,ver4#jd4bi4ic99;,,end99 ,scanned by ,charles ,keller with ,omni,page ,professional ,,ocr ,,note3 degrees ,a 7,absolute87 is the same as the current degrees ,k 7,kelvin74 ,,the ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly ,,volume ,,lxxxvi ,,july ,,to ,,september1 #aiae ,,the ,,scientific ,,monthly ,,volume ,i ,,october ,,to ,,december1 #aiae ,,edited ,,by ,j4 ,mc,k,e,e,n ,,cattell ,,the ,,scientific ,,monthly ------ ,,october1 #aiae ------------- ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,stars ,,and ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,earth4 ,,ii ,,by ,,dr4 ,,william ,,wallace ,,campbell ,,director ,,of ,,the ,,lick ,,observatory1 ,,university ,,of ,,california ,,the ,,principles ,,of ,,spectroscopy ,,thus far our description of the stellar universe has been confined to its geometrical properties4 ,a serious study of the evolution of the stars must seek to determine1 first of all1 what the stars really are1 what their chemical constitutions and physical conditions are2 and how they are related to each other as to their physical properties4 ,the application of the spectroscope has advanced our knowledge of the subject by leaps and bounds4 ,this wonderful instrument1 assisted by the photographic plate1 enables every visible celestial body to write its own record of the conditions existing in itself1 within limits set principally by the brightness of the body4 ,such records physicists have succeeded to some extent in duplicating in their laboratories2 and the known conditions under which the laboratory experiments have been conducted are the ,rosetta ,stones which are enabling us to interpret1 with more or less success1 the records written by the stars4 ,it is well known that the ordinary image of a star1 whether formed by the eye alone1 or by the achromatic telescope and the eye combined1 contains light of an infinite variety of colors corresponding1 speaking according to the mechanical theory of light1 to waves of energy of an infinite variety of lengths which have traveled to us from the star4 ,in the point image of a star1 these radiations fall in a confused heap4 and the observer is unable to say that radiations corresponding to any given wave-lengths are present or absent4 ,when the star's light has been passed through the prism1 or diffracted from the grating of a spectroscope1 these rays are separated one from another and arranged side by side in perfect order1 ready for the observer to survey them and to determine which ones are present in superabundance and which other ones are lacking wholly or in part4 ,the following comparison is a fair one3 the ordinary point image of a star is as if all the books in the university library were thrown together in a disorderly but compact pile in the center of the reading room3 we could say little concerning the contents and characteristics of that library2 whether it is strong in certain fields of human endeavor1 or weak in other fields4 ,the spectrum of a star is as the same library when the books are arranged on the shelves in complete perfection and simplicity1 so that he who looks may appraise its contents at any or all points4 ,let us consider the fundamental principles of spectroscopy4 #a4 ,when a solid body1 a liquid1 or a highly-condensed gas is heated to incandescence1 its light when passed through a spectroscope forms a continuous spectrum3 that is1 a band of light1 red at one end and violet at the other1 uninterrupted by either dark or bright lines4 #b4 ,the light from the incandescent gas or vapor of a chemical element1 passed through a spectroscope1 forms a bright-line spectrum2 that is1 one consisting entirely of isolated bright lines1 distributed differently throughout the spectrum for the different elements1 or of bright lines superimposed upon a relatively faint continuous spectrum4 #c4 ,if radiations from a continuous-spectrum source pass through cooler gases or vapors before entering the spectroscope1 a dark-line spectrum results3 that is1 the positions which the bright lines in the spectra of the vapors and gases would have are occupied by dark or absorption lines4 ,these are frequently spoken of as ,fraunhofer lines4 ,to illustrate3 the gases and vapors forming the outer strata of the ,sun's atmosphere would in themselves produce bright-line spectra of the elements involved4 ,if these gases and vapors could in effect be removed1 without changing underlying conditions1 the remaining condensed body of the ,sun should have a continuous spectrum4 ,the cooler overlying gases and vapors absorb those radiations from the deeper and hotter sources which the gases and vapors would themselves emit1 and thus form the dark-line spectrum of the ,sun4 ,the stretches of spectrum between the dark lines are of course continuous-spectrum radiations4 ,these principles are illustrated in ,fig4 #ab4 ,the essential parts of a spectroscope are the slit--an opening perhaps #a_/ajjth of an inch wide and #a_/ajth of an inch long--to admit the light properly2 a lens to render the light rays parallel before they fall upon the prism or grating2 a prism or grating2 a lens to receive the rays after they have been dispersed by the prism or grating and to form an image of the spectrum a short distance in front of the eye1 where the eye will see the spectrum or a sensitive dry-plate will photograph it4 ,if we place an alcohol lamp immediately in front of the slit and sprinkle some common salt in the flame the two orange bright lines of sodium will be seen in the eyepiece1 close together1 as in the upper of the two spectra in the illustration4 ,if we sprinkle thallium salt in the flame the green line of that element will be visible in the spectrum4 ,if we take the lamp away and place a lime light or a piece of white-hot iron in front of the slit we shall get a brilliant continuous spectrum not crossed by any lines1 either bright or dark4 ,insert now the alcohol-sodium-thallium lamp between the lime light and the slit1 and the observer will see the two sodium lines and one thallium line in the same places as before1 but as dark lines on a background of bright continuous spectrum1 as3 illustrated in the lower of the two spectra4 ,let us insert a screen between the lamp and the lime light so as to cut out the latter1 and we shall see the bright lines of sodium and thallium reappear as in the upper of the two spectra4 ,these simple facts illustrate ,kirchhoff's immortal discovery of certain fundamental principles of spectroscopy1 in #ahei4 ,the gases and vapors in the lamp flame are at a lower temperature than the lime source4 ,the cooler vapors of sodium and thallium have the power of absorbing exactly those rays from the hotter lime or other similar source which the vapors by themselves would emit to form bright lines4 ,when we apply the spectroscope to celestial objects we find apparently an endless variety of spectra4 ,we shall illustrate some of the leading characteristics of these spectra as in ,figs4 #ac to #ah1 inclusive1 and ,figs4 #ba1 #bb1 #bc and #bd4 ,the spectra of some nebulae consist almost exclusively of isolated bright lines1 indicating that these bodies consist of luminous gases1 as ,huggins determined in #ahfd2 but a very faint continuous band of light frequently forms a background for the brilliant bright lines4 ,many of the nebular lines are due to hydrogen1 others are due to helium2 but the majority1 including the two on the extreme right in ,fig4 #ac1 which we attribute to the hypothetical element nebulium1 and the close pair on the extreme left1 have not been matched in our laboratories and1 therefore1 are of unknown origin4 ,most of the irregular nebulae whose spectra have been observed1 the ring nebulae1 the planetary and stellar nebulae1 have very similar spectra1 though with many differences in the details4#a #a ,my colleague1 ,wright1 who has been making a study of the nebular spectra1 has determined the accurate positions of about #fg bright nebular lines4 ,the great spiral nebula in ,andromeda has a continuous spectrum crossed by a multitude of absorption lines4 ,the spectrum is a very close approach to the spectrum of our ,sun4 ,it is clear that this spiral nebula is widely different from the bright-line or gaseous nebulae in physical condition4 ,the spiral may be a great cluster of stars which are approximate duplicates of our ,sun1 or there is a chance that it consists1 as ,slipher has suggested1 of a great central sun1 or group of suns1 and of a multitude of small bodies or particles1 such as meteoric matter1 revolving around the nucleus2 this finely divided matter being visible by reflected light which originates in the center of the system4 ,there is an occasional star1 like chi ,carinae1 whose spectrum consists almost wholly of bright lines1 in general bearing no apparent relationship to the bright lines in the spectra of the gaseous nebulae except that the hydrogen lines are there1 as they are almost everywhere4 ,there is reason to believe that such a spectrum indicates the existence of a very extensive and very hot atmosphere surrounding the main body1 or core1 of the star in question4 ,this particular star is remarkable in that it has undergone great changes in brilliancy and is located upon a background of nebulosity4 ,the chances are strong that the star has rushed through the nebulosity with high rate of speed and that the resulting bombardment of the star has expanded and intensely heated its atmosphere4 ,there are the ,wolf-,rayet stars1 named from the ,french astronomers who discovered the first three of this class1 whose spectra show a great variety of combinations of continuous spectrum and bright bands4 ,we believe that the continuous spectrum in such a star comes from the more condensed central part1 or core1 and that the bright-line light proceeds from a hot atmosphere extending far out from the core4 ,the great majority of the stars have spectra which are continuous1 except for the presence of dark or absorption lines3 a few lines in the very blue stars1 and an increasing number of lines as we pass from the blue through the yellow and red stars to those which are extremely red4 ,secchi in the late #fj's classified the spectra of the brighter stars1 according to the absorption lines in their spectra1 into ,types ,i1 ,,ii ,,iii and ,,iv1 which correspond3 ,type ,i1 to the very blue stars1 such as ,spica and ,sirius2 ,type ,,ii1 to the yellow stars similar to our ,sun2 ,type ,,iii1 to the red stars such as ,aldebaran2 and ,type ,,iv1 to the extremely red stars1 of which the brightest representatives are near the limit of naked-eye vision4 ,secchi knew little or nothing concerning stars whose spectra contain bright lines1 except as to the isolated bright-line spectra of a few nebulae1 and as to the bright hydrogen lines in gamma ,cassiopeia1 and his system did not include these4 ,one of the most comprehensive investigations ever undertaken by a single institution was that of classifying the stars as to their spectra1 over the entire sky1 substantially down to and including the stars of eighth magnitude1 by the ,harvard ,college ,observatory1 as a memorial to the lamented ,henry ,draper4 ,professor ,pickering and his associates have formulated a classification system which is now in universal use4 ,it starts with the bright-line nebulae1 passes to the bright-line stars1 and then to the stars in which the helium absorption lines are prominent4 ,the latter are called the helium stars1 or technically the ,class ,b stars4 ,the next main division includes the stars in which hydrogen absorption is prominent1 called ,class ,a4 ,classes ,b and ,a are blue stars4 ,then follows in succession ,class ,f1 composed of bluish-yellow stars1 which is in a sense a transition class between the hydrogen stars and those resembling our ,sun1 the latter called ,class ,g4 ,the ,class ,g stars are yellow4 ,class ,k stars are the yellowish-red2 ,class ,m1 the red2 and ,class ,n1 the extremely red4 ,each of these classes has several subdivisions which make the transition from one main class to the next main class fairly gradual1 and not per saltum2 though it should be said that the relationship of ,class ,n to ,class ,m spectra is not clear4 ,the illustration1 ,fig4 #ag1 brings out the principal features of the spectra of ,classes ,b to ,m4 ,the spectrum becomes more complicated as we pass from ,class ,b to the ,class ,m1 and the color changes from blue to extreme red1 because the violet and blue radiations become rapidly weaker as we pass through the various classes4 ,,general ,,course ,,of ,,evolutionary ,,process ,the general course of the evolutionary processes as applied to the principal classes of celestial bodies is thought to be fairly well known4 ,with very few exceptions astronomers are agreed as to the main trend of this order1 but this must not be interpreted to mean that there are no outstanding differences of opinion4 ,there are1 in fact1 some items of knowledge which seem to run counter to every order of evolution that has been proposed4 ,the large irregular nebulae1 such as the great nebula in ,orion1 the ,trifid nebula1 and the background of nebulosity which embraces a large part of the constellation of ,orion1 are thought to represent the earliest form of inorganic life known to us4 ,the material appears to be in a chaotic state4 ,there is no suggestion of order or system4 ,the spectroscope shows that in many cases the substance consists of glowing gases or vapors2 but whether they are glowing from the incandescence resulting from high temperature1 or electrical condition1 or otherwise1 is unknown1 though heat origin of their light is the simplest hypothesis now available4 ,whether such nebulae are originally hot or cold1 we must believe that they are endowed with gravitational power1 and that their molecules or particles are1 or will ultimately be1 in motion4 ,it will happen that there are regions of greater density1 or nuclei1 here and there throughout the structure which will act as centers of condensation1 drawing surrounding materials into combination with them4 ,the processes of growth from nuclei originally small to volumes and masses ultimately stupendous must be slow at first1 relatively more rapid after the masses have grown to moderate dimensions and the supplies of outlying materials are still plentiful1 and again slow after the supplies shall have been largely exhausted4 ,by virtue of motions prevailing within the original nebular structure1 or because of inrushing materials which strike the central masses1 not centrally but obliquely1 low rotations of the condensed nebulous masses will occur4 ,stupendous quantities of heat will be generated in the building-up process4 ,this heat will radiate rapidly into space because the gaseous masses are highly rarefied and their radiating surfaces are large in proportion to the masses4 ,with loss of heat the nebulous masses will contract in volume and gradually assume forms more and more spherical4 ,when the forms become approximately spherical1 the first stage of stellar life may be said to have been reached4 ,it was ,herschel's belief that by processes of condensation1 following the loss of heat by radiation into surrounding space1 formless nebulae gravitated into nebula of smaller and smaller volumes until finally the planetary form was reached1 and that planetaries were the ancestors of stars in general4 ,that the planetaries do develop into stars1 we have every reason to believe2 but that all nebulae1 or relatively many nebulae1 pass through the planetary stage1 or that many of our stars have developed from planetaries1 we shall later find good reason for doubting4 ,the probabilities are immensely stronger that the stars in general have been formed directly from the irregular nebulae1 without the intervention of the planetaries4 ,the planetary nebula seem to be exceptional cases1 but to this point we shall return later4 ,it is quite possible1 and even probable1 that gaseous masses have not in all cases passed directly to the stellar state4 ,the materials in a gaseous nebula may be so highly attenuated1 or be distributed so irregularly throughout a vast volume of space1 that they will condense into solids1 small meteoric particles for example1 before they combine to form stars4 ,such masses or clouds of non-shining or invisible matter are thought to exist in considerable profusion within the stellar system4 ,the nebulosity connected more or less closely with the brighter ,pleiades stars may be a case in illustration4 ,slipher has recently found that the spectra of two small regions observed in this nebula are continuous1 with absorption lines of hydrogen and helium4 ,this spectrum is apparently the same as that of the bright ,pleiades stars4 ,slipher's interpretation is that the nebula is not shining by its own light1 but is reflecting to us the light of the ,pleiades stars4 ,that this material will eventually be drawn into the stars already existing in the neighborhood1 or be condensed into new centers and form other stars1 we can scarcely doubt4 ,the condensation of such materials to form stars large enough to be seen from the great distance of the ,pleiades cluster must generate heat in the process1 and cause these stars in their earliest youth to be substantially as hot as other stars formed directly from gaseous materials4 ,it is possible1 also1 that the spiral nebulae will develop into stars1 perhaps each such object into many1 or some of the larger ones into multitudes1 of stars4 ,let us attempt to visualize the conditions which we think exist in a newly-formed star of average mass4 ,it should be essentially spherical1 with surface fairly sharply defined4 ,our ,sun has average specific gravity of #a4d1 as compared with that of water4 ,the average density of the very young star must certainly be vastly lower2 perhaps no greater than the density of our atmosphere at the ,earth's surface2 it may even be considerably lower than this estimate4 ,the diameter of our ,sun is #a1djj1jjj kilometers4 ,the diameter of the average young star may be ten or twenty or forty times as great4 ,the central volume or core of the star is undoubtedly a great deal denser than the surface strata1 on account of pressure due to the star's own gravitational forces4 ,the conditions in the outer strata should bear some resemblance to those existing in the gaseous nebula4 ,the star may or may not have a corona closely or remotely similar to our ,sun's corona4 ,the deep interior of the star must be very hot1 though not nearly so hot as the interiors of older stars2 but the surface strata of the young star should be remarkably hot2 for1 being composed of highly attenuated gases1 any lowering of the temperature by radiation into surrounding space will be compensated promptly through the medium of highly-heated convection currents which can travel more rapidly from the interior to the surface than in the case of stars in middle or old age4 ,even though the star1 as observed in our most powerful telescopes1 is a point of light1 without apparent diameter1 its outer strata should supply some bright lines in the spectrum1 because these strata project out beyond what we may call the core of the star and themselves act as sources of light4 ,the spectrum should1 therefore1 consist of some of the bright lines which were observed in the nebular spectrum1 these proceeding from the outer strata of the star2 and of a continuous spectrum made up of radiations proceeding from the deeper strata or core of the star1 in which a few dark lines may be introduced by the absorption from those parts of the outer gaseous strata which lie between us and the core4 ,a few hundred stellar spectra resembling this description are well known1 discovered mostly at the ,harvard ,observatory4 ,their details differ greatly1 but they have certain features in common4 ,the bright lines of helium are extremely rare in stars1 but they have been observed in a few stellar spectra4 ,the bright lines of nebulium have never been observed in a true star3 they and the radiations in the ultra-violet known as at #cgbf;,a1 seem to be confined to the nebular state2 and the absorption lines of nebulium have never been observed in any spectrum4 ,as soon as the stellar state is reached nebulium is no longer in evidence4 ,stellar spectra containing bright lines seem always to include hydrogen bright lines4 ,this is as we should expect2 hydrogen is the lightest known gas1 and it is probably the substance which can best exist in the outer strata of stars in general4 ,the extensive outer strata of very young stars seem to be composed largely of hydrogen1 though other elements are in some cases present1 as indicated by the weaker bright lines in a few cases4 ,this preference of hydrogen for the outermost strata is illustrated by several very interesting observations of the nebulae4 ,the nebulium lines are relatively strong in the central denser parts of the ,orion and ,trifid nebulae1 but the hydrogen bright-lines are relatively very strong in the faint outlying parts of these nebulae4 ,the planetary nebula ,b4,d4--#ab degrees4#aagb is seen in the ordinary telescope to consist of a circular disc 7probably a sphere or spheroid7 of light and a faint star in its center4 ,when this nebula is observed with a slitless spectrograph the hydrogen and nebulium components are seen as circular discs1 but the hydrogen discs are larger than the nebulium discs4 ,in other words1 the hydrogen forms an atmosphere about the central star which extends out into space in all directions a great deal farther than the nebulium discs extend4 ,the ,wolf-,rayet star-planetary nebula ,d4 ,m4 #cj degrees4#cfci looks hazy in a powerful telescope1 and when examined in a spectroscope the haziness is seen to be due to a sharply defined globe of hydrogen #e seconds of arc in diameter surrounding the star in its center4 ,wolf and ,burns have shown that in the ,ring ,nebula in ,lyra the #cgbf;,a and the hydrogen images are larger as to outer diameter than the nebulium images1 but that the latter are the more condensed on the inner edge of the ring4 ,wright has in the present year examined these and other nebulae with special reference to the distribution of the principal ingredients4 ,he finds in general that the radiations at #dcfc;,a and #dfhf;,a1 of unknown or possibly helium origin1 are most closely compressed around the central nuclei of nebulae2 that the matter definitely known to be helium is more extended in size2 that the nebulium structure is still larger2 and that the hydrogen uniformly extends out farther than the nebulium2 and that the ultra violet radiation at #cgbf;,a seems to proceed from the largest volume of all4 ,the #cggbf;,a line1 like the nebulium line1 is unknown in stellar spectra2 it seems also to be confined to true nebulosity4 ,neglecting the elements which have never been observed in true stars1 we may say that all these observations are in harmony with the view that hydrogen should be and is the principal element in the outer stratum of the very young star4 ,a few of the stars whose spectra contain bright hydrogen lines have also a number of bright lines whose chemical origin is not known4 ,they appear to exist exactly at this state of stellar life3 several of them have not been found in the spectra of the gaseous nebulae1 and they are not represented in the later types of stellar spectra4 ,the strata which produce these bright lines are thought to be a little deeper in the stars than the outer hydrogen stratum4 ,a slightly older stage of stellar existence is indicated by the type of spectrum in which some of the lines of hydrogen1 always those at the violet end1 are dark1 and the remaining hydrogen lines1 always those toward the red end1 are bright4 ,the brightest star in the ,pleiades group1 ,alcyone1 presents apparently the last of this series1 for all of the hydrogen lines are dark except ,h alpha1 in the red4 ,in some of the bright-line stars which we have described1 technically known as ,oe#e1 ,harvard ,college ,observatory found that the dark helium and hydrogen lines exist1 and apparently increase in intensity1 on the average1 as the bright lines become fainter4 ,wright has observed the absorption lines of helium and hydrogen in the spectra of the nuclei of some planetary nebulae1 although the helium and hydrogen lines are bright in the nebulosity surrounding the nuclei4 ,we may say that when all of the bright lines have disappeared from the spectra of stars1 the helium lines1 and likewise the hydrogen lines1 have in general become fairly conspicuous4 ,these stars are known as the helium stars1 or stars of ,class ,b4 ,proceeding through the subdivisions of ,class ,b1 the helium lines increase to a maximum of intensity and then decrease4 ,the dark hydrogen lines are more and more in evidence1 with intensities increasing slowly4 ,in the middle and later subdivisions of the helium stars silicon1 oxygen and nitrogen are usually represented by a few absorption lines4 ,just as the gaseous nebulae radiate heat into space and condense1 so must the stars1 with this difference3 the nebulae are highly rarified bodies1 with surfaces enormously large in proportion to the heat contents2 and the radiation from them must be relatively rapid4 ,in fact1 some of the nebulae seem to be so highly rarified that radiation may take place from their interiors almost as well as from their surfaces4 ,the radiation from a star just formed must occur at a much slower rate4 ,the continued condensation of the star1 following the loss of heat1 must lead to a change of physical condition1 which will be apparent in the spectrum4 ,it should pass from the so-called helium group1 to the hydrogen1 or ,class ,a group1 not suddenly but by insensible gradations of spectrum4 ,in the ,class ,a stars the hydrogen lines are the most prominent features4 ,the helium lines have disappeared1 except in a few stars where faint helium remnants are in evidence4 ,the magnesium lines have become prominent and the calcium lines are growing rapidly in strength4 ,the so-called metallic lines1 usually beginning with iron and titanium lines1 which have a few extremely faint representatives in the last of the helium stars1 become visible here and there in the ,class ,a spectra1 but they are not conspicuous4 ,in the next main division1 the ,class ,f spectra1 the metallic lines increase rapidly in prominence1 and the hydrogen lines decrease slightly in strength4 ,these stars are not so blue as the helium and hydrogen stars4 ,they are intermediate between the blue stars and the yellow stars1 which begin with the next class1 ,g1 of which our ,sun is a representative4 ,the metallic lines are in ,class ,g spectra in great number and intensity1 and the hydrogen lines are greatly reduced in prominence4 ,the calcium bands are very wide and intense4 ,another step brings us to the very yellow and the slightly-reddish stars1 known as ,class ,k4 ,these stars are weak in violet light1 the hydrogen lines are substantially of the same intensity as the most prominent metallic lines1 and the metallic lines are more and more in evidence4 ,stars in the last subdivisions of the ,class ,k and all of the ,class ,m stars are decidedly red4 ,in these the hydrogen lines are still further weakened and the metallic lines are even more prominent4 ,their spectra are further marked by absorption bands of titanium oxide1 which reach their maximum strength in the later subdivisions of ,class ,m4 ,the extremely red stars compose ,class ,n on the ,harvard scale4 ,their spectra are almost totally lacking in violet light1 the metallic absorption is very strong1 and there are conspicuous absorption bands of carbon4 ,deep absorbing strata of titanium and carbon oxides seem to exist in the atmospheres of the ,class ,m and ,n stars1 respectively4 ,the presence of these oxides indicates a relatively low temperature1 and this is what we should expect from stars so far advanced in life4 ,the period of existence succeeding the very red stars has illustrations near at hand1 we think1 in ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus and ,neptune1 and in the ,earth and the other small planets and the ,moon3 bodies which still contain much heat1 but which are invisible save by means of reflected light4 ,the progression of stellar development1 which we have described1 has been based upon the radiation of heat4 ,this is necessarily gradual1 and the corresponding changes of spectrum should likewise be gradual and continuous4 ,it is not intended to give the impression that only a few types of spectra are in evidence3 the variety is very great4 ,the labels1 ,class ,b1 ,class ,a1 and so on to ,class ,n1 are intended to mark the miles in the evolutionary journey4 ,the ,harvard experts have put up other labels to mark the tenths of miles1 so to speak1 and some day we shall expect to see the hundredths labeled4 ,further1 it is not here proposed that heat radiation is the only vital factor in the processes of evolution4 ,the mass of a star may be an important item1 and the electrical conditions may be concerned4 ,a very small star and a very massive star may develop differently1 and it is conceivable that there may be actual differences of composition4 ,but heat-radiation is doubtless the most important factor4 ,the evolutionary processes must proceed with extreme deliberation4 ,the radiation of the heat actually present at any moment in a large helium star would probably not require many tens of thousands of years1 but this quantity of heat is negligible in comparison with the quantity generated within the star during and by the processes of condensation from the helium age down to the ,class ,m state4 ,we know that the compression of any body against resistance generates or releases heat4 ,now a gaseous star at any instant is in a state of equilibrium4 ,its internal heat and the centrifugal force due to its rotation about an axis are trying to expand it4 ,its own gravitational power is trying to draw all of its materials to the center4 ,until there is a loss of heat no contraction can occur2 but just as soon as there is such a loss gravity proceeds to diminish the stellar volume4 ,contraction will proceed more slowly than we should at first thought expect1 because in the process of contraction additional heat is generated and this becomes a factor in resisting further compression4 ,contraction is resisted vastly more by the heat generated in the process of contraction than it is by the store of heat already in evidence4 ,the quantity of heat in our ,sun1 now existing as heat1 would suffice to maintain its present rate of outflow only a few thousands of years4 ,the heat generated in the process of the ,sun's shrinkage under gravity1 however1 is so extensive as to maintain the supply during millions of years to come4 ,helmholtz has shown that the reduction of the ,sun's radius at the rate of #de meters per year would generate as much heat within the ,sun as is now radiated4 ,this rate of shrinkage is so slow that our most refined instruments could not detect a change in the solar diameter until after the lapse of #d1jjj or #e1jjj years4 ,again1 there are reasons for suspecting that the processes of evolution in our ,sun1 and in other stars as well1 may be enormously prolonged through the influence of energy within the atoms or molecules of matter composing them4 ,the subatomic forces residing in the radioactive elements represent the most condensed form of energy of which we have any conception4 ,it is believed that the subatomic energy in a mass of radium is at least a million-fold greater than the energy represented in the combustion or other chemical transformation of any ordinary substance having the same mass4 ,these radioactive forces are released with extreme slowness1 in the form of heat or the equivalent2 and if these substances exist moderately in the ,sun and stars1 as they do in the ,earth1 they may well be important factors in prolonging the lives of these bodies4 ,speaking somewhat loosely1 ,i think we may say that the processes of evolution from an extended nebula to a condensed nebula and from the latter to a spherical star1 are comparatively rapid1 perhaps normally confined to a few tens of millions of years2 but that the further we proceed in the development process1 from the blue star to the yellow1 and possibly but not certainly on to the red star1 the slower is the progress made1 for the radiating surface through which all the energy from the interior must pass becomes smaller and smaller in proportion to the mass1 and the convection currents which carry heat from the interior to the surface must slow down in speed4 ,a ,,history ,,of ,,fiji4 ,,by ,,dr4 ,,alfred ,,goldsborough ,,mayer ,,iv ,,the ,fijians had a well-organized social system which recognized six classes of society4 7#a7 ,kings and queens 7,tuis and ,andis74 7#b7 ,chiefs of districts 7,rokos74 7#c7 ,chiefs of villages1 priests 7,betes71 and land owners 7,mata-ni-vanuas74 7#d7 ,distinguished warriors of low birth1 chiefs of the carpenter caste 7,rokolas71 and chiefs of the turtle fishermen4 7#e7 ,common people 7,kai-si74 7#f7 ,slaves taken in battle4 ,the high chiefs still inspire great respect1 and indeed it has been the policy of the ,british government to maintain a large measure of their former authority4 ,thus of the #ag provinces into which the group was divided1 #aa are governed by high chiefs entitled ,roko ,tui1 and there are about #agf inferior chiefs who are the head men of districts1 and #ca native magistrates4 ,in so far as may be consistent with order and civilization these chiefs are permitted to govern in the old paternal manner1 and they are veritably patriarchs of their people4 ,the district chiefs are still elected by the land owners1 mata-ni-vanuas1 by a showing of hands as of old4 ,independent of respect paid to those in authority1 rank is still reverenced in ,fiji4 ,once acting under the kind permission and advice of our generous friend ,mr4 ,allardyce1 the colonial secretary1 and accompanied by my ship-mates ,drs4 ,charles ,h4 ,townsend1 and ,h4 ,f4 ,moore1 ,i went upon a journey of some days into the interior of ,viti ,levu1 our guide and companion being ,ratu ,pope ,seniloli1 a grandson of king ,thakombau1 and one of the high chiefs of ,mbau4 ,upon meeting ,ratu ,pope every native dropped his burdens1 stepped to the side of the wood-path and crouched down1 softly chanting the words of the tame1 muduo6 wo6 ,no one ever stepped upon his shadow1 and if desirous of crossing his path they passed in front1 never behind him4 ,clubs were lowered in his presence1 and no man stood fully erect when he was near4 ,the very language addressed to high chiefs is different from that used in conversation between ordinary men1 these customs being such that the inferior places himself in a defenceless position with respect to his superior4 ,it is a chief's privilege to demand service from his subjects2 which was fortunate for us1 for when we started down the ,waidina ,river from ,nabukaluka our canoes were so small and overloaded that the ripples were constantly lapping in over the gunwale1 threatening momentarily to swamp us4 ,soon1 however1 we came upon a party of natives in a fine large canoe1 and after receiving their tama ,ratu ,pope demanded3 ,where are you going8 ,the men1 who seemed somewhat awestricken1 answered that it had been their intention to travel up the river4 ,whereupon ,ratu ,pope told them that this they might do1 but we would take their canoe and permit them to continue in ours4 ,to this they acceded with the utmost cheerfulness1 although our noble guide would neither heed our protests nor permit us to reward them for their service1 saying simply1 ,i am a chief4 ,you may if you choose pay me4 ,in this manner we continued to improve our situation by exchanging with every canoe we met which happened to be better than our own1 until finally our princely friend ordered a gay party of merry-makers out of a fine large skiff1 which they cheerfully exchanged for our leaky canoes and departed singing happily1 feeling honored indeed that this opportunity had come to them to serve the great chief ,ratu ,pope ,seniloli2 and thus suffering qualms of conscience1 we sailed to our destination leaving a wake of confusion behind us4 ,moreover ,i forgot to mention that many natives had by ,ratu ,pope's orders been diverted from their intended paths and sent forward to announce the coming of himself and the ,american chiefs4 ,thus does one of the ,royal house of ,mbau proceed through ,fiji4 ,at first sight such behavior must appear autocratic1 to say the least1 but it should be remembered that a high chief has it in his power fully to recompense those about him1 and this without the payment of a penny4 ,indeed1 many intelligent natives still regret the introduction of money into their land1 saying that all the white man's selfishness had been developed through its omnipotence4 ,in ,fiji to-day there are no poor1 for such would be fed and given a house by those who lived beside them4 ,the white man's callous brutality in ignoring the appeal of misery is incomprehensible to the natives of ,fiji4 ,progress they have not in the sense that one man possesses vast wealth and many around him struggle helplessly1 doomed to life-long poverty2 nor have they ambition to toil beyond that occasional employment required to satisfy immediate wants4 ,yet if life be happy in proportion as the summation of its moments be contented1 the ,fijians are far happier than we4 ,old men and women rest beneath the shade of cocoa-palms and sing with the youths and maidens1 and the care-worn faces and bent bodies of civilization are still unknown in ,fiji4 ,they still have something we have lost and never can regain4 ,it is impossible to draw a line between personal service such as was rendered to ,ratu ,pope and a regular tax 7lala7 for the benefit of the entire community or the support of the communal government2 and the recognition of this fact actuated the ,english to preserve much of the old system and to command the payment of taxes in produce1 rather than in money4 ,land tenure in ,fiji is a subject so complex that heavy volumes might be written upon it4 ,in general it may be said that the chief can sell no land without the consent of his tribe4 ,cultivated land belonged to the man who originally farmed it1 and is passed undivided to all his heirs4 ,waste land is held in common4 ,native settlers who have been taken into the tribes from time to time have been permitted to farm some of the waste land1 and for this privilege they and their heirs must pay a yearly tribute to the chief either in produce or in service4 ,thus this form of personal lala is simply rent4 ,the whole subject of land-ownership has given the poor ,english a world of trouble1 as one may see who cares to read the official reports of the numerous intricate cases that have come before the courts4 ,for example1 one party based their claims to land on the historic fact that their ancestors had eaten the chief of the original owners1 and the solemn ,british court allowed the claim4 ,basil ,thomson in his interesting work upon ,the ,fijians2 a ,study of the ,decline of ,custom1 has given an authoritative summary of the present status of taxation and land tenure1 land being registered under a modification of the ,australian ,torrens system4 ,in order to protect these child-like people from the avarice of our own race they are not permitted to sell their lands1 and the greater portion of the area of ,fiji is still held by the natives4 ,the ,hawaiian ,islands now under our own rule furnish a sad contrast1 for here the natives are reduced by poverty to a degraded state but little above that of peonage4 ,the ,fijians4 on the other hand1 may not sell1 but may with the consent of the commissioner of native affairs lease their lands for a period of not more than twenty years4 ,the ,fijians appear never to have been wholly without a medium of exchange1 for sperm-whale's teeth have always had a recognized purchasing power1 but are more especially regarded as a means of expressing good will and honesty of purpose4 ,a whale's tooth is as effective to secure compliance with the terms of a bargain as an elaborately engraved bond would be with us4 ,more commonly1 however1 exchanges are direct1 each man bringing to the village green his taro1 yaqona1 yams or fish and exchanging with his neighbors2 the rare disputes being settled by the village chief4 ,in traveling you will discover no hotels1 but will be entertained in the stranger's houses1 and in return for your host's hospitality you should make presents to the chief4 ,indeed to journey in good fashion you should be accompanied by a train of bearers carrying heavy bags full of purposed gifts1 and nowhere in the world is the rate per mile higher than in ,polynesia4 ,as in all communities1 including our own world of finance1 a man's wealth consists not only in what he possesses but even more so in the number of people from whom he can beg or borrow4 ,wilkes records an interesting example of this1 for he found that the rifle and other costly presents he had presented to ,king ,tanoa were being seized upon by his 7,tanoa's7 nephew who as his vasu had a right to take whatever he might select from the king's possessions4 ,indeed1 in order to keep his property in sight1 ,tanoa was forced to give it to his own sons1 thus escaping the rapacity of his nephew4 ,the construction of the ,british law is such that a vasu who thus appropriates property to himself could be sued and forced to restore it1 but not a single ,fijian has yet been so mean as to bring such a matter into court4 ,an individual as such can hardly be said to own property1 for nearly all things belong to his family or clan1 and are shared among cousins4 ,this condition is responsible for that absence of personal ambition and that fatal contentment with existing conditions1 which strikes the white man as so illogical1 but which is nevertheless the dominant feature of the social fabric of the ,polynesians1 and which has hitherto prevented the introduction of ideals of modern progress4 ,the natives are happy2 why work when every reasonable want is already supplied8 ,none are rich in material things1 but none are beggars excepting in the sense that all are such4 ,no one can be a miser1 a capitalist1 a banker1 or a promoter in such a community1 and thieves are almost unknown4 ,indeed1 the honesty of the ,fijians is one of those virtues which has excited the comment of travelers4 ,wilkes1 who loathed them as condor-eyed savages1 admits that the only thing which any native attempted to steal from the ,peacock was a hatchet1 and upon being detected the chief requested the privilege of taking the man ashore in order that he might be roasted and eaten4 ,theft was always severely punished by the chief2 ,maafu beating a thief with the stout stalk of a cocoanut leaf until the culprit's life was despaired of1 and ,tui ,thakau wrapping one in a tightly wound rope so that not a muscle could move while the wretch remained exposed for an entire day to the heat of the sun4 ,during ,professor ,alexander ,agassiz's cruises in which he visited nearly every island of the ,fijis1 and the natives came on board by hundreds1 not a single object was stolen1 although things almost priceless in native estimation lay loosely upon the deck4 ,once1 indeed1 when the deck was deserted by both officers and crew and fully a hundred natives were on board1 we found a man who had been gazing wistfully for half an hour at a bottle which lay upon the laboratory table4 ,somehow he had managed to acquire a shilling1 a large coin in ,fiji1 and this he offered in exchange for the coveted bottle4 ,one can never forget his shout of joy and the radiance of his honest face as he leaped into his canoe after having received it as a gift4 ,even the great chief ,ratu ,epele of ,mbau beamed with joy when presented with a screw-capped glass tobacco jar1 and ,tui ,thakau of ,somo somo had a veritable weakness for bottles and possessed a large collection of these treasures4 ,intelligent and well-educated natives who know whereof they speak have told me that they desire not the white man's system1 entailing as it does untold privation and heart-burnings to the many that the few may enjoy a surfeit of mere material things4 ,as the natives say1 ,the white man possesses more than we1 but his life is full of toil and sorrow1 while our days are happy as they pass4 ,thus in the ,pacific life is of to-day2 the past is dead1 and the future when it comes will pass as to-day is passing4 ,life is a dream1 an evanescent thing1 all but meaningless1 and real only as is the murmur of the surf when the sea-breeze comes in the morning1 and man awakens from the oblivion of night4 ,hoarded wealth inspires no respect in the ,pacific1 and indeed1 were it discovered1 its possession would justify immediate confiscation4 ,yet man must raise idols to satisfy his instinct to worship things above his acquisition1 and thus rank is the more reverenced because respect for property is low4 ,even to-day there is something god-like in the presence of the high chiefs1 and none will cross the shadow of the king's house4 ,even in war did a common man kill a chief he himself was killed by men of his own tribe4 ,as it is with property so with relationships4 ,the family ties seem loosened2 every child has two sets of parents1 the adopted and the real1 and relationships founded upon adoption are more respected than the real4 ,rank descends mainly through the mother4 ,the son of a high chief by a common woman is a low chief1 or even a commoner1 but the son of a chieftainess by a common man is a chief4 ,curiously1 there are no words in ,fijian which are the exact equivalent of widow and widower4 ,in the ,marshall group the chief is actually the husband of all the women of his tribe1 and as ,lorimer ,fison has said in his ,tales from ,old ,fiji1 their designation and understanding of relationships suggests that there was once a time when all the women were the wives of every man1 and all the men were the husbands of every woman1 as indeed was almost the case in ,tahiti at the time of ,captain ,cook's visit to this island4 ,the social customs of ,fiji are rarely peculiar to ,fiji itself1 but commonly show their relationship or identity with those of the ,polynesians or ,papuans4 ,curiously indeed1 while the original stock of the ,fijians was probably pure ,papuan1 their social and economic systems are now dominated by ,polynesian ideas1 and only among the mountain tribes do we find a clear expression of the crude ,papuan systems of life and thought4 ,this in itself shows that under stimulation the ,fijians are capable of advancement in cultural ideals4 ,this superposition of a ,polynesian admixture upon a barbarous negroid stock may account for the anomalous character of the ,fijians1 for in the arts they equalled or in some things excelled the other island peoples of the ,pacific1 and some of their customs approached closely to the cultural level of the ,polynesians1 but in certain fundamental things they remained the most fiendish savages upon earth4 ,indeed we should expect that contact with a somewhat high culture would introduce new wants1 and thus affect their arts more profoundly than their customs4 ,in common with all primitive peoples1 their names of men and women are descriptive of some peculiarity or circumstance associated with the person named4 ,indeed1 names were often changed after important events in a person's life1 thus our old friend ,thakombau began life as ,seru1 then after the coup d'etat in which he slaughtered his father's enemies and reestablished ,tanoa's rule in ,mbau he was called ,thakombau 7evil to ,mbau74 ,at the time he also received another name ,thikinovu 7centipede7 in allusion to his stealthiness in approaching to bite his enemy1 but this designation1 together with his missionary name ,ebenezer1 did not survive the test of usage4 ,miss ,gordon ,cumming gives an interesting list of ,fijian names translated into ,english4 ,for women they were such as ,spray of the ,coral ,reef1 ,queen of ,parrot's ,land1 ,queen of ,strangers1 ,smooth ,water1 ,wife of the ,morning ,star1 ,mother of ,her ,grandchildren1 ,ten ,whale's ,teeth1 ,mother of ,cockroaches1 ,lady ,nettle1 ,drinker of ,blood1 ,waited ,for1 ,rose of ,rewa1 ,lady ,thakombau1 ,lady ,flag1 etc4 ,the men's names were such as ,the ,stone 7eternal7 ,god1 ,great ,shark1 ,bad ,earth1 ,bad ,stranger1 ,new ,child1 ,more ,dead ,man's ,flesh1 ,abode of ,treachery1 ,not ,quite ,cooked1 ,die ,out of ,doors1 ,empty ,fire1 ,fire in the ,bush1 ,eats ,like a ,god1 ,king of ,gluttony1 ,ill ,cooked1 ,dead ,man1 ,revenge1 etc4 ,in the religion of a people we have the most reliable clue to the history of their progress in culture and intelligence1 for religions even when unwritten are potent to conserve old conceptions1 and thus their followers advance beyond them1 as does the intelligence of the twentieth century look pityingly upon the conception of the cruel and jealous ,god of the ,old ,testament1 whose praises are nevertheless still sung in every ,christian church4 ,thus in ,tahiti the people were not cannibals1 but the gods still appeared in the forms of birds that fed upon the bodies of the sacrificed4 ,the eye of the victim was1 indeed1 offered to the chief1 who raised it to his lips but did not eat it4 ,in ,samoa also where the practice of cannabalism was very rare and indulged in only under great provocation1 some of the gods remained cannibals1 and the surest way of appeasing any god was to be laid upon the stones of a cold oven4 ,in ,tahiti and ,samoa1 while most of the gods were malevolent1 a few were kindly disposed towards mortals2 in ,fiji1 however1 they were all dreaded as the most powerful1 sordid1 cruel and vicious cannibal ghosts that have ever been conjured into being in the realm of thought4 ,all over the ,pacific from ,new ,zealand to ,japan1 and from ,new ,guinea to ,hawaii1 ancestor-worship forms the backbone of every religion as clearly as it did in ,greece or ,rome4 ,there are everywhere one or more very ancient gods who may always have existed and from whom all others are descended4 ,next in order of reverence1 although not always in power1 come their children1 and finally the much more numerous grandchildren and remote descendants of these oldest and highest gods4 ,finally1 after many generations1 men of chieftain's rank were born to the gods4 ,thus a common man could never attain the rank of a high chief1 for such were the descendants of the gods1 while commoners were created out of other clay and designed to be servants to the chiefs4 ,but the process of god-making did not end with the appearance of men1 for great chiefs and warriors after death became kalou yalo1 or spirits1 and often remained upon earth a menace to the unwary who might offend them4 ,curiously1 these deified mortals might suffer a second death which would result in their utter annihilation1 and while in ,fiji we heard a tale of an old chief who had met with the ghost of his dead enemy and had killed him for the second and last time2 the club which served in this miraculous victory having been hung up in the ,mbure as an object of veneration4 ,of a still lower order were the ghosts of common men or of animals1 and most dreaded of all was the vengeful spirit of the man who had been devoured4 ,the ghosts of savage ,fiji appear all to have been malevolent and fearful beings1 whereas those of the more cultured ,polynesians were some of them benevolent4 ,as ,ellis says of the ,tahitian mythology3 ,each lovely island was made a sort of fairyland and the spells of enchantment were thrown over its varied scenes4 ,the sentiment of the poet that ,millions of spiritual creatures walk the earth1 ,unseen1 both when we wake1 and when we sleep was one familiar to their minds1 and it is impossible not to feel interested in a people who were accustomed to consider themselves surrounded by invisible intelligences1 anti who recognized in the rising sun1 the mild and silver moon1 the shooting star1 the meteor's transient flame1 the ocean's roar1 the tempest's blast1 or the evening breeze the movements of mighty spirits4 ,the gods and ghosts of ,fiji often entered into the bodies of animals or men1 especially idiots4 ,thus when the ,carnegie ,institution ,expedition arrived at the ,murray ,islands in ,torres ,straits1 the scientific staff were much pleased at the decided evidences of respect shown by the natives until it came out that the ,islanders considered their white guests to be semi-idiots1 and hence powerful sorcerers to be placated4 ,fijian religion had developed into the oracular stage1 and the priest after receiving prayers and offerings would on occasions be entered into by the god4 ,tremors would overspread his body1 the flesh of which would creep horribly4 ,his veins would swell1 his eyeballs protrude with excitement and his voice1 becoming quavering and unnatural1 would whine out strange words1 words spoken by the god himself and unknown to the priest who as his unconscious agent was overcome by violent convulsions4 ,slowly the contortions grew less and with a start the priest would awaken1 dash his club upon the ground and the god would leave him4 ,it may well be imagined that the priests were the most powerful agents of the chiefs in forwarding the interests of their masters1 for1 as in ancient ,greece or ,rome1 nothing of importance was undertaken without first consulting the oracle4 ,surrounded by multitudes of demons1 ghosts1 and genii who were personified in everything about him1 religion was the most powerful factor in controlling ,fijian life and politics4 ,in fact1 it entered deeply into every act the native performed4 ,the gods were more monstrous in every way than man1 but in all attributes only the exaggerated counterparts of ,fijian chiefs4 ,war was constantly occurring among these gods and spirits1 and even high gods could die by accident or be killed by those of equal rank so that at least one god1 ,samu1 was thus dropped out of the mythology in #ahdg4 ,ndengei was the oldest and greatest1 but not the most universally reverenced god4 ,he lived in a cavern in the northeastern end of ,viti ,levu1 and usually appeared as a snake1 or as a snake's head with a body of stone symbolizing eternal life4 ,among the sons and grandsons of ,ndengei were ,roko ,mbati-ndua1 the one-toothed lord2 a fiend with a huge tooth projecting from his lower jaw and curving over the top of his head4 ,he had bat's wings armed with claws and was usually regarded as a harbinger of pestilence4 ,the mechanic's god was eight-handed1 gluttony had eighty stomachs1 wisdom possessed eight eyes4 ,other gods were the adulterer1 the abductor of women of rank and beauty1 the rioter1 the brain-eater1 the killer of men1 the slaughter god1 the god of leprosy1 the giant1 the spitter of miracles1 the gods of fishermen and of carpenters1 etc4 ,one god hated mosquitoes and drove them away from the place where he lived4 ,the names and stations of the gods are described by ,thomas ,williams1 who has given the most detailed account of the old religion4 ,as with all peoples whose religion is barbarous1 there were ways of obtaining sanctuary and many a man has saved his life by taking advantage of the tabus which secured their operation4 ,no matter how desirous your host might be of murdering you1 as long as you remained a guest under his roof you were safe1 although were you only a few yards away from his door he would eagerly attack you4 ,but not only did the ,fijians live in a world peopled by witches1 wizards1 prophets1 seers and fortune-tellers1 but there was a perfect army of fairies which overran the whole land1 and the myths concerning which would have filled volumes could they ever have been gathered4 ,the gnome-like spirits of the mountains had peaked heads1 and were of a vicious1 impish disposition1 but were powerless to injure any one who carried a fern leaf in his hand4 ,sacred relics such as famous clubs1 stones possessing miraculous powers1 etc41 were sometimes kept in ,fijian temples1 but there were no idols such as were prayed to by the ,polynesians4 ,the fearful alternatives of heaven and hell were unknown to the ,fijians4 ,they believed in an eternal existence for men1 animals1 and even canoes and other inanimate things1 but the future life held forth no prospect either of reward for virtues or punishment for evil acts committed while alive4 ,so certain were they of a future life that they always referred to the dead as the absent ones1 and their land of shades 7,mbulu7 was not essentially different from the world they lived in4 ,indeed1 their chief idea of death was that of rest1 for as ,william's states1 they have an adage3 ,death is easy3 ,of what use is life8 ,to die is rest4 ,there were1 however1 certain precautions the ,fijian felt it advisable to take before entering the world to come4 ,if he had been so unfortunate as not to have killed a man1 woman or child1 his duty would be the dismal one of pounding filth throughout eternity1 and disgraceful careers awaited those whose ears were not bored or women who were not tatooed upon parts covered by the liku4 ,moreover1 should a wife not accompany him 7be strangled at the time of his death7 his condition would be the dismal one of a spirit without a cook4 ,thirdly1 as one was at the time of death so would the spirit be in the next world4 ,it was therefore an advantage to die young1 and people often preferred to be buried alive1 or strangled1 than to survive into old age4 ,lastly and most important1 one must not die a bachelor1 for such are invariably dashed to pieces by ,nangganangga1 even if they should succeed in elud- ing the grasp of the ,great ,woman1 ,lewa-levu1 who flaunts the path of the departed spirits and searches for the ghosts of good-looking men4 ,let us imagine1 however1 that our shade departs this life in the best of form1 young1 married1 with the lobes of his ears pierced1 not dangerously handsome and a slayer of at least one human being4 ,he starts upon the long journey to the ,valhalla of ,fiji4 ,soon he comes to a spiritual ,pandanus at which he must throw the ghost of the whale's tooth which was placed in his hand at time of burial4 ,if he succeeds in hitting the ,pandanus1 he may then wait until the spirit of his strangled wife comes to join him1 after which he boards the canoe of the ,fijian ,charon and proceeds to ,nambanggatai1 where until #ahdg there dwelt the god ,samu1 and after his death ,samuyalo the killer of souls4 ,this god remains in ambush in some spiritual mangrove bushes and thrusts a reed within the ground upon the path of the ghost as a warning not to pass the spot4 ,should the ghost be brave he raises his club in defiance1 whereupon ,samuyalo appears1 club in hand1 and gives battle4 ,if killed in this combat1 the ghost is cooked and eaten by the soul killer1 and if wounded he must wander forever among the mountains1 but if the ghost be victorious over the god he may pass on to be questioned by ,ndengei1 who may consign him either to ,mburotu1 the highest heaven1 or drop him over a precipice into a somewhat inferior but still tolerable abode1 ,murimuria4 ,this ,ndengei does in accordance with the caprice of the moment and without reference either to the virtues or the faults of the deceased4 ,thus of those who die only a few can enter the higher heaven for the ,great ,woman and the ,soul destroyer overcome the greater number of those who dare to face them4 ,as for the victims of cannibal feasts1 their souls are devoured by the gods when their bodies are eaten by man4 ,in temperament and ambitions the spirits of the dead remained as they were upon earth1 but of more monstrous growth in all respects1 resembling giants greater and more vicious than man4 ,war and cannibalism still prevailed in heaven1 and the character of the inhabitants seems to have been fiendish or contemptible as on earth2 for the spirits of women who were not tattooed were unceasingly pursued by their more fortunate sisters1 who tore their bodies with sharp shells1 often making mince-meat of them for the gods to eat4 ,also the shade of any one whose ears had not been pierced was condemned to carry a masi log over his shoulder and submit to the eternal ridicule of his fellow spirits4 ,altogether1 this religion seems to have been as sordid1 brutal and vicious as was the ancestral negroid stock of the ,fijians4 ,connected with it there was1 however1 a rude mythology1 clumsy but romantic1 too much of which has been lost2 for the natives of to-day have largely forgotten its stories or are ashamed to repeat it to the whites4 ,in recent times the natives have tended to make their folk-lore conform to ,biblical stories1 or to adapt them to conditions of the present day4 ,the interesting subject of the lingering influence of old beliefs upon the life of the natives of to-day has engaged the attention of ,basil ,thomson in ,the ,fijians1 a ,study of the ,decay of ,custom4 ,as in every ,british colony1 the people are taught to respect the law4 ,sentences of imprisonment are meted out to natives for personal offences which if committed by white men would be punished by small fines1 but the reason for this is that in the old native days such acts were avenged by murder1 and it is to prevent crime that a prison term has been ordained4 ,the natives take their imprisonment precisely as boys in boarding school regard a flogging1 the victim commonly becoming quite a hero and losing no caste among his fellows4 ,indeed it is a common sight to see bands of from four to eight stalwart convicts a mile or more from the prison marching unguarded through the woods as they sing merrily on their way home to the jail4 ,once ,i recall seeing two hundred prisoners1 all armed with long knives1 engaged in cutting weeds along the roadside1 chanting happily as they slashed1 while a solitary native dressed only in a waist-cloth and armed only with a club stood guard at one end of the line1 and this not near the prison1 but in a lonely wood fully a mile from the nearest house4 ,in #ahgd1 the ,british undertook the unique task of civilizing without exploiting a barbarous and degraded race which was drifting hopelessly into ruin4 ,they began the solution of this complex problem by arresting the entire race and immuring them within the protecting walls of a system which recognized as its cardinal principle that the natives were unfit to think or act for themselves4 ,for a generation the ,fijians have been in a prison wherein they have become the happiest and best behaved captives upon earth4 ,during this time they have become reconciled to a life of peace1 and have forgotten the taste of human flesh2 and while they cherish no love for the white man1 they feel the might of his law and know that his decrees are as finalities of fate4 ,all are serving life sentences to the white man's will1 and the fire of their old ambition has cooled into the dull embers of resignation and then died into the apathy of contentment with things that are4 ,worse still1 they have grown fond of their prison world1 and the most pessimistic feature in the ,fijian situation of to-day is the evident fact that there is almost no discontent among the natives4 ,old things have withered and decayed1 but new ambition has not been born4 ,it is in no spirit of criticism of ,british policy that ,i have written the above paragraph for it was absolutely necessary that the race should calm down for a generation at least before it could be trusted to arise4 ,now1 however1 there are no more old chiefs whose memories hark back to days of savagery1 and now for the first and only time has come the critical period in the unique governmental experiment the ,british have undertaken to perform1 for now is the time when the child must learn to walk alone and the support of guardian arms must in kindness be withdrawn1 else there must be nurtured but a cripple1 not a man4 ,among the generation of to-day the light of a new ambition must appear in ,fiji or the race shall dwindle to its death4 ,no real progress has been made by the ,fijians2 they have received much from their teachers1 but have given nothing in return4 ,they are in the position of a youth whose schooling has just been finished1 life and action lie before him2 will he awaken to his responsibility1 develop his latent talent1 character and power1 and recompense his teachers by achievement1 or will he sink into the apathy of a vile content8 ,the situation in ,fiji is one of peculiar delicacy for the desire for better things must arise among the ,fijians themselves1 and should it once appear1 the paternalism of the present government must be wisely withdrawn to permit of more and more freedom in proportion as the natives may become competent to think and act rightly for themselves4 ,a cardinal difficulty is the unfortunate fact that the natives ,,desire no change1 and even if individually discontented and ambitious1 they know of no profession1 arts or trades to which they might turn with hope of fortune4 ,the establishment of manual training schools wherein money-making trades should be taught1 if possible ,,by ,,native teachers1 is sorely needed in ,fiji4 ,at present there is too little freedom of thought in ,fiji2 fear of the chief and of ,samuyalo's club has been replaced by fear of the ,european and his hell4 ,free1 fearless thought is the father of high action1 and while their minds remain steeped in an apathy of dread there can be no soil in which the seed of independence can germinate4 ,yet it is still possible that the ,fijians may attain civilization4 ,of all the archipelagoes of ,polynesia1 ,fiji alone may still be called the ,isles of ,hope4 ,as one who has known and grown to love these honest1 hospitable1 simple people1 ,i can only hope that the day is not far distant when a leader may arise among them who will turn their faces toward the light of a brighter sky1 and their hands to a worthier task than has ever yet been performed in ,polynesia4 ,yet why civilize them8 ,often does one ask oneself this question1 but the answer comes as the voice of fate1 they must attain civilization or they must die4 ,should the population continue to decline at its present rate1 the time is imminent when the dark-skinned men of ,fiji will be not the natives1 but the swarming progeny of the coolies of ,calcutta4 ,nowhere over all the wide ,pacific have the natives been more wisely or unselfishly ruled than in ,fiji1 yet even here native life seems to be growing less and less purposeful year by year4 ,in time it is hoped a reaction may set in and that with the decline of communism new ambitions may replace the old1 but then will come the problem of the rich and the poor--a thing unknown in ,fijian life to-day4 ,hardly the first lessons in civilization have been taught in ,polynesia1 yet who can predict the noon day1 should even the faintest glow appear in native hope4 ,in former ages the ,japanese were a barbarous insular people1 and as in our own civilization the traditions and habits of rude ,aryan ancestors still color our fundamental thoughts so in ,japan we find evidences of a culture essentially similar to that of the ,pacific ,islands of to-day4 ,the ancient ancestor worship of ,japan is strangely like that of the tropical ,pacific with its gods1 the ghosts of long departed chiefs1 and its high chief a living god to-day4 ,moreover in the ,pacific ,islands the house consists of but a single room1 and such to-day is essentially the case in ,japan1 save only that delicate paper screens divide its originally unitary floor-space into temporary compartments4 ,as in the ,south ,seas1 matting still covers the floor of the ,japanese house1 its roof is thatched1 and is constructed before the sides are made1 there is no chimney1 the fire-place is an earthen space upon the floor or is sustained within an artistically molded bronze brazier1 the refined descendant of the cruder hearth4 ,in ,polynesia as in ,japan one seats oneself anywhere in tailor-fashion upon the floor1 and upon this floor the meals are served1 and here one sleeps at night1 nor will the women partake of food in the presence of the men4 ,in essential fundamental things of life the ,japanese show their kinship in custom and tradition to the insular peoples of ,asiatic origin now occupying the ,pacific1 and if ,japan has attained to so great a height in culture and civilization1 why may we not hope for better days for the ,south ,sea ,islanders8 ,,war ,,selection ,,in ,,the ,,ancient ,,world ,,by ,,chancellor ,,david ,,starr ,,jordan ,,leland ,,stanford ,,junior ,,university ,the human harvest was bad6 ,thus the historian sums up the conditions in ,rome in the days of the good emperor1 ,marcus ,aurelius4 ,by this he meant that while population and wealth were increasing1 manhood had failed4 ,there were men enough in the streets1 men enough in the camps1 menial laborers enough and idlers enough1 but of good soldiers there were too few4 ,for the business of the state1 which in those days was mainly war1 its men were inadequate4 ,in recognition of this condition we touch again the overshadowing fact in the history of ,europe1 the effect of military selection on the human breed4 ,in rapid survey of the evidence brought from history one must paint the picture1 such as it is1 with a broad brush1 not attempting to treat exceptions and qualifications1 for which this article has no space and concerning which records yield no data4 ,such exceptions1 if fully understood1 would only prove the rule4 ,the evil effects of military selection and its associated influences have long been recognized in theory by certain students of social evolution4 ,but the ideas derived from the sane application of our knowledge of ,darwinism to history are even now just beginning to penetrate the current literature of war and peace4 ,in public affairs most nations have followed the principle of opportunism1 striking while the iron is hot1 without regard to future results1 whether of financial exhaustion or of race impoverishment4 ,the recorded history of ,rome begins with small and vigorous tribes inhabiting the flanks of the ,apennines and the valleys down to the sea1 and blending together to form the ,roman republic4 ,they were men of courage and men of action1 virile1 austere1 severe and dominant4#a ,they were men who looked on none as their superior and none as their inferior4 ,for this reason1 ,rome was long a republic4 ,free-born men control their own destinies4 ,the fault1 says ,cassius1 is not in our stars1 but in ourselves that we are underlings4 ,thus in freedom1 when ,rome was small without glory1 without riches1 without colonies and without slaves1 she laid the foundations of greatness4 #a ,virilis1 austerus1 severus1 dominous1 good old words applied by ,romans to themselves4 ,but little by little the spirit of freedom gave way to that of domination4 ,conscious of power1 men sought to exercise it1 not on themselves but on one another4 ,little by little this meant aggression1 suppression1 plunder1 struggle1 glory and all that goes with the pomp and circumstance of war4 ,so the individuality in the mass was lost in the aggrandizement of the few4 ,independence was swallowed up in ambition and patriotism came to have a new meaning1 being transferred from hearth and home to the camp and the army4 ,in the subsequent history of ,rome1 we have now to consider only a single factor1 the reversal of selection4 ,in ,rome's conquests1 ,vir1 the real man1 went forth to battle and foreign invasion2 ,homo1 the human being1 remained on the farm and in the workshop and begat the new generations4 ,vir gave place to ,homo1 says the ,latin author4 ,men of good stock were replaced by the sons of slaves and camp-followers1 the riff-raff of those the army sucked in but could not use4 ,the ,fall of ,rome was due not to luxury1 effeminacy or corruption1 not to ,nero's or ,caligula's wickedness1 nor to the futility of ,constantine's descendants4 ,it began at ,philippi1 where the spirit of domination overcame the spirit of freedom4 ,it was forecast still earlier in the rise of consuls and triumvirs incident to the thinning out of the sturdy and self-sufficient strains who brooked no arbitrary rule4 ,while the best men were falling in war1 civil or foreign1 or remained behind in faraway colonies1 the stock at home went on repeating its weakling parentage4 ,a condition significant in ,roman history is marked by the gradual swelling of the mob1 with the rise in authority of the ,emperor who was the mob's exponent4 ,increase of arbitrary power went with the growing weakness of the ,romans themselves4 ,always the ,emperor serves as a sort of historical barometer by which to measure the abasement of the people4 ,the concentrated power of ,julius ,caesar1 resting on his own tremendous personality1 showed that the days of ,cincinnatus and of ,junius ,brutus were past4 ,the strength of ,augustus rested likewise in personality4 ,the rising authority of later emperors had its roots in the ineffectiveness of the mob1 until it came to pass that the little finger of ,constantine was thicker than the loins of ,augustus4 ,this was due not to ,constantine's force1 but to the continued reversal of selection among the people over whom he ruled4 ,the emperor1 no longer the strong man holding in check all lesser men and organizations1 became the creature of the mob2 and the mob1 intoxicated with its own work1 worshipped him as divine4 ,doubtless the last emperor1 ,augustulus ,romulus1 before the ,goths threw him into the scrap-heap of history1 was regarded by the mob and himself as the most god-like of the whole succession4 ,the ,romans of the ,republic might perhaps have made a history very different4 ,had they held aloof from world-conquering schemes ,rome might have remained a republic1 enduring even down to our day4 ,the seeds of ,rome's fall lay not in race nor in form of government1 nor in wealth nor in senility1 but in the influences by which the best men were cut off from parenthood1 leaving its own weaker strains and strains of lower races to be fathers of coming generations4 ,the ,roman ,empire1 says ,professor ,seely1 perished for want of men4 ,even ,julius ,caesar notes the dire scarcity of men1 while at the same time there were people enough4 ,the population steadily grew2 ,rome was filling up like an overflowing marsh4 ,men of a certain type were plenty1 but self-reliant farmers1 the hardy dwellers on the flanks of the ,apennines1 men of the early ,roman days1 these were fast going1 and with the change in type of population came the turn in ,roman history4 ,the mainspring of the ,roman army for centuries has been the patient strength and courage1 capacity for enduring hardships1 instinctive submission to military discipline of the population that lined the ,apennines4 ,the effect of the wars was that the ranks of the small farmers were decimated1 while the number of slaves who did not serve in the army multiplied1 says ,professor ,bury4 ,thus ,vir gave place to ,homo1 thus the mob filled ,rome and the mob-hero rose to the imperial throne4 ,no wonder that ,constantine seemed greater than ,augustus4 ,no wonder that if ,tiberius chastised his subjects with whips1 ,valentinian chastised them with scorpions4#b #b ,the point of this is that the cruel ,tiberius was less severe on the ,romans of his day than was the relatively benevolent ,valentinian on his decadent people4 ,with ,marcus ,aurelius and the ,antonines came a period of sterility and barrenness in human beings4 ,bounties were offered for marriage4 ,penalties were devised against race-suicide4 ,marriage1 says ,metellus1 is a duty which1 however painful1 every citizen ought manfully to discharge4 ,wars were conducted in the face of a declining birth-rate1 and the decline in quality and quantity in the human breed engaged very early the attention of ,roman statesmen4 ,deficiencies of numbers were made up by immigration1 willing or enforced4 ,failure in quality was beyond remedy4 ,says ,professor ,zumpt3 ',government having assumed godhead1 took at the same time the appurtenances of it4 ,officials multiplied4 ,subjects lost their rights4 ,abject fear paralyzed the people and those that ruled were intoxicated with insolence and cruelty4444 ,the worst government is that which is most worshipped as divine4 4 4 4 ,the emperor possessed in the army an overwhelming force over which citizens had no influence1 which was totally deaf to reason or eloquence1 which had no patriotism because it had no country1 which had no humanity because it had no domestic ties4 4 4 4 ,there runs through ,roman literature a brigand's and barbarian's contempt for honest industry4 4 4 4 ,roman civilization was not a creative kind1 it was military1 that is1 destructive4' ,what was the end of it all8 ,the nation bred ,romans no more4 ,to cultivate the ,roman fields whole tribes were borrowed4 ,the man with quick eye and strong arm gave place to the slave1 the scullion1 the pariah1 whose lot is fixed because in him there lies no power to alter it4 ,so at last the ,roman world1 devoid of power to resist1 was overwhelmed by the swarming ,ostrogoths4 ,the barbarian settled and peopled the empire rather than conquered it4 ,it was the weakness of war-worn ,rome that gave the ,germanic races their first opportunity4 ,the nation is like a bee1 wisely observes ,bernard ,shaw1 as it stings it dies4 ,in his monumental history of the ,downfall of the ,ancient ,world 7,der ,untergang der ,antikenwelt7 ,dr4 ,otto ,seeck of the ,university of ,munster in ,westphalia1 treats in detail the causes of such decline4 ,he first calls attention to the intellectual stagnation which came over the ,roman ,empire about the beginning of the ,christian ,era4 ,this manifested itself in all fields of intellectual activity4 ,no new idea of any importance was advanced in science nor in technical and political studies4 ,in the realm of literature and art also one finds a complete lack of originality and a tendency to imitate older models4 ,all this ,seeck asserts1 was brought about by the continuous rooting out 7,ausrottung7 of the best#c through war4 #c ,die ,ausrottung der ,besten1 die jenen schwacheren ,volken die ,vernichtung brachte1 hat die starken ,germanen erst befahigt1 auf den ,trummern der antiken ,welt neue dauerende ,gemeinschaften zu errichten4 ,seeck4 ,such extermination which took place in ,greece as well as in ,rome1 was due to persistent internal conflicts1 the constant murderous struggle going on between political parties1 in which1 in rapid succession1 first one and then the other was victorious4 ,the custom of the victors being to kill and banish the leaders and all prominent men in the defeated party1 often destroying their children as well1 it is evident that in time every strain distinguished for moral courage1 initiative or intellectual strength was exterminated4 ,by such a systematic killing off of men of initiative and brains1 the intellectual level of a nation must necessarily be lowered more and more4 ,in ,rome as in ,greece observes ,seeck3 ',a wealth of force of spirit went down in the suicidal wars4 4 4 4 ,in ,rome1 ,marius and ,cinna slew the aristocrats by hundreds and thousands4 ,sulla destroyed the democrats1 and not less thoroughly4 ,whatever of strong blood survived1 fell as an offering to the proscription of the ,triumvirate4 4 4 4 ,the ,romans had less of spontaneous force to lose than the ,greeks4 ,thus desolation came sooner to them4 ,whoever was bold enough to rise politically in ,rome was almost without exception thrown to the ground4 ,,only ,,cowards ,,remained1 ,,and ,,from ,,their ,,blood ,,came ,,forward ,,the ,,new ,,generations4#d ,cowardice showed itself in lack of originality and in slavish following of masters and traditions4' #d ,author's italics4 ,certain authors1 following ,varro1 have maintained that ,rome died a natural death1 the normal result of old age4 ,it is mere fancy to suppose that nations have their birth1 their maturity and their decline under an inexorable law like that which determines the life history of the individual4 ,a nation is a body of living men4 ,it may be broken up if wrongly led or attacked by a superior force4 ,when its proportion of men of initiative or character is reduced1 its future will necessarily be a resultant of the forces that are left4 ,dr4 ,seeck speaks with especial scorn of the idea that ,rome died of old age4 ,he also repudiates the theory that her fall was due to the corruption of luxury1 neglect of military tactics or over-diffusion of culture4 ',it is inconceivable that the mass of ,romans suffered from over-culture4#e ,in condemning the sinful luxury of wealthy ,romans we forget that the trade-lords of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries were scarcely inferior in this regard to ,lucullus and ,apicius1 their waste and luxury not constituting the slightest check to the advance of the nations to which these men belonged4 ,the people who lived in luxury in ,rome were scattered more thinly than in any modern state of ,europe4 ,the masses lived at all times more poorly and frugally because they could do nothing else4 ,can we conceive that a war force of untold millions of people is rendered effeminate by the luxury of a few hundreds8 4 4 4 ,too long have historians looked on the rich and noble as marking the fate of the world4 ,half the ,roman ,empire was made up of rough barbarians untouched by ,greek or ,roman culture4 ,whatever the remote and ultimate cause may have been1 the immediate cause to which the fall of the empire can be traced is a physical1 not a moral decay4 ,in valor1 discipline and science the ,roman armies remained what they had always been1 and the peasant emperors of ,illyricum were worthy successors of ,cincinnatus and ,calus ,marius4 ,but the problem was1 how to replenish those armies4 ,men were wanting4 ,the empire perished for want of men4' #e ,damitsprechend hat man das ,wort ,ueberkultur' uberhaupt erfunden1 als wenn ein zu grosses ,maass von ,kultur uberhaupt denkbar ware4 ,in a volume entitled ,race or ,mongrel published as ,i write these pages1 ,dr4 ,alfred ,p4 ,schultz of ,new ,york1 author of ,the ,end of ,darwinism1 takes essentially the same series of facts as to the fall of ,rome and draws from them a somewhat different conclusion4 ,in his judgment the cause was due to bastardy1 to the mixing of ,roman blood with that of neighboring and subjective races4 ,to my mind1 bastardy was the result and not the cause of ,rome's decline1 inferior and subject races having been sucked into ,rome to fill the vacuum left as the ,romans themselves perished in war4 ,the continuous killing of the best left room for the post-,roman herd1 who once sold the imperial throne at auction to the highest bidder4 ,as the ,romans vanished through warfare at home and abroad1 came an inrush of foreign blood from all regions roundabout4 ,as ,schultz graphically states3 ',the degeneration and depravity of the mongrels was so great that they deified the emperors4 ,and many of the emperors were of a character so vile that their deification proves that the post-,roman soul must have been more depraved than that of the ,egyptian mongrel1 who deified nothing lower than dogs1 cats1 crocodiles1 bugs and vegetables4' ,it must not be overlooked1 however1 that the ,roman race was never a pure race4 ,it was a union of strong elements of frontier democratic peoples1 ,sabines1 ,umbrians1 ,sicilians1 ,etruscans1 ,greeks1 being blended in republican ,rome4 ,whatever the origins1 the worst outlived the best1 mingling at last with the odds and ends of ,imperial slavery1 the ,sewage of ,races 7cloaca gentium7 left at the ,fall4 ,gibbon says3 ',this diminutive stature of mankind was daily sinking below the old standard and the ,roman world was indeed peopled by a race of pygmies when the fierce giants of the north broke in and mended the puny breed4 ,they restored the manly spirit of freedom and after the revolutions of ten centuries1 freedom became the parent of taste and science4' ,but again1 the redeemed ,italian was of no purer blood than the post-,roman-,ostrogoth ancestry from which he sprang4 ,the puny ,roman of the days of ,theodoric owed his inheritance to the cross of ,roman weaklings with ,roman slaves4 ,he was not weak because he was mongrel but because he sprang from bad stock on both sides4 ,the ,ostrogoth and the ,lombard who tyrannized over him brought in a great strain of sterner stuff1 followed by crosses with captive and slave such as always accompany conquest4 ,to understand the fall of ,rome one must consider the disastrous effects of crossings of this sort4 ,neither can one overlook the waste of war which made them inevitable through the wholesale influx of inferior tribes4 ,neither can one speak of the ,roman1 the ,italian1 the ,spaniard1 the ,french1 the ,roumanian1 nor of any of the so-called ,latin peoples as representing a simple pure stock1 or as being1 except in language1 direct descendants of those ancient ,latins who constituted the ,roman ,republic4 ,the failure of ,rome arose not from hybridization1 but from the wretched quality on both sides of its mongrel stock1 descendants of ,romans unfit for war and of base immigrants that had filled the vacancies4 ,greece4--,once ,greece led the world in intellectual pursuits1 in art1 in poetry1 in philosophy4 ,a large and vital part of ,european culture is rooted directly in the language and thought of ,athens4 ,the most beautiful edifice in the world was the ,peace ,palace of the ,parthenon1 erected by ,pericles1 to celebrate the end of ,greece's suicidal wars4 ,this endured #b1ahg years1 to be wrecked at last 7#afhg7 in ,turkish hands by the ,christian bombs of the ,venetian ,republic4 ,but the glory of ,greece had passed away long before the fall of the ,parthenon4 ,its cause was the one cause of all such downfalls--the extinction of strong men by war4 ,at the best1 the civilization of ,greece was built on slavery1 one freeman to ten slaves4 ,and when the freemen were destroyed1 the slaves1 an original ,mediterranean stock1 overspread the territory of ,hellas along with the ,bulgarians1 ,albanians and ,vlachs1 barbarians crowding down from the north4 ,the ,grecian language still lives1 the tongue of a spirited and rising modern people4 ,but the ,greeks of the classic period--the ,hellenes of literature1 art and philosophy--will never be known again4 ,says ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,ireland3 ',most of the old ,greek race has been swept away1 and the country is now inhabited by persons of ,slavonic descent4 ,indeed1 there is a strong ground for the statement that there was more of the old heroic blood of ,hellas in the ,turkish army of ,edhem ,pasha than in the soldiers of ,king ,george4' ,the modern ,greek has been called a ,byzantinized ,slav4 ,king ,george himself and ,constantine his son are only aliens placed on the ,grecian throne to suit the convenience of outer powers1 being in fact descendants of tribes which to the ancient ,greeks were merely barbarians4 ,it is maintained that the modern ,greeks are in the main the descendants of the population that inhabited ,greece in the earlier centuries of ,byzantine rule4 ,owing to the operation of various causes1 historical1 social and economic1 that population was composed of many heterogeneous elements and represented in very limited degree the race which repulsed the ,persians and built the ,parthenon4 ,the internecine conflicts of the ,greek communities1 wars with foreign powers1 and the deadly struggles of factions in the various cities had to a large extent obliterated the old race of free citizens by the beginning of ,roman period4 ,the extermination of the ,plataeans by the ,spartans and of the ,melians by the ,athenians during the ,peloponnesian war1 the proscription of the ,athenian citizens after the war1 the massacre of the ,coreyrean oligarchs by the democratic party1 the slaughter of the ,thebans by ,alexander and of the ,corinthians by ,mummius are among the more familiar instances of the catastrophes which overtook the civic element in the ,greek cities4 ,the void can only have been filled from the ranks of the metics or resident aliens and of the descendants of the far more numerous slave population4 ,in the classic period four fifths of the population of ,attica were slaves2 of the remainder1 half were meties ,in ,a4,d4 #ajj only three thousand free arm-bearing men were in ,greece4 7,james ,d4 ,bourchier47 ,the constant little struggles of the ,greeks among themselves made no great showing as to numbers compared to other wars1 but they wiped out the most valuable people1 the best blood1 the most promising heredity on earth4 ,this cost the world more than the killing of millions of barbarians4 ,in two centuries there were born under the shadow of the ,parthenon more men of genius than the ,roman ,empire had in its whole existence4 ,yet this empire included all the civilized world1 even ,greece herself4 7,la ,pouge47 ,the downfall of ,greece1#f like that of ,rome1 has been ascribed by ,schultz to the crossing of the ,greeks with the barbaric races which flocked into ,hellas from every side4 ,these resident aliens1 or metics1 steadily increased in number as the free ,greeks disappeared4 ,selected slaves or helots were then made free in order to furnish fighting men1 and again as these fell their places were taken by immigrants4 #f ,certain recent writers who find in environment the causes of the rise and fall of nations1 ascribe the failure of ,greece to the introduction in ,athens and ,sparta of the malaria-bearing mosquito4 ,as to the facts in question1 we have little evidence4 ,but while the prevalence of malaria may have affected the general activity of the people1 it could in no way have obliterated the mental leadership which made the strength of classic ,hellas1 nor could it have injected its poison into the stream of ,greek heredity4 ,it is doubtless true at this day that no race inhabits ,greece1 and the main difference between ,greeks and other ,balkan peoples is that1 inhabiting the mountains and valleys of ,hellas1 they speak in dialects of the ancient tongue4 ,environment1 except through selection and segregation1 can not alter race inheritance and the modern ,greeks have not been changed by it4 ,schultz observes3 ',we are told that the ,hellenes owed their greatness largely to the country it was their fortune to dwell in4 ,to that same country1 with the same wonderful coast line and harbors1 mountains and brooks1 and the same sun of ,homer1 the modern ,greeks owe their nothingness4' ,in other words1 it is quite true that the ,greece of ,pericles owed its strength to ,greek blood1 not to ,hellenic scenery4 ,when all the good ,greek blood was spent in suicidal wars1 only slaves and foreign-born were left4 ',tis ,greece1 but living ,greece no more4#g #g ,in contrasting a new race with the old--as the modern ,greeks with the incomparable ,hellenes--we must not be unjust to the men of to-day whose limitations are evident1 contrasted with a race we know mainly by its finest examples4 ,in spite of poverty1 touchiness and vanity characteristic of the modern ,greek1 there is good stuff in him4 ,he is frank1 hopeful1 enthusiastic4 ,the mountain ,greek1 at least1 knows the value of freedom1 and has more than once put up a brave fight for it4 ,the valleys breed subserviency1 and the ,greeks of ,thessaly are said to be less independent than the mountain-born4 ,furthermore1 we do not know that even the first ,hellenes of ,mycenae were an unmixed race1 or that any unmixed races ever rose to such prominence as to command the world's attention4 ,we do know that when war depletes a nation slaves and foreigners come in to fill the vacuum1 and that the decline of a great race in history has always been accompanied by a debasing of its blood4 ,yet out of this decadence natural selection may in time bring forward better strains1 and with normal conditions of security and peace nature may begin again her work of recuperation4 ,in the fall of ,greece we have another count against war1 scarcely realized until the facts of ,louvain and ,malines1 of ,rheims and ,ypres1 have brought it again so vividly before us4 ,war respects nothing1 while the human soul increasingly demands veneration for its own noble and beautiful achievements4 ,as ,i write this1 there rise before me the paintings in the ,neue ,pinakothek at ,munich1 representing the twenty-one ,cities of ,ancient ,greece1 from ,sparta to ,salamis1 from ,eleusis to ,corinth1 not as they were1 in the glory which was ,greece1 not as they are now1 largely fishing hamlets by the blue ,aegean ,sea1 but as ruined arches and broken columns half hid in the ashes of war1 wars which blotted out ,greece from world history4 ,,anti-,,suffragists ,,and ,,war ,,by ,,elsie ,,clews ,,parsons ,,new ,,york ,,city ,,one of the most curious of those misstatements of fact and confusions of thought the conservative seems even more prone to make than the radical has to do with a certain suppositiously historical relation between women and war4 ,it is assumed#a that early society is ever militant and that because of its militarism it excludes women1 women not being fighters1 not only from its government1 but from all its privileges1 even making of them its drudges and its beasts of burden4 ,and so1 argues the conservative1 women are for the same reasons disfranchised1 and properly disfranchised1 to-day4 ,whether more or less militant than it was1 society is still founded on force1 and because women are not as strong as men1 men will not give them the vote4 ,besides it is only right1 since they can not fight1 they should not vote4 ,it has always been so1 and so it should continue to be1 at any rate until war becomes a thing of the past1 and that will never be1 you can't change human nature1 etc41 etc4 #a ,and1 let us admit1 not merely by the conservative anti-feminist4 ,as radical and discerning a feminist as ,thomas ,wentworth ,higginson1 after asserting that physical strength was once sole ruler1 cites in agreement ,walter ,bagehot's reference to the contempt for physical weakness and for women which marks early society4 7,women and the ,alphabet1 p4 #di4 ,boston and ,new ,york1 #aijj47 ,there are of course various answers to this militarist anti-suffrage argument1 answers which in spite of the logic of current events are still likely to be satisfactory or not according to previous convictions1 but the only point ,i wish to challenge is the appeal in this connection to the past4 ,let the militarist anti-suffragist assert his belief in government by force if he likes1 but let him not try to justify it by the precedents of primitive life4 ,nor may he--or she--explain the exclusion of women to-day as a survival of their subjection in primitive society to brute force4 ,the government of primitive society is not based on physical prowess1 and although modern woman is excluded from men's activities for the same reason as primitive woman was excluded1 the reason is not muscular inferiority4 ,it is a pity in the feminist controversies of the last hundred years or so that the exclusion of women did not become a more popular phrase than the subjection of women4 ,that term gave a fallacious twist both to observation and analysis4 ,primitive and modern men alike commonly ,,exclude women1 they seldom subject them4 ,similarly1 in some societies1 children and young people1 all in fact but the elderly1 are treated to methods of exclusion rather than of subjection4 ,early society is dominated by the elders2 its practices and customs have been determined by them and1 in the most primitive society1 government is nothing but a gerontocracy1 a government of old men4 ,even with chieftaincy the council of the elders is weighty and the heads of households have considerable influence4 ,are the elders the fighters or raiders of the tribe8 ,no1 they are its judges1 its legislators and1 most important of all1 its magicians4 ,nor is the chief or king the fighter par excellence of the tribe4 ,but he too may be and often is the tribal magician4 ,through their powers of magic elders and chiefs are responsible for the weather1 for the reproduction of plants and animals1 for the success of the crops1 of hunts and catches1 for the health and general welfare of the people4 ,and in war8 ,in war they are the most important personages too4 ,because they fight8 ,no1 because in war too they make magic2 they charm the approaches to the village1 they doctor the trails or the weapons or the canoes1 they make war medicine1 they invoke and propitiate the war gods4 ,the warriors are the younger men1 men whose efforts would be vain without the backing of their magic-working seniors or chiefs4 ,the elders make peace and declare war4 ,and it is at their dictate that the young men take to head-hunting or to raiding or even to stealing women4 ,as to the subjection of women1 what exists of it the elders are responsible for4 ,it is they who scare a girl or shame her into being docile4 ,it is they who marry her off against her will1 it is they who set her unending tasks or shut her up in idleness4 ,it is they who make her undergo the discomforts or miseries of what we call conventional life or bully her into exile or death4 ,with this control of girls or women the warriors1 the standing army1 have little or nothing to do1 even less in primitive life than in modern4 ,it is the old people1 the old women at times as well as the old men4 ,again it is the old men who are leaders in the exclusion of the women4 ,in control of the initiation of the youths1 they separate them from their mothers or sisters and often decree for the initiates a ceremonial avoidance of all women for a set time4 ,the penalties they threaten--sickness1 decrepitude1 effeminacy--are too dire to pass unheeded4 ,this avoidance has been explained as due to the monopolistic spirit of the elders4 ,with their women they want no interference by the youths4 ,but a far more plausible explanation1 ,i think1 takes the avoidance as a concentration rite1 so to speak1 a symbol1 if you like1 of the life ahead1 the life in which the boys1 made men1 are going to have little to do in public with women4 ,for even after the special avoidance of the initiation period ends1 the segregation of the sexes continues4 ,men keep together and away from women in their club-houses1 and in all the places of assembly which are differentiated from the primitive club-house--the church1 the council1 the workshop1 the gymnasium1 the university1 the play-house4 ,and from all the interests which center in these places men have from time to time excluded women1 they have excluded them from magic and religion1 from arts and letters1 from games1 from politics and1 let me add1 from war4 ,why are men so exclusive8 ,because--the reason will seem almost too simple1 ,i fear1 for acceptance--because now and always men do not want to be bothered by women4 ,women get in our way1 they say1 women are a nuisance4 ,almost anywhere away from home women are a nuisance--in church organization1 in the university1 in business1 etc4 ,of course if women can be kept apart from us in these activities and will stay in their place1 if they join an order of nuns or deaconesses1 if they go to a separate college in the university1 if they will become good stenographers1 we don't mind having their cooperation1 we welcome it4 ,women may even go to war--as an absolutely separate division of the army1 said the men of ,dahomi1 as non-combatant pahia women or workers of magic1 said the ,roro-speaking tribesmen of ,new ,guinea1 or as ,red 7dross nurses1 say the men of ,europe and ,america4 ,if we men can be sure women will not interfere with us1 we really do not mind4 ,women have only to give us that assurance of non-interference to make us doubt the assertion we sometimes make that in going to war they are interfering with the order of nature4 ,,an ,,interpretation ,,of ,,slavophilism ,,by ,,arthur ,d4 ,,rees ,,philadelphia1 ,,pa4 ,,there are good reasons for believing that the ,russians are practically the greatest peace people in ,christendom4 ,they are the least commercial in the competitive sense1 the least capitalistic also1 and as a people1 the least combative in ,europe1 despite the wrecks of warring dynasties that ten centuries have left upon their plains and the miscellaneous strifes and calamities of all kinds that have beset them4 ,always expanding along lines of least resistance2 absorbing by comparatively petty conquests1 decaying or scanty peoples2 reaching ,kamchatka in the ,far ,east with more ease than she reached the shores of the ,baltic2 never flinging her legions far and wide victoriously as did ,rome1 ,spain1 ,france or ,great ,britain--,russia remains to-day1 for the most part1 humble1 and1 in reality1 a conquered people1 living1 dreaming and preaching a morality born both of this humility and of the physical environment that has helped to foster it4 ,all ,muscovy can not be judged by those few who live in the saddle--the ,cossack population1 men and women1 numbers only about two million--nor by the pitiable pageant of despotism the observer beholds in their land3 pogroms1 poverty1 disease1 distress1 militarism1 orthodoxy and ,pan-,slavism4 ,russia has a soul in spite of these2 a gentle and beautiful soul1 only half revealed1 and too much concealed by her dilapidation and her dilemma2 a peaceful soul1 abnormally humble and devout1 and in respect to these qualities unequalled in ,christendom4 ,since the age of ,vladimir the ,holy1 ,the ,beautiful ,sun of ,kief1 in the tenth century1 ,russia has had the tradition of international peace4 ,vladimir wandered over the country1 sword and battle ax in hand1 like a reincarnation of ,thor1 armed with his mighty and wondrous hammer4 ,then came his yearning for a new religion--something to inspire his life better than ,perun--,russia's old god of thunder--and the other idols1 and a little later1 the picturesque investigation of his peripatetic commissioners having been completed1 he became a ,christian of the ,greek church1 was baptized with many fine and grand ceremonies1 compelled his docile people to do likewise1 and1 like a true ,northman that he was--the great grandson of ,rurik of the ,baltic wilds--he so impressed his frowsy hordes1 half ,scythian and half ,slav1 that now in the hearts of their descendants1 in their popular songs and legends1 in those concerning ,kief especially--a beautiful and pathetic strain of music eight centuries old--he1 ,vladimir1 is still the central heroic figure2 once a man1 but now a kind of god1 sent from ,heaven to rule1 enlighten and bring peace to his people and be known in story and song as ,vladimir the ,holy1 the ,beautiful ,sun of ,kief4 ,an old chronicle describes for us how his hordes drank their cup of trembling at his hands4 ,there1 around about the low hills of the southern ,dnieper ,river1 probably on the crumbling sandstone cliffs of ,kief--the city1 studded with jewel-like legends and famed for its golden palaces1 stood his candidates for baptism2 near by were priests from ,constantinople1 gorgeously arrayed1 chanting1 in strains unknown to the populace1 the ,greek church baptismal service4 ,then the democratic immersion6--rich man1 poor man and all1 at ,vladimir's command1 wade into the baptismal waters1 some up to their knees1 some to their waists1 some to their necks1 and1 thus finding a new faith from ,heaven1 they crossed themselves for the first time as the thunder rolled on high6 ,here is ,russia remembering her ,creator in the days of her youth--and forgetting ,him ever since2 from then on1 ,holy ,russia6 ,possibly ,holy ,vladimir1 at any rate1 for becoming1 with that ceremony1 peaceable1 except for self-defence1 he gave up all of his idols and his aggressive sword4 ,the former he scourged and cast into the river1 the latter he sheathed in its scabbard4 ,and all this about #ihh--the first peace movement of ,holy ,russia4 ,the faith of it1 and its vision and dream came early in her history and have not yet gone out or been extinguished4 ,before the next such movement1 time enough passed by to give the seasons and the winds and rains full opportunity to whittle down old ,kief's storied sandstone hills4 ,in #ahae1 the much-expanded realm of ,muscovy1 then a partner in the holy alliance1 proclaimed under ,alexander the ,first1 the ideal of peace4 ,this ,czar declared he would rule as a father over his children and in the interest of justice1 charity and peace1 and1 in so doing1 created the leading precedent for the peace program of ,nicolas the ,second4 ,alexander1 who in the first half of his reign ruled liberally for the days of ,napoleonic supremacy1 no doubt was sincere in his desire to govern in the spirit of brotherhood1 but in the latter years of his power1 he fell sadly short of this standard4 ,alexander the ,second1 the emancipator of forty-six million serfs1 may have had some world peace ideal in mind when he in #ahgd promoted a conference in ,brussels to codify the usages of war1 but the reaction from his earlier liberalism was setting in about this time and1 growing worse1 led to his assassination in #ahha4 ,the next move in the direction of peace came1 as the world rather well knows1 through the present ,czar1 ,nicolas the ,second1 who on ascending the throne in #ahid1 proclaimed that ,russia would rule in the interests of peace and would cultivate the arts of it4 ,in #ahih followed the first call for a ,world ,peace ,conference1 and in #ahii came another circular with a similar object4 ,but it is out of the kind heart of ,muscovy1 and from the troubled1 humble and penitent soul of ,russia that the real peace movement of her land has arisen4 ,for many centuries calamities have been pouring upon her plains1 profusely pouring--drought1 famine and invasions without number2 now ,rurik and his ,northmen to start the empire out of its prehistoric lethargy2 their dynasty of conquering blood still sharing in the rulership of the land to-day2 now the ,tartars1 remnants of whom with their high cheek bones are still visible in the ,baltic provinces2 particularly and always and ever poverty beyond description2 poverty1 disaster and conquest1 like triple demons to humiliate the soul of ,russia and keep her dumb for many centuries1 except for the beauty of her unending song4 ,and out of these conditions of life has grown the peace morality that is native to the ,russian people2 out of their sorrows and their conquered plains1 out of their broken hearts too1 although the economic genesis of it all is very apparent4 ,the ,russian people's ,russia has ever been under the overlords heel1 downtrodden years without number1 and yet it is a land which has never produced a system of military tactics and training--forever dependent for these creations upon her neighbors2 a land which has produced scarcely one great naval or military commander who to-day holds a place in history as do those of other nations2 a land whose people have been usually led to slaughter like sheep by ,northman or ,teutonic or ,polish generals2 whose armies have never been noted for their great campaigns1 and always have been poorly drilled1 managed and fed1 and never yet successful in any foreign wars4 ,surely from such a land as this1 no widespread war-morality or world-conquering legions could come4 ,in fact the very reverse has come to pass3 the philosophy of ,slavophilism has arisen in ,muscovy1 yet not so much arisen as it has developed with the ,russian soul1 not as a thing apart1 but as a quality thereof1 blossoming somehow with all other ,russian things1 out of the primitive ,scythian darkness4 ,the rebellious spirit having been crushed out of the generations since1 what is left but non-resistance8 ,yet in these latter years a resisting spirit1 nursed and suckled largely in western ,europe1 has falsely made it appear that all ,russia was in arms1 storming with chaotic unity at the church1 the state and the army1 deluging their ancient customs with the destructive and re-creative might of radicalism4 ,far and wide of the truth is this6 ,let no one think the vast heart of ,russia has changed6 ,only the few have cast away the ancient quiet2 only the few have the modern consciousness instead of the medieval1 theocratic one2 only the few are not at heart ,slavophiles in feeling and in morality4 ,this philosophy existed long in the national or social mind before it was crystallized into public doctrines1 and exists even yet largely in its more primitive unworded or instinctive form1 although it was ,peter the ,great who unconsciously awoke the latent and then unexpressed ,slavophilic feelings and moralities when he1 like a civilizing ,pied ,piper1 charmed the chieftains of industry of ,western ,europe to follow his trail into ,muscovy1 his ,empire of ,little ,villages1 and there regenerate them4 ,therefore at about the end of the seventeenth century in ,russia1 the dumb silent centuries gradually became articulate in expressing their opposition to all things western4 ,this is the heart of ,slavophilism1 and no one can truly fathom the ,russian soul before understanding its philosophy4 ,it is the ,muscovite theory of the simple life1 still crying out against the ,great ,peter's work and recalling the devotees of western culture to its idealization of medieval1 theocratic1 autocratic ,russia4 ,despite this reaction1 however1 it has a great meaning1 a tender beauty1 and a message of depth and power for our western world4 ,primarily ,russia is a peasant and an agricultural land1 and there is a colorless monotony in her vast plains4 ,indeed land and people are alike2 as in the average peasant there is patience1 resignation and submission1 so there is in the very land itself4 ,open and prostrate it lies beneath the torrid sun of the south1 and the arctic winds of the north2 subdued and downtrodden for centuries1 it and its people have always been at the mercy of ruthless men and rainless winds4 ,thus passive endurance has become one of the saving qualities of the ,russian's soul4 ,the peasant's nature is one that has few wants and little rebellious power4 ,the ,greek church of the simple gospel is his and a government of the ,czar's will4 ,his power of self renunciation is one which in ,slavophilic thought gives him true liberty4 ,therefore ask the followers of this doctrine1 what need is there of the constitutional liberties of the west1 or its republics or limited monarchies1 or its differences in ecclesiastical faith and structure8 ,slavophilism declares that ,russia has the only true freedom1 faith and brotherhood1 which other lands sadly lack4 ,in addition she has the ancient and splendid heritage of the communal land system1 wherein the inherent justice of the ,russian peasant's heart is shown by his voluntary division and re-division of the land among his brothers at stated times4 ,what need therefore1 ,slavophilism asks1 for the degenerate justice of the west8 ,none6 ,away with ,europe then6--the ,europe of competition and gruesome factories6 ,the ,europe of destructive forces1 of greedy land grabbers1 of capital and labor wars1 where society is held together1 not as in ,russia by the ties of affection1 brotherhood and communal interest1 but only by money and greed1 and where free thinkers1 atheists and materialists abound1 whose lives and thoughts would unsettle the holy1 orthodox feelings of ,russia1 disturb her ancient conscience and poison her humility with murmurings of discontent and rebellion4 ,away with the books of the west1 too6 ,and its agricultural implements6 ,wooden ploughs instead of chilled steel6 ,outdoor work and not indoor prisons called factories6 ,peasants working for centuries beneath the uncanopied sun1 and on the floors without walls1 will not let doors and brickwork thumbscrew their souls in confinement thus6 ,indoors awhile in winter will they labor1 but spring airs shatter the moralities of the time-clock and away to the fields they rush2 in the spring to sow and sing1 in the summer to sing again and at the harvest time too1 and then to plait the bearded stalks into wreaths and crown the maidens with sheaths of corn2 the hymns for the death of winter and the birth of spring1 marriage songs and funeral dirges and chants of olden times well intermingled with the labor of their hands4 ,herein the poetry of agricultural1 peaceable ,russia clashes with the prosaic efficiency of the west1 the efficiency of commercial wars1 strikes and class struggles which peasant ,muscovy has known so little4 ,and again1 ,slavophilism1 with its theory of successive civilizations1 culled perhaps from the philosophy of ,hegel1 each civilization superior to its forerunner1 comes to show us a vision3 the gradual displacement of one type of society by another1 but continuing what is best in the preceding until nothing except what is good remains and universal peace results1 thus portraying the displacement of national civilizations by universal ones1 from which ultimately an idealistic world policy will result1 and the federation and peace of men4 ,some ,slavophiles saw even in ,peter's work a process of progressing from nationality to universality4 ,in his time there was the same yearning toward its peaceful ideal4 ,the ,old ,russia party wanted ,peter to renounce war and conquest4 ,alexis1 his own murdered son1 worked with this element which was very largely representative of the nation4 ,to them1 ,st4 ,petersburg1 then a new and growing capitol1 was typical of change1 unrest and falsity2 ,moscow was in their hearts the only capital1 typical of ,russia's old comfort and quiet4 ,many nobles antagonized ,peter1 but he swept them aside1 imprisoning them or sending them to the gallows4 ,like ,russia's slight resistance to ,rurik and others1 and to the ,tartars1 so was her feebleness before ,peter the ,great1 who was himself1 however1 by no means an accomplished military leader1 but an enlightened barbarian1 dealing with a people whom writers and observers declare to be endowed with conspicuous traits of humility1 scarcely found in the ,christian nations of the western world4 ,russian fiction represents its people in the same way4 ,unaggressive characters1 who talk and think but do not act1 fill its novels2 they dream of the great age of the ,universal ,idea that shall come for all and regenerate the rotten west1 where rationalism is the original sin2 the typical west that ,slavophilism condemns--the west of the struggles between the rulers and the ruled2 between ,scripture and tradition and the upper and lower classes4 ,the ,slavophile idea1 in theory at least1 leaves no room for this4 ,christian love and humility and peasant communes1 where rationalism1 strife and rebellion are unknown1 must be instituted in the west2 then the ,universal ,idea of ,russia will create ,millennial times4 ,this was the ,messianic hope of ,slavophilism1 and perhaps is yet to a great degree destined in the minds of its devotees to give the last feature to the development of the world1 so that the love and feeling of the east would appease the discord of the west1 diluting its discipline and its logic with true religious intuition and humility1 and eventually the idealized relationship of autocracy for the ,czar and self-government for the people--the old system so rudely strained by ,peter the ,great--would permeate the ruled and rulers of the world4 ,here then is ,slavophilism6 ,and pacific ,russia--the heart and soul of her1 claiming this to be the true ethical and spiritual ideal for her people1 and censoring her upper class1 with its foreign culture1 materialism1 and infidelity1 as being the only real traitor to this saving morality of the ancient regime4 ,among the prominent advocates of this philosophy might be mentioned1 first1 ,constantine ,aksakoff1 ,russia's ,rousseau1 who in the middle of the nineteenth century1 was a virtuous propagandist of the doctrine4 ,he earnestly1 even religiously1 preached the return of ,russia from the allurements of western ,europe1 unto her own theory of national salvation1 declaring that the social order of the west is on a false foundation and that ,slavophilism would offset its degeneracy1 if only ,russia would free herself from the false class leadership for whose origin the ,great ,peter stands the convicted sponsor6 ,thus ,slavophilism1 under the leadership of ,aksakoff1 instead of leading forward with the great liberal movement that came after the ,crimean ,war1 resulting finally in the emancipation of the serfs1 would lead backward to the stagnant hours of medieval ,russia4 ,then there were no ,german words to disfigure the ,russian language6 ,then there were no ,german divisions of rank among the officials to strangle life by their formality4 ,no1 none of these1 nor the disturbing importations of ,peter2 in ,aksakoff's variation of the gospel1 the ,russians are the beyond men and need them not4 ,thus before ,peter's reign all was ,slavophilic6--a religion of the simple ,christian gospel1 a church considering itself the only true ecclesia1 a government of the ,czar's will1 a life of passive humility2 creating freedom of conscience and speech for the peasants1 and freedom of activity and legislation for the rulers1 unknown in modern corrupted ,russia6 ,and thus was old peaceable-hearted ,muscovy of the past centuries pictured as the metropolis of true political and individual morality4 ,herzen1 too1 an able pamphleteer in revolutionary things1 preached something similar1 crying from his pulpit at home or in exile1 that ,russia would solve all her problems and lead the human race by the simplicity of the ,slavophile ideal4 ,his early and rabid westernism was greatly tempered on contact with the west4 ,disillusion and disgust overcame him4 ,the mercantilism of the bourgeoisie there drove him into ,aksakoff's fold1 and he too thereafter found faith alone in the regenerative power of ,russia1 and her system of the mir1 the central sun of the ,slavophilic state1 the village commune1 self-governing and self-contained4 ,and then from that1 this was to ensue3 the whole world made of village communes as in ,russia1 perhaps even their log cabins too1 and fresh mud to go with them on their walls6 ,but this did not deter the vision of these evangelists4 ,the commune was to be indefinitely extended2 national and international ones were to be organized1 all self- governing1 and then would follow as the night the day1 universal peace wherever these communes were found4 ,this is the ,utopia ,russia has given to the world to stand beside ,plato's1 or ,sir ,thomas ,more's or ,morris's or ,bellamy's4 ,this was the dream of pacific ,pan-,slavism4 ,dostoievsky himself is of it1 and is luminous not with a mere facet flash of its philosophy but with the whole orb of it4 ,to him the ,russians are more than human1 they are pan-human4 ,count ,tolstoi too must be listed with these preachers4 ,he1 making his own shoes and cutting his own and the peasants' grain1 lived it1 showing how he thought the world's work ought to be done4 ,what were factories or the culture of the west to him in later years--,shakespeare or no ,shakespeare8 ,destructive ideals of life4 ,competition1 money and land greed1 self-assertion--all things that are the anthitheses of ,slavophilism--he shunned2 mocking the palsied heart and poisoned ideals of the west1 and indeed of the upper class section of his own land as no other ,slavophile did4 ,and following its teaching1 he journeyed through self-renunciation to freedom and communal life1 after repentance for his wanderings1 expiation and regeneration4 ,dostoievsky1 on the other hand1 reached this philosophy largely by being born to it among the humble people who lived it4 ,melancholy-minded by nature--a sort of a ,russian ,dante but living in actual infernos and purgatorios1 ,siberia and prison cells1 he came at last to worship his fellow countrymen and their ideals as almost nothing else in heaven or earth1 and bowed down before them as the only remnant left of ,christian humility1 destined by ,providence to regenerate the world4 ,here is ,slavophilism in a fervid extreme4 ,the ,down-trodden and ,offended1 ,memoirs of a ,dead ,house1 ,crime and ,punishment1 ,poor ,people1--these1 the titles of his novels1 show the predilections of his own soul4 ,he died in the mystic frenzy of this enthusiasm4 ,here then1 in this philosophy and in the lives of these men1 is something of the soul of ,russia1 beautiful in its humility1 yet not so humble that it is not ambitious to embrace the world in the folding arms of its peace1 its communal government and its morality4 ,pan-,slavism of this nature is the only kind that in truth can ever come from ,russia4 ,pan-,slavism of the military sort1 with musketry1 bribery and all other diabolic black arts1 miscalled government1 rests on such a slim foundation that it need be but little apprehended4 ,it was this brotherly humble soul of ,russia that greatly helped to put an end to the ,russo-,japanese war3 not merely failing finances and lack of transportation4 ,the feeling of a kindly people for their own and a neighboring race caused widespread mismanagement1 opposition and wholesale desertions from the army1 among both the officers and the men4 ,the ,romanoff family and official ,russia caused the conflict1 but human ,russia1 humble and poor1 was a great factor in its conclusion4 ,there is no doubt1 however1 that a certain number of ,slavophiles are addicted to the military mania1 and this form of their belief is more dangerously reactionary than its ordinary phase4 ,many of these belong to the bureaucratic caste4 ,official ,russia holds aloft the eagle2 human ,russia the dove4 ,official ,russia leads the anti-,jewish massacres2 human ,russia is very little responsible for pogroms4 ,ignatieff1 ,father of ,lies1 a bureaucrat of the military ,pan-,slavic breed1 about #ahhb1 began the worst persecutions against the ,jews in the last generation1 and possibly ,pobiedonosteff1 the late procurator of the ,holy ,synod1 was the worst offender in this one4 ,the peaceful feelings of the masses of the people1 however1 do not sanction these outbreaks1 and ,slavophilism of such a sort is not the philosophy of the ,russian heart1 no matter how many pogroms may be enumerated4 ,it is therefore to human ,russia that one must look for the true feelings of the people2 to their faith and deeds1 to the humility of their devotions1 and prostrations before their numberless shrines and ikons1 to their religious ceremonies in the open fields for huge detachments of the army1 to the thousands of their yearly pilgrims to ,jerusalem1 to their superstitions1 their poverty and long-suffering1 all of which attest innate passive endurance and non-resistance1 and show their kind of ,slavophilism1 which all in all1 is much more than mere reverence for barbarism4 ,the war-time excitement in their cities seemed characteristic of this national soul3 ,russia is the ,mother of ,servia was the street cry of the marching throngs4 ,it might be added that the word mother1 matushka1 is a prevalent one in expressing their feelings4 ,they call their greatest river the ,mother ,volga4 ,conquering ,rome said ,father ,tiber and the native warriors of this continent called the ,mississippi the ,father of ,waters4 ,the difference in these appellations shows the tender quality of the ,russian soul1 whose ardent sympathies in ,july1 #aiad1 were greatly aroused by the spectacle of a large nation attacking a small one1 notwithstanding whatever may be said to justify that deed4 ,finally1 however1 let it be added1 that the one thing that will recreate ,russia in the image of the west1 is capital4 ,once let the vast sums that have invaded ,muscovy be put1 not to the autocratic purpose of the official rulers1 but into factories1 mines1 city subways and transportation of all kinds1 irrigation1 canals1 agricultural implements and to other productive uses1 then capitalistic ,russia will stand forth shorn of the ,slavophilic simplicities of non-resistance and humility4 ,labor wars1 practically unknown hitherto1 yet now beginning1 will occur in much greater number and the peasant class1 still unified1 will be torn asunder by differences in wealth and interests2 the middle class1 now very small1 will grow to large proportions1 and many destructive forces will come upon the land which has hitherto mocked western ,europe because of their presence there4 ,the many centuries of peasant unity1 with its beauty of brotherhood1 affection and communal interests1 will come to an end under such a new regime4 ,already competitive forces are dissolving communism in land1 and many of the old beauties of ,russia are disappearing4 ,capitalism will bring with it much turmoil and strife1 unhappiness and death1 but also the dawn of brighter hours2 newer and better cities1 cleaner water1 better food1 houses and clothes1 and after the stress of its first attack is over1 and ,russia has evolved laws and means to control and socialize the invader1 it may be that the old simplicities and beauties of life will return1 and a greater and holier ,russia will arise1 still able to teach and aid in the regeneration of the rest of the world4 ,,physical ,,training ,,as ,,mental ,,training ,,by ,,dr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,mc,b,r,i,d,e ,,pasadena1 ,,california ,,the first duty of a people is to provide for the health of its children4 ,the possible human value of any country fifty years ahead depends chiefly upon what is done by and for its children4 ,they are the future in the making4 ,history seems to justify the statement of ,professor ,tyler#a that conquering races have been physically strong races1 and that nations have failed when they became degenerate4 #a ,growth and ,education1 ,j4 ,m4 ,tyler4 ,dionysius1 speaking of the advantage of virility in a nation1 said1 ,it is a law of ,nature common to all mankind1 which no time shall annul or destroy1 that those who have more strength and excellence shall bear rule over those who have less4 ,this law applies equally to individuals4 ,skill1 cunning and reason play their part1 but the animal quality of endurance is always back of these and is often decisive in a contest4 ,darwin said he had difficulty in applying the law of the survival of the fittest to the facts of the destruction of ,greece until it occurred to him that in this instance the strongest was the fittest4 ,civilized people's have been destroyed by ruder races that were physically superior4 ,the children that are now in our schools will take to adult life such foundation as heredity has furnished1 with the equipment that society may care to add4 ,we of this day have no greater obligation than to prepare these children mentally and physically for the duties that maturity may bring4 ,man did not escape the physical necessities of the body when he became civilized2 the advantages of health are as great to-day as when our forebears lived in tents4 ,very few of the primitive man's activities are left2 what he did regularly and from necessity we do incidentally1 and usually for sport1 and yet the demands upon the energies of man have not been lessened1 they have only been changed in form4 ,our educational authorities1 though in many instances interested in physical development of the young1 have not given the subject the important place in their program that it deserves4 ,this is not wholly due to indifference1 but largely to their ideals that were derived from classical-ascetic standards4 ,in the medieval ideal the human body was animal and sinful1 to be despised and repressed4 ,the mind was said to be the spiritual element in man1 representing the immortal part of his nature1 and therefore was the only part worthy of attention in an educational system4 ,from the fall of the ,roman empire to the later nineteenth century this ideal dominated education4 ,the medieval universities1 including ,oxford and ,cambridge1 provided only for mental training4 ,their education was intended for those who were to follow the professions or to become scholars or gentlemen of leisure4 ,education was not intended to prepare the great mass of men for the every-day work of life4 ,while only indirectly related to my subject1 it is interesting to recall that there was in this country in the early nineteenth century much opposition to the establishment of common schools for the masses4 ,it was claimed that those who belonged to the working classes did not need to be educated4 ,our own colleges and universities were originally founded on the old classical-ascetic model1 so that the spirit of the medieval period survived in the educational plan of this country4 ,it is only in recent decades that these institutions have begun to depart from the older1 formal1 classical methods that made education a privilege of the few1 the average man being deprived of the advantages of the training that he needed4 ,because of this the humble millions of men and women who wove and spun1 and fed and housed the world were left out of the educational scheme4 ,some years ago a ,london weekly paper1 which speaks for the conservative class of ,england1 in discussing certain suggested innovations in ,english higher education1 said that the great merit of education at ,oxford and ,cambridge was that it was absolutely useless4 ,by this it was probably meant that the education was for a chosen few1 was not intended to prepare men for the practical work of life and was essentially and only an intellectual and cultural training4 ,the change of attitude that is seen in our day is due chiefly to two great discoveries3 the re-discovery of the human body and its relation to our mentality and the discovery of the mind of the child and youth4 ,we have found that man is an animal who graduated from caves and dugouts and to whom even barbarism was a lade and great achievement4 ,that the human body was made by the experiences of that rude life1 and that since then we have made no change in it except to stand on two feet4 ,neither have we added one nerve cell or fiber to our brains since the day when the cave was home and uncooked food the daily diet4 ,the conception of man as an animal has led to a study of him as such4 ,educators as a class now concede that the physical man must be considered as an essential part of their scheme1 that the brain is an organ of the body among other organs1 and is subject to the same laws and influenced by similar conditions4 ,the influence of the mind upon the body is a commonplace of psychology1 but the influence of the body upon the mind is of equal importance1 though less frequently emphasized4 ,whatever one's theory of the nature of mind1 it must be considered in relation to the brain as the organ of its expression4 ,the mind has1 too1 a broader base than the brain1 for every organ of the body has some share in the mental functions4 ,every physician knows that physical disease lowers the quality of the thinking and1 with the exception of a few geniuses like ,darwin and ,leopardi1 it makes impossible intellectual work of a high order4 ,disorders of the internal organs rob the brain of nourishment and weaken it1 and by obtruding their morbidness upon it they batter down its resistances and lower the thinking power4 ,though we can never know the history of man's origin1 the lives of the child and of the wild man help us to understand something of the order of racial development4 ,all the higher mental faculties grow in the child as they grew in the race--out of impulse1 instinct1 feeling2 and from infancy to maturity we recapitulate mentally and physically the early human-making stages1 short circuiting in twenty years the race-process4 ,the life of physical activity that the child leads develops and coordinates the brain and the muscular system4 ,in this way the great motor functions are organized in the brain and become part of the physical basis of mind4 ,the older education that trained the intellect exclusively1 without reference to the practical demands of life or the needs of the body1 was inadequate in that it ignored the law of thinking and doing4 ,it is true that there is much to its credit1 as many fine spirits have testified4 ,they at least survived it4 ,stanley ,hall says we think in terms of muscular movement1 and this expresses the most important single fact in the mature mentality4 ,that the mind is largely constituted of memories of muscular movements is basic in development4 ,the muscles are the special organs of volition1 the one part of the body that the mind can directly command and act on4 ,the muscles are preeminently the mind's instruments1 the visible and moving part of its machinery4 ,they are thought carriers1 and during the growth period their functional activities are organized into the mental life4 ,this is why we think in terms of muscular movement1 and why muscular training supplies a natural need of the developing mind4 ,the normal boy says little or nothing of what he thinks1 but much of what he is doing or intends to do4 ,he has the motor mind1 the instinct for doing things by which he builds the brain and body4 ,it is nature's way of laying the foundation in the individual as by the more tedious process of evolution she laid it in the race4 ,the mental development of the normal infant is indicated by the increasing accuracy and delicacy of muscular coordination4 ,the feeble-minded child very early shows its mental defect in the clumsy use of its muscles4 ,because of the functional relation of the voluntary muscles and the mentality1 physical training is in a large degree mental training4 ,when by such training we give dexterity to muscles of the growing person we are making possible better mental development2 that is1 because of this relation of the mind to action there is a direct mental discipline in the thought-out processes of physical activity4 ,if1 then1 we make physical development a part of our educational process1 we are taking advantage of race tendencies1 we are starting the individual as nature started the race2 we are laying the foundation in the individual as it was originally laid in the race2 we are building as the race built4 ,exclusively intellectual training may be sufficient for the genius or for the few who have great initiative and intellectual self-confidence1 but for the great mass of boys and girls this training is not sufficient4 ,it does not prepare the young for the kind of work that three fourths of them will have to do4 ,we are now beginning to recognize this and through manual training1 vocational guidance1 etc41 we are teaching boys and girls how to do things1 and this1 too1 has the additional merit of being1 in a measure1 physical training4 ,educators1 until recently1 have1 in emphasizing the paramount importance of mental training1 lost sight of the needs of the body4 ,their classical ideals and formal methods made dead languages1 mathematics1 philosophy etc41 the school diet of boys whose normal hunger was for action1 and for learning by doing4 ,sir ,william ,hamilton1 who wrote fairy tales in metaphysics for a generation of ,scotchmen1 placed these lines over the doorway of his lecture room4 ,in earth there 's nothing great but ,man2 ,in ,man there 's nothing great but ,mind4 ,this sounds well1 but it is poor philosophy4 ,there is much in earth that is great besides man and much in man that is great besides his mind4 ,the older type of metaphysician with his staggering vocabulary and his bag of categories has now chiefly a historic interest4 ,in the modern view the interdependence of mind and body is a fundamental fact of life4 ,as science reveals the physiologic marvels of the once despised body1 the latter grows in our respect1 for we find that its seeming humble functions are intimately related to our highest powers4 ,sir ,william's couplet gives a hint of the dominance of the classical method of his day4 ,it overemphasized the importance of reason and too often converted the youthful mind into a rag bag of useless information4 ,the educators of that time and since have thought more highly of human reason than experience justifies4 ,with their medieval bias for a world of will and reason1 they drove the young with the whip and spur of emulation toward what to them seemed the one possible goal1 intellectual achievement4 ,we exaggerate the share that reason has in conduct4 ,in the history of the race1 which is epitomized in the life of every individual1 reason was a late outgrowth of feeling1 passion1 impulse1 instinct4 ,it was these older faculties that ruled the life of the primitive man who made the race1 and it was through them that the race gradually rose to reason by what ,emerson would call the spiral stairway of development4 ,these functions of impulse and instinct dominate the life of the child and they are only a little less potent in the conduct of us grownups4 ,much of what we call reason is feeling1 and much of our life activities are due to desire1 sentiment1 instinct and habit1 which1 under the illusion of reason1 determine our decisions and conduct4 ,some one has said that reason is the light that nature has placed at the tip of instinct1 and it is certainly true that without these earlier1 basal faculties reason would be a feeble light4 ,during the growing period these are specially strong1 and the important thing is that they be guided and organized in relation to the needs of maturity4 ,in combining mental and physical training we are in some measure furnishing this guidance1 doing intentionally what nature did originally without design4 ,in the uncivilized state the stress of life was chiefly physical4 ,the civilized man has to a large degree reversed this old order1 in that the use of the body is incidental in his work1 the stress being placed upon the brain4 ,he piles his life high with complexities and in place of life being for necessities1 and they few and simple1 it is largely for comforts which we call necessities1 and ,professor ,huxley has said that the struggle for comforts is more cruel than the struggle for existence4 ,this stress which is put upon conscious effort in civilization places a new and severe tax upon the brain4 ,it intensifies and narrows the range of man's activities2 it causes him to specialize and localize the strain to a degree that may be dangerous4 ,it is certainly true that every man has his breaking strain1 and there is nothing that will raise the limit of endurance like a strong and well-developed body4 ,the ,italian physiologist1 ,mosso1 showed by an ingenious device that when a person lying quite still was required to add a column of figures1 blood left the extremities and flowed toward the brain4 ,any emotional state or effort of thought produces the same result4 ,this demonstration that we think to our fingers' ends suggests the importance of a strong body as a prompt support in mental work4 ,all our work1 mental as well as physical1 is a test of endurance1 not a test that is spiritual and non-material1 but even in the sphere of the mind it is plainly animal and physical4 ,thinking is primarily a physical process and draws upon the vital stores of every organ4 ,the energy that makes clear thinking possible depends largely upon the vigor of the body1 and to the extent that this fails1 the brain functions suffer4 ,therefore1 any work1 mental or physical1 will be better done and more easily done if the body is strong4 ,other things being equal1 the intellectual work of the strong man will be better done than similar work by one of equal talent1 but who is not strong4 ,big muscles are not necessary in physical development4 ,many people are not designed for big muscles1 and any attempt by them to produce a heavy1 massive development may do harm4 ,what is wanted is vigor1 skill1 muscular readiness and a reawakening of the old associations of thought and action4 ,such training goes further than thought and action1 for it reaches all the organs and adds immensely to the vital capacity and working power of the individual4 ,the play instinct of the child is as old as the race1 or older1 and is a vitally important factor1 not only in physical development1 but also in mental development4 ,in its destructive and disorderly activities the child shows the later adult forces in the formative stage4 ,old instincts and movements that were once self-preservative and of serious meaning to a wild ancestor reappear in the play of children1 and1 utilized wisely1 may under new form become a valuable possession of the adult4 ,there is a great big man1 in fact1 several possible men1 inside every boy4 ,through his running1 jumping1 fighting1 swimming1 through impulse1 instincts and emotions he is seeking the man that is in him1 and it is by this turbulent and experimental course that he finally comes to the order of maturity4 ,every boy is a vitally coiled up set of springs pressing to be released4 ,race-old energies are struggling in him for expression1 and play is the normal way to satisfy the great demand4 ,the child may miss some important things and yet get on1 but it can not1 without severe and lasting harm miss the instinctive activities of play4 ,in play and games the young are re-enacting these old muscular coordinations and developing mind and body on the old foundation4 ,the boy's love of outdoor sports and the adventures of hunting are significant4 ,those ancestors of ours who hunted and fished and shaped with care their arrow heads were developing a manual skill and thinking power that we inherit4 ,we use our muscles for more varied and possibly more finished purposes1 but it is through the patience and practise of their rude lives that we possess the delicate uses of the hands and the finer dexterities of the mind4 ,the boy who goes whistling to the fields1 or hunts1 or fishes1 or swims1 is unconsciously reaching out toward later life and is preparing for serious and bigger things4 ,the growing formative period of life is the time for good physical development4 ,whatever is gained and fixed then is permanent1 as it becomes a part of the physiological habits of the individual4 ,the years before twenty decide the future energy stores1 and the capacity to endure4 ,every function enlarged1 every gain of power1 is additional storage room for energy1 to be drawn upon in the coming days of adult stress4 ,good physical development not only gives strength and skill in the use of the body1 but develops a physiological habit of surplus power that may be called quantity of energy4 ,life is not alone in quality1 in delicacy of adjustment1 in accuracy1 in fineness of feeling2 it is also in quantity4 ,the poet who1 with frail physique and feeble pulse1 sits in his quiet retreat and puts his fine fancies into the rhythms of verse has quality4 ,but in the stress and rivalry of life that awaits the majority of men1 there is a need for quantity of energy1 such as enabled a ,washington or a ,caesar or a ,napoleon or a ,wellington to shoulder his way through difficulties4 ,these men combined quality with quantity and this combination may make1 and often does make1 the life of masterful achievement4 ,the quantity of energy in us average men may make the difference between success and failure4 ,many men fail in life for lack of staying power1 for lack of that kind of endurance that is furnished by having power in reserve4 ,the strong1 confident person who has strength to spare1 reserves of energy1 does his work easily and without friction4 ,half the timidities and indecisions of men are chargeable less to lack of ability than to lack of the physical vigor1 the ,,quantity of energy1 which is the driving power of character4 ,in all the contests of life an important element in success is the ability to endure prolonged stress1 to have the reserve energy that can be drawn upon and utilized as a driving force4 ,this power is not alone necessary in the emergencies1 the short hauls of life1 but also in the long hauls that spread the strain through greater periods4 ,many of the failures of life are due as much to lack of ability to meet prolonged stress as to lack of experience or intelligence4 ,men of moderate ability but with great powers of endurance often succeed1 while men of greater talent fail for lack of the ability to endure strain4 ,the man with a weak body and without the self-confidence that surplus energy gives is liable to be of uncertain judgment4 ,such a man in the presence of a problem requiring quick decision1 doubts and hesitates and stands shivering on the brink of action while hastening opportunities pass him by4 ,much of the loose thinking of our time is undoubtedly due to poor educational drill4 ,in fact the failure of the schools to teach pupils how to apply the mind and how to think is one of their common reproaches4 ,inability to use the mind effectively is also frequently due to a lack of vigor and physical stamina4 ,a person with poor digestion1 or under-developed body1 or weak circulation has of necessity a badly nourished brain4 ,such a brain1 unless it belongs to a genius1 will do poor thinking4 ,the mentally trained person who is also physically strong has the combination that puts his powers at easy command4 ,he can be joyously busy doing the impossible because the doing of it has been made easy by training4 ,how much native power there is in all of us that for want of proper training or sympathetic encouragement never comes to maturity6 ,how many of the finer qualities of character that1 for want of a kindlier climate of cheerful companionship and wise direction1 failed to mature and now lie dead in us6 ,very many people are only partly alive4 ,a large part1 and in some1 the best part1 is dead4 ,the capacity they show is probably only a small share of a fine inheritance which1 not knowing how to use1 they allowed to die4 ,we have an instinctive liking for people who are strong and healthy4 ,they appeal to us by their robustness and their confident display of energy4 ,we do not now need the big muscles that were once necessary in wielding spear and battle-axe4 ,we need1 however1 as much as the race ever needed well-developed bodies and habits of health4 ,it is not difficult for us to see that sports and games and play help to physical development1 but it is not so plain that they may be made to develop the best qualities of character4 ,it is a fact1 however1 that all the important elements of character are tried out in games and sports4 ,enthusiasm1 self-confidence1 the adventurous spirit1 alertness1 promptness1 unselfishness1 cooperation1 quick judgment--all these have their training and discipline on the game field4 ,they comprise those fundamental native qualities that have gone to make humanity what it is4 ,the young should have this training1 and1 if of the right kind1 it may be made to contribute to the making of the best kind of character4 ,the same quickness and accuracy of judgment that enable a boy to win a point in football may in later life be used to win a battle or save a business venture4 ,beyond this1 there is of course gained the strong body that makes work easy and stress less difficult to bear4 ,hall calls attention to the fact that two generations ago1 ,jahn1 the great builder of ,german physique1 roused the then despairing ,german nation by preaching the gospel of strong bodies4 ,he created a new spirit in ,germany1 and the whole nation was aroused and seized with an enthusiasm for outdoor games and sports1 and there arose a new cult for the body4 ,his pupils sang of a united fatherland and of a stronger race4 ,the ,germans are in the habit of reminding us that it was about one generation after ,jahn that the ,german ,empire was founded and ,germany became a world power4 ,every argument for the physical training of boys applies with equal force to girls4 ,women need to be physically as strong as men4 ,no race will remain virile and progressive unless both the fathers and mothers have the physical stamina that produces healthy1 vigorous offspring4 ,in this age1 when women are going out into the world to compete with men it is highly important that they be physically strong if they are to stand the stress successfully4 ,it was from rough barbarians1 the rude war-loving ,teutonic men and women described by ,tacitus1 that the ,anglo-,saxon race inherited those splendid qualities of mind and body that have made their descendants masters of seas and continents4 ,it has been objected that gymnastics and field sports make girls coarse and mannish4 ,the exact opposite has been found to be the case4 ,it has been observed in colleges that when young women are properly led1 their sports1 in place of making them mannish1 have a marked refining influence4 ,they care more for correct posture because this is made one of their tests in athletic sports4 ,they develop better manners and a new sense of pride in their appearance4 ,they soon learn to avoid slang1 loud talking and boisterous behavior4 ,in the ,university of ,chicago where they have excellent training1 many of the girls have said that they came to have a new sense of dignity and to care more for their personal appearance4 ,they also develop the finer elements of character1 a cooperative spirit1 obedience to commands1 patience1 self-confidence1 a spirit of comradeship1 a democratic attitude and an appreciation of good qualities in others wherever found4 ,all of these esthetic1 social and moral qualities1 woven into the texture of the growing character1 and with the vigorous health that the physical training brings1 are the best contribution to the making of the most effective type of the womanly woman4 ,all games and sports and athletics for the young should therefore make for refinement and esthetic development4 ,the state needs now1 and will always need1 men and women who have sound bodies and abounding energy4 ,the harsher phases of the human struggle may pass and wars may cease1 but the old contests of races1 nations and individuals will continue under other forms4 ,as the race grows older life will become more largely mental4 ,the increasing complexity of human relations and the more delicate adjustments that these relations require will bring a new and finer social order that will make higher demands upon reason4 ,while there is no evidence that experience or time or training will ever change the structure of the brain1 it is probable that we have as yet but imperfectly utilized our mental possibilities4 ,stratton says3 ,out of the depths of the mind new powers are always emerging4#b #b ,experimental ,psychology and ,culture1 ,george ,m4 ,stratton4 ,back of the mental life1 and making it possible1 are the energies of the body1 the functioning of the animal in man1 which in the brain are changed to the higher uses of the mind4 ,the ability to execute1 to act effectively1 to do and keep doing1 to do the work of the professional man1 the banker1 or the scientist1 all this is primarily physical1 and from top to bottom of man's activities the physical test is applied4 ,with the mental and emotional strain of civilized life goes the physical strain which is the other half of the struggle1 and which now and always is both mental and physical4 ,the ,greeks recognized this unity of mind and body twenty-five hundred years ago and their results remain unmatched by any race4 ,they saw that the thought-out movements of physical training resulted in mental training and this law of mental development through physical training was a fundamental principle in their educational plan4 ,the nation that will again make this an ideal will produce a finer race of men1 and other things equal1 will excel in all that makes a people great4 ,,edward ,,jenner ,,and ,,vaccination ,,by ,,professor ,d4 ,,fraser ,,harris1 ,m4,d41 ,d4,sc4 ,,dalhousie ,,university1 ,,halifax1 ,n4 ,s4 ,,we are so exceedingly apt to take our blessings as a matter of course that at the present time a large number of us have quite forgotten1 and some of us have never known1 what a terrible disease smallpox is and from how much suffering national vaccination has saved us4 ,but even many of us1 who may not be included amongst those who know nothing of smallpox1 do come within the group of those who know next to nothing of the life and work of ,dr4 ,edward ,jenner4 ,a number of persons think he was ,sir ,william ,jenner1 physician to ,queen ,victoria4 ,an infectious or communicable disease is one caused by the admission of some form of living matter into the body of a human being or of a lower animal4 ,all diseases are clearly not communicable in the sense that they are due to the presence of living things4 ,indigestion1 for instance1 ,i can not communicate to my neighbor1 however serious my dietetic indiscretions4 ,now1 while the actual microorganisms causing many of the infectious diseases have been discovered in these recent days through the agency of the microscope--one of science's most valuable gifts to suffering humanity--a few diseases undoubtedly infectious have1 even up to the present time1 not had their microorganic causes discovered4 ,smallpox or variola is one of these4 ,the term variola is from the ,latin varus1 a pimple4 ,the name ,small ,pox1 which first occurs in ,holinshead's ,chronicle 7#aega71 was given to this disease to distinguish it from the ,great ,pox or syphilis1 the ,french disease1 or ,morbus ,gallicus which attained the proportions of an epidemic in ,europe about #adid4 ,the expression ,the ,pox in the older medical literature always refers to the ,lues ,venereal ,the word pox is the plural form of pock2 the spelling pox is phonetic2 pocks is the correct form4#a #a ,thus the following expression in ,galt's ,annals of the ,parish is justified--,my son ,gilbert was seized with the smallpox and was blinded by ,,them for seventeen days4 ,smallpox is unquestionably a highly infectious or communicable disease1 and in the language of a past day1 there is a virus or poison which can pass from the sick to the unaffected2 when this transference occurs on a large scale we speak of an epidemic of smallpox4 ,as ,sir ,william ,osler truly says1 ,it is not a little remarkable that in a disease1 which is rightly regarded as the type of all infectious maladies1 the specific virus still remains unknown4 ,the same1 however1 is true of the common diseases of scarlatina1 measles and chickenpox4 ,of some diseases1 the virus is a bacillus or coccus1 excessively minute fungi recognizable only under the microscope2 but the bacteriologists are now beginning to speak of viruses so impalpable that they1 unlike ordinary bacteria1 can go through the pores of a clay filter1 are filter-passers1 that is are of ultra-microscopic dimensions4 ,some authorities conjecture that the virus of variola belongs to the group of filter-passers4 ,the virus of smallpox1 however1 is very resistant and can be carried through the air for considerable distances2 it clings for long periods to clothes1 books1 furniture1 etc4 ,i shall not now digress to give the clinical details of a case of smallpox2 the eruption may be slight or it may be very extensive4 ,it occurs in three forms1 discrete1 confluent and hemorrhagic4 ,the most dangerous form of smallpox is the confluent1 in which the face and arms particularly are covered with large pustular areas of a most disfiguring appearance4 ,the disease called chickenpox1 or varicella1 has no relationship to smallpox and does not protect from it1 nor does smallpox protect from chickenpox4 ,,history ,,of ,,smallpox ,there seems very little doubt that the home of smallpox was somewhere on the continent of ,africa1 although it is true that there are traditions pointing to its existence in ,hindustan at least #ajjj ,b4,c4 ,one ,hindu account alludes to an ointment for removing the cicatrices of eruption4 ,africa has certainly for long been a prolific source of it3 every time a fresh batch of slaves was brought over to the ,united ,states of ,america there was a fresh outbreak of smallpox4#b ,it seems that the first outbreak in ,europe in the ,christian era was in the latter half of the sixth century1 when it traveled from ,arabia1 visiting ,egypt on the way4 ,the earliest definite statements about it come from ,arabia and are contained in an ,arabic manuscript now in the ,university of ,leyden1 which refers to the years ,a4,d4 #egj and #ega4 ,there is a good deal of evidence that the ,arabs introduced smallpox into ,egypt at the sacking of ,alexandria in ,a4,d4 #fdj4 ,pilgrims and merchants distributed it throughout ,syria and ,palestine and along the north of ,africa2 then1 crossing the ,mediterranean1 they took it over to ,italy4 ,the ,moors introduced it into ,spain whence1 via ,portugal1 ,navarre1 ,languedoc and ,guienne it was carried into western and northern ,europe4 ,the earliest physician to describe smallpox is ,ahrun1 a ,christian ,egyptian1 who wrote in ,greek4 ,he lived in ,alexandria from ,a4,d4 #faj to #fda4 ,the first independent treatise on the disease was by the famous ,arabian physician1 ,rhazes1 who wrote in ,syriac in #ibj ,a4,d41 but his book has been translated into both ,greek and ,latin4 ,the first allusion to smallpox in ,english is in an ,anglo-,saxon manuscript of the early part of the tenth century2 the passage is interesting--,against pockes3 very much shall one let blood and drink a bowl full of melted butter2 if they pustules strike out1 one should dig each with a thorn and then drop one-year alder drink in1 then they will not be seen1 this was evidently to prevent the pitting dreaded even at so early a date4 ,smallpox was first described in ,germany in #adic1 and appeared in ,sweden first in #aegh4 #b ,osler thinks the pesta magna of ,galen was smallpox2 ,marcus ,aurelius died of it4 ,the contributions of ,sydenham1 the ,english ,hippocrates1 to the knowledge of smallpox1 are classical4 ,throughout the ,middle ,ages1 owing to the very crowded and unsanitary state of the cities of ,europe1 smallpox was one of the various plagues from which the inhabitants were never free for any length of time4#c ,leprosy1 influenza1 smallpox1 cholera1 typhus fever and bubonic plague constituted the dreadful group4 ,in most countries1 including ,england1 smallpox was practically endemic2 an attack of it was accepted as a thing inevitable1 in children even more inevitable than whooping-cough1 measles1 mumps or chickenpox is regarded at the present time4 ,there was a common saying--,few escape love or smallpox4 ,in the eighteenth century so many faces were pitted from severe smallpox that it is said any woman who had no smallpox marks was straightway accounted beautiful4 ,very few persons escaped it in either the mild or the severe form in childhood or in later life4 #c ,england was by no means exempt1 but it was not infection in the modern sense that ,shakespeare meant when he wrote-- ,this ,england1 ,this fortress1 built by ,nature for herself ,against infection and the hand of war4 ,now it is characteristic of a microorganic disease that a person who has recovered from an attack of it is immune from that disease for a longer or shorter time1 in some cases for the remainder of life4 ,this is1 luckily1 as true of smallpox as of any of the other acute infections4 ,we do not now need to enquire into the theory of how this comes about2 it is a well-recognized natural phenomenon4 ,the modern explanation is in terms of antigens and anti-bodies and is fast passing from the stage of pure biochemical hypothesis into that of concrete realization4 ,persons who have recovered from smallpox rarely take it a second time2 the few who do1 have it in a mild form4 ,it follows1 then1 that if smallpox is purposely inoculated into a human being he will for a long time be resistant to the subsequent infection of smallpox4 ,the fact of smallpox protecting from smallpox is by no means without analogy in other diseases4 ,thus in ,switzerland1 in ,africa1 in ,senegambia1 it has been the custom for a long time1 in order to protect the cattle from pleuro-pneumonia1 to inoculate them with the fluid from the lung of an animal recently dead of pleuro-pneumonia4 ,of course since the time of ,pasteur we have been quite familiar with the inoculation of attenuated virus to protect from the natural diseases in their fully virulent form1 for instance1 anthrax1 rabies1 plague and typhoid fever4 ,as it was1 then1 known to mankind from a very early period that a person could be protected from smallpox by being inoculated with it1 inoculation grew up as a practice in widely distant parts of the globe4 ,the purpose of intentional inoculation was to go through a mild attack of the disease in order to acquire protection from the much more serious natural form of the disease--to have had it so as not to have it4 ,a very high antiquity is claimed for this smallpox inoculation1 some even asserting that the earliest known ,hindu physician 7,dhanwantari7 supposed to have lived about #aejj ,b4,c41 was the first to practice it4 ,bruce in his ,voyages to the ,sources of the ,nile 7#agij7 tells us that he found ,nubian and ,arabian women inoculating their children against smallpox1 and that the custom had been observed from time immemorial4 ,records of it indeed are found all over the world2 in ,ashantee1 amongst the ,arabs of ,north ,africa1 in ,tripoli1 ,tunis and ,algeria1 in ,senegal1 in ,china1 in ,persia1 in ,thibet1 in ,bengal1 in ,siam1 in ,tartary and in ,turkey4 ,in ,siam the method of inoculation is very curious2 material from a dried pustule is blown up into the nostrils2 but in most other parts of the world the inoculation is by the ordinary method of superficial incision or what is called scarification4 ,by the latter part of the seventeenth century inoculation for smallpox was an established practise in several ,european countries into which it had traveled by the coasts of the ,bosphorus1 via ,constantinople4 ,in #agja a medical man1 ,timoni1 described the process as he saw it in ,constantinople4 ,material was taken from the pustules of a case on the twelfth or thirteenth day of the illness4 ,as early as #afgc the practice was a common one in ,denmark1 ,bartholinus tells us4 ,in ,france inoculation had been widely practiced2 on ,june #ah1 #aggd1 the young king ,louis ,,xvi41 was inoculated for smallpox1 and the fashionable ladies of the day wore in their hair a miniature rising sun and olive tree entwined by a serpent supporting a club1 the pouf a l'inoculation of ,mademoiselle ,rose ,bertin1 the court milliner to ,marie ,antoinette4 ,in ,germany inoculation was in vogue all through the seventeenth century1 as also in ,holland1 ,switzerland1 ,italy and ,circassia4 ,in ,england the well-known ,dr4 ,mead1 honored1 by the way1 with a grave in ,westminster ,abbey1 was a firm believer in inoculation1 as was also ,dr4 ,dimsdale1 who was sent for by the ,empress ,catherine ,,ii4 to introduce it into ,russia4 ,dr4 ,dimsdale inoculated a number of persons in ,petrograd1 and finally the ,grand ,duke and the ,empress herself4 ,the lymph he took from the arm of a child ill of natural smallpox4 ,for his services to the ,russian court ,dr4 ,dimsdale was made a ,baron of the ,russian ,empire1 a councillor of state and physician to the ,empress4 ,he was presented with the sum of #a1jjj pounds and voted an annuity of #ejj pounds a year4 ,at the request of ,catherine1 ,dr4 ,dimsdale went to ,moscow1 where thousands were clamoring for inoculation4 ,the mortality from smallpox in ,russia seems to have been still higher than in the rest of ,europe4 ,the annual average death rate on the ,continent at the end of the eighteenth century was #baj per #a1jjj deaths from all causes1 while in ,russia in one year two million persons perished from smallpox alone4 ,in ,england in #agif1 the deaths from smallpox were #ah4f per cent4 of deaths from all causes4 ,a great impetus was given to inoculation in ,england by the letters of ,lady ,mary ,wortley ,montague1 the wife of our ambassador to ,turkey1 ,edward ,wortley ,montague1 and daughter of the ,duke of ,kingston4 ,in #agag ,lady ,mary wrote a letter to her friend ,miss ,chiswell1 in which she explained the process and promised to introduce it to the notice of the ,english physicians4 ,so convinced was ,lady ,mary of the safety of smallpox inoculation and its efficacy in preserving from subsequent smallpox1 that in ,march1 #agag1 she had her little boy inoculated at the ,english embassy by an old ,greek woman in the presence of ,dr4 ,maitland1 surgeon to the embassy4 ,in #agbb some criminals under sentence of death in ,newgate were offered a full pardon if they would undergo inoculation4 ,six men agreed to this1 and none of them suffered at all severely from the inoculated smallpox4 ,towards the close of the same year two children of the ,princess of ,wales were successfully inoculated2 and in #agdf an ,inoculation ,hospital was actually opened in ,london1 but not without much opposition4 ,as early as #agba the ,rev4 ,cotton ,mather1 of ,boston 7,u4 ,s4 ,a471 introduced inoculation to the notice of the ,american physicians1 and in #agbb ,dr4 ,boylston1 of ,brooklyn1 inoculated #bdg persons1 of whom about #b per cent4 died of the acquired smallpox as compared with #ad per cent4 of deaths amongst #f1jjj uninoculated persons who caught the natural smallpox4 ,there was1 however1 great popular opposition to the practice of inoculation1 and ,dr4 ,boylston on one occasion was nearly lynched4 ,while successful inoculation undoubtedly protected the person from smallpox1 sometimes the inoculated form of the disease was virulent1 and certainly all cases of inoculated variola were as infectious as the natural variety4 ,inoculated persons were therefore a danger to the community2 and there is no doubt that such persons had occasionally introduced smallpox into towns which had been free from the natural disease4 ,at the end of the eighteenth century1 just about the time of ,jenner's discovery1 public opinion was strongly against the continuance of the practice of inoculation1 and as natural smallpox had not at all abated its epidemic character1 the times were ripe for some new thing4 ,now there is a disease of cows know as cowpox or vaccinia 7from the ,latin vacca1 a cow7 which is communicable to human beings4 ,it is thought to be due to the same virus which in pigs is called swinepox and in horses grease4 ,jenner believed vaccinia to be the same pathological entity as human smallpox1 modified1 however1 by its transmission through the cow4 ,for a long time this view was stoutly resisted1 but it has now been accepted as probably representing the truth4 ,the identity of vaccinia and grease is certainly much more doubtful4 ,to many of ,jenner's contemporaries the view that vaccinia had at one time been a disease of human beings seemed unlikely2 but we are now in a far better position to admit its probability than were those of ,jenner's time4 ,we have since then learned that man shares many diseases with the lower animals1 tuberculosis1 plague1 rabies1 diphtheria and pleuro-pneumonia1 to mention only a few4 ,we have also learned that certain lower animals1 insects for instance1 are intermediary hosts in the life-cycle of many minute parasites which cause serious diseases in the human being1 amongst which malaria1 yellow fever and the sleeping sickness are the most familiar4 ,it appears to have been understood before ,jenner's time that persons who had acquired cowpox by handling cattle1 but especially by milking cows1 were immune from smallpox4 ,in the reign of ,charles ,,ii4 it is well known that the court beauties envied the dairy-maids because having had cowpox1 they could not take smallpox which all women so dreaded4 ,dr4 ,corlett tells us that the ,duchess of ,cleveland1 one of the ,king's mistresses1 on being told that she might lose her place in the royal favor if she were disfigured by smallpox1 replied that she had nothing to fear as she had had cowpox4 ,in #agfi a ,german1 ,bose1 wrote on the subject of cowpox protecting from smallpox4 ,in the year #aggd a cattle dealer1 ,benjamin ,jesty1 at ,yetminster1 in ,dorset1 inoculated his wife and three children with cowpox4 ,none of them ever took smallpox during the rest of their lives although frequently exposed to its infection4 ,jesty died in #ahaf1 and it is recorded on his tombstone that he was the first person who inoculated cowpox to protect from smallpox4 ,cowpox1 or vaccinia1 though infectious for cows1 is not transmissible among human beings1 in other words1 as a disease of man it is not infectious4 ,edward ,jenner1 the ,englishman of ,berkeley in ,gloucestershire1 was the first person to think scientifically on the fact that cowpox protected from smallpox4 ,john ,hunter had said to him1 ,jenner1 don't think1 try4 ,luckily1 however1 he did both4 ,thinking alone avails little1 experimentation alone avails not much1 but the one along with the other has removed mountains4 ,just as ,newton thought scientifically about that falling apple and reduced our conceptions of the universe to order1 just as ,watt thought scientifically about that kettle-lid lifted by the steam and so introduced the modern era of mechanical power brought under man's control1 so ,jenner thought about and experimented with cowpox until he had satisfied himself that he had discovered something which would rid the human race forever of the incubus of an intolerable pestilence4 ,it was in #aghj that ,jenner set himself to study cowpox in a way that had never before been attempted1 for he was convinced that in the having had an attack of the disease lay the secret of the conquest of that world-scourge4 ,he confided in his fried ,edward ,gardner about a most important matter 4 4 4 which ,i firmly believe will prove of essential benefit to the human race 4 4 4 should anything untoward turn up in my experiments1 ,i should be made1 particularly by my medical brethren1 the subject of ridicule4 ,luckily he was quite prepared for both ridicule and opposition2 for has not everything new been ridiculed and opposed8 ,galileo was opposed1 ,bruno was opposed1 ,copernicus was opposed1 ,harvey was opposed1 ,george ,stevenson was opposed1 ,pasteur was ridiculed and opposed1 and so were ,darwin1 ,simpson and even ,lister4 ,the physiological inertia even of the educated has too often blocked the path of advancement3 but ,jenner is in illustrious company1 a prince amongst the hierarchy of the misunderstood4 ,the facts or surmises before ,jenner at this date1 then1 were--7a7 ,cowpox produces an eruption extremely like that of mild smallpox1 it is1 therefore1 probably a form of smallpox modified by transmission through the cow2 7b7 ,and an attack of cowpox protects from smallpox4 ,to test these things experimentally some one must first be inoculated with cowpox1 and1 having recovered from the vaccinia1 that same person must1 secondly1 be inoculated with the virus of smallpox or be exposed to the infection1 and1 thirdly1 this person ought not to take the disease4 ,in #aghh ,jenner had a careful drawing made of the hand of a milkmaid suffering from cowpox to demonstrate to ,sir ,everard ,home how exceedingly similar were vaccinia and variola4 ,home agreed it was interesting and curious1 and the subject began to attract some attention in medical circles4 ,in ,november1 #aghi1 ,dr4 ,jenner inoculated his eldest child ,edward1 aged #ah months1 with some swinepox virus1 and as nothing untoward happened1 he inoculated him again with swinepox on ,april #g1 #agia4 ,the child had a slight illness1 very like vaccinia1 from which he rapidly recovered4 ,the moment for the crucial experiment was not yet2 it came in due time1 but ,jenner had to wait five years for it1 and five years are a long time to a man who is yearning to perform his crucial experiment4 ,happily for suffering humanity1 in the early summer of #agif the opportunity came2 the hour and the man were there together4 ,cowpox had broken out on a farm near ,berkeley and a dairy maid called ,sarah ,neames contracted the disease4 ,on ,may #ad1 #agif1 ,dr4 ,jenner took some fluid from a sore on this woman's hand and inoculated it by slight scratching into the arm of a healthy boy eight years old1 by name ,james ,phipps4 ,the boy had the usual reaction or attack of vaccinia1 a disorder indistinguishable from the mildest form of smallpox4 ,after an interval of six weeks1 on ,july #a1 ,jenner made the most momentous but justifiable experiment1 for he inoculated ,james ,phipps with smallpox by lymph taken from a sore on a case of genuine1 well-marked1 human smallpox1 ,,and ,,the ,,boy ,,did ,,not ,,take ,,the ,,disease ,,at ,,all4 ,jenner waited till the nineteenth of the month1 and finding that the boy had still not developed variola1 he could hardly write for joy4 ,listen1 he wrote to ,gardner1 to the most delightful part of my story4 ,the boy has since been inoculated for the smallpox which1 a,s ,i ,,verntured ,,to ,,predict1 produced no effect4 ,i shall now pursue my experiments with redoubled ardor4 ,here we are behind the scenes at a great discovery2 as ,i ventured to predict2 prediction is part of scientific theorizing2 there is a place for legitimate prediction as there is for experimentation4 ,all discoverers have made predictions2 ,harvey predicted the existence of the capillaries1 ,halley predicted the return of his comet1 ,adams predicted the place of the planet ,neptune1 the missing link in the evolutionary series of the fossil horses had been predicted long before it was actually found by ,professor ,marsh4 ,pasteur predicted that the sheep inoculated with the weak anthrax virus would be alive in the anthrax-infected field1 while those not so protected would all be dead4 ,a prediction verified is a conclusion corroborated1 an investigator encouraged4 ,early in #agig1 through another outbreak of cowpox1 ,jenner was able to inoculate three persons with variola1 only to find as before that they were immune from smallpox4 ,he now felt himself justified in preparing a paper for the ,royal ,society1 the highest scientific tribunal in ,england4 ,the council1 however1 returned him his paper with the remark that in their opinion the amount of evidence was not strong enough to warrant its publication in the ,transactions4 ,jenner was wise enough not to be discouraged1 and so in ,june1 #agih1 he published the paper himself under the title1 ,inquiry into the causes and effects of the ,variolae-,vacciniae1 a disease discovered in some of the western counties of ,england1 particularly ,gloucestershire1 and known by the name of cowpox4 ,this historic pamphlet1 which ranks with the great classics of medicine1 was dedicated to ,dr4 ,o4 ,h4 ,parry1 of ,bath4 ,later on the ,royal ,society was sagacious enough to elect the very man whose paper it had previously refused4 ,while in ,london attending to the publication of his pamphlet1 ,dr4 ,jenner called on the great surgeon ,mr4 ,cline1 and left some cowpox virus with him for trial4 ,cline inoculated a young tubercular patient with vaccinia and later with smallpox in no less than three places4 ,in due time this patient did not show a sign of smallpox4 ,so impressed was ,cline with this remarkable result that he wrote to ,jenner thus3 ,i think the substitution of cowpox poison for smallpox one of the greatest improvements that has ever been made in medicine4 ,the more ,i think on the subject1 the more ,i am impressed with its importance4 ,the word vaccination was coined by the ,french1 so remarkable for the aptness of their descriptive terms1 and it has ever since remained with us as a convenient expression for the inoculation of vaccinia as protecting from variola4#d #d ,it is certainly not necessary to point out that the principle of vaccination has been one of wide application in modern medicine4 ,our word vaccine testifies to this4 ,a vaccine is a liquid1 the result of bacterial growth1 injected into a patient in order to render him immune from that particular disease which is caused by sufficient infection with the microorganisms in question1 e4 g41 of typhoid fever or of plague4 ,dr4 ,jenner's views were now becoming known1 and the critics and the doubters had appeared3 ,st4 ,thomas has always had a large following4 ,the most formidable of the early objectors was ,dr4 ,igenhouz1 who had come to ,london to study inoculation for variola1 and had already inoculated1 among other notable persons1 the ,archduchess ,theresa ,elizabeth of ,vienna4 ,the careless vaccinations of ,doctors ,pearson and ,woodville at the ,london ,smallpox ,hospital brought much apparent discredit on ,jenner's work4 ,in all his early work ,jenner used lymph obtained directly from papules on the cow or calf1 but ,woodville in #agii showed that excellent results could be got from arm-to-arm vaccination4 ,as this latter method is a very convenient one1 the technique was widely adopted4 ,we have to remember that we are speaking of a period about sixty years before ,lister gave to suffering humanity that other great gift1 antisepsis3 and so many arms went wrong1 not because of being vaccinated1 but because the scratches were afterwards infected by the microorganisms of dirt4 ,jenner knew well the difference between the reaction of clean vaccination and that of an infected arm1 but a great many medical men of his time did not1 and so he was constantly plagued with reports of vaccinations going wrong when it was septic infection of uncleansed skin that had occurred4 ,the explanation of these things by letter consumed a very great deal of his valuable time4 ,by the end of #agii a large number of persons had1 however1 been successfully vaccinated4 ,as one ,pearson proved troublesome by starting an institution for public vaccination on principles which ,jenner knew to be wrong1 and as ,jenner found himself virtually supplanted and misrepresented1 he came up to ,london in #ahjj to vindicate his position4 ,the ,king1 the ,queen and the ,prince of ,wales1 to whom he was presented1 materially helped on the cause by countenancing the practice of vaccination4 ,lord ,berkeley1 his ,lord of the ,manor1 was in this as in all things a kind and wise patron4 ,in the ,united ,states of ,america vaccination made rapid progress1 having been introduced there under the good auspices of ,dr4 ,waterhouse1 professor of medicine at ,cambridge1 ,mass4 ,the discovery was announced with true ,american informality as ,something curious in the medical line1 on ,march #ab1 #agii4 ,things went even better on the continent of ,europe2 de,carro1 of ,vienna1 inaugurated vaccination with such zeal and discrimination that it spread to ,switzerland1 ,france1 ,italy and ,spain4 ,from ,spain it passed over to ,latin ,america4 ,in ,sicily and ,naples1 the blessed vaccine was received by religious processions4 ,sacco1 of ,milan1 commenced vaccinating in #ahja1 and in a few years had vaccinated #bj1jjj4 ,in ,paris1 a ,vaccine ,institute was established2 and ,napoleon ordered all his soldiers who had not had smallpox to be vaccinated4 ,on ,jenner's application1 the ,emperor liberated several ,english prisoners remarking--,what that man asks is not to be refused4 ,napoleon voted #ajj1jjj francs for the propagation of vaccination4 ,lord ,elgin introduced it into ,turkey and ,greece4 ,the ,empress of ,russia1 ,catherine ,,ii41 was one of the greatest supporters of ,jennerian vaccination4 ,she decreed that the first child vaccinated in ,russia should be called ,vaccinoff1 should be conveyed to ,petrograd in an imperial coach1 educated at the expense of the state and receive a pension for life4 ,the ,emperor of ,austria and the ,king of ,spain released ,english prisoners at ,jenner's request4 ,there were statues of ,jenner erected abroad1 at ,boulogne and at ,brunn1 in ,moravia1 before any in ,england4 ,thus the ,european countries showed their gratitude to the ,englishman whose patience1 genius and absence of self-seeking had rid them of the detestable world-plague of smallpox4 ,vaccination was made compulsory by law in no less than five ,european countries before it was so in the ,united ,kingdom in #ahec4 ,in eight countries vaccination is provided free at the expense of the government4 ,the clergy of ,geneva and of ,holland from their pulpits recommended their people to be vaccinated4 ,in ,germany1 ,jenner's birthday 7,may #ag7 was celebrated as a holiday4 ,within six years1 ,jenner's gift to humanity had been accepted with that readiness with which the drowning clutch at straws4 ,the most diverse climes1 races1 tongues and religions were united in blessing vaccination and its discoverer4 ,the ,north ,american ,indians forwarded to ,dr4 ,jenner a quaintly worded address full of the deepest gratitude for what he had saved them from3 ,we shall not fail1 said these simple people1 to teach our children to speak the name of ,jenner1 and to thank the ,great ,spirit for bestowing upon him so much wisdom and so much benevolence4 ,there are two allusions to smallpox in ,don ,juan1 which was published in #ahai1 showing to what an extent ,jennerian teachings were in the air4 ,the first is3 ,the doctor paid off an old pox ,by borrowing a new one from an ox4 7,canto ,i41 stanza #abi47 ,the second is3 ,i said the smallpox has gone out of late1 ,perhaps it may be followed by the great4 7,stanza #acj47 ,before #ahab1 ,jenner had been made an honorary member of nearly every scientific society in ,europe1 and had received the freedom of the cities of ,london1 ,edinburgh1 ,dublin and ,glasgow4 ,the ,medical ,society of ,london presented him with a gold medal struck in his honor2 in ,berlin in #ahab there was a ,jennerian festival on the anniversary of ,phipps's vaccination4 ,addresses and diplomas were showered on him1 and in #ahac the ,university of ,oxford conferred on him the degree of ,m4,d4 honoris causa4 ,as he refused point blank to pass the examination in ,latin and ,greek required by the ,royal ,college of ,physicians of ,london1 ,jenner never obtained admission into that learned body4 ,when some one recommended him to revise his classics so that he might become an ,f4,r4,c4,p4 he replied1 ,i would not do it for a diadem2 and then1 thinking of a far better reward1 added3 ,i would not do it for ,john ,hunter's museum4 ,but while the pure in heart were thus receiving the blessing offered them by the benovelent man of science1 the pests of society1 those discontented and jaundiced ones who are always to be found in the dark recesses of the cave of ,adullam1 were not idle4 ,many of his medical colleagues did indeed sneer1 as some are always apt to do at any new thing however good4 ,to all these ,jenner replied1 and a very great deal of his valuable time was consumed in arguing with them4 ,but the sect of the anti-vaccinators had arisen1 and was to some extent organized4 ,caricatures1 lampoons1 scurrilities1 vulgarities and misrepresentations1 the mean1 were scattered on all sides4 ,nothing was too absurd to be stated or believed--that vaccinated persons had their faces grow like oxen1 that they coughed like cows1 bellowed like bulls and became hairy on the body4 ,one omniscient objector declared that1 vaccination was the most degrading relapse of philosophy that had ever disgraced the civilized world4 ,a ,dr4 ,rowley1 evidently imagining himself honored by a special participation in the ,divine counsels1 declared that smallpox is a visitation from ,god1 but cowpox is produced by presumptuous man4 ,the former was what ,heaven had ordained1 the latter is a daring violation of our holy religion4 ,it was rather hard to blame ,dr4 ,jenner for the origin of cowpox4 ,it took much forbearance to endure this sort of thing2 but ,jenner's was a first-class mind and he evidently dealt leniently even with fools4 ,it was not for the first time in the world's history that a lover of mankind had been spurned with the words--,he hath a devil and is mad4 ,besides enduring all these mental and physical worries1 and the annoyance that the ,royal ,jennerian ,society established in #ahjb was so mismanaged that it collapsed in #ahjh1 ,jenner had spent a very large sum of private money on the introduction of vaccination4 ,he had been1 as he himself expressed it1 ,vaccine clerk to the whole world4 ,parliament1 it is true1 in #ahja1 voted him a sum of #aj1jjj pounds which was not paid for three years afterwards and was diminished by #a1jjj pounds deducted for fees1 so that it barely recompensed him for his outlays4 ,by #ahjf1 the immensity of the benefit conferred upon his diseased fellow-creatures having been recognized more perfectly in every other country than his own1 the ,british ,parliament woke up1 and voted him a sum of #bj1jjj pounds1 only one member representing the anti-vaccinators opposing the grant4 ,parliament1 which had previously received from the ,colleges of ,physicians of ,london1 ,edinburgh and ,dublin the most favorable reports of the efficacy of vaccination1 decided to reestablish the ,royal ,jennerian ,institute4 ,a subscription of #g1chc pounds from grateful ,india reached ,jenner in #ahab4 ,in #ahad he was in ,london for the last time1 when he was presented to the ,emperor of ,russia1 ,alexander ,i41 who told him that he had very nearly subdued smallpox throughout that vast ,empire4 ,jenner refused a ,russian order on the ground that he was not a man of independent means4 ,the management of the ,institute caused him much concern in his later years2 he disapproved of the personnel and of many of the details of its working4 ,one of the last worries of his life was an article in the ,november number for #ahbb of the famous ,edinburgh ,review4 ,although it contained a good deal of praise1 it was not favorable to ,jenner1 who said of it1 ,i put it down at #ajj1jjj deaths at least4 ,i have ascertained that this article was not written by the celebrated ,francis ,jeffrey1 although he was editor of the ,review until #ahbi4 ,jenner's life1 apart from his great discovery and his developing the practice of vaccination1 has not much incident in it4 ,he was born on ,may #ag1 #agdi1 the son of the ,rev4 ,stephen ,jenner1 vicar of ,berkeley1 ,gloucestershire1 ,england1 the same ,berkeley in whose castle1 ,edward ,,ii41 the vanquished at ,banockburn1 was murdered in #acbg4 ,jenner's mother's name was ,head4 ,edward went to school at ,wotton-under-,edge and at ,cirencester1 and began to study medicine with a ,mr4 ,ludlow1 a surgeon at ,sodbury near ,bristol4 ,in his twenty-first year1 ,jenner went to ,london as a pupil of the great ,john ,hunter1 in whose house1 he lived two years1 during which time he was entered as a medical student at ,st4 ,george's ,hospital4 ,it is interesting to know that while still a student he was asked by ,sir ,joseph ,banks to arrange and catalogue the zoological specimens brought home by the circumnavigator ,captain ,cook in his first voyage of #agga4 ,jenner devoted considerable attention to natural history1 to geology and to the study of fossils1 on which topics he kept up correspondence with ,hunter long after he left ,london4 ,in the year #aghh he married a ,miss ,kingscote1 and settled down to practice in his native place4 ,mrs4 ,jenner died in #ahae1 after which date ,jenner never left ,berkeley again4 ,curiously enough1 it was not until #agib that ,jenner obtained the degree of ,m4,d41 and it was not from an ,english university at all1 but from the ,university of ,st4 ,andrews in ,scotland4 ,this university1 the smallest although the oldest of the ,scottish universities1 has therefore the honor of being the ,alma ,mater to the epoch-making ,englishman4 ,i have seen the entry of the name in the list of graduates for the year #agib2 it has evidently been misspelled1 for the name is corrected4 ,the first foreign university to recognize ,jenner's eminence was ,gottingen4 ,in #agid ,jenner had an attack of typhus fever4 ,jenner never cared for ,london or a city life1 and although in #ahjh he was persuaded to take a house in town1 he soon gave it up and went back to his beautiful ,gloucestershire4 ,for many years he practiced during the season in the pleasant health-resort of ,cheltenham4 ,he loved the country1 he studied lovingly the living things around him there3 many are familiar with a piece of verse he wrote on ,the signs of rain4 ,the year #ahaj was a sad one for ,jenner3 his eldest son died1 and that noticeably depressed his health4 ,in #ahbc he presented a paper to the ,royal ,society on the migration of birds1 a subject not even yet fully cleared up4 ,on ,january #bf1 in the same year1 he was stricken with paralysis on the right side and died within twenty-four hours4 ,his body was buried in the chancel of the parish church of ,berkeley1 where there is a memorial window placed by public subscription4 ,in person1 ,edward ,jenner was short and rather heavily built2 his expression of face was pleasant with a touch of sadness4 ,all reports agree that in dress he was conspicuously neat1 looking more like a gentleman-farmer than a physician1 with his blue coat1 yellow buttons1 red waistcoat1 buff breeches and top-boots4#e #e ,he was painted by ,sir ,thomas ,lawrence1 by ,northcote and by ,vigneron4 ,there is no disguising the fact that during his lifetime ,dr4 ,jenner was much more appreciated in foreign countries than in ,england4 ,the medico-social club of ,alverton1 near where he lived1 would not listen to him when he addressed them on vaccination4 ,the effort to collect enough money from the medical men of ,england in order to place a marble statue to ,jenner in the nave of ,gloucester ,cathedral1 was successful only after a long delay4 ,an attempt to erect a statue in ,london died of apathy2 but in #aheh1 #cb years after he died1 a statue was erected in ,trafalgar ,square4 ,in #ahfb it was removed to a quiet corner of ,kensington gardens2 and perhaps its surroundings1 the trees1 the flowers and the birds he loved are more suitable than the effigies of those national heroes who served their country by taking1 not by saving life4 ,no1 ,nelson the hero is hardly the suitable companion for ,jenner the hero4 ,there is no doubt that ,jenner's medical contemporaries1 at least in ,england1 failed to appreciate the magnitude of the gift their colleague had presented not merely to his own country1 but to the world at large4 ,the discovery had1 of course1 been led up to by several different lines of indication1 but this in no way detracts from the genius of ,jenner in drawing his memorable inductions from the few facts which others had known before his time4 ,the fame of ,newton is no whit diminished because ,copernicus1 ,kepler and ,galileo lived and worked before him1 the credit due to ,harvey is none the less because many before his time had worked on the problem of the heart and vessels1 and because some of them1 notably ,cesalpinus1 came within a very little of the discovery of the circulation2 the achievements of ,darwin are not to be belittled because ,lamarck1 ,malthus or ,monboddo had notions in accordance with the tenor of his great generalization of evolution among living beings4 ,certainly ,jenner had precursors2 but it was his genius and his genius alone which1 putting together the various fragments of knowledge already possessed1 gave us the grand but simple induction based on his own experiments that vaccinia prevents from variola4 ,it was too simple and too new to be appreciated in all its bearings either by the medical men or the laity of his own day4 ,its impressiveness is not inherent in it1 as it is in the mathematical demonstration of universal gravitation1 as it is in the atomic theory or in that of the survival of the fittest through natural selection4 ,the ,english country doctor merely said in essence--let me give you cowpox and you will not get smallpox4 ,unless the fact of this immunity is regarded as possessed by all the nations of the world for ever more there is nothing particularly impressive in it2 and so it failed to impress his contemporaries4 ,it is only when we contrast the loathsomeness and danger of smallpox with the mildness and safety of vaccinia and varioloid that we grasp the greatness of the work which ,jenner did for mankind4 ,the very simplicity of vaccination detracts from its impressiveness unless its results are viewed through the vista of the centuries4 ,we need the proper historical perspective in this as in all else4 ,thus viewed1 however1 the simplicity of the procedure and the universality of its application are most imposing4 ,vaccination does not1 indeed1 dazzle the scientific imagination like some of the other generalizations of biology1 but it is one that has been gloriously vindicated by the subsequent history of the world's hygiene4 ,jenner knew himself to be a benefactor of the human race2 he would have been insincere if he had pretended otherwise2 he finished his first paper with these words3 ,i shall endeavor still farther to prosecute this enquiry1 an enquiry1 ,i trust1 not merely speculative1 but of sufficient moment to inspire the pleasing hope of its becoming essentially useful to mankind2 and on his death-bed he said1 ,i do not marvel that men are not grateful to me1 but ,i am surprised that they do not feel grateful to ,god for making me a medium of good4 ,in private life ,dr4 ,jenner was amiable and kind-hearted4 ,dibden said of him3 ,i never knew a man of simpler mind or of warmer heart4 ,he was particularly kind to the poor4 ,dr4 ,matthew ,baillie said of him3 ,jenner might have been immensely rich if he had not published his discovery4 ,we may in conclusion examine some of the objections to and criticisms of vaccination4 ,the objections can be classified as those entertained 7a7 by medical men and 7b7 those by the public generally4 ,the objections raised by medical men are now a matter of ancient history4 ,each generation of medical men has refused at first to admit any new teaching promulgated in its time2 physiological inertia is not at once overcome4 ,the most enlightened of ,jenner's critics did really believe that he was drawing too extensive an induction from insufficient data2 this was the position of the ,royal ,society in #aghh2 but the ,edinburgh reviewer of #ahbb should have known better4 ,the purely technical criticisms of ,jenner's work have by this time been fully assessed and replied to4 ,it is true that at one time it was not clear what were the relationships of chickenpox and smallpox1 of vaccinia and variola1 of vaccinia and varioloid1 of the various forms of pox in animals--cowpox1 swinepox1 horsepox or grease--either inter se or to human smallpox4 ,but ,i do not suppose that in this year of grace #aiad there can be found one properly trained medical man1 acquainted with the history of ,jennerian vaccination1 familiar with the ravages of smallpox and with the protective power of vaccinia1 who could be induced1 by no matter how large a bribe1 to say that he disapproved of vaccination or that he believed it did not protect from smallpox4 ,there are cranks in all walks of life1 but the medical crank who is also an anti-vaccinationist is happily the rarest of them all4 ,the lay objectors--the professed anti-vaccinators--are with us yet in spite of some very serious lessons which have been taught them4 ,we may pass by the objectors of the class who believe that vaccinated persons cough like cows and bellow like bulls2 these objections go into the limbo of old wives' fables or into the category of wilful misrepresentation4 ,unfortunately there is a large class of persons who can believe the absurdest nonsense about any subject which is particularly distasteful to them4#f ,another class of objection is the sentimental repugnance to the idea of being given one of the diseases of the lower animals4 ,now the fact is that already we share a great many diseases with the lower animals1 a few of them being tuberculosis1 anthrax1 rabies1 tetanus1 cancer1 pleuro-pneumonia1 certain insect-borne diseases1 some parasitic worm diseases and some skin diseases like favus4 ,as the knowledge of the lowly origin of many of our diseases is more widespread1 this sort of objection will die out4 #f ,antivaccinators constantly allude to calf-lymph as filth2 if lymph is filth1 then ,i am able to assure them that each one of them has about three liters of it in his own body4 ,an objection which is worthy of more consideration is that in being vaccinated a child is apt to contract some infectious disease such as tuberculosis or syphilis which are the two most dreaded4 ,now so long as arm-to-arm vaccination was the routine practice1 there was a remote probability that this sort of accident might occur4 ,it appears to be true that a few accidents of this kind have occurred1 just as a few arms have become septic or had erysipelas develop in them4 ,but when the few such cases are compared with the millions and millions of uncomplicated vaccinations1 their importance becomes very insignificant4 ,now that arm-to-arm vaccination is no longer practiced1 but fresh calf-lymph used for each child1 these accidental inoculations are a thing of the past4 ,the ignorance of cause and effect is responsible for a great deal of the most childish objections to vaccination as to much else4 ,one woman lately told me that she could not have her child vaccinated because a child in the same street was made a cripple for life by being vaccinated4 ,could we have a better example of the post hoc sed non propter hoc4#g #g ,now and again1 however1 we have the sad spectacle of some one really well educated but apparently either ignorant of logic or desirous of wilfully misrepresenting facts4 ,the ,hon4 ,stephen ,coleridge has an article in the ,june 7#aiad7 number of the ,contemporary ,review which is1 to say the least of it1 highly immoral in ethics and statistics4 ,i shall examine only that part of it bearing on vaccination4 ,the statements are that in the last five recorded years1 #eh persons died from smallpox vaccination 7he means vaccination against smallpox71 whereas in the same five years1 #he persons died from smallpox itself4 ,the inference we are intended to draw from these figures is that to be vaccinated is nearly as fatal as to have smallpox itself4 ,now this kind of argument is a very common one with statistically immoral persons1 and is known as the suppression of the ratio4 ,before we can appreciate the fact that in five years #eh persons died after being vaccinated1 we at least need to know the total number of persons who were vaccinated4 ,if only #eh persons were vaccinated and they all died1 then the mortality was #ajj per cent41 but if1 as was practically the case1 thousands of infants in ,great ,britain were vaccinated in five years1 then if only #eh died after vaccination 7although not necessarily in consequence of it7 the mortality falls some thousands of a per cent4 ,the suppression of the ratio1 i4 e41 #eh_/many thousands is the deceit that is practiced4 ,fifty-eight per year for five years1 is #aa4f deaths per year of persons vaccinated3 presumably these were infants3 taking the birth-rate in ,england as #cj per #a1jjj living1 we may say that #ijj1jjj infants were born2 deduct #ajj1jjj as not vaccinated1 we have #hjj1jjj infants vaccinated1 of these #aa4f died after being vaccinated1 which is #j4jjad per cent4 ,this is not much of a mortality from any cause2 but using ,mr4 ,coleridge's own figures1 it is a splendid demonstration of the safety of infant-vaccination1 the opposite of what he pretends it shows4 ,mr4 ,coleridge proceeds to tell us that in five years #he persons died of smallpox in ,great ,britain1 i4 e41 an average of #ag persons per year4 ,in other words #ag persons died of smallpox in a country with #cj million inhabitants1 or #j4jjjjef per cent4 of persons living1 not a high mortality4 ,and we strongly suspect1 may we hope1 that those #ag were persons who had not been vaccinated4 ,but in ,pre-,jennerian days1 #ag persons died of smallpox out of every #ajj persons dying from all causes4 ,mr4 ,coleridge's figures1 properly and honestly interpreted1 testify loudly to conclusions exactly the opposite of what he desires to insinuate2 he has no doubt taken the statistics of the ,registrar-,general1 but he has prostituted them4 ,mr4 ,coleridge's paper could not be a better example of the art of concealing the causes of phenomena4 ,he exhibits the following table3 ,deaths from smallpox per annum per a million living3 #ahfb-ahgj 444444444444444444444444444444444 #agb4b #ahga-ahhj 444444444444444444444444444444444 #bdd4f #ahha-ahij 444444444444444444444444444444444 #de4h #ahia-aijj 444444444444444444444444444444444 #ac4c #aija-aiaj 444444444444444444444444444444444 #ab4h ,so that the table shows that since #ahhj in ,great ,britain the deaths from smallpox per million per year have declined until they are only about #a_/adth of their original number4 ,the natural inference from these figures1 viewed in the light of the history of smallpox in ,great ,britain1 is that compulsory vaccination has been steadily eradicating the disease2 but this is not ,mr4 ,coleridge's conclusion3 ,he says it is due to the large number of persons who have refused to be vaccinated6 ,this would be laughable if it were not really serious2 it is sad and serious that a man of ,mr4 ,coleridge's education and social position should so consistently mislead the uncritical readers of the ,contemporary ,review to whose pages he has unfortunately very free access4 ,if ,mr4 ,coleridge really believes these things he is either very stupid or very ignorant2 if he knows them to be otherwise1 but wilfully deceives the public1 he is immoral4 ,he suffers from the worst form of bias1 the anti-scientific4 the end of long footnote ,there is still that group of persons who object to everything--anti-vivisection1 anti-meat eating1 anti-breakfast1 anti-hats and of course also anti-vaccination4 ,they are anti the usual and the normal that are quite good enough for the most of people4 ,they generally also believe that the earth is flat2 they are past praying for1 all we can do with them is to look them1 like the difficulty of ,jonah and the whale1 full in the face and pass on4 ,many people at the present time allow themselves to be persuaded into being anti-vaccinators because neither they nor their deluders have ever known what an epidemic of smallpox is1 have never seen with their own eyes the awful spectacle of a person suffering from smallpox in any of its forms--discrete1 confluent or hemorrhagic4 ,thanks to this very ,jenner1 the world has now for #ajj years been almost free from epidemic1 virulent smallpox and most perfectly so in the vaccinated countries1 so that millions1 the majority1 of ,englishmen1 have never seen a case of smallpox at all4 ,not knowing the awful danger they have escaped1 through ,great ,britain having had compulsory vaccination since #ahec1 they have become lax in their belief in the necessity for the continuance of that precaution4 ,they jest at scars that never felt a wound4 ,towns such as ,gloucester in ,england1 in which a large number of children have been allowed to grow up unvaccinated1 have always been visited sooner or later by a serious outbreak of smallpox4 ,it must be so2 the laws of natural phenomena can not be changed to suit the taste of those persons who are mentally incapable of understanding them4 ,they can not be evaded2 ignorance of the law is no more an excuse in the realm of natural than of man-made law4 ,we now come to that undesirable product of present-day1 grandmotherly legislation1 the conscientious objector4 ,as ,i am not a politician1 ,i shall not say anything for or against the policy of inserting in a bill which makes vaccination compulsory a clause giving to the conscientious objector the power or right to refuse to have his child vaccinated1 but as a medical man who knows a little of the history of medicine1 ,i can only describe it as gratuitous folly4 ,i am one of those who believe that the laity should have no say in the matter of whether any given procedure is or is not advantageous for the public health4 ,the efficacy of universal inoculation of vaccinia as a prophylactic against variola is a question of scientific medicine to be decided on technical grounds and ought not to be a matter open to debate by the public at all4 ,it is perfectly monstrous to suppose that the ordinary person1 quite untrained to weigh evidence for or against the advisability of the carrying out of a particular form of national immunization against a horrid disease1 is qualified to form any opinion4 ,he might as well be consulted on the advisability of making the channel tunnel or on the safest type of aeroplane or on any other subject involving the technical training of the engineer4 ,to permit the so-called man in the street to say whether he shall or shall not permit the carrying out of some important piece of civic hygiene is to introduce a principle subversive of all system and obstructive of all progress in the science of public health4 ,it is absurd that in a case like this the pronouncements of the judges are to be submitted to the criticisms of the jury4 ,england has already had one or two pretty severe lessons through allowing such places as ,gloucester and ,leicester to exercise their right of private judgment on the question of vaccination4 ,in ,gloucester where there was at one time a vigorous anti-vaccination movement1 a serious epidemic overtook the city a few years ago 7#ahif74 ,what science pronounces to be beneficial1 the layman must submit to4 ,what we want in these days is less superstition and more faith--in science4 ,i am informed that there are more than #b1jjj unvaccinated children in the schools of this city at the present moment1 and all because a piece of legislation allows any unintelligent1 prejudiced or credulous parent to decide on the momentous question of the vaccination of his children4 ,our quarantine regulations are extremely strict1 and rightly so1 on the subject of smallpox2 but is it not a farce to take so much trouble about the health of our immigrants when inside the city we are all the time encouraging a high degree of receptivity towards this very disease8 ,i should call this a very clear case of straining at the international gnat and swallowing the municipal camel4 ,the community at present is at the mercy of its least instructed members4 ,a most sensible suggestion is that if an outbreak of smallpox occurs in ,halifax1 the cost of it should be borne by the unvaccinated and by the anti-vaccinators4 ,the fact is we have forgotten what smallpox is like4 ,in #agif before ,jennerian vaccination1 the death-rate from smallpox in ,england was #ah4e per cent4 of deaths from all causes2 in ,london between #ahch and #ahfi it was #a4d per cent41 while in #ahga--the worst year for smallpox since vaccination became compulsory--the deaths from smallpox were barely #d4e per cent4 of deaths from all causes1 a proportion which was exceeded #ic times in the eighteenth century4 ,at the present moment the deaths from smallpox in ,london constitute a little under #j4bd per cent4 of deaths from all causes1 or #gg times less than in pre-,jennerian times4 ,according to ,mac,vail1 in the pre-vaccination period smallpox was nine times as fatal as measles and seven and one half times as fatal as whooping cough4 ,to-day in the vaccinated community its fatality is negligable1 in the unvaccinated it is as high as it was in the ,middle ,ages4 ,in the city of ,berlin1 where vaccination is absolutely compulsory1 there is no smallpox hospital at all2 the cases of smallpox in that city being only a few unvaccinated foreigners4 ,in #aiab the deaths in ,new ,york ,city were as follow3 #fga from measles1 #fad from scarlatina1 #ejj from typhoid fever1 #ahg from whooping cough and #b from smallpox4 ,in ,london there were in #dh years of the seventeenth century no less than #aj epidemics of smallpox2 in the whole of the eighteenth1 #ai2 and in the nineteenth no epidemic at all during which smallpox was responsible for more than one tenth of the deaths from all causes in any one year4 ,in ,sweden1 the highest death-rate before vaccination was #g4bc per #a1jjj persons1 the lowest #j4cj2 under permissive vaccination the highest was #b4eg1 the lowest #j4ab2 under compulsory vaccination the highest was #j4id1 the lowest #j4jjje4 ,it is so frequently said that the disappearance of smallpox is due not to vaccination1 but to improved general hygiene1 that we must look into this criticism with some care4 ,in the first place1 a large diminution in the mortality from smallpox occurred before there was any great change in the unsanitary conditions of the ,english towns1 before there was any enforcing of the isolation of patients either in hospitals or in their own homes4 ,since the introduction of vaccination1 measles and whooping cough still remain in the status quo ante1 while smallpox has been exterminated in all fully vaccinated communities1 these two diseases of children are as prevalent as ever in ,england even although the general sanitary conditions have been immensely improved in that country4 ,of course the effects of vaccination wear out in time1 and that is why it is well to be revaccinated once or twice4 ,now there has been a remarkable progressive change in the age-incidence of smallpox which can only be explained1 says ,dr4 ,newsholme1 on the assumption that vaccination protects children from smallpox and that the protection diminishes1 though it never entirely disappears1 as age advances4 ,the conscience clause should be immediately removed from the act in which it was inserted on the grounds that it is weak and reactionary in principle1 not in the interests of the development of the legislative aspect of the science of public health1 and that it permits in certain unintelligent communities quite a considerable number of unvaccinated children to grow up as a permanent menace to their town and district4 ,when the history of medicine becomes more widely known1 when the principles of prophylactic inoculation are more generally understood1 when respect for science is the rule rather than the exception1 when great achievements in the saving rather than the destroying of life are objects of national veneration1 then we may hope to see the day when it will be unhesitatingly admitted that the discovery by ,dr4 ,edward ,jenner1 the ,englishman1 was one of the most momentous in the history of the human race1 and that his life was one of the noblest1 most unselfish and1 in its far-reaching effects1 most important that has ever been lived on this planet4 ,,the ,,value ,,of ,,industrial ,,research ,,by ,w4 ,a4 ,,hamor ,,mellon ,,institute ,,of ,,industrial ,,research1 ,,university ,,of ,,pittsburgh ,,the aim of all industrial operations is toward perfection1 both in process and mechanical equipment1 and every development in manufacturing creates new problems4 ,it is only to be expected1 therefore1 that the industrial researcher is becoming less and less regarded as a burden unwarranted by returns4 ,industrialists have1 in fact1 learned to recognize chemistry as the intelligence department of industry1 and manufacturing is accordingly becoming more and more a system of scientific processes4 ,the accruement of technical improvements in particularly the great chemical industry is primarily dependent upon systematic industrial research1 and this is being increasingly fostered by ,american manufacturers4 ,ten thousand ,american chemists are at present engaged in pursuits which affect over #a1jjj1jjj wage-earners and produce over #e1jjj1jjj1jjj worth of manufactured products each year4 ,these trained men have actively and effectively collaborated in bringing about stupendous results in ,american industry4 ,there are1 in fact1 at least nineteen ,american industries in which the chemist has been of great assistance1 either in founding the industry1 in developing it1 or in refining the methods of control or of manufacture1 thus ensuring profits1 lower costs and uniform outputs4 ,at the recent symposium on the contributions of the chemist to ,american industries1 at the fiftieth meeting of the ,american ,chemical ,society in ,new ,orleans1 the industrial achievements of that scientific scout1 the chemist1 were brought out clearly4#a #a ,in this connection1 see ,hesse1 ,j4 ,ind4 ,eng4 ,chem41 #g 7#aiae71 #bic4 ,the chemist has made the wine industry reasonably independent of climatic conditions2 he has enabled it to produce substantially the same wine1 year in and year out1 no matter what the weather2 he has reduced the spoilage from #be per cent4 to #j4df per cent4 of the total2 he has increased the shipping radius of the goods and has made preservatives unnecessary4 ,in the copper industry he has learned and has taught how to make operations so constant and so continuous that in the manufacture of blister copper valuations are less than #a4jj apart on every #aj1jjj worth of product and in refined copper the valuations of the product do not differ by more than #a4jj in every #ej1jjj worth of product4 ,the quality of output is maintained constant within microscopic differences4 ,without the chemist the corn-products industry would never have arisen and in #aiad this industry consumed as much corn as was grown in that year by the nine states of ,maine1 ,new ,hampshire1 ,vermont1 ,massachusetts1 ,rhode ,island1 ,connecticut1 ,new ,york1 ,new ,jersey and ,delaware combined2 this amount is equal to the entire production of the state of ,north ,carolina and about #hj per cent4 of the production of each of the states of ,georgia1 ,michigan and ,wisconsin2 the chemist has produced over #ajj useful commercial products from corn1 which1 without him1 would never have been produced4 ,in the asphalt industry the chemist has taught how to lay a road surface that will always be good1 and he has learned and taught how to construct a suitable road surface for different conditions of service4 ,in the cottonseed oil industry1 the chemist standardized methods of production1 reduced losses1 increased yields1 made new use of wastes and by-products1 and has added somewhere between #aj and #ab to the value of each bale of cotton grown4 ,in the cement industry1 the chemist has ascertained new ingredients1 has utilized theretofore waste products for this purpose1 has reduced the waste heaps of many industries and made them his starting material2 he has standardized methods of manufacture1 introduced methods of chemical control and has insured constancy and permanency of quality and quantity of output4 ,in the sugar industry1 the chemist has been active for so long a time that the memory of man runneth not to the contrary4 ,the sugar industry without the chemist is unthinkable4 ,the ,welsbach mantle is distinctly a chemist's invention and its successful and economical manufacture depends largely upon chemical methods4 ,it would be difficult to give a just estimate of the economic effect of this device upon illumination1 so great and valuable is it4 ,in the textile industry1 he has substituted uniform1 rational1 well-thought out and simple methods of treatment of all the various textile fabrics and fibers where mystery1 empiricism1 rule-of-thumb and their accompanying uncertainties reigned4 ,in the fertilizer industry1 it was the chemist who learned and who taught how to make our immense beds of phosphate rock useful and serviceable to man in the enrichment of the soil2 he has taught how to make waste products of other industries useful and available for fertilization and he has shown how to make the gas works contribute to the fertility of the soil4 ,in the soda industry1 the chemist can successfully claim that he has founded it1 developed it and brought it to its present state of perfection and utility1 but not without the help of other technical men2 the fundamental ideas were and are chemical4 ,in the leather industry1 the chemist has given us all of the modern methods of mineral tanning1 and without them the modern leather industry is unthinkable4 ,in the case of vegetable-tanned leather he has also stepped in1 standardized the quality of incoming material and of outgoing product4 ,in the flour industry the chemist has learned and taught how to select the proper grain for specific purposes1 to standardize the product1 and how to make flour available for certain specific culinary and food purposes4 ,in the brewing industry1 the chemist has standardized the methods of determining the quality of incoming material and of outgoing products1 and has assisted in the development of a product of a quality far beyond that obtaining prior to his entry into that industry4 ,in the preservation of foods1 the chemist made the fundamental discoveries2 up to twenty years ago1 however1 he took little or no part in the commercial operations1 but now is almost indispensable to commercial success4 ,in the water supply of cities1 the chemist has put certainty in the place of uncertainty2 he has learned and has shown how1 by chemical methods of treatment and control1 raw water of varying quality can be made to yield potable water of substantially uniform composition and quality4 ,the celluloid industry and the nitro-cellulose industry owe their very existence and much of their development to the chemist4 ,in the glass industry the chemist has learned and taught how to prepare glasses suitable for the widest ranges of uses and to control the quality and quantity of the output4 ,in the pulp and paper industry1 the chemist made the fundamental observations1 inventions and operations and to-day he is in control of all the operations of the plant itself2 to the chemist also is due the cheap production of many of the materials entering into this industry1 as well as the increased and expanding market for the product itself4 ,sufficient has been presented to show that certain industries of the ,united ,states have been elevated by an infusion of scientific spirit through the medium of the chemist1 and that manufacturing1 at one time entirely a matter of empirical judgment and individual skill1 is more and more becoming a system of scientific processes4 ,the result is that ,american manufacturers are growing increasingly appreciative of scientific research1 and are depending upon industrial researchers--those who catalyze raw materials by brains--as their pathfinders4 ,it is now appropriate to consider just how industrialists are taking advantage of the universities and the products of these4 ,,the ,,methods ,,employed ,,in ,,the ,,attack ,,of ,,industrial ,,problems#b #b ,see also ,bacon1 ,science1 ,n4 ,s41 #dj 7#aiad71 #hga4 ,when an industry has problems requiring solution1 these problems can be attacked either inside or outside of the plant4 ,if the policy of the industrialist is that all problems are to be investigated only within the establishment1 a research laboratory must be provided for the plant or for the company4 ,at present1 in the ,united ,states1 probably not more than one hundred chemical manufacturing establishments have research laboratories or employ research chemists1 although at least five companies are spending over #ajj1jjj per year in research4 ,in ,germany1 and perhaps also in ,england1 such research laboratories in connection with chemical industries have been much more common4 ,the great laboratories of the ,badische ,anilin und ,soda ,fabrik and of the ,elberfeld ,company are striking examples of the importance attached to such research work in ,germany1 and it would be difficult to adduce any stronger argument in support of its value than the marvelous achievements of these great firms4 ,a frequent difficulty encountered in the employment of researchers or in the establishment of a research laboratory1 is that many manufacturers have been unable to grasp the importance of such work1 or know how to treat the men in charge so as to secure the best results4 ,the industrialist may not even fully understand just what is the cause of his manufacturing losses or to whom to turn for aid4 ,if he eventually engages a researcher1 he is sometimes likely to regard him as a sort of master of mysteries who should be able to accomplish wonders1 and1 if he can not see definite results in the course of a few months1 is occasionally apt to consider the investment a bad one and to regard researchers1 as a class1 as a useless lot4 ,it has not been unusual for the chemist to be told to remain in his laboratory1 and not to go in or about the works1 and he must also face the natural opposition of workmen to any innovations1 and reckon with the jealousies of foremen and of various officials4 ,from the standpoint of the manufacturer1 one decided advantage of the policy of having all problems worked out within the plant is that the results secured are not divulged1 but are stored away in the laboratory archives and become part of the assets and working capital of the corporation which has paid for them2 and it is usually not until patent applications are filed that this knowledge1 generally only partially and imperfectly1 becomes publicly known4 ,when it is not deemed necessary to take out patents1 such knowledge is often permanently buried4 ,in this matter of the dissemination of knowledge concerning industrial practice1 it must be evident to all that there is but little cooperation between manufacturers and the universities4 ,manufacturers1 and especially chemical manufacturers1 have been quite naturally opposed to publishing any discoveries made in their plants1 since knowledge is power in manufacturing as elsewhere1 and new knowledge gained in the laboratories of a company may often very properly be regarded as among the most valuable assets of the concern4 ,the universities and the scientific societies1 on the other hand1 exist for the diffusion of knowledge1 and from their standpoint the great disadvantage of the above policy is this concealment of knowledge1 for it results in a serious retardation of the general growth and development of science in its broader aspects1 and renders it much more difficult for the universities to train men properly for such industries1 since all the text-books and general knowledge available would in all probability be far behind the actual manufacturing practice4 ,fortunately1 the policy of industrial secrecy is becoming more generally regarded in the light of reason1 and there is a growing inclination among manufacturers to disclose the details of investigations1 which1 according to tradition1 would be carefully guarded4 ,these manufacturers appreciate the facts that public interest in chemical achievements is stimulating to further fruitful research1 that helpful suggestions and information may come from other investigators upon the publication of any results1 and that the exchange of knowledge prevents many costly repetitions4 ,,industrial ,,fellowships ,if the manufacturer elects to refer his problem to the university or technical school--and because of the facilities for research to be had in certain institutions1 industrialists are following this plan in constantly increasing numbers--such reference may take the form of an industrial fellowship and much has been said and may be said in favor of these fellowships4 ,they allow the donor to keep secret for three years the results secured1 after which they may be published with the donor's permission4 ,they also secure to him patent rights4 ,they give highly specialized training to properly qualified men1 and often secure for them permanent positions and shares in the profits of their discoveries4 ,it should be obvious at the outset that a fellowship of this character can be successful only when there are close confidential relations obtaining between the manufacturer and the officer in charge of the research2 for no such cooperation can be really effective unless based upon a thorough mutual familiarity with the conditions and an abiding faith in the integrity and sincerity of purpose of each other4 ,it is likely to prove a poor investment for a manufacturer to seek the aid of an investigator if he is unwilling to take such expert into his confidence and to familiarize him with all the local and other factors which enter into the problem from a manufacturing standpoint4 ,,the ,,mellon ,,institute ,,of ,,industrial ,,research#c #c ,for a detailed description of the ,mellon ,institute and its work1 see ,bacon and ,hamor1 ,j4 ,ind4 ,eng4 ,chem41 #g 7#aiae71 #cbf-dh4 ,according to the system of industrial research in operation at the ,mellon ,institute of ,industrial ,research of the ,university of ,pittsburgh1 which is not1 in any sense of the word1 a commercial institution1 a manufacturer having a problem requiring solution may become the donor of a fellowship2 the said manufacturer provides the salary of the researcher selected to conduct the investigation desired1 the institute furnishing such facilities as are necessary for the conduct of the work4 ,the money paid in to found a fellowship is paid over by the institute in salary to the investigator doing the work4 ,in every case1 this researcher is most carefully selected for the problem in hand4 ,the institute supplies free laboratory space and the use of all ordinary chemicals and equipment4 ,the chemist or engineer who is studying the problem works under the immediate supervision of men who are thoroughly trained and experienced in conducting industrial research4 ,at the present time1 the ,mellon ,institute1 which1 while an integral part of the ,university of ,pittsburgh1 has its own endowment1 is expending over #aej1jjj annually for salaries and maintenance4 ,a manufacturer secures for a small expenditure--just sufficient to pay the salary of the fellow1 as the man engaged on the investigation is called--all the benefits of an organization of this size1 and many have availed themselves of the advantages1 twenty-eight companies maintaining fellowships at the present time4 ,each fellow has the benefit of the institute's very excellent apparatus1 chemical and library equipment--facilities which are so essential in modern research2 and because of these opportunities and that of being able to pursue post-graduate work for higher degrees1 it has been demonstrated that a higher type of researcher can be obtained by the institute for a certain remuneration than can be generally secured by manufacturers themselves4 ,there is a scarcity of men gifted with the genius for research1 and it requires much experience in selecting suitable men and in training them to the desirable degree of efficiency1 after having determined the special qualities required4 ,important qualifications in industrial researchers are keenness1 inspiration and confidence2 these are often unconsidered by manufacturers1 who in endeavoring to select1 say1 a research chemist1 are likely to regard every chemist as a qualified scientific scout4 ,all researches conducted at the ,mellon ,institute are surrounded with the necessary secrecy1 and any and all discoveries made by the fellow during the term of his fellowship become the property of the donor4 ,when the ,mellon ,institute moved into its #cej1jjj home in ,february1 #aiae1 the industrial fellowship system in operation therein passed out of its experimental stage4 ,during the years of its development no inherent sign of weakness on the part of any one of its constituent factors appeared2 in fact1 the results of the fellowships have been uniformly successful4 ,while problems have been presented by companies which1 upon preliminary investigation1 have proved to be so difficult as to be practically impossible of solution1 there have been so many other problems confronting these companies that important ones were found which lent themselves to solution2 and often the companies did not realize1 until after investigations were started1 just what the exact nature of their problems was and just what improvements and savings could be made in their manufacturing processes4 ,fellowships at the ,mellon ,institute are constantly increasing in the amounts subscribed by industrialists for their maintenance and1 as well1 in their importance4 ,the renewal1 year after year1 of such fellowships1 as those on baking1 petroleum and ores1 goes to show the confidence which industrialists have in the ,mellon ,institute4 ,again1 the large sums of money which are being spent by companies in bringing small unit plants to develop the processes which have been worked out in the laboratory1 demonstrate that practical results are being secured4 ,where there have been sympathy and hearty cooperation between the ,mellon ,institute and the company concerned1 the institute has been able to push through to a successful conclusion large scale experiments in the factory of the company1 which in the beginning of the fellowship seemed almost impossible3 it may be said that the results of the fellowships at the ,mellon ,institute indicate that a form of service to industry has been established1 the possibilities of which no man can say4 ,a ,,few ,,classic ,,unknowns ,,in ,,mathematics ,,by ,,professor ,g4 ,a4 ,,miller ,,university ,,of ,,illinois ,,king ,,hiero is said to have remarked1 in view of the marvelous mechanical devices of ,archimedes1 that he would henceforth doubt nothing that had been asserted by ,archimedes4 ,this spirit of unbounded confidence in those who have exhibited unusual mathematical ability is still extant4 ,even our large city papers sometimes speak of a mathematical genius who could solve every mathematical problem that was proposed to him4 ,the numerous unexpected and far-reaching results contained in the elementary mathematical text-books1 and the ease with which the skilful mathematics teachers often cleared away what appeared to be great difficulties to the students have filled many with a kind of awe for unusual mathematical ability4 ,in recent years the unbounded confidence in mathematical results has been somewhat shaken by a wave of mathematical skepticism which gained momentum through some of the popular writings of ,h4 ,poincare and ,bertrand ,russell4 ,as instances of expressions which might at first tend to diminish such confidence we may refer to ,poincare's contention that geometrical axioms are conventions guided by experimental facts and limited by the necessity to avoid all contradictions1 and to ,russell's statement that mathematics may be defined as the subject in which we never know what we are talking about nor whether what we are saying is true4 ,the mathematical skepticism which such statements may awaken is usually mitigated by reflection1 since it soon appears that philosophical difficulties abound in all domains of knowledge1 and that mathematical results continue to inspire relatively the highest degrees of confidence4 ,the unknowns in mathematics to which we aim to direct attention here are not of this philosophical type but relate to questions of the most simple nature4 ,it is perhaps unfortunate that in the teaching of elementary mathematics the unknowns receive so little attention4 ,in fact1 it seems to be customary to direct no attention whatever to the unsolved mathematical difficulties until the students begin to specialize in mathematics in the colleges or universities4 ,one of the earliest opportunities to impress on the student the fact that mathematical knowledge is very limited in certain directions presents itself in connection with the study of prime numbers4 ,among the small prime numbers there appear many which differ only by #b4 ,for instance1 #c and #e1 #e and #g1 #aa and #ac1 #ag and #ai1 #bi and #ca1 constitute such pairs of prime numbers4 ,the question arises whether there is a limit to such pairs of primes1 or whether beyond each such pair of prime numbers there must exist another such pair4 ,this question can be understood by all and might at first appear to be easy to answer1 yet no one has succeeded up to the present time in finding which of the two possible answers is correct4 ,it is interesting to note that in #aiaa ,e4 ,poincare transmitted a note written by ,m4 ,merlin to the ,paris ,academy of ,sciences in which a theorem was announced from which its author deduced that there actually is an infinite number of such prime number pairs1 but this result has not been accepted because no definite proof of the theorem in question was produced4 ,another unanswered question which can be understood by all is whether every even number is the sum of two prime numbers4 ,it is very easy to verify that each one of the small even numbers is the sum of a pair of prime numbers1 if we include unity among the prime numbers2 and1 in #agdb1 ,c4 ,goldbach expressed the theorem1 without proof1 that every possible even number is actually the sum of at least one pair of prime numbers4 ,hence this theorem is known as ,goldbach's theorem1 but no one has as yet succeeded in either proving or disproving it4 ,although the proof or the disproof of such theorems may not appear to be of great consequence1 yet the interdependence of mathematical theorems is most marvelous1 and the mathematical investigator is attracted by such difficulties of long standing4 ,these particular difficulties are mentioned here mainly because they seem to be among the simplest illustrations of the fact that mathematics is teeming with classic unknowns as well as with knowns4 ,by classic unknowns we mean here those things which are not yet known to any one1 but which have been objects of study on the part of mathematicians for some time4 ,as our elementary mathematical text-books usually confine themselves to an exposition of what has been fully established1 and hence is known1 the average educated man is led to believe too frequently that modern mathematical investigations relate entirely to things which lie far beyond his training4 ,it seems very unfortunate that there should be1 on the part of educated people1 a feeling of total isolation from the investigations in any important field of knowledge4 ,the modern mathematical investigator seems to be in special danger of isolation1 and this may be unavoidable in many cases1 but it can be materially lessened by directing attention to some of the unsolved mathematical problems which can be most easily understood4 ,moreover1 these unsolved problems should have an educational value since they serve to exhibit boundaries of modern scientific achievements1 and hence they throw some light on the extent of these achievements in certain directions4 ,both of the given instances of unanswered classic questions relate to prime numbers4 ,as an instance of one which does not relate to prime numbers we may refer to the question whether there exists an odd perfect number4 ,a perfect number is a natural number which is equal to the sum of its aliquot parts4 ,thus #f is perfect because it is equal to #a #b #c1 and #bh is perfect because it is equal to #a #b #d #g #ad4 ,euclid stated a formula which gives all the even perfect numbers1 but no one has ever succeeded in proving either the existence or the non-existence of an odd perfect number4 ,a considerable number of properties of odd perfect numbers are known in case such numbers exist4 ,in fact1 a very noted professor in ,berlin ,university developed a series of properties of odd perfect numbers in his lectures on the theory of numbers1 and then followed these developments with the statement that it is not known whether any such numbers exist4 ,this raises the interesting philosophical question whether one can know things about what is not known to exist2 but the main interest from our present point of view relates to the fact that the meaning of odd perfect number is so very elementary that all can easily grasp it1 and yet no one has ever succeeded in proving either the existence or the non-existence of such numbers4 ,it would not be difficult to increase greatly the number of the given illustrations of unsolved questions relating directly to the natural numbers4 ,in fact1 the well-known greater ,fermat theorem is a question of this type1 which does not appear more important intrinsically than many others but has received unusual attention in recent years on account of a very large prize offered for its solution4 ,in view of the fact that those who have become interested in this theorem often experience difficulty in finding the desired information in any ,english publication1 we proceed to give some details about this theorem and the offered prize4 ,the following is a free translation of a part of the announcement made in regard to this prize by the ,konigliche ,gesellschaft der ,wissenschaften1 ,gottingen1 ,germany3 ,on the basis of the bequest left to us by the deceased ,dr4 ,paul ,wolskehl1 of ,darmstadt1 a prize of #ajj1jjj mk41 in words1 one hundred thousand marks1 is hereby offered to the one who will first succeed to produce a proof of the great ,fermat theorem4 ,dr4 ,wolfskehl remarks in his will that ,fermat had maintained that the equation x superscript ,greek #a y superscript ,greek #a z superscript ,greek #a could not be satisfied by integers whenever ,greek l is an odd prime number4 ,this ,fermat theorem is to be proved either generally in the sense of ,fermat1 or1 in supplementing the investigations by ,kummer1 published in ,crelle's ,journal1 volume #dj1 it is to be proved for all values of ,grrek #a for which it is actually true4 ,for further literature consult ,hibert's report on the theory of algebraic number realms1 published in volume #d of the ,jahreshericht der ,deutschen ,mathernatiker-,vereinigung1 and volume #a of the ,encyklopadie der mathematischen ,wissenschaften4 ,the prize is offered under the following more particular conditions4 ,the ,konigliche ,gesellschaft der ,wissenschaften in ,gottingen decides independently on the question to whom the prize shall be awarded4 ,manuscripts intended to compete for the prize will not be received1 but1 in awarding the prize only such mathematical papers will be considered as have appeared either in the regular periodicals or have been published in the form of monographs or books which were for sale in the book-stores4 ,the ,gesellschaft leaves it to the option of the author of such a paper to send to it about five printed copies4 ,among the additional stipulations it may be of interest to note that the prize will not be awarded before at least two years have elapsed since the first publication of the paper which is adjudged as worthy of the prize4 ,in the meantime the mathematicians of various countries are invited to express their opinion as regards the correctness of this paper4 ,the secretary of the ,gesellschaft will write to the person to whom the prize is awarded and will also publish in various places the fact that the award has been made4 ,if the prize has not been awarded before ,september #ac1 #bjjg1 no further applications will be considered4 ,while this prize is open to the people of all countries it has become especially well known in ,germany1 and hundreds of ,germans from a very noted university professor of mathematics to engineers1 pastors1 teachers1 students1 bankers1 officers1 etc41 have published supposed proofs4 ,these publications are frequently very brief1 covering only a few pages1 and usually they disclose the fact that the author had no idea in regard to the real nature of the problem or the meaning of a mathematical proof4 ,in a few cases the authors were fully aware of the requirements but were misled by errors in their work4 ,although the prize was formally announced more than seven years ago no paper has as yet been adjudged as fulfilling the conditions4 ,it may be of interest to note in this connection that a mathematical proof implies a marshalling of mathematical results1 or accepted assumptions1 in such a manner that the thing to be proved is a ,,necessary consequence4 ,the non-mathematician is often inclined to think that if he makes statements which can not be successfully refuted he has carried his point4 ,in mathematics such statements have no real significance in an attempted proof4 ,unknowns must be labeled as such and must retain these labels until they become knowns in view of the conditions which they can be proved to satisfy4 ,the pure mathematician accepts only necessary conclusions with the exception that basal postulates have to be assumed by common agreement4 ,the mathematical subject in which the student usually has to contend most frequently with unknowns at the beginning of his studies is the history of mathematics4 ,the ancient ,greeks had already attempted to trace the development of every known concept1 but the work along this line appears still in its infancy4 ,even the development of our common numerals is surrounded with many perplexing questions1 as may be seen by consulting the little volume entitled ,the ,hindu-,arabic ,numerals1 by ,d4 ,e4 ,smith and ,l4 ,c4 ,karpinski4 ,the few mathematical unknowns explicitly noted above may suffice to illustrate the fact that the path of the mathematical student often leads around difficulties which are left behind4 ,sometimes the later developments have enabled the mathematicians to overcome some of these difficulties which had stood in the way for more than a thousand years4 ,this was done1 for instance1 by ,gauss when he found a necessary and sufficient condition that a regular polygon of a prime number of sides can be constructed by elementary methods4 ,it was also done by ,hermite1 ,lindemann and others by proving that epsilon and rho are transcendental numbers4 ,while such obstructions are thus being gradually removed some of the most ancient ones still remain1 and new ones are rising rapidly in view of modern developments along the lines of least resistance4 ,these obstructions have different effects on different people4 ,some fix their attention almost wholly on them and are thus impressed by the lack of progress in mathematics1 while others overlook them almost entirely and fix their attention on the routes into new fields which avoid these difficulties4 ,a correct view of mathematics seems to be the one which looks at both1 receiving inspiration from the real advances but not forgetting the desirability of making the developments as continuous as possible4 ,at any rate the average educated man ought to know that there is no mathematician who is able to solve all the mathematical questions which could be proposed even by those having only slight attainments along this line4 ,,the ,,aboriginal ,,rock-,,stencillings ,,of ,,new ,,south ,,wales ,,by ,,dr4 ,,chas4 ,b4 ,,davenport ,,cold ,,spring ,,harbor1 ,n4 ,y4 ,,in a number of places in eastern ,australia curious aboriginal markings are found on the faces of the sandstone cliffs4 ,a good idea of them is given by the photographs4 ,these came from ,wolgan ,gap near ,wallerang in the ,blue ,mountain region of ,new ,south ,wales4 ,they are found on overhanging rocks that have served as shelters or camping places for the aborigines and which doubtless have protected their works of art4 ,these stencillings are made by a sort of spatter work1 something like that in vogue a generation ago in this country1 using leaves1 etc41 as forms4 ,the rocks at ,wolgan ,gap are a coarse sandstone stained almost black by an iron oxide derived from included bands of ironstone4 ,these black surfaces were selected by the artists4 ,nearby in the rock is a band of shale which had disintegrated at its exposed edge to a white powder4 ,the native artist put some of this white powder in his mouth1 placed his hand or foot upon the rock1 and blew the moistened powder upon and around his outstretched fingers or toes4 ,when he removed them they were outlined on the rock4 ,since the sandstone is coarse and deeply pitted1 the moist powder was blown into minute cavities where it has remained despite the erosive activities of some generations4 ,the presence of the powder is shown on the photographs as a sort of halo around the object4 ,the hands are either right or left1 and1 in some cases1 both hands seem to have been stencilled at once4 ,sometimes the whole arm and hand are stencilled together1 and in one of the photographs a boomerang is shown4 ,the age of these stencils is not known4 ,they were first discovered at ,wolgan ,gap about sixty years ago1 but others have been known for a longer time1 for instance1 those at ,greenwich1 ,parametta ,river1 near ,sydney4 ,the significance of these stencillings has been the subject of some controversy4 ,the natives may have been induced to make them as boys carve their names on benches or even rocks4 ,the materials for making the stencillings were present and1 the example once having been set1 others would emulate it4 ,it is interesting that similar stencillings of the hands were made by cave men on the walls of some of the ,european caves1 as1 for instance1 those of ,aurignac in southern ,france4 ,evidently spatter work is no modern pastime4 ,,the ,,progress ,,of ,,science ,,substitutes ,,for ,,war ,,this war1 beyond measure disastrous to civilization1 is a trial also of our democracy4 ,we may hope that it is an old-world war and an old-men's war1 repugnant to the genius of our newer life4 ,the statements of some of our public men and the contents of some of our newspapers can not be read without discouragement4 ,but it is also true that there has perhaps not appeared a cartoon in any ,american newspaper tending to glorify war1 and no legislation has so far been enacted in preparation for war4 ,there is good reason to believe that the people have not been infected by the contagion of blood4 ,as ,professor ,patrick argued in a recent issue of the ,monthly1 man is by genetic inheritance a fighting and a playing animal1 not an animal delighting in steady work4 ,the ape and the tiger will be exterminated elsewhere in nature before they will be suppressed in man4 ,it is a slow process1 but surely proceeding4 ,the writer of this note has determined the proportion of each century in which the leading nations have been engaged in war4 ,the curve thus found has no great reliability2 for it does not take into account the percentages of the peoples concerned1 but its course clearly indicates that even under circumstances as they have been1 wars will come to an end4 ,and there is good reason to believe that the newer condition--universal education and universal suffrage1 democratic control1 improved economic conditions of living for the people1 the scientific attitude--will tend to bend the curve more rapidly toward the base line of permanent peace on earth and good will to men4 ,while man has inherited instincts which exhibit themselves in playing and fighting1 the same instincts may by social control be diverted to playing the games of art or science1 to fighting disease and vice4 ,it is rarely wise or feasible to attempt to suppress instincts2 they should be directed so as to provide desirable conduct4 ,loyalty to family1 to group1 to neighborhood and to nation can not be lightly cast away for an abstract cosmopolitanism4 ,but it can be expressed otherwise than by seizing everything in sight by cunning or by violence4 ,william ,james1 the great psychologist1 in one of his brilliant essays published in ,the ,popular ,science ,monthly for ,october1 #aiaj1 tells us that history is a bath of blood2 we inherit the war-like type2 our ancestors have bred pugnacity into our bone and marrow2 showing the irrationality and horror of war does not prevent it2 but a moral equivalent can be found by enlisting an army to toil and suffer pain in doing the hard and routine work of the world4 ,it is doubtful1 however1 if the gilded youths to whom ,james refers would accept dish-washing1 clothes-washing and window-washing1 road-building and tunnel-making1 foundries and stoke-holes1 as a substitute for war1 and for the great mass of the people there is more than enough of these things4 ,it is to escape from them that we seek excitement and adventure1 intoxication by drugs and war4 ,professor ,cannon1 of ,harvard ,university1 proposes international football and other athletic contests as substitutes for war4 ,the adrenal glands1 whose secretions excite the combative and martial emotions1 must function1 and their activity1 he argues1 can be directed in this way4 ,mr4 ,bryan has just now made the proposal that we build six great national roads by which armies might be collected for defence2 the secretary of the navy has founded a ,naval ,inventions ,board2 the postmaster general has suggested that aeroplanes be used to deliver mail in order that we may have an aerial corps ready for service4 ,there may be an element of the absurd in some of these proposals1 as there would be in using submarines to catch cod fish1 so that there might be practise in building and managing such crafts for peaceful pursuits4 ,there is1 however1 psychological justification for aiming to direct the emotions so that their discharge is not destructive1 but of benefit to the nation and to the world4 ,such would be the development of our national resources1 the construction of railways1 roads1 waterworks and the like2 social and political reforms2 progress in the care of public health1 in education and in scientific research4 ,it is proposed that the next congress should spend half a billion dollars on the army and navy4 ,it is possible that on a plebiscite vote1 exactly under existing conditions1 a majority would vote to make the department of war a department of public works1 military defence being only one of its functions1 and to spend the sum proposed on public works useful in case of war1 but not an incitement to war4 ,,national ,,wealth ,,and ,,public ,,indebtedness ,,while the lives and the wealth of the ,european nations are being sacrificed on a scale hitherto unparalleled1 it is well in the interests of those nations1 as well as of our own1 that we conserve the lives and wealth of our own people4 ,the greatest wealth of a nation is its children1 its productive workers1 its scientific men and other leaders1 its accumulated knowledge and social traditions4 ,these are immeasurable1 but the ,bureau of the ,census has recently prepared a report on the material wealth and indebtedness1 according to which it is estimated that the total value of all classes of property in the ,united ,states1 exclusive of ,alaska and the insular possessions1 in #aiab1 was #ahg1gci1jjj1jjj1 or #a1ife per capita4 ,this estimate is presented merely as the best approximation which can be made from the data available and as being fairly comparable with that published eight years ago4 ,the increase between #aijd and #aiab was #ge per cent41 for the total amount and #di per cent4 for the per capita4 ,real estate and improvements1 including public property1 alone constituted #aaj1fgg1jjj1jjj1 or #ei per cent4 of the total1 in #aiab4 ,the next greatest item1 #af1adi1jjj1jjj1 was contributed by the railroads2 and the third1 #ad1fid1jjj1jjj1 represented the value of manufactured products1 other than clothing and personal adornments1 furniture1 vehicles and kindred property4 ,the net public-indebtedness in #aiac amounted to #d1hej1dfa1jjj4 ,this amount was made up as follows3 ,national debt1 #a1jbh1efd1jjj1 or #aj4ei per capita2 state debt1 #cde1idb1jjj1 or #c4eg per capita2 county debt1 #cga1ebh1jjj1 or #d4cc per capita2 and municipal debt1 #b1hhd1hhc1jjj1 or #ed4bg per capita4 ,thus the average urban citizen's share of the net federal1 state1 county and municipal debt combined was #gb4gf2 and the average rural citizen's share of the net federal1 state and county debt combined was #ah4di4 ,the total federal debt in #aiaj was #b1iaf1bje1jjj1 of which amount #ifg1cff1jjj was represented by bonds1 #cge1fhb1jjj by non-interest-bearing debt 7principally ,united ,states notes or greenbacks71 and #a1egc1aeg1jjj by certificates and notes issued on deposits of coin and bullion4 ,against this indebtedness there was in the treasury #a1hhg1fda1jjj in cash available for payment of debt1 leaving the net national indebtedness at #a1jbh1efd1jjj1 or #aj4ei per capita4 ,the increase in the net indebtedness between #aijb and #aiac amounted to #f per cent41 but for the per capita figure there was a decrease of #ac per cent4 ,the burden due to the national debt is thus very light in comparison with that imposed by the indebtedness of other great nations4 ,the state debt1 however1 rests still more easily on the shoulders of the average citizen1 being only one third as great as that of the nation4 ,the total state indebtedness in #aiac was #dbb1gig1jjj1 and the net debt--that is1 the total debt less sinking-fund assets--was #cde1idb1jjj1 or #c4eg per capita4 ,the net debt increased by #dd4e per cent4 between #aijb and #aiac1 and the per capita net debt by #ah per cent4 ,the total county debt in #aiac amounted to #cic1bjg1jjj1 of which amount #cga1ebh1jjj1 or #d4cc per capita1 was net debt4 ,the net indebtedness increased by #hi per cent4 between #aijb and #aiac1 and the per capita net indebtedness by #ee per cent4 ,by far the greatest item of indebtedness in this country is that of municipalities4 ,this amounted in #aiac to an aggregate of #c1dfj1jjj1jjj1 of which #b1hhd1hhc1jjj1 or #ed4bg per capita1 represented net indebtedness4 ,the rate of increase in net indebtedness between #aijb and #aiac was #aad per cent4 ,while the nations of ,europe are involving themselves in the toils of debts1 we should use our vast surplus wealth to pay the national1 state and municipal debts1 even those contracted for public improvements4 ,we save every year about #ajj for each adult and child of the country and waste about an equal sum4 ,it would be well if this wealth could be invested for the benefit of each1 and education and scientific research are the most productive of all investments4 ,,scientific ,,items ,,we record with regret the death of ,karl ,eugen ,guthe1 professor of physics in the ,university of ,michigan and dean of the ,graduate ,school1 in ,hanover1 ,germany2 of ,john ,howard ,van ,amringe1 long dean of ,columbia ,college and professor of mathematics2 of ,carlos ,j4 ,finlay1 known for his advocacy of the theory that yellow fever is transmitted by mosquitoes2 of ,a4 ,j4 ,herbertson1 of ,wadham ,college1 ,oxford1 professor of geography in the university2 of ,julius von ,payer1 the distinguished polar explorer and artist1 of ,vienna1 and of ,guido ,goldsehmiedt1 professor of chemistry in the ,university of ,vienna4 ,,dr4 ,,jacques ,,lore1 of the ,rockefeller ,institute for ,medical ,research1 has been elected a foreign fellow of the ,linnean ,society1 ,london4--,dr4 ,david ,bancroft ,johnson1 president of ,winthrop ,normal and ,industrial ,college1 of ,rockhill1 ,s4 ,c41 has been elected president of the ,national ,education ,association1 in succession to ,dr4 ,david ,starr ,jordan1 chancellor of ,stanford ,university4 ,a ,,memorial to ,johann ,c4 ,reil1 the anatomist1 has been erected in ,halle4 ,it stands in front of the university clinic1 the seat of his labors until called to ,berlin in #ahaj4 ,he died in #ahac1 aged fifty-five years4--,a bronze bas-relief--the work of ,mr4 ,s4 ,n4 ,babb--is about to be erected in ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral in memory of ,captain ,scott and his companions who perished in the ,antarctic4 ,at the request of the committee responsible for the memorial an inscription has been written by ,lord ,curzon1 which reads as follows3 ,in memory of ,captain ,robert ,falcon ,scott1 ,c4,v4,o41 ,r4,n41 ,dr4 ,edward ,adrian ,wilson1 ,captain ,lawrence ,e4 ,g4 ,oates1 ,lieut4 ,henry ,r4 ,bowers and ,petty ,officer ,edgar ,evans1 who died on their return journey from the ,south ,pole in ,february and ,march1 #aiab4 ,inflexible of purpose1 steadfast in courage1 resolute in endurance in the face of unparalleled misfortune4 ,their bodies are lost in the ,antarctic ice4 ,but the memory of their deeds is an everlasting monument4 ,,the ,,scientific ,,monthly ,,november1 #aiae ,,papua1 ,,where ,,the ,,stone-,,age ,,lingers ,,by ,,dr4 ,,alfred ,,goldsborough ,,mayer ,,with their undaunted spirit for braving the wilds1 the ,english entered ,new ,guinea in #ahhe4 ,for centuries the great island had remained a mere outline upon the map the fever-haunted glades of its vast swamps and the broken precipices of its mountain ranges having defied exploration1 more than the morose and savage character of its inhabitants4 ,even in the summer of #aiac1 ,massy ,baker the explorer1 discovered a lake probably #ajj miles or more in shore-line1 which had remained hidden in the midst of the dark forests of the ,fly and ,strickland ,river regions1 and here savages still in the stone age1 who had never seen a white man1 measured the potency of their weapons against the modern rifle4 ,to-day there are vast areas upon which the foot of the white man has not yet trodden1 and of all the regions in the tropical world ,new ,guinea beckons with most alluring fascination to him to whom adventure is dearer than life4 ,far back in the dawn of ,european exploration1 the ,portuguese voyager ,antonio de ,abreu1 may have seen the low shores of western ,new ,guinea1 but it is quite certain that sixteen years later1 in #aebg1 ,don ,jorge de ,meneses cruised along the coast and observed the wooly-headed natives whom he called ,papuas4 ,the name ,new ,guinea was bestowed upon the island by the ,spanish captain1 ,ynigo ,ortz de ,retes1 in #aeae1 when he saw the negroid natives of its northern shores4 ,then there came and passed some of the world's greatest navigators4 ,torres wandering from far ,peru1 to unknowingly discover the strait which bears his name2 ,dampier1 the buccancer-adventurer1 and1 in #agfh1 the cultured1 esthetic ,bougainville1 who was enraptured by the beauty of the deep forest-fringed fjords of the northeastern coast4 ,cook1 greatest of all geographers1 mapped the principal islands and shoals of the intricate ,torres ,strait in #aggj2 and a few years later came ,captain ,bligh1 the resourceful leader of his faithful few1 crouching in their frail sail boat that had survived many a tempest2 since the mutineers of the ,bounty had cast them adrift in the mid-,pacific4 ,in the early years of the nineteenth century the scientifically directed ,astrolabe arrived1 under the command of ,dumont ,d',urville1 and1 later1 ,captain ,owen ,stanley in the ,rattlesnake1 with ,huxley as his zoologist1 ,then1 in #aheh1 came ,alfred ,russel ,wallace1 the codiscoverer of ,darwinism1 who1 by the way1 is said to have been the first ,englishman who ever actually resided in ,new ,guinea4 ,the daring explorers and painstaking surveyors came and went1 but the great island remained a land of dread and mystery1 guarded by the jagged reefs of its eastern shores1 and the shallow mud flats1 stretching far to sea-ward beyond the mouths of the great rivers of its southern coast4 ,so inaccessible was ,papua that even the excellent harbor of ,port ,moresby1 the site3 of the present capital1 was not discovered until #ahgc4 ,one has but to stifle for a while in the heavy air that flows lifeless and fetid over the lowlands as if from a steaming furnace1 or to scent the rank odors of the dark swamps1 where for centuries malaria must linger1 to appreciate the reason for the long-delayed ,european settlement of the country4 ,but those who blaze the path of colonial progress are not to be deterred by temperatures or smells2 let us remember that ,batavia1 the white man's graveyard1 is now one of the world's great commercial centers2 and ,jamaica1 the old fever camp of the ,british army1 is now a health resort for tourists4 ,papua1 the land of the tired eyes and the earnest face1 of the willing spirit and the weary body1 waning as strength fails year by year in malaria and heat1 the land wherein the heart aches for the severed ties of wife and home2 its history has hardly yet begun1 but the reward of generations of heroism will be the conquest of another empire where ,england's high standards of freedom are to he raised anew4 ,a victory of peace it is to be1 as noble as any yet achieved in war2 and great through its death roll1 and forgotten though the workers be1 the fruits of their labors will bless that better world ,great ,britain is preparing for those of ages yet to come4 ,there are great resources in ,papua with its area of #ij1ejj square miles4 ,untrodden forests where the dark soil moulders beneath the everlasting shade2 swamps bearing a harvest of thousands of sago and nipa palms1 and mountains in a riot of contorted peaks rising to a height of #ac1bjj feet in the ,owen ,stanley range4 ,it is still a country of surprises1 as when petroleum fields1 probably #a1jjj square miles in area1 were discovered only about four years ago along the ,vailala ,river1 the natives having concealed their knowledge of the bubbling gas springs through fear of offending the evil spirits of the place4 ,it is evident that although the country has been merely glanced over1 there are both agricultural and mineral resources of a promising nature in ,papua4 ,it remains but for modern medicine to over-come the infections of the tropics for the region to rise into prominence as one of the self-supporting colonies of the ,british empire4 ,the early history of ,british occupation centers around the striking personality of ,james ,chalmers1 the great-hearted1 broad-minded1 missionary1 one of the most courageous who ever devoted his life to extending the brotherhood of the white man's ideals4 ,chafing1 as a young man1 under the petty limitations of his mission in the ,cook ,islands1 he sought ,new ,guinea1 as being the wildest and most dangerous field in the tropical ,pacific4 ,here1 for twenty-five years1 he devoted his mighty soul to the work of introducing the rudiments of civilization and ,christianity to the most sullen and dangerous savages upon earth4 ,scores of times his life hung in the balance of native caprice2 wives and friends died by his side1 victims to the malignant climate and to native spears1 while he seemed to possess a charmed life2 until1 true to his prediction1 he was murdered by the cannibals of ,dopina at the mouth of the ,fly ,river in #aija4 ,hundreds of scattered tribes had learned to revere their great leader ,tamate1 as they called him1 who brought peace and prosperity to his followers4 ,yet a danger to ,papua that he himself foresaw and did all in his power to avert came as a result of the introduction of the very civilization of which he was the champion1 for with peace came new wants that the most unscrupulous of traders at once sought to supply at prices ruinous to the social and moral welfare of the natives4 ,also1 the proximity of ,queensland threatened to become a menace2 for ,chalmers himself was well aware of the dark history of the blackbird trade wherein practical slavery was forced upon the indentured laborers1 lured from their island homes to toil as hopeless debtors upon the ,australian plantations4 ,a government of the natives for the native interests he desired2 not one administered from the ,australian mainland in the interest of alien whites4 ,the hopes of ,chalmers were only partially realized1 for ,papua is still only a territory of ,australia4 ,in most respects this condition appears to be unfortunate4 ,the crying needs of a new country are usually peculiarly local and not likely to be appreciated by a distant ruling power4 ,moreover1 ,australia is itself an undeveloped land and requires too large a proportion of its own capital for expansion at home to be a competent protector of a colony across the sea4 ,one feels that ,papuan development might have proceeded with greater smoothness had the colony been more directly under the ,british empire1 rather shall an ,australian dependency4 ,the strategic necessity that ,australia should command both the northern and the southern shores of ,torres ,straits might still have been secured without the sacrifice of any important initiative in matters of government upon the part of ,papua4 ,the cardinal evil that ,chalmers feared has1 however1 been averted4 ,the natives still own #ig #a_/b per cent4 of the entire land area1 and wise laws guard them in this precious possession1 and aim to protect them from all manner of unjust exploitation4 ,it is much to the credit of the government that the cleanest native villages and the most healthy1 ambitious and industrious tribes1 are those nearest the white settlements4 ,contact between the races has resulted in the betterment1 not in the degradation1 of the ,papuan natives4 ,the touch of a master hand is apparent in a multitude of details in managing the natives of ,papua2 and it is of interest to see that in broad essentials the plan of government is adapted from that which the ,english have put to the test of practice in ,fiji2 the modifications being of a character designed to meet the conditions peculiar to ,melanesia1 wherein the chiefs are relatively unimportant in comparison with their role in the social systems of the ,polynesians and ,fijians4 ,foremost in the shaping of the destiny of ,papua stands the commanding figure of ,sir ,william ,macgregor1 administrator and lieutenant governor from #ahhh to #ahih4 ,as a young man ,macgregor was government physician in ,fiji1 where he became prominent not only as a competent guardian of the health of the natives1 but as a leader in the suppression of the last stronghold of cannibalism along the ,singatoka ,river4 ,in ,papua his tireless spirit found a wide field for high endeavor1 and upon every department of the government one finds to-day the stamp of his powerful personality4 ,nor did he remain closeted in ,port ,moresby1 a stranger to the races of his vast domains1 for over the highest mountains and through the densest swamps his expeditions forced their way2 the ,great ,governor always in the van4 ,it was thus that he conquered the fierce ,tugeri of the ,dutch border1 who for generations had been the terror of the coasts2 and wherever his expeditions passed1 peace followed1 and the law of the ,british magistrate supplanted the caprice of the sorcerer4 ,but his hardest fight was not with the mountain wilds or the malarious morasses4 ,it was to secure from the powerful ones of his own race the privileges of freemen for the natives of ,papua4 ,in his youth he had seen the blessings that came with the advent of ,british rule in ,fiji2 and here1 in broad ,new ,guinea1 upon a vaster scale1 he strove to make fair play the dominant note in the white man's treatment of a savage race4 ,arrayed against ,chalmers and ,macgregor were conservatism and suspicion founded in ancient precedent1 and a commercial avarice that saw in native exploitation the readiest means to convert ,new ,guinea into a white man's country4 ,aversion there was also in high places to embarking upon a possibly fruitless experiment1 involving generations of labor and expense for a remote and uncertain harvest4 ,chalmers and ,macgregor1 however1 through the force of their high convictions and the wisdom of their wide experience1 won the great fight for fairness2 for civilization's cardinal victories are those1 not of the soldier1 but of the civil servant who dares risk his reputation and his all for those things he deems just and generous2 and when ,papua comes to erect statues to her great leaders1 those of these two patriots must surely occupy the highest places1 as champions of the liberties of the weak4 ,the noble policy of ,macgregor is still1 and let us hope it long may be1 the keynote of the administration in ,papua1 which to-day is being ably carried forward under the great governor's disciple1 the ,honorable ,john ,h4 ,p4 ,murray4 ,the proclamation given by ,captain ,erskine in #ahhd declared that a ,british ,protectorate had become essential for the safeguarding of the lives and property of the natives of ,new ,guinea and for the purpose of preventing the occupation of the country by persons whose proceedings might lead to injustice1 strife and bloodshed1 or whose illegitimate trade might endanger the liberties and alienate the lands of the natives4 ,it is1 however1 one thing for a government to declare its altruistic intentions1 but often quite another to carry them into effect4 ,in ,papua1 every effort has been made to prevent robbery of the natives by unscrupulous whites4 ,the natives are firmly secured in the possession of their lands1 which they can neither sell1 lease nor dispose of1 except to the government itself4 ,thus the natives and the government are the only two landlords in the country4 ,to acquire land in ,papua1 the ,european settler must rent it from the government1 for he is not permitted to acquire fee simple rights4 ,the whites are thus tenants of the government1 and are subject to such rules and regulations as their landlord may decree4 ,the tenant is1 however1 recognized as the creator and owner of any improvements he may erect upon the land1 and1 at the expiration of his lease1 the government undertakes to pay him a fair compensation for such improvements1 provided he has lived up to the letter of regulations respecting his tenure4 ,for agricultural land a merely nominal rental is demanded1 ranging from nothing for the first ten years to a final maximum of six pence per acre2 yet this system has had the effect of retarding ,european settlement1 for1 although its area is twice that of ,cuba1 ,papua had but #a1jfd whites in #aiab1 and only one one hundred and seventy-fourth of the territory is held under lease4 ,men of the type who can conquer the primeval forests and create industries prefer to own their land outright1 and are apt to resent the restrictions of complex government regulations1 however wisely administered4 ,socialism1 while it may in some measure be desirable in old and settled communities1 serves but to dull that sense of personal freedom which above all spurs the pioneer onward to success in a wild and dangerous region4 ,possibly in the end1 the government may find it advantageous to permit certain lands to be acquired by ,europeans1 in fee simple2 for until this is done the settlement of the country must proceed with extreme slowness4 ,moreover1 mere tenants owning nothing but their improvements1 and even these being subject to government appraisement1 may be unduly tempted to drain1 rather than to develop1 the resources of the land they occupy4 ,but the chief aim of the ,papuan government is to introduce civilization among the natives1 and a slow increase in the ,european population is of primary necessity to the accomplishment of this result4 ,at present the natives are not taxed1 the chief sources of revenue being derived from the customs duties upon imports1 the bulk of which are consumed by the ,europeans1 and this source of income is supplemented by an annual grant of about #be1jjj pounds from the ,australian ,commonwealth1 but1 due to the duties upon food and necessities1 the cost of living is higher than it should be in a new country4 ,judging1 however1 from the experience of the ,english in ,fiji and of the ,dutch in ,java1 the natives would be benefited rather than oppressed by a moderate poll tax to be paid in produce1 thus developing habits of industry1 and in some measure offsetting the evil effects of that insidious apathy which follows upon the sudden abolition of native warfare4 ,every effort should also he made to encourage and educate the ,papuans in the production and sale of manufactured articles4 ,one must regret the loss of many arts and crafts among the primitive peoples of the ,pacific1 which1 if properly fostered under ,european protection to insure a market and an adequate payment for their wares1 would have been a source of revenue and a factor of immeasurable import in developing that self respect and confidence in themselves which the too sudden modification of their social and religious ,systems is certain to destroy4 ,the ordinary mission schools are deficient in this respect1 devoting their major energies to the three ,r's and to religious instruction1 and1 while it is pleasing to observe a boy whose father was a cannibal extracting cube roots1 one can not but conclude that the acquisition of some money-making trade would be more conducive to his happiness in after life4 ,it is not too much to say that the chief problem in dealing with an erstwhile savage race is to overcome the universal loss of interest and decline in energy which inevitably follows upon the development of that semblance of civilization which is enforced with the advent of the white man4 ,the establishment of manual training schools wherein arts and crafts which may be profitably practiced by the natives as life-professions1 is a first essential to the salvation of the race4 ,these schools should and would in no manner interfere with the religious teaching received from missionaries1 but would indeed be a most potent factor in the spread of true ,christianity among the natives4 ,whether ,christianity be true or false does not affect the case1 for the natives are destined to be dominated by ,christian peoples1 and it primarily essential that they should understand at least the rudiments of ,christian ideals and behavior4 ,the realization of the importance of training them to the pursuit of useful arts and trades1 which would enable the natives to become self-supporting in the ,european sense1 has been perceived by certain thinkers among the missionaries themselves1 and in certain regions efforts are being made the success of which should revolutionize our whole method of dealing with the problem of introducing civilization among a primitive people4 ,keep their minds active and their hands employed in self-supporting work and their morals and religion will safely fall into accord with ,christian standards4 ,up to the present native education has been left to the devoted efforts of the missionaries1 who have more than #aj1jjj pupils under their charge1 but the time is coming when the government should cooperate in establishing trade schools wherein crafts1 providing life-vocations to the natives1 may be taught4 ,there may be more than #bge1jjj natives in ,papua1 but1 due to lack of knowledge of the country1 the actual number is unknown4 ,among the mountain fastnesses1 defending themselves in tree-houses1 one finds a frizzly-headed black negrito-like race hardly more than five feet in height4 ,these are probably remnants of the pigmy pre-,dravidian or ,negrito-,papuan element1 which constituted the most ancient inhabitants of the island and who long ago were driven inland from the coveted coast4 ,the burly negroid ,papuans of the ,great ,river deltas of western ,papua differ widely from the lithe1 active1 brown-skinned1 mop-headed natives of the eastern half of the southern coast2 and ,professors ,haddon and ,seligmann have decided that in eastern ,new ,guinea many ,proto-,polynesian1 ,melanesian and ,malayan immigrants have mingled their blood with that of the more primitive ,papuans4 ,thus there are many complexly associated ethnic elements in ,new ,guinea1 and often people living less than a hundred miles apart can not understand one another2 in fact1 each village has its peculiar dialect4 ,social customs and cultural standards in art and manufacture vary greatly from the same cause1 and each tribe has some remarkable individual characteristics4 ,in the ,fly-,river region1 the village consists of a few huge houses with mere stalls for the families1 which crowd for defence under the shelter of a single roof4 ,along the southern side of the eastern end of the island1 however1 each family has its own little thatched hut1 and these are often built for defense upon piling over the sea1 reminding one of the manner of life of the prehistoric ,swiss-lake dwellers4 ,nearly #ab1jjj natives are at present employed by the whites as indentured laborers in ,papua1 their terms of service ranging from three years1 upon agricultural work1 to not more than eighteen months in mining4 ,their wages range from about #a4ej to #e4jj per month1 and all payments must be made in the presence of a magistrate and in coin or approved bank notes4 ,at every turn both employer and employed are wisely safeguarded2 the native suffering imprisonment for desertion1 and the employer being prohibited from getting the blacks into debt1 or from treating them harshly or unjustly4 ,their enlistment must be voluntary and executed in the presence of a magistrate1 and1 after their term of service1 the employer is obliged to return them to their homes4 ,one is impressed with the many manifestations of a fair degree of efficiency on the part of the native laborers1 who are really good plantation hands and resourceful sailors4 ,in fact1 trade has always been practiced to a considerable extent by the shore tribes1 the pottery of the eastern end of the coast being annually exchanged for the sago produced by the natives of the ,fly ,river ,delta4 ,it is a picturesque sight to see the large lakatois1 or trading canoes1 creeping along in the shadow of the palm-fringed shores under the great wall of the mountains1 the lakatoi consisting of a raft composed of six or more canoes lashed together side by side1 and covered by a platform which bears a thatched hut serving to house the sailors and their wares4 ,the craft is propelled by graceful crescent-shaped lateen sails of pandanus matting and steered by sweeps from the stern4 ,trading voyages of hundreds of miles are often undertaken1 the lakatois starting from the east at the waning of the southeast trade wind in early ,november and returning a month or two later in the season of the northwest monsoon4 ,the ,papuan is both ingenious and industrious when working in his own interest1 and with tactful management he becomes a faithful and fairly efficient laborer4 ,perhaps the most serious defect in the present system of employment in ,papua is the usually long interval between payments4 ,the natives are not paid at intervals of less than one month and1 often1 not until the expiration of their three-year term of service4 ,with almost no knowledge of arithmetic and possessed of a fund which seems large beyond the dreams of avarice1 he is practically certain to be cheated by the dishonest tradesmen who flock vulture-like to centers of commercial activity4 ,this evil might be in large measure prevented were the natives to be paid at monthly intervals1 for they would then gradually become accustomed to the handling of money and would gain an appreciation of its actual value4 ,generations must elapse before more than a moderate degree of civilization is developed in ,papua1 but the foundations are being surely and conservatively laid1 and already in the civilized centers natives respect and loyally serve their ,british friends and masters4 ,in common with many another ,british colony1 the safeguard of ,papua lies not in the rifles of the whites1 but in the loyal hearts of the natives themselves1 and in ,papua1 as in ,fiji1 the native constabulary under the leadership of a mere handful of ,europeans may be trusted to maintain order in any emergency4 ,as ,governor ,murray truly states in his interesting book ,papua1 or ,british ,new ,guinea1 the most valuable asset the colony possesses is not its all but unexplored mineral wealth or the potential value of its splendid forests and rich soil1 but it is the ,papuans themselves1 and let us add that under the leadership of the high-minded1 self-sacrificing and well-trained civil servants of ,great ,britain the dawn of ,papuan civilization is fast breaking into the sunlight of a happiness such as has come to but few of the erstwhile savage races of the earth4 ,without belittling the nobility of purpose or disregarding the self-sacrificing devotion of the missionary for his task1 let us also grant to the civil servant his due share of praise4 ,his duty he also performs in the dangerous wilds of the earth2 beset with insidious disease1 stifling in unending heat1 exiled from home and friends1 with suspicious savages around him1 he labors with waning strength in that struggle against climate wherein the ultimate ruin of his body is assured4 ,yet in his heart there lives1 growing as years elapse1 the ,english gentleman's ideal of service1 and for him it is sufficient that1 though he is to be invalided and forgotten even before he dies1 yet his will have been one of those rare spirits who have extended to the outer world his mother country's ideal of justice and fair play4 ,,contact ,,electrification ,,and ,,the ,,electric ,,current ,,by ,,professor ,,fernando ,,sanford ,,stanford ,,university ,,in a previous paper in this journal1 entitled ,the ,discovery of ,contact ,electrification 7,november1 #aiac71 it was shown that the production of electric charges by the mere contact of two dissimilar metals was first discovered by ,rev4 ,abraham ,bennett1 in #aghi1 and that it was verified by a different method by ,tiberius ,cavallo1 in #agie4 ,meantime1 in #agia1 ,dr4 ,galvani discovered the twitching of a frog's muscle1 due to electrical stimulus4 ,galvani's discovery was described by himself as follows3#a #a ,translation from ,makers of ,electricity1 p #adc4 ',i had dissected a frog and had prepared it1 as in ,figure #b of the fifth plate1 and had placed it upon a table on which there was an electric machine1 while ,i set about doing certain other things4 ,the frog was entirely separated from the conductor of the machine1 and indeed was at no small distance away from it4 ,while one of those who were assisting me touched lightly and by chance the point of his scalpel to the internal crural nerves of the frog1 suddenly all the muscles of its limbs were seen to be so contracted that they seemed to have fallen into tonic convulsions4 ,another of my assistants1 who was making ready to take up certain experiments in electricity with me1 seemed to notice that this happened only at the moment when a spark came from the conductor of the machine4 ,he was struck by the novelty of the phenomenon1 and immediately spoke to me about it1 for ,i was at the moment occupied with other things and mentally preoccupied4 ,i was at once tempted to repeat the experiment1 so as to make clear whatever might be obscure in it4 ,for this purpose ,i took up the scalpel and moved its point close to one or the other of the crural nerves of the frog1 while at the same time one of my assistants elicited sparks from the electric machine4 ,the phenomenon happened exactly as before4 ,strong contractions took place in every muscle of the limb1 and at the very moment when the sparks appeared1 the animal was seized as it were with tetanus4' ,following this original observation1 ,galvani made a great many experiments on the effect of electric stimulus upon the nerves of frogs and other animals4 ,he found that the twitching of the frog's muscles could be produced by atmospheric electricity1 both at the time of lightning and at other times when no lightning was visible4 ,during these investigations he observed that when the legs of the frog were suspended from an iron railing by a hook through the spinal cord1 and when this hook was of some other metal than iron1 the muscles would twitch whenever the feet touched the iron railing4 ,he tried out a number of pairs of metals1 and found that when the nerve was touched by one metal and the muscle or another point on the nerve was touched by another metal and the two metals were then brought into contact or were connected through another metal or through the human body1 the muscles would contract as they would when stimulated by electricity4 ,galvani concluded that the contraction in this case1 as in the earlier experiments1 was produced by an electric stimulation1 and since the metals seemed to him to serve merely as the conductors of the electric discharge1 he concluded that the source of the electricity must be in the tissues of the animal body4 ,this seemed all the more probable since it was known that certain fishes and an electric eel were capable of giving violent electric shocks4 ,this electricity of the eels and fishes had been named animal electricity1 and ,galvani concluded that all animals were capable of producing this electricity in the tissues of their bodies4 ,he believed this electricity was to be found in various parts of the body1 but that it was especially collected in the nerves and muscles4 ,the especial property of this animal electricity seemed to be that it discharged from the nerves into the muscles1 or in the contrary direction1 and that to effect this discharge it would take the path of least resistance through the metal conductor or through the human body4 ,since during this discharge the muscle was caused to contract1 ,galvani concluded that the purpose of this animal electricity was to produce muscular contractions4 ,galvani seems to have concerned himself principally with the physiological processes which he believed gave rise to the electric charges1 but physicists began immediately to seek for other sources of the electricity4 ,the one observation which seemed to offer a definite suggestion as to the possible source of the electrical charge was the fact that1 in general two different metals must be used to connect the muscle and nerve before a discharge would take place from the one to the other4 ,this made ,galvani's theory that the metals served merely as conductors seem improbable4 ,on the other hand1 it was sometimes possible to get the muscular contractions by using a single bent wire or rod to connect the nerve and muscle1 especially if the two ends were of different degrees of polish1 or if one end was warmer than the other4 ,volta was apparently the first to suggest that the electricity which seemed to be generated in ,galvani's experiments might have its source in the contact of the two metals4 ,several writers called attention to an apparent relation between ,galvani's experiments and a phenomenon announced by ,j4 ,g4 ,sulzer1 in #agfj4 ,sulzer found that if pieces of lead and silver were placed upon the tongue separately no marked taste was produced by either1 but that if while both were on the tongue the metals were brought into contact a strong taste was produced which he compared to the taste of iron vitriol4 ,here was a case of undoubted stimulation of the nerves of taste by the contact of two metals1 and it seemed not improbable that other nerves might be stimulated in the same manner4 ,in the meantime ,mr4 ,john ,robison had increased the ,sulzer effect greatly by building up a pile of pieces of zinc with silver shillings and placing these in contact with the tongue and the cheek4 ,it was the question as to the possibility of producing the electric charge by mere metallic contact which led ,cavallo to make his experiments upon contact electrification4 ,thus ,cavallo says in ,volume ,,iii4 of ,a ,complete ,treatise on ,electricity1 published in #agie3 ',the above mentioned singular properties1 together with some other facts1 which will be mentioned in the sequel induced ,mr4 ,volta1 to suspect that possibly in many cases the motions are occasioned by a small quantity of electricity produced by the mere contact of two different metals2 though he acknowledges that he by no means comprehends in what manner this can happen4 ,this suspicion being entertained by so eminent a philosopher as ,mr4 ,volta1 induced ,dr4 ,lind and myself to attempt some experiment which might verify it2 and with this in view we connected together a variety of metallic substances in diverse quantities1 and that by means of insulated or not insulated communications2 we used ,mr ,volta's condenser1 and likewise a condenser of a new sort2 the electrometer employed was of the most sensible sort2 and various other contrivances were used1 which it will be needless to describe in this place2 but we could never obtain the smallest appearance of electricity from those metallic combinations4 ,yet we can infer to no other conclusion1 but that if the mere combination1 or contact1 of the two metals produces any electricity1 the quantity of it in our experiments was too small to he manifested by our instruments4' ,later1 on page #aaa of the same volume1 he says3 ',after many fruitless attempts1 and after having sent to the press the preceding part of this volume1 ,i at last hit upon a method of producing electricity by the action of metallic substances upon one another1 and apparently without the interference of electric bodies4 ,i say apparently so1 because the air seems to be in a great measure concerned in those experiments1 and perhaps the whole effect may be produced by that surrounding medium4 ,but1 though the irregular1 contradictory1 and unaccountable effects observed in these experiments do not as yet furnish any satisfactory theory1 and though much is to be attributed to the circumambient air1 yet the metallic substances themselves seem to be endowed with properties peculiar to each of them1 and it is principally in consequence of those properties that the produced electricity is sometimes positive1 at other times negative1 and various in its intensity4' ,cavallo then proceeds to describe the experiments on contact electrification which were described in the previous paper referred to at the beginning of the article4 ,cavallo's experiments were evidently made in #agie4 ,in the following year ,volta announced the discovery of the electrical current4 ,in a letter written to ,gren's ,neues ,journal der ,physik1 ,august1 #agif1 ,volta says3 ',the contact of different conductors1 particularly the metallic1 including pyrites and other minerals as well as charcoal1 which ,i call dry conductors1 or of the first class with moist conductors1 or conductors of the second class1 agitates or disturbs the electric fluid1 or gives it a certain impulse4 ,do not ask in what manner3 it is enough that it is a principle and a great principle4' ,it will be seen that at this stage of his discovery ,volta was inclined to attribute tho origin of the current to the contact between the metals and his moist conductors of the second class1 though later in the same article he says it is impossible to tell whether the impulse which sets the current in motion is to be attributed to the contact between the metals themselves or between the two metals and the moist conductor1 since either supposition would lead to the same results4 ,later1 as was shown in the previous paper by the present writer ,volta came to regard the metallic contact as the cause of the electromotive force4 ,in a letter written to ,gren in #agig and published as a postscript to his letter of ,august1 #agif1 ,volta says3 ',some new facts1 lately discovered1 seem to show that the immediate cause which excites the electric fluid1 and puts it in motion1 whether it be an attraction or a repulsive power1 is to be ascribed much rather to the mutual contact of two different metals1 than to their contact with moist conductors4' ,the new facts1 lately discovered1 to which ,volta attributes his change of view were his repetitions of ,bennett's experiments of #aghi4 ,volta apparently thought that the current was not only set up by the contact of the two metals of a pair1 but that it was kept up by the mutual action of the metals on each other4 ,he accordingly made no attempt to discover whether any changes took place in his circuit while the current was being generated4 ,the chemical action on his metals and the dissociation in his electrolyte seem to have entirely escaped his attention4 ,at least1 he did not attach enough importance to them to mention them anywhere in his description of his apparatus4 ,in the meantime a chemical explanation of the phenomena observed by ,galvani had been proposed in #agib by ,fabroni1 a physicist of ,florence4 ,after discussing the ,sulzer phenomenon already mentioned in this paper1 ,fabroni argues that the peculiar taste caused by bringing the two metals into contact while on the tongue is due to a chemical1 rather than to an electrical1 action4 ,he then discusses the different chemical behavior of metals when taken singly and when placed in contact with other metals4 ,he says3#b #b ,the following quotations from ,fabroni have been translated by the present writer from the ,german of ,ostwald's ,elektrochemie1 pp4 #ajc1 ff4 ,i have already frequently observed that fluid mercury retains its beautiful metallic luster for a long time when by itself2 but as soon as it is amalgamated with any other metal it becomes rapidly dim or oxidized1 and in consequence of its continuous oxidation increases in weight4 ,i have preserved pure tin for many years without its changing its silvery luster1 while different alloys of this metal which ,i have prepared for technical purposes have behaved quite otherwise4 ,i have seen in the museum at ,cortonne ,etrusean inscriptions upon plates of pure lead which are perfectly preserved to this day' although they date from very ancient times2 on the other hand1 ,i have found with astonishment in the gallery of ,florence that the so-called piombi or leaden medallions of different popes1 in which tin and possibly some arsenic have been mixed to make them harder and more beautiful1 have fallen completely to white powder1 or have changed to their oxides1 though they were wrapped in paper and preserved in drawers4 ,in the same way ,i have observed that the alloy which was used for soldering the copper plates upon the movable roof of the observatory at ,florence has changed rapidly and in places of contact with the copper plates has gone over into a white oxide4 ,i have heard also in ,england that the iron nails which were formerly used for fastening the copper plates of the sheathing of ships were attacked on account of contact1 and that the holes became enlarged until they would slip over the heads of the nails which held them in position4 ,it seems to me that this is sufficient to show that the metals in these cases exert a mutual influence upon each other1 and that to this must be ascribed the cause of the phenomena which they show by their combination or contact4 ,after discussing some of the experiments on nerve stimulation which had been made by ,galvani and others1 ,fabroni argues that these are principally1 if not wholly1 due to chemical action1 and that the undoubted electrical phenomena which sometimes accompany them are not the cause of the muscular contractions4 ,in discussing the nature of the chemical changes produced in two metals by their mutual contact1 ,fabroni says3 ',since the metals have relationships with each other1 the molecules must mutually attract each other as soon as they come into contact4 ,one can not determine the force of this attraction1 but ,i believe it is sufficient to weaken their cohesion so that they become inclined to go into new combinations and to more easily yield to the influence of the weakest solvents4' ,in order to further show the weakening of cohesion by the contact of two metals1 ,fabroni describes the results of some experiments which he has made4 ,he says3 ',in order to assure myself of the truth of my assumptions1 ,i put into different vessels filled with water3 7#a7 ,separate pieces1 for example1 of gold in one1 silver in another1 copper in the third1 likewise tin1 lead1 etc4 7#b7 ,in other similar vessels ,i put pieces of the same metals in pairs1 a more oxidizable and a less oxidizable metal in each pair' but separated from each other by strips of glass 7#c7 ,finally1 ,i put in other vessels pairs of different metals which were placed in immediate contact with each other4 ,the first two series suffered no marked change1 while in the latter series the more oxidizable metal became visibly covered with oxide in a few instants after the contact was made4' ,fabroni found that under the above circumstances his oxidizable metals dissolved in the water1 and in some cases salts were formed which crystallized out4 ,he then compares the metals in contact with each other in water with the metals on the tongue when brought into contact1 as in ,sulzer's experiment1 and the two metals touching each other by which different points on a nerve were touched to produce the muscular twitchings in ,galvani's experiments1 and concludes that the chemical action upon the metals was the same in each case1 and that the other phenomena observed must have resulted from this chemical action4 ,it is not strange that when ,volta showed later that an electric current passed between the metals in all of tho above cases ,fabroni should regard the chemical action which he had previously observed as the cause of this current4 ,ten years after the publication of ,fabroni's original paper1 ,volta wrote a letter to ,j4 ,c4 ,delamethrie which was published in ,vol4 ,i of ,nicholson's ,journal4 ,this letter was written after the chemical changes in the voltaic cell had received a great deal of attention by many experimenters1 the most prominent of whom was ,davy4 ,to show that ,volta's theory as to the source of the current was not affected by these investigations1 a quotation from this letter is given below4 ',you have requested me to give you an account of the experiments by which ,i demonstrate1 in a convincing manner1 what ,i have always maintained1 namely1 that the pretended agent1 or ,,galvanic ,,fluid1 is nothing but common electrical ,,fluid1 and that this fluid is incited and moved by the simple ,,mutual ,,contact ,,of ,,different ,,conductors1 particularly the metallic2 strewing that two metals of different kinds1 connected together1 produce already a small quantity of true electricity1 the force and kind of which ,i have determined2 that the effects of my new apparatus 7which might be termed electromotors71 whether consisting of a pile1 or in a row of glasses1 which have so much excited the attention of philosophers1 chemists1 and physicians2 that these so powerful and marvelous effects are absolutely no more than the sum total of the effects of a series of several similar metallic couples or pairs2 and that the chemical phenomena themselves1 which are obtained by them1 of the decomposition of water and other liquids1 the oxidation of metals1 c41 are secondary effects2 effects1 ,i mean1 of this electricity1 of this continual current of electrical fluid1 which by the above mentioned action of the connected metals1 establishes itself as soon as we form a communication between the two extremities of the apparatus1 by means of a conducting bow2 and when once established1 maintains itself1 and continues as long as the circuit remains interrupted4'#c #c ,this seems to be a misprint for uninterrupted4 ,further along in the same letter ,volta reiterates his conviction that the contact of the two metals furnishes the true motive power of the current4 ,thus he says 7p4 #ach73 ',as to the rest1 the action which excites and gives motion to the electric fluid does not exert itself1 as has been erroneously thought1 at the contact of the wet substance with the metal1 where it exerts so very small an action1 that it may be disregarded in comparison with that which takes place1 as all my experiments prove1 at the place of contact of different metals with each other4 ,consequently the true element of my electromotive apparatus1 of the pile1 of cups1 and others that may be constructed according to the same principles1 is the simple metallic couple1 or pair1 composed of two different metals1 and not a moist substance applied to a metallic one1 or inclosed between two different metals1 as most philosophers have pretended4 ,the humid strata employed in these complicated apparatus are applied therefore for no other purpose than to effect a mutual communication between all the metallic pairs1 each to each1 ranged in such a manner as to impel the electric fluid in one direction1 or in order to make them communicate1 so that there may be no action in a direction contrary to the others4' ,at the end of the above letter as published in ,nicholson's ,journal1 the editor1 ,william ,nicholson1 comments at length on ,volta's theory of the source of current in the cell and calls attention to the fact that ,davy had already made cells by the use of a single metal and two different liquids4 ,at the conclusion of his comments he calls attention to the fact that ,bennett and ,cavallo had performed experiments with contact electrification prior to ,volta's experiments1 and says in conclusion1 after referring to ,bennett1 ',this last philosopher1 as well as ,cavallo1 appears to think that different bodies have different attractions or capacities for electricity2 but the singular hypothesis of electromotion1 or a perpetual current of electricity being produced1 by the contact of two metals is1 ,i apprehend1 peculiar to ,volta4' ,this peculiar theory of ,volta's probably never gained many adherents and was necessarily abandoned as soon as the energy relations of the current were considered1 but the controversy as to whether the electrical current or the accompanying chemical changes was the primary phenomenon soon became transferred to a quite different field1 viz41 to the origin of the electrical charges which ,bennett had shown resulted from the contact of different metals4 ,bennett attempted to account for the phenomena which he had observed on the hypothesis that different substances have a greater or less affinity with the electric fluid1 and ,cavallo says3 ',i am inclined to suspect that different bodies have different capacities for holding the electric fluid4' ,volta reaches a similar conclusion after repeating some of ,bennett's experiments4 ,in referring to this decision of ,volta as to the origin of the electric charge in contact electrification1 ,ostwald says3 ',we stand here at a point where the most prolific error of ,electrochemistry begins1 the combating of which has from that time on occupied almost the greater part of the scientific work in this field4' ,the error1 from ,ostwald's point of view1 lies in the assumption that the transference of electricity from the one metal to the other is a primary phenomenon of metallic contact4 ,he1 with many others1 including some of the most distinguished physicists and chemists of the past century1 regard the electrical transference as a secondary phenomenon resulting from the previous oxidation of one of the metals4 ,thus ,lodge1 in discussing the opposite electrification of plates of zinc and copper when brought into contact says3 ',the effective cause of the whole phenomenon in either case is the greater affinity of oxygen for zinc rather than copper4' ,the apparent conflict of opinion between those who hold that the different affinities of the metals for oxygen is the cause of the rearrangement of their electrical charges when brought into contact and those who hold with ,bennett and ,cavallo that the metals in their natural state have different affinities for the electrical fluid must disappear when we recognize that all affinity1 and consequently the affinity for oxygen1 must be an electrical attraction4 ,if zinc has an affinity for oxygen1 it must be because the zinc is either electropositive or electronegative to oxygen4 ,if it has a greater affinity for oxygen than copper has1 then the zinc must be either electropositive or electronegative to copper4 ,this being the case1 and both being conductors1 it is not surprising that some electricity will flow from one to the other when the two metals are brought into contact4 ,those writers who attribute the oxidation theory of contact electrification to ,fabroni apparently overlook the fact that not oxidation1 but the weakening of the cohesion of at least one of the metals due to their contact1 was the primary phenomenon in ,fabroni's theory4 ,when this is remembered1 it is seen that the observations of ,bennett and ,fabroni1 instead of furnishing arguments for two conflicting theories1 actually serve1 as all true scientific observations must1 to supplement each other4 ,thus we now know that cohesion or affinity is an electrical attraction between the atoms or molecules of a body4 ,the only known methods of changing the electrical attraction between two bodies whose distances and directions from other bodies remain constant is by varying the magnitude of their charges or by changing the specific inductive capacity of the medium between them4 ,bennett observed that when two pieces of different metal in their normal electrical condition are placed in contact1 there is a redistribution of the charges of their surface atoms4 ,fabroni observed under the same conditions a change in the surface cohesion of the two metals4 ,to the present writer this seems the actual sequence of phenomena1 viz41 a redistribution of the charges of the surface atoms of the metals1 a consequent change in surface cohesion and a resultant oxidation of one of the metals4 ,,on ,,certain ,,resemblances ,,between ,,the ,,earth ,,and ,a ,,butternut ,,by ,,professor ,a1 ,c4 ,,lane ,,tufts ,,college ,,the drama of the earth's history consists in the struggle between the forces of uplift and the forces of degradation4 ,the forces of uplift are mainly the outward expression of the inner energy and heat of the earth1 whether they be the volcano belching its ashes thousands of meters into the air1 or the earthquake1 with the attendant crack or fault in the earth's crust1 leading to a sudden displacement1 and sending1 far and wide1 a death-dealing shock1 or those mountain-building actions1 which1 though they may be as gentle and gradual as might be produced by the breathing of mother earth and the uplifting of her bosom thereby1 nevertheless1 end in the huge folds of our mountain ranges4 ,against these1 there are always working the forces of degradation--the slow rotting of weathering caused by the direct chemical action of the moist atmosphere or the alternation of hot and cold which crumbles rocks far above the line where rain never falls4 ,once the rock is rotten and decayed1 it yields readily to the forces of degradation1 which drag it down--the beating of the rain1 the rush of the avalanche or of the landslide1 the tumult of the torrent1 the quieter action of the muddy river in its lower reaches or the mighty glacier which transfers fine and coarse material alike toward the sea4 ,these actions are always going on4 ,are they always equally balanced1 or are there periods when the forces of elevation are more active1 the forces of degradation not so powerful1 as against other times in which the forces of degradation alone are at work8 ,if there is inequality in the balance and struggle of these contending forces1 the great periods or acts in the geologic drama might thus be marked off as ,chamberlin suggests4 ,newbery1 ,schuchert and others have pointed out that there seem to have been great cycles of sedimentation which may be interpreted as due to the alternate success1 first of the factors of elevation1 then of those of degradation4 ,suppose1 for instance1 that there has been an epoch of elevation1 that mountain chains have been lifted far into the sky and volcanoes have sent their floods of lava forth1 and fault-scarped cliffs run across the landscape and that then1 for a while1 the forces of elevation cease their work4 ,little by little1 the mountains will be worn down to a surface of less and less relief1 approaching a plain as a hyperbola approaches its asymptote--a surface which ,w4 ,m4 ,davis has called peneplain4 ,but where will the material thus worn go8 ,into the sea4 ,going into the ocean it will raise the level of the sea slowly but surely4 ,at present1 for every four feet of elevation taken off the land1 there will be something like one foot rise of the ocean level1 and this rise may take only thirty thousand years--a long time in human history1 but not so long in the history of the earth4 ,all the time1 then1 that the forces of the atmosphere are wearing down the surface of the earth to the sea level the sea is rising and its waves are producing a plain of marine denudation which rises slowly to meet the peneplain which is produced by degradation4 ,in the beginning of this cycle1 where the forces of degradation have their own way1 coarse material may be brought down by torrents from the mountains1 and the glaciers1 which find their breeding place in these high elevations1 may drag down and deposit huge masses of boulder clay4 ,but1 little by little as the mountains are lowered1 the sediments derived from them will become finer and finer and glaciers will find fewer and fewer sources4 ,not only that1 but the growth of seas extending over the continents will tend to change the climate1 we shall have a moister1 more insular climate1 we shall have a greater surface of evaporation1 and thus1 on the whole1 a more equable temperature throughout the world4 ,we know that1 at present1 the extremes of cold and hot are found far within the interior of the continents4 ,continental climates are the climates of extremes1 and on the whole extremes are hurtful to life4 ,so then as the forces of degradation tend to lower the continents beneath the sea level glaciers and deserts and desert deposits alike must also disappear4 ,vegetation will clothe the earth1 and marine life swarm in the shallow seas of the broadening continental shelf4 ,under the mantle of vegetation1 mechanical erosion will be less1 that is1 the breaking up of rocks into small pieces without any very great change1 but the rich soil will be charged with carbon dioxide1 and chemical activity will still go on4 ,rivers will still contain carbonates1 even though they carry very little mud1 and in the oceans the corals and similar living forms will deposit the burden of lime brought into the sea by the rivers4 ,thus1 if forces of degradation have their own way1 in time there will be a gradual change in dominant character1 from coarse sediments to fine1 from rocks which are simply crumbled debris to rocks that are the product of chemical decay and sorting1 so that we have the lime deposited as limestone in one place and the alumina and silica1 in another4 ,we shall have a change from local deposits1 marine on the edges of large continents1 or land deposits1 very often coarse1 with fossils few and far between1 to rocks in which marine deposits will spread far over the present land in which will appear more traces of that life that crowded in the shallow warm seas which form on the flooded continents4 ,we shall have a transition from deposits which may be largely formed on the surface of the continents4 lakes1 rivers1 salt beds and gypsum beds1 due to the drying up of such lakes and the wind-blown deposits of the steppes1 to deposits which are almost wholly marine4 ,now1 ,i need not say 7to those who are familiar with geology7 that we have indications of just such alternations in times passed4 ,there are limestones abounding in fossils1 with a cosmopolitan life very wide spread to be recognized in every continent1 such as used to be known as the ,trenton limestone1 the mountain limestone1 the chalk4 ,perhaps every proper system and period should be marked by such a limestone in the middle4 ,the time classed as late ,permian and ,triassic on the other hand was one of uplift1 disturbance1 volcanic action and extreme climates1 which gave us the traps of ,mt4 ,tom1 the ,palisades of the ,hudson1 the bold scenery of the ,bay of ,fundy and the gypsum and red beds which are generally supposed to be quite largely formed beneath the air and beds of tillite formed beneath glaciers4 ,then in the times succeeding1 in many parts of the world1 degrading forces were more effective than uplifting so that the mountains became lower1 and the seas extended farther over the continents4 ,then the prevalence of lime sediments was so great that the chalk was thought to be characteristic everywhere4 ,and about the time the chalk the land was reduced to a peneplain4 ,a similar cycle may be traced from the ,keweenawan rocks to the group of limestones so widespread over the ,north ,american continent and so full of fossils1 which to older geologists and oil drillers have been known1 in a broad way1 as ,trenton4 ,all this introduces a question--to which ,i wish to suggest an answer--,how is it that these cycles came to be8 ,were the outer rock crust of the earth perfectly smooth the oceans would cover it to the depths of thousands of feet and it is only by the wrinkling of such a crust that any part of it appears above the ocean4 ,if the earth had a cool thin crust upon a hot fluid interior1 and that thin crust were able to sustain itself during geologic ages so that the shrinkage should accumulate within1 until finally collapse came1 giving an era of uplift1 it is obvious that we could account for such cycles4 ,there is very clear evidence that the outermost layer of the earth's crust is but a thin shell like the outer shuck or exocarp of a butternut1 so thin that it is not at all possible that it can sustain itself for more than a hundred miles or so1 or for more than a very few years at the outside4 ,hayford's#a investigations are the latest that show that the continents project because1 on the whole1 they are lighter1 they float1 that is1 above the level of the oceans because there is a mass of lighter rock below1 like an iceberg in the sea4 ,here the likeness between nut and earth fails and it would be more like the earth if the outer shuck were thicker in certain large areas4 ,if this extra lightness or isostatic compensation is equally distributed1 ,hayford finds#b that the most probable value of the limiting depth is #gj 7#aac km47 miles1 and practically certain that it is somewhere between #ej 7#hj km47 and #ajj 7#aej km47 miles2 if1 on the other hand1 this compensation is uniformly distributed through a stratum #aj 7#af km47 miles thick at the bottom of the crust so that there is a bulging of the crust down into a heavier layer below to balance the projection of the mountains above1 as ,i think much more likely1 then the most probable depth for the bottom of the outer layer is #cg 7#fj km47 miles4 ,this layer is much thinner than the outer layer of the figure and is supposed to yield to weight placed as1 though more slowly than1 new thin ice bends beneath the skater4 #a ,the figure of the earth and isostasy from measurements in the ,u4,s4 ,dept4 of ,commerce and ,labor1 #aiji1 p4 #age4 #b loc4 cit41 p4 #age4 ,there are a number of facts which support this so-called theory of isostasy1 according to which the crust of the earth is not capable of sustaining any very great weight1 though it may be at the outside rigid1 but is itself essentially like a flexible membrane resting on a layer of viscous fluid4 ,however viscous this fluid may be and rigid to transitory quickly shifting strains like those produced by the earth's rotation1 it does ,,not ,,remain ,,at ,,rest in a state of strain 7at any rate if this strain passes limits which are relatively quite low74 ,not only are1 according to ,hayford's observations1 the inequalities of the ,north ,american continent compensated for by lighter material below1 so that the plumb- bob deflections are only one twentieth what they would be if they rested upon a rigid substratum of uniform density1 but other facts that lead to the same conclusion are the apparent tendency of areas of sedimentation to slowly settle under their load1 the apparent settling of the ,great ,lake region under a load of ice and springing up again since the removal of the ice4 ,but if the theory of isostasy is true1 one would at first say that there could be no great accumulation through a geologic period of stresses which would finally yield in the shape of folded mountain ranges4 ,it has1 in fact1 been suggested that mountain ranges have been slowly folded and lifted as the stress which produced them accumulated and this would seem to be true if one considers only the outer crust1 but on the other hand1 as we have pointed out1 there are indications in the history of the earth of periods of relative quiescence followed by periods of relatively considerable disturbance4 ,how can these two theories be reconciled in accordance with what we know of the laws of physics and chemistry and those of the earth's interior8 ,it seems to me they can by making suppositions which are perfectly natural regarding the state of the earth's interior4 ,we are at liberty to suppose if the facts point that way that there are the following layers in the earth's masses3--,first1 the external1 rigid and brittle layer2 second1 a layer under such temperature and pressure that it is above its plastic yield point and may be considered as a viscous fluid4 ,the pressure must continue to increase toward the center4 ,we do not know what is the temperature1 but it is perfectly possible that at a greater depth the earth may become rigid once more if the effect of pressure in promoting solidity and rigidity continues1 as ,bridgman tells me he thinks probable4 ,we do not even have to assume a change in the chemical composition of the earth's substance1 though it is perfectly allowable4 ,this1 then1 will be a third layer1 once more rigid1 perhaps extending to the center and of very considerable thickness and capable of accumulating strain from long periods4 ,blanketed as it would be by thousands of meters of the first two layers1 any change must be relatively slow4 ,kelvin in his computation of the age of the earth from cooling assumed for the interior of the earth constant conditions4 ,it is now generally accepted that this is not probable1 and that whether it cooled from a gas or coagulated from planetesimals1 it became solid first at the center which then would be hottest1 and both ,becker#c and ,a4 ,holmes#d assume an initial temperature gradient4 ,if that gradient were greater than the gradient of steady flow the conditions of steady flow would be approached most rapidly at the exterior1 the loss of heat and energy would be altogether from within and it is easy to arrange for conditions mathematically in which almost all the loss of energy would come from the very interior1 near the center4 ,what will be the effect8 ,a paradoxical one1 if the part outside the center is rigid enough to be self-sustaining4 ,the central core will become a gas6 #c ,bull4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,am41 ,vol4 #bf1 #aiae1 p4 #aig1 etc4 #d ,geological ,magazine1 ,march and ,april1 #aiac4 ,this is so contrary to our ordinary experience and ideas1 in which loss of heat tends to change from gas to fluid and solid1 that we must look into it a little to make it sound reasonable4 ,the recent brilliant work of ,p4 ,w4 ,bridgman 7contrary to the earlier speculations of ,tammann7 indicates that the effect of increased pressure1 at high temperature1 makes a substance solid and crystalline4 ,crowd any atoms close enough together1 and no matter how fast they expand or contract under the influence of heat the crystalline atomic forces will get to work when they are crowded within their range1 and the closest packing1 hence that which will yield most to the pressure1 hence that which is likely to take place1 is when they are all regularly arranged facing the same way4 ,such an arrangement we call crystalline4 ,just so when they want to pack the most people into the car of an elevator they ask them to all face to the front4 ,keep this metaphor a moment4 ,any one who should try to penetrate such a crowd would find it a hard job4 ,they would offer a very effective rigidity4 ,now suppose them to sweat in those confined quarters their fat away1 their phlogiston1 their caloric4 ,if the walls of the car remained rigid while the individuals therein shrunk they might after a while be able to turn around or even move around in a car4 ,such is then the supposed condition of the atoms in the ,,fourth1 the central1 layer of the earth's crust4 ,this assumes that the middle layer is rigid and sustains itself1 like the shell of a nut1 as in the figure1 while within the atoms are in a less rigid condition4 ,that such a shell might be self-sustaining is suggested by an experiment of ,bridgman1 who put a marble with a gas bubble in it under a pressure of something like #aej1jjj pounds to the square inch without producing any perceptible change4 ,as loss of energy from the earth's interior went on this central core of gas would enlarge until the middle shell was hardly self-supporting4 ,then1 probably at some time of astronomic strain when the earth's1 orbit was extra elliptical1 it would collapse1 in collapsing generate heat1 and so stop the process4 ,the collapse would be transmitted to the viscous layer which might be increased1 motions set up in it1 and so a wrinkling of the outer thin crust on which we live4 ,then there would be four layers to the earth like the butternut of the figure4 ,first1 the inner kernel of gas2 second1 the hard shell or endocarp2 third1 a viscous layer like the sarcocarp or pulp1 and outside of all the wrinkled crust of exocarp4 ,if such is the structure of the earth we may have in the very structure of the earth itself a reason why from time to time there are collapses of the middle layer leading to elevations of portions of the outer rind1 and marking off the chapters in geological history1 the lines between geological systems4 ,there are reasons in facts of observation for believing that such is the structure of the earth1 of which ,i have as yet said nothing4 ,we see the interior of a glass marble1 ,i saw the bubble in the interior of ,bridgman's glass marble1 how8 ,by waves1 vibrations1 which start from the sun or some other source1 and going through it reach my eye4 ,though the earth is not penetrated by sunlight it is penetrated by the waves and vibrations that start from that jar produced by a crack which we call an earthquake4 ,these vibrations can be received by that eye of the geologist called a seismograph4 ,the seismologist tells us there are three kinds of waves sent out in an earthquake4 ,if you notice the explosion of a blast at a little too close distance you will notice that you see it first1 then hear it1 and then perhaps a little later a few chips of rock may come flying past your ears4 ,these three things correspond somewhat to the three kinds of waves which spread forth from an earthquake4 ,but in the case of the explosion we see the blast first1 then hear later4 ,the waves which produce the sensation of sight are1 we know1 lateral disturbances1 the waves which produce the sensation of sound are waves of condensation1 whose motion is in the direction of their propagation and they come later4 ,in the case of the jars of earth1 the reverse is true4 ,the first set of waves to arrive are the waves which are due to compression--vibrations in the direction in which the waves are produced--and correspond to sound waves4 ,later come waves which are transverse sidewise disturbances of the solid mass of the earth4 ,as we can easily see1 in an earthquake jar traveling from the opposite end of the earth1 there should be no insurmountable difficulty in recognizing the jar1 which is a direct upthrow from one which would tilt it to the right or left4 ,now there is a law of ,laplace by which the velocity of spread of sound waves through gas may be calculated4 ,that this law should hold at temperatures and pressures so high as those that must exist in the middle of the earth is1 of course1 a question1 but it will be interesting to see how nearly the actual velocity of about #aj kilometers a second compares with the velocity which such waves should have in gas of a density and under a pressure such as a gas near the center of the earth must have4 ,using ,oldham's figures 7and they seem to be confirmed by the recent investigations of ,e4 ,rudolph and ,s4 ,szirtes#ah71 we find that the time of transmission of these first and fastest preliminary compression tremors is about twice the velocity of such a jar according to ,laplace's law in as dense a mass of gas1 provided the ratio of the specific heat of a gas at constant pressure to that of a gas at constant volume remains #a4d1 which is for many substances4 ,but as it is #a4f for mercury the discrepancy is not more than ,i had expected4 #e ,gerlands1 ,beitrage zur ,geophysik1 ,,xi41 ,band1 #a ,heft1 #aiaa1 p4 #acb4 ,das kolumbianische ,erdbeben am #ca ,january1 #aijf4 ,the second preliminary tremors arriving later are due to the lateral disturbance4 ,their propagation is much less rapid when the point of origin is nearly opposite the point of receival4 ,in other words there is a core within the earth about #j4d of the radius in radius1 in which according to ,oldham1 these lateral waves have much less velocity4 ,now in a gas there is less resistance to lateral displacement than in a solid1 and the less the resistance the less the velocity1 so that this fact fits in with the idea of a gaseous core perfectly4 ,if there is such n core1 moreover1 of less rigidity it would have less refraction4 ,consequently waves not striking the border above the angle of total reflection would be totally reflected1 and just as around a bubble there is a dark border where the light does not get through so at a certain distance from the source of an earthquake there would be a circle 7it is really about #adj degrees of arc away71 where no second tremors would be felt4 ,here again1 though seismograph stations are as yet few1 fact and theory are apparently going to correspond4 ,the last type of earthquake waves follow around the outer layer of the crust4 ,there is one farther line of verification to which ,i had addressed myself4 ,is it likely that the loss of heat and energy from the central nucleus1 at the rate which we know at the surface from a central nucleus of anything like #j4d the radius of the earth1 would give a shrinkage of anything like the amount indicated by the mountain ranges1 in anything like the time which we are led to assign on other grounds to the geologic periods8 ,rudski has also attempted to connect the shrinkage and age of the earth4 ,both these methods depend on how fast the earth is losing heat1 that is on the geothermal gradient4 ,since at present1 owing to the apparently large but unknown contribution of radioactivity to that gradient we know very little about what the other portion is1 it seems unwise to give any figures1 especially as almost all the numerical data are largely guess work4 ,it will1 however1 be fair to say that very long times for the age of the earth seem to be indicated1 nearer millions of millions than millions unless the radius of the gaseous core was mainly small or its rate of contraction with loss of temperature high4 ,,the ,,cash ,,value ,,of ,,scientific ,,research ,,by ,,professor ,t4 ,,brailsford ,,robertson ,,university ,,of ,,california ,,there can be no doubt that the average man and woman in ,europe and ,america to-day professes a more or less nebulous feeling of respect and admiration for the scientific investigator4 ,this feeling is not logical1 for very few have ever met or seen a scientist1 fewer still have ever seen the inside of a scientific laboratory1 and hardly any have ever seen scientific research in the making4 ,the average man in the street or man of affairs has no very clear conception of what manner of man a scientist may be4 ,no especial significance attaches in his mind to the term4 ,no picture of a personality or his work arises in the imagination when the word scientist is pronounced4 ,more or less indefinitely1 ,i suppose1 it is conceded by all that a scientist is a man of vast erudition 7an impression by the way which is often strikingly incorrect7 who leads a dreary life with his head buried in a book or his eye glued to telescope or microscope1 or perfumed with those disagreeable odors which1 as everybody knows1 are inseparably associated with chemicals4 ,the purpose of this life is not very clear1 but doubtless a vague feeling exists in the minds of most of us that people who are willing to pursue such an unattractive career must be worthy of admiration1 for despite all the triumphs of commercialism1 humanity still loves idealism1 even idealism which seems objectless because it is incomprehensible4 ,from time to time the existence of the scientific man is recalled to the popular mind by some extravagant headlines in the daily press1 announcing some utterly impossible discovery or some extravagantly nonsensical dictum made by an alleged scientist4 ,the discovery was never made1 the dictum never uttered1 but no matter2 to-morrow its place will be taken by the latest political or matrimonial scandal1 and the public1 with excellent good sense1 will forget all about it4 ,from time to time1 also1 there creeps gradually into the public consciousness a sense that ,,something ,,has ,,happened4 ,brief notices appear in the press1 at first infrequently and then more frequently1 and an article or two in the popular monthlies4 ,the public becomes languidly interested in a new possibility and even discusses it1 sceptically4 ,then of a sudden we are awakened to the realization of a new power in being4 ,the ,x-ray1 wireless telegraphy or the aeroplane has become the latest marvel of science1 only to develop in a very brief period into a commonplace of existence4 ,many indeed are aware that we owe these marvels to scientific research1 but very few indeed1 to the shame of our schools be it spoken1 have attained to the faintest realization of the indubitable fact that we owe almost the entirety of our material environment1 and no small proportion of our social and spiritual environment1 to the labors of scientists or of their spiritual brethren4 ,long ago1 in ages so remote that no record of them survives save our heritage of labor well achieved1 some pastoral savage1 more reflective and less practical than his brethren1 took to star-gazing and noting in his memory certain strange coincidences4 ,doubtless he was chidden by his tribal leaders who were hard-headed men of affairs1 skilled in the questionable art of imposing conventional behavior upon unruly tribesmen4 ,but he was an inveterate dreamer1 this prehistoric ,newton and the fascination of the thing had gripped his mind4 ,in due time he was gathered to his fathers1 but not before he had passed on to a few chosen ones the peculiar coincidences he had observed4 ,and thus1 from age to age coincidence was added to coincidence and the result of all this unpractical labor was1 at long last1 a calendar4 ,let who will attempt to estimate the cash value of this discovery2 ,i will not attempt the impossible4 ,i will merely ask you to picture to yourselves humanity in the condition of the ,australian ,aboriginal or of the ,south ,african ,bushman2 devoid of any means of estimating time or season save by the daily passage of the sun1 and ,i ask you1 supposing that through some vast calamity1 a calamity greater even than the present war1 humanity could at a stroke evolve a calendar1 would it be worth while8 ,i for one think it would4 ,the evolution of the calendar is not an inapt illustration of the methods of science1 and of the part which it has played in shaping the destiny of man4 ,out of the unregarded labors of thousands of forgotten men1 and a few whom we now remember1 has sprung every detail of that vast complex of machinery1 method and measurement in which to-day we live and move and have our being4 ,in all ages scientific curiosity guided by the scientific discipline of thought has forced man into new and more complex paths of progress4 ,lacking the spirit of research1 a nation or community is merely parasitic1 living upon the vital achievements of others1 as ,rome based her civilization upon the civilization of the ,greeks4 ,only an indefinite and sterile refinement of the existing environment is possible under such circumstances1 and humanity stays stationary or sinks back into the semibarbarism of the middle ages4 ,the few scattered students of nature of that day picked up the clue to her secrets exactly as it fell from the hands of the ,greeks a thousand years before4 ,the foundations of mathematics were so well laid by them that our children learn their geometry from a book written for the schools of ,alexandria two thousand years ago4 ,modern astronomy is the natural continuation and development of the work of ,hipparchus and of ,ptolemy2 modern physics of that of ,democritus and of ,archimedes2 it was long before biological science outgrew the knowledge bequeathed to us by ,aristotle1 by ,theophrastus and by ,galen4#a #a ,t4 ,h4 ,huxley1 ,science and ,culture4 ,if1 therefore1 we ask ourselves what has been the value of science to man1 the answer is that its value is practically the value of the whole world in which we find ourselves to-day1 or1 at any rate1 the difference between the value of our world and that of a world inhabited by ,neolithic savages4 ,the sweeping nature of this deduction may from its very comprehensiveness fail to carry conviction to the reader4 ,but concrete illustrations of the value which scientific research may add to our environment are not far to seek4 ,they are afforded in abundance by the dramatic achievements of the past century of human progress1 in which science has begun painfully and haltingly to creep into its true place and achieve its true function4 ,in the year #ahac many important events occurred4 ,the power of ,napoleon was crumbling in that year and countless historians have written countless pages describing innumerable events1 great and small1 which accompanied that colossal downfall4 ,but one event of that year1 of which we do not read in our historical memoirs and school books was the discovery by ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 in the humble person of a bookbinder's apprentice1 of the man who will probably stand out forever in the history of science as the ideal scientific man--,michael ,faraday4 ,the manner of this discovery is revealed by the following conversation between ,sir ,humphry ,davy and his friend ,pepys4 ,pepys1 what am ,i to do1 here is a letter from a young man named ,faraday2 he has been attending my lectures1 and wants me to give him employment at the ,royal ,institution--what can ,i do8 ,do8 replied ,pepys1 put him to wash bottles2 if he refuses he is good for nothing4 ,no1 no1 replied ,davy2 we must try him with something better than that4 ,the result was1 that ,davy engaged him to assist in the laboratory at weekly wages4#b #b ,j4 ,tyndall1 ,faraday as a ,discoverer4 ,davy made many important discoveries1 but none of his discoveries was more important than his discovery of ,faraday1 and of all the events which occurred in the year #ahac1 the entry of ,faraday into the ,royal ,institution was not the least significant for humanity4 ,on the morning of ,christmas day1 #ahba1 ,faraday called his wife into his laboratory to witness1 for the first time in the history of man1 the revolution of a magnet around an electric current4 ,the foundations of electromagnetics were laid and the edifice was built by ,faraday upon this foundation in the fourteen succeeding years4 ,in those years and from those labors1 the electro-motor1 the motor generator1 the electrical utilization of water power1 the electric car1 electric lighting1 the telephone and telegraph1 in short all that is comprised in modern electrical machinery came actually or potentially into being4 ,the little rotating magnet which ,faraday showed his wife was1 in fact1 the first electric motor4 ,what was the cash value to humanity of those fourteen years of labor in a laboratory8 ,according to the thirteenth census of the ,united ,states1 the value of the electrical machinery1 apparatus and supplies produced in this country alone1 in #aiji was #bba1jjj1jjj4 ,in #aijg1 the value of the electric light and power stations in the ,united ,states was #a1jig1jjj1jjj1 of the telephones #hbj1jjj1jjj1 and the combined income from these two sources was #cfj1jjj1jjj4 ,nor does this represent a tithe of the values1 as yet barely realized1 which these researches placed at our disposal4 ,thus in its waterfalls1 the ,united ,states is estimated to possess #aej1jjj1jjj available horse-power1 which can only be realized through the employment of ,faraday's electro-motor4 ,this corresponds1 at the conservative figure of #bj per horse-power per annum to a yearly income of #c1jjj1jjj1jjj1 corresponding at #d per cent4 interest to a capital value of #ge1jjj1jjj1jjjj4c #c ,m4 ,t4 ,bogert1 ,the ,function of ,chemistry in the ,conservation of our ,national ,resources1 ,journal of the ,american ,chemical ,society1 ,february1 #aiji4 ,such was the ,christmas gift which ,michael ,faraday presented to the world in #ahba4 ,faraday died a poor man in #ahfg1 neither for lack of opportunity nor for lack of ability to grasp his opportunities1 but because as his pupil ,tyndall tells us1 he found it necessary to choose between the pursuit of wealth and the pursuit of science1 and he deliberately chose the latter4 ,this is not a bad thing4 ,it is perhaps as it should be1 and as it has been in the vast majority of cases4 ,but another fact which can not be viewed with like equanimity is that of all the inexhaustible wealth which ,faraday poured into the lap of the world1 not one millionth1 not a discernible fraction1 has ever been returned to science for the furtherance of its aims and its achievements1 for the continuance of research4 ,there is no regular machinery for securing the permanent endowment of research1 and it is always and everywhere a barely tolerated intruder4 ,in the universities it crouches under the shadow of pedagogy1 and snatches its time and its materials from the fragments which are left over when the all-important business of teaching the young what others have accomplished has been done4 ,in commercial institutions it occasionally pursues a stunted career1 subject to all the caprices of momentary commercial advantage and the cramped outlook of the practical man4 ,the investigator in the employ of a commercial undertaking is encouraged to be original1 it is true1 but not to be too original4 ,he must never transcend the practical1 that is to say1 the infinitesimal rearrangement of the preexisting4 ,the institutions existing in the world which are devoted to research and1 research alone can almost be counted on the fingers4 ,the ,solvay ,institute in ,brussels1 the ,nobel ,institute in ,stockholm1 the ,pasteur ,institute in ,france1 the ,institute for ,experimental ,therapy at ,frankfort1 ,the ,kaiser ,wilhelm ,institutes at ,berlin1 ,the ,imperial ,institute for ,medical ,research at ,petrograd1 the ,biologisches ,versuchsanstalt at ,vienna1 the ,biological ,station at ,naples1 the ,royal ,institution in ,london1 the ,wellcome ,laboratories in ,england and at ,khartoum1 the ,smithsonian1 ,wistar1 ,carnegie and ,rockefeller ,institutes in the ,united ,states2 the list of research institutes of important dimensions 7excluding astronomical observatories7 is1 ,i believe1 practically exhausted by the above enumeration1 and many of them are woefully undermanned and underequipped4 ,at least two of them1 the ,solvay ,institute wholly1 and the ,frankfort ,institute for ,experimental ,therapy in part1 owe their existence and continuance to scientific men1 ,solvay and ,ehrlich1 who have contrived to combine the pursuit of wealth and of science1 and have dedicated the wealth thus procured to the science that gave it birth4 ,in #aijj the value of the manufacturing industries in the ,united ,states which had been developed from patented scientific inventions was no less than #cie1ffc1ieh per annum1#d corresponding to a capital value of about #aj1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,it is impossible to arrive at any accurate estimate of the proportion of this wealth which finds its way back to science to provide equipment and subsistence for the investigator1 who is creating the wealth of the future4 ,but the capital endowment of the ,rockefeller and ,carnegie ,institutes1 the two wealthiest institutes of research in the world is1 according to the #aiad issue of ,minerva1 only #bi1jjj1jjj4 ,the total income 7exclusive of additions to endowments7 of all the higher institutions of learning in the ,united ,states in #aiac1 was only #ij1jjj1jjj1 of which a minute percentage was expended in research4 #d #abth census1 ,vol4 #aj1 ,part #d4 ,if science produces so much wealth1 is there no contrivance whereby we can cause a small fraction of this wealth to return automatically to science and to furnish munitions of war for fresh conquests of nature8 ,a very small investment in research often produces colossal returns4 ,in #aiaa the income of the ,kaiser ,wilhelm ,institute for ,physical ,chemistry was only #ba1jjj4 ,in #aiac the income of the ,institute for ,experimental ,therapy at ,frankfort1 where #fjf was discovered1 was only #bj1jjj2 that of the ,imperial ,institute for ,medical ,research at ,petrograd was #ie1jjj1 and that of the ,national ,physical ,laboratory in ,england 7not exclusively devoted to research7 was #dj1jjj4 ,yet these are among the most famous research institutions in the world and have achieved results of world-wide fame and inestimable value both from a financial standpoint and from the standpoint of the physical1 moral and spiritual welfare of mankind4 ,in #ahef1 ,perkin1 an ,english chemist1 discovered the coal-tar 7anilin7 dyes4 ,the cost of this investigation1 which was carried out in an improvised1 private laboratory was negligible4 ,yet1 in #aije1 the ,united ,states imported #e1fce1afd worth of these dyes from ,europe1 and ,germany exported #bd1jfe1ejj worth to all parts of the world4#e ,to-day we read that great industries in this country are paralyzed because these dyes temporarily can not be imported from ,germany4 ,all of these vast results sprang from a modest little laboratory1 a meager equipment and the genius and patience of one man4 #e ,u4 ,s4 ,census ,bureau ,bull4 #ib4 ,w4 ,r4 ,whitney1 director of the research laboratory of the ,general ,electric ,company1 points out that the collective improvements in the manufacture of filaments for electric lamps1 from #aija to #aiaa1 have saved the consumer and producer no less than #bdj1jjj1jjj annually4 ,he adds with apparently unconscious naivete that the expenses of the research laboratory in his charge aggregate more than #ajj1jjj annually6#f ,a handsome investment1 this1 which brings in some two hundred million for an outlay of one hundred thousand4 #f ,technology and ,industrial ,efficiency1 ,mc,graw-,hill ,book ,co41 #aiaa4 ,according to ,huxley the discovery by ,pasteur of the means of preventing or curing anthrax1 silkworm disease and chicken cholera1 a fraction of that great man's life work1 added annually to the wealth of ,france a sum equivalent to the entire indemnity paid by ,france to ,germany after the war of #ahgj4 ,humanity has not finished its conquest of nature2 on the contrary1 it has barely begun4 ,the discipline of thought which has carried humanity so far is destined to carry it further yet4 ,business enterprise and politics1 the all-absorbing interests of the majority of mankind1 work in an endless circle4 ,scientific research communicates a thrust to this rotation which converts the circle into a spiral2 the apex of that spiral lies far beyond our vision4 ,we have1 not decades1 not centuries1 not thousands of years before us2 but1 as astronomy assures us1 in all probability1 humanity has millions of years of earthly destiny to realize4 ,barely three thousand years of ,,purposeful scientific research have brought the uttermost ends of the earth to our doors2 have made civilization and excluded much of the most brutal and brutalizing in life4 ,not more than two hundred years of research have made us masters where we were slaves2 masters of distance1 of the air1 of the water1 of the bowels of the earth1 of many of the most dreaded aspects of disease and suffering4 ,only for forty years have we practiced antisepsis2 only for sixty years have we had anesthetics2 yet life to-day is well-nigh inconceivable without them4 ,and all of this has been accomplished without any forethought on the part of the acknowledged rulers and leaders of mankind or any save the most trumpery and uncertain provision for research4 ,what will the millions of years which stretch in front of us bring of power to mankind8 ,we can barely foreshadow things too vast to grasp2 things that will make the imaginings of ,jules ,verne and ,h4 ,g4 ,wells seem puny by comparison4 ,the future1 with the uncanny control which it will bring over things that seem to us almost sacred--over life and death and development and thought itself--might well seem to us a terrifying prospect were it not for one great saving clause4 ,through all that may happen to man1 of this we may be sure1 that he will remain human2 and because of that we can face the future unafraid and confident that because it will be greater1 it will also be better than the present4 ,what can we do to accelerate the coming of this future8 ,not very much1 it is true1 but we can surely do something4 ,we can not create geniuses1 often we can not discern them1 but having discerned1 surely we can use them to the best advantage4 ,it is true that all scientific research has depended and will depend upon individuals2 ,simon ,newcomb expresses the matter thus3 ',it is impressive to think how few men we should have to remove from the earth during the past three centuries to have stopped the advance of our civilization4 ,in the seventeenth century there would only have been ,galileo1 ,newton and a few other contemporaries1 in the eighteenth they could almost have been counted on the fingers1 and they have not crowded the nineteenth4'#g #g ,inventors at ,work1 ,iles1 ,doubleday ,page1 #aijf4 ,the first thing we have to do is to discover such men1 to learn to know them or suspect them when we meet them or their works4 ,the next is to give them moral and financial recognition1 and the means of doing their work4 ,our procedure in the past has been the reverse of this4 ,i quote from a letter of ,kepler to his friend ,moestlen3 ',i supplicate you1 if there is a situation vacant at ,tubingen1 do what you can to obtain it for me1 and let me know the prices of bread1 wine and other necessaries of life1 for my wife is not accustomed to live on beans4' ,the founder of comparative psychology1 ,j4 ,h4 ,fabre1 that incomparable observer as ,darwin characterized him1 is now over ninety years of age1 and until very recently was actually suffering from poverty4 ,all his life his work was stunted and crippled by poverty1 and countless researches which he was the one human being qualified by genius and experience to undertake1 remain to this day unperformed because he never could command the meager necessary equipment of apparatus4 ,once again1 what can we do8 ,no small proportion of the population of a modern community are alumni of some institution of higher learning1 and one thing that these can do is to see to it by every means in their power that some measure of the spirit of academic freedom is preserved in their alma mater4 ,that the spirit of inquiry and research is not merely tolerated therein but fostered and substantially supported1 morally and financially4 ,as members of the body politic1 we can assist the development of science in two ways4 ,firstly1 by doing each our individual part towards ensuring that endowment for the university must provide not only for teaching adolescents the rudiments of ,greek and ,latin and erecting imposing buildings1 but also for the furtherance of scientific research4 ,the public readily appreciates a great educational mill for the manufacture of mediocre learning1 and it always appreciates a showy building1 but it is slow to realize that that which urgently and at all times needs endowment is experimental research4 ,secondly1 it is vital that public sentiment should be educated to the point of providing the legal machinery whereby some proportion1 no matter how small1 of the wealth which science pours into the lap of the community1 shall return automatically to the support and expansion of scientific research4 ,the collection of a tax upon the profits accruing from inventions 7which are all ultimately if indirectly results of scientific advances7 and the devotion of the proceeds from this tax to the furtherance of research would not only be a policy of wisdom in the most material sense1 but it would also be a policy of bare justice4 ,,the ,,physical ,,michelangelo ,,by ,,james ,,frederick ,,rogers1 ,m4,d4 ,,new ,,haven1 ,,conn4 ,you will say that ,i am old and mad1 but ,i answer that there is no better way of keeping sane and free from anxiety than by being mad4 ,,had ,michelangelo been less poetic and more explicit in his language1 he might have said there is nothing so conducive to mental and physical wholeness as saturation of body and mind with work4 ,the great artist was so prone to over-anxiety and met 7whether needlessly or not7 with so many rebuffs and disappointments1 that only constant absorption in manual labor prevented spirit from fretting itself free from flesh4 ,he toiled furiously in all his mighty undertakings and body and mind remained one and in superior harmony--in abundant health--for nearly four score and ten years4 ,this ,titan got his start in life in the rugged country three miles outside ,florence3 a place of quarries1 where stone cutters and sculptors lived and worked4 ,his mother's health was failing and it was to the wife of one of these artisans that her baby was given to nurse4 ,half in jest1 half in earnest1 ,michelangelo said one day to ,vasari3 ',if ,i have anything good in me1 that comes from my birth in the pure air of your country of ,arezzo1 and perhaps also from the feet that with the milk of my nurse1 ,i sucked in the chisels and hammers wherewith ,i make my figures4' ,he began his serious study of art 7and with it his course in physical training7 at fourteen1 when he became apprenticed to a painter4 ,he was not vigorous as a child1 but his bodily powers unfolded and were intensified through their active expression of his imagination4 ,his life was devoted with passion to art4 ,he had from the start no time for frivolity4 ,art became his religion--and required of him the sacrifice of all that might keep him below his highest level of power for work4 ,his father early warned him to have a care for his health1 for1 said he1 in your profession1 if once you were to fall ill you would be a ruined man4 ,to one so intent on perfection and so keenly alive to imperfection such advice must have been nearly superfluous1 for the artist could not but observe the effect upon his work of any depression of his bodily well-being4 ,he was1 besides1 too thrifty in all respects to think of lapsing into bodily neglect or abuse4 ,he was severely temperate1 but not ascetic1 save in those times when devotion to work caused him to sleep with his clothes on1 that he might not lose time in seizing the chisel when he awoke4 ,he ate to live and to labor1 and was pleased with a present of fifteen marzolino cheeses and fourteen pounds of sausage--the latter very welcome1 as was also the cheese4 ,over a gift of choice wines he is not so enthusiastic and the bottles found their way mostly to the tables of his friends and patrons4 ,when intent on some work he usually confined his diet to a piece of bread which he ate in the middle of his labors4 ,few hours 7we have no accurate statement in the matter7 were devoted to sleep4 ,he ate comparatively little because he worked better3 he slept less than many men because he worked better in consequence4 ,partly for protection against cold1 partly perhaps for economy of time1 he sometimes left his high dog-skin boots on for so long that when he removed them the scarf skin came away like the skin of a moulting serpent4 ,he dressed for comfort and not to mortify the flesh4 ,upon the receipt of a present of some shirts from his nephew he writes3 ',i am very much surprised ye should have sent them to me1 for they are so coarse that there is not a farm laborer here who would not be ashamed to wear them4' ,he is much pleased with a finer lot selected later by his nephew's new wife4 ,perhaps he did not come up to modern notions of cleanliness 7he was early advised by his father never to bathe but to have his body rubbed instead7 but he was clean inside1 which can not be said of all who make much of a well-washed skin4 ,his intensity of purpose and fiery energy expressed themselves in his features and form4 ,his face was round1 his brow square1 ample1 and deeply furrowed3 the temples projected much beyond the ears2 his eyes were small rather than large1 of a dark 7some said horn7 color and peered1 piercingly1 from under heavy brows4 ,the flattened nose was the result of a blow from a rival apprentice4 ,he evidently looked the part1 though for such mental powers one of his colossal statues would seem a more fitting mold4 ,michelangelo experienced some illnesses1 all but two of them of minor moment4 ,in #aeca he became alarmingly ill1 and the ,pope ordered him to quit most of his work and to take better care of his health4 ,that the illness was a storm merely of the surface is evidenced sufficiently in that his fresco of the ,last ,judgment1 probably the most famous single picture in the world1 was begun years later and completed in his sixty-sixth year4 ,in the work of this epoch there is more than ever the evidence of a pouring forth of energy amounting almost to what the critics call violence--to terribleness of action4 ,it was not until the age of seventy that an illness which seemed to mark any weakening of his bodily powers came upon him4 ,at seventy-five1 symptoms of calculus 7a disease common in that day at fifty7 appeared1 but1 though naturally pessimistic1 he writes1 ,in all other respects ,i am pretty much as ,i was at thirty years4 ,he improved under careful medical treatment1 but the illness and his age were sufficient to cause him to think of putting his spiritual and temporal affairs in better order than he had hitherto done4 ,he wielded the brush and the chisel with consummate skill in his seventy-fifth year4 ,with the later loss of cunning his energy found vent more in the planning and supervising of architectural works1 culminating in the building of ,st4 ,peter's1 but even in these later years he took up the chisel as an outlet for superfluous energy and to induce sleep4 ,though the product of his hand was not good1 his health was the better for this mutual exercise of mind and body4 ,in his eighty-sixth year he is said to have sat drawing for three consecutive hours until pains and cramps in his limbs warned him that he had not the endurance of youth4 ,for exercise1 when manual labor proved a disappointment1 he often took horseback rides4 ,there was no invalidism about this great spirit1 and it was not until the day before his death that he would consent to go to bed4 ,in a poem of his last years he burlesques his infirmities in his usual vigorous manner4 ',i live alone and wretched1 confined like the pith within the bark of the tree4444 ,my voice is like a wasp imprisoned within a sack of skin and bone4 444 ,my teeth rattle like the keys of an old musical instrument4444 ,my face is a scarecrow4444 ,there is a ceaseless buzzing in my ears--in one a spider spins his web1 in the other a cricket chirps all night4444 ,my catarrh1 which causes a rattle in my throat1 will not allow me to sleep4--,fatigue has quite broken me1 and the hostlery which awaits me is ,death4' ,few men at his age have had less reason to find in themselves other than the changes to be expected with the passing of years and in prose he acknowledged that he had no more affections of the flesh than were to be expected at his age4 ,codiva pictures him in his last years as of good complexion2 more muscular and bony than fat or fleshy in his person3 healthy above all things1 as well by reason of his natural constitution as of the exercise he takes1 and habitual continence in food and sexual indulgence4 ,his temperance and manual industry and his extraordinary blamelessness in life and in every action had been his source of preservation4 ,he was miserly1 suspicious1 quarrelsome and pessimistic1 but the effects of these faults were balanced by his better habits of thought and action4 ,that he1 like most great men1 felt keenly the value of health1 is evidenced not only by his own practice1 but by his oft repeated warnings to his nephew when choosing a wife to see that whatever other qualities she might have she be healthy4 ,the blemish of nearsight he considered a no small defect and sufficient to render a young woman unworthy of entry into the proud family of the ,buonarroti4 ,to his own father he wrote3 ,look to your life and health1 for a man does not come back again to patch up things ill done4 ,one of those who look beneath unusual human phenomena for signs of the pathologic finds ,michelangelo affected by a degree of neuropathy bordering closely upon hysterical disease4 ,what a pity that more of us do not suffer from such degrees of neuropathy--and how much better for most of us if we had such enthusiasm for perfection1 and such mania for work1 at least of that health-bringing sort in which there is absorbing colabor of brain and hand4 ,true it is that there is no better way of keeping sane and free from anxiety than by being mad4 ,,the ,,conservation ,,of ,,talent ,,through ,,utilization ,,by ,,professor ,,john ,m4 ,,gillette ,,state ,,university ,,of ,,north ,,dakota ,,to raise the question of how to conserve talent is not an idle inquiry4 ,we are in no immediate danger of famine4 ,yet there is an enormous interest being devoted to what is known as the conservation of soil4 ,our forests contain an abundance of timber for near purposes1 and when they are gone we shall probably find a better substitute in the direction of concrete4 ,still agitation and discussion proceed relative to the conservation of our timber supply4 ,we hear of conservation of childhood1 of conservation of health1 of conservation of natural scenery4 ,it is a period of agitation for conservation of resources all along the line4 ,this is all good4 ,real intelligent foresight is manifesting itself4 ,civilized man demonstrates his superiority over uncivilized man most in the exercise of anticipation and prescience4 ,as compared with other natural resources1 genius and talent are relatively scarce articles4 ,this is at least the popular impression as to their quantity4 ,even scientific men1 for the most part1 incline to this opinion4 ,unless we are able to demonstrate that they are quite abundant this opinion must be accepted4 ,i shall seek to show that the estimate of the amount of talent in existence which is usually accepted is too small4 ,however1 we are in no peril of so inflating the potential supply of talent and genius in the course of our remarks that they may be regarded as universal4 ,nor are we likely to discover such a rich lode of this commodity that the world may run riot in its consumption of the visible supply4 ,talent promises to remain so scarce that1 granting for the moment that it is a useful agent1 its supply must be conserved4 ,i shall use the term talent so as to include genius4 ,both talent and genius are of the same kind4 ,their essential difference consists in degree4 ,increase what is commonly called talent in the direction of its manifestation and it would develop into genius4 ,genius is commonly thought of as something abnormal1 in the sense that it is essentially eccentric4 ,a genius is generally spoken of as an eccentric1 erratic1 unbalanced1 person4 ,the eccentricity is then taken as constituting the substance of the quality of genius4 ,this is undoubtedly a mistake4 ,because some geniuses have been erratic1 the popular imagination has formed its picture of all genius as unbalanced4 ,the majority of the world's men of genius have been as balanced and normal in their judgments as the average man4 ,we may think of a genius as like the ordinary man in his constitution4 ,he has the same mental faculties1 the same emotions1 the same kind of determinizing ability4 ,what makes him a genius is his power of concentration in his given field of work4 ,the moral quality1 or zeal to accomplish1 or energy directed toward intellectual operations stands enormously above that of the average individual4 ,if we could confer this quality of moral will on the common normal man possibly we would raise him to that degree which we term genius4 ,in order to determine the worth of conserving talent we must estimate its value as a commodity1 as a world asset4 ,i shall1 therefore1 turn my attention first to discovering a method of reckoning the value of eminent men4 ,one method open to us is what may be called the individualistic test4 ,under this method we think of the individual as individual or of his work as a concrete case of production4 ,one phase of this is the individual's estimate of his own powers4 ,we may inquire what is the man's appreciation of his own worth4 ,this is precarious because of two difficulties4 ,there is an egotistical element in individuals4 ,it is inherent as a historical agent of self-preservation4 ,most of us are like primitive groups4 ,the ethnologist expects to find every tribe or horde of savages claiming to be ,,the ,,people4 ,they ascribe superior qualities to their group4 ,in their names for their group they call themselves the people1 the men1 and so on1 indicating their point of view4 ,again1 an individual1 however honestly he might try1 could not estimate his own worth accurately4 ,let any of us attempt to see ourselves as others see us and we shall discover the difficulty of the undertaking4 ,we are not able to get the perspective because our personal feelings1 our necessary selfish self-appreciation1 puts our judgments awry4 ,others close to us may do little better4 ,they are likely to either underrate us or to exaggerate our qualities and powers4 ,in the ,united ,states we are called on to evaluate ,mr4 ,taft and ,mr4 ,roosevelt4 ,is either of them a great man8 ,has either of them been a great president8 ,opinions differ4 ,we are too close to them4 ,we do not know4 ,we give them credit1 perhaps1 for doing things which the age would have worked out in spite of them4 ,or we think things would have come inevitably which their personal efforts1 it will be found1 were responsible for establishing4 ,we have not yet been able to determine accurately just how great ,abraham ,lincoln was4 ,it is almost half a century since he did his work4 ,but we live in the presence of the personal relative to him yet4 ,sentiment enters in and obfuscates judgment4 ,if we turn to the product itself as mere product we are at a loss4 ,unless we ask what is the import of the work we confess we do not know4 ,a man in ,connecticut has made a manikin4 ,it walks1 talks1 does many of the things which human beings do4 ,but it is not alive1 it is not serviceable1 it can accomplish nothing4 ,suppose the maker passes his life in making probably the most intricate and perfect mechanism which has been made4 ,is he a genius8 ,we may admit that the products manifest great ingenuity on the part of their creator1 yet we feel repelled when we think of calling the maker a genius4 ,the community method of rating talent is far more satisfactory4 ,the inventor is related to his time or to human society by means of the usefulness of his invention4 ,the statesman is rated by means of the deep-seated influence for improvement he has had on his age4 ,the educator finds his evaluation in the constructive spirit and method he displays in bringing useful spirit and methods to light4 ,the scientist is measured by the uplift his discovery gives to the sum and substance of human welfare4 ,if a product which some individual creates can not be utilized by society1 its creator is not regarded as having made a contribution to human progress4 ,as a consequence he does not get a rating as genius4 ,to get the appraisal of mankind the product of the man of talent must get generally accepted1 must fill the want of society generally or of some clientele4 ,if a man produces something merely ingenious1 something which does not serve a considerable portion of humanity in the way of satisfying a want1 if his creation does not pass into use1 he does not step into the current of the world's history as a fruitful factor1 he fails to attain to the rank of talent4 ,this objective measure of the value of the producer puts talent into direct relation to the concept of social evolution and progress4 ,society has been an evolution4 ,collective humanity has gone through distinctive metamorphoses4 ,distinct strides in advance have been made1 tendencies have manifested themselves1 conditions have changed so that larger satisfactions have ensued1 democracy in the essential wants of mankind has been wrought out4 ,society is more complex in its quantitative aspect4 ,it is more serviceable by reason of its greater specialization4 ,since progress stands for improvement it has come to be regarded as a desirable thing4 ,in the sociological conception of things the genius possesses a specific social function4 ,he is not a passing curiosity4 ,he is not produced for amusement4 ,he does not stand unrelated4 ,he is the product of his age1 is articulated with its life1 performs an office which is of consequence to it4 ,he is the connecting link between the past and the future4 ,he takes what was and so combines it anew as to produce what is to be4 ,he is the innovator1 the initiator1 the agent of transformation1 the creator of a new order4 ,hence he is the exceptional man4 ,the masses of men are imitators4 ,they make nothing new1 add nothing to the mechanism of social structure1 introduce no new functions1 produce no achievements1 do nothing which changes the order of things4 ,the common people are quite as important for the purposes of society as are the talented4 ,society must be conserved most of the time or we should all float down the stream of change too rapidly for comfort4 ,hence the function of the great mass of individuals is to seize and use the achievements which the creators1 the talented have brought into existence4 ,we may conclude1 therefore1 that if society is to be improved and if the lives of the great body of human beings are to be endowed with more and more blessings1 material and spiritual1 we must look to the men of talent1 the men of achievement1 and to them 'alone1 for the initiation of these results4 ,we may say1 then1 that we have discovered not only the method of estimating the value of talent1 but also in what its value consists4 ,if progress is desirable1 talent by means of which that progress is secured is likewise valuable4 ,and1 like other things1 its value is measured by its scarcity4 ,it is now incumbent on us to attempt to discover the extent of the supply of this commodity1 both actual and possible4 ,i shall refer to two estimates of the amount of talent in existence which have been made because they differ so much in their conclusions as to the extent of talent1 and because they exhibit quite different view-points and methods4 ,the great ,english scientist and benefactor of the race1 ,sir ,francis ,galton1 in his work entitled ,hereditary ,genius made a computation of the number of men of eminence in the ,british ,isles4 ,this estimate was made nearly a half-century ago and has generally been accepted as representing actual conditions4 ,one means of discovering the number was by taking a catalogue of ,men of ,the ,times which contained about #b1ejj names1 one half of which were ,americans and ,europeans4 ,he found that most of the men were past fifty years of age4 ,relative to this he states3 ',it appears that in the cases of high 7but by no means in that of the highest7 merit1 a man must outlive the age of fifty to be sure of being widely appreciated4 ,it takes time for an able man1 born in the humbler ranks of life1 to emerge from them and to take his natural position4'#a #a ,cattell's investigations of ,american men of science disproves this statement for ,americans4 ,he finds that only a few men enter the ranks of that class of men after the age of fifty1 and that none of that age reach the highest place4 ,the fecund age is from #ce to #de2 7,american ,men of ,science1 p4 #ege47 ,after eliminating the non-,british individuals he compared the number of celebrities above fifty with males of the same age for the whole ,british population4 ,he found about #hej who were above fifty4 ,of this age there were about #b1jjj1jjj males in the ,british ,isles4 ,hence the meritorious were as #dbe to #a1jjj1jjj1 and the more select were as #bej to #a1jjj1jjj4 ,he stated what he considered the qualifications of the more select as follows3 ',the qualifications for belonging to what ,i call the more select part are1 in my mind1 that a man should have distinguished himself pretty frequently either by purely original work1 or as a leader of opinion4 ,i wholly exclude notoriety obtained by a single act4 ,this is a fairly well defined line1 because there is not room for many men to become eminent4' ,mr4 ,galton made another estimate by studying an obituary list published in ,the ,times in #ahfh4 ,this contained #ej men of the select class4 ,he considered it broader than his former estimate because it excluded men dying before they attained their broadest reputation1 and more rigorous because it excluded old men who had previously attained a reputation which they were not able to sustain4 ,he consequently lowered the age to #de4 ,in ,great ,britain there were #baj1jjj males who died yearly of that age4 ,this gave a result of #ej men of exceptional merit to #baj1jjj of the population1 or #bch to the million4 ,his third estimate was made by the study of obituaries of many years back4 ,this led to similar conclusions1 namely1 that about #bej to the million is an ample estimate of the number of eminent men4 ,he says3 ',when ,i speak of an eminent man1 ,i mean one who has achieved a position that is attained by only #bej persons in each million of men1 or by one person in each #d1jjj4' ,the other estimate of the amount of talent in existence has been made by one of our most eminent ,american sociologists1 the late ,lester ,f4 ,ward4 ,the elaborate treatment of this matter is found in his ,applied ,sociology1 and offers an illustration of a most rigorous and thorough application of the scientific method to the subject in question4 ,the essential facts for the study were furnished by ,odin in his work on the genesis of the literary men of ,france1 although ,candole1 ,jacoby and others are laid under contribution for data4 ,maps1 tables and diagrams are used whenever they can be made to secure results4 ,odin's study covered the period of over five hundred years of ,france and ,french regions1 or from #acjj to #ahbe4 ,out of over thirteen thousand literary names he chose some #f1bjj as representing men of genius1 talent or merit1 the former constituting much the smaller and the latter much the larger of the total number4 ,the object of ,ward's investigation is to discover the factor or factors in the situation which are responsible for the production of genius4 ,in the course of examination it was seen that certain communities were very much more prolific than others in producing talent4 ,paris1 for instance1 produced #abc per #ajj1jjj2 ,geneva1 ,switzerland1 #aif2 certain chateaux as many as #bjj1 and some communities none at all or very few4 ,after considering the various factors which account for the high rate in certain localities and the low rate or absence of merit in others the conclusion is reached that we should expect the presence of the meritorious class generally in even greater numbers than it has existed in the most fruitful regions of the ,french people4 ,mr4 ,ward's studies have led him to conclude that talent is latent in society1 that it exists in greater abundance than we have ever dared to expect1 that all classes possess it equally and would manifest it equally if obstacles were removed or opportunities offered for its development4 ,education is the key to the situation in his estimation4 ,it affords the opportunity which latent talent requires for its promotion1 and if this were intelligently applied to all classes and to both sexes alike instead of securing one man of talent for each #d1jjj persons as ,mr4 ,galton held1 we would be able to mature one for every #ejj of our population4 ,this would represent an eight-hundred-per-cent4 increase of the talented class1 an eight-fold multiplication4 ,it is an estimate of not the number of the talented who are known to be such1 but of society's potential or latent talent4#b #b ,investigations made on school children by the ,binet test indicate ,ward's estimate is conservative4 ,it has been found that from two to three out of every hundred children are of exceptional ability1 thus belonging to the talented1 or at least merit class4 ,because these estimates are so divergent1 it may be worth while to consider the reason for the difference4 ,and in taking this up we come to the fundamentally distinct point of view of the two investigators4 ,mr4 ,galton's work is an illustration of the view which regards talent as a product of the hereditary factors4 ,mr4 ,galton believed that heredity accounts for talent and that it is so dominant in the lives of the talented that it is bound to express itself as talent4 ,in his estimation there is no such thing as latent genius1 because it is in the nature of genius that it surmounts all obstacles4 ,he says3 ',by natural ability1 ,i mean those qualities of intellect and disposition1 which urge and qualify a man to perform acts which lead to reputation4 ,i do not mean capacity without zeal1 nor zeal without capacity1 nor even a combination of both of them1 without an adequate power of doing a great deal of very laborious work4 ,but ,i mean a nature which1 when left to itself1 will1 urged by an inherent stimulus1 climb the path that leads to eminence1 and has strength to reach the summit--one which1 if hindered or thwarted1 will fret and strive until the hindrance is overcome1 and it is again free to follow its labor-saving instinct4'#b #c ,hereditary ,genius1 pp4 #cg-h4 ,this in reality amounts to saying that the genius is omnipotent4 ,nothing can prevent the development of the genius4 ,he is master of all difficulties by the very fact that he is a genius4 ,it is also equivalent1 by implication1 to saying that obstacles can have no qualifying effect on the course of such an individual4 ,a great difficulty is no more to him than a small one4 ,hence no matter in what circumstances he lives he is always bound to gain the maximum of his development4 ,he could not be either greater or less than he is1 notwithstanding the force of circumstances1 whether obstructive or propitious4 ,the energy of a genius is thus differentiated from all other forms of energy4 ,other forms of energy are modified in their course and effects by preventing obstacles4 ,add to or subtract from the impediments and the effect of the energy is changed by the amount of the impediments4 ,but this doctrine completely emancipates human energy1 when manifested in the form of genius1 from the working of the law of cause and effect4 ,it is especially noteworthy that it is not what we should expect in view of the place and function of the environment in the course of evolution4 ,to say the least environment enjoys a very respectable influence in selecting and directing the forces of development4 ,some men have gone so far as to make the external factors account for everything in society4 ,discounting this claim1 the minimum biological statement is that the environment exercises a selective function relative to organic forms and variations4 ,it opposes itself to the transmission strain1 and if unfavorable to it1 may eliminate it entirely4 ,to be able to accomplish this it must be regarded as having an influence on all forms4 ,and as there are all grades of environment from the most unfavorable to the most propitious1 similarly constituted organisms living in those various environments must perforce fare differently1 some being hindered others being promoted in varying degrees4 ,that is1 should the most able by birth appear in the most unfavorable environment they could not be expected to make the same gains in life as similar congenitally able who appear in the most favorable conditions4 ,mr4 ,ward1 on the contrary1 holds that genius1 like all other forms of human ability1 is the product of circumstances4 ,it is determined in its raw form by heredity1 to be sure4 ,in similar circumstances it will affect more than the average man4 ,but like all other forms of energy it is subject to the law of causality4 ,it is not omnipotent so that it is able to set at naught the effects of opposing forces4 ,nor can it develop in the absence of nourishing circumstances4 ,deprive it of cultural opportunities and it is like the sprout of the majestic tree which is deprived of moisture1 or the great river cut off from the supply of snow and rain4 ,in other words1 it is a product of all the factors at work in its being and environment1 and the internal can not manifest itself or its powers without the presence of the external4 ,modify the external factors to a perceptible degree and the individual is modified to the same degree4 ,in seeking to find the factors which are accountable for the development of talent ,mr4 ,ward takes into consideration those of the physical environment1 the ethnological1 the religious1 the local1 the economic1 the social1 and the educational4 ,each one of these items is given a searching examination as to its force4 ,i shall briefly deal with each of these in turn1 giving the import of the findings in each case and as many of the basic facts as possible in a small space4 ,by a consideration of ,french regions by departments1 provinces1 and principal sections1 as to their yield of talent1 the physical environment was found to have had no perceptible influence4 ,the mountain-situated ,geneva and the lowland ,paris produced alike prolifically talented men4 ,the valley of the ,seine and that of the ,loire competed for hegemony in fecundity4 ,the facts contradicted the highland theory1 the lowland theory1 the coast theory1 and every other theory of the dominance of physical environment4 ,to get at the influence of the ethnological factor the ,gaulic1 ,cimbrian1 ,iberian1 ,ligurian and ,belgic elements of the population were examined as to their fecundity in talent4 ,odin confesses to being unable to discover the least connection between races and fecundity in men of letters4 ,attention was paid likewise to races speaking other than ,french language4 ,again there was a conflict of facts4 ,inside of ,france ethnological elements exerted no appreciable influence upon literary productivity4 ,in ,belgium and ,lorraine1 where the ,german language dominated1 it was found that ,french literature mastered the situation1 thus indicating that a common language does not necessitate a common literature4 ,the conclusion ethnologically is that races possess an equality in yielding talent4 ,the religious factor was found to have been more influential formerly in bringing to light talent than at the close of the five-hundred-year period4 ,from #acjj to #agjj the church furnished on the average #cg4h per cent4 of all literary talent4 ,its fecundity dropped to #bi in the period from #agjj to #agej4 ,between #agej and #ahbe it produced but #f4e of the talent4 ,as ,galton has shown1 eminent men were killed or driven out during the period of religious persecution in ,spain1 ,france and ,italy4 ,the celibacy of the clergy which gave undisturbed leisure may have been an element in making the church productive in the earlier years4 ,on the other hand1 the quieting effect of family life of the protestant ministry seems to have had a propitious influence in later times1 as there appeared a relative increase among protestant clergy of talent1 while the output among the catholic clergy continued to decline4 ,in this investigation the local environment appeared to have the most influence in the production of talent4 ,odin gave witness to having a suspicion that somewhere there was a neglected factor4 ,the facts connected talent with the cities in an overwhelming manner4 ,the statement that genius is the product of the rural regions seems to have had no legs to stand on4 ,the majority of the talented were born in the cities and practically all of them were connected with city life4 ,in proportion to population the cities produced #ab4gg1 almost thirteen times as many men of talent as rural regions4 ,the whole of ,france produced #f1chb1 the number selected by ,odin as the more meritorious of the men of letters4 ,if all ,france had been as productive as ,paris it would have yielded #ec1fdj2 if as fecund as the other chief cities1 it would have produced #bb1jfj2 but if only as fertile as the country the number would have fallen to #a1ebb4 ,it would seem that the matter of population has something to do with the production of talent4 ,aggregations of population offer frequent contact of persons1 division of labor1 competition between individuals1 a better coordination of society for cooperative results1 neutralization of physical qualities1 and the ascendancy of innovation over the conservative attitude4 ,it is not the mere density of population which is the effective element4 ,it is rather the dynamic density which is productive1 that is1 the manifestation of the common life and spirit4 ,city life is specialized in structure and function1 rendering men more interdependent and cooperative4 ,specialization means moral coalescence ,the chateaux of ,france are very prolific in producing talent4 ,they yielded #b per cent4 of all the talent of the period1 seemingly out of proportion to their importance4 ,why are certain of the cities and the chateaux more fertile than most cities and the country in producing the talented8 ,we have a general reply in the statement as to the dynamic density of cities4 ,a further analysis finds those communities are possessed of elements which the country does not have4 ,odin calls them properties4 ,they are the location of the political1 administrative and judicial agencies of society2 they are in possession of great wealth and talent2 they are depositories of learning and the tools of information4 ,the avenues which open upon talent and the tools and agencies by means of which the passage to it is to be made segregate themselves in cities and towns ,as the result of his investigation into the distribution of men of science in the ,united ,states1 ,professor ,cattell arrives at nearly the same conclusion4 ,he writes3 ',the main factors in producing scientific and other forms of intellectual performance seem to be density of population1 institutions and social traditions and ideals4 ,all these may be ultimately due to race1 but1 given the existing race1 the scientific productivity of the nation can be increased in quantity1 though not in quality1 almost to the extent that we wish to increase it4'#d #d ,american ,men of ,science1 ,second edition1 p4 #fed4 ,it is interesting to note that nearly all of the women of talent have been born in cities and chateaux4 ,this means that women had to be born where the means of development were to be had1 as they were not free to move about in society1 as were men4 ,periods ,rich ,poor #acjj-aejj #bd #a #aejj-aeej #ci #d #aeea-afjj #db -- #afja-afej #hd #e #afea-agjj #gc #d #agja-agbe #cf #c #agbf-agej #ec #g #agea-agge #hf #h #aggf-ahjj #eb #ab #ahja-ahbe #gc #aa ---- ---- ,total #efb #eg1 or #i per cent4 ,the economic factor has been an important one in offering the leisure which is necessary for the development of talent4 ,men who have to use their time and energy wholly in the support of themselves and families are deprived of the leisure which productivity and creativeness in work demands4 ,of the ,french men of letters #ce per cent4 belonged to the wealthy or noble class1 #db per cent4 to the middle class1 and #bc per cent4 to the working class4 ,odin was able to discover the economic environment of #fai men of talent4 ,they were distributed by periods between the rich and poor as shown in the table on page #afi4 ,of one hundred foreign associates of the ,french ,academy the membership of the wealthy1 middle and working classes were #da1 #eb and #g4 ,a combination of two other of ,candole's tables yields for those classes in per cents #ce1 #db and #bc4 ,in ancient and medieval times practically all of the talented came from the wealthy class4 ,on the whole1 but about one eleventh of the men of talent had to fight with economic adversity4 ,but when we remember that the wealthy class formed but a small portion of the population in each period1 probably not more than one fourth1 this means that as compared with members of the working class individuals of the wealthy class had forty or fifty times as good a chance of rising to a position of eminence4 ,the contrast is so sharp that ,odin is led to exclaim1 ,genius is in things1 not in man4 ,the social and the economic factors are so closely intertwined that the influence of the social environment is already seen in treating the economic4 ,the social deals with matter of classes and callings4 ,the upper classes are of course the wealthier classes so that the social and economic measures largely agree4 ,in ,mr4 ,galton's inquiry into the callings of ,english men of science which he made in #ahgc1 it appears that out of #if investigated #i were noblemen or gentlemen1 #ah government officials1 #cd professional men1 #dc business men1 #b farmers and #a other4 ,unless the one other was a working man the workers produced none of these #if men of science4 ,odin's classification of the ,french men of letters gives to the nobility #be4e per cent41 to government officials #bj4j1 liberal professions #bc4j1 bourgeoise #aa4f1 manual laborers #i4h4 ,only a little over one fifth of the talented were produced by the two lower classes4 ,yet in numerical weight those classes constituted #ij per cent4 of the population4 ,data from four other ,european countries show very much the same results1 except that the workers and bourgeoise classes make a better showing4 ,it is unquestionable1 therefore1 that the opportunities for developing talent or genius are largely withheld from the working class and bestowed on the upper classes4 ,we have yet one other factor to treat in the production of talent1 namely1 the educational4 ,the facts relative to the education of the talented contradicts the assumption usually made that genius depends on education and opportunity for none of its success1 but rises to its heights in spite of or without them4 ,of #hbg men of talent 7not merit class7 ,odin was able to investigate as to their education he found that only #a4h per cent4 had no education or a poor education1 while #ih4b per cent4 had a good education4 ,this number investigated was #gc per cent4 of all men of that class1 and it is fair to assume that about the same proportion of educated existed in the other #bg per cent4 whose education was not known4 ,of the #af of poor or no education #ac were born in ,paris1 other large cities1 or chateaux1 and three in other localities4 ,thus they had the opportunities presented by the cities4 ,facts as to talented men in ,spain1 ,italy1 ,england and ,germany indicate that anywhere from #ib to #ih per cent4 have been highly educated1 and probably the latter per cent4 is correct4 ,these figures can have but one meaning4 ,they indicate that talent and genius are dependent on educational and conventional agencies of the cultural kind1 as are other human beings for their evolution4 ,otherwise we should expect the figures to be reversed4 ,if education and cultural opportunities count for naught1 then we should expect that1 at a time when education was by no means universal1 the #ij or #ih per cent4 ,of genius would mount on their eagle wings and soar to the summits of eminence1 clearing completely the conventional educational devices which society had established4 ,our conclusion1 therefore1 is that social and economic opportunities afford the leisure as well as cultural advantages for the improvement of talent2 that the local environment is of vital importance1 offering as it does the cultural advantages of cities of certain kinds and of chateaux1 and that of the local environment the educational facilities are of the supremest importance4 ,consequently1 it appears that ,mr4 ,ward's estimate of one person of talent to the #ejj instead of ,mr4 ,galton's estimate of one to the #d1jjj does not seem strained4 ,produce in society generally the opportunities and advantages which ,geneva1 ,paris and the chateaux possessed and which gave them their great fecundity in talent1 and all regions and places will yield up their potential or latent genius to development and the ratio will be obtained4 ,this position is likely to be criticized1 unless it is remembered that we admit that there is a hereditary difference at birth1 and that all we seek to establish is that1 given these differences1 what conditions are likely to mature and develop the men of born talent4 ,thus after the appearance of my ,vocational ,education ,i received a letter from ,professor ,eugene ,davenport in which he makes this statement3 ',ward's arguments as here employed seem to show that environment is a powerful factor in bringing out talent even to the exclusion of heredity4 ,i doubt if you would care to be understood to this limit1 and yet where you enumerate on page #fa the reasons why certain cities are fecund in respective talents1 you seem to have overlooked the fact that if these cities have been for many generations centers of talent to such an extent as to provide exceptional environmental influences1 the same conditions would also provide exceptional parentage1 so that the birthrate of talent would be much higher in such a region than the normal4 ,in other words1 the very same conditions which would provide exceptional opportunities for development also and at the same time provide an exceptional birth condition4 ,this is the rock on which very many arguments tending to compare heredity and environment wreck themselves4'#e #e ,this is a criticism that needs to be met4 ,mr4 ,george ,r4 ,davies of this institution has submitted facts in a paper which appeared in the ,march number of the ,quarterly ,journal of the ,university of ,north ,dakota1 which fills in the gap4 ,he shows relative to ,american cities that there has been little or no segregation of talented parentage4 ,we have arrived at a point where we are able to consider the question of the conservation of talent4 ,a position of advantage has been gained from which to view this question4 ,for we have seen that talent has a decidedly important and indispensable social function to perform4 ,it is the creative and contributive agency1 the cause of achievement1 and a vital factor in progress4 ,its conservation is consequently devoutly to be desired4 ,we have also discovered the fact that1 while a rare commodity1 it is present in society in a larger measure than we have commonly believed4 ,if progress is desirable in a measure it is likely to be desirable in a large measure4 ,if talent is able to carry us forward at a certain rate with the development of a minimum of the quantity that is in existence we should be able to greatly accelerate our progress if all that is latent could be developed and put into active operation4 ,further1 we have obtained some insight into the conditions which favor the development of talent and likewise some of the obstacles to its manifestation4 ,if it abounds where certain conditions are present in the situation and fails to appear where those conditions are absent1 we have a fertile suggestion as to the method of social control and direction which will bring the latent talent to fertility4 ,we must undoubtedly hold that if a larger supply of talent exists than is discovered1 developed and put to use that1 since1 as we have seen1 it is so valuable when estimated in terms of social progress1 we are dealing wastefully with talent4 ,we are allowing great ability to go to waste since we are leaving it lie in its undeveloped form4 ,therefore one of the problems of the proper conservation of talent consists in finding a method of discovering and releasing this valuable form of social energy4 ,when we come to inquire how this may be done1 how this discovery is to take place1 we must take for our guide the facts which were found to bear on the maturing of talent in the above studies4 ,we discovered that the local environment seemed to contain the influential element in bringing forth talent4 ,when that local environment was analyzed it turned out that the items of opportunity for leisure and the facilities for education were the most fruitful factors4 ,leisure is absolutely essential to afford that opportunity for self-development which is required even of the most talented4 ,this can only be had when the income of the individual is sufficient to give him a considerable part of his active time for carrying out his intellectual aspirations4 ,we have great numbers of people whom we have reason to believe are as able on the average1 have as large a proportion of talent as the well-to-do1 whose poverty is so crushing and whose days of toil are so long and so consuming of energy that the element of leisure is lacking4 ,it is only an occasional individual of this class of people who is able to secure the wealth which means a measure of leisure by which he is able to mount out of obscurity4 ,an improvement in the physical conditions of life of these people1 together with an increase in their economic possibilities is a necessary means to the proper conservation of the talent of this group4 ,the cultural factor is one which must be made more omnipresent than it is now before we shall be able to awake the latent talent of the masses of people4 ,there are certain sections of all nations1 and more especially of such nations as the ,united ,states1 where the population is widely scattered over vast areas of farming regions in which the opportunities for education and stimulative enterprises and institutions are lacking or meager4 ,the same is true of very large sections of the populations of the cities4 ,in both cases large neighborhoods exist in which the lives of the people move in a humdrum rut1 never disturbed by matters which arouse the creative element in human nature4 ,especially is this important in the early years of life where the outlook for the whole future of the individual is so strongly stamped4 ,to come into contact with no stimulus and arousing agent in the home1 or the neighborhood in the earliest years is to become settled into a life-long habit of inert dullness4 ,when we revert to the schools which so generally abound1 we fail to find the stimulating element in them which might be regarded as the necessary opportunity to develop talent4 ,the vast majority of elementary teachers are persons whose intellectual natures have never been aroused4 ,their imaginative and sympathetic capacities lie undeveloped4 ,their work in the school is conducted on the basis of memory4 ,it is parrot work and ends in making parrots of the pupils4 ,the rational and causal as agencies in education are hardly ever appealed to4 ,until our teaching force is itself developed in the directions and capacities which alone characterize the intellectual we can not hope for much in the way of recovering the rich field of latent talent from its infertility4 ,something remains to be said about the proper utilization of talent which has been developed4 ,did all genius depend on the hereditary factor and consequently we had developed all individuals possessing exceptional ability into contributors and creators1 the question of their complete utilization by society remains4 ,that all able men and women are working at the exact thing and in the exact place and under the exact methods which will yield the greatest and most fruitful results for society only the superficial could believe4 ,herbert ,spencer used up a very large part of his superb ability during the larger portion of his life in the drudgery of making a living4 ,the work of the national eugenics laboratory of ,england is carried on by a man of great talent1 ,professor ,carl ,pearson1 in cramped quarters and with insufficient equipment and support4 ,the enterprise is as important as any in ,england1 that of discovering the conditions and means of improving the human race4 ,the laboratory was built up in the first instance by the sacrifice of ,sir ,francis ,galton1 and it is maintained by means of the bequest of his personal fortune4 ,these are but instances of the many which exist where talented individuals are working under great handicaps which neither promote their talent nor secure fecundity of results to collective man4 ,in nearly every line of human endeavor gifted individuals are consuming in an unnecessarily wasteful manner1 from the point of view of social improvement1 their splendid abilities4 ,in educational institutions trained experts and specialists are doing the work which very ordinary ability of a merely clerical kind could conduct1 sacrificing the higher and more fruitful attainments thereby4 ,i have known a faculty of some forty members who were compelled to register the term standings by sitting in a circle and calling off the grades of several hundred students student by student and class by class for each student as it came their turn1 while a clerk recorded the grades4 ,the process consumed about ten hours per member each term1 or something over a thousand hours a year for the whole faculty4 ,both economically and socially it was expensive and wasteful because a cheap clerk could have done the whole far better and have released the talent for productive purposes4 ,we shall be wise when we realize the worth of our workable talent and so establish its working conditions that it may secure the full measure of its productiveness4 ,if scientific management for the mass of laborers of a nation is worth while how much more serviceable would it be to extend its fructifying influence to the most able members of the community4 ,but how to proceed in order to make the discovery of the latent talent is the pressing problem4 ,for a long time our methods promise to be as empirical as are those we employ for the advancement of science4 ,relative to the latter1 after enumerating a large list of conditions for promoting science of which we are ignorant1 ,professor ,cattell says3 ',in the face of endless problems of this character we are as empirical in our methods as the doctor of physic a hundred years ago or the agricultural laborer to-day4 ,it is surely time for scientific men to apply scientific methods to determine the circumstances that promote or hinder the advancement of science4'#f #f ,american ,men of ,science1 p4 #efe4 ,since the discovery and utilization of genius and talent in general are so closely related to the problem of the promotion of science1 his statement may be adopted to express the demand existing in those directions4 ,,war1 ,,business ,,and ,,insurance#a #a ,chairman's address on ,peace ,day of the ,insurance ,congress1 ,panama-,pacific ,international ,exposition1 ,san ,francisco1 ,october #aa1 #aiae4 ,,by ,,chancellor ,,david ,,starr ,,jordan ,,stanford ,,university ,,the complications behind the war in ,europe are very many1 ruthless exploitation1 heartless and brainless diplomacy1 futile dreams of national expansion 7the ,mirage of the ,map71 of national enrichment through the use of force 7the ,great ,illusion71 and withal a widespread vulgar belief in indemnities or highway robberies as a means of enriching a nation4 ,all these would represent only the unavoidable collision1 unrest and ambition of human nature1 were it not that every element involved in it was armed to the teeth4 ,when blood is their argument in matters of business or politics1 all rational interests are imperilled4 ,the gray old strategists to whom the control of armament was assigned saw the nations moving towards peaceful solution of their real and imaginary difficulties4 ,the young men of ,europe had visions of a broader world1 one cleared of lies and hate and the poison of an ingrowing patriotism4 ,after a generation of doubt and pessimism in which world progress seemed to end in a blind sack1 there was rising a vision of continental cooperation1 a glimpse of the time when science1 always international1 should also internationalize the art of living4 ,clearly the close season for war was near at hand4 ,the old men found means to bring it on and in so doing to exploit the patriotism1 enthusiasm1 devotion and love of adventure of the young men of the whole world4 ,the use of fear and force as an argument in politics or in business--this is war4 ,it is a futile argument because of itself it settles nothing4 ,its conclusion bears no certain relation to its initial aim4 ,it must end where it should begin1 with an agreement among the parties concerned4 ,war is only the blind negation1 the denial of all law1 and only the recognition of the supremacy of some law can bring war to an end4 ,in time of war all laws are silent as are all efforts for progress1 for justice1 for the betterment of human kind4 ,if history were written truthfully every page in the story of war would be left blank1 or printed black1 with only fine white letters in the darkness to mark the efforts for humanity1 which war can never wholly suppress4 ,in this paper ,i propose to consider only economic effects of this war and with special reference to the great industry which brings most of this audience together1 the business of insurance4 ,the great war debts of the nations of ,europe began with representative government4 ,kings borrowed money when they could1 bankrupting themselves at intervals and sometimes wrecking their nations4 ,kings have always been uncertain pay4 ,not many loaned money to them willingly and only in small amounts and at usurious rates of interest4 ,to float a patriotic loan1 it was often necessary to make use of the prison or the rack4 ,with the advent of parliaments and chambers of deputies1 the credit of nations improved and it became easy to borrow money4 ,there was developed a special class of financiers1 the ,rothschilds at their head1 pawnbrokers rather than bankers1 men able and willing to take a whole nation into pawn4 ,and with the advent of great loans1 as ,goldwin ,smith wisely observed1 there was removed the last check on war4 ,with better social and business adjustments1 and especially with the progress of railways and steam navigation with other applications of science to personal and national interests1 the process of borrowing became easier1 as also the payment of interest on which borrowing depends4 ,hence more borrowing1 always the easiest solution of any financial complication or embarrassment4 ,through the substitution of regular methods of taxation for the collection of tribute1 the nations became solidified4 ,only a solidified nation can borrow money4 ,the loose and lawless regions called ,kingdoms and ,empires under feudalism were not nations at all4 ,a nation is a region in which the people are normally at peace among themselves4 ,in civil war1 a nation's existence may be dissolved4 ,in all the ages war costs all that it can4 ,all that can be extorted or borrowed is cast into the melting pot1 for the sake of self-preservation or for the sake of victory4 ,if the nations had any more to give war would demand it4 ,the king could extort1 but there are limits to extortion4 ,the nation could borrow1 and to borrowing there is but one limit1 that of actual exhaustion4 ,mr4 ,h4 ,bell1 cashier of ,lloyd's ,bank in ,london1 said in #aiac3 ',the ,london bankers are not lending on the continent any more4 ,we can see already the handwriting on the wall and that spells ,,repudiation4 ,the people of ,europe will say3 ,we know that we have had all this money and that we ought to pay interest on it4 ,but we must live2 and we can not live and pay4' ,the chief motive for borrowing on the part of every nation has been war or preparation for war4 ,if it were not for war no nation on earth need ever have borrowed a dollar4 ,if provinces and municipalities could use all the taxes their people pay1 for purposes of peace1 they could pay off all their debts and start free4 ,in ,europe1 for the last hundred years1 in time of so-called peace1 nations have paid more for war than for anything else4 ,it is not strange therefore that this armed peace has found its verification in war4 ,it has been the ,dry ,war1 the ,race for the ,abyss1 which the gray old strategists of the general staff have brought to final culmination4 ,the debt of ,great ,britain began with the revolution of #ahfi1 with about #a1bej1jjj4 ,this unpopular move1 known as ,dutch finance1 was the work of ,william of ,orange4 ,other loans followed1 based on customs duties with taxes on bachelors1 widows1 marriages and funerals1 and the profits on lotteries4 ,at the end of the war of the revolution the debt reached #a1bej1jjj1jjj1 and with the gigantic borrowings of ,pitt1 in the interest of the overthrow of ,napoleon1 the debt reached its highest point1 #d1dcj1jjj1jjj4 ,the savings of peace duly reduced this debt1 but the ,boer war1 for which about #hjj1jjj1jjj was borrowed1 swept these savings away4 ,when the present war began the national debt had been reduced to a little less than #djj1jjj1jjj which sum a year of world war has brought up to #aj1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,the debt of ,france dates from the ,french ,revolution4 ,through reckless management it soon rose to #gjj1jjj1jjj1 which sum was cut by paper money1 confiscation and other repudiations to #afj1jjj1jjj4 ,this process of easing the government at the expense of the people spread consternation and bankruptcy far and wide4 ,a great program of public expenditure following the costly war and its soon repaid indemnity raised the debt of ,france to over #f1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,the interest alone amounted to nearly #a1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,a year of the present war has brought this debt to the unheard of figure of about #aa1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,thus nearly two million bondholders and their families in and out of ,france have become annual pensioners on the public purse1 in addition to all the pensioners produced by war4 ,germany is still a very young nation and as an empire more thrifty than her largest state4 ,the imperial debt was in #aijh a little over #a1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,the total debt of the empire and the states combined was about #d1jjj1jjj1jjj at the outbreak of the war4 ,it is now stated at about #i1jjj1jjj1jjj1 a large part of the increase being in the form of patriotic loans from helpless corporations4 ,the small debt of the ,united ,states rose after the ,civil ,war to #b1ggc1jjj1jjj4 ,it has been reduced to about #iae1jjj1jjj1 proportionately less than in any other civilized nation4 ,the local debts of states and municipalities in this and other countries are1 however1 very large and are steadily rising4 ,as ,mr4 ,e4 ,s4 ,martin observes1 ',we have long since passed the simple stage of living beyond our incomes4 ,we are engaged in living beyond the incomes of generations to come4' ,let me illustrate by a supposititious example4 ,a nation has an expenditure of #ajj1jjj1jjj a year4 ,it raises the sum by taxation of some sort and thus lives within its means4 ,but #ajj1jjj1jjj is the interest on a much larger sum1 let us say #b1ejj1jjj1jjj4 ,if instead of paying out a hundred million year by year for expenses1 we capitalize it1 we may have immediately at hand a sum twenty-five times as great4 ,the interest on this sum is the same as the annual expense account4 ,let us then borrow #b1ejj1jjj1jjj on which the interest charges are #ajj1jjj1jjj a year4 ,but while paying these charges the nation has the principal to live on for a generation4 ,half of it will meet current expenses for a dozen years1 and the other half is at once available for public purposes1 for dockyards1 for wharves1 for fortresses1 for public buildings and1 above all1 for the ever-growing demands of military conscription and of naval power4 ,meanwhile the nation is not standing still4 ,in these twelve years the progress of invention and of commerce may have doubled the national income4 ,there is then still another #ajj1jjj1jjj yearly to be added to the sum available for running expenses4 ,this again can be capitalized1 another #b1ejj1jjj1jjj can be borrowed1 not all at once perhaps1 but with due regard to the exigencies of banking and the temper of the people4 ,with repeated borrowings the rate of taxation rises4 ,living on the principal sets a new fashion in expenditure4 ,the same fashion extends throughout the body politic4 ,individuals1 corporations1 municipalities all live on their principal4 ,the purchase of railways and other public utilities by the government tends further to complicate the problems of national debt4 ,it is clear that this system of buying without paying can not go on forever4 ,the growth of wealth and population can not keep step with borrowing1 even though all funds were expended for the actual needs of society4 ,of late years1 war preparation has come to take the lion's share of all funds1 however gathered1 consuming the fruits of progress4 ,what the end shall be1 and by what forces it will be brought about1 no one can now say4 ,this is still a very rich world1 even though insolvent and under control of its creditors4 ,there is a growing unrest among taxpayers4 ,there would be a still greater unrest if posterity could be heard from1 for it can only save itself by new inventions and new exploitations or by frugality of administration of which no nation gives an example to-day4 ,nevertheless1 this burden of past debt1 with all its many ramifications and its interest charges1 is not the heaviest the nations have placed on themselves4 ,the annual cost of army and navy in the world before the war was about double the sum of interest paid on the bonded debt4 ,this annual sum represented preparation for future war1 because in the intricacies of modern warfare hostilities must be begun long before the materialization of any enemy4 ,in estimating the annual cost of war1 to the original interest of upwards of #a1ejj1jjj1jjj we must add yearly about #b1ejj1jjj1jjj of actual expenditure for fighters1 guns and ships4 ,we must further consider the generous allowance some nations make for pensions4 ,a large and unestimated sum may also be added to the account from loss of military conscription1 again not counting the losses to society through those forms of poverty which have their primal cause in war4 ,for in the words of ,bastiat1 ,war is an ogre that devours as much when he sleeps as when he is awake4 ,it was ,gambetta who foretold that the final end of armament rivalry must be a beggar crouching by a barrack door4 ,when the great war began1 the nations of ,europe were thus waist deep in debt1 the total amount of national bonded indebtedness being about #cj1jjj1jjj1jjj1 or nearly three times the total sum of actual gold and silver1 coined or not in all the world4 ,a year of war at the rate of #ej1jjj1jjj to #gj1jjj1jjj per day has increased this indebtedness to nearly #ej1jjj1jjj1jjj1 the bonds themselves rated at half or less their normal value1 while the actual financial loss through destruction of life and property has been estimated at upwards of #dj1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,in ,the ,unseen ,empire1 the forceful and prophetic drama of ,mr4 ,atherton ,brownell1 the ,american ambassador1 ,stephan ,channing1 tries to show the chancellor of ,germany that war with ,great ,britain is not a good business proposition4 ,he says3 ',our ,civil ,war has cost us to date1 if you count pensions for the wrecks it left--mental and physical--nearly twenty billions of dollars4 ,and that doesn't include property losses1 nor destruction of trade1 nor broken hearts and desolate homes--that's just cold hard cash that we have actually paid out4 ,you can't even think it4 ,there have been only about one billion minutes since ,christ was born4 ,now if there had been four million slaves and we had bought every one of them at an average of one thousand dollars apiece1 set them free and had no war1 we should have been in pocket to day just sixteen billion dollars4 ,that one crime cost us in cash just about the equal of sixteen dollars a minute from the beginning of the ,christian era4' ,the war as forecast in the play is now on in fact1 and one certain truth in regard to it is that it is assuredly not a good business proposition for anybody in any nation1 excepting of course1 the makers of the instruments of death4 ,,daily ,,cost ,,of ,,great ,,european ,,war 7,charles ,richet1 #aiab7 ,feed of men4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ab1fjj1jjj ,feed of horses 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #a1jjj1jjj ,pay 7,european rates7 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #d1bej1jjj ,pay of workmen in the arsenals and ports 7#ajj per day7#a1jjj1jjj ,transportation 7#fj miles in #aj days7 4 4 4 4 4 4 #b1ajj1jjj ,transportation for provisions4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #d1bjj1jjj ,munitions3 ,infantry #aj cartridges a day4 4 4 4 4 #d1bjj1jjj ,artillery3 #aj shots per day4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #a1bjj1jjj ,marine3 #b shots per day4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #djj1jjj ,equipment4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #d1bjj1jjj ,ambulances3 #ejj1jjj wounded or ill 7#a per day74 4 #ejj1jjj ,war ships4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #ejj1jjj ,reduction of imports 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #e1jjj1jjj ,help to the poor 7#bj cents per day to #a in #aj7 4 #f1hjj1jjj ,destruction of towns1 etc4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 #b1jjj1jjj ,total per day 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4#di1iej1jjj ,the actual war began1 in accord with ,professor ,richet's calculation1 at a cost of #ej1jjj1jjj per day4 ,previous to this the dry war or armed peace cost only #aj1jjj1jjj per day4 ,this is ,richet's calculation in #aiab1 an underestimate as to expenses on the sea and in the air4 ,these with the growing scarcity of bread and shrapnel1 the equipment of automobiles1 and the unparalleled ruin of cities have raised this cost to #gj1jjj1jjj per day4 ,this again takes no account of the waste of men and horses1 less costly than the other material of war and not necessarily replaced4 ,all this is piled on top of the endless caravan of ciphers 7#cj1jjj1jjj1jjj71 which represents the accumulated and unpaid war debt of the nineteenth century4 ,war is indeed the sport for kings1 but it is no sport for the people who pay and die1 and in the long run the workers of the world must pay the cost of it4 ,as ,benjamin ,franklin observed3 ',war is not paid for in war time7 the bill comes later4' ,and what a bill6 ,yves ,guyot1 the ,french economist1 estimates that the first six months of war cost western ,europe in cash #e1djj1jjj1jjj1 to which should be added further destruction estimated at #aa1fjj1jjj1jjj1 making a total of #ag1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,the entire amount of coin in the world is less than #ab1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,edgar ,crammond1 secretary of the ,liverpool ,stock ,exchange1 another high authority1 estimates the cash cost of a year of war1 to ,august #a1 #aiae1 at #ag1jjj1jjj1jjj1 while other losses will mount up to make a grand total of #df1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,mr4 ,crammond estimates that the cost to ,great ,britain for a year of war will reach #c1ejj1jjj1jjj4 ,this sum is about equivalent to the accumulated war debt of ,great ,britain for a hundred years before the war4 ,the war debt of ,germany 7including ,prussia7 is now about the same4 ,no one can have any conception of what #df1jjj1jjj1jjj may be4 ,it is four times all the gold and silver in the world4 ,it represents1 it is stated1 about #ajj1jjj tons of gold1 and would probably outweigh the ,washington monument4 ,we have no data as to what monuments weigh1 but we may try a few other calculations4 ,if this sum were measured out in #bj gold pieces and they were placed side by side on the railway track1 on each rail1 they would line with gold every line from ,new ,york to the ,pacific ,ocean1 and there would be enough left to cover each rail of the ,siberian railway from ,vladivostock to ,petrograd4 ,there would still be enough left to rehabilitate ,belgium and to buy the whole of ,turkey1 at her own valuation1 wiping her finally from the map4 ,or we may figure in some other fashion4 ,the average working man in ,america earns #eah per year4 ,it would take ninety million years' work to pay the cost of the war2 or ninety million ,american laborers might pay it off in one year1 if all their living expenses were paid4 ,the working men of ,europe receive from half to a third the wages in ,america4 ,they are the ones who have this bill to pay4 ,the cost of a year of the great war is a little greater than the estimated value of all the property of the ,united ,states west of ,chicago4 ,it is nearly equal to the total value of all the property in ,germany 7#dh1jjj1jjj1jjj7 as figured in #aijf4 ,the whole ,russian ,empire 7#ce1jjj1jjj1jjj7 could have been bought for a less sum before the war began4 ,it could be had on a cash sale for half that now4 ,it would have paid for all the property in ,italy 7#ac1jjj1jjj1jjj72 ,japan 7#aj1jjj1jjj1jjj72 ,holland 7#e1jjj1jjj1jjj72 ,belgium 7#g1jjj1jjj1jjj72 ,spain 7#f1jjj1jjj1jjj7 and ,portugal 7#b1ejj1jjj1jjj74 ,it is three times the entire yearly earnings in wages and salaries of the people of the ,united ,states 7#ae1ejj1jjj1jjj74 ,we could go on indefinitely with this1 playing with figures which nobody can understand1 for the greatest fortune ever accumulated by man1 in whatever fashion1 would not pay for three days of this war4 ,the cost of this war would pay the national debts of all the nations in the world at the time the war broke out1 and this aggregate sum of #de1jjj1jjj1jjj for the world was all accumulated in the criminal stupidity of the wars of the nineteenth century4 ,if all the farms1 farming lands1 and factories of the ,united ,states were wiped out of existence1 the cost of this war would more than replace them4 ,if all the personal and real property of half our nation were destroyed1 or if an earthquake of incredible dimensions should shake down every house from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific1 the waste would be less than that involved in this war4 ,and an elemental catastrophe leaves behind it no costly legacy of hate2 even the financial troubles are not ended with the treaty of peace4 ,the credit of ,europe is gone for one does not know how long4 ,before the war1 it is said1 there were #bjj1jjj1jjj1jjj in bonds and stocks in circulation in ,europe4 ,much of this has been sold for whatever it would bring4 ,some of the rest is worth its face value ,some of it is worth nothing4 ,in the final adjustment who can know whether he is a banker or a beggar8 ,the ,american ,ambassador was quite within bounds when he said3 ,there isn't so much money in the world2 you can't even think it6 ,or we may calculate 7with ,dr4 ,edward ,t4 ,devine7 in a totally different way4 ,the cost of this war would have covered every moral social1 economic and sanitary reform ever asked for in the civilized world1 in so far as money properly expended can compass such results4 ,it could eliminate infectious disease1 feeble-mindedness1 the slums and the centers of vice4 ,it could provide adequate housing1 continuity of labor1 insurance against accident2 in other words it could abolish almost every kind of suffering due to outside influences and not inherent in the character of the person concerned4 ,a ,russian writer1 quoted by ,dr4 ,john ,h4 ,finley1 puts this idea in a different form3 ',our most awful enemies1 the elements and germs and insect destroyers1 attack us every minute without cease1 yet we murder one another as if we were out of our senses4 ,death is ever on the watch for us1 and we think of nothing but to snatch a few patches of land6 ,about #e1jjj1jjj1jjj days of work go every year to the displacement of boundary lines4 ,think of what humanity could obtain if that prodigious effort were devoted to fighting our real enemies1 the noxious species and our hostile environment4 ,we should conquer them in a few years4 ,the entire globe would turn into a model farm4 ,every plant would grow for our use4 ,the savage animals would disappear1 and the infinitely tiny animals would be reduced to impotence by hygiene and cleanliness4 ,the earth would be conducted according to our convenience4 ,in short1 the day men realize who their worst enemies are1 they will form an alliance against them1 they will cease to murder one another like wild beasts from sheer folly4 ,then they will be the true rulers of the planet1 the lords of creation4' ,says ,robert ,l4 ,duffus3 ',money spent in warfare is not like spending money in other industries4 ,it will bring far more beastliness1 far more injustice1 far more tyranny1 far more danger to all that is honorable1 generous and noble in the world1 far more grief and rage than money spent in any other way4 ,not one per cent4 of the amount devoted to these purposes1 is1 for the end aimed at1 wasted4' ,it is said that the main cause of the war lay in the envy of ,german commerce by ,british rivals4 ,this is assuredly not true4 ,but if it were1 let us look at the business side of it4 ,taking the net profits of over-seas trade as stated two years ago by the ,hamburg-,american ,company1 the strongest in the world1 and estimating the rest1 we have something like this3 ,during the ,dry ,war the net earnings of the ,german ,mercantile fleet was about one third the cost of the navy supposed to protect it4 ,it would take seventy years of trade1 on the scale of the last year before the war1 to repay ,germany's expenses for a year of war4 ,to make good all the losses of ,europe would require more than one hundred years of the over-seas trading profits of all the world4 ,war is therefore death to trade1 as it is to every other agency of civilization4 ,at the beginning of the war the value of stocks and bonds in circulation in ,europe amounted to about #bjj1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,what is the present value of all these certificates of ownership8 ,what is the present value of any particular industrial plant or commercial venture8 ,a friend in ,london had inherited through his ,german wife a large aniline dye plant on the ,rhine4 ,he told me recently that he had not heard one word from it for six months4 ,what will be its value when he hears from it8 ,and what certainty has he as to its ownership8 ,is it true that this war is the outcome of commercial jealousy8 ,let us look at this for a moment4 ,the two greatest shipping companies in the world before the war were the ,hamburg-,american ,company and the ,nord-,deutscher ,lloyd of ,bremen4 ,these companies had grown strong because they deserved to grow4 ,they had attended to their affairs both in shipment of freight and transportation of passengers with that minute attention to details which is so large an element in ,german success4 ,the growth of these companies arose through ,american trade and especially through trade with ,great ,britain and the ,british possessions4 ,did they clamor for war--a war1 whatever else might result1 sure to cripple their trade for a generation4 ,it is said that ,ballin1 of the ,hamburg ,company1 unable to prevent ,great ,britain from rising to the defense of ,belgium went home broken-hearted4 ,did ,ballin build the great ,imperator1 costing nine million--six million of it borrowed money--with a view of laying her off after a few trips for an indefinite period in ,hamburg8 ,did the ,nord-,deutscher ,lloyd contemplate leaving the ,vaterland and the ,george ,washington to lie in ,hoboken till they were sold for harbor dues8 ,nor was the jealousy on the other side4 ,the growth of ,german commerce concerned mainly ,great ,britain4 ,presumably it was profitable on both sides1 for all trade is barter4 ,in any event1 ,great ,britain has never raised a tariff wall against it1 never protected her traders by a single differential duty4 ,she has risen above the idea that by tariff exactions the foreigners can be made to pay the sages4 ,as for envy of ,german commerce1 who ever heard of an ,englishman who envied anybody anything8 ,again1 did the ,cunard ,company build her three great steamships1 the ,mauretania1 the ,lusitania1 the ,aquitania for the fate which has come to them8 ,in #aiad ,i saw the great ,aquitania1 finest of all floating palaces1 tied by the nose to the wharf at ,liverpool1 the most sheepish-looking steamship ,i ever saw anywhere4 ,out of her had been taken #a1bej1jjj worth of plate glass and plush velvet1 elevators and lounging rooms1 the requirements of the tender rich in their six days upon the sea4 ,the whole ship was painted black1 filled with coal--to be sent out to help the warships at sea4 ,and for this humble service ,i am told she proved unfitted4 ,no1 commercial envy is not a reason1 rivalry in business is not a reason1 need of expansion is not a reason4 ,these are excuses only1 not causes of war4 ,there is no money in war4 ,there is no chance of highway robbery in the byways of history which can repay anything tangible of the expense of the expedition4 ,the gray old strategists do not care for this4 ,it is fair to them to say they are not sordid4 ,they care no more for the financial exhaustion of a nation than for the slaughter of its young men4 ,an old soldier like me1 said ,napoleon1 does not care a tinker's damn for the death of a million men4 ,neither does he care for the collapse of a million industrial corporations4 ,of the many forms of business and financial relation among men1 none is more important than those included under the name of insurance4 ,insurance is a form of mutual help4 ,by its influence the effects of calamity are spread so widely that they cease to be felt as calamity4 ,the fact of death can not be set aside1 but through insurance it need not appear as economic disaster1 only as personal loss4 ,its essential nature is that of social cooperation and it furnishes some of the most effective of bonds which knit society together4 ,as insurance has become already an international function1 its influence should be felt continuously on the side of peace4 ,that it is so felt is the justification of our meeting together to-day1 as underwriters of insurance and as workers for peace4 ,the essence of insurance1 as ,professor ,royce observes1 is that 'it is a principle at once peace-making in its general tendency and business-like in its practicable special application4444 ,as a result of insurance1 men gradually find themselves involved in a social network of complicated but beneficent relations of which individuals are usually very imperfectly aware but by means of which modern society has been profoundly transformed4' ,for life insurance1 in general1 is not personally selfish in its motive4 ,it is essentially altruistic1 the effort of the benefit of some person beloved who is designated as the beneficiary4 ,for the benefit of this surviving person1 the efforts involved in the payment of premiums are put forth1 and the insurance companies and their underwriters constitute the machinery by which this unification is given to society4 ,to all the interests of insurance1 the lawlessness of war is wholly adverse and destructive4 ,insurance involves mutual trust and trust thrives under security of person and property4 ,insurance demands steadiness of purpose and continuity of law4 ,in war1 all laws are silent4 ,war is the brutish1 blind1 denial of law1 only admissible when all other honorable alternatives have been withdrawn--the last resort of murdered1 mangled liberty4 ,in its direct relation1 war destroys those who to the underwriter represent the best risks1 the men most valuable to themselves and thus most valuable to the community4 ,those whom war leaves behind1 to slip along the lines of least resistance into the city slums1 are the people insurance rarely reaches4 ,war confuses administration of insurance4 ,policies1 in war time1 can be written only on a sliding scale4 ,this greatly increases the premium by reducing the final payments4 ,increase of rate of premium must decrease business4 ,war means financial anarchy1 inflated currency and depreciation of bonds4 ,a currency which fluctuates demoralizes all business and war leaves no alternative4 ,the slogan business as usual in war time deceives nobody4 ,if it did1 nobody would gain by the deception4 ,enforced loans from the reserve fund of insurance companies to the state mean the depreciation of reserves4 ,the substitution of unstable government bonds means robbery of the bond holders4 ,the yielding to the state1 by enforced voluntary action1 of reserves of savings banks and insurance companies represents a form of state robbery4 ,this is now in practice on the continent of ,europe4 ,such funds are probably never actually confiscated but held in abeyance until the close of the war4 ,this is another form of the everpresent military necessity1 which seizes men's property with little more compunction than it shows in seizing men's bodies4 ,war conditions mean insecurity of investment4 ,in war1 all bonds are liable to become scraps of paper1 and no fund can be made safe4 ,the insurance investments in ,europe have been enormously depleted in worth1 a reduction in market value estimated at #ej per cent4 ,experts in insurance tell me that in war time certain policies are written so as to be scaled down automatically when the holder goes under the colors4 ,some are invalid in time of war1 and some have the clause of free travel greatly abridged4 ,a few are written to apply to all conditions1 but on these the rates of premiums would naturally increase4 ,companies generally refuse to pay under conditions not nominated in the bond1 and in general all policies are automatically reduced to level of war policies when war begins4 ,i am told that some ,american companies issue group policies as for any or all of a thousand men1 these not subject to a physical examination4 ,the war claims in ,great ,britain have been very heavy1 because such a large proportion of clerks1 artisans1 students and other insurable or well-paid men have been first to volunteer4 ,some insurance companies have been much embarrassed by the general enlistment of their employees4 ,in fire insurance1 conditions are much the same4 ,all contracts in foreign nations are held in abeyance until the close of war4 ,such companies doing business in ,america are now mostly incorporated as ,american4 ,in every regard1 the business of insurance is naturally allied with the forces that make for peace4 ,war brings ruin1 through increase of loans1 through the exhaustion of reserves and the precarious nature of investment4 ,the same remark applies in some degree to every honorable or constructive business4 ,if any other form of danger threatened a great industry1 its leaders would be on the alert4 ,they would spare no money and leave no stone unturned for their own protection4 ,towards war1 business has always shown a stupid fatalism4 ,war has been thought inevitable1 coming of itself at intervals with nobody responsible4 ,there could not be a greater error4 ,war does not come of itself1 nor without great and persistent preparation4 ,a few hundred resolute men1 bent on war1 led by unscrupulous leaders brought on this war4 ,the military group of one nation plays into the hands of like groups in other nations4 ,to keep up war agitation long enough1 whether the cause be real or imaginary1 seems to hypnotize the public mind4 ,the horrors of war fascinate rather than repel1 and thousands of men in this land of peace are ready to fight in ,europe to one who dreamed of such a line of action a year or two ago4 ,eternal vigilance is the price of liberty4 ,the interests involved should put honest business on its guard4 ,the insurance men could afford to maintain a thousand observers1 men wise in business as well as in ,international ,law1 and in the manners and customs of the people of the world4 ,a few dozen skilful politico-military detectives--men like ,w4 ,j4 ,burns for example employed in the interest of finance might save finance a billion dollars4 ,these should watch the standing incentives to war4 ,such men should stand guard against the influences that work toward conflict4 ,those who work for peace should be not firemen to be called in to put out the fire already started through the negligence of business men but agents for fireproof building material in our national edifice1 to stand at all times for the security of business1 the sanctity of law1 order and peace4 ,this kind of preparedness for war would involve no risks of conflict1 of victory or defeat4 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,stars ,,and ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,earth4 ,,ii ,,by ,,william ,,wallace ,,campbell ,,director ,,of ,,the ,,lick ,,observatory1 ,,university ,,of ,,california ,,evidence ,,in ,,support ,,of ,,sequence ,,proposed ,,there are several lines of evidence in support of the order of evolution which we have outlined4 #a4 ,the close relationship of the bright-line nebular spectrum1 the bright-line stellar spectrum and the spectra of the simplest helium stars2 the practically continuous sequence of spectra from the helium stars to the red stars4 #b4 ,in the long run1 we must expect the stars to grow colder1 at least as to the surface strata4 ,what the average interior temperatures are is another question2 the highest interior temperatures are thought to be reached at an intermediate or quite late stage in the process1 in accordance with principles investigated by ,lane and others2 but the temperatures existing in the deep interiors seem to have little direct influence in defining the spectral characters of the stars1 which are concerned more directly with the surface strata4#a ,we should therefore expect the simpler types of spectra1 such as we find in the helium and hydrogen stars1 in the early stages of the evolutionary process4 ,the complicated spectra of the metals1 and particularly the oxides of the metals1 should be in evidence late in stellar life1 when the atmospheres of the stars have become denser and colder4 #a ,this important point seems not to have been realized by all theorists4 #c4 ,the velocities of the ,orion nebula1 the ,trifid nebula1 the ,carina nebula1 and of several other irregular nebulae1 have been measured with the spectroscope4 ,these bodies seem to be nearly at rest with reference to the stellar system4 ,the helium stars have the lowest-known stellar velocities1 and the average velocities of the stars are higher and higher as we pass from the helium stars1 through the hydrogen and solar stars1 up to the red stars4 ,the average velocities of the brighter stars of the different spectral classes1 as determined with the ,d4 ,o4 ,mills spectrographs at ,mount ,hamilton and in ,chile1 are as in the following table3 ,spectral ,no4 of ,class ,stars ,average ,velocity in ,space ,b #bbe #ab4i km4 per ,sec4 ,a #agg #ba4i ,f #ahe #bh4g ,g #abh #bi4i ,e #chb #cc4f ,m #gc #cd4c ,we can not place the irregular nebulae after the red stars3 their velocities are too small1 and their spectra have no resemblances to the red-star spectra4 #d4 ,wherever we find large irregular gaseous nebulae we find stars in the early subdivisions of the helium group4 ,they are closely related in position4 ,this is true of the ,orion and other similar regions4 ,the irregular1 gaseous nebulae are in general found in and near the ,milky ,way1 and so are the helium stars4 ,the yellow and red stars1 at least the brighter ones1 do not cluster in nebulous regions4 #e4 ,the stars are more and more uniformly distributed over the sphere as one goes from the helium stars through the hydrogen and solar stars1 to the red stars4 ,the ,class ,m stars show little or no preference for the ,milky ,way4 ,of course1 ,i am speaking here of the brighter and nearer stars which we have been able to study by means of the spectroscope1 and not at all of the faint stars which form the unstudied distant parts of the ,milky ,way structure4 ,the helium stars are young1 their motions are slow1 and they have not wandered far from the place of their birth4 ,not so with the older stars4 #f4 ,the visual double stars afford strong evidence that the order of evolution described is correct4 ,the #cf-;inch refractor has shown that one star in #ah1 on the average1 brighter than the ninth visual magnitude1 consists of two or more suns which we can not doubt are in slow revolution around each other4 ,the number of double stars observable would be very much greater than this if they were not so far away4 ,of the #bj stars which we say are our nearest neighbors1 #h are well known double stars2 one double in each two and one half1 on the average4 ,aitken has made a specialty of observing the double stars whose components in each case are very close together and are in comparatively rapid revolution4 ,his program includes #afd such systems whose types of spectra are known1 as in the following table3 ,spectrum ,number of ,double ,stars ,bright-line #j ,class ,b #d ,class ,a-,f #aca ,class ,g-,n #bh ,class ,m-,n8 #a ,the message which this table brings is clear4 ,the double stars whose spectra are of the ,bright-,line and ,class ,b varieties have their components so close together that only #d1 of ,class ,b1 are visible4 ,the great majority fall in ,classes ,a to ,k2 #aei out of #afd4 ,the component stars in these classes are far enough apart to be visible in the telescopes1 and yet are close enough to be revolving in periods reasonably short4 ,in the ,class ,m double stars1 this program contains not more than one star1 and ,i believe the explanation is this3 double stars of ,class ,m are in general so far apart1 and therefore their periods of revolution are so long1 that they do not get upon programs of rapidly revolving stars4 ,also1 the fainter components in many red stars must have cooled off so far that they are invisible4 ,the distances between the components of visual double stars are in general the greater as we proceed from the helium stars through the various spectral classes up to ,class ,m4 ,there are reasons for believing that two stars revolving around their center of mass have gradually increased their distance apart1 and therefore their revolution period4 ,if this is true1 the ,classes ,g and ,k2 double stars are effectively older than ,classes ,a and ,f double stars1 and these in turn are effectively older than ,class ,b double stars4 #g4 ,the spectrograph has great advantages over the telescope in discovering and observing double stars whose components are very close together1 by virtue of the facts that the spectrograph measures1 velocities of approach and recession in absolute units--so many kilometers per second--and that the speeds of rotation in binary systems are higher the closer together the two components are4 ,the observations of the brighter helium stars1 especially those made at the ,yerkes ,observatory by ,frost and ,adams1 have shown that one helium star in every two and one half on the average is a very close double4 ,in beta ,cephei1 an early ,class ,b star1 the components are so close that they revolve around each other in #d #a_/b hours2 many systems have periods in the neighborhood of a day1 of two days1 of three days1 and so on4 ,similar observations made with the ,d4 ,o4 ,mills spectrographs in both hemispheres have shown that about one star in every four of the bright stars1 on the average1 is a double star4 ,in general1 the proportion of spectroscopic doubles discovered to date is greatest in ,class ,b and decreases as we proceed toward ,class ,m4 ,the explanation is simple3 in the ,class ,b doubles the components are close together1 their orbital velocities are very high and change rapidly1 and the spectrograph is able to discover the variations with little loss of time4 ,as we pass toward the yellow and red spectroscopic binaries we find the components separated more and more1 the orbital velocities are smaller and the periods longer1 the variations of velocity are more difficult to discover1 and in the wider pairs we must wait many years before the variations become appreciable4 ,there is a very marked progression of the average lengths of periods of the spectrographic double stars as we pass from the ,class ,b to the ,class ,m pairs4 ,similarly1 the eccentricities of the orbits of the binaries increase as we proceed in the same direction4 ,accumulating evidence is to the effect that the proportion of double stars to single stars may be as great in the ,classes ,a to ,k as in ,class ,b4 #h4 ,kapteyn believes that he is able to divide the individual stars--those whose proper motions are known--into the two star streams which he has described2 and he finds that the first stream is rich in the early blue stars1 less rich relatively in yellow stars1 and poor in red stars1 whereas the second stream is very poor in early blue stars1 rich in yellows1 and relatively very rich in reds4 ,his interpretation is that the stream-one stars are effectively younger than the stream-two stars1 on the whole4 ,stream one still abounds in youthful stars3 they grow older and the yellow and red stars will then predominate4 ,stream two abounds in stars which were once young1 but are now middle-aged and old4 ,the eight lines of argument outlined are in harmony to the effect that there is a sequence of development from nebulae to red stars4 ,the extremely red stars are all faint1 only a very few being visible to the naked eye1 and these near the limit of vision4 ,our knowledge concerning them is relatively limited4 ,that these1 and all stars1 will become invisible to our telescopes1 and ultimately be dark unshining bodies1 is the logical conclusion to which the evolutionary processes will lead4 ,as ,i have already stated1 both ,newcomb and ,kelvin were inclined to believe that the major part of gravitational matter in the universe is already invisible4 ,it should be said that a few astronomers doubt whether the order of evolution is so clearly defined as ,i have outlined it2 in fact1 whether we know even the main trend of the evolutionary process4 ,we occasionally encounter the opinion that the subject is still so unsettled as not to let us say whether the helium stars are effectively young or the red stars are effectively old4 ,lockyer and ,russell have proposed hypotheses in which the order of evolutionary sequence begins with comparatively cool red stars and proceeds through the yellow stars to the very hot blue stars1 and thence back through the yellow stars to cool red stars4 ,i think the essentially unanimous view of astronomers is to the effect that the great mass of accumulated evidence favors the order of evolution which ,i have described4 ,we are all ready to admit that there are apparent exceptions to the simple course laid down1 but that these exceptions are revolutionary in effect1 and not hopeless of removal1 has not yet1 in my opinion1 been established4 ,,physical ,,conditions ,,govern ,,appearances ,,of ,,spectra ,a question frequently asked is this3 if the yellow and red stars have been developed from the blue stars1 why do not the thousands of lines in the spectra of the yellow and red stars show in the spectra of the blue stars8 ,indeed1 why do not the elements so conspicuously present in the atmosphere of the red stars show in the spectra of the gaseous nebulae8 ,the answer is that the conditions in the nebulae and in the youngest stars are such that only the ,,simplest ,,elements1 like hydrogen and helium1 and in the nebulae nebulium1 which we think are nearest to the elemental state of matter1 seem to be able to form or exist in them2 and the temperature must lower1 or other conditions change to the conditions existing in the older stars1 before what we may call the more complicated elements can construct themselves out of the more elemental forms of matter4 ,the oxides of titanium and of carbon found in the red stars1 where the surface temperatures must be relatively low1 would dissociate themselves into more elemental components and lose their identity if the temperature and other conditions were changed back to those of the early helium stars4 ,lockyer's name is closely connected with this phenomenon of dissociation4 ,there is no evidence1 to the best of my knowledge1 that the elements known in our ,earth are not essentially universal in distribution1 either in the forms which the elements have in the ,earth1 or dissociated into simpler forms wherever the temperatures or other conditions make dissociations possible and unavoidable4 ,the meteorites1 which have come through the atmosphere to the ,earth's surface1 contain at least #be known terrestrial elements4 ,that they have not been found thus far to contain all of our elements is not surprising1 for we should have difficulty in finding a piece of our ,earth weighing a few kilograms which would contain #be of our elements4 ,we have not found any elements in meteorites which are unknown to our chemists4 ,our comets1 which ordinarily show the presence of not more than three elements1 carbon1 nitrogen and oxygen1 give certain evidence of sodium in their composition when they approach fairly near to the ,sun2 and the great comet of #ahhb1 when very close to the ,sun1 developed in its spectrum many bright lines not previously seen in comet spectra1 which ,copeland said were due to iron4 ,that the comets do not show a greater number of elements is not in the least surprising3 they are not condensed bodies1 and we think that their average temperature is low1 too low generally to develop the luminous vapors of the more refractory elements4 ,if their temperatures1 approximated those which exist in the stars1 their spectra would probably reveal the presence of many of the elements which exist in the meteorites4 ,of course the proof of this is lacking4 ,,destiny ,,of ,,the ,,stellar ,,system ,we have said that the evolutionary processes depend primarily upon the loss of heat4 ,this is to the best of our knowledge a genuine loss1 except as some of the heat rays happen to strike other celestial bodies4 ,the flow of heat energy from a star must be essentially continuous1 always in one direction from hotter bodies to colder bodies1 or into so-called unending and heatless space4 ,temperatures throughout the universe are apparently moving toward uniformity1 at the level of absolute zero4 ,now1 this uniformity would mean universal stagnation and death4 ,it is possible to have life and to do work only when there are differences of temperature between the bodies concerned3 work is done or accompanied by a flow of heat1 always from the hotter to the colder body4 ,we are not aware that any compensating principle exists4 ,several students of the subject1 notably ,arrhenius1 have searched for such a principle1 a fountain of youth so to speak1 in accordance with which the vigor of stellar life should maintain itself from the beginning of time to the end of time2 but ,i think that nothing approaching a satisfactory theory has yet been formulated4 ,the stellar universe seems1 from our present point of view1 to be slowly running down4 ,the processes will not end1 however1 when all the heat generable ,,within the stars shall have been radiated into an endless space4 ,every body within the universe1 it is conceivable1 could have cooled down to absolute zero1 but the system might still be in its youth4 ,so long as the stars1 whether intensely hot or free from all heat1 are rotating rapidly on their axes or are rushing through space with high speeds1 the system will remain ,,very ,,much ,,alive4 ,collisions or very close approaches of two stars are bound to occur sooner or later1 whether the stars are hot or cold1 and in all such cases a large share of the kinetic energy--the energy of motion--of the two bodies will be converted into heat4 ,a collision1 under average stellar conditions1 should convert the two stars into a luminous gaseous nebula1 or two or more nebulae1 which would require hundreds or thousands of millions of years to evolve again into young stars1 middle-aged stars1 old stars1 and stars absolutely cold4 ,so long as any of these bodies retain motion with reference to other bodies1 they retain the power of rebirth and another life4 ,not to go too far into speculative detail1 the general effect of these processes would be the destruction of relative motions and the gradual decrease in the number of separate bodies1 through coalescence4 ,assume further1 however1 that all existing bodies1 widely scattered through the stellar system1 are absolutely cold and absolutely at rest with reference to each other3 the system might even then be only middle-aged4 ,the mutual gravitations of the bodies would still be operative4 ,they would pass each other closely1 or collide1 under high generated velocities3 there would be new nebulae1 and new and vigorous stellar life to continue through other long ages4 ,the system would not run down until all the kinetic energy had been converted into heat1 and all the heat generable had been dissipated4 ,this would not occur until all material in the universe had been combined into one body1 or into two bodies in mutual revolution4 ,however1 if there are those who say that the universe in action is eternal1 through the operation of compensating principles as yet undiscovered1 no man of science is at present equipped to prove the contrary4 ,,the ,,novae ,the so-called new stars1 otherwise known as temporary stars or novae1 present interesting considerations4 ,these are stars which suddenly flash out at points where previously no star was known to exist2 or1 in a few cases1 where a faint existing star has in a few days become immensely brighter4 ,twenty-nine new stars have been observed from the year #aegb to date2 #ai of them since #ahhf1 when the photographic dry plate was applied systematically to the mapping of the heavens1 and #ae of the #ai stand to the credit of the ,harvard observers4 ,this is an average of one new star in two years2 and as some novae must come and go unseen it is evident that they are by no means rare objects4 ,novae pass through a series of evolutions which have many points in common2 in fact1 the ones which have been extensively studied by photometer and spectrograph have had histories with so many identities that we are coming to look upon them as standard products of evolutionary processes4 ,these stars usually rise to maximum brilliancy in a few days3 some of the most noted ones increased in brightness ten-thousand-fold in two or three days4 ,all of them fluctuate in brightness irregularly1 and usually in short periods of time4 ,several novae have become invisible to the naked eye at the end of a few weeks4 ,with two or three exceptions1 all have become invisible in moderate-sized telescopes1 or have become very faint1 within a few months4 ,two novae1 found very early in their development1 had at first dark line spectra1 a night later bright lines appeared1 and a night or two later the spectra contained the broad radiation and absorption bands characteristic of all recent novae4 ,after the novae become fairly faint1 the bright lines of the gaseous nebula spectrum are seen for the first time4 ,these lines increase in relative brilliancy until the spectra are essentially the same as those of well-known nebulae1 except that the novae lines are broad whereas the lines of the nebulae are narrow4 ,in a few months or years the nebular lines diminish in brightness1 and the continuous spectrum develops4 ,hartmann at ,potsdam1 and ,adams and ,pease with the #fj-;inch ,mount ,wilson reflector1 have shown that the spectra of the faint remnants of four originally brilliant novae now contain some of the bright lines which are characteristic of ,wolf-,rayet stars4#b #b ,after this lecture was delivered ,adams of ,mount ,wilson reported that in ,november1 #aiad1 the chief nebular line 7#ejjg;,a7 and another prominent nebular line 7#dcfc;,a7 had entirely disappeared from the spectrum of ,nova ,geminorum ,no4 #b1 whereas the second nebular line in the green 7#diei;,a7 remained strong2 probably a step in progress from the nebular to the ,wolf-,rayet spectrum4 ,why the novae suddenly flare up1 and what their relations to other celestial bodies may be1 are questions which can not be regarded as settled4 ,their distribution on the celestial sphere is indicated in ,figure #be by the open circles4 ,in this figure the densest parts of the ,milky ,way are drawn in outline4 ,all of the novae have appeared in the ,milky ,way1 with the exception of five3 and these exceptions are worthy of note4 ,one of the five appeared in the condensed nucleus of the great ,andromeda nebula1 not far from its center2 another 7zeta ,centauri7 was located close to the edge of a spiral nebula and quite possibly in a faint outlying part of the nebula2 a third 7tau ,coronae7 was observed to have a nebulous halo about it at the earliest stage of its observed existence2 a fourth 7tau ,scorpii7 appeared in a nebula2 and the fifth 7,nova ,ophiuchi ,no4 #b7 in #ahdh was not extensively observed4 ,the other #bd novae appeared within the structure of the ,milky ,way4 ,keeping the story as short as possible1 a nova is seemingly best explained on the theory that a dark or relatively dark star1 traveling rapidly through space1 has encountered resistance1 such as a great nebula or cloud of particles would afford4 ,while passing through the cloud the forward face of the star is bombarded at high velocities by the resisting materials4 ,the surface strata become heated1 the luminosity of the star increases rapidly4 ,the effect of the bombardment by small particles can be only skin deep1 and the brightness of the star should diminish rapidly and therefore the spectrum change speedily from one type to another4 ,the new star of ,february1 #aija1 in ,perseus1 afforded evidence of great strength on this question4 ,wolf at ,heidelberg photographed in ,august an irregular nebulous object near the nova4 ,ritchey's photograph of ,september showed extensive areas of nebulosity around the star4 ,in ,october ,perrine and ,ritchey discovered that the nebular structure had apparently moved outward from the nova1 from ,september to ,october4 ,going back to a ,march #bith photograph taken for a different purpose1 ,perrine found an irregular ring of nebulosity closely surrounding the star4 ,apparently1 the region was full f nebulosity which is normally invisible to us4 ,the rushing of the star through this resisting medium made the star the brightest one in the northern sky for two or three days4 ,the great wave of light going out from the star when at its brightest traveled in five weeks as far as the ring of nebulosity1 where1 falling upon non-luminous nebulous materials1 it made the ring visible4 ,continuing its progress1 the wave of light illuminated the material which ,wolf photographed in ,august1 the materials which ,ritchey photographed still farther away in ,september1 and the still more distant materials which ,perrine and ,ritchey photographed in ,october1 ,november1 and later4 ,we were able to see this material only as the very strong wave of light which left the star at maximum brightness made the material luminous in passing4 ,that #bd novae should occur in the ,milky ,way1 where the stars are most numerous1 and where the resisting materials may preferably prevail1 is not surprising2 and it should be repeated that at least three of the five occurring outside of the ,milky ,way were located in nebulous surroundings4 ,the actual collision of two stars would necessarily be too violent in its effect to let the reduction of brilliancy occur so rapidly as to cause the disappearance of the nova in a few weeks or months4 ,the close approach of two stars might conceivably produce the observed facts1 but even this process seems too violent in its probable results4 ,the chances for the collision of a rapidly traveling star with an enormously extended nebulous cloud are vastly greater1 and the apparent mildness of the phenomenon observed is in better harmony with expectation4 ,,relation ,,of ,,novae1 ,,planetary ,,nebulae ,,and ,,wolf-,,rayet ,,stars ,although all recent novae have been observed to become planetary or stellar nebulae1 they seem not to remain nebular for any length of time2 they have gone further and become ,wolf-,rayet stars4 ,whether any or all of the planetary nebulae that have been known since ,herschel's day1 and have remained apparently unchanged in form1 have developed from new stars1 is uncertain and doubtful4 ,if they have1 the disturbances which gave them their character must have been violent1 such as would result from full or glancing collisions of two stars1 in order to produce deep-seated effects which change slowly1 rather than surface effects which change rapidly4 ,whether the ,wolf-,rayet stars have in general been formed from planetary nebulae is a different question3 some of them certainly have4 ,wright has recently shown that the stellar nuclei of planetary nebulae are ,wolf-,rayet stars1 and he has formulated several steps in the process whereby the nebulosity in a planetary eventually condenses into the central star4 ,the distribution of the planetaries and the ,wolf-,rayet stars on the sphere affords further evidence of a connection4 ,we saw4 that the novae are nearly all in the ,milky ,way4 ,the irregular1 ring1 planetary and stellar nebulae1 plotted in ,fig4 #bg1 prefer the ,milky ,way1 but not so markedly4 ,the ,wolf-,rayets1 without exception1 are located in the ,milky ,way and in the ,magellanic ,clouds1 and those in the ,milky ,way are remarkably near to its central plane4 #ajg of these objects are known1 #a is in the ,lesser ,magellanic ,cloud1 and #ba are in the ,greater ,magellanic ,cloud4 ,the remaining #he average less than #b #c_/d degrees from the central plane of the ,milky ,way4 ,we are obliged to say that the places of the novae1 of the planetary and stellar nebulae1 and of the ,wolf-,rayets in the evolutionary process are not certainly known4 ,if the ,wolf-,rayet stars have developed from the planetaries1 the planetaries from the novae1 and the novae have resulted from the close approach or collision of two stars1 or from the rushing of a dark or faint star through a resisting medium1 then the novae1 planetaries and ,wolf-,rayets belong to a new and second generation3 they were born under exceptional conditions4 ,the velocities of the planetary nebulae seem to be an insuperable difficulty in the way of placing them between the irregular nebulae and the helium stars4 ,the average radial velocity of #dg planetary nebulae is about #de km4 per second2 and1 if the motions of the planetaries are somewhat at random1 their average velocities in space are twice as great1 or #ij km4 per second4 ,this is fully seven times the average velocity of the helium stars1 and the helium stars in general1 therefore1 could not have come from planetary nebulae4 ,the radial velocities of only three ,wolf-,rayet stars have been observed1 and this number is too small to have statistical value1 but the average for the three is several times as high as the average for the helium stars4 ,we can not say1 ,i think1 that the velocities of any novae are certainly known4 ,if the planetaries have been formed from novae1 especially the novae which encountered the fiercest resistance1 the high velocities are in a sense not surprising1 for those stars which travel with abnormally high speeds are the ones whose chances for collisions with resisting media are best2 and1 further1 the higher the speeds of collision the more violent the disturbance4 ,this line of argument also leads to the conclusion that the novae1 planetaries and ,wolf-,rayets belong not in general before the helium stars1 but to another generation of stars4 ,they may1 and ,i think will1 develop into a small class of helium stars having special characteristics2 for example1 high velocities4 ,,kant',s ,,hypothesis ,immanuel ,kant's writings1 published principally in #agee1 are in many ways the most remarkable contributions to the literature of stellar evolution yet made4 ,curiously1 ,kant's papers have not been read by the text-book makers1 except in a few cases4 ,we have already referred to his ideas on the ,milky ,way and on comets4 ,in his hypothesis of the origin of the solar system1 he laid emphasis upon the facts that the six known planets revolve around the ,sun from west to east1 nearly in the same plane and nearly in the plane of the ,sun's equator2 that the then four known moons of ,jupiter1 the five known moons of ,saturn1 and our moon revolve around these planets from west to east1 and nearly in the same general plane2 and that the ,sun1 our moon and the planets1 so far as known1 rotate in the same direction4 ,these facts1 he said1 indicate indisputably a common origin for all the members of the solar system4 ,he expressed the belief that the materials now composing the solar system were originally scattered widely throughout the system1 and in an elemental state4 ,this was a half century before ,herschel's extensive observations of nebuae4 ,kant thought of this elemental matter as cold1 endowed with gravitational power1 and endowed necessarily with some repulsive power1 such as exists in gases4 ,he started his solar system from materials at rest4 ,most of the matter1 he said1 drifted to the center to form the ,sun4 ,he believed that nuclei or centers of attraction formed here and there throughout the chaotic structure1 and that in the course of ages these centers grew by accretion of surrounding matter into the present planets and their satellites2 and that in some manner motion in one direction prevailed throughout the whole system4 ,kant's explanation of the origin of the ,,rotation of the solar system is unsound and worthless4 ,we now know that such a cloud of matter1 free from rotation1 could not of itself generate rotation2 it must get the start from outside forces4 ,kant's false reasoning was due in part to the fact that some of our most important dynamical laws were not yet discovered1 in part to his faulty comprehension of certain dynamical principles already known1 and probably in part to the unsatisfactory state of chemical knowledge existing at that date4 ,this was half a century before ,dalton's atomic theory of matter was proposed4 ,kant asserted that the processes of combination of surrounding cold materials would generate heat1 and1 therefore1 that the resulting planetary masses would assume the liquid form2 that ,jupiter and ,saturn are now in the liquid state2 and that all the planets will ultimately become cold and solid4 ,this is in fair agreement with present-day opinion as to the planets1 save that modern astronomers go further in holding that the outer strata of ,jupiter and ,saturn1 likewise of ,uranus and ,neptune1 down to a great depth1 must still be gaseous4 ,in #aghe1 after the principle of heat liberation attending the compression of a gas had been announced1 ,kant supplemented his statement of #agee as to the origin of the ,sun's heat4 ,he attributed this to gravitational action of the ,sun upon its own matter1 causing it to contract in size3 he said the quantity of heat generated in a given time would be a function of the ,sun's volumes at the beginning and at the ending of that period of time4 ,this is substantially the principle which ,helmholtz rediscovered and announced in #ahed1 and which is now universally accepted--with the reservation of the past ten years1 that radioactive substances in the ,sun may be an additional factor in the problem4 ,kant's paper of #aged enunciated the theory that the ,moon always turns the same face to the ,earth because of tidal retardation of the ,moon's rotation by the ,earth's gravitational attraction2 and that our ,earth tides produced by the ,moon will slow down the ,earth's rotation until the ,earth will finally turn one hemisphere constantly to the ,moon4 ,this principle was in part reannounced by ,laplace a half century later1 and likewise investigated by ,helmholtz in #ahed1 before ,kant's work was recognized4 ,kant's speculations on a possible destruction and re-birth of the solar system1 on the nature of ,saturn's ring1 and on the nature of the zodiacal light are similar in several regards to present-day beliefs4 ,kant wrote3 ',i seek to evolve the present state of the universe from the simplest condition of nature by means of mechanical laws alone4' ,in #ahfi ,sir ,william ,thomson1 afterwards ,lord ,kelvin1 commented that ,kant's 'attempt to account for the constitution and mechanical origin of the universe on ,newtonian principles only wanted the knowledge of thermodynamics1 which the subsequent experiments of ,davy1 ,rumford and ,joule supplied1 to lead to thoroughly definite explanation of all that is known regarding the present actions and temperatures of the ,earth and of the ,sun and all other heavenly bodies4' ,these are1 apparently1 the enthusiastic comments resulting from the re-discovery of ,kant's papers4 ,a present-day writer would not speak so decisively of them1 but we must all bow in acknowledgment of ,kant's remarkable contributions to our subject1 published when he was but #ca years old4 ,,laplace',s ,,hypothesis ,in #agif1 #da years following ,kant's principal contributions1 ,laplace published an extensive untechnical volume on general astronomy4 ,at the end of the volume he appended seven short notes4 ,the final note1 to which he gave the curious title ,note ,,vii and last1 proposed a theory of the origin and evolution of the solar system which soon came to be known as ,laplace's ,nebular ,hypothesis4 ,there are several circumstances which indicate pretty clearly that ,laplace was not deeply serious in proposing this hypothesis3 #a4 ,its method of publication as the final short appendix to a large volume on general astronomy4 #b4 ,he himself said in his note that the hypothesis must be received with the distrust with which everything should be regarded that is not the result of observation or calculation4 #c4 ,so far as we know he did not submit the theory to the test of well-known mathematical principles involved1 although this was his habit in essentially every other branch of astronomy4 #d4 ,laplace1 in common with ,kant1 laid great stress upon the fact that the satellites all revolve around their planets from west to east1 nearly in the common plane of the solar system2 yet #f or #g years before ,laplace's publication1 ,herschel had shown and published that the two recently discovered satellites of ,uranus were revolving about ,uranus in a plane making an angle of #ih degrees with the common plane of the solar system4 ,while ,laplace might not have known of ,uranus's satellites in #agif1 on account of existing political conditions1 there is no evidence that he considered or took note of the fact when making minor changes in his published papers up to the time of his death in #ahbg4 ,it is a further interesting comment on international scientific literature that ,laplace died without learning that ,kant had worked in the same field4 ,laplace and his contemporary1 ,sir ,william ,herschel1 had been the most fruitful contributors to astronomical knowledge since the days of ,sir ,isaac ,newton4 ,herschel's observations had led him to speculate as to the evolution of the stars from nebulae1 and as a result interest in the subject was widespread4 ,this fact1 coupled with ,laplace's commanding position1 caused the nebular hypothesis to be received with great favor4 ,during an entire century it was the central idea about which astronomical thought revolved4 ,laplace conceived that the solar system has been evolved from a gaseous and hot nebula2 that the nebulosity extended out farther than the known planets2 and that the entire nebulous mass was endowed with a slow rotation that was ,,uniform ,,in ,,angular ,,rate1 as in the case of a rotating solid4 ,this gaseous mass was in equilibrium under the expanding forces of heat and rotation and the contracting force of gravitation4 ,loss of heat by radiation permitted corresponding contraction in size1 and increased speed of rotation4 ,a time came1 according to ,laplace1 when the nebula was rotating so rapidly that an outer ring of nebulosity was in equilibrium under centrifugal and gravitational forces and refused to be drawn closer in toward the center4 ,this ring1 ,,rotating ,,as ,a ,,solid1 maintained its position1 while the inner mass contracted farther4 ,later another ring was abandoned in the same manner2 and so on1 ring after ring1 until only the central nucleus was left4 ,inasmuch as the nebulosity in the rings was not uniformly distributed1 each ring broke into pieces1 and the pieces of each ring1 in the progress of time1 condensed into a gaseous mass4 ,the several large masses formed from the abandoned rings1 respectively1 became the planets and satellites of the solar system4 ,these gaseous masses rotated faster and faster as their heat radiated into space1 they abandoned rings of gaseous matter just as the original mass had done1 and these secondary rings condensed to form the satellites2 save that1 in one case1 the ring of gas nearest to ,saturn for some reason formed a solid 767 ring about that planet1 instead of condensing into one or more satellites4 ,thus1 in outline1 according to ,laplace1 the solar system was formed4 ,the first half of the nineteenth century found the nebular hypothesis accepted almost without question1 but a tearing-down process began in the second half of the century1 and at present not much of the original structure remains standing4 ,this is due in small part to discoveries since ,laplace's time1 but chiefly to a more careful consideration of the fundamental principles involved4 ,we have space to present only a few of the more salient objections4 #a4 ,if the materials of the solar system existed as a gas1 uniformly distributed throughout what we may call the volume of the system1 the density of the gas would be exceedingly low3 at the most1 several hundred million times less dense than the air we breath4 ,conditions of equilibrium in so rare a medium would require that the abandonment of the outer parts by the contracting and more rapidly rotating inner mass should be a continuous process4 ,each abandoned element would be abandoned individually2 it would not be vitally affected by the elements slightly farther out in the structure1 nor by the elements slightly nearer to the center4 ,successive abandonment of nine gaseous rings of matter1 ,,each ,,ring ,,rotating ,,as ,,if ,,it ,,were ,a ,,solid ,,structure1 is unthinkable4 ,the real product of the cooling process in such a nebula would undoubtedly be something in the nature of a spiral nebula1 in which the matter would revolve around the nucleus the more rapidly the nearer it was to the nucleus4 ,if the matter were originally distributed uniformly throughout the rotating structure1 the spiral lines might not be visible4 ,if it were distributed irregularly1 the spiral form here and there could scarcely fail to be in evidence to a distant observer4 #b4 ,laplace held that the condensation of each ring would result in one planet1 rotating on its axis from west to east2 this apparently by virtue of the fact that in a ring rotating ,,as ,a ,,solid the outer edge travels more rapidly than the inner edge does1 and therefore1 the west to east direction of rotation must prevail in the planetary product4 ,if now1 as we firmly believe1 each constituent of such an attenuated ring must rotate substantially independently of other constituents1 those nearer the inner edge of the ring will possess the higher speeds of rotation1 and the preponderance of kinetic energy in the inner parts of the ring should give the resulting planetary condensation a retrograde direction of rotation4 #c4 ,according to ,laplace the satellites should all revolve around their primaries from west to east4 ,eight of the satellites do not follow this rule4 #d4 ,if the materials composing the inner ring of ,saturn were abandoned by the parent planet1 as this planet contracted in size and rotated ever more and more rapidly1 then the ring should revolve about the planet in a period considerably longer than the planet period4 ,the reverse is the fact4 ,the rotation period of the equatorial region of the planet itself is #aj h4 #ad m41 whereas the inner edge of the ring system revolves about the planet once in about five hours4 #e4 ,the inner satellite of ,mars revolves once in #g h4 #ci m41 whereas ,mars requires #bd h4 #cg m4 for one rotation4 ,according to the ,nebular ,hypothesis1 the period of the satellite should be the longer4 #f4 ,laplace's hypothesis would seem to require that the orbits of the planets be circular or very nearly so4 ,the orbits of all except ,venus and ,neptune are quite eccentric1 and ,mercury's orbit1 which should have the nearest approach to circularity1 is by far the most eccentric4 #g4 ,if the planetary rings were abandoned by centrifugal action1 we should expect the ,sun to be rotating in the principal plane of the planet system4 ,the major planets1 from ,venus out to ,neptune1 are revolving in nearly a common plane4 ,the ,sun1 containing #ii #f_/g per cent4 of all the material in the system1 has its equator inclined #g degrees to the planet plane4 ,this discrepancy is a very serious and ,i think fatal objection to ,laplace's hypothesis1 as ,chamberlin has emphasized4 #h4 ,laplace assumed a nebula whose form was a function of its rotational speed1 its gravitation1 its internal heat1 and1 although he does not so state1 of its internal friction4 ,he did not distribute the matter within the nebula to conform in any way to the distribution as we observe it to-day1 but he let the entire structure contract1 following the loss of heat1 until the maintenance of equilibrium required the successive abandoning of seven or eight rings4 ,he mentions a central condensation1 but gives no further particulars4 ,thirty years ago ,fouche established clearly that the condensing of ,laplace's assumed nebula into the present solar system would involve the violent breaking of the law known as the conservation of moment of momentum4 ,fouche proved that a distribution of matter beyond any conception of the subject by ,laplace must be assumed4 ,fully #if per cent4 must be condensed in the central nucleus ,,at ,,the ,,outset1 and not more than #d per cent4 of the total mass must lie outside of the nucleus and be widely distributed throughout the volume of the solar system4 ,chamberlin puts the case very strongly in another way4 ,if the planet ,mercury was abandoned as a ring of nebulosity1 the equatorial velocity of the remaining central mass must at that time have been in the neighborhood of #de km4 per second1 as this is the orbital speed of ,mercury4 ,if the central mass condensed to the present size of the ,sun1 the ,sun's equatorial velocity of rotation should now be fully #djj km4 per second1 in accordance with the requirement of the rigid law of constancy of moment of momentum4 ,the ,sun's actual equatorial velocity is only #b km4 per second6 ,in several other respects the hypothesis of ,laplace1 as he proposed it1 fails to account for the facts as they are observed to exist4 ,poincare devoted his unique talents to the evolution problem shortly before his death4 ,he recognized that the ,laplace hypothesis is not tenable except upon such an assumed distribution of matter as was defined by ,fouche4 ,accepting this modification1 and extending the hypothesis to involve the application of tidal interactions at many points throughout the solar system1 ,poincare expresses the opinion that the ,laplacian hypothesis1 of all those proposed1 is still the one which best accounts for the facts4#c ,however1 he does not utilize the hypothesis of rings rotating as solids1 for he finds it necessary to conclude that the planetary masses in the beginning must have had retrograde rotations4 ,in the large planetary masses of ,jupiter and ,saturn1 for example1 the materials which form the outer retrograde satellites were abandoned while the rotations were still retrograde1 and when the diameters of the planetary masses were several scores of times their present diameters4 ,in these extended masses the ,sun would create tidal waves1 and here1 as always1 such waves would exert a retarding effect upon the rotations4 ,a time would come1 ,poincare thought1 when these planets would rotate once in a revolution2 that is1 present the same face to the ,sun2 and this is in fact a west to east rotation4 ,further contraction of the planetary masses would give rise to increasing rotational speeds in the west to east direction4 ,the materials which form the inner satellites of ,jupiter and ,saturn were abandoned successively after the west to east direction of rotation had become established4 ,according to modifications of the same theory1 tidal retardation has slowed down ,saturn's speed since the abandonment of the materials which later condensed to form the inner ring of that planet2 or1 possibly1 the ring materials encountered resistance after the planet abandoned them1 with the consequence that the ring drew in toward the planet and increased its speed2 and similarly in the case of ,mars and its inner satellite4 #c ,poincare has made the following interesting comments on ,laplace's hypothesis3 ,the oldest hypothesis is that of ,laplace2 but its old age is vigorous and for its age it has not too many wrinkles4 ,in spite of the objections which have been urged against it1 in spite of the discoveries which astronomers have made and which would indeed astonish ,laplace himself1 it is always standing the strain1 and it is the hypothesis which best explains the facts2 it is the hypothesis which responds best to the question which ,laplace endeavored to answer1 ,why does order rule throughout the solar system1 provided this order is not due to chance8 ,from time to time a breach opened in the old edifice 7the ,laplace hypothesis72 but the breach was promptly repaired and the edifice has not fallen4 ,to me this modification of the ,laplacian hypothesis is unsatisfactory1 for several reasons4 ,to mention only one3 if ,jupiter was a large gaseous mass extending out as far as the #hth and #ith satellites1 the gaseous body was very highly attenuated2 friction in the outer strata would be essentially a negligible quantity1 and tidal retardation would not be very effective2 and it would be under just these conditions that loss of heat from the planet should be most rapid and the rate of increase of retrograde rotation resulting therefrom be comparatively high4 ,it would seem that the rotation of the planet in the retrograde direction must have accelerated under the contractional cause1 rather than have decreased and reversed in direction under an excessively feeble tidal cause4 ,the recognized weaknesses of ,laplace's hypothesis have caused many other hypotheses to be proposed in the past half century4 ,the hypotheses of ,faye1 ,lockyer1 du ,ligondes1 ,see1 ,arrhenius1 and ,chamberlin and ,moulton include many of the features of ,kant's or ,laplace's hypotheses1 but all of them advance and develop other ideas4 ,it is unfortunate that space limits do not permit us to discuss the new features of each hypothesis4 7,to be continued47 ,,progress ,,and ,,peace ,,by ,,professor ,,robert ,m4 ,,yerkes ,,harvard ,,university ,,lasting peace among the nations of the earth we must regard as of supreme moment1 the discovery of the conditions thereof1 as most worthy of human effort4 ,physical struggle is no longer accepted as either a necessary or a desirable means of settling differences between individuals4 ,why1 then1 should it be tolerated to-day in connection with national disagreements8 ,to admit the impossibility or the impracticability of universal peace is to stigmatize our vaunted civilization as a failure4 ,surely we will not1 can not1 humble ourselves by such an admission until we have exhausted our energies in searching for the conditions of national amity4 ,with my whole life ,i believe in the possibility and value of worldwide friendliness and cooperation4 ,i am writing to discuss not the attainability or the merits of peace1 but ways of achieving it2 not to criticize present activities on its behalf1 but to indicate the promise of a neglected approach and to present a program which should1 ,i believe1 find its place in the great peace movement4 ,must peace be achieved and maintained by brute strength1 regardless of sense and sentiment1 or may it be gained through intelligence1 humanely used8 ,must the pathway thereto be paved with human skulls1 builded with infinite suffering and sacrifice1 or may it he charted by scientific inquiry and builded by the joyous labor of mutual service and helpfulness8 ,is it possible1 in the light of the history of the races of man1 to doubt that we must place our dependence on intelligence sympathetically employed1 not on physical prowess8 ,to me it seems that peace must be achieved peacefully1 not by the clash of arms and bloodshed4 ,but even if we grant that science is our main hope1 there remains a choice of methods4 ,on the one hand1 there is the way of material progress1 physical discovery and feverish haste to apply every new fact to armament2 on the other1 that of biological research1 social enlightenment1 and ever-increasing human understanding and sympathy4 ,firm believers in each of these possible approaches1 through science1 to international peace1 are at hand4 ,the one group argues that nations1 like individuals1 must be controlled in all supreme crises by fear2 the other contends that civilization has developed in enlightened human sympathy a higher1 a more worthy1 and a safer control of behavior4 ,as a biologist and a believer in the brotherhood of man1 ,i wish to present the merits of sympathy1 as contrasted with fear1 and to plead for larger attention to the biological approach to the control of international relations4 ,for ,i am convinced that the greatest lesson of the present stupendous world-conflict is the need of thorough knowledge of the laws of individual and social human behavior4 ,surely this war clearly indicates that the study of instinct1 and the use of our knowledge for the control of human relations1 is incalculably more important for the welfare of mankind than is the discovery of new and ever more powerful explosives or the building of increasingly terrible engines of destruction4 ,during the last half-century the physical sciences1 technologies1 arts and industries1 have made marvelous advances4 ,at enormous cost of labor and material resources there have been discovered and perfected means of destroying life and property at once so effective and so terrible to contemplate that preparedness for war seemed a safe guarantee of peace4 ,but who is there now to insist1 against the evidence of blood-drenched ,europe1 that material progress1 physical discovery1 and armament based thereupon1 assure international friendship8 ,only if one of the nations should discover1 and guard as its secret1 some diabolically horrible means of destroying human life and property by wholesale and over materially unbridged distances1 can armaments even temporarily put an end to war4 ,in such event--and it is by no means an improbability--the whole world might suddenly be made to bow in terror before the will of the all-powerful nation4 ,before this approaching crisis1 can we do less than earnestly pray that the translation of physical progress into armament may be halted until the brotherhood of man has been further advanced8 ,dare we stop to contemplate what would happen to-morrow if ,germany1 with half the civilized world arrayed against her1 should come into possession of some imponderable1 and to the untutored mind mysterious1 means of directing her torpedoes1 exploding magazines1 mines1 shells from distant bases8 ,undoubtedly we are close upon the employment of certain vibrations for this deadly purpose4 ,shall we veer in time and take a safer course1 or are we doomed to the inevitable8 ,for the certain result of pushing forward relentlessly on the path of preparation for war--in the name of peace--is the dominance of a single nation and the destruction or subjugation of all others4 ,this is as inevitable as is death4 ,if we would preserve and foster racial and national diversity of traits1 promote social individuality as we so eagerly foster the diversity of selves1 we must speedily focus attention upon human nature and seek that knowledge of it which shall enable us to control it wisely rather than to destroy it ruthlessly4 ,even were ,i able to do so1 ,i should in no degree belittle the achievements of the physical sciences and their technologies1 for ,i believe whole-heartedly in their value1 and long for the steady increase of our power to control our environment4 ,but when these achievements are offered as means of creating or maintaining certain desired conditions of individual and social life1 ,i must insist that other knowledge is essential--nay1 more essential--than that of the physicist or chemist4 ,knowledge1 namely1 of life itself4 ,most briefly1 the situation may thus be described4 ,in peace and in war there are two large1 complex and intricate groups of facts to be dealt with by those who seek the welfare of man4 ,the one group comprises the phenomena of physical nature as the condition of life--environment2 the other is constituted by the phenomena of life and the relations of lives4 ,those who sincerely believe in preparedness for war as a preventive measure1 misconceive and attempt to misuse the emotion of fear and its modes of expression4 ,it is as though we should strive tirelessly to develop machinery and methods for educating our children1 the while ignorant of the laws of child development and branding as of no practical importance the fundamentals of human nature4 ,to nations no more than to individuals is it given to live by fear alone4 ,by it a nation may become dominant1 and diversity of body1 mind1 and ideals be eradicated4 ,to base our civilization upon fear entails uniformity1 monotony of life2 the sacrifice of peoples for the unduly exalted traits and national ideals of a single homogeneous social group--a single all-powerful nation4 ,knowledge of life1 and the sympathy for one's fellow men which springs from it1 must control the world if nations are to live in peaceful and mutually helpful relations4 ,if life1 whether of the individual or of the social group1 is to be controlled1 it must be through intimate knowledge of life1 not through knowledge of something else4 ,the world must be ruled by sympathy1 based upon understanding1 insight1 appreciation4 ,this is my prophecy1 this my faith and my present thesis4 ,material as contrasted with purely intellectual or spiritual progress is the pride of our time4 ,we worship technology as reared upon physics and chemistry4 ,but what is our gain1 in this progress1 so long as we continue to use one another as targets8 ,would it not be wiser1 more far-sighted1 more humane1 more favorable to the development of universal peace and brotherhood1 to give a large share of our time and substance to the search for the secrets of life8 ,as compared with the physical sciences1 the biological departments of inquiry are1 in general1 backward and ill-supported4 ,why8 ,because their tremendous importance is not generally recognized1 and1 still more1 because the control of inanimate nature as promised by physical discovery and its applications appeals irresistibly both to our imagination and to our greed4 ,we long for peace--because we are afraid of war--we long for the perfecting of individual and social life1 but much more intensely and effectively we long for wealth1 power and pleasure4 ,what ,i have already said and now repeat in other words is that if we really desired above anything attainable on earth the lasting peace of nations1 we should diligently foster and tirelessly pursue the sciences of life and seek to perfect and exalt the varied arts and technologies which should be based upon them4 ,experimental zoology and genetics2 physiology and hygiene2 genetic psychology and education2 anthropology and ethnology2 sociology and economics1 would be held in as high esteem and as ardently furthered as are the various physical sciences and their technologies4 ,does it not seem reasonable to claim that human behavior may be intelligently controlled or directed only in the light of intimate and exhaustive knowledge of the organism1 its processes1 and its relations to its environment8 ,if this be true1 how pitiably1 how shamefully1 inadequate is our knowledge even of ourselves6 ,how few are those who have a sound1 although meager1 knowledge of the laws of heredity1 of the primary facts of human physiology1 of the principles of hygiene1 of the chief facts and laws of mental life1 including the fundamental emotions and their corresponding instinctive modes of action1 the modifiability or educability of the individual and the important relations of varied sorts of experience and conduct1 the laws of habit1 the nature and role of the sentiments1 the unnumbered varieties of memory and ideation1 the chief facts of social life and their relations to individual experience and behavior4 ,not one person in a thousand has a knowledge of life and its conditions equal in adequacy for practical demands to his knowledge of those aspects of physical nature with which he is concerned in earning a livelihood4 ,even those of us who have dedicated our lives to the study of life are humble before our ignorance4 ,but with a faith which can not be shaken1 because we have seen visions and dreamed dreams1 we insist that the knowledge which we seek and daily find is absolutely essential for the perfecting of educational methods2 for the development of effective systems of bodily and mental hygiene2 for the discovery1 fostering and maintenance of increasingly profitable social relations and organizations4 ,in a word1 we believe that biology1 of all sciences1 can and must lead us in the path of social as contrasted with merely material progress2 can and ultimately will so alter the relations of nations that war shall be as impossible as is peace to-day4 ,fortunately the biologist may depend1 in his efforts to further the study of all aspects of life1 not upon faith and hope alone1 but also upon works1 for already physiology and psychology have transformed our educational practices2 and the medical sciences given us a great and steadily increasing measure of control over disease4 ,at least two men1 as different in intellectual equipment1 habits of mind1 and methods of inquiry as well could be1 the one an ,american1 the other an ,englishman1 have heralded the broadly comparative and genetic study of mind and behavior--let us call it ,genetic ,psychology--as the promise of a new era for civilization1 because the essential condition of the intelligent and effective regulation of life4 ,the one of these prophets among biologists1 ,president ,g4 ,stanley ,hall1 has lived to see his faith in the practical importance of the intensive study of childhood and adolescence justified by radical reforms in school and home4 ,hall should be revered by all lovers of youth as the apostle to adolescents4 ,the other1 ,professor ,william ,mc,dougall1 has done much to convince the thinking world that all of the social sciences and technologies must be grounded upon an adequate genetic psychology--a genetic psychology which shall take as full and intelligent account of behavior as of experience2 of the life of the ant1 monkey1 ape as of that of man2 of the savage as of civilized man2 of the infant1 child1 adolescent as of the adult2 of the moron1 imbecile1 idiot1 insane1 as of the normal individual2 of social groups as of isolated selves4 ,it is to ,mc,dougall we owe a most effective sketch--in his introduction to ,social ,psychology of the primary human emotions in their relations to instinctive modes of behavior4 ,hall1 ,mc,dougall and such sociologists--lamentably few1 ,i fear--as ,graham ,wallas would agree that for the attainment of peace we must depend upon some primary human instinct4 ,i venture the prediction that no one of them would select fear as the safe basis4 ,instead1 they surely would unite upon sympathy4 ,among animals preparedness for struggles is a conspicuous cause of strife4 ,the monkey who stalks about among his fellows with muscles tense1 tail erect1 teeth bared1 bespeaking expectancy of and longing for a fight1 usually provokes it4 ,we may not safely argue that lower animals prove the value of preparedness for war as a preventive measure6 ,among them1 as among human groups1 the only justification of militarism is protection and aggression4 ,preparedness for strife is provocative rather than preventive thereof4 ,as individual differences1 and resulting struggles1 are due to ignorance1 misunderstanding1 lack of the basis for intelligent appreciation of ideals1 motives and sympathy1 so among nations knowledge of bodily and mental traits1 of aims1 aspirations1 and national ideals fosters the feeling of kinship and favors the instinctive attitude of sympathetic cooperation4 ,every student of living things knows that to understand the structure1 habits1 instincts1 of any creature is to feel for and with it4 ,even the lowliest type of organism acquires dignity and worth when one becomes familiar with its life4 ,children in their ignorance and lack of understanding are incredibly cruel4 ,so1 likewise1 are nations4 ,the treatment of inferior by superior races throughout the ages has been childishly cruel1 unjust1 stupid1 inimical to the best interests not only of the victims1 but also of mankind4 ,this has been so1 not so much by reason of bad intentions1 although selfishness has been at the root of immeasurable injustice1 but primarily because of the utter lack of understanding and sympathy4 ,to see a savage is to despise or fear him1 to know him intimately is to love him4 ,the same law holds of social groups1 be they families1 tribes1 nations or races4 ,they can cooperate on terms of friendly helpfulness just in the measure in which they know one another's physical1 mental and social traits and appreciate their values1 for in precisely this measure are they capable of understanding and sympathizing with one another's ideals4 ,selfishness1 the essential condition of individualism and nationalism1 must be supplanted by the sympathy of an all inclusive social consciousness and conscience if lasting peace is to be attained4 ,to further the end of this transformation of man we should become familiar with the inborn springs to action1 those fundamental tendencies which we call instincts1 for we live more largely than is generally supposed by instinct and less by reason4 ,all of the organic cravings1 hungers1 needs1 should be thoroughly understood so that they may be effectively used4 ,and1 finally1 the laws of intellect must be at our command if we are to meet the endlessly varying and puzzling situations of life profitably and with the measure of adequacy our reason would seem to justify4 ,clearly1 then1 the least1 and the most1 we can do in the interest of peace is to provide for the study of life1 but especially for the shamefully neglected or imperfectly described phenomena of behavior and mind1 in the measure which our national wealth1 our intelligence and our technical skill make possible4 ,for one thing1 it is open to us to establish institutes for the thorough study of every aspect of behavior and mind in relation to structure and environment1 comparable with such institutions for social progress as the ,rockefeller ,institute for ,medical ,research4 ,the primary function of such centers for the solution of vital problems should be the comparative study1 from the genetic1 developmental1 historical1 point of view of every aspect of the functional life of living things1 to the end that human life may be better understood and more successfully controlled4 ,facts of heredity1 of behavior1 of mind1 of social relations1 should alike be gathered and related1 and thus by the observation of the most varied types1 developmental stages1 and conditions of living creatures there should be developed a science of behavior and consciousness which should ultimately constitute a safe basis for the social sciences1 for all forms of social endeavor1 and for universal and permanent peace4 ,i submit that such centers of research as the psycho-biological institute ,i have so imperfectly described are sorely needed4 ,for it is obvious that the future of our species depends in large measure upon how we develop the biological sciences and what use we make of our knowledge4 ,i further submit1 and therewith ,i rest my case1 that familiarity with living things breeds sympathy not contempt1 and that sympathy in turn conditions justice4 ,may it be granted us to work intelligently1 effectively1 tirelessly for world-wide peace and service4 not by the suppression of racial and national diversities1 the leveling of the mass to a deadly sameness1 but through steadily increasing appreciation of racial and national traits4 ,may the world1 even sooner than we dare to hope1 be ruled by sympathy instead of by fear4 ,,the ,,progress ,,of ,,science ,,the ,,missouri ,,and ,,the ,,new ,,york ,,botanical ,,gardens ,,the ,missouri ,botanical ,garden has recently celebrated the twenty-fifth anniversary of its foundation and the ,new ,york ,botanical ,garden its twentieth anniversary4 ,within these short periods these gardens have taken rank among the leading scientific institutions of the world4 ,botanical gardens were among the first institutions to be established for scientific research2 indeed ,parkinson1 the botanist royal of ,england1 on the title page of his book of #afbi1 which we here reproduce1 depicts the ,garden of ,eden as the first botanical garden and one which apparently engaged in scientific expeditions1 for it includes plants which must have been collected in ,america4 ,however this may be1 publicly supported gardens for the cultivation of plants of economic and esthetic value existed in ,egypt1 ,assyria1 ,china and ,mexico and beginning in the medieval period had a large development in ,europe there being at the beginning of the seventeenth century botanical gardens devoted to research in ,bologna1 ,montpellier1 ,leyden1 ,paris1 ,upsala and elsewhere4 ,an interesting survey of the history of botanical gardens is given in a paper by ,dr4 ,a ,w4 ,hill assistant director of the ,kew ,gardens1 prepared for the celebration of the ,missouri ,garden1 from which we have taken the illustration from ,parkinson and the pictures of ,padua and ,kew4 ,the papers presented at the celebration have been published in a handsome volume4 ,it includes addresses by a number of distinguished botanists1 though owing to the war several of the foreign botanists were unable to be present4 ,dr4 ,george ,t4 ,moore1 director of the garden1 made in his address of welcome a brief statement in regard to its origin in the private garden and by the later endowment of ,mr4 ,henry ,shaw4 ,mr4 ,shaw came to this country from ,england in #ahah1 and with a small stock of hardware began business in one room which also served as bedroom and kitchen4 ,within twenty years he had acquired a fortune and retired from active business to devote the remaining forty-nine years of his life to travel and to the management of a garden surrounding his country-home on the outskirts of ,st4 ,louis4 ,in #ahei he erected a small museum and library1 and in #ahff ,mr4 ,james ,gurney was brought to this country as head gardener4 ,mr4 ,shaw died in #ahhi1 leaving his estate largely for the establishment of the ,missouri ,botanical ,garden1 but providing also for the ,henry ,shaw ,school of ,botany of ,washington ,university and a park for the city4 ,with this liberal endowment constantly increasing as the real estate becomes more productive1 ,dr4 ,william ,trelease1 the first director1 and ,dr4 ,george ,t4 ,moore1 the present director1 have conducted an institution not only of value to the city of ,st4 ,louis but largely contributing to the advance of botanical science4 ,the ,new ,york ,botanical ,garden1 largely through the efforts of ,dr4 ,n4 ,l4 ,britton1 the present director was authorized by the ,new ,york legislature in #ahia4 ,the act of incorporation provided that when the corporation created should have secured by subscription a sum not less than #bej1jjj the city was authorized to set aside for the garden as much as #bej acres from one of the public parks and to expend one half million dollars for the construction and equipment of the necessary buildings4 ,the conditions were met in #ahie1 and the institution has since grown in its land1 and its buildings1 in its collections and in its herbaria1 so that1 in association with the department of botany of ,columbia ,university1 it now rivals in its material equipment and in the research work accomplished any botanical institution in the world4 ,,the ,,second ,,pan-,,american ,,scientific ,,congress ,,there will be held at ,washington from ,monday1 ,december #bg1 to ,saturday1 ,january #i1 the second ,pan-,american ,scientific ,congress1 authorized by the first congress held in ,santiago1 ,chili1 six years previously4 ,this was one of the series of congresses previously conducted by the republics of ,latin ,america4 ,the ,washington congress1 which is under the auspices of the government of the ,united ,states1 with ,mr4 ,william ,phillips1 third assistant secretary of state1 as chairman of the executive committee1 will meet in nine sections1 which1 with the chairmen1 are as follows3 ,i4 ,anthropology1 ,wm4 ,h4 ,holmes4 ,,ii4 ,astronomy1 ,meteorology1 and ,seismology1 ,robert ,s4 ,woodward4 ,,iii4 ,conservation of ,natural ,resources1 ,agriculture1 ,irrigation and ,forestry1 ,george ,m4 ,rommel4 ,,iv4 ,education1 ,p4 ,p4 ,claxton4 ,v4 ,engineering1 ,w4 ,h4 ,bixby4 ,,vi4 ,international ,law1 ,public ,law1 and ,jurisprudence1 ,james ,brown ,scott4 ,,vii4 ,mining and ,metallurgy1 ,economic ,geology1 and ,applied ,chemistry1 ,hennen ,jennings4 ,,viii4 ,public ,health and ,medical ,science1 ,wm4 ,c4 ,gorgas4 ,,ix4 ,transportation1 ,commerce1 ,finance1 and ,taxation1 ,l4 ,s4 ,rowe4 ,each section is divided further into subsections1 of which there are forty-five1 each with a special committee and program4 ,several of the leading national associations of the ,united ,states1 concerned with the investigation of subjects of pertinent interest to some of the sections of the congress1 have received and accepted invitations from the executive committee of congress to meet in ,washington at the same time and hold one or more joint sessions with a section or subsection of corresponding interest4 ,thus the nineteenth ,international ,congress of ,americanists will meet in ,washington during the same week with the ,pan-,american ,scientific ,congress1 and joint conferences will be held for the discussion of subjects of common interest to members of the two organizations ,as an example of the wide scope of the congress we may quote the ten subsections into which the section of education is divided4 ,each of these subsections is under a committee of men distinguished in educational work and men of eminence have been invited to take part in the proceedings4 ,the subjects proposed for discussion by each of these sections are3 ,elementary ,education3 ,to what extent should elementary education be supported by local taxation1 and to what extent by state taxation8 ,what should be the determining factors in the distribution of support8 ,secondary ,education3 ,what should be the primary and what the secondary purpose of high school education8 ,to what extent should courses of study in the high school be determined by the requirements for admission to college1 and to what extent by the demands of industrial and civic life8 ,university ,education3 ,should universities and colleges supported by public funds be controlled by independent and autonomous powers1 or should they be controlled directly by central state authority8 ,education of ,women3 ,to what extent is coeducation desirable in elementary schools1 high schools1 colleges and universities8 ,exchange of ,professors and ,students between ,countries3 ,to what extent is an exchange of students and professors between ,american republics desirable8 ,what is the most effective basis for a system of exchange8 ,what plans should be adopted in order to secure mutual recognition of technical and professional degrees by ,american ,republics8 ,engineering ,education3 ,to what extent may college courses in engineering be profitably supplemented by practical work in the shop8 ,to what extent may laboratory work in engineering be replaced through cooperation with industrial plants8 ,medical ,education3 ,what preparation should be required for admission to medical schools8 ,what should he the minimum requirements for graduation8 ,what portion of the faculty of a medical school should be required to give all their time to teaching and investigation8 ,what instruction may best be given by physicians engaged in medical practice8 ,agricultural ,education3 ,what preparation should be required for admission to state and national colleges of agriculture8 ,to what extent should the courses of study in the agricultural college be theoretical and general1 and to what extent practical and specific8 ,to what extent should the curriculum of any such college be determined by local conditions8 ,industrial ,education3 ,what should be the place of industrial education in the school system of the ,american republics8 ,should it be supported by public taxation8 ,should it be considered as a function of the public school system8 ,should it be given in a separate system under separate control8 ,how and to what extent may industrial schools cooperate with employers of labor1 ,commercial ,education3 ,how can a nation prepare in the most effective manner its young men for a business career that is to be pursued at home or in a foreign country4 ,,scientific ,,items ,,we record with regret the death at the age of ninety-two of ,henri ,fabre1 the distinguished ,french entomologist and author2 of ,william ,henry ,hoar ,hudson1 late professor of mathematics at ,king's ,college1 ,london2 of ,dr4 ,ugo ,schiff1 professor of chemistry at ,florence2 of ,susanna ,phelps ,gage1 known for her work on comparative anatomy2 of ,charles ,frederick ,holder1 the ,california naturalist1 and of ,dr4 ,austin ,flint1 a distinguished physician and alienist of ,new ,york ,city4 ,,dr4 ,,ray ,,lyman ,,wilbur1 professor of medicine1 has been elected president of ,leland ,stanford ,junior ,university4 ,he will on ,january #a succeed ,dr ,john ,caspar ,branner1 who undertook to accept the presidency for a limited period on the retirement of ,dr4 ,david ,starr ,jordan1 now chancellor of the university4 ,dr4 ,wilbur graduated from the academic department of ,stanford ,university in #ahif4 ,,at the ,manchester meeting of the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 ,sir ,arthur ,j4 ,evans1 ,f4,r ,s41 the archeologist1 honorary keeper of the ,ashmolean ,museum1 ,oxford1 was elected president for next year's meeting1 to be held at ,newcastle-on-,tyne4 ,the meeting of #aiag will be held at ,bournemouth4 ,,dr4 ,,max ,,planck1 professor of physics at ,berlin1 and ,professor ,hugo von ,seeliger1 director of the ,munich ,observatory1 have been made knights of the ,prussian order pour le merite4 ,dr4 ,ramon y ,cajal1 professor of histology at ,madrid1 and ,dr4 ,c4 ,j4 ,kapteyn1 professor of astronomy at ,groningen1 have been appointed foreign knights of this order4 ,,mr4 ,,jacob ,h4 ,,schiff1 a member of the board of trustees of ,barnard ,college and its first treasurer1 has given #ejj1jjj to the college for a woman's building4 ,it will include a library and additional lecture halls as well as a gymnasium1 a lunch room and rooms for students' organizations4 ,,by the will of the late ,dr4 ,dudley ,p4 ,allen1 formerly professor of surgery in the ,western ,reserve ,university1 #bjj1jjj has been set aside as a permanent endowment fund for the ,cleveland ,medical ,library4 ,,the ,,scientific ,,monthly ,,december1 #aiae ,,the ,,inside ,,history ,,of ,a ,,great ,,medical ,,discovery ,,by ,,aristides ,,agramonte1 ,m4,d41 ,sc4,d4 7,,hon47 ,,university ,,of ,,havana4 ,,the construction of the ,panama ,canal was made possible because it was shown that yellow fever1 like malaria1 could be spread only by the bites of infected mosquitoes4 ,the same discovery1 which has been repeatedly referred to as the greatest medical achievement of the twentieth century1 was the means of stamping out the dreaded scourge in ,cuba1 as well as in ,new ,orleans1 ,rio de ,janeiro1 ,vera ,cruz1 ,colon1 ,panama and other ,cities in ,america4 ,this article is intended to narrate the motives that led up to the investigation and also the manner in which the work was planned1 executed and terminated4 ,no names are withheld and the date of every important event is given1 so that an interested reader may be enabled to follow closely upon the order of things as they occurred and thus form a correct idea of the importance of the undertaking1 the risk entailed in its accomplishment and how evenly divided was the work among those who1 in the faithful performance of their military duties1 contributed so much for the benefit of mankind2 the magnitude of their achievement is of such proportions1 that it loses nothing of its greatness when we tear away the halo of apparent heroism that well-meaning but ignorant historians have thrown about some of the investigators4 ,the whole series of events1 tragic1 pathetic1 comical and otherwise1 took place upon a stage made particularly fit by nature and the surrounding circumstances4 ,columbia ,barracks1 a military reservation1 garrisoned by some fourteen hundred troops1 distant about eight miles from the city of ,havana1 the latter1 suffering at the time from an epidemic of yellow fever1 which the application of all sanitary measures had failed to check or ameliorate and finally1 our experimental camp 7,camp ,lazear71 a few army tents1 securely hidden from the road leading to ,marianao1 and safeguarded against intercourse with the outside world2 the whole setting portentously silent and gloriously bright in the glow of tropical sunlight and the green of luxuriant vegetation4 ,two members of a detachment of four medical officers of the ,united ,states ,army1 on the morning of ,august #ca1 #aijj1 were busily examining under microscopes several glass slides containing blood from a fellow officer who1 since the day before1 had shown symptoms of yellow fever2 these men were ,drs4 ,jesse ,w4 ,lazear and myself2 our sick colleague was ,dr4 ,james ,carroll1 who presumably had been infected by one of our experiment mosquitoes4 ,it is very difficult to describe the feelings which assailed us at that moment2 a sense of exultation at our apparent success no doubt animated us2 regret1 because the results had evidently brought a dangerous illness upon our coworker and with it all associated a thrill of uncertainty for the reason of the yet insufficient testimony tending to prove the far-reaching truth which we then hardly dared to realize4 ,as the idea that ,carroll's fever must have been caused by the mosquito that was applied to him four days before became fixed upon our minds1 we decided to test it upon the first non-immune person who should offer himself to be bitten2 this was of common occurrence and taken much as a joke among the soldiers about the military hospital4 ,barely fifteen minutes may have elapsed since we had come to this decision when1 as ,lazear stood at the door of the laboratory trying to coax a mosquito to pass from one test-tube into another1 a soldier came walking by towards the hospital buildings2 he saluted1 as it is customary in the army upon meeting an officer1 but1 as ,lazear had both hands engaged1 he answered with a rather pleasant ,good morning4 ,the man stopped upon coming abreast1 curious no doubt to see the performance with the tubes1 and after gazing for a minute or two at the insects he said3 ,you still fooling with mosquitoes1 ,doctor8 ,yes1 returned ,lazear1 will you take a bite8 ,sure ,i ain't scared of 'em1 responded the man4 ,when ,i heard this1 ,i left the microscope and stepped to the door1 where the short conversation had taken place2 ,lazear looked at me as though in consultation2 ,i nodded assent1 then turned to the soldier and asked him to come inside and bare his forearm4 ,upon a slip of paper ,i wrote his name while several mosquitoes took their fill2 ,william ,e4 ,dean1 ,american by birth1 belonging to ,troop ,b1 ,seventh ,cavalry2 he said that he had never been in the tropics before and had not left the military reservation for nearly two months4 ,the conditions for a test case were quite ideal4 ,i must say we were in great trepidation at the time2 and well might we have been1 for ,dean's was the first indubitable case of yellow fever about to be produced experimentally by the bite of purposely infected mosquitoes4 ,five days afterwards1 when he came down with yellow fever and the diagnosis of his case was corroborated by ,dr4 ,roger ,p4 ,ames1 ,u4 ,s4 ,army1 then on duty at the hospital1 we sent a cablegram to ,major ,walter ,reed1 chairman of the board1 who a month before had been called to ,washington upon another duty1 apprising him of the fact that the theory of the transmission of yellow fever by mosquitoes1 which at first was doubted so much and the transcendental importance of which we could then barely appreciate1 had indeed been confirmed4 ,,state ,,of ,,things ,,before ,,the ,,discovery ,,of ,,mosquito ,,transmission ,other infectious diseases1 tuberculosis1 for instance1 may cause a greater death-rate and bring about more misery and distress1 even to-day1 than yellow fever has produced at any one time2 but no disease1 except possibly cholera or the plague1 is so tragic in its development1 so appalling in its action1 so devastating in its results1 nor does any other make greater havoc than yellow fever when it invades non-immune or susceptible communities4 ,for two centuries1 at least1 the disease has been known to exist endemically1 that is1 more or less continuously1 in most of the ,mexican ,gulf ports1 extending its ravages along the ,west ,india ,islands and the cities of the ,central and the ,south ,american coast4 ,in the ,united ,states it has made its appearance in epidemic form as far north as ,portsmouth1 ,n4 ,h4 ,at ,philadelphia in #agic1 more than ten per cent4 of the entire population died of yellow fever4 ,other cities1 like ,charleston1 ,s4 ,c41 suffered more than twenty epidemics in as many summers1 during the eighteenth century4 ,in the city of ,new ,orleans1 the epidemic which developed in the summer of #ahec caused more than #g1jjj deaths4 ,later1 in #ahgh1 yellow fever invaded #acb towns in the ,united ,states1 producing a loss of #ae1icb lives out of a total number of cases which reached to more than #gd1jjj3 ,new ,orleans alone suffered a mortality of #d1fjj at that time4 ,recently 7#aije71 this city withstood what is to be hoped shall prove its last invasion1 which1 thanks to the modern methods employed in its suppression1 based upon the new mosquito doctrine1 only destroyed about #c1jjj lives4 ,it is by contemplating this awful record1 and much more there is which for the sake of brevity ,i leave unstated1 that one realizes the boon to mankind which the successful researches of the ,army ,board have proved4 ,the work of prevention1 the only one that may be considered effective when dealing with the epidemic diseases1 was entirely misguided with regard to yellow fever until #aija3 the sick were surrounded by precautions which were believed most useful in other infectious diseases1 the attendants were often looked upon as pestilential1 and so treated1 in spite of the fact that evidence from the early history of the disease clearly pointed to the apparent harmlessness even of the patients themselves4 ,all this notwithstanding1 cases continued to develop1 in the face of shotgun quarantine even1 until the last non-immune inhabitant of the locality had been either cured or buried4 ,the mystery which accompanied the usual course of an epidemic1 the poison creeping from house to house1 along one side of a street1 seldom1 crossing the road1 spreading sometimes around the whole block of houses before appearing in another neighborhood1 unless distinctly carried there by a visitor to the infected zone who himself became stricken1 all this series of peculiar circumstances was a never-ending source of discussion and investigation4 ,in the year #aijj1 ,surgeon ,h4 ,r4 ,carter1 of the then ,marine ,hospital ,service1 published a very interesting paper calling attention to the interval of time which regularly occurred between the first case of yellow fever in a given community and those that subsequently followed2 this was never less than two weeks1 a period of incubation extending beyond that usually accorded to other acute infectious diseases4 ,the accuracy of these observations has later been confirmed by the mosquito experiments hereinafter outlined4 ,,factors ,,which ,,led ,,to ,,the ,,appointment ,,of ,,the ,,board ,one may well believe that such a scourge as yellow fever could not have been long neglected by medical investigators1 and so we find that from the earliest days1 when the germ-theory of disease took its proper place in modern science1 a search for the causative agent of this infection was more or less actively instituted4 ,men of the highest attainments in bacteriology engaged in numerous attempts to isolate the yellow fever microbe3 unfortunately not a few charlatans took advantage of the dread and terror which the disease inspires1 to proclaim their discoveries and their specific ,,cures2 one of these obtained wealth and honor in one of the ,south ,american republics for presumably having discovered the germ and prepared a so-called vaccination which was expected to eradicate the disease from that country1 but for many years after the foreign population continued to suffer as before and the intensity and the spread of yellow fever remained unabated1 although thousands of preventive inoculations were made every month4 ,geo4 ,m4 ,sternberg in #ahhj1 then an army surgeon1 was directly instrumental in exposing the swindle that was being perpetrated1 putting an end1 after the most painstaking investigation1 to all the claims to discovery of the germ of yellow fever that had been made by several medical men in ,spanish ,america4 ,the experience which he obtained during a scientific excursion through ,mexico1 ,cuba and ,south ,america gave him a wonderful insight as to the difficulties one has to contend with in such work and made him realize the importance of special laboratory training for such undertaking4 ,it is interesting to note that1 as surgeon general of the ,u4 ,s4 ,army1 twenty years after1 ,general ,sternberg chose and appointed the men who constituted the yellow fever board1 in ,cuba4 ,the year before the ,spanish-,american war1 an ,italian savant1 who had obtained a well-deserved reputation as bacteriologist while working in the ,institute ,pasteur of ,paris1 came out with the announcement from ,montevideo1 ,uruguay1 that he had actually discovered the much-sought-for cause of yellow fever2 his descriptions of the methods employed1 though not materially different from those followed by ,sternberg many years before1 bore the imprint of truth and his experimental inoculations had apparently been successful4 ,sanarelli--that is his name--for about two years was the hero of the hour1 yet his claims have been proved absolutely false4 ,the question of the identity of his germ was first taken up by the writer under instructions from ,general ,sternberg3 during the ,santiago campaign ,i had opportunity to autopsy a considerable number of yellow fever cases and1 following closely upon ,sanarelli's directions1 only three times out of ten could his bacillus be demonstrated2 at almost the same time1 ,drs4 ,reed and ,carroll1 in ,washington1 were carrying out experiments which showed that ,sanarelli's bacillus belonged to the hog-cholera group of bacteria and thus when found in yellow fever cadavers could play there only a secondary role as far as the infection is concerned4 ,unfortunately1 two investigators belonging to the ,u4 ,s4 ,marine ,hospital ,service1 ,drs4 ,wasdin and ,gleddings1 were1 according to their claims1 corroborating ,sanarelli's findings3 there was nothing to do but that the investigation should continue1 and so ,i was sent by ,general ,sternberg to ,havana in ,december1 #ahih1 with instructions and power to do all that might be necessary to clear up the matter4 ,wasdin and ,geddings had preceded me2 the work carried us through the summer of #ahii2 we frequently investigated the same cases2 ,i often autopsied bodies from which we took the same specimens and made the same cultures1 in generally the same kind of media1 and finally we rendered our reports to our respective departments1 ,wasdin and ,geddings affirming that ,sanarelli's bacillus was present in almost all the cases1 while ,i denied that it had such specific character and showed its occurrence in cases not yellow fever4 ,a virulent epidemic which raged in the city of ,santiago and vicinity during #ahii afforded me abundant material for research4 ,in the meantime the city of ,havana was being rendered sanitary in a way which experience had taught would have overcome any bacterial infection1 and1 in fact1 the diseases of filth1 such as dysentery1 tuberculosis1 children's complaints and others1 decreased in a surprising manner1 while yellow fever seemed to have been little affected if at all4 ,evidently1 a more thorough overhauling of the matter was necessary to arrive at the truth1 and while the question of ,sanarelli and his claims was practically put aside1 ,surgeon-,general ,sternberg1 recognizing the importance of the work before us and that its proportions were such as to render the outcome more satisfactory by the cooperation of several investigators in the same direction1 wisely decided to create a board for the purpose and so caused the following to be issued3 ,special ,orders ,no4 #abb ,,headquarters ,,of ,,the ,,army1 ,,adjutant ,,general',s ,,office1 ,,washington1 ,may #bd1 #aijj ,extract #cd4 ,by direction of the ,secretary of ,war1 a board of medical officers is appointed to meet at ,camp ,columbia1 ,quemados1 ,cuba1 for the purpose of pursuing scientific investigations with reference to the infectious diseases prevalent on the ,island of ,cuba4 ,detail for the board3 ,major ,walter ,reed1 surgeon1 ,u4 ,s4 ,army2 ,acting ,assistant ,surgeon ,james ,carroll1 ,u4 ,s4 ,army2 ,acting ,assistant ,surgeon ,aristides ,agramonte1 ,u4 ,s4 ,army2 ,acting ,assistant ,surgeon ,jesse ,w4 ,lazear1 ,u4 ,s4 ,army4 ,the board will act under general instructions to be communicated to ,major ,reed by the ,surgeon ,general of the ,army4 ,by command of ,,major ,,general ,,miles1 ,h4 ,c4 ,,corbin1 ,adjutant ,general ,it may be of interest to the reader to learn who these men were and the reasons why they were probably selected for the work4 ,major ,reed1 the first member in the order of appointment1 was the ranking officer and therefore the chairman of the board4 ,he was a regular army officer1 at the time curator of the ,army ,medical ,museum in ,washington and a bacteriologist of some repute4 ,he deservedly enjoyed the full confidence of the surgeon general1 besides his personal friendship and regard4 ,reed was a man of charming personality1 honest and above board4 ,every one who knew him loved him and confided in him4 ,a polished gentleman and a scientist of the highest order1 he was peculiarly fitted for the work before him4 ,dr4 ,james ,carroll1 the second member of the board1 was a self-made man1 having risen from the ranks through his own efforts3 while a member of the ,army ,hospital ,corps he studied medicine and subsequently took several courses at ,johns ,hopkins ,university in the laboratory branches4 ,at the time of his appointment to the board he had been for several years an able assistant to ,major ,reed4 ,personally1 ,carroll was industrious and of a retiring disposition4 ,dr4 ,jesse ,w4 ,lazear was the fourth member of the board4 ,he had graduated from the ,college of ,physicians and ,surgeons 7,columbia ,university7 in the same class as the writer1 in #ahib1 and had afterwards studied abroad and at ,johns ,hopkins4 ,lazear had received special training in the investigation of mosquitoes with reference to malaria and other diseases4 ,stationed at ,columbia ,barracks1 he had been in ,cuba several months before the board was convened1 in charge of the hospital laboratory at the camp4 ,a thorough university man1 he was the type of the old southern gentleman1 kind1 affectionate1 dignified1 with a high sense of honor1 a staunch friend and a faithful soldier4 ,the writer was the third member of the ,army ,board4 ,born in ,cuba during the ten years' war1 while still a child1 my father having been killed in battle against the ,spanish1 ,i was taken to the ,united ,states and educated in the public schools and in the ,college of the ,city of ,new ,york1 graduating from the ,college of ,physicians and ,surgeons in #ahib4 ,at the breaking out of the war ,i was assistant bacteriologist in the ,new ,york ,health ,department4 ,the subject of yellow fever research was my chief object from the outset1 and1 at the time the board was appointed1 ,i was in charge of the laboratory of the ,division of ,cuba1 in ,havana4 ,it may be readily seen from the brief sketch regarding the several members that the components of the yellow-fever board really constituted a perfectly consistent body1 for the reason1 mainly1 that they were all men trained in the special field wherein their labors were to be so fruitful and that before their appointment to the board they had been more or less associated in scientific work4 ,,first ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,the ,,board ,my first knowledge of the existence of the board was had through the following letter from my friend ,major ,reed3 ,,war ,,department1 ,,surgeon ,,general',s ,,office1 ,,washington1 ,may #be1 #aijj ,,dr4 ,a4 ,,agramonte1 ,act'g ,asst4 ,surgeon ,u4 ,s4 ,a41 ,military ,hospital ,no4 #a1 ,havana1 ,cuba ,my dear ,doctor3 ,an order issued yesterday from the ,war ,department calls for a board of medical officers for the investigation of acute infectious diseases occurring on the ,island of ,cuba4 ,the board consists of ,carroll1 yourself1 ,lazear and the writer4 ,it will be our duty1 under verbal instructions from the ,surgeon ,general1 to continue the investigation of the causation of yellow fever4 ,the ,surgeon ,general expects us to make use of your laboratory at ,military ,hospital ,no4 #a and ,lazear's laboratory at ,camp ,columbia4 ,according to the present plan1 ,carroll and ,i will be quartered at ,camp ,columbia4 ,we propose to bring with us our microscopes and such other apparatus as may be necessary for the bacteriological and pathological work4 ,if1 therefore1 you will promptly send me a list of the apparatus on hand in your laboratory1 it will serve as a very great help in enabling us to decide as to what we should include in our equipment4 ,any suggestions that you may have to make will be much appreciated4 ,carroll and ,i expect to leave ,new ,york1 on transport1 between the #aeth and #bjth of ,june and are looking forward1 with much pleasure1 to our association with you and ,lazear in this interesting work4 ,as far as ,i can see we have a year or two of work before us4 ,trusting you will let me hear from you promptly1 and with best wishes1 ,sincerely yours1 7,signed7 ,,walter ,,reed ,on the afternoon of ,june #be1 #aijj1 the four officers met for the first time in their new capacity1 on the veranda of the officers' quarters at ,columbia ,barracks ,hospital4 ,we were fully appreciative of the trust and aware of the responsibility placed upon us and with a feeling akin to reverence heard the instructions which ,major ,reed had brought from the surgeon general2 they comprised the investigation also of malaria1 leprosy and unclassified febrile conditions1 and were given with such detail and precision as only a man of ,general ,sternberg's experience and knowledge in such matters could have prepared4 ,after deciding upon the first steps to be taken1 it was unanimously agreed that whatever the result of our investigation should turn out to be1 it was to be considered as the work of the board as a body1 and never as the outcome of any individual effort2 that each one of us was to work in harmony with a general plan1 though at liberty to carry out his individual methods of research4 ,we were to meet whenever necessary1 ,drs4 ,reed1 ,carroll and ,lazear to remain at the ,barracks ,hospital and ,i to stay in charge of the laboratory in ,havana1 at the ,military ,hospital1 where ,i also had a ward into which yellow-fever cases from the city were often admitted4 ,work was begun at once4 ,fortunately for our purpose1 an epidemic of yellow fever existed in the town of ,quemados1 in close proximity to the military reservation of ,camp ,columbia4 ,even before the arrival of ,reed and ,carroll1 ,lazear and ,i had been studying its spread1 following the cases very closely2 subsequently a few autopsies were made by me1 ,carroll making cultures from the various tissues and ,lazear securing fragments for microscopical examination2 a careful record was kept and the results noted2 cases gradually became less in number as the epidemic slowly died out1 about the middle of ,august4 ,in the meantime a rather severe outbreak of yellow fever had occurred in ,santa ,clara1 a city in the interior of the island1 having invaded the garrison and caused the death of several soldiers2 as the origin of the infection was shrouded in mystery1 and cases continued to appear among the troops even after they had moved out of the town1 it was agreed that ,i should endeavor to trace the source of the epidemic and aid the medical authorities in establishing whatever preventive measures might seem proper4 ,this service is here recorded because in the general discussion of the start and course of the epidemic with ,dr4 ,j4 ,hamilton ,stone1 the officer in charge of the military hospital1 we incidentally spoke of the possible agency of insects in spreading the disease1 pointing particularly in this direction the fact of the infection of a trooper who1 suffering from another complaint1 occupied a bed in a ward across the yard from where a yellow fever case had developed two weeks before4 ,the infection of the city of ,santa ,clara had evidently taken place from ,havana1 distant only one night's journey by train4 ,captain ,stone1 a particularly able officer1 had already instituted effective quarantine measures before my arrival1 so that ,i only remained there a few days4 ,but as to the actual cause of the disease we were still entirely at sea2 it helped us little to know that a man could be infected in ,havana1 take the train for a town in the interior and start an outbreak there in the course of time4 ,upon rejoining my colleagues 7,july #b7 we resumed our routine investigations2 not only in ,quemados1 where the disease was being stamped out1 but also in ,havana1 at ,las ,animas ,hospital and at ,military ,hospital ,no4 #a1 where my laboratory 7the division laboratory7 was located4 ,there was no scarcity of material and the two members who until then had never seen a case of yellow fever 7,reed and ,carroll7 had ample opportunity1 and took advantage of it1 to become acquainted with the many details of its clinical picture which escape the ordinary practitioner1 the knowledge and the appreciation of which1 in their relative value1 give the right to the title of expert4 ,since the later part of ,june1 reports had been coming to headquarters of an extraordinary increase of sickness among the soldiers stationed at ,pinar del ,rio1 the capital of the extreme western province1 and very soon the great mortality from so-called pernicious malarial fever attracted the attention of the chief surgeon1 ,captain ,a4 ,n4 ,stark1 who1 after consulting with ,major ,reed1 ordered me to go there and investigate4 ,a man had died1 supposedly from malaria1 just before my arrival on the afternoon of ,july #ai4 ,the autopsy which ,i performed at once showed me that yellow fever had been the cause of his death1 and a search through the military hospital wards revealed the existence of several unrecognized cases being treated as malaria2 a consultation held with the medical officer in charge showed me his absolute incapacity1 as he was under the influence of opium most of the time 7he committed suicide several months afterwards71 and so ,i telegraphed the condition of things to headquarters2 in answer ,i received the following3 ,,chief ,,surgeon',s ,,office1 ,,hdqrs4 ,,dept4 ,,havana ,,and ,,pinar ,,del ,,rio1 ,,quemados1 ,,cuba1 ,july #bj1 #aijj ,,surgeon ,,agramonte1 ,pinar del ,rio ,barracks1 ,pinar del ,rio1 ,cuba ,report received last night4 ,my thanks are due for your prompt action and confirmation of my suspicions4 ,,stark1 ,chief ,surgeon ,conditions in the hospital were such as to demand immediate action2 the commander of the post refused to believe he had yellow fever among his #ijj men and was loath to abandon his comfortable quarters for the tent life in the woods that ,i earnestly recommended4 ,in answer to my telegram asking for official support1 ,i received the following3 ,,chief ,,surgeon',s ,,office1 ,,hdqrs4 ,,dept4 ,,havana ,,and ,,pinar ,,del ,,rio1 ,,quemados1 ,,cuba1 ,july #ba1 #aijj ,,surgeon ,,agramonte1 ,pillar del ,rio ,barracks1 ,pinar del ,rio1 ,cuba ,take charge of cases4 ,reed goes on morning train4 ,wire for anything wanted4 ,nurses will be sent4 ,instructions wired commanding officer4 ,other doctors should not attend cases4 ,establish strict quarantine at hospital4 ,you will be relieved as soon as an immune can be sent to replace you4 ,report daily by wire4 ,,stark1 ,chief ,surgeon ,when ,major ,reed came to ,pinar del ,rio 7,july #ba7 ,i had1 the day before1 established a separate yellow-fever hospital1 under tents1 attended by some of the men who had already passed an attack and were thus immune4 ,the ,major and ,i went over the ground very carefully1 we studied the sick report for two months back1 fruitlessly trying to place the blame upon the first case4 ,i well remember how1 as we stood in the men's sleeping quarters1 surrounded by a hundred beds1 from several of which fatal cases had been removed1 we were struck by the fact that the later occupants had not developed the disease4 ,in connection with this1 and particularly interesting1 was the case of a soldier prisoner who had been confined to the guard-house since ,june #f2 he showed the first symptoms of yellow fever on the twelfth and died on the eighteenth2 none of the other eight prisoners in the same cell caught the infection1 though one of them continued to sleep in the same bunk previously occupied by his dead comrade4 ,more than this2 the three men who handled the clothing and washed the linen of those who had died during the last month were still in perfect health4 ,here we seemed to be in the presence of the same phenomenon remarked by ,captain ,stone in reference to his case at ,santa ,clara1 and before that by several investigators of yellow fever epidemics2 the infection at a distance1 the harmless condition of bedding and clothing of the sick2 the possibility that some insect might be concerned in spreading the disease deeply impressed us and ,major ,reed mentions the circumstance in his later writings4 ,this was really the first time that the mosquito transmission theory was seriously considered by members of the board1 and it was decided that1 although discredited by the repeated failure of its most ardent supporter1 ,dr4 ,carlos ,j4 ,finlay1 of ,havana1 to demonstrate it1 the matter should be taken up by the board and thoroughly sifted4 ,the removal of the troops out of ,pinar del ,rio was the means of at once checking the propagation of the disease4 ,on the first day of ,august the board met and after due deliberation determined to investigate mosquitoes in connection with the spread of yellow fever4 ,as ,dr4 ,lazear was the only one of us who had had any experience in mosquito work1 ,major ,reed thought proper that he should take charge of this part of the investigation in the beginning1 while we1 ,carroll and ,i1 continued with the other work on hand1 at the same time gradually becoming familiar with the manipulations necessary in dealing with the insects4 ,a visit was now made to ,dr4 ,finlay1 who1 much elated at the news that the board was about to investigate his pet theory1 the transmission of yellow fever from man to man by mosquitoes1 very kindly explained to us many points regarding the life of the one kind he thought most guilty and ended by furnishing us with a number of eggs which1 laid by a female mosquito nearly a month before1 had remained unhatched on the inside of a half empty bowl of water in his library4 ,much to our disappointment and regret1 during the first week of ,august1 ,major ,reed was recalled to ,washington that he might1 in collaboration with ,drs4 ,vaughan and ,shakespeare1 complete the report upon ,typhoid ,fever in the ,army4 ,thus we were deprived of his able counsel during the first part of the mosquito research4 ,major ,reed was detained longer than he expected and could not return to ,cuba until early in ,october1 several days after ,lazear's death4 ,the mosquito eggs obtained from ,dr4 ,finlay hatched out in due time2 the insects sent to ,washington for their exact classification were declared by ,dr4 ,l4 ,o4 ,howard1 entomologist to the ,agricultural ,department1 to be ,culex fasciatus4 ,later1 they have been called ,stegomyia fasciatus and now go under the name of ,stegomyia calopus 7,aedes cal474 ,lazear applied some of these mosquitoes to cases of yellow fever at ,las ,animas ,hospital1 keeping them in separate glass tubes properly labeled1 and every thing connected with their bitings was carefully recorded2 the original batch soon died and the work was carried on with subsequent generations from the same4 ,the lack of material at ,quemados caused us to remove our field of action to ,havana1 where cases of yellow fever continued to appear4 ,we met almost every day at ,las ,animas ,hospital1 where ,lazear was trying to infect his mosquitoes1 or now and then ,i performed autopsy upon a case1 and ,carroll secured sufficient cultures to last him for several days of bacteriological investigation4 ,considering that1 in case our surmise as to the insect's action should prove to be correct1 it was dangerous to introduce infected mosquitoes amongst a population of #a1djj non-immunes at ,camp ,columbia1 ,dr4 ,lazear thought best to keep his presumably infected insects in my laboratory at the ,military ,hospital ,no4 #a1 from where he carried them back and forth to the patients who were periodically bitten4 ,incidentally1 after the mosquitoes fed upon the yellow fever patients1 they were applied1 at intervals of two or three days1 to whoever would consent to run the risk of contracting yellow fever in this way2 needless to say1 current opinion was against this probability and as time passed and numerous individuals who had been bitten by insects which had previously fed upon yellow fever blood remained unaffected1 ,i must confess that even the members of the board1 who were rather sanguine in their expectations1 became somewhat discouraged and their faith in success very much shaken4 ,no secret was made of our attempts to infect mosquitoes2 in fact many local physicians became intensely interested1 and ,lazear and his tubes were the subject of much comment on the part of the ,havana doctors1 who nearly twenty years before had watched and laughed at ,dr4 ,finlay1 then bent apparently upon the same quest in which we were now engaged4 ,dr4 ,finlay himself was somewhat chagrined when he learned of our failure to infect any one with mosquitoes1 but1 like a true believer1 was inclined to attribute this negative result more to some defect in our technique than to any flaw in his favorite theory4 ,although the board had thought proper to run the same risks1 if any1 as those who willingly and knowingly subjected themselves to the bites of the supposedly infected insects1 opportunity did not offer itself readily1 since ,major ,reed was away in ,washington and ,carroll1 at ,camp ,columbia1 engrossed in his bacteriological investigations came to ,havana only when an autopsy was on hand or a particularly interesting case came up for study4 ,i was considered an immune1 a fact that ,i would not like to have tested1 for though born in the island of ,cuba1 ,i had practically lived all my life away from a yellow fever zone2 it was therefore presumed that ,i ran no risk in allowing mosquitoes to bite me1 as ,i frequently did1 just to feed them blood1 whether they had previously sucked from yellow fever cases or not4 ,and so1 time passed and several ,americans and ,spaniards had subjected themselves in a sporting mood to be bitten by the infected 787 mosquitoes without causing any untoward results1 when ,lazear applied to himself 7,august #af1 #aijj7 a mosquito which ten days before had fed upon a mild case of yellow fever in the fifth day of his disease2 the fact that no infection resulted1 for ,lazear continued in excellent health for a space of time far beyond the usual period of incubation1 served to discredit the mosquito theory in the opinion of the investigators to a degree almost beyond redemption1 and the most enthusiastic1 ,dr4 ,lazear himself1 was almost ready to throw up the sponge4 ,i had as laboratory attendant a young ,american1 a private belonging to the ,hospital ,corps of the ,army1 who more than once had bared his arm to allow a weak mosquito a fair meal with which to regain its apparently waning strength2 ,loud1 for that was his name1 derided the idea that such a little beast could do so much harm as we seemed ready to accuse it of1 although he was familiar with the destruction caused by bacteria1 but then1 he used to say1 bacterial work in armies of more than a million bugs at the same time and no one would be d---- fool enough to let more than one or two gnats sting him at once4 ,this state of things1 the gradual loss of faith in the danger which mosquitoes seemed to possess1 led ,dr4 ,lazear to relax a little and become less scrupulous in his care of the insects1 and often1 after applying them to patients1 if pressed for time1 he would take them away with him to his laboratory at ,columbia ,barracks1 where1 the season being then quite warm1 they could be kept as comfortably as at the ,military ,hospital laboratory4 ,thus it happened that on the twenty-seventh of ,august he had spent the whole morning at ,las ,animas ,hospital getting his mosquitoes to take yellow-fever blood3 the procedure was very simple2 each insect was contained in a glass tube covered by a wad of cotton1 the same as is done with bacterial cultures4 ,as the mouth of the tube is turned downwards1 the insect usually flies towards the bottom of the tube 7upwards71 then the latter is uncovered rapidly and the open mouth placed upon the forearm or the abdomen of the patient2 after a few moments the mosquito drops upon the skin and if hungry will immediately start operations2 when full1 by gently shaking the tube1 the insect is made to fly upwards again and the cotton plug replaced without difficulty4 ,it so happened that this rather tedious work1 on the day above mentioned1 lasted until nearly the noon hour1 so that ,lazear1 instead of leaving the tubes at the ,military ,hospital1 took them all with him to ,camp ,columbia3 among them was one insect that for some reason or other had failed to take blood when offered to it at ,las ,animas ,hospital4 ,this mosquito had been hatched in the laboratory and in due time fed upon yellow-fever blood from a severe case on ,august #ae1 that is1 twelve days before1 the patient then being in the second day of his illness2 also at three other times1 six days1 four days and two days before4 ,of course1 at the time1 no particular attention had been drawn to this insect1 except that it refused to suck blood when tempted that morning4 ,after luncheon that day1 as ,carroll and ,lazear were in the laboratory attending to their respective work1 the conversation turning upon the mosquitoes and their apparent harmlessness1 ,lazear remarked how one of them had failed to take blood1 at which ,carroll thought that he might try to feed it1 as otherwise it was liable to die before next day 7the insect seemed weak and tired72 the tube was carefully held first by ,lazear and then by ,carroll himself1 for a considerable length of time1 upon his forearm1 before the mosquito decided to introduce its proboscis4 ,this insect was again fed from a yellow fever case at ,las ,animas ,hospital on the twenty-ninth1 two days later1 ,dr4 ,carroll being present1 though not feeling very well1 as it was afterwards ascertained4 ,we three left the yellow-fever hospital together that afternoon2 ,i got down from the doherty-wagon where the road forks1 going on to the ,military ,hospital1 while ,carroll and ,lazear continued on their way to ,camp ,columbia4 ,on the following day1 ,lazear telephoned to me in the evening1 to say that ,carroll was down with a chill after a sea bath taken at the beach1 a mile and a half from ,camp1 and that they suspected he had malaria2 we therefore made an appointment to examine his blood together the following morning4 ,when ,i reached ,camp ,columbia ,i found that ,carroll had been examining his own blood early that morning1 not finding any malarial parasites2 he told me he thought he had caught cold at the beach3 his suffused face1 blood-shot eyes and general appearance1 in spite of his efforts at gaiety and unconcern1 shocked me beyond words4 ,the possibility of his having yellow fever did not occur to him just then2 when it did1 two days later1 he declared he must have caught it at my autopsy room in the ,military ,hospital1 or at ,las ,animas ,hospital1 where he had been two days before taking sick4 ,although we insisted that he should go to bed in his quarters1 we could only get him to rest upon a lounge1 until the afternoon1 when he felt too sick and had to take to his bed4 ,lazear and ,i were almost panic-stricken when we realized that ,carroll had yellow fever4 ,we searched for all possibilities that might throw the blame for his infection upon any other source than the mosquito which bit him four days before2 ,lazear1 poor fellow1 in his desire to exculpate himself1 as he related to me the details of ,carroll's mosquito experiment1 repeatedly mentioned the fact that he himself had been bitten two weeks before without any effect therefrom and finally1 what seemed to relieve his mind to some extent1 was the thought that ,carroll offered himself to feed the mosquito and that he held the tube upon his own arm until the work was consummated4 ,i have mentioned before that1 as ,lazear and ,i1 vaguely hoping to find malarial parasites in ,carroll's blood1 sat looking into our microscopes that morning1 the idea that the mosquito was what brought him down gradually took hold of our minds1 but as our colleague had been exposed to infection in other ways1 by visiting the yellow fever hospital ,las ,animas1 as well as the infected city of ,havana1 it was necessary to subject that same mosquito to another test and hence the inoculation of ,private ,dean1 which is described in the opening chapter of this history4 ,,termination ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,series ,,of ,,mosquito ,,experiments4 ,,death ,,of ,,lazear4 ,the month of ,september1 #aijj1 was fraught with worry and anxiety3 what with ,carroll's and ,private ,dean's attacks of yellow fever and ,major ,reed's inability to return1 ,lazear and ,i were well-nigh on the verge of distraction4 ,private ,dean was not married1 but ,carroll's wife and children1 a thousand miles away1 awaited in the greatest anguish the daily cablegram which told them the condition of the husband and father1 who was fighting for life1 sometimes the victim of the wildest delirium caused by consuming fever1 at others almost about to collapse1 until one day1 the worst of the disease being over1 the wires must have thrilled at our announcement1 ,carroll out of danger4 ,fortunately both he and ,dean made an uninterrupted recovery1 but we were still to undergo the severest trial1 a sorrow compared to which the fearful days of ,carroll's sickness lose all importance and dwindle almost into insignificance4 ,on the morning of the eighteenth my friend and classmate ,lazear1 whom in spite of our short intercourse ,i had learned to respect and in every way appreciate most highly1 complained that he was feeling out of sorts4 ,he remained all day about the officers' quarters and that night suffered a moderate chill4 ,i saw him the next day with all the signs of a severe attack of yellow fever4 ,carroll was already walking about1 though enfeebled by his late sickness1 and we both plied ,lazear with questions as to the origin of his trouble2 ,i believe we affectionately chided him for not having taken better care of himself4 ,lazear assured us that he had not experimented upon himself1 that is1 that he had not been bitten by any of the purposely infected mosquitoes4 ,after the case of ,dean so plainly demonstrated the certainty of mosquito infection1 we had agreed not to tempt fate by trying any more upon ourselves1 and even ,i determined that no mosquito should bite me if ,i could prevent it1 since the subject of my immunity was one that could not be sustained on scientific grounds2 at the same time1 we felt that we had been called upon to accomplish such work as did not justify our taking risks which then seemed really unnecessary4 ,this we impressed upon ,major ,reed when he joined us in ,october and for this reason he was never bitten by infected mosquitoes4 ,lazear told us1 however1 that while at ,las ,animas ,hospital the previous ,thursday 7five days before71 as he was holding a test-tube with a mosquito upon a man's abdomen1 some other insect which was flying about the room rested upon his hand2 at first1 he said1 he was tempted to frighten it away1 but1 as it had settled before he had time to notice it1 he decided to let it fill and then capture it2 besides1 he did not want to move in fear of disturbing the insect contained in his tube1 which was feeding voraciously4 ,before ,lazear could prevent it1 the mosquito that bit him on the hand had flown away4 ,he told us in his lucid moments1 that1 although ,carroll's and ,dean's cases had convinced him of the mosquito's role in transmitting yellow fever1 the fact that no infection had resulted from his own inoculation the month before had led him to believe himself1 to a certain extent1 immune4 ,how can ,i describe the agony of suspense which racked our souls during those six days8 ,it seemed to us as though a life was being offered in sacrifice for the thousands which it was to contribute in saving4 ,across the span of thirteen years the memory of the last moments comes to me most vividly and thrilling1 when the light of reason left his brain and shut out of his mind the torturing thought of the loving wife and daughter far away1 and of the unborn child who was to find itself fatherless on coming to the world4 ,tuesday1 the twenty-fifth of ,september saw the end of a life full of promise2 one more name1 that of ,jesse ,w4 ,lazear1 was graven upon the portals of immortality4 ,and we may feel justly proud for having had it1 in any way1 associated with our own4 ,the state of mind in which this calamity left us may better be imagined than described4 ,the arrival of ,major ,reed several days after in a great measure came to relieve the tensity of our nerves and render us a degree of moral support of which we were sorely in need4 ,lazear's death naturally served to dampen our fruition at the success of the mosquito experiments1 but1 this notwithstanding1 when the facts were known we were the subjects of much congratulation and the question whether the theory had been definitely demonstrated or not was the theme of conversation everywhere1 about ,havana and ,camp ,columbia particularly4 ,we fully realized that three cases1 two experimental and one accidental1 were not sufficient proof1 and that the medical world was sure to look with doubt upon any opinion based on such meager evidence2 besides1 in the case of ,carroll1 we had been unable to exclude the possibility of other means of infection1 so that we really had but one case1 ,dean's1 that we could present as clearly demonstrative and beyond question4 ,in spite of this1 we thought that the results warranted their presentation in the shape of a ,preliminary ,note1 and after all the data were carefully collected from ,lazear's records and those at the ,military ,hospital1 a short paper was prepared which the ,major had the privilege to read at the meeting of the ,american ,public ,health ,association1 held on ,october #bd1 in the city of ,indianapolis4 ,for this purpose ,major ,reed went to the ,states two weeks after his return to ,cuba1 and ,carroll also took a short leave of absence so as to fully recuperate1 in preparation for the second series of inoculations which we had arranged to undertake1 after the ,indianapolis meeting4 ,these inoculations1 according to our program1 were to be made upon volunteers who should consent to suffer a period of previous quarantine at some place to be selected in due time1 away from any possibility of yellow fever4 ,it so happened then that ,i was left the only member of the board in ,cuba and1 under instructions from ,major ,reed1 ,i began to breed mosquitoes and infect them1 as ,lazear used to do1 wherever cases occurred1 keeping them at my laboratory in the ,military ,hospital ,no4 #a4 ,major ,reed had also asked me to look about for a proper location wherein to continue the work upon his return4 ,,origin ,,and ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,mosquito ,,theory ,the possible agency of insects in the propagation of yellow fever was thought of by more than one observer1 from a very early period in the history of this disease4 ,for instance1 ,rush1 of ,philadelphia1 in #agig1 noticed the excessive abundance of mosquitoes during that awful epidemic4 ,subsequently1 several others spoke of the coincidence of gnats or mosquitoes and yellow fever1 but without ascribing any direct relation to the one regarding the other4 ,of course1 man-to-man infection through the sole intervention of an insect was a thing entirely inconceivable and therefore unthought of until very recently1 and in truth the discovery1 as far as yellow fever is concerned1 was the result of a slow process of evolution of the fundamental fact1 taken in connection with similar findings1 in other diseases4 ,the earliest direct reference is found in the writings of ,dr4 ,nott1 of ,mobile1 ,ala41 who in #ahdh suggested that the dissemination of the yellow fever poison was evidently by means of some insect that remained very close to the ground4 ,but the first who positively pointed to the mosquito as the spreader of yellow fever1 who showed that absence of mosquitoes precluded the existence of the disease and who prescribed the ready means to stamp it out1 by fumigation and by preventing the bites of the insects1 was ,dr4 ,louis ,d4 ,beauperthuy1 a ,french physician1 then located in ,venezuela4 ,the writer has an original copy of his paper1 published in #ahec1 where he fastens the guilt upon the domestic mosquitoes1 believing1 in accord with the prevailing teachings of medical science1 that the mosquitoes infected themselves by contact or feeding upon the organic matter found in the stagnant waters where they are hatched1 afterwards inoculating the victims by their sting4 ,he recognized the fact that yellow fever is not contagious and therefore could not think of the possibility of man-to-man infection1 as we know it to-day4 ,the keenest observer was this man ,beauperthuy1 and1 even at that benighted time in the history of tropical medicine1 made most interesting studies of the blood and tissues1 employing the microscope and the chemical reactions in his research4 ,no one believed him1 and a commission appointed to report upon his views said that they were inadmissible and all but declared him insane4 ,this field of investigation remained dormant for a comparatively long period of time4 ,meanwhile another medical writer1 ,dr4 ,greenville ,dowell1 mentions in #ahgf1 that if we compare the effect of heat and cold on gnats and mosquitoes with yellow fever1 it will be difficult to believe it is of the same nature1 as it is controlled by the same natural laws4 ,soon after this1 in #ahgi1 the first conclusive proof of the direct transmission of a disease from man-to-man was presented by the father of tropical medicine1 ,sir ,patrick ,manson1 with regard to filaria1 a blood infection that often causes the repulsive condition known as elephantiasis and which the mosquito takes from man and after a short time gives over to another subject4 ,this discovery attracted world-wide attention and many looked again towards the innumerable species of biting insects that dwell in the ,tropic ,zone1 as possible carriers of the obscure diseases which also prevail in those regions4 ,in #ahha1 ,dr4 ,carlos ,finlay1 of ,havana1 in an exhaustive paper read before the ,royal ,academy of ,sciences1 gave as his opinion that yellow fever was spread by the bites of mosquitoes directly contaminated by stinging a yellow fever patient 7or perhaps by contact with or feeding from his discharge74 ,this latter view he held as late as #aijj1 which1 although correct in the main fact of the transmission of the germ from a patient to a susceptible person by the mosquito1 the modus operandi1 as he conceived it1 was entirely erroneous4 ,dr4 ,finlay1 unfortunately was unable to produce experimentally a single case of fever that could withstand the mildest criticism1 so that at the time when the ,army ,board came to investigate the causes of yellow fever in ,cuba1 his theory1 though practically the correct one1 had been so much discredited1 in a great measure by his own failures1 that the best-known experts considered it as an ingenious1 but wholly fanciful1 one and many thought it a fit subject for humorous and sarcastic repartee4 ,finlay also believed1 erroneously1 that repeated bites of contaminated insects might protect against yellow fever and that the mosquitoes were capable of transmitting the germ to the next generation4 ,the wonderful discoveries of ,theobald ,smith1 as to the agency of ticks in spreading ,texas fever of cattle1 and those of ,ross and the ,italian investigators who showed conclusively that malaria was transmitted by a species of mosquito1 brought the knowledge of these various diseases to the point where the ,army ,board took up the investigation of yellow fever4 ,,second ,,and ,,final ,,series ,,of ,,mosquito ,,experiments ,major ,reed came back to ,havana in the early part of ,november1 ,carroll following a week after4 ,during their absence1 ,i had been applying mosquitoes to yellow fever patients at ,las ,animas ,hospital1 keeping them in my laboratory1 as it was done at the beginning of the investigation2 the season being more advanced1 now and then a cold norther would blow and my insects suffered very much thereby1 so that ,i had the greatest trouble in preventing their untimely death3 to this may be added the difficulty met in feeding them blood1 for now that ,i knew their sting was dangerous1 unto death perhaps1 ,i could not allow any indiscriminate biting1 but had to select for the purpose individuals who had suffered an attack of the disease and were therefore immune4 ,the necessity for an experimental camp became more imperative as time passed1 not only where proper quarantine and isolation could be established1 but also where the insects intended for the inoculations might receive better care4 ,this entailed considerable expense4 ,fortunately for us1 the military governor of the island at that time1 ,brigadier ,general ,leonard ,wood1 was a man who had received a thorough medical training2 broad and clear-minded1 he fully appreciated the importance of what might be the outcome of our researches4 ,we found in him the moral support which we so much needed and1 further1 he promptly placed at the disposal of the board sufficient funds with which to carry on the experiments to the end4 ,i firmly believe that had other been the circumstances1 had a more military and less scientific man been at the head of the government1 the investigation would have terminated there and then1 and many years would have passed1 with hundreds of lives uselessly sacrificed1 before we could have attained our present remarkable sanitary triumphs4 ,we immediately set about choosing a location for our camp4 ,i had already looked over the ground1 preferring the proximity of ,camp ,columbia1 from where supplies could be easily obtained and because the ,military ,hospital there could be used for treating the cases that we intended to produce2 ,i was therefore favorably impressed with the seclusion offered by a spot situated a short distance from the main road1 in a farm1 named ,san ,jose1 belonging to my friend ,dr4 ,ignacio ,rojas1 of ,havana4 ,major ,reed decided upon this place after looking at many others in the neighborhood1 so that on the twentieth of ,november we inaugurated our camp1 which we named ,camp ,lazear1 in honor to the memory of our dead colleague1 consisting then of seven army tents1 guarded by a military garrison1 composed of men who had been carefully selected by virtue of their previous good record and their interest in the work to be undertaken4 ,feeling that we had proved1 to ourselves at least1 the agency of the mosquito in yellow fever1 it became our duty to disprove the theory1 until then held as a certainty by many authorities1 to the effect that the soiled bedding and clothing1 the secretions and excreta of patients1 were infectious and in some way carried the germ of the disease4 ,we therefore designed a small wooden building1 to be erected a short distance from the tense1 with a capacity of #b1hjj cubic feet4 ,the walls and ceiling were absolutely tight1 the windows and vestibuled door screened and all precautions taken to prevent the entrance of insects4 ,into this1 called the infected clothing building1 three beds and a stove1 to maintain a high tropical temperature1 were introduced2 also mattresses and pillows1 underwear1 pajamas1 towels1 sheets1 blankets1 etc41 soiled with blood and discharges from yellow fever cases3 these articles were put on the beds1 hung about the room and packed in a trunk and two boxes placed there for the purpose4 ,the building was finished and equipped on ,november #cj4 ,that ,friday evening1 ,dr4 ,robert ,p4 ,cook1 ,u4 ,s4 ,army1 with two other ,american volunteers1 entered it and prepared to pass the night3 they had instructions to unpack the boxes and trunk1 to handle and shake the clothing and in every way to attempt to disseminate the yellow fever poison1 in case it was contained in the various pieces4 ,we watched the proceedings from the outside1 through one of the windows4 ,the foul conditions which developed upon opening the trunk were of such a character that the three men were seen to suddenly rush out of the building into the fresh air2 one of them was so upset that his stomach rebelled2 yet1 after a few minutes1 with a courage and determination worthy only of such a cause1 they went back into the building and passed a more or less sleepless night1 in the midst of indescribable filth and overwhelming stench4 ,for twenty consecutive nights these men went through the same performance2 during the day they remained together1 occupying a tent near their sleeping quarters4 ,dr4 ,cook1 by voluntarily undergoing such a test1 without remuneration whatsoever1 proved his faith in the mosquito theory2 his demonstration of the harmless character of so-called infected clothing1 in yellow fever1 has been of the greatest importance4 ,the other six men 7two of them with ,dr4 ,cook7 who were subjected to this test1 received each a donation of one hundred dollars for his services4 ,many days even before the establishment of the experimental camp1 the board had heard that several men who knew of our work were willing to submit to the inoculations and thus aid in clearing up the mystery of yellow fever4 ,two of these require special mention1 ,john ,r4 ,kissinger1 a private in the ,hospital ,corps of the ,army1 was the first to offer himself most altruistically1 for1 as he expressed it1 his offer was made without any desire for pecuniary or other consideration and solely in the interest of humanity and the cause of science1 the other1 ,j4 ,j4 ,moran1 a civilian employee1 also stipulated as a condition that he was to receive no pay for his services4 ,both these men1 in due time1 suffered from yellow fever and until very recently had never obtained any reward for the great risk which they ran so voluntarily and praiseworthily4 ,kissinger1 who after several years' service in the army became disabled1 is receiving a pension from the government2 ,moran1 ,i hope1 is still well and in the employ of the ,isthmian ,canal ,commission1 justly enjoying the friendship and confidence of his superior officers4 ,the names of ,kissinger and ,moran should figure upon the roll of honor of the ,u4 ,s4 ,army4 ,on the day the camp was definitely organized1 ,kissinger1 who had not gone outside the military reservation for more than a month1 moved into ,camp ,lazear and received his first bite from a mosquito which evidently was not loaded for1 again on ,november #bc1 he was stung by the same insect without result4 ,on ,december #e1 five mosquitoes were applied1 which brought about a moderate infection in three days4 ,moran was also bitten by mosquitoes which were supposed to be infected on ,november #bf and #bi1 both times unsuccessfully4 ,as will be seen1 he was infected later on4 ,by this time we had decided1 the weather having cooled considerably1 that it was better to keep the mosquitoes at a higher temperature and nearer to the men who were to be inoculated2 therefore it was planned to put up another small wooden structure1 which was to be known as the ,mosquito ,building in which an artificial temperature could be maintained2 at my suggestion1 the building was so designed that it might serve to infect individuals2 by liberating infected mosquitoes on the inside and exposing some person to their stings1 we could try to reproduce the infection as we felt it occurred in nature4 ,another reason for the mosquito house was the need to obviate the transportation of the insects from the ,military ,hospital1 where ,i kept them1 to our camp1 which could not be easily done without subjecting them to severe injury4 ,upon one occasion ,i was taking four infected mosquitoes in the pocket inside my blouse from the laboratory in ,havana to the experimental camp1 accompanied by my attendant ,private ,loud2 the horse which pulled my buggy1 a rather spirited animal1 becoming frightened at a steam roller1 as we went around the corner of ,colon ,cemetery1 started to race down the hill towards the ,almendares ,river3 ,loud was thrown out by the first cavortings of the horse1 who stood on its hind legs and jumped several times before dashing away1 while ,i held tightly to the tubes in my pocket1 as the buggy upset and left me stranded upon a sand pile in the middle of the road2 the mosquitoes were quite safe1 however1 and upon my arrival at ,camp ,lazear ,i turned them over to ,carroll for his subsequent care4 ,another difficulty afterwards encountered was the scarcity of material susceptible to infection1 for1 although several men had expressed a willingness to be inoculated1 when the time came2 they all preferred the infected clothing experiment to the stings of our mosquitoes4 ,we then thought best to secure lately landed ,spaniards1 to whom the probable outcome of the test might be explained and their consent obtained for a monetary consideration4 ,our method was as follows2 as soon as a load of immigrants arrived1 ,i would go to ,tiscornia1 the ,immigration ,station across the ,bay of ,havana1 and hire eight or ten men1 as day laborers1 to work in our camp4 ,once brought in1 they were bountifully fed1 housed under tents1 slept under mosquito-bars and their only work was to pick up loose stones from the grounds1 during eight hours of the day1 with plenty of rest between4 ,in the meantime1 as the days of observation passed1 ,i carefully questioned them as to their antecedents1 family history and the diseases which they might have suffered2 those who had lived in ,cuba or any other tropical country before were discarded at once and also those who were under age or had a family dependent upon them4 ,when the selection was finally made1 the matter of the experiment was put to them4 ,naturally1 they all felt more or less that they were running the risk of getting yellow fever when they came to ,cuba and so were not at all averse to allow themselves to be bitten by mosquitoes3 they were paid one hundred dollars for this1 and another equal sum if1 as a result of the biting experiment1 they developed yellow fever4 ,needless to say1 no reference was made to any possible funeral expenses4 ,a written consent was obtained from each one1 so that our moral responsibility was to a certain extent lessened4 ,of course1 only the healthiest specimens were experimented upon4 ,it so happened that some reporter discovered what we were about1 or perhaps some invidious person misrepresented the facts2 at any rate1 on the twenty-first of ,november a ,spanish newspaper appeared with flaring headlines denouncing the ,american doctors who were taking advantage of the poor immigrants and experimenting with them by injecting all sorts of poisons6 ,it called upon the ,spanish consul to look after his subjects4 ,in view of this we felt that if such campaign continued1 in a short time it would either make it impossible to secure subjects or cause diplomatic pressure to be exerted against the continuance of our experiments4 ,it was thought best to beard the lion in his den so the three of us called upon the consul the following day4 ,he was surprised to hear one of us address him in his own language1 having taken us all for ,americans on first sight1 and when ,i explained to him our method of procedure and showed him the signed contracts with the men1 being an intelligent man himself1 he had no objections to offer and told us to go ahead and not bother about any howl the papers might make4 ,the first three cases 7two of them ,spaniards7 which we produced came down with yellow fever within a very short period1 from ,december #h to #ac2 it will therefore not surprise the reader to know that when the fourth case developed on ,december #ae1 and was carried out of the camp to the hospital1 it caused a veritable panic among the remaining ,spaniards1 who1 renouncing the five hundred pesetas that each had in view1 as ,major ,reed very aptly put it1 lost all interest in the progress of science and incontinentally severed their connection with ,camp ,lazear4 ,but there was a rich source to draw from1 and the unexpected stampede only retarded our work for a short time4 ,our artificial epidemic of yellow fever was temporarily suspended while a new batch of susceptible material was brought in1 observed and selected4 ,the next case for that reason was not produced upon a ,spaniard until ,december #cj4 ,in the face of the negative experiments with supposedly contaminated articles1 it rested with us to show how a house became infected and for this purpose the main part of the mosquito building was utilized4 ,this chamber was divided into two compartments by a double wire-screen partition1 which effectually prevented mosquitoes on one side from passing to the other2 of course there were no mosquitoes there to begin with1 as the section of the building used for breeding and keeping them was entirely separated from the other1 and there could be no communication between them4 ,on the morning of ,december #ba1 a jar containing fifteen hungry mosquitoes1 that had previously stung cases of yellow fever1 was introduced and uncovered in the larger compartment1 where a bed1 with all linen perfectly sterilized1 was ready for occupancy4 ,a few minutes after1 ,mr4 ,moran1 dressed as though about to retire for the night1 entered the room and threw himself upon the bed for half an hour2 during this time two other men and ,major ,reed remained in the other compartment1 separated from ,moran only by the wire-screen partition4 ,seven mosquitoes were soon at work upon the young man's arms and face2 he then came out1 but returned in the afternoon1 when five other insects bit him in less than twenty minutes4 ,the next day1 at the same hour of the afternoon1 ,moran entered the mosquito building for the third time and remained on the bed for fifteen minutes1 allowing three mosquitoes to bite his hands4 ,the room was then securely locked1 but the two ,americans continued to sleep in the other compartment for nearly three weeks1 without experiencing any ill effects4 ,promptly on ,christmas morning ,moran1 who had not been exposed to infection except for his entrance into the mosquito building as described1 came down with a well-marked attack of yellow fever4 ,the temperature in this room1 where these mosquitoes had been released1 was kept rather high and a vessel with water was provided1 where they might lay their eggs if so inclined1 but notwithstanding all these precautions1 it was subsequently found that the insects had been attacked by ants1 so that by the end of the month only one of the fifteen mosquitoes remained alive4 ,it is hardly necessary to detail here how seven other men were subjected to the sting of our infected mosquitoes1 of which number five developed the disease1 but it may be interesting to note that two of these men had been previously exposed in the infected clothing building without their becoming infected1 showing that they were susceptible to yellow fever after all4 ,the evidence so far seemed to show that the mosquito could only be infected by sucking blood of a yellow-fever patient during the first three days of the disease2 to prove that the parasite was present in the circulating blood at that time we therefore injected some of this fluid taken from a different case each time1 under the skin of five men3 four of these suffered an attack of yellow fever as the result of the injection4 ,the other one1 a ,spaniard1 could not be infected either by the injection of blood or the application of mosquitoes which were known to be infected1 showing that he had a natural immunity or1 more likely1 that he had had yellow fever at some previous time4 ,while selecting the ,spaniards1 it was often ascertained that they had been in ,cuba before1 as soldiers in the ,spanish army usually1 and the natural conclusion was that they had undergone infection2 it was very seldom that any escaped during the ,spanish control of the island4 ,thus terminated our experiments with mosquitoes which1 though necessarily performed on human beings1 fortunately did not cause a single death2 on the other hand1 they served to revolutionize all standard methods of sanitation with regard to yellow fever4 ,they showed the uselessness of disinfection of clothing and how easily an epidemic can be stamped out in a community by simply protecting the sick from the sting of the mosquitoes and by the extensive and wholesale destruction of these insects which1 added to the suppression of their breeding places1 if thoroughly carried out1 are the only measures necessary to forever rid a country of this scourge4 ,besides keeping a sharp lookout against the importation of yellow fever cases1 these are the simple rules that have kept the ,panama ,canal free and prevented the slaughter of hundreds of foreigners1 so generally expected every year1 in former times4 ,since we made our demonstration in #aija1 our work has been corroborated by various commissions appointed for the purpose1 in ,mexico1 ,brazil and ,cuba1 composed variously of ,americans1 ,french1 ,english1 ,cuban1 ,brazilian and ,german investigators4 ,nothing has been added to our original findings2 nothing has been contradicted of what we have reported1 and to-day1 after nearly thirteen years1 the truths that we uncovered stand incontrovertible2 besides1 they have been the means of driving out yellow fever from ,cuba1 the ,united ,states 7,laredo1 ,texas1 #aijc and ,new ,orleans1 ,la41 #aije71 ,british ,honduras and several cities of ,brazil4 ,of the ,army ,board only ,i remain4 ,lazear1 as reported1 died during the early part of our investigations2 ,reed left us in #aijb and ,carroll only five years later4 ,the reader may wonder of what benefit was it to us1 this painstaking and remarkable accomplishment which has been such a blessing to humanity6 ,see what the late ,surgeon ,general of the ,u4 ,s4 ,army had to say in his report 7,senate ,document ,no4 #ebj1 ,sixty-first ,congress1 second session73 #a4 ,major ,walter ,reed1 surgeon1 ,united ,states ,army1 died in ,washington1 ,d4 ,c41 from appendicitis1 ,november #bc1 #aijb1 aged #ea4 ,his widow1 ,emilie ,lawrence ,reed1 is receiving a pension of #abe a month4 #b ,maj4 ,james ,carroll was promoted from first lieutenant to major by special act of ,congress1 ,march #i1 #aijg4 ,he died in ,washington1 ,d ,c41 of myocarditis1 ,september #af1 #aijg4 ,his widow1 ,jennie ,h4 ,carroll1 since his death1 has received an annuity of #abe a month1 appropriated from year to year in the ,army appropriation bill4 #c4 ,dr4 ,jesse ,w4 ,lazear1 contract surgeon1 ,united ,states ,army1 died at ,camp ,columbia1 ,cuba1 of yellow fever1 ,september #be1 #aijj4 ,his widow1 ,mabel ,m4 ,lazear1 since his death1 has received an annuity of #abe a month appropriated from year to year in the ,army appropriation bill4 #d4 ,dr4 ,aristides ,agramonte is the only living member of the board4 ,he is professor of bacteriology and experimental pathology in the ,university of ,habana and has never received1 either directly or indirectly1 any material reward for his share in the work of the board4 ,it is not for me to make any comments3 the above paragraphs have all the force of a plain1 truthful statement of facts4 ,perhaps it is thought that enough reward is to be found in the contemplation of so much good derived from one's own efforts and the feeling it may produce of innermost satisfaction and in forming the belief that one had not lived in vain4 ,in a very great measure1 ,i know1 the thought is true4 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,the ,,stars ,,and ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,earth4 ,,iv ,,by ,,william ,,wallace ,,campbell ,,director ,,of ,,the ,,lick ,,observatory1 ,,university ,,of ,,california ,,the ,,planetesimal ,,hypothesis ,,the most elaborate structure yet proposed to explain the origin of the solar system is the planetesimal hypothesis by ,chamberlin and ,moulton4 ,the energy which these investigators have devoted to formulating and testing this hypothesis1 in the light of the principles of mechanics1 has been commensurate with the importance of the subject4 ,they postulate that the materials now composing the ,sun1 planets1 and satellites1 at one time existed as a spiral nebula1 or as a great spiral swarm of discrete particles1 each particle in elliptic motion about the central nucleus4 ,the authors go further back and endeavor to account for the origin of the spiral nebula1 but this phase of the subject is not vital to their hypothesis4 ,however1 it conduces to clearness in presenting their hypothesis to begin with the earlier process4 ,it may happen1 once in a while1 that two stars will collide4 ,if the collision is a grazing one1 they say1 a spiral nebula will be formed4 ,however1 a fairly close approach of two stars will occur in vastly greater frequency and the effect of this approach will also be to form a spiral nebula or two such nebulae4 ,the authors recall that our ,sun is constantly ejecting materials to a considerable height to form the prominences1 and that the attractions of a great star passing fairly close to our solar system would assist this process of expulsion of matter from the ,sun4 ,a great outbreak or ejection of matter would occur not only on the side of our ,sun turned toward the disturbing body1 but on the opposite side as well1 for the same reason that tides in our oceans are raised on the side opposite the ,moon as well as on the side toward the ,moon4 ,as the ,sun and disturbing star proceeded in their orbits1 the stream of matter leaving our ,sun on the side of the disturbing body would try to follow the other star2 and the stream of matter leaving the other side of the ,sun would shoot out in curves essentially symmetrical with those in the first stream4 ,as the disturbing star approached and receded the paths taken by the ejected matter would be successively along curves such as are represented by the dotted lines in ,fig4 #bh4 ,at any given moment the ejected matter would lie on the two heavy lines4 ,the matter would not be moving along the heavy lines1 but nearly at right angles to them1 in the directions that the lighter curves are pointing4 ,as the ejections would not be continuous1 but on the contrary intermittent1 because of violent pulsations of the ,sun's body1 there would be irregularities in the two spiral streamers4 ,the materials drawn out of the ,sun would revolve around it in elliptic orbits after the disturbing body had passed beyond the distance of effective disturbance1 as illustrated in ,fig4 #bi4 ,the orbits of the different masses would have different sizes and different eccentricities4 ,there would also be a wide distribution of finely-divided material between the main branches of the spiral4 ,all of the widespread gaseous matter1 hot when it left the ,sun1 would soon become cold1 by expansion and radiation2 and only the massive nuclei would remain gaseous and hot4 ,i see no reason to question the efficiency of this ingenious explanation of the origin of a spiral nebula3 the close passage of two massive stars could1 in my opinion1 produce an effect resembling a spiral nebula1 quite in accordance with ,moulton's test calculations upon the subject4 ,some of the spirals have possibly been formed in this way 7see ,fig4 #cj72 but that the tens of thousands of spirals known to exist in the sky have actually been produced in this manner is another question1 and one which1 in my opinion1 is open to grave doubt4 ,but to this point we shall return later4 ,there are marked advantages in starting the evolution of the solar system from a spiral nebula1 aside from the fact that spirals are abundant1 and therefore represent a standard product of development4 ,the material is thinly and very irregularly distributed in a plane passing through the ,sun1 and the motions around the ,sun are all in the same direction4 ,the great difficulty in the ,laplace hypothesis1 as to the constancy of the moment of momentum1 is here eliminated4 ,there are well-defined condensations of nuclei at quite different distances from the ,sun4 ,according to this hypothesis the principal nuclei are the beginnings of the future planets4 ,they draw into themselves the materials with which they come in contact by virtue of the crossings of the orbits of various sizes and various eccentricities4 ,the growth of the planets is gradual1 for the sweeping up and combining process must be excessively slow4 ,the satellites are started from those smaller nuclei which happen to be moving with just the right speeds not to escape entirely the attractions of the principal nuclei1 nor to fall into them4 ,the planes of the planetary orbits and1 in general1 the planes of the satellite orbits should agree quite closely with each other1 but they could differ and should differ from that of the ,sun's equator4 ,the authors call attention to the fact that the ,sun's equator is inclined at a small angle1 #g degrees1 to the common planes of the planetary system1 and ,chamberlin holds this to be one of the strong points in favor of the planetesimal hypothesis4 ,he reasons thus3 the star which passed close to our ,sun and drew out the planetary materials in the form of spiral streams must have moved in the plane of the spiral2 that is1 in the plane of our planetary system4 ,some of the materials would be drawn out from our ,sun only a very short distance and then fall back upon the ,sun4 ,great tidal waves would be formed on opposite sides of the ,sun1 and these would try to follow the disturbing body4 ,the effect of these waves and of the materials which fall back would be to change the ,sun's original rotation plane in the direction of the disturbing body's orbital plane4 ,now the chance for a disturbing star's passing around our ,sun in a plane making a large angle1 say from #de degrees to #ij degrees1 with the ,sun's equator1 is much greater than for a small angle #j degrees to #de degrees4 ,the chances are greatest that the angle will be #ij degrees4 ,only those disturbing stars which approach our ,sun ,,precisely in the plane of the ,sun's equator could move around the ,sun in this plane4 ,all those approaching along any line parallel to the ,sun's equatorial plane1 but lying outside of this plane1 and all those whose directions of approach make any angle whatever with the equatorial plane1 would find it impossible to move in that plane4 ,that the angle under this hypothesis is only #g degrees is surprising1 though1 as we are dealing with but a single case1 we can not say1 ,i think1 that this militates either for or against the hypothesis4 ,we are entitled to say only that unless the approach was so close as to cause disturbances in our ,sun to relatively great depths1 the angle referred to would have only one chance in ten or fifteen or twenty to be as small as #g degrees4 ,any disturbance which succeeded in taking out of the ,sun only #a_/g of #a per cent4 of its mass could scarcely succeed in shifting the axis of rotation of the remaining #ii #f_/g per cent4 very much1 ,i think4 ,if the angle were #cj degrees or #ej degrees or #hj degrees1 instead of #g degrees1 the case for the planetesimal hypothesis would be somewhat stronger4 ,a remarkable fact concerning the ,sun is that the equatorial region rotates once around in a shorter time than the regions in higher latitudes require4 ,the rotation period of the ,sun's equator is about #bd days2 the period at latitude #de degrees is #bh days2 and at #ge degrees1 #cc days4 ,the planetesimal hypothesis attributes this equatorial acceleration to the falling back into the ,sun of the materials which had been lifted out to a short distance by the disturbing body1 and to the forward-rushing tide raised in the equatorial regions by the disturbing body4 ,this may well have occurred4 ,however1 we must remember that the same phenomenon exists certainly in ,jupiter and ,saturn1 and quite probably in ,uranus and ,neptune2 that is1 in all the bodies in the system that are gaseous and free to show the effect4 ,it seems to be the result of a principle which has operated throughout the solar system1 not requiring1 at least not directly requiring1 the passage of a disturbing star4 ,i think the most plausible explanation of this curious phenomenon is that great quantities of materials originally revolving around the ,sun and around each of the planets have gradually been drawn into these bodies1 by preference into their equatorial areas4 ,such masses of matter moving in orbits very close to these bodies must have traveled with speeds vastly higher than the surface speeds of the bodies4 ,to illustrate1 the rotational velocity of a particle now in the ,sun's surface at the equator is approximately #b km4 per second4 ,a small body revolving around the ,sun close to his surface1 rapidly enough to prevent its falling quickly upon the ,sun1 must have a velocity of more than #djj km4 per second4 ,if1 now1 this small body encounters some resistance it will fall into the ,sun1 and as it is traveling more than #bjj times as rapidly as the solar materials into which it drops1 it will both generate heat and accelerate the rotational velocity of the surrounding materials4 ,in the same way the equatorial accelerations in ,jupiter and ,saturn can receive simple explanation4 ,the point is not necessarily in opposition to the planetesimal hypothesis2 but whatever the explanation1 it ought to apply to the planet as well as to the ,sun4 ,if the spiral nebulae have been formed in accordance with ,chamberlin and ,moulton's hypothesis1 the secondary nuclei in them must revolve in a great variety of elliptic orbits4 ,the orbits would intersect1 and in the course of long ages the separate masses would collide and combine and the number of separate masses would constantly grow smaller4 ,moulton has shown that ,,in ,,general the combining of two masses whose orbits intersect causes the combined mass to move in an orbit more nearly circular than the average orbit of the separate masses1 and in general in orbit planes more nearly coincident with the general plane of the system4 ,accordingly1 the major planets should move in orbits more nearly circular and more nearly in the plane of the system than do the asteroids2 and so they do4 ,if the asteroids should combine to form one planet the orbit of this planet should be much less eccentric than the average of all the present asteroid eccentricities1 and the deviation of its orbit plane should be less than the average deviation of the present planes4 ,we can not doubt that this would be the case4 ,mercury and ,mars1 the smallest planets1 should have1 according to this principle1 the largest eccentricities and orbital inclinations of any of the major planets4 ,this is true of the eccentricities1 but ,mars's orbit plane1 contrarily1 has a small inclination4 ,venus and the ,earth1 next in size1 should have the next largest inclinations and eccentricities1 but they do not2 ,venus's eccentricity is the smallest of all4 ,the ,earth's orbital inclination and eccentricity are both small4 ,jupiter and ,saturn1 ,uranus and ,neptune1 should have the smallest orbital inclinations2 their average inclination is about the same as for ,venus and the ,earth4 ,they should likewise have the smallest eccentricities4 ,neptune1 the smallest of the four1 has an orbit nearly circular2 ,jupiter1 ,saturn and ,uranus have eccentricities more than #d times those of ,venus and the ,earth4 ,considering the four large planets as one group and the four small planets as another group1 we find that the inclinations of the orbits of the two groups1 per unit mass1 are about equal2 but the average eccentricity of the orbits of the large planets1 per unit mass1 is #ba times that of the orbits of the small planets4#a ,the evidence1 except as to the asteroids and ,mercury1 is not favorable to the planetesimal hypothesis1 unless we make special assumptions as to the distribution of materials in the spiral nebulae4 #b ,the average eccentricity of the orbits of the four inner planets 7per unit mass7 is #j4jbba1 and of the four outer planets is #j4jdhi4 ,the fact that the disturbing body drew #bbe times as much matter a great distance to form the four large planets as it drew out a short distance to form the four small planets and the asteroids seems difficult of explanation on the planetesimal hypothesis4 ,however1 this distribution of matter is at present a difficulty in any of the hypotheses4 ,the planetesimal hypothesis explains well all west to east rotations of the planets on their axes1 but to make ,uranus rotate nearly at right angles to the plane of the system1 and ,neptune in a plane inclined #ace degrees to the plane of the system1 is a difficulty in any of the hypotheses1 unless special assumptions are made to fit each case4 ,the authors succeed well1 ,i think1 in showing that the satellites should prefer to revolve around their planets in the direction of the planetary revolution and rotation1 especially for close satellites1 and1 on the basis of special assumptions1 in the reverse direction for satellites at a greater distance4 ,they show that the chances favor small eccentricities for satellites revolving about their planets in the west to east1 or direct sense1 and large eccentricities for satellites moving in retrograde directions4 ,the inner satellite of ,mars and the rings of ,saturn make no special difficulty under the planetesimal hypothesis4 ,the evidence of the comets1 as bona fide members of the solar system which approach the ,sun almost1 and perhaps quite1 indifferently from all directions1 is that the volume of space occupied by the parent structure of the system was of enormous dimensions1 both at right angles to the present principal plane of the system and in that plane4 ,we are accustomed to think of the spiral nebulae as thin relatively to their major diameters4 ,to this extent the planetesimal hypothesis does not furnish a good explanation of the origin of comets1 unless we assume that a small amount of matter was widely scattered in all directions around the parent spiral2 and this conception leads to some apparent difficulties4 ,the origin of the comets is difficult to explain under any of the hypotheses4 ,,resume ,,of ,,hypotheses ,kant's hypothesis had the great defect of trying to prove too much4 ,it started from matter ,,at ,,rest1 and came to grief in trying to give a motion of rotation to the entire mass through the operation of internal forces alone--an impossibility4 ,kant's idea of nuclei or centers of gravitational attraction1 scattered here and there throughout the chaotic mass1 which grew into the planets and their satellites1 is very valuable4 ,laplace's hypothesis had the great advantage of starting with an extended mass already in rotation1 but it violated fatally the law of constancy of moment of momentum4 ,we should expect this hypothesis to create a solar system free from irregularities1 very much as if it were the product of an instrument-maker's precision lathe4 ,the solar system as it exists is a combination of regularities and many surprising irregularities4 ,chamberlin and ,moulton's hypothesis has the advantage of a parent mass in rotation1 practically in a common plane1 and with the materials distributed at distances from the nucleus as nearly in harmony with the known distribution of matter in the solar system as we care to have them1 except perhaps as to the comets4 ,in effect it retains all the advantageous qualities of ,kant's proposals4 ,it seems to have the flexibility required in meeting the irregularities that we see in our system4 ,,concerning ,,the ,,origin ,,of ,,spiral ,,nebulae ,i think it is very doubtful whether the spiral nebulae have in general been formed by the close approaches of pairs of stars1 as the authors have postulated for the assumed solar spiral4#b ,the distribution of the spirals seems to me to negative the idea4 ,to witness the close approach of two stars we must look in the direction where the stars are4 ,to the best of present-day knowledge the stars are in a spheroid whose longer axes are coincident with the plane of the ,milky ,way4 ,if this is so1 the close approach of pairs of stars should occur preeminently in the ,milky ,way1 and we should find the spirals prevailingly in and near the ,milky ,way4 ,this is precisely where we do not find them4 ,in fact1 they seem to abhor the ,milky ,way4 ,the new stars1 which are credibly explained as the products of collisions of stars with nebulae1 are found preeminently in the ,milky ,way and almost negligibly in the regions outside of the ,milky ,way4 ,again1 the spirals are believed to be1 on the whole1 of enormous size4 ,they are too far away to let us measure their distances by the usual methods1 and they move too slowly on the surface of the sphere to have let us determine their proper motions4 ,slipher's recent work with a spectrograph seems to show that the dozen spirals observed by him are moving with high speeds of approach and recession2 from #cjj km4 per second approach in the case of the ,andromeda nebula to #a1ajj km4 per second recession in the case of several objects4 ,if the spirals are moving at random their speeds at right angles to the line of sight must be even greater than their speeds of approach and recession4 ,unless they are very distant bodies their proper motions should be detected by observations extending over only a few years4 ,my colleague ,curtis has this year compared recent photographs of some #be spirals with photographs of the same object made by ,keeler fifteen years ago4 ,they reveal no appreciable proper motions1 or rotations4 ,in this same interval ,neptune has revolved more than #cj degrees4 ,slipher has recently measured the rotational speed of one spindle nebula1 believed to be a spiral4 ,he finds it to be enormously rapid2 no motions in the solar system approach it in magnitude4 ,the evidence is to the effect that the spirals are in general very far away2#c perhaps on or beyond the confines of our stellar system1 but not certainly so4 ,accordingly1 we are led to believe that the spirals studied thus far have diameters #bj times or #ajj times1 or in some cases several thousand times1 the diameter of our solar system4 ,it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that in general they are immensely more massive than is our solar system4 ,the spiral which has been assumed as the forerunner of our system must have been of diminutive size as compared with the larger and brighter spirals which we see to-day4 #b ,it would seem that all rotating nebulae should in reality possess some of the attributes of spiral motion4 ,whether the spiral structure should be visible or invisible to a terrestrial observer would depend upon the sizes and distances of the nebulae1 upon the distribution of materials composing them1 and perhaps upon other factors4 ,see developed the hypothesis that spiral nebulae owe their origin to the collision of two nebulae4 ,collisions of this kind could readily occur because of the enormous dimensions of the nebulae1 and motions of rotation and consequently spiral structure might readily result therefrom4 ,the abnormally high speeds of the spiral nebulae are apparently a very strong objection to the hypothesis4 #c ,bohlin found a parallax of #jag for the ,andromeda ,nebula1 and ,lampland thinks that ,nebula ,n4,g4,g4 #deid has a proper motion of approximately #jje per annum4 ,we are sadly in need of information concerning the constitution of the spiral nebulae4 ,their spectra appear to be prevailingly of the solar type1 except that a very small proportion contain some bright lines in addition to the continuous spectrum4 ,so far as their spectra are concerned1 they may be great clusters of stars1 or they may consist each of a central star sending its light out upon surrounding dark materials and thus rendering these materials visible to us4 ,the first alternative is unsatisfactory1 for all parts of spirals have hazy borders1 as if the structure is nebulous or consists of irregular groups of small masses2 and the second alternative is unsatisfactory1 for in many spirals the most outlying masses seem to be as bright as masses of the same areas situated only one half as far from the center1 whereas in general the inner area should be at least four times as bright as the outer area4 ,all astronomers are ready to confess that we do not know much about the conditions existing in spiral nebulae4 ,,the ,,earth-,,moon ,,system ,our ,earth and ,moon form a unique combination in that they are more nearly of the same size than are any other planet and its satellites in our system4 ,it required a #bf-;inch telescope on the ,earth to discover the tiny moons of ,mars2 but an astronomer on ,mars does not need any telescope to see the ,earth and ,moon as a double planet--the only double planet in the solar system4 ,according to the ,kantian school of hypotheses the ,earth and ,moon owe their unique character to the accident that two centers of condensation--two nuclei--not very unequal in mass1 were formed close to each other and were endowed with or acquired motions such that they revolved around each other4 ,they drew in the surrounding materials2 one of the two bodies got somewhat the advantage of the other in gravitational attraction2 it succeeded in building itself up more than the other nucleus did2 and the ,earth and the ,moon were the result4 ,according to the ,laplacean hypothesis1 on the contrary1 the ,earth and ,moon were originally one body1 gaseous and in rotation4 ,this ball of gas radiated heat1 diminished in size1 rotated more and more rapidly1 and finally abandoned a ring of nebulosity1 which later broke up and eventually condensed into one mass called the ,moon4 ,the central mass composed the ,earth4 ,it is a curious fact that ,venus1 which is only a shade smaller than the ,earth1 should not have divided into two bodies comparable with the ,earth and ,moon4 ,have the tides on ,venus produced by the ,sun always been strong enough to keep the rotation and revolution periods equal1 as they are thought to be now1 and thus to have given no opportunity for a rapidly rotating ,venus to divide into two masses8 ,a third hypothesis of the ,moon's origin is due principally to ,darwin4 ,he and ,poincare have shown that a great rotating mass of fluid matter1 such as the ,earth-,moon could be assumed to have been1 by cooling1 contracting and increasing rotation speed1 would1 under certain conditions thought to be reasonable1 become unstable and eventually divide into two bodies revolving around their common center of mass1 at first with their surfaces nearly in contact4 ,here would begin to act a tide-raising force which must have played1 according to ,darwin's deductions1 a most important part in the further history of the ,earth and ,moon4 ,the ,earth would produce enormous tides in the ,moon1 and the ,moon much smaller tides in the ,earth4 ,both bodies would contract in size1 through loss of heat1 and would try to rotate more and more rapidly4 ,the two rotating bodies would try to carry the matter in the tidal waves around with the rest of the materials in the bodies1 but the pull of each body upon the wave materials in the other would tend to slow down the speed of rotation4 ,the tidal resistance to rotation would be slight if the bodies at any time were attenuated gaseous masses1 for the friction within the surface strata would be slight4 ,nevertheless1 there would eventually be a gradual slowing down of the ,moon's rotation1 a gradual slowing down of the ,earth's rotation1 and a slow increase in the distance between the two bodies4 ,in other words1 the ,moon's day1 the ,earth's day and our month would gradually increase in length4 ,carried to its logical conclusion1 the ,moon would eventually turn the same face to the ,earth1 the ,earth would eventually turn the same face to the ,moon1 and the ,earth's day and the ,moon's day would equal the month in length4 ,the central idea in this logic is as old as ,kant3 in #aged he published an important paper in which he said that tidal interactions between ,earth and ,moon had caused the ,moon to keep the same face turned toward us1 that the ,earth's day was being very slowly lengthened1 and that our planet would eventually turn the same face to the ,moon4 ,laplace1 a half-century later1 proposed the action of such a force in connection with the explanation of lunar phenomena1 and ,helmholtz1 just #ajj years after ,kant's paper was published1 lent his support to this principle2 but ,sir ,george ,darwin has been the great contributor to the subject4 ,his popular volume1 ,the ,tides1 devotes several chapters to the effects of tidal friction upon the motions of two bodies in mutual revolution4 ,we must pass over the difficult and complicated intermediate steps to ,darwin's conclusions concerning the ,earth and ,moon1 which are substantially as follows3 the ,earth and ,moon were originally much closer together than they now are3 after a very long period of time1 amounting to hundreds of millions of years1 the ,moon will revolve around the ,earth in #ee days instead of in #bg days as at present2 and the ,moon and ,earth will then present the same faces constantly to each other4 ,the estimated period of time required1 and the final length of day and month1 #ee days1 are of course not insisted upon as accurate by ,darwin4 ,these tidal forces were unavoidably active1 it matters not if the ,earth and ,moon were originally one body1 as ,laplace and ,darwin have postulated1 or originally two bodies1 growing up from two nuclei1 in accordance with the ,kantian school4 ,whether these forces have been sufficiently strong to have brought the ,earth and ,moon to their present relation1 or will eventually equalize the ,moon's day1 the ,earth's day1 and the month1 is a vastly more difficult question4 ,moulton's researches have cast serious doubt upon this conclusion4 ,all such investigations are enormously difficult1 and many questionable assumptions must be made if we seek to go back to the ,moon's origin1 or forward to its ultimate destiny4 ,tidal waves1 in order to be effective in reducing the rotational speed of a planet1 must be accompanied by internal friction2 and this requires that the planet be to some extent inelastic4 ,it was the view of ,darwin and others that the viscous state of the ,earth and ,moon permitted wave friction to come into play4 ,michelson has recently proved that the ,earth has a high degree of elasticity4 ,it deforms in response to tidal forces1 but quickly recovers from the action of these forces4 ,it therefore seems that the rate of tidal evolution of the ,earth-,moon system at present and in the future must be extremely slow1 and possibly almost negligible4 ,what the conditions within the ,earth and ,moon were in the distant past is uncertain1 but these bodies probably passed through viscous stages which endured through enormously long periods of time4 ,no one seriously doubts that ,jupiter1 ,saturn1 ,uranus and ,neptune are now largely gaseous1 and that they will evolve1 through various degrees of viscosity1 into the solid and comparatively elastic state4 ,it is natural to assume that the ,earth has already passed through an analogous experience4 ,the ,moon turns always the same hemisphere toward the ,earth4 ,observations of ,venus and ,mercury are prevailingly to the effect that those planets always turn the same hemispheres toward the ,sun4 ,many1 and perhaps all1 of the satellites of ,jupiter and ,saturn seem to turn the same hemispheres always toward their respective planets4 ,this widely prevailing phenomenon is no doubt due to a widely prevailing cause1 which astronomers have all but unanimously attributed to tidal action4 ,,binary ,,star ,,systems ,that an original mass actually divided to form the ,earth and ,moon1 according to the ,laplacian or the ,darwin-,poincare principle1 seems to be extremely doubtful1 especially on account of their diminutive sizes1 and ,i greatly prefer to think that the ,earth and ,moon were built up from two nuclei2 but that very much greater masses1 masses larger on the average than our ,sun1 composing highly attenuated stars1 have divided each into two masses to form many or most of our double stars1 ,i firmly believe4 ,the two component stars would in such a case at first revolve around each other with their surfaces almost or quite in contact4 ,tidal forces would very gradually cause the bodies to move in orbits of larger and larger size1 with correspondingly longer periods of revolutions1 and the orbits would become constantly more eccentric4 ,while these processes were under way the component bodies would be radiating heat and growing smaller1 and their spectra would be changing into the more advanced types4 ,we can not hope to watch such changes as they occur1 but we can1 ,i think1 find abundant illustrations of these processes in the double stars4 ,i have given reasons for believing that one star in every two and one half1 as a minimum proportion1 is not the single star which it appears to be to the eye or in the telescope1 but is a system of two or more suns in mutual revolution4 ,the formation of double stars1 therefore1 is not a sporadic process3 it is one of the straightforward results of the evolutionary process4 ,some of the variable stars offer strong evidence as to the early life of the double stars4 ,the so-called beta ,lyrae variables vary continuously in brightness1 as if they consist in each case of two stars so close together that their surfaces are actually in contact in some pairs and nearly in contact in others1 so that from our point of view the two stars mutually eclipse each other4 ,when the two stars are in line with us we have minimum brightness4 ,when they have moved a quarter-revolution farther1 and the line joining them is at right angles to our line of sight1 so to speak1 we have maximum brightness4 ,in every known case the beta ,lyrae pairs of stars have spectra of the very early types4 ,some of them even contain bright lines in their spectra4 ,the densities of these great stars are known to be exceedingly low1 in some cases much lower on the average than that of the atmosphere which we breathe4 ,about #hj ,algol variable stars are known4 ,these are double stars whose light is constant except during the short time when one of the components in each system passes between us and the other component4 ,all double stars would be ,algol variables if we were exactly in the planes of their orbits4 ,that so few ,algols have been observed amongst the tens of thousands of double stars1 is easily explained4 ,the two component stars in the few known ,algol systems are so great in diameter1 in proportion to the size of their orbits1 that eclipses are observable throughout a wide volume of space1 and the eclipses are of long duration relatively to the revolution period4 ,their densities are1 so far as we have been able to determine them1 on an average less than #a_/ajth of the ,sun's density4 ,let us note well that their spectra1 so far as we have been able to determine them1 are of the early types2 mostly helium and hydrogen stars1 and a very few of the ,class ,f1 intermediate between the hydrogen and solar stars4 ,there are no known ,algols of the ,classes ,g1 ,k1 and ,m3 these stars are very condensed and therefore small in size1 as compared with stars of ,classes ,b and ,a2 and the components of double stars of these classes are on the average much denser and therefore smaller in size than the components in ,classes ,b and ,a double stars2 the components are much farther apart in ,classes ,g to ,m doubles than in ,classes ,b and ,a doubles2 and for these reasons eclipses in ,classes ,g to ,m doubles occur but rarely for observers scattered throughout space4 ,it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that the components of double stars separate more and more widely with the progress of time4 ,the conclusions which we have earlier drawn from visual double stars are in full harmony with the argument4 ,it is agreed by all1 ,i think1 that tidal action has been responsible for at least a part of the separation of the ,earth and ,moon1 for at least a part of the gradual separation of the components of double stars1 and for at least a part of the eccentricity of their orbits4 ,see's investigations of #be years ago led him to the conclusion that this force is sufficient to account for all the observed separation of the components of double stars1 and for the well-known high eccentricities of their orbits4 ,in recent years ,moulton and ,russell have seriously questioned the sufficiency of this force to account for the major part of the separation and eccentricity in the double star systems4 ,i think1 however1 that if the tidal force is not competent to account for the observed facts as described1 some other separating force or forces must be found to supply the deficiency4 ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,earth ,does the condition of the ,earth's interior give evidence on the question of its origin8 ,there are certain important facts which bear upon the problem4 #a4 ,the evidence supplied by the volcanoes1 by the hot springs1 and by the rise in temperature as we go down in all deep mines1 is unmistakably to the effect that there is an immense quantity of heat in the ,earth's interior4 ,near the surface the temperature increases at the average of #a degrees ,centigrade for every #cj meters of depth4 ,if this rate were maintained we should at #fj km4 in depth arrive at a temperature high enough to melt platinum1 the most refractory of the known metals4 ,what the law of temperature-increase at great depths is we do not know1 but the temperature of the ,earth's deep interior must be very high4 #b4 ,the pressures in the ,earth increase from zero at the surface to the order of #c1jjj1jjj atmospheric pressures at the center4 ,we know that rock structure1 or iron or other metals1 can be slightly compressed by pressure1 but the experiments at very high pressures1 notably those conducted by ,bridgman1 give no indications that matter under such pressures breaks down and obeys different or unknown laws4 ,it should be said1 however1 that laboratory pressure-effects alone are not a safe guide as to conditions within the ,earth1 where high pressures are accompanied by high temperature4 ,unfortunately it has not been found possible to combine the high-temperature factor with the high-pressure factor in the laboratory experiments4 ,it is well known that the melting points of metals1 including rocks1 increase with increase of pressure2 and although the temperatures in the ,earth's interior are very high1 it is easy to conceive that the materials of the ,earth's interior are nevertheless in the solid state1 or that they act like solids1 because of the high pressures to which they are subjected4 #c4 ,the specific gravity of the entire ,earth is #e4e on the scale of water as one1 whereas the density of the stratified rocks averages only #b4ge2 that is1 the stratified rocks have but one half the density of the ,earth as a whole4 ,the basaltic rocks underlying the stratified attain occasionally the density #c4a1 and perhaps a little higher4 ,it follows absolutely that the density of the materials of the ,earth's interior must be considerably in excess of #e4e4 ,if the interior is composed chiefly of substances which are plentiful in the ,earth's surface strata1 our choice of materials which principally compose the interior is reduced to a few elements1 notably the denser ones4 #d4 ,the observed phenomena of terrestrial precession can not be explained on the basis of an ,earth with a thin solid surface shell and a liquid interior1 for the attractions of the ,moon and ,sun upon the ,earth's equatorial protuberance would cause the surface shell to shift over the fluid interior1 instead of swinging the entire ,earth4 #e4 ,if the ,earth consisted of a thin solid shell upon a liquid interior there would be tides in the liquid interior1 the crust would yield to these tides almost as if it were composed of rubber1 and the ocean tides would be only an insignificant amount larger than the land tides4 ,as a result we should not see the ocean tides2 their visibility depends upon the contrast between the ocean tides and the land tides4 ,if the ,earth were absolutely unyielding from surface to center the ocean tides would be relatively #ej per cent4 higher than we now see them4 ,the conclusion from these facts is that the ,earth yields to the tidal forces a little less than if it were a solid ball of steel1 supposing that the well-known rigidity and density existed from surface to center of the ball4 ,this result is established by ,darwin's and ,schweydar's studies of ocean tides1 by studies of the tides in the ,earth's surface strata made by ,hecker1 ,paschwitz and others1 and by ,michelson's recent extremely accurate comparison of land and water tides4 ,michelson's results establish further that the ,earth is highly elastic3 though distortion is resisted1 there is yielding1 but the original form is recovered quickly1 almost as quickly as a perfectly elastic body would recover4 #f4 ,some #be years ago it was discovered by ,kustner that the latitudes of points on the ,earth's surface are changing slowly4 ,chandler proved that these variations pass through their principal cycle in a period of #dbg days4 ,the entire ,earth oscillates slightly in this period4 ,the earlier researches of ,euler had shown that the ,earth would have a natural oscillation period of #cje days provided it were an absolutely rigid body4 ,newcomb showed that the period of oscillation would be #dda days if the ,earth had the rigidity of steel4 ,as the observed oscillation requires #dbg days1 ,newcomb concluded that the ,earth is slightly more rigid than steel4 #g4 ,the first waves from a very distant earthquake come to us directly through the ,earth4 ,the observed speeds of transmission are the greater1 in general1 the more nearly the earthquake origin is exactly on the opposite side of the ,earth from the observer2 that is1 the speeds of transmission are greater the nearer the center of the ,earth the waves pass4 ,now1 we know that the speeds are functions of the rigidity and density of the materials traversed4 ,the observed speeds require for their explanation1 so far as we can now see1 that the rigidity of the ,earth's central volume be much greater than that of steel1 and the rigidity of the ,earth's outer strata considerably less than that of steel4 ,wiechert has shown that a core of radius #d1ijj km4 whose rigidity is somewhat greater than that of steel and whose average density is #h4c1 overlaid by an outer stony shell of thickness #a1ejj km4 and average density #c4b1 would satisfy the observed facts as to the average density of the ,earth1 as to the speeds of earthquake waves1 as to the flattening of the ,earth1--assuming the concentric strata to be homogeneous in themselves1--and as to the relative strengths of gravity at the ,poles and at the ,equator4 ,the dividing line1 #a1ejj km4 below the surface--#a1fjj km4 would be just one fourth of the way from the surface to the center--places a little over half the volume in the outer shell and a little less than half in the core4 ,wiechert did not mean that there must be a sudden change of density at the depth of #a1ejj km41 with uniform density #h4c below that surface and uniform density #c4b above that surface4 ,the change of density is probably fairly continuous4 ,it was necessary in such a preliminary investigation to simplify the assumptions4 ,the observational data are not yet sufficiently accurate to let us say what the law of increase in density and rigidity is as we pass from the surface to the center4 #h4 ,the phenomena of terrestrial magnetism indicate that the distribution of magnetic materials in the ,earth is far from uniform or symmetrical2 the magnetic poles are distant from the ,earth's poles of rotation2 the magnetic poles are not opposite each other2 the lines of equal intensity as to all the magnetic components involved run very irregularly over the ,earth's surface4 ,there is reason to believe that iron in the deep interior of the ,earth1 in view of its high temperature1 is devoid of magnetic properties1 but we must not state this as a fact4 ,we know that iron is very widely1 but very irregularly spread throughout the ,earth's outer strata4 ,whatever may be the main factors in making the ,earth a great magnet1 to whatever extent the rotation factor may be important1 the ,earth's magnetic properties point strongly to a very irregular distribution of magnetic materials in the outer strata where the temperatures are below that at which magnetic materials commonly lose their polarity4 #i4 ,irregularities in the direction of the plumb-line and in the force of gravity as observed widely and accurately over the ,earth's surface indicate that the surface strata are very irregular as to density4 ,to harmonize the observed facts ,hayford has shown the need of assuming that the heterogeneous conditions extend down to a depth of #abb km4 from the surface4 ,below that level the ,earth's concentric strata seem to be of approximately uniform densities4 #aj4 ,the radio active elements have been found by ,strutt and others in practically all kinds of rock accessible to the geologists1 but they are not found in significant quantities in the so-called metals which exist in a pure state4 ,these radioactive elements are liberating heat4 ,strutt has shown that if they existed down to the ,earth's center in the same proportion that he finds in the surface strata they would liberate a great deal more heat than the body of the ,earth is now radiating to outer space4 ,the conclusion is that they are restricted to the strata relatively near the ,earth's surface1 and are not in combination with the materials composing the ,earth's core4 ,they have apparently found some way of coming to the higher levels4 ,chamberlin suggests that as they liberate heat they would raise surrounding materials to temperatures above the normals for their strata1 and that these expanded materials would embrace every opportunity to approach the surface of the ,earth1 carrying the radioactive substances with them4 ,the evidence is exceedingly strong1 and perhaps irresistible1 to the effect that the ,earth is now solid1 or acts like a solid1 from surface to center1 with possibly local1 but on the whole negligible1 pockets of molten matter here and there2 and further1 that the ,earth existed in a molten1 or at the least a thickly plastic1 state throughout a long part of its life4 ,the nucleus1 whether gaseous or meteoric1 from which ,i believe it has grown1 may have been fairly hot or quite cold1 and the materials which were successively drawn into the nucleus may have been hot or cold3 heat would be generated by the impacts of the incoming materials2 and as the attraction toward the center of the mass became strong1 additional heat would be generated in the contraction process4 ,the denser materials have been able1 on the whole1 to gravitate to the center of the structure1 and the lighter elements have been able1 on the whole1 to rise to and float upon the surface very much as the lighter impurities in an iron furnace find their way to the surface and form the slag upon the molten metal4 ,the lighter materials which in general form the surface strata are solid under the conditions of solids known to us in every-day life4 ,the interior is solid or at least acts as a solid1 because the materials1 though at high temperatures1 are under stupendous pressures4 ,if the pressures were removed the deep-lying materials would quickly liquefy1 and probably even vaporize4 ,if the ,earth grew from a small nucleus to its present size by the extremely gradual drawing-in of innumerable small masses in its neighborhood1 the process would always be slow2 much slower at first when the small nucleus had low gravitating powers1 more rapid when the body was of good size and the store of materials to draw upon plentiful1and gradually slower and slower as the supply of building materials was depleted4 ,meteoric matter still falls upon and builds up the ,earth1 but at so slow a rate as to increase the ,earth's diameter an inch only after the passage of hundreds of millions of years4 ,if the ,earth grew in this manner1 the growth may now be said to be essentially complete1 through the substantial exhaustion of the supply of materials4 ,whether the ,earth of its present size was ever completely liquefied1 that is1 from center to surface1 at one and the same time1 is doubtful4 ,the lack of homogeneity1 as indicated by the plumb-line1 gravity1 terrestrial magnetism and radiaoctive matter1 extending in a perceptible degree down to #abb km41 and quite probably in lesser and imperceptible degree to a much greater depth1 is opposed to the idea4 ,solidification would respond to the fall of temperature down to the point required under the existing high pressures1 and it is probable that the solidification began at the center and proceeded outwards4 ,it is natural that the plastic state should have developed and existed especially during the age of most rapid growth1 for this would be the age of most rapid generation of heat4 ,later1 while the rate of growth was declining1 the body could probably have solidified slowly and successively from center out to surface4 ,in later slow depositions of materials1 the denser substance would not be able to sink down to the deepest strata3 they must lie within a limited depth and horizontal distance from where they fell1 and the outer stratum of the ,earth would be heterogeneous in density4 ,the simplest hypothesis we can make concerning the ,earth's deep interior is that the chief ingredient is iron2 perhaps a full half of the volume is iron4 ,the normal density of iron is #g4h1 and of rock formations about #b4h4 ,if these are mixed1 half and half1 the average density is #e4c4 ,pressures in the ,earth should increase the density and the heat in the ,earth should decrease the density4 ,the known density of the ,earth is #e4e4 ,we know that iron is plentiful in the ,earth's crust1 and that iron is still falling upon the ,earth in the form of meteorites4 ,the composition of the ,earth as a whole1 on this assumption1 is very similar to the composition of the meteorites in general4 ,they include many of the metals1 but especially iron1 and they include a large proportion of stony matter4 ,iron is plentiful in the ,sun and throughout the stellar universe4 ,why should it not be equally plentiful in the materials which have coalesced to form the ,earth8 ,it is difficult to explain the ,earth's constitution on any other hypothesis4 ,the ,earth's form is that which its rotation period demands4 ,undoubtedly if the period has changed1 the form has changed4 ,given a little time1 solids under great pressure flow quite readily into new forms4 ,now any great slowing-down of the ,earth's rotation period within geological times would be expected to show in the surface features4 ,the strata should have wrinkled1 so to speak1 in the equatorial regions and stretched in the polar regions1 if the ,earth changed from a spheroid that was considerably flatter than it now is1 to its present form4 ,mountains1 as evidence of the folding of the rock strata1 should exist in profusion in the torrid zone1 and be scarce in or absent from the higher latitudes of the ,earth4 ,such differential effects do not exist1 and it seems to follow that changes in the ,earth's rotation period and in its form could have been only slight while the stratification of our rocks was in progress4 ,geologists estimate from the deposition of salt in the oceans1 and from the rates of denudation and sedimentation1 that the formation of the rock strata has consumed from #fj1jjj1jjj to #ajj1jjj1jjj years4 ,if the ,earth had substantially its present form #hj1jjj1jjj years ago we are safe in saying that the period of time represented in the building up of the ,earth from a small nucleus to its present dimensions has been vastly longer1 probably reckoned in the thousands of millions of years4 ,for more than a century past the problem of the evolution of the stars1 including the solar system and the ,earth1 has occupied the central place in astronomical thought4 ,no one is bold enough to say that the problem has been solved4 ,the chief difficulty proceeds from the fact that we have only one ,earth1 one solar system and one stellar system available for tests of the hypotheses proposed2 we should like to test them on many systems1 but this privilege is denied us4 ,however1 the search for the truth will undoubtedly proceed at an ever increasing pace1 partly because of man's desire to know the truth1 but chiefly1 as ,lessing suggested1 because the investigator finds an irresistible satisfaction in the process4 ,there is always with him the certainty that the truth is going to be incomparably stranger and more interesting than fiction4 ,a ,,metrical ,,tragedy ,,by ,,dr4 ,,jos4 ,v4 ,,collins ,,stevens ,,point1 ,,wis4 ,,the war in ,europe has opened up a large field of trade in ,south ,america4 ,three things especially stand in the way of its development1 viz41 the absence of a proper credit system1 the failure to make goods of the kind demanded and third1 the use of our antiquated system of weights and measures1 all the ,south ,american countries employing the metric system4 ,of these three obstructing influences1 the first two are in a fair way to be obviated soon2 not so the last4 ,it is the use by our modern progressive country of an ancient system of weights and measures which it is here proposed to discuss and show up as an absurdity4 ,our present system is organized and set forth in arithmetics under some fifteen so-called tables4 ,these tables are all different and there is no uniformity in any one table4 ,only one unit suggests convenience in reductions1 viz41 hundredweight4 ,it is easy to reduce from pounds to hundredweight and vice versa4 ,some fifty ratio numbers have to be memorized or calculated from other memorized numbers to make the common needed reductions4 ,history shows that ancient ,babylonia had tables superior to those now in use1 and ancient ,britain a decimal scale which was crowded out by our present system4 ,the metric system of weights and measures was developed in ,france about #ahjj and has come to be employed over all the civilized world except in the ,united ,states1 ,great ,britain and ,russia4 ,the system was legalized in the ,united ,states in #ahff but not made mandatory and here we are fifty years later using the old system1 with most of the civilized world looking on us with more or less scorn because of our belatedness4 ,in this age everywhere the cry is efficiency1 always more efficiency4 ,ten thousand improvements and labor-saving devices are introduced every day4 ,but here is an improvement and labor-saving device which would affect the life of every person in the land and in many instances greatly affect such persons' lives1 and yet almost no one really knows anything about the matter4 ,so let us now consider the good points in the metric system 7each implying corresponding elements of great weakness in the common system71 and then study briefly what stands in the way of its adoption in this country4 ,these good points are3 ,first1 the metric units have uniform self-defining names 7cent1 mill1 meter and five more out of the eleven terms used already familiar to us in ,english words71 are always the same in all lands1 known everywhere1 and fixed with scientific accuracy4 ,second1 every ,,reduction is made almost instantaneously by merely moving the decimal point4 ,there are no reductions performed by multiplying by #a1gbh or #e1bhj1 etc41 or dividing by #e #a_/b1 #cj #a_/d or #ca #a_/b1 etc41 and hence there is ,a ,,great ,,saving in the labor and time of making necessary calculations4 ,third1 there are but ,,five tables in the metric system proper1 these taking the place of from twelve to fifteen in our system 7or lack of it74 ,these are linear1 square1 cubic1 capacity and weight4 ,fourth1 any one table is about as easy to learn as our ,united ,states money table1 and after one is learned1 it is much easier to learn the others1 since the same prefixes with the same meanings are used in all4 ,fifth1 the weights of all objects are either known directly from their size1 or can be very quickly found from their specific gravities4 ,sixth1 the subject is made so much easier for children in school that a conservative expert estimate of the saving is two thirds of a year in a child's school life4 ,the rule in this country is eight years of arithmetic1 the arithmetic occupying about one fourth of the child's activity4 ,with metric arithmetic substituted for ours1 what it now takes two years to prepare for1 could be easily done in #a #a_/c years4 ,this involves an enormous waste of money and energy every twelvemonth4 ,seventh1 only ,,one set of measures and ,,one set of weights are needed to measure and weigh everything1 and ,,one set of machines to make things for the world's use4 ,there would be no duplication of costly machinery to enter the foreign trade field1 thus securing enormous saving4 ,it is well known that the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain have lost a vast amount of foreign commerce in competition with ,germany and ,france1 because of their non-use of the metric units4 ,britain realizes this and is greatly concerned over the situation4 ,eighth1 every ordinary practical problem can be solved conveniently on an adding machine4 ,our adding machines are used almost solely for ,united ,states money problems4 ,ninth1 no valuable time is lost in making reductions from common to metric units1 or vice versa1 either by ourselves or foreigners4 ,to make our sizes in manufactured goods concrete to them foreign customers have to reduce our measures to theirs and this is a weariness to the flesh4 ,tenth1 the metric system is wonderfully simple4 ,all the tables with a rule to make all possible reductions can be put on a postal card4#a #a ,see article by the writer in ,education 7,boston71 ,dec41 #ahid4 ,the metric weights and measures constitute a ,,scientific ,,system2 our weights and measures are a ,,disorganization4 ,naturally one can expect a ,,great ,,saving ,,of ,,time1 ,,thought ,,and ,,labor from the use of a system1 and this is the fact4 ,if one dared introduce ordinary arithmetical problems into an article like this1 it would be easy to show by examples how a person has to be something of a master of common fractions in order to solve in our system common every-day problems1 whereas in the metric system nearly everything is done very simply with decimals4 ,in our system a mechanic after making a complicated calculation with common fractions is as likely as not to get his result in sixths1 or ninths1 etc41 of an inch1 whereas his rule reads to eighths1 or sixteenths1 and he must reduce his sixths1 or ninths1 to eighths1 or sixteenths1 before he can measure off his result4 ,in the metric system results always come out in units of the scale used4 ,the metric system measures to millimeters or to a unit a trifle larger than a thirty-second of an inch4 ,in our system one is likely to avoid sixteenths or thirty-seconds on account of the labor of calculation4 ,then1 besides1 the amount of figuring is so much less in the metric system4 ,take the case of a certain problem to find the cubical contents of a box4 ,our solution calls for #hj figures and the metric for #ce1 and this is a typical case1 not one specially selected4 ,thus1 metric calculations1 while only from one third to two thirds as long1 are likely to be two or three times as accurate1 are far easier to understand1 and the results can be immediately measured off4 ,hence1 we waste time in these four ways4 ,shakespeare in ,hamlet says3 ,thus conscience does make cowards of us all4 ,in like vein it might be said3 ,thus custom 7in weights and measures7 doth make ,april fools of us all4 ,it is no exaggeration to say that counting grown-ups solving actual problems and children solving problems in school we are sent on much more than a billion such ,april fool errands round ,robin ,hood's barn every year4 ,noting how much time is saved in making simple every-day calculations by using the metric system1 suppose that we assume of the #fj or more millions of adults in active life in this country1 on the average only one in #fj makes such calculations daily and that only twenty minutes' time is saved each day4 ,let us suppose that the value of the time of the users is put at #b4dj per day or #aj cents for #bj minutes4 ,then #a1jjj1jjj users would save #ajj1jjj per day or #cj1jjj1jjj per year4 ,but perhaps some one is saying that much of this time is not really saved1 since many persons are paid for their time and can just as well do this work as not4 ,the answer to this is that in many instances such calculations take the time of ,,others as well as the person making the calculation4 ,occasionally a contractor might hold back1 or work to a disadvantage a gang of a score of workmen while trying to solve a problem that came up unexpectedly4 ,an estimate of the value of all weighing and measuring instruments places the sum at #aej1jjj1jjj4 ,thus1 we see that in five years1 merely by a saving in ,,time--for time is money--all metric measuring and weighing instruments could be got ,,new at no extra expense4 ,this estimate of the cost of replacing our weighing and measuring instruments by new metric ones and of saving time has been made by others with a similar result4 ,a matter of very much more importance than that just discussed is the extra unnecessary expense put upon education1 viz41 two thirds of a year for every child in the land4 ,presumably if the metric system were in use with us1 all our children would stay in school as long as they now do1 thus getting two thirds of a year farther along in the course of study4 ,actually1 if arithmetic were made more simple1 vast numbers would2 stay longer1 since they would not be driven out of school by the terrible inroads on their interest in school work by dull and to them impossible arithmetic4 ,if metric arithmetic texts were substituted for our present texts1 it is safe to say children would average one full year more of education4 ,what the increased earning power would be from this it would be hard to estimate1 but clearly it would be a huge sum4 ,consider also how much more life would be worth living for children1 teachers and parents if a very large portion of arithmetical puzzles inserted to qualify the children to understand our crazy weights and measures were cut out of our text-books4 ,if we were to adopt the metric system1 literally millions of parents would be spared worry1 and shame1 and fear lest ,johnny fail and drop out of school1 or ,mary show unexpected weakness and have to take a grade over again2 uncounted thousands of teachers would be saved much gnashing of teeth and uttering of mild feminine imprecations under their breath2 and1 best of all1 the children themselves would be saved from pencil-biting1 tears1 worries1 heartburns1 arrested development1 shame and loss of education6 ,a committee of the ,national ,educational ,association has recently reported that ,germany and ,france are each two full years ahead of us in educational achievement1 that is1 children in those countries of a certain age have as good an education as our children which are two years the foreign childrens' seniors4 ,surely one of these years is fully accounted for by the inferiority of our ,american ,,arithmetic and ,,spelling4 ,this much1 at least1 of the difference is neither in the children themselves1 nor in the lack of preparation of our teachers1 nor in educational methods4 ,professor ,j4 ,w4 ,a4 ,young1 of the ,university of ,chicago1 in his work on ,mathematics in ,prussia1 says3 ,in the work in mathematics done in the nine years from the age of nine on1 we ,americans accomplish no more than the ,prussians1 while we give to the work seven fourths of the time the ,germans give4 ,professor ,james ,pierpont1 of ,yale1 writing in the ,bulletin of the ,american ,mathematical ,society 7,april1 #aijj71 shows a like comparison can be made with ,french instruction4 ,pierpont's table exhibits only one hour a week needed for arithmetic for pupils aged #aa and #ab6 ,as the advertisements sometimes say1 there must be a reason4 ,but if the children are kept in school two thirds of a year longer somebody pays for this extra expense4 ,now children do not drop out of school until they are about #ab years of age and have both appetites and earning power4 ,the number of these children that drop out each year is probably about #b #a_/b millions4 ,of this number let us say #a #a_/b millions would become wage earners1 thus passing from the class that are supported to the class that support themselves and earn a small wage besides4 ,we have then three items in this count3 7#a7 ,the cost to the state in taxes for the education of #b #a_/b million for two thirds of a year1 or #ej1jjj1jjj2 7#b7 ,the cost to the parents for support of #a #a_/b millions for two thirds of a year at #fg each1 or #ajj1jjj1jjj2 7#c7 ,the wages of #a #a_/b millions over and above the cost of their support1 say #ej each1 or #ge1jjj1jjj4 ,the above figures are put low purposely so that they can not be criticized4 ,it should be remembered that #df per cent4 of our population is agricultural1 and that on the farm1 youths of from #ac to #ae very often do men's and women's work3 also that in many manufacturing centers great numbers of children get work at relatively good wages1 and that the number of completely idle children out of school is not large4 ,with these figures in hand let us consider now a kind of debit and credit sheet against and for our present system of weights and measures4 ,,present ,,system ,,of ,,weights ,,and ,,measures ,in ,,annual account with ,,uncle ,,sam ,cr4 ,by culture 787 acquired by the children through learning more common fractions and our crazy tables of weights and measures4444444444 8 ,dr4 ,to cost in school taxes of keeping #b #a_/b millions of children in school #b_/c year4 #ej1jjj1jjj ,to cost to parents for supporting #a #a_/b millions children #b_/c year4444444444444 #ajj1jjj1jjj ,to loss of productive power of #a #a_/b millions youth for #b_/c year 4444444444444 #ge1jjj1jjj ,to loss of earning power by having children driven out of school by difficulties of arithmetic as now taught 444444444444444444444444444444444444 #be1jjj1jjj ,to loss of time in making arithmetical calculations by men in trade1 industries and manufactures44444444444444444444444444 #cj1jjj1jjj ,to extra weighing and measuring instruments needed for sundry tables4444444 #aj1jjj1jjj ,to loss of time in making cross reductions to and from our system and metric system 444444444444444444444444444444 #e1jjj1jjj ,to loss of profit from foreign trade because our goods are not in metric units 4444444444444444444444444444444444444 #bj1jjj1jjj ------------ ,total annual loss 44444444444444444 #cae1jjj1jjj ,commenting for a moment on the credit side of the above ledger account1 it can be said that recent psychology shows conclusively that training in common fractions and weights and measures can not be of much practical help as so-called culture1 or training for learning other things1 unless those other things are closely related to them1 and there are not many things in life so related to them once we had dropped our present weights and measures4 ,it may be complained that the expense of changing to the new system is not taken account of in the above table4 ,the reason is that that expense would occur once for all4 ,the above table deals with the ,,annual cost of our present medieval system4 ,one powerful reason for the adoption of the metric system different in character from the others is the ease of cheating by the old system4 ,in the past the people have been unmercifully abused through short weights and measures4 ,many of the states have taken this matter up latterly and prosecuted merchants right and left4 ,nine tenths of this trouble would disappear with the new system in use4 ,let us consider now for a little time the reasons why the metric system has not been accepted and adopted for use in the ,united ,states4 ,evidently the great main reason has been that the masses of the people1 in fact all of them except a very small educated class in science are almost totally uninformed on this whole question4 ,such articles as have been published have almost invariably appeared in either scientific1 technical or educational magazines1 mostly the first1 so that there has been no means of reaching the masses1 or even the school teachers with the facts4 ,for another reason the ,united ,states occupies an isolated position geographically1 and our people do not come into personal contact with those in other countries using the metric system4 ,but there is still another potent reason4 ,after the ,united ,states government legalized the metric system in #ahff1 all the school books on arithmetic began presenting the topic of the metric system1 and1 quite naturally1 they did it by comparing its units with those of our system and calling for cross reductions from one system to the other4 ,no better means of sickening the ,american children with the metric system could have been devised4 ,multitudes of the young formed a strong dislike for the foreign system with its foreign names1 and could not now be easily convinced that it is not difficult to learn4 ,every school boy knows how easy it is to learn ,united ,states money4 ,the boy just naturally learns it between two nights4 ,the whole metric system ,,under ,,favorable ,,conditions is learned nearly as easily4 ,by favorable conditions is meant the constant use of the system in homes1 schools1 stores1 etc4 ,these favorable conditions1 of course1 we have never had4 ,in #aijd an earnest effort was made again both in this country and ,great ,britain to have the metric system adopted for general use4 ,the exporting manufacturers in both countries grew much concerned over the whole situation4 ,a petition to have the metric system adopted in ,great ,britain was signed by over #b1jjj1jjj persons4 ,a bill to make the system mandatory was passed by the ,house of ,lords and its first reading in the ,house of ,commons4 ,the forces of conservatism then bestirred themselves and the bill was held up4 ,forseeing a movement of the same kind in this country1 the ,american ,manufactures' ,association got busy1 laid plans to defeat such movement which they later did4 ,strictly speaking this action was not taken by the association as such but only by a part of it4 ,one fourth of the membership and probably much more than a fourth of the capital of the association was on the side for the adoption of the system4 ,politically1 however1 the side opposed to the new system had altogether the most influence4 ,careful study of the whole matter showed that the main cost to make the change to the new system would be in dies1 patterns1 gauges1 jigs1 etc4 ,a careful estimate put this cost at #fjj for each workman and assuming a million workmen1 we have a total cost of #fjj1jjj1jjj4 ,but we have just seen that the annual expense of retaining the old system of weights and measures is over #cjj1jjj1jjj4 ,thus we see that two short years would suffice to pay for what seems to the great manufacturers association an insuperable expense4 ,from all this we see that the question is not one for ,n4 ,m4 ,a4 bookkeeping1 but for national bookkeeping4 ,many well-informed people studying the matter superficially1 think the difficulties in the way of a change to the new system insurmountable4 ,thus1 they think of the cost to the manufacturer--which we have just seen to be rather large but not insurmountable2 they think of the changes needed in books1 records1 such as deeds1 and the substitution of new measuring and weighing instruments4 ,germany and all the other countries of continental ,europe made the change4 ,are we to assume that the ,united ,states can not8 ,that would be ridiculous4 ,granting that commerce has grown greatly1 so also has intelligence and capability of the people for doing great things4 ,scientists are universally agreed as to the wisdom of the adoption of the metric system4 ,the country1 as a whole1 must be educated up to the notion that sooner or later it is sure to be universally adopted1 that it is only a question of time when this will be done4 ,already electrical1 chemical and optical manufacturing concerns use the metric units and system exclusively4 ,the system is also used widely in medicine and still other arts4 ,then all institutions of learning use the metric system exclusively whenever this is possible4 ,all that is needed is to complete a good work well begun4 ,there is one rational objection to the metric system and but one4 ,it is that #aj is inferior to #ab as a base for a notation for numbers1 but the world is not ready to make this change nor is it likely to be for generations to come4 ,moreover1 this improvement is far less important than uniformity in weights and measures4 ,for these reasons this objection can be passed over4 ,men said the metric system would never be used outside of ,france2 but it has come to be used all over the world4 ,the prophets said we should never have uniformity as regards a reference meridian of longitude4 ,but we have4 ,and so it will be with the adoption of the metric system in the ,united ,states and ,great ,britain4 ,it is only a question of whether it comes sooner or later4 ,when that day comes1 the meter1 a long yard1 will replace the yard1 the liter1 the quart 7being smaller than a dry and larger than a liquid quart71 the kilogram will replace the pound1 being equal to #b4b pounds1 and the kilometer 74#f mi47 will replace the mile4 ,within a week or so after the change has been made to the new system1 all men in business will be reasonably familiar with the new units and how they are used1 and within a few months every man1 woman and child will be as familiar with the new system as they ever were with the simplest parts of the old4 ,so easy it will be to make the change as far as ordinary business affairs are concerned4 ,however1 for exact metal manufactures years will be needed to fully change over to the new4 ,here the plan is to begin with new unit constructions and new models1 as automobiles using new machinery constructed in the integral units of the metric system4 ,all old constructions are left as they are and repaired as they are4 ,this was the plan used in ,germany and of course it works4 ,in conclusion it can be said that we started with the idea that the change to the metric system was needed for the sake of foreign commerce4 ,we now see that we need it also for our own commercial and manufacturing transactions4 ,if we are to have the efficiency so insistently demanded by the age in which we live1 then we must have the metric system in use for the ordinary affairs of daily life of the masses of the people1 we must have it in commercial and manufacturing industries1 and we must have it in education4 ,if efficiency is to be the slogan1 then the metric system must come no matter what obstacles stand in its way4 ,,adaptation ,,as ,a ,,process ,,by ,,professor ,,harry ,,beal ,,torrey ,,reed ,,college ,,for the physicist and chemist the term adaptation awakens but the barren echo of an idea4 ,in biology it still retains a certain standing1 though its significance has1 in recent years1 been rapidly contracting1 as the influence of the conception for which it stands has waned4 ,many biologists are now of the opinion that their science would be better off entirely without it4 ,they believe it has not only outlived its usefulness1 but has become a source of confusion1 if not1 indeed1 reaction4 ,darwin's first task1 in the ,origin of ,species1 was to demonstrate that species had not been independently created1 but had descended1 like varieties1 from other species4 ,but he was well aware that such a conclusion1 even if well founded1 would be unsatisfactory until it could be shown how the innumerable species inhabiting the world have been modified1 so as to acquire that perfection of structure and coadaptation which justly excites our admiration4 ,to establish convincingly the doctrine of descent with modification as a theory of species1 it was necessary for him to develop the theory of adaptation which we now know as natural selection4 ,the origin of adaptive variations gave him1 at that time1 little concern4 ,though keenly appreciative of the problem of variation which his studies in evolution presented1 he dismissed it in the ,origin with less than twenty-five pages of discussion4 ,such brevity is not surprising1 since a more extended treatment would only have embarrassed the progress of the argument4 ,in fact1 his restraint in this direction enabled him1 first1 to avoid the difficulties into which ,lamarck1 with his bold attack on the problem of variation1 had fallen2 and second1 by doing so1 to deal the doctrine of ,design a blow from which it has never recovered4 ,the latter was a service of well-nigh incalculable value to the young science of biology--and1 as it appeared1 to modern civilization as well4 ,but it has not been uncommon1 from ,aristotle's day to this1 for the work of great men to suffer at the hands of less imaginative followers4 ,sweeping applications of ,darwin's doctrine have been repeatedly made without due regard either for its original object or for the success with which that object was achieved4 ,so ,i believe it to be no fault of ,darwin that the growing indifference of ,european laboratories toward natural selection should find occasional expression in such a phrase as the ,english disease4 ,disease1 indeed1 ,i believe we must in candor admit that devotion to it to be which blinds its devotees to those problems of more elementary importance than the problem of adaptation1 which ,darwin clearly saw but was born too soon to solve4 ,the problem of species has profoundly changed since #ahei4 ,for ,darwin it was perforce a problem of adaptation4 ,for the investigator of to-day it has become a part of the more inclusive problem of variation4 ,along with the logical results of natural selection he contemplates the biological processes of organic differentiation4 ,he is no longer satisfied to assume the existence of those modifications that make selection possible4 ,in his efforts to control them1 the conception of adaptation as a result has been crowded from the center of his interest by the conception of adaptation as a process4 ,the survival of specially endowed organisms1 the elimination of competing individuals not thus endowed1 are facts that possess1 in themselves1 no immediate biological significance4 ,selection as such is not a biological process1 whether it is accomplished automatically on the basis of protective coloration1 or self-consciously by man4 ,separating sheep from goats may have a purely commercial interest1 as when prunes and apples1 gravel and bullets1 are graded for the market4 ,such selection is1 at bottom1 a method of classification1 serving the same general purpose as boxes in a post-office4 ,similarly1 natural selection is but a name for the segregation and classification that take place automatically in the great struggle for existence in nature4 ,the fact that it is a result rather than a process accounts1 probably more than anything else1 for its remarkable effect upon modern thought4 ,it is non-energetic4 ,it exerts no creative force4 ,as a conception of passive mechanical segregation and survival1 it was a most timely and potent substitute for the naive teleology involved in the idea of special creation4 ,as a theory of adaptation1 then1 natural selection is satisfactory only in so far as it accounts for the preservation of favored races4 ,it throws no light upon the origin of the variations with which races are favored4 ,since it is only as variations possess a certain utility for the organism that they become known as adaptations1 the conception of adaptation is inevitably associated with the welfare of individuals or the survival of races4 ,to disregard this association is to rob the conception of all meaning4 ,like health1 it has no elementary physiological significance4 ,our profound interest in the problem of survival is natural and practical and inevitable4 ,but in spite of ,darwin's great contribution toward a scientific analysis of the mechanism of organic evolution1 and in spite of the marvelous recent progress of medicine along its many branches1 the fact remains that so far as this interest in the problem of survival is dominant it must continue to hinder adequate analysis of the problem of adaptation4 ,indeed1 it is in large measure due to such domination in the past that biology now lags so far behind the less personal sciences of physics and chemistry4 ,for survival means the survival of an individual4 ,and there is no doubt that the individual organism is the most conspicuous datum in the living world4 ,the few who1 neglectful of individuals and survivals1 find their chief interest in living substance1 its properties and processes1 are promptly challenged by the many to find living substance save in the body of an organism4 ,thus1 in a peculiarly significant sense1 organisms are vital units4 ,and since the individual organism shows a remarkable capacity to retain its identity under a wide range of conditions1 adaptability or adjustability comes to be reckoned as the prime characteristic of life by all to whom the integrity of the individual organism is the fact of chief importance4 ,with the use of the words adaptability and adjustability1 our discussion assumes a somewhat different aspect4 ,instead of contemplating further the mechanical selection of individuals on the basis of characters that1 like the structure of the woodpecker1 with its feet1 tail1 beak and tongue1 so admirably adapted to catch insects under the bark of trees1 can not be attributed to the influence of the external conditions that render them useful1 we are invited to consider immediate and plastic adjustments of the organism to the very conditions that call forth the response4 ,for the fortuitous adjustments that tend to preserve those individuals or races that chance to possess them1 are substituted1 accordingly1 the direct primary adjustments that tend to preserve the identity of the reacting organism4 ,we turn thus from the ,,results of the selection of favorable variations to the biological ,,processes by which organisms become accommodated to their conditions of life4 ,at once the old questions arise4 ,are these processes fundamentally peculiar to the life of organisms8 ,does the capacity of the organism thus to adjust itself to its environment involve factors not found in the operations of inorganic nature8 ,our answers will be determined essentially by the nature of our interest in the organism--whether we regard its existence as the ,,end or merely an incidental ,,effect of its activities4 ,the first alternative is compatible with thoroughgoing vitalism4 ,the second1 emphasizing the nature of the processes rather than their usefulness to the organism1 relieves biology of the embarrassments of vitalistic speculation1 and allies it at the same time more intimately than ever with physics and chemistry4 ,this alliance promises so well for the analysis of adaptations1 as to demand our serious attention4 ,physiologically1 the living organism may be thought of as a physico-chemical system of great complexity and peculiar composition which varies from organism to organism and from part to part4 ,life itself may be defined as a group of characteristic activities dependent upon the transformations in this system under appropriate conditions4 ,according to this definition1 life is determined not only by the physical and chemical attributes of the system1 but by the fitness of its environment1 which ,henderson has recently done the important service of emphasizing4#a ,relatively trifling changes in the environment suffice to render it unfit1 however1 that is1 to modify it beyond the limits of an organism's adaptability4 ,the environmental limits are narrow1 then1 within which the transformations of the organic system can take place that are associated with adaptive reactions4 ,the conditions within these limits are1 further1 peculiarly favorable for just such transformations in just such physico-chemical systems4 #a ,the ,fitness of the ,environment4 ,the essential characteristic of the adaptive reaction appears to be that the organism concerned responds to changing conditions without losing certain attributes of behavior by which we recognize organisms in general and by which that organism is recognized in particular4 ,it exhibits stability in the midst of change2 it retains its identity4 ,but this stability1 let us repeat1 is the stability of a certain type of physico-chemical system1 with respect to certain characters only1 and exhibited under certain circumscribed conditions4 ,in so far as the problem of adaptation is thus restricted in its application1 it remains a question of standards1 a taxonomic convenience1 a problem of the organism by definition only1 empty of fundamental significance4 ,it is to be expected that systems differing widely in composition and structure will differ in their responses to given conditions4 ,this will be true whether the systems compared thus are organic1 or inorganic1 or representative of both groups4 ,the compounds of carbon1 of which living substance is so characteristically composed1 exhibit properties and reactions that distinguish them at once in many respects from the compounds of lead or sulphur4 ,they also differ widely among themselves2 compare1 in this connection1 serum albumen1 acetic acid1 cane sugar1 urea4 ,no vitalistic factor is needed for the interpretation of divergencies of this kind4 ,but there are many significant similarities between organisms and inorganic systems as well4 ,these are so frequently overlooked that it will now be desirable to consider a few illustrative cases4 ,for the sake of brevity1 they have been selected as representative of but two types of adaptation commonly known under the names of ,,acclimatization and ,,regulation4 ,let us first consider the case of organisms which become acclimatized by slow degrees to new conditions that1 suddenly imposed1 would produce fatal results4 ,hydra is an organism which becomes thus acclimatized finally to solutions of strychnine too strong to be endured at first4 ,outwardly it appears to suffer in the process no obvious modifications4 ,yet modifications of a physiological order take place1 as is shown1 first1 by the necessary deliberation of the acclimatization1 second1 by the death of the organism if transferred abruptly back to its original environment4 ,in other forms the structural changes accompanying acclimatization may be far more conspicuous4 ,for example1 the aerial leaves of ,limnophila heterophylla are dentate1 while those grown under water are excessively divided4 ,again1 the helmets and caudal spines of ,hyalodaphnia vary greatly in length with the seasonal temperature4 ,in these and the large number of similar cases that might be cited1 stability of the physiological system under changed conditions is only obtained by changes in the system itself which are often exhibited by striking structural modifications4 ,compare with such phenomena of acclimatization the responses of sulphur1 tin1 liquid crystals and iron alloys to changes of temperature4 ,the rhombic crystals that characterize sulphur at ordinary temperatures and pressures1 give place to monoclinic crystals at #ie4e degrees ,c4 ,sulphur thus exists with two crystalline forms whose stability depends directly upon the temperature4 ,similarly1 tin exists under two stable forms1 white and gray1 the one above1 the other below the transitional point1 which is1 in this case1 #ah degrees ,c4 ,at this temperature white tin is in a metastable condition1 and transforms into the gray variety4 ,the transformation goes on1 then1 at ordinary temperatures1 but1 fortunately for us as users of tin implements1 very slowly4 ,its velocity can be increased1 however1 by lowering the temperature1 on which1 then1 not only the transformation itself1 but its rate depends4 ,in this connection may be mentioned cholesteryl acetate and benzoate and other substances which possess two crystalline phases1 one of which is liquid1 unlike other liquids1 however1 in being anisotropic4 ,as in the preceding cases1 these phases are expressions of equilibrium at different temperatures4 ,especially instructive facts are afforded by the alloys of iron and carbon4 ,iron1 or ferrite1 exists under three forms3 as alpha ferrite below #gfj degrees1 as beta ferrite between #gfj degrees and #ijj degrees1 and as gamma ferrite above #ijj degrees4 ,only the last is able to hold carbon in solid solution4 ,the alloys of iron and carbon exist under several forms4 ,pearlite is a heterogeneous mixture containing #j4h per cent4 carbon4 ,when heated to #fgj degrees1 it becomes homogeneous1 an amount of carbon up to two per cent4 dissolves in the iron1 and hard steel or martensite is formed4 ,in appearance1 however1 the two forms are so nearly identical as to be discriminated only by careful microscopical examination4 ,cementite is a definite compound of iron and carbon represented by the formula ,fe#c subscript,c4 ,when cooled slowly below #fgj degrees1 martensite yields a heterogeneous mixture of pearlite and ferrite 7or cementite1 if the original mixture contained between #j4h per cent4 and two per cent4 of carbon74 ,soft steels and wrought iron are thus obtained4 ,when cooled rapidly1 however1 as in the tempering of steel1 martensite remains a homogeneous solid solution1 or hard steel4 ,one can not fail to notice the remarkable parallel between these facts and the behavior of ,hydra in the presence of strychnine4 ,in both cases new positions of stability are reached by modifying the original conditions of stability2 and in both1 the old positions of stability are regained only by returns to the original conditions of stability so gradual as to afford time sufficient for the necessary transformations in the systems themselves4 ,the forms which both organic and inorganic systems assume thus appear to be functions of the conditions in which they exist4 ,the fact that ,hydra is able to regain a position of stability from which it had been displaced connects the behavior of this organism not only with the physical phenomena already cited1 but still more intimately with the large class of chemical reactions which are similarly characterized by equilibrium and reversibility4 ,such reactions do not proceed to completion1 which is probably always the case wherever the mixture of the systems under transformation is homogeneous1 as in the case of solutions4 ,they occur widely among carbon compounds4 ,the following typical case will suffice to indicate their essential characteristics4 ,when ethyl alcohol and acetic acid are mixed1 a reaction ensues which yields ethyl acetate and water4 ,but ethyl acetate and water react together also1 yielding ethyl alcohol and acetic acid4 ,this second reaction1 in a direction opposite to the first1 proceeds in the beginning more slowly also4 ,there comes a time1 however1 when the speeds of the two reactions are equal4 ,a position of equilibrium or apparent rest is thus reached1 which persists as long as the relative proportions of the component substances remain unchanged4 ,a great many reversible reactions are made possible by enzymes4 ,in the presence of diastase1 glucose yields glycogen and water1 which1 reacting together in the opposite direction1 yield glucose again4 ,in the presence of emulsin1 amygdalin is decomposed into glucose1 hydrocyanic acid and benzoic aldehyde1 and reformed from them4 ,similarly in the presence of lipase1 esters are reformed from alcohols and fatty acids1 their decomposition products4 ,with the introduction of enzymes1 certain complications ensue4 ,though it has been shown that lipase acts as a true catalyser1 this may not hold for all1 especially for proteolytic1 enzymes4 ,that reversible reactions actually occur in proteids1 however1 accompanied as they are in some cases at least by certain displacements of the position of equilibrium1 there appears to be no question4#b #b ,robertson1 ,univ4 ,calif4 ,publ4 ,physiol41 #c1 #aiji1 p4 #aae4 ,these examples are but suggestions of the many reversible reactions that have now been observed among the compounds of carbon4 ,that they have peculiar significance for the present discussion resides in the fact that living substance is composed of carbon compounds1 so many and in such exceedingly complex relations as to present endless possibilities for shifting equilibria and the physical and chemical adjustments resulting therefrom4 ,with these facts in mind we may now turn from the consideration of acclimatization to a brief discussion of certain phenomena of regulation--adaptive reactions that are especially conspicuous in the growth and development of organisms1 but separated by no sharp dividing line from adaptive reactions of the other type4 ,when a fragment of an organism transforms1 under appropriate conditions1 into a typical individual1 the process includes degenerative aa well as regenerative phases4 ,there is always some simplification of the structures present1 whose character and amount is determined by the degree of specialization which has been attained4 ,the smaller the piece1 within certain limits1 and the younger physiologically1 the more nearly does it return to embryonic conditions1 a fact which can be studied admirably in the hydroid ,corymorpha4 ,in some cases the simplification is accomplished by abrupt sacrifice of highly specialized parts1 as in ,corymorpha1 when in a process of simplification connected with acclimatization to aquarium conditions1 the large tentacles of well-grown specimens fall away completely from their bases4 ,in other hydroids 7e4 g41 ,campanularia7 the tentacles may be completely absorbed into the body of the hydranth from which they originally sprang4 ,among tissue cells degenerative changes may be abrupt1 as in the sacrifice of the highly specialized fibrillae in muscle cells2 or they may be very gradual1 as in the transformation of cells of one sort into another that occurs in the regeneration of tentacles in ,tubularia4 ,an interesting case of absorption of parts came to my notice while studying the larvae of the pennatulid coral ,renilla some fifteen years ago4 ,as will be remembered1 ,renilla possesses eight tentacles with numerous processes pinnately arranged4 ,during a period of enforced starvation1 these pinnae were gradually absorbed1 and the tentacles shortened1 from tip to base4 ,with the advent of food--in the form of annelid eggs--the reverse of these events took place4 ,the tentacles lengthened and the pinnae reappeared1 the larvae assuming their normal aspect4 ,it appears1 then1 that in some circumstances at least1 the process of simplification may resemble very nearly1 even in details1 a reversal of the process of differentiation4 ,that one is actually in every respect the reverse of the other is undoubtedly not true4 ,this1 however1 is not to be wondered at4 ,mechanical inhibitions that are so conspicuous in some cases 7e4 g41 ,corymorpha7 are to be expected to a certain degree in all4 ,the regenerative process itself depends upon the cooperation of many physical and chemical factors1 in many and complex physicochemical systems in varying conditions of equilibrium4 ,and it is important to note that even the equilibrium reactions by which a single proteid in the presence of an enzyme1 is made and unmade1 do not appear always to follow identically the same path in opposite directions4#c #c ,robertson1 vid4 sup41 p4 #bfi4 ,whatever their course in the instances cited and in many others1 reversals in the processes of development do take place4 ,in perhaps their simplest form these can be seen in egg cells4 ,the development of a fragment of an egg as a complete whole involves reversals in the processes of differentiation of a very subtle order4 ,the fusion of two eggs to one involves similar readjustments4 ,such phenomena have been held to be peculiar to living machines only4 ,yet it may be pointed out that there are counterparts of both in the behavior of so-called liquid crystals4 ,when liquid crystals of paraazoxyzimtsaure-,athylester are divided1 the parts are smaller in size1 but otherwise identical with the parent crystal in form1 structure and optical properties4 ,the fusion of two crystals of ammonium oleate forming a single crystal of larger size has also been observed4 ,though changes in equilibrium that accompany such behavior of liquid crystals are undoubtedly very much simpler than the changes that accompany the regulatory processes exhibited by the living egg1 the striking resemblance between the phenomena themselves tempts us not to magnify the difference4 ,further temptation in the same direction is offered by the recent discovery#d that the processes of development stimulated in the eggs of the sea urchin ,arbacia by butyric acid or weak bases1 and evidenced by the formation of the fertilization membrane1 is reversible4 ,when such eggs are treated with a weak solution of sodium cyanide or chloral hydrate1 they return to the resting condition4 ,upon fertilization with spermatozoa1 in normal sea water1 they proceed again to develop4 #d ,loeb1 ,arch4 f4 ,entw41 #bh1 #aiad1 p4 #bgg4 ,the facts that have now been briefly summarized have been selected to emphasize the growing intimacy between the biological and the inorganic sciences4 ,no harm can conceivably come from it4 ,on the contrary1 there is every reason to be hopeful that the investigation of biological problems in the impersonal spirit that has long distinguished the maturer sciences of physics and chemistry will continue to develop a better control and fuller understanding of the processes in living organisms1 of which the phenomena of variation in general1 and of adaptation in particular1 are but incidental effects4 ,,why ,,certain ,,plants ,,are ,,acrid ,,by ,,professor ,,william ,b4 ,,lazenby ,,ohio ,,state ,,university ,,ever since my first lessons in botany1 the characteristic qualities and properties of plants have given me much thought4 ,why certain plants produced aromatic oils and ethers1 while others growing under the same conditions produced special acids or alkaloids1 was a subject of endless speculation4 ,the pleasing aroma of the bark of various trees and shrubs1 the spicy qualities of the foliage and seeds of other plants2 the intense acridity2 the bitterness2 the narcotic1 the poisonous principle in woody and herbaceous species2 all were intensely interesting4 ,this interest was biological rather than chemical4 ,i cared less for the ultimate composition of the oils1 acids1 alkalis1 etc41 than ,i did for their use or office in the plant economy1 and their effect upon those who might use them4 ,perhaps no one plant interested me more from this point of view1 than the well-known ,indian turnip 7,arisoema triphyllum74 ,as a boy ,i was well acquainted with the signally acrid quality of this plant2 ,i was well aware of its effect when chewed1 yet ,i was irresistibly drawn to taste it again and again4 ,it was ever a painful experience1 and ,i suffered the full penalty of my rashness4 ,as an awn from a bearded head of barley will win its disputed way up one's sleeve1 and gain a point in advance despite all effort to stop or expel it1 so did every resolution1 every reflection1 counteract the very purpose it was summoned to oppose1 and to my sorrow ,i would taste the drastic1 turnip-shaped corm wherever opportunity occurred4 ,it is a well-known fact that the liquid content of the cells of plants contain numerous inorganic substances in solution4 ,among these1 not considering oxygen1 hydrogen1 nitrogen and carbon dioxide1 there are the salts of calcium1 magnesium1 potassium1 iron1 sulphur and phosphorus4 ,the above substances are found in the cells of every living plant4 ,other substances like salts of sodium and silica are also found1 but these are not regarded as essential to the life and growth of plants4 ,they appear to be present because the plant has not the power to reject them4 ,many of the substances named above1 are found deposited either in an amorphous or crystalline form in the substance of the cell wall4 ,in addition to this1 crystals of mineral matter1 having various shapes and sizes1 are often found in the interior of cells4 ,the most common of these interior cell crystals are those composed of calcium oxalate and calcium carbonate4 ,others composed of calcium phosphate1 calcium sulphate and silica are sometimes found4 ,these crystals may occur singly or in clusters of greater or less size4 ,in shape they are prismatic or needle-like4 ,it is not the object of this paper to treat of plant crystals in general1 but to consider the peculiar effect produced by certain forms when found in some well-known plants4 ,the extreme acridity or intense pungency of the bulbs1 stems1 leaves and fruit of various species of the ,araceae or ,arum family1 was recognized centuries ago4 ,the cause of this characteristic property or quality was1 until a comparatively recent date1 not definitely determined4 ,as far as ,i am aware the first scientific investigation of this subject was made by the writer4 ,at a meeting of the ,american ,association for the ,advancement of ,science held at ,indianapolis in #ahij1 some studies and experiments were reported in a short paper entitled ,notes upon the ,crystals in certain species of the ,arum ,family4 ,this paper expressed the belief that the acridity of the ,indian turnip and other plants belonging to the same family1 was due to the presence of needle-shaped crystals or raphides found in the cells of these plants4 ,this conclusion was not accepted by ,professor ,t4 ,j4 ,burrill1 of the ,university of ,illinois1 nor by other eminent botanists who were present and took part in the discussion that followed the reading of the paper4 ,the opposition was based mainly on the well-known fact that many other plants like the grape1 rhubarb1 fuchsia1 spiderwort1 etc41 are not at all1 or but slightly acrid1 although the raphides are as abundant in them as in the ,indian turnip and its allies4 ,up to this time the ,united ,states ,dispensatory and other works on pharmacy1 ascribed the following rather indefinite cause for the acridity of the ,indian turnip4 ,it was said to be due to an acrid1 extremely volatile principle4 ,this principle was insoluble in water and alcohol1 but soluble in ether4 ,it was dissipated both by heating and drying1 and by this means the acridity is destroyed4 ,there was no opinion given as to the real nature of this so-called principle4 ,more recently it has been intimated that the acridity may be due to some ferment or enzyme1 which has been derived in part from the self-decomposition of protoplasm and in part by the process of oxidation and reduction4 ,here the question appeared to rest4 ,at all events ,i was unable to glean any further knowledge from the sources at my command4 ,some time later the subject was taken up in a more comprehensive manner and the following report is the first detailed description of an investigation that has occupied more or less of my leisure for some years4 ,a dozen or more species of plants have been used for examination and study4 ,among these were3 ,indian turnip 7,arisoema triphyllum74 ,green dragon 7,arisoema dracontium74 ,sweet-flag 7,acorus74 ,skunk cabbage 7,spathyema74 ,calla 7,richardia74 ,caladium 7,caladium74 ,calocasia 7,calocasia74 ,phyllodendron 7,phyllodendron74 ,fuchsia 7,fuchsia74 ,wandering ,jew 7,tradescantia74 ,rhubarb 7,rheum74 ,grape 7,vitis74 ,onion 7,allium74 ,horse-radish 7,armoracia74 ,most of the plants selected were known to have crystals in certain parts4 ,some of them were known to be intensely acrid4 ,in these the acridity was in every instance proportional to the number of crystals4 ,the following order of study was pursued and the results of each step noted4 ,only the more salient points of the methods employed and the conclusions reached are presented4 #a4 ,the ,character of the ,taste ,itself4--,it was readily noted that the sensation produced by chewing the various acrid plants was quite different4 ,for example1 the ,indian turnip and its close allies do not give the immediate taste or effect that follows a similar testing of the onion or horse-radish4 ,when the acridity of the former is perceived the sensation is more prickling than acrid4 ,the effect produced is more like the pricking of numerous needles4 ,it is felt not only upon the tongue and palate1 but wherever the part tasted comes into contact with the lips1 roof of mouth or any delicate membrane4 ,it is not perceived where this contact does not occur4 ,the acridity of the onion and horse-radish is perceived at once and often affects other parts than those with which it comes into direct contact4 #b4 ,the ,acrid ,principle ,is ,not ,always ,volatile4--,this is shown by the fact that large quantities of the mashed or finely grated corms of the ,indian turnip and allied species1 produced no irritation of the eyes or nose even when these organs were brought into close contact with the freshly pulverized material4 ,this certainly is in marked contrast with the effect produced by freshly grated horse-radish1 peeled onions1 crushed mustard seed when the same test is applied4 ,it seems fair to assume that in the latter case some principle that is volatile at ordinary air temperatures is present4 ,the assumption that such principle is present in the former has no room4 ,in order to test this matter further a considerable quantity of the juice of the ,indian turnip was subjected to careful distillation1 with the result that no volatile principle or substance of any kind was found4 ,various extractive processes were tried by using hot and cold water2 alcohol1 chloroform1 benzene1 etc4 ,these failed in every instance to remove any substance that had a taste or effect anything like that found in the fresh ,indian turnip4 #c4 ,the ,acrid ,principle ,is ,not ,soluble in ,ether4--,inasmuch as various works on pharmacy made the claim that the active or acrid principle of the plants in question was soluble in ether1 this was the next subject for investigation4 ,the juice was expressed from a considerable quantity of the mashed ,indian turnip4 ,this juice was clear and by test was found to possess the same acrid property as the unmashed corms4 ,some of the juice and an equal quantity of ether were placed into a cylinder and well shaken4 ,after waiting until the ether had separated a few drops of the liquid were put into the mouth4 ,for a little time no result was perceived1 but as soon as the effect of the ether had passed away the same painful acridity was manifest as was experienced before the treatment with the ether4 ,a natural conclusion from this test was that the acridity might come from some principle soluble in ether4 ,observing that the ether was quite turbid and wishing to learn the cause1 a drop or two was allowed to evaporate on a glass slide4 ,examining the residue with a microscope it was found to consist of innumerable raphides or needle-like crystals4 ,some of the ether was then run through a filter4 ,the filtrate was clear4 ,an examination showed it to be entirely free from raphides1 and it had lost every trace of its acridity4 ,the untreated acrid juice of the ,indian turnip1 calla1 and other plants of the same family was then filtered and in every instance the filtered juice was bland and had lost every trace of its acridity4 ,these tests and others that need not be mentioned1 proved conclusively that the acridity of various species of the ,arum family was not due to a volatile principle1 but was due to the needle-shaped crystals found so abundantly in these plants4 ,several questions yet remained to be answered4 7#a7 ,if these needle-like crystals or raphides are the cause of the acridity of the plants just mentioned1 why do they not produce the same effect in the fuchsia1 tradescantia and other plants where they are known to be just as abundant8 7#b7 ,why does the ,indian turnip lose its acridity on being heated8 7#c7 ,why does the dried ,indian turnip lose its acridity8 ,it was first thought that the raphides found in plants having no acridity1 might be of different chemical composition than those which produce this effect4 ,a chemical examination proved beyond question that the raphides were of the same composition4 ,the needle-shaped crystals in all the plants selected for study were composed of calcium oxalate4 ,the crystals1 found in grape1 rhubarb1 fuchsia and tradescantia were identical in form1 fineness and chemical composition with those found in the plants of the ,arum family4 ,how then account for the painfully striking effect in one case and the non-effect in the other8 ,this was the perplexing question4 ,in expressing some juice from the stems and leaves of the fuchsia and tradescantia it was found to be quite unlike that of the ,indian turnip and calla4 ,the juice of the latter was clear and limpid2 that of the former quite thick and mucilaginous4 ,there was no difference as to the abundance of crystals revealed by the microscope4 ,after diluting the ropy1 mucilaginous juice with water1 and shaking it thoroughly with an equal volume of ether1 there was no turbidity seen in the supernatent ether4 ,allowing a few drops of the ether to evaporate scarcely any crystals could be found4 ,practically none of them had been removed from the insoluble mucilaginous covering4 ,here and there an isolated specimen was all that could be seen4 ,so closely were these small crystals enveloped with the mucilaginous matter that it was almost impossible to separate or dissect them from it4 ,it was now easy to explain why certain plants whose cells were crowded with raphides were bland to the taste1 while other plants with the same crystals were extremely acrid4 ,in one case the crystals were neither covered nor embedded in an insoluble mucilage1 but were free to move4 ,thus when the plant was chewed or tasted the sharp points of these needle-like crystals came into contact with the tongue1 lips and membranous surface of the mouth4 ,in the other case the insoluble mucilage which surrounded the crystals prevented all free movement and they produced no irritation4 ,why do these intensely acrid1 aroid plants lose their acridity on being heated8 ,it is well known that the corms of the ,indian turnip and its allies contain a large amount of starch4 ,in subjecting this starch to heat it becomes paste-like in character4 ,this starch paste acts in the same manner as the insoluble mucilage4 ,it prevents the free movement of the crystals and in this way all irritant action is precluded4 ,in heating the ,indian turnip and other corms1 it was found that the heat applied must be sufficient to change the character of the starch or the so-called acridity was not destroyed4 ,one other question remains to be answered4 ,it has long been noted that the old or thoroughly dried corms of the ,indian turnip are not acrid like those that are fresh4 ,the explanation is simple4 ,as the plant dries or loses its moisture1 the walls of the cells collapse and the crystals are closely encased in the hard1 rigid matter that surrounds them4 ,this prevents free movement and the crystals can not exert any irritant action4 ,it is generally believed by biologists that the milky juice1 aromatic compounds1 alkaloids1 etc41 found in plants have no direct use in the economy of the plant4 ,they are not connected with the nutritive processes4 ,they are excretions or waste products that the plant has little or no power to throw off4 ,there can be little doubt1 however1 that these excretory substances often serve as a means of protection4 ,entomologists have frequently stated that the milky juice and resins found in the stems of various plants act as a protection against stem boring insects4 ,in like manner the bulbs1 stems and leaves of plants that are crowded with crystals have a greater immunity from injurious biting insects than plants that are free from crystals4 ,it is quite generally believed that the formation of crystals is a means of eliminating injurious substances from the living part of the plant4 ,these substances may be regarded as remotely analogous to those organic products made by man in the chemical laboratory4 ,some progress has been made in this direction1 but so far the main results are certain degradation-products such as aniline dyes derived from coal tar2 salicylic acid2 essences of fruits2 etc4 ,still these and many other discoveries of the same nature do not prove that the laboratory of man can compete with the laboratory of the living plant cell4 ,man has the power to break down and simplify complex substances and by so doing produce useful products that will serve his purposes4 ,we may combine and re-combine but so far we only replace more complex by simpler combinations4 ,the plant alone through its individual cells1 and by its living protoplasm has fundamentally creative power4 ,it can build up and restore better than it can eliminate waste products4 ,,how ,,our ,,ancestors ,,were ,,cured ,,by ,,professor ,,carl ,,holliday ,,university ,,of ,,montana ,,suppose you had a bad case of rheumatism1 and your physician came to your bedside and exclaimed loudly1 ,hocus pocus1 toutus talonteus1 vade celeriter jubeo6 ,you are cured4 ,what would you think1 what would you do1 and what fee would you pay him8 ,probably1 in spite of your aches and pangs1 you would make astonishing speed--for a rheumatic person--in proffering him the entire room to himself4 ,but there was a time--and that as late as ,shakespeare's day--when so-called doctors in rural ,england used just such words not only for rheumatism1 but for many another disease4 ,and to this hour the fakir on the street corner uses that opening expression1 ,hocus pocus4 ,those words simply prove how slowly the ,christian religion was absorbed by ancient ,anglo-,saxon paganism2 for ,hocus pocus is but the hastily mumbled syllables of the ,catholic priest to his early ,english congregation--,hoc est corpus1 this is the body2 and the whole expression used by the old-time doctor meant merely that in the name of the body of ,christ he commanded the disease to depart quickly4 ,how superstitions and ancient rites do persist4 ,to this hour the mountaineers of southwestern ,virginia and eastern ,tennessee believe that an iron ring on the third finger of the left hand will drive away rheumatism1 and to my personal knowledge one fairly intelligent ,virginian believed this so devoutly that he actually never suffered with rheumatic pains unless he took off the iron ring he had worn for fifteen years4 ,it is an old1 old idea--this faith in the ring-finger4 ,the ,egyptians believed that a nerve led straight from it to the heart2 the ,greeks and ,romans held that a blood-vessel called the vein of love connected it closely with that organ2 and the medieval alchemists always stirred their dangerous mixtures with that finger because1 in their belief1 it would most quickly indicate the presence of poison4 ,so1 too1 many an ancient declared that whenever the ring-finger of a sufferer became numb1 death was near at hand4 ,thus in twentieth century civilization we hear echoes of the life that ,rameses knew when the ,pyramids were building4 ,our ,anglo-,saxon forefathers had great faith in mysterious words4 ,the less they understood these the more they believed in the curative power4 ,thus the name of foreign idols and gods brought terror to the local demons that enter one's body1 and when ,christianity first entered ,england1 and its meanings were but dimly understood1 the names of saints1 apostles and even the ,latin and ,greek forms of ,god and ,jesus were enemies to all germs4 ,then1 too1 what comfort a jumbling of many languages brought to the patient1 especially if the polyglot cure were expressed in rhythmic lines4 ,here1 for instance1 in at least five languages1 is a twelfth century cure for gout3 ,meu1 treu1 mor1 phor1 ,teux1 za1 zor1 ,phe1 lou1 chri ,ge1 ze1 on4 ,perhaps to our forefathers suffering from over-indulgence in the good things of this world1 this wondrous group of sounds brought more comfort than the nauseous drugs of the modern practitioner4 ,any mysterious figure or letter was exceedingly helpful in the sick room of a thousand years ago4 ,the ,greek letters ,alpha and ,omega had reached ,england almost as soon as ,christianity had1 and the old-time doctor triumphantly used them in his pow-wows4 ,geometric figures in a handful of sand or seeds would prophesy the fate of the ills--and do we not to this day tell our fortune in the geometric figures made by the dregs in our tea-cups8 ,paternosters1 snatches of ,latin hymns1 bits of early ,church ritual were used by quacks of the olden days for much the same reason as the geometric figures--because they were unusual and little understood4 ,it would have been well had our ,anglo-,saxon forefathers confined their healing practices to such gentle homeopathic methods as those mentioned above2 but instead desperate remedies were sometimes administered by the determined medicine-man4 ,diseases were supposed to be caused mainly by demons--probably the ancestors of our present germs--and the physician of ,saxon days used all the power of flattery and threat to induce the little monsters to come forth4 ,when the cattle became ill1 for instance1 the old-time veterinarian shrieked1 ,fever1 depart2 #iag1jjj angels will pursue you6 ,if the obstinate cow refused to be cured by such a mild threat1 the demons were sometimes whipped out of her1 and1 if this failed to restore her health1 a hole was pierced in her left ear1 and her back was struck with a heavy stick until the evil one was compelled to flee through the hole in her ear4 ,nor was such treatment confined to cattle4 ,the muscular doctors of a thousand years ago claimed they could cure insanity by laying it on lustily with a porpoise-skin whip1 or by putting the maniac in a closed room and smoking out the pestering fiends4 ,one did well to retain one's sanity in those good old days4 ,this use of violent words or deeds in the cure of disease is as ancient almost as the race of man4 ,the early ,germans attempted to relieve sprains by reciting confidently how ,baldur's horse had been cured by ,woden after all the other mighty inhabitants of ,valhalla had given up the task1 and even earlier tribes of ,europe and ,asia had used for illness such a formula as3 ,the great mill stone that is ,india's is the bruiser of every worm4 ,with that ,i mash together the worms as grain with a mill stone4 ,long after ,christianity had reached the ,anglo- ,saxons of ,england1 the sick often hung around their necks an image of ,thor's hammer to frighten away the demon germs that sought to destroy the body4 ,this appeal to a superior being was common to all ,indo-,european races1 and the early ,christian missionaries wisely did not attempt to stamp out a belief of such antiquity1 but merely substituted the names of ,christ1 the ,virgin ,mary and the saints for those of the heathen deities4 ,and even into the nineteenth century this ancient form of faith cure persisted2 for there are living yet in ,cornwall people who heard1 as children1 this charm for tooth-ache3 ,christ passed by his brother's door1 ,saw his brother lying on the floor2 ,what aileth thee1 brother6 ,pain in the teeth4 ,thy teeth shall pain thee no more1 ,in the name of the ,father1 ,son and ,holy ,ghost1 ,i command the pain to be gone4 ,let us no longer boast of the carefulness of the modern physician2 the ceremonies and directions of the ,anglo-,saxon doctor were just as painstaking in minuteness and accuracy4 ,when you feel the evil spirits entering you1 immediately seek shelter under a linden tree2 for out of linden wood were not battle-shields made8 ,long before ,christianity had brought its gentler touches to ,english life the tribal medicine man wildly brandished such a shield1 and sang defiantly to the witch maidens or disease demons3 ,loud were they1 lo6 loud1 as over the land they rode2 ,fierce of heart were they1 as over the hill they rode2 ,shield thee now thyself1 from their spite thou may'st escape thee4 ,out1 little spear1 if herein thou be6 ,underneath the linden stand ,i1 underneath the shining shield1 ,for the might maidens have mustered up their strength1 ,and have sent their spear screaming through the air6 ,back again to them will ,i send another1 ,arrow forth a-flying from the front against them6 ,out1 little spear1 if herein thou be6 ,this business of singing was very necessary in the old time doctor's practice4 ,sometimes he chanted into the patient's left ear1 sometimes into his mouth1 and sometimes on some particular finger1 and the patient evidently had to get well or die to escape the persistent concerts of his physician4 ,not infrequently1 too1 the doctor placed a cross upon the part of one's anatomy to which he was giving the concert1 and often the effect was increased by putting other crosses upon the four sides of the house1 the fetters and bridles of the patient's horse1 and even on the foot prints of the man1 or the hoof prints of the beast4 ,faith in the cross as a charm was unwavering2 the cross of ,christ has been hidden and is found1 declared the ,saxon soothsayer1 and by the same token the lost cattle will soon be discovered4 ,many and marvelous were the methods to be followed scrupulously by the sick4 ,cure the stomachache by catching a beetle in both hands and throwing it over the left shoulder with both hands without looking backward4 ,have you intestinal trouble8 ,eat mulberries picked with the thumb and ring finger of your left hand4 ,do you grow old before your time8 ,drink water drawn silently ,,down ,,stream from a brook before daylight4 ,beware of drawing it upstream2 your days will be brief4 ,it reminds one of the practice of the modern herb doctor in peeling the bark of slippery elm ,,down1 if you desire your cold to come down out of your head1 or peeling it up if you desire the cold to come up out of your chest4 ,one not desiring to place his trust in roots and barks and herbs might turn for aid to the odd numbers1 and by reciting an incantation three or seven or nine times might not only regain health1 but recover his lost possessions4 ,or the sufferer might transfer his disease by pressing a bird or small animal to the diseased part and hastily driving the creature away4 ,the ever-willing and convenient family dog might be brought into service on such an occasion by being fed a cake made of barley meal and the sick man's saliva1 or by being fastened with a string to a mandrake root1 which1 when thus pulled from the ground1 tore the demon out of the patient4 ,the cure of children was a comparatively easy task for the ,anglo-,saxon doctor2 for the only thing to be done was to have the youngster crawl through a hole in a tree1 the rim of the hole thus kindly taking to itself all the germs or demons4 ,so1 too1 minor sores1 warts and other blemishes might easily be effaced by stealing some meat1 rubbing the spot with it1 and burying the meat2 as the meat decayed the blemish disappeared4 ,so to this day some ,indians1 and not a few ,mexicans make a waxen image of the diseased part1 and place it before the fire to melt as a symbol of the gradual waning of the illness4 ,so1 too1 the ancient ,celts are said to have destroyed the life of an enemy by allowing his waxen image to melt before the fire4 ,to cure a dangerous disease or the illness of a full-grown man was1 however1 a much more difficult matter4 ,inflammation1 for instance1 was the work of a stubborn demon1 and stubborn1 therefore1 must be the strife with him4 ,hence1 dig around a sorrel plant1 sing three paternosters1 pull up the plant1 sing ,sed libera nos a malo1 pound five slices of the plant with seven pepper corns1 chant the psalm ,misere mei1 ,deus twelve times1 sing ,gloria in excelsis1 ,deo1 recite another paternoster1 at daybreak add wine to the plant and pepper corns1 face the east at mid-morning1 make the sign of the cross1 turn from the east to the south to the west1 and then drink the mixture4 ,doubtless by this time the patient had forgotten that he ever possessed inflammation4 ,long did the superstitions in medicine persist4 ,in ,chaucer's day1 the fourteenth century1 violent and poisonous drugs were used1 but luckily they were often administered to a little dummy which the doctor carried about with him4 ,as we read each day in our newspapers of the various nostrums advertised as curing every mortal ill1 we may well wonder if the average credulity has really greatly lessened after twelve centuries of fakes and faith cures1 and we almost long for the return of the day when the medicine man practiced on a dummy instead of the human body4 ,,eminent ,,american ,,names ,,by ,,lauren ,,hewitt ,,ashe ,,university ,,of ,,pittsburgh ,,the article entitled ,the ,racial ,origin of ,successful ,americans1 by ,dr4 ,frederick ,adams ,woods1 which appeared in the ,april 7#aiad7 issue of ,the ,popular ,science ,monthly1 set forth some very interesting and instructive results4 ,the methods used to arrive at these results1 however1 do not seem to be such as to establish them as final and conclusive4 ,it is not sufficient to consider merely the number of persons bearing certain names in ,who's ,who in ,america1 for the purpose of establishing the relative capability of various nationalities4 ,the percentage of the number bearing that name in the city in question is the significant figure4 ,the writer has1 therefore1 taken the directories#a of the four ,american cities1 which were the subjects of study in the original article1 and has estimated the number of persons of a certain name living in each city by first counting the number of names printed in a whole column of the directory and then multiplying this figure by the number of columns occupied by that name4 ,the number of persons bearing the same name in ,who's ,who in ,america 7#aiab-aiac7 is then taken for each city4 ,the percentage is finally calculated of the number of the ,who's ,who in ,america names in the number of those bearing that name in the directories4 #a 7#a7 ,trow's ,general ,directory--,boroughs of ,manhattan and ,bronx1 ,city of ,new ,york1 #aiac4 ,trow ,directory1 ,printing ,bookbinding ,company1 ,pub4 7#b7 ,boyd's ,philadelphia ,city ,directory1 #aiac4 ,c4 ,e4 ,howe ,company1 ,pub4 7#c7 ,the ,lakeside ,annual ,directory of the ,city of ,chicago1 #aiac4 ,chicago ,directory ,company1 ,pub4 7#d7 ,the ,boston ,directory1 #aiac4 ,simpson and ,murdock ,co41 ,publishers4 ,it seems best1 furthermore1 to narrow down the consideration from the fifty most common names in each city to only those of this number which are common to all four cities in order that any one family may not have too great a weight4 ,the names in each city are then arranged according to the established percentages4 ,the grouping of names as an indication of race or nationality is taken from ,robert ,e4 ,matheson's ,surnames in ,ireland4 ,it is found to agree exactly with the grouping in the article by ,dr4 ,woods1 who classified them from the table given in the ,new ,york ,world ,almanac and ,encyclopedia for #aiad1 which table was1 no doubt1 compiled from ,matheson4 ,,names ,,common ,,to ,,all ,,four ,,cities1 ,,nationality1 ,,attbibuted ,,to ,,them1 ,,and ,,the ,,proportion ,,for ,,each ,,name ,,of ,,the ,,number ,,of ,,times ,,it ,,occurs ,,for ,,each ,,city ,,in ,,who',s ,,who ,,in ,,america 7#aiab-aiac7 ,,and ,,the ,,total ,,number ,,of ,,the ,,same ,,name ,,in ,,the ,,same ,,city ,new ,york 7,exclusive of ,brooklyn7 ,e ,white #a4ci ,e ,williams #a4ah ,e ,clark #a4je ,e ,taylor #a4jb ,e ,jones #j4hi ,e ,martin #j4hg ,e ,smith #j4gh ,e ,thompson #j4gd ,e-,sc-,g ,miller #j4gc ,e ,wilson #j4ga ,e ,brown #j4gj ,e-,sc ,moore #j4fj ,e ,davis #j4ei ,e-,sn ,johnson #j4ef ,sc-,sn ,anderson #j4ee ,i ,murphy #j4df ,i ,kelly #j4cg ,e ,klien #j4bd ,e ,hall #j4bc ,sc ,campbell #j4ag ,i ,o',brien #j4ad ,e ,lewis #j4ab ,e-,sc ,young #j4aj ,nationality ,averages ,g ,german #j4gc ,e ,english #j4fi ,sn ,scandinavian #j4ee ,sc ,scotch #j4dc ,i ,irish #j4cb ,chicago ,e ,hall #j4gb ,e-,so ,moore #j4da ,e ,wilson #j4ce ,e ,davis #j4bg ,e-,sc ,young #j4bg ,e ,thompson #j4bf ,e ,brown #j4bb ,e ,lewis #j4bj ,e ,taylor #j4ag ,e-,sc-,g ,miller #j4ag ,e ,martin #j4af ,i ,kelly #j4af ,e ,williams #j4ae ,e ,white #j4ad ,e ,clark #j4ad ,e ,smith #j4ad ,e ,allen #j4ac ,sc ,campbell #j4aa ,e ,jones #j4aj ,e-,sn ,johnson #j4jf ,i ,murphy #j4jf ,sn-,sc,anderson #j4je ,i ,o',brien #j4jj ,nationality ,averages ,e ,english #j4bb ,sc ,scotch #j4bj ,g ,german #j4ag ,i ,irish #j4aa ,sn ,scandinavian #j4je ,philadelphia ,e ,white #j4df ,e ,lewis #j4cb ,e ,taylor #j4ca ,e ,wilson #j4cj ,e ,jones #j4bg ,e-,sn ,johnson #j4bc ,e ,williams #j4bb ,e-,sc ,moore #j4bj ,e ,davis #j4ah ,e-,sc ,young #j4ah ,e ,clark #j4ad ,e ,smith #j4ac ,e ,brown #j4ac ,e-,sc-,g ,miller #j4ab ,e ,martin #j4jh ,e ,thompson #j4jh ,i ,murphy #j4jh ,sc ,campbell #j4jh ,sn-,sc ,anderson #j4jj ,i ,kelly #j4jj ,e ,allen #j4jj ,e ,hall #j4jj ,i ,o',brien #j4jj ,nationality ,averages ,e ,english #j4ah ,sn ,scandinavian #j4af ,g ,german #j4ab ,sc ,scotch #j4aa ,i ,irish #j4jb ,boston ,e ,allen #j4gb ,e ,williams #j4fg ,e ,brown #j4fa ,e ,hall #j4dc ,e ,campbell #j4cc ,e ,clark #j4cj ,e ,smith #j4bi ,e ,thompson #j4bh ,e ,taylor #j4be ,sn-,sc ,anderson #j4bb ,e ,lewis #j4bj ,e-,sn ,johnson #j4ai ,e ,white #j4ah ,e-,sc ,moore #j4ag ,e ,wilson #j4ac ,e ,jones #j4aa ,i ,o',brien #j4jh ,i ,murphy #j4je ,e ,martin #j4jj ,e-,sc-,g ,miller #j4jj ,e ,davis #j4jj ,i ,kelly #j4jj ,e-,sc ,young #j4jj ,nationality ,averages ,e ,english #j4be ,sn ,scandinavian #j4bj ,sc ,scotch #j4ad ,i ,irish #j4jf ,g ,german #j4j8 ,name ,averages ,e ,williams #j4ee ,e ,white #j4ed ,e ,taylor #j4dd ,e ,brown #j4da ,e ,clark #j4dj ,e ,wilson #j4cg ,e ,jones #j4cd ,e ,thompson #j4cd ,e-,sc ,moore #j4cd ,e ,hall #j4cd ,e ,smith #j4cc ,e ,martin #j4bg ,e ,allen #j4bg ,e ,davis #j4bf ,e-,sn ,johnson #j4bf ,e-,sc-,g ,miller #j4be ,e ,lewis #j4ba ,sn-,sc ,anderson #j4bj ,sc ,campbell #j4ag ,i ,murphy #j4af ,e-,sc ,young #j4ad ,i ,kelly #j4ac ,i ,o',brien #j4je ,nationality ,averages ,e ,english #j4cd ,g ,german #j4be ,sn ,scandinavian #j4bd ,sc ,scotch #j4bb ,i ,irish #j4ab ,the nationality attributed to each name is indicated in the tables below by capital letters in the parallel columns4 ,in some cases a name is shared by two or even three nationalities4 ,the percentages belonging to such names are attributed to each of the sharing nationalities in making the final averages4 ,this1 of course1 is a serious source of error1 since the division of such names among the nationalities is not known4 ,no stress can be laid on our figures for the ,german1 ,scotch and ,scandinavian nationalities1 because they contain so many of these indecisive names4 ,the names in each city are then arranged in groups according to their nationality and averages computed from the percentages established for each name4 ,these averages1 which appear at the bottom of each column1 give a fair estimation of the capability of the different nationalities1 but are1 nevertheless1 open to a few minor errors4 ,for instance1 the ,germans head the list in ,new ,york with #j4gc per cent4 for only one third of a single name1 while the ,english rank second with a total of #ae #e_/f names4 ,the final averages for nationality1 however1 which appear at the bottom of the fifth column and which are made from the averages computed for each city1 partly eliminate this error and place the groups in their proper rank4 ,in order to make the results more conclusive1 general averages are drawn for each name from the percentages established for that name in all four cities and are placed in the fifth column according to their rank4 ,final averages of percentages for nationalities are then made from this column1 just as they were for each city4 ,the results obtained agree exactly with the final averages made before and1 therefore1 are placed coincident with them at the bottom of the fifth column4 ,the results finally arrived at seem to corroborate the conclusions of ,dr4 ,wood2 namely1 that in the four leading ,american cities1 ,new ,york1 ,chicago1 ,philadelphia and ,boston1 those of the ,english 7and ,scotch7 ancestry are distinctly in possession of the leading positions1 at least from the standpoint of being widely known4 ,yet it does not seem safe to disregard entirely those other nationalities which rank so closely with the ,english merely because of the small number of them included in our consideration2 for1 as has been stated above1 we do not know what proportion of a certain name to attribute to various nationalities4 ,there is one serious1 but unavoidable1 source of error1 moreover1 which has apparently been overlooked4 ,the conclusions as to the relative intelligence of various races are drawn from the number of names1 belonging to these races1 which appeared in ,who's ,who in ,america4 ,according to the standards of this compilation1 eminence is very largely dependent upon education1 which does not give the emigrants1 who are too poor to get proper education1 an equal opportunity to display their intellectual power and1 therefore1 to be considered in the above calculations4 ,races that immigrated predominantly in the last century will be less handicapped than those which have only recently immigrated in large numbers4 ,it is very difficult1 however to know how much weight to place upon this modifying influence4 ,another source of error is the fact that certain nationalities or races seem to have natural inclinations and desires to follow in disproportionate numbers one kind of activity or occupation and are content to let other people rise to those positions which make them the best-known men and women of the ,united ,states4 ,as ,dr4 ,woods states1 the ,jews could not be expected to show as large a percentage1 since they largely turn their attention to the banking1 wholesale and retail trades1 in which they have been very successful1 but in which eminence is not correspondingly recognized in ,who's ,who in ,america4 ,no comment is made on ,jewish achievement1 however1 because no ,jewish name is among the fifty most common in all four cities1 and hence there are not enough numbers for study4 ,but the ,irish1 by their traditional devotion to politics and their success in attaining the lower ranks of political leadership1 would seem to be in line for recognition in large numbers1 which they nevertheless do not attain4 ,in spite of these qualifications1 however1 it becomes apparent that the statistics above established can not be rejected4 ,although they do not exactly justify ,dr4 ,woods's conclusions1 they at least show that the intellectual achievements of different races vary4 ,they also show that a much more extensive study of the subject must be made before any conclusions can be established as final4 ,we believe1 therefore1 that ,dr4 ,woods's conclusion--that there have been a few notable exceptions1 but broadly speaking all our very capable men of the present day have been engendered from the ,anglo-,saxon element already here before the beginning of the nineteenth century--should be modified4 ,a sounder conclusion and1 in fact1 the only one that could be reached through the results established above1 would be this3 ,achievement in those activities represented in ,who's ,who in ,america is acquired disproportionately by stocks predominantly ,teutonic in comparison with the ,irish4 ,a ,,visit ,,to ,,oeningen ,,by ,,professor ,t4 ,d4 ,a4 ,,cockerell ,,university ,,of ,,colorado ,,as the ,rhine broadens on its approach to the ,lake of ,constance or ,boden ,sea it flows through a region made classic by the researches of scientific men4 ,here at low tide it is sometimes possible to see wooden piles which in prehistoric times supported the houses of the lake-dwelling folk1 whose work is so well represented in various museums1 especially at ,zurich4 ,from the river1 on each side1 the land rises rapidly1 and the rounded summits of the hills are well wooded4 ,it is on the left side of the ,rhine1 about two and a half miles below the town of ,stein1 that we come to the famous locality for ,miocene fossils1 the ,european representative of our ,florissant in ,colorado4 ,in all the books the fossil beds are said to be at ,oeningen1 which is the name of a once celebrated ,augustinian monastery about two miles away4 ,actually1 however1 the locality is above the village of ,wangen1 which is situated on the north bank of the river4 ,in some quite recent writings ,oeningen 7,wangen7 is referred to as being in ,switzerland2 it is in ,baden1 though the opposite bank of the ,rhine is ,swiss4 ,the error is natural1 since the fossils have chiefly been made known by the great ,swiss paleontologist ,heer1 of ,zurich1 and the best general account of them is to be found in his book ,the ,primaeval ,world of ,switzerland1 of which an excellent ,english translation appeared in #ahgf4 ,it was at the ,oeningen quarries1 in the eighteenth century1 that a wonderful vertebrate fossil1 some four feet long1 was discovered4 ,a writer of that period1 ,scheuchzer1 announced it as ,homo diluvii testis1 a man witness of the deluge6 ,cuvier knew better1 and was able to demonstrate its relationship to the giant salamanders of ,eastern ,asia and ,north ,america4 ,it forms1 in fact1 a distinct genus of ,cryptobranchidae1 which ,tschudi1 apparently mindful of the early error1 named ,andrias2 though the proper name of the animal appears to be ,proteocordylus scheuchzeri 7,holl474 ,the stone at ,wangen was used for building purposes1 and at one time there were three or four quarries actively worked4 ,in earlier times the larger fossils naturally attracted most attention1 fishes1 snakes1 turtles1 fresh-water clams and a variety of leaves and fruits4 ,such specimens were saved1 and were sold and distributed to many museums4 ,the supply was good1 yet at times not sufficient for the market2 so the monks at ,oeningen1 and others1 would carve artificial fossils out of the soft rock1 coating them with a brown stain prepared from unripe walnut shells4 ,in later years1 during the middle part of the nineteenth century1 the period of ,darwin1 the great importance and interest of the fossil beds came to be better appreciated4 ,dr4 ,oswald ,heer1 professor at ,zurich1 an accomplished botanist and entomologist1 did perhaps nine tenths of the work1 describing plants1 insects1 arachnids and part of the ,crustacea4 ,the fishes were described by ,agassiz1 and later by ,winkler4 ,the remaining vertebrates were principally made known by ,e4 von ,meyer4 ,from #ahdg to #ahec ,heer published in three parts a great work on fossil insects1 largely concerned with those from ,oeningen4#a ,in this and later writings he made known #dfd species from this locality2 but in the latest edition of ,the ,primaeval ,world of ,switzerland it is stated that there are #hdd species1 #chd of these being supposedly new1 and named1 if at all1 only in manuscript4 #a ,die ,insektenfauna der ,tertiargebilde von ,oeningen und von ,radoboj in ,croatien 7,leipzig3 ,engelmann74 ,my wife and ,i1 having worked a number of years at ,florissant1 were very anxious to see the corresponding ,european locality for fossil insects4 ,the opportunity came in #aiji1 when we were able to make a short visit to ,switzerland after attending the ,darwin celebration at ,cambridge4 ,we went first to ,zurich1 where in a large hall in the ,university or ,polytechnicum we saw ,heer's collections4 ,a bust of ,heer stands in one corner1 while one end of the room is covered by a large painting by ,professor ,holzhalb1 representing a scene at ,oeningen as it may have appeared in ,miocene times1 showing a lake with abundant vegetation on its shores1 and appropriate animals in the foreground4 ,numerous glass-covered cases contain the magnificent series of fossils1 both plants and animals4 ,dr4 ,albert ,heim1 professor of geology and director of the ,geological ,museum1 was most kind in showing us all we wanted to see1 and giving advice concerning the precise locality of the fossil beds4 ,professor ,heim is an exceedingly active and able geologist1 but neither he nor any one else has continued the work of ,heer1 whose collections remain apparently as he left them4 ,the #chd supposedly new insects are still undescribed1 with a few possible exceptions4 ,i had time only to critically examine the bees1 of which ,i found three ostensibly new forms4 ,of these1 one turned out to be a wasp1#b one was unrecognizable1 but the third was a valid new species1 and was published later in ,the ,entomologist4 ,there can be no doubt that ,heer was too ready to distinguish species of insects in fossils which were so poorly preserved as to be practically worthless1 consequently part of those he published and many of those he left unpublished will have to be rejected4 ,nevertheless1 the ,oeningen materials are extremely valuable1 both for the number of species and the good preservation of some of them4 ,all should be carefully reexamined1 and the entomologist who will give his time to this work will certainly be rewarded by many interesting discoveries4 #b ,polistes1 or very closely related to that genus4 ,provided with instructions from ,professor ,heim1 we started on ,august #d for ,wangen1 going by way of ,constance4 ,thanks to the map furnished by the ,swiss railroad1 we had no difficulty in finding the ,rosegarten ,museum in ,constance1 which contains so many interesting fossils and archeological specimens from the surrounding region4 ,at the moment we arrived1 the old man in charge was about to go to lunch1 and we were assured that it was impossible to get into the museum4 ,it was then or never for us1 however2 and when the necessary argument had been presented1 the curator not only let us in1 but remained with us to point out all the objects of interest1 showing a great deal of pride in the collection4 ,the series of ,oeningen fossils could not1 of course1 rival that at ,zurich2 but it contained a great many remarkable things1 including some excellent insects4 ,we then boarded the river steamer1 and1 passing through the ,unter ,sea1 reached the small village of ,wangen in the course of the afternoon4 ,this is not a tourist resort of any consequence2 the local guide book refers to it as follows3 ,wangen 7with synagogue74 ,half an hour to the east is the ,castle of ,marbach1 now a well-appointed sanatorium for disorders of the nerves and heart4 ,to the west the romantic citadel ,kattenhorn1 formerly used as a rendezvous by notorious highwaymen 7at present in the possession of a pensioned off ,german officer74 ,the guide continues1 calling our attention to ,oberstaad4 ,formerly a castle1 now a weaving mill for hose4 ,above it 7#ddh meters7 the former celebrated ,augustine monastery ,oehningen4 ,near by interesting and curious ,,stone ,,fossils are found4 ,thus the visitor is likely to be misled as to the whereabouts of the fossils1 the tradition that they are at ,oeningen having misled the author of the guide4 ,at ,wangen we found a small but most excellent hotel conducted by ,george ,brauer1 where we hastily secured a room1 and went out to hunt the fossil beds4 ,we were to walk over half an hour northward1 up the hill1 and look for the quarries near the top of the high terrace above the village4 ,this we did1 but at first without result4 ,we passed a small grassy pit1 where some of the rock was visible1 but it did not look at all promising4 ,we went back and forth1 and up the hill1 until we were practically on the top4 ,the country was beautiful1 and by the roadside we found magnificent red slugs 7,arion ater var4 lamarckii#c7 and many fine snails1 including the so-called ,roman snail1 ,helix pomatia4 ,we accosted the peasants1 and enquired about the fossilen4 ,the word seemed to have no meaning for them1 so we tried to elucidate it in the manner of the guide3 where were the stein fossilen8 ,immediately1 with animation1 we were shown a road going westward to the town of ,stein1 where1 it was naturally assumed1 the object of our enquiry would be found4 ,quite discouraged1 we wandered down the hill until we came to the pit we had noticed when going up4 ,close by was a neat little cottage1 and it occurred to us to try our luck there as a last resort4 ,we were glad indeed when there appeared at the door an educated man1 who in excellent ,shakespearian ,english volunteered at once to show us the fossil beds4 ,it was ,dr4 ,ernst ,bacmeister1 a man of considerable note in his own country1 whose life and deeds are duly recorded in ,wer ist's8 ,he came1 with his wife and child1 to ,wangen in the summer time1 to enjoy these exquisite surroundings1 where he could write happily on philosophical subjects1 without much danger of interruption4 ,dr4 ,bacmeister informed us that the poor little pit close by was in fact one of the noted quarries1 with the sides fallen in and the debris overgrown with herbage4 ,a short distance away we were shown the others1 in the same discouraging condition4 #c ,the earliest name for this richly colored variety is ,limax coccineus ,gistel1 but it is not ,limax coccineus ,martyn1 #aghd2 so the next name1 lamarckii1 prevails4 ,one could see that there had once been considerable excavations1 but the good layers were now deeply covered by talus1 and could only be exposed after much digging4 ,it was about thirty years since the pits had been worked4 ,dr4 ,bacmeister found for us a strong country youth1 ,max ,deschle1 who dug under our direction all next day in the quarry near the house4 ,the rock is not so easy to work as that at ,florissant1 and it does not split so well into slabs1 but we readily found a number of fossils4 ,most numerous were the plants2 leaves of cinnamon 7,cinnamomurn polymorphum71 soapberry 7,sapindus falcifolius71 maple 7,acer trilobatum71 grass 7,poacites loevis7 and reeds 7,phragmites oeningensis71 with twigs of the conifer ,glyptostrobus europoeus4 ,we obtained a single seed of the very characteristic ,podogonium knorrii4 ,certain molluscs were abundant2 ,planorbis declivis1 ,lymnoea pachygaster1 ,pisidium priscum1 with occasional fragments of the mussel ,anodonta lavateri4 ,ostracods1 ,cypris faba1 were also found4 ,the best find1 however1 was a well-preserved fish1 the lepidocottus brevis 7,agassiz71 showing in the region of the stomach its last meal1 of ,planorbis declivis4 ,this greatly interested ,max1 who during the rest of the day chanted1 as he swung the pick1 ,fischlein1 ,fischlein1 komme6--but no other ,fischlein was apparently within hearing distance4 ,not a single insect was obtained1 except that on the talus at one of the other quarries ,i picked up a poorly preserved beetle1 apparently the ,nitidula melanaria of ,heer4 ,we left ,wangen on the morning of ,august #f1 and proceeded up the ,rhine to ,schaffhausen and ,basle4 ,at ,basle we found a certain number of ,oeningen 7,wangen7 fossils in the museum4 ,comparing ,wangen with ,florissant1 it appears that the ,colorado locality is more extensive1 more easily worked1 and provides many more well-preserved fossils4 ,on the other hand1 ,wangen has proved far richer in vertebrates and crustacea1 and on the whole gives us a better idea of the fauna as it must have existed4 ,florissant far exceeds ,wangen in the number of described species1 but this is only because it has so many more insects4 ,each locality furnishes us with extraordinarily rich materials1 enabling us to picture the life of ,miocene times4 ,each1 by comparison1 throws light on the other1 and while the period represented is not sufficiently remote to show much evidence of progressive evolution1 it is hard to exaggerate the value of the facts for students of geographical distribution4 ,much light may also be thrown on the relative stability of specific characters4 ,work on the ,florissant fauna is going forward1 though not so fast as one could wish4 ,it is very much to be hoped that the ,wangen quarries will receive attention before many years have passed4 ,labor is comparatively cheap in ,germany1 and with a force of a dozen men it would not take long to open up the quarries and get at the best beds4 ,it is really extraordinary that no one has seen and taken advantage of the opportunities presented4 ,probably no obstacles of any consequence would be put in the way2 at least the owner of the quarries came by when we were digging1 and expressed only his good will4 ,with new researches in the field1 combined with studies of the rich materials awaiting examination at ,zurich and elsewhere1 no doubt the knowledge we possess of the ,european ,miocene fauna could be very greatly increased1 to the advantage of all students of ,tertiary life4 ,,the ,,theory ,,and ,,practise ,,of ,,frost ,,fighting#a #a ,some of the instruments used were obtained through a grant from the ,elizabeth ,thompson ,science ,fund4 ,,by ,,alexander ,mc,a,d,i,e ,,botch ,,professor ,,of ,,meteorology1 ,,harvard ,,university ,,only in recent years have aerologists given much attention to the slow-moving currents of the lower strata of the atmosphere4 ,these differ greatly from the whirls and cataracts of both low and high levels which we familiarly know as the winds4 ,the upper and larger air streams play a part in the formation of frost1 and we do not underestimate their function2 but primarily it is a slow surface flow1 almost a creeping of the air near the ground1 which controls the temperature and is all-important in frost formation4 ,so important is it that the first law of frost fighting may be expressed as follows3 ,where air is in motion and where there is good circulation1 frost is not so likely to occur as where the air is stagnant4 ,in other words frost in the ordinary meaning of the word is a problem ,,in ,,local ,,air ,,drainage4 ,it is true that there are times when with thorough ventilation and mixing of the air strata the temperature will fall rapidly and damage from frost result2 but such conditions are perhaps more fittingly described as cold waves or freezes1 as distinguished from frosts4 ,thus1 in ,california during the first week of ,january1 #aiac1 when there was much air movement1 the citrus fruit crop was damaged to the extent of #bj1jjj1jjj4 ,the condition is generally referred to as a frost1 but it was quite different from the usual frost conditions in that section4 ,it is1 however1 interesting to note that improved frost-fighting devices were used with much success and the total savings aggregated about #be1jjj1jjj4 ,the orange growers also had the benefit of accurate forecasts and expert advice and were thus able to provide fuel and labor in advance4 ,passing over at present the larger disturbances1 we shall consider only the frosts of still nights4 ,and it should not be forgotten that the accumulated losses of these frosts may equal the losses of the individual freezes1 for the latter occur at long intervals1 while the quiet frosts of the early fall and the late spring are recurrent1 destroying flowers1 fruits and tender vegetation in many sections1 year after year4 ,air may flow in any direction1 but attention has been centered more upon the flow in a horizontal than in a vertical direction4 ,thus none of the wind instruments used at ,weather ,bureau stations gives any record of the up and down movement of the air4 ,in frosts of the usual type this vertical displacement is all-important4 ,true1 there may be brought into the district1 by horizontal displacement1 large masses of cold air and the temperature thus materially lowered2 but the marked ,,inversion of temperature occurs only when these horizontal currents or winds are lulled4 ,on windy nights1 as is well known1 there is less likelihood of frost than on quiet nights1 because of the thorough mixing of the air vertically4 ,there is then no tendency for stratification and the formation of levels of different temperature1 followed by low surface temperature4 ,in general1 the temperature falls as one rises in the air2 but1 at times of frost1 it is found that the higher levels are warmer than the lower ones4 ,the coldest stratum is found about ten centimeters 7four inches7 above the ground2 while at a distance of ten meters temperatures are as much as five degrees higher than at the ground4 ,it may be well to refer for a moment to the variations in temperature known as inversions4 ,in the accompanying diagram it will be seen that the temperature falls with elevation1 and starting from the ground on a day when the temperature is near the freezing point1 #bgc degrees ,a41 one finds at a height of seven thousand meters a fall of about forty degrees4 ,it is not easy to represent on a single diagram the variation in detail and therefore we have divided the air column into three parts1 the scales being as one to a hundred4 ,the right-hand diagram shows the gradual rise in temperature for a height of one meter and the peculiar inversion that occurs a few centimeters above the ground4 ,unfortunately it is in this layer where detailed temperature observations are most needed that our instruments are least satisfactory4 ,ordinary thermometers can not be relied on for such small differences and the exploration of this stratum by self-recording instruments is difficult4 ,in the middle diagram is shown the temperature gradient at times of frost1 from the ground to a height of one hundred meters4 ,it will be seen that at a height of fifty meters the temperature may be ten degrees higher2 and in general the rise continues with elevation4 ,a good illustration of a valley inversion is given by the chart of ,may #bj1 in which continuous records for three levels1 #ah1 #fd and #aif meters above sea level1 are given4 ,at such times fruit or flowers on hillsides escape damage from frost while in all the depressions and low level places the injury may be marked4 ,these differences in temperature are not at all unusual and may be anticipated on clear1 still nights during spring1 fall and winter4 ,clouds or a moderate wind will prevent such an inversion4 ,we shall refer again to this in speaking of the cranberry bogs of the ,cape ,cod district and the frost warnings issued from ,blue ,hill ,observatory4 ,the great inversion in the atmosphere1 however1 is that which we have indicated as occurring at the height of nine thousand meters4 ,above this1 the temperature ceases to fall and we enter what has been called the stratosphere or isothermal region4 ,for convenience we will call this upper change the ,,major inversion and the lower one near the ground the ,,minor inversion4 ,in some ways we know more about the former than the latter4 ,strictly speaking1 the minor inversion is the chief factor in determining local climate since it controls night and early morning temperatures and in large measure the early or late blooming of flowers and ripening of fruits4 ,ordinarily cold air falls to the ground2 but not always1 for under certain conditions cold1 heavy air may actually rise1 displacing warm1 lighter air4 ,but such conditions can be explained and there is no contradiction of the fundamental law that if acted on only by gravity1 cold air1 being denser1 will settle to the ground and warm air1 being lighter1 will rise4 ,and there must be a certain relation between the height of the level from which the cold air falls and the level to which the warm air rises4 ,in other words1 we have to apply the laws of falling bodies since a given mass of air1 although invisible1 is matter and as subject to gravity as a cannon ball4 ,one of ,galileo's most ingenious experiments consisted in swinging a pendulum and then by means of a nail driven in various positions intercepting the swing4 ,he found that the bob always rose to the same level whatever circuit it was forced to take4 ,but ,galileo did not know what every schoolboy to-day knows1 that air exerts pressure and is subject to physical processes like other matter1 else he would certainly have given to the world a delicate air pendulum2 and devised experiments on the movement of air that would have opened men's eyes to the fascinating flow and counter-flow of the air1 even on a seemingly still night1 one favorable for the formation of frost4 ,the problem of the moving air mass1 however1 is more complicated than it looks4 ,for with the air is mixed a quantity of water vapor4 ,in a strict sense they are independent variables1 and the view set forth in most text-books that air has a certain capacity for water vapor is misleading4 ,we seldom meet with pure1 dry air4 ,a cubic meter of such a gas mixture would weigh #a1bdg grams1 at a temperature of #bhc degrees ,a4 7#ej degrees ,f474 ,if chilled ten degrees1 that is1 to the freezing point of water1 it would weigh #df grams more4 ,so that by cooling1 air becomes denser and heavier4 ,a cubic meter of a mixture of air and water vapor at saturation1 at the first temperature above mentioned weighs only #a1bdb grams1 or five grams less1 and if this were cooled ten degrees the mixture would weigh three grams less than the same volume of pure dry air4 ,we see that in each case the mixture of air and water vapor weighs less than the air by itself4 ,one would think that by adding water vapor which1 while light1 still has weight1 the total weight would be the sum of both4 ,it really is so1 notwithstanding the above figures1 and the explanation of the puzzle is that there was an increase in pressure with expansion1 so that the volume of the air and saturated vapor was greater than one cubic meter4 ,since then a cubic meter of air and saturated vapor weighs less than a cubic meter of dry air at freezing temperature1 speaking generally1 we may expect moist air to rise and dry air to fall4 ,consequently1 if in addition to falling temperature there is also a drying of the air1 we shall have an accelerated settling or falling of cold dry air to the ground1 which of course favors the formation of frost4 ,the water vapor plays also another role besides that of varying the weight per unit volume4 ,the heat received by the ground consists of waves of a certain wavelength2 but the heat re-radiated by the ground consists of waves of longer wave-length1 and these so-called long waves 7#ab thousandths of a millimeter7 are readily absorbed by water vapor4 ,thus water vapor acts like a blanket and holds the heat1 preventing loss of heat by radiation to space4 ,further on we shall speak of the high specific heat of both water and water vapor as compared with air and show the bearing of this in frost fighting2 but at present we may from what precedes formulate the second law of frost fighting as follows3 ,frost is more likely to occur where the air is dry than where it is moist4 ,it is also true that a dusty atmosphere is less favorable for frost than a dust-free atmosphere4 ,thus we may generalize and say that whatever favors clear1 still1 dry air favors frost4 ,the theory of successful frost fighting then is to interfere with or prevent these processes which as we have seen facilitate cooling close to the ground4 ,in what way can this best be done8 ,the most natural way would be by conserving the earth's heat1 which could be accomplished by covering plants with cloth1 straw1 newspaper1 or perhaps better still1 modern weather-proof sheeting1 or in still another way by a cover of moistened dense smoke1 generally called a smudge4 ,a second method would be by means of direct application of heat2 and this is accomplished in orange groves by means of improved orchard heaters4 ,large fires waste heat and are neither economical nor effective4 ,a third method would be based upon a mixing of the air strata1 thus getting the benefit of the warmer higher levels4 ,fourth1 advantage might be taken of some agency such as water or water vapor1 having a high specific heat4 ,finally1 if the crop is of a certain character such as the cranberry1 it will be found advisable to use sand1 to drain and clean1 here again making use of the specific heat of some intermediary4 ,and1 furthermore1 any one of these methods may be combined with some other method4 ,regarding the first method1 that of covers1 it may be said that the practice goes back to the early husbandmen2 but only in the last few years has the true function of the cover been properly interpreted and we are still far from obtaining maximum efficiency4 ,nor is there yet a suitable1 scientific cover available4 ,any medium that interferes with loss of heat through free radiation before and after sunset is a cover4 ,the best type of cover is a cloud2 and clouds1 whether high or low1 are good frost protectors4 ,on cloudy nights there is little likelihood of frost2 and when we can bring about the formation of a layer of condensed water vapor we can practically eliminate frost4 ,we have mentioned above the fact that the earth radiates the heat it has received not in the same but in longer wave-lengths perhaps three times as long4 ,these are easily trapped and held by the vapor of water4 ,furthermore1 the rate of radiation is a function of the absolute temperature and so the rapidity of loss depends somewhat upon the heat received4 ,therefore the cover should be used as early in the afternoon as possible1 that is just before sunset4 ,aside from the water cover or vapor cover there are cheap cloth screens1 fiber screens and in some places lath screens4 ,the second method1 that of direct heating1 has met with much success in the orange groves of ,california and elsewhere4 ,modern heating and covering methods date from experiments begun in #ahie4 ,a number of basic patents granted to the writer in this connection have been dedicated to the public4 ,at the present time there are on the market some twenty forms of heaters1 which have been described with more or less detail in farm journals and official publications4 ,it is not necessary to refer to them further here4 ,the fuel originally used was wood1 straw and coal1 but these are now supplanted by crude oil or distillate4 ,it has also been seriously proposed to use electric heaters2 also to use gas in the groves4 ,with modern orchard heaters properly installed and handled1 there is no difficulty in raising the temperature of even comparatively large tracts five degrees and maintaining a temperature above freezing1 thus preventing refrigeration of plant tissue4 ,the third method1 that of utilizing the heat of higher levels by mixing1 has not yet been commercially developed2 but the methods of applying water1 either in the spraying of trees or the running of ditches or the flooding of bogs1 together with methods of sanding1 cleaning2 and draining1 have all been proved helpful4 ,methods available and most effective in one section may not necessarily be effective in another section or with different crop requirements4 ,certain devices most effective in the groves of ,california may not answer in ,florida or ,louisiana because of entirely different weather conditions4 ,in the ,gulf coast states where water is available it may be advantageously used to hold back ripening and retard development until after the cold waves of middle and late ,february have passed1 whereas in the west coast sections conditions are very different1 water having a definite value and the critical periods coming in late ,december or early ,january4 ,in what precedes stress has been laid chiefly upon the fall of temperature and the congelation of the water vapor4 ,there is1 however1 another important matter connected with injury to plant tissue1 and that is the rise in temperature ,,after the frost4 ,a too rapid defrosting may do considerable damage where no damage was originally done by the low temperature4 ,it is in this connection that water may be used to great advantage4 ,water1 water-vapor and ice have1 compared with other substances1 remarkably high specific heats4 ,if the specific heat under constant pressure of water be taken as unity1 that of ice is #j4di2 of water-vapor #j4de and of air #j4bd4 ,or in a general way we may say that water has four times the capacity for heat that air has4 ,therefore it is apparent that water will serve excellently to prevent rapid change in temperature4 ,this is important at sunrise and shortly after when some portion of the chilled plant tissue may be exposed to a warming sufficient to raise the temperature of the exposed portion ten degrees in an hour4 ,the latent heat of fusion of ice is #gi4f calories and the latent heat of vaporization of water is nearly #fjj calories 7a gram calorie is the amount of heat that will raise the temperature of a gram of pure water one degree7 or in exact terms from #bgc degrees ,a4 to #bgd degrees ,a4 ,therefore in the process of changing from solid to liquid to vapor1 as from ice to water to vapor1 there is a large amount of heat required4 ,the latent heat serves to prevent fall in temperature and also serves to retard a too rapid rise4 ,this does not mean1 as is generally assumed1 that the air will be warmed1 but it does mean a retardation of temperature change4 ,and it is essential that the restoration of the tissues and juices to their normal state be accomplished gradually1 neither too rapidly nor yet too slowly4 ,there is probably an optimum temperature for thawing or defrosting frozen fruits and flowers4 ,finally the temperature records as ordinarily obtained need careful interpretation4 ,it may be that the freezing point of liquids under pressure in the plant cells or exposed to the air through the stomata is not the same as in the free air4 ,it is unfortunate too that in most places data showing temperatures of soil1 plant and air are of doubtful character4 ,a word of warning may be given against the too ready acceptance of ,weather ,bureau records made in cities and on the roofs of buildings4 ,garden and field conditions vary greatly from these4 ,it is further advisable to obtain a continuous record of the temperature of evaporation such as is shown by the records herewith4 ,the two temperature curves made simultaneously and easily read at any moment enable the gardener or orchardist to forecast the probable minimum temperature of the ensuing ten or twelve hours4 ,but not always1 and some study is necessary4 ,a slight increase in cloudiness or a slight shift in wind direction will prevent the fall in temperature which otherwise seemed probable4 ,with a persistent inversion of temperature there is sometimes an increasing absolute humidity4 ,,summary ,the problem is many sided and we must consider the motion of the air vertically as well as horizontally4 ,air gains and loses heat chiefly by convection1 and any gain or loss by conduction may be neglected4 ,the plant gains heat by convection1 radiation and perhaps by conduction of an internal rather than surface character4 ,the ground gains and loses heat chiefly by radiation4 ,but the whole process is complicated and may not even be uniform4 ,frosts generally are preceded by a loss of heat from the lower air strata1 due to convection and a horizontal translation of the air4 ,then follows an equally rapid and great loss of heat by free radiation4 ,there are minor changes such as the setting free of heat in condensation and the utilization in evaporation1 but these latent heats are of less importance than the actual transference of the air and vapor and the removal of the latter as an absorber and retainer of heat4 ,frosts are recurrent phenomena reasonably certain to occur within given dates1 and1 as pointed out above1 the cumulative losses are considerable4 ,methods of protection to be serviceable must be available for more than one occasion1 for there is no profit in saving a crop on one night and losing it on the succeeding night4 ,but the effort is worth while4 ,consider that the horticulturist regularly risks the labor of many months on the temperatures of a few hours4 ,an efficient frost fighting device is in a way the entering wedge for solving problems of climate control4 ,one may not take a crop indoors1 it is true1 but there is no valid reason1 in the light of what has been already accomplished1 why at critical periods which may be anticipated1 the needed volume of surface air may not be sufficiently warmed2 and the losses which have heretofore been considered inevitable be prevented4 ,,the ,,progress ,,of ,,science ,,the ,,new ,,york ,,meeting ,,of ,,the ,,national ,,academy ,,of ,,sciences ,,the ,national ,academy of ,sciences held its annual autumn meeting during the third week of ,november in the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history4 ,the central situation of ,new ,york ,city and its scientific attractions led to a large meeting and an excellent program ,there were present over sixty members1 nearly one half of a membership widely scattered over the country4 ,when the academy was established in #ahfc as the adviser of the government in scientific questions1 the membership was limited to fifty which was subsequently increased to #ajj1 under which it was kept until recently4 ,the present distribution of the #ada members among different institutions in which there are more than two is3 ,harvard1 #ai2 ,yale1 #ae2 ,chicago1 #ac2 ,johns ,hopkins1 #ab2 ,columbia1 #aa2 ,u4 ,s4 ,geological ,survey1 #h2 ,carnegie ,institution1 #e2 ,california1 ,rockefeller ,institute1 ,smithsonian1 #d2 ,clark1 ,wisconsin1 ,cornell1 ,stanford1 #c4 ,the scientific program of the meeting began with a lecture by ,professor ,michael ,i4 ,pupin1 of ,columbia ,university1 who described the work on aerial transmission of speech of which no authentic account has hitherto been made public4 ,to ,professor ,pupin we owe the discovery through mathematical analysis and experimental work of the telephone relays which recently made speech by wire between ,new ,york ,city and ,san ,francisco possible1 and we now have an authoritative account of speaking across the land and sea a quarter way round the earth4 ,one session of the academy was devoted to four papers of general interest4 ,professor ,herbert ,s4 ,jennings1 of the ,johns ,hopkins ,university1 described experiments showing evolution in progress1 and ,professor ,john ,m4 ,coulter1 of the ,university of ,chicago1 discussed the causes of evolution in plants ,professor ,b4 ,b4 ,boltwood made a report on the life of radium which may he regarded as a study of inorganic evolution4 ,professor ,theodore ,richards1 of ,harvard ,university1 spoke of the investigations recently conducted in the ,wolcott ,gibbs ,memorial ,laboratory4 ,these are in continuation of the work accomplished by ,professor ,richards in the determination of atomic weights1 which led to the award to him of a ,nobel prize1 the third to be given for scientific work done in this country1 the two previous awards having been to ,professor ,michelson1 of the ,university of ,chicago1 in physics1 and ,dr4 ,carrel1 of the ,rockefeller ,institute1 in physiology4 ,of more special papers1 some of which1 however1 were of general and even popular interest1 there were on the program #cf1 distributed somewhat unequally among the sections into which the academy is divided as follows3 ,mathematics1 #j2 ,astronomy1 #c2 ,physics and ,engineering1 #g2 ,chemistry1 #a2 ,geology and ,paleontology1 #f2 ,botany1 #g2 ,zoology and ,animal ,morphology1 #h2 ,physiology and ,pathology1 #d2 ,anthropology and ,psychology1 #j4 ,a program covering all the sciences belongs in a sense to the eighteenth rather than to the twentieth century2 still there is human as well as scientific interest in listening to those who are leaders in the conduct of scientific work4 ,the academy was fortunate in meeting in the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 where in addition to the scientific sessions luncheon and an evening reception were provided4 ,the museum has assumed leadership both in exhibits for the public and in the scientific research which it is accomplishing4 ,the planning of museum exhibits is itself a kind of research and in this direction the ,american ,museum1 together with the ,national ,museum in ,washington and the ,field ,museum in ,chicago1 now surpasses any of the museums of the old world and in the course of the next ten years will have no rivals there4 ,it is interesting that the city and an incorporated board of trustees are able to cooperate in the support of the museum1 as is also the case with the ,zoological ,park and the ,botanical ,gardens which the members of the academy visited in the course of the meeting4 ,,frederic ,,ward ,,putnam ,,powell in ,washington1 ,brinton in ,philadelphia and ,putnam in ,cambridge may be regarded as the founders of modern anthropology in ,america4 ,in the death of ,putnam1 at the age of seventy-six years1 we have lost the last of these leaders4 ,putnam is often spoken of as the father of anthropological museums because he1 more than any other one person1 contributed to their development4 ,he seems to have been a museum man by birth1 for at an early age we find him listed as curator of ornithology in the ,essex ,institute of ,salem1 ,mass4 ,the ,peabody ,museum of ,archeology at ,cambridge is largely his work1 he having entered the institution in #ahge and continued as its head until his death4 ,this institution is in many respects one of the most typical anthropological museums in ,america4 ,during his college career ,professor ,putnam came under the influence of ,professor ,louis ,agassiz and was for several years an assistant in the laboratory of that distinguished scientist4 ,it seems likely that this was the source of ,professor ,putnam's faith and enthusiasm for the accumulation and preservation of concrete data4 ,as his interest in anthropology grew1 he seems to have sought to bring together in the ,peabody ,museum a collection of scientific material that should have the same relation to the new and developing science of anthropology as the collections of ,professor ,agassiz's laboratory had to the science of biology4 ,professor ,putnam's great skill in developing the ,peabody ,museum brought him into public notice and led to his appointment as director of the anthropological section of the ,world ,columbian ,exposition in ,chicago ,the exhibit he prepared made an unusual impression and it is said that largely to his personal influence is due the interest of the late ,marshall ,field in developing and providing for the museum which now bears his name4 ,after this achievement ,professor ,putnam was invited by the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history to organize the department of anthropology which he proceeded to do upon broad lines1 giving it a status and impetus which is still manifest4 ,later on he was invited to the ,university of ,california to organize a department and a museum similar to the one at ,harvard and this also is now one of our leading institutions4 ,thus it is clear that the history of ,american anthropological museums is to a large extent the life history of ,professor ,putnam4 ,the one new and important idea which ,professor ,putnam brought into his museum work was that they should be in reality institutions of research4 ,until that time they were chiefly collections of curios brought together by purchase of miscellaneous collections without regard to the scientific problems involved4 ,professor ,putnam's idea was that the museum should go into the field and by systematic research and investigation develop a definite problem1 bringing to the museum such illustrative and concrete data as should come to hand in the prosecution of research4 ,professor ,putnam also played a large part in securing the recognition of anthropology by universities and by his position at ,harvard pointed the way to mutual cooperation between museums and universities4 ,he possessed an unusual personality which enabled him to approach and interest men of affairs so as to secure their financial support for anthropological research and as a teacher he was intensely interested in young men1 offering them every possible opportunity for advancement and never really losing personal interest in them as long as he lived4 ,,scientific ,,items ,,we record with regret the deaths of ,brigadier-general ,george ,m4 ,sternberg1 retired1 surgeon-general of the army1 from #ahic to #aijb1 distinguished for his investigations of yellow fever and other diseases2 of ,edward ,lee ,greene1 associate in botany at the ,smithsonian ,institution2 of ,wirt ,tassin1 formerly chief chemist and assistant curator of the division of mineralogy1 ,u4 ,s4 ,national ,museum2 of ,augustus ,jay ,du ,bois1 for thirty years professor of civil engineering in the ,sheffield ,scientific ,school1 ,yale ,university2 of ,sir ,andrew ,noble1 ,f4,r4,s41 distinguished for his scientific work on artillery and explosives2 of ,edward ,a4 ,minchin1 ,f4,r4,s41 professor of protozoology in the ,university of ,london1 and of ,r4 ,assheton1 ,f4,r4,s41 university lecturer in animal embryology at the ,university of ,cambridge4 ,,the ,nobel prize for chemistry for #aiad has been awarded to ,professor ,theodore ,william ,richards1 of ,harvard ,university1 for his work on atomic weights4 ,the prize for physics has been awarded to ,professor ,max von ,laue of ,frankfort-on-,main1 for his work on the diffraction of rays in crystals4 ,,professor ,,adolf ,,von ,,baeyer celebrated his eightieth birthday on ,october #ca4 ,with the beginning of the present semester he retired from the chair of chemistry at ,munich in which he succeeded von ,liebig in #ahge4--,the ,romanes lecture before the ,university of ,oxford will be delivered this year by ,professor ,e4 ,b4 ,poulton1 ,hope professor of zoology in the university1 on ,december #g4 ,the subject will be ,science and the ,great ,war4 ,,at the recent meeting in ,manchester1 as we learn from ,nature1 the general committee of the ,british ,association unanimously adopted the following resolution1 which has been forwarded to the ,prime ,minister1 the ,chancellor of the ,exchequer and the ,presidents of the ,board of ,education and of ,agriculture and ,fisheries3 ,that the ,british ,association for the ,advancement of ,science1 believing that the higher education of the nation is of supreme importance in the present crisis of our history1 trusts that his ,majesty's government will1 by continuing its financial support1 maintain the efficiency of teaching and research in the universities and university colleges of the ,united ,kingdom4 ,,columbia ,,university received by the will of ,amos ,f4 ,eno the residuary estate which may amount to several million dollars4 ,in addition1 the ,general ,society of ,mechanics and ,tradesmen receives #a1hjj1jjj1 and bequests of #bej1jjj each are made to ,new ,york ,university1 ,the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 the ,metropolitan ,museum of ,art and the ,new ,york ,association for improving the ,condition of the ,poor--,mr4 ,james ,j4 ,hill has presented #abe1jjj to ,harvard ,university to be added to the principal of the professorship in the ,harvard graduate school of business administration1 which bears his name4 ,the ,james ,j4 ,hill professorship of transportation was founded by a gift of #abe1jjj1 announced last commencement day1 the donors including ,john ,pierpont ,morgan1 ,thomas ,w4 ,lamont1 ,robert ,bacon and ,howard ,elliott4--,the sum of about #djj1jjj has been subscribed in the ,university of ,michigan alumni campaign for #a1jjj1jjj with which to build and endow a home for the ,michigan ,union1 as a memorial to ,dr4 ,james ,b4 ,angell1 president emeritus4