,sentence ,numbers1 shown thus 7#a71 have been added by volunteer4 ,a ,theologico-,political ,treatise ,part #a - ,chapters ,i to ,v ,baruch ,spinoza ,a ,theologico-,political ,treatise ,part #a - ,chapters ,i to ,v ,,table ,,of ,,contents3 ,,preface4 ,origin and consequences of superstition4 ,causes that have led the author to write4 ,course of his investigation4 ,for what readers the treatise is designed4 ,submission of author to the rulers of his country4 ,,chapter ,i - ,of ,prophecy4 ,definition of prophecy4 ,distinction between revelation to ,moses and to the other prophets4 ,between ,christ and other recipients of revelation4 ,ambiguity of the word ,spirit4 ,the different senses in which things may be referred to ,god4 ,different senses of ,spirit of ,god4 ,prophets perceived revelation by imagination4 ,,chapter ,,ii - ,of ,prophets4 ,a mistake to suppose that prophecy can give knowledge of phenomena ,certainty of prophecy based on3 7#a7 ,vividness of imagination1 7#b7 ,a ,sign1 7#c7 ,goodness of the ,prophet4 ,variation of prophecy with the temperament and opinions of the individual4 ,,chapter ,,iii - ,of the ,vocation of the ,hebrews1 and whether the ,gift of ,prophecy was peculiar to them4 ,happiness of ,hebrews did not consist in the inferiority of the ,gentile4 ,nor in philosophic knowledge or virtue4 ,but in their conduct of affairs of state and escape from political dangers4 ,even this ,distinction did not exist in the time of ,abraham4 ,testimony from the ,old ,testament itself to the share of the ,gentiles in the law and favour of ,god4 ,explanation of apparent discrepancy of the ,epistle to the ,romans4 ,answer to the arguments for the eternal election of the ,jews4 ,,chapter ,,iv - ,of the ,divine ,law4 ,laws either depend on natural necessity or on human decree4 ,the existence of the latter not inconsistent with the former class of laws4 ,divine law a kind of law founded on human decree3 called ,divine from its object4 ,divine law3 7#a7 universal2 7#b7 independent of the truth of any historical narrative2 7#c7 independent of rites and ceremonies2 7#d7 its own reward4 ,reason does not present ,god as a law-giver for men4 ,such a conception a proof of ignorance - in ,adam - in the ,israelites - in ,christians4 ,testimony of the ,scriptures in favour of reason and the rational view of the ,divine4 ,,chapter ,v - ,of the ,ceremonial ,law4 ,ceremonial law of the ,old ,testament no part of the ,divine universal law1 but partial and temporary4 ,testimony of the prophets themselves to this ,testimony of the ,new ,testament4 ,how the ceremonial law tended to preserve the ,hebrew kingdom4 ,christian rites on a similar footing4 ,what part of the ,scripture narratives is one bound to believe8 ,authors ,endnotes to the ,treatise4 ,a ,theologico-,political ,treatise ,part #a - ,chapters ,i to ,v ,,preface4 7#a7,men would never be superstitious1 if they could govern all their circumstances by set rules1 or if they were always favoured by fortune3 but being frequently driven into straits where rules are useless1 and being often kept fluctuating pitiably between hope and fear by the uncertainty of fortune's greedily coveted favours1 they are consequently1 for the most part1 very prone to credulity4 7#b7 ,the human mind is readily swayed this way or that in times of doubt1 especially when hope and fear are struggling for the mastery1 though usually it is boastful1 over - confident1 and vain4 7#c7 ,this as a general fact ,i suppose everyone knows1 though few1 ,i believe1 know their own nature2 no one can have lived in the world without observing that most people1 when in prosperity1 are so over-brimming with wisdom 7however inexperienced they may be71 that they take every offer of advice as a personal insult1 whereas in adversity they know not where to turn1 but beg and pray for counsel from every passer-by4 7#d7 ,no plan is then too futile1 too absurd1 or too fatuous for their adoption2 the most frivolous causes will raise them to hope1 or plunge them into despair - if anything happens during their fright which reminds them of some past good or ill1 they think it portends a happy or unhappy issue1 and therefore 7though it may have proved abortive a hundred times before7 style it a lucky or unlucky omen4 7#e7 ,anything which excites their astonishment they believe to be a portent signifying the anger of the gods or of the ,supreme ,being1 and1 mistaking superstition for religion1 account it impious not to avert the evil with prayer and sacrifice4 7#f7 ,signs and wonders of this sort they conjure up perpetually1 till one might think ,nature as mad as themselves1 they interpret her so fantastically4 7#g7 ,thus it is brought prominently before us1 that superstition's chief victims are those persons who greedily covet temporal advantages2 they it is1 who 7especially when they are in danger1 and cannot help themselves7 are wont with ,prayers and womanish tears to implore help from ,god3 upbraiding ,reason as blind1 because she cannot show a sure path to the shadows they pursue1 and rejecting human wisdom as vain2 but believing the phantoms of imagination1 dreams1 and other childish absurdities1 to be the very oracles of ,heaven4 7#h7 ,as though ,god had turned away from the wise1 and written ,his decrees1 not in the mind of man but in the entrails of beasts1 or left them to be proclaimed by the inspiration and instinct of fools1 madmen1 and birds4 ,such is the unreason to which terror can drive mankind6 7#i7 ,superstition1 then1 is engendered1 preserved1 and fostered by fear4 ,if anyone desire an example1 let him take ,alexander1 who only began superstitiously to seek guidance from seers1 when he first learnt to fear fortune in the passes of ,sysis 7,curtius1 v4 #d72 whereas after he had conquered ,darius he consulted prophets no more1 till a second time frightened by reverses4 7#aj7 ,when the ,scythians were provoking a battle1 the ,bactrians had deserted1 and he himself was lying sick of his wounds1 he once more turned to superstition1 the mockery of human wisdom1 and bade ,aristander1 to whom he confided his credulity1 inquire the issue of affairs with sacrificed victims4 7#aa7 ,very numerous examples of a like nature might be cited1 clearly showing the fact1 that only while under the dominion of fear do men fall a prey to superstition2 that all the portents ever invested with the reverence of misguided religion are mere phantoms of dejected and fearful minds2 and lastly1 that prophets have most power among the people1 and are most formidable to rulers1 precisely at those times when the state is in most peril4 7#ab7 ,i think this is sufficiently plain to all1 and will therefore say no more on the subject4 7#ac7 ,the origin of superstition above given affords us a clear reason for the fact1 that it comes to all men naturally1 though some refer its rise to a dim notion of ,god1 universal to mankind1 and also tends to show1 that it is no less inconsistent and variable than other mental hallucinations and emotional impulses1 and further that it can only be maintained by hope1 hatred1 anger1 and deceit2 since it springs1 not from reason1 but solely from the more powerful phases of emotion4 7#ad7 ,furthermore1 we may readily understand how difficult it is1 to maintain in the same course men prone to every form of credulity4 7#ae7 ,for1 as the mass of mankind remains always at about the same pitch of misery1 it never assents long to any one remedy1 but is always best pleased by a novelty which has not yet proved illusive4 7#af7 ,this element of inconsistency has been the cause of many terrible wars and revolutions2 for1 as ,curtius well says 7lib4 iv4 chap4 #aj73 ,the mob has no ruler more potent than superstition1 and is easily led1 on the plea of religion1 at one moment to adore its kings as gods1 and anon to execrate and abjure them as humanity's common bane4 7#ag7 ,immense pains have therefore been taken to counteract this evil by investing religion1 whether true or false1 with such pomp and ceremony1 that it may rise superior to every shock1 and be always observed with studious reverence by the whole people--a system which has been brought to great perfection by the ,turks1 for they consider even controversy impious1 and so clog men's minds with dogmatic formulas1 that they leave no room for sound reason1 not even enough to doubt with4 7#ah7 ,but if1 in despotic statecraft1 the supreme and essential mystery be to hoodwink the subjects1 and to mask the fear1 which keeps them clown1 with the specious garb of religion1 so that men may fight as bravely for slavery as for safety1 and count it not shame but highest honour to risk their blood and their lives for the vainglory of a tyrant2 yet in a free state no more mischievous expedient could be planned or attempted4 7#ai7 ,wholly repugnant to the general freedom are such devices as enthralling men's minds with prejudices1 forcing their judgment1 or employing any of the weapons of quasi-religious sedition2 indeed1 such seditions only spring up1 when law enters the domain of speculative thought1 and opinions are put on trial and condemned on the same footing as crimes1 while those who defend and follow them are sacrificed1 not to public safety1 but to their opponents' hatred and cruelty4 7#bj7 ,if deeds only could be made the grounds of criminal charges1 and words were always allowed to pass free1 such seditions would be divested of every semblance of justification1 and would be separated from mere controversies by a hard and fast line4 7#bj7 ,now1 seeing that we have the rare happiness of living in a republic1 where everyone's judgment is free and unshackled1 where each may worship ,god as his conscience dictates1 and where freedom is esteemed before all things dear and precious1 ,i have believed that ,i should be undertaking no ungrateful or unprofitable task1 in demonstrating that not only can such freedom be granted without prejudice to the public peace1 but also1 that without such freedom1 piety cannot flourish nor the public peace be secure4 7#ba7 ,such is the chief conclusion ,i seek to establish in this treatise2 but1 in order to reach it1 ,i must first point out the misconceptions which1 like scars of our former bondage1 still disfigure our notion of religion1 and must expose the false views about the civil authority which many have most impudently advocated1 endeavouring to turn the mind of the people1 still prone to heathen superstition1 away from its legitimate rulers1 and so bring us again into slavery4 7#bb7 ,as to the order of my treatise ,i will speak presently1 but first ,i will recount the causes which led me to write4 7#bc7 ,i have often wondered1 that persons who make a boast of professing the ,christian religion1 namely1 love1 joy1 peace1 temperance1 and charity to all men1 should quarrel with such rancorous animosity1 and display daily towards one another such bitter hatred1 that this1 rather than the virtues they claim1 is the readiest criterion of their faith4 7#bd7 ,matters have long since come to such a pass1 that one can only pronounce a man ,christian1 ,turk1 ,jew1 or ,heathen1 by his general appearance and attire1 by his frequenting this or that place of worship1 or employing the phraseology of a particular sect - as for manner of life1 it is in all cases the same4 7#be7 ,inquiry into the cause of this anomaly leads me unhesitatingly to ascribe it to the fact1 that the ministries of the ,church are regarded by the masses merely as dignities1 her offices as posts of emolument - in short1 popular religion may be summed up as respect for ecclesiastics4 7#bf7 ,the spread of this misconception inflamed every worthless fellow with an intense desire to enter holy orders1 and thus the love of diffusing ,god's religion degenerated into sordid avarice and ambition4 7#bg7 ,every church became a theatre1 where orators1 instead of church teachers1 harangued1 caring not to instruct the people1 but striving to attract admiration1 to bring opponents to public scorn1 and to preach only novelties and paradoxes1 such as would tickle the ears of their congregation4 7#bh7 ,this state of things necessarily stirred up an amount of controversy1 envy1 and hatred1 which no lapse of time could appease2 so that we can scarcely wonder that of the old religion nothing survives but its outward forms 7even these1 in the mouth of the multitude1 seem rather adulation than adoration of the ,deity71 and that faith has become a mere compound of credulity and prejudices - aye1 prejudices too1 which degrade man from rational being to beast1 which completely stifle the power of judgment between true and false1 which seem1 in fact1 carefully fostered for the purpose of extinguishing the last spark of reason6 7#bi7 ,piety1 great ,god6 and religion are become a tissue of ridiculous mysteries2 men1 who flatly despise reason1 who reject and turn away from understanding as naturally corrupt1 these1 ,i say1 these of all men1 are thought1 ,o lie most horrible6 to possess light from on ,high4 7#cj7 ,verily1 if they had but one spark of light from on ,high1 they would not insolently rave1 but would learn to worship ,god more wisely1 and would be as marked among their fellows for mercy as they now are for malice2 if they were concerned for their opponents' souls1 instead of for their own reputations1 they would no longer fiercely persecute1 but rather be filled with pity and compassion4 7#ca7 ,furthermore1 if any ,divine light were in them1 it would appear from their doctrine4 7#cb7 ,i grant that they are never tired of professing their wonder at the profound mysteries of ,holy ,writ2 still ,i cannot discover that they teach anything but speculations of ,platonists and ,aristotelians1 to which 7in order to save their credit for ,christianity7 they have made ,holy ,writ conform2 not content to rave with the ,greeks themselves1 they want to make the prophets rave also2 showing conclusively1 that never even in sleep have they caught a glimpse of ,scripture's ,divine nature4 7#cc7 ,the very vehemence of their admiration for the mysteries plainly attests1 that their belief in the ,bible is a formal assent rather than a living faith3 and the fact is made still more apparent by their laying down beforehand1 as a foundation for the study and true interpretation of ,scripture1 the principle that it is in every passage true and divine4 7#cd7 ,such a doctrine should be reached only after strict scrutiny and thorough comprehension of the ,sacred ,books 7which would teach it much better1 for they stand in need no human factions71 and not be set up on the threshold1 as it were1 of inquiry4 7#ce7 ,as ,i pondered over the facts that the light of reason is not only despised1 but by many even execrated as a source of impiety1 that human commentaries are accepted as divine records1 and that credulity is extolled as faith2 as ,i marked the fierce controversies of philosophers raging in ,church and ,state1 the source of bitter hatred and dissension1 the ready instruments of sedition and other ills innumerable1 ,i determined to examine the ,bible afresh in a careful1 impartial1 and unfettered spirit1 making no assumptions concerning it1 and attributing to it no doctrines1 which ,i do not find clearly therein set down4 7#cf7 ,with these precautions ,i constructed a method of ,scriptural interpretation1 and thus equipped proceeded to inquire - what is prophecy8 7#cg7 ,in what sense did ,god reveal himself to the prophets1 and why were these particular men - chosen by him8 7#ch7 ,was it on account of the sublimity of their thoughts about the ,deity and nature1 or was it solely on account of their piety8 7#ci7 ,these questions being answered1 ,i was easily able to conclude1 that the authority of the prophets has weight only in matters of morality1 and that their speculative doctrines affect us little4 7#dj7 ,next ,i inquired1 why the ,hebrews were called ,god's chosen people1 and discovering that it was only because ,god had chosen for them a certain strip of territory1 where they might live peaceably and at ease1 ,i learnt that the ,law revealed by ,god to ,moses was merely the law of the individual ,hebrew state1 therefore that it was binding on none but ,hebrews1 and not even on ,hebrews after the downfall of their nation4 7#da7 ,further1 in order to ascertain1 whether it could be concluded from ,scripture1 that the human understanding is naturally corrupt1 ,i inquired whether the ,universal ,religion1 the ,divine ,law revealed through the ,prophets and ,apostles to the whole human race1 differs from that which is taught by the light of natural reason1 whether miracles can take place in violation of the laws of nature1 and if so1 whether they imply the existence of ,god more surely and clearly than events1 which we understand plainly and distinctly through their immediate natural causes4 7#db7 ,now1 as in the whole course of my investigation ,i found nothing taught expressly by ,scripture1 which does not agree with our understanding1 or which is repugnant thereto1 and as ,i saw that the prophets taught nothing1 which is not very simple and easily to be grasped by all1 and further1 that they clothed their teaching in the style1 and confirmed it with the reasons1 which would most deeply move the mind of the masses to devotion towards ,god1 ,i became thoroughly convinced1 that the ,bible leaves reason absolutely free1 that it has nothing in common with philosophy1 in fact1 that ,revelation and ,philosophy stand on different footings4 ,in order to set this forth categorically and exhaust the whole question1 ,i point out the way in which the ,bible should be interpreted1 and show that all of spiritual questions should be sought from it alone1 and not from the objects of ordinary knowledge4 7#dc7 ,thence ,i pass on to indicate the false notions1 which have from the fact that the multitude - ever prone to superstition1 and caring more for the shreds of antiquity for eternal truths - pays homage to the ,books of the ,bible1 rather than to the ,word of ,god4 7#dd7 ,i show that the ,word of ,god has not been revealed as a certain number of books1 was displayed to the prophets as a simple idea of the mind1 namely1 obedience to ,god in singleness of heart1 and in the practice of justice and charity2 and ,i further point out1 that this doctrine is set forth in ,scripture in accordance with the opinions and understandings of those1 among whom the ,apostles and ,prophets preached1 to the end that men might receive it willingly1 and with their whole heart4 7#de7 ,having thus laid bare the bases of belief1 ,i draw the conclusion that ,revelation has obedience for its sole object1 therefore1 in purpose no less than in foundation and method1 stands entirely aloof from ordinary knowledge2 each has its separate province1 neither can be called the handmaid of the other4 7#df7 ,furthermore1 as men's habits of mind differ1 so that some more readily embrace one form of faith1 some another1 for what moves one to pray may move another only to scoff1 ,i conclude1 in accordance with what has gone before1 that everyone should be free to choose for himself the foundations of his creed1 and that faith should be judged only by its fruits2 each would then obey ,god freely with his whole heart1 while nothing would be publicly honoured save justice and charity4 7#dg7 ,having thus drawn attention to the liberty conceded to everyone by the revealed law of ,god1 ,i pass on to another part of my subject1 and prove that this same liberty can and should be accorded with safety to the state and the magisterial authority - in fact1 that it cannot be withheld without great danger to peace and detriment to the community4 7#dh7 ,in order to establish my point1 ,i start from the natural rights of the individual1 which are co-extensive with his desires and power1 and from the fact that no one is bound to live as another pleases1 but is the guardian of his own liberty4 7#di7 ,i show that these rights can only be transferred to those whom we depute to defend us1 who acquire with the duties of defence the power of ordering our lives1 and ,i thence infer that rulers possess rights only limited by their power1 that they are the sole guardians of justice and liberty1 and that their subjects should act in all things as they dictate3 nevertheless1 since no one can so utterly abdicate his own power of self-defence as to cease to be a man1 ,i conclude that no one can be deprived of his natural rights absolutely1 but that subjects1 either by tacit agreement1 or by social contract1 retain a certain number1 which cannot be taken from them without great danger to the state4 7#ej7 ,from these considerations ,i pass on to the ,hebrew ,state1 which ,i describe at some length1 in order to trace the manner in which ,religion acquired the force of law1 and to touch on other noteworthy points4 7#ea7 ,i then prove1 that the holders of sovereign power are the depositories and interpreters of religious no less than of civil ordinances1 and that they alone have the right to decide what is just or unjust1 pious or impious2 lastly1 ,i conclude by showing1 that they best retain this right and secure safety to their state by allowing every man to think what he likes1 and say what he thinks4 7#eb7 ,such1 ,philosophical ,reader1 are the questions ,i submit to your notice1 counting on your approval1 for the subject matter of the whole book and of the several chapters is important and profitable4 7#ec7 ,i would say more1 but ,i do not want my preface to extend to a volume1 especially as ,i know that its leading propositions are to ,philosophers but common places4 7#ed7 ,to the rest of mankind ,i care not to commend my treatise1 for ,i cannot expect that it contains anything to please them3 ,i know how deeply rooted are the prejudices embraced under the name of religion2 ,i am aware that in the mind of the masses superstition is no less deeply rooted than fear2 ,i recognize that their constancy is mere obstinacy1 and that they are led to praise or blame by impulse rather than reason4 7#ee7 ,therefore the multitude1 and those of like passions with the multitude1 ,i ask not to read my book2 nay1 ,i would rather that they should utterly neglect it1 than that they should misinterpret it after their wont4 7#ef7 ,they would gain no good themselves1 and might prove a stumbling-block to others1 whose philosophy is hampered by the belief that ,reason is a mere handmaid to ,theology1 and whom ,i seek in this work especially to benefit4 7#eg7 ,but as there will be many who have neither the leisure1 nor1 perhaps1 the inclination to read through all ,i have written1 ,i feel bound here1 as at the end of my treatise1 to declare that ,i have written nothing1 which ,i do not most willingly submit to the examination and judgment of my country's rulers1 and that ,i am ready to retract anything1 which they shall decide to be repugnant to the laws or prejudicial to the public good4 7#eh7 ,i know that ,i am a man and1 as a man1 liable to error1 but against error ,i have taken scrupulous care1 and striven to keep in entire accordance with the laws of my country1 with loyalty1 and with morality4 ,,chapter ,i4 - ,of ,prophecy 7#a7 ,prophecy1 or revelation is sure knowledge revealed by ,god to man4 7#b7 ,a prophet is one who interprets the revelations of ,god to those who are unable to attain to sure knowledge of the matters revealed1 and therefore can only apprehend them by simple faith4 7#c7 ,the ,hebrew word for prophet is nabi1,endnote #a i4e4 speaker or interpreter1 but in ,scripture its meaning is restricted to interpreter of ,god1 as we may learn from ,exodus vii3#a1 where ,god says to ,moses1 ,see1 ,i have made thee a god to ,pharaoh1 and ,aaron thy brother shall be thy prophet2 implying that1 since in interpreting ,moses' words to ,pharaoh1 ,aaron acted the part of a prophet1 ,moses would be to ,pharaoh as a god1 or in the attitude of a god4 7#d7 ,prophets ,i will treat of in the next chapter1 and at present consider prophecy4 7#e7 ,now it is evident1 from the definition above given1 that prophecy really includes ordinary knowledge2 for the knowledge which we acquire by our natural faculties depends on knowledge of ,god and ,his eternal laws2 but ordinary knowledge is common to all men as men1 and rests on foundations which all share1 whereas the multitude always strains after rarities and exceptions1 and thinks little of the gifts of nature2 so that1 when prophecy is talked of1 ordinary knowledge is not supposed to be included4 7#f7 ,nevertheless it has as much right as any other to be called ,divine1 for ,god's nature1 in so far as we share therein1 and ,god's laws1 dictate it to us2 nor does it suffer from that to which we give the preeminence1 except in so far as the latter transcends its limits and cannot be accounted for by natural laws taken in themselves4 7#g7 ,in respect to the certainty it involves1 and the source from which it is derived1 i4e4 ,god1 ordinary knowledge is no whit inferior to prophetic1 unless indeed we believe1 or rather dream1 that the prophets had human bodies but superhuman minds1 and therefore that their sensations and consciousness were entirely different from our own4 7#h7 ,but1 although ordinary knowledge is ,divine1 its professors cannot be called prophets ,endnote #b1 for they teach what the rest of mankind could perceive and apprehend1 not merely by simple faith1 but as surely and honourably as themselves4 7#i7 ,seeing then that our mind subjectively contains in itself and partakes of the nature of ,god1 and solely from this cause is enabled to form notions explaining natural phenomena and inculcating morality1 it follows that we may rightly assert the nature of the human mind 7in so far as it is thus conceived7 to be a primary cause of ,divine revelation4 7#aj7 ,all that we clearly and distinctly understand is dictated to us1 as ,i have just pointed out1 by the idea and nature of ,god2 not indeed through words1 but in a way far more excellent and agreeing perfectly with the nature of the mind1 as all who have enjoyed intellectual certainty will doubtless attest4 7#aa7 ,here1 however1 my chief purpose is to speak of matters having reference to ,scripture1 so these few words on the light of reason will suffice4 7#ab7 ,i will now pass on to1 and treat more fully1 the other ways and means by which ,god makes revelations to mankind1 both of that which transcends ordinary knowledge1 and of that within its scope2 for there is no reason why ,god should not employ other means to communicate what we know already by the power of reason4 7#ac7 ,our conclusions on the subject must be drawn solely from ,scripture2 for what can we affirm about matters transcending our knowledge except what is told us by the words or writings of prophets8 7#ad7 ,and since there are1 so far as ,i know1 no prophets now alive1 we have no alternative but to read the books of prophets departed1 taking care the while not to reason from metaphor or to ascribe anything to our authors which they do not themselves distinctly state4 7#ae7 ,i must further premise that the ,jews never make any mention or account of secondary1 or particular causes1 but in a spirit of religion1 piety1 and what is commonly called godliness1 refer all things directly to the ,deity4 7#af7 ,for instance if they make money by a transaction1 they say ,god gave it to them2 if they desire anything1 they say ,god has disposed their hearts towards it2 if they think anything1 they say ,god told them4 7#ag7 ,hence we must not suppose that everything is prophecy or revelation which is described in ,scripture as told by ,god to anyone1 but only such things as are expressly announced as prophecy or revelation1 or are plainly pointed to as such by the context4 7#ah7 ,a perusal of the sacred books will show us that all ,god's revelations to the prophets were made through words or appearances1 or a combination of the two4 7#ai7 ,these words and appearances were of two kinds2 #a4- real when external to the mind of the prophet who heard or saw them1 #b4- imaginary when the imagination of the prophet was in a state which led him distinctly to suppose that he heard or saw them4 7#bj7 ,with a real voice ,god revealed to ,moses the laws which ,he wished to be transmitted to the ,hebrews1 as we may see from ,exodus xxv3#bb1 where ,god says1 ,and there ,i will meet with thee and ,i will commune with thee from the mercy seat which is between the ,cherubim4 7#ba7 ,some sort of real voice must necessarily have been employed1 for ,moses found ,god ready to commune with him at any time4 ,this1 as ,i shall shortly show1 is the only instance of a real voice4 7#bb7 ,we might1 perhaps1 suppose that the voice with which ,god called ,samuel was real1 for in #a ,sam4 iii3#ba1 we read1 ,and the ,lord appeared again in ,shiloh1 for the ,lord revealed ,himself to ,samuel in ,shiloh by the word of the ,lord2 implying that the appearance of the ,lord consisted in ,his making ,himself known to ,samuel through a voice2 in other words1 that ,samuel heard the ,lord speaking4 7#bc7 ,but we are compelled to distinguish between the prophecies of ,moses and those of other prophets1 and therefore must decide that this voice was imaginary1 a conclusion further supported by the voice's resemblance to the voice of ,eli1 which ,samuel was in the habit of hearing1 and therefore might easily imagine2 when thrice called by the ,lord1 ,samuel supposed it to have been ,eli4 7#bd7 ,the voice which ,abimelech heard was imaginary1 for it is written1 ,gen4 xx3#f1 ,and ,god said unto him in a dream4 7#be7 ,so that the will of ,god was manifest to him1 not in waking1 but only in sleep1 that is1 when the imagination is most active and uncontrolled4 7#bf7 ,some of the ,jews believe that the actual words of the ,decalogue were not spoken by ,god1 but that the ,israelites heard a noise only1 without any distinct words1 and during its continuance apprehended the ,ten ,commandments by pure intuition2 to this opinion ,i myself once inclined1 seeing that the words of the ,decalogue in ,exodus are different from the words of the ,decalogue in ,deuteronomy1 for the discrepancy seemed to imply 7since ,god only spoke once7 that the ,ten ,commandments were not intended to convey the actual words of the ,lord1 but only ,his meaning4 7#bg7 ,however1 unless we would do violence to ,scripture1 we must certainly admit that the ,israelites heard a real voice1 for ,scripture expressly says1 ,deut4 v3#d1 ,god spake with you face to face1 i4e4 as two men ordinarily interchange ideas through the instrumentality of their two bodies2 and therefore it seems more consonant with ,holy ,writ to suppose that ,god really did create a voice of some kind with which the ,decalogue was revealed4 7#bh7 ,the discrepancy of the two versions is treated of in ,chap4 ,,viii4 7#bi7 ,yet not even thus is all difficulty removed1 for it seems scarcely reasonable to affirm that a created thing1 depending on ,god in the same manner as other created things1 would be able to express or explain the nature of ,god either verbally or really by means of its individual organism3 for instance1 by declaring in the first person1 ,i am the ,lord your ,god4 7#cj7 ,certainly when anyone says with his mouth1 ,i understand1 we do not attribute the understanding to the mouth1 but to the mind of the speaker2 yet this is because the mouth is the natural organ of a man speaking1 and the hearer1 knowing what understanding is1 easily comprehends1 by a comparison with himself1 that the speaker's mind is meant2 but if we knew nothing of ,god beyond the mere name and wished to commune with ,him1 and be assured of ,his existence1 ,i fail to see how our wish would be satisfied by the declaration of a created thing 7depending on ,god neither more nor less than ourselves71 ,i am the ,lord4 7#ca7 ,if ,god contorted the lips of ,moses1 or1 ,i will not say ,moses1 but some beast1 till they pronounced the words1 ,i am the ,lord1 should we apprehend the ,lord's existence therefrom8 7#cb7 ,scripture seems clearly to point to the belief that ,god spoke ,himself1 having descended from heaven to ,mount ,sinai for the purpose - and not only that the ,israelites heard ,him speaking1 but that their chief men beheld ,him 7,ex3xxiv47 7#cc7 ,further the law of ,moses1 which might neither be added to nor curtailed1 and which was set up as a national standard of right1 nowhere prescribed the belief that ,god is without body1 or even without form or figure1 but only ordained that the ,jews should believe in ,his existence and worship ,him alone3 it forbade them to invent or fashion any likeness of the ,deity1 but this was to insure purity of service2 because1 never having seen ,god1 they could not by means of images recall the likeness of ,god1 but only the likeness of some created thing which might thus gradually take the place of ,god as the object of their adoration4 7#cd7 ,nevertheless1 the ,bible clearly implies that ,god has a form1 and that ,moses when he heard ,god speaking was permitted to behold it1 or at least its hinder parts4 7#ce7 ,doubtless some mystery lurks in this question which we will discuss more fully below4 7#cf7 ,for the present ,i will call attention to the passages in ,scripture indicating the means by which ,god has revealed ,his laws to man4 7#cg7 ,revelation may be through figures only1 as in ,i ,chron3xxii41 where ,god displays his anger to ,david by means of an angel bearing a sword1 and also in the story of ,balaam4 7#ch7 ,maimonides and others do indeed maintain that these and every other instance of angelic apparitions 7e4g4 to ,manoah and to ,abraham offering up ,isaac7 occurred during sleep1 for that no one with his eyes open ever could see an angel1 but this is mere nonsense4 7#ci7 ,the sole object of such commentators seems to be to extort from ,scripture confirmations of ,aristotelian quibbles and their own inventions1 a proceeding which ,i regard as the acme of absurdity4 7#dj7 ,in figures1 not real but existing only in the prophet's imagination1 ,god revealed to ,joseph his future lordship1 and in words and figures ,he revealed to ,joshua that ,he would fight for the ,hebrews1 causing to appear an angel1 as it were the ,captain of the ,lord's host1 bearing a sword1 and by this means communicating verbally4 7#da7 ,the forsaking of ,israel by ,providence was portrayed to ,isaiah by a vision of the ,lord1 the thrice ,holy1 sitting on a very lofty throne1 and the ,hebrews1 stained with the mire of their sins1 sunk as it were in uncleanness1 and thus as far as possible distant from ,god4 7#db7 ,the wretchedness of the people at the time was thus revealed1 while future calamities were foretold in words4 ,i could cite from ,holy ,writ many similar examples1 but ,i think they are sufficiently well known already4 7#dc7 ,however1 we get a still more clear confirmation of our position in ,num xii3#f1g1 as follows3 ,if there be any prophet among you1 ,i the ,lord will make myself known unto him in a vision 7i4e4 by appearances and signs1 for ,god says of the prophecy of ,moses that it was a vision without signs71 and will speak unto him in a dream 7i4e4 not with actual words and an actual voice74 7#dd7 ,my servant ,moses is not so2 with him will ,i speak mouth to mouth1 even apparently1 and not in dark speeches1 and the similitude of the ,lord he shall behold1 i4e4 looking on me as a friend and not afraid1 he speaks with me 7cf4 ,ex xxxiii3#ag74 7#de7 ,this makes it indisputable that the other prophets did not hear a real voice1 and we gather as much from ,deut4 xxxiv3#aj3 ,and there arose not a prophet since in ,israel like unto ,moses whom the ,lord knew face to face1 which must mean that the ,lord spoke with none other2 for not even ,moses saw the ,lord's face4 7#df7 ,these are the only media of communication between ,god and man which ,i find mentioned in ,scripture1 and therefore the only ones which may be supposed or invented4 7#dg7 ,we may be able quite to comprehend that ,god can communicate immediately with man1 for without the intervention of bodily means ,he communicates to our minds ,his essence2 still1 a man who can by pure intuition comprehend ideas which are neither contained in nor deducible from the foundations of our natural knowledge1 must necessarily possess a mind far superior to those of his fellow men1 nor do ,i believe that any have been so endowed save ,christ4 7#dh7 ,to ,him the ordinances of ,god leading men to salvation were revealed directly without words or visions1 so that ,god manifested ,himself to the ,apostles through the mind of ,christ as ,he formerly did to ,moses through the supernatural voice4 7#di7 ,in this sense the voice of ,christ1 like the voice which ,moses heard1 may be called the voice of ,god1 and it may be said that the wisdom of ,god 7i4e4 wisdom more than human7 took upon itself in ,christ human nature1 and that ,christ was the way of salvation4 7#ej7 ,i must at this juncture declare that those doctrines which certain churches put forward concerning ,christ1 ,i neither affirm nor deny1 for ,i freely confess that ,i do not understand them4 7#ea7 ,what ,i have just stated ,i gather from ,scripture1 where ,i never read that ,god appeared to ,christ1 or spoke to ,christ1 but that ,god was revealed to the ,apostles through ,christ2 that ,christ was the ,way of ,life1 and that the old law was given through an angel1 and not immediately by ,god2 whence it follows that if ,moses spoke with ,god face to face as a man speaks with his friend 7i4e4 by means of their two bodies7 ,christ communed with ,god mind to mind4 7#eb7 ,thus we may conclude that no one except ,christ received the revelations of ,god without the aid of imagination1 whether in words or vision4 7#ec7 ,therefore the power of prophecy implies not a peculiarly perfect mind1 but a peculiarly vivid imagination1 as ,i will show more clearly in the next chapter4 7#ed7 ,we will now inquire what is meant in the ,bible by the ,spirit of ,god breathed into the prophets1 or by the prophets speaking with the ,spirit of ,god2 to that end we must determine the exact signification of the ,hebrew word ruagh1 commonly translated spirit4 7#ee7 ,the word ruagh literally means a wind1 e4g4 the south wind1 but it is frequently employed in other derivative significations4 ,it is used as equivalent to1 7#ef7 7#a47 ,breath3 ,neither is there any spirit in his mouth1 ,ps4 cxxxv3#ag4 7#eg7 7#b47 ,life1 or breathing3 ,and his spirit returned to him #a ,sam4 xxx3#ab2 i4e4 he breathed again4 7#eh7 7#c47 ,courage and strength3 ,neither did there remain any more spirit in any man1 ,josh4 ii3#aa2 ,and the spirit entered into me1 and made me stand on my feet1 ,ezek4 ii3#b4 7#ei7 7#d47 ,virtue and fitness3 ,days should speak1 and multitudes of years should teach wisdom2 but there is a spirit in man1 ,job xxxii3#g2 i4e4 wisdom is not always found among old men for ,i now discover that it depends on individual virtue and capacity4 ,so1 ,a man in whom is the ,spirit1 ,numbers xxvii3#ah4 7#fj7 7#e47 ,habit of mind3 ,because he had another spirit with him1 ,numbers xiv3#bd2 i4e4 another habit of mind4 ,behold ,i will pour out ,my ,spirit unto you1 ,prov4 i3#bc4 7#fa7 7#f47 ,will1 purpose1 desire1 impulse3 ,whither the spirit was to go1 they went1 ,ezek4 #a3ab2 ,that cover with a covering1 but not of ,my ,spirit1 ,is4 xxx3#a2 ,for the ,lord hath poured out on you the spirit of deep sleep1 ,is4 xxix3#aj2 ,then was their spirit softened1 ,judges viii3#c2 ,he that ruleth his spirit1 is better than he that taketh a city1 ,prov4 xvi3#cb2 ,he that hath no ru over his own spirit1 ,prov4 xxv3#bh2 ,your spirit as fire shall devour you1 ,isaiah xxxiii3#a4 ,from the meaning of disposition we get - 7#fb7 7#g47 ,passions and faculties4 ,a lofty spirit means pride1 a lowly spirit humility1 an evil spirit hatred and melancholy4 ,so1 too1 the expressions spirits of jealousy1 fornication1 wisdom1 counsel1 bravery1 stand for a jealous1 lascivious1 wise1 prudent1 or brave mind 7for we ,hebrews use substantives in preference to adjectives71 or these various qualities4 7#fc7 7#h47 ,the mind itself1 or the life3 ,yea1 they have all one spirit1 ,eccles4 iii3#ai ,the spirit shall return to ,god ,who gave it4 7#fd7 7#i47 ,the quarters of the world 7from the winds which blow thence71 or even the side of anything turned towards a particular quarter - ,ezek4 xxxvii3#i2 xlii3#af1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 c4 7#fe7 ,i have already alluded to the way in which things are referred to ,god1 and said to be of ,god4 7#ff7 7#a47 ,as belonging to ,his nature1 and being1 as it were1 part of ,him2 e4g4 the power of ,god1 the eyes of ,god4 7#fg7 7#b47 ,as under ,his dominion1 and depending on ,his pleasure2 thus the heavens are called the heavens of the ,lord1 as being ,his chariot and habitation4 ,so ,nebuchadnezzar is called the servant of ,god1 ,assyria the scourge of ,god1 c4 7#fh7 7#c47 ,as dedicated to ,him1 e4g4 the ,temple of ,god1 a ,nazarene of ,god1 the ,bread of ,god4 7#fi7 7#d47 ,as revealed through the prophets and not through our natural faculties4 ,in this sense the ,mosaic law is called the law of ,god4 7#gj7 7#e47 ,as being in the superlative degree4 ,very high mountains are styled the mountains of ,god1 a very deep sleep1 the sleep of ,god1 c4 ,in this sense we must explain ,amos iv3#aa3 ,i have overthrown you as the overthrow of the ,lord came upon ,sodom and ,gomorrah1 i4e4 that memorable overthrow1 for since ,god ,himself is the ,speaker1 the passage cannot well be taken otherwise4 ,the wisdom of ,solomon is called the wisdom of ,god1 or extraordinary4 ,the size of the cedars of ,lebanon is alluded to in the ,psalmist's expression1 the cedars of the ,lord4 7#ga7 ,similarly1 if the ,jews were at a loss to understand any phenomenon1 or were ignorant of its cause1 they referred it to ,god4 7#gb7 ,thus a storm was termed the chiding of ,god1 thunder and lightning the arrows of ,god1 for it was thought that ,god kept the winds confined in caves1 ,his treasuries2 thus differing merely in name from the ,greek wind-god ,eolus4 7#gc7 ,in like manner miracles were called works of ,god1 as being especially marvellous2 though in reality1 of course1 all natural events are the works of ,god1 and take place solely by ,his power4 7#gd7 ,the ,psalmist calls the miracles in ,egypt the works of ,god1 because the ,hebrews found in them a way of safety which they had not looked for1 and therefore especially marvelled at4 7#ge7 ,as1 then1 unusual natural phenomena are called works of ,god1 and trees of unusual size are called trees of ,god1 we cannot wonder that very strong and tall men1 though impious robbers and whoremongers1 are in ,genesis called sons of ,god4 7#gf7 ,this reference of things wonderful to ,god was not peculiar to the ,jews4 7#gg7 ,pharaoh1 on hearing the interpretation of his dream1 exclaimed that the mind of the gods was in ,joseph4 7#gh7 ,nebuchadnezzar told ,daniel that he possessed the mind of the holy gods2 so also in ,latin anything well made is often said to be wrought with ,divine hands1 which is equivalent to the ,hebrew phrase1 wrought with the hand of ,god4 7#hj7 ,we can now very easily understand and explain those passages of ,scripture which speak of the ,spirit of ,god4 7#ha7 ,in some places the expression merely means a very strong1 dry1 and deadly wind1 as in ,isaiah xl3#g1 ,the grass withereth1 the flower fadeth1 because the ,spirit of the ,lord bloweth upon it4 7#hb7 ,similarly in ,gen4 i3#b3 ,the ,spirit of the ,lord moved over the face of the waters4 7#hc7 ,at other times it is used as equivalent to a high courage1 thus the spirit of ,gideon and of ,samson is called the ,spirit of the ,lord1 as being very bold1 and prepared for any emergency4 7#hd7 ,any unusual virtue or power is called the ,spirit or ,virtue of the ,lord1 ,ex4 xxxi3#c3 ,i will fill him 7,bezaleel7 with the ,spirit of the ,lord1 i4e41 as the ,bible itself explains1 with talent above man's usual endowment4 7#he7 ,so ,isa4 xi3#b3 ,and the ,spirit of the ,lord shall rest upon him1 is explained afterwards in the text to mean the spirit of wisdom and understanding1 of counsel and might4 7#hf7 ,the melancholy of ,saul is called the melancholy of the ,lord1 or a very deep melancholy1 the persons who applied the term showing that they understood by it nothing supernatural1 in that they sent for a musician to assuage it by harp-playing4 7#hg7 ,again1 the ,spirit of the ,lord is used as equivalent to the mind of man1 for instance1 ,job xxvii3#c3 ,and the ,spirit of the ,lord in my nostrils1 the allusion being to ,gen4 ii3#g3 ,and ,god breathed into man's nostrils the breath of life4 7#hh7 ,ezekiel also1 prophesying to the dead1 says 7xxvii3#ad71 ,and ,i will give to you ,my ,spirit1 and ye shall live2 i4e4 ,i will restore you to life4 7#hi7 ,in ,job xxxiv3#ad1 we read3 ,if ,he gather unto ,himself ,his ,spirit and breath2 in ,gen4 vi3#c3 ,my ,spirit shall not always strive with man1 for that he also is flesh1 i4e4 since man acts on the dictates of his body1 and not the spirit which ,i gave him to discern the good1 ,i will let him alone4 7#ij7 ,so1 too1 ,ps4 li3#ab3 ,create in me a clean heart1 ,o ,god1 and renew a right spirit within me2 cast me not away from ,thy presence1 and take not ,thy ,holy ,spirit from me4 7#ia7 ,it was supposed that sin originated only from the body1 and that good impulses come from the mind2 therefore the ,psalmist invokes the aid of ,god against the bodily appetites1 but prays that the spirit which the ,lord1 the ,holy ,one1 had given him might be renewed4 7#ib7 ,again1 inasmuch as the ,bible1 in concession to popular ignorance1 describes ,god as having a mind1 a heart1 emotions - nay1 even a body and breath - the expression ,spirit of the ,lord is used for ,god's mind1 disposition1 emotion1 strength1 or breath4 7#ic7 ,thus1 ,isa4 xl3#ac3 ,who hath disposed the ,spirit of the ,lord8 i4e4 who1 save ,himself1 hath caused the mind of the ,lord to will anything18 and ,isa4 lxiii3#aj3 ,but they rebelled1 and vexed the ,holy ,spirit4 7#id7 ,the phrase comes to be used of the law of ,moses1 which in a sense expounds ,god's will1 ,is4 lxiii4 #aa1 ,where is ,he that put ,his ,holy ,spirit within him8 meaning1 as we clearly gather from the context1 the law of ,moses4 7#ie7 ,nehemiah1 speaking of the giving of the law1 says1 i3#bj1 ,thou gavest also thy good ,spirit to instruct them4 7#if7 ,this is referred to in ,deut4 iv3#f1 ,this is your wisdom and understanding1 and in ,ps4 cxliii3#aj1 ,thy good ,spirit will lead me into the land of uprightness4 7#ig7 ,the ,spirit of the ,lord may mean the breath of the ,lord1 for breath1 no less than a mind1 a heart1 and a body are attributed to ,god in ,scripture1 as in ,ps4 xxxiii3#f4 7#ih7 ,hence it gets to mean the power1 strength1 or faculty of ,god1 as in ,job xxxiii3#d1 ,the ,spirit of the ,lord made me1 i4e4 the power1 or1 if you prefer1 the decree of the ,lord4 7#ii7 ,so the ,psalmist in poetic language declares1 xxxiii3#f1 ,by the word of the ,lord were the heavens made1 and all the host of them by the breath of ,his mouth1 i4e4 by a mandate issued1 as it were1 in one breath4 7#ajj7 ,also ,ps4 cxxxix3#g1 ,whither shall ,i go from ,thy ,spirit1 or whither shall ,i flee from ,thy presence8 i4e4 whither shall ,i go so as to be beyond ,thy power and ,thy presence8 7#aja7 ,lastly1 the ,spirit of the ,lord is used in ,scripture to express the emotions of ,god1 e4g4 ,his kindness and mercy1 ,micah ii3#g1 ,is the ,spirit i4e4 the mercy of the ,lord straitened8 7#ajb7 ,are these cruelties ,his doings8 7#ajc7 ,zech4 iv3#f1 ,not by might or by power1 but ,my ,spirit i4e4 mercy1 saith the ,lord of hosts4 7#ajd7 ,the twelfth verse of the seventh chapter of the same prophet must1 ,i think1 be interpreted in like manner3 ,yea1 they made their hearts as an adamant stone1 lest they should hear the law1 and the words which the ,lord of hosts hath sent in ,his ,spirit i4e4 in ,his mercy by the former prophets4 7#aje7 ,so also ,haggai ii3#e3 ,so ,my ,spirit remaineth among you3 fear not4 7#ajf7 ,the passage in ,isaiah xlviii3#af1 ,and now the ,lord and ,his ,spirit hath sent me1 may be taken to refer to ,god's mercy or ,his revealed law2 for the prophet says1 ,from the beginning 7i4e4 from the time when ,i first came to you1 to preach ,god's anger and ,his sentence forth against you7 ,i spoke not in secret2 from the time that it was1 there am ,i1 and now ,i am sent by the mercy of ,god as a joyful messenger to preach your restoration4 7#ajg7 ,or we may understand him to mean by the revealed law that he had before come to warn them by the command of the law 7,levit4 xix3#ag7 in the same manner under the same conditions as ,moses had warned them1 that now1 like ,moses1 he ends by preaching their restoration4 7#ajh7 ,but the first explanation seems to me the best4 7#aji7 ,returning1 then1 to the main object of our discussion1 we find that the ,scriptural phrases1 ,the ,spirit of the ,lord was upon a prophet1 ,the ,lord breathed ,his ,spirit into men1 ,men were filled with the ,spirit of ,god1 with the ,holy ,spirit1 c41 are quite clear to us1 and mean that prophets were endowed with a peculiar and extraordinary power1 and devoted themselves to piety with especial constancy7#c72 that thus they perceived the mind or the thought of ,god1 for we have shown that ,god's ,spirit signifies in ,hebrew ,god's mind or thought1 and that the law which shows ,his mind and thought is called ,his ,spirit2 hence that the imagination of the prophets1 inasmuch as through it were revealed the decrees of ,god1 may equally be called the mind of ,god1 and the prophets be said to have possessed the mind of ,god4 7#aaj7 ,on our minds also the mind of ,god and ,his eternal thoughts are impressed2 but this being the same for all men is less taken into account1 especially by the ,hebrews1 who claimed a pre-eminence1 and despised other men and other men's knowledge4 7#aaa7 ,lastly1 the prophets were said to possess the ,spirit of ,god because men knew not the cause of prophetic knowledge1 and in their wonder referred it with other marvels directly to the ,deity1 styling it ,divine knowledge4 7#aab7 ,we need no longer scruple to affirm that the prophets only perceived ,god's revelation by the aid of imagination1 that is1 by words and figures either real or imaginary4 7#aac7 ,we find no other means mentioned in ,scripture1 and therefore must not invent any4 7#aad7 ,as to the particular law of ,nature by which the communications took place1 ,i confess my ignorance4 7#aae7 ,i might1 indeed1 say as others do1 that they took place by the power of ,god2 but this would be mere trifling1 and no better than explaining some unique specimen by a transcendental term4 7#aaf7 ,everything takes place by the power of ,god4 7#aag7 ,nature herself is the power of ,god under another name1 and our ignorance of the power of ,god is co-extensive with our ignorance of ,nature4 7#aah7 ,it is absolute folly1 therefore1 to ascribe an event to the power of ,god when we know not its natural cause1 which is the power of ,god4 7#aai7 ,however1 we are not now inquiring into the causes of prophetic knowledge4 7#abj7 ,we are only attempting1 as ,i have said1 to examine the ,scriptural documents1 and to draw our conclusions from them as from ultimate natural facts2 the causes of the documents do not concern us4 7#aba7 ,as the prophets perceived the revelations of ,god by the aid of imagination1 they could indisputably perceive much that is beyond the boundary of the intellect1 for many more ideas can be constructed from words and figures than from the principles and notions on which the whole fabric of reasoned knowledge is reared4 7#abb7 ,thus we have a clue to the fact that the prophets perceived nearly everything in parables and allegories1 and clothed spiritual truths in bodily forms1 for such is the usual method of imagination4 7#abb7 ,we need no longer wonder that ,scripture and the prophets speak so strangely and obscurely of ,god's ,spirit or ,mind 7cf4 ,numbers xi3#ag1 #a ,kings xxii3#ba1 c471 that the ,lord was seen by ,micah as sitting1 by ,daniel as an old man clothed in white1 by ,ezekiel as a fire1 that the ,holy ,spirit appeared to those with ,christ as a descending dove1 to the apostles as fiery tongues1 to ,paul on his conversion as a great light4 7#abd7 ,all these expressions are plainly in harmony with the current ideas of ,god and spirits4 7#abe7 ,inasmuch as imagination is fleeting and inconstant1 we find that the power of prophecy did not remain with a prophet for long1 nor manifest itself frequently1 but was very rare2 manifesting itself only in a few men1 and in them not often4 7#abf7 ,we must necessarily inquire how the prophets became assured of the truth of what they perceived by imagination1 and not by sure mental laws2 but our investigation must be confined to ,scripture1 for the subject is one on which we cannot acquire certain knowledge1 and which we cannot explain by the immediate causes4 7#abg7 ,scripture teaching about the assurance of prophets ,i will treat of in the next chapter4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 - ,,of ,,prophets4 7#a7 ,it follows from the last chapter that1 as ,i have said1 the prophets were endowed with unusually vivid imaginations1 and not with unusually perfect minds4 7#b7 ,this conclusion is amply sustained by ,scripture1 for we are told that ,solomon was the wisest of men1 but had no special faculty of prophecy4 7#c7 ,heman1 ,calcol1 and ,dara1 though men of great talent1 were not prophets1 whereas uneducated countrymen1 nay1 even women1 such as ,hagar1 ,abraham's handmaid1 were thus gifted4 7#d7 ,nor is this contrary to ordinary experience and reason4 7#e7 ,men of great imaginative power are less fitted for abstract reasoning1 whereas those who excel in intellect and its use keep their imagination more restrained and controlled1 holding it in subjection1 so to speak1 lest it should usurp the place of reason4 7#f7 ,thus to suppose that knowledge of natural and spiritual phenomena can be gained from the prophetic books1 is an utter mistake1 which ,i shall endeavour to expose1 as ,i think philosophy1 the age1 and the question itself demand4 7#g7 ,i care not for the girdings of superstition1 for superstition is the bitter enemy1 of all true knowledge and true morality4 7#h7 ,yes2 it has come to this6 7#i7 ,men who openly confess that they can form no idea of ,god1 and only know ,him through created things1 of which they know not the causes1 can unblushingly accuse philosophers of ,atheism4 7#aj7 ,treating the question methodically1 ,i will show that prophecies varied1 not only according to the imagination and physical temperament of the prophet1 but also according to his particular opinions2 and further that prophecy never rendered the prophet wiser than he was before4 7#aa7 ,but ,i will first discuss the assurance of truth which the prophets received1 for this is akin to the subject-matter of the chapter1 and will serve to elucidate somewhat our present point4 7#ab7 ,imagination does not1 in its own nature1 involve any certainty of truth1 such as is implied in every clear and distinct idea1 but requires some extrinsic reason to assure us of its objective reality3 hence prophecy cannot afford certainty1 and the prophets were assured of ,god's revelation by some sign1 and not by the fact of revelation1 as we may see from ,abraham1 who1 when he had heard the promise of ,god1 demanded a sign1 not because he did not believe in ,god1 but because he wished to be sure that it was ,god ,who made the promise4 7#ac7 ,the fact is still more evident in the case of ,gideon3 ,show me1 he says to ,god1 show me a sign1 that ,i may know that it is ,thou that talkest with me4 7#ad7 ,god also says to ,moses3 ,and let this be a sign that ,i have sent thee4 7#ae7 ,hezekiah1 though he had long known ,isaiah to be a prophet1 none the less demanded a sign of the cure which he predicted4 7#ae7 ,it is thus quite evident that the prophets always received some sign to certify them of their prophetic imaginings2 and for this reason ,moses bids the ,jews 7,deut4 xviii47 ask of the prophets a sign1 namely1 the prediction of some coming event4 7#af7 ,in this respect1 prophetic knowledge is inferior to natural knowledge1 which needs no sign1 and in itself implies certitude4 7#ag7 ,moreover1 ,scripture warrants the statement that the certitude of the prophets was not mathematical1 but moral4 7#ah7 ,moses lays down the punishment of death for the prophet who preaches new gods1 even though he confirm his doctrine by signs and wonders 7,deut4 xiii472 ,for1 he says1 the ,lord also worketh signs and wonders to try ,his people4 7#ai7 ,and ,jesus ,christ warns ,his disciples of the same thing 7,matt4 xxiv3#bd74 7#bj7 ,furthermore1 ,ezekiel 7xiv3#i7 plainly states that ,god sometimes deceives men with false revelations2 and ,micaiah bears like witness in the case of the prophets of ,ahab4 7#ba7 ,although these instances go to prove that revelation is open to doubt1 it nevertheless contains1 as we have said1 a considerable element of certainty1 for ,god never deceives the good1 nor ,his chosen1 but 7according to the ancient proverb1 and as appears in the history of ,abigail and her speech71 ,god uses the good as instruments of goodness1 and the wicked as means to execute ,his wrath4 7#bb7 ,this may be seen from the case of ,micaiah above quoted2 for although ,god had determined to deceive ,ahab1 through prophets1 ,he made use of lying prophets2 to the good prophet ,he revealed the truth1 and did not forbid his proclaiming it4 7#bc7 ,still the certitude of prophecy1 remains1 as ,i have said1 merely1 moral2 for no one can justify himself before ,god1 nor boast that he is an instrument for ,god's goodness4 7#bd7 ,scripture itself teaches and shows that ,god led away ,david to number the people1 though it bears ample witness to ,david's piety4 7#be7 ,the whole question of the certitude of prophecy1 was based on these three considerations3 #a4 ,that the things revealed were imagined very vividly1 affecting the prophets in the same way as things seen when awake2 #b4 ,the presence of a sign2 #c4 ,lastly1 and chiefly1 that the mind of the prophet was given wholly1 to what was right and good4 7#bf7 ,although ,scripture does not always make mention of a sign1 we must nevertheless suppose that a sign was always vouchsafed2 for ,scripture does not always relate every condition and circumstance 7as many have remarked71 but rather takes them for granted4 7#bg7 ,we may1 however1 admit that no sign was needed when the prophecy declared nothing that was not already contained in the law of ,moses1 because it was confirmed by that law4 7#bh7 ,for instance1 ,jeremiah's prophecy1 of the destruction of ,jerusalem was confirmed by the prophecies of other prophets1 and by the threats in the law1 and1 therefore1 it needed no sign2 whereas ,hananiah1 who1 contrary to all the prophets1 foretold the speedy restoration of the state1 stood in need of a sign1 or he would have been in doubt as to the truth of his prophecy1 until it was confirmed by facts4 7#bi7 ,the prophet which prophesieth of peace1 when the word of the prophet shall come to pass1 then shall the prophet be known that the ,lord hath truly sent him4 7#cj7 ,as1 then1 the certitude afforded to the prophet by signs was not mathematical 7i4e4 did not necessarily follow from the perception of the thing perceived or seen71 but only moral1 and as the signs were only given to convince the prophet1 it follows that such signs were given according to the opinions and capacity of each prophet1 so that a sign which convince one prophet would fall far short of convincing another who was imbued with different opinions4 7#ca7 ,therefore the signs varied according to the individual prophet4 7#cb7 ,so also did the revelation vary1 as we have stated1 according to individual disposition and temperament1 and according to the opinions previously held4 7#cc7 ,it varied according to disposition1 in this way3 if a prophet was cheerful1 victories1 peace1 and events which make men glad1 were revealed to him2 in that he was naturally more likely to imagine such things4 7#cd7 ,if1 on the contrary1 he was melancholy1 wars1 massacres1 and calamities were revealed2 and so1 according as a prophet was merciful1 gentle1 quick to anger1 or severe1 he was more fitted for one kind of revelation than another4 7#ce7 ,it varied according to the temper of imagination in this way3 if a prophet was cultivated he perceived the mind of ,god in a cultivated way1 if he was confused he perceived it confusedly4 7#cf7 ,and so with revelations perceived through visions4 7#cg7 ,if a prophet was a countryman he saw visions of oxen1 cows1 and the like2 if he was a soldier1 he saw generals and armies2 if a courtier1 a royal throne1 and so on4 7#ch7 ,lastly1 prophecy varied according to the opinions held by the prophets2 for instance1 to the ,magi1 who believed in the follies of astrology1 the birth of ,christ was revealed through the vision of a star in the ,east4 7#ci7 ,to the augurs of ,nebuchadnezzar the destruction of ,jerusalem was revealed through entrails1 whereas the king himself inferred it from oracles and the direction of arrows which he shot into the air4 7#dj7 ,to prophets who believed that man acts from free choice and by his own power1 ,god was revealed as standing apart from and ignorant of future human actions4 7#da7 ,all of which we will illustrate from ,scripture4 7#db7 ,the first point is proved from the case of ,elisha1 who1 in order to prophecy to ,jehoram1 asked for a harp1 and was unable to perceive the ,divine purpose till he had been recreated by its music2 then1 indeed1 he prophesied to ,jehoram and to his allies glad tidings1 which previously he had been unable to attain to because he was angry with the king1 and these who are angry with anyone can imagine evil of him1 but not good4 7#dc7 ,the theory that ,god does not reveal ,himself to the angry or the sad1 is a mere dream3 for ,god revealed to ,moses while angry1 the terrible slaughter of the firstborn1 and did so without the intervention of a harp4 7#dd7 ,to ,cain in his rage1 ,god was revealed1 and to ,ezekiel1 impatient with anger1 was revealed the contumacy and wretchedness of the ,jews4 7#de7 ,jeremiah1 miserable and weary of life1 prophesied the disasters of the ,hebrews1 so that ,josiah would not consult him1 but inquired of a woman1 inasmuch as it was more in accordance with womanly nature that ,god should reveal ,his mercy thereto4 7#df7 ,so1 ,micaiah never prophesied good to ,ahab1 though other true prophets had done so1 but invariably evil4 7#df7 ,thus we see that individual prophets were by temperament more fitted for one sort of revelation than another4 7#dg7 ,the style of the prophecy also varied according to the eloquence of the individual prophet4 7#dh7 ,the prophecies of ,ezekiel and ,amos are not written in a cultivated style like those of ,isaiah and ,nahum1 but more rudely4 7#di7 ,any ,hebrew scholar who wishes to inquire into this point more closely1 and compares chapters of the different prophets treating of the same subject1 will find great dissimilarity of style4 7#ej7 ,compare1 for instance1 chap4 i4 of the courtly ,isaiah1 verse #aa to verse #bj1 with chap4 v4 of the countryman ,amos1 verses #ba-bd4 7#ea7 ,compare also the order and reasoning of the prophecies of ,jeremiah1 written in ,idumaea 7chap4 xlix471 with the order and reasoning of ,obadiah4 7#eb7 ,compare1 lastly1 ,isa4 xl3#ai1 #bj1 and xliv3#h1 with ,hosea viii3#f1 and xiii3#b4 ,and so on4 7#ec7 ,a due consideration of these passage will clearly show us that ,god has no particular style in speaking1 but1 according to the learning and capacity of the prophet1 is cultivated1 compressed1 severe1 untutored1 prolix1 or obscure4 7#ed7 ,there was1 moreover1 a certain variation in the visions vouchsafed to the prophets1 and in the symbols by which they expressed them1 for ,isaiah saw the glory of the ,lord departing from the ,temple in a different form from that presented to ,ezekiel4 7#ee7 ,the ,rabbis1 indeed1 maintain that both visions were really the same1 but that ,ezekiel1 being a countryman1 was above measure impressed by it1 and therefore set it forth in full detail2 but unless there is a trustworthy tradition on the subject1 which ,i do not for a moment believe1 this theory is plainly an invention4 ,isaiah saw seraphim with six wings1 ,ezekiel beasts with four wings2 ,isaiah saw ,god clothed and sitting on a royal throne1 ,ezekiel saw ,him in the likeness of a fire2 each doubtless saw ,god under the form in which he usually imagined ,him4 7#ef7 ,further1 the visions varied in clearness as well as in details2 for the revelations of ,zechariah were too obscure to be understood by the prophet without explanation1 as appears from his narration of them2 the visions of ,daniel could not be understood by him even after they had been explained1 and this obscurity did not arise from the difficulty of the matter revealed 7for being merely human affairs1 these only transcended human capacity in being future71 but solely in the fact that ,daniel's imagination was not so capable for prophecy while he was awake as while he was asleep2 and this is further evident from the fact that at the very beginning of the vision he was so terrified that he almost despaired of his strength4 7#eg7 ,thus1 on account of the inadequacy of his imagination and his strength1 the things revealed were so obscure to him that he could not understand them even after they had been explained4 7#eh7 ,here we may note that the words heard by ,daniel1 were1 as we have shown above1 simply imaginary1 so that it is hardly wonderful that in his frightened state he imagined them so confusedly and obscurely that afterwards he could make nothing of them4 7#ei7 ,those who say that ,god did not wish to make a clear revelation1 do not seem to have read the words of the angel1 who expressly says that he came to make the prophet understand what should befall his people in the latter days 7,dan4 x3#ad74 7#fj7 ,the revelation remained obscure because no one was found1 at that time1 with imagination sufficiently strong to conceive it more clearly4 7#fa7 ,lastly1 the prophets1 to whom it was revealed that ,god would take away ,elijah1 wished to persuade ,elisha that he had been taken somewhere where they would find him2 showing sufficiently clearly that they had not understood ,god's revelation aright4 7#fb7 ,there is no need to set this out more amply1 for nothing is more plain in the ,bible than that ,god endowed some prophets with far greater gifts of prophecy than others4 7#fc7 ,but ,i will show in greater detail and length1 for ,i consider the point more important1 that the prophecies varied according to the opinions previously embraced by the prophets1 and that the prophets held diverse and even contrary opinions and prejudices4 7#fd7 7,i speak1 be it understood1 solely of matters speculative1 for in regard to uprightness and morality the case is widely different47 7#fe7 ,from thence ,i shall conclude that prophecy never rendered the prophets more learned1 but left them with their former opinions1 and that we are1 therefore1 not at all bound to trust them in matters of intellect4 7#ff7 ,everyone has been strangely hasty in affirming that the prophets knew everything within the scope of human intellect2 and1 although certain passages of ,scripture plainly affirm that the prophets were in certain respects ignorant1 such persons would rather say that they do not understand the passages than admit that there was anything which the prophets did not know2 or else they try to wrest the ,scriptural words away from their evident meaning4 7#fg7 ,if either of these proceedings is allowable we may as well shut our ,bibles1 for vainly shall we attempt to prove anything from them if their plainest passages may be classed among obscure and impenetrable mysteries1 or if we may put any interpretation on them which we fancy4 7#fh7 ,for instance1 nothing is more clear in the ,bible than that ,joshua1 and perhaps also the author who wrote his history1 thought that the sun revolves round the earth1 and that the earth is fixed1 and further that the sun for a certain period remained still4 7#fi7 ,many1 who will not admit any movement in the heavenly bodies1 explain away the passage till it seems to mean something quite different2 others1 who have learned to philosophize more correctly1 and understand that the earth moves while the sun is still1 or at any rate does not revolve round the earth1 try with all their might to wrest this meaning from ,scripture1 though plainly nothing of the sort is intended4 7#gj7 ,such quibblers excite my wonder6 7#ga7 ,are we1 forsooth1 bound to believe that ,joshua the ,soldier was a learned astronomer8 or that a miracle could not be revealed to him1 or that the light of the sun could not remain longer than usual above the horizon1 without his knowing the cause8 7#gb7 ,to me both alternatives appear ridiculous1 and therefore ,i would rather say1 that ,joshua was ignorant of the true cause of the lengthened day1 and that he and the whole host with him thought that the sun moved round the earth every day1 and that on that particular occasion it stood still for a time1 thus causing the light to remain longer2 and ,i would say1 that they did not conjecture that1 from the amount of snow in the air 7see ,josh4 x3#aa71 the refraction may have been greater than usual1 or that there may have been some other cause which we will not now inquire into4 7#gc7 ,so also the sign of the shadow going back was revealed to ,isaiah according to his understanding2 that is1 as proceeding from a going backwards of the sun2 for he1 too1 thought that the sun moves and that the earth is still2 of parhelia he perhaps never even dreamed4 7#gd7 ,we may arrive at this conclusion without any scruple1 for the sign could really have come to pass1 and have been predicted by ,isaiah to the king1 without the prophet being aware of the real cause4 7#ge7 ,with regard to the building of the ,temple by ,solomon1 if it was really dictated by ,god we must maintain the same doctrine3 namely1 that all the measurements were revealed according to the opinions and understanding of the king2 for as we are not bound to believe that ,solomon was a mathematician1 we may affirm that he was ignorant of the true ratio between the circumference and the diameter of a circle1 and that1 like the generality of workmen1 he thought that it was as three to one4 7#gf7 ,but if it is allowable to declare that we do not understand the passage1 in good sooth ,i know nothing in the ,bible that we can understand2 for the process of building is there narrated simply and as a mere matter of history4 7#gg7 ,if1 again1 it is permitted to pretend that the passage has another meaning1 and was written as it is from some reason unknown to us1 this is no less than a complete subversal of the ,bible2 for every absurd and evil invention of human perversity could thus1 without detriment to ,scriptural authority1 be defended and fostered4 7#gh7 ,our conclusion is in no wise impious1 for though ,solomon1 ,isaiah1 ,joshua1 c4 were prophets1 they were none the less men1 and as such not exempt from human shortcomings4 7#gi7 ,according to the understanding of ,noah it was revealed to him that ,god as about to destroy the whole human race1 for ,noah thought that beyond the limits of ,palestine the world was not inhabited4 7#hj7 ,not only in matters of this kind1 but in others more important1 the prophets could be1 and in fact were1 ignorant2 for they taught nothing special about the ,divine attributes1 but held quite ordinary notions about ,god1 and to these notions their revelations were adapted1 as ,i will demonstrate by ample ,scriptural testimony2 from all which one may easily see that they were praised and commended1 not so much for the sublimity and eminence of their intellect as for their piety and faithfulness4 7#ha7 ,adam1 the first man to whom ,god was revealed1 did not know that ,he is omnipotent and omniscient2 for he hid himself from ,him1 and attempted to make excuses for his fault before ,god1 as though he had had to do with a man2 therefore to him also was ,god revealed according to his understanding - that is1 as being unaware of his situation or his sin1 for ,adam heard1 or seemed to hear1 the ,lord walking in the garden1 calling him and asking him where he was2 and then1 on seeing his shamefacedness1 asking him whether he had eaten of the forbidden fruit4 7#hb7 ,adam evidently only knew the ,deity as the ,creator of all things4 7#hc7 ,to ,cain also ,god was revealed1 according to his understanding1 as ignorant of human affairs1 nor was a higher conception of the ,deity required for repentance of his sin4 7#hc7 ,to ,laban the ,lord revealed ,himself as the ,god of ,abraham1 because ,laban believed that each nation had its own special divinity 7see ,gen4 xxxi3#bi74 7#hd7 ,abraham also knew not that ,god is omnipresent1 and has foreknowledge of all things2 for when he heard the sentence against the inhabitants of ,sodom1 he prayed that the ,lord should not execute it till ,he had ascertained whether they all merited such punishment2 for he said 7see ,gen4 xviii3#bd71 ,peradventure there be fifty righteous within the city1 and in accordance with this belief ,god was revealed to him2 as ,abraham imagined1 ,he spake thus3 ,i will go down now1 and see whether they have done altogether according to the cry of it which is come unto ,me2 and1 if not1 ,i will know4 7#he7 ,further1 the ,divine testimony concerning ,abraham asserts nothing but that he was obedient1 and that he commanded his household after him that they should keep the way of the ,lord 7,gen4 xviii3#ai72 it does not state that he held sublime conceptions of the ,deity4 7#hf7 ,moses1 also1 was not sufficiently aware that ,god is omniscient1 and directs human actions by ,his sole decree1 for although ,god ,himself says that the ,israelites should hearken to ,him1 ,moses still considered the matter doubtful and repeated1 ,but if they will not believe me1 nor hearken unto my voice4 7#hg7 ,to him in like manner ,god was revealed as taking no part in1 and as being ignorant of1 future human actions3 the ,lord gave him two signs and said1 ,and it shall come to pass that if they will not believe thee1 neither hearken to the voice of the first sign1 that they will believe the voice of the latter sign2 but if not1 thou shalt take of the water of the river1 c4 7#hh7 ,indeed1 if any one considers without prejudice the recorded opinions of ,moses1 he will plainly see that ,moses conceived the ,deity as a ,being ,who has always existed1 does exist1 and always will exist1 and for this cause he calls ,him by the name ,jehovah1 which in ,hebrew signifies these three phases of existence3 as to ,his nature1 ,moses only taught that ,he is merciful1 gracious1 and exceeding jealous1 as appears from many passages in the ,pentateuch4 7#hi7 ,lastly1 he believed and taught that this ,being was so different from all other beings1 that ,he could not be expressed by the image of any visible thing2 also1 that ,he could not be looked upon1 and that not so much from inherent impossibility as from human infirmity2 further1 that by reason of ,his power ,he was without equal and unique4 7#ij7 ,moses admitted1 indeed1 that there were beings 7doubtless by the plan and command of the ,lord7 who acted as ,god's vicegerents - that is1 beings to whom ,god had given the right1 authority1 and power to direct nations1 and to provide and care for them2 but he taught that this ,being ,whom they were bound to obey was the highest and ,supreme ,god1 or 7to use the ,hebrew phrase7 ,god of gods1 and thus in the song 7,exod4 xv3#aa7 he exclaims1 ,who is like unto ,thee1 ,o ,lord1 among the gods8 and ,jethro says 7,exod4 xviii3#aa71 ,now ,i know that the ,lord is greater than all gods4 7#ia7 ,that is to say1 ,i am at length compelled to admit to ,moses that ,jehovah is greater than all gods1 and that ,his power is unrivalled4 7#ib7 ,we must remain in doubt whether ,moses thought that these beings who acted as ,god's vicegerents were created by ,him1 for he has stated nothing1 so far as we know1 about their creation and origin4 7#ic7 ,he further taught that this ,being had brought the visible world into order from ,chaos1 and had given ,nature her germs1 and therefore that ,he possesses supreme right and power over all things2 further1 that by reason of this supreme right and power ,he had chosen for ,himself alone the ,hebrew nation and a certain strip of territory1 and had handed over to the care of other gods substituted by ,himself the rest of the nations and territories1 and that therefore ,he was called the ,god of ,israel and the ,god of ,jerusalem1 whereas the other gods were called the gods of the ,gentiles4 7#id7 ,for this reason the ,jews believed that the strip of territory which ,god had chosen for ,himself1 demanded a ,divine worship quite apart and different from the worship which obtained elsewhere1 and that the ,lord would not suffer the worship of other gods adapted to other countries4 7#ie7 ,thus they thought that the people whom the king of ,assyria had brought into ,judaea were torn in pieces by lions because they knew not the worship of the ,national ,divinity 7#b ,kings xvii3#be74 7#if7 ,jacob1 according to ,aben ,ezra's opinion1 therefore admonished his sons when he wished them to seek out a new country1 that they should prepare themselves for a new worship1 and lay aside the worship of strange gods - that is1 of the gods of the land where they were 7,gen4 xxxv3#b1 #c74 7#ig7 ,david1 in telling ,saul that he was compelled by the king's persecution to live away from his country1 said that he was driven out from the heritage of the ,lord1 and sent to worship other gods 7#a ,sam4 xxvi3#ai74 7#ih7 ,lastly1 he believed that this ,being or ,deity had ,his habitation in the heavens 7,deut4 xxxiii3#bg71 an opinion very common among the ,gentiles4 7#ii7 ,if we now examine the revelations to ,moses1 we shall find that they were accommodated to these opinions2 as he believed that the ,divine ,nature was subject to the conditions of mercy1 graciousness1 c41 so ,god was revealed to him in accordance with his idea and under these attributes 7see ,exodus xxxiv3#f1 #g1 and the second commandment74 7#ajj7 ,further it is related 7,ex4 xxxiii3#ah7 that ,moses asked of ,god that he might behold ,him1 but as ,moses 7as we have said7 had formed no mental image of ,god1 and ,god 7as ,i have shown7 only revealed ,himself to the prophets in accordance with the disposition of their imagination1 ,he did not reveal ,himself in any form4 7#aja7 ,this1 ,i repeat1 was because the imagination of ,moses was unsuitable1 for other prophets bear witness that they saw the ,lord2 for instance1 ,isaiah1 ,ezekiel1 ,daniel1 c4 7#ajb7 ,for this reason ,god answered ,moses1 ,thou canst not see ,my face2 and inasmuch as ,moses believed that ,god can be looked upon - that is1 that no contradiction of the ,divine nature is therein involved 7for otherwise he would never have preferred his request7 - it is added1 ,for no one shall look on ,me and live1 thus giving a reason in accordance with ,moses' idea1 for it is not stated that a contradiction of the ,divine nature would be involved1 as was really the case1 but that the thing would not come to pass because of human infirmity4 7#ajc7 ,when ,god would reveal to ,moses that the ,israelites1 because they worshipped the calf1 were to be placed in the same category as other nations1 ,he said 7ch4 xxxiii3#b1 #c71 that ,he would send an angel 7that is1 a being who should have charge of the ,israelites1 instead of the ,supreme ,being71 and that ,he ,himself would no longer remain among them2 thus leaving ,moses no ground for supposing that the ,israelites were more beloved by ,god than the other nations whose guardianship ,he had entrusted to other beings or angels 7vide verse #af74 7#ajd7 ,lastly1 as ,moses believed that ,god dwelt in the heavens1 ,god was revealed to him as coming down from heaven on to a mountain1 and in order to talk with the ,lord ,moses went up the mountain1 which he certainly need not have done if he could have conceived of ,god as omnipresent4 7#aje7 ,the ,israelites knew scarcely anything of ,god1 although ,he was revealed to them2 and this is abundantly evident from their transferring1 a few days afterwards1 the honour and worship due to ,him to a calf1 which they believed to be the god who had brought them out of ,egypt4 7#ajf7 ,in truth1 it is hardly likely that men accustomed to the superstitions of ,egypt1 uncultivated and sunk in most abject slavery1 should have held any sound notions about the ,deity1 or that ,moses should have taught them anything beyond a rule of right living2 inculcating it not like a philosopher1 as the result of freedom1 but like a lawgiver compelling them to be moral by legal authority4 7#ajg7 ,thus the rule of right living1 the worship and love of ,god1 was to them rather a bondage than the true liberty1 the gift and grace of the ,deity4 7#ajh7 ,moses bid them love ,god and keep ,his law1 because they had in the past received benefits from ,him 7such as the deliverance from slavery in ,egypt71 and further terrified them with threats if they transgressed ,his commands1 holding out many promises of good if they should observe them2 thus treating them as parents treat irrational children4 ,it is1 therefore1 certain that they knew not the excellence of virtue and the true happiness4 7#aji7 ,jonah thought that he was fleeing from the sight of ,god1 which seems to show that he too held that ,god had entrusted the care of the nations outside ,judaea to other substituted powers4 7#aaj7 ,no one in the whole of the ,old ,testament speaks more rationally of ,god than ,solomon1 who in fact surpassed all the men of his time in natural ability4 7#aaa7 ,yet he considered himself above the law 7esteeming it only to have been given for men without reasonable and intellectual grounds for their actions71 and made small account of the laws concerning kings1 which are mainly three3 nay1 he openly violated them 7in this he did wrong1 and acted in a manner unworthy of a philosopher1 by indulging in sensual pleasure71 and taught that all ,fortune's favours to mankind are vanity1 that humanity has no nobler gift than wisdom1 and no greater punishment than folly4 7#aab7 ,see ,proverbs xvi3#bb1 #bc4 7#aac7 ,but let us return to the prophets whose conflicting opinions we have undertaken to note4 7#aad7 ,the expressed ideas of ,ezekiel seemed so diverse from those of ,moses to the ,rabbis who have left us the extant prophetic books 7as is told in the treatise of ,sabbathus1 i3#ac1 #b71 that they had serious thoughts of omitting his prophecy from the canon1 and would doubtless have thus excluded it if a certain ,hananiah had not undertaken to explain it2 a task which 7as is there narrated7 he with great zeal and labour accomplished4 7#aae7 ,how he did so does not sufficiently appear1 whether it was by writing a commentary which has now perished1 or by altering ,ezekiel's words and audaciously striking out phrases according to his fancy4 7#aaf7 ,however this may be1 chapter xviii4 certainly does not seem to agree with ,exodus xxxiv3#g1 ,jeremiah xxxii3#ah1 c4 7#aag 7 ,samuel believed that the ,lord never repented of anything ,he had decreed 7#a ,sam4 xv3#bi71 for when ,saul was sorry for his sin1 and wished to worship ,god and ask for forgiveness1 ,samuel said that the ,lord would not go back from his decree4 7#aah7 ,to ,jeremiah1 on the other hand1 it was revealed that1 ,if that nation against whom ,i 7the ,lord7 have pronounced1 turn from their evil1 ,i will repent of the evil that ,i thought to do unto them4 7#aai7 ,if it do evil in my sight1 that it obey not my voice1 then ,i will repent of the good wherewith ,i said ,i would benefit them 7,jer4 xviii3#h-aj74 7#abj7 ,joel 7ii3#ac7 taught that the ,lord repented ,him only of evil4 7#aba7 ,lastly1 it is clear from ,gen iv3 #g that a man can overcome the temptations of sin1 and act righteously2 for this doctrine is told to ,cain1 though1 as we learn from ,josephus and the ,scriptures1 he never did so overcome them4 7#abb7 ,and this agrees with the chapter of ,jeremiah just cited1 for it is there said that the ,lord repents of the good or the evil pronounced1 if the men in question change their ways and manner of life4 7#abc7 ,but1 on the other hand1 ,paul 7,rom4ix3#aj7 teaches as plainly as possible that men have no control over the temptations of the flesh save by the special vocation and grace of ,god4 7#abd7 ,and when 7,rom4 iii3#e and vi3#ai7 he attributes righteousness to man1 he corrects himself as speaking merely humanly and through the infirmity of the flesh4 7#abe7 ,we have now more than sufficiently proved our point1 that ,god adapted revelations to the understanding and opinions of the prophets1 and that in matters of theory without bearing on charity or morality the prophets could be1 and1 in fact1 were1 ignorant1 and held conflicting opinions4 7#abf7 ,it therefore follows that we must by no means go to the prophets for knowledge1 either of natural or of spiritual phenomena4 7#abg7 ,we have determined1 then1 that we are only bound to believe in the prophetic writings1 the object and substance of the revelation2 with regard to the details1 every one may believe or not1 as he likes4 7#abh7 ,for instance1 the revelation to ,cain only teaches us that ,god admonished him to lead the true life1 for such alone is the object and substance of the revelation1 not doctrines concerning free will and philosophy4 7#abi7 ,hence1 though the freedom of the will is clearly implied in the words of the admonition1 we are at liberty to hold a contrary opinion1 since the words and reasons were adapted to the understanding of ,cain4 7#acj7 ,so1 too1 the revelation to ,micaiah would only teach that ,god revealed to him the true issue of the battle between ,ahab and ,aram2 and this is all we are bound to believe4 7#aca7 ,whatever else is contained in the revelation concerning the true and the false ,spirit of ,god1 the army of heaven standing on the right hand and on the left1 and all the other details1 does not affect us at all4 7#acb7 ,everyone may believe as much of it as his reason allows4 7#acb7 ,the reasonings by which the ,lord displayed ,his power to ,job 7if they really were a revelation1 and the author of the history is narrating1 and not merely1 as some suppose1 rhetorically adorning his own conceptions71 would come under the same category - that is1 they were adapted to ,job's understanding1 for the purpose of convincing him1 and are not universal1 or for the convincing of all men4 7#acc7 ,we can come to no different conclusion with respect to the reasonings of ,christ1 by which ,he convicted the ,pharisees of pride and ignorance1 and exhorted ,his disciples to lead the true life4 7#acd7 ,he adapted them to each man's opinions and principles4 7#ace7 ,for instance1 when ,he said to the ,pharisees 7,matt4 xii3#bf71 ,and if ,satan cast out devils1 his house is divided against itself1 how then shall his kingdom stand8 7#acf7 ,he only wished to convince the ,pharisees according1 to their own principles1 not to teach that there are devils1 or any kingdom of devils4 7#acg7 ,so1 too1 when ,he said to ,his disciples 7,matt4 viii3#aj71 ,see that ye despise not one of these little ones1 for ,i say unto you that their angels1 c41 ,he merely desired to warn them against pride and despising any of their fellows1 not to insist on the actual reason given1 which was simply adopted in order to persuade them more easily4 7#ach7 ,lastly1 we should say exactly the same of the apostolic signs and reasonings1 but there is no need to go further into the subject4 7#aci7 ,if ,i were to enumerate all the passages of ,scripture addressed only to individuals1 or to a particular man's understanding1 and which cannot1 without great danger to philosophy1 be defended as ,divine doctrines1 ,i should go far beyond the brevity at which ,i aim4 7#adj7 ,let it suffice1 then1 to have indicated a few instances of general application1 and let the curious reader consider others by himself4 7#ada7 ,although the points we have just raised concerning prophets and prophecy are the only ones which have any direct bearing on the end in view1 namely1 the separation of ,philosophy from ,theology1 still1 as ,i have touched on the general question1 ,i may here inquire whether the gift of prophecy was peculiar to the ,hebrews1 or whether it was common to all nations4 7#adb7 ,i must then come to a conclusion about the vocation of the ,hebrews1 all of which ,i shall do in the ensuing chapter4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,of ,,the ,,vocation ,,of ,,the ,,hebrews1 ,,and ,,whether ,,the ,,gift ,,of ,,prophecy ,,was ,,peculiar ,,to ,,them4 7#a7 ,every man's true happiness and blessedness consist solely in the enjoyment of what is good1 not in the pride that he alone is enjoying it1 to the exclusion of others4 7#b7 ,he who thinks himself the more blessed because he is enjoying benefits which others are not1 or because he is more blessed or more fortunate than his fellows1 is ignorant of true happiness and blessedness1 and the joy which he feels is either childish or envious and malicious4 7#c7 ,for instance1 a man's true happiness consists only in wisdom1 and the knowledge of the truth1 not at all in the fact that he is wiser than others1 or that others lack such knowledge3 such considerations do not increase his wisdom or true happiness4 7#d7 ,whoever1 therefore1 rejoices for such reasons1 rejoices in another's misfortune1 and is1 so far1 malicious and bad1 knowing neither true happiness nor the peace of the true life4 7#e7 ,when ,scripture1 therefore1 in exhorting the ,hebrews to obey the law1 says that the ,lord has chosen them for ,himself before other nations 7,deut4 x3#ae72 that ,he is near them1 but not near others 7,deut4 iv3#g72 that to them alone ,he has given just laws 7,deut4 iv3#h72 and1 lastly1 that ,he has marked them out before others 7,deut4 iv3#cb72 it speaks only according to the understanding of its hearers1 who1 as we have shown in the last chapter1 and as ,moses also testifies 7,deut4 ix3#f1 #g71 knew not true blessedness4 7#f7 ,for in good sooth they would have been no less blessed if ,god had called all men equally to salvation1 nor would ,god have been less present to them for being equally present to others2 their laws1 would have been no less just if they had been ordained for all1 and they themselves would have been no less wise4 7#g7 ,the miracles would have shown ,god's power no less by being wrought for other nations also2 lastly1 the ,hebrews would have been just as much bound to worship ,god if ,he had bestowed all these gifts equally on all men4 7#h7 ,when ,god tells ,solomon 7#a ,kings iii3#ab7 that no one shall be as wise as he in time to come1 it seems to be only a manner of expressing surpassing wisdom2 it is little to be believed that ,god would have promised ,solomon1 for his greater happiness1 that ,he would never endow anyone with so much wisdom in time to come2 this would in no wise have increased ,solomon's intellect1 and the wise king would have given equal thanks to the ,lord if everyone had been gifted with the same faculties4 7#i7 ,still1 though we assert that ,moses1 in the passages of the ,pentateuch just cited1 spoke only according to the understanding of the ,hebrews1 we have no wish to deny that ,god ordained the ,mosaic law for them alone1 nor that ,he spoke to them alone1 nor that they witnessed marvels beyond those which happened to any other nation2 but we wish to emphasize that ,moses desired to admonish the ,hebrews in such a manner1 and with such reasonings as would appeal most forcibly to their childish understanding1 and constrain them to worship the ,deity4 7#aj7 ,further1 we wished to show that the ,hebrews did not surpass other nations in knowledge1 or in piety1 but evidently in some attribute different from these2 or 7to speak like the ,scriptures1 according to their understanding71 that the ,hebrews were not chosen by ,god before others for the sake of the true life and sublime ideas1 though they were often thereto admonished1 but with some other object4 7#aa7 ,what that object was1 ,i will duly show4 7#ab7 ,but before ,i begin1 ,i wish in a few words to explain what ,i mean by the guidance of ,god1 by the help of ,god1 external and inward1 and1 lastly1 what ,i understand by fortune4 7#ac7 ,by the help of ,god1 ,i mean the fixed and unchangeable order of nature or the chain of natural events3 for ,i have said before and shown elsewhere that the universal laws of nature1 according to which all things exist and are determined1 are only another name for the eternal decrees of ,god1 which always involve eternal truth and necessity4 7#ad7 ,so that to say that everything happens according to natural laws1 and to say that everything is ordained by the decree and ordinance of ,god1 is the same thing4 7#ae7 ,now since the power in nature is identical with the power of ,god1 by which alone all things happen and are determined1 it follows that whatsoever man1 as a part of nature1 provides himself with to aid and preserve his existence1 or whatsoever nature affords him without his help1 is given to him solely by the ,divine power1 acting either through human nature or through external circumstance4 7#af7 ,so whatever human nature can furnish itself with by its own efforts to preserve its existence1 may be fitly called the inward aid of ,god1 whereas whatever else accrues to man's profit from outward causes may be called the external aid of ,god4 7#ag7 ,we can now easily understand what is meant by the election of ,god4 7#ah7 ,for since no one can do anything save by the predetermined order of nature1 that is by ,god's eternal ordinance and decree1 it follows that no one can choose a plan of life for himself1 or accomplish any work save by ,god's vocation choosing him for the work or the plan of life in question1 rather than any other4 7#ai7 ,lastly1 by fortune1 ,i mean the ordinance of ,god in so far as it directs human life through external and unexpected means4 7#bj7 ,with these preliminaries ,i return to my purpose of discovering the reason why the ,hebrews were said to be elected by ,god before other nations1 and with the demonstration ,i thus proceed4 7#ba7 ,all objects of legitimate desire fall1 generally speaking1 under one of these three categories3 #a4 ,the knowledge of things through their primary causes4 #b4 ,the government of the passions1 or the acquirement of the habit of virtue4 #c4 ,secure and healthy life4 7#bb7 ,the means which most directly conduce towards the first two of these ends1 and which may be considered their proximate and efficient causes are contained in human nature itself1 so that their acquisition hinges only on our own power1 and on the laws of human nature4 7#bc7 ,it may be concluded that these gifts are not peculiar to any nation1 but have always been shared by the whole human race1 unless1 indeed1 we would indulge the dream that nature formerly created men of different kinds4 7#bd7 ,but the means which conduce to security and health are chiefly in external circumstance1 and are called the gifts of fortune because they depend chiefly on objective causes of which we are ignorant2 for a fool may be almost as liable to happiness or unhappiness as a wise man4 7#be7 ,nevertheless1 human management and watchfulness can greatly assist towards living in security and warding off the injuries of our fellow-men1 and even of beasts4 7#bf7 ,reason and experience show no more certain means of attaining this object than the formation of a society with fixed laws1 the occupation of a strip of territory and the concentration of all forces1 as it were1 into one body1 that is the social body4 7#bg7 ,now for forming and preserving a society1 no ordinary ability and care is required3 that society will be most secure1 most stable1 and least liable to reverses1 which is founded and directed by far-seeing and careful men2 while1 on the other hand1 a society constituted by men without trained skill1 depends in a great measure on fortune1 and is less constant4 7#bh7 ,if1 in spite of all1 such a society lasts a long time1 it is owing to some other directing influence than its own2 if it overcomes great perils and its affairs prosper1 it will perforce marvel at and adore the guiding ,spirit of ,god 7in so far1 that is1 as ,god works through hidden means1 and not through the nature and mind of man71 for everything happens to it unexpectedly and contrary to anticipation1 it may even be said and thought to be by miracle4 7#bi7 ,nations1 then1 are distinguished from one another in respect to the social organization and the laws under which they live and are governed2 the ,hebrew nation was not chosen by ,god in respect to its wisdom nor its tranquillity of mind1 but in respect to its social organization and the good fortune with which it obtained supremacy and kept it so many years4 7#cj7 ,this is abundantly clear from ,scripture4 ,even a cursory perusal will show us that the only respects in which the ,hebrews surpassed other nations1 are in their successful conduct of matters relating to government1 and in their surmounting great perils solely by ,god's external aid2 in other ways they were on a par with their fellows1 and ,god was equally gracious to all4 7#ca7 ,for in respect to intellect 7as we have shown in the last chapter7 they held very ordinary ideas about ,god and nature1 so that they cannot have been ,god's chosen in this respect2 nor were they so chosen in respect of virtue and the true life1 for here again they1 with the exception of a very few elect1 were on an equality with other nations3 therefore their choice and vocation consisted only in the temporal happiness and advantages of independent rule4 7#cb7 ,in fact1 we do not see that ,god promised anything beyond this to the patriarchs ,endnote #d or their successors2 in the law no other reward is offered for obedience than the continual happiness of an independent commonwealth and other goods of this life2 while1 on the other hand1 against contumacy and the breaking of the covenant is threatened the downfall of the commonwealth and great hardships4 7#cc7 ,nor is this to be wondered at2 for the ends of every social organization and commonwealth are 7as appears from what we have said1 and as we will explain more at length hereafter7 security and comfort2 a commonwealth can only exist by the laws being binding on all4 7#cd7 ,if all the members of a state wish to disregard the law1 by that very fact they dissolve the state and destroy the commonwealth4 7#ce7 ,thus1 the only reward which could be promised to the ,hebrews for continued obedience to the law was security ,endnote #e and its attendant advantages1 while no surer punishment could be threatened for disobedience1 than the ruin of the state and the evils which generally follow therefrom1 in addition to such further consequences as might accrue to the ,jews in particular from the ruin of their especial state4 7#cf7 ,but there is no need here to go into this point at more length4 7#cg7 ,i will only add that the laws of the ,old ,testament were revealed and ordained to the ,jews only1 for as ,god chose them in respect to the special constitution of their society and government1 they must1 of course1 have had special laws4 7#ch7 ,whether ,god ordained special laws for other nations also1 and revealed ,himself to their lawgivers prophetically1 that is1 under the attributes by which the latter were accustomed to imagine ,him1 ,i cannot sufficiently determine4 7#ci7 ,it is evident from ,scripture itself that other nations acquired supremacy and particular laws by the external aid of ,god2 witness only the two following passages3 7#dj7 ,in ,genesis xiv3#ah1 #ai1 #bj1 it is related that ,melchisedek was king of ,jerusalem and priest of the ,most ,high ,god1 that in exercise of his priestly functions he blessed ,abraham1 and that ,abraham the beloved of the ,lord gave to this priest of ,god a tithe of all his spoils4 7#da7 ,this sufficiently shows that before ,he founded the ,israelitish nation ,god constituted kings and priests in ,jerusalem1 and ordained for them rites and laws4 7#db7 ,whether ,he did so prophetically is1 as ,i have said1 not sufficiently clear2 but ,i am sure of this1 that ,abraham1 whilst he sojourned in the city1 lived scrupulously according to these laws1 for ,abraham had received no special rites from ,god2 and yet it is stated 7,gen4 xxvi3#e71 that he observed the worship1 the precepts1 the statutes1 and the laws of ,god1 which must be interpreted to mean the worship1 the statutes1 the precepts1 and the laws of king ,melchisedek4 7#dc7 ,malachi chides the ,jews as follows 7i3#aj-aa473 ,who is there among you that will shut the doors8 of the ,temple2 neither do ye kindle fire on mine altar for nought4 7#dd7 ,i have no pleasure in you1 saith the ,lord of ,hosts4 7#de7 ,for from the rising of the sun1 even until the going down of the same ,my ,name shall be great among the ,gentiles2 and in every place incense shall be offered in ,my ,name1 and a pure offering2 for ,my ,name is great among the heathen1 saith the ,lord of ,hosts4 7#df7 ,these words1 which1 unless we do violence to them1 could only refer to the current period1 abundantly testify that the ,jews of that time were not more beloved by ,god than other nations1 that ,god then favoured other nations with more miracles than ,he vouchsafed to the ,jews1 who had then partly recovered their empire without miraculous aid2 and1 lastly1 that the ,gentiles possessed rites and ceremonies acceptable to ,god4 7#dg7 ,but ,i pass over these points lightly3 it is enough for my purpose to have shown that the election of the ,jews had regard to nothing but temporal physical happiness and freedom1 in other words1 autonomous government1 and to the manner and means by which they obtained it2 consequently to the laws in so far as they were necessary to the preservation of that special government2 and1 lastly1 to the manner in which they were revealed4 ,in regard to other matters1 wherein man's true happiness consists1 they were on a par with the rest of the nations4 7#dh7 ,when1 therefore1 it is said in ,scripture 7,deut4 iv3#g7 that the ,lord is not so nigh to any other nation as ,he is to the ,jews1 reference is only made to their government1 and to the period when so many miracles happened to them1 for in respect of intellect and virtue - that is1 in respect of blessedness - ,god was1 as we have said already1 and are now demonstrating1 equally gracious to all4 7#di7 ,scripture itself bears testimony to this fact1 for the ,psalmist says 7cxlv3#ah71 ,the ,lord is near unto all them that call upon ,him1 to all that call upon ,him in truth4 7#ej7 ,so in the same ,psalm1 verse #i1 ,the ,lord is good to all1 and ,his tender mercies are over all ,his works4 ,in ,ps4 xxxiii3#af1 it is clearly stated that ,god has granted to all men the same intellect1 in these words1 ,he fashioneth their hearts alike4 ,the heart was considered by the ,hebrews1 as ,i suppose everyone knows1 to be the seat of the soul and the intellect4 7#ea7 ,lastly1 from ,job xxxviii3#bh1 it is plain that ,god had ordained for the whole human race the law to reverence ,god1 to keep from evil doing1 or to do well1 and that ,job1 although a ,gentile1 was of all men most acceptable to ,god1 because he exceeded all in piety and religion4 7#eb7 ,lastly1 from ,jonah iv3#b1 it is very evident that1 not only to the ,jews but to all men1 ,god was gracious1 merciful1 long-suffering1 and of great goodness1 and repented ,him of the evil1 for ,jonah says3 ,therefore ,i determined to flee before unto ,tarshish1 for ,i know that ,thou art a gracious ,god1 and merciful1 slow to anger1 and of great kindness1 c41 and that1 therefore1 ,god would pardon the ,ninevites4 7#ec7 ,we conclude1 therefore 7inasmuch as ,god is to all men equally gracious1 and the ,hebrews were only chosen by him in respect to their social organization and government71 that the individual ,jew1 taken apart from his social organization and government1 possessed no gift of ,god above other men1 and that there was no difference between ,jew and ,gentile4 7#ed7 ,as it is a fact that ,god is equally gracious1 merciful1 and the rest1 to all men2 and as the function of the prophet was to teach men not so much the laws of their country1 as true virtue1 and to exhort them thereto1 it is not to be doubted that all nations possessed prophets1 and that the prophetic gift was not peculiar to the ,jews4 7#ee7 ,indeed1 history1 both profane and sacred1 bears witness to the fact4 7#ef7 ,although1 from the sacred histories of the ,old ,testament1 it is not evident that the other nations had as many prophets as the ,hebrews1 or that any ,gentile prophet was expressly sent by ,god to the nations1 this does not affect the question1 for the ,hebrews were careful to record their own affairs1 not those of other nations4 7#eg7 ,it suffices1 then1 that we find in the ,old ,testament ,gentiles1 and uncircumcised1 as ,noah1 ,enoch1 ,abimelech1 ,balaam1 c41 exercising prophetic gifts2 further1 that ,hebrew prophets were sent by ,god1 not only to their own nation but to many others also4 7#eh7 ,ezekiel prophesied to all the nations then known2 ,obadiah to none1 that we are aware of1 save the ,idumeans2 and ,jonah was chiefly the prophet to the ,ninevites4 7#ei7 ,isaiah bewails and predicts the calamities1 and hails the restoration not only of the ,jews but also of other nations1 for he says 7chap4 xvi3#i71 ,therefore ,i will bewail ,jazer with weeping2 and in chap4 xix4 he foretells first the calamities and then the restoration of the ,egyptians 7see verses #ai1 #bj1 #ba1 #be71 saying that ,god shall send them a ,saviour to free them1 that the ,lord shall be known in ,egypt1 and1 further1 that the ,egyptians shall worship ,god with sacrifice and oblation2 and1 at last1 he calls that nation the blessed ,egyptian people of ,god2 all of which particulars are specially noteworthy4 7#fj7 ,jeremiah is called1 not the prophet of the ,hebrew nation1 but simply the prophet of the nations 7see ,jer4 i4#e74 7#fa7 ,he also mournfully foretells the calamities of the nations1 and predicts their restoration1 for he says 7xlviii4 #ca7 of the ,moabites1 ,therefore will ,i howl for ,moab1 and ,i will cry out for all ,moab 7verse #cf71 and therefore mine heart shall sound for ,moab like pipes2 in the end he prophesies their restoration1 as also the restoration of the ,egyptians1 ,ammonites1 and ,elamites4 7#fb7 ,wherefore it is beyond doubt that other nations also1 like the ,jews1 had their prophets1 who prophesied to them4 7#fc7 ,although ,scripture only1 makes mention of one man1 ,balaam1 to whom the future of the ,jews and the other nations was revealed1 we must not suppose that ,balaam prophesied only once1 for from the narrative itself it is abundantly clear that he had long previously been famous for prophesy and other ,divine gifts4 7#fd7 ,for when ,balak bade him to come to him1 he said 7,num4 xxii3#f71 ,for ,i know that he whom thou blessest is blessed1 and he whom thou cursest is cursed4 7#fe7 ,thus we see that he possessed the gift which ,god had bestowed on ,abraham4 ,further1 as accustomed to prophesy1 ,balaam bade the messengers wait for him till the will of the ,lord was revealed to him4 7#ff7 ,when he prophesied1 that is1 when he interpreted the true mind of ,god1 he was wont to say this of himself3 ,he hath said1 which heard the words of ,god and knew the knowledge of the ,most ,high1 which saw the vision of the ,almighty falling into a trance1 but having his eyes open4 7#fg7 ,further1 after he had blessed the ,hebrews by the command of ,god1 he began 7as was his custom7 to prophesy to other nations1 and to predict their future2 all of which abundantly shows that he had always been a prophet1 or had often prophesied1 and 7as we may also remark here7 possessed that which afforded the chief certainty to prophets of the truth of their prophecy1 namely1 a mind turned wholly to what is right and good1 for he did not bless those whom he wished to bless1 nor curse those whom he wished to curse1 as ,balak supposed1 but only those whom ,god wished to be blessed or cursed4 7#fh7 ,thus he answered ,balak3 ,if ,balak should give me his house full of silver and gold1 ,i cannot go beyond the commandment of the ,lord to do either good or bad of my own mind2 but what the ,lord saith1 that will ,i speak4 7#fi7 ,as for ,god being angry with him in the way1 the same happened to ,moses when he set out to ,egypt by the command of the ,lord2 and as to his receiving money for prophesying1 ,samuel did the same 7#a ,sam4 ix3#g1 #h72 if in anyway he sinned1 there is not a just man upon earth that doeth good and sinneth not1 ,eccles4 vii3#bj4 7,vide #b ,epist4 ,peter ii3#ae1 #af1 and ,jude #e3aa47 7#gj7 ,his speeches must certainly have had much weight with ,god1 and ,his power for cursing must assuredly have been very great from the number of times that we find stated in ,scripture1 in proof of ,god's great mercy to the ,jews1 that ,god would not hear ,balaam1 and that ,he changed the cursing to blessing 7see ,deut4 xxiii3#f1 ,josh4 xxiv3#aj1 ,neh4 xiii3#b74 7#ga7 ,wherefore he was without doubt most acceptable to ,god1 for the speeches and cursings of the wicked move ,god not at all4 7#gb7 ,as then he was a true prophet1 and nevertheless ,joshua calls him a soothsayer or augur1 it is certain that this title had an honourable signification1 and that those whom the ,gentiles called augurs and soothsayers were true prophets1 while those whom ,scripture often accuses and condemns were false soothsayers1 who deceived the ,gentiles as false prophets deceived the ,jews2 indeed1 this is made evident from other passages in the ,bible1 whence we conclude that the gift of prophecy was not peculiar to the ,jews1 but common to all nations4 7#gc7 ,the ,pharisees1 however1 vehemently contend that this ,divine gift was peculiar to their nation1 and that the other nations foretold the future 7what will superstition invent next87 by some unexplained diabolical faculty4 7#gd7 ,the principal passage of ,scripture which they cite1 by way of confirming their theory with its authority1 is ,exodus xxxiii3#af1 where ,moses says to ,god1 ,for wherein shall it be known here that ,i and ,thy people have found grace in ,thy sight8 is it not in that ,thou goest with us8 so shall we be separated1 ,i and ,thy people1 from all the people that are upon the face of the earth4 7#ge7 ,from this they would infer that ,moses asked of ,god that ,he should be present to the ,jews1 and should reveal ,himself to them prophetically2 further1 that ,he should grant this favour to no other nation4 7#gf7 ,it is surely absurd that ,moses should have been jealous of ,god's presence among the ,gentiles1 or that he should have dared to ask any such thing4 7#gg7 ,the fact is1 as ,moses knew that the disposition and spirit of his nation was rebellious1 he clearly saw that they could not carry out what they had begun without very great miracles and special external aid from ,god2 nay1 that without such aid they must necessarily perish3 as it was evident that ,god wished them to be preserved1 he asked for this special external aid4 7#gh7 ,thus he says 7,ex4 xxxiv3#i71 ,if now ,i have found grace in ,thy sight1 ,o ,lord1 let my ,lord1 ,i pray ,thee1 go among us2 for it is a stiffnecked people4 7#gi7 ,the reason1 therefore1 for his seeking special external aid from ,god was the stiffneckedness of the people1 and it is made still more plain1 that he asked for nothing beyond this special external aid by ,god's answer - for ,god answered at once 7verse #aj of the same chapter7 - ,behold1 ,i make a covenant3 before all ,thy people ,i will do marvels1 such as have not been done in all the earth1 nor in any nation4 7#hj7 ,therefore ,moses had in view nothing beyond the special election of the ,jews1 as ,i have explained it1 and made no other request to ,god4 7#ha7 ,i confess that in ,paul's ,epistle to the ,romans1 ,i find another text which carries more weight1 namely1 where ,paul seems to teach a different doctrine from that here set down1 for he there says 7,rom4 iii3#a73 ,what advantage then hath the ,jew8 or what profit is there of circumcision8 7#hb7 ,much every way3 chiefly1 because that unto them were committed the oracles of ,god4 7#hc7 ,but if we look to the doctrine which ,paul especially desired to teach1 we shall find nothing repugnant to our present contention2 on the contrary1 his doctrine is the same as ours1 for he says 7,rom4 iii3#bi7 that ,god is the ,god of the ,jews and of the ,gentiles1 and 7ch4 ii3#be1 #bf7 ,but1 if thou be a breaker of the law1 thy circumcision is made uncircumcision4 7#hd7 ,therefore if the uncircumcision keep the righteousness of the law1 shall not his uncircumcision be counted for circumcision8 7#he7 ,further1 in chap4 iv3verse #i1 he says that all alike1 ,jew and ,gentile1 were under sin1 and that without commandment and law there is no sin4 7#hf7 ,wherefore it is most evident that to all men absolutely was revealed the law under which all lived - namely1 the law which has regard only to true virtue1 not the law established in respect to1 and in the formation of a particular state and adapted to the disposition of a particular people4 7#hg7 ,lastly1 ,paul concludes that since ,god is the ,god of all nations1 that is1 is equally gracious to all1 and since all men equally live under the law and under sin1 so also to all nations did ,god send ,his ,christ1 to free all men equally from the bondage of the law1 that they should no more do right by the command of the law1 but by the constant determination of their hearts4 7#hh7 ,so that ,paul teaches exactly the same as ourselves4 7#hi7 ,when1 therefore1 he says ,to the ,jews only were entrusted the oracles of ,god1 we must either understand that to them only were the laws entrusted in writing1 while they were given to other nations merely in revelation and conception1 or else 7as none but ,jews would object to the doctrine he desired to advance7 that ,paul was answering only in accordance with the understanding and current ideas of the ,jews1 for in respect to teaching things which he had partly seen1 partly heard1 he was to the ,greeks a ,greek1 and to the ,jews a ,jew4 7#ij7 ,it now only remains to us to answer the arguments of those who would persuade themselves that the election of the ,jews was not temporal1 and merely in respect of their commonwealth1 but eternal2 for1 they say1 we see the ,jews after the loss of their commonwealth1 and after being scattered so many years and separated from all other nations1 still surviving1 which is without parallel among other peoples1 and further the ,scriptures seem to teach that ,god has chosen for ,himself the ,jews for ever1 so that though they have lost their commonwealth1 they still nevertheless remain ,god's elect4 7#ia7 ,the passages which they think teach most clearly this eternal election1 are chiefly3 7#a47 ,jer4 xxxi3#cf1 where the prophet testifies that the seed of ,israel shall for ever remain the nation of ,god1 comparing them with the stability of the heavens and nature2 7#b47 ,ezek4 xx3#cb1 where the prophet seems to intend that though the ,jews wanted after the help afforded them to turn their backs on the worship of the ,lord1 that ,god would nevertheless gather them together again from all the lands in which they were dispersed1 and lead them to the wilderness of the peoples - as ,he had led their fathers to the wilderness of the land of ,egypt - and would at length1 after purging out from among them the rebels and transgressors1 bring them thence to his ,holy mountain1 where the whole house of ,israel should worship ,him4 ,other passages are also cited1 especially by the ,pharisees1 but ,i think ,i shall satisfy everyone if ,i answer these two1 and this ,i shall easily accomplish after showing from ,scripture itself that ,god chose not the ,hebrews for ever1 but only on the condition under which ,he had formerly chosen the ,canaanites1 for these last1 as we have shown1 had priests who religiously worshipped ,god1 and whom ,god at length rejected because of their luxury1 pride1 and corrupt worship4 7#ib7 ,moses 7,lev4 xviii3#bg7 warned the ,israelites that they be not polluted with whoredoms1 lest the land spue them out as it had spued out the nations who had dwelt there before1 and in ,deut4 viii3#ai1 #bj1 in the plainest terms ,he threatens their total ruin1 for ,he says1 ,i testify against you that ye shall surely perish4 7#ic7 ,as the nations which the ,lord destroyeth before your face1 so shall ye perish4 ,in like manner many other passages are found in the law which expressly show that ,god chose the ,hebrews neither absolutely nor for ever4 7#id7 ,if1 then1 the prophets foretold for them a new covenant of the knowledge of ,god1 love1 and grace1 such a promise is easily proved to be only made to the elect1 for ,ezekiel in the chapter which we have just quoted expressly says that ,god will separate from them the rebellious and transgressors1 and ,zephaniah 7iii3#ab1 #ac71 says that ,god will take away the proud from the midst of them1 and leave the poor4 7#ie7 ,now1 inasmuch as their election has regard to true virtue1 it is not to be thought that it was promised to the ,jews alone to the exclusion of others1 but we must evidently believe that the true ,gentile prophets 7and every nation1 as we have shown1 possessed such7 promised the same to the faithful of their own people1 who were thereby comforted4 7#if7 ,wherefore this eternal covenant of the knowledge of ,god and love is universal1 as is clear1 moreover1 from ,zeph4 iii3#aj1 #aa3 no difference in this respect can be admitted between ,jew and ,gentile1 nor did the former enjoy any special election beyond that which we have pointed out4 7#ig7 ,when the prophets1 in speaking of this election which regards only true virtue1 mixed up much concerning sacrifices and ceremonies1 and the rebuilding of the temple and city1 they wished by such figurative expressions1 after the manner and nature of prophecy1 to expound matters spiritual1 so as at the same time to show to the ,jews1 whose prophets they were1 the true restoration of the state and of the temple to be expected about the time of ,cyrus4 7#ih7 ,at the present time1 therefore1 there is absolutely nothing which the ,jews can arrogate to themselves beyond other people4 7#ii7 ,as to their continuance so long after dispersion and the loss of empire1 there is nothing marvellous in it1 for they so separated themselves from every other nation as to draw down upon themselves universal hate1 not only by their outward rites1 rites conflicting with those of other nations1 but also by the sign of circumcision which they most scrupulously observe4 7#ajj7 ,that they have been preserved in great measure by ,gentile hatred1 experience demonstrates4 7#aja7 ,when the king of ,spain formerly compelled the ,jews to embrace the ,state religion or to go into exile1 a large number of ,jews accepted ,catholicism4 7#ajb7 ,now1 as these renegades were admitted to all the native privileges of ,spaniards1 and deemed worthy of filling all honourable offices1 it came to pass that they straightway became so intermingled with the ,spaniards as to leave of themselves no relic or remembrance4 7#ajc7 ,but exactly the opposite happened to those whom the king of ,portugal compelled to become ,christians1 for they always1 though converted1 lived apart1 inasmuch as they were considered unworthy of any civic honours4 7#ajd7 ,the sign of circumcision is1 as ,i think1 so important1 that ,i could persuade myself that it alone would preserve the nation for ever4 7#aje7 ,nay1 ,i would go so far as to believe that if the foundations of their religion have not emasculated their minds they may even1 if occasion offers1 so changeable are human affairs1 raise up their empire afresh1 and that ,god may a second time elect them4 7#ajf7 ,of such a possibility we have a very famous example in the ,chinese4 7#ajg7 ,they1 too1 have some distinctive mark on their heads which they most scrupulously observe1 and by which they keep themselves apart from everyone else1 and have thus kept themselves during so many thousand years that they far surpass all other nations in antiquity4 7#ajh7 ,they have not always retained empire1 but they have recovered it when lost1 and doubtless will do so again after the spirit of the ,tartars becomes relaxed through the luxury of riches and pride4 7#aji7 ,lastly1 if any one wishes to maintain that the ,jews1 from this or from any other cause1 have been chosen by ,god for ever1 ,i will not gainsay him if he will admit that this choice1 whether temporary or eternal1 has no regard1 in so far as it is peculiar to the ,jews1 to aught but dominion and physical advantages 7for by such alone can one nation be distinguished from another71 whereas in regard to intellect and true virtue1 every nation is on a par with the rest1 and ,god has not in these respects chosen one people rather than another4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 - ,,of ,,the ,,divine ,,law4 7#a7 ,the word law1 taken in the abstract1 means that by which an individual1 or all things1 or as many things as belong to a particular species1 act in one and the same fixed and definite manner1 which manner depends either on natural necessity or on human decree4 7#b7 ,a law which depends on natural necessity is one which necessarily follows from the nature1 or from the definition of the thing in question2 a law which depends on human decree1 and which is more correctly called an ordinance1 is one which men have laid down for themselves and others in order to live more safely or conveniently1 or from some similar reason4 7#c7 ,for example1 the law that all bodies impinging on lesser bodies1 lose as much of their own motion as they communicate to the latter is a universal law of all bodies1 and depends on natural necessity4 7#d7 ,so1 too1 the law that a man in remembering one thing1 straightway remembers another either like it1 or which he had perceived simultaneously with it1 is a law which necessarily follows from the nature of man4 7#e7 ,but the law that men must yield1 or be compelled to yield1 somewhat of their natural right1 and that they bind themselves to live in a certain way1 depends on human decree4 7#f7 ,now1 though ,i freely admit that all things are predetermined by universal natural laws to exist and operate in a given1 fixed1 and definite manner1 ,i still assert that the laws ,i have just mentioned depend on human decree4 7#a47 7#g7 ,because man1 in so far as he is a part of nature1 constitutes a part of the power of nature4 7#h7 ,whatever1 therefore1 follows necessarily from the necessity of human nature 7that is1 from nature herself1 in so far as we conceive of her as acting through man7 follows1 even though it be necessarily1 from human power4 7#i7 ,hence the sanction of such laws may very well be said to depend on man's decree1 for it principally depends on the power of the human mind2 so that the human mind in respect to its perception of things as true and false1 can readily be conceived as without such laws1 but not without necessary law as we have just defined it4 7#b47 7#aj7 ,i have stated that these laws depend on human decree because it is well to define and explain things by their proximate causes4 7#aa7 ,the general consideration of fate and the concatenation of causes would aid us very little in forming and arranging our ideas concerning particular questions4 7#ab7 ,let us add that as to the actual coordination and concatenation of things1 that is how things are ordained and linked together1 we are obviously ignorant2 therefore1 it is more profitable for right living1 nay1 it is necessary for us to consider things as contingent4 7#ac7 ,so much about law in the abstract4 7#ad7 ,now the word law seems to be only applied to natural phenomena by analogy1 and is commonly taken to signify a command which men can either obey or neglect1 inasmuch as it restrains human nature within certain originally exceeded limits1 and therefore lays down no rule beyond human strength4 7#ae7 ,thus it is expedient to define law more particularly as a plan of life laid down by man for himself or others with a certain object4 7#af7 ,however1 as the true object of legislation is only perceived by a few1 and most men are almost incapable of grasping it1 though they live under its conditions1 legislators1 with a view to exacting general obedience1 have wisely put forward another object1 very different from that which necessarily follows from the nature of law3 they promise to the observers of the law that which the masses chiefly desire1 and threaten its violators with that which they chiefly fear3 thus endeavouring to restrain the masses1 as far as may be1 like a horse with a curb2 whence it follows that the word law is chiefly applied to the modes of life enjoined on men by the sway of others2 hence those who obey the law are said to live under it and to be under compulsion4 7#ag7 ,in truth1 a man who renders everyone their due because he fears the gallows1 acts under the sway and compulsion of others1 and cannot be called just4 7#ah7 ,but a man who does the same from a knowledge of the true reason for laws and their necessity1 acts from a firm purpose and of his own accord1 and is therefore properly called just4 7#ai7 ,this1 ,i take it1 is ,paul's meaning when he says1 that those who live under the law cannot be justified through the law1 for justice1 as commonly defined1 is the constant and perpetual will to render every man his due4 7#bj7 ,thus ,solomon says 7,prov4 xxi3#ae71 ,it is a joy to the just to do judgment1 but the wicked fear4 7#ba7 ,law1 then1 being a plan of living which men have for a certain object laid down for themselves or others1 may1 as it seems1 be divided into human law and ,divine law4 7#bb7 ,by human law ,i mean a plan of living which serves only to render life and the state secure4 7#bc7 ,by ,divine law ,i mean that which only regards the highest good1 in other words1 the true knowledge of ,god and love4 7#bd7 ,i call this law ,divine because of the nature of the highest good1 which ,i will here shortly explain as clearly as ,i can4 7#be7 ,inasmuch as the intellect is the best part of our being1 it is evident that we should make every effort to perfect it as far as possible if we desire to search for what is really profitable to us4 7#bf7 ,for in intellectual perfection the highest good should consist4 7#bg7 ,now1 since all our knowledge1 and the certainty which removes every doubt1 depend solely on the knowledge of ,god2- firstly1 because without ,god nothing can exist or be conceived2 secondly1 because so long as we have no clear and distinct idea of ,god we may remain in universal doubt - it follows that our highest good and perfection also depend solely on the knowledge of ,god4 7#bh7 ,further1 since without ,god nothing can exist or be conceived1 it is evident that all natural phenomena involve and express the conception of ,god as far as their essence and perfection extend1 so that we have greater and more perfect knowledge of ,god in proportion to our knowledge of natural phenomena3 conversely 7since the knowledge of an effect through its cause is the same thing as the knowledge of a particular property of a cause7 the greater our knowledge of natural phenomena1 the more perfect is our knowledge of the essence of ,god 7which is the cause of all things74 7#bi7 ,so1 then1 our highest good not only depends on the knowledge of ,god1 but wholly consists therein2 and it further follows that man is perfect or the reverse in proportion to the nature and perfection of the object of his special desire2 hence the most perfect and the chief sharer in the highest blessedness is he who prizes above all else1 and takes especial delight in1 the intellectual knowledge of ,god1 the most perfect ,being4 7#cj7 ,hither1 then1 our highest good and our highest blessedness aim - namely1 to the knowledge and love of ,god2 therefore the means demanded by this aim of all human actions1 that is1 by ,god in so far as the idea of him is in us1 may be called the commands of ,god1 because they proceed1 as it were1 from ,god ,himself1 inasmuch as ,he exists in our minds1 and the plan of life which has regard to this aim may be fitly called the law of ,god4 7#ca7 ,the nature of the means1 and the plan of life which this aim demands1 how the foundations of the best states follow its lines1 and how men's life is conducted1 are questions pertaining to general ethics4 7#cb7 ,here ,i only proceed to treat of the ,divine law in a particular application4 7#cc7 ,as the love of ,god is man's highest happiness and blessedness1 and the ultimate end and aim of all human actions1 it follows that he alone lives by the ,divine law who loves ,god not from fear of punishment1 or from love of any other object1 such as sensual pleasure1 fame1 or the like2 but solely because he has knowledge of ,god1 or is convinced that the knowledge and love of ,god is the highest good4 7#cd7 ,the sum and chief precept1 then1 of the ,divine law is to love ,god as the highest good1 namely1 as we have said1 not from fear of any pains and penalties1 or from the love of any other object in which we desire to take pleasure4 7#ce7 ,the idea of ,god lays down the rule that ,god is our highest good - in other words1 that the knowledge and love of ,god is the ultimate aim to which all our actions should be directed4 7#cf7 ,the worldling cannot understand these things1 they appear foolishness to him1 because he has too meager a knowledge of ,god1 and also because in this highest good he can discover nothing which he can handle or eat1 or which affects the fleshly appetites wherein he chiefly delights1 for it consists solely in thought and the pure reason4 7#cg7 ,they1 on the other hand1 who know that they possess no greater gift than intellect and sound reason1 will doubtless accept what ,i have said without question4 7#ch7 ,we have now explained that wherein the ,divine law chiefly consists1 and what are human laws1 namely1 all those which have a different aim unless they have been ratified by revelation1 for in this respect also things are referred to ,god 7as we have shown above7 and in this sense the law of ,moses1 although it was not universal1 but entirely adapted to the disposition and particular preservation of a single people1 may yet be called a law of ,god or ,divine law1 inasmuch as we believe that it was ratified by prophetic insight4 7#ci7 ,if we consider the nature of natural ,divine law as we have just explained it1 we shall see3 7#dj7 ,i4- ,that it is universal or common to all men1 for we have deduced it from universal human nature4 7#da7 ,,ii4 ,that it does not depend on the truth of any historical narrative whatsoever1 for inasmuch as this natural ,divine law is comprehended solely by the consideration of human nature1 it is plain that we can conceive it as existing as well in ,adam as in any other man1 as well in a man living among his fellows1 as in a man who lives by himself4 7#db7 ,the truth of a historical narrative1 however assured1 cannot give us the knowledge nor consequently the love of ,god1 for love of ,god springs from knowledge of ,him1 and knowledge of ,him should be derived from general ideas1 in themselves certain and known1 so that the truth of a historical narrative is very far from being a necessary requisite for our attaining our highest good4 7#dc7 ,still1 though the truth of histories cannot give us the knowledge and love of ,god1 ,i do not deny that reading them is very useful with a view to life in the world1 for the more we have observed and known of men's customs and circumstances1 which are best revealed by their actions1 the more warily we shall be able to order our lives among them1 and so far as reason dictates to adapt our actions to their dispositions4 7#dd7 ,,iii4 ,we see that this natural ,divine law does not demand the performance of ceremonies - that is1 actions in themselves indifferent1 which are called good from the fact of their institution1 or actions symbolizing something profitable for salvation1 or 7if one prefers this definition7 actions of which the meaning surpasses human understanding4 7#de7 ,the natural light of reason does not demand anything which it is itself unable to supply1 but only such as it can very clearly show to be good1 or a means to our blessedness4 7#df7 ,such things as are good simply because they have been commanded or instituted1 or as being symbols of something good1 are mere shadows which cannot be reckoned among actions that are the offsprings as it were1 or fruit of a sound mind and of intellect4 7#dg7 ,there is no need for me to go into this now in more detail4 7#dh7 ,,iv4 ,lastly1 we see that the highest reward of the ,divine law is the law itself1 namely1 to know ,god and to love ,him of our free choice1 and with an undivided and fruitful spirit2 while its penalty is the absence of these things1 and being in bondage to the flesh - that is1 having an inconstant and wavering spirit4 7#di7 ,these points being noted1 ,i must now inquire3 7#ej7 ,i4 ,whether by the natural light of reason we can conceive of ,god as a law-giver or potentate ordaining laws for men8 7#ea7 ,,ii4 ,what is the teaching of ,holy ,writ concerning this natural light of reason and natural law8 7#eb7 ,,iii4 ,with what objects were ceremonies formerly instituted8 7#ec7 ,,iv4 ,lastly1 what is the good gained by knowing the sacred histories and believing them8 7#ed7 ,of the first two ,i will treat in this chapter1 of the remaining two in the following one4 7#ee7 ,our conclusion about the first is easily deduced from the nature of ,god's will1 which is only distinguished from ,his understanding in relation to our intellect - that is1 the will and the understanding of ,god are in reality one and the same1 and are only distinguished in relation to our thoughts which we form concerning ,god's understanding4 7#ef7 ,for instance1 if we are only looking to the fact that the nature of a triangle is from eternity contained in the ,divine nature as an eternal verity1 we say that ,god possesses the idea of a triangle1 or that ,he understands the nature of a triangle2 but if afterwards we look to the fact that the nature of a triangle is thus contained in the ,divine nature1 solely by the necessity of the ,divine nature1 and not by the necessity of the nature and essence of a triangle - in fact1 that the necessity of a triangle's essence and nature1 in so far as they are conceived of as eternal verities1 depends solely on the necessity of the ,divine nature and intellect1 we then style ,god's will or decree1 that which before we styled ,his intellect4 7#eg7 ,wherefore we make one and the same affirmation concerning ,god when we say that ,he has from eternity decreed that three angles of a triangle are equal to two right angles1 as when we say that ,he has understood it4 7#eh7 ,hence the affirmations and the negations of ,god always involve necessity or truth2 so that1 for example1 if ,god said to ,adam that ,he did not wish him to eat of the tree of knowledge of good and evil1 it would have involved a contradiction that ,adam should have been able to eat of it1 and would therefore have been impossible that he should have so eaten1 for the ,divine command would have involved an eternal necessity and truth4 7#ei7 ,but since ,scripture nevertheless narrates that ,god did give this command to ,adam1 and yet that none the less ,adam ate of the tree1 we must perforce say that ,god revealed to ,adam the evil which would surely follow if he should eat of the tree1 but did not disclose that such evil would of necessity come to pass4 7#fj7 ,thus it was that ,adam took the revelation to be not an eternal and necessary truth1 but a law - that is1 an ordinance followed by gain or loss1 not depending necessarily on the nature of the act performed1 but solely on the will and absolute power of some potentate1 so that the revelation in question was solely in relation to ,adam1 and solely through his lack of knowledge a law1 and ,god was1 as it were1 a lawgiver and potentate4 7#fa7 ,from the same cause1 namely1 from lack of knowledge1 the ,decalogue in relation to the ,hebrews was a law1 for since they knew not the existence of ,god as an eternal truth1 they must have taken as a law that which was revealed to them in the ,decalogue1 namely1 that ,god exists1 and that ,god only should be worshipped4 7#fb7 ,but if ,god had spoken to them without the intervention of any bodily means1 immediately they would have perceived it not as a law1 but as an eternal truth4 7#fc7 ,what we have said about the ,israelites and ,adam1 applies also to all the prophets who wrote laws in ,god's name - they did not adequately conceive ,god's decrees as eternal truths4 7#fd7 ,for instance1 we must say of ,moses that from revelation1 from the basis of what was revealed to him1 he perceived the method by which the ,israelitish nation could best be united in a particular territory1 and could form a body politic or state1 and further that he perceived the method by which that nation could best be constrained to obedience2 but he did not perceive1 nor was it revealed to him1 that this method was absolutely the best1 nor that the obedience of the people in a certain strip of territory would necessarily imply the end he had in view4 7#fe7 ,wherefore he perceived these things not as eternal truths1 but as precepts and ordinances1 and he ordained them as laws of ,god1 and thus it came to be that he conceived ,god as a ruler1 a legislator1 a king1 as merciful1 just1 c41 whereas such qualities are simply attributes of human nature1 and utterly alien from the nature of the ,deity4 7#ff7,thus much we may affirm of the prophets who wrote laws in the name of ,god2 but we must not affirm it of ,christ1 for ,christ1 although ,he too seems to have written laws in the name of ,god1 must be taken to have had a clear and adequate perception1 for ,christ was not so much a prophet as the mouthpiece of ,god4 7#fg7 ,for ,god made revelations to mankind through ,christ as ,he had before done through angels - that is1 a created voice1 visions1 c4 7#fh7 ,it would be as unreasonable to say that ,god had accommodated his revelations to the opinions of ,christ as that ,he had before accommodated them to the opinions of angels 7that is1 of a created voice or visions7 as matters to be revealed to the prophets1 a wholly absurd hypothesis4 7#fi7 ,moreover1 ,christ was sent to teach not only the ,jews but the whole human race1 and therefore it was not enough that ,his mind should be accommodated to the opinions the ,jews alone1 but also to the opinion and fundamental teaching common to the whole human race - in other words1 to ideas universal and true4 7#gj7 ,inasmuch as ,god revealed ,himself to ,christ1 or to ,christ's mind immediately1 and not as to the prophets through words and symbols1 we must needs suppose that ,christ perceived truly what was revealed1 in other words1 ,he understood it1 for a matter is understood when it is perceived simply by the mind without words or symbols4 7#ga7 ,christ1 then1 perceived 7truly and adequately7 what was revealed1 and if ,he ever proclaimed such revelations as laws1 ,he did so because of the ignorance and obstinacy of the people1 acting in this respect the part of ,god2 inasmuch as ,he accommodated ,himself to the comprehension of the people1 and though ,he spoke somewhat more clearly than the other prophets1 yet ,he taught what was revealed obscurely1 and generally through parables1 especially when ,he was speaking to those to whom it was not yet given to understand the kingdom of heaven4 7,see ,matt4 xiii3#aj1 c47 7#gb7 ,to those to whom it was given to understand the mysteries of heaven1 ,he doubtless taught ,his doctrines as eternal truths1 and did not lay them down as laws1 thus freeing the minds of ,his hearers from the bondage of that law which ,he further confirmed and established4 7#gc7 ,paul apparently points to this more than once 7e4g4 ,rom4 vii3#f1 and iii3#bh71 though he never himself seems to wish to speak openly1 but1 to quote his own words 7,rom4 iii3#f1 and vi3#ai71 merely humanly4 7#gd7 ,this he expressly states when he calls ,god just1 and it was doubtless in concession to human weakness that he attributes mercy1 grace1 anger1 and similar qualities to ,god1 adapting his language to the popular mind1 or1 as he puts it 7#a ,cor4 iii3#a1 #b71 to carnal men4 7#ge7 ,in ,rom4 ix3#ah1 he teaches undisguisedly that ,god's auger and mercy depend not on the actions of men1 but on ,god's own nature or will2 further1 that no one is justified by the works of the law1 but only by faith1 which he seems to identify with the full assent of the soul2 lastly1 that no one is blessed unless he have in him the mind of ,christ 7,rom4 viii3#i71 whereby he perceives the laws of ,god as eternal truths4 7#gf7 ,we conclude1 therefore1 that ,god is described as a lawgiver or prince1 and styled just1 merciful1 c41 merely in concession to popular understanding1 and the imperfection of popular knowledge2 that in reality ,god acts and directs all things simply by the necessity of ,his nature and perfection1 and that ,his decrees and volitions are eternal truths1 and always involve necessity4 7#gg7 ,so much for the first point which ,i wished to explain and demonstrate4 7#gh7 ,passing on to the second point1 let us search the sacred pages for their teaching concerning the light of nature and this ,divine law4 7#gi7 ,the first doctrine we find in the history of the first man1 where it is narrated that ,god commanded ,adam not to eat of the fruit of the tree of the knowledge of good and evil2 this seems to mean that ,god commanded ,adam to do and to seek after righteousness because it was good1 not because the contrary was evil3 that is1 to seek the good for its own sake1 not from fear of evil4 7#hj7 ,we have seen that he who acts rightly from the true knowledge and love of right1 acts with freedom and constancy1 whereas he who acts from fear of evil1 is under the constraint of evil1 and acts in bondage under external control4 7#ha7 ,so that this commandment of ,god to ,adam comprehends the whole ,divine natural law1 and absolutely agrees with the dictates of the light of nature2 nay1 it would be easy to explain on this basis the whole history or allegory of the first man4 7#hb7 ,but ,i prefer to pass over the subject in silence1 because1 in the first place1 ,i cannot be absolutely certain that my explanation would be in accordance with the intention of the sacred writer2 and1 secondly1 because many do not admit that this history is an allegory1 maintaining it to be a simple narrative of facts4 7#hc7 ,it will be better1 therefore1 to adduce other passages of ,scripture1 especially such as were written by him1 who speaks with all the strength of his natural understanding1 in which he surpassed all his contemporaries1 and whose sayings are accepted by the people as of equal weight with those of the prophets4 7#hd7 ,i mean ,solomon1 whose prudence and wisdom are commended in ,scripture rather than his piety and gift of prophecy4 7#he7 ,life being taken to mean the true life 7as is evident from ,deut4 xxx3#ai71 the fruit of the understanding consists only in the true life1 and its absence constitutes punishment4 7#hf7 ,all this absolutely agrees with what was set out in our fourth point concerning natural law4 7#hg7 ,moreover our position that it is the well-spring of life1 and that the intellect alone lays down laws for the wise1 is plainly taught by1 the sage1 for he says 7,prov4 xiii3#ad73 ,the law of the wise is a fountain of life - that is1 as we gather from the preceding text1 the understanding4 7#hh7 ,in chap4 iii3#ac1 he expressly teaches that the understanding renders man blessed and happy1 and gives him true peace of mind4 ,happy is the man that findeth wisdom1 and the man that getteth understanding1 for ,wisdom gives length of days1 and riches and honour2 her ways are ways of pleasantness1 and all her paths peace 7xiiii3#f1 #ag74 7#hi7 ,according to ,solomon1 therefore1 it is only1 the wise who live in peace and equanimity1 not like the wicked whose minds drift hither and thither1 and 7as ,isaiah says1 chap4 lvii3#bj7 are like the troubled sea1 for them there is no peace4 7#ij7 ,lastly1 we should especially note the passage in chap4 ii4 of ,solomon's proverbs which most clearly confirms our contention3 ,if thou criest after knowledge1 and liftest up thy voice for understanding 4 4 4 then shalt thou understand the fear of the ,lord1 and find the knowledge of ,god2 for the ,lord giveth wisdom2 out of ,his mouth cometh knowledge and understanding4 7#ia7 ,these words clearly enunciate 7#a71 that wisdom or intellect alone teaches us to fear ,god wisely - that is1 to worship ,him truly2 7#b71 that wisdom and knowledge flow from ,god's mouth1 and that ,god bestows on us this gift2 this we have already shown in proving that our understanding and our knowledge depend on1 spring from1 and are perfected by the idea or knowledge of ,god1 and nothing else4 7#ib7 ,solomon goes on to say in so many words that this knowledge contains and involves the true principles of ethics and politics3 ,when wisdom entereth into thy heart1 and knowledge is pleasant to thy soul1 discretion shall preserve thee1 understanding shall keep thee1 then shalt thou understand righteousness1 and judgment1 and equity1 yea every good path4 7#ic7 ,all of which is in obvious agreement with natural knowledge3 for after we have come to the understanding of things1 and have tasted the excellence of knowledge1 she teaches us ethics and true virtue4 7#id7 ,thus the happiness and the peace of him who cultivates his natural understanding lies1 according to ,solomon also1 not so much under the dominion of fortune 7or ,god's external aid7 as in inward personal virtue 7or ,god's internal aid71 for the latter can to a great extent be preserved by vigilance1 right action1 and thought4 7#ie7 ,lastly1 we must by no means pass over the passage in ,paul's ,epistle to the ,romans1 i3#bj1 in which he says3 ,for the invisible things of ,god from the creation of the world are clearly seen1 being understood by the things that are made1 even ,his eternal power and ,godhead2 so that they are without excuse1 because1 when they knew ,god1 they glorified ,him not as ,god1 neither were they thankful4 7#if7 ,these words clearly show that everyone can by the light of nature clearly understand the goodness and the eternal divinity of ,god1 and can thence know and deduce what they should seek for and what avoid2 wherefore the ,apostle says that they are without excuse and cannot plead ignorance1 as they certainly might if it were a question of supernatural light and the incarnation1 passion1 and resurrection of ,christ4 7#ig7 ,wherefore1 he goes on to say 7ib4 #bd71 ,god gave them up to uncleanness through the lusts of their own hearts2 and so on1 through the rest of the chapter1 he describes the vices of ignorance1 and sets them forth as the punishment of ignorance4 7#ih7 ,this obviously agrees with the verse of ,solomon1 already quoted1 ,the instruction of fools is folly1 so that it is easy to understand why ,paul says that the wicked are without excuse4 7#ii7 ,as every man sows so shall he reap3 out of evil1 evils necessarily spring1 unless they be wisely counteracted4 7#ajj7 ,thus we see that ,scripture literally approves of the light of natural reason and the natural ,divine law1 and ,i have fulfilled the promises made at the beginning of this chapter4 ,,chapter ,v4 - ,,of ,,the ,,ceremonial ,,law4 7#a7 ,in the foregoing chapter we have shown that the ,divine law1 which renders men truly blessed1 and teaches them the true life1 is universal to all men2 nay1 we have so intimately deduced it from human nature that it must be esteemed innate1 and1 as it were1 ingrained in the human mind4 7#b7 ,but with regard to the ceremonial observances which were ordained in the ,old ,testament for the ,hebrews only1 and were so adapted to their state that they could for the most part only be observed by the society as a whole and not by each individual1 it is evident that they formed no part of the ,divine law1 and had nothing to do with blessedness and virtue1 but had reference only to the election of the ,hebrews1 that is 7as ,i have shown in ,chap4 ,,ii471 to their temporal bodily happiness and the tranquillity of their kingdom1 and that therefore they were only valid while that kingdom lasted4 7#c7 ,if in the ,old ,testament they are spoken of as the law of ,god1 it is only because they were founded on revelation1 or a basis of revelation4 7#d7 ,still as reason1 however sound1 has little weight with ordinary theologians1 ,i will adduce the authority of ,scripture for what ,i here assert1 and will further show1 for the sake of greater clearness1 why and how these ceremonials served to establish and preserve the ,jewish kingdom4 7#e7 ,isaiah teaches most plainly that the ,divine law in its strict sense signifies that universal law which consists in a true manner of life1 and does not signify ceremonial observances4 7#f7 ,in chapter i3#aj1 the prophet calls on his countrymen to hearken to the ,divine law as he delivers it1 and first excluding all kinds of sacrifices and all feasts1 he at length sums up the law in these few words1 ,cease to do evil1 learn to do well3 seek judgment1 relieve the oppressed4 7#g7 ,not less striking testimony is given in ,psalm xl3#g- #i1 where the ,psalmist addresses ,god3 ,sacrifice and offering ,thou didst not desire2 mine ears hast ,thou opened2 burnt offering and sin-offering hast ,thou not required2 ,i delight to do ,thy will1 ,o my ,god2 yea1 ,thy law is within my heart4 7#h7 ,here the ,psalmist reckons as the law of ,god only that which is inscribed in his heart1 and excludes ceremonies therefrom1 for the latter are good and inscribed on the heart only from the fact of their institution1 and not because of their intrinsic value4 7#i7 ,other passages of ,scripture testify to the same truth1 but these two will suffice4 7#aj7 ,we may also learn from the ,bible that ceremonies are no aid to blessedness1 but only have reference to the temporal prosperity of the kingdom2 for the rewards promised for their observance are merely temporal advantages and delights1 blessedness being reserved for the universal ,divine law4 7#aa7 ,in all the five books commonly attributed to ,moses nothing is promised1 as ,i have said1 beyond temporal benefits1 such as honours1 fame1 victories1 riches1 enjoyments1 and health4 7#ab7 ,though many moral precepts besides ceremonies are contained in these five books1 they appear not as moral doctrines universal to all men1 but as commands especially adapted to the understanding and character of the ,hebrew people1 and as having reference only to the welfare of the kingdom4 7#ac7 ,for instance1 ,moses does not teach the ,jews as a prophet not to kill or to steal1 but gives these commandments solely as a lawgiver and judge2 he does not reason out the doctrine1 but affixes for its non-observance a penalty which may and very properly does vary in different nations4 7#ad7 ,so1 too1 the command not to commit adultery is given merely with reference to the welfare of the state2 for if the moral doctrine had been intended1 with reference not only to the welfare of the state1 but also to the tranquillity and blessedness of the individual1 ,moses would have condemned not merely the outward act1 but also the mental acquiescence1 as is done by ,christ1 ,who taught only universal moral precepts1 and for this cause promises a spiritual instead of a temporal reward4 7#ae7 ,christ1 as ,i have said1 was sent into the world1 not to preserve the state nor to lay down laws1 but solely to teach the universal moral law1 so we can easily understand that ,he wished in nowise to do away with the law of ,moses1 inasmuch as ,he introduced no new laws of ,his own - ,his sole care was to teach moral doctrines1 and distinguish them from the laws of the state2 for the ,pharisees1 in their ignorance1 thought that the observance of the state law and the ,mosaic law was the sum total of morality2 whereas such laws merely had reference to the public welfare1 and aimed not so much at instructing the ,jews as at keeping them under constraint4 7#af7 ,but let us return to our subject1 and cite other passages of ,scripture which set forth temporal benefits as rewards for observing the ceremonial law1 and blessedness as reward for the universal law4 7#ag7 ,none of the prophets puts the point more clearly than ,isaiah4 7#ah47 ,after condemning hypocrisy he commends liberty and charity towards one's self and one's neighbours1 and promises as a reward3 ,then shall thy light break forth as the morning1 and thy health shall spring forth speedily1 thy righteousness shall go before thee1 and the glory of the ,lord shall be thy reward 7chap4 lviii3#h74 7#ai7 ,shortly afterwards he commends the ,sabbath1 and for a due observance of it1 promises3 ,then shalt thou delight thyself in the ,lord1 and ,i will cause thee to ride upon the high places of the earth1 and feed thee with the heritage of ,jacob thy father3 for the mouth of the ,lord has spoken it4 7#bj7 ,thus the prophet for liberty bestowed1 and charitable works1 promises a healthy mind in a healthy body1 and the glory of the ,lord even after death2 whereas1 for ceremonial exactitude1 he only promises security of rule1 prosperity1 and temporal happiness4 7#ba7 ,in ,psalms xv4 and xxiv4 no mention is made of ceremonies1 but only of moral doctrines1 inasmuch as there is no question of anything but blessedness1 and blessedness is symbolically promised3 it is quite certain that the expressions1 the hill of ,god1 and ,his tents and the dwellers therein1 refer to blessedness and security of soul1 not to the actual mount of ,jerusalem and the tabernacle of ,moses1 for these latter were not dwelt in by anyone1 and only the sons of ,levi ministered there4 7#bb7 ,further1 all those sentences of ,solomon to which ,i referred in the last chapter1 for the cultivation of the intellect and wisdom1 promise true blessedness1 for by wisdom is the fear of ,god at length understood1 and the knowledge of ,god found4 7#bc7 ,that the ,jews themselves were not bound to practise their ceremonial observances after the destruction of their kingdom is evident from ,jeremiah4 7#bd7 ,for when the prophet saw and foretold that the desolation of the city was at hand1 he said that ,god only delights in those who know and understand that ,he exercises loving-kindness1 judgment1 and righteousness in the earth1 and that such persons only are worthy of praise4 7,jer4 ix3#bc47 7#be7 ,as though ,god had said that1 after the desolation of the city1 ,he would require nothing special from the ,jews beyond the natural law by which all men are bound4 7#bf7 ,the ,new ,testament also confirms this view1 for only moral doctrines are therein taught1 and the kingdom of heaven is promised as a reward1 whereas ceremonial observances are not touched on by the ,apostles1 after they began to preach the ,gospel to the ,gentiles4 7#bg7 ,the ,pharisees certainly continued to practise these rites after the destruction of the kingdom1 but more with a view of opposing the ,christians than of pleasing ,god3 for after the first destruction of the city1 when they were led captive to ,babylon1 not being then1 so far as ,i am aware1 split up into sects1 they straightway neglected their rites1 bid farewell to the ,mosaic law1 buried their national customs in oblivion as being plainly superfluous1 and began to mingle with other nations1 as we may abundantly learn from ,ezra and ,nehemiah4 7#bh7 ,we cannot1 therefore1 doubt that they were no more bound by the law of ,moses1 after the destruction of their kingdom1 than they had been before it had been begun1 while they were still living among other peoples before the exodus from ,egypt1 and were subject to no special law beyond the natural law1 and also1 doubtless1 the law of the state in which they were living1 in so far as it was consonant with the ,divine natural law4 7#bi7 ,as to the fact that the patriarchs offered sacrifices1 ,i think they did so for the purpose of stimulating their piety1 for their minds had been accustomed from childhood to the idea of sacrifice1 which we know had been universal from the time of ,enoch2 and thus they found in sacrifice their most powerful incentive4 7#cj7 ,the patriarchs1 then1 did not sacrifice to ,god at the bidding of a ,divine right1 or as taught by the basis of the ,divine law1 but simply in accordance with the custom of the time2 and1 if in so doing they followed any ordinance1 it was simply the ordinance of the country they were living in1 by which 7as we have seen before in the case of ,melchisedek7 they were bound4 7#ca7 ,i think that ,i have now given ,scriptural authority for my view3 it remains to show why and how the ceremonial observances tended to preserve and confirm the ,hebrew kingdom2 and this ,i can very briefly do on grounds universally accepted4 7#cb7 ,the formation of society serves not only for defensive purposes1 but is also very useful1 and1 indeed1 absolutely necessary1 as rendering possible the division of labour4 7#cc7 ,if men did not render mutual assistance to each other1 no one would have either the skill or the time to provide for his own sustenance and preservation3 for all men are not equally apt for all work1 and no one would be capable of preparing all that he individually stood in need of4 7#cd7 ,strength and time1 ,i repeat1 would fail1 if every one had in person to plough1 to sow1 to reap1 to grind corn1 to cook1 to weave1 to stitch1 and perform the other numerous functions required to keep life going2 to say nothing of the arts and sciences which are also entirely necessary to the perfection and blessedness of human nature4 7#ce7 ,we see that peoples living1 in uncivilized barbarism lead a wretched and almost animal life1 and even they would not be able to acquire their few rude necessaries without assisting one another to a certain extent4 7#cf7 ,now if men were so constituted by nature that they desired nothing but what is designated by true reason1 society would obviously have no need of laws3 it would be sufficient to inculcate true moral doctrines2 and men would freely1 without hesitation1 act in accordance with their true interests4 7#cg7 ,but human nature is framed in a different fashion3 every one1 indeed1 seeks his own interest1 but does not do so in accordance with the dictates of sound reason1 for most men's ideas of desirability and usefulness are guided by their fleshly instincts and emotions1 which take no thought beyond the present and the immediate object4 7#ch7 ,therefore1 no society can exist without government1 and force1 and laws to restrain and repress men's desires and immoderate impulses4 7#ci7 ,still human nature will not submit to absolute repression4 7#dj7 ,violent governments1 as ,seneca says1 never last long2 the moderate governments endure4 7#da7 ,so long as men act simply from fear they act contrary to their inclinations1 taking no thought for the advantages or necessity of their actions1 but simply endeavouring to escape punishment or loss of life4 7#db7 ,they must needs rejoice in any evil which befalls their ruler1 even if it should involve themselves2 and must long for and bring about such evil by every means in their power4 7#dc7 ,again1 men are especially intolerant of serving and being ruled by their equals4 7#dd7 ,lastly1 it is exceedingly difficult to revoke liberties once granted4 7#de7 ,from these considerations it follows1 firstly1 that authority should either be vested in the hands of the whole state in common1 so that everyone should be bound to serve1 and yet not be in subjection to his equals2 or else1 if power be in the hands of a few1 or one man1 that one man should be something above average humanity1 or should strive to get himself accepted as such4 7#df7 ,secondly1 laws should in every government be so arranged that people should be kept in bounds by the hope of some greatly desired good1 rather than by fear1 for then everyone will do his duty willingly4 7#dg7 ,lastly1 as obedience consists in acting at the bidding of external authority1 it would have no place in a state where the government is vested in the whole people1 and where laws are made by common consent4 7#dh7 ,in such a society the people would remain free1 whether the laws were added to or diminished1 inasmuch as it would not be done on external authority1 but their own free consent4 7#di7 ,the reverse happens when the sovereign power is vested in one man1 for all act at his bidding2 and1 therefore1 unless they had been trained from the first to depend on the words of their ruler1 the latter would find it difficult1 in case of need1 to abrogate liberties once conceded1 and impose new laws4 7#ej7 ,from these universal considerations1 let us pass on to the kingdom of the ,jews4 7#ea7 ,the ,jews when they first came out of ,egypt were not bound by any national laws1 and were therefore free to ratify any laws they liked1 or to make new ones1 and were at liberty to set up a government and occupy a territory wherever they chose4 7#eb7 ,however1 they1 were entirely unfit to frame a wise code of laws and to keep the sovereign power vested in the community2 they were all uncultivated and sunk in a wretched slavery1 therefore the sovereignty was bound to remain vested in the hands of one man who would rule the rest and keep them under constraint1 make laws and interpret them4 7#ec7 ,this sovereignty was easily retained by ,moses1 because he surpassed the rest in virtue and persuaded the people of the fact1 proving it by many testimonies 7see ,exod4 chap4 xiv41 last verse1 and chap4 xix3#i74 7#ed7 ,he then1 by the ,divine virtue he possessed1 made laws and ordained them for the people1 taking the greatest care that they should be obeyed willingly and not through fear1 being specially induced to adopt this course by the obstinate nature of the ,jews1 who would not have submitted to be ruled solely by constraint2 and also by the imminence of war1 for it is always better to inspire soldiers with a thirst for glory than to terrify them with threats2 each man will then strive to distinguish himself by valour and courage1 instead of merely trying to escape punishment4 7#ee7 ,moses1 therefore1 by his virtue and the ,divine command1 introduced a religion1 so that the people might do their duty from devotion rather than fear4 7#ef7 ,further1 he bound them over by benefits1 and prophesied many advantages in the future2 nor were his laws very severe1 as anyone may see for himself1 especially if he remarks the number of circumstances necessary in order to procure the conviction of an accused person4 7#eg7 ,lastly1 in order that the people which could not govern itself should be entirely dependent on its ruler1 he left nothing to the free choice of individuals 7who had hitherto been slaves72 the people could do nothing but remember the law1 and follow the ordinances laid down at the good pleasure of their ruler2 they were not allowed to plough1 to sow1 to reap1 nor even to eat2 to clothe themselves1 to shave1 to rejoice1 or in fact to do anything whatever as they liked1 but were bound to follow the directions given in the law2 and not only this1 but they were obliged to have marks on their door-posts1 on their hands1 and between their eyes to admonish them to perpetual obedience4 7#eh7 ,this1 then1 was the object of the ceremonial law1 that men should do nothing of their own free will1 but should always act under external authority1 and should continually confess by their actions and thoughts that they were not their own masters1 but were entirely under the control of others4 7#ei7 ,from all these considerations it is clearer than day that ceremonies have nothing to do with a state of blessedness1 and that those mentioned in the ,old ,testament1 i4e4 the whole ,mosaic ,law1 had reference merely to the government of the ,jews1 and merely temporal advantages4 7#fj7 ,as for the ,christian rites1 such as baptism1 the ,lord's ,supper1 festivals1 public prayers1 and any other observances which are1 and always have been1 common to all ,christendom1 if they were instituted by ,christ or ,his ,apostles 7which is open to doubt71 they were instituted as external signs of the universal church1 and not as having anything to do with blessedness1 or possessing any sanctity in themselves4 7#fa7 ,therefore1 though such ceremonies were not ordained for the sake of upholding a government1 they were ordained for the preservation of a society1 and accordingly he who lives alone is not bound by them3 nay1 those who live in a country where the ,christian religion is forbidden1 are bound to abstain from such rites1 and can none the less live in a state of blessedness4 7#fb7 ,we have an example of this in ,japan1 where the ,christian religion is forbidden1 and the ,dutch who live there are enjoined by their ,east ,india ,company not to practise any outward rites of religion4 7#fc7 ,i need not cite other examples1 though it would be easy to prove my point from the fundamental principles of the ,new ,testament1 and to adduce many confirmatory instances2 but ,i pass on the more willingly1 as ,i am anxious to proceed to my next proposition4 7#fd7 ,i will now1 therefore1 pass on to what ,i proposed to treat of in the second part of this chapter1 namely1 what persons are bound to believe in the narratives contained in ,scripture1 and how far they are so bound4 7#fe7 ,examining this question by the aid of natural reason1 ,i will proceed as follows4 7#ff7 ,if anyone wishes to persuade his fellows for or against anything which is not self-evident1 he must deduce his contention from their admissions1 and convince them either by experience or by ratiocination2 either by appealing to facts of natural experience1 or to self-evident intellectual axioms4 7#fg7 ,now unless the experience be of such a kind as to be clearly and distinctly understood1 though it may convince a man1 it will not have the same effect on his mind and disperse the clouds of his doubt so completely as when the doctrine taught is deduced entirely from intellectual axioms - that is1 by the mere power of the understanding and logical order1 and this is especially the case in spiritual matters which have nothing to do with the senses4 7#fh7 ,but the deduction of conclusions from general truths a priori1 usually requires a long chain of arguments1 and1 moreover1 very great caution1 acuteness1 and self-restraint - qualities which are not often met with2 therefore people prefer to be taught by experience rather than deduce their conclusion from a few axioms1 and set them out in logical order4 7#fi7 ,whence it follows1 that if anyone wishes to teach a doctrine to a whole nation 7not to speak of the whole human race71 and to be understood by all men in every particular1 he will seek to support his teaching with experience1 and will endeavour to suit his reasonings and the definitions of his doctrines as far as possible to the understanding of the common people1 who form the majority of mankind1 and he will not set them forth in logical sequence nor adduce the definitions which serve to establish them4 7#gj7 ,otherwise he writes only for the learned - that is1 he will be understood by only a small proportion of the human race4 7#ga7 ,all ,scripture was written primarily for an entire people1 and secondarily for the whole human race2 therefore its contents must necessarily be adapted as far as possible to the understanding of the masses1 and proved only by examples drawn from experience4 7#gb7 ,we will explain ourselves more clearly4 7#gc7 ,the chief speculative doctrines taught in ,scripture are the existence of ,god1 or a ,being ,who made all things1 and ,who directs and sustains the world with consummate wisdom2 furthermore1 that ,god takes the greatest thought for men1 or such of them as live piously and honourably1 while ,he punishes1 with various penalties1 those who do evil1 separating them from the good4 7#gd7 ,all this is proved in ,scripture entirely through experience-that is1 through the narratives there related4 7#ge7 ,no definitions of doctrine are given1 but all the sayings and reasonings are adapted to the understanding of the masses4 7#gf7 ,although experience can give no clear knowledge of these things1 nor explain the nature of ,god1 nor how ,he directs and sustains all things1 it can nevertheless teach and enlighten men sufficiently to impress obedience and devotion on their minds4 7#gg7 ,it is now1 ,i think1 sufficiently clear what persons are bound to believe in the ,scripture narratives1 and in what degree they are so bound1 for it evidently follows from what has been said that the knowledge of and belief in them is particularly necessary to the masses whose intellect is not capable of perceiving things clearly and distinctly4 7#gh7 ,further1 he who denies them because he does not believe that ,god exists or takes thought for men and the world1 may be accounted impious2 but a man who is ignorant of them1 and nevertheless knows by natural reason that ,god exists1 as we have said1 and has a true plan of life1 is altogether blessed - yes1 more blessed than the common herd of believers1 because besides true opinions he possesses also a true and distinct conception4 7#gi7 ,lastly1 he who is ignorant of the ,scriptures and knows nothing by the light of reason1 though he may not be impious or rebellious1 is yet less than human and almost brutal1 having none of ,god's gifts4 7#hj7 ,we must here remark that when we say that the knowledge of the sacred narrative is particularly necessary to the masses1 we do not mean the knowledge of absolutely all the narratives in the ,bible1 but only of the principal ones1 those which1 taken by themselves1 plainly display the doctrine we have just stated1 and have most effect over men's minds4 7#ha7 ,if all the narratives in ,scripture were necessary for the proof of this doctrine1 and if no conclusion could be drawn without the general consideration of every one of the histories contained in the sacred writings1 truly the conclusion and demonstration of such doctrine would overtask the understanding and strength not only of the masses1 but of humanity2 who is there who could give attention to all the narratives at once1 and to all the circumstances1 and all the scraps of doctrine to be elicited from such a host of diverse histories8 7#hb7 ,i cannot believe that the men who have left us the ,bible as we have it were so abounding in talent that they attempted setting about such a method of demonstration1 still less can ,i suppose that we cannot understand ,scriptural doctrine till we have given heed to the quarrels of ,isaac1 the advice of ,achitophel to ,absalom1 the civil war between ,jews and ,israelites1 and other similar chronicles2 nor can ,i think that it was more difficult to teach such doctrine by means of history to the ,jews of early times1 the contemporaries of ,moses1 than it was to the contemporaries of ,esdras4 7#hc7 ,but more will be said on this point hereafter1 we may now only note that the masses are only bound to know those histories which can most powerfully dispose their mind to obedience and devotion4 7#hd7 ,however1 the masses are not sufficiently skilled to draw conclusions from what they read1 they take more delight in the actual stories1 and in the strange and unlooked-for issues of events than in the doctrines implied2 therefore1 besides reading these narratives1 they are always in need of pastors or church ministers to explain them to their feeble intelligence4 7#he7 ,but not to wander from our point1 let us conclude with what has been our principal object - namely1 that the truth of narratives1 be they what they may1 has nothing to do with the ,divine law1 and serves for nothing except in respect of doctrine1 the sole element which makes one history better than another4 7#hf7 ,the narratives in the ,old and ,new ,testaments surpass profane history1 and differ among themselves in merit simply by reason of the salutary doctrines which they inculcate4 7#hg7 ,therefore1 if a man were to read the ,scripture narratives believing the whole of them1 but were to give no heed to the doctrines they contain1 and make no amendment in his life1 he might employ himself just as profitably in reading the ,koran or the poetic drama1 or ordinary chronicles1 with the attention usually given to such writings2 on the other hand1 if a man is absolutely ignorant of the ,scriptures1 and none the less has right opinions and a true plan of life1 he is absolutely blessed and truly possesses in himself the spirit of ,christ4 7#hh7 ,the ,jews are of a directly contrary way of thinking1 for they hold that true opinions and a true plan of life are of no service in attaining blessedness1 if their possessors have arrived at them by the light of reason only1 and not like the documents prophetically revealed to ,moses4 7#hi7 ,maimonides ventures openly to make this assertion3 ,every man who takes to heart the seven precepts and diligently follows them1 is counted with the pious among the nation1 and an heir of the world to come2 that is to say1 if he takes to heart and follows them because ,god ordained them in the law1 and revealed them to us by ,moses1 because they were of aforetime precepts to the sons of ,noah3 but he who follows them as led thereto by reason1 is not counted as a dweller among the pious or among the wise of the nations4 7#ij7 ,such are the words ,of ,maimonides1 to which ,r4 ,joseph1 the son of ,shem ,job1 adds in his book which he calls ,kebod ,elohim1 or ,god's ,glory1 that although ,aristotle 7whom he considers to have written the best ethics and to be above everyone else7 has not omitted anything that concerns true ethics1 and which he has adopted in his own book1 carefully following the lines laid down1 yet this was not able to suffice for his salvation1 inasmuch as he embraced his doctrines in accordance with the dictates of reason and not as ,divine documents prophetically revealed4 7#ia7 ,however1 that these are mere figments1 and are not supported by ,scriptural authority will1 ,i think1 be sufficiently evident to the attentive reader1 so that an examination of the theory will be sufficient for its refutation4 7#ib7 ,it is not my purpose here to refute the assertions of those who assert that the natural light of reason can teach nothing1 of any value concerning the true way of salvation4 7#ic7 ,people who lay no claims to reason for themselves1 are not able to prove by reason this their assertion2 and if they hawk about something superior to reason1 it is a mere figment1 and far below reason1 as their general method of life sufficiently shows4 7#id7 ,but there is no need to dwell upon such persons4 7#ie7 ,i will merely add that we can only judge of a man by his works4 7#if7 ,if a man abounds in the fruits of the ,spirit1 charity1 joy1 peace1 long-suffering1 kindness1 goodness1 faith1 gentleness1 chastity1 against which1 as ,paul says 7,gal4 v3#bb71 there is no law1 such an one1 whether he be taught by reason only or by the ,scripture only1 has been in very truth taught by ,god1 and is altogether blessed4 7#ig7 ,thus have ,i said all that ,i undertook to say concerning ,divine law4 ,end of ,part #a ,,author',s ,,endnotes ,,to ,,the ,,theologico-,,political ,,treatise ,,chapters ,i to ,v ,chapter ,i ,endnote #a4 7#a7 ,the word nabi is rightly interpreted by ,rabbi ,salomon ,jarchi1 but the sense is hardly caught by ,aben ,ezra1 who was not so good a ,hebraist4 7#b7 ,we must also remark that this ,hebrew word for prophecy has a universal meaning and embraces all kinds of prophecy4 7#c7 ,other terms are more special1 and denote this or that sort of prophecy1 as ,i believe is well known to the learned4 ,endnote #b4 7#a7 ,although1 ordinary knowledge is ,divine1 its professors cannot be called prophets4 ,that is1 interpreters of ,god4 7#b7 ,for he alone is an interpreter of ,god1 who interprets the decrees which ,god has revealed to him1 to others who have not received such revelation1 and whose belief1 therefore1 rests merely on the prophet's authority and the confidence reposed in him4 7#c7 ,if it were otherwise1 and all who listen to prophets became prophets themselves1 as all who listen to philosophers become philosophers1 a prophet would no longer be the interpreter of ,divine decrees1 inasmuch as his hearers would know the truth1 not on the authority of the prophet1 but by means of actual ,divine revelation and inward testimony4 7#d7 ,thus the sovereign powers are the interpreters of their own rights of sway1 because these are defended only by their authority and supported by their testimony4 ,endnote #c4 7#a7 ,prophets were endowed with a peculiar and extraordinary power4 7#b7 ,though some men enjoy gifts which nature has not bestowed on their fellows1 they are not said to surpass the bounds of human nature1 unless their special qualities are such as cannot be said to be deducible from the definition of human nature4 7#c7 ,for instance1 a giant is a rarity1 but still human4 7#d7 ,the gift of composing poetry extempore is given to very few1 yet it is human4 7#e7 ,the same may1 therefore1 be said of the faculty possessed by some of imagining things as vividly as though they saw them before them1 and this not while asleep1 but while awake4 7#f7 ,but if anyone could be found who possessed other means and other foundations for knowledge1 he might be said to transcend the limits of human nature4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,endnote #d4 7#a7 ,in ,gen4 xv4 it is written that ,god promised ,abraham to protect him1 and to grant him ample rewards4 7#b7 ,abraham answered that he could expect nothing which could be of any value to him1 as he was childless and well stricken in years4 ,endnote #e4 7#a7 ,that a keeping of the commandments of the old ,testament is not sufficient for eternal life1 appears from ,mark x3#ba4 ,end of ,endnotes to ,,part ,i