake1 ,coke1 and coal1 ,collops1 ,meaning of1 ,commercial yeast1 ,common labor-saving devices1 ,composition and varieties of oats1 of apple1 of bacon1 of banana1 of beef steak1 of beef suet1 of buckwheat1 of butter1 of buttermilk1 of canned fruit1 of carbohydrates1 of celery1 of cereals1 of cereals1 ,table showing1 of chestnut1 of coconut1 of cooked macaroni1 of cooked oat breakfast food1 of corn1 of corn bread1 of cottage cheese1 of cream1 of cream cheese1 of dried beef1 of dried fig1 of dry navy bean1 of egg white and yolk1 of food1 ,chemical1 of food materials1 of fresh cod1 of fresh shelled bean1 of fruit jelly1 of grape juice1 of grapes1 of green corn1 of green string bean1 of honey1 of ,italian pastes1 of lamb chop1 of lard1 of mackerel1 of maple sugar1 of molasses1 of oats1 of olive oil1 of onion1 of oyster1 of parsnip1 of peanut1 of peanut butter1 of pork chop1 of potato1 of raisins1 of rice1 of rye1 of rye bread1 of salt cod1 of skim milk1 of smoked ham1 of smoked herring1 of stick candy1 of strawberry1 of sugar1 of toasted bread1 of walnut1 of wheat1 of white and yolk of egg1 of whole egg1 of whole milk1 of whole wheat bread1 ,compote1 ,meaning of1 ,compressed yeast1 ,constituents1 ,food principles1 or1 ,conveying heat to food1 ,methods of1 ,cooker1 ,cooking cereals in fireless1 ,fireless1 ,cookery1 ,meaning of1 ,terms used in1 time table1 ,cooking cereals by boiling1 cereals in double boiler1 cereals in fireless cooker1 cereals1 ,methods of1 cereals1 ,points to observe in1 cereals1 ,preparation for1 cereals1 ,purpose of1 cereals with dry heat1 food1 ,reasons for1 foods1 ,importance of1 foods1 ,table for1 ,getting foods ready for1 ,heat for1 ,methods of1 ,methods of using moist heat for1 of food1 processes1 rice1 ,japanese method of1 rice1 ,methods of1 ,uses of water in1 ,cooking utensils1 ,aluminum1 utensils1 ,copper1 utensils1 ,earthenware1 utensils1 ,enamel1 utensils1 ,glass1 utensils1 ,iron and steel1 utensils1 ,tin1 utensils1 ,wooden1 with dry heat1 with hot fat1 ,copper cooking utensils1 ,coquilles1 ,meaning of1 ,corer1 ,apple1 ,corn bread1 bread1 ,composition of1 cake1 cake1 ,molasses1 -cake recipes1 cake1 ,southern1 ,composition of1 ,composition of green1 ,field1 griddle cakes1 ,maize1 or ,indian1 meal1 -meal croquettes1 -meal muffins1 -meal mush1 -meal mush1 ,left-over1 meal1 ,recipes for1 ,pop1 ,sweet1 ,cottage cheese1 ,composition of1 ,cracked wheat1 ,cream cheese1 ,composition of1 ,composition of1 of tartar and soda1 of wheat1 of wheat with dates1 sauce1 ,creamed hominy1 peas1 rice1 ,creaming of food ingredients1 ,croquettes1 ,corn-meal1 ,rolled-oats1 ,croutons1 ,meaning of1 ,cups1 ,measuring1 ,curry1 ,custard1 ,farina1 ,cutting-in of food ingredients1 ,d ,dampers1 ,adjusting cook-stove1 ,coal-stove1 ,date muffins1 ,dates1 ,cream of wheat with1 ,graham mush with1 ,demi-tasse1 ,meaning of1 ,deviled1 ,meaning of1 ,dextrine1 ,formation of1 ,diet1 ,hot breads in the1 ,meaning of1 ,well-balanced1 ,dietetics1 ,definition of1 ,digestion and absorption of food1 of food1 ,dill1 ,meaning of1 ,dinner rolls1 ,dish-washing machines1 ,double boiler1 ,cooking cereals in1 boiler1 ,use of1 ,dough1 ,kneading bread1 ,making bread1 ,motions used in kneading bread1 ,soft1 ,stiff1 ,doughs and batters1 ,dressing1 ,cabbage-salad1 ,dried beef1 ,composition of1 fig1 ,composition of1 ,dry heat1 ,cooking cereals by1 heat1 ,cooking with1 measure1 steaming1 yeast1 ,drying of foods1 ,e ,earthenware cooking utensils1 ,economic value of cereals1 ,effect of boiling on foods1 ,egg beater1 ,rotary1 coal1 ,composition of white and yolk of1 ,composition of whole1 whip1 ,eggs1 ,scrambled1 ,electric meter1 ,reading an1 stoves1 stoves and utensils1 ,electricity as a fuel1 ,emergency biscuits1 ,en coquille1 ,meaning of1 ,enamel cooking utensils1 ,endosperm1 ,meaning of1 ,entres1 ,equipment for bread making1 ,convenient1 ,escarole1 ,meaning of1 ,f ,factors that govern cereal selection1 ,farce1 or forcemeat1 ,meaning of1 ,farina1 custard1 souffl1 ,fat and milk in bread1 ,cooking with hot1 ,fat in cereals1 ,fats1 ,ferments1 or leavening agents1 ,field corn1 ,fig1 ,composition of dried1 ,fillet mignons1 ,meaning of1 ,fillets1 ,meaning of1 ,firebox1 ,coal-stove1 ,fireless cooker1 cooker1 ,cooking cereals in1 -cooking gas stoves1 ,flour1 ,bakers'1 ,blend1 ,care of1 ,graham1 ,grains used for1 ,high-grade patent1 ,kinds of1 made from spring or hard wheat1 ,discussion of1 ,milling of wheat1 ,quality of1 ,red dog1 ,rye1 ,scouring1 ,second-grade patent1 ,selection of1 ,whole-wheat1 ,flue1 ,coal-stove1 opening of a coal stove1 ,fluff1 ,orange1 ,sauce for orange1 ,folding of food ingredients1 ,fondant1 ,meaning of1 ,fondue1 ,meaning of1 ,food1 ,absorption of1 ,care of1 ,cereals as a1 ,chemical composition of1 ,cooking of1 ,definition of1 ,digestion and absorption of1 ,digestion of1 in cellars1 ,storing1 ingredients1 ,beating of1 ingredients1 ,creaming of1 ingredients1 ,cutting-in of1 ingredients1 ,folding of1 ingredients1 ,mixing of1 ingredients1 ,processes involved in mixing of1 ingredients1 ,ricing of1 ingredients1 ,rubbing of1 ingredients1 ,sifting of1 ingredients1 ,stirring of1 ,matters involved in right selection of1 ,methods of caring for1 or fuel1 value1 ,food1 ,preparation of1 principles or constituents1 ,problem of1 ,reasons for cooking1 ,selection of1 substances1 value1 ,foods1 ,blanching1 ,canning of1 ,drying of1 for cooking1 ,preparation of1 ,importance of cooking1 ,importance of variety of1 ,meaning of breakfast1 ,storing of non-perishable1 ,storing of semiperishable1 with ice1 ,keeping1 without ice1 ,keeping1 ,forcemeat1 or farce1 ,meaning of1 ,frapp1 ,meaning of1 ,french toast1 ,fricasseeing1 ,fromage1 ,meaning of1 ,fruit bread1 ,whole-wheat1 ,composition of canned1 jelly1 ,composition of1 or nut buns1 ,frying1 ,fuel1 ,use of coal as a1 ,use of coke as a1 ,use of electricity as a1 ,use of gas as a1 ,use of kerosene as a1 value1 ,food1 or1 ,value of gas as1 ,furnishing a kitchen1 ,utensils for1 ,g ,gas1 ,artificial1 as fuel1 ,use of1 as fuel1 ,value of1 ,carbonic-acid1 or carbon-dioxide1 ,measurement of1 meter1 meter1 ,reading a1 ,natural1 ranges1 ,description of1 stove1 ,mixer of a1 stove1 ,pilot of a1 stoves and their operation1 stoves1 ,fireless-cooking1 ,general proportions1 ,applying knowledge of1 ,germ1 ,definition of1 ,germs1 ,gingerbread1 ,soft1 ,glac1 ,biscuit1 ,meaning of1 ,glass cooking utensils1 ,glaze1 ,meaning of1 ,gliadin1 ,glucose1 ,gluten1 ,glutenin1 ,goulash1 ,meaning of1 ,graham bread1 bread with nuts1 flour1 muffins1 mush with dates1 nut buns1 ,grain for market1 ,preparation of1 products1 ,table of1 ,structure of wheat1 ,grains used for flour1 ,grape juice1 ,composition of1 ,grapes1 ,composition of1 ,grate1 ,coal-stove1 ,green corn1 ,composition of1 ,griddle-cake recipes1 cakes1 cakes1 ,corn1 cakes1 ,procedure in baking1 cakes1 ,rice1 cakes1 ,sour-milk1 ,griddles1 ,grinder1 ,grits1 ,hominy1 ,wheat1 ,gumbo1 ,meaning of1 ,h ,ham1 ,composition of smoked1 ,hard water1 ,how to soften1 ,haricot1 ,meaning of1 ,heat1 ,cooking cereals with dry1 ,cooking with dry1 for cooking1 for cooking1 ,discussion of1 ,methods of cooking with moist1 ,herring1 ,composition of smoked1 ,high-grade patent flour1 ,homard1 ,meaning of1 ,hominy1 and cheese souffl1 ,buttered1 ,creamed1 grits1 ,left-over1 ,recipes for1 ,honey1 ,composition of1 ,hors-d'oeuvres1 ,meaning of1 ,hot bread1 bread1 ,distinction between leavened and1 -bread mixture4 ,baking the1 -bread mixture1 ,testing of baked1 -bread mixture1 ,preparation of1 ,hot-bread mixture1 ,utensils for baking the1 -bread mixture1 ,utensils for preparing the1 -bread recipes1 ,miscellaneous1 -bread utensils and their use1 bread1 ,utilizing left-over1 breads1 breads1 ,baking of1 breads1 ,combining ingredients for1 breads1 ,correct oven temperature for1 breads1 ,distinction between yeast and1 breads in the diet1 breads1 ,mixtures used for1 breads1 ,principal requirements for1 breads1 ,purpose of utensils for making1 breads1 ,recipes for1 breads1 ,regulating the oven for1 breads1 ,requirements and processes for making1 breads1 ,serving1 breads1 ,varieties of mixtures and general1 proportions used in1 fat1 ,cooking with1 ,hotplates1 ,hulled1 or whole1 wheat1 wheat1 ,huller1 ,berry1 ,i ,ice1 ,keeping foods with1 ,indian corn1 or maize1 ,ingredients1 ,beating of food1 ,combining hot-bread1 ,creaming of food1 ,cutting-in of food1 ,folding of food1 for bread making1 ,mixing of food1 ,preparation of hot-bread1 ,processes involved in mixing food1 ,quick-process1 sponge method of combining bread1 required for bread making1 ,ricing of food1 ,rubbing of food1 ,sifting of food1 ,stirring of food1 ,iron and steel cooking utensils1 ,irons1 ,waffle1 ,italian pastes1 pastes1 ,composition of1 pastes1 ,left-over1 pastes1 ,preparation of1 pastes1 ,recipes for1 pastes1 ,varieties of1 ,italiene1 ,meaning of a la1 ,japanese method of cooking rice1 rice1 ,jardinire1 ,meaning of1 ,jelly1 ,composition of fruit1 ,juice1 ,composition of grape1 ,julienne1 ,meaning of1 ,junket1 ,meaning of1 ,k ,keeping foods with ice1 foods without ice1 ,kerosene as a fuel1 ,use of1 stoves and their operation1 ,kilowatt-hours in meter reading1 ,kippered1 ,meaning of1 ,kitchen1 ,utensils for furnishing a1 ,kneading bread dough1 bread dough1 ,motions used in1 bread dough1 ,purpose of1 ,l ,labour-saving devices1 ,lactose1 ,occurrence of1 ,lamb chop1 ,composition of1 ,lard1 ,composition of1 ,larding1 ,meaning of1 ,lardon1 ,meaning of1 ,leavened bread1 ,leavening agents1 agents1 ,classes of1 agents1 or ferments1 ,chemical1 ,physical1 ,left-over barley1 -over bread1 -over corn-meal mush1 -over hominy1 -over hot bread1 ,utilizing1 -over ,italian pastes1 -over rice1 -over rolled oats1 -over wheat cereals1 ,legumes1 ,meaning of1 ,lentils1 ,meaning of1 ,liquid measure1 yeast1 ,loaf1 ,nut1 ,loaves1 ,shaping the bread dough into1 ,long process of bread making1 process of making white bread1 -process1 sponge method of bread making1 -process1 straight-dough method of bread making1 ,luncheon menu1 rolls1 ,m ,macaroni1 and kidney beans1 ,composition of cooked1 ,italian style1 with cheese1 with cheese and tomato1 with cream sauce1 with eggs1 with tomato and bacon1 ,macdoine1 ,meaning of1 ,machines1 ,dish-washing1 ,mackerel1 ,composition of1 ,maize1 ,malt sprouts1 ,maple sugar1 ,composition of1 ,marinade1 ,meaning of1 ,marinate1 ,meaning of1 ,market1 ,preparation of grains for the1 ,marrons1 ,meaning of1 ,materials1 ,proportion of bread-making used for cooking utensils1 ,matter1 ,mineral1 ,mayonnaise mixer1 ,the1 ,meal1 ,corn1 ,recipes for corn1 ,meaning of breakfast foods1 ,measure1 ,dry1 ,liquid1 ,measurement of gas1 ,measures1 ,abbreviations of1 ,measuring1 cups1 ,precautions to observe1 spoons1 ,meat chopper1 grinder1 ,menu1 ,breakfast1 ,luncheon1 ,meaning of1 ,menus and recipes1 ,meringue1 ,meaning of1 ,meter1 ,gas1 ,reading a gas1 ,reading an electric1 ,meters1 ,prepayment1 ,micro-organisms1 ,microbes1 ,milk and fat in bread1 ,composition of skim1 ,composition of whole1 ,soda and sour1 toast1 ,millet1 buckwheat1 and rye1 ,description of1 ,milling of wheat flour1 ,mineral matter1 matter in cereals1 salts1 salts1 ,purpose of1 ,miscellaneous hot-bread recipes1 ,mixer1 ,gas-stove1 ,mayonnaise1 ,use of the bread1 ,mixers1 ,bread1 ,cake1 ,mixing of food ingredients1 of food ingredients1 ,processes involved in1 processes1 ,application of1 ,mixture1 ,testing baked hot-bread1 ,mixtures used for hot breads1 ,moist heat1 ,cooking with1 yeast1 ,molasses and soda1 ,composition of1 corn cake1 ,molds1 ,motions used in kneading bread dough1 ,mousse1 ,meaning of1 ,muffin recipes1 ,muffins1 ,blueberry1 ,bran1 ,corn-meal1 ,date1 ,graham1 ,plain1 ,rice1 ,mush1 ,corn-meal1 ,left-over corn-meal1 ,sautd corn-meal1 with dates1 ,graham1 ,n ,natural gas1 ,navy bean1 ,composition of dry1 ,non-perishable foods1 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