,,introductory ,,american ,,history ,,by ,,henry ,,eldridge ,,bourne ,,and ,,elbert ,,jay ,,benton ,,professors ,,of ,,history ,,in ,,western ,,reserve ,,university #aiab ,,introduction ,this volume is the introductory part of a course in ,american history embodying the plan of study recommended by the ,committee of ,eight of the ,american ,historical ,association4#a ,the plan calls for a continuous course running through grades six1 seven1 and eight4 ,the events which have taken place within the limits of what is now the ,united ,states must necessarily furnish the most of the content of the lessons4 ,but the ,committee urge that enough other matter1 of an introductory character1 be included to teach boys and girls of from twelve to fourteen years of age that our civilization had its beginnings far back in the history of the ,old ,world4 ,such introductory study will enable them to think of our country in its true historical setting4 ,the ,committee recommend that about two-thirds of one year's work be devoted to this preliminary matter1 and that the remainder of the year be given to the period of discovery and exploration4 ,the plan of the ,committee of ,eight emphasizes three or four lines of development in the world's history leading up to ,american history proper4 ,first1 there was a movement of conquest or colonization by which the ancient civilized world1 originally made up of communities like the ,greeks and ,phoenicians in the ,aegean and eastern ,mediterranean ,seas1 spread to southern ,italy and adjacent lands4 ,the ,roman conquest of ,italy and of the barbarian tribes of western ,europe expanded the civilized world to the shores of the ,atlantic4 ,within this greater ,roman world new nations grew up4 ,the migration of ,europeans to the ,american continent was the final step4 ,second1 accompanying the growth of the civilized world in extent was a growth of knowledge of the shape of the earth1 or of what we call geography4 ,columbus was a geographer as well as the herald of an expanding world4 ,a third process was the creation and transmission of all that we mean by civilization4 ,here1 as the ,committee remark1 the effort should be to show1 in a very simple way1 the civilization which formed the heritage of those who were to go to ,america1 that is1 to explain what ,america started with4 ,the ,committee also suggest that it is necessary to associate the three or four peoples of ,europe which were to have a share in ,american colonization with enough of their characteristic incidents to give the child some feeling for the name ',england1' ',spain1' ',holland1' and ',france4' ,no attempt is made in this book to give a connected history of ,greece1 ,rome1 ,england1 or any other country of ,europe4 ,such an attempt would be utterly destructive of the plan4 ,only those features of early civilization and those incidents of history have been selected which appear to have a vital relation to the subsequent fortunes of mankind in ,america as well as in ,europe4 ,they are treated in all cases as introductory4 ,opinions may differ upon the question of what topics best illustrate the relation4 ,the ,committee leaves a wide margin of opportunity for the exercise of judgment in selection4 ,in the use of a textbook based on the plan the teacher should use the same liberty of selection4 ,for example1 we have chosen the story of ,marathon to illustrate the idea of the heroic memories of ,greece4 ,others may prefer ,thermopylae1 because this story seems to possess a simpler dramatic development4 ,in the same way teachers may desire to give more emphasis to certain phases of ancient or mediaeval civilization or certain heroic persons treated very briefly in this book4 ,exercises similar to those inserted at the end of each chapter offer means of supplementing work provided in the text4 ,the story of ,american discovery and exploration in the plan of the ,committee of ,eight follows the introductory matter as a natural culmination4 ,in our textbook we have adhered to the same plan of division4 ,the work of the seventh grade will1 therefore1 open with the study of the first permanent ,english settlements4 ,the discoveries and explorations are told in more detail than most of the earlier incidents1 but whatever is referred to is treated1 we hope1 with such simplicity and definiteness of statement that it will be comprehensible and instructive to pupils of the sixth grade4 ,at the close of the book will be found a list of references4 ,from this teachers may draw a rich variety of stories and descriptions to illustrate any features of the subject which especially interest their classes4 ,in the index is given the pronunciation of difficult names4 ,we wish to express gratitude to those who have aided us with wise advice and criticism4 ,footnote #a3 ,the ,study of ,history in ,elementary ,schools4 ,scribner's1 #aiji4 ,,contents ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,scattered ,,children ,,of ,,europe ,,ii4 ,,our ,,earliest ,,teachers ,,iii4 ,,how ,,the ,,greeks ,,lived ,,iv4 ,,greek ,,emigrants ,,or ,,colonists ,v4 ,,new ,,rivals ,,of ,,the ,,greeks ,,vi4 ,,the ,,mediterranean ,a ,,roman ,,lake ,,vii4 ,,the ,,ancient ,,world ,,extended ,,to ,,the ,,shores ,,of ,,the ,,atlantic ,,viii4 ,,the ,,civilization ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,world ,,ix4 ,,christianity ,,and ,,the ,,roman ,,empire ,x4 ,,emigrants ,a ,,thousand ,,years ,,ago ,,xi4 ,,how ,,englishmen ,,learned ,,to ,,govern ,,themselves ,,xii4 ,,the ,,civilization ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages ,,xiii4 ,,traders1 ,,travelers1 ,,and ,,explorers ,,in ,,the ,,later ,,middle ,,ages ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,discovery ,,of ,a ,,new ,,world ,,xv4 ,,others ,,help ,,in ,,the ,,discovery ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,world ,,xvi4 ,,early ,,spanish ,,explorers ,,and ,,conquerors ,,of ,,the ,,mainland ,,xvii4 ,,the ,,spanish ,,explorers ,,of ,,north ,,america ,,xviii4 ,,rivalry ,,and ,,strife ,,in ,,europe ,,xix4 ,,first ,,french ,,attempts ,,to ,,settle ,,america ,,xx4 ,,the ,,english ,,and ,,the ,,dutch ,,triumph ,,over ,,spain ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,english ,,people ,,attempt ,,to ,,settle ,,america ,,references ,,for ,,teachers ,,index ,,and ,,pronouncing ,,vocabulary ,,introductory ,,american ,,history ,,chapter ,i ,,the ,,scattered ,,children ,,of ,,europe ,,the ,,emigrant ,,and ,,what ,,he ,,brings ,,to ,,america4 ,the emigrant who lands at ,new ,york1 ,boston1 ,philadelphia1 or any other seaport1 brings with him something which we do not see4 ,he may have in his hands only a small bundle of clothing and enough money to pay his railroad fare to his new home1 but he is carrying another kind of baggage more valuable than bundles or boxes or a pocket full of silver or gold4 ,this other baggage is the knowledge1 the customs1 and the memories he has brought from the fatherland4 ,he has already learned in ,europe how to do the work at which he hopes to labor in ,america4 ,in his native land he has been taught to obey the laws and to do his duty as a citizen4 ,this fits him to share in our self-government4 ,he also brings great memories1 for he likes to think of the brave and noble deeds done by men of his race4 ,if he is a religious man1 he worships ,god just as his forefathers have for hundreds of years4 ,to understand how the emigrant happens to know what he does and to be what he is1 we must study the history of the country from which he comes4 ,,all ,,americans ,,are ,,emigrants4 ,if this is true of the newcomer1 it is equally true of the rest of us1 for we are all emigrants4 ,the ,indians are the only native ,americans1 and when we find out more about them we may learn that they1 too1 are emigrants4 ,if we follow the history of our families far enough back1 we shall come upon the names of our forefathers who sailed from ,europe4 ,they may have come to ,america in the early days when there were only a few settlements scattered along our ,atlantic coast1 or they may have come since the ,revolutionary ,war changed the ,english colonies into the ,united ,states4 ,like the ,canadians1 the ,south ,americans1 and the ,australians1 we are simply ,europeans who have moved away4 ,the story of the ,europe in which our forefathers lived is1 therefore1 part of our story4 ,in order to understand our own history we must know something of the history of ,england1 ,france1 ,germany1 ,italy1 and other ,european lands4 ,,what ,,the ,,early ,,emigrants ,,brought4 ,if we read the story of our forefathers before they left ,europe1 we shall find answers to several important questions4 ,why1 we ask1 did ,columbus seek for new lands or for new ways to lands already known8 ,how did the people of ,europe live at the time he discovered ,america8 ,what did they know how to do8 ,were they skilful in all sorts of work1 or were they as rude and ignorant as the ,indians on the western shores of the ,atlantic8 ,the answers which history will give to these questions will say that the first emigrants who landed on our shores brought with them much of the same knowledge and many of the same customs and memories which emigrants bring nowadays and which we also have4 ,it is true that since the time the first settlers came men have found out how to make many new things4 ,the most important of these are the steam-engine1 the electric motor1 the telegraph1 and the telephone4 ,but it is surprising how many important things1 which we still use1 were made before ,columbus saw ,america4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,modern ,,steamship ,,and ,,an ,,early ,,sailing ,,vessel ,the early emigrants came in small sailing vessels and suffered great hardships ,for one thing1 men knew how to print books4 ,this art had been discovered during the boyhood of ,columbus4 ,another thing1 men could make guns1 while the ,indians had only bows and arrows4 ,the ships in which ,columbus sailed across the ocean seemed very large and wonderful to the ,indians1 who used canoes4 ,the ships were steered with the help of a compass1 an instrument which the ,indians had never seen4 ,some of the things which the early emigrants knew had been known hundreds or thousands of years before4 ,one of the oldest was the art of writing4 ,the way to write words or sounds was found out so long ago that we shall never know the name of the man who first discovered it4 ,the historians tell us he lived in ,egypt1 which was in northern ,africa1 exactly where ,egypt is now4 ,some men were afraid that the new art might do more harm than good4 ,the king to whom the secret was told thought that the children would be unwilling to work hard and try to remember because everything could be written down and they would not need to use their memories4 ,the ,egyptians at first used pictures to put their words upon rocks or paper1 and even after they made several letters of the alphabet their writing seemed like a mixture of little pictures and queer marks4 ,illustration3 ,cleopatra ,,egyptian ,,phonetic ,,writing ,,old ,,and ,,new ,,inventions4 ,those who first discover how to make things are called inventors1 and what they make are called inventions4 ,now if we should write out a list of the most useful inventions1 we could place in one column the inventions which were made before the days of ,columbus and in another those which have been made since4 ,with this list before us we may ask which inventions we could live without and which we could not spare unless we were willing to become like the savages4 ,we should find that a large number of the inventions which we use every day belong to the set of things older than ,columbus4 ,this is another reason why1 if we wish to understand our ways of living and working1 we must ask about the history of the countries where our forefathers lived4 ,it is the beginning of our own history4 ,illustration3 ,phoenician ,early ,greek ,early ,latin ,english ,,growth ,,of ,,letters ,,of ,,the ,,alphabet ,a ,,plan ,,of ,,study4 ,the discovery of ,america was made in #adib1 at the beginning of what we call ,modern ,times4 ,before ,modern ,times were the ,middle ,ages1 lasting about a thousand years4 ,these began three or four hundred years after the time of ,christ or what we call the beginning of the ,christian ,era4 ,all the events that took place earlier we say happened in ,ancient ,times4 ,much that we know was learned first by the ,greeks or ,romans who lived in ,ancient ,times4 ,it is in the ,middle ,ages that we first hear of peoples called ,englishmen1 ,frenchmen1 ,germans1 ,dutchmen1 ,italians1 ,spaniards1 and many others now living in ,great ,britain and on the ,continent of ,europe4 ,we shall learn first of the ,greeks and ,romans and of what they knew and succeeded in doing1 and then shall find out how these things were learned by the peoples of the ,middle ,ages and what they added to them4 ,this will help us to find out what our forefathers started with when they came to live in ,america4 ,,questions #a4 ,what does the emigrant from ,europe bring to ,america besides his baggage8 #b4 ,why are all ,americans emigrants8 #c4 ,what did the earliest emigrants from ,europe to ,america bring with them8 #d4 ,which do you think the more useful invention--the telephone or the art of writing8 ,who invented this art8 ,find ,egypt on the map4 ,how did ,egyptian writing look8 #e4 ,why was it a help to ,columbus that gunpowder and guns were invented before he discovered ,america8 #f4 ,when did the ,christian ,era begin8 ,what is meant by ,ancient ,times8 ,by the ,middle ,ages8 ,by ,modern ,times8 ,in what ,times was the art of writing invented8 ,in what ,times was the compass invented8 ,in what ,times was the telephone invented8 ,,exercises #a4 ,collect from illustrated papers1 magazines1 or advertising folders1 pictures of ocean steamships4 ,collect pictures of sailing ships1 ships used now and those used long ago4 #b4 ,collect from persons who have recently come to this country stories of how they traveled from ,europe to ,america1 and from ports like ,boston1 ,new ,york1 and ,philadelphia to where they now live4 #c4 ,let each boy and girl in the schoolroom point out on the map the ,european country from which his parents or his grandparents or his forefathers came4 #d4 ,let each boy and girl make a list of the holidays which his forefathers had in the fatherland or mother country4 ,let each find out the manner in which the holidays were kept4 ,let each tell the most interesting hero story from among the stories of the mother country or fatherland4 ,let each find out whether the tools used in the old home were like the tools his parents use here4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,our ,,earliest ,,teachers ,,ancient ,,cities ,,that ,,still ,,exist4 ,in ,ancient ,times the most important peoples lived on the shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,the northern shore turns and twists around four peninsulas4 ,the first is ,spain1 which separates the ,mediterranean ,sea from the ,atlantic ,ocean2 the second1 shaped like a boot1 is ,italy2 and the third1 the end of which looks like a mulberry leaf1 is ,greece4 ,beyond ,greece is ,asia ,minor1 the part of ,asia which lies between the ,mediterranean ,sea and the ,black ,sea4 ,the ,italians now live in ,italy1 but the ,romans lived there in ,ancient ,times4 ,the people who live in ,greece are called ,greeks1 just as they were more than two thousand years ago4 ,many of the cities that the ,greeks and ,romans built are still standing4 ,alexandria was founded by the great conqueror ,alexander4 ,constantinople used to be the ,greek city of ,byzantium4 ,another ,greek city1 ,massilia1 has become the modern ,french city of ,marseilles4 ,rome had the same name in ,ancient ,times1 except that it was spelled ,roma4 ,the ,romans called ,paris by the name of ,lutetia1 and ,london they called ,lugdunum4 ,,ruins ,,which ,,show ,,how ,,the ,,ancients ,,lived4 ,in many of these cities are ancient buildings or ruins of buildings1 bits of carving1 vases1 mosaics1 sometimes even wall paintings1 which we may see and from which we may learn how the ,greeks and ,romans lived4 ,near ,naples are the ruins of ,pompeii1 a ,roman city suddenly destroyed during an eruption of the volcano ,vesuvius4 ,for hundreds of years the city lay buried under fifteen or twenty feet of ashes4 ,when these were taken away1 the old streets and the walls of the houses could be seen4 ,no roofs were left and the walls in many places were only partly standing1 but things which in other ancient cities had entirely disappeared were kept safe in ,pompeii under the volcanic ashes4 ,the traveler who walks to-day along the ruined streets can see how its inhabitants lived two thousand years ago4 ,he can visit their public buildings and their private houses1 can handle their dishes and can look at the paintings on their walls or the mosaics in the floors4 ,but interesting as ,pompeii is1 we must not think that its ruins teach us more than the ruins of ,rome or ,athens or many other ancient cities4 ,each has something important to tell us of the people who lived long ago4 ,,ancient ,,words ,,still ,,in ,,use4 ,the ancient ,greeks and ,romans have left us some things more useful than the ruins of their buildings4 ,these are the words in our language which once were theirs1 and which we use with slight changes in spelling4 ,most of our words came in the beginning from ,germany1 where our ,english forefathers lived before they settled in ,england4 ,to the words they took over from ,germany they added words borrowed from other peoples1 just as we do now4 ,we have recently borrowed several words from the ,french1 such as tonneau and limousine1 words used to describe parts of an automobile1 besides the name automobile itself1 which is made up of a ,latin and a ,greek word4 ,illustration3 ,,ruins ,,of ,a ,,house ,,at ,,pompeii ,the houses of the better sort were built with an open court in the center ,in this way1 for hundreds of years1 words have been coming into our language from other languages4 ,several thousand have come from ,latin1 the language of the ,romans2 several hundred from ,greek1 either directly or passed on to us by the ,romans or the ,french4 ,the word school is ,greek1 and the word arithmetic was borrowed from the ,french1 who took it from the ,greeks4 ,geography is another word which came1 through ,french and ,latin1 from the ,greeks1 to whom it meant that which is written about the earth4 ,the word grammar came in the same way4 ,the word alphabet is made by joining together the names of the first two ,greek letters1 alpha and beta4 ,many words about religion are borrowed from the ,greeks1 and this is not strange1 for the ,new ,testament was written in ,greek4 ,some of these are ,bible1 church1 bishop1 choir1 angel1 devil1 apostle1 and martyr4 ,the ,greeks have handed down to us many words about government1 including the word itself1 which in the beginning meant to steer4 ,politics meant having to do with a polis or city4 ,several of the words most recently made up of ,greek words are telegraph1 telephone1 phonograph1 and thermometer4 ,,many ,,words ,,borrowed ,,from ,,the ,,romans4 ,nearly ten times as many of our words are borrowed from the ,romans as from the ,greeks1 and it is not strange1 because at one time the ,romans ruled over all the country now occupied by the ,italians1 the ,french1 the ,spaniards1 a part of the ,germans1 and the ,english1 so that these peoples naturally learned the words used by their conquerors and governors4 ,,interesting ,,ancient ,,stories4 ,in the poems and tales which we learn at home or at school are stories which ,greek and ,roman parents and teachers taught their children many hundred years ago4 ,we learn them partly because they are interesting1 and because they please or amuse us1 and partly because they appear so often in our books that it is necessary to know them if we would understand our own books and language4 ,who has not heard of ,hercules and his ,labors1 of the ,search for the ,golden ,fleece1 the ,siege of ,troy1 or the ,wanderings of ,ulysses8 ,we love modern fairy stories and tales of adventure1 but they are not more pleasing than these ancient stories4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,plain ,,of ,,marathon ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,greeks4 ,our language and our books are full of memories of ,greek and ,roman deeds of courage4 ,the story of the ,greeks comes before the story of the ,romans1 for the ,greeks were living in beautiful cities1 with temples and theaters1 while the ,romans were still an almost unknown people dwelling on the hills that border the river ,tiber4 ,,memories ,,of ,,greek ,,courage4 ,the most heroic deeds of the ,greeks took place in a great war between the ,greek cities and the kingdom of ,persia about five hundred years before ,christ4 ,in those days there was no kingdom called ,greece1 such as the geographies now describe4 ,instead there were cities1 a few of which were ruled by kings1 others by the citizens themselves4 ,these cities banded together when any danger threatened them4 ,sometimes one city turned traitor and helped the enemy against the others4 ,the most dangerous enemy the ,greeks had1 until the ,romans attacked them1 was the kingdom of ,persia1 which stretched from the ,aegean ,sea far into ,asia4 ,in the war with the ,persians the ,greeks fought three famous battles1 at ,marathon1 ,thermopylae1 and ,salamis1 the stories of which men have always liked to hear and remember4 ,,preparing ,,for ,,marathon1 #dij ,b4,c4 ,to the ,athenians belong the glories of ,marathon4 ,they lived where the modern city of ,athens now stands4 ,the ruins of their temples and theaters still attract students and travelers to ,greece4 ,the plain of ,marathon lay more than twenty miles to the northeast1 and the roads to it led through mountain passes4 ,when the ,athenians heard that the hosts of the ,great ,king of ,persia were approaching1 they sent a runner1 ,pheidippides by name1 to ask aid of ,sparta1 a city one hundred and forty miles away1 in the peninsula now called the ,morea1 where dwelt the sturdiest fighters of ,greece4 ,this runner reached ,sparta on the second day1 but the ,spartans said it would be against their religious custom to march before the moon was full4 ,the ,athenians saw that they must meet the enemy alone--one small city against a mighty empire4 ,they called their ten thousand men together and set out4 ,on the way they were joined by a thousand more1 the whole army of the brave little town of ,plataea4 ,illustration3 ,,greek ,,soldiers ,,in ,,arms ,from a ,greek vase of about the time of the battle of ,marathon ,,how ,,the ,,athenians ,,were ,,armed4 ,although the ,persians had six times as many soldiers as the ,athenians1 they were not so well armed for hand to hand fighting4 ,their principal weapon was the bow and arrow1 while the ,greeks used the lance and a short sword4 ,the ,greek soldier was protected by his bronze helmet1 solid across the forehead and over the nose2 by his breastplate1 a leathern or linen tunic covered with small metal scales1 with flaps hanging below his hips2 and by greaves or pieces of metal in front of his knees and shins4 ,he was also protected by a shield1 often long enough to reach from his face to his knees4 ,according to a strange custom the ,athenians were led by ten generals1 each commanding one day in turn4 ,,the ,,battle-,,ground4 ,marathon was a plain about two miles wide1 lying between the mountains and the sea4 ,from it two roads ran toward ,athens1 one along the shore where the hills almost reached the sea1 the other up a narrow valley and over the mountains4 ,the ,athenians were encamped in this valley1 where they could attack the ,persians if they tried to follow the shore road4 ,the ,persians landed from their ships and filled the plain near the shore4 ,they wanted to fight in the open plain because they had so many more soldiers than the ,athenians and because they meant to use their horsemen4 ,for some time the ,athenians watched the ,persians1 not knowing what it was best to do4 ,half the generals did not wish to risk a battle1 but ,miltiades was eager to fight1 for he feared that delay would lead timid citizens or traitors to yield to the ,persians4 ,he finally gained his wish1 and on his day of command the battle was ordered4 ,,the ,,battle4 ,the ,persians by this time had decided to sail around to the harbor of ,athens and had taken their horsemen on board their ships4 ,when they saw the ,greeks coming they drew up their foot-soldiers in deep masses4 ,the ,athenians and their comrades--the ,plataeans--soon began to move forward on the run4 ,the ,persians thought this madness1 because the ,greeks had no archers or horsemen4 ,but the ,greeks saw that if they moved forward slowly the ,persians would have time to shoot arrows at them again and again4 ,when the ,greeks rushed upon the ,persians the soldiers at the two ends of the ,persian line gave way and fled towards the shore4 ,in the center1 where the best ,persian soldiers stood1 the ,greeks were not at first successful1 and were forced to retreat4 ,but those who had been victorious came to their rescue1 attacked the ,persians in the rear1 and finally drove them off4 ,the ,persians ran into the sea to reach the ships1 and the ,athenians followed them4 ,some of the ,greeks were so eager in the fight that they seized the sides of the ships and tried to keep them from being rowed away1 but the ,persians cut at their hands and made them let go4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,straits ,,of ,,salamis ,where a great sea-fight between ,greeks and ,persians took place ,,the ,,news ,,of ,,the ,,victory4 ,the ,athenians had won a victory of which they were so proud that they meant it never should be forgotten4 ,their city had suddenly become great through the courage and self-sacrifice of her citizens4 ,one hundred and ninety-two ,greeks had fallen1 and on the battle-field their comrades raised over their bodies a mound of earth which still marks their tomb4 ,the victors sent the runner ,pheidippides to bear the news to ,athens4 ,over the hills he ran until he reached the market place1 and there1 with the message of triumph on his lips1 he fell dead4 ,,other ,,victories ,,of ,,the ,,greeks4 ,marathon was only the beginning of ,greek victories over the ,persians1 only the first struggle in the long wars between ,europe and ,asia4 ,ten years after ,marathon the ,spartans won everlasting glory by their heroic stand at the ,pass of ,thermopylae --three hundred ,greeks against the mighty army of the ,persian king ,xerxes4 ,the barbarian hordes passed over their bodies1 took the road to ,athens1 burned the city1 but were soon beaten in the sea-fight which took place on the waters lying between the mainland of ,athenian territory and the island of ,salamis4 ,this victory was also due to ,athenian courage and leadership1 for the ,athenians and their leader1 ,themistocles1 were resolved to stay and fight1 although the other ,greeks wanted to sail away4 ,,why ,,marathon ,,is ,,remembered4 ,the victories of ,marathon and ,salamis were great not only because small armies of ,greeks put to flight the hosts of ,persia1 they were great because they saved the independence of ,greece4 ,if the ,greeks had become the subjects and slaves of ,persia1 they would not have built the wonderful buildings1 or carved the beautiful statues1 or written the books which we study and admire4 ,when we think of the ,greeks as our first teachers we feel as proud of their victories as if they were our own victories4 ,,the ,,wars ,,of ,,the ,,greek ,,cities4 ,the ,athenians had done the most in winning the victory over the ,persians1 and therefore ,athens was for many years the most powerful city in ,greece4 ,the ,spartans were always jealous of the ,athenians1 and in less than a century after the victory of ,marathon they conquered and humbled ,athens4 ,the worst faults of the ,greeks were such jealousies and the desire to lord it over one another4 ,greek history is full of wars of city against city1 ,sparta against ,athens1 ,corinth against ,athens1 and ,thebes against ,sparta4 ,in these wars many heroic deeds were done1 of which we like to read1 but it is more important for us to understand how the ,greeks lived4 ,,questions #a4 ,what ancient cities still exist8 ,find them on the map4 7,for each difficult name find the pronunciation in the index47 #b4 ,what things do we find in the ruins of ancient cities which tell us how the people lived8 #c4 ,from what country did most of our words come in the beginning8 ,why are they now called ,english8 ,what peoples used the word geography before we did8 ,about how many words do we get from the ,greeks1 and how many from the ,romans8 #d4 ,which people became famous earlier1 the ,greeks or the ,romans8 ,point out on the map the peninsula where each lived4 #e4 ,why do we like to remember the brave deeds of the ,greeks8 #f4 ,find the city of ,athens on the map4 ,find ,sparta4 ,where was ,marathon8 ,what city won glory at ,marathon8 #g4 ,what were the worst faults of the ,greeks8 ,,exercises #a4 ,collect pictures of ruined cities in ,italy1 ,greece1 and ,asia ,minor1 from illustrated papers1 magazines1 or advertising folders4 ,collect postal cards giving such pictures4 #b4 ,choose the best one of the ,greek stories mentioned in ,chapter ,,ii1 and tell it4 #c4 ,find out how differently soldiers now are clothed and armed from the way the ,greek soldiers were4 #d4 ,find out why a long distance run is now called a ,marathon4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,how ,,the ,,greeks ,,lived ,,the ,,greek ,,cities4 ,the ,greeks lived in cities so much of the time that we do not often think of them as ever living in the country4 ,the reason for this was that their government and everything else important was carried on in the city4 ,the cities were usually surrounded by high1 thick stone walls1 which made them safe from sudden attack4 ,within or beside the city there was often a lofty hill1 which we should call a fort or citadel1 but which they called the upper city or acropolis4 ,there the people lived at first when they were few in number1 and thither they fled if the walls of their city were broken down by enemies4 ,in ,athens such a hill rose two hundred feet above the plain4 ,its top was a thousand feet long1 and all the sides except one were steep cliffs4 ,on it the ,athenians built their most beautiful temples4 ,,private ,,houses4 ,unlike people nowadays the ,greeks did not spend much money on their dwelling-houses4 ,to us these houses would seem small1 badly ventilated1 and very uncomfortable4 ,but what their houses lacked was more than made up by the beauty and splendor of the public buildings1 halls1 theaters1 porticoes1 and especially the temples4 ,,temples4 ,the temples were not intended to hold hundreds of worshipers like the large churches of ,europe and ,america to-day4 ,religious ceremonies were most often carried on in the open air4 ,the ,parthenon1 the most famous temple of ,ancient ,times1 was small4 ,its principal room measured less than one hundred feet in length4 ,part of this room was used for an altar and for the ivory and gold statue of the goddess ,athena4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,acropolis ,,at ,,athens ,,as ,,it ,,is ,,to-,,day ,,the ,,parthenon4 ,in a picture of the ,parthenon1 or of a similar temple1 we notice the columns in front and along the sides4 ,the ,parthenon had eight at each end and seventeen on each side4 ,they were thirty-four feet high4 ,a few feet within the columns on the sides was the wall of the temple4 ,before the vestibule and entrances at the front and at the rear stood six more columns4 ,the beauty of the marble from which stones and columns were cut might have seemed enough1 but the builders carved groups of figures in the three-cornered space 7called the pediment7 in front between the roof and the stones resting upon the columns4 ,the upper rows of stones beneath the roof and above the columns were also carved1 and continuous carvings 7called a frieze7 ran around the top of the temple wall on the outside4 ,the temple was not left a glistening white1 but parts of it were painted in blue1 or red1 or gilt1 or orange4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,top ,,of ,,the ,,acropolis #bjjj ,,years ,,ago ,the ,parthenon is the large temple on the right ,,other ,,greek ,,temples4 ,this beautiful temple is now partly ruined4 ,ruins of other temples are on the ,acropolis1 and one better preserved1 called the ,theseum1 stands on a lower hill4 ,there are also similar ruins in many places along the shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,the most interesting are at ,paestum in ,italy1 and at ,girgenti in ,sicily4 ,long before these temples were ruined they had taught the ,romans how to construct one of the most beautiful kinds of buildings1 and this the ,romans later taught the peoples of western ,europe4 ,,greek ,,methods ,,of ,,building ,,still ,,used4 ,if we look at our large buildings1 we shall see much to remind us of the ,greek buildings4 ,sometimes the exact form of the ,greek building is imitated2 sometimes this form is changed as the ,romans changed it1 or as it was changed by builders who lived after the time of the ,romans4 ,if the model of the whole building is not used1 there are similar pillars1 or gables1 or the sculpture in the pediment and the frieze is imitated4 ,the ,greeks had three kinds of pillars1 named ,doric1 ,ionic1 and ,corinthian4 ,the ,doric is simple and solid1 the ,ionic shows in its capital1 or top1 delicate and beautiful curves1 while the ,corinthian is adorned with leaves springing gracefully from the top of the pillar4 ,illustration3 ,doric ,ionic ,corinthian ,,greek ,,orders ,,of ,,architecture ,illustration3 ,,ruins ,,of ,,the ,,greek ,,theater ,,at ,,epidaurus ,,theaters4 ,the first ,greek theater was only a smooth open space near a hillside1 with a tent1 called a sken1 or scene1 in which the actors dressed4 ,later an amphitheater of stone seats was constructed on the hillside1 and across the open end was placed the scene1 which had been changed into a stone building4 ,on its front sometimes a house or a palace was painted1 just as nowadays theaters are furnished with painted scenery4 ,in these open-air theaters thousands of people gathered4 ,plays were generally given as a part of religious festivals1 and there were contests between writers to see which could produce the best play4 ,sometimes the plays followed one another for three days from morning until night4 ,many of them are so interesting that people still read them1 after twenty-five hundred years4 ,the ,romans studied them1 and so do modern men who are preparing themselves to write plays4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,modern ,,stadium ,,at ,,athens ,,the ,,stadium4 ,a building which somewhat resembled the theater was the stadium1 where races were run4 ,the difference was that it was oblong instead of half round4 ,the most famous stadium1 at ,olympia1 was seven hundred and two feet long1 with raised seats on both sides and around one end of the running track4 ,the other end was open4 ,about fifty thousand persons used to gather there to watch the races4 ,,porticoes4 ,there were other buildings1 some for meeting places1 some for gymnasiums1 and still others called porticoes1 where the judges held court or the city officers carried on their business4 ,the porticoes were simply rows of columns1 roofed over1 with occasionally a second story4 ,as they stretched along the sides of a square or market place they added much to the beauty of a city4 ,,greek ,,sculpture4 ,we know that the ,greeks were skilful sculptors because from the ruins of their cities have been dug wonderful marble and bronze statues which are now preserved in the great museums of the world1 in ,paris1 ,london1 ,berlin1 and ,rome1 and here in ,america1 in ,new ,york and ,boston4 ,museums which cannot have the original statues usually contain copies or casts of them in plaster4 ,the statues are generally marred and broken1 but enough remains to show us the wonderful beauty of the artist's work4 ,among the most famous are the ,venus1 of ,melos 7or de ,milo71 which stands in a special room in a museum called the ,louvre in ,paris2 the ,hermes in the museum of ,olympia in ,greece2 and the figures from the ,parthenon in the ,british ,museum in ,london4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,discus-,,thrower 7,,discobolos7 ,an ancient ,greek statue now in the ,vatican ,artists nowadays1 like the ,roman artists long ago1 study the ,greek statues and the ,greek sculpture1 in order that they may learn how such beautiful things can be made4 ,they do not hope to excel the ,greeks1 but are content to remain their pupils4 ,,painting ,,and ,,pottery4 ,the ,greeks were also painters1 makers of pottery1 and workers in gold and silver4 ,many pieces of their workmanship have been discovered by those who have dug in the ruins of ancient buildings and tombs4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,greek ,,book ,the upper picture1 shows the book open4 ,,what ,,the ,,boys ,,were ,,taught4 ,the ,greek boys were not very good at arithmetic1 and even grown men used counting boards or their fingers to help them in reckoning4 ,in learning to write they smeared a thin layer of wax over a board and marked on that4 ,there was a kind of paper called papyrus1 made from a reed which grew mostly in ,egypt1 but this was expensive4 ,rolls were made of sheets of it pasted together1 and these were their books4 ,one of the books the boys studied much was the poems of ,homer--the ,iliad and the ,odyssey--which tell about the siege of ,troy and the wanderings of ,ulysses4 ,boys often learned these long poems by heart4 ,they also stored away in their memories the sayings of other poets and wise men1 so that they could generally know what to think1 having with them so many good and wise thoughts put in such excellent words4 ,,games ,,and ,,exercises ,,for ,,boys4 ,it is not surprising that ,greek boys knew how to play1 but it is surprising that they played many of the games which boys play now1 such as hide-and-seek1 tug of war1 ducks and drakes1 and blind man's buff4 ,they even pitched pennies4 ,in school the boys were taught not only to read and write1 but to be skilful athletes1 and to play on the lyre1 accompanying this with singing4 ,the gymnasium was often an open space near a stream into which they could plunge after their exercises were over4 ,they were taught to box1 to wrestle1 to throw the discus1 and to hurl the spear4 ,military training was important for them1 since all might be called to fight for the safety of their city4 ,,the ,,olympic ,,games4 ,boys and young men were trained as runners1 wrestlers1 boxers1 and discus throwers1 not only because they enjoyed these exercises and the ,greeks thought them an important part of education1 but also that they might bring back honors and prizes to their city from the great games which all the ,greeks held every few years4 ,the most famous of these games were held at ,olympia4 ,there the ,greeks went from all parts of the country1 carrying their tents and cooking utensils with them1 because there were not enough houses in ,olympia to hold so many people4 ,wars even were stopped for a time in order that the games might not be postponed4 ,,the ,,rewards ,,of ,,the ,,victors4 ,the principal contest was a dash for two hundred yards1 although there were longer races and many other kinds of contests4 ,unfortunately the ,greeks liked to see the most brutal sort of boxing1 in which the boxer's hands and arms were covered with heavy strips of leather stiffened with pieces of iron or lead4 ,for the games men trained ten months1 part of the time at ,olympia4 ,the prize was a crown of wild olive1 and the winner returned in triumph to his city1 where poets sang his praises1 a special seat at public games was reserved for him1 and often artists were employed to make a bronze statue of him to be set up in ,olympia or in his own city4 ,illustration3 ,,greek ,,games--,,running ,from an antique vase ,,the ,,government ,,of ,,athens4 ,the citizen of ,athens1 and of other ,greek cities1 had more to do with his government than do most ,americans with theirs4 ,as nearly all work was done by slaves1 he had plenty of time to attend meetings4 ,all the citizens could attend the great assembly1 or ecclesia1 where six thousand at least must be present before anything could be decided4 ,by this assembly foreigners might be admitted to citizenship or citizens might be expelled1 or ostracized1 from ,athens as hurtful to its welfare4 ,there was a smaller council of five hundred which decided less important questions without laying them before the general assembly4 ,this body was chosen by lot just as our juries are1 but members of the council whose term had ended had a right to object to any new member as an unworthy citizen ,a tenth of the council ruled for a tenth of the year1 and they chose their president by lot every day1 so that any worthy man at ,athens had a chance to be president for a day and a night4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,decree ,,of ,,the ,,council--,,about #dej ,b4,c4 ,many citizens also served in the courts1 for there were six thousand judges1 and in deciding important cases as many as a thousand and one1 or even fifteen hundred and one1 took part4 ,before such large courts and assemblies it was necessary to be a good speaker to be able to win a case or persuade the citizens4 ,some of the greatest orators of the world were ,athenians1 the best known being ,demosthenes4 ,,socrates4 ,the ,athenians were not always just1 although so many of them acted as judges4 ,one court1 composed of five hundred and one judges1 condemned to death ,socrates1 the wisest man of the ,greeks and one of the wisest in the world4 ,he did not make speeches1 or write books1 or teach in school4 ,he went about1 in the market place1 at the gymnasium1 and on the streets1 asking men1 young and old1 questions about what interested him most1 that is1 ,what is the true way to live8 ,if people did not give him an answer which seemed good1 he asked more questions1 until sometimes they went away angry4 ,many of them thought because he asked questions about everything that he did not believe in anything1 not even in the religion of his city4 ,illustration3 ,,socrates ,after the marble bust in the ,vatican ,,the ,,death ,,of ,,socrates1 #cii ,b4,c4 ,after a while the enemies of ,socrates accused him of being a wicked man who persuaded young men to be wicked4 ,he was tried by an ,athenian court1 which made the terrible blunder of finding him guilty and condemning him to death4 ,according to the ,athenian custom he was obliged to drink a cup of poisonous hemlock4 ,this he did1 after talking to his friends cheerily about how a good man should live4 ,as he wrote no books we have learned about him from his friends4 ,the most famous of these was ,plato1 who is also counted among the wisest men that ever lived4 ,the story of the lives of these men is another gift which the ,greeks made to all who were to live after them1 and it is quite as valuable as are the ways of building1 artistic skill1 or great poems and plays4 ,,questions #a4 ,why do we wish to know how the ,greeks lived8 #b4 ,what was an ,acropolis8 ,how does the ,acropolis at ,athens look8 #c4 ,on the picture of the ,parthenon point out the pediment4 ,show where the frieze was placed4 ,find on a map ,paestum4 #d4 ,what did the ,greeks first mean by a scene8 ,why do we still study ,greek plays8 ,what is left of the ,greek theaters8 #e4 ,what was a stadium1 a portico1 a gymnasium8 ,do we have such buildings8 #f4 ,how do we know that the ,greeks made beautiful statues8 #g4 ,what games for ,greek boys were like our games8 ,tell about the great public games of the ,greeks4 #h4 ,how were the ,greek rolls or books made8 #i4 ,tell the story of ,socrates4 ,,exercises #a4 ,are there any buildings in your town which are like ,greek buildings8 #b4 ,find in your town ,doric1 ,ionic1 and ,corinthian columns4 #c4 ,get from a wall-paper dealer a sample of a frieze for a papered room4 #d4 ,what is the difference between the government of ,athens and the government of your town8 #e4 ,what is the difference between the courts at ,athens and the courts in your town8 #f4 ,are ,olympic games held now8 ,where8 #g4 ,which prizes would you prefer1 the prizes given to winners at ,greek games or the prizes given to winners in our athletic games8 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,greek ,,emigrants ,,or ,,colonists ,,when ,,the ,,atlantic ,,was ,,unknown4 ,one of the most important things done by the men of ,ancient ,times was to explore the coasts and lands of ,europe and to make settlements wherever they went4 ,at first they knew little of the western and northern parts of ,europe4 ,herodotus1 a ,greek whom we call the ,father of ,history1 and who was a great traveler1 said1 ,though ,i have taken vast pains1 ,i have never been able to get an assurance from any eye-witness that there is any sea on the further side of ,europe4 ,by the further side he meant western1 and his remark shows that he did not know of the ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,he understood that tin and amber came from the ,tin ,islands1 which he called the ends of the earth4 ,as tin came from ,england1 it is plain that he had heard a little of that island4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,world ,,as ,,described ,,by ,,the ,,greek ,,historian ,,herodotus ,,greek ,,emigrants4 ,long before ,athens became a great and beautiful city the ,greeks had begun to make settlements on distant shores4 ,those who lived on the western coast of ,asia ,minor1 as well as those who lived where the kingdom of ,greece is now1 sent out colonists or emigrants4 ,the ,greek colonies were very important1 because by them the ancient civilized world was made larger1 just as by the settlement of ,america the modern world was doubled in size4 ,the colonists sailed away from home for the same reasons which led our forefathers to leave ,england and ,europe for ,america4 ,they either hoped to find it easier in a new land to make a living and obtain property1 or they did not like the way their city was ruled1 and being unable to change this1 resolved to build elsewhere a city which they could manage as they pleased4 ,,how ,,they ,,located ,a ,,new ,,city4 ,there were several different lands to which they could go1 just as the ,european of to-day may sail for the ,united ,states or ,south ,america or ,australia4 ,they could attempt to settle on the shores of the ,black ,sea1 or cross over to northern ,africa1 or try to reach ,italy and the more distant coasts of what are now ,france and ,spain4 ,in order to choose wisely1 they generally asked the advice of the priests of their god ,apollo at his temple at ,delphi4 ,these priests knew more about good places for settlements than most other persons1 because travelers from everywhere came to ,delphi and the priests were wise enough to inquire about all parts of the world4 ,illustration3 ,the territory occupied by the ,greeks is indicated by solid black ,the story is told that one group of emigrants was advised to locate their new colony opposite the city of the blind4 ,they discovered that these words meant that an earlier band of emigrants had passed by the wonderful harbor of the present city of ,constantinople and had settled instead on the other shore of the ,bosphorus4 ,taught by the oracle they chose the better place and began to build the city of ,byzantium1 which later became ,constantinople4 ,,mother ,,and ,,daughter ,,cities4 ,solemn ceremonies took place when colonists departed4 ,they carried with them fire from the hearth of the mother city in order to light a similar fire on their new hearth1 for every city had its hearthstone and on it a fire that was never quenched4 ,the ties between the mother and the daughter city were close1 and the enemies of one were the enemies of the other4 ,he who wished to visit the colony usually went to the mother city to find a ship bound thither4 ,,where ,,the ,,settlements ,,were ,,made4 ,when the ,greek sailors first entered the ,black ,sea1 they thought it a boundless ocean1 and called it the ,pontus1 a word which means ,the ,main4 ,until that time they had been accustomed to sail only from island to island in the ,aegean ,sea4 ,after a while they made settlements all around the shores of the ,black ,sea1 and in later times ,athens drew from this region her supply of grain4 ,still more important settlements were made in ,sicily and southern ,italy1 for it was through these settlements that some of the things the ,greeks knew1 like the art of writing1 were taught to the ,italian tribes and to the ,romans4 ,,dangers ,,of ,,the ,,voyage4 ,at first ,greek sailors feared the dangers of the western ,mediterranean as much as those of the ,black ,sea4 ,they imagined that the huge1 misshapen1 and dreadful monsters ,scylla and ,charybdis lurked in the ,straits of ,messina waiting to seize and swallow the unlucky passer-by4 ,on the slopes of ,mount ,aetna dwelt1 they thought1 hideous1 one-eyed giants1 the ,cyclops1 who fed their fierce appetites with the quivering flesh of many captives4 ,illustration3 ,,greek ,,ruins ,,at ,,paestum ,,in ,,italy ,,greeks ,,in ,,the ,,west4 ,the earliest settlement of the ,greeks in ,italy was at ,cumae1 on a headland at the entrance of the ,bay of ,naples4 ,later these colonists entered the bay and founded the new city1 or ,neapolis1 which we call ,naples4 ,finally there were so many ,greek cities in southern ,italy that it was named ,great ,greece4 ,the ,greeks also made settlements in what is now southern ,france and eastern ,spain4 ,the principal one was ,massilia1 or ,marseilles4 ,through the traders of this city the ancient world obtained a supply of tin from ,britain1 a country which is now called ,england4 ,,greek ,,colonies ,,as ,,centers ,,of ,,civilization4 ,the ,greeks in these colonies traded with the natives whose villages were near by1 and many of the natives learned to live like the ,greeks4 ,in this way the ,greeks became teachers of civilization1 and the ,greek world1 which at first was made up of cities on the shores of the ,aegean ,sea1 was spread from place to place along the coasts of the ,mediterranean ,sea4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,greek ,,trireme ,,greek ,,ships4 ,the ships of the ,greeks were very different from modern vessels4 ,of course they were not driven by steam1 nor did they rely as much on sails as modern sailing ships do4 ,they had sails1 but were driven forward mostly by their oars4 ,the trireme1 or ordinary war-ship1 had its oars arranged in three banks1 fifty men rowing at once4 ,after these had rowed several hours1 or a watch1 another fifty took their places1 and finally a third fifty1 so that the ships could be rowed at high speed all the time4 ,with the aid of its two sails a trireme is said to have gone one hundred and fifty miles in a day and a night4 ,these boats were about one hundred and twenty feet long and fifteen feet wide4 ,they could be rowed in shallow water1 but were not high enough to ride heavy seas safely4 ,they had a sharp beak1 which1 driven against an enemy's ship1 would break in its sides4 ,the ,greek grain ships and freight boats were heavier and more capable of enduring rough weather4 ,illustration3 ,,alexander ,,the ,,great ,after the bust in the ,capitoline ,museum1 ,rome ,,alexander ,,the ,,great1 ,,king ,,of ,,macedon ,,from #ccf ,,to #cbc ,b4,c4 ,greek ways of living were also carried eastward as well as westward4 ,the enlargement of the ,greek world in this direction was due to ,alexander the ,great1 the most skilful soldier and the ablest leader of men among all the ,greeks4 ,alexander was king of ,macedon1 and like the earlier ,greeks he regarded the ,persians as his enemies1 and made war upon them4 ,after conquering the ,persians he marched across western ,asia until he had reached the ,indus ,river in ,india4 ,he was a builder of cities as well as a conqueror4 ,he founded seventy cities1 and sixteen of them were named for him4 ,the most important was the ,alexandria which is still the chief seaport of ,egypt4 ,greek became the language commonly spoken throughout the lands near the eastern ,mediterranean4 ,this is the reason why in later times the ,new ,testament was written in ,greek4 ,,alexandria4 ,of this ,greek world ,athens ceased to be the center and ,alexandria took its place4 ,at ,alexandria there was a great library which contained over five hundred thousand volumes or rolls4 ,there also was the museum or university1 in which many learned men were at work4 ,the best known of these men was ,euclid1 who perfected the mathematics which we call geometry1 and ,ptolemy1 whose ideas about geography and the shape and size of the globe ,columbus carefully studied before he set out on his great voyage4 ,alexandria was also a center of trade and commerce4 ,from ,alexandria1 because its ships were the first foreign ships to be admitted to a ,roman port1 the ,romans gained their liking for many of the beautiful things which the ,greeks made4 ,,questions #a4 ,why were the ,greek colonies important8 ,why did the ,greeks emigrate to the colonies8 #b4 ,point out on the map1 the lands to which they might go4 ,name several cities which they built4 #c4 ,what were the ties between the daughter and the mother city8 #d4 ,why was a part of southern ,italy called ,great ,greece8 #e4 ,describe a ,greek trireme and the way it was managed4 #f4 ,of what country was ,alexander the ,great king8 ,when did he reign8 ,how far east did he march8 ,what did he do besides winning victories8 #g4 ,why was the city of ,alexandria famous in ,ancient ,times8 #h4 ,of what help was ,ptolemy to ,columbus8 ,,exercises #a4 ,find out the colonies we have4 ,for what purpose do ,americans go to these colonies8 ,is it as hard to reach them as it was for the ,greeks to reach their colonies8 #b4 ,what country now has the most colonies8 #c4 ,learn and tell the story of ,ulysses and the ,cyclops4 #d4 ,find out what is meant at ,constantinople by the ,golden ,horn8 ,who now live at ,constantinople1 at ,naples1 at ,marseilles8 #e4 ,collect pictures of these cities4 ,,review 7,chapters ,,ii1 ,,iii1 and ,,iv7 ,ten things we owe to the ,greeks3 #a4 ,many useful words4 #b4 ,many interesting tales4 #c4 ,many examples of heroism4 #d4 ,knowledge of how to construct beautiful buildings4 #e4 ,how to carve beautiful statues1 reliefs1 and friezes4 #f4 ,how to write great plays4 #g4 ,how to speak before large audiences4 #h4 ,wise sayings of men like ,socrates and ,plato4 #i4 ,knowledge of geography and mathematics4 #aj4 ,their work as colonists in teaching other peoples to live1 and think and act as they did4 ,two important dates3 ,battle of ,marathon1 #dij ,b4,c4 ,death of ,alexander the ,great1 #cbc ,b4,c4 ,,chapter ,v ,,new ,,rivals ,,of ,,the ,,greeks ,,the ,,greek ,,colonies ,,and ,,the ,,carthaginians4 ,the ,greek colonies were sometimes in danger of being attacked by the native tribes whose lands they had seized or by the wilder tribes that dwelt further from the coast4 ,in ,sicily their most dangerous neighbors were the ,carthaginians at the western end of the island4 ,the chief town of these people was ,carthage1 situated opposite ,sicily in northern ,africa in what is now ,tunis4 ,the ,carthaginians were emigrants from ,tyre and other cities of ,phoenicia on the eastern shore of the ,mediterranean1 and because of their many ships held control of a large part of the western ,mediterranean4 ,they had colonies even in ,spain1 where in very early times ,phoenician traders had gone to obtain gold and silver4 ,,the ,,greeks ,,and ,,the ,,romans4 ,in ,italy the most dangerous neighbors of the ,greek colonists were the ,romans1 who lived half-way up the western side of the peninsula along the river ,tiber4 ,the history of the ,romans1 like the history of the ,greeks1 is full of interesting and wonderful tales4 ,some of them are legends1 such as every people likes to tell about its early history4 ,they relate how the city was founded by two brothers1 ,romulus and ,remus2 how ,horatius defended the bridge across the ,tiber against the hosts of the exiled ,tarquin king2 how the farmer ,cincinnatus1 having been made leader or dictator1 in sixteen days drove off the neighboring tribes which were attacking the ,romans and then went back to his plough4 ,,the ,,gauls ,,burn ,,rome1 #cij ,b4,c4 ,the ,romans told stories of their defeats as well as of their victories4 ,one of these tells how hosts of ,gauls1 a people of the same race as the forefathers of the ,french1 streamed southward from the valley of the ,po4 ,the ,romans were alarmed by such tall men1 with fierce eyes1 and fair1 flowing hair1 whose swords crashed through the frail ,roman helmets4 ,they sent a large army to stop the invaders1 but in the battle1 which was fought only twelve miles from ,rome1 this army was destroyed4 ,the few defenders that were left withdrew to the ,capitoline1 the steepest of the hills over which the city had spread4 ,some of the older senators and several priests scorned to seek a refuge from the fury of the barbarians1 and took their seats quietly in ivory chairs in the market place or ,forum at the foot of the ,capitoline hill4 ,the ,gauls at first gazed in wonder at the strange sight of the motionless figures4 ,when one of them attempted to stroke the white beard of a senator1 the senator struck him with his staff2 then the ,gauls fell upon senators and priests and slew them4 ,illustration3 ,,cliff ,,of ,,the ,,capitoline ,,hill ,the sides of the ,capitoline hill were so steep that for a long time the ,gauls were baffled in their attempts to seize it4 ,at last they discovered a path1 and one dark night were on the point of scaling the height when some geese1 sacred to the goddess ,juno1 cackled and flapped their wings until the garrison was aroused and the ,gauls hurled headlong down the precipice4 ,the garrison was saved1 but the city was burned4 ,this happened in ,rome just one hundred years after the battle of ,marathon in ,greece4 ,,the ,,caudine ,,forks4 ,another adventure did not have so happy an ending4 ,the ,romans were at war with the ,samnites1 a tribe living on the slopes of the ,apennines1 who were continually attacking the ,greek cities on the coast4 ,the war was caused by the attempt of the ,romans to protect one of the ,greek cities4 ,the ,roman generals1 with a large army1 in making their way into the ,samnite country attempted to march through a narrow gorge which broadened out into a plain and then was closed again at the farther end by another gorge4 ,when they reached this second gorge they found the road blocked by fallen trees and heaps of stones4 ,they also saw ,samnites on the heights above them4 ,in alarm they hastened to retrace their steps1 only to find the other entrance closed in the same way4 ,after vain attempts to force a passage or to scale the surrounding heights they were obliged to surrender4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,region ,,of ,,the ,,caudine ,,forks ,illustration3 ,,italy ,,before ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,roman ,,power ,the ,samnites compelled the ,roman army1 both generals and soldiers1 each clad in a single garment1 to pass under the yoke made of two spears set upright with one laid across1 while they stood by and jeered4 ,if any ,roman looked angry or sullen at his disgrace1 they struck or even killed him4 ,this was called the disaster of the ,caudine ,forks1 from the pass where the ,romans were caught4 ,,the ,,romans ,,and ,,the ,,greek ,,cities4 ,not many years after this the ,romans quarreled with the ,greek cities of southern ,italy4 ,the ,greeks of ,tarentum1 situated where ,taranto is now1 called to their aid ,pyrrhus1 who ruled a part of ,alexander's old kingdom4 ,pyrrhus was a skilful general1 and he had with him1 besides his foot-soldiers and horsemen1 many trained elephants4 ,a charge of these elephants was too much for the ,romans1 who were already hard pressed by the long spears of the soldiers of ,pyrrhus4 ,but the ,romans were ready for another battle1 and in this they fought so stubbornly and killed so many of the ,greek soldiers that ,pyrrhus cried out1 ,another victory like this and we are ruined4 ,in a third battle1 which took place #bge ,b4,c41 he was defeated1 and returned to ,greece1 leaving the ,romans masters of the ,greek cities in ,italy4 ,,the ,,romans ,,conquerors ,,of ,,italy4 ,by this time there were few tribes south of the river ,po which did not own the ,romans as their masters4 ,all ,italy was united under their rule4 ,this was the first step in the conquest of the world that lay about the ,mediterranean ,sea and in the extension of that ancient world to the shores of the ,atlantic and to ,england4 ,before we read the story of the other conquests we must inquire who the ,roman people were and how they lived4 ,,how ,,the ,,romans ,,lived4 ,in early times most of the ,romans were farmers or cattle raisers4 ,a man's wealth was reckoned according to the number of cattle he owned4 ,their manner of living was simple and frugal4 ,like the ,greek1 the ,roman had his games4 ,he enjoyed chariot-races1 but used slaves or freedmen as drivers4 ,he also went to the theater1 although he thought it unworthy of a ,roman to be an actor4 ,such an occupation was for foreigners or slaves4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,roman ,,wearing ,a ,,toga ,,roman ,,boys ,,at ,,school4 ,the boys at school did not learn poems1 as did the ,greek boys1 but studied the first set of laws made by the ,romans1 called the ,twelve ,tables4 ,this they read1 copied1 and learned by heart4 ,their interest in laws was the first sign that they were to become the world's greatest lawmakers4 ,,roman ,,women4 ,in their respect for women the ,romans were superior to the ,greeks4 ,the ,roman mother did not remain in the women's apartments of the house1 as she was expected to do at ,athens1 but was her husband's companion1 received his guests1 directed her household1 and went in and out as she chose4 ,,patricians ,,and ,,plebeians4 ,the men of the families which first ruled ,rome were called patricians or nobles1 while the rest were plebeians or common people4 ,there were also many slaves1 but they had no rights4 ,at first only the patricians knew exactly what the laws were1 because the laws were not written in a book4 ,when disputes arose between patricians and plebeians about property1 the plebeians believed the patricians changed the laws in order to gain an advantage over their poorer neighbors4 ,the story is told that twice the plebeians withdrew from the city and refused to return until their wrongs were removed4 ,then they compelled the nobles to draw up the laws in a roll called the ,twelve ,tables4 ,at this time messengers were sent to ,athens to examine the laws of the ,greeks4 ,the richer plebeians were also gradually admitted to all the offices of the ,roman republic1 and so became nobles themselves4 ,,government ,,at ,,rome4 ,the ,romans had once been ruled by kings1 but now their chief officers were consuls4 ,two consuls were chosen each year because the ,romans feared that a single consul might make himself a king1 or1 at least1 gain too much power4 ,the real rulers of ,rome1 however1 were the senators1 the men who had held the prominent offices4 ,there were assemblies of the people1 but these generally did what the senators or other officers told them to do4 ,among the interesting officers of ,rome was the censor1 who drew up a list or census of the citizens and of their property4 ,another officer was the tribune1 chosen in the beginning by the plebeians to protect them against the patricians4 ,the tribune was not at first a member of the senate1 but he was given a seat outside the door1 and if a law was proposed that would injure the plebeians1 he cried out1 ,veto1 which means ,i forbid1 and the law had to be dropped4 ,this is the origin of our word veto4 ,,how ,,the ,,romans ,,treated ,,the ,,italians4 ,the ,romans were wise in their dealings with the cities or tribes which they conquered4 ,they not only sent out colonies of their fellow-citizens to occupy a part of the lands they had seized1 but they also gave the conquered peoples a share in their government1 and in some cases allowed them to act as citizens of ,rome4 ,these new ,roman citizens helped the older ,romans in their wars with other tribes4 ,in this way ,roman towns gradually spread over ,italy4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,roman ,,military ,,standard ,,questions #a4 ,what was the name of the dangerous neighbors of the ,greeks in ,sicily8 ,find ,carthage on the map4 ,where did the ,carthaginians come from originally8 ,find ,phoenicia on the map4 #b4 ,who were the dangerous neighbors of the ,greeks in ,italy8 ,find the ,tiber and ,rome on the map4 #c4 ,tell the story of the capture of ,rome by the ,gauls4 ,how long was this after the battle of ,marathon8 ,how long after the death of ,socrates8 ,how long before ,alexander became king of ,macedon8 #d4 ,find the land of the ,samnites on the map4 ,tell the story of the ,caudine ,forks4 #e4 ,what ,greek king did the people of ,tarentum call to ,italy to help them against the ,romans8 ,what did he say after his second battle with the ,romans8 #f4 ,after the defeat of ,pyrrhus how much of ,italy owned the ,romans as masters8 ,how did the ,romans treat the ,italians8 #g4 ,explain how the early ,roman ways of living differed from the ways of the ,greeks4 #h4 ,how differently did the ,romans and the ,greeks govern themselves8 ,,exercises #a4 ,read the story of ,horatius in ,macaulay's ,lays of ,ancient ,rome4 #b4 ,collect pictures of ,rome and ,italy4 #c4 ,is there a modern city of ,carthage8 ,what country rules over ,tunis8 ,are there now any ,phoenicians8 #d4 ,read the description of ,tyre in the ,bible1 ,ezekiel xxvii4 #c-be1 and tell what is said there about the riches of the ,tyrians4 ,find out who destroyed ,tyre4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,early ,,roman ,,coin ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,mediterranean ,a ,,roman ,,lake ,,rome ,,in ,,peril4 ,the conquest of ,italy by the ,romans took about two hundred and fifty years4 ,the conquest of the peoples living in the other lands on the shores of the ,mediterranean took nearly as long again4 ,only twice in these four or five hundred years was ,rome in serious danger of destruction4 ,once it was by the ,gauls1 as we have read1 who captured all the city except the citadel4 ,the second time it was by the ,carthaginians1 who lived on the northern coast of ,africa4 ,the ,romans were finally victorious over all their enemies because they were patient and courageous in misfortune and refused to believe that they could be conquered4 ,,cause ,,of ,,war ,,with ,,carthage4 ,the ,carthaginians were angry at the way the ,romans treated them4 ,they watched with alarm the steady growth of the ,roman power1 and feared that the ,romans1 if masters of ,italy1 would attack their trade with the cities of the western ,mediterranean4 ,a quarrel broke out over a city in ,sicily4 ,at first the ,carthaginians seemed to have the best of it1 because they had a strong war fleet while the ,romans had only a few small vessels4 ,but the ,romans hurriedly built ships and placed upon each a kind of drawbridge1 fitted with great hooks called grappling-irons4 ,these they let down upon the enemy's decks as soon as the ships came close enough1 and over these drawbridges the ,roman soldiers rushed and captured the ,carthaginian ships4 ,when the ,carthaginians asked for peace1 the ,romans demanded a great sum of money and a promise that the ,carthaginians would leave the cities in ,sicily which they occupied4 ,soon afterward the ,romans took advantage of a mutiny in the ,carthaginian army to demand more money and to seize ,sardinia and ,corsica4 ,no wonder the ,carthaginians were angry4 ,the result was a new and more terrible war4 ,,hannibal4 ,the ,carthaginians in the new war were led by ,hannibal1 who understood how to fight battles better than any of the generals whom the ,romans sent against him4 ,the story is told that when he was a boy his father made him promise1 at the altar of his city's gods1 undying hatred to ,rome4 ,even the ,romans thought him a wonderful man4 ,their historians said that toil did not wear out his body or exhaust his energy4 ,cold or heat were alike to him4 ,he never ate or drank more than he needed4 ,he slept when he had time1 whether it was day or night1 wrapping himself in a military cloak and lying on the ground in the midst of his soldiers4 ,he did not dress better than the other officers1 but his weapons and his horses were the best in the army4 ,,war ,,carried ,,into ,,italy1 #bah ,b4,c4 ,hannibal decided that the war should be carried into ,italy to the very gates of ,rome4 ,he started from ,spain1 half of which the ,carthaginians ruled1 marched across southern ,gaul1 and came to the foot-hills of the ,alps4 ,to climb the ,alps was the most difficult part of his long journey4 ,,crossing ,,the ,,alps4 ,there were no roads across the mountains1 only rough paths used by the mountaineers1 who constantly attacked ,hannibal's soldiers1 bursting out suddenly upon them from behind a turn in the trail1 or rolling huge rocks upon them from above4 ,the elephants1 the horses1 and the baggage animals of the army were frightened1 and in the tumult many of them slipped over the precipices and were dashed on the rocks below4 ,for five days the army toiled upward1 and then rested two days on the summit of the pass4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,alps ,,that ,,hannibal ,,had ,,to ,,cross ,although the road down into ,italy was short1 it was steep1 and the paths were slippery with ice and with snow trodden into slush by thousands of men and animals4 ,in one place there had been a landslide1 and the road along the rocky slope was cut away for a thousand feet4 ,in order to build a new road it was necessary to crack the rocks4 ,this the soldiers did by making huge fires and pouring wine over the heated surface4 ,at last1 worn out1 ragged1 and half starved1 the army reached the plains of ,italy1 but with a loss of half its men4 ,,how ,,hannibal ,,won ,a ,,victory4 ,the first great battle with the ,romans was fought on the river ,trebia in northern ,italy1 and in it ,hannibal showed how easily he could outwit and destroy a ,roman army4 ,it was a winter's day and the river was swollen by rains4 ,the two camps lay on opposite banks4 ,in the early morning ,hannibal sent across the river a body of horsemen to attack the ,roman camp and draw the ,romans into a battle4 ,at the same time he ordered his other soldiers to eat breakfast1 to build fires before their tents to warm themselves1 and to rub their bodies with oil1 so that they might be strong for the coming fight4 ,the ,romans were suddenly roused by the attack of the ,carthaginian horsemen1 and1 without waiting for food1 moved out of camp1 chasing the horsemen toward the river4 ,into its icy waters the ,romans waded breast-high1 and when they came up on the opposite bank they were benumbed with cold4 ,as soon as ,hannibal knew that the ,romans had crossed the river he attacked them fiercely with all his troops4 ,two thousand men whom he had placed in ambush fell upon the rear of their line4 ,their allies were frightened by a charge of elephants4 ,seeing that destruction was certain1 ten thousand of the best soldiers broke through the ,carthaginian line and marched away4 ,all the rest of the army was destroyed4 ,,roman ,,endurance4 ,this was not the last of the ,roman defeats4 ,two other armies were destroyed by ,hannibal during the next two years4 ,in the battle of ,cannae nearly seventy thousand ,romans1 including eighty senators1 were slain4 ,the news filled the city with weeping women1 but the senate did not think of yielding4 ,when their allies deserted them1 they besieged the faithless cities1 took them1 beheaded the rulers1 and sold the inhabitants into slavery4 ,they did not dare to fight ,hannibal in the open field1 but tried to wear him out by cutting off all small bodies of his troops and by making it difficult for him to get food for his army4 ,they carried the war into ,spain and finally into ,africa1 and when1 with a weakened army1 ,hannibal faced them there1 they defeated him4 ,his defeat was the ruin of ,carthage1 for the unhappy city was compelled to see her fleet destroyed1 to pay the ,romans a huge sum of money1 and to give up ,spain to them4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,roman ,,soldier ,,other ,,roman ,,triumphs4 ,the war with ,carthage ended two hundred and two years before the birth of ,christ4 ,in the wars that followed1 ,roman armies fought not only in ,spain and ,africa1 but also in ,greece and ,asia4 ,carthage was destroyed2 as was also ,corinth1 a ,greek city4 ,roman generals enriched themselves and sent great treasures back to ,rome4 ,roman merchants grew rich because their rivals in ,carthage and ,corinth were ruined or because the conquered cities were forbidden to trade with any city but ,rome4 ,all this took a long time and many wars1 but in the end the ,romans became masters of every land along the shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,this was not wholly a misfortune1 for the ,romans had learned that the ,greeks were superior to them in some things and they took the ,greeks as their teachers in most of the arts of living4 ,the ancient world became a sort of partnership1 and we call its civilization ,graeco-,roman1 that is1 both ,greek and ,roman4 ,,the ,,romans ,,as ,,rulers4 ,the ,romans at first treated the lands in ,sicily1 ,spain1 ,africa1 ,greece1 and ,asia as conquered territories1 or provinces1 sending to rule over them officers who were to act both as governors and judges4 ,with these men went many tax-collectors or publicans4 ,the ,romans were obliged to leave in most provinces a large body of soldiers to put down any attempt at rebellion4 ,often the officers and the publicans robbed the country instead of ruling it justly4 ,,evil ,,results ,,of ,,conquest4 ,during the wars the ,romans had lost many of their simple ways of living4 ,some had grown rich in the business of providing for the armies and navies1 and they were eager for new wars in order to make still bigger fortunes4 ,hannibal's marches up and down ,italy had driven thousands of farmers from their homes1 and they had wandered to ,rome for safety and food4 ,when the war was over many of them did not go back to their homes4 ,those who did found that they could no longer get fair prices for their crops because great quantities of wheat were shipped to ,rome from the conquered lands4 ,wealthy men bought the little farms and joined them1 making great estates where slaves raised sheep and cattle or tended vineyards and olive groves4 ,there was not much work for free men in ,rome1 for slaves were very cheap4 ,one army of prisoners was sold at about eight cents apiece4 ,in this way the poor were made idle1 while the rich sent everywhere for new luxuries4 ,illustration3 ,,gladiators ,after carvings on the tomb of ,scaurus ,,cruel ,,sports4 ,to amuse the idle crowds1 office-seekers and victorious generals provided cruel sports4 ,savage animals were turned loose to tear one another to pieces4 ,what was worse1 human prisoners were compelled to fight1 armed with swords or spears4 ,these men were called gladiators1 and often were specially trained to fight with one another or with wild beasts4 ,,some ,,things ,,the ,,romans ,,learned4 ,but the successes of the ,romans brought them other things which were good4 ,they took the buildings of the ,greeks as models and built similar temples and porticoes in ,rome1 especially about the old market place or ,forum4 ,their own houses1 which in earlier times were nothing but cabins1 they enlarged1 and if they were rich enough1 built palaces1 adorned with paintings and with statues4 ,unfortunately many of these came from the plunder of ,greek cities1 for the ,romans were great robbers of other peoples4 ,the poorer ,romans continued to live in wretched hovels4 ,,the ,,theater4 ,the ,romans learned more about the theaters of the ,greeks4 ,their plays were either translated into ,latin from ,greek or retold in a different manner from the original ,greek4 ,the ,romans did not succeed in writing any plays of their own which were as good as the plays of the ,greeks4 ,illustration3 ,,ruins ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,theater ,,at ,,orange1 ,,france ,,the ,,new ,,education ,,of ,,the ,,romans4 ,the ,greeks also taught the ,romans how to write poems and histories4 ,the first histories were written in ,greek1 but later the ,romans learned how to write in ,latin prose and poetry as good as much that had been written by the ,greeks4 ,greek became the second language of every educated ,roman1 and thus he could enjoy the books of the ,greeks as well as those written by ,romans4 ,the education of the ,roman boy now began with the poems of ,homer1 and the young man's education was not thought to be finished until he had traveled in ,greece and the lands along the eastern ,mediterranean4 ,,questions #a4 ,how long did it take the ,romans to conquer ,italy8 ,how long to conquer the lands about the ,mediterranean8 ,in what ,times did all this happen8 #b4 ,why did the ,carthaginians and the ,romans fight8 ,what did ,hannibal promise his father8 ,what sort of a leader was ,hannibal8 #c4 ,how did ,hannibal reach ,italy8 ,how did he win the battle of the ,trebia8 #d4 ,why was he unable to force the ,romans to yield8 #e4 ,how long before the beginning of the ,christian ,era did this war with ,hannibal close8 ,how long after the battle of ,marathon1 and after the death of ,alexander the ,great8 #f4 ,what other lands did the ,romans conquer8 ,how did they rule these colonies8 #g4 ,were they better for the wealth and power they gained8 ,what became of many of the ,italian farmers8 ,where did the ,romans get their slaves8 #h4 ,what good things did they learn from the ,greeks8 ,what was the ,graeco-,roman world8 ,,exercises #a4 ,on an outline map of the lands around the ,mediterranean mark on each land1 ,spain1 ,greece1 northern ,africa1 ,asia ,minor1 and ,egypt1 the dates at which the ,romans conquered each1 finding these dates in any brief ,roman or ,ancient ,history--,botsford1 ,myers1 ,morey1 ,west1 ,wolfson4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,,ancient ,,world ,,extended ,,to ,,the ,,shores ,,of ,,the ,,atlantic ,,new ,,conquests ,,of ,,the ,,romans4 ,the ,romans had as yet conquered only civilized peoples like themselves1 with the exception of the tribes in ,spain and southern ,gaul4 ,now the ,roman armies were to push northward over the plains and through the forests of ,gaul1 across the ,rhine into unknown ,germany1 and over the ,channel into ,britain1 equally unknown4 ,they were to be explorers as well as conquerors4 ,in this way they were to carry their civilization to the ,rhine and the ,atlantic1 and so increase greatly the part of the earth where men lived and thought as the ,romans did and as the ,greeks had before them4 ,the ancient civilized world was beginning to move from its older center1 the ,mediterranean1 toward the shore of the ,atlantic4 ,,ancestors ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,and ,,the ,,germans4 ,the tribes living in ,gaul were not at that time called ,french1 but ,gallic4 ,the ,gauls were like the ,britons who lived across the ,channel in ,britain4 ,the ,german ancestors of the ,english had not yet crossed the ,north ,sea to that land4 ,beyond the ,rhine lived the ,germans1 who had but little to do with the ,romans and the ,greeks and were still barbarians4 ,the ,gauls living farthest away from the ,roman settlements were not much more civilized4 ,the principal difference between the ,germans and the ,gauls was that the ,gauls lived in villages and towns and cultivated the land or dug in mines or traded along the rivers1 while the ,germans had no towns and dwelt in clearings of the forest4 ,their wealth1 like that of the early ,romans1 was their cattle4 ,the land they cultivated was divided between them year after year1 so that a ,german owned only his hut and the plot of ground or garden about it4 ,some of the towns of the ,gauls were placed on high hills and were protected by strong walls4 ,,the ,,terrible ,,germans4 ,the ,romans had at first been afraid of the ,gauls1 because they had never forgotten how terribly these people had once defeated them4 ,but since that time they had fought the ,gauls so often that they were losing this fear4 ,they now dreaded more to meet the ,germans1 who seemed like giants because they were taller even than the ,gauls4 ,illustration3 ,,gallic ,,warriors ,,gallic ,,and ,,german ,,warriors4 ,the leaders of the ,germans were sometimes kings and sometimes nobles whom the ,romans called duces1 from which comes our word duke4 ,the ,gallic chieftains were adorned with gold necklaces1 bracelets1 and rings4 ,when they went out to battle1 they wore helmets shaped like the head of some ravenous beast1 and their bodies were protected by coats of chain armor made of iron rings4 ,their principal weapon was a long1 heavy sword4 ,both ,german and ,gallic nobles were accompanied by bands of young men1 their devoted followers1 who shared the joys of victory or died with them in case of defeat4 ,it was a disgrace to lose one's sword or to survive if the leader was killed4 ,,how ,,the ,,germans ,,lived4 ,when the ,germans were not fighting they were idle1 for all work was done by women and slaves4 ,they were great drinkers and gamblers1 and often in their games a man would stake his freedom upon the result4 ,if he lost1 he became the slave of the winner4 ,the ,germans respected their wives1 even if they compelled them to do the hard work4 ,the women sometimes went with the men to battle1 and their cries encouraged the warriors1 or if the warriors wavered1 the fierce reproaches of the women drove them back to the fight4 ,,religion ,,of ,,the ,,germans4 ,we remember the religion of the ,germans because four days of the week are named for their gods or the gods of their neighbors across the ,baltic4 ,their principal god was ,wodan1 or ,odin1 god of the sun and the tempest4 ,wodan's day is ,wednesday4 ,thursday is named for ,thor1 the ,northmen's god of thunder4 ,the god of war1 ,tiw1 gave a name to ,tuesday1 and ,frigu1 the goddess of love1 to ,friday4 ,the ,german1 like his northern neighbors1 thought of heaven as the place where brave warriors who had died in battle spent their days in feasting4 ,,julius ,,caesar4 ,julius ,caesar was the great ,roman general who conquered the ,gauls and led the first expeditions across the ,rhine into ,germany and over the ,channel into ,britain4 ,he was a wealthy noble who1 like other nobles1 held one office after another until he became consul4 ,he was also a great political leader1 and with two other men controlled ,rome4 ,we should call them bosses1 but the ,romans called them triumvirs4 ,illustration3 ,,julius ,,caesar ,after the bust in the ,museum at ,naples ,,caesar ,,in ,,gaul4 ,as soon as ,caesar became governor of the province of southern ,gaul1 he showed that he was a skilful general as well as a successful politician4 ,he interfered in the wars between the ,gauls1 taking sides with the friends of the ,romans4 ,when a large army of ,germans entered ,gaul1 he defeated it and drove it back across the ,rhine4 ,one war led to another until all the tribes from the country now called ,belgium to the ,mediterranean coast professed to be friends of the ,roman people4 ,his campaigns lasted from #eh ,b4,c4 for nine years4 ,two or three times ,caesar was very close to ruin1 but by his courage and energy he always succeeded in gaining the victory4 ,,vercingetorix1 ,,gallic ,,hero4 ,the great hero of the ,gauls in their struggle with the ,romans was ,vercingetorix4 ,he was a young noble who lived in a mountain town of central ,gaul4 ,his father had been killed in an attempt to make himself king of his native city4 ,vercingetorix believed that if the ,gauls did not unite against the ,romans they would soon see their lands become ,roman provinces4 ,as he knew his army was no match for the ,romans in open fight1 he persuaded the ,gauls to try to starve the ,romans out of the country4 ,he planned to destroy all village stores of grain1 and to cut off the smaller bands of soldiers which wandered from the main army in search of food4 ,,caesar ,,and ,,vercingetorix4 ,vercingetorix found the work of conquering ,caesar in this way too difficult4 ,he was finally driven to take refuge in ,alesia1 on a hilltop in eastern ,gaul4 ,here the ,romans prepared to starve him into surrender4 ,they dug miles of deep trenches about the fortress so that the imprisoned ,gauls could not break through4 ,they dug other trenches to protect themselves from the attacks of a great army of ,gauls which came to rescue ,vercingetorix4 ,these trenches were fifteen or twenty feet wide2 they were strengthened by palisades and ramparts1 and filled with water where this was possible4 ,several times the ,gauls nearly succeeded in breaking through1 but the quickness and stubborn courage of ,caesar always saved the day4 ,,death ,,of ,,vercingetorix4 ,vercingetorix now proved that he was a real hero4 ,he offered to give himself up to ,caesar1 if this would save the town4 ,but ,caesar demanded the submission of all the chiefs4 ,when they had laid down their arms before the conqueror1 ,vercingetorix appeared on a gaily decorated horse4 ,he rode around the throne where ,caesar sat1 dismounted in front1 took off his armor1 and bowed to the ground4 ,his fate was hard4 ,he was sent to ,rome a prisoner1 was shown in the triumphal procession of the victorious ,caesar1 and was then put to death in a dungeon4 ,on the site of ,alesia stands a monument erected by the ,french to the memory of the brave ,gallic hero4 ,the defeat of ,vercingetorix ended the resistance of the ,gauls1 and not many years afterward their country was added to the long list of ,roman provinces4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,bridge ,,on ,,which ,,caesar',s ,,army ,,crossed ,,the ,,rhine ,,caesar ,,in ,,germany4 ,caesar crossed the ,rhine into ,germany on a bridge which his engineers built in ten days4 ,he laid waste the fields of the tribes near the river in order to make the name of ,rome feared1 and then returned to ,gaul and destroyed the bridge4 ,twice he sailed over to ,britain1 the last time marching a few miles north of where ,london now stands4 ,his purpose was to keep the ,britons from stirring up the ,gauls to attack him4 ,other generals many years later conquered ,britain as far as the hills of ,scotland4 ,,the ,,german ,,hero ,,hermann4 ,the ,romans were not fortunate in their later attempts to conquer a part of ,germany4 ,when ,caesar's grandnephew ,augustus was master of ,rome1 he sent an army under ,varus into the forests far from the ,rhine4 ,hermann1 a leader of the ,germans1 gathered the tribes together and utterly destroyed the army of ,varus4 ,whenever ,augustus thought of this dreadful disaster1 he would cry out1 ,o ,varus1 give me back my legions6 ,the ,rhine and the ,danube became the northern boundaries of the ,roman conquests4 ,,gauls ,,and ,,britons ,,become ,,roman4 ,although the ,gauls had fought stubbornly against ,caesar they soon became as ,roman as the ,italians themselves4 ,they ceased to speak their own language and began to use ,latin4 ,they mastered ,latin so thoroughly that their schools were sometimes regarded as better than the schools in ,italy1 and ,roman youths were sent to ,gaul to learn how best to speak their own language4 ,the ,britons also became very good ,romans4 ,even the ,germans frequently crossed the ,rhine and enlisted in the ,roman armies4 ,when they returned to their own country they carried ,roman ideas and customs with them4 ,,the ,,interest ,,of ,,americans ,,in ,,roman ,,successes4 ,for ,americans the influence the ,romans exerted in ,spain1 ,gaul1 ,germany1 and ,britain is more important than their work in the eastern ,mediterranean1 because from those countries came the early settlers of ,america4 ,the civilization which the ,romans taught the peoples of western ,europe was to become a valuable part of the civilization of our forefathers4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,roman ,,empire ,,at ,,its ,,greatest ,,extent ,,in #cie ,a4,d4 ,,size ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,world4 ,we may realize how large the world of the ,romans was by observing on a modern map that within its limits lay modern ,england1 ,france1 ,spain1 ,portugal1 the southern part of ,austria-,hungary1 ,italy1 ,bulgaria1 ,greece1 the ,turkish ,empire both in ,europe and ,asia1 ,egypt1 ,tripoli1 ,tunis1 ,algeria1 and ,morocco4 ,for a time they also ruled north of the ,danube1 and the ,rumanians boast that they are descended from ,roman colonists4 ,the peoples in southern ,russia were influenced by the ,greeks and by the ,romans1 although the ,romans did not try to bring them under their rule4 ,no modern empire has included so many important countries4 ,if we compare this vast territory with1 the scattered colonies of the ,greeks1 we shall understand how useful it was that the ,romans adopted much of the ,greek civilization1 for they could carry it to places that the ,greeks never reached4 ,illustration3 ,,ruins ,,of ,,the ,,ancient ,,gauls ,,at ,,carnac1 ,,in ,,brittany1 ,,france ,,questions #a4 ,after the ,romans had conquered the lands about the ,mediterranean1 into what other countries did they march8 #b4 ,who once lived where the ,french now live8 ,tell how the ,gauls lived4 #c4 ,how did the manner of living of the ,germans differ from that of the ,gauls8 ,were the ,britons similar to the ,germans or to the ,gauls8 #d4 ,what names do we get from the names of the ,german gods8 #e4 ,who was ,julius ,caesar8 ,why did he go among the ,gauls8 ,what was the result of his wars with the ,gauls8 ,tell the story of ,vercingetorix4 #f4 ,after the conquest of the ,gauls1 into what countries did ,caesar go8 ,illustration3 ,a ,,roman ,,coin ,,with ,,the ,,head ,,of ,,julius ,,caesar #g4 ,what was the fate of the ,roman army in ,germany in the time of ,augustus8 #h4 ,in which of these countries did the peoples become much like the ,romans8 #i4 ,why have ,americans a special interest in the ,roman conquest of ,gaul and ,britain8 ,,exercises #a4 ,caesar and ,alexander were two of the greatest generals who ever lived4 ,how many years after ,alexander died did ,caesar begin his wars in ,gaul8 ,what difference was there between what these two generals did8 ,whose work is the more important for us8 #b4 ,plan a large map of the ,graeco-,roman world1 pasting on each country a picture of some interesting ,greek or ,roman ruin4 ,this will take a long time1 but many pictures may be found in advertising folders of steamship lines and tourist agencies4 ,,review 7,chapters ,,iv1 ,v1 ,,vi1 and ,,vii7 ,how the ,graeco-,roman world was built up3 #a4 ,the ,greeks drive back the ,persians4 #b4 ,the ,greeks settle in many places on the shores of the ,mediterranean and ,black ,seas4 #c4 ,alexander conquers the countries about the eastern ,mediterranean4 #d4 ,the ,romans conquer the ,greeks in ,italy1 but learn their ways of living4 #e4 ,the ,romans conquer the ,carthaginians and seize their colonies4 #f4 ,the ,romans conquer all the lands around the ,mediterranean4 #g4 ,the ,romans conquer ,gaul and ,britain4 ,important dates in this work of building a ,graeco-,roman world3 ,battle of ,marathon1 #dij ,b4,c4 ,work of ,alexander ended1 #cbc ,b4,c4 ,romans become masters of ,italy1 #bge ,b4,c4 ,romans conquer ,hannibal1 #bjb ,b4,c4 ,caesar's conquest of ,gaul complete1 #di ,b4,c4 ,illustration3 ,,roman ,,farmer',s ,,calendar ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,civilization ,,of ,,the ,,roman ,,world ,,strife ,,at ,,rome4 ,while the ,romans were conquering the ancient world they had begun to quarrel among themselves4 ,certain men resolved that ,rome should not be managed any longer by the noble senators for their own benefit or for the benefit of rich contractors and merchants4 ,they wished to have the idle crowds of men who packed the shows and circuses settled as free farmers on the unused lands of ,italy4 ,among these new leaders were two brothers1 ,tiberius and ,caius ,gracchus1 sons of one of ,rome's noblest families4 ,the other nobles looked upon them with hatred and killed them1 first ,tiberius and afterward ,caius4 ,these murders did not end the trouble4 ,the leaders on both sides armed their followers1 and bloody battles were fought in the streets4 ,generals led their armies to ,rome1 although1 according to the laws1 to bring an army into ,italy south of the ,rubicon ,river was to make war on the republic and be guilty of treason4 ,once in the city these generals put to death hundreds of their enemies4 ,,caesar ,,rules ,,rome4 ,the strife in the city had ceased for a time when ,pompey1 a famous general1 who had once shared power with ,caesar as a triumvir1 joined the senators in planning his ruin4 ,caesar led his army into ,italy to the borders of the ,rubicon4 ,exclaiming1 ,the die is cast1' he crossed the sacred boundary and marched straight to ,rome4 ,pompey and his party fled1 and civil war divided the ,roman world into those who followed ,caesar and those who followed ,pompey1 ,caesar was everywhere victorious1 in ,italy1 ,africa1 ,spain1 and the ,east4 ,he brought back order into the government of the city and of the provinces1 but in the year #dd ,b4,c4 he was murdered in the senate-house by several senators1 one of whom1 ,marcus ,brutus1 had been his friend4 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,title ,,emperor4 ,caesar had not been called emperor1 though the chief power had been his4 ,one of his titles was imperator1 or commander of the army1 a word from which our word emperor comes4 ,he was really the first emperor of ,rome4 ,in later times the very word ,caesar became an imperial title1 not only in the ,roman ,empire1 but also in modern ,germany1 for ,kaiser is another form of the word ,caesar4 ,,beginnings ,,of ,,the ,,empire4 ,caesar's successor was his grandnephew ,octavius1 usually called ,augustus1 which was one of his titles4 ,augustus carried out many of ,caesar's plans for improving the government in ,rome and in the provinces4 ,the people in the provinces were no longer robbed by ,roman officers4 ,many of them became ,roman citizens4 ,after a time all children born within the empire were considered ,romans1 just as if they had been born in ,rome4 ,,the ,,roman ,,empire4 ,the ,roman ,empire carried on the work which the republic had begun4 ,it did some things better than the republic had done them4 ,within its frontiers there was peace for two or three hundred years4 ,many people had an opportunity to share in all the best that the ,greeks and ,romans had learned4 ,unfortunately the peoples imitated the bad as well as the good4 ,,roman ,,roads4 ,as builders the ,romans taught much to those who lived after them4 ,their great roads leading out from ,rome have never been excelled4 ,in ,gaul these roads served1 centuries later1 to mark out the present ,french system of highroads and showed many a route to the builders of railroads4 ,they were made so solid that parts of them still remain after two thousand years4 ,illustration3 ,augustus ,caesar ,after the statue in the ,vatican ,,how ,,these ,,roads ,,were ,,built4 ,in planning their roads the ,romans did not hesitate before obstacles like hills or deep valleys or marshy lands4 ,they often pierced the hills with tunnels and bridged the valleys or swamps4 ,in building a road they dug a trench about fifteen feet wide and pounded the earth at the bottom until it was hard4 ,upon this bottom was placed a layer of rough stones1 over which were put nine inches of broken stone mixed with lime to form a sort of concrete4 ,this was covered by a layer six inches deep of broken bricks or broken tiles1 which when pounded down offered a hard1 smooth surface4 ,on the top were laid large paving stones carefully fitted so that there need be no jar when a wagon rolled over the road4 ,such roads were necessary for the traders who passed to and fro throughout the empire1 but especially for troops or government messengers sent with all speed to regions where there was danger of revolt or where the frontiers were threatened by the barbarians4 ,illustration3 ,,cross-,,section ,,of ,a ,,roman ,,road ,,aqueducts4 ,next to their roads the most remarkable ,roman structures were the aqueducts which brought water to the city from rivers or springs1 some of them many miles away4 ,had they known1 as we do1 how to make heavy iron pipes1 their aqueducts would have been laid underground1 except where they crossed deep valleys4 ,the lead pipes which they used were not strong enough to endure the force of a great quantity of water1 and so when the aqueducts reached the edge of the plain which stretches from the eastern hills to the walls of ,rome1 the streams of flowing water were carried in stone channels resting upon arches which sometimes reached the height of over ninety feet4 ,,the ,,claudian ,,aqueduct4 ,the ,claudian aqueduct1 which is the most magnificent ever built1 is carried on such arches for about seven miles and a half4 ,although broken in many places1 and though the water has not flowed through its lofty channels for sixteen hundred years1 it is one of the grandest sights in the neighborhood of ,rome4 ,if we add together the lengths of the aqueducts1 underground or carried on arches1 which provided ,rome with her water supply1 the total is over three hundred miles4 ,they could furnish ,rome with a hundred million gallons of water a day4 ,illustration3 ,,ruins ,,of ,,the ,,claudian ,,aqueduct ,completed by the ,roman ,emperor ,claudian in #eb ,a4,d4 ,the structure was nearly a hundred feet high ,,public ,,baths4 ,the ,romans used great quantities of water for their public baths1 which were large buildings with rooms especially made for bathing in hot or cold water and for plunges4 ,they were also1 like the ,greek gymnasiums1 places for exercise1 conversation1 and reading4 ,many were built as monuments by wealthy men and by emperors4 ,a very small fee was charged for entrance1 and the money was used to pay for repairs and the wages of those who managed the baths4 ,illustration3 ,,ruins ,,of ,,the ,,colosseum ,,two ,,famous ,,buildings4 ,many of the ,roman temples1 porticoes1 and theaters were copied from ,greek buildings1 but the ,romans used the arch more than did the ,greeks1 and in this the builders of later times imitated them4 ,among their greatest buildings were the amphitheaters1 from the benches of which crowds watched gladiators fighting one another or struggling with wild beasts4 ,the largest of these amphitheaters was the ,colosseum1 the ruins of which still exist4 ,its outer walls were one hundred and sixty feet high4 ,in one direction it measured six hundred and seventeen feet and in another five hundred and twelve4 ,there were seats enough for forty-five thousand persons4 ,the lowest seats were raised fifteen feet above the arena or central space where men or wild beasts fought4 ,through an arrangement of underground pipes the arena could be flooded so that the spectators might enjoy the excitement of a real naval battle4 ,another great building was the ,circus ,maximus1 built to hold the crowds that watched the chariot-races1 and at one time having seats for two hundred thousand persons4 ,in their amusements the ,romans became more and more vulgar1 excitable1 and cruel4 ,some equally splendid buildings were used for better things4 ,illustration3 ,the ,pantheon ,,the ,,pantheon4 ,one of these was the ,pantheon1 a temple which was afterward a ,christian church4 ,it still stands1 and is now used as the burial-place of the ,italian kings4 ,the most remarkable part of it is the dome1 which has a width of a little over one hundred and forty-two feet4 ,no other dome in the world is so wide4 ,the ,romans were very successful in covering large spaces with arched or vaulted ceilings4 ,all later builders of domes and arches are their pupils4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,arch ,,of ,,titus ,,basilicas4 ,the ,romans had other large buildings called basilicas4 ,these were porticoes or promenades1 with the space in the center covered by a great roof4 ,they were used as places for public meetings4 ,one of them had one hundred and eight pillars arranged in a double row around the sides and ends of this central space4 ,the name basilica is ,greek and means royal4 ,some of these basilicas were used as ,christian churches when the ,romans accepted the ,christian religion4 ,the central space was then called the nave1 and the spaces between the columns the aisles4 ,,triumphal ,,arches4 ,the ,romans built beautiful arches to celebrate their victories4 ,several of these still remain1 with sentences cut into their stone tablets telling of the triumphs of their builders4 ,modern people have taken them as models for similar memorial arches4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,roman ,,aqueduct ,still in good repair1 the ,pont du ,gard1 near ,nmes1 ,france ,,roman ,,law4 ,the ,romans did much for the world by their laws4 ,they showed little regard for the rights of men captured in war and were cruel in their treatment of slaves1 but they considered carefully the rights of free men and women4 ,under the emperors the lawyers and judges worked to make the laws clearer and fairer to all4 ,finally the ,emperor ,justinian1 who ruled at the time when the empire was already half ruined by the attacks of barbarian enemies1 ordered the lawyer ,tribonian to gather into a single code all the statutes and decrees4 ,these laws lasted long after the empire was destroyed1 and out of them grew many of the laws used in ,europe to-day4 ,they have also influenced our laws in ,america4 ,illustration3 ,,pavement ,,of ,a ,,roman ,,villa ,,in ,,england ,unearthed not many years ago at ,aldborough4 ,such stones laid in the form of designs or pictures are called ,mosaics ,,questions #a4 ,in the political strife at ,rome what did the brothers ,tiberius and ,caius ,gracchus try to do8 #b4 ,what did ,julius ,caesar do when a party of senators tried to ruin him8 ,what was the result of his war with the other ,roman leaders8 #c4 ,from what ,roman word does ,emperor come8 ,what is the origin of the word ,kaiser8 ,how did ,caesar die8 #d4 ,who was ,caesar's successor and the first one who organized the ,roman ,empire8 #e4 ,why were the ,romans such great builders of roads8 ,how were their roads built8 ,do any traces of them still remain8 #f4 ,how did the ,romans provide the city with a supply of pure water8 #g4 ,what was a ,roman bath8 #h4 ,were the ,romans as famous as the ,greeks for their buildings8 ,name the largest buildings in ,rome4 ,what was a basilica8 ,of what use were basilicas to the ,christians later8 #i4 ,do you remember the earliest form of the ,roman law 7,chapter ,v78 ,what did ,justinian do with the laws in his day8 ,are these laws important to us8 ,,exercises #a4 ,what emperors are there now8 ,are they like ,caesar and ,augustus8 #b4 ,find out if our roads are built as carefully as the ,roman roads and if they are likely to last as long4 ,what different kinds of roads do we have8 ,can any one in the room construct a small model of a ,roman road8 #c4 ,find out how water is now carried to cities4 ,are cities provided with great public baths like those of the ,romans8 #d4 ,ask a librarian or a lawyer to show you a copy of the revised statutes of your state4 ,this is a code somewhat like the code of ,justinian1 only not so brief4 ,illustration3 ,,templum ,,jovis ,,capitolini 7,medallion7 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,christianity ,,and ,,the ,,roman ,,empire ,,the ,,religion ,,of ,,the ,,jews4 ,among the cities captured by the ,romans was ,jerusalem1 about which cluster so many stories from the ,old ,testament4 ,there1 hundreds of years before1 lived ,david1 the shepherd boy who1 after wonderful adventures1 became king of his people4 ,there his son ,solomon built a temple of dazzling splendor4 ,among this people had arisen great preachers1--,isaiah1 ,jeremiah1 ,micah1--who declared that religion did not consist in the sacrifice of bulls and goats1 but in justice1 in mercy1 and in humility4 ,they had a genius for religion1 just as the ,greeks had a genius for art1 and the ,romans a genius for government4 ,,the ,,jews ,,conquered ,,by ,,the ,,romans4 ,when the ,jews first heard of the ,romans they admired these citizens of a republic who made and unmade kings4 ,in later years they learned that the ,romans were hard masters and they feared and hated them4 ,the ,jewish kingdom was one of the last countries along the shores of the ,mediterranean which the ,romans conquered1 but like all the others it finally became a ,roman province4 ,,jesus ,,of ,,nazareth4 ,a few years before the ,jewish kingdom became a ,roman province there was born in a village near ,jerusalem a child named ,jesus4 ,after he had grown to manhood in ,nazareth he gathered about him followers or disciples whom he taught to live and act as is told in the books of the ,new ,testament4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,view ,,of ,,jerusalem ,showing the ,mount of ,olives in the distance ,this was the beginning of the ,christian religion4 ,it was first held by a little band of ,jews1 but ,paul1 a ,jew born in ,tarsus1 a city of ,asia whose inhabitants had received the rights of ,roman citizenship1 believed that the message of the new religion was meant for all nations4 ,he taught it in many cities of ,asia ,minor and ,greece1 and even went as far west as ,rome4 ,several of the epistles or letters in the ,new ,testament were written by ,paul to churches which he had founded or where he had taught4 ,so it happens that from ,palestine came religious teachings which multitudes consider even more important than the art and literature of the ,greeks or the laws and political methods of the ,romans4 ,,why ,,the ,,christians ,,were ,,persecuted4 ,the ,romans at first refused to permit any one in their empire to call himself a ,christian4 ,they disliked the ,jews because the ,jews denied that the ,roman gods were real gods1 asserting that these gods were mere images in wood and stone4 ,the ,christians did this also1 but in the eyes of the ,roman rulers the worst offense of the ,christians was that they appeared to form a sort of secret society and held meetings to which other persons were not admitted4 ,the emperor had forbidden such societies4 ,the ,romans also disliked the ,christians because of their refusal to join in the public ceremonies which honored the emperor as if he were a god who had given peace and order to the world and who was able to reward the good and punish the evil4 ,the ,christians believed it to be wrong to join in the worship of an emperor1 whether he were alive or dead4 ,,christians ,,put ,,to ,,death4 ,the ,romans were cruel in their manner of punishing disobedience1 and many ,christians suffered death in its most horrible forms4 ,some were burned1 others were tortured1 others were torn to pieces by wild animals in the great amphitheaters to satisfy the fierce ,roman crowd4 ,nero1 the worst of the ,roman emperors1 who1 many thought1 set ,rome on fire in order that he might enjoy the sight of the burning city1 tried to turn suspicion from himself by accusing the ,christians of the crime4 ,he punished them by tying them to poles1 smearing their bodies with pitch1 and burning them at night as torches4 ,,the ,,christians ,,allowed ,,to ,,worship4 ,the new religion spread rapidly from province to province in spite of these persecutions4 ,at first the ,christians worshiped secretly1 but later they ventured to build churches4 ,finally1 three centuries after the birth of ,christ1 the emperors promised that the persecutions should cease and that the ,christians might worship undisturbed4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,view ,,of ,,constantinople ,,the ,,roman ,,empire ,,becomes ,,christian ,,about #cbe ,a4,d4 ,constantine was the first emperor to become ,christian4 ,he was the one who made the ,greek city ,byzantium the capital of the empire and for whom it was renamed ,constantinople4 ,for a time both the old ,roman religion and the ,christian religion were favored by the emperors1 but before the fourth century closed the old religion was forbidden4 ,in later days worshipers of the ,roman gods were mostly country people1 called in ,latin pagani1 and therefore their religion was called paganism4 ,,how ,,the ,,church ,,was ,,ruled4 ,one of the reasons why the ,christians had been successful in their struggle with the ,roman emperors was that they were united under wise and brave leaders4 ,the ,christians in each large city were ruled by a bishop1 and the bishops of several cities were directed by an archbishop4 ,in the western part of the empire the bishop of ,rome1 who was called the pope1 was honored as the chief of the bishops and archbishops1 and the successor of the ,apostle ,peter4 ,in the eastern part the archbishops or patriarchs of ,constantinople and ,alexandria and ,jerusalem honored the pope1 but claimed to be equal in authority with him4 ,there were also two kinds of clergy1 parish priests and monks4 ,the priests were pastors of ordinary parishes1 but the monks lived in groups in buildings called monasteries4 ,sometimes their purpose was to dwell far from the bustle and wrongs of ordinary life and give themselves to prayer and fasting2 sometimes they acted as a brotherhood of teachers in barbarous communities1 teaching the people better methods of farming1 and carrying the arts of civilized life beyond the borders of the empire4 ,,questions #a4 ,where did the ,jews live in ,ancient ,times8 #b4 ,do you remember any of the stories of ,david8 #c4 ,what finally became of the kingdom over which ,david ruled8 #d4 ,what era in the history of the world begins with the birth of ,jesus ,christ8 #e4 ,why did the ,romans forbid the ,christians to worship8 ,how did the ,romans punish them8 ,how long after the birth of ,christ before the emperors allowed the ,christians to worship undisturbed8 ,illustration3 ,a ,,monastery ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages ,abbey of ,saint-,germain des ,prs as it appeared in #acfa with wall1 towers1 and moat or ditch #f4 ,what is the name of the first ,roman emperor who became a ,christian8 ,what name was soon given to the worshipers of the old ,roman gods8 #g4 ,by what titles were the leaders of the ,christians named8 ,what two kinds of clergy were there8 ,important date3 #cbe ,a4,d41 when the ,roman ,empire became ,christian4 ,,chapter ,x ,,emigrants ,a ,,thousand ,,years ,,ago ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4 ,it was more than a thousand years from the time of ,constantine to the time of ,columbus4 ,this period is called ,mediaeval1 or the ,middle ,ages4 ,during these long centuries the ancient civilized world of the ,roman ,empire was much changed4 ,the ,roman or ,greek cities on the southern shores of the ,mediterranean were captured by ,arabs or ,moors4 ,the ,moors conquered the larger part of ,spain4 ,the eastern lands of ,palestine and ,asia ,minor fell into the hands of the ,turks4 ,the ,turks1 the ,moors1 and the ,arabs were followers of the prophet ,mohammed1 who died in the year #fcb4 ,the ,mohammedans were enemies of the ,christians4 ,,western ,,europe4 ,the other part of the ,european world was also changed4 ,the countries on the shores of the ,atlantic were now more important than those on the shores of the ,mediterranean4 ,the names of the different countries were changed4 ,instead of ,gallia or ,gaul1 there was ,france2 instead of ,britannia1 ,england2 for ,hispania1 ,spain2 for ,germania1 ,deutschland or ,germany4 ,italy1 the center of the old empire1 was finally divided into several states--city republics like ,genoa and ,venice1 provinces ruled by the pope1 and other territories ruled by dukes1 princes1 or kings4 ,,fate ,,of ,,civilization4 ,the most important question to ask is1 ,how much of the manner of living or civilization of the ,greeks and the ,romans did the later ,europeans still retain8 ,the answer is found in the history of the ,middle ,ages4 ,in this history is also found what men added to that which they had learned from the ,greeks and the ,romans4 ,the emigrants to ,america were to carry with them knowledge which not even the wisest men of the ancient world had possessed4 ,illustration3 ,,wall ,,of ,,aurelian ,this wall enclosed the ancient city of ,rome4 ,it was about thirteen miles in circumference1 fifty-five feet high1 and had three hundred towers ,,mediaeval ,,german ,,emigrants4 ,the first part of the history of the ,middle ,ages explains how the ,german peoples from whom most of our forefathers were descended began to move from the northern forests towards the borders of the ,roman ,empire4 ,many thousand men had already crossed the ,rhine and the ,danube to serve in the ,roman armies4 ,sometimes an unusually strong and skilful warrior would be made a general4 ,germans had also crossed the ,rhine to work as farmers on the estates of the rich ,gallic nobles4 ,other ,germans1 called ,goths1 worked in ,constantinople and the cities of the ,east as masons1 porters1 and water-carriers4 ,the ,romans had owned so many slaves that they had lost the habit of work and were glad to hire these foreigners4 ,,story ,,of ,,ulfilas4 ,many of the ,goths who lived north of the ,danube had forsaken their old gods and become ,christians4 ,they were taught by ,bishop ,ulfilas1 once a captive among them1 afterward a missionary4 ,he translated the ,bible into the ,gothic language1 and this translation is the most ancient specimen of ,german that we possess4 ,many of the other ,german tribes learned about ,christianity from the ,goths1 and although they might be enemies of the ,roman government1 they were not enemies of the ,church4 ,,the ,,goths ,,invade ,,the ,,roman ,,empire4 ,the ,roman emperors tried to prevent the northern tribes from crossing the frontier in great numbers1 because1 once across1 if they did not find work and food1 they became plunderers4 ,not many years after ,constantine's death1 a million ,goths had passed the ,danube and had plundered the country almost to the walls of ,constantinople4 ,this was not like the invasion of a regular army1 which comes to fight battles and to arrange terms of peace4 ,the ,goths1 and the ,germans who soon followed their example1 moved as a whole people1 with their wives and children1 their cattle1 and the few household goods they owned4 ,wherever they wished to settle they demanded of the ,romans one third1 sometimes two thirds1 of the land4 ,they soon learned to be good neighbors of the older inhabitants1 although at first they were little better than robbers4 ,alaric1 one of the leaders of the ,goths1 led them into ,italy and in the year #daj captured ,rome4 ,alaric did not injure the buildings much1 and he kept his men from robbing the churches4 ,some of the other barbarous tribes who roamed about plundering villages and attacking cities did far greater damage4 ,the ,roman government grew weaker and weaker1 until one by one the provinces fell into the hands of ,german kings4 ,,beginnings ,,of ,,england1 ,,france1 ,,and ,,germany4 ,britain was attacked by the ,angles and ,saxons from the shores of ,germany across the ,north ,sea4 ,they drove away the inhabitants or made slaves of them and settled upon the lands they had seized4 ,the country was then called ,angle-land or ,england1 and the people ,anglo-,saxons or ,englishmen4 ,the ,roman provinces in ,gaul were gradually conquered by the ,franks from the borders of the ,rhine1 and they gave the name ,france to the land4 ,at about the same time the other ,german tribes that had remained in ,germany united under one king4 ,,the ,,result ,,of ,,barbarian ,,attacks4 ,the part of the ancient world which lay about ,constantinople was less changed than the rest during the ,middle ,ages4 ,the walls of ,constantinople were high and thick1 and they withstood attack after attack until #adec4 ,within their shelter men continued to live much as they had lived in ,ancient ,times4 ,a few delighted to study the writings of the ancient ,greeks4 ,in ,italy and the other countries of western ,europe most of the cities were in ruins4 ,the ancient baths1 amphitheaters1 aqueducts1 and palaces of ,rome crumbled and fell4 ,the mediaeval ,romans also used huge buildings like the ,colosseum as quarries of cut stone and burned the marble for lime4 ,this was done in every country where ,roman buildings existed4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,amphitheater ,,at ,,arles ,the amphitheater at ,arles in southern ,france had a still stranger fortune4 ,it was used at one time as a citadel1 at another as a prison and gradually became the home of hundreds of the criminals and the poor of the city4 ,every archway held its nest of human outcasts4 ,from stone to stone they cast their rotting beams and plaster and burrowed into the very entrails of the enormous building to seek a secure retreat from the pursuit of the officers of the law4 ,few persons traveled from ,constantinople to ,italy or ,france1 and few from western ,europe visited ,constantinople4 ,the men of ,italy and ,france and ,england did not know how to read ,greek4 ,many of them also ceased to read the writings of the ancient ,romans4 ,illustration3 ,,st4 ,,martin',s ,,church1 ,,canterbury1 ,,england ,this church is on the site of a chapel built in the sixth century4 ,its walls show some of the bricks of the original chapel ,,the ,,english ,,become ,,christians1 #eig ,a4,d4 ,christianity had spread throughout the ,roman ,empire1 and it became the religion of all the tribes who founded kingdoms of their own upon the ruins of the ,empire4 ,the ,angles and ,saxons1 when they invaded ,britain1 were still worshipers of the gods ,wodan and ,thor4 ,they had never learned from the ,goths of ,ulfilas anything about ,christianity4 ,one day in the slave market at ,rome three fair-haired boys were offered for sale4 ,gregory1 a noble ,roman1 who had become a monk and was the abbot of his monastery1 happened to be passing and asked who they were4 ,he was told they were ,angles4 ,angels1 he cried1 yes1 they have faces like angels1 and should become companions of the angels in heaven4 ,when this good abbot became pope1 he sent missionaries to ,angle-land and they established themselves at ,canterbury4 ,illustration3 ,,gregory ,,and ,,the ,,little ,,english ,,slaves ,,missionaries ,,to ,,the ,,germans ,,and ,,the ,,slavs4 ,the conversion of the ,english helped in the spread of ,christianity on the ,continent1 for ,boniface1 an ,english monk1 was the greatest missionary to the ,germans4 ,he won thousands from the worship of their ancient gods and founded many churches4 ,the ,slavs1 who lived east of the ,germans1 were taught by missionaries from ,constantinople instead of from ,rome4 ,,the ,,educated ,,men ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4 ,the missionaries and teachers of the ,church had been educated like the older ,romans4 ,they read ,roman books1 and tried to preserve the knowledge which both ,greeks and ,romans had gathered4 ,influenced by them1 the emigrants and conquerors from the north also tried to be like the ,romans4 ,educated men1 and especially the priests of the ,church1 used ,latin as their language4 ,in this way some parts of the old ,roman and ,greek civilization were preserved1 although the ,roman government had fallen and many beautiful cities were mere heaps of ruins4 ,,the ,,vikings4 ,the emigration of whole peoples from one part of ,europe to another did not stop when the ,roman ,empire was overrun4 ,new peoples appeared and sought to plunder or crowd out the tribes which had already settled within its boundaries and were learning the ways of civilization4 ,one of these peoples came from the regions now known as ,norway1 ,sweden1 and ,denmark4 ,they were called ,danes by the ,english1 and ,northmen or ,normans by other ,europeans4 ,they had another name1 ,vikings1 which was their word for sea-rovers4 ,it was their custom to sail the seas and rivers rather than march on the land4 ,they were a hardy and daring people1 who liked nothing better than to fight and conquer and rob in other countries4 ,there was not a land in western ,europe1 even as far south as ,sicily1 that they did not visit4 ,wherever they went they plundered and burned and murdered1 leaving a blackened trail4 ,,the ,,danes ,,in ,,england4 ,the ,danes ravaged the eastern and southern shores of ,england1 and after they were tired of robbery1 partly because there was little left to take1 they began to settle in the land4 ,alfred1 the greatest of the early ,english kings1 was driven by them into the swamps for a while1 but in the year #hgh ,a4,d4 he conquered an army of them in battle and persuaded one of their kings to be baptized as a ,christian4 ,alfred was obliged to allow them to keep the eastern portion of ,england1 a region called ,danelaw1 because the law of the ,danes was obeyed there4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,viking ,,ship ,,at ,,sea ,,the ,,danes ,,become ,,normans4 ,no more ,danes or ,northmen came to trouble ,england for a time1 but instead they crossed the ,channel to ,france and rowed up the ,seine and tried to capture ,paris4 ,a few years later a ,frankish king gave them the city of ,rouen1 further down the ,seine1 and the region about it which was called ,normandy4 ,these ,normans also accepted ,christianity4 ,,the ,,vikings ,,become ,,discoverers4 ,before another hundred years had passed the ,northmen performed a feat more difficult than sailing up rivers and burning towns4 ,they were the first to venture far out of sight of land1 though their ships were no larger than our fishing boats4 ,these bold sailors visited the ,orkney and the ,shetland ,islands1 north of ,scotland1 and finally reached ,iceland4 ,in ,iceland their sheep and cattle flourished1 and a lively trade in fish1 oil1 butter1 and skins sprang up with the old homeland and with the ,british islands4 ,before long one of the settlers1 named ,eric the ,red1 led a colony to ,greenland1 the larger and more desolate island further west4 ,he called it ,greenland because1 he said1 men would be more easily persuaded to go there if the land had a good name4 ,this was probably in the year #ihe4 ,illustration3 ,,leif ,,ericson ,from the statue in ,boston ,,discovery ,,of ,,vinland4 ,eric had a son1 called ,leif ,ericson1 or ,leif the ,lucky1 who visited ,norway and was well received at the court of ,king ,olaf4 ,not long before missionaries had persuaded ,olaf and his people to give up their old gods and accept ,christianity1 and ,leif followed their example4 ,leif set out in the early summer of the year #ajjj to carry the new religion to his father1 ,eric the ,red1 to his father's people1 and to his neighbors4 ,the voyage was a long one1 lasting all the summer1 for on the way his ship was driven out of its course and came upon strange lands where wild rice and grape-vines and large trees grew4 ,the milder climate and stories of large trees useful for building ships aroused the curiosity of the ,greenlanders4 ,they sent exploring expeditions1 and found the coast of ,north ,america at places which they called ,helluland1 that is1 the land of flat stones2 ,markland1 the land of forests2 and ,vinland1 where the grape-vines grow4 ,helluland was probably on the coast of ,labrador1 ,markland somewhere on the shores of ,newfoundland1 and ,vinland in ,nova ,scotia4 ,,the ,,settlement ,,in ,,vinland4 ,thornfinn ,karlsefni1 a successful trader between ,iceland and ,greenland1 attempted to plant a colony in the new lands4 ,karlsefni and his friends1 to the number of one hundred and sixty men and several women1 set out in #ajjg with three or four ships1 loaded with supplies and many cattle4 ,they built huts and remained three or four winters in ,vinland1 but all trace of any settlement disappeared long ago4 ,they found1 their stories tell us1 swarthy1 rough-looking ,indians1 with coarse hair1 large eyes1 and broad cheeks1 with whom they traded red cloth for furs4 ,trouble broke out between the ,northmen and the ,indians1 who outnumbered them4 ,so many ,northmen were killed that the survivors became alarmed and returned to ,greenland4 ,illustration3 ,,discoveries ,,of ,,the ,,northmen ,the ,american lands they found are marked with diagonal lines ,,vinland ,,forgotten4 ,the voyages to ,vinland soon ceased and the discoveries of ,leif and his followers were only remembered in the songs or sagas of the people4 ,they thought of ,vinland mainly as a land of flat stones1 great trees1 and fierce natives4 ,nor did the wise men of ,europe who heard the ,northmen's story guess that a ,new ,world had been discovered4 ,it was probably fortunate that five hundred years were to go by before ,europeans settled in ,america1 for within that time they were to learn a great deal and to find again many things which the ,romans had left but which in the year #ajjj were hidden away1 either in the ruins of the ancient cities or in libraries and treasure-houses1 where few knew of them4 ,the more ,europeans possessed before they set out1 the more ,americans would have to start with4 ,illustration3 ,,facsimile ,,of ,a ,,bit ,,of ,,an ,,old ,,saga ,,manuscript ,,questions #a4 ,what is meant by the ,middle ,ages or the ,mediaeval period8 #b4 ,show on the map1 what part of the ,roman ,empire was conquered by the ,mohammedans4 #c4 ,mention the ,roman names of ,england1 ,france1 ,germany1 and ,spain1 ,why were they changed to what they are now8 #d4 ,what people early in the ,middle ,ages began to emigrate from their homes to the ,roman ,empire8 ,what did they do for a living8 #e4 ,where did the ,goths live8 ,who taught them the ,christian religion8 ,when the ,goths entered the ,roman ,empire what did they ask of the inhabitants8 ,did they destroy much8 ,how many years separated the capture of ,rome by ,alaric from its capture by the ,gauls8 #f4 ,what tribes conquered ,england or ,britain8 ,what tribes conquered ,roman ,gaul or ,france8 ,how long before ,constantinople was captured8 #g4 ,what was the effect of these raids and wars upon many cities8 ,who tried to keep fresh the memory of what the ,greeks and the ,romans had done8 ,who used the language of the ,romans8 #h4 ,tell the story of the way the ,english became ,christians4 ,who taught the ,christian religion to many ,germans8 ,from what city did the ,slavs receive missionaries8 #i4 ,what different names are given to the inhabitants of ,denmark1 ,norway1 and ,sweden who became rovers over the seas8 ,where did they make settlements8 #aj4 ,tell the story of how ,leif the ,lucky discovered ,america4 ,why did the ,northmen leave ,vinland8 ,,exercises #a4 ,point out on the map all the places mentioned in this chapter4 #b4 ,on an outline map mark the names of the peoples mentioned in the chapter on the countries where they settled4 #c4 ,ask children in school who know some other language than ,english what are their names for ,england1 ,germany1 ,france1 ,spain1 and ,italy4 ,important dates3 ,alaric's capture of ,rome1 #daj ,a4,d4 ,discovery of ,america by the ,northmen1 #ajjj ,a4,d4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,how ,,englishmen ,,learned ,,to ,,govern ,,themselves ,,heroes ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4 ,the ,middle ,ages1 like ,ancient ,times1 are recalled by many interesting tales4 ,some of them1 such as the stories of ,king ,arthur and his ,knights1 the story of ,roland1 and the ,song of the ,niebelungs1 are only tales and not history4 ,others tell us about great kings1 ,charlemagne and ,st4 ,louis of ,france1 ,frederick the ,redbeard of ,germany1 or ,st4 ,stephen of ,hungary4 ,the hero-king for ,england was ,alfred1 who fought bravely against the pirate ,danes and finally conquered and persuaded many of them to live quietly under his rule4 ,,king ,,alfred ,,began ,,to ,,reign ,,in #hga4 ,king ,alfred was a skilful warrior1 but he was also an excellent ruler in time of peace4 ,when he was a boy he had shown his love of books4 ,his mother once offered a beautifully written ,saxon poem as a prize to the one of her sons who should be the first to learn it4 ,alfred could not yet read1 but he had a ready memory1 and with the aid of his teacher he learned the poem and won the prize4 ,at that time almost all books were written in ,latin and few even of the clergy could read4 ,during the long wars with the ,danes many books had been destroyed4 ,men found battle-axes more useful than books and ceased to care about reading4 ,king ,alfred feared that the ,saxons would soon become ignorant barbarians1 and sent for priests and monks who were learned and were able to teach his clergy4 ,he sent even into ,france for such men4 ,,early ,,english ,,books4 ,as it would be easier for people to learn to read books written in the language they spoke rather than in ,latin1 ,alfred helped to translate several famous ,latin books into ,english4 ,among these was a history written by a ,roman before the ,germans had overthrown the ,roman ,empire4 ,this history told about the world of the ,greeks and the ,romans4 ,alfred commanded some of his clergy to keep a record from year to year of things which happened in his kingdom4 ,this record was called the ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle1 and was the first history written in the ,english language4 ,it was carefully kept for many years after ,alfred's death4 ,another wise thing ,alfred did was to collect the laws or dooms of the earlier kings1 so that every one might know what the law required4 ,illustration3 ,,extract ,,from ,,the ,,saxon ,,chronicle ,from a copy in the ,british ,museum ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,a ,,navy4 ,alfred has been called the creator of the ,english navy4 ,he thought that the only way to keep the ,danes from plundering his shores was to fight them on the sea4 ,he built several ships which were bigger than the ,danish ships1 but they were not always victorious1 for they could not follow the ,danish ships into shallow water4 ,nevertheless1 the ,danes could not plunder ,england as easily as before4 ,,the ,,new ,,army4 ,alfred organized his fighting men in a better way4 ,in times past the men had been called upon to fight only when the ,danes were near1 but now he kept a third of his men ready all the time1 and another third he placed in forts1 so the rest were able to work in the fields in safety4 ,there are good reasons why ,englishmen regard ,alfred as a hero4 ,,william ,,the ,,conqueror ,,began ,,to ,,rule ,,england ,,in #ajff4 ,about a hundred and fifty years after ,alfred died1 ,william1 duke of ,normandy1 crossed the ,channel with an army1 killed the ,english king in battle1 and seized the throne4 ,this was not altogether a misfortune to the ,english1 for they came under the same ruler as the ,normans and they shared in all that the men of the ,continent were beginning to learn4 ,for one thing1 builders from the ,continent taught the ,english to construct the great ,norman churches or cathedrals which every traveler in ,england sees4 ,besides1 ,william the ,conqueror was a strong king and put down the chiefs or lords that were inclined to oppress the common people4 ,,henry ,,ii4 ,henry ,,ii1 one of ,william's successors1 ruled over most of western ,france as well as over ,england4 ,his officers and nobles were tired out by his endless traveling in his lands1 which extended from the banks of the river ,loire in ,france to the borders of ,scotland4 ,all ,englishmen and ,americans should remember him with gratitude because of the improvements he made in the ways of discovering the truth when disputes arose and were carried into courts4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,normans ,,crossing ,,the ,,english ,,channel ,from the ,bayeux ,tapestry1 embroidered in the time of ,william the ,conqueror4 ,the figures are worked on a band of linen two hundred and thirty feet long1 and twenty inches wide4 ,worsteds of eight colors are used ,,ordeals ,,and ,,trials ,,by ,,battle4 ,before ,henry's reign it was the custom when a man was accused of a crime to find out the truth by arranging a wager of battle or what were called ordeals4 ,the two most common ordeals were the ordeal by fire and the ordeal by water4 ,in the ordeal by fire an iron was heated red-hot1 and after it had been blessed by a priest it was put into the hand of the man the truth of whose word was being tested1 and he had to carry it a certain number of feet4 ,his hand was then bound up and left for three days4 ,if at the end of that time the wound was healing1 men believed he was innocent1 for they thought ,god would keep an innocent man from being punished4 ,in the ordeal by water the man was tied and thrown into water which had been blessed by the priest4 ,if he was guilty1 the people thought the water would not receive him4 ,if he sank at once1 he was pulled out and treated as if he had told the truth4 ,illustration3 ,,trial ,,by ,,battle ,after a drawing in an old manuscript ,a wager of battle was a fight between the two men whose dispute was to be settled1 or between a man and his accuser4 ,each was armed with a hammer or a small battle-axe1 and the one who gave up lost his case4 ,,trial ,,by ,,jury4 ,king ,henry introduced a better way of finding out the truth4 ,he called upon twelve men from a neighborhood to come before the judges1 to promise solemnly to tell what they knew about a matter1 and then to decide which person was in the right4 ,they were supposed to know about the facts1 and they were allowed to talk the matter over with one another before they made a decision4 ,later these men from the neighborhood were divided into two groups1 one to tell what they knew and the other to listen and decide what was true4 ,those who told what they knew were called the witnesses1 and those who listened and decided were called jurors4 ,the name jurors came from a ,latin word meaning to take an oath4 ,,richard ,,the ,,lionhearted4 ,king ,henry had two sons1 ,richard and ,john4 ,richard was the boldest and most skilful fighter of his time4 ,when the news was brought to ,england that ,jerusalem had been captured by the ,mohammedans1 he led an army to ,palestine to recapture it4 ,he failed to take the city1 but he became famous throughout the ,east as a fearless warrior and was ever afterwards called the ,lionhearted4 ,at his death his brother ,john became king4 ,he was as cowardly and wicked as ,richard was brave and generous4 ,,the ,,great ,,charter4 ,the leaders of the people1 the nobles and the clergy1 soon grew tired of ,john's wickedness4 ,in #abae they raised an army and threatened to take the kingdom from ,john and crown another prince as king4 ,john was soon ready to promise anything in order to obtain power once more1 and the nobles and bishops met him at ,runnymede on the river ,thames1 a few miles west of ,london1 and compelled him to sign a list of promises4 ,as the list contained sixty-three separate promises1 it was called the ,great ,charter or ,magna ,charta4 ,if ,john did not keep these promises1 the lords and clergy agreed to make war on him1 and he even said that this would be their duty4 ,,promises ,,of ,,the ,,charter4 ,many of the articles of the ,great ,charter were important only to the men of ,king ,john's day1 but others are as important to us as to them4 ,in these the king promised that every one should be treated justly4 ,he said he would not refuse to listen to the complaints of those who thought they were wronged4 ,the king also promised that he would not decide in favor of a rich man just because the rich man might offer him money4 ,he would put no one in prison who had not been tried and found guilty by a jury4 ,by another important promise the king said he would not levy new taxes without the consent of the chief men of the kingdom4 ,this opened the way for the people to have something to say about how their money should be spent4 ,this right is a very important part of what we call self-government4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,portion ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,charter ,,promises ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,charter ,,renewed4 ,in after times whenever the ,english thought a king was doing them a wrong they reminded him of the promises made by ,king ,john in the ,great ,charter and demanded that the promises be solemnly renewed4 ,in #abfe a great noble named ,simon de ,montfort asked many towns to send a number of their chief men to meet with the nobles and clergy to talk over the conduct of the king4 ,others1 even kings1 soon followed ,simon's example by asking the townsmen for advice about matters of government4 ,after a while this became the custom4 ,occasionally the king wanted the advice of the clergy1 the nobles1 and the townsmen at the same time and called them together4 ,the meeting was called a parliament1 that is1 an assembly in which talking or discussion goes on4 ,illustration3 ,parliament ,house ,westminster ,hall ,westminster ,abbey--,,where ,,parliament ,,met ,,in ,,london ,,in ,,the ,,fifteenth ,,century ,,the ,,english ,,parliament4 ,only the most important nobles or lords could go in person to the assemblies1 otherwise the meeting would be too large to do any business4 ,the other lords chose certain ones from their number to go in place of all the rest4 ,we call such men representatives4 ,in this way1 besides the men who represented the towns1 there were present these nobles who represented the landowners of the counties4 ,gradually these nobles and the townsmen formed an assembly of their own1 while the greater lords1 the bishops1 and abbots sat together in another assembly4 ,the two assemblies were called the ,house of ,commons and the ,house of ,lords1 and the two made up the parliament4 ,,an ,,assembly ,,of ,,representatives4 ,this parliament was a great invention4 ,the ,english had discovered a better way of governing themselves than either the ,greeks or the ,romans4 ,we call it the representative system4 ,if a ,roman citizen who lived far from ,rome wanted to take part in the elections1 he was obliged to leave his farm or his business and travel to ,rome1 for only the citizens who were at ,rome could have a share in making the laws4 ,it never occurred to the ,romans that the citizens outside of ,rome could send some of their number as representatives to ,rome4 ,the formation of the ,english parliament was an important step towards what we mean in ,america by government of the people1 for the people1 and by the people4 ,,questions #a4 ,mention the names of heroes or hero-kings of the ,middle ,ages4 ,what stories have you learned about these heroes8 #b4 ,who was the hero-king of the ,english8 ,how did he early show his love of books8 ,what did he do to help his people to a knowledge of books8 #c4 ,how did he succeed better than other kings in driving back the ,danes8 ,why has he been called the creator of the ,english navy8 #d4 ,what was the name of the ,norman duke who conquered the ,english and ruled over them8 ,did this conquest hinder or help them8 #e4 ,why should we remember ,henry ,,ii gratefully8 ,explain an ordeal and a trial by battle4 ,how were the first juries formed and what did they do8 ,how were they afterwards divided8 #f4 ,for what was ,king ,richard most celebrated8 ,what sort of a king was his brother ,john8 #g4 ,why was the ,charter which ,john was forced to grant called ,great8 ,repeat some of its promises4 ,did the ,english soon forget these promises8 #h4 ,who asked the townsmen to send several of their number to talk over affairs with the clergy and the nobles8 ,what was this body finally called8 ,into what two bodies was it divided8 #i4 ,what is a representative system8 ,why was it an invention8 ,what did the ,romans do when they lived in towns distant from ,rome and wanted to take part in elections or help make the laws8 ,,exercises #a4 ,learn and tell one of the ,king ,arthur stories and a part of the story of the ,niebelungs4 ,find a story about ,charlemagne1 ,frederick the ,redbeard1 ,st4 ,louis1 or ,st4 ,stephen4 #b4 ,collect pictures of war vessels1 those of old times and those of to-day1 and explain their differences4 #c4 ,find out how men nowadays decide whether an accused man is guilty4 #d4 ,what is the name of the assembly in your state which makes the laws8 ,what assembly at ,washington makes the laws for the whole country8 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,civilization ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages ,,what ,,the ,,english ,,owed ,,to ,,their ,,european ,,neighbors4 ,if the ,english succeeded better than other ,europeans in learning how to govern themselves1 one reason was that the ,channel protected them from attack1 and they could quarrel with their king without running much risk that their enemies in other countries would take advantage of the quarrel to seize their lands or attempt to conquer them4 ,the ,french were not so well placed4 ,france also was not united like ,england1 and whole districts called counties or duchies were almost independent of the king1 being ruled by their counts and dukes4 ,in ,france it would not have been wise for the people to quarrel with the king1 for he was their natural protector against cruel lords4 ,germany and ,italy were even more divided1 with not only counties and duchies1 but also cities nearly as independent as the ancient cities of ,greece4 ,the ,europeans on the ,continent did many things which the ,english were doing1 and some of these were so well done that the ,english were ready to accept these ,europeans as their teachers4 ,the memory of what the ,greeks and the ,romans had done remained longer in southern ,france and ,italy because so many buildings were still standing which reminded ,frenchmen and ,italians of the people who built them4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,monk ,,copying ,,manuscript ,,books ,,classes ,,of ,,people4 ,the people of ,europe1 as well as of ,england1 were divided into two classes1 nobles and peasants4 ,the clergy seemed to form another class because there were so many of them4 ,besides the parish priests and the bishops there were thousands of monks1 who were persons who chose to dwell together in monasteries under the rule of an abbot or a prior1 rather than live among ordinary people where men were so often tempted to do wrong or were so likely to be wronged by others4 ,the monks worked on the farms of the monasteries1 or studied in the libraries1 or prayed and fasted4 ,for a long time the men who knew how to read were nearly always monks or priests4 ,outside of the monasteries or the bishops' houses there were few books4 ,,the ,,nobles4 ,the nobles were either knights1 barons1 counts1 or dukes4 ,in ,england there were also earls4 ,many mediaeval nobles ruled like kings1 but over a smaller territory4 ,they gained their power because they were rich in land and could support many men who were ready to follow them in battle1 or because in the constant wars they proved themselves able to keep anything they took1 whether it was a hilltop or a town4 ,timid and peaceable people were often glad to put themselves under the protection of such a fighter1 who saved them from being robbed by other fighting nobles4 ,in this way the nobles served a good purpose until the kings1 who were at first only very successful nobles1 were able to bring nobles as well as peasants under their own rule and to compel every one to obey the same laws4 ,after this the nobles became what we call an aristocracy1 proud of their family history1 generally living in better houses and owning more land than their neighbors1 but with little power over others4 ,illustration3 ,,plan ,,of ,a ,,mediaeval ,,castle #a4 ,the ,donjon-keep4 #b4 ,chapel4 #c4 ,stables4 #d4 ,inner ,court4 #e4 ,outer ,court4 #f4 ,outworks4 #g4 ,mount1 where justice was executed4 #h4 ,soldiers' ,lodgings ,illustration3 ,,pierrefonds--,,one ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,castles ,,of ,,france ,,castles4 ,for safety1 kings and nobles in the ,middle ,ages were obliged to build strong stone forts or fortified houses called castles4 ,they were often placed on a hilltop or on an island or in a spot where approach to the walls could be made difficult by a broad canal1 or moat1 filled with water4 ,at different places along the walls were towers1 and within the outer ring of walls a great tower1 or keep1 which was hard to capture even after the rest of the castle had been entered by the enemy4 ,these castles were gloomy places to live in until1 centuries later1 their inner walls were pierced with windows4 ,many are still standing1 others are interesting heaps of ruins4 ,,knighthood4 ,the lords of the castles were occupied mostly in hunting or fighting4 ,they fought to keep other lords from interfering with them or to win for themselves more lands and power4 ,they hunted that they might have meat for their tables4 ,in later times1 when it was not so necessary to kill animals for food1 they hunted as a sport4 ,fighting also ceased to be the chief occupation1 although the nobles were expected to accompany the king in his wars4 ,from boyhood the sons of nobles1 unless they entered the ,church as priests or monks1 were taught the art of fighting4 ,a boy was sent to the castle of another lord1 where he served as a page1 waiting on the lord at table or running errands4 ,he was trained to ride a horse boldly and to be skilful with the sword and the lance4 ,when his education was finished he was usually made a knight1 an event which took place with many interesting ceremonies4 ,the young man bathed1 as a sign that he was pure4 ,the weapons and arms for his use were blessed by a priest and laid on the altar of the church1 and near them he knelt and prayed all night4 ,in the final ceremony a sword was girded upon him and he received a slight blow on the neck from the sword of some knight1 or perhaps of the king4 ,his armor covered him from head to foot in metal1 and sometimes his horse was also covered with metal plates4 ,when he was fully armed1 he was expected to show his skill to the lords and ladies who were present4 ,,the ,,duties ,,of ,a ,,knight4 ,the duties of the knight were to defend the weak1 to protect women from wrong1 to be faithful to his lord and king1 and to be courteous even to an enemy4 ,a knight true to these duties was called chivalrous1 a word which means very much what we mean by the word gentlemanly4 ,there were many wicked knights1 but we must not forget that the good knights taught courtesy1 faithfulness in keeping promises1 respect for women1 courage1 self-sacrifice1 and honor4 ,illustration3 ,a ,knight in ,armor ,thirteenth century ,,the ,,peasants4 ,most of the people were peasants or townsmen4 ,there were few towns1 because many had been burned by the barbarian tribes which broke into the ,roman ,empire1 or had been destroyed in the later wars4 ,the peasants were crowded in villages close to the walls of some castle or monastery4 ,they paid dearly for the protection which the lord of the castle or the abbot of the monastery gave them1 for they were obliged to work on his lands three days or more each week1 and to bring him eggs1 chickens1 and a little money several times a year4 ,they also gave him a part of their harvest4 ,,the ,,townsmen4 ,at first the towns belonged to lords1 or abbots1 or bishops1 but many towns drove out their lords and ruled themselves or received officers from the king4 ,when they ruled themselves1 their towns were called communes4 ,the citizens agreed that whenever the town bell was rung they would gather together4 ,any one who was absent was fined4 ,for them eternal vigilance was the price of liberty4 ,some of the belfries of these mediaeval towns are still standing1 and remind the citizens of to-day of the struggles of the early days4 ,illustration3 ,,view ,,of ,,carcassonne ,this is an ancient city in ,france founded by the ,romans ,the men of each occupation or trade were organized into societies or guilds1 with masters1 journeymen1 and apprentices4 ,there were guilds of goldsmiths1 ironmongers1 and fishmongers1 that is1 workers in gold and iron and sellers of fish4 ,the merchants also had their guilds4 ,in many towns no one was allowed to work at a trade or sell merchandise who was not a member of a guild4 ,,old ,,cities ,,which ,,still ,,exist4 ,many of the towns which grew up in the ,middle ,ages are now the great cities of ,england and ,europe4 ,their citizens can look back a thousand years and more over the history of their city1 can point to churches1 to town halls1 and sometimes to private houses1 that have stood all this time4 ,they can often show the remains of mediaeval walls or broad streets where once these walls stood1 and the moats that surrounded them4 ,the traveler in ,york or ,london1 in ,paris1 in ,nuremburg1 in ,florence1 or in ,rome eagerly searches for the relics about which so many interesting stories of the past are told4 ,,venice ,,and ,,genoa4 ,one of the most fascinating of these old cities is ,venice1 built upon low-lying islands two miles from the shore of ,italy and protected by a sand bar from the waters of the ,adriatic4 ,venice was founded by men and women who fled from a ,roman city on the mainland which was ruined by the barbarians in the fifth century after ,christ4 ,in many places piles had to be driven into the loose sands to furnish a foundation for houses4 ,the ,venetians did not try to keep out the water but used it as streets1 and instead of driving in wagons they went about in boats4 ,they grew rich in trade on the sea1 as the ,greeks had done in those same waters hundreds of years before4 ,farther down the coast of ,italy were the cities ,brindisi and ,taranto1 the ,brundusium and ,tarentum of the ,romans4 ,across the peninsula to the west was another trading city called ,genoa1 which was the birthplace of ,columbus4 ,,modern ,,languages4 ,while the people of mediaeval times were building city walls and towers to protect themselves they were also doing other things4 ,almost without knowing it they formed the languages which we now speak and write--,english1 ,german1 ,french1 ,italian1 and ,spanish4 ,the ,english and ,german languages are closely related because the forefathers of the ,english emigrated to ,england from ,germany1 taking their language with them4 ,this older language was gradually changed1 but it still remained like ,german4 ,dutch is another language like both ,english and ,german4 ,there are many words in these languages borrowed from other peoples4 ,englishmen1 because of their long union with western ,france1 borrowed many words from the ,french4 ,the ,french did not invent these words1 for the ,french language grew out of the ,latin language which the ,french learned from the ,romans4 ,,how ,,modern ,,languages ,,were ,,formed4 ,in ,english we have two sets of words and phrases3 one is used in writing books or speeches1 the other in conversation4 ,when the ,gauls learned ,latin1 the language of ,rome1 most of them learned the words used in conversation and did not learn the words of ,roman books4 ,before long spoken words differed so much from the older written words that only scholars understood that the two had belonged to the same language4 ,this new language was ,french4 ,in the same way ,italian and ,spanish grew out of the ordinary ,latin spoken in ,italy and ,spain4 ,when men began to write books in the new languages1 the changes went on more slowly because the use of words in books kept the spelling the same4 ,men wrote less in ,latin1 but it was still used in the religious services of the ,church and in the schools and universities4 ,illustration3 ,,venice ,,and ,,the ,,grand ,,canal ,,schools ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4 ,in the ,middle ,ages most boys and girls did not go to school4 ,education was principally for those who expected to become priests or monks4 ,the schools were in the monasteries or in the houses or palaces of the bishops4 ,the students were taught a little ,latin grammar1 to write or speak ,latin1 and to debate4 ,they also learned arithmetic2 enough astronomy to reckon the days on which the festivals of the ,church should come2 and music1 so much as was then known of it4 ,printing had not been invented1 so there were no text-books for them to study1 and written books or manuscripts were too costly4 ,students listened to the teacher as he read from his manuscripts and copied the words or tried to remember them4 ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,universities4 ,if students remained in the schools after these things had been learned1 they studied the laws of the ,romans1 or the practise of medicine1 or the religious questions which are called theology4 ,some teachers talked in such an interesting way about such questions that hundreds of students came to listen4 ,like other kinds of workers1 who were organized in societies or guilds1 the teachers and students formed a guild called a university4 ,the teachers were the master-workmen1 and the students were the apprentices4 ,,where ,,the ,,students ,,lived4 ,in the beginning the universities had no buildings of their own1 and the teachers taught in hired halls1 the students boarding wherever they could find lodgings4 ,partly to help students who were too poor to pay for good lodgings1 and partly to bring the students under the direct rule of teachers1 colleges were built4 ,these were not separate institutions like the ,american colleges1 but simply houses for residence1 although later some teaching was done in them4 ,,some ,,famous ,,universities4 ,the oldest university was in ,bologna in ,italy1 and teachers began to explain the laws of the ,romans to its students eight hundred years ago4 ,the ,university of ,paris was called the greatest university in the ,middle ,ages4 ,its students numbered sometimes between six and seven thousand4 ,about the same time the ,english universities of ,oxford and ,cambridge were formed1 and there1 many years later1 a large number of the men who settled in ,america were educated4 ,,the ,,wisdom ,,of ,,the ,,arabs4 ,students in these universities obtained several of the writings of the ,greeks through the ,arabs1 the followers of ,mohammed1 who had conquered most of ,spain4 ,long before ,europeans thought of founding universities the ,arabs had flourishing schools and universities in ,spain4 ,the capital of the ,mohammedan ,empire was first at ,bagdad on the ,euphrates1 where once ruled ,haroun-al-,raschid1 the hero of the tales of the ,arabian ,nights4 ,illustration3 ,,view ,,of ,,new ,,college1 ,,oxford ,built in the fourteenth century ,,what ,,europeans ,,borrowed ,,from ,,the ,,arabs4 ,the ,arabs had learned much of geography and mathematics from the ,greeks1 and they also found out much for themselves4 ,the numerals which we use are ,arabic2 and algebra1 one of our principal studies in mathematics1 was thought out by the ,arabs4 ,their learned men were deeply interested in the books of ,aristotle1 an ancient ,greek1 who had been a teacher of ,alexander the ,great4 ,they translated his books into ,arabic1 and ,christian students in ,spain translated the ,arabic into ,latin4 ,the great scholars at the ,university of ,paris believed that ,aristotle reasoned better than other thinkers1 and took as their model the methods of reasoning found in this ,latin translation of an ,arabic translation of what ,aristotle had written in ,greek4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,alcazar ,,at ,,seville ,built by the ,moors in the twelfth century4 ,note the elaborate decoration of the ,moorish architecture4 ,,builders ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4 ,the ,greeks and the ,romans had been great builders1 but the men of the ,middle ,ages succeeded in building churches1 town halls1 and palaces or castles which equaled in grandeur and beauty the best that the ancient builders had made4 ,the large churches or cathedrals seem wonderful because their builders were able to place masses of stone high in the air and to cover immense spaces with beautiful vaulted roofs4 ,builders nowadays imitate1 but not often1 if ever1 equal them4 ,fortunately the original buildings are still standing in many ,english and ,european cities3 in ,canterbury1 ,durham1 and ,winchester2 in ,paris1 ,chartres1 and ,rheims2 in ,cologne1 ,erfurt1 and ,strasbourg2 in ,barcelona and ,toledo2 in ,milan1 ,venice1 and ,rome4 ,illustration3 ,,notre ,,dame ,,in ,,paris ,view from the rear1 showing the arches and buttresses ,,church ,,building4 ,the ,italians began by building churches like ,roman basilicas4 ,roman arches and domes1 supported by heavy walls1 were also used north of the ,alps1 and the method of building was named ,romanesque1 or in ,england1 ,norman4 ,the architects or builders of western ,france discovered a way of roofing over just as large spaces without using such heavy walls1 so that the interior could be lighted by larger windows4 ,instead of having rounded arches they used pointed arches4 ,the walls between the windows were strengthened by masses of stone called buttresses4 ,the peak of the roof of these cathedrals was sometimes more than one hundred and fifty feet above the floor4 ,the glass of the windows showed in beautiful colors scenes from the ,bible or from lives of sainted men and women4 ,the outer walls1 especially the western front1 the doorways and the towers1 were richly carved and adorned with statues1 and often with the figures of strange birds and beasts which lived only in the imagination of the builders4 ,this method of building was named ,gothic1 and it was used not only for churches but for town halls and private houses4 ,architects use similar methods of building nowadays4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,cathedral ,,at ,,amiens ,a typical ,gothic interior4 ,,the ,,renaissance4 ,men who could build and adorn great churches and town halls and who were eager to study in the new universities should be called civilized4 ,the barbarous days were gone1 but men still had much to learn from the ancient ,greeks and ,romans4 ,many of the ancient buildings were in ruins1 the statues half buried or broken1 the paintings destroyed1 and the books lost4 ,men began to search for what was left of these things and to study them carefully to learn what the ,graeco-,roman world had been like4 ,after a while students could think of nothing else1 and tried to imitate1 if they could not surpass1 what the ,romans and the ,greeks had done4 ,the age in which men were first interested in these things is called the ,renaissance or rebirth1 because men were so unlike what they had been that they seemed born again4 ,with the beginning of the ,renaissance the ,middle ,ages came to an end4 ,illustration3 ,,st4 ,,peter',s ,,at ,,rome ,,petrarch4 ,one of the earliest of these new men was ,petrarch1 an ,italian poet who lived in the fourteenth century1 a hundred years before ,columbus4 ,he wished above all things to read1 copy1 and possess the writings of the ,romans1 and especially of ,cicero1 an orator and writer who lived in the days of ,julius ,caesar4 ,petrarch and his friends searched for the manuscripts of ,roman authors which had been preserved1 hidden away in monastery libraries4 ,the same love of ,roman books seized others1 and princes spent large sums of money in collecting and copying ancient writings4 ,at this time a beginning of the great libraries of ,europe was made1 ,petrarch tried to learn ,greek1 but could find no one in ,italy able to teach him4 ,,greek ,,books ,,brought ,,again ,,to ,,italy4 ,shortly after ,petrarch died some ,greeks came from ,constantinople seeking the aid of the pope and the kings of the ,west in an attempt to drive back the ,turks1 who had already crossed into ,europe and settled in the lands which they now occupy4 ,unless help should be sent to ,constantinople1 the city would certainly fall into their hands4 ,with these ,greeks was one of those men who still loved to read the writings of the ancient authors4 ,he was persuaded to remain a few years in ,florence and other ,italian cities and teach ,greek to the eager ,italian scholars4 ,he was also persuaded to write a grammar of the ,greek language1 in order that after he had returned to ,constantinople others might be able to continue his teaching4 ,collectors of books now searched for ,greek writings as eagerly as they had searched for ,latin writings4 ,merchants sent their agents to ,constantinople to buy books4 ,one traveler and scholar brought back to ,italy over two hundred4 ,soon ,italy was the land to which students from ,germany1 ,france1 and ,england went to learn ,greek and to obtain copies of ,greek books4 ,it was fortunate that so many books had been brought from ,constantinople1 for at last1 in #adec1 the ,turks captured that city and no place in the ,east was left where the books of the ,greeks were studied as they had been at ,constantinople4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,printing ,,office ,,in ,,the ,,fifteenth ,,century ,,the ,,invention ,,of ,,printing4 ,after collectors of ,greek and ,roman writings had made several good libraries1 partly by purchase1 partly by copying manuscripts belonging to others1 a great invention was made which enabled these writings to be spread far and wide and placed in the hands of every student4 ,this invention was the method of printing with movable types4 ,it is not quite certain who made the invention1 although ,john ,gutenberg1 of ,mainz1 in ,germany1 has generally been called the inventor4 ,probably several men thought of the method at about the same time1 that is1 about #adej4 ,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,type4 ,in forming their type the ,german printers imitated the lettering made by copyists with a quill4 ,their type is called ,gothic1 and it is still widely used in ,german books4 ,the ,italian printers made their letters more round and simple in shape1 imitating the handwriting of the best ,italian copyists4 ,this is the ,roman type1 in which many ,european peoples1 as also the ,english and the ,americans1 print their books4 ,the ,italians also prepared a kind of lettering which1 because they were the inventors1 is named italic4 ,,the ,,aldine ,,press4 ,one of the most famous printers of this early time was a ,venetian named ,aldus ,manutius or ,manucci4 ,he gathered about him a number of ,greeks and planned to print all the ,greek manuscripts that had been discovered4 ,this he did in beautiful type1 imitated from the handwriting of one of his ,greek friends4 ,he sold the books for a price per volume about equal to our fifty cents1 so that few scholars were too poor to buy4 ,,some ,,early ,,printed ,,books4 ,another great printer was the ,englishman ,william ,caxton1 who learned the art in the ,netherlands4 ,among the books he printed was ,chaucer's ,canterbury ,tales4 ,the first book printed by ,gutenberg was the ,bible in ,latin4 ,early in the sixteenth century1 through the labors of a ,dutch scholar1 ,erasmus1 and of his printer1 the ,german ,froben1 the ,new ,testament in ,greek was printed4 ,,architecture ,,and ,,sculpture4 ,the artists and the architects of this time began to imitate the buildings they found or that they unearthed4 ,they used round arches and domes more than the pointed arches and vaulted roofs of the ,gothic builders4 ,sculptors pictured in stone the stories of the ,greek and ,roman gods and heroes4 ,statues long buried in ancient ruins were dug up1 and great artists like the ,italian ,michel ,angelo studied them and rivaled them in the beautiful statues they cut4 ,on every hand men's minds were awakened by what they saw of the work of the founders of the civilized world4 ,illustration3 ,,facsimile ,,of ,,part ,,of ,,caxton',s ,,aeneid 7,,reduced7 ,with the same in modern type ,,questions #a4 ,why did the memory of the ,greeks and ,romans remain longer in ,france and ,italy than in ,germany and ,england8 #b4 ,what different classes of people were there in the ,middle ,ages8 ,what was the difference between a parish priest and a monk8 #c4 ,how did the nobles gain a living8 ,were they useful8 ,in what sorts of houses did they live8 ,describe a castle4 ,what was the keep8 #d4 ,how were the sons of nobles trained8 ,what was a page8 ,how was a young man made a knight8 ,what were the duties of a knight8 #e4 ,were the farmers or peasants prosperous and happy in the ,middle ,ages8 ,how did the townsmen learn to protect themselves8 ,what was a guild8 ,why are many ,europeans proud of their cities8 #f4 ,why is ,venice especially interesting8 ,why do we remember ,genoa8 #g4 ,from what language did ,french1 ,italian1 and ,spanish grow8 ,how were the changes made in the old language8 ,where did the ,english get their language8 ,was it just like the ,english we speak8 #h4 ,what did the boys study in the ,middle ,ages8 ,what did the word university mean then8 ,name two or three universities founded then which still exist4 ,what did the ,arabs teach ,christian students8 #i4 ,what sort of buildings did men in the ,middle ,ages especially like to build8 ,are these buildings still standing8 ,why do we admire these great churches8 #aj4 ,what do we call the time when men began to study once more ,roman and ,greek books1 and began to imitate the ways of living and thinking common in the ,graeco-,roman world8 ,who was the first of these new men8 ,where especially did men search for ,greek books8 #aa4 ,what invention helped men spread far and wide this new knowledge8 ,how do the ,germans come to have ,gothic type8 ,where do we get our ,roman and italic type8 ,what books did the ,venetian printer ,aldus print8 ,name a famous ,english and a famous ,german printer4 #ab4 ,what besides ancient books did the men of the ,renaissance like to study and imitate8 ,,exercises #a4 ,find out what titles of noblemen are used now in different ,european countries4 ,in what country are men often knighted8 ,why are they knighted8 ,what title shows that a man is a knight8 #b4 ,collect pictures of armor and of castles1 especially of castles still standing4 ,collect pictures of old town walls4 #c4 ,collect pictures of ,venice and ,genoa1 especially from advertising folders4 #d4 ,find the names of several large ,american universities4 ,do the students live in colleges as students did in the ,middle ,ages8 #e4 ,tell one or two stories from the ,arabian ,nights4 ,collect pictures of ,arabian costumes and of ,arabian buildings in ,spain1 or ,africa1 or ,asia4 #f4 ,collect pictures of ,english and ,european cathedrals4 ,find pictures of churches in ,america which resemble them4 ,,review ,how ancient civilization was preserved #a4 ,what ruined so many ancient cities8 #b4 ,who tried to preserve the memory of what the ,greeks and the ,romans had done8 #c4 ,what language did the churchmen continue to use8 #d4 ,how did the missionaries help8 #e4 ,how did ,alfred teach the ,english some of the things the ,romans had known8 #f4 ,what did the ,arabs teach the ,christians which the ,greeks had known8 #g4 ,what was studied at ,bologna8 ,how did the universities help in preserving the ancient knowledge8 #h4 ,what did ,petrarch do to find lost books8 ,what did other men of ,petrarch's time do8 #i4 ,what help came from the invention of printing8 #aj4 ,from what besides books did the men of the ,renaissance learn about the ,greeks and the ,romans8 ,illustration3 ,,husbandman ,,and ,,country ,,woman ,,of ,,fifteenth ,,century ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,traders1 ,,travelers1 ,,and ,,explorers ,,in ,,the ,,later ,,middle ,,ages ,,the ,,perils ,,of ,,traders4 ,there was a time in the ,middle ,ages when merchants scarcely dared to travel from one town to another for fear of being plundered by some robber lord or common thief4 ,if they traveled by sea they might also be attacked by robbers4 ,some of these robbers1 like the ,northmen1 came from afar1 but others were ordinary sailors who put out from near-by ports when there seemed nothing better to do4 ,this state of things gradually changed4 ,the kings or great lords succeeded in protecting merchants on land1 and the merchants armed vessels of their own to drive the pirates from the sea4 ,as trade grew greater the towns became richer and stronger and the robbers and pirates fewer1 so that the number of merchant ships increased rapidly and long voyages were attempted4 ,,fairs4 ,at first trade was carried on at great fairs1 held in places convenient for the merchants of ,england and western ,europe4 ,the fairs lasted about six weeks1 and one fair followed another4 ,as soon as the first was over the merchants packed their unsold wares and journeyed to the next4 ,at the fairs were found drugs and spices1 cottons and silks from the ,east1 skins and furs from the ,north1 wool from ,england1 and other products from ,germany1 ,italy1 ,france1 and ,spain4 ,,the ,,treasures ,,of ,,the ,,east4 ,men in the ,middle ,ages were dependent for luxuries upon the lands of ,asia which are commonly called the ,east4 ,by this name we may mean ,persia1 ,arabia1 ,india1 ,china1 or the ,molucca ,islands1 where the choicest spices still grow4 ,spices were a great luxury1 and were needed to flavor the food1 because the manner of cooking was poor and there was little variety in the kinds of food4 ,most of the cotton cloth1 the silks1 the drugs1 and the dyes were also procured from the ,east4 ,illustration3 ,,trader',s ,,caravan ,,crossing ,,the ,,desert ,,routes ,,to ,,the ,,east4 ,no one knew that it was possible to reach ,asia by sailing around the southern point of ,africa or through what is called the ,strait of ,magellan4 ,the products of the ,east were brought to ,europe by several routes1 two reaching the ,mediterranean at ,alexandria1 in ,egypt1 a third at ,antioch1 in ,syria1 and a fourth on the southeastern shore of the ,black ,sea4 ,the loads were carried by camels in long caravans across the deserts from the ,red ,sea1 or the ,persian ,gulf1 or from northern ,india4 ,ships from the ,italian cities of ,genoa1 ,pisa1 and ,venice struggled with one another for the right to bring back these precious wares and sell them to the merchants of ,europe1 who were ready to pay high prices4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,trade ,,routes ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages ,,venetian ,,traders4 ,merchants from ,germany came to ,venice to trade the products of the ,north for spices1 drugs1 dyes1 and silks1 which they carried back across the ,alps4 ,once a year the ,venetians sent a fleet of vessels westward through the straits of ,gibraltar and along the ,atlantic shore as far as ,bruges and ,london4 ,the voyage was long and dangerous1 and the ,venetians traded in ports on the way4 ,spices in ,bruges sold for two or three times what they cost in ,venice4 ,,the ,,crusades4 ,one event that brought to the ,venetians an opportunity to enrich themselves was the ,crusades4 ,the ,mohammedans had long held a large part of ,spain1 and towards the end of the eleventh century they threatened ,france and ,italy4 ,they also attacked what was left of the ,roman ,empire in the ,east1 and the emperors sent to the pope and the western kings frantic appeals for help4 ,thousands of ,frenchmen1 ,germans1 ,englishmen1 and ,italians were suddenly seized with the desire to go to ,palestine and drive the ,mohammedans from ,jerusalem1 the ,holy ,city1 and from the tomb of ,christ4 ,for the next two centuries large armies were sent there1 sometimes gaining victories1 sometimes being defeated in battle or overcome by disease4 ,,what ,,the ,,venetians ,,gained ,,from ,,the ,,crusades4 ,most of the ,crusaders went to the ,holy ,land by sea1 and when they had no ships of their own they often took passage in ,venetian ships4 ,the ,venetians asked large sums for this1 and also succeeded in obtaining all the rights of trade in many of the seaports which were captured4 ,sometimes the ,venetians undertook to govern islands like ,cyprus and ,crete1 or territories along the coasts1 but their main aim was to increase their trade rather than to build up an empire4 ,,the ,,new ,,venetian ,,ships4 ,the ,crusaders who returned to ,europe brought back a liking for the luxuries of the ,east1 and their tales made other men eager for them4 ,for this reason more ships were built to sail in the ,mediterranean4 ,the shipowners attempted to make their ships larger and stronger4 ,they were larger than those built by the ,english or by other peoples along the ,atlantic coast1 but they would seem small to us4 ,there is an account of ,venetian ships in the thirteenth century which tells us that they were one hundred and ten feet long and carried crews of one thousand men4 ,they relied mainly upon the use of oars1 but had a mast1 sometimes two masts1 rigged with sails1 which they could use if the wind was favorable4 ,illustration3 ,,venetian ,,ships ,,dangers ,,of ,,the ,,sea4 ,one difficulty about sailing was the lack of any means in cloudy weather1 and especially at night1 of telling the direction in which they were going4 ,the sailors did not like to venture far from shore1 although the open sea is safer during a storm than a wind-swept and rocky coast4 ,at the time when the sailors of the ,mediterranean were building up their trade to ,alexandria1 ,antioch1 and the ,black ,sea1 two instruments came into use which enabled them to tell just where they were4 ,,the ,,compass4 ,one of these instruments was the compass1 which the ,chinese had long used1 and which was known to the ,arabs before the ,europeans heard of it4 ,if a boy will take a needle1 rub its point with a magnet1 and lay the needle on a cork floating in water1 he will have a rough sort of compass4 ,the point of the needle wherever it may be turned will swing back towards the north1 thus guiding the sailors4 ,illustration3 ,,mariner',s ,,compass ,the compass was known in ,europe about #abjj4 ,there is a story that at first sailors thought its action due to magic and refused to sail under a captain who used it4 ,but a century later it was in general use1 and had been so much improved that even in the severest storms the needle remained level and pointed steadily towards the north4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,astrolabe ,,the ,,astrolabe4 ,the other instrument1 called the astrolabe1 was a brass circle marked off into #cfj degrees4 ,to this circle were fastened two movable bars1 at the ends of which were sights1 or projecting pieces pierced by a hole4 ,the astrolabe was hung on a mast in such a way that one bar was horizontal and the other could be moved until through its sights some known star could be seen4 ,the number of degrees marked on the circle between the two bars told how high the star was above the horizon1 and the sailors could reckon the latitude of the place where they were4 ,in a similar way their longitude could be found out4 ,the astrolabe was not so useful as the compass1 for it could be used only on clear days or nights4 ,with these two instruments it was possible to sail far out into the ,atlantic4 ,by the middle of the fourteenth century ships from ,genoa and ,portugal had visited the ,madeira and the ,canary ,islands1 and even the ,azores which are a thousand miles from the mainland4 ,,what ,,men ,,thought ,,about ,a ,,sea ,,route ,,to ,,the ,,east4 ,men learned more about other strange lands through a ,venetian traveler1 ,marco ,polo1 who wrote an account of his wonderful journey to the court of the ,grand ,khan1 or ,emperor of the ,mongols1 of his travels through ,china1 and of his return to ,persia by sea4 ,many men in the ,middle ,ages had believed that east of ,asia was a great marsh1 and that because of it even if they succeeded in sailing around ,africa it would be impossible to reach the region of the spices and silks and jewels which they so much desired4 ,they also thought that the heat in the tropics was so intense that at a certain distance down the coast of ,africa they would find the water of the ocean boiling4 ,these things and the tales of strange monsters that inhabited the deep sea had terrified them4 ,the news which ,marco ,polo brought changed this feeling4 ,,the ,,mongols4 ,the way ,marco ,polo happened to visit the court of the ,mongol emperor was this4 ,the ,mongol ,tartars were great conquerors1 and they not only subdued the ,chinese but marched westward1 overrunning most of ,russia and stopping only when they were on the frontiers of ,italy4 ,for a long time southern ,russia remained under their rule4 ,their capital was just north of the ,great ,wall of ,china4 ,the ,mongol emperor did not hate ,europeans1 and even sent to the pope for missionaries to teach his people4 ,marco ,polo's father and uncle while on a trading expedition had found their way to his court1 and on a second journey1 in #abga1 they took with them ,marco1 a lad of seventeen years4 ,the emperor was much interested in his western visitors and took young ,marco into his service4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,mongol ,,emperor ,,of ,,marco ,,polo',s ,,time ,after an old ,chinese manuscript ,,marco ,,polo',s ,,travels4 ,marco ,polo traveled over ,china on official errands1 while his father and uncle were gathering wealth by trade4 ,after many years they desired to return to ,italy1 but the emperor was unwilling to lose such able servants4 ,it happened1 however1 that the emperor wished to send a princess as a bride to the ,khan or ,emperor of ,persia1 also a ,mongol sovereign1 and the three ,polos1 who were known to be trustworthy seamen1 were selected to escort the princess to her royal husband4 ,after doing this they did not return to ,china1 but went on to ,italy4 ,they had been absent twenty-four years1 and they found that their relatives had given them up for dead and did not recognize them4 ,it was like the old story of ,ulysses1 who1 when he returned to his native ,ithaca after his wanderings1 was recognized by nobody4 ,the ,polos proved the truth of what they said by showing the great treasures which they had sewed into the dresses of coarse stuff of a ,tartar pattern which they wore4 ,they displayed jewels of the greatest value1 diamonds1 emeralds1 rubies1 and sapphires4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,marco ,,polo',s ,,travels ,the known world is in white1 the undiscovered in black1 and that first described by ,marco ,polo is dotted ,,what ,,marco ,,polo ,,told4 ,in the account ,marco ,polo wrote of his travels and of the countries he had visited he described a wonderful palace of the ,great ,emperor4 ,its walls were covered with gold and silver1 the dining hall seated six thousand people1 and its ceiling was inlaid with gold4 ,this palace seemed to ,marco ,polo so large1 so rich1 and so beautiful that no man on earth could design anything to equal it4 ,the robes of the emperor and his twelve thousand nobles and knights were of silk and beaten gold1 each having a girdle of gold decorated with precious stones4 ,marco ,polo told of great cities in ,china where men traded in the costly wares of the ,east1 and where silk was abundant and cheap4 ,he described from hearsay ,japan as an island fifteen hundred miles from the mainland4 ,its people1 he said1 were white1 civilized1 and wondrously rich4 ,the palace of the emperor of ,japan was roofed with gold1 its pavements and floors were of solid gold1 laid in plates two fingers thick4 ,,reasons ,,for ,,finding ,a ,,sea ,,route ,,to ,,the ,,east4 ,tales of such great wealth made ,europeans more eager than ever to reach the ,east4 ,marco ,polo had shown that it was possible to sail past ,india1 through the islands1 to the eastern coast of ,asia4 ,when printing was invented his account was printed1 and the copy of that book which ,columbus owned is still preserved4 ,upon its margins ,columbus wrote his own opinions about geography4 ,other travelers besides the ,polos returned with similar tales of the ,east4 ,soon1 however1 all chance to go there by way of the land was lost1 because the ,mongol emperors were driven out of ,china and the new rulers would not permit ,europeans to enter the country4 ,the ordinary caravan routes to the ,east were also closed not long afterwards4 ,in #adec the ,turks captured ,constantinople1 drove away the ,italian merchants1 and prevented ,european sailors from reaching the ,black ,sea4 ,fifty years later the ,turks seized ,egypt and closed that route also4 ,fortunately before this happened a better route had been discovered4 ,,the ,,portuguese ,,sailors4 ,during the ,middle ,ages the ,portuguese princes fought to recover ,portugal from the ,moors4 ,when this was done they were eager to cross the straits and attack the ,moors in ,africa4 ,prince ,henry of ,portugal made an expedition to ,africa and returned with the desire to know more about the coast south of the point beyond which ,european sailors dared not venture4 ,sailors were afraid of being lost in the ,sea of ,darkness or killed by the heat of the boiling tropics4 ,illustration3 ,,dangers ,,of ,,the ,,sea ,,of ,,darkness ,from an old picture ,from his love of exploring the seas ,prince ,henry has been called ,the ,navigator4 ,he took up his residence on a lonely promontory in southern ,portugal1 and gathered about him learned men of all peoples1 ,arabian and ,jewish mathematicians1 and ,italian mapmakers4 ,captains trained in this new school of seamanship were sent into the southern seas4 ,each was to sail farther down the western coast of ,africa than other captains had gone4 ,before ,prince ,henry died in #adfj his captains had passed ,cape ,verde1 and ten years later they crossed the equator without suffering the fate which men had once feared4 ,but they were discouraged when they found that beyond the ,gulf of ,guinea the coast turned southward again1 for they had hoped to sail eastward to ,asia4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,portuguese ,,route ,,to ,,india ,the broken lines show the old trade routes to the ,east4 ,the solid line shows the new ,portuguese route ,,cape ,,of ,,good ,,hope ,,discovered4 ,at last in #adhg the end of what seemed to be an endless coast was reached4 ,the fortunate captain who accomplished this was ,bartholomew ,diaz1 who came of a family of daring seamen4 ,he had been sailing southward along the coast for nearly eight months1 when a northerly gale drove him before it for thirteen days4 ,the weather cleared and ,diaz turned eastward to find the coast4 ,as he did not see land he turned northward and soon discovered land to the west4 ,this showed that he had passed the southern point of ,africa4 ,his crew were unwilling to go farther and he followed the coast around to the western side again4 ,the southern point he called the ,cape of ,storms1 but the king of ,portugal1 when the voyagers returned1 named it the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 for now he knew that an expedition could be sent directly to the ,indies4 ,diaz had sailed thirteen thousand miles1 and his voyage was the most wonderful that ,europeans had ever heard about4 ,,the ,,sea ,,route ,,to ,,india4 ,eleven years later the ,portuguese king sent ,vasco da ,gama1 another captain1 to attempt to reach the coast of ,india by sailing around the ,cape of ,good ,hope which ,diaz had discovered4 ,da ,gama was successful and landed at ,calicut on the south-western coast of ,india4 ,he returned to ,portugal in #adii1 and his cargo was worth sixty times the cost of the voyage4 ,this was the beginning of a trade with the ,east which enriched ,portugal and especially the merchants of ,lisbon4 ,,questions #a4 ,what dangers threatened traders in the ,middle ,ages who traveled by sea or land8 ,what was a fair8 #b4 ,what products were brought from the ,east8 ,by what routes8 ,point these out on a map4 ,what rival trading cities were in ,italy8 ,how did the ,venetians get their wares to ,london8 #c4 ,who were the ,crusaders8 ,why did they attack the ,mohammedans8 ,what did the ,venetian traders gain by these wars8 ,describe a large ,venetian ship of this time4 #d4 ,when was the compass invented8 ,why was it dangerous to sail great seas and oceans without a compass8 ,tell how an astrolabe was made4 #e4 ,what at first kept men from attempting to sail to eastern ,asia8 ,who was ,marco ,polo8 ,describe his adventures4 ,how did he return to ,venice8 ,how did people learn about the lands he had visited8 #f4 ,why after #adec was it necessary to find a sea route to ,asia8 ,what did ,prince ,henry the ,navigator succeed in doing8 ,how was the ,cape of ,good ,hope discovered8 ,who went with ,diaz on this voyage8 #g4 ,who first sailed to ,india by the ,cape of ,good ,hope8 ,was the voyage profitable8 ,what city was made rich by the new trade8 ,,exercises #a4 ,find from a map in the geography how many miles goods must have been carried to reach ,venice from ,persia1 ,india1 the ,moluccas1 or ,china4 ,how far is it from ,venice by sea to ,bruges or ,london8 #b4 ,where and how do we now obtain cinnamon1 nutmeg1 and cloves8 #c4 ,what line of emperors has been recently ruling over ,china8 ,where has been their capital8 ,find out about the present ,mongols4 ,collect pictures of ,china and ,japan4 #d4 ,read a longer account of ,marco ,polo4 #e4 ,study the geography of ,portugal4 ,collect pictures of ,portugal4 ,find out if many ,portuguese are living in the ,united ,states4 ,,review ,steps ,towards the ,discovery of ,america ,greek colonies in ,italy1 ,gaul1 and ,spain4 ,roman conquest of ,gaul1 ,spain1 and ,britain4 ,viking voyages to ,greenland and ,vinland4 ,venetian trade in spices with the ,east1 and ,venetian voyages to ,london and ,bruges4 ,marco ,polo's travels in ,china and the ,east4 ,portuguese voyages down the coast of ,africa and about the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,discovery ,,of ,a ,,new ,,world ,,christopher ,,columbus4 ,six years before ,vasco da ,gama made his famous voyage to ,india around ,africa and opened a new trade route for the ,portuguese merchants1 another seaman had formed and carried out a much bolder plan4 ,this was ,christopher ,columbus1 and his plan was to sail directly west from ,europe into the unknown ocean in search of new islands and the coast of ,asia4 ,columbus1 who was a native of ,genoa in ,italy1 had followed his younger brother to ,portugal4 ,both were probably led there by the fame of ,prince ,henry's explorations4 ,the brothers became very skilful in making maps and charts for the ,portuguese4 ,they also frequently sailed with them on their expeditions along the coast of ,africa4 ,all the early associations of ,columbus were with men interested in voyages of discovery1 and particularly with those engaged in the daring search for a sea route to ,india4 ,,how ,,columbus ,,formed ,,his ,,plan4 ,columbus gathered all the information on geography which he could from ancient writers and from modern discoverers4 ,many of them believed that the world was shaped like a ball4 ,if such were its shape1 ,columbus reasoned1 why might not a ship sail around it from east to west8 ,or1 better1 why not sail directly west to ,india1 and perhaps find many wonderful islands between ,europe and ,asia8 ,his imagination was also fired by ,marco ,polo's description of the marvelous riches of ,china1 ,japan1 and the ,spice ,islands4 ,but the idea of going directly west into the midst of the unknown and seemingly boundless waste of water1 and on and on to ,asia1 appeared to most men of the fifteenth century to be madness4 ,illustration3 ,,christopher ,,columbus ,the oldest known picture of ,columbus1 in the ,national ,library1 ,madrid ,,his ,,notion ,,of ,,the ,,distance ,,to ,,asia4 ,columbus made two fortunate errors in reckoning the distance to the ,indies4 ,he imagined that ,asia extended much farther eastward than it actually does1 making it nearer ,europe1 and estimated the earth to be smaller than it is4 ,his figures placed ,japan less than #c1jjj miles west of the ,canary ,islands1 instead of the #ab1jjj miles which is the real distance4 ,he accordingly thought ,japan would be found about where ,mexico or ,florida is situated4 ,,how ,,he ,,secured ,,help4 ,even so1 many years passed before ,columbus was able to undertake a voyage4 ,he was too poor himself1 and needed the help of some government to fit out such an expedition4 ,he may have tried to get his native city1 ,genoa1 to help him4 ,there is such a story4 ,if he did1 it was without success4 ,he tried to obtain the help of ,portugal1 where he lived a long time1 and whose princes were greatly interested in the discovery of new trade routes4 ,his brother visited ,england in the same cause4 ,neither of these countries1 however1 was willing to undertake this expensive and doubtful enterprise4 ,the ,king and ,queen of ,spain1 to whom ,columbus turned1 kept him waiting many years for an answer4 ,they thought that they had more important work in hand4 ,there was another king in ,spain at the time1 the king of the ,moors4 ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 the ,christian king and queen1 were trying to conquer the ,moors1 and thus to end the struggle between ,christians and ,mohammedans for the possession of ,spain1 which had lasted nearly eight centuries4 ,this war required all the strength and revenue of ,spain4 ,fortunately1 just as ,columbus was becoming thoroughly discouraged1 the war with the ,moors came to an end4 ,granada1 the seat of their former power1 was finally taken in ,january1 #adib4 ,now was a good time to ask favors of the sovereigns of ,spain1 and to plan large enterprises for the future4 ,powerful friends aided ,columbus to renew his petition1 and ,queen ,isabella was persuaded to promise him all the help that he needed4 ,,the ,,ships ,,of ,,columbus4 ,three ships1 or caravels as they were called1 were fitted out4 ,the ,santa ,maria was the largest of the three1 but it was not much larger than the small sailing yachts which we see to-day4 ,it was about ninety feet long by twenty feet broad1 and had a single deck4 ,this was ,columbus's principal ship or flagship4 ,the second caravel1 the ,pinta1 was much swifter1 built high at the prow and stern1 and furnished with a forecastle for the crew and a cabin for the officers1 but without a deck in the center4 ,the third and smallest caravel1 called the ,nia1 the ,spanish word for baby1 was built much like the ,pinta4 ,ninety persons made up the three crews4 ,illustration3 ,,columbus',s ,,ideas ,,of ,,the ,,atlantic ,the shaded portions represent the land as ,columbus expected to find it4 ,the light outline of the ,americas shows the actual position of the land as he found it4 ,the ships were the usual size of those which coasted along the shores of ,europe in the fifteenth century4 ,expeditions had never gone far out into the ocean4 ,columbus preferred the smaller vessels in a voyage of discovery1 because they would be able to run close to the shores and into the smaller harbors and up the rivers4 ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,voyage4 ,the expedition set sail from ,palos in ,spain1 ,august #c1 #adib4 ,it went directly to the ,canary ,islands4 ,these were owned by ,spain1 and were selected by ,columbus as the most convenient starting-point4 ,the little fleet was delayed three weeks at the islands making repairs4 ,on ,september #f ,columbus was off again4 ,he struck due west from the ,canaries4 ,,the ,,terrors ,,of ,,the ,,voyage4 ,while the little fleet was still in sight of the ,canary ,islands a volcanic eruption nearly frightened the sailors out of their wits4 ,they deemed such an event an omen of evil4 ,but the expedition had fine weather day after day4 ,steady1 gentle1 easterly winds1 the trade winds of the tropics1 wafted them slowly westward4 ,but the timid sailors began to wonder how they would ever be able to return against winds which seemed never to change from the east4 ,then they came to an immense field of seaweed1 larger in area than the whole of ,spain4 ,this terrified the sailors1 who feared they might be driven on hidden rocks or be engulfed in quicksands4 ,they imagined1 too1 that great sea-monsters were lurking beyond the seaweed waiting to devour them4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,caravel ,,of ,,columbus ,after the reconstructed model exhibited at the ,columbian ,exposition1 ,chicago1 #ahic ,,the ,,first ,,signs ,,of ,a ,,new ,,land4 ,in spite of fears and complaints1 and threats of resistance1 ,columbus kept a westward course for more than four weeks4 ,then as he began to see so many birds flying to the southwest1 he concluded that land must be nearer in that direction4 ,he had heard that most of the islands held by the ,portuguese were discovered by following the flight of birds4 ,so on ,october #g the westward course was changed to one slightly southwest4 ,from this time on the signs of land grew frequent4 ,floating branches1 occasionally covered with berries1 pieces of wood1 bits of cane1 were encouraging signs4 ,birds like ducks and sandpipers became common sights4 ,the ,queen had promised a small pension to the one who should first see land4 ,columbus had offered to give a silken doublet in addition4 ,with what eagerness the sailors must have kept on the lookout6 ,,the ,,great ,,discovery4 ,at last as the fleet was sailing onward in the bright moonlight ,columbus saw a light moving as if carried by hand along a shore4 ,a few hours later1 about two o'clock on the morning of ,october #ab1 a sailor on the ,pinta saw land distinctly1 and soon all beheld1 a few miles away1 a long1 low beach4 ,the vessels hove to and waited for daylight4 ,early the same day1 ,friday1 ,october #ab1 #adib1 they approached the land1 which proved to be a small island4 ,columbus named it ,san ,salvador1 which means ,holy ,saviour4 ,we do not know which one of the ,bahama islands he first saw1 but we believe it was the one now called ,watling ,island4 ,columbus went ashore with the royal standard and banners flying to take possession of the land in the name of ,king ,ferdinand and ,queen ,isabella4 ,,where ,,columbus ,,thought ,,he ,,was4 ,the astonished inhabitants of the island soon gathered to see the strange sight--the landing of white men in the ,west ,indies4 ,they looked upon the ships as sea-monsters1 and the white men as gods4 ,nor was ,columbus less puzzled by what he saw4 ,the people were a strange race--cinnamon colored1 naked1 greased1 and painted to suit each one's fancy4 ,they had only the rudest means of self-defense1 and were almost as poor as the parrots that chattered in the trees above them4 ,such savages bore little resemblance to the people whom ,marco ,polo said inhabited the ,spice ,islands4 ,columbus thought that he had reached some outlying island not far from ,japan4 ,a cruise of a few days among the ,bahamas satisfied him that he was in the ocean near the coast of ,asia1 for had not ,marco ,polo described it as studded with thousands of spice-bearing islands8 ,he had not found any spices1 but the air was full of fragrance and the trees and herbs were strange in appearance4 ,of course if the islands were the ,indies1 the people must be ,indians4 ,columbus called them ,indians1 and this name clung to the red men1 although their islands were not the true ,indies4 ,illustration3 ,,watling ,,island1 ,,where ,,columbus ,,first ,,landed ,,the ,,search ,,for ,,the ,,golden ,,east4 ,columbus thought that the natives meant to tell him in their sign language of a great land to the south where gold abounded4 ,he set off in search of this1 and came upon a land the natives called ,cuba4 ,its large size convinced him that he had at last found the ,asiatic mainland1 and he sent two messengers1 one a ,jew knowing many languages1 in search of the ,emperor of ,china4 ,they found neither cities nor kingdoms1 neither gold nor spices4 ,this was a great disappointment to ,columbus1 but he patiently kept up his search for the riches which he expected to find4 ,,the ,,misfortunes ,,of ,,columbus4 ,while on the coast of ,cuba1 ,pinzon1 the commander of the ,pinta1 deserted him4 ,pinzon1 whose ship was swifter than the others1 probably wished to be the first to get home1 in order to tell a story which would gain him the credit of the discovery of the ,indies4 ,a few days later ,columbus discovered a large island which the natives called ,hayti1 and which he called ,espaola or ,spanish ,land4 ,at every island he searched for the spices and gold which ,marco ,polo had given him reason to expect4 ,in a storm off ,espaola ,columbus's own ship1 the ,santa ,maria1 was totally wrecked4 ,such disasters convinced him that it was high time to return to ,spain with the news of his discovery4 ,,preparations ,,for ,,return ,,to ,,spain4 ,as there was not room for both crews on the tiny ,nia1 his one remaining ship1 it became necessary to leave about forty sailors in ,espaola4 ,a fort was built1 and supplies were left for a year4 ,columbus with the rest set off on the return to ,spain4 ,ten ,indians were captured and taken with them to show to his friends in ,europe4 ,besides1 ,columbus hoped that they would learn the language of ,spain1 and carry ,christianity back to their people4 ,,the ,,search ,,for ,,china ,,renewed4 ,there was rejoicing in ,palos when the voyagers returned4 ,great honors were bestowed upon ,columbus4 ,it was now easy to get men and money for another voyage4 ,in ,september1 #adic1 ,columbus started to return to his islands1 this time with seventeen ships and fifteen hundred men1 all confident that they would soon see the marble palaces of ,china1 and secure a share in the wealth of the ,spice ,islands4 ,no one yet realized that a new world--two great continents--lay between them and their coveted goal in ,asia4 ,columbus went directly to ,espaola1 where he found that his colony of the previous year had been murdered by the ,indians4 ,a new settlement was quickly started4 ,a little town called ,isabella was built1 with a fort1 a church1 a market place1 public granary1 and dwelling-houses4 ,isabella was the first real settlement in the ,new ,world4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,lands ,,discovered ,,by ,,columbus ,,other ,,voyages ,,to ,,the ,,new ,,world4 ,columbus made two other voyages4 ,he continued to search for the coast of ,asia1 which he believed to be near4 ,he made a third voyage from ,spain to the ,west ,indies in #adih4 ,he sailed farther south1 and came upon the mainland which later was called ,south ,america4 ,a fourth expedition in #aejb touched on the coast that we call ,central ,america4 ,he died soon after this voyage1 still believing that he had discovered a new route to the ,indies and new lands on the coast of ,asia4 ,,the ,,sad ,,end ,,of ,,columbus',s ,,life4 ,the close of his life was a sad one4 ,the lands he had found did not yield the riches which he had expected4 ,the colonists whom he had sent out to the islands had rebelled1 and jealous enemies had accused him falsely before the king and queen of misgovernment in his territories4 ,once his opponents had him carried to ,spain chained like a common prisoner4 ,he was given his liberty on reaching ,spain1 but the people had become prejudiced against him4 ,ferdinand1 the son of ,columbus1 tells us that as he and his brother ,diego1 who were pages in the queen's service1 happened to pass a crowd of his father's enemies1 the latter greeted them with hoots3 ,there go the sons of the ,admiral of ,mosquitoland1 the man who has discovered a land of vanity and deceit1 the grave of ,spanish gentlemen4 ,hardships and disappointments broke down the great discoverer1 and he died neglected and almost forgotten by the people of ,spain4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,columbus ,,monument ,,at ,,genoa ,,questions #a4 ,what plan did ,columbus form8 ,why was it bolder than the plan ,diaz had carried out in #adhg1 or even than that ,da ,gama carried out a few years later8 ,why did men like ,columbus and ,diaz desire to find a sea route to ,india8 ,had anybody before ,columbus believed the earth round8 #b4 ,what mistake did ,columbus make in estimating the size of the earth8 ,why was this a fortunate error8 #c4 ,from what countries did ,columbus try to obtain help8 ,why did he find it so hard to secure this8 ,what event in ,spain finally favored his cause8 ,who were the ,moors8 #d4 ,why was ,columbus surprised when he saw the natives in the ,west ,indies8 ,why were the ,indians on their side surprised8 #e4 ,what islands did ,columbus find and claim for ,spain on his first voyage8 ,how many other voyages did he make8 ,what new lands did he find on his later voyages8 ,what did he think he had found8 #f4 ,why did the enemies of ,columbus in ,spain call him the ,admiral of ,mosquitoland1 the man who discovered a land of vanity and deceit1 the grave of ,spanish gentlemen8 ,what did they mean by this8 ,,exercises #a4 ,find pictures of the ships of ,columbus or of the sailing ships of other explorers of that day4 ,how does the deck arrangement on those differ from the ocean steamships of to-day8 ,what advantage would ships like those of ,columbus have over present steamships in exploring strange coasts8 ,what disadvantages8 #b4 ,draw up a list of reasons why ,columbus's sailors were afraid to go on and wished to turn back to ,spain4 #c4 ,trace on an outline map the voyage of ,columbus4 ,mark where ,columbus found land1 and where he expected to find ,japan and ,china4 ,what great mass of land was really very near the island he first discovered8 #d4 ,find from the maps mentioned in ,chapter ,,iv 7,greek ,world71 ,chapter ,,vii 7,roman ,world71 ,chapter ,,viii 7,the world after ,polo's journey71 and ,chapter ,,xiv 7,the world as known after ,columbus71 how much more the ,romans knew of the world than the ,greeks had known1 the ,europeans after ,marco ,polo's journey than the ,romans1 and the ,europeans after ,columbus's voyage than after ,marco ,polo's journey4 ,important ,date--#adib4 ,the discovery of ,america by ,columbus4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,others ,,help ,,in ,,the ,,discovery ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,world ,,the ,,race ,,to ,,the ,,indies4 ,the discovery of all the lands which make what we call the ,new ,world came very slowly4 ,it was the work of many different explorers4 ,most of the expeditions sent out to the new islands went in search of a passage to ,india4 ,it was a fine race4 ,each nation was eager to see its ships the first to reach ,india by the westward route4 ,all were disappointed at finding so much land between ,europe and ,asia4 ,it seemed to them to be of little value and to block the way to the richer countries of the ,east4 ,gradually1 however1 they discovered the great continents which we know as ,north and ,south ,america4 ,columbus had done more than he dreamed1 and his discovery was a turning-point in history4 ,,john ,,cabot4 ,john ,cabot1 an ,italian mariner at this time in the service of ,england1 left ,bristol in #adig on a voyage of discovery4 ,this was five years after ,columbus discovered the ,west ,indies4 ,cabot had heard that the sailors of ,portugal and of ,spain had occupied unknown islands4 ,he planned to do the same for ,king ,henry ,,vii of ,england4 ,for his voyage he had a single vessel no larger than the ,nia1 the smallest ship in the fleet of ,columbus4 ,eighteen men made up his crew4 ,he passed around the southern end of ,ireland1 and sailed north and west until he came to land1 which proved to be the coast of ,north ,america somewhere between the northern part of ,labrador and the southern end of ,nova ,scotia4 ,,cabot',s ,,discovery4 ,john ,cabot saw no inhabitants1 but he found notched trees1 snares for game1 and needles for making nets1 which showed plainly that the land was inhabited by human beings4 ,like ,columbus1 ,cabot thought he was off the coast of ,china4 ,,the ,,cabot ,,voyages ,,forgotten4 ,before the end of #adig ,john ,cabot was back in ,bristol4 ,it is almost certain that he and his son1 ,sebastian ,cabot1 made a second voyage to the new found lands in the following year4 ,the ,cabot voyages1 however1 were soon almost forgotten by the people of ,england4 ,illustration3 ,,sebastian ,,cabot ,after the picture ascribed to ,holbein ,,the ,,naming ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,lands4 ,why was our country named ,america rather than ,columbia or ,new ,india8 ,both the southern and northern continents which we call the ,americas were named for ,americus ,vespucius rather than for ,christopher ,columbus4 ,this seems the more strange since we know so little about the life of ,americus4 ,americus ,vespucius was born in ,florence1 ,italy1 and like many other young ,italians of that day entered the service of neighboring countries4 ,he went to ,spain and accompanied several ,spanish expeditions sent to explore the new continent which ,columbus had discovered on his third voyage4 ,perhaps ,americus went as a pilot2 he certainly was not the leader in any expedition4 ,but he seems to have written to his friends interesting accounts of what he had seen4 ,in one of these letters ,americus seems to have written boastfully of how he had found lands which might be called a new world4 ,he said that the new continent was more populous and more full of animals than ,europe1 or ,asia1 or ,africa1 and that the climate was even more temperate and pleasant than any other region4 ,this was clearly a new world4 ,,why ,,americus ,,was ,,regarded ,,as ,,the ,,discoverer ,,of ,,america4 ,the statement of ,americus was scattered widely by the help of the newly invented printing press4 ,it was written in ,latin1 and so could be read by the learned of all countries4 ,they were impressed by the belief of ,americus that he had seen a new world and not simply the ,indies4 ,this was especially true of men living outside of ,spain who had heard little of ,columbus or his discovery4 ,columbus for his part had written as if his great discovery was a way to the ,indies and the finding of islands on the way thither less important4 ,besides1 when he saw what we call ,south ,america he had no idea that it was a new world4 ,the people of ,europe either never knew that he had discovered the mainland or had forgotten it altogether4 ,but they heard a great deal about ,americus and his doings4 ,it is not strange that ,americus rather than ,columbus was long regarded as the true discoverer of ,america4 ,,two ,,names ,,for ,,the ,,new ,,lands4 ,even then the new continent might not have been called ,america but for the suggestion of a young scholar of the time4 ,martin ,waldseemller1 a professor of geography at the college of ,st4 ,di1 now in eastern ,france1 wrote a book on geography4 ,in his description of the parts of the world unknown to the ancients1 he suggested naming the continent stretching to the south for ,americus4 ,illustration3 ,,facsimile ,of the passage in the ,cosmographia ,introductio 7#aejg71 by ,martin ,waldseemller1 in which the name of ,america is proposed for the ,new ,world4 ,the facsimile's transcription reads as follows3 ,nunc ,vero et hae partes sunt latius lustratae1 et alia quarta pars per ,americum ,vesputium 7ut in sequentibus audietur7 inventa est quam non video cur quis jure vetet ab ,americo inventore sagacis ingenii viro ,amerigen quasi ,americi terram1 sive ,americam dicendam3 cum et ,europa et ,asia a mulieribus sua sortita sint nomina4 ,ejus situm et gentis mores ex bis binis ,americi navigationibus quae sequuntur liquide intelligidatur4 ,waldseemller thought ,americus had been the real discoverer of this continent4 ,he said1 ,now1 indeed1 as these regions are more widely explored1 and another fourth part has been discovered by ,americus ,vespucius1 ,i do not see why any one may justly forbid it to be named ,amerige--that is1 ,americ's ,land1 from ,americus1 the discoverer4 ,others adopted ,waldseemller's suggestion and the name ,america came into general use outside of ,spain4 ,but the ,spaniards continued to call all the new lands by the name which ,columbus had given them--the ,indies4 ,america was at first the name for ,south ,america only1 but later was also used by writers for the other continent which was soon found to the north4 ,it was natural to distinguish the two continents as ,south and ,north ,america4 ,,balboa4 ,the successors of ,columbus kept up a ceaseless search for the real ,indies1 but the more they explored the more they saw that a great continental barrier was lying across the sea passage to ,asia4 ,a few began to suspect that after all ,america was not a part of ,asia4 ,vasco ,nuez ,balboa was one of these4 ,balboa was a planter who had settled in ,espaola4 ,he fell deeply into debt1 and to escape his creditors had himself nailed up in a barrel and put aboard a vessel bound for the northern coast of ,south ,america4 ,from there he went to the eastern border of ,panama with a party of gold seekers4 ,the ,indians told him of a great sea and of an abundance of gold on its shores to be found a short distance across the isthmus4 ,it is probable that the ,indians wished to get rid of the ,spaniards as neighbors4 ,illustration3 ,,vasco ,,nu,,ez ,,balboa ,,balboa',s ,,discovery ,,of ,,the ,,pacific4 ,balboa resolved to make a name for himself and to be the discoverer of the other sea4 ,he set off in #aeac4 ,the land is not more than forty-five miles wide at ,panama1 but it is almost impassable even to this day4 ,for twenty-two days the hardy adventurers advanced through a forest1 dense with thickets and tangled swamps and interlacing vines--so thick that for days the sun could not be seen--and over rough and slippery mountain-sides until they came to an open sea stretching off to the south and west4 ,balboa called it the ,south ,sea1 but it is usually called the ,pacific ,ocean1 the name given it afterward4 ,balboa had made the important discovery that the barrier of land was comparatively narrow4 ,this gave the impression that ,north ,america1 too1 was narrower than it proved to be1 and the search for the passage to the ,indies was pushed with greater vigor4 ,,magellan4 ,a ,portuguese explorer1 ,vasco da ,gama1 had really won the race begun by ,prince ,henry's navigators and ,columbus for ,india1 the land of cloves1 pepper1 and nutmegs4 ,he had won in #adig by going around the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,another explorer1 ,ferdinand ,magellan1 finally1 reached the ,indies in a long westward voyage lasting two years1 from #aeai to #aeba4 ,illustration3 ,,ferdinand ,,magellan ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,magellan',s ,,voyage4 ,magellan1 himself a ,portuguese1 tried in vain like ,columbus to persuade the king of ,portugal to aid him in his project4 ,he succeeded better in ,spain1 and sailed from there in #aeai with a small fleet given him by the young king ,charles4 ,the five ships in his fleet were old and in bad repair1 and the crews had been brought together from every nation4 ,they sailed directly to ,south ,america1 and spent the first year searching every inlet along the coast for a passage4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,strait ,,of ,,magellan ,they found that the natives of ,south ,america used for food vegetables that looked like turnips and tasted like chestnuts4 ,the ,indians called them patatas4 ,in this way the potato1 one of the great foods of to-day1 was found by ,europeans4 ,a whole winter was passed on the cold and barren coast of ,patagonia4 ,magellan called the natives ,patagones1 the word in his language meaning big feet1 from the large foot-prints which they left on the sand4 ,,the ,,strait ,,of ,,magellan4 ,magellan finally found a strait1 since named for him the ,strait of ,magellan1 and sailed his ships through it amid the greatest dangers4 ,the change from the rough waters of the strait to the calm sea beyond made the word ,pacific or ,peaceful ,sea seem the most suitable name for the vast body of water which they had entered4 ,,the ,,first ,,voyage ,,across ,,the ,,pacific4 ,from the western coast of ,south ,america ,magellan struck boldly out into the ,pacific ,ocean on his way to ,asia4 ,the crews suffered untold hardships4 ,the very rats which overran the rotten ships became a luxurious article of food which only the more fortunate members of the crews could afford4 ,the poorer seamen lived for days on the ox-hide strips which protected the masts4 ,these were soaked in sea-water and roasted over the fire4 ,magellan was fortunate enough to chance upon the ,isle of ,guam1 where plentiful supplies were obtained4 ,he called the group of small islands1 of which ,guam is one1 the ,ladrones4 ,this was his word for robbers1 used because the natives were such robbers4 ,the expedition discovered a group of islands afterwards called the ,philippines4 ,there ,magellan fell in with traders from the ,indies and knew that the remainder of the voyage would be through well-known seas and over a route frequently followed4 ,poor ,magellan did not live to complete his remarkable voyage4 ,he was killed in the ,philippine ,islands in a battle with the natives4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,old ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,world--#aebc ,after ,magellan's voyage1 but before the exploration of ,north ,america had gone far ,only one of the five ships found its way through the ,spice ,islands1 across the ,indian ,ocean1 around the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and so back to ,spain2 but this one carried home twenty-six tons of cloves1 worth more than enough to pay the whole cost of the expedition4 ,such was the value of the trade ,europe was so eagerly seeking4 ,,what ,,magellan ,,had ,,shown ,,the ,,people ,,of ,,europe4 ,magellan's voyage had1 however1 been a great event4 ,historians are agreed that it was the greatest voyage in the history of mankind4 ,it had shown in a practical way that the earth is a globe1 just as ,columbus and other wise men had long taught1 for a ship had sailed completely around it4 ,but ,magellan had also proved some things that they had not dreamed4 ,he had shown that two great oceans instead of one lay between ,europe and ,asia2 he had made clear that the ,indies which the ,spanish explorers had found1 and which other people were beginning to call the ,americas1 were really a new world entirely separate from ,asia1 and not a part of ,asia as ,columbus had thought4 ,,questions #a4 ,why were the early ,american explorers disappointed at finding two continents between ,europe and ,asia8 #b4 ,what land did ,john ,cabot discover8 ,where did he think this land was8 ,why did the ,english people take little interest in this voyage8 #c4 ,why was our country named ,america8 ,do you think that ,americus ,vespucius deserved so great an honor8 ,by what name did the ,spaniards continue to call the new region8 ,why did the ,spaniards have one name and the other ,europeans another name for a long time8 #d4 ,how did ,balboa come to find the ,pacific ,ocean8 ,why did men search for a passage between the ,atlantic and the ,pacific more vigorously after ,balboa's expedition8 #e4 ,why has ,magellan's voyage been called the greatest one in history8 ,what three things had ,magellan shown the ,european world8 ,,exercises #a4 ,make out a list of the explorers mentioned in this chapter who helped in the discovery of the ,new ,world1 and place opposite the name of each the name of the land he discovered4 #b4 ,trace ,magellan's voyage on the map and make a list of the lands or countries he passed4 ,look at the map of ,north ,america on this old map1 and at the one in mentioned ,chapter ,,xix4 ,how do you account for the queer shape of ,north ,america on the old map8 ,important date--#aeai-ba4 ,magellan's ship made the first voyage around the world4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,early ,,spanish ,,explorers ,,and ,,conquerors ,,on ,,the ,,mainland ,,the ,,civilization ,,of ,,the ,,mexican ,,indians4 ,early ,spanish explorers on the coast of ,mexico found the ,indians of the mainland more highly civilized than the natives of the ,west ,indies4 ,some of these1 especially the ,aztecs1 lived in large villages or cities and were ruled by powerful chiefs or kings4 ,they built to their gods huge stone temples with towers several stories in height4 ,their houses1 quite unlike those of the other ,indians the ,spanish had seen1 were made of stone or sun-dried brick and coated with hard white plaster4 ,some of them were of immense size and could hold many families4 ,doors had not been invented1 but hangings of woven grass or matting of cotton served instead4 ,strings of shells which a visitor could rattle answered for door-bells4 ,the streets of the towns were narrow1 but were often paved with a sort of cement4 ,aqueducts in solid masonry somewhat like the old ,roman aqueducts1 although not so large1 carried water from the neighboring hills for fountains and rude public baths4 ,the women wove cotton and prepared clothing for their families4 ,workmen made ornaments of gold and copper1 and utensils and dishes of pottery for every-day use4 ,the people cultivated the fields around the cities1 raising a great variety of foods1 and even built ditches to carry water for irrigating the fields4 ,all this was in striking contrast with the simple habits of the ,west ,indians4 ,illustration3 ,,aztec ,,sacrificial ,,stone ,now in the ,national ,museum in the ,city of ,mexico ,,cruel ,,customs ,,of ,,the ,,aztecs4 ,with all the good features of ,mexican life1 with all the superiority of the ,mexicans over the other ,indians1 there was much that was hideous and cruel4 ,the ,aztecs1 the most powerful tribes1 were continually at war with their neighbors4 ,they lived mainly upon the plunder of their enemies and the tribute which they took from those they had conquered4 ,like all ,mexicans1 they worshiped great ugly idols as gods and to these their priests offered part of the captives taken in war as human sacrifices4 ,,spanish ,,ideas ,,of ,,mexico4 ,the reports of the ,aztec civilization and of the treasures of gold1 mostly untrue1 excited the interest and greed of the ,spaniards4 ,mexico seemed like the ,china which ,marco ,polo had described1 and might offer a chance of immense wealth for those who should conquer it4 ,in truth1 ,mexican civilization did resemble that of ,asia more than anything that the ,spaniards had seen4 ,montezuma1 a powerful chief or king of the ,aztecs1 lived somewhat like a ,mongol ,emperor of ,persia or ,china4 ,illustration3 ,,montezuma1 ,,the ,,last ,,king ,,of ,,mexico ,after ,montanus and ,ogilby ,,cort,s4 ,in #aeai the governor of ,cuba sent ,hernando ,corts to explore and conquer ,mexico4 ,the expedition landed where ,vera ,cruz is now situated4 ,the ships were then sunk in order to cut off all hope of retreat for the soldiers4 ,for whom but cowards1 said ,corts1 were means of retreat necessary6 ,corts1 with great skill1 worked up the zeal of his soldiers to the fury of a religious crusade4 ,all thought it a duty to destroy the idols they saw1 to end the practice of offering human sacrifices1 and to force the ,christian religion upon the natives4 ,the small army marched slowly inland towards the ,city of ,mexico1 which was the capital of ,montezuma's kingdom4 ,corts and his men had learned the ,indian mode of fighting from ambush1 and also how successfully to match cunning and treachery with those villagers who tried to prevent his invasion of their country4 ,,how ,,the ,,spaniards ,,and ,,the ,,aztecs ,,fought4 ,the ,mexican warriors1 though they fought fiercely1 were no match for the ,spaniards4 ,the ,mexicans were experts with the bow and arrow1 using arrows pointed with a hard kind of stone4 ,they carried for hand-to-hand fighting a narrow club set with a double edge of razor-like stones1 and wore a crude kind of armor made from quilted cotton4 ,but such things were useless against ,spanish bullets shot from afar4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,armor ,,of ,,cort,s ,after an engraving of the original in the ,national ,museum1 ,madrid ,the roaring cannon1 the glittering steel swords1 the thick armor and shining helmets1 the prancing horses on which the ,spanish leaders were mounted1 gave the whole a strange1 unearthly appearance to the simple-minded ,indians4 ,the story is told that the ,mexicans believed that one of their gods had once floated out to sea1 saying that1 in the fulness of time1 he would return with fair-skinned companions to begin again his rule over his people4 ,many ,aztecs looked upon the coming of the white men as the return of this god and thought that resistance would be useless4 ,such natives sent presents1 made their peace with ,corts1 and so weakened the opposition to the conquerors4 ,,cort,s ,,in ,,peril4 ,corts easily entered the ,city of ,mexico1 and forced ,montezuma to resign4 ,but here the natives attacked his army in such numbers that he had to retreat to escape capture4 ,the ,spaniards fled from the city at night amid the onslaught of the inhabitants fighting for their religion and their homes4 ,illustration3 ,,cannon ,,of ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,cort,s ,after ,van ,menken4 ,there are in the naval museum at ,annapolis guns captured in the ,mexican ,war supposed to be those used by ,corts ,the retreat cost the ,spaniards terrible losses4 ,corts started in the evening on the retreat with #a1bej soldiers1 #f1jjj ,indian allies1 and #hj horses4 ,there were left in the morning #ejj soldiers1 #b1jjj allies1 and #bj horses4 ,corts is said to have buried his face in his hands and wept for his lost followers1 but he never wavered in his purpose of taking ,mexico4 ,he was able to defeat the ,indians in the open country1 and to return to the attack on the capital city4 ,,capture ,,of ,,the ,,city ,,of ,,mexico4 ,the siege which followed1 lasting nearly three months1 has rarely been matched in history for the bravery and suffering of the natives4 ,the fighting was constant and terrible4 ,the fresh water supply was cut off from the inhabitants in the city1 and famine aided the invaders4 ,at length the defenders were exhausted and ,corts entered4 ,it had taken him two years to conquer the ,aztecs4 ,a greater task remained for him to do4 ,he was to cleanse and rebuild the ,city of ,mexico1 make it a center of ,spanish civilization1 and ,mexico a ,new ,spain4 ,by such work ,corts showed that he could be not only a great conqueror1 but also an able ruler in time of peace4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,city ,,of ,,mexico ,,under ,,the ,,conquerors ,from the engraving in the ,niewe ,wereld of ,montanus ,,pizarro4 ,a few years after ,corts conquered ,mexico a second army conquered another famous ,indian kingdom4 ,francisco ,pizarro commanded this expedition1 which set out from ,panama in #aeca4 ,pizarro had been with ,balboa at the discovery of the ,south ,sea or ,pacific ,ocean1 and1 like his master1 had become interested in the stories the ,indians told of a rich kingdom far to the south4 ,the golden kingdom which the ,indians described was that of the ,incas1 who lived much as the ,aztecs4 ,the ,spaniards called the region of the ,incas the ,biru country or1 by softening the first letter1 the ,peru country1 from ,biru1 who was a native ,indian chieftain4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,stone ,,idol ,,of ,,the ,,aztec',s ,it is more than eight feet high and five feet across1 and was dug up in the central square of the ,city of ,mexico more than one hundred years ago ,,conquest ,,of ,,peru4 ,pizarro found the ,incas divided as usual by civil wars and incapable of much resistance4 ,one of their rival chiefs was outwitted when he tried to capture ,pizarro by a trick1 and was himself made a prisoner instead4 ,he offered to give ,pizarro in return for his freedom as much gold as would fill his prison room as high as he could reach4 ,the offer was accepted1 and gold1 mainly in the shape of vases1 plates1 images1 and other ornaments from the temples for the ,indian idols1 was gathered together4 ,the ,spaniards soon found themselves in possession of almost #g1jjj1jjj worth of gold1 besides a vast quantity of silver4 ,as much more was taken from the ,indians by force4 ,the whole was divided among the conquerors4 ,pizarro's share was worth nearly a million dollars4 ,but the poor chief who had made them suddenly rich was suspected of plotting to have his warriors ambush them as they left the country1 was tried by his conquerors1 and put to death4 ,the bloody work of conquest was soon over4 ,peru1 like ,mexico1 rapidly became a center of ,spanish settlement4 ,emigrants1 instead of stopping in the ,west ,indies1 had the choice of going on into the newer regions which ,corts and ,pizarro had won4 ,,emigrants ,,to ,,spanish ,,america4 ,it was much harder in the sixteenth century to leave ,spain and settle in ,america than it is today4 ,the first and sometimes the greatest difficulty was in getting permission to leave ,spain4 ,no one could go who had not secured the king's consent4 ,the emigrant must show that neither he nor his father nor his grandfather had ever been guilty of heresy1 that is1 that he and his forefathers had been steadfast ,catholic ,christians4 ,his wife1 if he had one1 must give her consent4 ,his debts must all be paid4 ,the ,moors and the ,jews of ,spain could not secure permits to move to the ,new ,world4 ,foreigners of whatever nation were not wanted in the colonies and were usually kept out4 ,spain tried to keep its colonies wholly for ,spaniards4 ,,hardships ,,of ,,the ,,sea ,,voyage4 ,those who did go to the colonies found the voyage dangerous and costly4 ,one traveler has related that it cost him about one hundred and eighty dollars for the passage1 and that he provided his own chickens and bread4 ,the danger to sailing ships from storms was much greater than it is today for steamships4 ,the voyage required three or four weeks and not uncommonly as many months4 ,,the ,,need ,,of ,,laborers4 ,the hardships and dangers of the voyage and the reports of suffering from famine and disease kept most people from going to the ,new ,world4 ,emigration was slow1 amounting to about a thousand a year4 ,there were always fewer capable white laborers than the landowners in the colonies needed for their work1 for there was much to do in clearing the land and preparing it for use4 ,the landowners were usually well-to-do ,spaniards who did not like to work in the fields themselves4 ,a great many of the laborers who migrated to ,america served in the army or went to the gold and silver mines of ,mexico and ,peru4 ,the craze for gold constantly robbed the older colonies of their farm laborers4 ,the landowners in the islands of the ,west ,indies1 during the early history of the colonies1 made slaves of the ,indians and compelled them to take the place of the laborers they needed and could not obtain4 ,,indian ,,slavery4 ,the people of ,europe thought that the whole world belonged to the followers of ,christ4 ,non-,christians1 whether ,indian or negro1 had the choice of accepting ,christianity or of being made slaves4 ,the choice of ,christianity did not always save them from the fate of slavery4 ,in this the ,spaniards were no more cruel than their neighbors the ,english or the ,french4 ,the ,spanish planters from the beginning forced the ,indians to work their farms4 ,the gold seekers made them work in their mines4 ,the labor in every case was hard1 and specially hard for the ,indian unused to work4 ,the overseers were brutal when the slaves did not do the tasks set for them4 ,hard usage and the unhealthful quarters rapidly broke down the natives4 ,the white men also brought into the island diseases which they1 with their greater experience1 could resist1 but from which1 one writer says1 the ,indians died like sheep with a distemper4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,spanish ,,galleon ,ships like this carried the ,spanish emigrants to ,america ,,slavery ,,destroys ,,the ,,west ,,indians4 ,when the number of the ,indians in ,espaola and ,cuba had decreased so much that there were not enough left to meet the needs of the planters1 slave-hunters searched the neighboring islands for others4 ,finally1 when the ,indians were nearly gone1 and the planters began to look to the mainland for their slaves1 the king of ,spain forbade making slaves of the ,indians4 ,unfortunately he did not forbid them to capture negroes in ,africa for the same purpose1 and the change merely meant that negroes took the place of ,indians as slaves4 ,the story of the change is in great part the story of the life of ,bartholomew de ,las ,casas4 ,,las ,,casas4 ,the father of ,las ,casas was a companion of ,columbus on his second voyage in #adic4 ,he returned to ,spain1 taking with him a young ,indian slave whom he gave to his son4 ,this youth became greatly interested in the race to which his young slave belonged4 ,in #aejb he went to ,espaola to take possession of his father's estate4 ,the planter's life did not long satisfy him and finally he became a priest4 ,he moved from ,espaola to ,cuba1 the newer colony4 ,las ,casas became convinced that ,indian slavery was wrong1 and gave his own slaves their freedom4 ,in his sermons he attacked the abuses of slavery4 ,he visited ,spain in order to help the slaves1 and secured many reforms which lessened the hardships of their lot4 ,since the planters demanded more laborers and ,las ,casas thought the negro would be hardier than the ,indian1 he advocated negro slavery in place of ,indian slavery as the less of two evils4 ,finally1 in #aedb1 ,las ,casas persuaded his king1 ,charles ,v1 to put an end to ,indian slavery of every form4 ,his success came too late to benefit the natives of the ,west ,indies4 ,they had decreased until almost none were left4 ,it is said that there were two hundred thousand ,indians in ,espaola in #adib1 and that in #aedh there were barely five hundred survivors4 ,the same decrease had taken place in the other islands4 ,but the work of ,las ,casas came in time to save the ,indians on the mainland from the fate of the luckless islanders4 ,,negro ,,slavery4 ,las ,casas later regretted that he had advised the planters to obtain negroes to take the place of the ,indians4 ,some negroes had been captured by the ,portuguese on the coast of ,africa during their explorations and taken to ,europe as slaves4 ,columbus carried a few of these to the ,west ,indies with him1 and others had followed his example1 but negro slavery had grown very slowly until after ,las ,casas stopped ,indian slavery1 when it increased rapidly in ,spanish ,america4 ,illustration3 ,,las ,,casas ,after the picture by ,felix ,parra in the ,academy1 ,mexico4 ,las ,casas is supposed to be imploring ,providence to shield the natives from ,spanish cruelty ,,the ,,missions ,,of ,,the ,,mainland4 ,las ,casas became at one time a missionary to a tribe of the most desperate warriors located on the southern border of ,mexico1 in a region called by the ,spaniards the ,land of ,war4 ,three times a ,spanish army had invaded the country1 and three times it had been driven back by the native defenders4 ,las ,casas wished to show the ,spaniards that more could be accomplished by treating the ,indians kindly than by bloody warfare and conquest4 ,he and the monks whom he took with him learned the language of the ,indians1 and went among them not as conquerors but as ,christian teachers4 ,their gentle manners and endless patience won the friendship of the ,indians in time and changed the land of constant warfare into one of peace4 ,they led the natives to destroy their idols and to give up cannibalism4 ,the mission established among them and kept up by the monks who were attracted to it was only one of a great number which sprang up on the mainland4 ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,missions4 ,influenced by the work of ,las ,casas against ,indian slavery and for ,indian missions1 the ,spaniards bent their efforts to preserve and ,christianize the natives wherever they came upon them in ,america4 ,catholic priests gathered the ,indians into permanent villages1 which were called missions4 ,within about one hundred years after the death of ,columbus1 or by #afjj1 there were more then #e1jjj1jjj ,indians in such villages under ,spanish rule4 ,priests taught them to build better houses1 checked their native vices1 and suppressed heathen practices4 ,every mission became a little industrial school for children and parents alike1 where all might learn the simpler arts and trades and the customs and language of their teachers4 ,each ,indian cultivated his own plot of land and worked two hours a day on the farm belonging to the village4 ,the produce of the village farm supported the church4 ,the monks or friars who had charge of the mission cared for the poor1 taught in the schools1 preserved the peace and order of the village1 and looked after the religious welfare of all4 ,illustration3 ,,ruins ,,of ,a ,,spanish ,,mission ,,house ,gradually ,spanish emigrants settled in the mission stations1 and planters established farms around them1 and they became ,spanish villages in every respect like those in the islands or in the ,old ,world1 except that many inhabitants in the towns on the mainland were ,indians4 ,the emigrants freely intermarried with the ,indians and a mixed race took the place of the old inhabitants4 ,the customs1 language1 religion1 and rule of ,spain prevailed in this ,new ,spain1 though in some ways the new civilization was not so good as that of the ,old ,world4 ,,questions #a4 ,in what ways did the ,aztecs resemble the ,europeans8 ,how did they differ from them8 ,why were the ,spaniards particularly anxious to conquer ,mexico8 #b4 ,why did many of the ,mexicans refuse to fight the ,spaniards8 ,how many soldiers and ,indian allies did ,corts lose in one battle8 ,how long did it take ,corts to conquer ,mexico8 #c4 ,what other ,indian people was conquered a few years later8 ,by whom8 ,what seemed to be the main object of these conquerors1 ,corts and ,pizarro1 in their expeditions8 #d4 ,why did the ,spaniards make slaves of the ,indians in the ,west ,indies8 ,why did they later cease making slaves of ,indians and begin making slaves of negroes8 ,what share had ,las ,casas in this change8 #e4 ,what good work did the priests and monks in the ,spanish ,missions accomplish8 ,what became of the ,aztecs or other ,indian tribes in ,mexico8 ,,exercises #a4 ,find all you can about the houses1 food1 clothing1 and occupations of any ,indians living in your part of the ,united ,states1 or if none are there now1 learn this from your parents or from some neighbor who knew the ,indians4 ,did they resemble the ,aztecs in these respects or the ,west ,indians8 #b4 ,review the account of emigrating to ,spanish ,america four hundred years ago4 ,who could not go to ,spanish ,america then8 ,find out who may not come into the ,united ,states to-day4 ,what did it cost one traveler to get to ,america in the sixteenth century8 ,find out the cost of a voyage from ,europe to ,america to-day4 ,how long did it take to make such a voyage8 ,find out the usual length of a voyage from ,europe to-day4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,the ,,spanish ,,explorers ,,of ,,north ,,america ,,ponce ,,de ,,leon4 ,while men like ,corts were exploring and conquering the countries on the west shore of the ,gulf of ,mexico1 others began to search the vast regions to the north4 ,one of these explorers was ,ponce de ,leon1 who had come to ,espaola with ,columbus in #adic4 ,he afterwards spent many years in the ,west ,indies capturing ,indians1 and understood from something they said that a magic fountain could be found beyond the ,bahamas which would restore an old man to youth and vigor1 if he bathed in it4 ,illustration3 ,,ponce ,,de ,,leon ,as ,ponce de ,leon was beginning to feel aged he went in search of this wondrous fountain1 but he found instead a coast where flowers grew in great abundance4 ,it was the ,easter season in #aeac4 ,since the ,spanish call this season ,pascua ,florida or ,flowery ,easter1 ,ponce called the new flowery country ,florida4 ,he went ashore near the present site of ,st4 ,augustine1 and later1 while trying to establish a settlement1 lost his life in a battle with the ,indians4 ,,explorations ,,of ,,north ,,american ,,coast4 ,other ,spanish explorers between #aeac and #aebe followed the whole ,gulf coast from ,florida to ,vera ,cruz1 and the ,atlantic coast from ,florida to ,labrador4 ,they sought continually for a passage to ,india4 ,every large inlet was entered1 for it might prove to be the long-looked-for strait4 ,slowly the coast of ,north ,america took shape on the maps of that time4 ,two famous expeditions into the interior of the country did much to enlarge this knowledge4 ,one was made by ,de ,soto through the region which now forms seven southern states of the ,united ,states1 and the other was by ,coronado through the great southwest4 ,illustration3 ,,hernando ,,de ,,soto ,,de ,,soto4 ,hernando de ,soto1 a noble from ,seville in ,spain1 had won fame and fortune with ,pizarro in ,peru4 ,the ,king of ,spain1 to reward his bravery and skill in conquering ,indians1 made him ,governor of ,cuba4 ,in those days the ,governor of ,cuba controlled ,florida4 ,it was a larger ,florida than the present state of that name1 for ,spanish ,florida included the whole north coast of the ,gulf of ,mexico running back into the continent without any definite boundary4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,gilded ,,man4 ,de ,soto had heard a fanciful story of a country so rich in gold that its king was smeared every morning with gum and then thickly sprinkled with powdered gold1 which was washed off at night4 ,de ,soto thought this country might be somewhere in ,florida1 and prepared to search for the ,gilded ,man1 or in the ,spanish language ,el ,dorado4 ,,the ,,comrades ,,of ,,de ,,soto4 ,more than six hundred men1 some of them from the oldest families of the nobility of ,spain and ,portugal1 flocked to ,de ,soto's banner4 ,they sold their possessions at home and ventured all their wealth in the hope of obtaining great riches in ,florida4 ,,de ,,soto',s ,,route ,,through ,,the ,,south ,,of ,,north ,,america4 ,de ,soto crossed from ,cuba to the west coast of ,florida in #aeci1 and advanced northward by land to an ,indian village near ,apalachee ,bay4 ,here he spent the first winter4 ,a white man1 whom the ,indians had taken captive twelve years before and finally adopted1 joined ,de ,soto and became very useful as an interpreter4 ,illustration3 ,,spanish ,,knight ,,of #af,,th ,,century ,in the spring ,de ,soto renewed his explorations4 ,it was like a journey into the interior of ,africa4 ,the expedition passed northeasterly through the country now within ,georgia and ,south ,carolina1 as far1 perhaps1 as the border of ,north ,carolina4 ,from here it passed through the mountains1 and turned southwesterly through ,tennessee and ,alabama until a large ,indian village called ,mauvilla was reached4 ,this was near the head of ,mobile ,bay4 ,mobile was named from the ,indian village ,mauvilla4 ,the ,alabama ,indians1 whose name means the thicket clearers1 were near by4 ,here again ,de ,soto changed his course to the northwest into the unknown interior4 ,,the ,,hardships ,,of ,,the ,,journey4 ,his army was almost exhausted by the difficulties of the journey4 ,a road had to be cut and broken through thickets and forest1 paths had to be made through the many swamps1 and fords found across the rivers4 ,it frequently became necessary to stop for months at a time1 to let the horses1 worn out from travel and starving because of the scarcity of fodder1 fatten on the grass4 ,the stores which the army brought with them soon gave out4 ,the men were forced to live like ,indians1 and were often reduced to using the roots of wild plants for food4 ,where they could1 they robbed the ,indians of their scanty stores of corn and beans4 ,illustration3 ,,indians ,,broiling ,,fish ,,cruel ,,treatment ,,of ,,the ,,indians4 ,de ,soto was cruel in his treatment of the conquered natives along his route4 ,many of his officers came with him really for the purpose of obtaining ,indian slaves for their plantations in ,cuba4 ,indian women were made to do the work of the camp4 ,indian men were chained together and forced to carry the baggage4 ,the chiefs were held as hostages for the good behavior of the whole tribe4 ,the ,indians who tried to shirk work or offered resistance were killed without mercy4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,de ,,soto',s ,,route--#aeci-aedb ,de ,soto's cruelties made the ,indian of the ,south hate the white men1 and left him the enemy of any who should come to those regions in after-years4 ,more than once ,de ,soto narrowly escaped destruction at the hands of the enraged savages4 ,they attacked the ,spaniards with all their strength at ,mauvilla1 and again while they were in camp in northern ,mississippi for the winter of #aedj-aeda4 ,these two battles with the ,indians cost the ,spaniards their baggage1 which was destroyed in the burning villages4 ,new clothing1 however1 was soon made from the skins of wild animals4 ,deerskins and bearskins served for cloaks1 jackets1 shirts1 stockings1 and even for shoes4 ,the great army must have looked much like a band of ,robinson ,crusoes4 ,,the ,,discovery ,,of ,,the ,,mississippi4 ,de ,soto marched on northwesterly until ,may #h1 #aeda1 when he was somewhere near the site of the present city of ,memphis4 ,there he came upon a great river4 ,one of his officers tells us that the river was so wide at this point that if a man on the other side stood still1 it could not be known whether he were a man or not2 that the river was of great depth1 and of a strong current2 and that the water was always muddy4 ,de ,soto called it1 in his own language1 the ,rio ,grande or ,great ,river1 but the ,indians called it the ,mississippi4 ,americans have adopted the ,indian name4 ,other ,spanish explorers had probably passed the mouth of the ,mississippi ,river before ,de ,soto1 and wondered at its mighty size1 but ,de ,soto was the first white man to approach it from the land and to appreciate the importance of his discovery4 ,,wanderings ,,west ,,of ,,the ,,mississippi4 ,the ,spaniards cut down trees1 made them into planks and built barges on which they crossed the ,mississippi4 ,then they wandered for another year through the endless woods and marshes of the low-lying lands now within the state of ,arkansas4 ,they probably went as far west as the open plains of ,oklahoma or ,texas4 ,in these border regions between the forests and the prairies they met ,indians who used the skins of the buffalo for clothing4 ,illustration3 ,,burial ,,of ,,de ,,soto ,,in ,,the ,,mississippi ,,death ,,and ,,burial ,,of ,,de ,,soto4 ,the severe winter of #aeda-aedb discouraged the hardy travelers1 who had now spent nearly three years in a vain search4 ,the natives whom they had found made clothing from the fiber in the bark of mulberry trees and from the hides of buffaloes1 and stored beans and corn for food1 but such things seemed of little value to the seekers for the ,gilded ,man4 ,de ,soto returned to the ,mississippi and prepared to establish a colony somewhere near the mouth of the ,red ,river4 ,it was his purpose to send to ,cuba for supplies1 and1 with this settlement as a base1 make a farther search in the plains of the great ,west4 ,he did not live to carry out his plan4 ,long exposure and anxiety had weakened him4 ,the malaria of the swamps attacked him1 and he died within a few days4 ,his body was wrapped in mantles weighted with sand1 carried in a canoe1 and secretly lowered in the midst of the great river he had discovered4 ,his successor tried to conceal ,de ,soto's death from the ,indians4 ,the ,spaniards had called their leader the ,child of the ,sun1 and now he had died like any other mortal4 ,they were afraid if the ,indians found his body they would cease to believe that the strangers were immortal and would massacre them all4 ,the ,indians were told that the great leader had gone to ,heaven1 as he had often done before1 and that he would return in a few days4 ,,results ,,of ,,de ,,soto',s ,,journey4 ,the weary survivors built boats1 floated down the ,mississippi into the ,gulf1 and sailed cautiously along the coasts to ,mexico4 ,they had been gone four years and three months1 and half of the army which set out had perished4 ,however1 the expedition of ,de ,soto will always remain one of the most remarkable journeys in the history of ,north ,america4 ,it had extended the ,spanish claims far into the interior4 ,with it had begun the written history of the country now composing at least eight states in the ,united ,states1 ,florida1 ,georgia1 ,south ,carolina1 ,north ,carolina1 ,alabama1 ,mississippi1 ,tennessee1 and ,arkansas4 ,it had perhaps reached the present ,oklahoma and ,texas1 and had certainly passed down the ,mississippi ,river through ,louisiana4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,seven ,,cities4 ,while ,de ,soto was exploring the southeastern part of ,north ,america a second expedition searched the southwest4 ,both were looking for rich ,indian kingdoms like ,mexico and ,peru4 ,the second expedition came about in this manner4 ,some of the ,indians from northern ,mexico told the ,spaniards a strange tale of how in the distant past their ancestors came forth from seven caves4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,indian ,,of ,,northern ,,mexico ,the ,spaniards1 however1 confused the tale with a story of their own about ,seven ,cities4 ,they believed that at the time ,spain was overrun by the ,moors in the eighth century1 seven bishops1 flying from persecution1 had taken refuge1 with a great company of followers1 on an island or group of islands far out in the ,atlantic ,ocean1 and that they had built ,seven ,cities4 ,wonderful stories were told in ,spain of these cities1 of their wealth and splendor1 though nobody ever pretended to have actually seen them4 ,the ,spaniards thought the ,indians meant to tell them of these ,seven ,cities instead of seven caves4 ,the mistake was natural1 as the ,spanish explorers had much trouble in understanding the ,indian languages4 ,they had long expected to find the ,seven ,cities in ,america4 ,indeed there was rumor that white travelers had seen them north of ,mexico4 ,,the ,,journey ,,of ,,friar ,,marcos4 ,in #aeci the ,viceroy of ,mexico sent a frontier missionary1 ,friar ,marcos by name1 together with a negro1 ,stephen1 and some ,christianized ,indians to look for them4 ,friar ,marcos traveled far to the north4 ,he inquired his way of the ,indians1 always asking them about ,seven ,cities4 ,he described them as large cities with houses made of stone and mortar4 ,the ,indians1 half-understanding him1 directed him to seven ,zui villages or pueblos4 ,the first of these they called ,cibola4 ,friar ,marcos henceforth spoke of them as the ,seven ,cities of ,cibola4 ,the good friar himself never entered even the first of them4 ,his negro1 ,stephen1 had been sent on in advance to prepare the way1 but this rough1 greedy fellow offended the ,indians1 who promptly murdered him4 ,when the friar approached he found the ,indians so excited and hostile that he dared not enter their village4 ,he did1 however1 venture to climb a hill at a distance1 from which he had a view of one of the cities of ,cibola4 ,the houses1 built of light stone and whitish adobe1 glistened in the wonderfully clear air and bright sunlight of that region1 and gave him the idea of a much larger and richer city than really existed4 ,friar ,marcos1 by this time thoroughly frightened1 hurriedly retraced his steps4 ,,coronado4 ,there was great excitement in ,mexico over the story ,friar ,marcos told4 ,the account of what had been seen grew1 as such stories always do1 in the telling and retelling4 ,nothing else was thought of in all ,new ,spain4 ,the ,viceroy of ,mexico made ready a great army for the conquest of the ,seven ,cities of ,cibola4 ,he gave the command to his intimate friend1 ,francisco de ,coronado4 ,everybody wanted to accompany him1 but it was necessary to have the consent of the viceroy4 ,sons of nobles1 eager to go1 traded with their more fortunate neighbors for the viceroy's permit4 ,some men who secured these sold them as special favors to their friends4 ,whoever obtained one of them counted it as good as a title of nobility4 ,so high were the expectations of great wealth when the ,seven ,cities should be discovered6 ,illustration3 ,a ,,zu,i ,,pueblo ,,from ,a ,,distance ,,the ,,army ,,of ,,coronado4 ,in the early part of #aedj1 ,coronado set forth from his home in western ,mexico near the ,gulf of ,california4 ,he had an army of three hundred ,spaniards1 nearly all the younger sons of nobles4 ,they were fitted out with polished coats of mail and gilded armor1 carried lances and swords1 and were mounted on the choicest horses from the large stock-farms of the viceroy4 ,there were in the army a few footmen armed with crossbows and harquebuses4 ,a thousand negroes and ,indians were taken along1 mainly as servants for the white masters4 ,some led the spare horses4 ,others carried the baggage1 or drove the oxen and cows1 the sheep and swine which would be needed on the journey4 ,a small fleet carried part of the baggage by way of the ,gulf of ,california1 prepared also to help ,coronado in other ways1 and to explore the ,gulf to its head4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,route ,,of ,,coronado ,,the ,,route ,,of ,,coronado ,,to ,,cibola4 ,the large army marched slowly through the wild regions of the ,gulf coast4 ,coronado soon became impatient and pushed ahead of the main body with a small following of picked horsemen4 ,they went through the mountainous wilderness of northern ,mexico and across the desert plains of southeastern ,arizona4 ,after a march lasting five months1 over a distance equal to that from ,new ,york to ,omaha1 ,coronado came upon the ,seven ,cities of ,cibola2 but the real ,seven ,cities of ,cibola as ,coronado found them bore little resemblance to what he had expected4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,zu,i ,,pueblo ,,the ,,real ,,seven ,,cities ,,of ,,cibola4 ,the first city of ,cibola was an ,indian pueblo of about two hundred flat-roofed houses1 built of stone and sun-dried clay4 ,the houses were entered by climbing ladders to the top and then passing down into the rooms as we enter ships through hatches4 ,the people wore only such clothes as could be woven from the coarse fiber of native plants1 or patched together from the tanned skins of the cat or the deer4 ,they cultivated certain plants for food1 but only small and poor varieties of corn1 beans1 and melons4 ,they had some skill in making small things for house and personal decoration1 mainly in the form of pottery and simple ornaments of green stone4 ,the kingdom of rich cities dwindled to a small province of poor villages inhabited by an unwarlike people4 ,we know now that ,coronado had found the ,zui pueblos in the western part of ,new ,mexico4 ,the conquest of these was a wofully small thing for so grand and costly an expedition4 ,no gold or silver or precious jewels had been found4 ,illustration3 ,,canyon ,,of ,,the ,,colorado ,,the ,,canyon ,,of ,,the ,,colorado4 ,yet the wonders of the natural world about them astonished and interested the ,spaniards4 ,some of their number found the ,grand ,canyon of the ,colorado ,river and vividly described it to their comrades4 ,as they looked into its depths it seemed as if the water was six feet across1 although in reality it was many hundred feet wide4 ,some tried without success to descend the steep cliff to the stream below or to discover a means of crossing to the opposite side4 ,those who staid above estimated that some huge rocks on the side of the cliff were about as tall as a man1 but those who went down as far as they could swore that when they reached these rocks they found them bigger than the great tower of ,seville1 which is two hundred and seventy-five feet high4 ,,coronado ,,in ,,new ,,mexico4 ,coronado marched from the ,cities of ,cibola eastward to the valley of the ,rio ,grande ,river1 and settled for the winter in an ,indian village a short distance south of the present city of ,albuquerque1 ,new ,mexico4 ,the ,spaniards drove the natives out1 only allowing them to take the clothes they wore4 ,a ,,winter ,,in ,,an ,,indian ,,village4 ,the soldiers passed the severe winter of #aedj-aeda comfortably quartered in the best houses of the ,indian village4 ,a plentiful supply of corn and beans had been left by the unfortunate owners4 ,the live stock brought from ,mexico furnished an abundance of fresh meat4 ,coronado required the ,indians to furnish three hundred pieces of cloth for cloaks and blankets for his men1 to take the place of their own1 now worn out4 ,nor did the officers give the ,indians time to secure the cloth that was demanded1 but forced them to take their own cloaks and blankets off their backs4 ,when a soldier came upon an ,indian whose blanket was better than his1 he compelled the unlucky fellow to exchange with him without more ado4 ,coronado's strenuous efforts to provide well for the comforts of his men made him much loved by them1 but much hated by the ,indians4 ,it is no wonder that such treatment drove the ,indians into rebellion1 and that ,coronado was obliged to carry on a cruel war of reconquest and revenge4 ,,the ,,tale ,,of ,,quivira4 ,an ,indian slave in one of the villages cheered ,coronado and his followers with a fabulous tale about a wonderful city1 many days' journey across the plains to the northeast1 which he called ,quivira4 ,the king of ,quivira1 he said1 took his nap under a large tree1 on which were hung little gold bells1 which put him to sleep as they swung in the air4 ,every one in the city had jugs and bowls made of wrought gold4 ,the slave was probably tempted by the eagerness of his hearers to make his tale bigger4 ,he perhaps made it as enticing as he could in order to lead the strangers away to perish in the pathless plains where water would be scarce and corn unknown4 ,,the ,,search ,,for ,,quivira4 ,the slave's story deceived the ,spaniards4 ,coronado grasped eagerly at the only hope left of finding a rich country and marched away in search of ,quivira4 ,he traveled to the northeast for seventy-seven days4 ,there were no guiding land marks4 ,soldiers measured the distance traveled each day by counting the footsteps4 ,the plains were flat1 save for an occasional channel cut by some river half buried in the sand2 they were barren1 except for a short wiry grass and a small rim of shrubs and stunted trees along the watercourses4 ,,quivira4 ,the most marvelous sight of the long journey was the herds of buffaloes in countless numbers4 ,the ,indians guided ,coronado in the end to a cluster of ,indian villages which they called ,quivira4 ,this was somewhere in what is now central ,kansas near ,junction ,city4 ,the ,indians were in all probability the ,wichitas4 ,here again the great explorer met with a bitter disappointment4 ,illustration3 ,,indian ,,tepees ,instead of a fine city of stone and mortar1 he found scattered ,indian villages with mere tent-like houses formed by fastening grass or straw or buffalo skins to poles4 ,the people were the poorest and most barbarous which he had met4 ,coronado was1 however1 fortunate in securing a supply of corn and buffalo meat in ,quivira for his long return journey4 ,,coronado',s ,,opinion ,,of ,,the ,,west4 ,a year later a crestfallen army of half-starved men clad in the skins of animals stumbled back homeward through ,mexico in straggling groups4 ,great sadness prevailed in ,mexico1 for many had lost their fortunes besides friends and relatives in the enterprise4 ,coronado seemed to the people of the time to have led a costly army on a wild-goose chase4 ,he himself thought that the regions he had crossed were valueless4 ,he said they were cold and too far away from the sea to furnish a good site for a colony1 and the country was neither rich enough nor populous enough to make it worth keeping4 ,,results ,,of ,,coronado',s ,,explorations4 ,we know better to-day the value of ,coronado's great discoveries4 ,he had solved the age-long mystery of the ,seven ,cities1 and explored the southwest of the ,united ,states of our day4 ,the rich region now included in the great states of ,arizona1 ,new ,mexico1 ,texas1 ,oklahoma1 and ,kansas had been seen1 and it was soon after described for the ,european world4 ,his men had explored the ,gulf of ,california to its head1 and the ,colorado ,river toward its source for two hundred miles4 ,they had proved that lower ,california was not an island but a part of the mainland4 ,others soon explored the entire coast of ,california to the limits of the present state of ,oregon4 ,,how ,,de ,,soto ,,and ,,coronado ,,came ,,near ,,meeting4 ,de ,soto and ,coronado together pushed the ,spanish frontier far northward to the center of ,north ,america4 ,a story which was told by ,de ,soto's men shows how close together the two great explorers were at one time4 ,while ,coronado was in ,quivira1 ,de ,soto was wandering along the borders of the plains west of the ,mississippi ,river1 though neither knew of the nearness of the other4 ,an ,indian woman who ran away from ,coronado's army fell in with ,de ,soto's1 nine days later4 ,if ,de ,soto and ,coronado had met on the plains there would have been a finer story to tell1 almost as dramatic as the meeting of ,stanley and ,livingstone in central ,africa4 ,one cannot refrain from wondering how different would have been the ending with the two great armies united and encouraged to continue their explorations4 ,,questions #a4 ,what story had ,ponce de ,leon heard in the ,west ,indies8 ,what did he find8 ,why did he call the new country which he discovered ,florida8 ,what was included in ,florida as the ,spaniards understood it8 #b4 ,what was ,de ,soto looking for in ,north ,america8 ,how long did he search8 ,what did he find8 ,was he disappointed8 ,what was he planning to do when he died8 ,why was his journey very remarkable8 ,through what present states of the ,united ,states did he pass8 #c4 ,where did the ,spaniards expect to find the ,seven ,cities8 ,why did he expect to find them there8 ,what was the story of the ,seven ,cities8 ,of the ,seven ,caves8 #d4 ,what did ,coronado expect to find at the ,seven ,cities of ,cibola8 ,what did he find there8 ,why did he go far on into ,north ,america in search of ,quivira8 ,what did he find on the way to ,quivira8 ,what did he find ,quivira to be8 #e4 ,what did ,coronado think of his own discoveries8 ,what had he found out of interest or value to the rest of the world8 ,which of the present states of the ,united ,states did his route touch8 ,,review #a4 ,review the effect of the discoveries of ,columbus1 ,magellan1 ,de ,soto1 ,coronado1 on the knowledge of the new world4 ,important date--#aeda4 ,the discovery of the ,mississippi by ,de ,soto4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,rivalry ,,and ,,strife ,,in ,,europe ,,the ,,rivals ,,of ,,spain4 ,when the early voyages to ,america and ,asia were ended1 the ,french1 the ,english1 and the other northern peoples of ,europe seemed to be beaten in the race for new lands and for new routes to old lands4 ,the ,french had sent a few fishermen to the ,banks of ,newfoundland1 and that was all4 ,the ,english had made one or two voyages and appeared to be no longer interested4 7,see ,chapter ,,xiv1 ,cabot7 ,the ,dutch seemed to be only sturdy fishermen1 thrifty farmers1 or keen traders1 occupied much of the time in the struggle against the ,north ,sea1 which threatened to burst the dikes and flood farms and cities4 ,,the ,,trade-,,winds4 ,the ,portuguese and the ,spaniards had a great advantage in living nearer the natural starting-point for such voyages4 ,to go to ,asia ships went by way of the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,to go to ,america a southern route was taken1 for in the ,north ,atlantic the prevailing winds are from the southwest1 while south of ,spain the trade-winds blow towards the southwest1 making it easy to sail to ,america4 ,to take the northern route1 which was the natural one for ,french and ,english sailors1 would be to battle against head winds and heavy seas4 ,,the ,,spaniards ,,and ,,the ,,portuguese ,,divide ,,the ,,world4 ,the ,spaniards and the ,portuguese believed that their discoveries gave them the right to all new lands which should be found and to all trade by sea with the ,golden ,east4 ,two years after the first voyage of ,columbus the ,spaniards agreed with the ,portuguese that a line running #cgj leagues west of the ,cape ,verde ,islands should separate the regions claimed by each4 ,the ,spaniards were to hold all lands discovered west of that line1 and the ,portuguese all east of it4 ,this left ,brazil within the region claimed by the ,portuguese4 ,the rest of ,north and ,south ,america lay within the ,spanish claims4 ,it is the future history of this region that especially interests us as students of ,american history4 ,illustration3 ,,cabot ,,memorial ,,tower ,erected at ,bristol1 ,england1 in memory of the first sailor from ,england to visit ,america ,,the ,,main ,,question4 ,were the ,spaniards to keep what they claimed and continue to outstrip their northern rivals8 ,the answer to this question is found in the history of ,europe during the sixteenth century4 ,unfortunately for the ,spaniards they were drawn into quarrels in ,europe which cost them many men and much money4 ,the consequence was that they were unable to make full use of their discoveries1 even if they had known how4 ,before the century was ended their rivals1 the ,english and the ,french1 were stronger than they2 and the ,dutch1 their own subjects1 had rebelled against them4 ,,the ,,english ,,and ,,the ,,french ,,desire ,a ,,share4 ,men had such great ideas of the immense wealth of the ,indies that the successes of one nation made the other nations eager for some part of the spoil4 ,englishmen and ,frenchmen were not likely to allow the ,portuguese to take all they could find by sailing eastward around the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 and the ,spaniards to keep whatever they discovered by sailing directly westward or by following the route marked out by ,magellan4 ,both would search for new routes to the ,east1 and both would lay claim to lands they saw by the way1 regardless of any other nation4 ,many quarrels came from this rivalry1 but quarrels arose also from other causes4 ,,king ,,charles ,,and ,,king ,,francis4 ,about the time ,corts conquered ,mexico1 his master1 ,king ,charles of ,spain1 began a war against ,francis1 the king of ,france4 ,as long as these two kings lived they were either fighting or preparing to fight4 ,had ,charles been king of ,spain only1 there might have been no trouble1 but he ruled lands in ,italy and claimed others which the ,french king ruled4 ,he also ruled all the region north of ,france which is now ,belgium and ,holland1 and he owned a district which forms part of eastern ,france near ,switzerland4 ,as he was the ,german emperor besides1 the ,french king thought him too dangerous to be left in peace4 ,these wars have little to do with ,american history1 except that they helped to weaken the king of ,spain and to prevent the ,spaniards from making the most of their early successes in colonizing4 ,,religion ,a ,,cause ,,of ,,strife4 ,religion was the most serious cause of quarrel in the sixteenth century1 and the king of ,spain was the prince most injured by the struggle4 ,at the time of ,prince ,henry of ,portugal and of ,columbus all peoples in western ,europe worshiped in the same manner1 taught their children the same beliefs1 and in religious matters they all obeyed the pope4 ,but by #aeba this had changed4 ,the troubles began in ,germany when ,charles ,v was emperor4 ,before they were over ,philip ,,ii1 son of ,charles1 lost control of the ,dutch1 who rebelled and founded a republic of their own4 ,the ,english finally became the principal enemies of ,spain4 ,the ,french1 most of whom were of the same religion as the ,spaniards1 came to hate ,spanish methods of defending religion1 especially after the ,spaniards had massacred a band of ,french settlers in ,america4 ,illustration3 ,,emperor ,,charles ,v ,,the ,,reformers4 ,many men became discontented at the way the ,church was managed4 ,at first all were agreed that the evils of which they complained could be removed if priests1 bishops1 and pope worked together to that end4 ,after a while some teachers in different countries not only complained of evils1 but refused to believe as the ,church had taught and as most people still believed4 ,they did not mean to divide the ,christian ,church into several churches1 but they thought they understood the words of the ,bible better than the teachers of the ,church4 ,,the ,,reformation4 ,at that time people who were not agreed in their religious beliefs did not live peaceably in the same countries4 ,the princes and kings who were faithful to the ,church ordered that the new teachers and their followers should be punished4 ,other princes accepted the views of the reformers1 and soon began to punish those of their subjects who continued to believe as the ,church taught4 ,in ,germany these princes were called ,protestants1 because they protested against the efforts of the ,emperor ,charles and his advisers to stop the spread of the new religion4 ,this name was afterwards given to all who refused to remain in the older ,church1 subject to the bishops and the pope4 ,,catholic ,,and ,,protestant ,,leaders4 ,the most famous leaders of the ,roman ,catholics at this time were ,ignatius ,loyola1 a ,spaniard1 ,reginald ,pole1 an ,englishman1 and ,carlo ,borromeo1 an ,italian4 ,loyola had been a soldier in his youth1 but while recovering from a serious wound1 resolved to be a missionary4 ,with several other young men of the same purpose he founded the ,society of ,jesus or the ,jesuit ,order4 ,of the ,protestants the greatest leaders were ,martin ,luther1 a ,german1 and ,john ,calvin1 a ,frenchman4 ,luther was a professor in the university at ,wittenberg in ,saxony1 which was ruled by the ,elector ,frederick the ,wise4 ,calvin had lived as a student in ,paris1 but when ,king ,francis resolved to allow no ,protestants in his kingdom1 ,calvin was obliged to leave the country4 ,he settled in the ,swiss city of ,geneva4 ,,the ,,lutheran ,,church4 ,luther's teachings were accepted by many ,germans1 especially in northern ,germany4 ,he translated the ,bible into ,german4 ,after a while his followers formed a ,church of their own which was called ,lutheran4 ,it differed from the ,roman ,catholic ,church in the way it was governed as well as in what it taught4 ,,the ,,french ,,huguenots4 ,calvin lived in ,geneva1 but most of those who accepted his teachings continued to live in ,france4 ,the nickname ,huguenots1 or confederates1 was given to them4 ,they were not permitted by the ,french king to worship as ,calvin taught1 but by #aefb so many nobles had joined them that it was no longer possible to treat them as criminals4 ,they were permitted to hold their meetings outside the walled towns4 ,the leader whom they most honored was ,admiral ,gaspard de ,coligny4 ,both he and they1 as we shall see1 soon had reason to fear and hate the ,spaniards4 ,but we must first understand the difficulties which the king of ,spain had in dealing with his ,dutch subjects4 ,,the ,,king ,,of ,,spain ,,and ,,the ,,netherlands4 ,philip ,,ii inherited from his father ,charles seventeen duchies1 counties1 and other districts north of ,france in what is now ,belgium and ,holland4 ,charles had known how to manage these people1 because he was brought up among them4 ,the task of managing them was not easy4 ,each district or city had its own special rights and its people demanded that these should be respected by the ruling prince4 ,charles had remembered this1 but ,philip wished to rule the ,netherlanders1 as these people were called1 just as he ruled the people of ,spain4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,dikes ,,along ,,the ,,yssel ,,in ,,the ,,netherlands ,,protestants ,,in ,,the ,,netherlands4 ,the trouble was made worse because many of the ,netherlanders became followers of ,luther or ,calvin1 and brought their books into the country4 ,now ,philip1 like his father ,charles1 was faithful to the teachings of the ,church1 and thought it was his duty to punish such persons4 ,the result was that ,philip soon had two kinds of enemies in his ,netherland provinces1 those who did not like the way he ruled and those who refused to believe as the ,church taught1 and the two united against him4 ,after a while most of the ,lutherans were driven away1 but the ,calvinists kept coming in over the border from ,france4 ,,the ,,netherlands4 ,the ,netherlands1 or ,low ,countries1 are well named1 especially the northern part where the ,dutch live1 because much of the land is below the level of the sea at high tide1 and some of it at low tide4 ,for several hundred years the ,dutch built dikes to keep back the sea1 or pumped it out where it flowed in and covered the lower lands4 ,occasionally great storms broke through the dikes and caused the ,dutch months or years of labor4 ,a people so brave and industrious were not likely to submit to the will of ,philip ,,ii4 ,the chances that they would rebel were increased by the spread of the new religious views1 which the ,dutch accepted more readily than their neighbors1 the southern ,netherlanders4 ,the southern ,netherlanders who became ,calvinists generally emigrated to the northern cities1 like ,amsterdam1 where they were safer4 ,illustration3 ,map ,of ,the ,netherlands ,,william ,,of ,,orange4 ,william1 ,prince of ,orange1 was the leader of the ,dutch against ,philip ,,ii4 ,he had been trusted by ,charles1 ,philip's father1 who had leaned on his shoulder at the great ceremony held in ,brussels when ,charles gave up his throne to ,philip4 ,william was called the ,silent1 because he was careful not to tell his plans to any except his nearest friends4 ,when ,philip returned to ,spain1 ,william was made governor or stadtholder of three of the ,dutch provinces--,holland1 ,zealand1 and ,utrecht4 ,philip was angry because ,william and other great nobles in the ,netherlands opposed his way of dealing with the heretics and of ruling the ,netherlands4 ,in this both the southern ,netherlanders and the northern ,netherlanders were united1 although the southern ,netherlanders remained faithful to the ,roman ,catholic religion4 ,,spain ,,and ,,england4 ,the ,english at first had no reason to quarrel with the king of ,spain4 ,they were friendly to the ,netherlanders1 who were his subjects4 ,during the ,middle ,ages they sold great quantities of wool to the ,netherland cities of ,bruges1 ,brussels1 and ,ghent1 and bought fine cloth woven in those towns4 ,the friendship of the ruler of the ,netherlands seemed necessary1 if this trade was to prosper4 ,it was the trouble about religion which finally made the ,english and the ,spaniards enemies4 ,,henry ,,viii4 ,during the reign of ,henry ,,viii1 ,king of ,england1 the king1 the parliament1 and the clergy decided to refuse obedience to the pope4 ,the king called himself the head of the ,church in ,england4 ,lutheran views crept into the country as they had done into the ,netherlands1 but ,king ,henry at first disliked the ,lutherans quite as much as he grew to dislike the pope4 ,,the ,,english ,,church4 ,so long as ,henry lived not much change was made in the beliefs or the manner of worship in the ,church4 ,during the short reign of his son1 the ,english ,church became more like the ,protestant ,churches on the ,continent1 except that in ,england there were still archbishops and bishops1 and the government of the ,church went on much as before4 ,when ,henry's daughter ,mary was made queen she tried to stop these changes1 and for a few years her subjects were again obedient to the pope1 but she died in #aeeh and her half-sister1 ,elizabeth1 became queen4 ,illustration3 ,,queen ,,elizabeth ,,the ,,english ,,church ,,and ,,the ,,catholics4 ,in religious matters ,queen ,elizabeth did much as her father and her brother had done4 ,all persons were forced to attend the religious services carried on in the manner ordered in the prayer-book4 ,roman ,catholics could not hold any government office4 ,they were punished if they tried to persuade others to remain faithful to the older ,church4 ,philip did not like this1 but for a time he preferred to be on friendly terms with the ,english4 ,illustration3 ,,costumes ,,at ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,elizabeth ,,queen ,,elizabeth4 ,queen ,elizabeth ruled ,england for forty-five years4 ,the ,english regard her reign as the most glorious in their history4 ,before it was over they proved themselves more than a match for the ,spaniards on the sea4 ,they also began to seek for routes to the ,east and to attempt settlements in ,america4 ,their trade was increasing4 ,the ,greek and ,roman writers were studied by ,english scholars at ,oxford and ,cambridge4 ,books and poems and plays were written which were to make the ,english language the rival of the languages of ,greece and ,rome4 ,this was the time when ,shakespeare wrote his first plays4 ,,questions #a4 ,why was it easier to sail toward ,america from ,spain or ,portugal than from ,england8 #b4 ,what peoples divided the new world between them8 ,where did they draw the line of division8 #c4 ,why were the kings of ,france and ,spain rivals8 ,over what countries did ,king ,charles rule8 #d4 ,when did religion become a cause of strife8 ,what king was chiefly injured by such struggles8 #e4 ,who were called reformers8 ,by what other names were they called8 #f4 ,who were the leaders of the ,catholics8 of the ,protestants8 ,who were the ,huguenots8 ,what was their leader's name8 #g4 ,why did ,philip ,,ii and his subjects in the ,netherlands quarrel8 #h4 ,what was strange about the land in which the ,dutch lived8 ,who was the hero of the ,dutch8 #i4 ,why were the ,english and the ,spaniards at first friendly8 ,what king of ,england refused to obey the pope8 #aj4 ,why do ,englishmen think ,queen ,elizabeth a great ruler8 ,how did ,elizabeth settle the question of religion8 ,,exercise ,collect pictures of the ,dutch1 of their canals1 dikes1 and towns4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,,first ,,french ,,attempts ,,to ,,settle ,,america ,,cartier4 ,during the reign of ,francis ,i1 the ,french made the first serious attempts to find a westward route to the ,far ,east and to settle the new lands that seemed to lie directly across the pathway4 ,in #aecd ,jacques ,cartier was sent with two ships in search of a strait beyond the regions controlled by ,spain or ,portugal which would lead into the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,cartier passed around the northern side of ,newfoundland and into the broad expanse of water west of it4 ,this he called the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,,cartier ,,at ,,montreal4 ,cartier made a second voyage in the following year1 exploring the great river which he called the ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,he went up the river until the heights of ,mount ,royal or ,montreal1 as he called them1 appeared on his right hand1 and swift rapids in the river blocked his way in front4 ,the name ,lachine rapids1 or the ,china rapids1 which was afterwards given to these1 remains to remind us that ,cartier was searching for a passage to ,china4 ,,the ,,first ,,winter ,,in ,,canada4 ,cartier spent the severe winter which followed at the foot of the cliffs which mark the site of the modern city of ,quebec4 ,the expedition returned to ,france with the coming of spring4 ,,attempts ,,to ,,plant ,a ,,colony ,,at ,,quebec4 ,several years later1 in #aeda1 ,cartier and others attempted to establish a permanent settlement on the ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,as it was hard to get good colonists to settle in the cold climate so far north1 the leaders were allowed to ransack the prisons for debtors and criminals to make up the necessary numbers4 ,they selected the neighborhood of the cliffs where ,cartier had wintered in #aece1 where ,quebec now stands1 as the most suitable place for their colony4 ,but the settlers were ill-fitted for the hardships of a new settlement in so cold and barren a country4 ,diseases and the hostility of the ,indians completely discouraged them1 and all gladly returned to ,france4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,showing ,,jacques ,,cartier's ,,voyages ,thus3 #ast ,voyage---- #b;d ,voyage4444 #c;d ,voyage-- -- ,the zeal of the ,french for ,american discovery and settlement on the ,st4 ,lawrence ceased with ,cartier4 ,his hope that the ,st4 ,lawrence would prove the long-sought passage to ,china had to be given up1 but the river which he had discovered and so thoroughly explored proved to be a great highway into the center of ,north ,america4 ,,coligny',s ,,plan ,,for ,a ,,huguenot ,,colony4 ,nearly thirty years later the ,french ,protestant leader1 ,coligny1 formed the plan of establishing a colony in ,america1 which would be a refuge for the ,huguenots if their enemies got the upper hand in ,france4 ,an expedition left ,france in #aefd1 and selected a site for a settlement near the mouth of the ,st4 ,johns river in ,florida4 ,it seemed a good place4 ,a fort1 called ,fort ,caroline1 was quickly built4 ,but the first colonists were not well chosen4 ,they were chiefly younger nobles1 soldiers unused to labor1 or discontented tradesmen and artisans4 ,there were few farmers among them4 ,,the ,,misdeeds ,,of ,,the ,,colonists4 ,they spent their time visiting distant ,indian tribes in a vain search for gold and silver1 or plundering ,spanish villages and ships in the ,west ,indies4 ,no one thought of preparing the soil and planting seeds for a food supply4 ,it seemed easier to rob neighbors4 ,the provisions which they had brought with them gave out4 ,game and fish abounded in the woods and rivers about them1 but they were without skill in hunting and fishing4 ,before the first year had passed the miserable inhabitants of ,fort ,caroline were reduced to digging roots in the forest for food4 ,starvation and the revenge of angry ,indians confronted them4 ,,relief ,,sent ,,to ,,the ,,colony4 ,in ,august1 #aefe1 just as the half-starved colonists were preparing to leave the country1 an expedition with fresh settlers--mostly discharged soldiers1 a few young nobles1 and some mechanics with their families1 three hundred in all--arrived in the harbor4 ,it brought an abundance of supplies and other things needed by a colony in a new country4 ,it looked then as though these ,frenchmen would succeed in their plan and establish a permanent colony in ,america4 ,illustration3 ,,fort ,,caroline1 ,,the ,,french ,,settlement ,,in ,,florida ,from ,de ,bry's ,voyages ,,fort ,,caroline ,,and ,,the ,,spaniards4 ,the ,french had1 however1 settled in ,florida4 ,indeed1 it would have been difficult to settle in ,america at any place along the ,atlantic coast without doing so4 ,the ,spaniards regarded all ,north ,america from ,mexico to ,labrador as lying within ,florida4 ,the attempt of the ,french to settle on the lands claimed by the king of ,spain was sure to bring on a war1 sooner or later4 ,the conduct of the ,french at ,fort ,caroline in plundering the ,spanish colonies in the ,west ,indies made all ,spaniards anxious to drive out such a nest of robbers and murderers4 ,besides1 the ,spaniards hated ,coligny's followers more than ordinary ,frenchmen1 because they were ,huguenots4 ,,menendez4 ,at the time the news reached ,spain of ,coligny's settlement at ,fort ,caroline1 a ,spanish nobleman1 ,pedro ,menendez1 was preparing to establish a colony in ,florida1 and thus after a long delay carry out the task which ,de ,soto had vainly attempted4 ,menendez was naturally as eager as the king to drive out the ,french intruders4 ,so an expedition larger than was planned at first was hurried off4 ,menendez was to do three things3 drive the ,french out1 conquer and ,christianize the ,indians1 and establish ,spanish settlements in ,florida4 ,,the ,,defeat ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,fleet4 ,menendez with a part of his fleet arrived before ,fort ,caroline just one week after the relief expedition which ,coligny had sent over came into harbor4 ,his ships attacked and scattered those of the ,french4 ,the vessels of the ,french for the most part sought refuge on the high seas4 ,they were too swift to be overtaken1 but no match for the ,spanish in battle4 ,menendez decided to wait for the rest of his ships before making another attack on ,fort ,caroline4 ,meanwhile he sailed southward along the coast for fifty miles till he came to an inlet4 ,he called the place ,st4 ,augustine4 ,,st4 ,,augustine ,,founded4 ,a friendly ,indian chief readily gave his dwelling to the ,spaniards4 ,it was a huge1 barn-like structure1 made of the entire trunks of trees1 and thatched with palmetto leaves4 ,soldiers quickly dug a ditch around it and threw up a breastwork of earth and small sticks4 ,the colonists who came with ,menendez landed and set about the usual work of founding a settlement4 ,such was the beginning of the ,spanish town of ,st4 ,augustine1 founded in #aefe1 and the oldest town in the ,united ,states4 ,illustration3 ,,st4 ,,augustine1 ,,florida1 ,,as ,,founded ,,by ,,menendez ,pagus ,hispanorum as given in ,montanus and ,ogilby ,,french ,,sail ,,to ,,attack ,,st4 ,,augustine4 ,both sides prepared for a terrible struggle1 the ,french at ,fort ,caroline and the ,spaniards in their new quarters at ,st4 ,augustine4 ,the ,french struck the first blow4 ,a few of the weaker and the sick soldiers were left at ,fort ,caroline to stand guard with the women and children4 ,the main body aboard the ships advanced by sea to attack ,st4 ,augustine1 but a furious tempest scattered and wrecked the ,french fleet before it arrived4 ,,menendez ,,destroys ,,fort ,,caroline4 ,menendez now took advantage of the storm to march overland to ,fort ,caroline1 wading through swamps and fording streams amid a fearful rain and gale4 ,his drenched and hungry followers fell like wild beasts upon the few ,french left in the fort4 ,about fifty of the women and children were spared to become captives4 ,as many men escaped in the forests around the fort1 but the greater part were killed4 ,,capture ,,of ,,the ,,shipwrecked ,,french4 ,the ,french fleet had been wrecked off the coast of ,florida a dozen miles south of ,st4 ,augustine4 ,a few days later ,menendez discovered some survivors wandering along the coast1 half starved1 trying to live on the shell-fish they found on the beach1 and slowly and painfully working their way back toward ,fort ,caroline4 ,the ,frenchmen begged ,menendez to be allowed to remain in the country till ships could be sent to take them off1 but he was unwilling to make any terms with them4 ,,murder ,,of ,,the ,,captives4 ,the unhappy ,frenchmen were taken prisoners1 and1 a few hours later1 put to death4 ,other shipwrecked refugees were captured a few days later1 and these suffered the same fate4 ,nearly three hundred perished in this cold-blooded manner4 ,it was a merciless deed1 and yet such was the character of all warfare at the time4 ,menendez believed that he was doing his duty4 ,nor did the king of ,spain think ,menendez unduly cruel1 for when he heard the story of the fate of the ,frenchmen of ,fort ,caroline he sent this message to ,menendez3 ,say to him that1 as to those he has killed1 he has done well2 and as to those he has saved1 they shall be sent to the galleys4 ,illustration3 ,,north ,,america ,,as ,,known ,,after ,,the ,,explorations ,,of ,,de ,,soto ,,coronado ,,and ,,cartier ,illustration3 7map7 ,,questions #a4 ,who was the leader in the first ,french efforts to explore and settle in ,north ,america8 ,find as many reasons as possible why ,france had not tried to settle in ,america before4 ,what parts of the continent did ,cartier become interested in8 ,why was he specially interested in ,st4 ,lawrence region8 #b4 ,how did ,montreal get its name8 ,why was the name1 ,lachine rapids1 given to the rapids above ,montreal on the ,st4 ,lawrence river8 #c4 ,why did ,cartier fail in his attempts to plant a ,french colony in ,north ,america8 ,how much had he and his friends accomplished for ,france in ,north ,america8 #d4 ,why did ,coligny later wish to establish a colony in ,america8 ,where did his people try to settle8 ,find the place on the map4 ,give several reasons why they soon got into trouble with the ,spaniards4 #e4 ,what did the king of ,spain send ,menendez to ,florida to do8 ,what things did he accomplish8 ,why do we specially remember ,st4 ,augustine8 ,find it on the map4 ,,exercises #a4 ,examine the map of ,north ,america in #aeda4 ,what parts of ,north ,america were known8 ,what parts were unknown8 ,can you see why the explorers would search each bay or inlet or great river8 #b4 ,find how far into the continent of ,north ,america the ,french explored the ,st4 ,lawrence river1 that is1 the distance from ,newfoundland to ,montreal by using the scale of miles on a map in one of your geographies4 ,important ,date3 #aefe4 ,the founding of ,st4 ,augustine4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,the ,,english ,,and ,,the ,,dutch ,,triumph ,,over ,,spain ,,cruel ,,treatment ,,of ,,the ,,netherlanders4 ,two years after the cruel massacre of the ,huguenot colony in ,florida1 ,philip ,,ii1 the ,king of ,spain1 decided to put an end to the obstinacy of the ,netherlanders1 and sent an army from ,spain commanded by the ,duke of ,alva1 who was as pitiless as ,menendez4 ,alva began by seizing prominent nobles1 and he would have arrested the ,prince of ,orange1 but he escaped into ,germany4 ,a court was set up which condemned many persons to death1 including the greatest nobles of the land4 ,the people nicknamed it the ,council of ,blood4 ,alva also turned the merchants against him by compelling them to pay the tenth penny1 that is1 one tenth of the price of the goods every time these were either bought or sold4 ,alva made himself so thoroughly hated that even ,philip decided to call him back to ,spain4 ,,the ,,beggars ,,of ,,the ,,sea4 ,just then something happened which gave ,coligny and the ,huguenots their chance for vengeance4 ,the men who were resisting the king's officers in the ,netherlands had been nicknamed the ,beggars4 ,when they were driven from the cities they took to the sea4 ,the ,beggars of the ,sea sometimes found a port of refuge in ,la ,rochelle1 a ,huguenot town on the western coast of ,france1 and sometimes they put into friendly ,english harbors4 ,from these places they would sail out and attack ,spanish vessels4 ,when ,queen ,elizabeth in #aegb ordered a fleet of these ,beggars to leave1 they crossed over to their own shores and drove the ,spanish garrison out of ,brille4 ,this success encouraged the ,dutch and many of the southern ,netherlanders to rise and expel the ,spanish soldiers from their towns4 ,,the ,,french ,,promise ,,aid4 ,as soon as ,coligny heard the news he urged the ,french king to send an army into the ,netherlands and take vengeance not only for the massacre at ,fort ,caroline1 but also for all the wrongs that he and his father and his grandfather had ever received at the hands of the ,spaniards4 ,the ,french king agreed and wrote a letter to the ,netherlanders promising aid4 ,illustration3 ,,gaspard ,,de ,,coligny ,after the portrait in the ,public ,library1 ,geneva ,,massacre ,,of ,,huguenots ,,in ,,paris4 ,the plan was never carried out4 ,while ,coligny and many other ,huguenots were in ,paris1 his enemies attempted to kill him4 ,when the attempt failed these enemies1 including the king's mother1 persuaded the king that ,coligny and the ,huguenots were plotting against him1 and goaded the king into ordering the murder of all the ,huguenots in ,paris and the other cities of ,france4 ,thousands of ,huguenots perished4 ,when the ,netherlanders heard of what had befallen ,coligny and his followers1 they were crushed with grief4 ,coligny had missed the chance of vengeance4 ,but the ,spanish king was soon to have other enemies besides the ,huguenots who were ready to help the ,dutch4 ,these new enemies were the ,english4 ,,the ,,english ,,drawn ,,into ,,the ,,conflict4 ,the religious troubles in ,england had been growing more serious4 ,two or three plots were made to assassinate ,elizabeth in order to put on the throne ,queen ,mary of ,scotland1 who was the next heir4 ,philip began to encourage these plotters1 especially after the pope in #aegj had excommunicated ,elizabeth and forbidden her subjects to obey her as queen4 ,she was sure to be dragged into the struggle in the ,netherlands sooner or later4 ,we have seen that she had once sheltered the ,beggars of the ,sea4 ,the murder of ,coligny and his followers frightened the ,english and made many of them anxious to join in the conflict before their friends on the ,continent1 the ,french ,huguenots and the ,dutch ,calvinists1 were utterly destroyed4 ,,growth ,,of ,,english ,,trade4 ,if ,england should be drawn into war1 her safety would depend mainly upon her ships4 ,englishmen had always taken to the sea1 as was natural for men whose shores were washed by the ,atlantic1 the ,channel and the ,north ,sea1 but they were slow in building fleets of ships either for trade or for war4 ,the trade of the country with other peoples in the ,middle ,ages was carried on mostly by foreigners4 ,yet since the days of ,elizabeth's father and grandfather a change had taken place4 ,english merchants found their way to all markets4 ,they also made new things to sell4 ,refugees driven by the religious troubles from ,france and the ,netherlands brought their skill to ,england and taught the ,english how to weave fine woolens and silks4 ,,the ,,new ,,english ,,navy4 ,the ,english navy was growing4 ,one of the new ships1 ,the ,triumph1 carried #dej seamen1 #ej gunners1 and #bjj soldiers4 ,besides harquebuses for the soldiers1 there were many kinds of cannon with strange names1 such as culverins1 falconets1 sakers1 serpentines1 and rabinets4 ,four of the cannon were large enough to shoot a cannon-ball eight inches in diameter4 ,but it was on the skill and courage of her men rather than upon the size of her ships that ,england relied for victory4 ,illustration3 ,,sir ,,francis ,,drake ,after the painting at ,buckland ,abby1 ,england ,,sir ,,francis ,,drake4 ,one of these men was ,francis ,drake4 ,he was son of a chaplain in the navy and as a boy played in the rigging of the great ships-of-war1 as other boys play in the streets4 ,in time young ,drake was apprenticed to the skipper of a small trading vessel4 ,fortune smiled on the lad early in life4 ,his master died1 and out of love for the apprentice who had served him so well1 left him the vessel4 ,francis ,drake became thus a shipmaster on his own account1 and in time the most popular of ,queen ,elizabeth's sea-captains4 ,,slave-,,traders4 ,he often went with his cousin1 ,john ,hawkins1 on voyages to ,africa4 ,they bought negro slaves from slave-traders along the coast1 or kidnaped negroes whom they found1 and carried them to the ,spanish planters of the ,west ,indies4 ,hawkins and ,drake were as devout and humane as other men of their time4 ,they simply could not see any wrong in enslaving the heathen black men in ,africa4 ,besides1 they enjoyed the wild life of the slave-trader with its dangers and rich rewards4 ,,why ,,drake ,,hated ,,the ,,spaniards4 ,the king of ,spain tried to keep the trade in slaves for his own merchants1 and attempted to prevent the trade of the ,english slavers with the ,west ,indies4 ,spanish ships-of-war ruined one of the voyages from which ,hawkins and ,drake hoped for large profits4 ,the ,spaniards won thereby the undying hatred of ,drake4 ,,the ,,dragon ,,of ,,the ,,seas4 ,it was a time1 too1 when ,drake's countrymen at home shared his intense hatred of the ,spaniard4 ,while ,england and ,spain were not at war with one another1 ,english and ,spanish traders fought whenever they met on the high seas4 ,the ,english made the ,spanish settlements in ,america their special prey4 ,at certain times of the year ,spanish ships1 called government ships1 carried to ,spain gold and silver--the royal share of the products of ,america4 ,drake1 like many another of his countrymen1 lay in wait to rob these ships of their precious cargoes4 ,he managed to gather a fortune by his cunning and courage4 ,more than once he was forced to bury his treasures in the sand to lighten his ships that they might sail the faster1 and escape his pursuers4 ,the ,spaniards came to know and to fear ,drake as the ,dragon of the ,seas4 ,illustration3 ,,spanish ,,treasure ,,ship ,,drake',s ,,venture4 ,drake once formed the plan to take a fleet into the ,pacific ,ocean in order to plunder the treasure ships where they would be less on their guard4 ,a fleet of five ships was made ready4 ,contributions from wealthy merchants and powerful nobles1 perhaps a gift from ,queen ,elizabeth herself1 gave him the means for unusual luxuries in the equipment of his fleet4 ,skilful musicians and rich furniture were taken on board ,drake's own ship1 the ,pelican1 or the ,golden ,hind as he afterwards christened it4 ,the brilliant little fleet left ,plymouth in #aegg4 ,one after another of the ships turned back or was destroyed on the long voyage of twelve months across the ,atlantic and through the ,strait of ,magellan4 ,,beyond ,,the ,,strait ,,of ,,magellan4 ,the ,golden ,hind alone remained to carry out the original project4 ,as it entered the ,pacific ,ocean a furious storm drove the little vessel southward beyond ,cape ,horn to the regions where the oceans meet4 ,no one before had sailed so far south4 ,,the ,,first ,,prizes4 ,drake regained control of his ship when the storm had passed1 and sailed northward along the coast1 plundering and robbing as he went4 ,once1 as a land-party was searching along the shore for fresh water1 it came upon a ,spaniard asleep with thirteen bars of silver beside him4 ,his nap was disturbed long enough to take away his burden4 ,further on they met another ,spaniard and an ,indian boy driving a train of ,peruvian sheep laden with eight hundred pounds of silver4 ,the ,englishmen took their place1 and merrily drove the sheep to their boats4 ,a treasure ship1 nicknamed the ,spitfire1 on the way to ,panama1 was captured after a long chase of nearly eight hundred miles4 ,drake obtained from it unknown quantities of gold and silver4 ,with such a rich load1 his thoughts turned to the homeward voyage4 ,,drake',s ,,voyage ,,around ,,the ,,world4 ,by this time a host of ,spanish war-ships were on ,drake's track4 ,they expected to capture him on his return through the ,strait of ,magellan4 ,drake1 now confronted with real danger1 cunningly outwitted his enemies4 ,he and many other ,englishmen of his day were sure a passage would be found somewhere through ,north ,america between the ,atlantic and the ,pacific4 ,spanish1 ,french1 and ,english explorers had all carried on the search for this passage4 ,drake decided to return by such a route1 if it were possible4 ,he followed the coast of ,california1 and probably passed that of ,oregon and ,washington as far as ,vancouver ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,drake',s ,,voyage ,when it grew colder and the coast turned to the westward1 he gave up the search4 ,after making some needed repairs in a small harbor a few miles above the modern ,san ,francisco1 ,drake set out boldly across the ,pacific to return home1 as ,magellan's men had done before him1 by going around the world4 ,he touched at the ,philippines1 visited the ,spice ,islands1 and slowly worked his way around the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,the ,golden ,hind1 long since given up as lost1 reached ,england in the fall of #aehj1 after nearly three years' absence4 ,for a second time a ship had sailed around the world4 ,drake was the first ,englishman to gain the honor4 ,,drake',s ,,reward4 ,queen ,elizabeth liked the story ,drake told of outwitting and plundering ,spaniards4 ,arrayed in her most gorgeous robes she visited his ship1 where a banquet had been prepared4 ,while ,drake knelt at her feet she made him a knight4 ,and so it was that the man whom the ,spaniards called with good reason the ,master ,thief of the ,seas1 the ,english called by a new title1 ,sir ,francis ,drake1 and praised as the greatest sea-captain of the age4 ,his ship1 the ,golden ,hind1 was ordered to be preserved forever4 ,,the ,,dutch ,,struggle ,,against ,,spain4 ,a few years after ,drake returned the ,english took a deeper interest in the struggle between ,philip and the ,dutch4 ,although the ,dutch had lost hope of help from the ,french ,huguenots1 they resisted ,philip's generals more boldly than ever4 ,the ,spanish soldiers treated the towns which surrendered so savagely that the other towns decided it was better to die fighting than to yield4 ,the siege of ,leyden became famous because1 after food had given out and the inhabitants were starving their friends cut the great dikes in order that the boats of the ,beggars of the ,sea loaded with provisions might be floated up to the very walls of the city4 ,this unexpected flood also drove away the ,spaniards4 ,fortunately after the rescue of the city a strong wind arose and drove back the waves so that the dikes could again be replaced4 ,illustration3 ,,queen ,,elizabeth ,,making ,,drake ,a ,,knight ,,the ,,death ,,of ,,william ,,of ,,orange4 ,king ,philip had come to the conclusion that unless ,william of ,orange were killed the ,dutch could not be conquered1 and so he put a price on ,prince ,william's head1 offering a large sum of money to any one who should kill him4 ,the first attempts failed1 but finally in #aehd he was shot4 ,,sir ,,philip ,,sidney4 ,the murder of ,william alarmed the ,english for ,elizabeth's life1 especially as ,philip had already aided men who were plotting against her4 ,she sent an army into the ,netherlands to aid the ,dutch1 although she had not made up her mind to attack ,philip directly4 ,the army did not give much help to the ,dutch1 but it is remembered because a noble ,english poet1 ,sir ,philip ,sidney1 was mortally wounded in one of the battles4 ,the story is told that while ,sidney was riding back1 tortured by his wound1 he became very thirsty1 as wounded men always do1 and begged for a drink of water4 ,looking up when it was brought to him he saw on the ground a common soldier more sorely wounded than he4 ,he immediately sent the water to the soldier saying1 ,thy necessity is greater than mine4 ,,the ,,invincible ,,armada4 ,the king of ,spain now decided that he could not subdue the ,dutch until he had thoroughly punished the ,english4 ,he even planned to put himself upon the ,english throne1 claiming that he was the heir of one of the early kings of ,england4 ,months were spent in preparing a great fleet1 an ,invincible ,armada which was to sail up the ,channel1 take on board the ,spanish army in the ,netherlands1 and cross over to ,england4 ,while these preparations were being made with ,philip's usual care1 ,sir ,francis ,drake swooped down on ,cadiz and burnt so much shipping and destroyed so many supplies that the voyage had to be postponed a year4 ,this ,drake called singeing the king of ,spain's beard4 ,,the ,,armada ,,in ,,the ,,channel4 ,it was ,july1 #aehh1 before the ,invincible ,armada appeared off ,plymouth in the ,english ,channel4 ,many of the ,spanish ships were larger than the ,english ships1 but they were so clumsy that the ,english could outsail them and attack them from any direction they chose4 ,moreover1 the ,spaniards needed to fight close at hand in order that the soldiers armed with ordinary guns might join in the fray4 ,the ,english kept out of range of these guns and used their heavy cannon4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,spanish ,,armada ,,in ,,the ,,english ,,channel ,after an engraving by the ,society of ,antiquarians following a tapestry in the ,house of ,lords ,,destruction ,,of ,,the ,,armada4 ,with the ,english ships clinging to the flanks and rear of the ,armada1 the ,spaniards moved heavily up the ,channel4 ,in the narrower waters between ,dover and ,calais the ,english attacked more fiercely1 and sank several ,spanish vessels4 ,soon the others were fleeing into the ,north ,sea1 driven by a furious gale4 ,many sought to reach ,spain by sailing around ,scotland and ,ireland1 and some of these ships were dashed on the rocky shores4 ,only a third of ,philip's proud fleet returned to ,spain4 ,,effect ,,of ,,the ,,defeat ,,of ,,the ,,armada ,,on ,,spain4 ,this was the last attempt ,philip made to attack the ,english1 because ,spain had been exhausted in the effort to collect money and supplies for the ,invincible ,armada4 ,the war dragged on for many years1 and the ,english attacked and plundered ,spanish vessels wherever they found them4 ,,the ,,independence ,,of ,,the ,,dutch4 ,the ruin of the ,armada also meant that the ,dutch would succeed in becoming independent of the ,spanish king4 ,seven of the northern provinces had already formed a union and had begun to call themselves the ,united ,netherlands4 ,they were growing richer while their neighboring provinces on the south1 which had decided to return to their allegiance to ,spain1 grew poorer4 ,,first ,,voyage ,,of ,,the ,,dutch ,,to ,,the ,,east4 ,even while the fight was going on the ,dutch traded in places where ,philip had not permitted them to trade while he could control them4 ,one of these places was ,lisbon1 the capital of ,portugal4 ,here the ,dutch obtained spices which the ,portuguese brought from the ,east ,indies4 ,but in #aehj ,philip seized ,portugal1 and the ,dutch could no longer go to ,lisbon4 ,this made them anxious to find their way to the ,east4 ,in #aeie the first fleet set out4 ,this voyage was unsuccessful1 but other fleets followed1 until soon the ,dutch had almost driven the ,portuguese1 now subjects of the king of ,spain1 from the ,spice ,islands4 ,soon also ,dutch sailors ventured across the ,atlantic to the shores of ,america4 ,,questions #a4 ,what country in northern ,europe did ,spain rule8 ,what name was given to those who resisted the ,spanish officers in the ,netherlands8 ,why were they given this name8 #b4 ,what promise did ,coligny make to the people of the ,netherlands8 ,why was he unable to carry it out8 ,what other people were ready to help the ,dutch8 ,can you give one reason at least why the ,english were willing to help the ,dutch against ,spain8 #c4 ,why had ,english trade grown important8 ,did this help to make a navy8 #d4 ,why did ,english sailors like ,drake specially hate the ,spaniards8 ,what was ,drake's method of making a living8 ,how did he come to go around the world in #aegg-aehj8 ,how long was it since ,magellan made his voyage8 #e4 ,what did the ,english think of ,drake8 ,what did the ,spaniards think of him8 ,why did each people think as it did8 #f4 ,why did ,philip of ,spain have ,william of ,orange killed8 ,why did this make the conquest of the ,dutch even harder8 #g4 ,why did ,philip1 king of ,spain1 try to conquer ,england and make himself king of that country8 ,how did he try to carry out his plan8 ,why were the ,english victorious in the great battle with the ,armada8 ,where was the battle fought8 #h4 ,how did the defeat of the ,armada affect ,spain's war in the ,netherlands8 ,did all of the ,netherlands become independent of ,spain8 #i4 ,what trade did the ,dutch begin to carry on before their war with ,spain ended8 #aj4 ,what new people became rivals of the ,spaniards and ,french for trade and settlements in ,america8 ,,exercises #a4 ,what parts of ,north ,america did ,drake visit on his famous voyage around the world8 #b4 ,what effect did the quarrels in ,europe described in ,chapters #ai and #bj have upon the progress in exploring and settling ,america8 #c4 ,find out whether the people of the northern ,netherlands and the southern ,netherlands are still separate countries to-day4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,the ,,english ,,people ,,attempt ,,to ,,settle ,,america ,,english ,,interest ,,in ,,america ,,awakened4 ,voyages like those made by ,sir ,francis ,drake awakened a desire throughout ,england to learn more about the ,new ,world4 ,until this time even the great discoveries of ,columbus and the ,cabots had failed to stir the ,english people to take part in the exploration and settlement of the ,americas4 ,the principal reason was because their attention was occupied by the struggle between their monarchs and the popes to decide whether king or pope should govern the ,english ,church4 ,this continued until ,queen ,elizabeth had been on the throne some years4 ,other sea-captains1 hearing of ,drake's success1 now turned their ships toward the ,americas4 ,many went to the ,west ,indies1 as he had done1 mainly to seize the rich plunder to be found on board the ships of ,spain bound homeward4 ,some of them explored the coast of ,north ,america1 hoping to find valuable regions that had not fallen into the possession of the ,spaniards4 ,,the ,,northwest ,,passage4 ,martin ,frobisher made three voyages1 the last in #aegh1 in search of a passage through ,north ,america to ,china4 ,he entered the bay which bears his name1 and the strait which was later called after ,hudson1 but failed to find a passage4 ,drake attempted to find the western entrance to such a passage in #aegi as a short cut homeward when he tried to avoid his ,spanish pursuers4 ,,gilbert4 ,a grander scheme was planned by ,humphrey ,gilbert4 ,he wished to build up another ,england across the sea1 just as the people of ,spain were building up another ,spain4 ,he planned to do this by establishing farms to which he and others might send laborers who could not find work at home4 ,queen ,elizabeth liked this plan1 and to encourage him1 and to repay him for the expense of carrying the emigrants over1 she promised him the land for six hundred miles on each side of his settlements4 ,illustration3 ,,charlcote ,,hall ,an ,english ,manor ,house of the time of ,queen ,elizabeth ,,failure ,,of ,,gilbert',s ,,expedition4 ,gilbert tried twice to plant a colony in the neighborhood of the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 his half-brother1 was one of his captains in the expedition of #aegh4 ,he would have been in the disastrous second attempt in #aehc had not ,queen ,elizabeth1 full of forebodings of danger to her favorite1 refused to let him go4 ,as it was he sent a ship at his own cost4 ,gilbert took a large supply of hobby-horses and other toys with which to please the savages4 ,mishap1 desertion1 and shipwreck pursued the luckless commander4 ,the second expedition left ,plymouth with five vessels in #aehc4 ,the ship that ,raleigh sent1 the best in the fleet1 deserted before they were out of sight of ,england4 ,one was left in ,newfoundland4 ,the wreck of the largest ship1 with most of the provisions1 off ,cape ,breton1 so discouraged the crews that they prevailed upon ,gilbert to abandon the plan to settle on such barren and stormy shores1 ,gilbert attempted to return on the ,squirrel1 the smaller of the two remaining vessels4 ,this was a tiny vessel of scarcely ten tons burden4 ,what was left of the little fleet voyaged homeward by the southern way1 and ran into a fearful storm as it approached the ,azores4 ,although ,gilbert was urged to go aboard the larger vessel1 he refused to desert his companions1 with whom he had passed through so many storms and perils1 and tried to calm the fears of all by his reply1 ,do not fear1 ,heaven is as near by water as by land4 ,one night the ,squirrel suddenly sank4 ,all on board were lost4 ,such was the sad ending of the first efforts to establish an ,english colony in ,north ,america4 ,,raleigh ,sir ,walter ,raleigh took up the interesting plan which his kinsman1 ,gilbert1 had at heart4 ,raleigh was now at the height of his favor with ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,she had made him wealthy1 especially by the gift of large estates which she had taken from others4 ,she readily promised him the same privileges in ,america which she had offered to ,gilbert4 ,raleigh doubtless thought that he might increase his fortune and win glory for himself and for his country by planting ,english colonies in the ,new ,world4 ,no man of the age was better fitted for the undertaking4 ,he had shown himself a fearless soldier and an able commander in the war against ,spain in the ,netherlands4 ,he had fortune1 skill1 and powerful friends4 ,like ,gilbert1 he was a friend of poets and scholars and a student of books2 like ,drake1 he was a natural leader of men4 ,illustration3 ,,sir ,,walter ,,raleigh ,,and ,,his ,,son ,,virginia4 ,raleigh began in #aehd by sending an expedition to explore the coast for a suitable site for a colony4 ,his men sailed by way of the ,canaries1 and came upon ,north ,america in the neighborhood of ,pamlico ,sound1 avoiding the stormy route directly across the ,atlantic which ,gilbert had followed4 ,they found1 therefore1 instead of the bleak shore of ,newfoundland and ,prince ,edward ,island1 the genial climate of ,north ,carolina and ,virginia4 ,they carried home glowing reports of the country4 ,they were particularly pleased with an island in ,pamlico ,sound called by the ,indians ,roanoke ,island4 ,they noted with wonder the overhanging grape-vines loaded with fruit1 the fine cedar trees which seemed to them the highest and reddest in the world1 the great flocks of noisy white cranes1 and the numberless deer in the forests4 ,the ,indians appeared gentle and friendly1 ,elizabeth was so pleased with the accounts of the country that she allowed it to be called ,virginia after herself1 the ,virgin ,queen1 and made ,raleigh a knight4 ,,the ,,first ,,english ,,colonists4 ,raleigh made several attempts to plant a colony in ,virginia4 ,the most famous one was led by ,john ,white in #aehg4 ,white had visited ,virginia on an earlier voyage1 and painted more than seventy pictures of ,indian life1 representing their dress and their manner of living4 ,these may still be seen in the ,british ,museum in ,london4 ,his interest in the country and its ,indian population made his appointment as governor seem a wise choice4 ,care was taken in the selection of colonists in order to secure farmers rather than gold-seekers4 ,twenty-five women and children were included in the colony of about one hundred and fifty persons4 ,,roanoke4 ,white and his followers settled on ,roanoke ,island4 ,they found that the fort1 which one of ,raleigh's officers had built some years earlier1 was leveled to the ground4 ,several huts were still standing1 but they were falling to pieces4 ,the first task was to rebuild the huts and move into them from their ships4 ,a baby girl was born a few days after the landing1 the first child born of ,english parents in the ,new ,world4 ,her father1 ,ananias ,dare1 was one of ,white's councilors2 her mother1 ,eleanor ,dare1 was the daughter of ,governor ,white4 ,the baby was given the name ,virginia1 the name of the country which was to be her home4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,raleigh',s ,,colonies ,,the ,,colonists ,,in ,,danger4 ,the little colony must have foreseen the hostility of the ,indians and a scarcity of food1 for before ,governor ,white had been in ,america two months1 he was sent back to ,england to obtain more provisions1 ,white1 from his own account1 did not wish to leave his daughter and granddaughter4 ,,white',s ,,search ,,for ,,aid4 ,white returned to ,england in the fall of #aehg at the wrong moment to ask for aid4 ,all ,england was alarmed by the rumor that a great ,spanish fleet was about to land an invading army4 ,the friends of ,virginia in ,england were too busy protecting their own homes from the invader to give heed to the needs of the farmer colonists across the sea4 ,white traveled through ,england1 seeking aid for his friends and family1 but was disappointed everywhere4 ,,why ,,raleigh ,,gave ,,no ,,help4 ,raleigh had by no means forgotten his colonists1 but his queen and his country had the first claim on him through the long war with ,spain4 ,twice during this period1 he found time and means to prepare relief expeditions for ,virginia4 ,the queen stopped the first one just as it was ready to sail1 because all the ships were needed at that moment for service in the war4 ,a second expedition was attacked by the ,spaniards and forced to return4 ,,the ,,lost ,,colony4 ,white finally secured passage for himself on a fleet going to the ,west ,indies1 not with a fleet and relief supplies of his own1 but as a passenger on another man's ship4 ,it was the summer of #aeia when he arrived at ,roanoke1 four years after his departure4 ,the colonists were not to be found4 ,their houses were torn down4 ,the chests which they had evidently buried in order to hide them from the ,indians had been dug up and ransacked of everything of value4 ,white's own papers which he had left behind were strewn about4 ,his pictures and maps were torn and rotten with the rain4 ,his armor was almost eaten through with rust4 ,one trace of the fate of the settlers was left4 ,the large letters ,,croatoan were carved on a tree near the entrance to the old fort4 ,white recalled the agreement made when he left four years before4 ,if the colonists should find it necessary to leave ,roanoke1 they were to carve on a tree the name of the place to which they were going4 ,if they were in danger or distress when they left1 they were to carve a cross over the name of the place4 ,white found no cross4 ,the word ,croatoan was the name of a small island lying south of ,cape ,hatteras1 where ,indians lived who were known to be friendly4 ,white believed his friends to be safe among the ,indians at ,croatoan1 but he could not go farther in search for them because the captains of the ships which brought him over refused to delay longer4 ,they gave many excuses1 but were evidently more eager to attack the ,spaniards than to find a few luckless emigrants4 ,illustration3 ,,an ,,indian ,,village ,,in #aehi ,after a drawing by ,john ,white1 now in the ,british ,museum ,the fate of ,raleigh's colony is one of the puzzles of history4 ,it is believed that they took refuge with friendly ,indians1 and lived with them until they lost their lives in war or had adopted the ways of their protectors4 ,,value ,,of ,,the ,,efforts ,,of ,,the ,,english ,,and ,,the ,,french4 ,raleigh had failed to carry out his great plan to plant a new ,england in ,america1 but he had awakened in his countrymen an interest in ,america1 and made known the advantages of its soil and climate4 ,the ,french had apparently made no greater headway4 ,cartier's colony on the ,st4 ,lawrence had broken up1 and the ,spaniards had driven the ,french colony from ,florida4 ,the history of ,coligny's colony at ,fort ,caroline1 ,cartier's at ,quebec1 ,gilbert's on the coast of the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence1 and ,raleigh's at ,roanoke1 had shown how useless were attempts to settle in ,america which were not strongly supported by friends or by the home government4 ,these attempts to plant colonies in ,america were not1 however1 as bad failures as they appeared4 ,both nations had learned much about the country and about the preparations needed for permanent settlements4 ,,what ,,the ,,spanish ,,had ,,accomplished4 ,in #afjj ,spain seemed to have achieved much more than either of her rivals4 ,the map of that time shows ,spain in possession of vast territories in ,north and ,south ,america4 ,the ,english had a small tract1 ,virginia1 in which they had some interest but no colonists4 ,the ,french regarded the ,st4 ,lawrence valley as theirs by right of discovery1 but they could point to no settlements to clinch that claim4 ,the ,spaniards1 on the other hand1 counted more than two hundred cities and towns which they had planted in their territories4 ,about two hundred thousand ,spaniards1 farmers1 miners1 traders1 soldiers1 and nobles1 had either migrated from ,spain to ,america or had been born there of emigrants since ,columbus's discovery4 ,five million ,indians had come under their rule1 and most of them were living as civilized men1 and called themselves ,christians4 ,one hundred and forty thousand negro slaves had been carried from ,africa to the plantations and mines in ,spanish ,america4 ,illustration3 ,regions in the ,new ,world and the ,east claimed by the ,countries of ,europe after a century of exploration4 ,the ,city of ,mexico1 the largest in all ,america1 was much like the cities of ,spain4 ,well-built houses of wood1 stone1 and mason-work abounded4 ,churches1 monasteries1 a university1 higher schools for boys and girls1 four hospitals1 of which one was for ,indians1 and public buildings1 similar to those in the cities of old ,spain1 already existed4 ,spanish life and ,spanish culture had spread over a large area in the ,new ,world1 and the most remarkable fact was that the ,old ,world civilization had been bestowed on the ,indian population4 ,as ,roman culture went into ,spain and ,gaul1 so ,spanish culture went into a ,new ,spain in a new world4 ,,the ,,prospects ,,of ,,the ,,spanish ,,colonies4 ,but the outlook for ,spain in ,america was not wholly bright4 ,her struggle with her ,dutch subjects and the war with ,england1 which grew out of that quarrel1 left her completely worn out4 ,she no longer had the people to spare for ,american settlements4 ,these ceased to grow as they once had4 ,negroes and ,indians outnumbered the ,spaniards in most of them4 ,the three races mingled together and intermarried until a new people1 the ,spanish ,american1 differing in color and blood from either of the old races1 was formed4 ,,the ,,later ,,story ,,of ,,colonization4 ,spain's rivals--the ,dutch1 the ,english1 and the ,french--were just reaching the height of their power4 ,they had settled their most serious religious differences4 ,their merchants were eagerly looking about for commercial opportunities4 ,a considerable population in each of them1 but more especially in ,england1 was discontented and ready to try its fortunes in a new world4 ,the ,spaniards had passed by the best parts of ,north ,america as worthless4 ,the people and the unoccupied land were both ready for the formation of colonies on a larger scale4 ,in many ways a greater story of ,american colonization remains to be told4 ,this will be the story of the ,dutch1 the ,french1 and the ,english colonization of ,north ,america4 ,,questions #a4 ,why had the ,english people not taken more interest in ,america before ,drake's time8 ,what finally1 made the ,english sea-captains turn to ,american adventure and exploration8 #b4 ,what did ,gilbert attempt to do8 ,how many reasons can you find for his failure8 #c4 ,why was ,raleigh specially fitted to begin the task of planting ,english colonies in ,america8 ,what part of ,north ,america did his men select for a settlement8 ,why did it seem a suitable place8 ,what name was given to the country8 #d4 ,why did ,raleigh fail to help his colony at ,roanoke8 ,what did ,white think had happened to them8 ,why didn't he go in search of them8 #e4 ,why had the ,french and the ,english been unsuccessful in their efforts to settle ,north ,america8 ,had they really gained anything from all their efforts8 #f4 ,what had ,spain accomplished since the voyage by ,columbus8 ,why were the prospects of ,spain not so bright as they had been8 ,what rivals were ready to begin colonies in ,america8 ,,exercises #a4 ,how much territory was ,queen ,elizabeth willing to give ,gilbert for his plan in ,north ,america8 ,was there this much 7twelve hundred miles7 of the ,atlantic coast of ,north ,america unclaimed by the ,french and the ,spaniards8 #b4 ,find ,roanoke ,island on the map4 #c4 ,name the regions in the ,new ,world and the ,east claimed by the ,english1 ,french1 ,portuguese1 and ,spaniards after a century of discovery and exploration 7#adib-afjj74 ,what parts of ,north ,america were still unknown8 ,with the use of some map of the world to-day make a list of the colonies of the same countries now4 ,,review #a4 ,prepare a list of the men who took the chief part in discovering the ,new ,world1 and give for each the name of the region he found4 #b4 ,what had the ,greeks learned to do1 the knowledge of which they carried into ,italy8 ,what more had the ,romans learned to do1 the knowledge of which they carried into ,spain and ,gaul and ,britain8 ,what more had the ,spaniards1 the ,french1 and the ,english learned to do1 the knowledge of which they either were already1 as in the case of ,spain1 carrying into ,spanish ,america1 or1 in the case of ,england and ,france1 were prepared to carry into ,north ,america8 ,,references ,,for ,,teachers ,the following references are given in the hope that they will be helpful to the teacher4 ,the list is by no means exhaustive1 but enough are given so that one or more books for each subject should be found in any fairly equipped school or public library4 ,some of these books may be assigned to the brighter or more ambitious members of the class for home readings4 ,extracts from others may be read to the class directly4 ,still others will furnish the teacher a variety of stories or fuller statements of fact upon matters treated briefly in the text4 ,a ,bibliography of ,history for ,schools and ,libraries by ,andrews1 ,gambrill and ,tail 7,longmans1 #aiaa71 will give many more references and further information regarding those that are given here4 ,a4 ,,ancient ,,times4 ,,the ,,greek ,,people4 7,for use with chapters ii1 iii1 and iv47 7a7 ,histories of the ,greeks4 ,holm1 ,history of the ,greeks1 #d volumes1 is the most trustworthy history of the ,greeks4 ,bury1 ,a ,history of ,greece1 #b volumes2 ,botsford1 ,history of the ,ancient ,world2 ,goodspeed1 ,history of the ,ancient ,world2 ,myers1 ,ancient ,history2 ,wolfson1 ,essentials in ,ancient ,history2 and ,west1 ,ancient ,world1 have brief accounts of the ,greeks4 7b7 ,versions of some famous old ,greek stories1 especially the story of ,hercules and his ,labors1 the ,search for the ,golden ,fleece1 the ,trojan ,war1 and the ,wanderings of ,ulysses4 ,a4 ,j4 ,church1 ,stories from ,homer2 ,c4 ,m4 ,gayley1 ,classical ,myths2 ,h4 ,a4 ,guerber1 ,myths of ,greece and ,rome2 and the same author's ,the ,story of the ,greeks2 ,haaren and ,poland1 ,famous ,men of ,greece2 ,c4 ,h4 and ,s4 ,b4 ,harding1 ,stories of ,greek ,gods1 ,heroes and ,men2 ,charles ,kingsley1 ,heroes1 or ,greek ,fairy ,tales4 ,hawthorne1 in ,tanglewood ,tales1 has retold the story of the ,search for the ,golden ,fleece in a specially interesting manner4 ,bryant's translation of the ,odyssey is one of the best known versions of that story and may generally be found in public libraries4 7c7 ,short ,biographies of some ,greek ,heroes4 ,short accounts of the lives of such heroes as ,miltiades1 ,themistocles1 ,socrates1 ,alexander1 and ,demosthenes will be found in ,cox1 ,lives of ,greek ,statesmen2 ,haaren and ,poland1 ,famous ,men of ,greece2 ,jennie ,hall1 ,men of ,old ,greece2 ,harding1 ,stories of ,greek ,gods1 ,heroes and ,men2 ,e4,m4 ,tappan1 ,the ,story of the ,greek ,people2 and ,plutarch's ,lives4 ,there are several abridged editions of the latter1 but those by ,c4,e4 ,byles1 ,greek ,lives from ,plutarch1 and ,edwin ,ginn1 ,plutarch's ,lives1 are best adapted to the use of schools4 7d7 ,various features of ,greek ,life1 as the home1 the schools1 food1 clothing1 occupations1 amusements1 or government have been described in the books on ,greek ,life4 ,among these are ,blmner1 ,home ,life of the ,ancient ,greeks 7translated by ,alice ,zimmern72 ,c4,b4 ,gulick1 ,the ,life of the ,ancient ,greeks2 ,mahaffy1 ,social ,life in ,greece2 and ,t4,g4 ,tucker1 ,life in ,ancient ,athens4 7e7 ,descriptions of ,athens and ,alexandria4 ,descriptions of these great centers of ,greek civilization will be found in any history of ,greece2 that in ,gulick1 ,life of the ,ancient ,greeks1 ch4 #b1 or ,tucker1 ,life in ,ancient ,athens1 for ,athens1 and in ,draper1 ,intellectual ,development of ,europe1 #a4 pp4 #ahg-bjd1 for ,alexandria1 will serve the purpose4 7f7 ,a description of the battle of ,marathon1 abridged from the ,history of the ,world by ,herodotus1 will be found in ,f4,m4 ,fling's ,source ,book of ,greek ,history4 ,this little book gives many incidents in ,greek ,history as the ,greek writers told them4 7g7 ,a description of the materials1 methods of building1 decoration of public buildings1 and the uses of the temples1 theaters1 gymnasia1 and stadia in ,fowler and ,wheeler's ,greek ,archaeology1 ch4 #b2 and ,tarbell's ,history of ,greek ,art4 7h7 ,some may wish to read the careful statement in ,holm's ,history of the ,greeks1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ajc-aba1 on the ,truth about the ,old ,greek ,legends1 or the same author's account1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bgb-bie1 of ,emigration to the ,colonies in the ,olden ,day4 ,b4 ,,ancient ,,times4 ,,the ,,roman ,,people4 7,for use with chapters v1 vi1 vii1 viii and ix47 7a7 ,histories of the ,romans4 ,either ,botsford1 ,history of ,rome2 ,pelham1 ,outlines of ,roman ,history2 ,how and ,leigh1 ,history of ,rome2 or ,schuckburgh1 ,history of ,rome2 though the last two do not cover the entire period of ,roman history4 ,duruy1 ,history of ,rome1 #h volumes1 is attractive in style and supplied with a great variety of pictures and other illustrative matter4 ,botsford1 ,history of the ,ancient ,world2 ,goodspeed1 ,history of the ,ancient ,world2 ,myers1 ,ancient ,history2 ,wolfson1 ,essentials in ,ancient ,history2 and ,west1 ,ancient ,world1 give short accounts of the chief events in ,roman history4 7b7 ,versions of famous old ,roman stories1 especially the wanderings of ,aeneas1 the ,story of ,romulus and ,remus1 of the ,sabine ,women1 ,horatius at the ,bridge1 and ,cincinnatus4 ,a4,j4 ,church1 ,stories from ,virgil2 ,c4,m4 ,gayley1 ,classical ,myths2 ,h4,a4 ,guerber1 ,myths of ,greece and ,rome2 the same author's ,story of the ,romans2 ,haaren and ,poland1 ,famous ,men of ,rome2 and ,harding1 ,city of ,seven ,hills4 ,macaulay1 ,lays of ,ancient ,rome1 gives the story of ,horatius at the ,bridge1 together with several other stories from early ,roman history4 7c7 ,versions of the ,german myths about ,odin 7,wodan71 ,thor1 ,freya1 and ,tyr 7,tiw74 ,c4,m4 ,gayley4 ,classical ,myths2 ,guerber1 ,myths of ,northern ,lands2 ,haaren and ,poland1 ,famous ,men of the ,middle ,ages2 ,mary ,e4 ,litchfield1 ,the ,nine ,worlds2 ,h4,w4 ,mabie1 ,norse ,stories2 ,eva ,march ,tappan1 ,european ,hero ,stories2 ,alice ,zimmern1 ,gods and ,heroes of the ,north4 7d7 ,the ,story of ,hermann 7or the struggle between the ,romans and ,germans7 is told by ,arthur ,gilman1 ,magna ,charta ,stories1 pp4 #aci-aee2 and by ,maude ,b4 ,dutton1 ,little ,stories of ,germany4 7e7 ,short ,biographies of some famous ,romans4 ,short accounts of the lives of ,romulus1 the ,gracchi1 ,caesar1 ,cicero1 and ,constantine are given in ,haaren and ,poland1 ,famous ,men of ,rome2 ,harding1 ,the ,city of ,seven ,hills2 and several of them in ,plutarch's ,lives4 ,a simple account of the ,life of ,hannibal1 the ,carthaginian enemy of ,rome1 will also be found in these books4 7f7 ,interesting phases of ,roman ,life3 for example1 the ,roman boy1 country life in ,italy1 the ,roman house1 traveling1 amusements1 etc4 ,see ,w4,w4 ,fowler1 ,social ,life at ,rome in the ,age of ,cicero2 ,h4,w4 ,johnston1 ,the ,private ,life of the ,romans2 ,s4,b4 ,platner1 ,topography and ,monuments of ,ancient ,rome2 ,t4,g4 ,tucker1 ,life in the ,roman ,world of ,nero and ,st4 ,paul4 ,many phases of ,roman life are described in ,f4,m4 ,crawford's ,ave ,roma4 7g7 ,for descriptions of incidents in ,roman history and phases of ,roman life as the ,greek and ,roman writers told them1 see ,botsford1 ,story of ,rome1 and ,munro1 ,source ,book of ,roman ,history4 ,c4 ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4 7,for use with chapters x1 xi1 xii1 and xiii47 7a7 ,histories of the people of ,europe in the ,middle ,ages4 ,g4,b4 ,adams1 ,growth of the ,french ,nation2 ,u4,r4 ,burke1 ,a ,history of ,spain from the ,earliest ,times to the ,death of ,ferdinand the ,catholic2 ,j4,r4 ,green1 ,short ,history of the ,english ,people2 ,e4,f4 ,henderson1 ,a ,short ,history of ,german2 ,h4,d4 ,sedgwick1 ,a ,short ,history of ,italy4 7b7 ,collection of stories adapted to children of the grades3 ,the ,story of ,beowulf1 ,king ,arthur and the ,knights of the ,round ,table1 the ,treasure of the ,niebelungs1 and of ,roland4 ,these stories have all been written many times1 and any librarian can give the reader copies of them as told by several writers4 ,the following is a partial list only3 ,a4,j4 ,church1 ,heroes and ,romances2 ,e4,g4 ,crommelin1 ,famous ,legends ,adapted for ,children2 ,h4,a4 ,guerber1 ,legends of the ,middle ,ages2 ,louise ,maitland1 ,heroes of ,chivalry2 and ,eva ,march ,tappan1 ,european ,hero ,stories2 ,james ,baldwin1 ,the ,story of ,roland2 ,frances ,n4 ,greene1 ,legends of ,king ,arthur and ,his ,court2 ,florence ,holbrook1 ,northland ,heroes 7,beowulf72 ,sidney ,lanier1 ,the ,boy's ,king ,arthur2 ,stevens and ,allen1 ,king ,arthur ,stories from ,malory4 7c7 ,famous ,men of the ,middle ,ages2 for example1 ,charlemagne1 ,king ,alfred1 ,rollo the ,viking1 ,william the ,conqueror1 ,frederick ,barbarossa1 ,richard the ,lion-,hearted1 ,king ,john1 ,saint ,louis of ,france1 ,marco ,polo1 and ,gutenberg4 ,see ,a4,f4 ,blaisdell1 ,stories from ,english ,history2 ,louise ,creighton1 ,stories from ,english ,history2 ,maude ,b4 ,dutton1 ,little ,stories of ,germany2 ,h4,a4 ,guerber1 ,the ,story of the ,english2 ,haaren and ,poland1 ,famous ,men of the ,middle ,ages2 ,harding1 ,the ,story of the ,middle ,ages2 ,s4,b4 ,harding and ,w4,f4 ,harding1 ,the ,story of ,england2 ,m4,f4 ,lansing1 ,barbarian and ,noble2 ,a4,m4 ,mowry1 ,first ,steps in the ,history of ,england2 ,l4,n4 ,pitman1 ,stories of ,old ,france2 ,eva ,march ,tappan1 ,european ,hero ,stories2 ,h4,p4 ,warren1 ,stories from ,english ,history2 ,bates and ,coman1 ,english ,history as told by the ,poets4 ,edward ,atherton1 ,the ,adventures of ,marco ,polo1 the ,great ,traveler1 is a convenient modernized version of ,polo's own story of his travels4 ,marco ,polo's description of ,japan and ,java has been reprinted in ,old ,south ,leaflets1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,no4 #cb4 7d7 ,viking ,tales4 ,the interesting stories of the ,northern discoveries and explorations have been told many times4 ,jennie ,hall1 ,viking ,tales1 includes the story of ,eric the ,red1 ,leif the ,lucky1 and the attempt to settle in ,vinland 7,wineland74 7e7 ,the ,trial of ,criminals in the ,middle ,ages--,ordeals4 ,other kinds of ,ordeals than those described in this book will be obtained in ,ogg1 ,source ,book of ,mediaeval ,history1 pp4 #aif-bjb2 ,pennsylvania ,translations and ,reprints1 ,vol4 ,,iv1 ,no4 #d4 pp4 #g-af2 or in ,thatcher and ,mc,neal1 ,source ,book1 pp4 #dja-dab4 ,see ,emerton1 ,introduction to the ,middle ,ages1 pp4 #gi-ha1 for excellent explanation of mediaeval methods of trial4 7f7 ,famous accounts of how the ,people of ,england won the ,magna ,charta4 ,use either ,cheyney1 ,readings in ,english ,history1 pp4 #agi-aha2 ,kendall1 ,source ,book of ,english ,history1 pp4 #gb-gh2 ,robinson1 ,readings in ,european ,history1 ,vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bca-ccc2 or ,ogg1 ,source ,book of ,mediaeval ,history1 pp4 #big-cjc4 7g7 ,simple descriptions of ,mediaeval ,life4 ,maude ,b4 ,dutton1 ,little ,stories of ,germany2 for example1 the chapters on ,how a ,page became a ,knight1 and ,a ,mediaeval ,town4 ,s4,b4 ,harding1 ,the ,story of the ,middle ,ages1 especially the chapters describing life in castle1 life in village1 and life in monastery4 ,eva ,march ,tappan1 ,european ,hero ,stories1 especially the topic1 ,life in ,middle ,ages1 p4 #aah1 the ,crusades1 p4 #acf1 and ,winning the ,magna ,charta1 p4 #aaa4 ,d4 ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,modern ,,times4 ,the ,discovery of ,america4 7,for use with chapters xiv to xxi inclusive47 7a7 ,histories of ,american ,discoveries and ,explorations4 ,e4,g4 ,bourne1 ,spain in ,america2 ,fiske1 ,discovery of ,america1 #b volumes2 and ,parkman1 ,pioneers of ,france in the ,new ,world4 7b7 ,short1 easy biographies of famous explorers4 7,da ,gama1 ,columbus1 ,magellan1 ,de ,soto1 ,coronado1 ,cartier1 ,drake1 and ,raleigh47 ,foote and ,skinner1 ,explorers and ,founders of ,america2 ,w4,f4 ,gordy1 ,stories of ,american ,explorers2 ,w4,e4 ,griffis1 ,the ,romance of ,discovery2 ,haaren and ,poland1 ,famous ,men of ,modern ,times2 ,higginson1 ,young ,folks' ,book of ,american ,explorers2 ,jeannette ,b4 ,hodgdon1 ,a ,first ,course in ,american ,history1 ,book ,i2 ,w4,h4 ,johnson1 ,the ,world's ,discoverers1 #b volumes2 ,lawyer1 ,the ,story of ,columbus and ,magellan2 ,lummis1 ,the ,spanish ,pioneers2 ,mara ,l4 ,pratt1 ,america's ,story for ,america's ,children1 ,book #b2 ,gertrude ,v4,d4 ,southworth1 ,builders of our ,country1 ,book ,i2 ,rosa ,v4 ,winterburn1 ,the ,spanish in the ,southwest4 7c7 ,stories of explorations as told by the explorers themselves4 ,columbus' own account of his discovery of ,america is in ,hart1 ,source ,readers in ,american ,history1 ,no4 #a1 pp4 #d-g4 ,early accounts of ,john ,cabot's discovery and of ,drake's ,voyage in ,hart1 ,source ,readers1 ,no4 #a1 pp4 #g-aj1 #bc-be4 ,the ,death and ,burial of ,de ,soto as described by one of his followers1 in ,hart1 ,source ,readers1 pp4 #af-ai4 ,the ,old ,south ,leaflets1 ,no4 #bj1 ,coronado2 ,nos4 #bi and #ca1 ,columbus2 ,no4 #ca1 the ,voyages to ,vinland2 ,no4 #ce1 ,corts' ,account of the ,city of ,mexico2 ,no4 #cf1 ,the ,death of ,de ,soto2 ,nos4 #cg and #aae1 the ,voyages of the ,cabots2 ,no4 #hi1 ,the ,founding of ,st4 ,augustine2 ,no4 #ib1 ,the ,first ,voyage to ,roanoke2 ,no4 #ajb1 ,columbus' ,account of ,cuba2 ,no4 #aaf1 ,sir ,francis ,drake on the ,coast of ,california2 ,no4 #aah1 ,gilbert's ,expedition2 ,no4 #aai1 ,raleigh's ,colony at ,roanoke4 7d7 ,the ,stories of ,indian ,life in ,spanish ,america1 of ,corts1 ,coronado1 and the ,seven ,cities of ,cibola1 and of the ,missions4 7,see ,rosa ,v4 ,winterburn1 ,the ,spanish in the ,southwest47 ,,index ,acropolis1 ,africa1 explored1 ,aldine ,press1 ,alexander the ,great1 ,alexandria1 founded1 end of trade route1 ,alfred1 ,king1 ,alps1 ,hannibal crosses1 ,alva1 in ,netherlands1 ,america1 discovered by ,columbus1 origin of name1 ,amphitheater1 at ,rome1 ,arles1 ,anglo-,saxons1 ,anglo-,saxon ,chronicle1 ,apollo1 ,aqueducts1 ,roman1 ,aztec1 ,arabic numerals1 ,arabs1 see ,mohammedans1 ,arches1 ,roman1 triumphal1 ,gothic1 in ,renaissance1 ,architecture1 ,greek1 ,roman1 early ,church1 ,mediaeval1 ,renaissance1 ,aristocracy1 origin of1 ,armada 7ar-ma'da71 expedition of1 ,arms1 ,athenian1 ,gallic1 ,mediaeval1 ,aztec1 ,arthur1 ,king1 ,astrolabe1 ,athens1 ,augustus1 ,emperor1 ,azores1 ,aztecs1 ,bahama ,islands1 ,balboa 7balbo'a71 ,basilicas1 ,bayeux tapestry 7ba-yu71 ,beggars of the ,sea1 ,black ,sea1 ,bologna 7bo-lon'ya71 ,university of1 ,boniface1 ,books1 ,greek1 carried to ,italy1 see printing1 ,borromeo 7bor-ro-me'o71 ,boxing1 ,greek1 ,britain1 name changed to ,england1 ,byzantium 7bi-zan'shi-um71 founded1 named ,constantinople1 ,cabot1 ,john1 ,cabot1 ,sebastian1 ,caesar1 ,julius1 ,calvin1 ,john1 ,cambridge1 ,university of1 ,canary ,islands1 ,cannae1 battle of1 ,canterbury1 ,cape of ,good ,hope1 ,cape ,horn1 ,caroline1 ,fort1 settlement1 destroyed1 ,carthaginians1 ,cartier1 ,jacques 7kar'tya71 ,castles1 ,cathedrals1 ,caudine ,forks1 ,caxton1 ,william1 ,census1 ,roman1 ,charles ,v of ,germany 7,charles ,i of ,spain71 ,charybdis 7ka-rib'dis71 ,china1 ,christianity1 ,cibola1 see ,seven ,cities ,cincinnatus1 ,clergy1 ,coligny 7ko'len'ye71 ,colonies1 ,greek1 ,roman1 ,spanish1 ,french1 ,english1 ,colorado1 ,canyon of1 ,colosseum1 ,columbus1 ,christopher4 discoveries of1 ,compass1 origin of1 ,constantine1 ,constantinople1 founded1 renamed1 educated men of1 taken by ,turks1 ,consuls1 at ,rome1 ,corinth1 ,corinthian pillars1 ,coronado1 ,francisco1 ,cortes1 ,hernando1 conquest of ,mexico1 ,courts1 ,greek1 ,english1 ,crusades1 ,cuba1 ,cumae1 ,danes1 see ,northmen1 ,normans1 ,dare1 ,virginia1 ,delphi1 ,demosthenes 7de-mos'the-nez71 ,de ,soto1 ,fernando1 ,diaz1 ,bartholomew1 ,discus thrower1 ,doric pillars1 ,drake1 ,sir ,francis1 adventures in ,america1 voyage around world1 attack on ,spain1 ,duke1 origin of word1 ,dutch1 war for independence1 ,east1 ,the1 defined1 search for sea routes1 ,education1 ,greek1 ,roman1 ,mediaeval1 ,egyptians1 ,elizabeth1 ,queen1 ,england1 first known1 inhabited by ,britons1 conquered by ,romans1 name1 christianized1 ,danes in1 in ,middle ,ages1 aids ,dutch1 navy1 war with ,spain1 ,english explorations and colonies1 ,english language1 origin1 ,erasmus1 ,eric the ,red1 ,espaol 7es-pan-yo'la7 ,euclid1 ,fairs1 ,mediaeval1 ,ferdinand1 ,king1 ,florida1 origin of name1 exploration1 ,st4 ,augustine in1 ,france1 see ,gauls1 name1 ,danes in1 in ,middle ,ages1 sailors of1 colonies in ,america1 ,francis ,i1 ,king1 ,french language1 ,friar ,marcos1 ,friday1 origin of name1 ,frieze1 ,frobisher1 ,martin1 ,gama1 ,vasco da1 ,games1 ,greek1 ,roman1 ,gauls1 ,genoa1 ,germany1 language1 early1 name1 early emigrants from1 missionaries to1 ,gilbert1 ,humphrey1 ,girgenti 7jer-jen'te71 temple at1 ,gladiators1 ,gothic architecture1 ,goths1 ,government1 at ,athens1 at ,rome1 in ,england1 ,gracchi1 ,tiberius and ,caius1 ,great ,charter1 ,greece1 language of1 early history1 manner of living in1 colonies1 rivals1 conquered by ,rome1 and the ,renaissance1 ,greenland1 ,gregory1 ,pope1 ,guam1 ,guilds1 ,gutenberg4 ,john17goo'ten-berk71 ,gymnasium1 ,greek1 ,hannibal1 ,hawkins1 ,john1 ,hayti1 see ,espaola1 ,henry1 ,prince1 the ,navigator1 ,henry ,,ii1 of ,england1 ,henry ,,viii1 of ,england1 ,hercules1 ,hermann1 ,hermes1 ,herodotus 7herod'otus71 ,homer1 ,horatius1 ,house of ,commons1 ,house of ,lords1 ,houses1 ,greek1 ,roman1 ,aztec1 in ,cibola1 ,huguenots 7hu'ge-nots71 origin of1 in ,america1 and ,dutch1 ,iceland1 ,incas1 ,india1 ,indians1 origin of name1 of ,mexico1 of ,peru1 as slaves1 missions to1 and ,de ,soto1 in ,cibola1 in ,quivira1 at ,roanoke1 ,indies1 ,ionic pillars1 ,isabella1 ,queen of ,spain1 ,isabella1 town in ,espaola1 ,italy1 ,greeks in1 ,romans masters of1 farmers in1 ,goths invade1 ,mediaeval1 ,renaissance in1 ,japan1 ,jerusalem1 ,jews1 ,john1 ,king of ,england1 ,jury1 origin of1 ,justice1 ,greek1 ,english1 ,justinian1 ,karlsefni 7karl'sef-ne7 ,knights1 ,las ,casas 7ca'sas71 ,latin1 words1 literature1 learned by the ,gauls1 in ,middle ,ages1 in ,renaissance1 ,law1 ,roman1 ,english1 ,leif ,ericson1 ,london1 ,loyola1 ,ignatius 7lo-yo'la7 ,luther1 ,martin1 ,madeira ,islands 7madei'ra71 ,magellan1 ,magellan1 ,strait of1 ,magna ,charta1 ,marathon1 ,marco ,polo1 ,marseilles 7mar-salz71 ,mary1 ,queen of ,england1 ,menendez1 ,pedro 7ma-nen'dath7 ,mexico1 conquest of1 ,michel ,angelo 7mi'kel-an'je-lo71 ,middle ,ages1 defined1 close1 ,miltiades 7mil-ti'a-dez7 ,missionaries1 ,missions1 ,spanish1 ,mississippi ,river1 discovery of1 ,modern ,times1 defined1 ,mohammedans1 ,moluccas1 ,monasteries1 ,mongol ,tartars1 ,montezuma1 ,king of ,aztecs1 ,montreal1 ,moors1 ,mosaics1 ,naples1 ,navy1 ,english1 in battle against the ,armada1 ,netherlands1 revolt of1 ,new ,testament1 ,greek1 first printed1 ,nobles1 ,norman architecture1 ,norman ,conquest1 ,normans1 ,northmen1 ,notre ,dame 7no'tr'dam7 in ,paris1 ,odin1 ,olympia1 ,olympic games1 ,ordeals1 ,oxford1 ,university of1 ,pacific ,ocean1 ,paestum 7pes'tum71 ,paintings1 ,greek1 ,panama1 ,pantheon 7,pan'theon71 ,papyrus 7pa-pi'rus71 ,paris1 ,parliament1 ,english1 origin of1 ,parthenon 7par'thenon71 ,patagonia1 ,patricians1 ,paul1 the ,apostle1 ,peasants1 ,pediment1 ,persia1 ,peru1 conquest of1 ,petrarch 7pe'trark71 ,pheidippides 7fi-dip'e-dez71 ,philip ,,ii1 ,philippines1 ,phoenicia1 ,pizarro1 ,francisco 7pi-zar'ro71 conquest of ,peru1 ,plataeans1 ,plato1 ,plebeians1 ,pompeii 7pom-pa'ye71 ,pompey1 ,ponce de ,leon 7pon'tha da la-on71 ,pope1 the ,bishop of ,rome1 ,porticoes1 ,portugal1 sailors of1 and the ,new ,world1 ,potato1 found by ,magellan1 ,pottery1 ,greek1 ,aztec1 ,zui1 ,printing1 invented1 ,ptolemy 7tol'e-mi71 ,pyrrhus 7pir'us71 ,quebec1 ,quivira1 ,raleigh1 ,sir ,walter1 ,renaissance 7ren'e-sans71 ,richard1 the ,lionhearted1 ,roads1 ,roman1 ,roanoke1 ,roman ,empire1 size1 origin1 ,roman type1 ,romans1 language1 see ,latin1 early1 contact with ,greeks1 wars in ,italy1 early manner of living1 war with ,carthage1 conquer ,gaul and ,britain1 ,empire of1 civilization of1 ,christianized1 empire ruined1 literature of1 influence1 ,romanesque architecture1 ,romulus1 ,salamis1 ,samnites1 ,san ,salvador1 ,st4 ,augustine1 ,sardinia1 ,saxons1 ,sculpture1 ,greek1 ,scylla 7sil'a71 ,senators1 at ,rome1 ,seven ,cities of ,cibola1 ,shakespeare1 ,ships1 ,greek1 early ,english1 ,venetian1 of ,columbus1 of ,english navy1 ,sicily1 ,sidney1 ,sir ,philip1 ,simon de ,montfort1 ,slaves1 ,greek1 ,roman1 ,indians as1 ,negroes as1 ,slave-trade1 ,spanish1 ,english1 ,socrates 7sok'ra-tez71 ,spain1 early settlements in1 ,romans capture1 name1 ,arabs in1 ,columbus and1 claim to ,new ,world1 colonies of1 war with ,netherlands1 war with ,england1 ,sparta1 ,spice ,islands1 ,spice trade1 ,stadium1 ,statues1 ,greek1 ,temples1 ,greek1 ,theater1 ,greek1 early ,roman1 later1 ,thebes1 ,themistocles 7the-mis'to-klez71 ,thermopylae 7ther-mop'i-le71 ,theseum 7these'um71 ,thor1 ,thursday1 origin of name1 ,tin ,islands1 ,towns1 in ,middle ,ages1 ,trade1 ,mediaeval1 ,trade-winds1 ,trebia1 battle of1 ,trial by battle1 ,tribune1 ,roman1 ,trireme1 ,troy1 ,turks1 ,twelve ,tables1 ,tyre1 ,ulfilas1 ,ulysses1 ,universities1 ,venice1 ,venus of ,melos1 ,vercingetorix 7vercinget'orix71 ,vespucius1 ,americus1 ,veto1 at ,rome1 ,vikings1 ,vinland1 ,virginia1 origin of name1 colony in1 ,watling ,island1 ,wednesday1 origin of name1 ,west ,indies1 ,white1 ,john1 ,william the ,conqueror1 ,william of ,orange1 ,wodan1 ,women1 ,roman1 ,words1 ,writing1 art of1 ,xerxes 7zurk'zez71 ,zui1