,,cicero',s ,,brutus1  ,,or  ,,history  
,,of ,,famous ,,orators3  ,,also1  ,,his
 ,,orator1  ,,or  ,,accomplished        
,,speaker4  ,now first translated into  
,english by ,e4 ,jones        ,,preface4
   ,as the following ,rhetorical ,pieces
 have never appeared before in the      
,english language1 ,i thought a         
,translation of them would be no        
unacceptable offering to the ,public4   
,the character of the ,author 7,marcus  
,tullius ,cicero7 is so universally     
celebrated1 that it would be needless1  
and indeed impertinent1 to say any thing
 to recommend them4  ,the first of them 
was the fruit of his retirement1 during 
the remains of the ,civil ,war in       
,africa2 and was composed in the form of
 a ,dialogue4 ,it contains a few short1 
but very masterly sketches of all the   
,speakers who had flourished either in  
,greece or ,rome1 with any reputation of
 ,eloquence1 down to his own time2 and  
as he generally touches the principal   
incidents of their lives1 it will be    

considered1 by an attentive reader1 as a
 concealed epitome of the ,roman        
history4 ,the conference is supposed to 
have been held with ,atticus1 and their 
common friend ,brutus1 in ,cicero's     
garden at ,rome1 under the statue of    
,plato1 whom he always admired1 and     
usually imitated in his dialogues3 and  
he seems in this to have copied even his
 double titles1 calling it ,brutus1 or  
the ,history of famous ,orators4 ,it was
 intended as a supplement1 or fourth    
book1 to three former ones1 on the      
qualifications of an ,orator4  ,the     
second1 which is intitled ,the ,orator1 
was composed a very short time          
afterwards 7both of them in the #fast   
year of his age7 and at the request of  
,brutus4 ,it contains a plan1 or        
critical delineation1 of what he himself
 esteemed the most finished ,eloquence1 
or style of ,speaking4 ,he calls it ,the
 ,fifth ,part1 or ,book1 designed to    
complete his ,brutus1 and the former    
three on the same subject4 ,it was      

received with great approbation2 and in 
a letter to ,lepta1 who had complimented
 him upon it1 he declares1 that whatever
 judgment he had in ,speaking1 he had   
thrown it all into that work1 and was   
content to risk his reputation on the   
merit of it4 ,but it is particularly    
recommended to our curiosity1 by a more 
exact account of the rhetorical         
composition1 or prosaic harmony of the  
ancients1 than is to be met with in any 
other part of his works4  ,as to the    
present ,translation1 ,i must leave the 
merit of it to be decided by the        
,public2 and have only to observe1 that 
though ,i have not1 to my knowledge1    
omitted a single sentence of the        
original1 ,i was obliged1 in some       
places1 to paraphrase my author1 to     
render his meaning intelligible to a    
modern reader4 ,my chief aim was to be  
clear and perspicuous3 if ,i have       
succeeded in that1 it is all ,i pretend 
to4 ,i must leave it to abler pens to   
copy the ,eloquence of ,cicero4 ,mine is

 unequal to the task4     ,,brutus1 ,,or
 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,eloquence4      
,when ,i had left ,cilicia1 and arrived 
at ,rhodes1 word was brought me of the  
death of ,hortensius4 ,i was more       
affected with it than1 ,i believe1 was  
generally expected4 ,for1 by the loss of
 my friend1 ,i saw myself for ever      
deprived of the pleasure of his         
acquaintance1 and of our mutual         
intercourse of good offices4 ,i likewise
 reflected1 with ,concern1 that the     
dignity of our ,college must suffer     
greatly by the decease of such an       
eminent augur4 ,this reminded me1 that  
he was the person who first introduced  
me to the ,college1 where he attested my
 qualification upon oath2 and that it   
was he also who installed me as a       
member2 so that ,i was bound by the     
constitution of the ,order to respect   
and honour him as a parent4 ,my         
affliction was increased1 that1 in such 
a deplorable dearth of wife and virtuous
 citizens1 this excellent man1 my       

faithful associate in the service of the
 ,public1 expired at the very time when 
the ,commonwealth could least spare him1
 and when we had the greatest reason to 
regret the want of his prudence and     
authority4 ,i can add1 very sincerely1  
that in him ,i lamented the loss1 not   
7as most people imagined7 of a dangerous
 rival and competitor1 but of a generous
 partner and companion in the pursuit of
 same4 ,for if we have instances in     
history1 though in studies of less      
public consequence1 that some of the    
poets have been greatly afflicted at the
 death of their contemporary bards2 with
 what tender concern should ,i honour   
the memory of a man1 with whom it is    
more glorious to have disputed the prize
 of eloquence1 than never to have met   
with an antagonist6 especially1 as he   
was always so far from obstructing my   
endeavours1 or ,i his1 that1 on the     
contrary1 we mutually assisted each     
other1 with our credit and advice4  ,but
 as he1 who had a perpetual run of      

felicity1 left the world at a happy     
moment for himself1 though a most       
unfortunate one for his fellow-         
citizens2 and died when it would have   
been much easier for him to lament the  
miseries of his country1 than to assist 
it1 after living in it as long as he    
could have lived with honour and        
reputation2--we may1 indeed1 deplore his
 death as a heavy loss to us who survive
 him4 ,if1 however1 we consider it      
merely as a personal event1 we ought    
rather to congratulate his fate1 than to
 pity it2 that1 as often as we revive   
the memory of this illustrious and truly
 happy man1 we may appear at least to   
have as much affection for him as for   
ourselves4 ,for if we only lament that  
we are no longer permitted to enjoy him1
 it must1 indeed1 be acknowledged that  
this is a heavy misfortune to us2 which 
it1 however1 becomes us to support with 
moderation1 less our sorrow should be   
suspected to arise from motives of      
interest1 and not from friendship4 ,but 

if we afflict ourselves1 on the         
supposition that he was the             
sufferer2--we misconstrue an event1     
which to him was certainly a very happy 
one4  ,if ,hortensius was now living1 he
 would probably regret many other       
advantages in common with his worthy    
fellow-citizens4 ,but when he beheld the
 ,forum1 the great theatre in which he  
used to exercise his genius1 no longer  
accessible to that accomplished         
eloquence1 which could charm the ears of
 a ,roman1 or a ,grecian audience2 he   
must have felt a pang of which none1 or 
at least but few1 besides himself1 could
 be susceptible4 ,even ,i am unable to  
restrain my tears1 when ,i behold my    
country no longer defensible by the     
genius1 the prudence1 and the authority 
of a legal magistrate1--the only weapons
 which ,i have learned to weild1 and to 
which ,i have long been accustomed1 and 
which are most suitable to the character
 of an illustrious citizen1 and of a    
virtuous and well-regulated state4  ,but

 if there ever was a time1 when the     
authority and eloquence of an honest    
individual could have wrested their arms
 from the hands of his distracted       
fellow-citizens2 it was then when the   
proposal of a compromise of our mutual  
differences was rejected1 by the hasty  
imprudence of some1 and the timorous    
mistrust of others4 ,thus it happened1  
among other misfortunes of a more       
deplorable nature1 that when my         
declining age1 after a life spent in the
 service of the ,public1 should have    
reposed in the peaceful harbour1 not of 
an indolent1 and a total inactivity1 but
 of a moderate and becoming retirement2 
and when my eloquence was properly      
mellowed1 and had acquired its full     
maturity2--thus it happened1 ,i say1    
that recourse was then had to those     
fatal arms1 which the persons who had   
learned the use of them in honourable   
conquest1 could no longer employ to any 
salutary purpose4 ,those1 therefore1    
appear to me to have enjoyed a fortunate

 and a happy life1 7of whatever ,state  
they were members1 but especially in    
our's7 who held their authority and     
reputation1 either for their military or
 political services1 without            
interruption3 and the sole remembrance  
of them1 in our present melancholy      
situation1 was a pleasing relief to me1 
when we lately happened to mention them 
in the course of conversation4  ,for1   
not long ago1 when ,i was walking for my
 amusement1 in a private avenue at home1
 ,i was agreeably interrupted by my     
friend ,brutus1 and ,t4 ,pomponius1 who 
came1 as indeed they frequently did1 to 
visit me2--two worthy citizens who were 
united to each other in the closest     
friendship1 and were so dear and so     
agreeable to me1 that1 on the first     
sight of them1 all my anxiety for the   
,commonwealth subsided4 ,after the usual
 salutations1--,well1 gentlemen1 said   
,i1 how go the times8 ,what news have   
you brought8 ,none1 replied ,brutus1    
that you would wish to hear1 or that ,i 

can venture to tell you for truth4--,no1
 said ,atticus2 we are come with an     
intention that all matters of state     
should be dropped2 and rather to hear   
something from you1 than to say any     
thing which might serve to distress you4
 ,indeed1 said ,i1 your company is a    
present remedy for my sorrow2 and your  
letters1 when absent1 were so           
encouraging1 that they first revived my 
attention to my studies4--,i remember1  
replied ,atticus1 that ,brutus sent you 
a letter from ,asia1 which ,i read with 
infinite pleasure3 for he advised you in
 it like a man of sense1 and gave you   
every consolation which the warmest     
friendship could suggest4-- ,true1 said 
,i1 for it was the receipt of that      
letter which recovered me from a growing
 indisposition1 to behold once more the 
cheerful face of day2 and as the ,roman 
,state1 after the dreadful defeat near  
,cannae1 first raised its drooping head 
by the victory of ,marcellus at ,nola1  
which was succeeded by many other       

victories2 so1 after the dismal wreck of
 our affairs1 both public and private1  
nothing occurred to me before the letter
 of my friend ,brutus1 which ,i thought 
to be worth my attention1 or which      
contributed1 in any degree1 to the      
anxiety of my heart4--,that was         
certainly my intention1 answered        
,brutus2 and if ,i had the happiness to 
succeed1 ,i was sufficiently rewarded   
for my trouble4 ,but ,i could wish to be
 informed1 what you received from       
,atticus which gave you such uncommon   
pleasure4--,that1 said ,i1 which not    
only entertained me2 but1 ,i hope1 has  
restored me entirely to                 
myself4--,indeed6 replied he2 and what  
miraculous composition could that       
be8--,nothing1 answered ,i2 could have  
been a more acceptable1 or a more       
seasonable present1 than that excellent 
,treatise of his which roused me from a 
state of languor and despondency4 --,you
 mean1 said he1 his short1 and1 ,i      
think1 very accurate abridgment of      

,universal ,history4--,the very same1   
said ,i2 for that little ,treatise has  
absolutely saved me4--,i am heartily    
glad of it1 said ,atticus2 but what     
could you discover in it which was      
either new to you1 or so wonderfully    
beneficial as you pretend8--,it         
certainly furnished many hints1 said ,i1
 which were entirely new to me3 and the 
exact order of time which you observed  
through the whole1 gave me the          
opportunity ,i had long wished for1 of  
beholding the history of all nations in 
one regular and comprehensive view4 ,the
 attentive perusal of it proved an      
excellent remedy for my sorrows1 and led
 me to think of attempting something on 
your own plan1 partly to amuse myself1  
and partly to return your favour1 by a  
grateful1 though not an equal           
acknowledgment4 ,we are commanded1 it is
 true1 in that precept of ,hesiod1 so   
much admired by the learned1 to return  
with the same measure we have received2 
or1 if possible1 with a larger4 ,as to a

 friendly inclination1 ,i shall         
certainly return you a full proportion  
of it2 but as to a recompence in kind1  
,i confess it to be out of my power1 and
 therefore hope you will excuse me3 for 
,i have no first-fruits 7like a         
prosperous husbandman7 to acknowledge   
the obligation ,i have received2 my     
whole harvest having sickened and died1 
for want of the usual manure3 and as    
little am ,i able to present you with   
any thing from those hidden stores which
 are now consigned to perpetual         
darkness1 and to which ,i am denied all 
access2 though1 formerly1 ,i was almost 
the only person who was able to command 
them at pleasure4 ,i must therefore1 try
 my skill in a long- neglected and      
uncultivated soil2 which ,i will        
endeavour to improve with so much care1 
that ,i may be able to repay your       
liberality with interest2 provided my   
genius should be so happy as to resemble
 a fertile field1 which1 after being    
suffered to lie fallow a considerable   

time1 produces a heavier crop than      
usual4--,very well1 replied ,atticus1 ,i
 shall expect the fulfilment of your    
promise2 but ,i shall not insist upon it
 till it suits your convenience2 though1
 after all1 ,i shall certainly be better
 pleased if you discharge the           
obligation4--,and ,i also1 said ,brutus1
 shall expect that you perform your     
promise to my friend ,atticus3 nay1     
though ,i am only his voluntary         
solicitor1 ,i shall1 perhaps1 be very   
pressing for the discharge of a debt1   
which the creditor himself is willing to
 submit to your own choice4--,but ,i    
shall refuse to pay you1 said ,i1 unless
 the original creditor takes no farther 
part in the suit4 --,this is more than  
,i can promise1 replied he1 for ,i can  
easily foresee1 that this easy man1 who 
disclaims all severity1 will urge his   
demand upon you1 not indeed to distress 
you1 but yet very closely and           
seriously4--,to speak ingenuously1 said 
,atticus1 my friend ,brutus1 ,i believe1

 is not much mistaken3 for as ,i now    
find you in good spirits1 for the first 
time1 after a tedious interval of       
despondency1 ,i shall soon make bold to 
apply to you2 and as this gentleman has 
promised his assistance1 to recover what
 you owe me1 the least ,i can do is to  
solicit1 in my turn1 for what is due to 
him4  ,explain your meaning1 said       
,i4--,i mean1 replied he1 that you must 
write something to amuse us2 for your   
pen has been totally silent this long   
time2 and since your ,treatise on       
,politics1 we have had nothing from you 
of any kind2 though it was the perusal  
of that which fired me with the ambition
 to write an ,abridgment of ,universal  
,history4 ,but we shall1 however1 leave 
you to answer this demand1 when1 and in 
what manner you shall think most        
convenient4 ,at present1 if you are not 
otherwise engaged1 you must give us your
 sentiments on a subject on which we    
both desire to be better informed4--,and
 what is that8 said ,i4--,what you gave 

me a hasty sketch of1 replied he1 when  
,i saw you last at ,tusculanum1--the    
,history of ,famous ,orators2--when they
 made their appearance1 and who and what
 they were2 which1 furnished such an    
agreeable train of conversation1 that   
when ,i related the substance of it to  
your1 or ,i ought rather to have said   
our common friend1 ,brutus1 he expressed
 a violent desire to hear the whole of  
it from your own mouth4 ,knowing you1   
therefore1 to be at leisure1 we have    
taken the present opportunity to wait   
upon you2 so that1 if it is really      
convenient1 you will oblige us both by  
resuming the subject4--,well1 gentlemen1
 said ,i1 as you are so pressing1 ,i    
will endeavour to satisfy you in the    
best manner ,i am able4-- ,you are able 
enough1 replied he2 only unbend yourself
 a little1 or1 if you can set your mind 
at full liberty4--,if ,i remember right1
 said ,i1 ,atticus1 what gave rise to   
the conversation1 was my observing1 that
 the cause of ,deiotarus1 a most        

excellent ,sovereign1 and a faithful    
ally1 was pleaded by our friend ,brutus1
 in my hearing1 with the greatest       
elegance and dignity4--,true1 replied   
he1 and you took occasion from the ill  
success of ,brutus1 to lament the loss  
of a fair administration of justice in  
the ,forum4--,i did so1 answered ,i1 as 
indeed ,i frequently do3 and whenever ,i
 see you1 my ,brutus1 ,i am concerned to
 think where your wonderful genius1 your
 finished erudition1 and unparalleled   
industry will find a theatre to display 
themselves4 ,for after you had          
thoroughly improved your abilities1 by  
pleading a variety of important causes2 
and when my declining vigour was just   
giving way1 and lowering the ensigns of 
dignity to your more active talents2 the
 liberty of the ,state received a fatal 
overthrow1 and that ,eloquence1 of which
 we are now to give the ,history1 was   
condemned to perpetual silence4--,our   
other misfortunes1 replied ,brutus1 ,i  
lament sincerely2 and ,i think ,i ought 

to lament them3-- but as to ,eloquence1 
,i am not so fond of the influence and  
the glory it bestows1 as of the study   
and the practice of it1 which nothing   
can deprive me of1 while you are so well
 disposed to assist me3 for no man can  
be an eloquent speaker1 who has not a   
clear and ready conception4 ,whoever1   
therefore1 applies himself to the study 
of ,eloquence1 is at the same time      
improving his judgment1 which is a      
talent equally necessary in all military
 operations4  ,your remark1 said ,i1 is 
very just2 and ,i have a higher opinion 
of the merit of eloquence1 because1     
though there is scarcely any person so  
diffident as not to persuade himself1   
that he either has1 or may acquire every
 other accomplishment which1 formerly1  
could have given him consequence in the 
,state2 ,i can find no person who has   
been made an orator by the success of   
his military prowess4--,but that we may 
carry on the conversation with greater  
ease1 let us seat ourselves4--,as my    

visitors had no objection to this1 we   
accordingly took our seats in a private 
lawn1 near a statue of ,plato4  ,then   
resuming the conversation1--to recommend
 the study of eloquence1 said ,i1 and   
describe its force1 and the great       
dignity it confers upon those who have  
acquired it1 is neither our present     
design1 nor has any necessary connection
 with it4 ,but ,i will not hesitate to  
affirm1 that whether it is acquired by  
art or practice1 or the mere powers of  
nature1 it is the most difficult of all 
attainments2 for each of the five       
branches of which it is said to consist1
 is of itself a very important art2 from
 whence it may easily be conjectured1   
how great and arduous must be the       
profession which unites and comprehends 
them all4  ,greece alone is a sufficient
 witness of this3--for though she was   
fired with a wonderful love of          
,eloquence1 and has long since excelled 
every other nation in the practice of   
it1 yet she had all the rest of the arts

 much earlier2 and had not only         
invented1 but even compleated them1 a   
considerable time before she was        
mistress of the full powers of          
elocution4 ,but when ,i direct my eyes  
to ,greece1 your beloved ,athens1 my    
,atticus1 first strikes my sight1 and is
 the brightest object in my view3 for in
 that illustrious city the orator first 
made his appearance1 and it is there we 
shall find the earliest records of      
eloquence1 and the first specimens of a 
discourse conducted by rules of art4    
,but even in ,athens there is not a     
single production now extant which      
discovers any taste for ornament1 or    
seems to have been the effort of a real 
orator1 before the time of ,pericles    
7whose name is prefixed to some orations
 which still remain7 and his cotemporary
 ,thucydides2 who flourished1--not in   
the infancy of the ,state1 but when it  
was arrived at its full maturity of     
power4  ,it is1 however1 supposed1 that 
,pisistratus 7who lived many years      

before7 together with ,solon1 who was   
something older1 and ,clisthenes1 who   
survived them both1 were very able      
speakers for the age they lived in4 ,but
 some years after these1 as may be      
collected from the ,attic ,annals1 came 
the above-mentioned ,themistocles1 who  
is said to have been as much            
distinguished by his eloquence as by his
 political abilities2--and after him the
 celebrated ,pericles1 who1 though      
adorned with every kind of excellence1  
was most admired for his talent of      
speaking4 ,cleon also 7their            
cotemporary7 though a turbulent citizen1
 was allowed to be a tolerable orator4  
,these were immediately succeeded by    
,alcibiades1 ,critias1 and ,theramenes1 
whose manner of speaking may be easily  
inferred from the writings of           
,thucydides1 who lived at the same time3
 their discourses were nervous and      
stately1 full of sententious remarks1   
and so excessively concise as to be     
sometimes obscure4 ,but as soon as the  

force of a regular and a well- adjusted 
speech was understood1 a sudden crowd of
 rhetoricians appeared1-- such as       
,gorgias the ,leontine1 ,thrasymachus   
the ,chalcedonian1 ,protagoras the      
,abderite1 and ,hippias the ,elean1 who 
were all held in great esteem1-- with   
many others of the same age1 who        
professed 7it must be owned1 rather too 
arrogantly7 to teach their              
scholars1--how the worse might be made1 
by the force of eloquence1 to appear the
 better cause4 ,but these were openly   
opposed by the famous ,socrates1 who1 by
 an adroit method of arguing which was  
peculiar to himself1 took every         
opportunity to refute the principles of 
their art4 ,his instructive conferences 
produced a number of intelligent men1   
and ,philosophy is said to have derived 
her birth from him2--not the doctrine of
 ,physics1 which was of an earlier date1
 but that ,philosophy which treats of   
men1 and manners1 and of the nature of  
good and evil4 ,but as this is foreign  

to our present subject1 we must defer   
the ,philosophers to another            
opportunity1 and return to the ,orators1
 from whom ,i have ventured to make a   
sort digression4  ,when the professors  
therefore1 abovementioned were in the   
decline of life1 ,isocrates made his    
appearance1 whos house stood open to all
 ,greece as the ,school of ,eloquence4  
,he was an accomplished orator1 and an  
excellent teacher2 though he did not    
display his talents in the ,forum1 but  
cherished and improved that glory within
 the walls of his academy1 which1 in my 
opinion1 no poet has ever yet acquired4 
,he composed many valuable specimens of 
his art1 and taught the principles of it
 to others2 and not only excelled his   
predecessors in every part of it1 but   
first discovered that a certain metre   
should be observed in prose1 though     
totally different from the measured     
rhyme of the poets4 ,before him1 the    
artificial structure and harmony of     
language was unknown2--or if there are  

any traces of it to be discovered1 they 
appear to have been made without design2
 which1 perhaps1 will be thought a      
beauty3--but whatever it may be deemed1 
it was1 in the present case1 the effect 
rather of native genius1 or of accident1
 than of art and observation4 ,for mere 
nature itself will measure and limit our
 sentences by a convenient compass of   
words2 and when they are thus confined  
to a moderate flow of expression1 they  
will frequently have a numerous         
cadence3--for the ear alone can decide  
what is full and complete1 and what is  
deficient2 and the course of our        
language will necessarily be regulated  
by our breath1 in which it is           
excessively disagreeable1 not only to   
fail1 but even to labour4  ,after       
,isocrates came ,lysias1 who1 though not
 personally engaged in forensic causes1 
was a very artful and an elegant        
composer1 and such a one as you might   
almost venture to pronounce a complete  
orator3 for ,demosthenes is the man who 

approaches the character so nearly1 that
 you may apply it to him without        
hesitation4 ,no keen1 no artful turns   
could have been contrived for the       
pleadings he has left behind him1 which 
he did not readily discover2--nothing   
could have been expressed with greater  
nicety1 or more clearly and poignantly1 
than it has been already expressed by   
him2--and nothing greater1 nothing more 
rapid and forcible1 nothing adorned with
 a nobler elevation either of language1 
or sentiment1 can be conceived than what
 is to be found in his orations4 ,he was
 soon rivalled by his cotemporaries     
,hyperides1 ,aeschines1 ,lycurgus1      
,dinarchus1 and ,demades 7none of whose 
writings are extant7 with many others   
that might be mentioned3 for this age   
was adorned with a profusion of good    
orators2 and the genuine strength and   
vigour of ,eloquence appears to me to   
have subsisted to the end of this       
period1 which was distinguished by a    
natural beauty of composition without   

disguise or affectation4  ,when these   
orators were in the decline of life1    
they were succeeded by ,phalereus2 who  
was then in the prime of youth4 ,he was 
indeed a man of greater learning than   
any of them1 but was fitter to appear on
 the parade1 than in the field2 and1    
accordingly1 he rather pleased and      
entertained the ,athenians1 than        
inflamed their passions2 and marched    
forth into the dust and heat of the     
,forum1 not from a weather-beaten tent1 
but from the shady recesses of          
,theophrastus1 a man of consummate      
erudition4 ,he was the first who relaxed
 the force of ,eloquence1 and gave her a
 soft and tender air3 and he rather     
chose to be agreeable1 as indeed he was1
 than great and striking2 but agreeable 
in such a manner as rather charmed1 than
 warmed the mind of the hearer4 ,his    
greatest ambition was to impress his    
audience with a high opinion of his     
elegance1 and not1 as ,eupolis relates  
of ,pericles1 to sting as well as to    

please4  ,you see1 then1 in the very    
city in which ,eloquence was born and   
nurtured1 how late it was before she    
grew to maturity2 for before the time of
 ,solon and ,pisistratus1 we meet with  
no one who is so much as mentioned for  
his talent of speaking4 ,these1 indeed1 
if we compute by the ,roman date1 may be
 reckoned very ancient2 but if by that  
of the ,athenians1 we shall find them to
 be moderns4 ,for though they flourished
 in the reign of ,servius ,tullius1     
,athens had then subsisted much longer  
than ,rome has at present4 ,i have not1 
however1 the least doubt that the power 
of ,eloquence has been always more or   
less conspicuous4 ,for ,homer1 we may   
suppose1 would not have ascribed such   
superior talents of elocution to        
,ulysses1 and ,nestor 7one of whom he   
celebrates for his force1 and the other 
for his sweetness7 unless the art of    
,speaking had then been held in some    
esteem2 nor could the ,poet himself have
 been master of such an ornamental      

style1 and so excellent a vein of       
,oratory as we actually find in         
him4--,the time indeed in which he lived
 is undetermined3 but we are certain    
that he flourished many years before    
,romulus3 for he was at least of as     
early a date as the elder ,lycurgus1 the
 legislator of the ,spartans4  ,but a   
particular attention to the art1 and a  
greater ability in the practice of it1  
may be observed in ,pisistratus4 ,he was
 succeeded in the following century by  
,themistocles1 who1 according to the    
,roman date1 was a person of the        
remotest antiquity2 but1 according to   
that of the ,athenians1 he was almost a 
modern4 ,for he lived when ,greece was  
in the height of her power1 but when the
 city of ,rome had but lately freed     
herself from the shackles of regal      
tyranny2--for the dangerous war with the
 ,volsci1 who were headed by ,coriolanus
 7then a voluntary exile7 happened      
nearly at the same time as the ,persian 
war2 and we may add1 that the fate of   

both commanders was remarkably similar4 
,each of them1 after distinguishing     
himself as an excellent citizen1 being  
driven from his country by the wrongs of
 an ungrateful people1 went over to the 
enemy3 and each of them repressed the   
efforts of his resentment by a voluntary
 death4 ,for though you1 my ,atticus1   
have represented the exit of ,coriolanus
 in a different manner1 you must give me
 leave to dispatch him in the way ,i    
have mentioned4--,you may use your      
pleasure1 replied ,atticus with a smile3
 for it is the privilege of rhetoricians
 to exceed the truth of history1 that   
they may have an opportunity of         
embellishing the fate of their heroes3  
and accordingly1 ,clitarchus and        
,stratocles have entertained us with the
 same pretty fiction about the death of 
,themistocles1 which you have invented  
for ,coriolanus4 ,thucydides1 indeed1   
who was himself an ,athenian of the     
highest rank and merit1 and lived nearly
 at the same time1 has only informed us 

that he died1 and was privately buried  
in ,attica1 adding1 that it was         
suspected by some that he had poisoned  
himself4 ,but these ingenious writers   
have assured us1 that1 having slain a   
bull at the altar1 he caught the blood  
in a large bowl1 and1 drinking it off1  
fell suddenly dead upon the ground4 ,for
 this species of death had a tragical   
air1 and might be described with all the
 pomp of rhetoric2 whereas the ordinary 
way of dying afforded no opportunity for
 ornament4 ,as it will1 therefore1 suit 
your purpose1 that ,coriolanus should   
resemble ,themistocles in every thing1  
,i give you leave to introduce the fatal
 bowl2 and you may still farther        
heighten the catastrophe by a solemn    
sacrifice1 that ,coriolanus may appear  
in all respects to have been a second   
,themistocles4  ,i am much obliged to   
you1 said ,i1 for your courtesy3 but1   
for the future1 ,i shall be more        
cautious in meddling with ,history when 
you are present2 whom ,i may justly     

commend as a most exact and scrupulous  
relator of the ,roman ,history2 but     
nearly at the time we are speaking of   
7though somewhat later7 lived the       
above-mentioned ,pericles1 the          
illustrious son of ,xantippus1 who first
 improved his eloquence by the friendly 
aids of literature2--not that kind of   
literature which treats professedly of  
the art of ,speaking1 of which there was
 then no regular system2 but after he   
had studied under ,anaxagoras the       
,naturalist1 he easily transferred his  
capacity from abstruse and intricate    
speculations to forensic and popular    
debates4  ,all ,athens was charmed with 
the sweetness of his language2 and not  
only admired him for his fluency1 but   
was awed by the superior force and the  
terrors of his eloquence4 ,this age1    
therefore1 which may be considered as   
the infancy of the ,art1 furnished      
,athens with an ,orator who almost      
reached the summit of his profession3   
for an emulation to shine in the ,forum 

is not usually found among a people who 
are either employed in settling the form
 of their government1 or engaged in war1
 or struggling with difficulties1 or    
subjected to the arbitrary power of     
,kings4 ,eloquence is the attendant of  
peace1 the companion of ease and        
prosperity1 and the tender offspring of 
a free and a well established           
constitution4 ,aristotle1 therefore1    
informs us1 that when the ,tyrants were 
expelled from ,sicily1 and private      
property 7after a long interval of      
servitude7 was determined by public     
trials1 the ,sicilians ,corax and       
,tisias 7for this people1 in general1   
were very quick and acute1 and had a    
natural turn for controversy7 first     
attempted to write precepts on the art  
of ,speaking4 ,before them1 he says1    
there was no one who spoke by method1   
and rules of art1 though there were many
 who discoursed very sensibly1 and      
generally from written notes3 but       
,protagoras took the pains to compose a 

number of dissertations1 on such leading
 and general topics as are now called   
common places4 ,gorgias1 he adds1 did   
the same1 and wrote panegyrics and      
invectives on every subject3 for he     
thought it was the province of an       
,orator to be able either to exaggerate1
 or extenuate1 as occasion might        
require4 ,antiphon the ,rhamnusian      
composed several essays of the same     
species2 and 7according to ,thucydides1 
a very respectable writer1 who was      
present to hear him7 pleaded a capital  
cause in his own defence1 with as much  
eloquence as had ever yet been displayed
 by any man4 ,but ,lysias was the first 
who openly professed the ,art2 and1     
after him1 ,theodorus1 being better     
versed in the theory than the practice  
of it1 begun to compose orations for    
others to pronounce2 but reserved the   
method of doing it to himself4 ,in the  
same manner1 ,isocrates at first        
disclaimed the ,art1 but wrote speeches 
for other people to deliver2 on which   

account1 being often prosecuted for     
assisting1 contrary to law1 to          
circumvent one or another of the parties
 in judgment1 he left off composing     
orations for other people1 and wholly   
applied himself to writing rules and    
systems4  ,thus then we have traced the 
birth and origin of the ,orators of     
,greece1 who were1 indeed1 very ancient1
 as ,i have before observed1 if we      
compute by the ,roman ,annals2 but of a 
much later date1 if we reckon by their  
own3 for the ,athenian ,state had       
signalized itself by a variety of great 
exploits1 both at home and abroad1 a    
considerable time before she was        
ravished with the charms of ,eloquence4 
,but this noble ,art was not common to  
,greece in general1 but almost peculiar 
to ,athens4 ,for who has ever heard of  
an ,argive1 a ,corinthian1 or a ,theban 
,orator at the times we are speaking of8
 unless1 perhaps1 some merit of the kind
 may be allowed to ,epaminondas1 who was
 a man of uncommon erudition4 ,but ,i   

have never read of a ,lacedemonian      
,orator1 from the earliest period of    
time to the present4 ,for ,menelaus     
himself1 though said by ,homer to have  
possessed a sweet elocution1 is likewise
 described as a man of few words4       
,brevity1 indeed1 upon some occasions1  
is a real excellence2 but it is very far
 from being compatible with the general 
character of ,eloquence4  ,the ,art of  
,speaking was likewise studied1 and     
admired1 beyond the limits of ,greece2  
and the extraordinary honours which were
 paid to ,oratory have perpetuated the  
names of many foreigners who had the    
happiness to excel in it4 ,for no sooner
 had ,eloquence ventured to sail from   
the ,pireaeus1 but she traversed all the
 isles1 and visited every part of ,asia2
 till at last she infected herself with 
their manners1 and lost all the purity  
and the healthy complexion of the ,attic
 style1 and indeed had almost forgot her
 native language4 ,the ,asiatic         
,orators1 therefore1 though not to be   

undervalued for the rapidity and the    
copious variety of their elocution1 were
 certainly too loose and luxuriant4 ,but
 the ,rhodians were of a sounder        
constitution1 and more resembled the    
,athenians4 ,so much1 then1 for the     
,greeks2 for1 perhaps1 what ,i have     
already said of them1 is more than was  
necessary4  ,as to the necessity of it1 
answered ,brutus1 there is no occasion  
to speak of it3 but what you have said  
of them has entertained me so agreeably1
 that instead of being longer1 it has   
been much shorter than ,i could have    
wished4--,a very handsome compliment1   
said ,i2--but it is time to begin with  
our own countrymen1 of whom it is       
difficult to give any further account   
than what we are able to conjecture from
 our ,annals4--,for who can question the
 address1 and the capacity of ,brutus1  
the illustrious founder of your family8 
,that ,brutus1 who so readily discovered
 the meaning of the ,oracle1 which      
promised the supremacy to him who should

 first salute his mother8 ,that ,brutus1
 who concealed the most consummate      
abilities under the appearance of a     
natural defect of understanding8 ,who   
dethroned and banished a powerful       
monarch1 the son of an illustrious      
sovereign8 ,who settled the ,state1     
which he had rescued from arbitrary     
power1 by the appointment of an annual  
magistracy1 a regular system of laws1   
and a free and open course of justice8  
,and who abrogated the authority of his 
colleague1 that he might rid the city of
 the smallest vestige of the regal      
name8--,events1 which could never have  
been produced without exerting the      
powers of ,persuasion6--,we are likewise
 informed that a few years after the    
expulsion of the ,kings1 when the       
,plebeians retired to the banks of the  
,anio1 about three miles from the city1 
and had possessed themselves of what is 
called ,the sacred ,mount1 ,m4 ,valerius
 the dictator appeased their fury by a  
public harangue2 for which he was       

afterwards rewarded with the highest    
posts of honour1 and was the first      
,roman who was distinguished by the     
surname of ,maximus4 ,nor can ,l4       
,valerius ,potitus be supposed to have  
been destitute of the powers of         
utterance1 who1 after the odium which   
had been excited against the ,patricians
 by the tyrannical government of the    
,decemviri1 reconciled the people to the
 ,senate1 by his prudent laws and       
conciliatory speeches4 ,we may likewise 
suppose1 that ,appius ,claudius was a   
man of some eloquence2 since he         
dissuaded the ,senate from consenting to
 a peace with ,king ,pyrrhus1 though    
they were much inclined to it4 ,the same
 might be said of ,caius ,fabricius1 who
 was dispatched to ,pyrrhus to treat for
 the ransom of his captive fellow-      
citizens2 and of ,titus ,coruncanius1   
who appears by the memoirs of the       
pontifical college1 to have been a      
person of no contemptible genius3 and   
likewise of ,m4 ,curius 7then a tribune 

of the people7 who1 when the ,interrex  
,appius the ,blind1 an artful ,speaker1 
held the ,comitia contrary to law1 by   
refusing to admit any consuls of        
plebeian rank1 prevailed upon the       
,senate to protest against the conduct3 
of his antagonist2 which1 if we consider
 that the ,moenian law was not then in  
being1 was a very bold attempt4 ,we may 
also conjecture1 that ,m4 ,popilius was 
a man of abilities1 who1 in the time of 
his consulship1 when he was solemnizing 
a public sacrifice in the proper habit  
of his office1 7for he was also a       
,flamen ,carmentalis7 hearing of the    
mutiny and insurrection of the people   
against the ,senate1 rushed immediately 
into the midst of the assembly1 covered 
as he was with his sacerdotal robes1 and
 quelled the sedition by his authority  
and the force of his elocution4 ,i do   
not pretend to have read that the       
persons ,i have mentioned were then     
reckoned ,orators1 or that any fort of  
reward or encouragement was given to    

,eloquence3 ,i only conjecture what     
appears very probable4 ,it is also      
recorded1 that ,c4 ,flaminius1 who1 when
 tribune of the people proposed the law 
for dividing the conquered territories  
of the ,gauls and ,piceni among the     
citizens1 and who1 after his promotion  
to the consulship1 was slain near the   
lake ,thrasimenus1 became very popular  
by the mere force of his address1       
,quintus ,maximus ,verrucosus was       
likewise reckoned a good ,speaker by his
 cotemporaries2 as was also ,quintus    
,metellus1 who1 in the second ,punic    
war1 was joint consul with ,l4 ,veturius
 ,philo4 ,but the first person we have  
any certain account of1 who was publicly
 distinguished as an ,orator1 and who   
really appears to have been such1 was   
,m4 ,cornelius ,cethegus2 whose         
eloquence is attested by ,q4 ,ennius1 a 
voucher of the highest credibility2     
since he actually heard him speak1 and  
gave him this character after his death2
 so that there is no reason to suspect  

that he was prompted by the warmth of   
his friendship to exceed the bounds of  
truth4 ,in his ninth book of ,annals1 he
 has mentioned him in the following     
terms3    ,additur ,orator ,corneliu'   
suaviloquenti   ,ore ,cethegus ,marcu'1 
,tuditano collega1   ,marci ,filius4    
,add the ,orator ,m4 ,cornelius         
,cethegus1 so much admired for his      
mellifluent tongue2 who was the         
colleague of ,tuditanus1 and the son of 
,marcus4  ,he expressly calls him an    
,orator1 you see1 and attributes to him 
a remarkable sweetness of elocution2    
which1 even now a-days1 is an excellence
 of which few are possessed3 for some of
 our modern ,orators are so insufferably
 harsh1 that they may rather be said to 
bark than to speak4 ,but what the ,poet 
so much admires in his friend1 may      
certainly be considered as one of the   
principal ornaments of ,eloquence4 ,he  
adds2   ----is dictus1 ollis popularibus
 olim1   ,qui tum vivebant homines1     
atque aevum agitabant1   ,flos delibatus

 populi4  ,he was called by his         
cotemporaries1 the choicest ,flower of  
the ,state4  ,a very elegant compliment6
 for as the glory of a man is the       
strength of his mental capacity1 so the 
brightest ornament of that is           
,eloquence2 in which1 whoever had the   
happiness to excel1 was beautifully     
styled1 by the ,ancients1 the ,flower of
 the ,state2 and1 as the ,poet          
immediately subjoins1    '--,suadaeque  
medulla3'  the very marrow and          
quintessence of ,persuasion4  ,that     
which the ,greeks call ,greek3 ,peitho1 
7i4e4 ,persuasion7 and which it is the  
chief business of an ,orator to effect1 
is here called ,suada by ,ennius2 and of
 this he commends ,cethegus as the      
quintessence2 so that he makes the      
,roman ,orator to be himself the very   
substance of that amiable ,goddess1 who 
is said by ,eupolis to have dwelt on the
 lips of ,pericles4 ,this ,cethegus was 
joint-consul with ,p4 ,tuditanus in the 
second ,punic war2 at which time also   

,m4 ,cato was ,quaestor1 about one      
hundred and forty years before ,i myself
 was promoted to the consulship2 which  
circumstance would have been absolutely 
lost1 if it had not been recorded by    
,ennius2 and the memory of that         
illustrious citizen1 as has probably    
been the case of many others1 would have
 been obliterated by the rust of        
antiquity4 ,the manner of speaking which
 was then in vogue1 may easily be       
collected from the writings of ,naevius3
 for ,naevius died1 as we learn from the
 memoirs of the times1 when the persons 
above-mentioned were consuls2 though    
,varro1 a most accurate investigator of 
historical truth1 thinks there is a     
mistake in this1 and fixes the death of 
,naevius something later4 ,for ,plautus 
died in the consulship of ,p4 ,claudius 
and ,l4 ,porcius1 twenty years after the
 consulship of the persons we have been 
speaking of1 and when ,cato was ,censor4
 ,cato1 therefore1 must have been       
younger than ,cethegus1 for he was      

consul nine years after him3 but we     
always consider him as a person of the  
remotest antiquity1 though he died in   
the consulship of ,lucius ,marcius and  
,m4 ,manilius1 and but eighty-three     
years before my own promotion to the    
same office4 ,he is certainly1 however1 
the most ancient ,orator we have1 whose 
writings may claim our attention2 unless
 any one is pleased with the            
above-mentioned speech of ,appius1 on   
the peace with ,pyrrhus1 or with a set  
of panegyrics on the dead1 which1 ,i    
own1 are still extant4 ,for it was      
customary in most families of note to   
preserve their images1 their trophies of
 honour1 and their memoirs1 either to   
adorn a funeral when any of the family  
deceased1 or to perpetuate the fame of  
their ancestors1 or prove their own     
nobility4 ,but the truth of ,history has
 been much corrupted by these laudatory 
essays2 for many circumstances were     
recorded in them which never existed2   
such as false triumphs1 a pretended     

succession of consulships1 and false    
alliances and elevations1 when men of   
inferior rank were confounded with a    
noble family of the same name3 as if ,i 
myself should pretend that ,i am        
descended from ,m4 ,tullius1 who was a  
,patrician1 and shared the consulship   
with ,servius ,sulpicius1 about ten     
years after the expulsion of the kings4 
,but the real speeches of ,cato are     
almost as numerous as those of ,lysias  
the ,athenian2 a great number of whose  
are still extant4 ,for ,lysias was      
certainly an ,athenian2 because he not  
only died but received his birth at     
,athens1 and served all the offices of  
the city2 though ,timaesus1 as if he    
acted by the ,licinian or the ,mucian   
law1 remands him back to ,syracuse4     
,there is1 however1 a manifest          
resemblance between his character and   
that of ,cato3 for they are both of them
 distinguished by their acuteness1 their
 elegance1 their agreeable humour1 and  
their brevity4 ,but the ,greek has the  

happiness to be most admired3 for there 
are some who are so extravagantly fond  
of him1 as to prefer a graceful air to a
 vigorous constitution1 and who are     
perfectly satisfied with a slender and  
an easy shape1 if it is only attended   
with a moderate share of health4 ,it    
must1 however1 be acknowledged1 that    
even ,lysias often displays a strength  
of arm1 than which nothing can be more  
strenuous and forcible2 though he is    
certainly1 in all respects1 of a more   
thin and feeble habit than ,cato1       
notwithstanding he has so many admirers1
 who are charmed with his very          
slenderness4 ,but as to ,cato1 where    
will you find a modern ,orator who      
condescends to read him8--nay1 ,i might 
have said1 who has the least knowledge  
of him8--,and yet1 good ,gods6 what a   
wonderful man6 ,i say nothing of his    
merit as a ,citizen1 a ,senator1 and a  
,general2 we must confine our attention 
to the ,orator4 ,who1 then1 has         
displayed more dignity as a             

panegyrist8--more severity as an        
accuser8--more ingenuity in the turn of 
his sentiments8--or more neatness and   
address in his narratives and           
explanations8 ,though he composed above 
a hundred and fifty orations1 7which ,i 
have seen and read7 they are crowded    
with all the beauties of language and   
sentiment4 ,let us select from these    
what deserves our notice and applause3  
they will supply us with all the graces 
of ,oratory4 ,not to omit his           
,antiquities1 who will deny that these  
also are adorned with every flower1 and 
with all the lustre of ,eloquence8 and  
yet he has scarcely any admirers2 which 
some ages ago was the case of ,philistus
 the ,syracusan1 and even of ,thucydides
 himself4 ,for as the lofty and elevated
 style of ,theopompus soon diminished   
the reputation of their pithy and       
laconic harangues1 which were sometimes 
scarcely intelligible through their     
excessive brevity and quaintness2 and as
 ,demosthenes eclipsed the glory of     

,lysias1 so the pompous and stately     
elocution of the moderns has obscured   
the lustre of ,cato4 ,but many of us are
 shamefully ignorant and inattentive2   
for we admire the ,greeks for their     
antiquity1 and what is called their     
,attic neatness1 and yet have never     
noticed the same quality in ,cato4 ,it  
was the distinguishing character1 say   
they1 of ,lysias and ,hyperides4 ,i own 
it1 and ,i admire them for it3 but why  
not allow a share of it to ,cato8 ,they 
are fond1 they tell us1 of the ,attic   
style of ,eloquence3 and their choice is
 certainly judicious1 provided they     
borrow the blood and the healthy juices1
 as well as the bones and membranes4    
,what they recommend1 however1 is1 to do
 it justice1 an agreeable quality4 ,but 
why must ,lysias and ,hyperides be so   
fondly courted1 while ,cato is entirely 
overlooked8 ,his language indeed has an 
antiquated air1 and some of his         
expressions are rather too harsh and    
crabbed4 ,but let us remember that this 

was the language of the time3 only      
change and modernize it1 which it was   
not in his power to do2--add the        
improvements of number and cadence1 give
 an easier turn to his sentences1 and   
regulate the structure and connection of
 his words1 7which was as little        
practised even by the older ,greeks as  
by him7 and you will discover no one who
 can claim the preference to ,cato4 ,the
 ,greeks themselves acknowledge that the
 chief beauty of composition results    
from the frequent use of those          
translatitious forms of expression which
 they call ,tropes1 and of those various
 attitudes of language and sentiment    
which they call ,figures3 but it is     
almost incredible in what numbers1 and  
with what amazing variety1 they are all 
employed by ,cato4 ,i know1 indeed1 that
 he is not sufficiently polished1 and   
that recourse must be had to a more     
perfect model for imitation3 for he is  
an author of such antiquity1 that he is 
the oldest now extant1 whose writings   

can be read with patience2 and the      
ancients in general acquired a much     
greater reputation in every other art1  
than in that of ,speaking4 ,but who that
 has seen the statues of the moderns1   
will not perceive in a moment1 that the 
figures of ,canachus are too stiff and  
formal1 to resemble life8 ,those of     
,calamis1 though evidently harsh1 are   
somewhat softer4 ,even the statues of   
,myron are not sufficiently alive2 and  
yet you would not hesitate to pronounce 
them beautiful4 ,but those of           
,polycletes are much finer1 and1 in my  
mind1 completely finished4 ,the case is 
the same in ,painting2 for in the works 
of ,zeuxis1 ,polygnotus1 ,timanthes1 and
 several other masters who confined     
themselves to the use of four colours1  
we commend the air and the symmetry of  
their figures2 but in ,aetion1          
,nicomachus1 ,protogenes1 and ,apelles1 
every thing is finished to perfection4  
,this1 ,i believe1 will hold equally    
true in all the other arts2 for there is

 not one of them which was invented and 
completed at the same time4 ,i cannot   
doubt1 for instance1 that there were    
many ,poets before ,homer3 we may infer 
it from those very songs which he       
himself informs us were sung at the     
feasts of the ,phaeacians1 and of the   
profligate suitors of ,penelope4 ,nay1  
to go no farther1 what is become of the 
ancient poems of our own countrymen8    
,such as the ,fauns and rustic ,bards   
compos'd1   ,when none the rocks of     
poetry had cross'd1   ,nor wish'd to    
form his style by rules of art1         
,before this vent'rous man3 c4  ,old    
,ennius here speaks of himself2 nor does
 he carry his boast beyond the bounds of
 truth3 the case being really as he     
describes it4 ,for we had only an       
,odyssey in ,latin1 which resembled one 
of the rough and unfinished statues of  
,daedalus2 and some dramatic pieces of  
,livius1 which will scarcely bear a     
second reading4 ,this ,livius exhibited 
his first performance at ,rome in the   

,consulship of ,m4 ,tuditanus1 and ,c4  
,clodius the son of ,caecus1 the year   
before ,ennius was born1 and1 according 
to the account of my friend ,atticus1   
7whom ,i choose to follow7 the five     
hundred and fourteenth from the building
 of the city4 ,but historians are not   
agreed about the date of the year4      
,attius informs us that ,livius was     
taken prisoner at ,tarentum by ,quintus 
,maximus in his fifth ,consulship1 about
 thirty years after he is said by       
,atticus1 and our ancient annals1 to    
have introduced the drama4 ,he adds that
 he exhibited his first dramatic piece  
about eleven years after1 in the        
,consulship of ,c4 ,cornelius and ,q4   
,minucius1 at the public games which    
,salinator had vowed to the ,goddess of 
,youth for his victory over the         
,senones4 ,but in this1 ,attius was so  
far mistaken1 that ,ennius1 when the    
persons above-mentioned were ,consuls1  
was forty years old3 so that if ,livius 
was of the same age1 as in this case he 

would have been1 the first dramatic     
author we had must have been younger    
than ,plautus and ,naevius1 who had     
exhibited a great number of plays before
 the time he specifies4 ,if these       
remarks1 my ,brutus1 appear unsuitable  
to the subject before us1 you must throw
 the whole blame upon ,atticus1 who has 
inspired me with a strange curiosity to 
enquire into the age of illustrious men1
 and the respective times of their      
appearance4--,on the contrary1 said     
,brutus1 ,i am highly pleased that you  
have carried your attention so far2 and 
,i think your remarks well adapted to   
the curious task you have undertaken1   
the giving us a history of the different
 classes of ,orators in their proper    
order4--,you understand me right1 said  
,i2 and ,i heartily wish those venerable
 ,odes were still extant1 which ,cato   
informs us in his ,antiquities1 used to 
be sung by every guest in his turn at   
the homely feasts of our ancestors1 many
 ages before1 to commemorate the feats  

of their heroes4 ,but the ,punic war of 
that antiquated ,poet1 whom ,ennius so  
proudly ranks among the ,fauns and      
rustic ,bards1 affords me as exquisite a
 pleasure as the finest statue that was 
ever formed by ,myron4 ,ennius1 ,i      
allow1 was a more finished writer3 but  
if he had really undervalued the other1 
as he pretends to do1 he would scarcely 
have omitted such a bloody war as the   
first ,punic1 when he attempted         
professedly to describe all the wars of 
the ,republic4 ,nay he himself assigns  
the reason4    ,others 7said he7 that   
cruel war have sung3  ,very true1 and   
they have sung it with great order and  
precision1 though not1 indeed1 in such  
elegant strains as yourself4 ,this you  
ought to have acknowledged1 as you must 
certainly be conscious that you have    
borrowed many ornaments from ,naevius2  
or if you refuse to own it1 ,i shall    
tell you plainly that you have pilfered 
them4  ,cotemporary with the ,cato      
above-mentioned 7though somewhat older7 

were ,c4 ,flaminius1 ,c4 ,varro1 ,q4    
,maximus1 ,q4 ,metellus1 ,p4 ,lentulus1 
and ,p4 ,crassus who was joint ,consul  
with the elder ,africanus4 ,this        
,scipio1 we are told1 was not destitute 
of the powers of ,elocution3 but his    
son1 who adopted the younger ,scipio    
7the son of ,paulus ,aemilius7 would    
have stood foremost in the list of      
,orators1 if he had possessed a firmer  
constitution4 ,this is evident from a   
few ,speeches1 and a ,greek ,history of 
his1 which are very agreeably written4  
,in the same class we may place ,sextus 
,aelius1 who was the best lawyer of his 
time1 and a ready speaker4 ,a little    
after these1 was ,c4 ,sulpicius ,gallus1
 who was better acquainted with the     
,grecian literature than all the rest of
 the nobility1 and was reckoned a       
graceful ,orator1 being equally         
distinguished1 in every other respect1  
by the superior elegance of his taste2  
for a more copious and splendid way of  
speaking began now to prevail4 ,when    

this ,sulpicius1 in quality of ,praetor1
 was celebrating the public shews in    
honour of ,apollo1 died the ,poet       
,ennius1 in the ,consulship of ,q4      
,marcius and ,cn4 ,servilius1 after     
exhibiting his ,tragedy of ,thyestes4   
,at the same time lived ,tiberius       
,gracchus1 the son of ,publius1 who was 
twice ,consul and ,censor3 a ,greek     
,oration of his to the ,rhodians is     
still extant1 and he bore the character 
of a worthy citizen1 and an eloquent    
,speaker4 ,we are likewise told that ,p4
 ,scipio ,nasica1 surnamed ,the ,darling
 of the ,people1 and who also had the   
honor to be twice chosen ,consul and    
,censor1 was esteemed an able ,orator3  
,to him we may add ,l4 ,lentulus1 who   
was joint ,consul with ,c4              
,figulus2--,q4 ,nobilior1 the son of    
,marcus1 who was inclined to the study  
of literature by his father's example1  
and presented ,ennius 7who had served   
under his father in ,aetolia7 with the  
freedom of the ,city1 when he founded a 

colony in quality of ,triumvir3 and his 
colleague1 ,t4 ,annius ,luscus1 who is  
said to have been tolerably eloquent4   
,we are likewise informed that ,l4      
,paulus1 the father of ,africanus1      
defended the character of an eminent    
citizen in a public speech2 and that    
,cato1 who died in the #hc;d year of his
 age1 was then living1 and actually     
pleaded1 that very year1 against the    
defendant ,servius ,galba1 in the open  
,forum1 with great energy and           
spirit3--he has left a copy of this     
,oration behind him4 ,but when ,cato was
 in the decline of life1 a crowd of     
,orators1 all younger than himself1 made
 their appearance at the same time3 ,for
 ,a4 ,albinus1 who wrote a ,history in  
,greek1 and shared the ,consulship with 
,l4 ,lucullus1 was greatly admired for  
his learning and ,elocution3 and almost 
equal to him were ,servius ,fulvius1 and
 ,servius ,fabius ,pictor1 the latter of
 whom was well acquainted with the laws 
of his country1 the ,belles ,lettres1   

and the ,history of ,antiquity4 ,quintus
 ,fabius ,labeo was likewise adorned    
with the same accomplishments4 ,but ,q4 
,metellus whose four sons attained the  
consular dignity1 was admired for his   
,eloquence beyond the rest2--he         
undertook the defence of ,l4 ,cotta1    
when he was accused by ,africanus1--and 
composed many other ,speeches1          
particularly that against ,tiberius     
,gracchus1 which we have a full account 
of in the ,annals of ,c4 ,fannius4 ,l4  
,cotta himself was likewise reckoned a  
veteran2 but ,c4 ,laelius1 and ,p4      
,africanus were allowed by all to be    
more finished ,speakers3 their ,orations
 are still extant1 and may serve as     
specimens of their respective abilities4
 ,but ,servius ,galba1 who was something
 older than any of them1 was            
indisputably the best speaker of the    
age4 ,he was the first among the ,romans
 who displayed the proper and           
distinguishing talents of an ,orator1   
such as1 digressing from his subject to 

embellish and diversify it1--soothing or
 alarming the passions1 exhibiting every
 circumstance in the strongest          
light1--imploring the compassion of his 
audience1 and artfully enlarging on     
those topics1 or general principles of  
,prudence or ,morality1 on which the    
stress of his argument depended3 and    
yet1 ,i know not how1 though he is      
allowed to have been the greatest       
,orator of his time1 the ,orations he   
has left are more lifeless1 and have a  
more antiquated air1 than those of      
,laelius1 or ,scipio1 or even of ,cato  
himself3 in short1 the strength and     
substance of them has so far evaporated1
 that we have scarcely any thing of them
 remaining but the bare skeletons4 ,in  
the same manner1 though both ,laelius   
and ,scipio are greatly extolled for    
their abilities2 the preference was     
given to ,laelius as a speaker2 and yet 
his ,oration1 in defence of the         
privileges of the ,sacerdotal ,college1 
has no greater merit than any one you   

may please to fix upon of the numerous  
speeches of ,scipio4 ,nothing1 indeed1  
can be sweeter and milder than that of  
,laelius1 nor could any thing have been 
urged with greater dignity to support   
the honour of religion3 but1 of the two1
 ,laelius appears to me to be rougher1  
and more old-fashioned than ,scipio2    
and1 as different ,speakers have        
different tastes1 he had in my mind too 
strong a relish for antiquity1 and was  
too fond of using obsolete expressions4 
,but such is the jealousy of mankind1   
that they will not allow the same person
 to be possessed of too many            
perfections4 ,for as in military prowess
 they thought it impossible that any man
 could vie with ,scipio1 though ,laelius
 had not a little distinguished himself 
in the war with ,viriathus2 so for      
learning1 ,eloquence1 and wisdom1 though
 each was allowed to be above the reach 
of any other competitor1 they adjudged  
the preference to ,laelius4 ,nor was    
this only the opinion of the world1 but 

it seems to have been allowed by mutual 
consent between themselves3 for it was  
then a general custom1 as candid in this
 respect as it was fair and just in     
every other1 to give his due to each4 ,i
 accordingly remember that ,p4 ,rutilius
 ,rufus once told me at ,smyrna1 that   
when he was a young man1 the two        
,consuls ,p4 ,scipio and ,d4 ,brutus1 by
 order of the ,senate1 tried a capital  
cause of great consequence4 ,for several
 persons of note having been murdered in
 the ,silan ,forest1 and the domestics1 
and some of the sons1 of a company of   
gentlemen who farmed the taxes of the   
pitch-manufactory1 being charged with   
the fact1 the ,consuls were ordered to  
try the cause in person4 ,laelius1 he   
said1 spoke very sensibly and elegantly1
 as indeed he always did1 on the side of
 the farmers of the customs4 ,but the   
,consuls1 after hearing both sides1     
judging it necessary to refer the matter
 to a second trial1 the same ,laelius1 a
 few days after1 pleaded their cause    

again with more accuracy1 and much      
better than at first4 ,the affair1      
however1 was once more put off for a    
further hearing4 ,upon this1 when his   
clients attended ,laelius to his own    
house1 and1 after thanking him for what 
he had already done1 earnestly begged   
him not to be disheartened by the       
fatigue he had suffered2--he assured    
them he had exerted his utmost to defend
 their reputation2 but frankly added1   
that he thought their cause would be    
more effectually supported by ,servius  
,galba1 whose manner of speaking was    
more embellished and more spirited than 
his own4 ,they1 accordingly1 by the     
advice of ,laelius1 requested ,galba to 
undertake it4 ,to this he consented2 but
 with the greatest modesty and          
reluctance1 out of respect to the       
illustrious advocate he was going to    
succeed3--and as he had only the next   
day to prepare himself1 he spent the    
whole of it in considering and digesting
 his cause4 ,when the day of trial was  

come1 ,rutilius himself1 at the request 
of the defendants1 went early in the    
morning to ,galba1 to give him notice of
 it1 and conduct him to the court in    
proper time4 ,but till word was brought 
that the ,consuls were going to the     
bench1 he confined himself in his study1
 where he suffered no one to be         
admitted2 and continued very busy in    
dictating to his ,amanuenses1 several of
 whom 7as indeed he often used to do7 he
 kept fully employed at once4 ,while he 
was thus engaged1 being informed that it
 was high time for him to appear in     
court1 he left his house with so much   
life in his eyes1 and such an ardent    
glow upon his countenance1 that you     
would have thought he had not only      
prepared his cause1 but actually carried
 it4 ,rutilius added1 as another        
circumstance worth noticing1 that his   
scribes1 who attended him to the bar1   
appeared excessively fatigued3 from     
whence he thought it probable that he   
was equally warm and vigorous in the    

composition1 as in the delivery of his  
speeches4 ,but to conclude the story1   
,galba pleaded his cause before ,laelius
 himself1 and a very numerous and       
attentive audience1 with such uncommon  
force and dignity1 that every part of   
his ,oration received the applause of   
his hearers3 and so powerfully did he   
move the feelings1 and affect the pity  
of the judges1 that his clients were    
immediately acquitted of the charge1 to 
the satisfaction of the whole court4    
,as1 therefore1 the two principal       
qualities required in an ,orator1 are to
 be neat and clear in stating the nature
 of his subject1 and warm and forcible  
in moving the passions2 and as he who   
fires and inflames his audience1 will   
always effect more than he who can      
barely inform and amuse them2 we may    
conjecture from the above narrative1    
which ,i was favoured with by ,rutilius1
 that ,laelius was most admired for his 
elegance1 and ,galba for his pathetic   
force4 ,but this force of his was most  

remarkably exerted1 when1 having in his 
,praetorship put to death some          
,lusitanians1 contrary 7it was believed7
 to his previous and express            
engagement2--,t4 ,libo the ,tribune     
exasperated the people against him1 and 
preferred a bill which was to operate   
against his conduct as a subsequent law4
 ,m4 ,cato 7as ,i have before mentioned7
 though extremely old1 spoke in support 
of the bill with great vehemence2 which 
,speech he inserted in his ,book of     
,antiquities1 a few days1 or at most    
only a month or two1 before his death4  
,on this occasion1 ,galba refusing to   
plead to the charge1 and submitting his 
fate to the generosity of the people1   
recommended his children to their       
protection1 with tears in his eyes2 and 
particularly his young ward the son of  
,c4 ,gallus ,sulpicius his deceased     
friend1 whose orphan state and piercing 
cries1 which were the more regarded for 
the sake of his illustrious father1     
excited their pity in a wonderful       

manner2--and thus 7as ,cato informs us  
in his ,history7 he escaped the flames  
which would otherwise have consumed him1
 by employing the children to move the  
compassion of the people4 ,i likewise   
find 7what may be easily judged from his
 ,orations still extant7 that his       
prosecutor ,libo was a man of some      
,eloquence4  ,as ,i concluded these     
remarks with a short pause2--,what can  
be the reason1 said ,brutus1 if there   
was so much merit in the ,oratory of    
,galba1 that there is no trace of it to 
be seen in his ,orations2--a            
circumstance which ,i have no           
opportunity to be surprized at in       
others1 who have left nothing behind    
them in writing4--,the reasons1 said ,i1
 why some have not wrote any thing1 and 
others not so well as they spoke1 are   
very different4 ,some of our ,orators   
have writ nothing through mere          
indolence1 and because they were loath  
to add a private fatigue to a public    
one3 for most of the ,orations we are   

now possessed of were written not before
 they were spoken1 but some time        
afterwards4 ,others did not choose the  
trouble of improving themselves2 to     
which nothing more contributes than     
frequent writing2 and as to perpetuating
 the fame of their ,eloquence1 they     
thought it unnecessary2 supposing that  
their eminence in that respect was      
sufficiently established already1 and   
that it would be rather diminished than 
increased by submitting any written     
specimen of it to the arbitrary test of 
criticism4 ,some also were sensible that
 they spoke much better than they were  
able to write2 which is generally the   
case of those who have a great genius1  
but little learning1 such as ,servius   
,galba4 ,when he spoke1 he was perhaps  
so much animated by the force of his    
abilities1 and the natural warmth and   
impetuosity of his temper1 that his     
language was rapid1 bold1 and striking2 
but afterwards1 when he took up the pen 
in his leisure hours1 and his passion   

had sunk into a calm1 his ,elocution    
became dull and languid4 ,this indeed   
can never happen to those whose only aim
 is to be neat and polished2 because an 
,orator may always be master of that    
discretion which will enable him both to
 speak and write in the same agreeable  
manner3 but no man can revive at        
pleasure the ardour of his passions2 and
 when that has once subsided1 the fire  
and pathos of his language will be      
extinguished4 ,this is the reason why   
the calm and easy spirit of ,laelius    
seems still to breathe in his writings1 
whereas the force of ,galba is entirely 
withered and lost4  ,we may also reckon 
in the number of middling ,orators1 the 
two brothers ,l4 and ,sp4 ,mummius1 both
 whose ,orations are still in           
being3--the style of ,lucius is plain   
and antiquated2 but that of ,spurius1   
though equally unembellished1 is more   
close1 and compact2 for he was well     
versed in the doctrine of the ,stoics4  
,the ,orations of ,sp4 ,alpinus1 their  

cotemporary1 are very numerous3 and we  
have several by ,l4 and ,c4 ,aurelius   
,oresta1 who were esteemed indifferent  
,speakers4 ,p4 ,popilius also was a     
worthy citizen1 and had a tolerable     
share of utterance3 but his son ,caius  
was really eloquent4 ,to these we may   
add ,c4 ,tuditanus1 who was not only    
very polished1 and genteel1 in his      
manners and appearance1 but had an      
elegant turn of expression2 and of the  
same class was ,m4 ,octavius1 a man of  
inflexible constancy in every just and  
laudable measure2 and who1 after being  
affronted and disgraced in the most     
public manner1 defeated his rival       
,tiberius ,gracchus by the mere dint of 
his perseverance4 ,but ,m4 ,aemilius    
,lepidus1 who was surnamed ,porcina1 and
 flourished at the same time as ,galba1 
though he was indeed something younger1 
was esteemed an ,orator of the first    
eminence2 and really appears1 from his  
,orations which are still extant1 to    
have been a masterly writer4 ,for he was

 the first ,speaker1 among the ,romans1 
who gave us a specimen of the easy      
gracefulness of the ,greeks2 and who was
 distinguished by the measured flow of  
his language1 and a style regularly     
polished and improved by art4 ,his      
manner was carefully studied by ,c4     
,carbo and ,tib4 ,gracchus1 two         
accomplished youths who were nearly of  
an age3 but we must defer their         
character as public ,speakers1 till we  
have finished our account of their      
elders4 ,for ,q4 ,pompeius1 according to
 the style of the time1 was no          
contemptible ,orator2 and actually      
raised himself to the highest honours of
 the ,state by his own personal merit1  
and without being recommended1 as usual1
 by the quality of his ancestors4       
,lucius ,cassius too derived his        
influence1 which was very considerable1 
not indeed from his ,eloquence1 but from
 his manly way of speaking3 for it is   
remarkable that he made himself popular1
 not1 as others did1 by his complaisance

 and liberality1 but by the gloomy      
rigour and severity of his manners4 ,his
 law for collecting the votes of the    
people by way of ballot1 was strongly   
opposed by the ,tribune ,m4 ,antius     
,briso1 who was supported by ,m4        
,lepidus one of the ,consuls3 and it was
 afterwards objected to ,africanus1 that
 ,briso dropped the opposition by his   
advice4 ,at this time the two ,scipios  
were very serviceable to a number of    
clients by their superior judgment1 and 
,eloquence2 but still more so by their  
extensive interest and popularity4 ,but 
the written speeches of ,pompeius       
7though it must be owned they have      
rather an antiquated air7 discover an   
amazing sagacity1 and are very far from 
being dry and spiritless4 ,to these we  
must add ,p4 ,crassus1 an orator of     
uncommon merit1 who was qualified for   
the profession by the united efforts of 
art and nature1 and enjoyed some other  
advantages which were almost peculiar to
 his family4 ,for he had contracted an  

affinity with that accomplished ,speaker
 ,servius ,galba above-mentioned1 by    
giving his daughter in marriage to      
,galba's son2 and being likewise himself
 the son of ,mucius1 and the brother of 
,p4 ,scaevola1 he had a fine opportunity
 at home 7which he made the best use of7
 to gain a thorough knowledge of the    
,civil ,law4 ,he was a man of unusual   
application1 and was much beloved by his
 fellow-citizens2 being constantly      
employed either in giving his advice1 or
 pleading causes in the ,forum4         
,cotemporary with the ,speakers ,i have 
mentioned were the two ,c4 ,fannii1 the 
sons of ,c4 and ,m4 one of whom1 7the   
son of ,c47 who was joint ,consul with  
,domitius1 has left us an excellent     
speech against ,gracchus1 who proposed  
the admission of the ,latin and ,italian
 allies to the freedom of ,rome4--,do   
you really think1 then1 said ,atticus1  
that ,fannius was the author of that    
,oration8 ,for when we were young1 there
 were different opinions about it4 ,some

 asserted it was wrote by ,c4 ,persius1 
a man of letters1 and the same who is so
 much extolled for his learning by      
,lucilius3 and others believed it was   
the joint production of a number of     
noblemen1 each of whom contributed his  
best to complete it4--,this ,i remember1
 said ,i2 but ,i could never persuade   
myself to coincide with either of them4 
,their suspicion1 ,i believe1 was       
entirely founded on the character of    
,fannius1 who was only reckoned among   
the middling ,orators2 whereas the      
speech in question is esteemed the best 
which the time afforded4 ,but1 on the   
other hand1 it is too much of a piece to
 have been the mingled composition of   
many3 for the flow of the periods1 and  
the turn of the language1 are perfectly 
similar1 throughout the whole of        
it4--and as to ,persius1 if he had      
composed it for ,fannius to pronounce1  
,gracchus would certainly have taken    
some notice of it in his reply2 because 
,fannius rallies ,gracchus pretty       

severely1 in one part of it1 for        
employing ,menelaus of ,marathon1 and   
several others1 to manufacture his      
speeches4 ,we may add that ,fannius     
himself was no contemptible ,orator3 for
 he pleaded a number of causes1 and his 
,tribuneship1 which was chiefly         
conducted under the management and      
direction of ,p4 ,africanus1 was very   
far from being an idle one4 ,but the    
other ,c4 ,fannius1 7the son of ,m47 and
 son- in-law of ,c4 ,laelius1 was of a  
rougher cast1 both in his temper1 and   
manner of speaking4 ,by the advice of   
his father-in-law1 7of whom1 by the bye1
 he was not remarkably fond1 because he 
had not voted for his admission into the
 college of augurs1 but gave the        
preference to his younger son-in-law ,q4
 ,scaevola2 though ,laelius genteely    
excused himself1 by saying that the     
preference was not given to the youngest
 son1 but to his wife the eldest        
daughter17 by his advice1 ,i say1 he    
attended the lectures of ,panaetius4    

,his abilities as a ,speaker may be     
easily conjectured from his ,history1   
which is neither destitute of elegance1 
nor a perfect model of composition4 ,as 
to his brother ,mucius the augur1       
whenever he was called upon to defend   
himself1 he always pleaded his own      
cause2 as1 for instance1 in the action  
which was brought against him for       
bribery by ,t4 ,albucius4 ,but he was   
never ranked among the ,orators2 his    
chief merit being a critical knowledge  
of the ,civil ,law1 and an uncommon     
accuracy of judgment4 ,l4 ,caelius      
,antipater likewise 7as you may see by  
his works7 was an elegant and a handsome
 writer for the time he lived in2 he was
 also an excellent ,lawyer1 and taught  
the principles of jurisprudence to many 
others1 particularly to ,l4 ,crassus4   
,as to ,caius ,carbo and ,t4 ,gracchus1 
,i wish they had been as well inclined  
to maintain peace and good order in the 
,state1 as they were qualified to       
support it by their ,eloquence3 their   

glory would then have been out-rivaled  
by no one4 ,but the latter1 for his     
turbulent ,tribuneship1 which he entered
 upon with a heart full of resentment   
against the great and good1 on account  
of the odium he had brought upon himself
 by the treaty of ,numantia1 was slain  
by the hands of the ,republic3 and the  
other1 being impeached of a seditious   
affectation of popularity1 rescued      
himself from the severity of the judges 
by a voluntary death4 ,that both of them
 were excellent ,speakers1 is very plain
 from the general testimony of their    
cotemporaries3 for as to their ,speeches
 now extant1 though ,i allow them to be 
very artful and judicious1 they are     
certainly defective in ,elocution4      
,gracchus had the advantage of being    
carefully instructed by his mother      
,cornelia from his very childhood1 and  
his mind was enriched with all the      
stores of ,grecian literature3 for he   
was constantly attended by the ablest   
masters from ,greece1 and particularly1 

in his youth1 by ,diophanes of          
,mitylene1 who was the most eloquent    
,grecian of his age3 but though he was a
 man of uncommon genius1 he had but a   
short time to improve and display it4   
,as to ,carbo1 his whole life was spent 
in trials1 and forensic debates4 ,he is 
said by very sensible men who heard him1
 and1 among others1 by our friend ,l4   
,gellius who lived in his family in the 
time of his ,consulship1 to have been a 
sonorous1 a fluent1 and a spirited      
,speaker1 and likewise1 upon occasion1  
very pathetic1 very engaging1 and       
excessively humorous3 ,gellius used to  
add1 that he applied himself very       
closely to his studies1 and bestowed    
much of his time in writing and private 
declamation4 ,he was1 therefore1        
esteemed the best pleader of his time2  
for no sooner had he began to           
distinguish himself in the ,forum1 but  
the depravity of the age gave birth to a
 number of law-suits2 and it was first  
found necessary1 in the time of his     

youth1 to settle the form of public     
trials1 which had never been done       
before4 ,we accordingly find that ,l4   
,piso1 then a ,tribune of the people1   
was the first who proposed a law against
 bribery2 which he did when ,censorinus 
and ,manilius were ,consuls4 ,this ,piso
 too was a professed pleader1 and the   
proposer and opposer of a great number  
of laws3 he left some ,orations behind  
him1 which are now lost1 and a ,book of 
,annals very indifferently written4 ,but
 in the public trials1 in which ,carbo  
was concerned1 the assistance of an able
 advocate had become more necessary than
 ever1 in consequence of the law for    
voting by ballots1 which was proposed   
and carried by ,l4 ,cassius1 in the     
,consulship of ,lepidus and ,mancinus4  
,i have likewise been often assured by  
the poet ,attius1 7an intimate friend of
 his7 that your ancestor ,d4 ,brutus1   
the son of ,m4 was no inelegant         
,speaker2 and that for the time he lived
 in1 he was well versed both in the     

,greek and ,roman literature4 ,he       
ascribed the same accomplishments to ,q4
 ,maximus1 the grandson of ,l4 ,paulus3 
and added that1 a little prior to       
,maximus1 the ,scipio1 by whose         
instigation 7though only in a private   
capacity7 ,t4 ,gracchus was             
assassinated1 was not only a man of     
great ardour in all other respects1 but 
very warm and spirited in his manner of 
speaking4 ,p4 ,lentulus too1 the ,father
 of the ,senate1 had a sufficient share 
of eloquence for an honest and useful   
magistrate4 ,about the same time ,l4    
,furius ,philus was thought to speak our
 language as elegantly1 and more        
correctly than any other man2 ,p4       
,scaevola to be very artful and         
judicious1 and rather more fluent than  
,philus2 ,m4 ,manilius to possess almost
 an equal share of judgment with the    
latter2 and ,appius ,claudius to be     
equally fluent1 but more warm and       
pathetic4 ,m4 ,fulvius ,flaccus1 and ,c4
 ,cato the nephew of ,africanus1 were   

likewise tolerable ,orators3 some of the
 writings of ,flaccus are still in      
being1 in which nothing1 however1 is to 
be seen but the mere scholar4 ,p4       
,decius was a professed rival of        
,flaccus2 he too was not destitute of   
,eloquence2 but his style1 as well as   
his temper1 was too violent4 ,m4 ,drusus
 the son of ,c4 who1 in his             
,tribuneship1 baffled ,footnote3        
,laffiea4 ,in the original it runs1     
,caium ,gracchum collegam1 iterum       
,tribinum fecit4 but this was           
undoubtedly a mistake of the            
transcriber1 as being contrary not only 
to the truth of ,history1 but to        
,cicero's own account of the matter in  
lib4 ,,iv4 ,di ,finibus4 ,pighius       
therefore has very properly recommended 
the word fregit instead of fecit4 his   
colleague ,gracchus 7then raised to the 
same office a second time7 was a nervous
 ,speaker1 and a man of great           
popularity3 and next to him was his     
brother ,c4 ,drusus4 ,your kinsman also1

 my ,brutus1 7,m4 ,pennus7 successfully 
opposed the ,tribune ,gracchus1 who was 
something younger than himself4 ,for    
,gracchus was ,quaestor1 and ,pennus    
7the son of that ,m4 who was joint      
,consul with ,q4 ,aelius7 was ,tribune1 
in the ,consulship of ,m4 ,lepidus and  
,l4 ,orestes3 but after enjoying the    
,aedileship1 and a prospect3 of         
succeeding to the highest honours1 he   
was snatched off by an untimely death4  
,as to ,t4 ,flaminius1 whom ,i myself   
have seen1 ,i can learn nothing but that
 he spoke our language with great       
accuracy4 ,to these we may join ,c4     
,curio1 ,m4 ,scaurus1 ,p4 ,rutilius1 and
 ,c4 ,gracchus4 ,it will not be amiss to
 give a short account of ,scaurus and   
,rutilius2 neither of whom1 indeed1 had 
the reputation of being a first- rate   
,orator1 though each of them pleaded a  
number of causes4 ,but some deserving   
men1 who were not remarkable for their  
genius1 may be justly commended for     
their industry2 not that the persons ,i 

am speaking of were really destitute of 
genius1 but only of that particular kind
 of it which distinguishes the ,orator4 
,for it is of little consequence to     
discover what is proper to be said1     
unless you are able to express it in a  
free and agreeable manner3 and even that
 will be insufficient1 if not           
recommended by the voice1 the look1 and 
the gesture4 ,it is needless to add that
 much depends upon ,art3 for though1    
even without this1 it is possible1 by   
the mere force of nature1 to say many   
striking things2 yet1 as they will after
 all be nothing more than so many lucky 
hits1 we shall not be able to repeat    
them at our pleasure4 ,the style of     
,scaurus1 who was a very sensible and   
honest man1 was remarkably serious1 and 
commanded the respect of the hearer3 so 
that when he was speaking for his       
client1 you would rather have thought he
 was giving evidence in his favour1 than
 pleading his cause4 ,this manner of    
speaking1 however1 though but           

indifferently adapted to the bar1 was   
very much so to a calm1 debate in the   
,senate1 of which ,scaurus was then     
esteemed the ,father3 for it not only   
bespoke his prudence1 but what was still
 a more important recommendation1 his   
credibility4 ,this advantage1 which it  
is not easy to acquire by art1 he       
derived entirely from nature3 though you
 know that even here we have some       
precepts to assist us4 ,we have several 
of his ,orations still extant1 and three
 books inscribed to ,l4 ,fufidius       
containing the ,history of his own      
,life1 which1 though a very useful work1
 is scarcely read by any body4 ,but the 
,institution of ,cyrus1 by ,xenophon1 is
 read by every one2 which1 though an    
excellent performance of the kind1 is   
much less adapted to our manners and    
form of government1 and not superior in 
merit to the honest simplicity of       
,scaurus4 ,fufidius himself was likewise
 a tolerable pleader4 ,but ,rutilius was
 distinguished by his solemn and austere

 way of speaking2 and both of them were 
naturally warm1 and spirited4           
,accordingly1 after they had rivalled   
each other for the ,consulship1 he who  
had lost his election1 immediately sued 
his competitor for bribery2 and         
,scaurus1 the defendant1 being          
honourably acquitted of the charge1     
returned the compliment to ,rutilius1 by
 commencing a similar prosecution       
against him4 ,rutilius was a man of     
great industry and application2 for     
which he was the more respected1        
because1 besides his pleadings1 he      
undertook the office 7which was a very  
troublesome one7 of giving advice to all
 who applied to him1 in matters of law4 
,his ,orations are very dry1 but his    
juridical remarks are excellent3 for he 
was a learned man1 and well versed in   
the ,greek literature1 and was likewise 
an attentive and constant hearer of     
,panaetius1 and a thorough proficient in
 the doctrine of the ,stoics2 whose     
method of discoursing1 though very close

 and artful1 is too precise1 and not at 
all adapted to engage the attention of  
common people4 ,that self- confidence1  
therefore1 which is so peculiar to the  
sect1 was displayed by him with amazing 
firmness and resolution2 for though he  
was perfectly innocent of the charge1 a 
prosecution was commenced against him   
for bribery 7a trial which raised a     
violent commotion in the city7--and yet 
though ,l4 ,crassus and ,m4 ,antonius1  
both of ,consular dignity1 were1 at that
 time1 in very high repute for their    
,eloquence1 he refused the assistance of
 either2 being determined to plead his  
cause himself1 which he accordingly did4
 ,c4 ,cotta1 indeed1 who was his nephew1
 made a short speech in his vindication1
 which he spoke in the true style of an 
,orator1 though he was then but a youth4
 ,q4 ,mucius too said much in his       
defence1 with his usual accuracy and    
elegance2 but not with that force1 and  
extension1 which the mode of trial1 and 
the importance of the cause demanded4   

,rutilius1 therefore1 was an ,orator of 
the ,stoical1 and ,scaurus of the       
,antique cast3 but they are both        
entitled to our commendation2 because1  
in them1 even this formal and           
unpromising species of ,elocution has   
appeared among us with some degree of   
merit4 ,for as in the ,theatre1 so in   
the ,forum1 ,i would not have our       
applause confined to those alone who act
 the busy1 and more important           
characters2 but reserve a share of it   
for the quiet and unambitious performer 
who is distinguished by a simple truth  
of gesture1 without any violence4 ,as ,i
 have mentioned the ,stoics1 ,i must    
take some notice of ,q4 ,aelius ,tubero1
 the grandson of ,l4 ,paullus1 who made 
his appearance at the time we are       
speaking of4 ,he was never esteemed an  
,orator1 but was a man of the most rigid
 virtue1 and strictly conformable to the
 doctrine he professed3 but1 in truth1  
he was rather too crabbed4 ,in his      
,triumvirate1 he declared1 contrary to  

the opinion of ,p4 ,africanus his uncle1
 that the ,augurs had no right of       
exemption from sitting in the courts of 
justice3 and as in his temper1 so in his
 manner of speaking1 he was harsh1      
unpolished1 and austere2 on which       
account1 he could never raise himself to
 the honourable ports which were enjoyed
 by his ancestors4 ,but he was a brave  
and steady citizen1 and a warm opposer  
of ,gracchus1 as appears from an        
,oration of ,gracchus against him3 we   
have likewise some of ,tubero's speeches
 against ,gracchus4 ,he was not indeed a
 shining ,orator3 but he was a learned1 
and a very skilfull disputant4  ,i find1
 said ,brutus1 that the case is much the
 same among us1 as with the ,greeks2 and
 that the ,stoics1 in general1 are very 
judicious at an argument1 which they    
conduct by certain rules of art1 and are
 likewise very neat and exact in their  
language2 but if we take them from this1
 to speak in ,public1 they make a poor  
appearance4 ,cato1 however1 must be     

excepted2 in whom1 though as rigid a    
,stoic as ever existed1 ,i could not    
wish for a more consummate degree of    
,eloquence3 ,i can likewise discover a  
moderate share of it in ,fannius1--not  
so much in ,rutilius2--but none at all  
in ,tubero4--,true1 said ,i2 and we may 
easily account for it3 ,their whole     
attention was so closely confined to the
 study of ,logic1 that they never       
troubled themselves to acquire the free1
 diffusive1 and variegated style which  
is so necessary for a public ,speaker4  
,but your uncle1 you doubtless know1 was
 wise enough to borrow only that from   
the ,stoics1 which they were able to    
furnish for his purpose 7the art of     
reasoning37 but for the art of          
,speaking1 he had recourse to the       
masters of ,rhetoric1 and exercised     
himself in the manner they directed4    
,if1 however1 we must be indebted for   
everything to the ,philosophers1 the    
,peripatetic discipline is1 in my mind1 
much the properest to form our language4

 ,for which reason1 my ,brutus1 ,i the  
more approve your choice1 in attaching  
yourself to a sect1 7,i mean the        
,philosophers of the ,old ,academy17 in 
whose system1 a just and accurate way of
 reasoning is enlivened by a perpetual  
sweetness and fluency of expression3 but
 even the delicate and flowing style of 
the ,peripatetics1 and ,academics1 is   
not sufficient to complete an ,orator2  
nor yet can he be complete without it4  
,for as the language of the ,stoics is  
too close1 and contracted1 to suit the  
ears of common people2 so that of the   
latter is too diffusive and luxuriant   
for a spirited contest in the ,forum1 or
 a pleading at the bar4 ,who had a      
richer style than ,plato8 ,the          
,philosophers tell us1 that if ,jupiter 
himself was to converse in ,greek1 he   
would speak like him4 ,who also was more
 nervous than ,aristotle8 ,who sweeter  
than ,theophrastus8 ,we are told that   
even ,demosthenes attended the lectures 
of ,plato1 and was fond of reading what 

he published2 which1 indeed1 is         
sufficiently evident from the turn1 and 
the majesty of his language and he      
himself has expressly mentioned it in   
one of his ,letters4 ,but the style of  
this excellent ,orator is1              
notwithstanding1 much too fierce for the
 ,academy2 as that of the ,philosophers 
is too mild and placid for the ,forum4  
,i shall now1 with your leave1 proceed  
to the age and merits of the rest of the
 ,roman ,orators4--,nothing1 said       
,atticus1 7for ,i can safely answer for 
my friend ,brutus7 would please us      
better4--,curio1 then1 said ,i1 was     
nearly of the age ,i have just          
mentioned1--a celebrated ,speaker1 whose
 genius may be easily decided from his  
,orations4 ,for1 among several others1  
we have a noble ,speech of his for ,ser4
 ,fulvius1 in a prosecution for incest4 
,when we were children1 it was esteemed 
the best then extant2 but now it is     
almost overlooked among the numerous    
performances of the same kind which have

 been lately published4--,i am very     
sensible1 replied ,brutus1 to whom we   
are obliged for the numerous            
performances you speak of4--,and ,i am  
equally sensible1 said ,i1 who is the   
person you intend3 for ,i have at least 
done a service to my young countrymen1  
by introducing a loftier1 and more      
embellished way of speaking1 than was   
used before3 and1 perhaps1 ,i have also 
done some harm1 because after mine      
appeared1 the ,speeches of our ancestors
 and predecessors began to be neglected 
by most people2 though never by me1 for 
,i can assure you1 ,i always prefer them
 to my own4--,but you must reckon me1   
said ,brutus1 among the most people2    
though ,i now see1 from your            
recommendation1 that ,i have a great    
many books to read1 of which before ,i  
had very little opinion4--,but this     
celebrated ,oration1 said ,i1 in the    
prosecution for incest1 is in some      
places excessively puerile2 and what is 
said in it of the passion of love1 the  

inefficacy of questioning by tortures1  
and the danger of trusting to common    
hear-say1 is indeed pretty enough1 but  
would be insufferable to the tutored    
ears of the moderns1 and to a people who
 are justly distinguished for the       
solidity of their knowledge4 ,he        
likewise wrote several other pieces1    
spoke a number of good ,orations1 and   
was certainly an eminent pleader2 so    
that ,i much wonder1 considering how    
long he lived1 and the character he     
bore1 that he was never preferred to the
 ,consulship4 ,but ,i have a man here1  
,footnote3 ,he refers1 perhaps1 to the  
,works of ,gracchus1 which he might then
 have in his hand2 or1 more probably1 to
 a statue of him1 which stood near the  
place where he and his friends were     
sitting4 7,c4 ,gracchus7 who had an     
amazing genius1 and the warmest         
application2 and was a ,scholar from his
 very childhood3 ,for you must not      
imagine1 my ,brutus1 that we have ever  
yet had a ,speaker1 whose language was  

richer and more copious than his4--,i   
really think so1 answered ,brutus2 and  
he is almost the only author we have1   
among the ancients1 that ,i take the    
trouble to read4 ,and he well deserves  
it1 said ,i2 for the ,roman name and    
literature were great losers by his     
untimely fate4 ,i wish he had           
transferred his affection for his       
brother to his country6 ,how easily1 if 
he had thus prolonged his life1 would he
 have rivalled the glory of his father1 
and grandfather6 ,in ,eloquence1 ,i     
scarcely know whether we should yet have
 had his equal4 ,his language was noble2
 his sentiments manly and judicious2 and
 his whole manner great and striking4   
,he wanted nothing but the finishing    
touch3 for though his first attempts    
were as excellent as they were numerous1
 he did not live to complete them4 ,in  
short1 my ,brutus1 he1 if any one1      
should be carefully studied by the      
,roman youth3 for he is able1 not only  
to edge1 but to feed and ripen their    

talents4 ,after him appeared ,c4 ,galba1
 the son of the eloquent ,servius1 and  
the son-in-law of ,p4 ,crassus1 who was 
both an eminent ,speaker1 and a skilful 
,civilian4 ,he was much commended by our
 fathers1 who respected him for the sake
 of his3 but he had the misfortune to be
 stopped in his career4 ,for being tried
 by the ,mamilian law1 as a party       
concerned in the conspiracy to support  
,jugurtha1 though he exerted all his    
abilities to defend himself1 he was     
unhappily cast4 ,his peroration1 or1 as 
it is often called1 his epilogue1 is    
still extant2 and was so much in repute1
 when we were school-boys1 that we used 
to learn it by heart3 he was the first  
member of the ,sacerdotal ,college1     
since the building of ,rome1 who was    
publicly tried and condemned4 ,as to ,p4
 ,scipio1 who died in his ,consulship1  
he neither spoke much1 nor often3 but he
 was inferior to no one in the purity of
 his language1 and superior to all in   
wit and pleasantry4 ,his colleague ,l4  

,bestia1 who begun his ,tribuneship very
 successfully1 7for1 by a law which he  
preferred for the purpose1 he procured  
the recall of ,popillius1 who had been  
exiled by the influence of ,caius       
,gracchus7 was a man of spirit1 and a   
tolerable ,speaker3 but he did not      
finish his ,consulship so happily4 ,for1
 in consequence of the invidious law of 
,mamilius above-mentioned1 ,c4 ,galba   
one of the ,priests1 and the four       
,consular gentlemen ,l4 ,bestia1 ,c4    
,cato1 ,sp4 ,albinus1 and that excellent
 citizen ,l4 ,opimius1 who killed       
,gracchus2 of which he was acquitted by 
the people1 though he had constantly    
sided against them1--were all condemned 
by their judges1 who were of the        
,gracchan party4 ,very unlike him in his
 ,tribuneship1 and indeed in every other
 part of his life1 was that infamous    
citizen ,c4 ,licinius ,nerva2 but he was
 not destitute of ,eloquence4 ,nearly at
 the same time1 7though1 indeed1 he was 
somewhat older7 flourished ,c4 ,fimbria1

 who was rather rough and abusive1 and  
much too warm and hasty3 but his        
application1 and his great integrity and
 firmness made him a serviceable        
,speaker in the ,senate4 ,he was        
likewise a tolerable ,pleader1 and      
,civilian1 and distinguished by the same
 rigid freedom in the turn of his       
language1 as in that of his virtues4    
,when we were boys1 we used to think his
 ,orations worth reading2 though they   
are now scarcely to be met with4 ,but   
,c4 ,sextius ,calvinus was equally      
elegant both in his taste1 and his      
language1 though1 unhappily1 of a very  
infirm constitution3--when the pain in  
his feet intermitted1 he did not decline
 the trouble of pleading1 but he did not
 attempt it very often4 ,his            
fellow-citizens1 therefore1 made use of 
his advice1 whenever they had occasion  
for it2 but of his patronage1 only when 
his health permitted4 ,cotemporary with 
these1 my good friend1 was your namesake
 ,m4 ,brutus1 the disgrace of your noble

 family2 who1 though he bore that       
honourable name1 and had the best of    
men1 and an eminent ,civilian1 for his  
father1 confined his practice to        
accusations1 as ,lycurgus is said to    
have done at ,athens4 ,he never sued for
 any of our magistracies2 but was a     
severe1 and a troublesome prosecutor3 so
 that we easily see that1 in him1 the   
natural goodness of the flock was       
corrupted by the vicious inclinations of
 the man4 ,at the same time lived ,l4   
,caesulenus1 a man of ,plebeian rank1   
and a professed accuser1 like the       
former3 ,i myself heard him in his old  
age1 when he endeavoured1 by the        
,aquilian law1 to subject ,l4 ,sabellius
 to a fine1 for a breach of justice4    
,but ,i should not have taken any notice
 of such a low-born wretch1 if ,i had   
not thought that no person ,i ever      
heard1 could give a more suspicious turn
 to the cause of the defendant1 or      
exaggerate it to a higher degree of     
criminality4 ,t4 ,albucius1 who lived in

 the same age1 was well versed in the   
,grecian literature1 or1 rather1 was    
almost a ,greek himself4 ,i speak of    
him1 as ,i think2 but any person1 who   
pleases1 may judge what he was by his   
,orations4 ,in his youth1 he studied at 
,athens1 and returned from thence a     
thorough proficient in the doctrine of  
,epicurus2 which1 of all others1 is the 
least adapted to form an orator4 ,his   
cotemporary1 ,q4 ,catulus1 was an       
accomplished ,speaker1 not in the       
ancient taste1 but 7unless any thing    
more perfect can be exhibited7 in the   
finished style of the moderns4 ,he had a
 plentiful stock of learning2 an easy1  
winning elegance1 not only in his       
manners and disposition1 but in his very
 language2 and an unblemished purity and
 correctness of style4 ,this may be     
easily seen by his ,orations2 and       
particularly1 by the ,history of his    
,consulship1 and of his subsequent      
transactions1 which he composed in the  
soft and agreeable manner of ,xenophon1 

and made a present of to the poet1 ,a4  
,furius1 an intimate acquaintance of    
his3 but this performance is as little  
known1 as the three books of ,scaurus   
before-mentioned4--,indeed1 ,i must     
confess1 said ,brutus1 that both the one
 and the other1 are perfectly unknown to
 me3 but that is entirely my own fault4 
,i shall now1 therefore1 request a sight
 of them from you2 and am resolved1 in  
future1 to be more careful in collecting
 such valuable curiosities4--,this      
,catulus1 said ,i1 as ,i have just      
observed1 was distinguished by the      
purity of his language2 which1 though a 
material accomplishment1 is too much    
neglected by most of the ,roman orators2
 for as to the elegant tone of his      
voice1 and the sweetness of his accent1 
as you knew his son1 it will be needless
 to take any notice of them4 ,his son1  
indeed1 was not in the list of ,orators3
 but whenever he had occasion to deliver
 his sentiments in public1 he neither   
wanted judgment1 nor a neat and liberal 

turn of expression4 ,nay1 even the      
father himself was not reckoned the     
foremost in the list of ,orators3 but   
still he had that kind of merit1 that   
notwithstanding1 after you had heard two
 or three speakers1 who were            
particularly eminent in their           
profession1 you might judge him         
inferior2 yet1 whenever you heard him   
alone1 and without an immediate         
opportunity of making a comparison1 you 
would not only be satisfied with him1   
but scarcely wish for a better advocate4
 ,as to ,q4 ,metellus ,numidicus1 and   
his ,colleague ,m4 ,silanus1 they spoke1
 on matters of government1 with as much 
eloquence as was really necessary for   
men of their illustrious character1 and 
of consular dignity4 ,but ,m4 ,aurelius 
,scaurus1 though he spoke in public but 
seldom1 always spoke very neatly1 and he
 had a more elegant command of the      
,roman language than most men4 ,a4      
,albinus was a speaker of the same kind2
 but ,albinus1 the ,flamen1 was esteemed

 an orator4 ,q4 ,capio too had a great  
deal of spirit1 and was a brave citizen3
 but the unlucky chance of war was      
imputed to him as a crime1 and the      
general odium of the people proved his  
ruin4 ,c4 and ,l4 ,memmius were likewise
 indifferent orators1 and distinguished 
by the bitterness and asperity of their 
accusations3 for they prosecuted many1  
but seldom spoke for the defendant4 ,sp4
 ,torius1 on the other hand1 was        
distinguished by his popular way of     
speaking2 the very same man1 who1 by his
 corrupt and frivolous law1 diminished  
,footnote3 ,by dividing great part of   
them among the people4 the taxes which  
were levied on the public lands4 ,m4    
,marcellus1 the father of ,aeserninus1  
though not reckoned a professed pleader1
 was a prompt1 and1 in some degree1 a   
practised speaker2 as was also his son  
,p4 ,lentulus4 ,l4 ,cotta likewise1 a   
man of ,praetorian rank1 was esteemed a 
tolerable orator2 but he never made any 
great progress2 on the contrary1 he     

purposely endeavoured1 both in the      
choice of his words1 and the rusticity  
of his pronunciation1 to imitate the    
manner of the ancients4 ,i am indeed    
sensible that in this instance of       
,cotta1 and in many others1 ,i have1 and
 shall again insert in the list of      
,orators1 those who1 in reality1 had but
 little claim to the character4 ,for it 
was1 professedly1 my design1 to collect 
an account of all the ,romans1 without  
exception1 who made it their business to
 excel in the profession of ,eloquence3 
and it may be easily seen from this     
account1 by what slow gradations they   
advanced1 and how excessively difficult 
it is1 in every thing1 to rise to the   
summit of perfection4 ,as a proof of    
this1 how many orators have been already
 recounted1 and how much time have we   
bestowed upon them1 before we could     
force our way1 after infinite fatigue   
and drudgery1 as1 among the ,greek's1 to
 ,demosthenes and ,hyperides1 so now1   
among our own countrymen1 to ,antonius  

and ,crassus6 ,for1 in my mind1 these   
were consummate ,orators1 and the first 
among the ,romans whose diffusive       
,eloquence rivalled the glory of the    
,greeks4 ,antonius discovered every     
thing which could be of service to his  
cause1 and that in the very order in    
which it would be most so3 and as a     
skilful ,general posts the cavalry1 the 
infantry1 and the light troops1 where   
each of them can act to most advantage2 
so ,antonius drew up his arguments in   
those parts of his discourse1 where they
 were likely to have the best effect4   
,he had a quick and retentive memory1   
and a frankness of manner which         
precluded any suspicion of artifice4    
,all his speeches were1 in appearance1  
the unpremeditated effusions of an      
honest heart2 and yet1 in reality1 they 
were preconcerted with so much skill1   
that the judges were1 sometimes1 not so 
well prepared1 as they should have been1
 to withstand the force of them4 ,his   
language1 indeed1 was not so refined as 

to pass for the standard of elegance2   
for which reason he was thought to be   
rather a careless speaker2 and yet1 on  
the other hand1 it was neither vulgar   
nor incorrect1 but of that solid and    
judicious turn1 which constitutes the   
real merit of an ,orator1 as to the     
choice of his words4 ,for1 as to a      
purity of style1 though this is         
certainly 7as before observed7 a very   
commendable quality1 it is not so much  
so for its intrinsic consequence1 as    
because it is too generally neglected4  
,in short1 it is not so meritorious to  
speak our native tongue correctly1 as it
 is scandalous to speak it otherwise2   
nor is it so much the property of a good
 ,orator1 as of a well-bred ,citizen4   
,but in the choice of his words 7in     
which he had more regard to their weight
 than their brilliance7 and likewise in 
the structure of his language1 and the  
compass of his periods1 ,antonius       
conformed himself to the dictates of    
reason1 and1 in a great measure1 to the 

nicer rules of art3 though his chief    
excellence was a judicious management of
 the figures and decorations of         
sentiment4 ,this was likewise the       
distinguishing excellence of            
,demosthenes2 in which he was so far    
superior to all others1 as to be        
allowed1 in the opinion of the best     
judges1 to be the ,prince of ,orators4  
,for the figures 7as they are called by 
the ,greeks7 are the principal ornaments
 of an able speaker1 ,i mean those which
 contribute not so much to paint and    
embellish our language1 as to give a    
lustre to our sentiments4 ,but besides  
these1 of which ,antonius had a great   
command1 he had a peculiar excellence in
 his manner of delivery1 both as to his 
voice and gesture2 for the latter was   
such as to correspond to the meaning of 
every sentence1 without beating time to 
the words4 ,his hands1 his shoulders1   
the turn of his body1 the stamp of his  
foot1 his posture1 his air1 and1 in     
short1 his every motion1 was adapted to 

his language and sentiments3 and his    
voice was strong and firm1 though       
naturally hoarse2--a defect which he    
alone was capable of improving to his   
advantage2 for in capital causes1 it had
 a mournful dignity of accent1 which was
 exceedingly proper1 both to win the    
assent of the judges1 and excite their  
compassion for a suffering client3 so   
that in him the observation of          
,demosthenes was eminently verified1 who
 being asked what was the first quality 
of a good ,orator1 what the second1 and 
what the third1 constantly replied1 ,a  
good enunciation4  ,but many thought    
that he was equalled1 and others that he
 was even excelled by ,lucius ,crassus4 
,all1 however1 were agreed in this1 that
 whoever had either of them for his     
advocate1 had no cause to wish for a    
better4 ,for my own part1               
notwithstanding the uncommon merit ,i   
have ascribed to ,antonius1 ,i must also
 acknowlege1 that there cannot be a more
 finished character than that of        

,crassus4 ,he possessed a wonderful     
dignity of elocution1 with an agreeable 
mixture of wit and pleasantry1 which was
 perfectly genteel1 and without the     
smallest tincture of scurrility4 ,his   
style was correct and elegant without   
stiffness or affectation3 his method of 
reasoning was remarkably clear and      
distinct3 and when his cause turned upon
 any point of law1 or equity1 he had an 
inexhaustible fund of arguments1 and    
comparative illustrations4 ,for as      
,antonius had an admirable turn for     
suggesting apposite hints1 and either   
suppressing or exciting the suspicions  
of the hearer2 so no man could explain  
and define1 or discuss a point of       
equity1 with a more copious facility    
than ,crassus2 as sufficiently appeared 
upon many other occasions1 but          
particularly in the cause of ,m4        
,curius1 which was tried before the     
,centum ,viri4 ,for he urged a great    
variety of arguments in the defence of  
right and equity1 against the literal   

jubeat of the law2 and supported them by
 such a numerous series of precedents1  
that he overpowered ,q4 ,scaevola 7a man
 of uncommon penetration1 and the ablest
 ,civilian of his time7 though the case 
before them was only a matter of legal  
right4 ,but the cause was so ably       
managed by the two advocates1 who were  
nearly of an age1 and both of consular  
rank1 that while each endeavoured to    
interpret the law in favour of his      
client1 ,crassus was universally allowed
 to be the best ,lawyer among the       
,orators1 and ,scaevola to be the most  
eloquent ,civilian of the age3 for the  
latter could not only discover with the 
nicest precision what was agreeable to  
law and equity2 but had likewise a      
conciseness and propriety of expression1
 which was admirably adapted to his     
purpose4 ,in short1 he had such a       
wonderful vein of oratory in commenting1
 explaining1 and discussing1 that ,i    
never beheld his equal2 though in       
amplifying1 embellishing1 and refuting1 

he was rather to be dreaded as a        
formidable critic1 than admired as an   
eloquent speaker4--,indeed1 said        
,brutus1 though ,i always thought ,i    
sufficiently understood the character of
 ,scaevola1 by the account ,i had heard 
of him from ,c4 ,rutilius1 whose company
 ,i frequented for the sake of his      
acquaintance with him1 ,i had not the   
least idea of his merit as an orator4 ,i
 am now1 therefore1 not a little pleased
 to be informed1 that our ,republic has 
had the honour of producing so          
accomplished a man1 and such an         
excellent genius4--,really1 my ,brutus1 
said ,i1 you may take it from me1 that  
the ,roman ,state had never been adorned
 with two finer characters than these4  
,for1 as ,i have before observed1 that  
the one was the best ,lawyer among the  
,orators1 and the other the best        
,speaker among the ,civilians of his    
time2 so the difference between them1 in
 all other respects1 was of such a      
nature1 that it would almost be         

impossible for you to determine which of
 the two you would rather choose to     
resemble4 ,for1 as ,crassus was the     
closest of all our elegant speakers1 so 
,scaevola was the most elegant among    
those who were distinguished by the     
frugal accuracy of their language3 and  
as ,crassus tempered his affability with
 a proper share of severity1 so the     
rigid air of ,scaevola was not destitute
 of the milder graces of an affable     
condescension4 ,though this was really  
their character1 it is very possible    
that ,i may be thought to have          
embellished it beyond the bounds of     
truth1 to give an agreeable air to my   
narrative3 but as your favourite sect1  
my ,brutus1 the ,old ,academy1 has      
defined all ,virtue to be a just        
,mediocrity1 it was the constant        
endeavour of these two eminent men to   
pursue this ,golden ,mean2 and yet it so
 happened1 that while each of them      
shared a part of the other's excellence1
 he preserved his own entire4--,to speak

 what ,i think1 replied ,brutus1 ,i have
 not only acquired a proper acquaintance
 with their characters from your account
 of them1 but ,i can likewise discover1 
that the same comparison might be drawn 
between you and ,serv4 ,sulpicius1 which
 you have just been making between      
,crassus and ,scaevola4 --,in what      
manner8 said ,i4--,because you1 replied 
,brutus1 have taken the pains to acquire
 as extensive a knowledge of the law as 
is necessary for an ,orator2 and        
,sulpicius1 on the other hand1 took care
 to furnish himself with sufficient     
eloquence to support the character of an
 able ,civilian4 ,besides1 your age     
corresponded as nearly to his1 as the   
age of ,crassus did to that of          
,scaevola4--,as to my own abilities1    
said ,i1 the rules of decency forbid me 
to speak of them3 but your character of 
,servius is a very just one1 and ,i may 
freely tell you what ,i think of him4   
,there are few1 ,i believe1 who have    
applied themselves more assiduously to  

the art of ,speaking than he did1 or    
indeed to the study of every useful     
science4 ,in our youth1 we both of us   
followed the same liberal exercises2 and
 he afterwards accompanied me to        
,rhodes1 to pursue those studies which  
might equally improve him as a ,man and 
a ,scholar2 but when he returned from   
thence1 he appears to me to have been   
rather ambitious to be the foremost man 
in a secondary profession1 than the     
second in that which claims the highest 
dignity4 ,i will not pretend to say that
 he could not have ranked himself among 
the foremost in the latter profession2  
but he rather chose to be1 what he      
actually made himself1 the first ,lawyer
 of his time4--,indeed6 said ,brutus3   
and do you really prefer ,servius to ,q4
 ,scaevola8--,my opinion1 said ,i1      
,brutus1 is1 that ,q4 ,scaevola1 and    
many others1 had a thorough practical   
knowledge of the law2 but that ,servius 
alone understood it as science3 which he
 could never have done by the mere study

 of the law1 and without a previous     
acquaintance with the art which teaches 
us to divide a whole into its           
subordinate parts1 to1 decide an        
indeterminate idea by an accurate       
definition3 to explain what is obscure1 
by a clear interpretation2 and first to 
discover what things are of a doubtful  
nature1 then to distinguish them by     
their different degrees of probability2 
and lastly1 to be provided with a       
certain rule or measure by which we may 
judge what is true1 and what false1 and 
what inferences fairly may1 or may not  
be deduced from any given premises4     
,this important art he applied to those 
subjects which1 for want of it1 were    
necessarily managed by others without   
due order and precision4--,you mean1 ,i 
suppose1 said ,brutus1 the ,art of      
,logic4--,you suppose very right1       
answered ,i3 but he added to it an      
extensive acquaintance with polite      
literature1 and an elegant manner of    
expressing himself2 as is sufficiently  

evident from the incomparable writings  
he has left behind him4 ,and as he      
attached himself1 for the improvement of
 his eloquence1 to ,l4 ,lucilius        
,balbus1 and ,c4 ,aquilius ,gallus1 two 
very able speakers2 he effectually      
thwarted the prompt celerity of the     
latter 7though a keen1 experienced man7 
both in supporting and refuting a       
charge1 by his accuracy and precision1  
and overpowered the deliberate formality
 of ,balbus 7a man of great learning and
 erudition7 by his adroit and dextrous  
method of arguing3 so that he equally   
possessed the good qualities of both1   
without their defects4 ,as ,crassus1    
therefore1 in my mind1 acted more       
prudently than ,scaevola2 7for the      
latter was very fond of pleading causes1
 in which he was certainly inferior to  
,crassus2 whereas the former never      
engaged himself in an unequal           
competition with ,scaevola1 by assuming 
the character of a ,civilian27 so       
,servius pursued a plan which           

sufficiently discovered his wisdom2 for 
as the profession of a ,pleader1 and a  
,lawyer1 are both of them held in great 
esteem1 and give those who are masters  
of them the most extensive influence    
among their fellow-citizens2 he acquired
 an undisputed superiority in the one1  
and improved himself as much in the     
other as was necessary to support the   
authority of the ,civil ,law1 and       
promote him to the dignity of a         
,consul4--,this is precisely the opinion
 ,i had formed of him1 said ,brutus4    
,for1 a few years ago ,i heard him often
 and very attentively at ,samos1 when ,i
 wanted to be instructed by him in the  
,pontifical ,law1 as far as it is       
connected with the ,civil2 and ,i am now
 greatly confirmed in my opinion of him1
 by finding that it coincides so exactly
 with yours4 ,i am likewise not a little
 pleased to observe1 that the equality  
of your ages1 your sharing the same     
honours and preferments1 and the        
vicinity of your respective studies and 

professions1 has been so far from       
precipitating either of you into that   
envious detraction of the other's merit1
 which most people are tormented with1  
that1 instead of wounding your mutual   
friendship1 it has only served to       
increase and strengthen it2 for1 to my  
own knowlege1 he had the same affection 
for1 and the same favourable sentiments 
of you1 which ,i now discover in you    
towards him4 ,i cannot1 therefore1 help 
regretting very sincerely1 that the     
,roman ,state has so long been deprived 
of the benefit of his advice1 and of    
your ,eloquence2--a circumstance which  
is indeed calamitous enough in itself2  
but must appear much more so to him who 
considers into what hands that once     
respectable authority has been of late1 
,i will not say transferred1 but        
forcibly wrested4--,you certainly       
forget1 said ,atticus1 that ,i proposed1
 when we began the conversation1 to drop
 all matters of ,state2 by all means1   
therefore1 let us keep to our plan3 for 

if we once begin to repeat our          
grievances1 there will be no end1 ,i    
need not say to our inquiries1 but to   
our sighs and lamentations4--,let us    
proceed1 then1 said ,i1 without any     
farther digression1 and pursue the plan 
we set out upon4 ,crassus 7for he is the
 ,orator we were just speaking of7      
always came into the ,forum ready       
prepared for the combat4 ,he was        
expected with impatience1 and heard with
 pleasure4 ,when he first began his     
,oration 7which he always did in a very 
accurate style7 he seemed worthy of the 
great expectations he had raised4 ,he   
was very moderate in the sway of his    
body1 had no remarkable variation of    
voice1 never advanced from the ground he
 stood upon1 and seldom stamped his     
foot3 his language was forcible1 and    
sometimes warm and pathetic2 he had many
 strokes of humour1 which were always   
tempered with a becoming dignity2 and1  
what is a difficult character to hit1 he
 was at once very florid1 and very      

concise4 ,in a close contest1 he never  
met with his equal2 and there was       
scarcely any kind of causes1 in which he
 had not signalized his abilities2 so   
that he enrolled himself very early     
among the first ,orators of the time4   
,he accused ,c4 ,carbo1 though a man of 
great ,eloquence1 when he was but a     
youth2--and displayed his talents in    
such a manner1 that they were not only  
applauded1 but admired by every body4   
,he afterwards defended the ,virgin     
,licinia1 when he was only twenty-seven 
years of age2 on which occasion he      
discovered an uncommon share of         
,eloquence1 as is evident from those    
parts of his ,oration which he left     
behind him in writing4 ,as he was then  
desirous to have the honour of settling 
the colony of ,narbonne 7as he          
afterwards did7 he thought it adviseable
 to recommend himself1 by undertaking   
the management of some popular cause4   
,his ,oration1 in support of the act    
which was proposed for that purpose1 is 

still extant2 and discovers a greater   
maturity of genius than might have been 
expected at that time of life4 ,he      
afterwards pleaded many other causes3   
but his tribuneship was such a          
remarkably silent one1 that if he had   
not supped with ,granius the beadle when
 he enjoyed that office 7a circumstance 
which has been twice mentioned by       
,lucilius7 we should scarcely have known
 that a tribune of that name had        
existed4--,i believe so1 replied        
,brutus3 but ,i have heard as little of 
the tribuneship of ,scaevola1 though ,i 
must naturally suppose that he was the  
colleague of ,crassus4--,he was so1 said
 ,i1 in all his other preferments2 but  
he was not tribune till the year after  
him2 and when he sat in the ,rostrum in 
that capacity1 ,crassus spoke in support
 of the ,servilian law4 ,i must observe1
 however1 that ,crassus had not         
,scaevola for his colleague in the      
censorship2 for none of the ,scaevolas  
ever sued for that office4 ,but when the

 last-mentioned ,oration of ,crassus was
 published 7which ,i dare say you have  
frequently read7 he was thirty-four     
years of age1 which was exactly the     
difference between his age and mine4    
,for he supported the law ,i have just  
been speaking of1 in the very consulship
 under which ,i was born2 whereas he    
himself was born in the consulship of   
,q4 ,caepio1 and ,c4 ,laelius1 about    
three years later than ,antonius4 ,i    
have particularly noticed this          
circumstance1 to specify the time when  
the ,roman ,eloquence attained its first
 maturity2 and was actually carried to  
such a degree of perfection1 as to leave
 no room for any one to carry it higher1
 unless by the assistance of a more     
complete and extensive knowledge of     
philosophy1 jurisprudence1 and          
history4--,but does there1 said ,brutus1
 or will there ever exist a man1 who is 
furnished with all the united           
accomplishments you require8--,i really 
don't know1 said ,i2 but we have a      

speech made by ,crassus in his          
consulship1 in praise of ,q4 ,caepio1   
intermingled with a defence of his      
conduct1 which1 though a short one if we
 consider it as an ,oration1 is not so  
as a ,panegyric2--and another1 which was
 his last1 and which he spoke in the    
#dhth year of his age1 at the time he   
was censor4 ,in these we have the       
genuine complexion of ,eloquence1       
without any painting or disguise3 but   
his periods 7,i mean ,crassus's7 were   
generally short and concise2 and he was 
fond of expressing himself in those     
minuter sentences1 or members1 which the
 ,greeks call ,colons4--,as you have    
spoken so largely1 said ,brutus1 in     
praise of the two last-mentioned        
,orators1 ,i heartily wish that         
,antonius had left us some other        
specimen of his abilities1 than his     
trifling ,essay on the ,art of          
,speaking1 and ,crassus more than he    
has3 by so doing1 they would have       
transmitted their fame to posterity2 and

 to us a valuable system of ,eloquence4 
,for as to the elegant language of      
,scaevola1 we have sufficient proofs of 
it in the ,orations he has left behind  
him4--,for my part1 said ,i1 the        
,oration ,i was speaking of1 on         
,caepio's case1 has been my pattern1 and
 my tutoress1 from my very childhood4   
,it supports the dignity of the ,senate1
 which was deeply interested in the     
debate2 and excites the jealousy of the 
audience against the party of the judges
 and accusers1 whose power it was       
necessary to expose in the most popular 
terms4 ,many parts of it are very strong
 and nervous1 many others very cool and 
composed2 and some are distinguished by 
the asperity of their language1 and not 
a few by their wit and pleasantry3 but  
much more was said than was committed to
 writing1 as is sufficiently evident    
from several heads of the ,oration1     
which are merely proposed without any   
enlargement or explanation4 ,but the    
oration in his censorship against his   

colleague ,cn4 ,domitius1 is not so much
 an ,oration1 as an analysis of the     
subject1 or a general sketch of what he 
had said1 with here and there a few     
ornamental touches1 by way of specimen3 
for no contest was ever conducted with  
greater spirit than this4 ,crassus1     
however1 was eminently distinguished by 
the popular turn of his language3 but   
that of ,antonius was better adapted to 
judicial trials1 than to a public       
debate4 ,as we have had occasion to     
mention him1 ,domitius himself must not 
be left unnoticed3 for though he is not 
enrolled in the list of ,orators1 he had
 a sufficient share both of utterance   
and genius1 to support his character as 
a magistrate and his dignity as a       
consul4 ,i might likewise observe of ,c4
 ,caelius1 that he was a man of great   
application1 and many eminent qualities1
 and had eloquence enough to support the
 private interests of his friends1 and  
his own dignity in the ,state4 ,at the  
same time lived ,m4 ,herennius1 who was 

reckoned among the middling ,orators1   
whose principal merit was the purity and
 correctness of their language2 and yet1
 in a suit for the consulship1 he got   
the better of ,l4 ,philippus1 a man of  
the first rank and family1 and of the   
most extensive connections1 and who was 
likewise a member of the ,college1 and a
 very eloquent speaker4 ,then also lived
 ,c4 ,clodius1 who1 besides his         
consequence as a nobleman of the first  
distinction1 and a man of the most      
powerful influence1 was likewise        
possessed of a moderate share of        
,eloquence4 ,nearly of the same age was 
,c4 ,titius1 a ,roman knight1 who1 in my
 judgment1 arrived at as high a degree  
of perfection as a ,roman orator was    
able to do1 without the assistance of   
the ,grecian literature1 and a good     
share of practice4 ,his ,orations have  
so many delicate turns1 such a number of
 well-chosen examples1 and such an      
agreeable vein of politeness1 that they 
almost seem to have been composed in the

 true ,attic style4 ,he likewise        
transferred his delicacies into his very
 ,tragedies1 with ingenuity enough1 ,i  
confess1 but not in the tragic taste4   
,but the poet ,l4 ,afranius1 whom he    
studiously imitated1 was a very smart   
writer1 and1 as you well know1 a man of 
great expression in the dramatic way4   
,q4 ,rubrius ,varro1 who with ,c4       
,marius1 was declared an enemy by the   
,senate1 was likewise a warm1 and a very
 spirited prosecutor4 ,my relation1 ,m4 
,gratidius1 was a plausible speaker of  
the same kind1 well versed in the       
,grecian literature1 formed by nature   
for the profession of ,eloquence1 and an
 intimate acquaintance of ,m4 ,antonius3
 he commanded under him in ,cilicia1    
where he lost his life3 and he once     
commenced a prosecution against ,c4     
,fimbria1 the father of ,m4 ,marius     
,gratidianus4 ,there have likewise been 
several among the ,allies1 and the      
,latins1 who were esteemed good         
,orators2 as1 for instance1 ,q4 ,vettius

 of ,vettium1 one of the ,marsi1 whom ,i
 myself was acquainted with1 a man of   
sense1 and a concise speaker2 --the ,q4 
and ,d4 ,valerii of ,sora1 my neighbours
 and acquaintances1 who were not so     
remarkable for their talent of speaking1
 as for their skill both in the ,greek  
and ,roman literature2 and ,c4          
,rusticellus of ,bononia1 an experienced
 ,orator1 and a man of great natural    
volubility4 ,but the most eloquent of   
all those who were not citizens of      
,rome1 was ,t4 ,betucius ,barrus of     
,asculum1 some of whose ,orations1 which
 were spoken in that city1 are still    
extant3 that which he made at ,rome     
against ,caepio1 is really an excellent 
one3 the speech which ,caepio delivered 
in answer to it1 was made by ,aelius1   
who composed a number of ,orations1 but 
pronounced none himself4 ,but among     
those of a remoter date1 ,l4 ,papirius  
of ,fregellae in ,latium1 who was almost
 cotemporary with ,ti4 ,gracchus1 was   
universally esteemed the most eloquent3 

we have a speech of his in vindication  
of the ,fregellani1 and the ,latin      
,colonies1 which was delivered before   
the ,senate4--,and what then is the     
merit1 said ,brutus1 which you mean to  
ascribe to these provincial             
,orators8--,what else1 replied ,i1 but  
the very same which ,i have ascribed to 
the city-orators2 excepting that their  
language is not tinctured with the same 
fashionable delicacy8--,what fashionable
 delicacy do you mean8 said he4--,i     
cannot1 said ,i1 pretend to define it3  
,i only know that there is such a       
quality existing4 ,when you go to your  
province in ,gaul1 you will be convinced
 of it4 ,you will there find many       
expressions which are not current in    
,rome2 but these may be easily changed1 
and corrected4 ,but1 what is of greater 
importance1 our ,orators have a         
particular accent in their manner of    
pronouncing1 which is more elegant1 and 
has a more agreeable effect than any    
other4 ,this1 however1 is not peculiar  

to the ,orators1 but is equally common  
to every well-bred citizen4 ,i myself   
remember that ,t4 ,tineas1 of           
,placentia1 who was a very facetious    
man1 once engaged in a repartee skirmish
 with my old friend ,q4 ,granius1 the   
public crier4--,do you mean that        
,granius1 said ,brutus1 of whom         
,lucilius has related such a number of  
stories8--,the very same1 said ,i3 but  
though ,tineas said as many smart things
 as the other1 ,granius at last         
overpowered him by a certain vernacular 
got1 which gave an additional relish to 
his humour3 so that ,i am no longer     
surprised at what is said to have       
happened to ,theophrastus1 when he      
enquired of an old woman who kept a     
stall1 what was the price of something  
which he wanted to purchase4 ,after     
telling him the value of it1--,honest   
stranger1 said she1 ,i cannot afford it 
for less3 an answer which nettled him   
not a little1 to think that he who had  
resided almost all his life at ,athens1 

and spoke the language very correctly1  
should be taken at last for a foreigner4
 ,in the same manner1 there is1 in my   
opinion1 a certain accent as peculiar to
 the native citizens of ,rome1 as the   
other was to those of ,athens4 ,but it  
is time for us to return home2 ,i mean  
to the ,orators of our own growth4      
,next1 therefore1 to the two capital    
,speakers above-mentioned1 7that is     
,crassus and ,antonius7 came ,l4        
,philippus1--not indeed till a          
considerable time afterwards2 but still 
he must be reckoned the next4 ,i do not 
mean1 however1 though nobody appeared in
 the interim who could dispute the prize
 with him1 that he was entitled to the  
second1 or even the third post of       
honour4 ,for1 as in a ,chariot-race ,i  
cannot properly consider him as either  
the second1 or third winner1 who has    
scarcely got clear of the starting-post1
 before the first has reached the goal2 
so1 among ,orators1 ,i can scarcely     
honour him with the name of a           

competitor1 who has been so far         
distanced by the foremost as hardly to  
appear on the same ground with him4 ,but
 yet there were certainly some talents  
to be observed in ,philippus1 which any 
person who considers them1 without      
subjecting them to a comparison with the
 superior merits of the two             
before-mentioned1 must allow to have    
been respectable4 ,he had an uncommon   
freedom of address1 a large fund of     
humour1 great facility in the invention 
of his sentiments1 and a ready and easy 
manner of expressing them4 ,he was      
likewise1 for the time he lived in1 a   
great adept in the literature of the    
,greeks2 and1 in the heat of a debate1  
he could sting1 and gash1 as well as    
ridicule his opponents4 ,almost         
cotemporary with these was ,l4 ,gellius1
 who was not so much to be valued for   
his positive1 as for his negative       
merits3 for he was neither destitute of 
learning1 nor invention1 nor            
unacquainted with the history and the   

laws of his country2 besides which1 he  
had a tolerable freedom of expression4  
,but he happened to live at a time when 
many excellent ,orators made their      
appearance2 and yet he served his       
friends upon many occasions to good     
purpose3 in short1 his life was so long1
 that he was successively cotemporary   
with a variety of ,orators of different 
dates1 and had an extensive series of   
practice in judicial causes4 ,nearly at 
the same time lived ,d4 ,brutus1 who was
 fellow-consul with ,mamercus2-- and was
 equally skilled both in the ,grecian   
and ,roman literature4 ,l4 ,scipio      
likewise was not an unskilful ,speaker2 
and ,cnaeus ,pompeius1 the son of       
,sextus1 had some reputation as an      
,orator2 for his brother ,sextus applied
 the excellent genius he was possessed  
of1 to acquire a thorough knowledge of  
the ,civil ,law1 and a complete         
acquaintance with geometry and the      
doctrine of the ,stoics4 ,a little      
before these1 ,m4 ,brutus1 and very soon

 after him1 ,c4 ,bilienus1 who was a man
 of great natural capacity1 made        
themselves1 by nearly the same          
application1 equally eminent in the     
profession of the law2--the latter would
 have been chosen ,consul1 if he had not
 been thwarted by the repeated promotion
 of ,marius1 and some other collateral  
embarrassments which attended his suit4 
,but the eloquence of ,cn4 ,octavius1   
which was wholly unknown before his     
elevation to the ,consulship1 was       
effectually displayed1 after his        
preferment to that office1 in a great   
variety of speeches4 ,it is1 however1   
time for us to drop those who were only 
classed in the number of good speakers1 
and turn our attention to such as were  
really ,orators4--,i think so too1      
replied ,atticus2 for ,i understood that
 you meant to give us an account1 not of
 those who took great pains to be       
eloquent1 but of those who were so in   
reality4--,c4 ,julius then1 said ,i1    
7the son of ,lucius7 was certainly      

superior1 not only to his predecessors1 
but to all his cotemporaries1 in wit and
 humour3 he was not1 indeed1 a nervous  
and striking ,orator1 but1 in the       
elegance1 the pleasantry1 and the       
agreeableness of his manner1 he has not 
been excelled by any man4 ,there are    
some ,orations of his still extant1 in  
which1 as well as in his ,tragedies1 we 
may discover a pleasing tranquillity of 
expression with very little energy4 ,p4 
,cethegus1 his cotemporary1 had always  
enough to say on matters of civil       
regulation2 for he had studied and      
comprehended them with the minutest     
accuracy2 by which means he acquired an 
equal authority in the ,senate with     
those who had served the office of      
consul1 and though he made no figure in 
a public debate1 he was a serviceable   
veteran in any suit of a private nature4
 ,q4 ,lucretius ,vispillo was an acute  
,speaker1 and a good ,civilian in the   
same kind of causes3 but ,osella was    
better qualified for a public harangue1 

than to conduct a judicial process4 ,t4 
,annius ,velina was likewise a man of   
sense1 and a tolerable pleader2 and ,t4 
,juventius had a great deal of practice 
in the same way3--the latter indeed was 
rather too heavy and unanimated1 but at 
the same time he was keen and artful1   
and knew how to seize every advantage   
which was offered by his antagonist2 to 
which we may add1 that he was far from  
being a man of no literature1 and had an
 extensive knowledge of the ,civil ,law4
 ,his scholar1 ,p4 ,orbius1 who was     
almost cotemporary with me1 had no great
 practice as a pleader2 but his skill in
 the ,civil ,law was nothing inferior to
 his master's4 ,as to ,titus ,aufidius1 
who lived to a great age1 he was a      
professed imitator of both2 and was     
indeed a worthy inoffensive man1 but    
seldom spoke at the bar4 ,his brother1  
,m4 ,virgilius1 who when he was a       
tribune of the people1 commenced a      
prosecution against ,l4 ,sylla1 then    
advanced to the rank of ,general1 had as

 little practice as ,aufidius4          
,virgilius's colleague1 ,p4 ,magius1 was
 more copious and diffusive4 ,but of all
 the ,orators1 or rather ,ranters1 ,i   
ever knew1 who were totally illiterate  
and unpolished1 and 7,i might have      
added7 absolutely coarse and rustic1 the
 readiest and keenest1 were ,q4         
,sertorius1 and ,c4 ,gorgonius1 the one 
of consular1 and the other of equestrian
 rank4 ,t4 ,junius 7the son of ,l47 who 
had served the office of tribune1 and   
prosecuted and convicted ,p4 ,sextius of
 bribery1 when he was praetor elect1 was
 a prompt and an easy speaker3 he lived 
in great splendor1 and had a very       
promising genius2 and1 if he had not    
been of a weak1 and indeed a sickly     
constitution1 he would have advanced    
much farther than he did in the road to 
preferment4 ,i am sensible1 however1    
that in the account ,i have been giving1
 ,i have included many who were neither 
real1 nor reputed ,orators2 and that ,i 
have omitted others1 among those of a   

remoter date1 who well deserved not only
 to have been mentioned1 but to be      
recorded with honour4 ,but this ,i was  
forced to do1 for want of better        
information3 for what could ,i say      
concerning men of a distant age1 none of
 whose productions are now remaining1   
and of whom no mention is made in the   
writings of other people8 ,but ,i have  
omitted none of those who have fallen   
within the compass of my own knowledge1 
or that ,i myself remember to have      
heard4 ,for ,i wish to make it appear1  
that in such a powerful and ancient     
republic as ours1 in which the greatest 
rewards have been proposed to           
,eloquence1 though all have desired to  
be good speakers1 not many have         
attempted the talk1 and but very few    
have succeeded4 ,but ,i shall give my   
opinion of every one in such explicit   
terms1 that it may be easily understood 
whom ,i consider as a mere ,declaimer1  
and whom as an ,orator4  ,about the same
 time1 or rather something later than   

the above-mentioned ,julius1 but almost 
cotemporary with each other1 were ,c4   
,cotta1 ,p4 ,sulpicius1 ,q4 ,varius1    
,cn4 ,pomponius1 ,c4 ,curio1 ,l4        
,fufius1 ,m4 ,drusus1 and ,p4           
,antistius2 for no age whatsoever has   
been distingushed by a more numerous    
progeny of ,orators4 ,of these1 ,cotta  
and ,sulpicius1 both in my opinion1 and 
in that of the ,public at large1 had an 
evident claim to the preference4--,but  
wherefore1 interrupted ,atticus1 do you 
say1 in your own opinion1 and in that of
 the ,public at large8 ,in deciding the 
merits of an ,orator1 does the opinion  
of the vulgar1 think you1 always        
coincide with that of the learned8 ,or  
rather does not one receive the         
approbation of the populace1 while      
another of a quite opposite character is
 preferred by those who are better      
qualified to give their judgment8--,you 
have started a very pertinent question1 
said ,i2 but1 perhaps1 the ,public at   
large will not approve my answer to     

it4--,and what concern need that give   
you1 replied ,atticus1 if it meets the  
approbation of ,brutus8-- ,very true1   
said ,i2 for ,i had rather my sentiments
 on the qualifications of an ,orator    
would please you and ,brutus1 than all  
the world besides3 but as to my         
,eloquence1 ,i should wish this to      
please every one4 ,for he who speaks in 
such a manner as to please the people1  
must inevitably receive the approbation 
of the learned4 ,as to the truth and    
propriety of what ,i hear1 ,i am indeed 
to judge of this for myself1 as well as 
,i am able3 but the general merit of an 
,orator must and will be decided by the 
effects which his eloquence produces4   
,for 7in my opinion at least7 there are 
three things which an ,orator should be 
able to effect2 viz4 to inform his      
hearers1 to please them1 and to move    
their passions4 ,by what qualities in   
the ,speaker each of these1 effects may 
be produced1 or by what deficiencies    
they are either lost1 or but imperfectly

 performed1 is an enquiry which none but
 an artist can resolve3 but whether an  
audience is really so affected by an    
,orator as shall best answer his        
purpose1 must be left to their own      
feelings1 and the decision of the       
,public4 ,the learned1 therefore1 and   
the people at large1 have never         
disagreed about who was a good ,orator1 
and who was otherwise4 ,for do you      
suppose1 that while the ,speakers       
above-mentioned were in being1 they had 
not the same degree of reputation among 
the learned as among the populace8 ,if  
you had enquired of one of the latter1  
who was the most eloquent man in the    
city1 he might have hesitated whether to
 say ,antonius or ,crassus2 or this man1
 perhaps1 would have mentioned the one1 
and that the other4 ,but would any one  
have given the preference to ,philippus1
 though otherwise a smooth1 a sensible1 
and a facetious ,speaker8--that         
,philippus whom we1 who form our        
judgment upon these matters by rules of 

art1 have decided to have been the next 
in merit8 ,nobody would1 ,i am certain4 
,for it is the invariable1 property of  
an accomplished ,orator1 to be reckoned 
such in the opinion of the people4      
,though ,antigenidas1 therefore1 the    
musician1 might say to his scholar1 who 
was but coldly received by the ,public1 
,play on1 to please me and the          
,muses2--,i shall say to my friend      
,brutus1 when he mounts the ,rostra1 as 
he frequently does1-- ,play to me and   
the people2--that those who hear him may
 be sensible of the effect of his       
,eloquence1 while ,i can likewise amuse 
myself with remarking the causes which  
produce it4 ,when a ,citizen hears an   
able ,orator1 he readily credits what is
 said2--he imagines every thing to be   
true1 he believes and relishes the force
 of it2 and1 in short1 the persuasive   
language of the ,speaker wins his       
absolute1 his hearty assent4 ,you1 who  
are possessed of a critical knowledge of
 the art1 what more will you require8   

,the listening multitude is charmed and 
captivated by the force of his          
,eloquence1 and feels a pleasure which  
is not to be resisted4 ,what here can   
you find to censure8 ,the whole audience
 is either flushed with joy1 or         
overwhelmed with grief2--it smiles1 or  
weeps1--it loves1 or hates1--it scorns  
or envies1--and1 in short1 is           
alternately seized with the various     
emotions of pity1 shame1 remorse1       
resentment1 wonder1 hope1 and fear1     
according as it is influenced by the    
language1 the sentiments1 and the action
 of the speaker4 ,in this case1 what    
necessity is there to await the sanction
 of a critic8 ,for here1 whatever is    
approved by the feelings of the people1 
must be equally so by men of taste and  
erudition3 and1 in this instance of     
public decision1 there can be no        
disagreement between the opinion of the 
vulgar1 and that of the learned4 ,for   
though many good ,speakers have appeared
 in every species of ,oratory1 which of 

them who was thought to excel the rest  
in the judgment of the populace1 was not
 approved as such by every man of       
learning8 or which of our ancestors1    
when the choice of a pleader was left to
 his own option1 did not immediately fix
 it either upon ,crassus or ,antonius8  
,there were certainly many others to be 
had3 but though any person might have   
hesitated to which of the above two he  
should give the preference1 there was   
nobody1 ,i believe1 who would have made 
choice of a third4 ,and in the time of  
my youth1 when ,cotta and ,hortensius   
were in such high reputation1 who1 that 
had liberty to choose for himself1 would
 have employed any other8--,but what    
occasion is there1 said ,brutus1 to     
quote the example of other speakers to  
support your assertion8 have we not seen
 what has always been the wish of the   
defendant1 and what the judgment of     
,hortensius1 concerning yourself8 for   
whenever the latter shared a cause with 
you1 7and ,i was often present on those 

occasions7 the peroration1 which        
requires the greatest exertion of the   
powers of ,eloquence1 was constantly    
left to you4--,it was1 said ,i2 and     
,hortensius 7induced1 ,i suppose1 by the
 warmth of his friendship7 always       
resigned the post of honour to me4 ,but1
 as to myself1 what rank ,i hold in the 
opinion of the people ,i am unable to   
determine3 as to others1 however1 ,i may
 safely assert1 that such of them as    
were reckoned most eloquent in the      
judgment of the vulgar1 were equally    
high in the estimation of the learned4  
,for even ,demosthenes himself could not
 have said what is related of           
,antimachus1 a poet of ,claros1 who1    
when he was rehearsing to an audience   
assembled for the purpose1 that         
voluminous piece of his which you are   
well acquainted with1 and was deserted  
by all his hearers except ,plato1 in the
 midst of his performance1 cried out1 ,i
 shall proceed notwithstanding2 for     
,plato alone is of more consequence to  

me than many thousands4 ,the remark was 
very just4 ,for an abstruse poem1 such  
as his1 only requires the approbation of
 the judicious few2 but a discourse     
intended for the people should be       
perfectly suited to their taste4 ,if    
,demosthenes1 therefore1 after being    
deserted by the rest of his audience1   
had even ,plato left to hear him1 and no
 one else1 ,i will answer for it1 he    
could not have uttered another syllable4
 ',nay1 or could you yourself1 my       
,brutus1 if the whole assembly was to   
leave you1 as it once did ,curio8--,to  
open my whole mind to you1 replied he1  
,i must confess that even in such causes
 as fall under the cognizance of a few  
select judges1 and not of the people at 
large1 if ,i was to be deserted by the  
casual crowd who came to hear the trial1
 ,i should not be able to proceed4--,the
 case1 then1 is plainly this1 said ,i3  
as a flute1 which will not return its   
proper sound when it is applied to the  
lips1 would be laid aside by the        

musician as useless2 so1 the ears of the
 people are the instrument upon which an
 ,orator is to play3 and if these refuse
 to admit the breath he bestows upon    
them1 or if the hearer1 like a restive  
horse1 will not obey the spur1 the      
speaker must cease to exert himself any 
farther4 ,there is1 however1 the        
exception to be made2 the people        
sometimes give their approbation to an  
orator who does not deserve it4 ,but    
even here they approve what they have   
had no opportunity of comparing with    
something better3 as1 for instance1 when
 they are pleased with an indifferent1  
or1 perhaps1 a bad speaker4 ,his        
abilities satisfy their expectation3    
they have seen nothing preferable3 and1 
therefore1 the merit of the day1        
whatever it may happen to be1 meets     
their full applause4 ,for even a        
middling ,orator1 if he is possessed of 
any degree of ,eloquence1 will always   
captivate the ear2 and the order and    
beauty of a good discourse has an       

astonishing effect upon the human mind4 
,accordingly1 what common hearer who was
 present when ,q4 ,scaevola pleaded for 
,m4 ,coponius1 in the cause above-      
mentioned1 would have wished for1 or    
indeed thought it possible to find any  
thing which was more correct1 more      
elegant1 or more complete8 ,when he     
attempted to prove1 that1 as ,m4 ,curius
 was left heir to the estate only in    
case of the death of his future ward    
before he came of age1 he could not     
possibly be a legal heir1 when the      
expected ward was never born2--what did 
he leave unsaid of the scrupulous regard
 which should be paid to the literal    
meaning of every testament8 what of the 
accuracy and preciseness of the old and 
established forms2 of law8 and how      
carefully did he specify the manner in  
which the will would have been          
expressed1 if it had intended that      
,curius should be the heir in case of a 
total default of issue8 in what a       
masterly manner did he represent the ill

 consequences to the ,public1 if the    
letter of a will should be disregarded1 
its intention decided by arbitrary      
conjectures1 and the written bequests of
 plain illiterate men1 left to the      
artful interpretation of a pleader8 how 
often did he urge the authority of his  
father1 who had always been an advocate 
for a strict adherence to the letter of 
a testament8 and with what emphasis did 
he enlarge upon the necessity of        
supporting the common forms of law8 ,all
 which particulars he discussed not only
 very artfully1 and skilfully2 but in   
such a neat1--such a close1--and1 ,i may
 add1 in so florid1 and so elegant a    
style1 that there was not a single      
person among the common part of the     
audience1 who could expect any thing    
more complete1 or even think it possible
 to exist4 ,but when ,crassus1 who spoke
 on the opposite side1 began with the   
story of a notable youth1 who having    
found a cock-boat as he was rambling    
along the shore1 took it into his head  

immediately that he would build a ship  
to it2--and when he applied the tale to 
,scaevola1 who1 from the cock-boat of an
 argument which he had deduced from     
certain imaginary ill consequences to   
the ,public represented the decision of 
a private will to be a matter of such   
importance as to deserve he attention of
 the ,centum-viri2--when ,crassus1 ,i   
say1 in the beginning of his discourse1 
had thus taken off the edge of the      
strongest plea of his antagonist1 he    
entertained his hearers with many other 
turns of a similar kind2 and1 in a short
 time1 changed the serious apprehensions
 of all who were present into open mirth
 and good-humour2 which is one of those 
three effects which ,i have just        
observed an ,orator should be able to   
produce4 ,he then proceeded to remark   
that it was evidently the intention and 
the will of the testator1 that in cafe1 
either by death1 or default of issue1   
there should happen to be no son to fall
 to his charge1 the inheritance should  

devolve to ,curius3--'that most people  
in a similar case would express         
themselves in the same manner1 and that 
it would certainly stand good in law1   
and always had4 ,by these1 and many     
other observations of the same kind1 he 
gained the assent of his hearers2 which 
is another of the three duties of an    
,orator4 ,lastly1 he supported1 at all  
events1 the true meaning and spirit of a
 will1 against the literal construction3
 justly observing1 that there would be  
an endless cavilling about words1 not   
only in wills1 but in all other legal   
deeds1 if the real intention of the     
party was to be disregarded3 and hinting
 very smartly1 that his friend ,scaevola
 had assumed a most unwarrantable degree
 of importance1 if no person must       
afterwards presume to indite a legacy1  
but in the musty form which he himself  
might please to prescribe4 ,as he       
enlarged on each of these arguments with
 great force and propriety1 supported   
them by a number of precedents1         

exhibited them in a variety of views1   
and enlivened them with many occasional 
turns of wit and pleasantry1 he gained  
so much applause1 and gave such general 
satisfaction1 that it was scarcely      
remembered that any thing had been said 
on the contrary side of the question4   
,this was the third1 and the most       
important duty we assigned to an        
,orator4  ,here1 if one of the people   
was to be judge1 the same person who had
 heard the first ,speaker with a degree 
of admiration1 would1 on hearing the    
second1 despise himself for his former  
want of judgment3--whereas a man of     
taste and erudition1 on hearing         
,scaevola1 would have observed that he  
was really master of a rich and         
ornamental style2 but if1 on comparing  
the manner in which each of them        
concluded his cause1 it was to be       
enquired which of the two was the best  
,orator1 the decision of the man of     
learning would not have differed from   
that of the vulgar4 ,what advantage1    

then1 it will be said1 has the skilful  
critic over the illiterate hearer8 ,a   
great and very important advantage2 if  
it is indeed a matter of any            
consequence1 to be able to discover by  
what means that which is the true and   
real end of speaking1 is either obtained
 or lost4 ,he has likewise this         
additional superiority1 that when two or
 more ,orators1 as has frequently       
happened1 have shared the applauses of  
the ,public1 he can judge1 on a careful 
observation of the principal merits of  
each1 what is the most perfect character
 of ,eloquence3 since whatever does not 
meet the approbation of the people1 must
 be equally condemned by a more         
intelligent hearer4 ,for as it is easily
 understood by the sound of a harp1     
whether the strings are skilfully       
touched2 so it may likewise be          
discovered from the manner in which the 
passions of an audience are affected1   
how far the ,speaker is able to command 
them4 ,a man1 therefore1 who is a real  

connoisseur in the art1 can sometimes by
 a single glance as he passes through   
the ,forum1 and without stopping to     
listen attentively to what is said1 form
 a tolerable judgment of the ability of 
the ,speaker4 ,when he observes any of  
the ,bench either yawning1 or speaking  
to the person who is next to him1 or    
looking carelessly about him1 or sending
 to enquire the time of day1 or teazing 
the ,quaestor to dismiss the court2 he  
concludes very naturally that the cause 
upon trial is not pleaded by an ,orator 
who understands how to apply the powers 
of language to the passions of the      
judges1 as a skilful musician applies   
his fingers to the harp4 ,on the other  
hand1 if1 as he passes by1 he beholds   
the judges looking attentively before   
them1 as if they were either receiving  
some material information1 or visibly   
approved what they had already heard--if
 he sees them listening to the voice of 
the ,pleader with a kind of extasy like 
a fond bird to some melodious tune2--   

and1 above all1 if he discovers in their
 looks any strong indications of pity1  
abhorrence1 or any other emotion of the 
mind2--though he should not be near     
enough to hear a single word1 he        
immediately discovers that the cause is 
managed by a real ,orator1 who is either
 performing1 or has already played his  
part to good purpose4  ,after ,i had    
concluded these digressive remarks1 my  
two friends were kind enough to signify 
their approbation1 and ,i resumed my    
subject4--,as this digression1 said ,i1 
took its rise from ,cotta and           
,sulpicius1 whom ,i mentioned as the two
 most approved ,orators of the age they 
lived in1 ,i shall first return to them1
 and afterwards notice the rest in their
 proper order1 according to the plan we 
began upon4 ,i have already observed    
that there are two classes of good      
,orators 7for we have no concern with   
any others7 of which the former are     
distinguished by the simple neatness and
 brevity of their language1 and the     

latter by their copious dignity and     
elevation3 but although the preference  
must always be given to that which is   
great and striking2 yet1 in speakers of 
real merit1 whatever is most perfect of 
the kind1 is justly entitled to our     
commendation4 ,it must1 however1 be     
observed1 that the close and simple     
,orator should be careful not to sink   
into a driness and poverty of           
expression2 while1 on the other hand1   
the copious and more stately ,speaker   
should be equally on his guard against a
 swelling and empty parade of words4    
,to begin with ,cotta1 he had a ready1  
quick ,invention1 and spoke correctly   
and freely2 and as he very prudently    
avoided every forcible exertion of his  
voice on account of the weakness of his 
lungs1 so his language was equally      
adapted to the delicacy of his          
constitution4 ,there was nothing in his 
style but what was neat1 compact1 and   
healthy2 and 7what may justly be        
considered as his greatest excellence7  

though he was scarcely able1 and        
therefore never attempted to force the  
passions of the judges by a strong and  
spirited elocution1 yet he managed them 
so artfully1 that the gentle emotions he
 raised in them1 answered exactly the   
same purpose1 and produced the same     
effect1 as the violent ones which were  
excited by ,sulpicius4 ,for ,sulpicius  
was really the most striking1 and1 if ,i
 may be allowed the expression1 the most
 tragical ,orator ,i ever heard3--his   
voice was strong and sonorous1 and yet  
sweet1 and flowing3--his gesture1 and   
the sway of his body1 was graceful and  
ornamental1 but in such a style as to   
appear to have been formed for the      
,forum1 and not for the stage3--and his 
language1 though rapid and voluble1 was 
neither loose nor exuberant4 ,he was a  
professed imitator of ,crassus1 while   
,cotta chose ,antonius for his model3   
but the latter wanted the force of      
,antonius1 and the former the agreeable 
humour of ,crassus4--,how extremely     

difficult1 then1 said ,brutus1 must be  
the art of speaking1 when such          
consummate ,orators as these were each  
of them destitute of one of its         
principal beauties6--,we may likewise   
observe1 said ,i1 in the present        
instance1 that two ,orators may have the
 highest degree of merit1 who are       
totally unlike each other3 for none     
could be more so than ,cotta and        
,sulpicius1 and yet both of them were   
far superior to any of their            
cotemporaries4 ,it is therefore the     
business of every intelligent matter to 
take notice what is the natural bent of 
his pupil's capacity2 and1 taking that  
for his guide1 to imitate the conduct of
 ,socrates with his two scholars        
,theopompus and ,ephorus1 who1 after    
remarking the lively genius of the      
former1 and the mild and timid          
bashfulness of the latter1 is reported  
to have said that he applied a spur to  
the one1 and a curb to the other4 ,the  
,orations now extant1 which bear the    

name of ,sulpicius1 are supposed to have
 been written after his decease by my   
cotemporary ,p4 ,canutius1 a man indeed 
of inferior rank1 but who1 in my mind1  
had a great command of language4 ,but we
 have not a single speech of ,sulpicius 
that was really his own3 for ,i have    
often heard him say1 that he neither    
had1 nor ever could commit any thing of 
the kind to writing4 ,and as to ,cotta's
 speech in defence of himself1 called a 
vindication of the ,varian ,law1 it was 
composed1 at his own request1 by ,l4    
,aelius4 ,this ,aelius was a man of     
merit1 and a very worthy ,roman knight1 
who was thoroughly versed in the ,greek 
and ,roman literature4 ,he had likewise 
a critical knowledge of the antiquities 
of his country1 both as to the date and 
particulars of every new improvement1   
and every memorable transaction1 and was
 perfectly well read in the ancient     
writers2--a branch of learning in which 
he was succeeded by our friend ,varro1 a
 man of genius1 and of the most         

extensive erudition1 who afterwards     
enlarged the plan by many valuable      
collections of his own1 and gave a much 
fuller and more elegant system of it to 
the ,public4 ,for ,aelius himself chose 
to assume the character of a ,stoic1 and
 neither aimed to be1 nor ever was an   
,orator3 but he composed several        
,orations for other people to pronounce2
 as for ,q4 ,metellus1 ,f4 ,q4 ,caepio1 
and ,q4 ,pompeius ,rufus2 though the    
latter composed those speeches himself  
which he spoke in his own defence1 but  
not without the assistance of ,aelius4  
,for ,i myself was present at the       
writing of them1 in the younger part of 
my life1 when ,i used to attend ,aelius 
for the benefit of his instructions4    
,but ,i am surprised1 that ,cotta1 who  
was really an excellent ,orator1 and a  
man of good learning1 should be willing 
that the trifling ,speeches of ,aelius  
mould be published to the world as his4 
,to the two above-mentioned1 no third   
person of the same age was esteemed an  

equal3 ,pomponius1 however1 was a       
,speaker much to my taste2 or1 at least1
 ,i have very little fault to find with 
him4 ,but there was no employment for   
any in capital causes1 excepting for    
those ,i have already mentioned2 because
 ,antonius1 who was always courted on   
these occasions1 was very ready to give 
his service2 and ,crassus1 though not so
 compliable1 generally consented1 on any
 pressing sollicitation1 to give his4   
,those who had not interest enough to   
engage either of these1 commonly applied
 to ,philip1 or ,caesar2 but when ,cotta
 and ,sulpicius were at liberty1 they   
generally had the preference3 so that   
all the causes in which any honour was  
to be acquired1 were pleaded by these   
six ,orators4 ,we may add1 that trials  
were not so frequent then as they are at
 present2 neither did people employ1 as 
they do now1 several pleaders on the    
same side of the question1--a practice  
which is attended with many             
disadvantages4 ,for hereby we are often 

obliged to speak in reply to those whom 
we had not an opportunity of hearing2 in
 which case1 what has been alledged on  
the opposite side1 is often represented 
to us either falsely or imperfectly2 and
 besides1 it is a very material         
circumstance1 that ,i myself should be  
present to see with what countenance my 
antagonist supports his allegations1    
and1 still more so1 to observe the      
effect of every part of his discourse   
upon the audience4 ,and as every defence
 should be conducted upon one uniform   
plan1 nothing can be more improperly    
contrived1 than to re-commence it by    
assigning the peroration1 or pathetical 
part of it1 to a second advocate4 ,for  
every cause can have but one natural    
introduction and conclusion2 and all the
 other parts of it1 like the members of 
an animal body1 will best retain their  
proper strength and beauty1 when they   
are regularly disposed and connected4   
,we may add1 that as it is very         
difficult in a single ,oration of any   

length1 to avoid saying something which 
does not comport with the rest of it so 
well as it ought to do1 how much more   
difficult must it be to contrive that   
nothing shall be said1 which does not   
tally exactly with the speech of another
 person who has spoken before you8 ,but 
as it certainly requires more labour to 
plead a whole cause1 than only a part of
 it1 and as many advantageous           
connections are formed by assisting in a
 suit in which several persons are      
interested1 the custom1 however         
preposterous in itself1 has been readily
 adopted4  ,there were some1 however1   
who esteemed ,curio the third best      
,orator of the age2 perhaps1 because his
 language was brilliant and pompous1 and
 because he had a habit 7for which ,i   
suppose he was indebted to his domestic 
education7 of expressing himself with   
tolerable correctness3 for he was a man 
of very little learning4 ,but it is a   
circumstance of great importance1 what  
sort of people we are used to converse  

with at home1 especially in the more    
early part of life2 and what sort of    
language we have been accustomed to hear
 from our tutors and parents1 not       
excepting the mother4 ,we have all read 
the ,letters of ,cornelia1 the mother of
 the ,gracchi2 and are satisfied1 that  
her sons were not so much nurtured in   
their mother's lap1 as in the elegance  
and purity of her language4 ,i have     
often too enjoyed the agreeable         
conversation of ,laelia1 the daughter of
 ,caius1 and observed in her a strong   
tincture of her father's elegance4 ,i   
have likewise conversed with his two    
daughters1 the ,muciae1 and his         
granddaughters1 the two ,liciniae1 with 
one of whom 7the wife of ,scipio7 you1  
my ,brutus1 ,i believe1 have sometimes  
been in company4--,i have1 replied he1  
and was much pleased with her           
conversation2 and the more so1 because  
she was the daughter of ,crassus4--,and 
what think you1 said ,i1 of ,crassus1   
the son of that ,licinia1 who was       

adopted by ,crassus in his will8--,he is
 said1 replied he1 to have been a man of
 great genius3 and the ,scipio you have 
mentioned1 who was my colleague1        
likewise appears to me to have been a   
good ,speaker1 and an elegant           
companion4--,your opinion1 my ,brutus1  
said ,i1 is very just4 ,for this family1
 if ,i may be allowed the expression1   
seems to have been the offspring of     
,wisdom4 ,as to their two grandfathers1 
,scipio and ,crassus1 we have taken     
notice of them already3 as we also have 
of their great grandfathers1 ,q4        
,metellus1 who had four sons1--,p4      
,scipio1 who1 when a private citizen1   
freed the ,republic from the arbitrary  
influence of ,t4 ,gracchus1--and ,q4    
,scaevola1 the augur1 who was the ablest
 and most affable ,civilian of his time4
 ,and lastly1 how illustrious are the   
names of their next immediate           
progenitors1 ,p4 ,scipio1 who was twice 
,consul1 and was called the ,darling of 
the ,people1--and ,c4 ,laelius1 who was 

esteemed the wisest of men8--,a generous
 stock indeed6 cries ,brutus1 into which
 the wisdom of many has been            
successively ingrafted1 like a number of
 scions on the same tree6--,i have      
likewise a suspicion1 replied ,i1 7if we
 may compare small things with great7   
that ,curio's family1 though he himself 
was left an orphan1 was indebted to his 
father's instruction1 and good example1 
for the habitual purity of their        
language3 and so much the more1 because1
 of all those who were held in any      
estimation for their ,eloquence1 ,i     
never knew one who was so totally rude  
and unskilled in every branch of liberal
 science4 ,he had not read a single     
poet1 or studied a single orator2 and he
 knew little or nothing either of       
,public1 ,civil1 or ,common law4 ,we    
might say almost the same1 indeed1 of   
several others1 and some of them very   
able ,orators1 who 7we know7 were but   
little acquainted with these useful     
parts of knowledge2 as1 for instance1 of

 ,sulpicius and ,antonius4 ,but this    
deficiency was supplied in them by an   
elaborate knowledge of the art of       
,speaking2 and there was not one of them
 who was totally unqualified in any of  
the five ,footnote3 ,invention1         
,disposition1 ,elocution1 ,memory1 and  
,pronunciation4 principal parts of which
 it is composed2 for whenever this is   
the case1 7and it matters not in which  
of those parts it happens7 it intirely  
incapacitates a man to shine as an      
,orator4 ,some1 however1 excelled in one
 part1 and some in another4 ,thus       
,antonius could readily invent such     
arguments as were most in point1 and    
afterwards digest and methodize them to 
the best advantage2 and he could        
likewise retain the plan he had formed  
with great exactness3 but his chief     
merit was the goodness of his delivery1 
in which he was justly allowed to excel4
 ,in some of these qualifications he was
 upon an equal footing with ,crassus1   
and in others he was superior3 but then 

the language of ,crassus was            
indisputably preferable to his4 ,in the 
same manner1 it cannot be said that     
either ,sulpicius or ,cotta1 or any     
other ,speaker of repute1 was absolutely
 deficient in any one of the five parts 
of ,oratory4 ,but we may justly infer   
from the example of ,curio1 that nothing
 will more recommend an ,orator1 than a 
brilliant and ready flow of expression2 
for he was remarkably dull in the       
invention1 and very loose and           
unconnected in the disposition of his   
arguments4 ,the two remaining parts are 
,pronunciation and ,memory2 in each of  
which he was so poorly qualified1 as to 
excite the laughter and the ridicule of 
his hearers4 ,his gesture was really    
such as ,c4 ,julius represented it1 in a
 severe sarcasm1 that will never be     
forgotten2 for as he was swaying and    
reeling his whole body from side to     
side1 ,julius enquired very merrily1 who
 it was that was speaking from a boat4  
,to the same purpose was the jest of    

,cn4 ,sicinius1 a very vulgar sort of   
man1 but exceedingly humourous1 which   
was the only qualification he had to    
recommend him as an ,orator4 ,when this 
man1 as ,tribune of the people1 had     
summoned ,curio and ,octavius1 who were 
then ,consuls1 into the ,forum1 and     
,curio had delivered a tedious harangue1
 while ,octavius sat silently by him1   
wrapt up in flannels1 and besmeared with
 ointments1 to ease the pain of the     
gout2--,octavius1 said he1 you are      
infinitely obliged to your colleague2   
for if he had not tossed and flung      
himself about to-day1 in the manner he  
did1 you would have certainly have been 
devoured by the flies4--,as to his      
memory1 it was so extremely treacherous1
 that after he had divided his subject  
into three general heads1 he would      
sometimes1 in the course of speaking1   
either add a fourth1 or omit the third4 
,in a capital trial1 in which ,i had    
pleaded for ,titinia1 the daughter of   
,cotta1 when he attempted to reply to me

 in defence of ,serv4 ,naevius1 he      
suddenly forgot every thing he had      
intended to say1 and attributed it to   
the pretended witchcraft1 and magic     
artifices of ,titinia4 ,these were      
undoubted proofs of the weakness of his 
memory4 ,but1 what is still more        
inexcusable1 he sometimes forgot1 even  
in his written treatises1 what he had   
mentioned but a little before4 ,thus1 in
 a book of his1 in which he introduces  
himself as entering into conversation   
with our friend ,pansa1 and his son     
,curio1 when he was walking home from   
the ,senate- house2 the ,senate is      
supposed to have been summoned by       
,caesar in his first ,consulship2 and   
the whole conversation arises from the  
son's enquiry what the ,house had       
resolved upon4 ,curio launches out into 
a long invective against the conduct of 
,caesar1 and1 as is generally the custom
 in dialogues1 the parties are engaged  
in a close dispute on the subject3 but  
very unhappily1 though the conversation 

commences at the breaking up of the     
,senate which ,caesar held when he was  
first ,consul1 the author censures those
 very actions of the same ,caesar1 which
 did not happen till the next1 and      
several other succeeding years of his   
government in ,gaul4--,is it possible   
then1 said ,brutus1 with an air of      
surprize1 that any man1 7and especially 
in a written performance7 could be so   
forgetful as not to discover1 upon a    
subsequent perusal of his own work1 what
 an egregious blunder he had            
committed8--,very true1 said ,i2 for if 
he wrote with a design to discredit the 
measures which he represents in such an 
odious light1 nothing could be more     
stupid than not to commence his dialogue
 at a period which was subsequent to    
those measures4 ,but he so entirely     
forgets himself1 as to tell us1 that he 
did not choose to attend a ,senate which
 was held in one of ,caesar's future    
consulships1 in the very same dialogue  
in which he introduces himself as       

returning home from a ,senate which was 
held in his first consulship4 ,it       
cannot1 therefore1 be wondered at1 that 
he who was so remarkably defective in a 
faculty which is the steward of our     
other intellectual powers1 as to forget1
 even in a written treatise1 a material 
circumstance which he had mentioned but 
a little before1 should find his memory 
fail him1 as it generally did1 in a     
sudden and unpremeditated harangue4 ,it 
accordingly happened1 though he had many
 connections1 and was fond of speaking  
in public1 that few causes were         
intrusted to his management4 ,but1 among
 his cotemporaries1 he was esteemed next
 in merit to the first ,orators of the  
age2 and that merely1 as ,i said before1
 for his good choice of words1 and his  
uncommon readiness1 and great fluency of
 expression4 ,his ,orations1 therefore1 
may deserve a cursory perusal4 ,it is   
true1 indeed1 they are much too languid 
and spiritless2 but they may yet be of  
service to enlarge and improve an       

accomplishment1 of which he certainly   
had a moderate share2 and which has so  
much force and efficacy1 that it gave   
,curio the appearance and reputation of 
an ,orator1 without the assistance of   
any other good quality4  ,but to return 
to our subject1--,c4 ,carbo1 of the same
 age1 was likewise reckoned an ,orator  
of the second class3 he was the son1    
indeed1 of the truly eloquent man       
before-mentioned1 but was far from being
 an acute ,speaker himself3 he was1     
however1 esteemed an ,orator4 ,his      
language was tolerably nervous1 he spoke
 with ease1--and there was an air of    
authority in his address that was       
perfectly natural4 ,but ,q4 ,varius was 
a man of quicker invention1 and1 at the 
same time1 had an equal freedom of      
expression3 besides which1 he had a bold
 and spirited delivery1 and a vein of   
elocution which was neither poor1 nor   
coarse and vulgar2--in short1 you need  
not hesitate to pronounce him an        
,orator4 ,cn4 ,pomponius was a vehement1

 a rousing1 and a fierce and eager      
,speaker1 and more inclined to act the  
part of a prosecutor1 than of an        
advocate4 ,but far inferior to these was
 ,l4 ,fufius2 though his application    
was1 in some measure1 rewarded by the   
success of his prosecution against ,m4  
,aquilius4 ,for as to ,m4 ,drusus1 your 
great uncle1 who spoke like an ,orator  
only upon matters of government2--,l4   
,lucullus1 who was indeed an artful     
,speaker1 and your father1 my ,brutus1  
who was well acquainted with the ,common
 and ,civil ,law2 --,m4 ,lucullus1 and  
,m4 ,octavius1 the son of ,cnaeus1 who  
was a man of so much authority and      
address1 as to procure the repeal of    
,sempronius's corn-act1 by the suffrages
 of a full assembly of the people2--,cn4
 ,octavius1 the son of ,marcus1--and ,m4
 ,cato1 the father1 and ,q4 ,catulus1   
the son2--we must excuse these 7if ,i   
may so express myself7 from the fatigues
 and dangers of the field1--that is1    
from the management of judicial causes1 

and place them in garison over the      
general interests of the ,republic1 a   
duty to which they seem to have been    
sufficiently adequate4 ,i should have   
assigned the same post to ,q4 ,caepio1  
if he had not been so violently attached
 to the ,equestrian ,order1 as to set   
himself at variance with the ,senate4 ,i
 have also remarked1 that ,cn4 ,carbo1  
,m4 ,marius1 and several others of the  
same stamp1 who would not have merited  
the attention of an audience that had   
any taste for elegance1 were extremely  
well suited to address a tumultuous     
crowd4 ,in the same class1 7if ,i may be
 allowed to interrupt the series of my  
narrative7 ,l4 ,quintius lately made his
 appearance3 though ,palicanus1 it must 
be owned1 was still better adapted to   
please the ears of the populace4 ,but1  
as ,i have mentioned this inferior kind 
of ,speakers1 ,i must be so just to ,l4 
,apuleius ,saturninus1 as to observe    
that1 of all the factious declaimers    
since the time of the ,gracchi1 he was  

generally esteemed the ablest3 and yet  
he caught the attention of the ,public1 
more by his appearance1 his gesture1 and
 his dress1 than by any real fluency of 
expression1 or even a tolerable share of
 good sense4 ,but ,c4 ,servilius        
,glaucia1 though the most abandoned     
wretch that ever existed1 was very keen 
and artful1 and excessively humourous2  
and notwithstanding the meanness of his 
birth1 and the depravity of his life1 he
 would have been advanced to the dignity
 of a ,consul in his ,praetorship1 if it
 had been judged lawful to admit his    
suit3 for the populace were entirely at 
his devotion1 and he had secured the    
interest of the ,knights1 by an act he  
had procured in their favour4 ,he was   
slain in the open ,forum1 while he was  
,praetor1 on the same day as the tribune
 ,saturninus1 in the ,consulship of     
,marius and ,flaccus2 and bore a near   
resemblance to ,hyperbolus1 the         
,athenian1 whose profligacy was so      
severely stigmatized in the old ,attic  

,comedies4 ,these were succeeded by     
,sext4 ,titius1 who was indeed a voluble
 ,speaker1 and possessed a ready        
comprehension1 but he was so loose and  
effeminate in his gesture1 as to furnish
 room for the invention of a dance1     
which was called the ,titian jigg3 so   
careful should we be to avoid every     
oddity in our manner of speaking1 which 
may afterwards be exposed to ridicule by
 a ludicrous imitation4  ,but we have   
rambled back insensibly to a period     
which has been already examined3 let us1
 therefore1 return to that which we were
 reviewing a little before4 ,cotemporary
 with ,sulpicius was ,p4 ,antistius1--a 
plausible declaimer1 who1 after being   
silent for several years1 and exposed1  
7as he often was7 not only to the       
contempt1 but the derision of his       
hearers1 first spoke with applause in   
his tribuneship1 in a real and very     
interesting protest against the illegal 
application of ,c4 ,julius for the      
consulship2 and that so much the more1  

because though ,sulpicius himself1 who  
then happened to be his colleague1 spoke
 on the same side of the debate1        
,antistius argued more copiously1 and to
 better purpose4 ,this raised his       
reputation so high1 that many1 and 7soon
 afterwards7 every cause of importance1 
was eagerly recommended to his          
patronage4 ,to speak the truth1 he had a
 quick conception1 a methodical         
judgment1 and a retentive memory2 and   
though his language was not much        
embellished1 it was very far from being 
low4 ,in short1 his style was easy1 and 
flowing1 and his appearance rather      
genteel than otherwise3 but his action  
was a little defective1 partly through  
the disagreeable tone of his voice1 and 
partly by a few ridiculous gestures1 of 
which he could not entirely break       
himself4 ,he flourished in the time     
between the flight and the return of    
,sylla1 when the ,republic was deprived 
of a regular administration of justice1 
and of its former dignity and splendor4 

,but the very favourable reception he   
met with was1 in some measure1 owing to 
the great scarcity of good ,orators     
which then prevailed in the ,forum4 ,for
 ,sulpicius was dead2 ,cotta and ,curio 
were abroad2 and no pleaders of any     
eminence were left but ,carbo and       
,pomponius1 from each of whom he easily 
carried off the palm4 ,his nearest      
successor in the following age was ,l4  
,sisenna1 who was a man of learning1 had
 a taste for the liberal ,sciences1     
spoke the ,roman language with accuracy1
 was well acquainted with the laws and  
constitution of his country1 and had a  
tolerable share of wit2 but he was not a
 ,speaker of any great application1 or  
extensive practice2 and as he happened  
to live in the intermediate time between
 the appearance of ,sulpicius and       
,hortensius1 he was unable to equal the 
former1 and forced to yield to the      
superior talents of the latter4 ,we may 
easily form a judgment of his abilities 
from the historical ,works he has left  

behind him2 which1 though evidently     
preferable to any thing of the kind     
which had appeared before1 may serve as 
a proof that he was far below the       
standard of perfection1 and that this   
species of composition had not then been
 improved to any great degree of        
excellence among the ,romans4 ,but the  
genius of ,q4 ,hortensius1 even in his  
early youth1 like one of ,phidias's     
statues1 was no sooner beheld than it   
was universally admired6 ,he spoke his  
first ,oration in the ,forum in the     
consulship of ,l4 ,crassus and ,q4      
,scaevola1 to whom it was personally    
adressed2 and though he was then only   
nineteen years old1 he descended from   
the ,rostra with the hearty approbation 
not only of the audience in general1 but
 of the two ,consuls themselves1 who    
were the most intelligent judges in the 
whole city4 ,he died in the consulship  
of ,l4 ,paulus and ,c4 ,marcellus2 from 
which it appears that he was            
four-and-forty years a ,pleader4 ,we    

shall review his character more at large
 in the sequel3 but in this part of my  
history1 ,i chose to include him in the 
number of ,orators who were rather of an
 earlier date4 ,this indeed must        
necessarily happen to all whose lives   
are of any considerable length3 for they
 are equally liable to a comparison with
 their ,elders and their ,juniors2 as in
 the case of the poet ,attius1 who says 
that both he and ,pacuvius applied      
themselves to the cultivation of the    
drama under the fame ,aediles2 though1  
at the time1 the one was eighty1 and the
 other only thirty years old4 ,thus     
,hortensius may be paralleled not only  
with those who were properly his        
contemporaries1 but with me1 and you1 my
 ,brutus1 and with others of a prior    
date4 ,for he began to speak in public  
while ,crassus was living but his fame  
increased when he appeared as a joint   
advocate with ,antonius and ,philip 7at 
that time in the decline of life7 in    
defence of ,cn4 ,pompeius1-- a cause in 

which 7though a mere youth7 he          
distinguished himself above the rest4   
,he may therefore be included in the    
lift of those whom ,i have placed in the
 time of ,sulpicius2 but among his      
proper covals1 such as ,m4 ,piso1 ,m4   
,crassus1 ,cn4 ,lentulus1 and ,p4       
,lentulus ,sura1 he excelled beyond the 
reach of competition2 and after these he
 happened upon me1 in the early part of 
my life 7for ,i was eight years younger 
than himself7 and spent a number of     
years with me in pursuit of the same    
forensic glory3 and at last1 7a little  
before his death7 he once pleaded with  
you1 in defence of ,appius ,claudius1 as
 ,i have frequently done for others4    
,thus you see1 my ,brutus1 ,i am come   
insensibly to yourself1 though there was
 undoubtedly a great variety of ,orators
 between my first appearance in the     
,forum1 and yours4 ,but as ,i           
determined1 when we began the           
conversation1 to make no mention of     
those among them who are still living1  

to prevent your enquiring too minutely  
what is my opinion concerning each2 ,i  
shall confine myself to such as are now 
no more4--,that is not the true reason1 
said ,brutus1 why you choose to be      
silent about the living4--,what then do 
you suppose it to be1 said ,i8--,you are
 only fearful1 replied he1 that your    
remarks should afterwards be mentioned  
by us in other company1 and that1 by    
this means1 you should expose yourself  
to the resentment of those1 whom you may
 not think it worth your while to       
notice4--,indeed1 answered ,i1 ,i have  
not the least doubt of your             
secresy4--,neither have you any reason1 
said he2 but after all1 ,i suppose1 you 
had rather be silent yourself1 than rely
 upon our taciturnity4--,to confess the 
truth1 replied ,i1 when ,i first entered
 upon the subject1 ,i never imagined    
that ,i should have extended it to the  
age now before us2 whereas ,i have been 
drawn by a continued series of history  
among the moderns of latest date4       

--,introduce1 then1 said he1 those      
intermediate ,orators you may think     
worthy of our notice3 and afterwards let
 us return to yourself1 and             
,hortensius4--,to ,hortensius1 replied  
,i1 with all my heart2 but as to my own 
character1 ,i shall leave it to other   
people to examine1 if they choose to    
take the trouble4--,i can by no means   
agree to that1 said he3 for though every
 part of the account you have favoured  
us with1 has entertained me very        
agreeably1 it now begins to seem        
tedious1 because ,i am impatient to hear
 something of yourself3 ,i do not mean  
the wonderful qualities1 but the        
progressive steps1 and advances of your 
,eloquence2 for the former are          
sufficiently known already both to me1  
and the whole world4--,as you do not    
require me1 said ,i1 to sound the       
praises of my own genius1 but only to   
describe my labour and application to   
improve it1 your request shall be       
complied with4 ,but to preserve the     

order of my narrative1 ,i shall first   
introduce such other ,speakers as ,i    
think ought to be previously noticed3   
and ,i shall begin with ,m4 ,crassus1   
who was contemporary with ,hortensius4  
,with a tolerable share of learning1 and
 a very moderate capacity1 his          
application1 assiduity1 and interest1   
procured him a place among the ablest   
,pleaders of the time for several years4
 ,his language was pure1 his expression 
neither low nor ungenteel1 and his ideas
 well digested3 but he had nothing in   
him that was florid1 and ornamental2 and
 the real ardor of his mind was not     
supported by any vigorous exertion of   
his voice1 so that he pronounced almost 
every thing in the same uniform tone4   
,his equal1 and professed antagonist ,c4
 ,fimbria was not able to maintain his  
character so long2 and though he always 
spoke with a strong and elevated voice1 
and poured forth a rapid torrent of     
well-chosen expressions1 he was so      
immoderately vehement that you might    

justly be surprised that the people     
should have been so absent and          
inattentive as to admit a madman1 like  
him1 into the lift of ,orators4 ,as to  
,cn4 ,lentulus1 his action acquired him 
a reputation for his ,eloquence very far
 beyond his real abilities3 for though  
he was not a man of any great           
penetration 7notwithstanding he carried 
the appearance of it in his countenance7
 nor possessed any real fluency of      
expression 7though he was equally       
specious in this respect as in the      
former7--yet by his sudden breaks1 and  
exclamations1 he affected such an       
ironical air of surprize1 with a sweet  
and sonorous turn of voice1 and his     
whole action was so warm and lively1    
that his defects were scarcely noticed4 
,for as ,curio acquired the reputation  
of an ,orator with no other quality than
 a tolerable freedom of ,elocution2 so  
,cn4 ,lentulus concealed the mediocrity 
of his other accomplishments by his     
action1 which was really excellent4     

,much the same might be said of ,p4     
,lentulus1 whose poverty of invention   
and expression was secured from notice  
by the mere dignity of his presence1 his
 correct and graceful gesture1 and the  
strength and sweetness of his voice3 and
 his merit depended so entirely upon his
 action1 that he was more deficient in  
every other quality than his namesake4  
,but ,m4 ,piso derived all his talents  
from his erudition2 for he was much     
better versed in the ,grecian literature
 than any of his predecessors4 ,he had1 
however1 a natural keenness of          
discernment1 which he greatly improved  
by art1 and exerted with great address  
and dexterity1 though in very           
indifferent language3 but he was        
frequently warm and choleric1 sometimes 
cold and insipid1 and now and then      
rather smart and humourous4 ,he did not 
long support the fatigue1 and emulous   
contention of the ,forum2 partly1 on    
account of the weakness of his          
constitution2 and partly1 because he    

could not submit to the follies and     
impertinencies of the common people     
7which we ,orators are forced to        
swallow7 either1 as it was generally    
supposed1 from a peculiar moroseness of 
temper1 or from a liberal and ingenuous 
pride of heart4 ,after acquiring1       
therefore1 in his youth1 a tolerable    
degree of reputation1 his character     
began to sink3 but in the trial of the  
,vestals1 he again recovered it with    
some additional lustre1 and being thus  
recalled to the theatre of ,eloquence1  
he kept his rank1 as long as he was able
 to support the fatigue of it2 after    
which his credit declined1 in proportion
 as he remitted his application4--,p4   
,murena had a moderate genius1 but was  
passionately fond of the study of       
,antiquity2 he applied himself with     
equal diligence to the ,belles ,lettres1
 in which he was tolerably versed2 in   
short1 he was a man of great industry1  
and took the utmost pains to distinguish
 himself4--,c4 ,censorinus had a good   

stock of ,grecian literature1 explained 
whatever he advanced with great neatness
 and perspicuity1 and had a graceful    
action1 but was too cold and unanimated 
for the ,forum4--,l4 ,turius with a very
 indifferent genius1 but the most       
indefatigable application1 spoke in     
public very often1 in the best manner he
 was able2 and1 accordingly1 he only    
wanted the votes of a few ,centuries to 
promote him to the ,consulship4--,c4    
,macer was never a man of much interest 
or authority1 but was one of the most   
active ,pleaders of his time2 and if his
 life1 his manners1 and his very looks1 
had not ruined the credit of his genius1
 he would have ranked higher in the lift
 of ,orators4 ,he was neither copious1  
nor dry and barren2 neither eat and     
embellished1 nor wholly inelegant2 and  
his voice1 his gesture1 and every part  
of his action1 was without any grace3   
but in inventing and digesting his      
ideas1 he had a wonderful accuracy1 such
 as no man ,i ever saw either possessed 

or exerted in a more eminent degree2 and
 yet1 some how1 he displayed it rather  
with the air of a ,quibbler1 than of an 
,orator4 ,though he had acquired some   
reputation in public causes1 he appeared
 to most advantage and was most courted 
and employed in private ones4--,c4      
,piso1 who comes next in order1 had     
scarcely any exertion1 but he was a     
,speaker of a very convertible style2   
and though1 in fact1 he was far from    
being slow of invention1 he had more    
penetration in his look and appearance  
than he really possessed4--,his         
cotemporary ,m4 ,glabrio1 though        
carefully instructed by his grandfather 
,scaevola1 was prevented from           
distinguishing himself by his natural   
indolence and want of attention4--,l4   
,torquatus1 on the contrary1 had an     
elegant turn of expression1 and a clear 
comprehension1 and was perfectly genteel
 and well-bred in his whole             
manner4--,but ,cn4 ,pompeius1 my coeval1
 a man who was born to excel in every   

thing1 would have acquired a more       
distinguished reputation for his        
,eloquence1 if he had not been diverted 
from the pursuit of it by the more      
dazzling charms of military fame4 ,his  
language was naturally bold and         
elevated1 and he was always master of   
his subject2 and as to his powers of    
enunciation1 his voice was sonorous and 
manly1 and his gesture noble1 and full  
of dignity4 --,d4 ,silanus1 another of  
my cotemporaries1 and your              
father-in-law1 was not a man of much    
application1 but he had a very competent
 share of discernment1 and              
elocution4--,q4 ,pompeius1 the son of   
,aulus1 who had the title of            
,bithynicus1 and was about two years    
older than myself1 was1 to my own       
knowledge1 remarkably fond of the study 
of ,eloquence1 had an uncommon stock of 
learning1 and was a man of indefatigable
 industry and perseverance3 for he was  
connected with me and ,m4 ,piso1 not    
only as an intimate acquaintance1 but as

 an associate in our studies1 and       
private exercises4 ,his elocution was   
but poorly recommended by his action3   
for though the former was sufficiently  
copious and diffusive1 there was nothing
 graceful in the latter4--,his          
contemporary1 ,p4 ,autronius1 had a very
 clear1 and strong voice2 but he was    
distinguished by no other               
accomplishment4--,l4 ,octavius ,reatinus
 died in his youth1 while he was in full
 practice3 but he ascended the rostra   
with more assurance1 than ability4--,c4 
,staienus1 who changed his name into    
,aelius by a kind of self- adoption1 was
 a warm1 an abusive1 and indeed a       
furious speaker2 which was so agreeable 
to the taste of many1 that he would have
 risen to some rank in the ,state1 if it
 had not been for a crime of which he   
was clearly convicted1 and for which he 
afterwards suffered4--,at the same time 
were the two brothers ,c4 and ,l4       
,caepasius1 who1 though men of an       
obscure family1 and little previous     

consequence1 were yet1 by mere dint of  
application1 suddenly promoted to the   
,quaestorship1 with no other            
recommendation than a provincial and    
unpolished kind of ,oratory4--,that ,i  
may not seem to have put a wilful slight
 on any of the vociferous tribe1 ,i must
 also notice ,c4 ,cosconius ,calidianus1
 who1 without any discernment1 amused   
the people with a rapidity of language  
7if such it might be called7 which he   
attended with a perpetual hurry of      
action1 and a most violent exertion of  
his voice4--,of much the same cast was  
,q4 ,arrius1 who may be considered as a 
second-hand ,m4 ,crassus4 ,he is a      
striking proof of what consequence it is
 in such a city as ours to devote       
one's-self to the occasions of the many1
 and to be as active as possible in     
promoting their safety1 or their honour4
 ,for by these means1 though of the     
lowest parentage1 having raised himself 
to offices of rank1 and to considerable 
wealth and influence1 he likewise       

acquired the reputation of a tolerable  
patron1 without either learning or      
abilities4 ,but as inexperienced        
champions1 who1 from a passionate desire
 to distinguish themselves in the       
,circus1 can bear the blows of their    
opponents without shrinking1 are often  
overpowered by the heat of the sun1 when
 it is increased by the reflection of   
the sand2 so he1 who had hitherto       
supported even the sharpest encounters  
with good success1 could not stand the  
severity of that year of judicial       
contest1 which blazed upon him like a   
summer's sun4  ,upon my word1 cried     
,atticus1 you are now treating us with  
the very dregs of ,oratory1 and you have
 entertained us in this manner for some 
time3 but ,i did not offer to interrupt 
you1 because ,i never dreamed you would 
have descended so low as to mention the 
,staieni and ,autronii6-- ,as ,i have   
been speaking of the dead1 you will not 
imagine1 ,i suppose1 said ,i1 that ,i   
have done it to court their favour3 but 

in pursuing the order of history1 ,i was
 necessarily led by degrees to a period 
of time which falls within the compass  
of our own knowledge4 ,but ,i wish it to
 be noticed1 that after recounting all  
who ever ventured to speak in public1 we
 find but few1 7very few indeed67 whose 
names are worth recording2 and not many 
who had even the repute of being        
,orators4 ,let us1 however1 return to   
our subject4 ,t4 ,torquatus1 then1 the  
son of ,titus1 was a man of learning1   
7which he first acquired in the school  
of ,molo in ,rhodes17 and of a free and 
easy elocution which he received from   
,nature4 ,if he had lived to a proper   
age1 he would have been chosen ,consul1 
without any canvassing2 but he had more 
ability for speaking than inclination2  
so that1 in fact1 he did not do justice 
to the art he professed2 and yet he was 
never wanting to his duty1 either in the
 private causes of his friends and      
dependents1 or in his senatorial        
capacity4--,my townsman too1 ,p4        

,pontidius1 pleaded a number of private 
causes4 ,he had a rapidity of           
expression1 and a tolerable quickness of
 comprehension3 but he was very warm1   
and indeed rather too choleric and      
irascible2 so that he often wrangled not
 only with his antagonist1 but 7what    
appears very strange7 with the judge    
himself1 whom it was rather his business
 to sooth and gratify4--,m4 ,messala1   
who was something younger than myself1  
was far from being a poor and an abject 
,pleader1 and yet he was not a very     
embellished one4 ,he was judicious1     
penetrating1 and wary1 very exact in    
digesting and methodizing his subject1  
and a man of uncommon diligence and     
application1 and of very extensive      
practice4--,as to the two ,metelli      
7,celer and ,nepos7 these also had a    
moderate share of employment at the bar2
 but being destitute neither of learning
 nor abilities1 they chiefly applied    
themselves 7and with some success7 to   
debates of a more popular kind4--,but   

,caius ,lentulus ,marcellinus1 who was  
never reckoned a bad ,speaker1 was      
esteemed a very eloquent one in his     
,consulship4 ,he wanted neither         
sentiment1 nor expression2 his voice was
 sweet and sonorous2 and he had a       
sufficient stock of humour4--,c4        
,memmius1 the son of ,lucius1 was a     
perfect adept in the belles lettres of  
the ,greeks2 for he had an insuperable  
disgust to the literature of the        
,romans4 ,he was a neat and polished    
,speaker1 and had a sweet and harmonious
 turn of expression2 but as he was      
equally averse to every laborious effort
 either of the mind or the tongue1 his  
,eloquence declined in proportion as he 
lessened his application4-- ,but ,i     
heartily wish1 said ,brutus1 that you   
would give us your opinion of those     
,orators who are still living2 or1 if   
you are determined to say nothing of the
 rest1 there are two at least1 7that is 
,caesar and ,marcellus1 whom ,i have    
often heard you speak of with the       

highest approbation7 whose characters   
would give me as much entertainment as  
any of those you have already           
specified4--,but why1 answered ,i1 would
 you expect that ,i would give you my   
opinion of men who are as well known to 
yourself as to me8--,marcellus1 indeed1 
replied he1 ,i am very well acquainted  
with2 but as to ,caesar1 ,i know little 
of him4 ,for ,i have heard the former   
very often3 but1 by the time ,i was able
 to judge for myself1 the latter had set
 out for his province4--,mighty well1   
said ,i2 and what think you of him you  
have heard so often8--,what else can ,i 
think1 replied he1 but that you will    
soon have an ,orator1 who will very     
nearly resemble yourself8--,if that is  
the case1 answered ,i1 pray think of him
 as favourably as you can4 ,i do1 said  
he2 for he pleases me very highly2 and  
not without reason4 ,he is absolutely   
master of his trade1 and1 neglecting    
every other profession1 has applied     
himself solely to this2 and1 for that   

purpose1 has persevered in the rigorous 
task of composing a daily ,essay in     
writing4 ,his words are well chosen2 his
 language is full and copious2 and every
 thing he says receives an additional   
ornament from the graceful tone of his  
voice1 and the dignity of his action4   
,in short1 he is so compleat an ,orator1
 that there is no quality ,i know of1 in
 which ,i can think him deficient4 ,but 
he is still more to be admired1 for     
being able1 in these unhappy times1     
7which are marked with a distress that1 
by some cruel fatality1 has overwhelmed 
us all7 to console himself1 as          
opportunity offers1 with the            
consciousness of his own integrity1 and 
by the frequent renewal of his literary 
pursuits4 ,i saw him lately at          
,mitylene2 and then 7as ,i have already 
hinted7 ,i saw him a thorough man4 ,for 
though ,i had before discovered in him a
 strong resemblance of yourself1 the    
likeness was much improved1 after he was
 enriched by the instructions of your   

learned1 and very intimate friend       
,cratippus4-- ,though ,i acknowledge1   
said ,i1 that ,i have listened with     
pleasure to your ,elogies on a very     
worthy man1 for whom ,i have the warmest
 esteem1 they have led me insensibly to 
the recollection of our common miseries1
 which our present conversation was     
intended to suspend4 ,but ,i would      
willingly hear what is ,atticus's       
opinion of ,caesar4--,upon my word1     
replied ,atticus1 you are wonderfully   
consistent with your plan1 to say       
nothing yourself of the living3 and     
indeed1 if you was to deal with them1 as
 you already have with the dead1 and say
 something of every paltry fellow that  
occurs to your memory1 you would plague 
us with ,autronii and ,steiani without  
end4 ,but though you might possibly have
 it in view not to incumber yourself    
with such a numerous crowd of           
insignificant wretches2 or perhaps1 to  
avoid giving any one room to complain   
that he was either unnoticed1 or not    

extolled according to his imaginary     
merit2 yet1 certainly1 you might have   
said something of ,caesar2 especially1  
as your opinion of his abilities is well
 known to every body1 and his concerning
 your's is very far from being a secret4
 ,but1 however1 said he1 7addressing    
himself to ,brutus7 ,i really think of  
,caesar1 and every body else says the   
same of this accurate connoisseur in the
 ,art of ,speaking1 that he has the     
purest and the most elegant command of  
the ,roman language of all the ,orators 
that have yet appeared3 and that not    
merely by domestic habit1 as we have    
lately heard it observed of the families
 of the ,laelii and the ,mucii1 7though 
even here1 ,i believe1 this might partly
 have been the case7 but he chiefly     
acquired and brought it to its present  
perfection1 by a studious application to
 the most intricate and refined branches
 of literature1 and by a careful and    
constant attention to the purity of his 
style4 ,but that he1 who1 involved as he

 was in a perpetual hurry of business1  
could dedicate to you1 my ,cicero1 a    
laboured ,treatise on the ,art of       
,speaking correctly2 that he1 who1 in   
the first book of it1 laid it down as an
 axiom1 that an accurate choice of words
 is the foundation of ,eloquence2 and   
who has bestowed1 said he1 7addressing  
himself again to ,brutus7 the highest   
encomiums on this friend of ours1 who   
yet chooses to leave ,caesar's character
 to me2--that he should be a perfect    
master of the language of polite        
conservation1 is a circumstance which is
 almost too obvious to be mentioned4 ,i 
said1 the highest encomiums1 pursued    
,atticus1 because he says in so many    
words1 when he addresses himself to     
,cicero--if others have bestowed all    
their time and attention to acquire a   
habit of expressing themselves with ease
 and correctness1 how much is the name  
and dignity of the ,roman people        
indebted to you1 who are the highest    
pattern1 and indeed the first inventor  

of that rich fertility of language which
 distinguishes your                     
performances8--,indeed1 said ,brutus1 ,i
 think he has extolled your merit in a  
very friendly1 and a very magnificent   
style3 for you are not only the highest 
pattern1 and even the first inventor of 
all our fertility of language1 which    
alone is praise enough to content any   
reasonable man1 but you have added fresh
 honours to the name and dignity of the 
,roman people2 for the very excellence  
in which we had hitherto been conquered 
by the vanquished ,greeks1 has now been 
either wrested from their hands1 or     
equally shared1 at least1 between us and
 them4 ,so that ,i prefer this          
honourable testimony of ,caesar1 ,i will
 not say to the public thanksgiving1    
which was decreed for your own military 
services1 but to the triumphs of many   
heroes4--,very true1 replied ,i1        
provided this honourable testimony was  
really the voice of ,caesar's judgment1 
and not of his friendship3 for he       

certainly has added more to the dignity 
of the ,roman people1 whoever he may be 
7if indeed any such man has yet existed7
 who has not only exemplified and       
enlarged1 but first produced this rich  
fertility of expression1 than the       
doughty warrior who has stormed a few   
paltry castles of the ,ligurians1 which 
have furnished us1 you know1 with many  
repeated triumphs4 ,in reality1 if we   
can submit to hear the truth1 it may be 
asserted 7to say nothing of those       
god-like plans1 which1 supported by the 
wisdom of our ,generals1 has frequently 
saved the sinking ,state both abroad and
 at home7 that an ,orator is justly     
entitled to the preference to any       
,commander in a petty war4 ,but the     
,general1 you will say1 is the more     
serviceable man to the public4 ,nobody  
denies it3 and yet 7for ,i am not afraid
 of provoking your censure1 in a        
conversation which leaves each of us at 
liberty to say what he thinks7 ,i had   
rather be the author of the single      

,oration of ,crassus1 in defence of     
,curius1 than be honoured with two      
,ligurian triumphs4 ,you will1 perhaps1 
reply1 that the storming a castle of the
 ,ligurians was a thing of more         
consequence to the ,state1 than that the
 claim of ,curius should be ably        
supported4 ,this ,i own to be true4 ,but
 it was also of more consequence to the 
,athenians1 that their houses should be 
securely roofed1 than to have their city
 graced with a most beautiful statue of 
,minerva3 and yet1 notwithstanding this1
 ,i would much rather have been a       
,phidias1 than the most skilful joiner  
in ,athens4 ,in the present case1       
therefore1 we are not to consider a     
man's usefulness1 but the strength of   
his abilities2 especially as the number 
of painters and statuaries1 who have    
excelled in their profession1 is very   
small2 whereas1 there can never be any  
want of joiners and mechanic labourers4 
,but proceed1 my ,atticus1 with ,caesar2
 and oblige us with the remainder of his

 character4--,we see then1 said he1 from
 what has just been mentioned1 that a   
pure and correct style is the           
groundwork1 and the very basis and      
foundation1 upon which an ,orator must  
build his other accomplishments3 though1
 it is true1 that those who had hitherto
 possessed it1 derived it more from     
early habit1 than from any principles of
 art4 ,it is needless to refer you to   
the instances of ,laelius and ,scipio2  
for a purity of language1 as well as of 
manners1 was the characteristic of the  
age they lived in4 ,it could not1       
indeed1 be applied to every one2 for    
their two cotemporaries1 ,caecilius and 
,pacuvius1 spoke very incorrectly3 but  
yet people in general1 who had not      
resided out of the city1 nor been       
corrupted by any domestic barbarisms1   
spoke the ,roman language with purity4  
,time1 however1 as well at ,rome as in  
,greece1 soon altered matters for the   
worse3 for this city1 7as had formerly  
been the case at ,athens7 was resorted  

to by a crowd of adventurers from       
different parts1 who spoke very         
corruptly2 which shews the necessity of 
reforming our language1 and reducing it 
to a certain standard1 which shall not  
be liable to vary like the capricious   
laws of custom4 ,though we were then    
very young1 we can easily remember ,t4  
,flaminius1 who was joint-consul with   
,q4 ,metellus3 he was supposed to speak 
his native language with correctness1   
but was a man of no ,literature4 ,as to 
,catulus1 he was far indeed from being  
destitute of learning1 as you have      
already observed3 but his reputed purity
 of diction was chiefly owing to the    
sweetness of his voice1 and the delicacy
 of his accent4 ,cotta1 who1 by his     
broad pronunciation1 threw off all      
resemblance of the elegant tone of the  
,greeks1 and affected a harsh and rustic
 utterance1 quite opposite to that of   
,catulus1 acquired the same reputation  
of correctness by pursuing a wild and   
unfrequented path4 ,but ,sisenna1 who   

had the ambition to think of reforming  
our phraseology1 could not be lashed out
 of his whimsical and new-fangled turns 
of expression1 by all the raillery of   
,c4 ,rufius4--,what do you refer to8    
said ,brutus2 and who was the ,caius    
,rufius you are speaking of8--,he was a 
noted prosecutor1 replied he1 some years
 ago4 ,when this man had supported an   
indictment against one ,christilius1    
,sisenna1 who was counsel for the       
defendant1 told him1 that several parts 
of his accusation were absolutely       
spitatical4 ,footnote3 ,in the original 
sputatilica1 worthy to be spit upon4 ,it
 appears1 from the connection1 to have  
been a very unclassical word1           
whimsically derived by the author of it 
from sputa1 spittle4 ,my ,lords1 cried  
,rufius to the judges1 ,i shall be      
cruelly over-reached1 unless you give me
 your assistance4 ,his charge overpowers
 my comprehension2 and ,i am afraid he  
has some unfair design upon me4 ,what1  
in the name of ,heaven1 can be intend by

 ,,spitatical8 ,i know the meaning of   
,,spit1 or ,,spittle2 but this horrid   
,,atical1 at the end of it1 absolutely  
puzzles me4 ,the whole ,bench laughed   
very heartily at the singular oddity of 
the expression3 my old friend1 however1 
was still of opinion1 that to speak     
correctly1 was to speak differently from
 other people4 ,but ,caesar1 who was    
guided by the principles of art1 has    
corrected the imperfections of a vicious
 custom1 by adopting the rules and      
improvements of a good one1 as he found 
them occasionally displayed in the      
course of polite conversation4          
,accordingly1 to the purest elegance of 
expression1 7which is equally necessary 
to every well-bred ,citizen1 as to an   
,orator7 he has added all the various   
ornaments of ,elocution2 so that he     
seems to exhibit the finest painting in 
the most advantageous point of view4 ,as
 he has such extraordinary merit even in
 the common run of his language1 ,i must
 confess that there is no person ,i know

 of1 to whom he should yield the        
preference4 ,besides1 his manner of     
speaking1 both as to his voice and      
gesture1 is splendid and noble1 without 
the least appearance of artifice or     
affectation3 and there is a dignity in  
his very presence1 which bespeaks a     
great and elevated mind4--,indeed1 said 
,brutus1 his ,orations please me highly2
 for ,i have had the satisfaction to    
read several of them4 ,he has likewise  
wrote some commentaries1 or short       
memoirs1 of his own transactions2--and  
such1 said ,i1 as merit the highest     
approbation3 for they are plain1        
correct1 and graceful1 and divested of  
all the ornaments of language1 so as to 
appear 7if ,i may be allowed the        
expression7 in a kind of undress4 ,but  
while he pretended only to furnish the  
loose materials1 for such as might be   
inclined to compose a regular history1  
he may1 perhaps1 have gratified the     
vanity of a few literary ,frisseurs3 but
 he has certainly prevented all sensible

 men from attempting any improvement on 
his plan4 ,for in history1 nothing is   
more pleasing than a correct and elegant
 brevity of expression4 ,with your      
leave1 however1 it is high time to      
return to those ,orators who have       
quitted the stage of life4 ,c4 ,sicinius
 then1 who was a grandson of the ,censor
 ,q4 ,pompey1 by one of his daughters1  
died after his advancement to the       
,quaestorship4 ,he was a ,speaker of    
some merit and reputation1 which he     
derived from the system of ,hermagoras2 
who1 though he furnished but little     
assistance for acquiring an ornamental  
style1 gave many useful precepts to     
expedite and improve the invention of an
 ,orator4 ,for in this ,system we have a
 collection of fixed and determinate    
rules for public speaking2 which are    
delivered indeed without any shew or    
parade1 7and1 ,i might have added1 in a 
trivial and homely form7 but yet are so 
plain and methodical1 that it is almost 
impossible to mistake the road4 ,by     

keeping close to these1 and always      
digesting his subject before he ventured
 to speak upon it1 7to which we may add1
 that he had a tolerable fluency of     
expression7 he so far succeeded1 without
 any other assistance1 as to be ranked  
among the pleaders of the day4--,as to  
,c4 ,visellius ,varro1 who was my       
cousin1 and a cotemporary of ,sicinius1 
he was a man of great learning4 ,he died
 while he was a member of the ,court of 
,inquests1 into which he had been       
admitted after the expiration of his    
,aedileship4 ,the public1 ,i confess1   
had not the same opinion of his         
abilities that ,i have2 for he never    
passed as a man of ,sterling ,eloquence 
among the people4 ,his style was        
excessively quick and rapid1 and        
consequently obscure2 for1 in fact1 it  
was embarrassed and blinded by the      
celerity of its course3 and yet1 after  
all1 you will scarcely find a man who   
had a better choice of words1 or a      
richer vein of sentiment4 ,he had       

besides a complete fund of polite       
literature1 and a thorough knowledge of 
the principles of jurisprudence1 which  
he learned from his father ,aculeo4 ,to 
proceed in our account of the dead1 the 
next that presents himself is ,l4       
,torquatus1 whom you will not so readily
 pronounce a connoisseur in the ,art of 
,speaking 7though he was by no means    
destitute of elocution7 as1 what is     
called by the ,greeks1 a political      
,adept4 ,he had a plentiful stock of    
learning1 not indeed of the common sort1
 but of a more abstruse and curious     
nature3 he had likewise an admirable    
memory1 and a very sensible and elegant 
turn of expression2 all which qualities 
derived an additional grace from the    
dignity of his deportment1 and the      
integrity of his manners4 ,i was also   
highly pleased with the style of his    
cotemporary ,triarius1 which expressed  
to perfection1 the character of a worthy
 old gentleman1 who had been thoroughly 
polished by the refinements of          

,literature4--,what a venerable severity
 was there in his look6 ,what forcible  
solemnity in his language6 and how      
thoughtful and deliberate every word he 
spoke6--,at the mention of ,torquatus   
and ,triarius1 for each of whom he had  
the most affectionate veneration1--,it  
fills my heart with anguish1 said       
,brutus1 7to omit a thousand other      
circumstances7 when ,i reflect1 as ,i   
cannot help doing1 on your mentioning   
the names of these worthy men1 that your
 long-respected authority was           
insufficient to procure an accommodation
 of our differences4 ,the ,republic     
would not otherwise have been deprived  
of these1 and many other excellent      
,citizens4--,not a word more1 said ,i1  
on this melancholy subject1 which can   
only aggravate our sorrow3 for as the   
remembrance of what is already past is  
painful enough1 the prospect of what is 
yet to come is still more cutting4 ,let 
us1 therefore1 drop our unavailing      
complaints1 and 7agreeably to our plan7 

confine our attention to the forensic   
merits of our deceased friends4 ,among  
those1 then1 who lost their lives in    
this unhappy war1 was ,m4 ,bibulus1 who1
 though not a professed orator1 was a   
very accurate writer1 and a solid and   
experienced advocate3 and ,appius       
,claudius1 your father-in-law1 and my   
colleague and intimate acquaintance1 who
 was not only a hard student1 and a man 
of learning1 but a practised ,orator1 a 
skilful ,augurist and ,civilian1 and a  
thorough ,adept in the ,roman           
,history4--,as to ,l4 ,domitius1 he was 
totally unacquainted with any rules of  
art2 but he spoke his native language   
with purity1 and had a great freedom of 
address4 ,we had likewise the two       
,lentuli1 men of consular dignity2 one  
of whom1 7,i mean ,publius7 the avenger 
of my wrongs1 and the author of my      
restoration1 derived all his powers and 
accomplishments from the assistance of  
,art1 and not from the bounty of        
,nature3 but he had such a great and    

noble disposition1 that he claimed all  
the honours of the most illustrious     
,citizens1 and supported them with the  
utmost dignity of character4--,the other
 7,l4 ,lentulus7 was an animated        
,speaker1 for it would be saying too    
much1 perhaps1 to call him an ,orator-- 
but1 unhappily1 he had an utter aversion
 to the trouble of thinking4 ,his voice 
was sonorous2 and his language1 though  
not absolutely harsh and forbidding1 was
 warm and rigorous1 and carried in it a 
kind of terror4 ,in a judicial trial1   
you would probably have wished for a    
more agreeable and a keener advocate3   
but in a debate on matters of           
government1 you would have thought his  
abilities sufficient4--,even ,titus     
,postumius had such powers of utterance1
 as were not to be despised3 but in     
political matters1 he spoke with the    
same unbridled ardour he fought with3 in
 short1 he was much too warm2 though it 
must be owned he possessed an extensive 
knowledge of the laws and constitution  

of his country4--,upon my word1 cried   
,atticus1 if the persons you have       
mentioned were still living1 ,i should  
be apt to imagine1 that you was         
endeavouring to solicit their favour4   
,for you introduce every body who had   
the courage to stand up and speak his   
mind3 so that ,i almost begin to wonder 
how ,m4 ,servilius has escaped your     
notice4--,i am1 indeed1 very sensible1  
replied ,i1 that there have been many   
who never spoke in public1 that were    
much better qualified for the talk1 than
 those ,orators ,i have taken the pains 
to enumerate3 ,footnote3 ,this was      
probably intended as an indirect        
,compliment to ,atticus4 but ,i have1 at
 least1 answered one purpose by it1     
which is to shew you1 that in this      
populous ,city1 we have not had very    
many who had the resolution to speak at 
all2 and that even among these1 there   
have been few who were entitled to our  
applause4 ,i cannot1 therefore1 neglect 
to take some notice of those worthy     

knights1 and my intimate friends1 very  
lately deceased1 ,p4 ,comminius         
,spoletinus1 against whom ,i pleaded in 
defence of ,c4 ,cornelius1 and who was a
 methodical1 a spirited1 and a ready    
,speaker2 and ,t4 ,accius1 of ,pisaurum1
 to whom ,i replied in behalf of ,a4    
,cluentius1 and who was an accurate1 and
 a tolerably copious ,advocate3 he was  
also well instructed in the precepts of 
,hermagoras1 which1 though of little    
service to embellish and enrich our     
,elocution1 furnish a variety of        
arguments1 which1 like the weapons of   
the light infantry1 may be readily      
managed1 and are adapted to every       
subject of debate4 ,i must add1 that ,i 
never knew a man of greater industry and
 application4 ,as to ,c4 ,piso1 my      
son-in-law1 it is scarcely possible to  
mention any one who was blessed with a  
finer capacity4 ,he was constantly      
employed either in public speaking1 and 
private declamatory exercises1 or1 at   
least1 in writing and thinking3 and1    

consequently1 he made such a rapid      
progress1 that he rather seemed to fly  
than to run4 ,he had an elegant choice  
of expression1 and the structure of his 
periods was perfectly neat and          
harmonious2 he had an astonishing       
variety and strength of argument1 and a 
lively and agreeable turn of sentiment3 
and his gesture was naturally so        
graceful1 that it appeared to have been 
formed 7which it really was not7 by the 
nicest rules of art4 ,i am rather       
fearful1 indeed1 that ,i should be      
thought to have been prompted by my     
affection for him to have given him a   
greater character than he deserved3 but 
this is so far from being the case1 that
 ,i might justly have ascribed to him   
many qualities of a different and more  
valuable nature3 for in continence1     
social piety1 and every other kind of   
virtue1 there was scarcely any of his   
cotemporaries who was worthy to be      
compared with him4--,m4 ,caelius too    
must not pass unnoticed1 notwithstanding

 the unhappy change1 either of his      
fortune or disposition1 which marked the
 latter part of his life4 ,as long as he
 was directed by my influence1 he       
behaved himself so well as a ,tribune of
 the people1 that no man supported the  
interests of the ,senate1 and of all the
 good and virtuous1 in opposition to the
 factious and unruly madness of a set of
 abandoned citizens1 with more firmness 
than he did3 a part in which he was     
enabled to exert himself to great       
advantage1 by the force and dignity of  
his language1 and his lively humour1 and
 genteel address4 ,he spoke several     
harangues in a very sensible style1 and 
three spirited invectives1 which        
originated from our political disputes3 
and his defensive speeches1 though not  
equal to the former1 were yet tolerably 
good1 and had a degree of merit which   
was far from being contemptible4 ,after 
he had been advanced to the ,aedileship1
 by the hearty approbation of all the   
better sort of citizens1 as he had lost 

my company 7for ,i was then abroad in   
,cilicia7 he likewise lost himself2 and 
entirely sunk his credit1 by imitating  
the conduct of those very men1 whom he  
had before so successfully              
opposed4--,but ,m4 ,calidius has a more 
particular claim to our notice for the  
singularity of his character2 which     
cannot so properly be said to have      
entitled him to a place among our other 
,orators1 as to distinguish him from the
 whole fraternity2 for in him we beheld 
the most uncommon1 and the most delicate
 sentiments1 arrayed in the softest and 
finest language imaginable4 ,nothing    
could be so easy as the turn and compass
 of his periods2 nothing so ductile2    
nothing more pliable and obsequious to  
his will1 so that he had a greater      
command of it than any ,orator whatever4
 ,in short1 the flow of his language was
 so pure and limpid1 that nothing could 
be clearer2 and so free1 that it was    
never clogged or obstructed4 ,every word
 was exactly in the place where it      

should be1 and disposed 7as ,lucilius   
expresses it7 with as much nicety as in 
a curious piece of ,mosaic-work4 ,we may
 add1 that he had not a single          
expression which was either harsh1      
unnatural1 abject1 or far-fetched2 and  
yet he was so far from confining himself
 to the plain and ordinary mode of      
speaking1 that he abounded greatly in   
the metaphor1--but such metaphors as did
 not appear to usurp a post that        
belonged to another1 but only to occupy 
their own4 ,these delicacies were       
displayed not in a loose and disfluent  
style2 but in such a one as was strictly
 numerous1 without either appearing to  
be so1 or running on with a dull        
uniformity of sound4 ,he was likewise   
master of the various ornaments of      
language and sentiment which the ,greeks
 call figures1 whereby he enlivened and 
embellished his style as with so many   
forensic decorations4 ,we may add that  
he readily discovered1 upon all         
occasions1 what was the real point of   

debate1 and where the stress of the     
argument lay2 and that his method of    
ranging his ideas was extremely artful1 
his action genteel1 and his whole manner
 very engaging and very sensible4 ,in   
short1 if to speak agreeably is the     
chief merit of an ,orator1 you will find
 no one who was better qualified than   
,calidius4 ,but as we have observed a   
little before1 that it is the business  
of an ,orator to instruct1 to please1   
and to move the passions2 he was1       
indeed1 perfectly master of the two     
first2 for no one could better elucidate
 his subject1 or charm the attention of 
his audience4 ,but as to the third      
qualification1--the moving and alarming 
the passions1--which is of much greater 
efficacy than the two former1 he was    
wholly destitute of it4 ,he had no      
force1--no exertion2--either by his own 
choice1 and from an opinion that those  
who had a loftier turn of expression1   
and a more warm and spirited action1    
were little betther than madmen2 or     

because it was contrary to his natural  
temper1 and habitual practice2 or1      
lastly1 because it was beyond the       
strength of his abilities4 ,if1 indeed1 
it is a useless quality1 his want of it 
was a real excellence3 but if otherwise1
 it was certainly a defect4 ,i          
particularly remember1 that when he     
prosecuted ,q4 ,gallius for an attempt  
to poison him1 and pretended that he had
 the plainest proofs of it1 and could   
produce many letters1 witnesses1        
informations1 and other evidences to put
 the truth of his charge beyond a doubt1
 interspersing many sensible and        
ingenious remarks on the nature of the  
crime2--,i remember1 ,i say1 that when  
it came to my turn to reply to him1     
after urging every argument which the   
case itself suggested1 ,i insisted upon 
it as a material circumstance in favour 
of my client1 that the prosecutor1 while
 he charged him with a design against   
his life1 and assured us that he had the
 most indubitable proofs of it then in  

his hands1 related his story with as    
much ease1 and as much calmness1 and    
indifference1 as if nothing had         
happened4--,would it have been possible1
 said ,i1 7addressing myself to         
,calidius7 that you should speak with   
this air of unconcern1 unless the charge
 was purely an invention of your own8   
and1 above all1 that you1 whose         
,eloquence has often vindicated the     
wrongs of other people with so much     
spirit1 should speak so coolly of a     
crime which threatened your life8 ,where
 was that expression of resentment which
 is so natural to the injured8 ,where   
that ardour1 that eagerness1 which      
extorts the most pathetic language even 
from men of the dullest capacities8     
,there was no visible disorder in your  
mind1 no emotion in your looks and      
gesture1 no smiting of the thigh or the 
forehead1 nor even a single stamp of the
 foot4 ,you was1 therefore1 so far from 
interesting our passions in your favour1
 that we could scarcely keep our eyes   

open1 while you was relating the dangers
 you had so narrowly escaped4 ,thus we  
employed the natural defect1 or if you  
please1 the sensible calmness of an     
excellent ,orator1 as an argument to    
invalidate his charge4--,but is it      
possible to doubt1 cried ,brutus1       
whether this was a sensible quality1 or 
a defect8 ,for as the greatest merit of 
an ,orator is to be able to inflame the 
passions1 and give them such a biass as 
shall best answer his purpose2 he who is
 destitute of this must certainly be    
deficient in the most capital part of   
his profession4--,i am of the same      
opinion1 said ,i2 but let us now proceed
 to him 7,hortensius7 who is the only   
remaining ,orator worth noticing2 after 
which1 as you may seem to insist upon   
it1 ,i shall say something of myself4 ,i
 must first1 however1 do justice to the 
memory of two promising youths1 who1 if 
they had lived to a riper age1 would    
have acquired the highest reputation for
 their ,eloquence4--,you mean1 ,i       

suppose1 said ,brutus1 ,c4 ,curio1 and  
,c4 ,licinius ,calvus4--,the very same1 
replied ,i4 ,one of them1 besides his   
plausible manner1 had such an easy and  
voluble flow of expression1 and such an 
inexhaustible variety1 and sometimes    
accuracy of sentiment1 that he was one  
of the most ready and ornamental        
speakers of his time4 ,though he had    
received but little instruction from the
 professed masters of the art1 ,nature  
had furnished him with an admirable     
capacity of the practice of it4 ,i      
never1 indeed1 discovered in him any    
great degree of application2 but he was 
certainly very ambitious to distinguish 
himself2 and if he had continued to     
listen to my advice1 as he had begun to 
do1 he would have preferred the         
acquisition of real honour to that of   
untimely grandeur4-- ,what do you mean1 
said ,brutus8 ,or in what manner are    
these two objects to be                 
distinguished8--,i distinguish them     
thus1 replied ,i3 ,as honour is the     

reward of virtue1 conferred upon a man  
by the choice and affection of his      
fellow-citizens1 he who obtains it by   
their free votes and suffrages is to be 
considered1 in my opinion1 as an        
honourable member of the community4 ,but
 he who acquires his power and authority
 by taking advantage of every unhappy   
incident1 and without the consent of his
 fellow-citizens1 as ,curio aimed to do1
 acquires only the name of honour1      
without the substance4 ,whereas1 if he  
had hearkened to me1 he would have risen
 to the highest dignity1 in an          
honourable manner1 and with the hearty  
approbation of all men1 by a gradual    
advancement to public offices1 as his   
father and many other eminent citizens  
had done before4 ,i often gave the same 
advice to ,p4 ,crassus1 the son of      
,marcus1 who courted my friendship in   
the early part of his life2 and         
recommended it to him very warmly1 to   
consider that as the truest path to     
honour which had been already marked out

 to him by the example of his ancestors4
 ,for he had been extremely well        
educated1 and was perfectly versed in   
every branch of polite literature3 he   
had likewise a penetrating genius1 and  
an elegant variety of expression2 and   
appeared grave and sententious without  
arrogance1 and modest and diffident     
without dejection4 ,but like many other 
young men he was carried away by the    
tide of ambition2 and after serving a   
short time with reputation as a         
volunteer1 nothing could satisfy him but
 to try his fortune as a ,general1--an  
employment which was confined by the    
wisdom of our ancestors to men who had  
arrived at a certain age1 and who1 even 
then1 were obliged to submit their      
pretensions to the uncertain issue of a 
public decision4 ,thus1 by exposing     
himself to a fatal catastrophe1 while he
 was endeavouring to rival the fame of  
,cyrus and ,alexander1 who lived to     
finish their desperate career1 he lost  
all resemblance of ,l4 ,crassus1 and his

 other worthy ,progenitors4  ,but let us
 return to ,calvus whom we have just    
mentioned1--an ,orator who had received 
more literary improvements than ,curio1 
and had a more accurate and delicate    
manner of speaking1 which he conducted  
with great taste and elegance2 but1 7by 
being too minute and nice a critic upon 
himself17 while he was labouring to     
correct and refine his language1 he     
suffered all the force and spirit of it 
to evaporate4 ,in short1 it was so      
exquisitely polished1 as to charm the   
eye of every skilful observer2 but it   
was little noticed by the common people 
in a crowded ,forum1 which is the proper
 theatre of ,eloquence4--,his aim1 said 
,brutus1 was to be admired as an ,attic 
,orator3 and to this we must attribute  
that accurate exility of style1 which he
 constantly affected4--,this1 indeed1   
was his professed character1 replied ,i3
 but he was deceived himself1 and led   
others into the same mistake4 ,it is    
true1 whoever supposes that to speak in 

the ,attic taste1 is to avoid every     
awkward1 every harsh1 every vicious     
expression1 has1 in this sense1 an      
undoubted right to refuse his           
approbation to every thing which is not 
strictly ,attic4 ,for he must naturally 
detest whatever is insipid1 disgusting1 
or invernacular2 while he considers a   
correctness and propriety of language as
 the religion1 and good-manners of an   
,orator3--and every one who pretends to 
speak in public should adopt the same   
opinion4 ,but if he bestows the name of 
,atticism on a half-starved1 a dry1 and 
a niggardly turn of expression1 provided
 it is neat1 correct1 and genteel1 ,i   
cannot say1 indeed1 that he bestows it  
improperly2 as the ,attic ,orators1     
however1 had many qualities of a more   
important nature1 ,i would advise him to
 be careful that he does not overlook   
their different kinds and degrees of    
merit1 and their great extent and       
variety of character4 ,the ,attic       
,speakers1 he will tell me1 are the     

models upon which he wishes to form his 
,eloquence4 ,but which of them does he  
mean to fix upon8 for they are not all  
of the same cast4 ,who1 for instance1   
could be more unlike each other than    
,demosthenes and ,lysias8 or than       
,demosthenes and ,hyperides8 ,or who    
more different from either of them1 than
 ,aeschines8 ,which of them1 then1 do   
you propose to imitate8 ,if only one1   
this will be a tacit implication1 that  
none of the rest were true masters of   
,atticism3 if all1 how can you possibly 
succeed1 when their characters are so   
opposite8 ,let me further ask you1      
whether ,demetrius ,phalereus spoke in  
the ,attic style8 ,in my opinion1 his   
,orations have the very smell of        
,athens4 ,but he is certainly more      
florid than either ,hyperides or        
,lysias2 partly from the natural turn of
 his genius1 and partly by choice4      
,there were likewise two others1 at the 
time we are speaking of1 whose          
characters were equally dissimilar2 and 

yet both of them were truly ,attic4 ,the
 first 7,charisius7 was the author of a 
number of speeches1 which he composed   
for his friends1 professedly in         
imitation of ,lysias3--and the other    
7,demochares1 the nephew of             
,demosthenes7 wrote several ,orations1  
and a regular ,history of what was      
transacted in ,athens under his own     
observation2 not so much1 indeed1 in the
 style of an ,historian1 as of an       
,orator4 ,hegesias took the former for  
his model1 and had so vain a conceit of 
his own taste for ,atticism1 that he    
considered his predecessors1 who were   
really masters of it1 as mere rustics in
 comparison of himself4 ,but what can be
 more insipid1 more frivolous1 or more  
puerile1 than that very concinnity of   
expression which he actually            
acquired8--,but still we wish to        
resemble the ,attic ,speakers4--,do so1 
by all means4 ,but were not those1 then1
 true ,attic ,speakers1 we have just    
been mentioning8--,nobody denies it2 and

 these are the men we imitate4--,but    
how8 when they are so very different1   
not only from each other1 but from all  
the rest of their                       
contemporaries8--,true2 but ,thucydides 
is our leading pattern4--,this too ,i   
can allow1 if you design to compose     
histories1 instead of pleading causes4  
,for ,thucydides was both an exact1 and 
a stately historian3 but he never       
intended to write models for conducting 
a judicial process4 ,i will even go so  
far as to add1 that ,i have often       
commended the speeches which he has     
inserted into his history in great      
numbers2 though ,i must frankly own1    
that ,i neither could imitate them1 if  
,i would1 nor indeed would1 if ,i could2
 like a man who would neither choose his
 wine so new as to have been turned off 
in the preceding vintage1 nor so        
excessively old as to date its age from 
the consulship of ,opimius or           
,anicius4--,the latter1 you'll say1     
bears the highest price4 ,very probable2

 but when it has too much age1 it has   
lost that delicious flavour which       
pleases the palate1 and1 in my opinion1 
is scarcely tolerable4--,would you      
choose1 then1 when you have a mind to   
regale yourself1 to apply to a fresh1   
unripened cask8 ,by no means2 but still 
there is a certain age1 when good wine  
arrives at its utmost perfection4 ,in   
the same manner1 ,i would recommend     
neither a raw1 unmellowed style1 which1 
7if ,i may so express myself7 has been  
newly drawn off from the vat2 nor the   
rough1 and antiquated language of the   
grave and manly ,thucydides4 ,for even  
he1 if he had lived a few years later1  
would have acquired a much softer and   
mellower turn of expression4--,let us1  
then1 imitate ,demosthenes4--,good      
,gods6 to what else do ,i direct all my 
endeavours1 and my wishes6 ,but it is1  
perhaps1 my misfortune not to succeed4  
,these ,atticisers1 however1 acquire    
with ease the paltry character they aim 
at2 not once recollecting that it is not

 only recorded in history1 but must have
 been the natural consequence of his    
superior fame1 that when ,demosthenes   
was to speak in public1 all ,greece     
flocked in crowds to hear him4 ,but when
 our ,attic gentry venture to speak1    
they are presently deserted not only by 
the little throng around them who have  
no interest in the dispute1 7which alone
 is a mortifying proof of their         
insignificance7 but even by their       
associates and fellow-advocates4 ,if to 
speak1 therefore1 in a dry and lifeless 
manner1 is the true criterion of        
,atticism1 they are heartily welcome to 
enjoy the credit of it3 but if they wish
 to put their abilities to the trial1   
let them attend the ,comitia1 or a      
judicial process of real importance4    
,the open ,forum demands a fuller1 and  
more elevated tone3 and he is the       
,orator for me1 who is so universally   
admired that when he is to plead an     
interesting cause1 all the benches are  
filled beforehand1 the tribunal crowded1

 the clerks and notaries busy in        
adjusting their seats1 the populace     
thronging about the rostra1 and the     
judge brisk1 and vigilant2--he1 who has 
such a commanding air1 that when he     
rises up to speak1 the whole audience is
 hushed into a profound silence1 which  
is soon interrupted by their repeated   
plaudits1 and acclamations1 or by those 
successive bursts of laughter1 or       
violent transports of passion1 which he 
knows how to excite at his pleasure2 so 
that even a distant observer1 though    
unacquainted with the subject he is     
speaking upon1 can easily discover that 
his hearers are pleased with him1 and   
that a ,roscius is performing his part  
on the stage4 ,whoever has the happiness
 to be thus followed and applauded is1  
beyond dispute1 an ,attic speaker3 for  
such was ,pericles1--such was           
,hyperides1 and ,aeschines1--and such1  
in the most eminent degree1 was the     
great ,demosthenes6 ,if indeed1 these   
connoisseurs1 who have so much dislike  

to every thing bold and ornamental1 only
 mean to say that an accurate1 a        
judicious1 and a neat1 and compact1 but 
unembellished style1 is really an ,attic
 one1 they are not mistaken4 ,for in an 
art of such wonderful extent and variety
 as that of speaking1 even this subtile 
and confined character may claim a      
place3 so that the conclusion will be1  
that it is very possible to speak in the
 ,attic taste1 without deserving the    
name of an ,orator2 but that all in     
general who are truly eloquent1 are     
likewise ,attic ,speakers4--,it is time1
 however1 to return to ,hortensius4--   
,indeed1 ,i think so1 cried ,brutus3    
though ,i must acknowledge that this    
long digression of yours has entertained
 me very agreeably4  ,but ,i made some  
remarks1 said ,atticus1 which ,i had    
several times a mind to mention2 only ,i
 was loath to interrupt you4 ,as your   
discourse1 however1 seems to be drawing 
towards an end1 ,i think ,i may venture 
to out with them4--,by all means1       

replied ,i4--,i readily grant1 then1    
said he1 that there is something very   
humourous and elegant in that continued 
,irony1 which ,socrates employs to so   
much advantage in the dialogues of      
,plato1 ,xenophon1 and ,aeschines4 ,for 
when a dispute commences on the nature  
of wisdom1 he professes1 with a great   
deal of humour and ingenuity1 to have no
 pretensions to it himself2 while1 with 
a kind of concealed raillery1 he        
ascribes the highest degree of it to    
those who had the arrogance to lay an   
open claim to it4 ,thus1 in ,plato1 he  
extols ,protagoras1 ,hippias1 ,prodicus1
 ,gorgias1 and several others1 to the   
skies3 but represents himself as a mere 
ignorant4 ,this in him was peculiarly   
becoming2 nor can ,i agree with         
,epicurus1 who thinks it censurable4    
,but in a professed ,history1 7for such1
 in fact1 is the account you have been  
giving us of the ,roman ,orators7 ,i    
shall leave you to judge1 whether an    
application of the ,irony is not equally

 reprehensible1 as it would be in giving
 a judicial evidence4--,pray1 what are  
you driving at1 said ,i1-- for ,i cannot
 comprehend you4--,i mean1 replied he1  
in the first place1 that the            
commendations which you have bestowed   
upon some of our ,orators1 have a       
tendency to mislead the opinion of those
 who are unacquainted with their true   
characters4 ,there were likewise several
 parts of your account1 at which ,i     
could scarcely forbear laughing3 as1 for
 instance1 when you compared old ,cato  
to ,lysias4 ,he was1 indeed1 a great1   
and a very extraordinary man4 ,nobody1  
,i believe1 will say to the contrary4   
,but shall we call him an ,orator8      
,shall we pronounce him the rival of    
,lysias1 who was the most finished      
character of the kind8 ,if we mean to   
jest1 this comparison of your's would   
form a pretty ,irony3 but if we are     
talking in real earnest1 we should pay  
the same scrupulous regard to truth1 as 
if we were giving evidence upon oath4   

,as a ,citizen1 a ,senator1 a ,general1 
and1 in short1 a man who was            
distinguished by his prudence1 his      
activity1 and every other virtue1 your  
favourite ,cato has my highest          
approbation4 ,i can likewise applaud his
 speeches1 considering the time he lived
 in4 ,they exhibit the out-lines of a   
great genius2 but such1 however1 as are 
evidently rude and imperfect4 ,in the   
same manner1 when you represented his   
,antiquities as replete with all the    
graces of ,oratory1 and compared ,cato  
with ,philistus and ,thucydides1 did you
 really imagine1 that you could persuade
 me and ,brutus to believe you8 or would
 you seriously degrade those1 whom none 
of the ,greeks themselves have been able
 to equal1 into a comparison with a     
stiff country1 gentleman1 who scarcely  
suspected that there was any such thing 
in being1 as a copious and ornamental   
style8 ,you have likewise said much in  
commendation of ,galba2--if as the best 
,speaker of his age1 ,i can so far agree

 with you1 for such was the character he
 bore3--but if you meant to recommend   
him as an ,orator1 produce his ,orations
 7for they are still extant7 and then   
tell me honestly1 whether you would wish
 your friend ,brutus here to speak as   
he8 ,lepidus too was the author of      
several ,speeches1 which have received  
your approbation2 in which ,i can partly
 join with you1 if you consider them    
only as specimens of our ancient        
,eloquence4 ,the same might be said of  
,africanus and ,laelius1 than whose     
language 7you tell us7 nothing in the   
world can be sweeter3 nay1 you have     
mentioned it with a kind of veneration1 
and endeavoured to dazzle our judgment  
by the great character they bore1 and   
the uncommon elegance of their manners4 
,divest it of these adventitious        
,graces1 and this sweet language of     
theirs will appear so homely1 as to be  
scarcely worth noticing4 ,carbo too was 
mentioned as one of our capital         
,orators2 and for this only             

reason1--that in speaking1 as in all    
other professions1 whatever is the best 
of its kind1 for the time being1 how    
deficient soever in reality1 is always  
admired and applauded4 ,what ,i have    
said of ,carbo1 is equally true of the  
,gracchi3 though1 in some particulars1  
the character you have given them was no
 more than they deserved4 ,but to say   
nothing of the rest of your ,orators1   
let us proceed to ,antonius and         
,crassus1 your two paragons of          
,eloquence1 whom ,i have heard myself1  
and who were certainly very able        
,speakers4 ,to the extraordinary        
commendation you have bestowed upon     
them1 ,i can readily give my assent2 but
 not1 however1 in such an unlimited     
manner as to persuade myself that you   
have received as much improvement from  
the ,speech in support of the ,servilian
 ,law1 as ,lysippus said he had done by 
studying the famous ,footnote3          
,doryphorus4 ,a ,spear- man4 statue of  
,polycletus4 ,what you have said on this

 occasion ,i consider as an absolute    
,irony3 but ,i shall not inform you why 
,i think so1 lest you should imagine ,i 
design to flatter you4 ,i shall         
therefore pass over the many fine       
encomiums you have bestowed upon these2 
and what you have said of ,cotta and    
,sulpicius1 and but very lately of your 
pupil ,caelius4 ,i acknowledge1 however1
 that we may call them ,orators3 but as 
to the nature and extent of their merit1
 let your own judgment decide4 ,it is   
scarcely worth observing1 that you have 
had the additional good-nature to crowd 
so many daubers into your list1 that    
there are some1 ,i believe1 who will be 
ready to wish they had died long ago1   
that you might have had an opportunity  
to insert their names among the         
rest4--,you have opened a wide field of 
enquiry1 said ,i1 and started a subject 
which deserves a separate discussion2   
but we must defer it to a more          
convenient time4 ,for1 to settle it1 a  
great variety of authors must be        

examined1 and especially ,cato3 which   
could not fail to convince you1 that    
nothing was wanting to complete his     
pieces1 but those rich and glowing      
colours which had not then been         
invented4 ,as to the above ,oration of  
,crassus1 he himself1 perhaps1 could    
have written better1 if he had been     
willing to take the trouble2 but nobody 
else1 ,i believe1 could have mended it4 
,you have no reason1 therefore1 to think
 ,i spoke ironically1 when ,i mentioned 
it as the guide and tutoress of my      
,eloquence3 for though you seem to have 
a higher opinion of my capacity1 in its 
present state1 you must remember that1  
in our youth1 we could find nothing     
better to imitate among the ,romans4    
,and as to my admitting so many into my 
list of ,orators1 ,i only did it 7as ,i 
have already observed7 to shew how few  
have succeeded in a profession1 in which
 all were desirous to excel4 ,i         
therefore insist upon it that you do not
 consider me in the present case1 as an 

,ironist2 though we are informed by ,c4 
,fannius1 in his ,history1 that         
,africanus was a very excellent         
one4--,as you please about that1 cried  
,atticus3 though1 by the bye1 ,i did not
 imagine it would have been any disgrace
 to you1 to be what ,africanus and      
,socrates have been before you4--,we may
 settle this another time1 interrupted  
,brutus3 but will you be so obliging1   
said he1 7addressing himself to me7 as  
to give us a critical analysis of some  
of the old speeches you have            
mentioned8--,very willingly1 replied ,i2
 but it must be at ,cuma1 or ,tusculum1 
when opportunity offers3 for we are near
 neighbours1 you know1 in both places4  
,at present1 let us return to           
,hortensius1 from whom we have digressed
 a second time4  ,hortensius1 then1 who 
began to speak in public when he was    
very young1 was soon employed even in   
causes of the greatest moment3 and      
though he first appeared in the time of 
,cotta and ,sulpicius1 7who were only   

ten years older7 and when ,crassus and  
,antonius1 and afterwards ,philip and   
,julius1 were in the height of their    
reputation1 he was thought worthy to be 
compared with either of them in point of
 ,eloquence4 ,he had such an excellent  
memory as ,i never knew in any person2  
so that what he had composed in private1
 he was able to repeat1 without notes1  
in the very same words he had made use  
of at first4 ,he employed this natural  
advantage with so much readiness1 that  
he not only recollected whatever he had 
written or premeditated himself1 but    
remembered every thing that had been    
said by his opponents1 without the help 
of a prompter4 ,he was likewise inflamed
 with such a passionate fondness for the
 profession1 that ,i never saw any one1 
who took more pains to improve himself2 
for he would not suffer a day to elapse1
 without either speaking in the ,forum1 
or composing something at home2 and very
 often he did both in the same day4 ,he 
had1 besides1 a turn of expression which

 was very far from being low and        
unelevated2 and possessed two other     
accomplishments1 in which no one could  
equal him1--an uncommon clearness and   
accuracy in stating the points he was to
 speak to2 and a neat and easy manner of
 collecting the substance of what had   
been said by his antagonist1 and by     
himself4 ,he had likewise an elegant    
choice of words1 an agreeable flow in   
his periods1 and a copious ,elocution1  
which he was partly indebted for to a   
fine natural capacity1 and partly       
acquired by the most laborious          
rhetorical exercises4 ,in short1 he had 
a most retentive view of his subject1   
and always divided and parcelled it out 
with the greatest exactness2 and he very
 seldom overlooked any thing which the  
case could suggest1 that was proper     
either to support his own allegations1  
or to refute those of his opponent4     
,lastly1 he had a sweet and sonorous    
voice2 and his gesture had rather more  
art in it1 and was more exactly managed1

 than is requisite to an ,orator4       
,while he was in the height of his      
glory1 ,crassus died1 ,cotta was        
banished1 our public trials were        
intermitted by the ,marsic war1 and ,i  
myself made my first appearance in the  
,forum4 ,hortensius joined the army1 and
 served the first campaign as a         
volunteer1 and the second as a military 
,tribune3 ,sulpicius was made a         
lieutenant general2 and ,antonius was   
absent on a similar account4 ,the only  
trial we had1 was that upon the ,varian 
,law2 the rest1 as ,i have just         
observed1 having been intermitted by the
 war4 ,we had scarcely any body left at 
the bar but ,l4 ,memmius1 and ,q4       
,pompeius1 who spoke mostly on their own
 affairs2 and1 though far from being    
,orators of the first distinction1 were 
yet tolerable ones1 7if we may credit   
,philippus1 who was himself a man of    
some ,eloquence7 and in supporting an   
evidence1 displayed all the poignancy of
 a prosecutor1 with a moderate freedom  

of ,elocution4 ,the rest1 who were      
esteemed our capital ,speakers1 were    
then in the magistracy1 and ,i had the  
benefit of hearing their harangues      
almost every day4 ,c4 ,curio was chosen 
a ,tribune of the people2 though he left
 off speaking after being once deserted 
by his whole audience4 ,to him ,i may   
add ,q4 ,metellus ,celer1 who1 though   
certainly no ,orator1 was far from being
 destitute of utterance3 but ,q4        
,varius1 ,c4 ,carbo1 and ,cn4           
,pomponius1 were men of real ,elocution1
 and might almost be said to have lived 
upon the ,rostra4 ,c4 ,julius too1 who  
was then a ,curule ,aedile1 was daily   
employed in making ,speeches to the     
people1 which were composed with great  
neatness and accuracy4 ,but while ,i    
attended the ,forum with this eager     
curiosity1 my first disappointment was  
the banishment of ,cotta3 after which ,i
 continued to hear the rest with the    
same assiduity as before2 and though ,i 
daily spent the remainder of my time in 

reading1 writing1 and private           
declamation1 ,i cannot say that ,i much 
relished my confinement to these        
preparatory exercises4 ,the next year   
,q4 ,varius was condemned1 and banished1
 by his own law3 and ,i1 that ,i might  
acquire a competent knowledge of the    
principles of jurisprudence1 then       
attached myself to ,q4 ,scaevola1 the   
son of ,publius1 who1 though he did not 
choose to undertake the charge of a     
pupil1 yet by freely giving his advice  
to those who consulted him1 he answered 
every purpose of instruction to such as 
took the trouble to apply to him4 ,in   
the succeeding year1 in which ,sylla and
 ,pompey were ,consuls1 as ,sulpicius1  
who was elected a ,tribune of the       
people1 had occasion to speak in public 
almost every day1 ,i had an opportunity 
to acquaint myself thoroughly with his  
manner of speaking4 ,at this time       
,philo1 a philosopher of the first name 
in the ,academy1 with many of the       
principal ,athenians1 having deserted   

their native home1 and fled to ,rome1   
from the fury of ,mithridates1 ,i       
immediately became his scholar1 and was 
exceedingly taken with his philosophy2  
and1 besides the1 pleasure ,i received  
from the great variety and sublimity of 
his matter1 ,i was still more inclined  
to confine1 my attention to that study2 
because there was reason to apprehend   
that our laws and judicial proceedings  
would be wholly overturned by the       
continuance of the public disorders4 ,in
 the same year ,sulpicius lost his life2
 and ,q4 ,catulus1 ,m4 ,antonius1 and   
,c4 ,julius1 three ,orators1 who were   
partly cotemporary with each other1 were
 most inhumanly put to death4 ,then also
 ,i attended the lectures of ,molo the  
,rhodian1 who was newly come to ,rome1  
and was both an excellent ,pleader1 and 
an able ,teacher of the ,art4 ,i have   
mentioned these particulars1 which1     
perhaps1 may appear foreign to our      
purpose1 that you1 my ,brutus1 7for     
,atticus is already acquainted with     

them7 may be able to mark my progress1  
and observe how closely ,i trod upon the
 heels of ,hortensius4  ,the three      
following years the city was free from  
the tumult of arms2 but either by the   
death1 the voluntary retirement1 or the 
flight of our ablest ,orators 7for even 
,m4 ,crassus1 and the two ,lentuli1 who 
were then in the bloom of youth1 had all
 left us7 ,hortensius1 of course1 was   
the first ,speaker in the ,forum4       
,antistius too was daily rising into    
reputation1-- ,piso pleaded pretty      
often1--,pomponius not so               
frequently1--,carbo very seldom1--and   
,philippus only once or twice4 ,in the  
mean while ,i pursued my studies of     
every kind1 day and night1 with         
unremitting application4 ,i lodged and  
boarded at my own house where he lately 
died ,diodotus the ,stoic2 whom ,i      
employed as my preceptor in various     
other parts of learning1 but            
particularly in ,logic1 which may be    
considered as a close and contracted    

species of ,eloquence2 and without      
which1 you yourself have declared it    
impossible to acquire that full and     
perfect ,eloquence1 which they suppose  
to be an open and dilated kind of       
,logic4 ,yet with all my attention to   
,diodotus1 and the various arts he was  
master of1 ,i never suffered even a     
single day to escape me1 without some   
exercise of the oratorial kind4 ,i      
constantly declaimed in private with ,m4
 ,piso1 ,q4 ,pompeius1 or some other of 
my acquaintance2 pretty often in ,latin1
 but much oftener in ,greek2 because the
 ,greek furnishes a greater variety of  
ornaments1 and an opportunity of        
imitating and introducing them into the 
,latin2 and because the ,greek masters1 
who were far the best1 could not correct
 and improve us1 unless we declaimed in 
that language4 ,this time was           
distinguished by a violent struggle to  
restore the liberty of the              
,republic3--the barbarous slaughter of  
the three ,orators1 ,scaevola1 ,carbo1  

and ,antistius2--the return of ,cotta1  
,curio1 ,crassus1 ,pompey1 and the      
,lentuli2--the re-establishment of the  
laws and courts of judicature2--and the 
intire restoration of the ,commonwealth3
 but we lost ,pomponius1 ,censorinus1   
and ,murena1 from the roll of ,orators4 
,i now began1 for the first time1 to    
undertake the management of causes1 both
 private and public2 not1 as most did1  
with a view to learn my profession1 but 
to make a trial of the abilities which  
,i had taken so much pains to acquire4  
,i had then a second opportunity of     
attending the instructions of ,molo2 who
 came to ,rome1 while ,sylla was        
,dictator1 to sollicit the payment of   
what was due to his countrymen1 for     
their services in the ,mithridatic war4 
,my defence of ,sext4 ,roscius1 which   
was the first cause ,i pleaded1 met with
 such a favourable reception1 that1 from
 that moment1 ,i was looked upon as an  
advocate of the first class1 and equal  
to the greatest and most important      

causes3 and after this ,i pleaded many  
others1 which ,i pre-composed with all  
the care and accuracy ,i was master of4 
,but as you seem desirous not so much to
 be acquainted with any incidental marks
 of my character1 or the first sallies  
of my youth1 as to know me thoroughly1  
,i shall mention some particulars1 which
 otherwise might have seemed            
unnecessary4 ,at this time my body was  
exceedingly weak and emaciated2 my neck 
long1 and slender2 a shape and habit1   
which ,i thought to be liable to great  
risk of life1 if engaged in any violent 
fatigue1 or labour of the lungs4 ,and it
 gave the greater alarm to those who had
 a regard for me1 that ,i used to speak 
without any remission or variation1 with
 the utmost stretch of my voice1 and a  
total agitation of my body4 ,when my    
friends1 therefore1 and physicians1     
advised me to meddle no more with       
forensic causes1 ,i resolved to run any 
hazard1 rather than quit the hopes of   
glory1 which ,i had proposed to myself  

from pleading3 but when ,i considered1  
that by managing my voice1 and changing 
my way of speaking1 ,i might both avoid 
all future danger of that kind1 and     
speak with greater ease1 ,i took a      
resolution of travelling into ,asia1    
merely for an opportunity to correct my 
manner of speaking4 ,so that after ,i   
had been two years at the ,bar1 and     
acquired some reputation in the ,forum1 
,i left ,rome4 ,when ,i came to ,athens1
 ,i spent six months with ,antiochus1   
the principal and most judicious        
,philosopher of the old ,academy2 and   
under this able master1 ,i renewed those
 philosophical studies which ,i had     
laboriously cultivated and improved from
 my earliest youth4 ,at the same time1  
however1 ,i continued my rhetorical     
,exercises under ,demetrius the ,syrian1
 an experienced and reputable master of 
the ,art of ,speaking4  ,after leaving  
,athens1 ,i traversed every part of     
,asia1 where ,i was voluntarily attended
 by the principal ,orators of the       

country with whom ,i renewed my         
rhetorical ,exercises4 ,the chief of    
them was ,menippus of ,stratonica1 the  
most eloquent of all the ,asiatics3 and 
if to be neither tedious nor impertinent
 is the characteristic of an ,attic     
,orator1 he may be justly ranked in that
 class4 ,dionysius also of ,magnesia1   
,aeschilus of ,cnidos1 and ,xenocles of 
,adramyttus1 who were esteemed the first
 ,rhetoricians of ,asia1 were           
continually with me4 ,not contented with
 these1 ,i went to ,rhodes1 and applied 
myself again to ,molo1 whom ,i had heard
 before at ,rome2 and who was both an   
experienced pleader1 and a fine writer1 
and particularly judicious in remarking 
the faults of his scholars1 as well as  
in his method of teaching and improving 
them4 ,his principal trouble with me1   
was to restrain the luxuriancy of a     
juvenile imagination1 always ready to   
overflow its banks1 within its due and  
proper channel4 ,thus1 after an         
excursion of two years1 ,i returned to  

,italy1 not only much improved1 but     
almost changed into a new man4 ,the     
vehemence of my voice and action was    
considerably abated2 the excessive      
ardour of my language was corrected2 my 
lungs were strengthened2 and my whole   
constitution confirmed and settled4     
,two ,orators then reigned in the       
,forum2 7,i mean ,cotta and ,hortensius7
 whose glory fired my emulation4        
,cotta's way of speaking was calm and   
easy1 and distinguished by the flowing  
elegance and propriety of his language4 
,the other was splendid1 warm1 and      
animated2 not such as you1 my ,brutus1  
have seen him when he had shed the      
blossom of his eloquence1 but far more  
lively and pathetic both in his style   
and action4 ,as ,hortensius1 therefore1 
was nearer to me in age1 and his manner 
more agreeable to the natural ardour of 
my temper1 ,i considered him as the     
proper object of my competition4 ,for ,i
 observed that when they were both      
engaged in the same cause1 7as for      

instance1 when they defended ,m4        
,canuleius1 and ,cn4 ,dolabella1 a man  
of consular dignity7 though ,cotta was  
generally employed to open the defence1 
the most important parts of it were left
 to the management of ,hortensius4 ,for 
a crowded audience1 and a clamorous     
,forum1 require an ,orator who is       
lively1 animated1 full of action1 and   
able to exert his voice to the highest  
pitch4 ,the first year1 therefore1 after
 my return from ,asia1 ,i undertook     
several capital causes2 and in the      
interim ,i put up as a candidate for the
 ,quaestorship1 ,cotta for the          
,consulate1 and ,hortensius for the     
,aedileship4 ,after ,i was chosen       
,quaestor1 ,i passed a year in ,sicily1 
the province assigned to me by lot3     
,cotta went as ,consul into ,gaul3 and  
,hortensius1 whose new office required  
his presence at ,rome1 was left of      
course the undisputed sovereign of the  
,forum4 ,in the succeeding year1 when ,i
 returned from ,sicily1 my oratorial    

talents1 such as they were1 displayed   
themselves in their full perfection and 
maturity4  ,i have been saying too much1
 perhaps1 concerning myself3 but my     
design in it was not to make a parade of
 my eloquence and ability1 which ,i have
 no temptation to do1 but only to       
specify the pains and labour which ,i   
have taken to improve it4 ,after        
spending the five succeeding years in   
pleading a variety of causes1 and with  
the ablest ,advocates of the time1 ,i   
was declared an ,aedile1 and undertook  
the patronage of the ,sicilians against 
,hortensius1 who was then one of the    
,consuls elect4 ,but as the subject of  
our conversation not only requires an   
historical detail of ,orators1 but such 
preceptive remarks as may be necessary  
to elucidate their characters2 it will  
not be improper to make some            
observations of this kind upon that of  
,hortensius4 ,after his appointment to  
the consulship 7very probably1 because  
he saw none of consular dignity who were

 able to rival him1 and despised the    
competition of others of inferior rank7 
he began to remit that intense          
application which he had hitherto       
persevered in from his childhood2 and   
having settled himself in very affluent 
circumstances1 he chose to live for the 
future what he thought an easy life1 but
 which1 in truth1 was rather an indolent
 one4 ,in the three succeeding years1   
the beauty of his colouring was so much 
impaired1 as to be very perceptible to a
 skilful connoisseur1 though not to a   
common observer4 ,after that1 he grew   
every day more unlike himself than      
before1 not only in other parts of      
,eloquence1 but by a gradual decay of   
the former celerity and elegant texture 
of his language4 ,i1 at the same time1  
spared no pains to improve and enlarge  
my talents1 such as they were1 by every 
exercise that was proper for the        
purpose1 but particularly by that of    
writing4 ,not to mention several other  
advantages ,i derived from it1 ,i shall 

only observe1 that about this time1 and 
but a very few years after my           
,aedileship1 ,i was declared the first  
,praetor1 by the unanimous suffrages of 
my fellow- citizens4 ,for1 by my        
diligence and assiduity as a ,pleader1  
and my accurate way of speaking1 which  
was rather superior to the ordinary     
style of the ,bar1 the novelty of my    
,eloquence had engaged the attention1   
and secured the good wishes of the      
public4 ,but ,i will say nothing of     
myself3 ,i will confine my discourse to 
our other ,speakers1 among whom there is
 not one who has gained more than a     
common acquaintance with those parts of 
literature1 which feed the springs of   
,eloquence3--not one who has been       
thoroughly nurtured at the breast of    
,philosophy1 which is the mother of     
every excellence either in deed or      
speech3--not one who has acquired an    
accurate knowledge of the ,civil ,law1  
which is so necessary for the management
 even of private causes1 and to direct  

the judgment of an ,orator3--not one who
 is a complete master of the ,roman     
,history1 which would enable us1 on many
 occasions1 to appeal to the venerable  
evidence of the dead3--not one who can  
entangle his opponent in such a neat and
 humourous manner1 as to relax the      
severity of the ,judges into a smile or 
an open laugh3--not one who knows how to
 dilate and expand his subject1 by      
reducing it from the limited            
considerations of time1 and person1 to  
some general and indefinite topic2--not 
one who knows how to enliven it by an   
agreeable digression3 not one who can   
rouse the indignation of the ,judge1 or 
extort from him the tear of             
compassion2--or who can influence and   
bend his soul 7which is confessedly the 
capital perfection of an ,orator7 in    
such a manner as shall best suit his    
purpose4  ,when ,hortensius1 therefore1 
the once eloquent and admired           
,hortensius1 had almost vanished from   
the ,forum1 my appointment to the       

,consulship1 which happened about six   
years after his own promotion to that   
office1 revived his dying emulation2 for
 he was unwilling that after ,i had     
equalled him in rank and dignity1 ,i    
should become his superior in any other 
respect4 ,but in the twelve succeeding  
years1 by a mutual deference to each    
other's abilities1 we united our efforts
 at the ,bar in the most amicable       
manner3 and my ,consulship1 which at    
first had given a short alarm to his    
jealousy1 afterward cemented our        
friendship1 by the generous candor with 
which he applauded my conduct4 ,but our 
emulous efforts were exerted in the most
 conspicuous manner1 just before the    
commencement of that unhappy period1    
when ,eloquence herself was confounded  
and terrified by the din of arms into a 
sudden and a total silence3 for after   
,pompey had proposed and carried a law1 
which allowed even the party accused but
 three hours to make his defence1 ,i    
appeared1 7though comparatively as a    

mere noviciate by this new regulation7  
in a number of causes which1 in fact1   
were become perfectly the same1 or very 
nearly so2 most of which1 my ,brutus1   
you was present to hear1 as having been 
my partner and fellow-advocate in many  
of them1 though you pleaded several by  
yourself2 and ,hortensius1 though he    
died a short time afterwards1 bore his  
share in these limited efforts4 ,he     
began to plead about ten years before   
the time of your birth2 and in his      
sixty-fourth year1 but a very few days  
before his death1 he was engaged with   
you in the defence of ,appius1 your     
father-in-law4 ,as to our respective    
talents1 the ,orations we have published
 will enable posterity to form a proper 
judgment of them4 ,but if we mean to    
inquire1 why ,hortensius was more       
admired for his ,eloquence in the       
younger part of his life1 than in his   
latter years1 we shall find it owing to 
the following causes4 ,the first was1   
that an ,asiatic style is more allowable

 in a young man than in an old one4 ,of 
this there are two different kinds4     
,the former is sententious and          
sprightly1 and abounds in those turns of
 sentiment which are not so much        
distinguished by their weight and       
solidity as by their neatness and       
elegance2 of this cast was ,timaeus the 
,historian1 and the two ,orators so much
 talked of in our younger days1         
,hierocles the ,alabandean1 and his     
brother ,menecles1 but particularly the 
latter2 both whose ,orations may be     
reckoned master-pieces of the kind4 ,the
 other sort is not so remarkable for the
 plenty and richness of its sentiments1 
as for its rapid volubility of          
expression1 which at present is the     
ruling taste in ,asia2 but1 besides it's
 uncommon fluency1 it is recommended by 
a choice of words which are peculiarly  
delicate and ornamental3--of this kind  
were ,aeschylus the ,cnidian1 and my    
cotemporary ,aeschines the ,milesian2   
for they had an admirable command of    

language1 with very little elegance of  
sentiment4 ,these showy kinds of        
eloquence are agreeable enough in young 
people2 but they are entirely destitute 
of that gravity and composure which     
befits a riper age4 ,as ,hortensius     
therefore excelled in both1 he was heard
 with applause in the earlier part of   
his life4 ,for he had all that fertility
 and graceful variety of sentiment which
 distinguished the character of         
,menecles3 but1 as in ,menecles1 so in  
him1 there were many turns of sentiment 
which were more delicate and            
entertaining than really useful1 or     
indeed sometimes convenient4 ,his       
language also was brilliant and rapid1  
and yet perfectly neat and accurate2 but
 by no means agreeable to men of riper  
years4 ,i have often seen it received by
 ,philippus with the utmost derision1   
and1 upon some occasions1 with a        
contemptuous indignation3 but the       
younger part of the audience admired it1
 and the populace were highly pleased   

with it4 ,in his youth1 therefore1 he   
met the warmest approbation of the      
public1 and maintained his post with    
ease as the first ,orator in the ,forum4
 ,for the style he chose to speak in1   
though it has little weight1 or         
authority1 appeared very suitable to his
 age3 and as it discovered in him the   
most visible marks of genius and        
application1 and was recommended by the 
numerous cadence of his periods1 he was 
heard with universal applause4 ,but when
 the honours he afterwards rose to1 and 
the dignity of his years required       
something more serious and composed1 he 
still continued to appear in the same   
character1 though it no longer became   
him3 and as he had1 for some            
considerable time1 intermitted those    
exercises1 and relaxed that laborious   
attention which had once distinguished  
him1 though his former neatness of      
expression1 and luxuriancy of sentiment 
still remained1 they were stripped of   
those brilliant ornaments they had been 

used to wear4 ,for this reason1 perhaps1
 my ,brutus1 he appeared less pleasing  
to you than he would have done1 if you  
had been old enough to hear him1 when he
 was fired with emulation and flourished
 in the full bloom of his ,eloquence4   
,i am perfectly sensible1 said ,brutus1 
of the justice of your remarks2 and yet 
,i have always looked upon ,hortensius  
as a great ,orator1 but especially when 
he pleaded for ,messala1 in the time of 
your absence4--,i have often heard of   
it1 replied ,i1 and his ,oration1 which 
was afterwards published1 they say1 in  
the very same words in which he         
delivered it1 is no way inferior to the 
character you give it4 ,upon the whole1 
then1 his reputation flourished from the
 time of ,crassus and ,scaevola         
7reckoning from the ,consulship of the  
former7 to the ,consulship of ,paullus  
and ,marcellus3 and ,i held out in the  
same career of glory from the           
,dictatorship of ,sylla1 to the period  
,i have last1 mentioned4 ,thus the      

,eloquence of ,hortensius was           
extinguished by his own death1 and mine 
by that of the ,commonwealth4--,ominate 
more favourably1 ,i beg of you1 cried   
,brutus4--,as favourably as you please1 
said ,i1 and that not so much upon my   
own account1 as your's4 ,but his death  
was truly fortunate1 who did not live to
 behold the miseries1 which he had long 
foreseen4 ,for we often lamented1       
between ourselves1 the misfortunes which
 hung over the ,state1 when we          
discovered the seeds of a civil war in  
the insatiable ambition of a few private
 ,citizens1 and saw every hope of an    
accommodation excluded by the rashness  
and precipitancy of our public counsels4
 ,but the felicity which always marked  
his life1 seems to have exempted him1 by
 a seasonable death1 from the calamities
 that followed4 ,but1 as after the      
decease of ,hortensius1 we seem to have 
been left1 my ,brutus1 as the sole      
guardians of an orphan ,eloquence1 let  
us cherish her1 within our own walls at 

least1 with a generous fidelity3 let us 
discourage the addresses of her         
worthless1 and impertinent suitors2 let 
us preserve her pure and unblemished in 
all her virgin charms1 and secure her1  
to the utmost of our ability1 from the  
lawless violence of every armed ruffian4
 ,i must own1 however1 though ,i am     
heartily grieved that ,i entered so late
 upon the road of life1 as to be        
overtaken by a gloomy night of public   
distress1 before ,i had finished my     
journey2 that ,i am not a little        
relieved by the tender consolation which
 you administered to me in your very    
agreeable letters2-- in which you tell  
me ,i ought to recollect my courage1    
since my past transactions are such as  
will speak for me when ,i am silent1 and
 survive my death1--and such as1 if the 
,gods permit1 will bear an ample        
testimony to the prudence and integrity 
of my public counsels1 by the final     
restoration of the ,republic3--or1 if   
otherwise1 by burying me in the ruins of

 my country4 ,but when ,i look upon you1
 my ,brutus1 it fills me with anguish to
 reflect that1 in the vigour of your    
youth1 and when you was making the most 
rapid progress in the road to fame1 your
 career was suddenly stopped by the     
fatal overthrow of the ,commonwealth4   
,this unhappy circumstance has stung me 
to the heart2 and not me only2 but my   
worthy friend here1 who has the same    
affection for you1 and the same esteem  
for your merit which ,i have4 ,we have  
the warmest wishes for your happiness1  
and heartily pray that you may reap the 
rewards of your excellent virtues1 and  
live to find a ,republic in which you   
will be able1 not only to revive1 but   
even to add to the fame of your         
illustrious ancestors4 ,for the ,forum  
was your birth-right1 your native       
theatre of action2 and you was the only 
person that entered it1 who had not only
 formed his ,elocution by a rigorous    
course of private practice1 but enriched
 his ,oratory with the furniture of     

philosophical ,science1 and thus united 
the highest virtue to the most          
consummate ,eloquence4 ,your situation1 
therefore1 wounds us with the double    
anxiety1 that you are deprived of the   
,republic1 and the ,republic of you4    
,but still continue1 my ,brutus1        
7notwithstanding the career of your     
genius has been checked by the rude     
shock of our public distresses7 continue
 to pursue your favourite studies1 and  
endeavour 7what you have almost1 or     
rather intirely effected already7 to    
distinguish yourself from the           
promiscuous crowd of ,pleaders with     
which ,i have loaded the little history 
,i have been giving you4 ,for it would  
ill befit you1 7richly furnished as you 
are with those liberal ,arts1 which1    
unable to acquire at home1 you imported 
from that celebrated city which has     
always been revered as the seat of      
learning7 to pass after all as an       
ordinary ,pleader4 ,for to what purposes
 have you studied under ,pammenes1 the  

most eloquent man in ,greece2 or what   
advantage have you derived from the     
discipline of the old ,academy1 and it's
 hereditary master ,aristus 7my guest1  
and very intimate acquaintance7 if you  
still rank yourself in the common class 
of ,orators8 ,have we not seen that a   
whole age could scarcely furnish two    
,speakers who really excelled in their  
profession8 ,among a crowd of           
cotemporaries1 ,galba1 for instance1 was
 the only ,orator of distinction3 for   
old ,cato 7we are informed7 was obliged 
to yield to his superior merit1 as were 
likewise his two juniors ,lepidus1 and  
,carbo4 ,but1 in a public ,harangue1 the
 style of his successors the ,gracchi   
was far more easy and lively3 and yet1  
even in their time1 the ,roman          
,eloquence had not reached its          
perfection4 ,afterwards came ,antonius1 
and ,crassus2 and then ,cotta1          
,sulpicius1 ,hortensius1 and--but ,i say
 no more3 ,i can only add1 that if ,i   
had been so fortunate1 c1 c1--,caetera  

defunt4     ,,the ,,orator1 ,,by        
,,marcus ,,tullius ,,cicero2 ,,addressed
 ,,to ,,marcus ,,brutus2 ,and now first 
translated from the ,original ,latin4   
,song charms the ,sense1 but ,eloquence 
the ,soul4                              
,,milton4     ,,the ,,orator4   ,which1 
my ,brutus1 would be the most difficult 
talk1--to decline answering a request   
which you have so often repeated1 or to 
gratify it to your satisfaction1--,i    
have long been at a loss to determine4  
,i should be extremely sorry to deny any
 thing to a friend for whom ,i have the 
warmest esteem1 and who1 ,i am sensible1
 has an equal affection for me2--       
especially1 as he has only desired me to
 undertake a subject which may justly   
claim my attention4 ,but to delineate a 
character1 which it would be very       
difficult1 ,i will not say to acquire1  
but even to comprehend in its full      
extent1 ,i thought was too bold an      
undertaking for him who reveres the     
censure of the wife and learned4 ,for   

considering the great diversity of      
manner among the ablest ,speakers1 how  
exceedingly difficult must it be to     
determine which is best1 and give a     
finished model of ,eloquence8 ,this1    
however1 in compliance with your        
repeated solicitations1 ,i shall now    
attempt2--not so much from any hopes of 
succeeding1 as from a strong inclination
 to make the trial4 ,for ,i had rather1 
by yielding to your wishes1 give you    
room to complain of my insufficiency2   
than1 by a peremptory denial1 tempt you 
to question my friendship4  ,you desire 
to know1 then1 7and you have often      
repeated your request7 what kind of     
,eloquence ,i most approve1 and can look
 upon to be so highly finished1 as to   
require no farther improvement4 ,but    
should ,i be able to answer your        
expectations1 and display1 in his full  
perfection1 the ,orator you enquire     
after2 ,i am afraid ,i shall retard the 
industry of many1 who1 enfeebled by     
despair1 will no longer attempt what    

they think themselves incapable of      
attaining4 ,it is but reasonable1       
however1 that all those who covet what  
is excellent1 and which cannot be       
acquired without the greatest           
application1 should exert their utmost4 
,but if any one is deficient in         
capacity1 and destitute of that         
admirable force of genius which ,nature 
bestows upon her favourites1 or has been
 denied the advantages of a liberal     
education1 let him make the progress he 
is able4 ,for while we are driving to   
overtake the foremost1 it is no disgrace
 to be found among the second class1 or 
even the third4 ,thus1 for instance1    
among the poets1 we respect the merit   
not only of a ,homer 7that ,i may       
confine myself to the ,greeks7 or of    
,archilochus1 ,sophocles1 or ,pindar1   
but of many others who occupied the     
second1 or even a lower place4 ,in      
,philosophy also the diffusive majesty  
of ,plato has not deterred ,aristotle   
from entering the list2 nor has         

,aristotle himself1 with all his        
wonderful knowledge and fertility of    
thought1 disheartened the endeavours of 
others4 ,nay1 men of an elevated genius 
have not only disdained to be           
intimidated from the pursuit of literary
 fame2--but the very artists and        
mechanics have never relinquished their 
profession1 because they were unable to 
equal the beauty of that ,iasylus which 
we have seen at ,rhodes1 or of the      
celebrated ,venus in the island of      
,coos3--nor has the noble image of      
,olympian ,jove1 or the famous statue of
 the ,man at ,arms1 deterred others from
 making trial of their abilities1 and   
exerting their skill to the utmost4     
,accordingly1 such a large number of    
them has appeared1 and each has         
performed so well in his own way1 that  
we cannot help being pleased with their 
productions1 notwithstanding our        
admiration at the nobler efforts of the 
great masters of the chissel4  ,but     
among the ,orators1 ,i mean those of    

,greece1 it is astonishing how much one 
of them has surpassed the rest3--and    
yet1 though there was a ,demosthenes1   
there were even then many other ,orators
 of considerable merit2--and such there 
were before he made his appearance1 nor 
have they been wanting since4 ,there is1
 therefore1 no reason why those who have
 devoted themselves to the study of     
,eloquence1 should suffer their hopes to
 languish1 or their industry to flag4   
,for1 in the first place1 even that     
which is most excellent is not to be    
despaired of2--and1 in all worthy       
attempts1 that which is next to what is 
best is great and noble4  ,but in       
sketching out the character of a        
compleat ,orator1 it is possible ,i may 
exhibit such a one as hath never yet    
existed4 ,for ,i am not to point out the
 ,speaker1 but to delineate the         
,eloquence than which nothing can be    
more perfect of the kind3--an ,eloquence
 which hath blazed forth through a whole
 ,harangue but seldom1 and1 it may be1  

never2 but only here and there like a   
transient gleam1 though in some ,orators
 more frequently1 and in others1        
perhaps1 more sparingly4  ,my opinion1  
then1 is1--that there is no human       
production of any kind1 so compleatly   
beautiful1 than which there is not a    
something still more beautiful1 from    
which the other is copied like a        
portrait from real life1 and which can  
be discerned neither by our eyes nor    
ears1 nor any of our bodily senses1 but 
is visible only to thought and          
imagination4 ,though the statues1       
therefore1 of ,phidias1 and the other   
images above-mentioned1 are all so      
wonderfully charming1 that nothing can  
be found which is more excellent of the 
kind2 we may still1 however1 suppose a  
something which is more exquisite1 and  
more compleat4 ,for it must not be      
thought that the ingenious artist1 when 
he was sketching out the form of a      
,jupiter1 or a ,minerva1 borrowed the   
likeness from any particular            

object2--but a certain admirable        
semblance of beauty was present to his  
mind1 which he viewed and dwelt upon1   
and by which his skill and his hand were
 guided4 ,as1 therefore1 in mere bodily 
shape and figure there is a kind of     
perfection1 to whose ideal appearance   
every production which falls under the  
notice of the eye is referred by        
imitation2 so the semblance of what is  
perfect in ,oratory may become visible  
to the mind1 and the ear may labour to  
catch a likeness4 ,these primary forms  
of thing are by ,plato 7the father of   
science and good language7 called       
,ideas2 and he tells us they have       
neither beginning nor end1 but are      
co-eval with reason and intelligence2   
while every thing besides has a derived1
 and a transitory existence1 and passes 
away and decays1 so as to cease in a    
short time to be the thing it was4      
,whatever1 therefore1 may be discussed  
by reason and method1 should be         
constantly reduced to the primary form  

or semblance of it's respective genus4  
,i am sensible that this introduction1  
as being derived not from the principles
 of ,eloquence1 but from the deepest    
recesses of ,philosophy1 will excite the
 censure1 or at least the wonder of     
many1 who will think it both            
unfashionable and intricate4 ,for they  
will either be at a loss to discover    
it's connection with my subject1 7though
 they will soon be convinced by what    
follows1 that1 if it appears to be      
far-fetched1 it is not so without       
reason27--or they will blame me1        
perhaps1 for deserting the beaten track1
 and striking out into a new one4 ,but  
,i am satisfied that ,i often appear to 
advance novelties1 when ,i offer        
sentiments which are1 indeed1 of a much 
earlier date1 but happen to be generally
 unknown3 and ,i frankly acknowledge    
that ,i came forth an ,orator1 7if      
indeed ,i am one1 or whatever else ,i   
may be deemed7 not from the school of   
the ,rhetoricians1 but from the spacious

 walks of the ,academy4 ,for these are  
the theatres of diversified and         
extensive arguments which were first    
impressed with the foot-steps of ,plato2
 and his ,dissertations1 with those of  
other ,philosophers1 will be found of   
the greatest utility to an ,orator1 both
 for his exercise and improvement2      
because all the fertility1 and1 as it   
were1 the materials of ,eloquence1 are  
to be derived from thence2--but not1    
however1 sufficiently prepared for the  
business of the ,forum1 which1 as       
themselves have frequently boasted1 they
 abandoned to the rustic ,muses of the  
vulgar6 ,thus the ,eloquence of the     
,forum1 despised and rejected by the    
,philosophers1 was bereaved of her      
greatest advantages3--but1 nevertheless1
 being arrayed in all the brilliance of 
language and sentiment1 she made a      
figure among the populace1 nor feared   
the censure of the judicious few4 ,by   
this means1 the learned became destitute
 of a popular ,eloquence1 and the       

,orators of polite learning4  ,we may1  
therefore1 consider it as a capital     
maxim1 7the truth of which will be more 
easily understood in the sequel7 that   
the eloquent ,speaker we are enquiring  
after1 cannot be formed without the     
assistance of ,philosophy4 ,i do not    
mean that this alone is sufficient2 but 
only 7for it is sometimes necessary to  
compare great things to small7 that it  
will contribute to improve him in the   
same manner as the ,palaestra ,footnote3
 ,the ,palaestra was a place set apart  
for public exercises1 such as wrestling1
 running1 fencing1 c4 the frequent      
performance of which contributed much to
 a graceful carriage of the body1 which 
is a necessary accomplishment in a good 
,actor4 does an ,actor2 because without 
,philosophy1 no man can speak fully and 
copiously upon a variety of important   
subjects which come under the notice of 
an ,orator4 ,accordingly1 in the        
,phaedrus of ,plato1 it is observed by  
,socrates that the great ,pericles      

excelled all the ,speakers of his time1 
because he had been a hearer of         
,anaxagoras the ,naturalist1 from whom  
he supposes that he not only borrowed   
many excellent and sublime ideas1 but a 
certain richness and fertility of       
language1 and 7what in ,eloquence is of 
the utmost consequence7 the various arts
 either of soothing or alarming each    
particular passion4 ,the same might be  
said of ,demosthenes1 whose letters will
 satisfy us1 how assiduously he attended
 the ,lectures of ,plato4 ,for without  
the instruction of ,philosophy1 we can  
neither discover what is the ,genus or  
the ,species to which any thing belongs1
 nor explain the nature of it by a just 
definition1 or an accurate analysis of  
its parts2-- nor can we distinguish     
between what is true and false1 or      
foresee the consequences1 point out the 
inconsistencies1 and dissolve the       
ambiguities which may lie in the case   
before us4 ,but as to ,natural          
,philosophy 7the knowledge of which will

 supply us with the richest treasures of
 ,elocution27--and as to life1 and it's 
various duties1 and the great principles
 of morality1--what is it possible      
either to express or understand aright1 
without a large acquaintance with these8
 ,to such various and important         
accomplishments we must add the         
innumerable ornaments of language1      
which1 at the time above mentioned1 were
 the only weapons which the ,masters of 
,rhetoric could furnish4 ,this is the   
reason why that genuine1 and perfect    
,eloquence we are speaking of1 has been 
yet attained by no one2 because the ,art
 of ,reasoning has been supposed to be  
one thing1 and that of ,speaking        
another2 and we have had recourse to    
different ,instructors for the knowledge
 of things and words4  ,antonius1       
,footnote3 ,a celebrated ,orator1 and   
grandfather to ,m4 ,antonius ,the       
,triumvir4 therefore1 to whom our       
ancestors adjudged the palm of          
,eloquence1 and who had much natural    

penetration and sagacity1 has observed  
in the only book he published1 that he  
had seen many good ,speakers1 but not a 
single ,orator4 ,the full and perfect   
semblance of ,eloquence had so          
thoroughly possessed his mind1 and was  
so completely visible there1 though no  
where exemplified in practice1 that this
 consummate ,genius1 7for such1 indeed1 
he was7 observing many defects in both  
himself and others1 could discover no   
one who merited the name of eloquent4   
,but if he considered neither himself1  
nor ,lucius ,crassus1 as a genuine      
,orator1 he must have formed in his mind
 a sublime idea of ,eloquence1 under    
which1 because there was nothing wanting
 to compleat it1 he could not comprehend
 those ,speakers who were any ways      
deficient4 ,let us then1 my ,brutus1 7if
 we are able7 trace out the ,orator whom
 ,antonius never saw1 and who1 it may   
be1 has never yet existed2 for though we
 have not the skill to copy his likeness
 in real practice1 7a talk which1 in the

 opinion of the person above- mentioned1
 would be almost too arduous for one of 
the ,gods17 we may be able1 perhaps1 to 
give some account of what he ought to   
be4  ,good ,speaking1 then1 may be      
divided into three characters1 in each  
of which there are some who have made an
 eminent figure3 but to be equally      
excellent in all 7which is what we      
require7 has been the happiness of few4 
,the lofty and majestic ,speaker1 who   
distinguishes himself by the energy of  
his sentiments1 and the dignity of his  
expression1 is                          
impetuous1--diversified1--copious1--and 
weighty1--and abundantly qualified to   
alarm and sway the passions2--which some
 effect by a harsh1 and a rough1 gloomy 
way of speaking1 without any harmony or 
measure2 and others1 by a smooth1 a     
regular1 and a well-proportioned style4 
,on the other hand1 the simple and easy 
,speaker is remarkably dexterous and    
keen1 and aiming at nothing but our     
information1 makes every thing he       

discourses upon1 rather clear and open  
than great and striking1 and polishes it
 with the utmost neatness and accuracy4 
,but some of this kind of ,speakers1 who
 are distinguished by their peculiar    
artificie1 are designedly unpolished1   
and appear rude and unskilful1 that they
 may have the better opportunity of     
deceiving us3--while others1 with the   
same poverty of style1 are far more     
elegant and agreeable1--that is1 they   
are pleasant and facetious1 and         
sometimes even florid1 with here and    
there an easy ornament4  ,but there is  
likewise a middle kind of ,oratory1     
between the two above- mentioned1 which 
neither has the keenness of the latter1 
nor hurls the thunder of the former2 but
 is a mixture of both1 without excelling
 in either1 though at the same time it  
has something of each1 or 7perhaps1 more
 properly7 is equally destitute of the  
true merit of both4 ,this species of    
,eloquence flows along in a uniform     
course1 having nothing to recommend it1 

but it's peculiar smoothness and        
equability2 though at the same time1 it 
intermingles a number of decorations1   
like the tufts of flowers in a garland1 
and embellishes a discourse from        
beginning to end with the moderate and  
less striking ornaments of language and 
sentiment4  ,those who have attained to 
any degree of perfection in either of   
the above characters1 have been         
distinguished as eminent ,orators3 but  
the question is whether any of them have
 compassed what we are seeking after1   
and succeeded equally in all4 ,for there
 have been several who could speak      
nervously and pompously1 and yet1 upon  
occasion1 could express themselves with 
the greates address1 and simplicity4 ,i 
wish ,i could refer to such an ,orator1 
or at least to one who nearly resembles 
him1 among the ,romans2 for it would    
certainly have been more to our credit  
to be able to refer to proper examples  
of our own1 and not be necessitated to  
have recourse to the ,greeks4 ,but      

though in another treatis of mine1 which
 bears the name of ,brutus1 ,footnote3  
,a very excellent ,treatise in the form 
of a ,dialogue4 ,it contains a critical 
and very instructive account of all the 
noted ,orators of ,greece and ,rome and 
might be called1 with great propriety1  
the ,history of ,eloquence4 ,though it  
is perhaps the most entertaining of all 
,cicero's performances1 the ,public have
 never been obliged before with a       
translation of it into ,english2 which1 
,i hope1 will sufficiently plead my     
excuse for preforming to undertake it4  
,i have said much in favour of the      
,romans1 partly to excite their         
emulation1 and1 in some measure1 from a 
partial fondness for my country2 yet ,i 
must always remember to give the        
preference to ,demosthenes1 who alone   
has adapted his genius to that perfect  
species of ,eloquence of which ,i can   
readily form an idea1 but which ,i have 
never yet seen exemplified in practice4 
,than him1 there has never hitherto     

existed a more nervous1 and at the same 
time1 a more subtle ,speaker1 or one    
more cool and temperate4 ,i must1       
therefore1 caution those whose ignorant 
discourse is become so common1 and who  
wish to pass for ,attic ,speakers1 or at
 least to express themselves in the     
,attic taste1 --,i must caution them to 
take him for their pattern1 than whom it
 is impossible that ,athens herself     
should be more completely ,attic3 and1  
as to genuine ,atticism1 that them learn
 what it means1 and measure the force of
 ,eloquence1 not by their own weakness  
and incapacity1 but by his wonderful    
energy and strength4 ,for1 at present1 a
 person bestows his commendation upon   
just so much as he thinks himself       
capable of imitating4 ,i therefore      
flatter myself that it will not be      
foreign to my purpose1 to instruct those
 who have a laudable emulation1 but are 
not thoroughly settled in their         
judgment1 wherein the merit of an ,attic
 ,orator consists4  ,the taste of the   

,audience1 then1 has always governed and
 directed the ,eloquence of the         
,speaker3 for all who wish to be        
applauded1 consult the character1 and   
the inclinations of those who hear them1
 and carefully form and accommodate     
themselves to their particular humours  
and dispositions4 ,thus in ,caria1      
,phrygia1 and ,mysia1 because the       
inhabitants have no relish for true     
elegance and politeness1 the ,orators   
have adopted 7as most agreeable to the  
ears of their audience7 a luxuriant1    
and1 if ,i may so express myself1 a     
corpulent style2 which their neighbours 
the ,rhodians1 who are only parted from 
them by a narrow straight1 have never   
approved1 and much less the ,greeks2 but
 the ,athenians have entirely banished  
it2 for their taste has always been so  
just and accurate that they could not   
listen to any thing but what was        
perfectly correct and elegant4 ,an      
,orator1 therefore1 to compliment their 
delicacy1 was forced to be always upon  

his guard against a faulty or a         
distasteful expression4  ,accordingly1  
he1 whom we have just mentioned as      
surpassing the rest1 has been careful in
 his ,oration for ,ctesiphon1 7which is 
the best he ever composed7 to set out   
very cooly and modestly3 when he        
proceeds to argue the point of law1 he  
grows more poignant and pressing2 and as
 he advances in his defence1 he takes   
still greater liberties2 till1 at last1 
having warmed the passions of his       
,judges1 he exults at his pleasure      
through the reamining part of his       
discourse4 ,but even in him1 thus       
carefully weighing and poising his every
 word ,aeschines ,footnote3 ,aeschines  
was a cotemporary1 and a professed rival
 of ,demosthenes4 ,he carried his       
animosity so far as to commence a       
litigious suit against him1 at a time   
when the reputation of the latter was at
 the lowest ebb4 ,but being overpowered 
by the ,eloquence of ,demosthenes1 he   
was condemned to perpetual banishment4  

could find several expressions to turn  
into ridicule3--for giving a loose to   
his raillery1 he calls them harsh1 and  
detestable1 and too shocking to be      
endured2 and styling the author of them 
a very monster1 he tauntingly asks him  
whether such expressions could be       
considered as words or not rather as    
absolute frights and prodigies4 ,so that
 to ,a,eschines not even ,demosthenes   
himself was perfectly ,attic2 for it is 
an easy matter to catch a glowing       
expression1 7if ,i may be allowed to    
call it so7 and expose it to ridicule   
when the fire of attention is           
extinguished4 ,demosthenes1 therefore1  
when he endeavours to excuse himself1   
condescends to jest1 and denies that the
 fortune of ,greece was in the least    
affected by the singularity of a        
particular expression1 or by his moving 
his hand either this way or that4  ,with
 what patience1 then1 would a ,mysian or
 a ,phrygian have been heard at ,athens1
 when even ,demosthenes himself was     

reproached as a nuisance8 ,but should   
the former have begun his whining       
sing-song1 after the manner of the      
,asiatics1 who would have endured it8 or
 rather1 who would not have ordered him 
to be instantly torn from the ,rostrum8 
,those1 therefore1 who can accommodate  
themselves to the nice and critical ears
 of an ,athenian audience1 are the only 
persons who should pretend to ,atticism4
  ,but though ,atticism may be divided  
into several kinds1 these mimic         
,athenians suspect but one4 ,they       
imagine that to discourse plainly1 and  
without any ornament1 provided it be    
done correctly1 and clearly1 is the only
 genuine ,atticism4 ,in confining it to 
this alone1 they are certainly mistaken2
 though when they tell us that this is  
really ,attic1 they are so far in the   
right4 ,for if the only true ,atticism  
is what they suppose to be1 not even    
,pericles was an ,attic ,speaker1 though
 he was universally allowed to bear away
 the palm of ,eloquence2 nor1 if he had 

wholly attached himself to this plain   
and simple kind of language1 would he   
ever have been said by the ,poet        
,aristophanes to thunder and lighten1   
and throw all ,greece into a ferment4   
,be it allowed1 then1 that ,lysias1 that
 graceful and most polite of ,speakers1 
was truly ,attic3 for who can deny it8  
,but let it also be remembered that     
,lysias claims the merit of ,atticism1  
not so much for his simplicity and want 
of ornament1 as because he has nothing  
which is either faulty or impertinent4  
,but to speak floridly1 nervously1 and  
copiously1 this also is true            
,atticism3--otherwise1 neither          
,aeschines nor even ,demosthenes himself
 were ,attic ,speakers4  ,there are     
others who affect to be called          
,thucydideans1--a strange and novel race
 of ,triflers6 ,for those who attach    
themselves to ,lysias1 have a real      
,pleader for their pattern2--not indeed 
a stately1 and striking ,pleader1 but   
yet a dextrous and very elegant one1 who

 might appear in the ,forum with        
reputation4  ,thucydides1 on the        
contrary1 is a mere ,historian1 who     
7'tis true7 describes wars1 and battles 
with great dignity and precision2 but he
 can supply us with nothing which is    
proper for the ,forum4 ,for his very    
speeches have so many obscure and       
intricate periods1 that they are        
scarcely intelligible2 which in a public
 discourse is the greatest fault of     
which an ,orator can be guilty4 ,but    
who1 when the use of corn has been      
discovered1 would be so mad as to feed  
upon acorns8 ,or could the ,athenians   
improve their diet1 and bodily food1 and
 be incapable of cultivating their      
language8 ,or1 lastly1 which of the     
,greek ,orators has copied the style of 
,thucydides8 ,footnote3 ,demosthenes    
indeed took the pains to transcribe the 
,history of ,thucydides several times4  
,but he did this1 no so much to copy the
 form as the energy of his language4    
,true1 they reply1 but ,thucydides was  

universally admired4 ,and so1 indeed1 he
 was2 but only as a sensible1 an exact1 
and a grave ,historian2--not for his    
address in public debates1 but for his  
excellence in describing wars and       
battles4 ,accordingly1 he was never     
mentioned as an ,orator2 nor would his  
name have been known to posterity1 if he
 had not composed his ,history1         
notwithstanding the dignity of his      
birth1 and the honourable share he held 
in the ,government4 ,but none of these  
,pretenders have copied his energy2 and 
yet when they have uttered a few        
mutilated and broken periods 7which they
 might easily have done without a master
 to imitate7 we must rever them1 truly1 
as so many genuine ,thucydideses4 ,i    
have likewise met with a few who were   
professed imitators of ,xenophon2 whose 
language1 indeed1 is sweeter than honey1
 but totally unqualified to withstand   
the clamours of the ,forum4  ,let us    
return then to the ,orator we are       
seeking after1 and furnish him with     

those powers of ,elocution1 which       
,antonius could not discover in any one3
 an arduous task1 my ,brutus1 and full  
of difficulty3--yet nothing1 ,i believe1
 is impossible to him whose breast is   
fired with the generous flame of        
friendship6 ,but ,i affectionately      
admire 7and have always admired7 your   
genius1 your inclinations1 and your     
manners4 ,nay1 ,i am daily more inflamed
 and ravished1 not only with a desire   
7which1 ,i assure you1 is a violent one7
 to renew our friendly intercourses1 our
 social repasts1 and your improving     
conversation1 but by the wonderful fame 
of your incredible virtues1 which1      
though different in kind1 are readily   
united by your superior wisdom and      
good-sense4 ,for what is so remote from 
severity of manners as gentleness and   
affability8 and yet who more venerable  
than yourself1 or who more agreeable8   
,what can be more difficult than to     
decide a number of suits1 so as to be   
equally esteemed and beloved by the     

parties on both sides8 ,you1 however1   
possess the admirable talent of sending 
away perfectly easy and contented even  
those against whom your are forced to   
give judgment3 thus bringing it to bear 
that1 while you do nothing from a       
partial favour to any man1 whatever you 
do is favourably received4 ,hence it    
happens1 that the only country upon     
earth1 which is not involved in the     
present confusion1 is the province of   
,gaul2 where you are now enjoying       
yourself in a happy tranquillity1 while 
you are universally respected at home1  
and live in the hearts of the flower and
 strength of your fellow- citizens4 ,it 
is equally amazing1 though you are      
always engaged in the most important    
offices of ,government1 that your       
studies are never intermitted2 and that 
you are constantly either composing     
something of your own1 or finding       
employment for me6 ,accordingly ,i began
 this ,essay1 at your request1 as soon  
as ,i had finished my ,cato2 which last 

also ,i should never have attempted     
7especially at a time when the enemies  
of virtue were so numerous7 if ,i had   
not considered it as a crime to disobey 
my friend1 when he only urged me to     
revive the memory of a man whom ,i      
always loved and honoured in his        
life-time4 ,but ,i have now ventured    
upon a task which you have frequently   
pressed upon me1 and ,i as often        
refused3 for1 if possible1 ,i would     
share the fault between us1 that if ,i  
should prove unequal to the subject1 you
 may have the blame of loading me with a
 burden which is beyond my strength1 and
 ,i the censure of presuming to         
undertake it3--though after all1 the    
single merit of gratifying such a friend
 as ,brutus1 will sufficiently atone for
 any defects ,i may fall into4  ,but in 
every accomplishment which may become   
the object of pursuit1 it is excessively
 difficult to delineate the form 7or1 as
 the ,greeks call it1 the character     
,footnote3 ,greek3 charachtaer47 of what

 is best2 because some suppose it to    
consist in one thing1 and some in       
another4 ,thus1 for instance1 ,i am for 
,ennius1 says one2 because he confines  
himself to the style of                 
conversation3--and ,i1 says another1    
give the preference to ,pacuvius1       
because his verses are embellished and  
well- wrought2 whereas ,ennius is rather
 too negligent4 ,in the same manner we  
may suppose a third to be an admirer of 
,attius2 for1 as among the ,greeks1 so  
it happens with us1 different men have  
different opinions2--nor is it easy to  
determine which is best4 ,thus also in  
painting1 some are pleased with a rough1
 a wild1 and a dark and cloudy style2   
while others prefer that which is clear1
 and lively1 and well covered with      
light4 ,how then shall we strike out a  
general rule or model1 when there are   
several manners1 and each of them has a 
certain perfection of its own8 ,but this
 difficulty has not deterred me from the
 undertaking2 nor have ,i altered my    

opinion that in all things there is a   
something which comprehends the highest 
excellence of the kind1 and which1      
though not generally discernible1 is    
sufficiently conspicuous to him1 who is 
skilled in the subject4  ,but as there  
are several kinds of ,eloquence which   
differ considerably from each other1 and
 therefore cannot be reduced to one     
common form2--for this reason1 as to    
mere laudatory ,orations1 ,essays1      
,histories1 and such suasory            
performances as the ,panegyric of       
,isocrates1 and the speeches of many    
others who were called ,sophists2--and1 
in short1 as to every thing which is    
unconnected with the ,forum1 and the    
whole of that species of discourse which
 the ,greeks call the demonstrative     
,footnote3 ,the demonstrative species of
 ,eloquence is that which was solely    
employed either in praising or          
dispraising4 ,besides this1 there are   
two others1 viz4 the deliberative1 and  
the judicial2 the former was employed in

 political debates1 where it's whole    
business was either to persuade or      
dissuade2 and the latter1 in judicial   
suits and controversies1 where the      
,speaker was either to accuse or defend4
 ,but1 on many occasions1 they were all 
three intermingled in the same          
discourse42--the form1 or leading       
character of these ,i shall pass over2  
though ,i am far from considering it as 
a mere trifle1 or a subject of no       
consequence2 on the contrary1 we may    
regard it as the nurse and tutoress of  
the ,orator we are now delineating4 ,for
 here1 a fluency of expression is       
confessedly nourished and cultivated2   
and the easy construction1 and          
harmonious cadence of our language is   
more openly attended to4 ,here1         
likewise1 we both allow and recommend a 
studious elegance of diction1 and a     
continued flow of melodious and         
well-turned periods2--and here1 we may  
labour visibly1 and without concealing  
our art1 to contrast word to word1 and  

to compare similar1 and oppose contrary 
circumstances1 and make several         
sentences 7or parts of a sentence7      
conclude alike1 and terminate with the  
same cadence2 --ornaments1 which in real
 pleadings1 are to be used more         
sparingly1 and with less appearance of  
art4 ,isocrates1 therefore1 confesses in
 his ,panathenaicus1 that these were    
beauties which he industriously pursued2
 for he composed it not for victory in a
 suit at law 7where such a confession   
must have greatly injured his cause7 but
 merely to gratify the ear4  ,it is     
recorded that the first persons who     
practised this species of composition   
,footnote3 ,the composition here        
mentioned consisted of three parts1 ,the
 first regarded the structure2 that is1 
the connection of our words1 and        
required that the last syllable of every
 preceding1 and the first of every      
succeeding word should be so aptly      
united as to produce an agreeable sound2
 which was effected by avoiding a       

collision of vowels or of inamicable    
consonants4 ,it likewise required that  
those words should be constantly made   
choice of1 whose separate sounds were   
most harmonious and most agreeable to   
the sense4 ,the second part consisted in
 the use of particular forms of         
expression1 such as contrasts and       
antithesises1 which have an appearance  
of order and regularity in their very   
texture4 ,the third and last regarded   
that species of harmony which results   
not so much from the sound1 as from the 
time and quantity of the several        
syllables in a sentence4 ,this was      
called number1 and sometimes rhyme2 and 
was in fact a kind of prosaic metre1    
which was carefully attended to by the  
ancients in every part of a sentence1   
but more particularly at the beginning  
and end of it4 ,in this part they       
usually included the period1 or the     
rules for determining the length of     
their sentences4 ,i thought it necessary
 to give this short account of their    

composition1 because our author very    
frequently alludes to it1 before he     
proceeds to explain it at large4 were   
,thrasymachus the ,chalcedonian1 and    
,gorgias the ,leontine2 and that these  
were followed by ,theodorus the         
,byzantine1 and a number of others1 whom
 ,socrates1 in the ,phaedrus of ,plato1 
calls ,greek3 logodaidalos              
,speech-wrights2 many of whole          
discourses are sufficiently neat and    
entertaining2 but1 being the first      
attempts of the kind1 were too minute   
and puerile1 and had too poetical an    
air1 and too much colouring4 ,on this   
account1 the merit of ,herodotus1 and   
,thucydides is the more conspicuous3 for
 though they lived at the time we are   
speaking of1 they carefully avoided     
those studied decorations1 or rather    
futilities4 ,the former rolls along like
 a deep1 still river without any rocks  
or shoals to interrupt it's course2 and 
the other describes wars and battles1 as
 if he was founding a charge on the     

trumpet2 so that history 7to use the    
words of ,theophrastus7 caught the first
 alarm from these1 and began to express 
herself with greater dignity and spirit4
  ,after these came ,socrates1 whom ,i  
have always recommended as the most     
accomplished writer we have in the way  
,i am speaking of2 though sometimes1 my 
,brutus1 you have objected to it with a 
great deal of pleasantry and erudition4 
,but when you are better informed for   
what it is ,i recommend him1 you will   
then think of him perhaps as favourably 
as ,i do4 ,thrasymachus and ,gorgias    
7who are said to have been the first who
 cultivated the art of prosaic harmony7 
appeared to him to be too minutely      
exact2 and ,thucydides1 he thought1 was 
as much too loose and rugged1 and not   
sufficiently smooth1 and full-mouthed2  
and from hence he took the hint to give 
a scope to his sentences by a more      
copious and unconfined flow of language1
 and to fill up their breaks and        
intervals with the softer and more      

agreeable numbers4 ,by teaching this to 
the most celebrated ,speakers1 and      
,composers of the age1 his house came at
 last to be honoured as the ,school of  
,eloquence4 ,wherefore as ,i bore the   
censure of others with indifference1    
when ,i had the good fortune to be      
applauded by ,cato2 thus ,isocrates1    
with the approbation of ,plato1 may     
slight the judgment of inferior critics4
 ,for in the last page of the ,phaedrus1
 we find ,socrates thus expressing      
himself2--',now1 indeed1 my dear        
,phaedrus1' said he1 ',isocrates is but 
a youth3 but ,i will discover to you    
what ,i think of him4'--',and what is   
that8' replied the other4--',he appears 
to me1' said the ,philosopher1 'to have 
too elevated a genius to be placed on a 
level with the arid speeches of ,lysias4
 ,besides1 he has a stronger turn for   
virtue2 so that ,i shall not wonder1 as 
he advances in years1 if in the species 
of ,eloquence to which he now applies   
himself1 he should exceed all1 who have 

hitherto pursued it1 like so many       
infants4 ,or1 if this should not content
 him1 ,i shall not be astonished to     
behold him with a godlike ardour        
pursuing higher and more important      
studies2 for ,i plainly see that he has 
a natural bent to ,philosophy6'  ,thus  
,socrates presaged of him when he was   
but a youth4 ,but ,plato recorded this  
eulogium when he was older2 and he      
recorded it1 though he was one of his   
equals and cotemporaries1 and a         
professed enemy to the whole tribe of   
,rhetoricians6 ,him he admires1 and him 
alone6 ,so that such who despise        
,isocrates1 must suffer me to err with  
,socrates and ,plato4  ,the manner of   
speaking1 then1 which is observed in the
 demonstrative or ornamental species of 
,eloquence1 and which ,i have before    
remarked1 was peculiar to the ,sophists1
 is sweet1 harmonious1 and flowing1 full
 of pointed sentiments1 and arrayed in  
all the brilliance of language4 ,but it 
is much fitter for the parade than the  

field2 and being1 therefore1 consigned  
to the ,palaestra1 and the schools1 has 
been long banished from the ,forum4 ,as 
,eloquence1 however1 after she had been 
fed and nourished with this1 acquires a 
fresher complexion1 and a firmer        
constitution2 it would not be amiss1 ,i 
thought1 to trace our ,orator from his  
very cradle4  ,but these things are only
 for shew and amusement3 whereas it is  
our business to take the field in       
earnest1 and prepare for action4 ,as    
there are three particulars1 then1 to be
 attended to by an ,orator1--viz4 what  
he is to say1 in what order1 and how2 we
 shall consider what is most excellent  
in each2 but after a different manner   
from what is followed in delivering a   
system of the ,art4 ,for we are not to  
furnish a set of precepts 7this not     
being the province we have undertaken7  
but to exhibit a portrait of ,eloquence 
in her full perfection3 neither is it   
our business to explain the methods by  
which we may acquire it1 but only to    

shew what opinion we ought to form of   
it4  ,the two first articles are to be  
lightly touched over2 for they have not 
so much a remarkable as a necessary     
share in forming the character of a     
compleat ,orator1 and are likewise      
common to his with many other           
professions2--and though1 to invent1 and
 judge with accuracy1 what is proper to 
be said1 are important accomplishments1 
and the same as the soul is to the body1
 yet they rather belong to prudence than
 to ,eloquence4 ,in what cause1 however1
 can prudence be idle8 ,our ,orator1    
therefore1 who is to be all perfection1 
should be thoroughly acquainted with the
 sources of argument and proof4 ,for as 
every thing which can become the subject
 of debate1 must rest upon one or       
another of these particulars1           
viz4--whether a fact has been really    
committed1 or what name it ought to bear
 in law1 or whether it is agreeable or  
contrary to justice2 and as the reality 
of a fact must be determined by force of

 evidence1 the true name of it by it's  
definition1 and the quality of it by the
 received notions of right and          
wrong2--an ,orator 7not an ordinary one1
 but the finished ,speaker we are       
describing7 will always turn off the    
controversy1 as much as possible1 from  
particular persons and times1 7for we   
may argue more at liberty concerning    
general topics than about circumstances7
 in such a manner that what is proved to
 be true universally1 may necessarily   
appear to be so in all subordinate      
cases4 ,the point in debate being thus  
abstracted from particular persons and  
times1 and brought to rest upon general 
principles1 is called a thesis4 ,in this
 the famous ,aristotle carefully        
practised his scholars2--not to argue   
with the formal precision of            
,philosophers1 but to canvass a point   
handsomely and readily on both sides1   
and with all the copiousness so much    
admired in the ,rhetoricians3 and for   
this purpose he delivered a set of      

common places 7for so he calls them7    
which were to serve as so many marks or 
characters for the discovery of         
arguments1 and from which a discourse   
might be aptly framed on either side of 
a question4  ,our ,orator then1 7for ,i 
am not speaking of a mere               
school-declaimer1 or a noisy ranter in  
the ,forum1 but of a well-accomplished  
and a finished ,speaker7--our ,orator1  
as there is such a copious variety of   
common-places1 will examine them all1   
and employ those which suit his purpose 
in as general and indefinite a manner as
 his cause will permit1 and carefully   
trace and investigate them to their     
inmost sources4 ,but he will use the    
plenty before him with discretion1 and  
weighing every thing with the utmost    
accuracy1 select what is best3 for the  
stress of an argument does not always1  
and in every cause1 depend upon similar 
topics4 ,he will1 therefore1 exercise   
his judgment2 and not only discover what
 may be said1 but thoroughly examine the

 force of it4 ,for nothing is more      
fertile than the powers of genius1 and  
especially those which have been blessed
 with the cultivation of science4 ,but  
as a rich and fruitful soil not only    
produces corn in abundance1 but also    
weeds to choak and smother it2 so from  
the common-places we are speaking of1   
many arguments will arise1 which are    
either trivial1 or foreign to our       
purpose1 or entirely useless4 ,an       
,orator1 therefore1 should carefully    
examine each1 that he may be able to    
select with propriety4 ,otherwise1 how  
can he enlarge upon those which are most
 pertinent1 and dwell upon such as more 
particularly affect his cause8 ,or how  
can he soften a harsh circumstance1 or  
conceal1 and 7if possible7 entirely     
suppress what would be deemed           
unanswerable1 or steal off the attention
 of the hearer to a different topic8 ,or
 how alledge another argument in reply1 
which shall be still more plausible than
 that of his antagonist8  ,but after he 

has thus invented what is proper to be  
said1 with what accuracy must he        
methodize it8 ,for this is the second of
 the three articles above-mentioned4    
,accordingly1 he will give the portal of
 his ,harangue a graceful appearance1   
and make the entrance to his cause as   
neat and splendid as the importance of  
it will permit4 ,when he has thus made  
himself master of the hearer's good     
wishes at the first onset1 he will      
endeavour to invalidate what makes      
against him2 and having1 by this means1 
cleared his way1 his strongest arguments
 will appear some of them in the front1 
and others at the close of his          
discourse2 and as to those of more      
trifling consequence1 he will           
occasionally introduce ,footnote3 ,in   
the ,original it is inculcabit1 he will 
tread them in1 7like the sand or loose  
dust in a new pavement7 to support and  
strengthen the whole4 them here and     
there1 where he judges them likely to be
 most serviceable4 ,thus1 then1 we have 

given a cursory view of what he ought to
 be1 in the two first departments of    
,oratory4 ,but1 as we before observed1  
these1 though very important in their   
consequences1 require less art and      
application4  ,after he has thus        
invented what is proper to be said1 and 
in what order1 the greatest difficulty  
is still behind2--namely to consider how
 he is to say it1 and in what manner4   
,for the observation of our favourite   
,carneades is well-known1--,that        
,clitomachus had a perpetual sameness of
 sentiment1 and ,charmidas a tiresome   
uniformity of expression4 ,but if it is 
a circumstance of so much moment in     
,philosophy1 in what manner we express  
ourselves1 where the matter1 and not the
 language1 is principally regarded2 what
 must we think of public debates1 which 
are wholly ruled and swayed by the      
powers of ,elocution8 ,accordingly1 my  
,brutus1 ,i am sensible from your       
letters1 that you mean to inquire what  
are my notions of a finished ,speaker1  

not so much with respect to his         
,invention and ,disposition1 as to his  
talents of ,elocution3--a severe task6  
and the most difficult you could have   
fixed upon6 ,for as language is ever    
soft and yielding1 and so amazingly     
pliable that you may bend and form it at
 your pleasure2 so different natures and
 dispositions have given rise to        
different kinds of ,elocution4 ,some1   
for instance1 who place the chief merit 
of it in it's rapidity1 are mightily    
pleased with a torrent of words1 and a  
volubility of expression4 ,others again 
are better pleased with regular1 and    
measured intervals1 and frequent stops1 
and pauses4 ,what can be more opposite8 
and yet both have their proper          
excellence4 ,some also confine their    
attention to the smoothness and         
equability of their periods1 and aim at 
a style which is perfectly neat and     
clear3 while others affect a harshness1 
and severity of diction1 and to give a  
gloomy cast to their language3--and as  

we have already observed that some      
endeavour to be nervous and majestic1   
others neat and simple1 and some to be  
smooth and florid1 it necessarily       
follows that there must be as many      
different kinds of ,orators1 as there   
are of ,eloquence4 ,but as ,i have      
already enlarged the talk you have      
imposed upon me2--7for though your      
enquiries related only to ,elocution1 ,i
 have ventured a few hints on the arts  
of ,invention and ,disposition27--,i    
shall now treat not only of ,elocution1 
but of action4 ,by this means1 every    
part of ,oratory will be attended to3   
for as to memory1 which is common to    
this with many other arts1 it is        
entirely out of the question4  ,the ,art
 of ,speaking then1 so far as it regards
 only the manner in which our thoughts  
should be expressed1 consists in action 
and ,elocution2 for action is the       
,eloquence of the body1 and implies the 
proper management of our voice and      
gesture4 ,as to the inflexions of the   

voice1 they are as numerous as the      
various passions it is capable of       
exciting4 ,the finished ,orator1        
therefore1 who is the subject of this   
,essay1 in whatever manner he would     
appear to be affected himself1 and touch
 the heart of his hearer1 will employ a 
suitable and corresponding tone of      
voice3--a topic which ,i could willingly
 enlarge upon1 if delivering precepts   
was any part of my present design1 or of
 your request4 ,i should likewise have  
treated concerning gesture1 of which the
 management of the countenance is a     
material part3 for it is scarcely       
credible of what great importance it is 
to an ,orator to recommend himself by   
these external accomplishments4 ,for    
even those who were far from being      
masters of good language1 have many     
times1 by the sole dignity of their     
action1 reaped the fruits of ,eloquence2
 while others who had the finest powers 
of ,elocution1 have too often1 by the   
mere awkwardness of their delivery1 led 

people to imagine that they were        
scarcely able to express themselves3--so
 that ,demosthenes1 with sufficient     
reason1 assigned the first place1 and   
likewise the second and third to        
pronunciation4 ,for if ,eloquence       
without this is nothing1 but this1 even 
without ,eloquence1 has such a wonderful
 efficacy1 it must be allowed to bear   
the principal sway in the practice of   
,speaking4  ,if an ,orator1 then1 who is
 ambitious to win the palm of           
,eloquence1 has any thing to deliver    
which is warm and cutting1 let his voice
 be strong and quick2--if what is calm  
and gentle1 let it be mild and easy2--if
 what is grave and sedate1 let it be    
cool and settled2--and if what is       
mournful and affecting1 let his accents 
be plaintive and flexible4 ,for the     
voice may be raised or depressed1 and   
extended or contracted to an astonishing
 degree2 thus in ,music 7for instance7  
it's three tones1 the mean1 the acute1  
and the grave1 may be so managed by art1

 as to produce a pleasing and an        
infinite variety of sounds4 ,nay1 even  
in ,speaking1 there may be a concealed  
kind of music3--not like the whining    
epilogue of a ,phrygian or a ,carian    
declaimer1 but such as was intended by  
,aeschines1 and ,demosthenes1 when the  
one upbraids and reproaches the other   
with the artificial modulations of his  
voice4 ,demosthenes1 however1 says most 
upon this head1 and often speaks of his 
accuser as having a sweet and clear     
pronunciation4 ,there is another        
circumstance1 which may farther enforce 
our attention to the agreeable          
management of the voice2 for ,nature    
herself1 as if she meant to harmonize   
the speech of man1 has placed an accent 
on every word1 and one accent only1     
which never lies farther than the third 
syllable from the last4 ,why1 therefore1
 should we hesitate to follow her       
example1 and to do our best to gratify  
the ear8 ,a good voice1 indeed1 though a
 desirable accomplishment1 is not in our

 power to acquire3--but to exercise1 and
 improve it1 is certainly in the power  
of every person4  ,the ,orator1 then1   
who means to be the prince of his       
profession1 will change and vary his    
voice with the most delicate propriety2 
and by sometimes raising1 and sometimes 
depressing it1 pursue it gradually      
through all it's different tones1 and   
modulations4 ,he will likewise regulate 
his gesture1 so as to avoid even a      
single motion which is either           
superfluous or impertinent4 ,his posture
 will be erect and manly3-- he will move
 from his ground but seldom1 and not    
even then too precipitately2 and his    
advances will be few and moderate4 ,he  
will practise no languishing1 no        
effeminate airs of the head1 no finical 
playing of the fingers1 no measured     
movement of the joints4 ,the chief part 
of his gesture will consist in the firm 
and graceful sway of his body1 and in   
extending his arm when his arguments are
 pressing1 and drawing it again when his

 vehemence abates4 ,but as to the       
countenance1 which next to the voice has
 the greatest efficacy1 what dignity and
 gracefulness is it not capable of      
supporting6 and when you have been      
careful that it may neither be          
unmeaning1 nor ostentatious1 there is   
still much to be left to the expression 
of the eyes4 ,for if the countenance is 
the image of the mind1 the eyes are it's
 interpreters1 whose degree of          
pleasantry or sadness must be           
proportioned to the importance of our   
subject4  ,but we are to exhibit the    
portrait of a finished ,orator1 whose   
chief excellence must be supposed1 from 
his very name1 to consist in his        
,elocution2 while his other             
qualifications 7though equally complete7
 are less conspicuous4 ,for a mere      
inventor1 a mere digester1 or a mere    
actor1 are titles never made use of to  
comprize the whole character2 but an    
,orator derives his name1 both in ,greek
 and ,latin1 from the single talent of  

,elocution4 ,as to his other            
qualifications1 every man of sense may  
claim a share of them3 but the full     
powers of language are exerted by       
himself alone4 ,some of the             
philosophers1 indeed1 have expressed    
themselves in a very handsome manner3   
for ,theophrastus derived his name from 
the divinity of his style2 ,aristotle   
rivalled the glory of ,isocrates2 and   
the ,muses themselves are said to have  
spoken from the lips of ,xenophon2 and1 
to say no more1 the great ,plato is     
acknowledged in majesty and sweetness to
 have far exceeded all who ever wrote or
 spoke4 ,but their language has neither 
the nerves nor the sting which is       
required in the ,orator's1 when he      
harangues the crowded ,forum4 ,they     
speak only to the learned1 whose        
passions they rather choose to compose  
than disturb2 and they discourse about  
matters of calm and untumultuous        
speculation1 merely as teachers1 and not
 like eager antagonists3 though even    

here1 when they endeavour to amuse and  
delight us1 they are thought by some to 
exceed the limits of their province4 ,it
 will be easy1 therefore1 to distinguish
 this species of ,elocution from the    
,eloquence we are attempting to         
delineate4 ,for the language of         
philosophy is gentle and composed1 and  
entirely calculated for the shady walks 
of the ,academy2--not armed with those  
forcible sentiments1 and rapid turns of 
expression1 which are suited to move the
 populace1 nor measured by exact numbers
 and regular periods1 but easy1 free1   
and unconfined4 ,it has nothing         
resentful belonging to it1 nothing      
invidious1 nothing fierce and flaming1  
nothing exaggerated1 nothing marvellous1
 nothing artful and designing2 but      
resembles a chaste1 a bashful1 and an   
unpolluted virgin4 ,we may1 therefore1  
consider it as a kind of polite         
conversation1 rather than a species of  
,oratory4  ,as to the ,sophists1 whom ,i
 have already mentioned1 the resemblance

 ought to be more accurately            
distinguished3 for they industriously   
pursue the same flowers which are used  
by an ,orator in the ,forum4 ,but they  
differ in this1--that1 as their         
principal aim is not to disturb the     
passions1 but rather to allay them1 and 
not so much to persuade as to           
please1--they attempt the latter more   
openly1 and more frequently than we do4 
,they seek for agreeable sentiments1    
rather than probable ones2 they use more
 frequent digressions1 intermingle tales
 and fables1 employ more shewy          
metaphors1 and work them into their     
discourses with as much fancy and       
variety as a painter does his colours2  
and they abound in contrasts and        
antitheses1 and in similar and          
corresponding cadences4  ,nearly allied 
to these is ,history1 which conducts her
 narratives with elegance and ease1 and 
now and then sketches out a country1 or 
a battle4 ,she likewise diversifies her 
story with short speeches1 and florid   

harangues3 but in these1 only neatness  
and fluency is to be expected1 and not  
the vehemence and poignant severity of  
an ,orator ,footnote3 ,in the ,original 
it is1--sed in his tracta quaedam et    
fluens expetitur1 nan haec contorta1 et 
acris ,oratorio2 upon which ,dr4 ,ward  
has made the following                  
remark3--,sentences1 with respect to    
their form or composition1 are          
distinguished into two sorts1 called by 
,cicero tracta1 strait or direct1 and   
contorta1 bent or winding4 ,by the      
former are meant such1 whose members    
follow each other in a direct order1    
without any inflexion2 and by the       
latter1 those which strictly speaking   
are called periods44  ,there is much the
 same difference between ,eloquence and 
,poetry2 for the ,poets likewise have   
started the question1 ,what it is which 
distinguishes them from the ,orators8   
,it was formerly supposed to be their   
number and metre3 but numbers are now as
 familiar to the ,orator1 as to the     

,poet2 for whatever falls under the     
regulation of the ear1 though it bears  
no resemblance to verse 7which in       
,oratory would be a capital fault7 is   
called number1 and by the ,greeks rhyme4
 ,footnote3 ,greek3 ,ruthmos ,in the    
opinion of some1 therefore1 the style of
 ,plato and ,democritus1 on account of  
it's majestic flow1 and the splendor of 
it's ornaments1 though it is far from   
being verse1 has a nearer resemblance to
 poetry than the style of the           
,comedians1 who1 excepting their metre1 
have nothing different from the style of
 conversation4 ,metre1 however1 is far  
from being the principal merit of the   
,poets2 though it is certainly no small 
recommendation1 that1 while they pursue 
all the beauties of ,eloquence1 the     
harmony of their numbers is far more    
regular and exact4 ,but1 though the     
language of ,poetry is equally grand and
 ornamental with that of an ,orator1 she
 undoubtedly takes greater liberties    
both in making and compounding word2 and

 frequently administers to the pleasure 
of her hearers1 more by the pomp and    
lustre of her expressions1 than by the  
weight and dignity of her sentiments4   
,though judgment1 therefore1 and a      
proper choice of words1 is alike common 
to both1 yet their difference in other  
respects is sufficiently discernible3   
but if it affords any matter of doubt   
7as to some1 perhaps1 it may7 the       
discussion of it is no way necessary to 
our present purpose4  ,we are1          
therefore1 to delineate the ,orator who 
differs equally from the ,eloquence of  
the ,philosopher1 the ,sophist1 the     
,historian1 and the ,poet4 ,he1 then1 is
 truly eloquent1 7for after him we must 
search1 by the direction of ,antonius7  
who in the ,forum1 and in public        
debates1 can so speak1 as to prove1     
delight1 and force the passions4 ,to    
prove1 is a matter of necessity3--to    
delight1 is indispensably requisite to  
engage the attention3--and to force the 
passions1 is the surest means of        

victory2 for this contributes more      
effectually than both the others to get 
a cause decided to our wishes4 ,but as  
the duties of an ,orator1 so the kinds  
of ,elocution are three4 ,the neat and  
accurate is used in proving2 the        
moderately florid in delighting apd the 
vehement and impetuous in forcing the   
passions1 in which alone all the power  
of ,eloquence consists4 ,great1         
therefore1 must be the judgment1 and    
wonderful the talents of the man1 who   
can properly conduct1 and1 as it were1  
temper this threefold variety3 for he   
will at once determine what is suitable 
to every case2 and be always able to    
express himself as the nature of his    
subject may require4  ,discretion1      
therefore1 is the basis of ,eloquence1  
as well as of every other               
accomplishment4 ,for1 as in the conduct 
of life1 so in the practice of          
,speaking1 nothing is more difficult    
than to maintain a propriety of         
character4 ,this is called by the       

,greeks ,greek3 to prepon1 the becoming1
 but we shall call it decorum2--a       
subject which has been excellently and  
very copiously canvassed1 and richly    
merits our attention4 ,an unacquaintance
 with this has been the source of       
innumerable errors1 not only in the     
business of life1 but in ,poetry and    
,eloquence4 ,an ,orator1 therefore1     
should examine what is becoming1 as well
 in the turn of his language1 as in that
 of his sentiments4 ,for not every      
condition1 not every rank1 not every    
character1 nor every age1 or place1 or  
time1 nor every hearer is to be treated 
with the same invariable train either of
 sentiment or expression3--but we should
 always consider in every part of a     
public ,oration1 as well as of life1    
what will be most becoming1--a          
circumstance which naturally depends on 
the nature of the subject1 and the      
respective characters of the ,speaker   
and ,hearer4 ,philosophers1 therefore1  
have carefully discussed this extensive 

and important topic in the doctrine of  
,ethics1 7though not1 indeed1 when they 
treat of right and wrong1 because those 
are invariably the fame37--nor is it    
less attended to by the ,critics in     
their poetical ,essays1 or by men of    
,eloquence in every species and every   
part of their public debates4 ,for what 
would be more out of character1 than to 
use a lofty style1 and ransack every    
topic of argument1 when we are speaking 
only of a petty trespass in some        
inferior court8 ,or1 on the other hand1 
to descend to any puerile subtilties1   
and speak with the indifference and     
simplicity of a frivolous narrative1    
when we are lashing treason and         
rebellion8  ,here1 the indecorum would  
arise from the very nature and quality  
of the subject3 but others are equally  
guilty of it1 by not adapting their     
discourse either to their own           
characters1 or to that of their hearers1
 and1 in some cafes1 to that of their   
antagonists2 and they extend the fault  

not only to their sentiments1 but to the
 turn of their expression4 ,it is true1 
indeed1 that the force of language is a 
mere nothing1 when it is not supported  
by a proper solidity of sentiment3 but  
it is also equally true that the same   
thing will be either approved or        
rejected1 according as it is this or    
that way expressed4 ,in all cases1      
therefore1 we cannot be too careful in  
examining the how far8 for though every 
thing has it's proper mean1 yet an      
excess is always more offensive and     
disgusting than a proportionable defect4
 ,apelles1 therefore1 justly censures   
some of his cotemporary artists1 because
 they never knew when they had performed
 enough4  ,this1 my ,brutus1 as your    
long acquaintance with it must          
necessarily inform you1 is a copious    
subject1 and would require an extensive 
volume to discuss4 ,but it is sufficient
 to our present purpose to observe1 that
 in all our words and actions1 as well  
the smallest as the greatest1 there is a

 something which will appear either     
becoming or unbecoming1 and that almost 
every one is sensible of it's           
confluence4 ,but what is becoming1 and  
what ought to be1 are very different    
considerations1 and belong to a         
different topic3--for the ought to be   
points out the perfection of duty1 which
 should be attended to upon all         
occasions1 and by all persons3 but the  
becoming denotes that which is merely   
proper1 and suited to time and          
character1 which is of great importance 
not only in our actions and language1   
but in our very looks1 our gesture1 and 
our walk2 and that which is contrary to 
it will always be unbecoming1 and       
disagreeable4 ,if the ,poet1 therefore1 
carefully guards against any impropriety
 of the kind1 and is always condemned as
 guilty of a fault1 when he puts the    
language of a worthy man into the mouth 
of a ruffian1 or that of a wife man into
 the mouth of a fool3--if1 moreover1 the
 artist who painted the sacrifice of    

,iphigenia1 ,footnote3 ,agamemnon1 one  
of the ,grecian chiefs1 having by       
accident slain a deer belonging to      
,diana1 the ,goddess was so enraged at  
this profanation of her honours1 that   
she kept him wind-bound at ,aulis with  
the whole fleet4 ,under this heavy      
disaster1 having recourse to the        
,oracle1 7their usual refuge in such    
cases7 they were informed that the only 
atonement which the angry ,goddess would
 accept1 was the sacrifice of one of the
 offender's children4 ,ulysses having1  
by a stratagem1 withdrawn ,iphigenia    
from her mother for that purpose1 the   
unhappy ,virgin was brought to the      
altar4 ,but1 as the story goes1 the     
,goddess relenting at her hard fate1    
substituted a deer in her stead1 and    
conveyed her away to serve her as a     
,priestess4 ,it must be farther remarked
 that ,menelaus was the ,virgin's uncle1
 and ,calchas the ,priest who was to    
officiate at this horrid sacrifice4     
could see that ,chalcas should appear   

greatly concerned1 ,ulysses still more  
so1 and ,menelaus bathed in tears1 but  
that the head of ,agamemnon 7the        
virgin's father7 should be covered with 
his robe1 to intimate a degree of       
anguish which no pencil could express3  
lastly1 if a mere actor on the stage is 
ever cautious to keep up the character  
he appears in1 what must be done by the 
,orator8 ,but as this is a matter of    
such importance1 let him consider at his
 leisure1 what is proper to be done in  
particular causes1 and in their several 
parts and divisions3--for it is         
sufficiently evident1 not only that the 
different parts of an ,oration1 but that
 entire causes ought to be managed1 some
 in one manner1 and some in another4    
,we must now proceed to delineate the   
form and character of each of the three 
species of ,eloquence above-mentioned2 a
 great and an arduous talk1 as ,i have  
already observed more than once2 ,but we
 should have considered the difficulty  
of the voyage before we embarked3 for   

now we have ventured to set sail1 we    
must run boldly before the wind1 whether
 we reach our port or not4  ,the first  
character1 then1 to be described1 is the
 ,orator who1 according to some1 is the 
only one that has any just pretensions  
to ,atticism4 ,he is distinguished by   
his modest simplicity2 and as he        
imitates the language of conversation1  
he differs from those who are strangers 
to ,eloquence1 rather in reality than in
 appearance4 ,for this reason1 those who
 hear him1 though totally unskilled in  
the art of ,speaking1 are apt to        
persuade themselves that they can       
readily discourse in the same manner    
,footnote3 ,there is a pretty remark to 
the same purpose in the fifteenth number
 of ,the ,guardian1 which1 as it may    
serve to illustrate the observation of  
,cicero1 ,i shall beg leave to insert4  
,from what ,i have advanced1 it appears 
how difficult it is to write easily4    
,but when easy writings fall into the   
hands of an ordinary reader1 they appear

 to him so natural and unlaboured1 that 
he immediately resolves to write1 and   
fancies that all he has to do is to take
 no pains4 ,thus he thinks indeed       
simply1 but the thoughts not being      
chosen with judgment1 are not beautiful4
 ,he1 it is true1 expresses himself     
plainly1 but flatly withal4 ,again1 if a
 man of vivacity takes it into his head 
to write this way1 what self-denial must
 he undergo1 when bright points of wit  
occur to his fancy8 ,how difficult will 
he find it to reject florid phrases1 and
 pretty embellishments of style8 ,so    
true it is1 that simplicity of all      
things is the hardest to be copied1 and 
case to be acquired with the greatest   
labour42--and the unaffected simplicity 
of his language appears very imitable to
 an ignorant observer2 though nothing   
will be found less so by him who makes  
the trial4 ,for1 if ,i may so express   
myself1 though his veins are not        
over-stocked with blood1 his juices must
 be found and good2 and though he is not

 possessed of any extraordinary         
strength1 he must have a healthy        
constitution4 ,for this purpose1 we must
 first release him from the shackles of 
number2 for there is 7you know7 a kind  
of number to be observed by an ,orator1 
which we shall treat of in the          
sequel3--but this is to be used in a    
different species of ,eloquence1 and to 
be relinquished in the present4 ,his    
language1 therefore1 must be free and   
unconfined1 but not loose and irregular1
 that he may appear to walk at ease1    
without reeling or tottering4 ,he will  
not be at the pains to cement word to   
word with a scrupulous exactness3 for   
those breaks which are made by a        
collision of vowels1 have now and then  
an agreeable effect1 and betray the not 
unpleasing negligence of a man who is   
more felicitous about things than words4
 ,but though he is not to labour at a   
measured flow1 and a masterly           
arrangement of his words1 he must be    
careful in other respects4 ,for even    

these limited and unaspiring talents are
 not to be employed carelessly1 but with
 a kind of industrious negligence3 for  
as some females are most becoming in a  
dishabille1 so this artless kind of     
,eloquence has her charms1 though she   
appears in an undress4 ,there is        
something in both which renders them    
agreeable1 without striking the eye4    
,here1 therefore1 all the glitter of    
ornament1 like that of jewels and       
diamonds1 must be laid aside2 nor must  
we apply even the crisping-iron to      
adjust the hair4 ,there must be no      
colouring1 no artful washes to heighten 
the complexion3 but elegance and        
neatness must be our only aim4 ,our     
style muft be pure1 and correct2--we    
must speak with clearness and           
perspicuity2 --and be always attentive  
to appear in character4 ,there is one   
thing1 however1 which must never be     
omitted1 and which is reckoned by       
,theophrastus to be one of the chief    
beauties of composition2--,i mean that  

sweet and flowing ornament1 a plentiful 
intermixture of lively sentiments1 which
 seem to result from a natural fund of  
good sense1 and are peculiarly graceful 
in the ,orator we are now describing4   
,but he will be very moderate in using  
the furniture of ,eloquence3 for 7if ,i 
may be allowed such an expression7 there
 is a species of furniture belonging to 
us1 which consists in the various       
ornaments of sentiment and language4    
,the ornaments of language are two-fold2
 the one sort relates to words as they  
stand singly1 and the other as they are 
connected together4 ,a single word 7,i  
speak of those which are proper1 and in 
common use7 is then said to be well     
chosen1 when it founds agreeably1 and is
 the best which could have been taken to
 express our meaning4 ,among borrowed   
and translatitious ,footnote3 ,words    
which are transferred from their        
primitive meaning to a metaphorical one4
 words1 7or those which are not used in 
their proper sense7 we may reckon the   

metaphor1 the metonymy1 and the rest of 
the tropes2 as also compounded and      
new-made words1 and such as are obsolete
 and out of date2 but obsolete words    
should rather be considered as proper   
ones1 with this only difference1 that we
 seldom make use of them4 ,as to words  
in connection1 these also may be        
considered as ornamental1 when they have
 a certain gracefulness which would be  
destroyed by changing their order1      
though the meaning would still remain   
the same4 ,for as to the ornaments of   
sentiment1 which lose nothing of their  
beauty1 by varying the position of the  
words1--these1 indeed1 are very         
numerous1 though only a few of them are 
remarkably striking4  ,the ,orator1     
then1 who is distinguished by the       
simplicity of his manner1 provided he is
 correct and elegant1 will be sparing in
 the use of new words2 easy and modest  
in his metaphors2 and very cautious in  
the use of words which are              
antiquated2--and as to the other        

ornaments of language and sentiment1    
here also he will be equally plain and  
reserved4 ,but in the use of metaphors1 
he will1 perhaps1 take greater          
liberties2 because these are frequently 
introduced in conversation1 not only by 
,gentlemen1 but even by rustics1 and    
peasants3 for we often hear them say    
that the vine shoots out it's buds1 that
 the fields are thirsty1 the corn       
lively1 and the grain rich and          
flourishing4 ,such expressions1 indeed1 
are rather bold3 but the resemblance    
between the metaphor and the object is  
either remarkably obvious2 or else1 when
 the latter has no proper name to       
express it1 the metaphor is so far from 
appearing to be laboured1 that we seem  
to use it merely to explain our meaning4
 ,this1 therefore1 is an ornament in    
which our artless ,orator may indulge   
himself more freely2 but not so openly  
as in the more diffusive and lofty      
species of ,eloquence4 ,for that        
indecorum1 which is best understood by  

comparing it with its opposite quality1 
will even here be viable when a metaphor
 is too conspicuous2--or when this      
simple and dispassionate sort of        
language is interrupted by a bold       
ornament1 which would have been proper  
enough in a different kind of           
,elocution4  ,as to that sort of        
ornament which regards the position of  
words1 and embellishes it with those    
studied graces1 which are considered by 
the ,greeks as so many attitudes of     
language1 and are therefore called      
figures1 7a name which is likewise      
extended to the flowers of              
sentiment27--the ,orator before us1 who 
may justly be regarded as an ,attic     
,speaker1 provided the title is not     
confined to him1 will make use even of  
this1 though with great caution and     
moderation4 ,he will conduct himself as 
if he was setting out an entertainment1 
and while he carefully avoids a splendid
 magnificence1 he will not only be plain
 and frugal1 but neat and elegant1 and  

make his choice accordingly4 ,for there 
is a kind of genteel parsimony1 by which
 his character is distinguished from    
that of others4 ,he will1 therefore1    
avoid the more conspicuous ornaments    
above- mentioned1 such as the           
contracting word to word1--the          
concluding the several members of a     
sentence with the same cadence1 or      
confining them to the same measure1--and
 all the studied prettiness which are   
formed by the change of a letter1 or an 
artful play of found2--that1 if         
possible1 there may not be the slightest
 appearance1 or even suspicion1 of a    
design to please4 ,as to those          
repetitions which require an earnest and
 forcible exertion of the voice1 these  
also would be equally out of character  
in this lower species of ,eloquence2 but
 he may use the other ornaments of      
,elocution at his pleasure1 provided he 
checks and interrupts the flow of his   
language1 and softens it off by using   
familiar expressions1 and such metaphors

 as are plain and obvious4 ,nay1 even as
 to the figures of sentiment1 he may    
sometimes indulge himself in those which
 are not remarkably bold and striking4  
,thus1 for instance1 we must not allow  
him to introduce the ,republic as       
speaking1 nor to fetch up the dead from 
their graves1 nor to crowd a multitude  
of ideas into the same period4 ,these   
efforts demand a firmer constitution1   
and should be neither required nor      
expected from the simple ,orator before 
us2 for as in his voice1 so likewise in 
his language1 he should be ever easy and
 composed4 ,but there are many of the   
nobler ornaments which may be admitted  
even here1 though always in a plainer   
and more artless habit than in any other
 species of ,eloquence2 for such is the 
character we have assigned him4 ,his    
gesture also will be neither pompous1   
nor theatrical1 but consist in a        
moderate and easy sway of the body1 and 
derive much of it's efficacy from the   
countenance1--not a stiff and affected  

countenance1 but such a one as          
handsomely corresponds with his         
sentiments4  ,this kind of ,oratory will
 likewise be frequently enlivened by    
those turns of wit and pleasantry1 which
 in ,speaking have a much greater effect
 than is imagined4 ,there are two sorts 
of them2 the one consisting in smart    
sayings and quick repartees1 and the    
other in what is called humour4 ,our    
,orator will make use of both2--of the  
latter in his narratives1 to make them  
lively and entertaining2--and of the    
other1 either in giving or retorting a  
stroke of ridicule1 of which there are  
several kinds2 but at present it is not 
our business to specify them4 ,it will  
not be amiss1 however1 to observe by way
 of caution1 that the powers of ridicule
 are not to be employed too often1 lest 
we sink into scurrility2--nor in loose  
and indecent language1 lest we          
degenerate into wantonness and          
buffoonery2 --nor with the least degree 
of petulance and abuse1 lest we appear  

audacious and ill-bred2--nor levelled   
against the unfortunate1 lest we incur  
the censure of inhumanity2--nor against 
atrocious crimes1 lest we raise a laugh 
where we ought to excite                
abhorrence2--nor1 in the last place1    
should they be used unseasonably1 or    
when the characters either of the       
,speaker1 or the ,hearer1 and the       
circumstances of time and place forbid  
it2--otherwise we should grossly fail in
 that decorum of which we have already  
said so much4 ,we should likewise avoid 
all affected witticisms1 which appear   
not to be thrown out occasionally1 but  
to be dragged from the closet2 for such 
are generally cold and insipid4 ,it is  
also improper to jest upon our friends1 
or upon persons of quality1 or to give  
any strokes of wit which may appear     
ill-natured1 or malicious4 ,we should   
aim only at our enemies2 and even at    
these1 not upon every occasion1 or      
without any distinction of character1 or
 with the same invariable turn of       

ridicule4 ,under these restrictions our 
artless ,orator will play off his wit   
and humour1 as ,i have never seen it    
done by any of the modern pretenders to 
,atticism1 though they cannot deny that 
this is entirely in the ,attic taste4   
,such1 then1 is the idea which ,i have  
formed of a simple and an easy ,speaker1
 who is likewise a very masterly one1   
and a genuine ,athenian2 for whatever is
 smart and pertinent is unquestionably  
,attic1 though some of the ,attic       
,speakers were not remarkable for their 
wit4 ,lysias1 indeed1 and ,hyperides    
were sufficiently so2 and ,demades1 it  
is said1 was more so than all the       
others4 ,demosthenes1 however1 is       
thought by many to have but little merit
 of the kind2 but to me nothing can be  
more genteel than he is2 though1        
perhaps1 he was rather smart than       
humourous4 ,the one requires a quicker  
genius1 but the other more art and      
address4  ,but there is a second        
character1 which is more diffusive1 and 

somewhat stronger than the simple and   
artless1 one we have been               
describing1--though considerably        
inferior to that copious and            
all-commanding ,eloquence we shall      
notice in the sequel4 ,in this1 though  
there is but a moderate exertion of the 
nerves and sinews of ,oratory1 there is 
abundance of melody and sweetness4 ,it  
is much fuller and richer than the close
 and accurate style above-mentioned2 but
 less elevated than the pompous and     
diffusive4 ,in this all the ornaments of
 language may be employed without       
reserve2 and here the flow of our       
numbers is ever soft and harmonious4    
,many of the ,greeks have pursued it    
with success3 but1 in my opinion1 they  
must all yield the palm to ,demetrius   
,phalereus1 whose ,eloquence is ever    
mild and placid1 and bespangled with a  
most elegant variety of metaphors and   
other tropes1 like so many stars4 ,by   
metaphors1 as ,i have frequently        
observed1 ,i mean expressions which1    

either for the sake of ornament1 or     
through the natural poverty of our      
language1 are removed and as it were    
transplanted from their proper objects  
to others1 by way of similitude4 ,as to 
tropes in general1 they are particular  
forms of expression1 in which the proper
 name of a thing is supplied by another1
 which conveys the same meaning1 but is 
borrowed from its adjuncts or effects3  
for1 though1 in this case1 there is a   
kind of metaphor1 7because the word is  
shifted from its primary object7 yet the
 remove is performed by ,ennius in a    
different manner1 when he says          
metaphorically1--,you bereave the       
citadel and the city of their           
offspring1--from what it would have     
been1 if he had put the citadel alone   
for the whole state3 and thus again1    
when he tells us that1--rugged ,africa  
was shaken by a dreadful tumult1--he    
puts ,africa for the inhabitants4 ,the  
,rhetoricians call this an ,hypallage1  
because one word is substituted for     

another3 but the ,grammarians call it a 
,metonymy1 because the words are shifted
 and interchanged4 ,aristotle1 however1 
subjoins it to the metaphor1 as he      
likewise does the ,abuse or             
,catachresis2 by which1 for instance1 we
 say a narrow1 contracted soul1 instead 
of a mean one1 and thus steal an        
expression which has a kindred meaning  
with the proper one1 either for the sake
 of ornament or decency4 ,when several  
metaphors are connected together in a   
regular chain1 the form of speaking is  
varied4 ,the ,greeks call this an       
,allegory1 which indeed is proper enough
 if we only attend to the etymology2 but
 if we mean to refer it to its          
particular genus or kind1 he has done   
better who comprehends the whole under  
the general name of metaphors4 ,these1  
however1 are frequently used by         
,phalereus1 and have a soft and pleasing
 effect3 but though he abounds in the   
metaphor1 he also makes use of the other
 tropes with as much freedom as any     

writer whatever4  ,this species of      
,eloquence 7,i mean the middling1 or    
temperate7 is likewise embellished with 
all the brilliant figures of language1  
and many of the figures of sentiment4   
,by this1 moreover1 the most extensive  
and refined topics of science are       
handsomely unfolded1 and all the weapons
 of argument are employed without       
violence4 ,but what need have ,i to say 
more8 ,such ,speakers are the common    
offspring of ,philosophy2 and were the  
nervous1 and more striking ,orator to   
keep out of sight1 these alone would    
fully answer our wishes4 ,for they are  
masters of a brilliant1 a florid1 a     
picturesque1 and a well-wrought         
,elocution1 which is interwoven with all
 the beautiful embroidery both of       
language and sentiment4 ,this character 
first streamed from the limpid fountains
 of the ,sophists into the ,forum2 but  
being afterwards despised by the more   
simple and refined kind of ,speakers1   
and disdainfully rejected by the nervous

 and weighty2 it was compelled to       
subside into the peaceful and unaspiring
 mediocrity we are speaking of4  ,the   
third character is the extensive1--the  
copious1--the nervous1--the majestic    
,orator1 who possesses the powers of    
,elocution in their full extent4 ,this  
is the man whose enchanting and         
diffusive language is so much admired by
 listening nations1 that they have      
tamely suffered ,eloquence to rule the  
world2--but an ,eloquence whose course  
is rapid and sonorous6--an ,eloquence   
which every one gazes at1 and admires1  
and despairs to equal6 ,this is the     
,eloquence that bends and sways the     
passions6--this the ,eloquence that     
alarms or sooths them at her pleasure6  
,this is the ,eloquence that sometimes  
tears up all before it like a whirlwind2
 and1 at other times1 steals            
imperceptibly upon the senses1 and      
probes to the bottom of the heart6--the 
,eloquence which ingrafts opinions that 
are new1 and eradicates the old2 but yet

 is widely different from the two       
characters of ,speaking                 
before-mentioned4  ,he who exerts       
himself in the simple and accurate      
character1 and speaks neatly and smartly
 without aiming any higher6--he1 by this
 alone1 if carried to perfection1       
becomes a great1 if not the greatest of 
,orators2 nor does he walk upon slippery
 ground1 so that if he has but learned  
to tread firm1 he is in no danger of    
falling4 ,also the middle kind of       
,orator1 who is distinguished by his    
equability1 provided he only draws up   
his forces to advantage1 fears not the  
perilous and doubtful hazards of a      
public ,harangue2 and1 though sometimes 
he may not succeed to his wishes1 yet he
 is never exposed to an absolute defeat2
 for as he never soars1 his fall must be
 inconsiderable4 ,but the ,orator1 whom 
we regard as the prince of his          
profession1--the nervous1--the          
fierce1--the flaming ,orator1 if he is  
born for this alone1 and only practices 

and applies himself to this1 without    
tempering his copiousness with the two  
inferior characters of ,eloquence1 is of
 all others the most contemptible4 ,for 
the plain and simple ,orator1 as        
speaking acutely and expertly1 has an   
appearance of wisdom and good-sense2 and
 the middle kind of ,orator is          
sufficiently recommended by his         
sweetness3--but the copious and         
diffusive ,speaker1 if he has no other  
qualification1 will scarcely appear to  
be in his senses4 ,for he who can say   
nothing calmly1--nothing gently--nothing
 methodically1 --nothing clearly1       
distinctly1 or humourously1 7though a   
number of causes should be so managed   
throughout1 and others in one or more of
 their parts37--he1 moreover1 who       
proceeds to amplify and exaggerate      
without preparing the attention of his  
audience1 will appear to rave before men
 of understanding1 and to vapour like a 
person intoxicated before the sober and 
sedate4  ,thus then1 my ,brutus1 we have

 at last discovered the finished ,orator
 we are seeking for3 but we have caught 
him in imagination only2--for if ,i     
could have seized him with my hands1 not
 all his ,eloquence should persuade me  
to release him4 ,we have at length1     
however1 discovered the eloquent        
,speaker1 whom ,antonius never          
saw4--,but who1 then1 is he8--,i will   
comprize his character in a few words1  
and afterwards unfold it more at        
large4--,he1 then1 is an ,orator indeed6
 who can speak upon trivial subjects    
with simplicity and art1 upon weighty   
ones with energy and pathos1 and upon   
those of middling import with calmness  
and moderation4 ,you will tell me1      
perhaps1 that such a ,speaker has never 
existed4 ,be it so3--for ,i am now      
discoursing not upon what ,i have seen1 
but upon what ,i could wish to see2 and 
must therefore recur to that primary    
semblance or ideal form of ,plato which 
,i have mentioned before1 and which1    
though it cannot be seen with our bodily

 eyes1 may be comprehended by the powers
 of imagination4 ,for ,i am not seeking 
after a living ,orator1 or after any    
thing which is mortal and perishing1 but
 after that which confers a right to the
 title of eloquent2 in other words1 ,i  
am seeking after ,eloquence herself1 who
 can be discerned only by the eye of the
 mind4  ,he then is truly an ,orator1   
7,i again repeat it17 who can speak upon
 trivial subjects with simplicity1 upon 
indifferent ones with moderation1 and   
upon weighty subjects with energy and   
pathos4 ,footnote3 ,our ,author is now  
going to indulge himself in the         
,egotism1--a figure1 which1 upon many   
occasions1 he uses as freely as any of  
the figures of ,rhetoric4 ,how the      
,reader will relish it1 ,i know not2 but
 it is evident from what follows1 and   
from another passage of the same kind   
further on1 that ,cicero had as great a 
veneration for his own talents as any   
man living4 ,his merit1 however1 was so 
uncommon both as a ,statesman1 a        

,philosopher1 and an ,orator1 and he has
 obliged posterity with so many useful  
and amazing productions of genius1 that 
we ought in gratitude to forgive the    
vanity of the man4 ,although he has     
ornamented the socket in which he has   
set his character1 with an extravagant  
7and ,i had almost said ridiculous7     
profusion of self-applause1 it must be  
remembered that the diamond it contains 
is a gem of inestimable value4 ,the     
cause ,i pleaded for ,caecina related   
entirely to the bare letter of the      
,interdict3 here1 therefore1 ,i         
explained what was intricate by a       
definition1--spoke in praise of the     
,civil ,law1--and dissolved the         
ambiguities which embarrassed the       
meaning of the ,statute4--,in           
recommending the ,manilian ,law1 ,i was 
to blazon the character of ,pompey1 and 
therefore indulged myself in all that   
variety of ornament which is peculiar to
 the second species of ,eloquence4 ,in  
the cause of ,rabirius1 as the honour of

 the ,republic was at stake1 ,i blazed  
forth in every species of amplification4
 ,but these characters are sometimes to 
be intermingled and diversified4 ,which 
of them1 therefore1 is not to be met    
with in my seven ,invectives against    
,verres8 or in the cause of ,habitus8 or
 in that of ,cornelius8 or indeed in    
most of my ,defences8 ,i would have     
specified the particular examples1 did  
,i not believe them to be sufficiently  
known2 or1 at least1 very easy to be    
discovered by those who will take the   
trouble to seek for them4 ,for there is 
nothing which can recommend an ,orator  
in the different characters of speaking1
 but what has been exemplified in my    
,orations1--if not to perfection1 yet at
 least it has been attempted1 and       
faintly delineated4 ,i have not1 indeed1
 the vanity to think ,i have arrived at 
the summit2 but ,i can easily discern   
what ,eloquence ought to be4 ,for ,i am 
not to speak of myself1 but to attend to
 my subject2 and so far am ,i from      

admiring my own productions1 that1 on   
the contrary1 ,i am so nice and         
difficult1 as not to be entirely        
satisfied with ,demosthenes himself1    
who1 though he rises with superior      
eminence in every species of ,eloquence1
 does not always fill my ear2--so eager 
is it1 and so insatiable1 as to be ever 
coveting what is boundless and immense4 
,but as1 by the assistance of ,pammenes1
 who is very fond of that ,orator1 you  
made yourself thoroughly acquainted with
 him when you was at ,athens1 and to    
this day scarcely ever part with him    
from your hands1 and yet frequently     
condescend to peruse what has been      
written by me2 you must certainly have  
taken notice that he hath done much1 and
 that ,i have attempted much1--that he  
has been happy enough1 and ,i willing   
enough to speak1 upon every occasion1 as
 the nature of the subject required4    
,but he1 beyond dispute1 was a          
consummate ,orator2 for he not only     
succeeded several eminent ,speakers1 but

 had many such for his                  
cotemporaries3--and ,i also1 if ,i could
 have reached the perfection ,i aimed   
at1 should have made no despicable      
figure in a city1 where 7according to   
,antonius7 the voice of genuine         
,eloquence was never heard4  ,but if to 
,antonius neither ,crassus1 nor even    
himself1 appeared to be eloquent1 we may
 presume that neither ,cotta1           
,sulpicius1 nor ,hortensius would have  
succeeded any better4 ,for ,cotta had no
 expansion1 ,sulpicius no temper1 and   
,hortensius too little dignity4 ,but the
 two former 7,i mean ,crassus and       
,antonius7 had a capacity which was     
better adapted to every species of      
,oratory4 ,i had1 therefore1 to address 
myself to the ears of a city which had  
never been filled by that multifarious  
and extensive ,eloquence we are         
discoursing of2 and ,i first allured    
them 7let me have been what you please1 
or what ever were my talents7 to an     
incredible desire of hearing the        

finished ,speaker who is the subject of 
the present ,essay4 ,for with what      
acclamations did ,i deliver that passage
 in my youth concerning the punishment  
of parricides ,footnote3 ,those         
unnatural and infamous wretches1 among  
the ,romans1 were sown into a leathern  
sack1 and thus thrown into the sea2 to  
intimate that they were unworthy of     
having the lead communication with the  
common elements of water1 earth1 and    
air41 though ,i was afterwards sensible 
it was too warm and extravagant8 --,what
 is so common1 said ,i1 as air to the   
living1 earth to the dead1 the sea to   
floating corpses1 and the shore to those
 who are caft upon it by the waves6 ,but
 these wretches1 as long as life        
remains1 so live as not to breathe the  
air of heaven2--they so perish1 that    
their limbs are not suffered to touch   
the earth2--they are so tossed to and   
fro' by the waves1 as never to be warned
 by them2--and when they are cast on the
 shore1 their dead1 carcases cannot rest

 upon the surface of the rocks6 ,all    
this1 as coming from a youth1 was much  
applauded1 not for it's ripeness and    
solidity1 but for the hopes it gave the 
,public of my future improvement4 ,from 
the same capacity came those riper      
expressions1--,she was the spouse of her
 son-in-law1 the step-mother of her own 
offspring8 and the mistress of her      
daughter's husband ,footnote3 ,this     
passage occurs in the peroration of his 
,defence of ,cluentius4  ,but ,i did not
 always indulge myself in this excessive
 ardour of expression1 or speak every   
thing in the same manner3 for even that 
youthful redundance which was so visible
 in the defence of ,roscius1 had many   
passages which were plain and simple1   
and some which were1 tolerably          
humourous4 ,but the ,orations in defence
 of ,habitus1 and ,cornelius1 and indeed
 many others2 7for no single ,orator1   
even among the peaceful and speculative 
,athenians1 has composed such a number  
as ,i have27--these1 ,i say1 have all   

that variety which ,i so much approve4  
,for have ,homer and ,ennius1 and the   
rest of the ,poets1 but especially the  
tragic writers1 not expressed themselves
 at all times with the same elevation1  
but frequently varied their manner1 and 
sometimes lowered it to the style of    
conversation2 and shall ,i oblige myself
 never to descend from that highest     
energy of language8 ,bit why do ,i      
mention the ,poets whose talents are    
divine6 ,the very actors on the stage1  
who have most excelled in their         
profession1 have not only succeeded in  
very different characters1 though still 
in the same province2 but a comedian has
 often acted tragedies1 and a tragedian 
comedies so as to give us universal     
satisfaction4 ,wherefore1 then1 should  
not ,i also exert my efforts8 ,but when 
,i say myself1 my worthy ,brutus ,i mean
 you3 for as to me1 ,i have already done
 all1 ,i was capable of doing4 ,would   
you1 then1 plead every cause in the same
 manner8 ,or is there any sort of causes

 which your genius would decline8 ,or   
even in the same cause1 would you always
 express yourself in the same strain1   
and without any variety8 ,your favourite
 ,demosthenes1 whose brazen statue ,i   
lately beheld among your own1 and your  
family images1 when ,i had the pleasure 
to visit you at                         
,tusculanum1--,demosthenes1 ,i say1 was 
nothing inferior to ,lysias in          
simplicity2 to ,hyperides in smartness  
and poignancy1 or to ,aeschines in the  
smoothness and splendor of his language4
 ,there are many of his ,orations which 
are entirely of the close and simple    
character1 as that against ,lepsines2   
many which are all nervous1 and         
striking1 as those against ,philip2 and 
many which are of a mixed character1 as 
that against ,aeschines1 concerning the 
false embassy1 and another against the  
same person in defence of ,ctesiphon4   
,at other times he strikes into the mean
 at his pleasure1 and quitting the      
nervous character1 descends to this with

 all the ease imaginable4 ,but he raises
 the acclamations of his audience1 and  
his ,oratory is then most weighty and   
powerful1 when he applies himself to the
 nervous4  ,but as our enquiries relate 
to the art1 and not to the artist1 let  
us leave him for the present1 and       
consider the nature and the properties  
of the object before us1--that is1 of   
,eloquence4 ,we must keep in mind1      
however1 what ,i have already           
hinted1--that we are not required to    
deliver a system of precepts1 but to    
write as judges and critics1 rather than
 teachers4 ,but ,i have expatiated so   
largely upon the subject1 because ,i    
foresee that you 7who are1 indeed1 much 
better versed in it1 than ,i who pretend
 to inform you7 will not be my only     
reader2 but that my little essay1 though
 not much perhaps to my credit1 will be 
made public1 and with your name prefixed
 to it4  ,i am of opinion1 therefore1   
that a finished ,orator should not only 
possess the talent 7which1 indeed1 is   

peculiar1 to himself7 of speaking       
copiously and diffusively3 but that he  
should also borrow the assistance of    
it's nearest neighbour1 the art of      
,logic4 ,for though public speaking is  
one thing1 and disputing another2 and   
though there is a visible difference    
between a private controversy1 and a    
public ,harangue2 yet both the one and  
the other come under the notion of      
reasoning4 ,but mere discourse and      
argument belongs to the ,logician1 and  
the art of ,speaking gracefully and     
ornamentally is the prerogative of the  
,orator4 ,zeno1 the father of the       
,stoics1 used to illustrate the         
difference between the two by holding up
 his hand2--for when he clenched his    
fingers1 and presented a close fist1--  
that1 he said1 was an emblem of         
,logic3--but when he spread them out    
again1 and displayed his open           
hand1--this1 said he1 resembles         
,eloquence4 ,but ,aristotle observed    
before him1 in the introduction to his  

,rhetoric1 that it is an art which has a
 near resemblance to that of            
,logic2--and that the only difference   
between them is1 that the method of     
reasoning in the former is more         
diffusive1 and in the latter more close 
and contracted4  ,i1 therefore1 advise  
that our finished ,orator make himself  
master of every thing in the art of     
,logic1 which is applicable to his      
profession3--an art 7as your thorough   
knowledge of it has already informed    
you7 which is taught after two methods4 
,for ,aristotle himself has delivered a 
variety of precepts concerning the art  
of ,reasoning3--and besides these1 the  
,dialecticians 7as they are called7 have
 produced many intricate and thorny     
speculations of their own4 ,i am1       
therefore1 of opinion1 that he who is   
ambitious to be applauded for his       
,eloquence1 should not be wholly        
unacquainted with this branch of        
,erudition2 but that he ought 7at least7
 to be properly instructed either in the

 old method1 or in that of ,chrysippus4 
,in the first place1 he should          
understand the force1 the extension1 and
 the different species of words as they 
stand singly1 or connected into         
sentences4 ,he should likewise be       
acquainted with the various modes and   
forms in which any conception of the    
mind may be expressed--the methods of   
distinguishing a true proposition from a
 false one2--the different conclusions  
which result from different             
premises2--the true consequences and    
opposites to any given                  
proposition2--and1 if an argument is    
embarrassed by ambiguities1 how to      
unravel each of them by an accurate     
distinction4 ,these particulars1 ,i say1
 should be well understood by an        
,orator1 because they are such as       
frequently occur3 but as they are       
naturally rugged and unpleasing1 they   
should be relieved in practice by an    
easy brilliance of expression4  ,but as 
in every topic which is discussed by    

reason and method1 we should first      
settle what it is we are to discourse   
upon1--7for unless the parties in a     
dispute are agreed about the subject of 
it1 they can neither reason with        
propriety1 nor bring the argument to an 
issue27--it will frequently be necessary
 to explain our notions of it1 and1 when
 the matter is intricate1 to lay it open
 by a definition2--for a definition is  
only a sentence1 or explanation1 which  
specifies1 in as few words as possible1 
the nature of the object we propose to  
consider4 ,after the genus1 or kind1 has
 been sufficiently determined1 we must  
then proceed 7you know7 to examine into 
it's different species1 or subordinate  
parts1 that our whole discourse may be  
properly distributed among them4 ,our   
,orator1 then1 should be qualified to   
make a just definition2--though not in  
such a close and contracted form1 as in 
the critical debates of the ,academy1   
but more explicitly and copiously1 and  
as will be best adapted to the common   

way of thinking1 and the capacity of the
 vulgar4 ,he is likewise1 as often as   
occasion requires1 to divide the genus  
into it's proper species1 so as to be   
neither defective1 nor redundant4 ,but  
how and when this should be done1 is not
 our present business to consider3      
because1 as ,i observed before1 ,i am   
not to assume the part of a teacher1 but
 only of a critic and a judge4  ,but he 
ought to acquaint himself not only with 
the art of ,logic1 but with all the     
common and most useful branches of      
,morality4 ,for without a competent     
knowledge of these1 nothing can be      
advanced and unfolded with any spirit   
and energy1 or with becoming dignity and
 freedom1 either concerning             
religion1--death1--filial piety1--the   
love of our country1-- things good or   
evil1--the several virtues and          
vices1--the nature of moral             
obligation1--grief or pleasure1 and the 
other emotions of the mind1--or the     
various errors and frailties of         

humanity1--and a variety of important   
topics which are often closely connected
 with forensic causes2 though here7it is
 true7 they must be touched upon more   
slightly and superficially4 ,i am now   
speaking of the materials of ,eloquence1
 and not of the art itself3--for an     
,orator should always be furnished with 
a plentiful stock of sentiments1--7,i   
mean such as may claim the attention of 
the learned1 as well as of the          
vulgar7--before he concerns himself     
about the language and the manner in    
which he ought to express himself4      
,that he may make a still more          
respectable and elevated figure 7as we  
have already observed of ,pericles7 he  
should not be unacquainted with the     
principles of ,natural ,philosophy4 ,for
 when he descends1 as it were1 from the 
starry heavens1 to the little concerns  
of humanity1 he will both think and     
speak with greater dignity and splendor4
 ,but after acquainting himself with    
those divine and nobler objects of      

contemplation1 ,i would have him attend 
to human concerns4 ,in particular1 let  
him make himself master of the ,civil   
,law1 which is of daily1 and indeed     
necessary use in every kind of causes4  
,for what can be more scandalous1 than  
to undertake the management of judicial 
suits and controversies1 without a      
proper knowledge of the laws1 and of the
 principles of ,equity and              
,jurisprudence8 ,he should also be well 
versed in ,history and the venerable    
records of ,antiquity1 but particularly 
those of his own country3 not           
neglecting1 however1 to peruse the      
annals of other powerful nations1 and   
illustrious monarchs2--a toil which has 
been considerably shortened by our      
friend ,atticus1 who 7though he has     
carefully specified the time of every   
event1 and omitted no transaction of    
consequence7 has comprized the history  
of seven hundred years in a single      
volume4 ,to be unacquainted with what   
has passed in the world1 before we came 

into it ourselves1 is to be always      
children4 ,for what is the age of a     
single mortal1 unless it is connected1  
by the aid of ,history1 with the times  
of our ancestors8 ,besides1 the relation
 of past occurrences1 and the producing 
pertinent and striking examples1 is not 
only very entertaining1 but adds a great
 deal of dignity and weight to what we  
say4  ,thus furnished and equipped our  
,orator may undertake the management of 
causes4 ,but1 in the first place1 he    
should be well acquainted with their    
different kinds4 ,he should know1 for   
instance1 that every judicial           
controversy must turn either upon a     
matter of fact1 or upon the meaning of  
some particular expression4 ,as to the  
former1 this must always relate either  
to the reality of a fast1 the equity of 
it1 or the name it bears in law4 ,as to 
forms of expression1 these may become   
the subject of controversy1 when they   
are either ambiguous1 or contradictory4 
,for when the spirit of a law appears to

 be at variance with the letter of it1  
this must cause an ambiguity which      
commonly arises from some of the        
preceding terms2 so that in this case   
7for such is the nature of an ambiguity7
 the law will appear to have a double   
meaning4  ,as the kinds of causes are so
 few1 the rules for the invention of    
arguments must be few also4 ,the topics1
 or common places from which those      
arguments are derived1 are twofold1--the
 one inherent in the subject1 and the   
other assumptive4 ,a skilful management 
of the former contributes most to1 give 
weight to a discourse1 and strike the   
attention of the hearer3 because they   
are easy1 and familiar to the           
understanding4  ,what farther remains   
7within the province of the ,art7 but   
that we should begin our discourses so  
as to conciliate the hearer's good-will1
 or raise his expectation1 or prepare   
him to receive what follows8--to state  
the case before us so concisely1 and yet
 so plausibly and clearly1 as that the  

substance of it may be easily           
comprehended8--to support our own       
proofs1 and refute those of our         
antagonist1 not in a confused and       
disorderly manner1 but so that every    
inference may be fairly deducible from  
the premises8--and1 in the last place1  
to conclude the whole with a peroration 
either to inflame or allay the passions 
of the audience8 ,how each of these     
parts should be conducted is a subject  
too intricate and extensive for our     
present consideration3 for they are not 
always to be managed in the same manner4
  ,but as ,i am not seeking a pupil to  
instruct1 but an ,orator who is to be   
the model of his profession1 he must    
have the preference who can always      
discern what is proper and becoming4    
,for ,eloquence should1 above all1      
things1 have that kind of discretion    
which makes her a perfect mistress of   
time and character3 because we are not  
to speak upon every occasion1 or before 
every audience1 or against every        

opponent1 or in defence of every client1
 and to every ,judge1 in the same       
invariable manner4 ,he1 therefore1 is   
the man of genuine ,eloquence1 who can  
adapt his language to what is most      
suitable to each4 ,by doing this1 he    
will be sure to say every thing as it   
ought to be said4 ,he will neither speak
 drily upon copious subjects1 nor       
without dignity and spirit upon things  
of importance2 but his language will    
always be proportioned1 and equal to his
 subject4 ,his introduction will be     
modest1--not flaming with all the glare 
of expression1 but composed of quick and
 lively turns of sentiment1 either to   
wound the cause of his antagonist1 or   
recommend his own4 ,his narratives will 
be clear and plausible1--not delivered  
with the grave formality of an          
,historian1 but in the style of polite  
conversation4 ,if his cause be slight1  
the thread of his argument1 both in     
proving and refuting1 will be so        
likewise1 and he will so conduct it in  

every part1 that his language may rise  
and expand itself1 as the dignity of his
 subject encreases4 ,but when his cause 
will admit a full exertion of the powers
 of ,eloquence1 he will then display    
himself more openly2--he will then rule1
 and bend the passions1 and direct them1
 at his pleasure1--that is1 as the      
nature of his cause and the             
circumstances of the time shall require4
  ,but his powers of ornament will be   
chiefly exerted upon two occasions2 ,i  
mean that striking kind of ornament1    
from which ,eloquence derives her       
greatest glory4 ,for though every part  
of an ,oration should have so much      
merit1 as not to contain a single word  
but what is either weighty or elegant2  
there are two very interesting parts    
which are susceptible of the greatest   
variety of ornament4 ,the one is the    
discussion of an indefinite question1 or
 general truth1 which by the ,greeks 7as
 ,i have before observed7 is called a   
thesis3 and the other is employed in    

amplifying and exaggerating1 which they 
call an auxesis4 ,though the latter1    
indeed1 should diffuse itself more or   
less through the whole body of a        
discourse1 it's powers will be more     
conspicuous in the use and improvement  
of the common places3--which are so     
called1 as being alike common to a      
number of causes1 though 7in the        
application of them7 they are constantly
 appropriated to a single one4 ,but as  
to the other part1 which regards        
universal truths1 or indefinite         
questions1 this frequently extends      
through a whole cause3--for the leading 
point in debate1 or that which the      
controversy hinges upon1 is always most 
conveniently discussed when it can be   
reduced to a general question1 and      
considered as an universal              
proposition3--unless1 indeed1 when the  
mere truth of a matter of fact3 is the  
object3 of disquisition3 for then the   
case must be wholly conjectural4 ,we are
 not1 however1 to argue like the        

,peripatetics 7who have a neat method of
 controversy which they derive from     
,aristotle7 but more nervously and      
pressingly2 and general sentiments must 
be so applied to particular cases1 as to
 leave us room to say many extenuating  
things in behalf of the ,defendant1 and 
many severe ones against the ,plaintiff4
 ,but in heightening or softening a     
circumstance1 the powers of language are
 unlimited1 and may be properly exerted1
 even in the middle of an argument1 as  
often as any thing presents itself which
 may be either exaggerated1 or          
extenuated2 but1 in1 controul4  ,there  
are two parts1 however1 which must not  
be omitted2--for when these are         
judiciously conducted1 the sorce of     
,eloquence will be amazing4 ,the one is 
a certain propriety of manner 7called   
the ethic by the ,greeks7 which readily 
adapts itself to different dispositions 
and humours1 and to every station of    
life3--and the other is the pathetic1   
which rouses and alarms the passions1   

and may be considered as the scepter of 
,eloquence4 ,the former is mild and     
insinuating1 and entirely calculated to 
conciliate the good-will of the hearer3 
but the latter is all energy and fire1  
and snatches a cause by open            
violence2--and when it's course is rapid
 and unrestrained1 the shock is         
irresistible4 ,i footnote3 ,here follows
 the second passage above-referred to1  
in which there is a long string of      
,egotisms4 ,but as they furnish some    
very instructive hints1 the ,reader will
 peruse them with more pleasure than    
pain myself have possessed a tolerable  
share of this1 or1 it may be1 a trifling
 one3--but as ,i always spoke with      
uncommon warmth and impetuosity1 ,i have
 frequently forced my antagonist to     
relinquish the field4 ,hortensius1 an   
eminent ,speaker1 once declined to      
answer me1 though in defence of an      
intimate friend4 ,cataline1 a most      
audacious traitor1 being publicly       
accused by me in the ,senate-house1 was 

struck dumb with shame3 and ,curio1 the 
father1 when he attempted to reply to me
 in a weighty and important cause which 
concerned the honour of his family1 sat 
suddenly down1 and complained that ,i   
had bewitched him out of his memory4 ,as
 to moving the pity of my audience1 it  
will be unnecessary to mention this4 ,i 
have frequently attempted it with good  
success1 and when several of us have    
pleaded on the same side1 this part of  
the defence was always resigned to me2  
in which my supposed excellence was not 
owing to the superiority of my genius1  
but to the real concern ,i felt for the 
distresses of my client4 ,but what in   
this respect have been my talents 7for  
,i have had no reason to complain of    
them7 may be easily discovered in my    
,orations3--though a book1 indeed1 must 
lose much of the spirit which makes a   
speech delivered in public appear to    
greater advantage than when it is       
perused in the closet4  ,but we are to  
raise not only the pity of our judges1  

7which ,i have endeavoured so           
passionately1 that ,i once took up an   
infant in my arms while ,i was          
speaking2--and1 at another time1 calling
 up the nobleman in whose defence ,i    
spoke1 and holding up a little child of 
his before the whole assembly1 ,i filled
 the ,forum with my cries and           
lamentations37--but it is also necessary
 to rouse the judge's indignation1 to   
appease it1 to excite his jealousy1 his 
benevolence1 his contempt1 his wonder1  
his abhorrence1 his love1 his desire1   
his aversion1 his hope1 his fear1 his   
joy1 and his grief3--in all which       
variety1 you may find examples1 in many 
accusatory speeches1 of rousing the     
harsher passions2 and my ,defences will 
furnish instances enough of the methods 
of working upon the gentler4 ,for there 
is no method either of alarming or      
soothing the passions1 but what has been
 attempted by me4 ,i would say ,i have  
carried it to perfection1 if ,i either  
thought so1 or was not afraid that 7in  

this case7 even truth itself might incur
 the charge of arrogance4 ,but 7as ,i   
have before observed7 ,i have been so   
much transported1 not by the force of my
 genius1 but by the real fervor of my   
heart1 that ,i was unable to restrain   
myself3 --and1 indeed1 no language will 
inflame the mind of the hearer1 unless  
the ,speaker himself first catches the  
ardor1 and glows with the importance of 
his subject4 ,i would refer to examples 
of my own1 unless you had seen them     
already2 and to those of other ,speakers
 among the ,romans1 if ,i could produce 
any1 or among the ,greeks1 if ,i judged 
it proper4 ,but ,crassus will only      
furnish us with a few1 and those not of 
the forensic kind3-- ,antonius1 ,cotta1 
and ,sulpicius with none3--and as to    
,hortensius1 he spoke much better than  
he wrote4 ,we may1 therefore1 easily    
judge how amazing must be the force of a
 talent1 of which we have so few        
examples3-- but if we are resolved to   
seek for them1 we must have recourse to 

,demosthenes1 in whom we find almost a  
continued succession of them1 in that   
part of his ,oration for ,ctesiphon1    
where he enlarges on his own actions1   
his measures1 and his good services to  
the ,state1 ,for that ,oration1 ,i must 
own1 approaches so near to the primary  
form or semblance of ,eloquence which   
exists in my mind1 that a more complete 
and exalted pattern is scarcely         
desirable4 ,but still1 there will remain
 a general model or character1 the true 
nature and excellence of which may be   
easily collected from the hints ,i have 
already offered4  ,we have slightly     
touched upon the ornaments of language1 
both in single words1 and in words as   
they stand connected with each          
other2--in which our ,orator will so    
indulge himself1 that not a single      
expression may escape him1 but what is  
either elegant or weighty4 ,but he will 
most abound in the metaphor2 which1 by  
an aptness of similitude1 conveys and   
transports the mind from object to      

object1 and hurries it backwards and    
forwards through a pleasing variety of  
images2--a motion which1 in its own     
nature1 7as being full of life and      
action7 can never fail to be highly     
delightful4 ,as to the other ornaments  
of language which regard words as they  
are connected with each other1 an       
,oration will derive much of its lustre 
from these4 ,they are like the          
decorations in the ,theatre1 or the     
,forum1 which not only embellish1 but   
surprize4 ,footnote3 ,in the following  
,abstract of the ,figures of ,language  
and ,sentiment1 ,i have often           
paraphrased upon my author1 to make him 
intelligible to the ,english reader2--a 
liberty which ,i have likewise taken in 
several other places1 where ,i judged it
 necessary4 ,for such also is the effect
 of the various figures or decorations  
of language2--such as the doubling or   
repetition of the same word2--the       
repeating it with a slight variation2   
--the beginning or concluding several   

sentences in the same manner1 or both at
 once2--the making a word1 which        
concludes a preceding sentence1 to begin
 the following2--the concluding a       
sentence with the same expression which 
began it2--the repeating the same word  
with a different meaning2 --the using   
several corresponding words in the same 
case1 or with the same termination2--the
 contrasting opposite expressions2--the 
using words whose meaning rises in      
gradation2--the leaving out the         
conjunctive particles to shew our       
earnestness2--the passing by1 or        
suddenly dropping a circumstance we were
 going to mention1 and assigning a      
reason for so doing2 --,footnote3 ,we   
have an instance of this1 considered as 
a figure of language1 in the following  
line of ,virgil2   ,quos ego--1 sed     
praestat motos componere fluctus4       
,aeneid4 ,i4   ,whom ,i--1 but let me   
still the raging waves4 ,this may       
likewise serve as an example of the     
figure which is next mentioned4 the     

pretending to correct or reprove        
ourselves1 that we may seem to speak    
without artifice or partiality2--the    
breaking out into a sudden exclamation1 
to express our wonder1 our abhorrence1  
or our grief2-- and the using the same  
noun in different cases4  ,but the      
figures of sentiment are more weighty   
and powerful2 and there are some who    
place the highest merit of ,demosthenes 
in the frequent use he makes of them4   
,for be his subject what it will1 almost
 all his sentences have a figurative    
air3 and1 indeed1 a plentiful           
intermixture of this sort of figures is 
the very life and soul of a popular     
,eloquence4 ,but as you are thoroughly  
acquainted with these1 my ,brutus1 what 
occasion is there to explain and        
exemplify them8 ,the bare mention of    
them will be sufficient4--,our ,orator1 
then1 will sometimes exhibit an idea in 
different points of view1 and when he   
has started a good argument1 he will    
dwell upon it with an honest            

exultation2--he will extenuate what is  
unfavourable1 and have frequent recourse
 to raillery2--he will sometimes deviate
 from his plan1 and seem to alter his   
first purpose3--he will inform his      
audience beforehand1 what are the       
principal points upon which he intends  
to rest his cause2--he will collect and 
point out the force of the arguments he 
has already discussed2 he will check an 
ardent expression1 or boldly reiterate  
what he has said2--he will close a      
lively paragraph with some weighty and  
convincing sentiment2--he will press    
upon his adversary by repeated          
interrogations2--he will reason with    
himself1 and answer questions of his own
 proposing2--he will throw out          
expressions which he designs to be      
otherwise understood than they seem to  
mean2--he will pretend to doubt what is 
most proper to be said1 and in what     
order2-- he will divide an action1 c4   
into its several parts and              
circumstances1 to render it more        

striking2--he will pretend to pass over 
and relinquish a circumstance which     
might have been urged to advantage2--he 
will secure himself against the known   
prejudices of his audience2--he will    
turn the very circumstance which is     
alledged against him to the prejudice of
 his antagonist2--he will frequently    
appeal to his hearers1 and sometimes to 
his opponent2--he will represent the    
very language and manners of the persons
 he is speaking of2--he will introduce  
irrational and even inanimate beings1 as
 addressing themselves to his           
audience2--he will 7to serve some       
necessary purpose7 steal off their      
attention from the point in debate2--he 
will frequently move them to mirth and  
laughter2--he will answer every thing   
which he foresees will be objected2--he 
will compare similar incidents1--refer  
to past examples1--and by way of        
amplification assign their              
distinguishing qualities to opposite    
characters and circumstances2--he will  

check an impertinent plea which may     
interrupt his argument2--he will pretend
 not to mention what he might have urged
 to good purpose2--he will caution his  
hearers against the various artifices   
and subterfuges which may be employed to
 deceive them2--he will sometimes appear
 to speak with an honest1 but unguarded 
freedom2--he will avow his              
resentment2--he will entreat2--he will  
earnestly supplicate2--he will          
apologize2--he will seem for a moment to
 forget himself2--he will express his   
hearty good wishes for the deserving1   
and vent his execrations against        
notorious villainy2--and now and then he
 will descend imperceptibly to the most 
tender and insinuating familiarities4   
,there are likewise ,other beauties of  
composition which he will not fail to   
pursue2--such as brevity where the      
subject requires it2--a lively and      
pathetic description of important       
occurrences2--a passionate exaggeration 
of remarkable circumstances2--an        

earnestness of expression which implies 
more than is said2--a well-timed variety
 of humour2--and a happy imitation of   
different characters and dispositions4  
,assisted and adorned by such figures as
 these1 which are very numerous1 the    
force of ,eloquence will appear in its  
brightest lustre4 ,but even these1      
unless they are properly formed and     
regulated1 by a skilful disposition of  
their constituent words1 will never     
attain the merit we require2--a subject 
which ,i shall be obliged to treat of in
 the sequel1 though ,i am restrained    
partly by the circumstances already     
mentioned1 but much more so by the      
following4 ,for ,i am sensible not only 
that there are some invidious people1 to
 whom every improvement appears vain and
 superfluous2 but that even those1 who  
are well-wishers to my reputation1 may  
think it beneath the dignity of a man   
whose public services have been so      
honourably distinguished by the ,senate1
 and the whole body of the ,roman       

people1 to employ my pen so largely upon
 the art of ,speaking4 ,footnote3 ,the  
long apology which our author is now    
going to make for bestowing his time in 
composing a treatise of ,oratory1 is in 
fact a very artful as well as an elegant
 digression2 to relieve the dryness and 
intricacy of the abstract he has just   
given us of the figures of rhetoric1 and
 of the subsequent account of the rules 
of prosaic harmony4 ,he has also        
enlivened that account 7which is a very 
long one7 in the same manner1 by        
interspersing it1 at convenient         
distances1 with fine examples1 agreeable
 companions1 and short historical       
digressions to elucidate the subject4   
,if1 however1 ,i was to return no other 
answer to the latter1 but that ,i was   
unwilling to deny any thing to the      
request of ,brutus1 the apology must be 
unexceptionable2 because ,i am only     
aiming at the satisfaction of an        
intimate friend1 and a worthy man1 who  
desires nothing of me but what is just  

and honourable4  ,but was ,i even to    
profess 7what ,i wish ,i was capable of7
 that ,i mean to give the necessary     
precepts1 and point out the road to     
,eloquence to those who are desirous to 
qualify themselves for the ,forum1 what 
man of sense could blame me for it8 ,for
 who ever doubted that in the decision  
of political matters1 and in time of    
peace1 ,eloquence has always borne the  
sway in the ,roman state1 while         
,jurisprudence has possessed only the   
second post of honour8 ,for whereas the 
former is a constant source of authority
 and reputation1 and enables us to      
defend ourselves and our friends in the 
most effectual manner2--the other only  
furnishes us with formal rules for      
indictments1 pleas1 protests1 c4 in     
conducting which she is frequently      
obliged to sue for the assistance of    
,eloquence2--but if the latter          
condescends to oppose her1 she is       
scarcely able to maintain her ground1   
and defend her own territories4 ,if     

therefore to teach the ,civil ,law has  
always been reckoned a very honourable  
employment1 and the houses of the most  
eminent men of that profession1 have    
been crowded with disciples2 who can be 
reasonably censured for exciting our    
youth to the study of ,eloquence1 and   
furnishing them with all the assistance 
in his power8 ,if it is a fault to speak
 gracefully1 let ,eloquence be for ever 
banished from the state4 ,but if1 on the
 contrary1 it reflects an honour1 not   
only upon the man who possesses it1 but 
upon the country which gave him birth1  
how can it be a disgrace to learn1 what 
it is so glorious to know8 ,or why      
should it not be a credit to teach what 
it is the highest honour to have        
learned8  ,but1 in one case1 they will  
tell me1 the practice has been          
sanctified by custom1 and in the other  
it has not4 ,this ,i grant3 but ,we may 
easily account for both4 ,as to the     
gentlemen of the law1 it was sufficient 
to hear them1 when they decided upon    

such cases as were laid before them in  
the course of business2--so that when   
they taught1 they did not set apart any 
particular time for that purpose1 but   
the same answers satisfied their clients
 and their pupils4 ,on the other hand1  
as our ,speakers of eminence spent their
 time1 while at home1 in examining and  
digesting their causes1 and while in the
 ,forum in pleading them1 and the       
remainder of it in a seasonable         
relaxation1 what opportunity had they   
for teaching and instructing others8 ,i 
might venture to add that most of our   
,orators have been more distinguishied  
by their genius1 than by their learning2
 and for that reason were much better   
qualified to be ,speakers than          
,teachers2 which it is possible may be  
the reverse of my case4--,true1 say     
they2 but teaching is an employment     
which is far from being recommended by  
its dignity4 ,and so indeed it is1 if we
 teach like mere pedagogues4 ,but if we 
only direct1 encourage1 examine1 and    

inform our pupils2 and sometimes        
accompany them in reading or hearing the
 performances of the most eminent       
,speakers2--if by these means we are    
able to contribute to their improvement1
 what should hinder us from             
communicating a few instructions1 as    
opportunity offers8 ,shall we deem it an
 honourable employment1 as indeed with  
us it is1 to teach the form of a legal  
process1 or an excommunication from the 
rites and privileges of our religion2   
and shall it not be equally honourable  
to teach the methods by which those     
privileges may be defended and          
secured8--,perhaps it may1 they will    
reply2 but even those who know scarcely 
any thing of the law are ambitious to be
 thought masters of it2 whereas those   
who are well furnished with the powers  
of ,eloquence pretend to be wholly      
unacquainted with them2 because they are
 sensible that useful knowledge is a    
valuable recommendation1 whereas an     
artful tongue is suspected by every one4

 ,but is it possible1 then1 to exert the
 powers of ,eloquence without           
discovering them8 ,or is an ,orator     
really thought to be no ,orator1 because
 he disclaims the title8 ,or is it      
likely that1 in a great and noble art1  
the world will judge it a scandal to    
teach what it is the greatest honour to 
learn8 ,others1 indeed1 may have been   
more reserved2 but1 for my part1 ,i have
 always owned my profession4 ,for how   
could ,i do otherwise1 when1 in my      
youth1 ,i left my native land1 and      
crossed the sea1 with no other view but 
to improve myself in this kind of       
knowledge2 and1 when afterwards my house
 was crowded with the ablest professors1
 and my very style betrayed some traces 
of a liberal education8 ,nay1 when my   
own writings were in every body's hands1
 with what face could ,i pretend that ,i
 had not studied8 ,or what excuse could 
,i have for submitting my abilities to  
the judgment of the public1 if ,i had   
been apprehensive that they would think 

,i had studied to no purpose8 ,footnote3
 ,this sentence in the original runs    
thus2--,quid erat cur probarem 7i4e4    
scripta nostra71 nisi quod parum        
fortasse profeceram8--,wherefore did ,i 
approve of them1 7that is1 of my        
writings1 so far as to make them public7
 but because ,i had1 7in my own opinion7
 made a progress1 though perhaps a small
 one1 in useful literature8 ,this1 at   
least1 is the only meaning ,i am able to
 affix to it2 and ,i flatter myself1    
that the translation ,i have given of   
it1 will be found to correspond with the
 general sense of my author4 ,but the   
points we have already discussed are    
susceptible of greater dignity and      
elevation1 than those which remain to be
 considered4 ,for we are next to treat  
of the arrangement of our words2 and1   
indeed1 ,i might have said1 of the art  
of numbering and measuring our very     
syllables2 which1 though it may1 in     
reality1 be a matter of as much         
consequence as ,i judge it to be1 cannot

 however be supposed to have such a     
striking appearance in precept as in    
practice4 ,this1 indeed1 might be said  
of every other branch of useful         
knowledge2 but it is more remarkably    
true with respect to this4 ,for the     
actual growth and improving height of   
all the sublimer arts1 like that of     
trees1 affords a pleasing prospect2     
whereas the roots and stems are scarcely
 beheld with indifference3 and yet the  
former cannot subsist without the       
latter4 ,but whether ,i am restrained   
from dissembling the pleasure ,i take in
 the subject1 by the honest advice of   
the ,poet1 who says1    ,blush not to   
own the art you love to practise4  or   
whether this treatise has been extorted 
from me by the importunity of my friend1
 it was proper to obviate the censures  
to which it will probably expose me4    
,and yet1 even supposing that ,i am     
mistaken in my sentiments1 who would    
shew himself so much of a savage1 as to 
refuse me his indulgence 7now all my    

forensic employments and public business
 are at an end7 for not resigning myself
 to that stupid inactivity which is     
contrary to my nature1 or to that       
unavailing sorrow which ,i do my best to
 overcome1 rather than devote myself to 
my favourite studies8 ,these first      
conducted me into the ,forum and the    
,senate-,house1 and they are now the    
chief comforts of my retirement4 ,i     
have1 however1 applied myself not only  
to such speculations as form the subject
 of the present ,essay1 but to others   
more sublime and interesting2 and if ,i 
am able to discuss them in a proper     
manner1 my private studies will be no   
disparagement to my forensic            
employments4  ,but it is time to return 
to our subject4--,our words1 then1      
should be so disposed that every        
following one may be aptly connected    
with the preceding1 so as to make an    
agreeable sound2--or that the mere form 
and concinnity of our language may give 
our sentences their proper measure and  

dimensions2--or1 lastly1 that our       
periods may have a numerous and measured
 cadence4  ,the first thing1 then1 to be
 attended to1 is the structure of our   
language1 or the agreeable connection of
 one word with another2 which1 though it
 certainly requires care1 ought not to  
be practised with a laborious nicety4   
,for this would be an endless and       
puerile attempt1 and is justly ridiculed
 by ,lucilius1 when he introduces       
,scaevola thus reflecting upon          
,albucius3    ,as in the checquer'd     
pavement ev'ry square   ,is nicely      
fitted by the mason's care3   ,so all   
thy words are plac'd with curious art1  
,and ev'ry syllable performs its part4  
,but though we are not to be minutely   
exact in the structure of our language1 
a moderate share of practice will       
habituate us to every thing of this     
nature which is necessary4 ,for as the  
eye in reading1 so the mind in speaking1
 will readily discern what ought to     
follow1--that1 in connecting our words1 

there may neither be a chasm1 nor a     
disagreeable harshness4 ,the most lively
 and interesting sentiments1 if they are
 harshly expressed1 will offend the ear1
 that delicate and fastidious judge of  
rhetorical harmony4 ,this circumstance1 
therefore1 is so carefully attended to  
in the ,roman language1 that there is   
scarcely a rustic among us who is not   
averse to a collision of vowels1--a     
defect which1 in the opinion of some1   
was too scrupulously avoided by         
,theopompus1 though his master          
,isocrates was equally cautious4 ,but   
,thucydides was not so exact2 nor was   
,plato1 7though a much better           
writer7--not only in his ,dialogues1 in 
which it was necessary to maintain an   
easy negligence1 to resemble the style  
of conversation1 but in the famous      
,panegyric1 in which 7according to the  
custom of the ,athenians7 he celebrated 
the praises of those who fell in battle1
 and which was so greatly esteemed1 that
 it is publicly repeated every year4 ,in

 that ,oration a collision of vowels    
occurs very frequently2 though          
,demosthenes generally avoids it as a   
fault4  ,but let the ,greeks determine  
for themselves3 we ,romans are not      
allowed to interrupt the connection of  
our words4 ,even the rude and unpolished
 ,orations of ,cato are a proof of this2
 as are likewise all our poets1 except  
in particular instances1 in which they  
were obliged to admit a few breaks1 to  
preserve their metre4 ,thus we find in  
,naevius1    ,vos ,,qui ,,accolitis     
histrum ,,fluvium ,,atque ,,algidum4    
,and in another place1    ,quam nunquam 
vobis ,,graii ,,atque ,barbari4  ,but   
,ennius admits it only once1 when he    
says1    ,scipio invicte2  and likewise 
,i myself in    ,hoc motu radiantis     
,,etesiae ,,in ,vada ,ponti4  ,this1    
however1 would seldom be suffered among 
us1 though the ,greeks often commend it 
as a beauty4  ,but why do ,i speak of a 
collision of vowels8 for1 omitting this1
 we have frequently contracted our words

 for the sake of brevity2 as in multi'  
modis1 vas' argenteis1 palm' et         
crinibus1 tecti' fractis1 c4 ,we have   
sometimes also contracted our proper    
names1 to give them a smoother sound3   
for as we have changed ,duellum into    
,bellum1 and duis into bis1 so          
,duellius1 who defeated the             
,carthagenians at sea1 was called       
,bellius1 though all his ancestors were 
named ,duellii4 ,we likewise abbreviate 
our words1 not only for convenience1 but
 to please and gratify the ear4 ,for how
 otherwise came axilla to be changed    
into ala1 but by the omission of an     
unweildy consonant1 which the elegant   
pronunciation of our language has       
likewise banished from the words        
maxillae1 taxillae1 vexillum1 and       
paxillum8  ,upon the same principle1 two
 or more words have been contracted into
 one1 as sodes for si audes1 sis for si 
vis1 capsis for cape si vis1 ain' for   
aisne1 nequire for non quire1 malle for 
magis velle1 and nolle for non velle2   

and we often say dein' and exin' for    
deinde and exinde4 ,it is equally       
evident why we never say cum nobis1 but 
nobiscum2 though we do not scruple to   
say cum illis2--viz4 because1 in the    
former case1 the union of the consonants
 m and n would produce a jarring sound3 
and we also say mecum and tecum1 and not
 cum me and cum te1 to correspond with  
nobiscum and vobiscum4 ,but some1 who   
would correct antiquity rather too late1
 object to these contractions3 for1     
instead of prob ,,de,m atque hominum    
fidem1 they say ,deorum4 ,they are not  
aware1 ,i suppose1 that custom has      
sanctified the licence4 ,the same ,poet1
 therefore1 who1 almost without a       
precedent1 has said patris mei ,,me,m   
,,fact,m pudet1 instead of meorum       
factorum1--and textitur exitim examen   
rapit for exitiorum1 does not choose to 
say liberum1 as we generally do in the  
expressions cupidos liberm1 and in      
liberm loco1 but1 as the literary       
virtuosos above-mentioned would have it1

    neque tuum unquam in gremium        
extollas                   ,,liberorum  
ex te genus1  and1    namque ,aesculap  
,,liberorum4  ,but the author before    
quoted says in his ,chryses1 not only   
,cives1 antiqui amici majorum ,,me,m1   
which was common enough--1 but more     
harshly still1    ,,consili,m1          
,,auguri,m1 atque ,,ext,m interpretes2  
and in another place1    ,postquam      
,,prodigi,m ,,horrifer,m ,,portent,m    
pavos4  a licence which is not customary
 in all neuters indifferently3 for ,i   
should not be so willing to say armm    
judicium1 as armorum2 though in the same
 writer we meet with nihilne ad te de   
judicio armm accidit8 ,and yet 7as we   
find it in the public registers7 ,i     
would venture to say fabrm1 and procm1  
and not fabrorum and procorum4 ,but ,i  
would never say duorum virorum judicium1
 or trium virorum capitalium1 or decem  
virorum litibus judicandis4 ,in ,accius1
 however1 we meet with    ,video        
sepulchra duo duorum corporum2  though  

in another place he says1    ,mulier una
 duum virum4  ,i know1 indeed1 which is 
most conformable to the rules of        
grammar3 but yet ,i sometimes express   
myself as the freedom of our language   
allows me1 as when ,i say at pleasure1  
either prob deum1 or prob deorum2--and1 
at other times1 as ,i am obliged by     
custom1 as when ,i say trium virum for  
virorum1 or sestertium nummum for       
nummorum3 because in the latter case the
 mode of expression is invariable4  ,but
 what shall we say when these humourists
 forbid us to say nosse and judicasse   
for novisse and judicavisse2 as if we   
did not know1 as well as themselves1    
that1 in these instances1 the verb at   
full length is most agreeable to the    
laws of grammar1 though custom has given
 the preference to the contracted verb8 
,terence1 therefore1 has made use of    
both1 as when he says1 eho tu cognatum  
tuum non nors8 and afterwards1          
,stilphonem1 inquam1 noveras8  ,thus    
also1 fiet is a perfect verb1 and fit a 

contracted one2 and accordingly we find 
in the same ,comedian1    ,quam cara    
,,sintque post carendo intelligunt1  and
    ,quamque attinendi magni dominatus  
,,sient4  ,in the same manner ,i have no
 objection to scripsere alii rem1 though
 ,i am sensible that scripserunt is more
 grammatical2 because ,i submit with    
pleasure to the indulgent laws of custom
 which delights to gratify the ear4     
,idem campus habet1 says ,ennius2 and in
 another place1 in templis sdem2 eisdem1
 indeed1 would have been more           
grammatical1 but not sufficiently       
harmonious2 and iisdem would have       
sounded still worse4  ,but we are       
allowed by custom even to dispense with 
the rules of etymology to improve the   
sweetness of our language2 and ,i would 
therefore rather say1 pomeridianas      
,quadrigas1 than postmeridianas2 and    
mehercule1 than mehercules4 ,for the    
same reason non scire would now be      
deemed a barbarism1 becaule nescire has 
a smoother sound2 and we have likewise  

substituted meridiem for medidiem1      
because the latter was offensive to the 
ear4 ,even the preposition ab1 which so 
frequently occurs in our compound verbs 
is preserved entire only in the         
formality of a ,journal1 and1 indeed1   
not always there3 in every other sort of
 language it is frequently altered4     
,thus we say amovit1 abegit1 and        
abstulit2 so that you can scarcely      
determine whether the primitive         
preposition should be ab or abs4 ,we    
have likewise rejected even abfugit1 and
 abfer1 and introduced aufugit and aufer
 in their stead2--thus forming a new    
preposition1 which is to be found in no 
other verb but these4 ,noti1 navi1 and  
nari1 have all been words in common use3
 but when they were afterwards to be    
compounded with the preposition in1 it  
was thought more harmonious to say      
ignoti1 ignavi1 and ignari1 than to     
adhere strictly to the rules of         
etymology4 ,we likewise say ex usu1 and 
e ,republic2 because1 in the former     

case1 the preposition is followed by a  
vowel1 and1 in the latter1 it would have
 sounded harshly without omitting the   
consonant2 as may also be observed in   
exegit1 edixit1 refecit1 retulit1 and   
reddidit4  ,sometimes the preposition   
alters or otherwise affects the first   
letter of the verb with which it happens
 to be compounded2 as in subegit1       
summutavit1 and sustutit4 ,at other     
times it changes one of the subsequent  
letters2 as when we say insipientem for 
insapientem1 iniquum for inaequum1      
tricipitem for tricapitem1 and concisum 
for concaesum3 and from hence some have 
ventured to say pertisum for pertaesum1 
which custom has never warranted4  ,but 
what can be more delicate than our      
changing even the natural quantity of   
our syllables to humour the ear8 ,thus  
in the adjectives inclytus1 and         
inhumanus1 the first syllable after the 
preposition is short1 whereas insanus   
and infelix have it long2 and1 in       
general1 those words whose first letters

 are the same as in sapiens and felix1  
have their first syllable long in       
composition1 but all others have the    
same syllable short1 as composuit1      
consuevit1 concrepuit1 confecit4        
,examine these liberties by the strict  
rules of etymology1 and they must       
certainly be condemned2 but refer them  
to the decision of the ear1 and they    
will be instantly approved4--,what is   
the reason8 ,your ear will inform you   
they have an easier sound2 and every    
language must submit to gratify the ear4
 ,i myself1 because our ancestors never 
admitted the aspirate1 unless where a   
syllable began with a vowel1 used to say
 pulcros1 ,cetegos1 triumpos1 and       
,cartaginem3 but some time afterwards1  
though not very soon1 when this         
grammatical accuracy was wrested from me
 by the censure of the ear1 ,i resigned 
the mode of language to the vulgar1 and 
reserved the theory to myself4 ,but we  
still say1 without any hesitation1      
,orcivios1 ,matones1 ,otones1 coepiones1

 sepulcra1 coronas1 and lacrymas1       
because the ear allows it4 ,ennius      
always uses ,burrum1 and never ,pyrrhum2
 and the ancient copies of the same     
author have    ,vi patefecerunt         
,,bruges1  not ,phryges2 because the    
,greek vowel had not then been adopted1 
though we now admit both that and the   
aspirate3--and1 in fact1 when we had    
afterwards occasion to say ,phrygum and 
,phrygibus1 it was rather absurd to     
adopt the ,greek letter without adopting
 their cases1 ,footnote3 ,this passage1 
as it stands in the original1 appears to
 me unintelligible3 ,i have therefore   
taken the liberty to give it a slight   
alteration4 or at least not to confine  
it to the nominative2 and yet 7in the   
accusative7 we say ,phryges1 and        
,pyrrhum1 to please the ear4 ,formerly  
it was esteemed an elegancy1 though it  
would now be considered as a rusticism1 
to omit the s in all words which        
terminate in us1 except when they were  
followed by a vowel2 and the same       

elision which is so carefully avoided by
 the modern ,poets1 was very far from   
being reckoned a fault among the        
ancient3 for they made no scruple to    
say1    ,qui est ,,omnibu' princeps1    
not1 as we do1 ,,omnibus princeps2 and1 
,vit ill ,,dignu' locoque1  not dignus4 
,but if untaught custom has been so     
ingenious in the formation of agreeable 
sounds1 what may we not expect from the 
improvements of art and erudition8 ,i   
have1 however1 been much shorter upon   
this subject1 than ,i should have been  
if ,i had written upon it professedly3  
for a comparison of the natural and     
customary laws of language would have   
opened a wide field for speculation3 but
 ,i have already enlarged upon it       
sufficiently1 and more1 perhaps1 than   
the nature of my design required4  ,to  
proceed then2--as the choice of proper  
matter1 and of suitable words to express
 it1 depends upon the judgment of the   
,speaker1 but that of agreeable sounds1 
and harmonious numbers1 upon the        

decision of the ear2 and because the    
former is intended for information1 and 
the latter for pleasure2 it is evident  
that reason must determine the rules of 
art in one case1 and mere sensation in  
the other4 ,for we must either neglect  
the gratification of those by whom we   
wish to be approved1 or apply ourselves 
to invent the most likely methods to    
promote it4  ,there are two things which
 contribute to gratify the              
ear1--agreeable sounds1 and harmonious  
numbers4 ,we shall treat of numbers in  
the sequel1 and at present confine      
ourselves to sound4--,those words1 then1
 as we have already observed1 are to    
have the preference which sound         
agreeably2--not such as are exquisitely 
melodious1 like those of the ,poets1 but
 such as can be found to our purpose in 
common language4--,qu ,pontus ,helles is
 rather beyond the mark3--but in        
,auratos aries ,colchorum1  the verse   
glitters with a moderate harmony of     
expression2 whereas the next1 as ending 

with a letter which is remarkably flat1 
is unmusical1    ,frugifera et ferta    
arva ,alfiae tenet1  ,let us1 therefore1
 rather content ourselves with the      
agreeable mediocrity of our own         
language1 than emulate the splendor of  
the ,greeks2 unless we are so bigotted  
to the latter as to hesitate to say with
 the poet1    ,qu tempestate ,paris     
,helenam1 c4  we might even imitate what
 follows1 and avoid1 as far as possible1
 the smallest asperity of sound1        
habeo istam ego ,,perterricrepam2  or   
say1 with the same author1 in another   
passage1    versutiloquas ,,malitias4   
,but our words must have a proper       
compass1 as well as be connected        
together in an agreeable manner2 for    
this1 we have observed1 is another      
circumstance which falls under the      
notice of the ear4 ,they are confined to
 a proper compass1 either by certain    
rules of composition1 as by a kind of   
natural pause1 or by the use of         
particular forms of expression1 which   

have a peculiar concinnity in their very
 texture2 such as a succession of       
several words which have the same       
termination1 or the comparing similar1  
and contrasting opposite circumstances1 
which will always terminate in a        
measured cadence1 though no immediate   
pains should be taken for that purpose4 
,gorgias1 it is said1 was the first     
,orator who practised this species of   
concinnity4 ,the following passage in my
 ,defence of ,milo is an example4  ,est 
enim1 ,judices1 haec non scripta1 fed   
nata ,lex2 quam non didicimus1          
accepimus1 legimus1 verum ex ,natur ips 
arripuimus1 hausimus1 expressimus2 ad   
quam non docti1 sed facti2 non          
instituti1 sed imbuti simus4  ,for this1
 my ,lords1 is a law not written upon   
tables1 but impressed upon our          
hearts2--a law which we have not        
learned1 or heard1 or read1 but eagerly 
caught and imbibed from the hand of     
,nature2--a law to which we have not    
been train'd1 but originally form'd2 and

 with the principles of which we have   
not been furnished by education1 but    
tinctured and impregnated from the      
moment of our birth4  ,in these forms of
 expression every circumstance is so    
aptly referred to some other            
circumstance1 that the regular turn of  
them does not appear to have been       
studied1 but to result entirely from the
 sense4 ,the same effect is produced by 
contrasting opposite circumstances2 as  
in the following lines1 where it not    
only forms a measured sentence1 but a   
verse3    ,eam1 quam nihil accusas1     
damnas1  ,her1 whom you ne'er accus'd1  
you now condemn2  7in prose we should   
say condemnas7 and again1    ,bene quam 
meritam esse autumas1 dicis male mereri1
  ,her merit1 once confess'd1 you now   
deny2 and1    ,id quod scis1 prodest    
nihil2 id quod nescis1 obest1  ,from    
what you've learnt no real good accrues1
 ,but ev'ry ill your ignorance pursues4 
,here you see the mere opposition of the
 terms produces a verse2 but in prosaic 

composition1 the proper form of the last
 line would be1 quod scis nihil prodest2
 quod nescis multum obest4 ,this        
contrasting of opposite circumstances1  
which the ,greeks call an ,antithesis1  
will necessarily produce what is styled 
rhetorical metre1 even without our      
intending it4 ,the ancient ,orators1 a  
considerable time before it was         
practised and recommended by ,isocrates1
 were fond of using it2 and particularly
 ,gorgias1 whose measured cadences are  
generally owing to the mere concinnity  
of his language4 ,i have frequently     
practised it myself2 as1 for instance1  
in the following passage of my fourth   
,invective against ,verres3  ,conferte  
hanc ,pacem cum illo ,bello2--hujus     
,praetoris ,adventum1 cum illius        
,imperatoris ,victori2--hujas ,cohortem 
impuram1 cum illius ,exercitu           
invicto2--hujus ,libidines1 cum illius  
,continenti2--ab illo qui cepit         
conditas2 ab hoc1 qui constitutas       
accepit1 captas dicetis ,syracusas4     

,compare this detestable peace with that
 glorious war1--the arrival of this     
governor with the victory of that       
commander1--his ruffian guards1 with the
 invincible forces of the other2--the   
brutal luxury of the former1 with the   
modest temperance of the latter2--and   
you will say1 that ,syracuse was really 
founded by him who stormed it1 and      
stormed by him who received it already  
founded to his hands4--,so much1 then1  
for that kind of measure which results  
from particular forms of expression1 and
 which ought to be known by every       
,orator4  ,we must now proceed to the   
third thing proposed1--that numerous and
 well-adjusted style2 of the beauty of  
which1 if any are so insensible as not  
to feel it1 ,i cannot imagine what kind 
of ears they have1 or what resemblance  
of a human ,being6 ,for my part1 my ears
 are always fond of a complete and      
full-measured flow of words1 and        
perceive in an instant what is either   
defective or redundant4 ,but wherefore  

do ,i say mine8 ,i have frequently seen 
a whole assembly burst into raptures of 
applause at a happy period3 for the ear 
naturally expects that our sentences    
should be properly tuned and measured4  
,this1 however1 is an accomplishment    
which is not to be met with among the   
ancients4 ,but to compensate the want of
 it1 they had almost every other        
perfection3 for they had a happy choice 
of words1 and abounded in pithy and     
agreeable sentiments1 though they had   
not the art of harmonizing and          
completing their periods4 ,this1 say    
some1 is the very thing we admire4 ,but 
what if they should take it into their  
heads to prefer the ancient peinture1   
with all its poverty of colouring1 to   
the rich and finished style of the      
moderns8 ,the former1 ,i suppose1 must  
be again adopted1 to compliment their   
delicacy1 and the latter rejected4 ,but 
these pretended connoisseurs regard     
nothing but the mere name of antiquity4 
,it must1 indeed1 be owned that         

antiquity has an equal claim to         
authority in matters of imitation1 as   
grey hairs in the precedence of age4 ,i 
myself have as great a veneration for it
 as any man3 nor do ,i so much upbraid  
antiquity with her defects1 as admire   
the beauties she was mistress           
of3--especially as ,i judge the latter  
to be of far greater consequence than   
the former4 ,for there is certainly more
 real merit in a masterly choice of     
words and sentiments1 in which the      
ancients are allowed to excell1 than in 
those measured periods with which they  
were totally unacquainted4 ,this species
 of composition was not known among the 
,romans till lately3 but the ancients1  
,i believe1 would readily have adopted  
it1 if it had then been discovered3 and 
we accordingly find1 that it is now made
 use of by all ,orators of reputation4  
,but when number1 or 7as the ,greeks    
call it7 prosaic metre1 is professedly  
introduced into judicial and forensic   
discourses1 the very name1 say they1 has

 a suspicious sound3 for people will    
conclude that there is too much artifice
 employed to sooth and captivate their  
ears1 when the ,speaker is so over-exact
 as to attend to the harmony of his     
periods4 ,relying upon the force of this
 objection1 these pretenders are        
perpetually grating our ears with their 
broken and mutilated sentences2 and     
censure those1 without mercy1 who have  
the presumption to utter an agreeable   
and a well-turned period4 ,if1 indeed1  
it was our design to spread a varnish   
over empty words and trifling           
sentiments1 the censure would be just3  
but when the matter is good1 and the    
words are proper and expressive1 what   
reason can be assigned why we should    
prefer a limping and imperfect period to
 one which terminates and keeps pace    
with the sense8 ,for this invidious and 
persecuted metre aims at nothing more   
than to adapt the compass of our words  
to that of our thoughts2 which is       
sometimes done even by the              

ancients1--though generally1 ,i believe1
 by mere accident1 and often by the     
natural delicacy of the ear2 and the    
very passages which are now most admired
 in them1 commonly derive their merit   
from the agreeable and measured flow of 
the language4  ,this is an art which was
 in common use among the ,greek         
,orators1 about four hundred years ago1 
though it has been but lately introduced
 among the ,romans4 ,ennius1 therefore1 
when he ridicules the inharmonious      
numbers of his predecessors1 might be   
allowed to say1    ,such verses as the  
rustic ,bards and ,satyrs sung3  ,but ,i
 must not take the same liberty2        
especially as ,i cannot say with him1   
,before this bold adventurer1 c4        
7meaning himself37 nor1 as he afterwards
 exults to the same purpose1    ,i first
 have dar'd t'unfold1 c4  for ,i have   
both read and heard several who were    
almost complete masters of the numerous 
and measured style ,i am speaking of3   
,but many1 who are still absolute       

strangers to it1 are not content to be  
exempted from the ridicule they deserve1
 but claim a right to our warmest       
applause4 ,i must own1 indeed1 that ,i  
admire the venerable patterns1 of which 
those persons pretend to be the faithful
 imitators1 notwithstanding the defects 
,i observe in them3 but ,i can by no    
means commend the folly of those who    
copy nothing but their blemishes1 and   
have no pretensions even to the most    
distant resemblance in what is truly    
excellent4  ,but if their own ears are  
so indelicate and devoid of taste1 will 
they pay no deference to the judgment of
 others1 who are universally celebrated 
for their learning8 ,i will not mention 
,isocrates1 and his two scholars1       
,ephorus and ,naucrates2 though they may
 claim the honour of giving the richest 
precepts of composition1 and were       
themselves very eminent ,orators4 ,but  
who was possessed of a more ample fund  
of erudition8--who more subtle and      
acute8--or who furnished with quicker   

powers of invention1 and a greater      
strength of understanding1 than         
,aristotle8 ,i may add1 who made a      
warmer opposition to the rising fame of 
,isocrates8 ,and yet he1 though he      
forbids us to versify in prose1         
recommends the use of numbers4 ,his     
hearer ,theodectes 7whom he often       
mentions as a polished writer1 and an   
excellent artist7 both approves and     
advises the same thing3 and             
,theophrastus is still more copious and 
explicit4 ,who1 then1 can have patience 
with those dull and conceited           
humourists1 who dare to oppose          
themselves to such venerable names as   
these8 ,the only excuse that can be made
 for them is1 that they have never      
perused their writings1 and are         
therefore ignorant that they actually   
recommend the prosaic metre we are      
speaking of4 ,if this is the case with  
them 7and ,i cannot think otherwise7    
will they reject the evidence of their  
own sensations8 ,is there nothing which 

their ears will inform them is          
defective8--nothing which is harsh and  
unpolished8--nothing imperfect8--nothing
 lame and mutilated8--nothing redundant8
 ,in dramatic performances1 a whole     
theatre will exclaim against a verse    
which has only a syllable either too    
short or too long3 and yet the bulk of  
an audience are unacquainted with feet  
and numbers1 and are totally ignorant   
what the fault is1 and where it lies3   
but ,nature herself has taught the ear  
to measure the quantity of sound1 and   
determine the propriety of its various  
accents1 whether grave1 or acute4  ,do  
you desire1 then1 my ,brutus1 that we   
should discuss the subject more fully   
than those writers who have already     
elucidated this1 and the other parts of 
rhetoric8 ,or shall we content ourselves
 with the instructions which they have  
provided for us8 ,but wherefore do ,i   
offer such a question1 when your elegant
 letters have informed me1 that this is 
the chief object of your request8 ,we   

shall proceed1 therefore1 to give an    
account of the commencement1 the origin1
 and the nature and use of prosaic      
numbers4  ,the admirers of ,isocrates   
place the first invention of numbers    
among those other improvements which do 
honour to his memory4 ,for observing1   
say they1 that the ,orators were heard  
with a kind of sullen attention1 while  
the ,poets were listened to with        
pleasure1 he applied himself to         
introduce a species of metre into prose1
 which might have a pleasing effect upon
 the ear1 and prevent that satiety which
 will always arise from a continued     
uniformity of sound4 ,this1 however1 is 
partly true1 and partly otherwise2 for  
though it must be owned that no person  
was better skilled in the subject than  
,isocrates2 yet the first honour of the 
invention belongs to ,thrasymachus1     
whose style 7in all his writings which  
are extant7 is numerous even to a fault4
 ,but ,gorgias1 as ,i have already      
remarked1 was the original inventor of  

those measured forms of expression which
 have a kind of spontaneous             
harmony1--such as a regular succession  
of words with the same termination1 and 
the comparing similar1 or contracting   
opposite circumstances3 though it is    
also notoriously true that he used them 
to excess4 ,this1 however1 is one of the
 three branches of composition above-   
mentioned4 ,but each of these authors   
was prior to ,isocrates3 so that the    
preference can be due to him only for   
his moderate use1 and not for the       
invention of the art3 for as he is      
certainly much easier in the turn of his
 metaphors1 and the choice of his words1
 so his numbers are more composed and   
sedate4 ,but ,gorgias1 he observed1 was 
too eager1 and indulged himself in this 
measured play of words to a ridiculous  
excess4 ,he1 therefore1 endeavoured to  
moderate and correct it2 but not till he
 had first studied in his youth under   
the same ,gorgias1 who was then in      
,thessaly1 and in the last decline of   

life4 ,nay1 as he advanced in years 7for
 he lived almost a hundred7 he corrected
 himself1 and gradually relaxed the     
over-strict regularity of his numbers2  
as he particularly informs us in the    
treatise which he dedicated to ,philip  
of ,macedon1 in the latter part of his  
life2 for he there says1 that he had    
thrown off that servile attention to his
 numbers1 to which he was before        
accustomed3--so that he discovered and  
corrected his own faults1 as well as    
those of his predecessors4  ,having thus
 specified the several authors and      
inventors1 and the first commencement of
 prosaic harmony1 we must next enquire  
what was the natural source and origin  
of it4 ,but this lies so open to        
observation1 that ,i am astonished the  
ancients did not notice it3 especially  
as they often1 by mere accident1 threw  
out harmonious and measured sentences1  
which1 when they had struck the ears and
 the passions with so much force1 as to 
make it obvious that there was something

 particularly agreeable in what chance  
alone had uttered1 one would imagine    
that such a singular species of ornament
 would have been immediately attended   
to1 and that they would have taken the  
pains to imitate what they found so     
pleasing in themselves4 ,for the ear1 or
 at least the mind by the intervention  
of the ear1 has a natural capacity to   
measure the harmony of language3 and we 
accordingly feel that it instantly      
determines what is either too short or  
too long1 and always expects to be      
gratified with that which is complete   
and well- proportioned4 ,some           
expressions it perceives to be          
imperfect1 and mutilated2 and at these  
it is immediately offended1 as if it was
 defrauded of it's natural due4 ,in     
others it discovers an immoderate       
length1 and a tedious superfluity of    
words2 and with these it is still more  
disgusted than with the former2 for in  
this1 as in most other cases1 an excess 
is always more offensive than a         

proportional defect4 ,as versification1 
therefore1 and poetic competition was   
invented by the regulation of the ear1  
and the successive observations of men  
of taste and judgment2 so in prose      
7though indeed long afterwards1 but     
still1 however1 by the guidance of      
nature7 it was discovered that the      
career and compass of our language      
should be adjusted and circumscribed    
within proper limits4  ,so much for the 
source1 or natural origin of prosaic    
harmony4 ,we must next proceed 7for that
 was the third thing proposed7 to       
enquire into the nature of it1 and      
determine it's essential principles2--a 
subject which exceeds the limits of the 
present essay1 and would be more        
properly discussed in a professed and   
accurate system of the art4 ,for we     
might here inquire what is meant by     
prosaic number1 wherein it consists1 and
 from whence it arises2 as likewise     
whether it is simple and uniform1 or    
admits of any variety1 and in what      

manner it is formed1 for what purpose1  
and when and where it should be         
employed1 and how it contributes to     
gratify the ear4 ,but as in other       
subjects1 so in this1 there are two     
methods of disquisition2--the one more  
copious and diffusive1 and the other    
more concise1 and1 ,i might also add1   
more easy and comprehensible4 ,in the   
former1 the first question which would  
occur is1 whether there is any such     
thing as prosaic number3 some are of    
opinion there is not2 because no fixed  
and certain rules have been yet assigned
 for it1 as there long have been for    
poetic numbers2 and because the very    
persons1 who contend for it's existence1
 have hitherto been unable to determine 
it4 ,granting1 however1 that prose is   
susceptible of numbers1 it will next be 
enquired of what kind they are2--whether
 they are to be selected from those of  
the poets1 or from a different          
species2--and1 if from the former1 which
 of them may claim the preference2 for  

some authors admit only one or two1 and 
some more1 while others object to none4 
,we might then proceed to enquire 7be   
the number of them to be admitted1 more 
or less7 whether they are equally common
 to every kind of style2 for the        
narrative1 the persuasive1 and the      
didactic have each a manner peculiar to 
itself2 or whether the different species
 of ,oratory should be accommodated with
 their different numbers4 ,if the same  
numbers are equally common to all       
subjects1 we must next enquire what     
those numbers are2 and if they are to be
 differently applied1 we must examine   
wherein they differ1 and for what reason
 they are not to be used so openly in   
prose as in verse4 ,it might likewise be
 a matter of enquiry1 whether a numerous
 style is formed entirely by the use of 
numbers1 or not also in some measure by 
the harmonious juncture of our words1   
and the application of certain          
figurative forms of expression2 --and1  
in the next place1 whether each of these

 has not its peculiar province1 so that 
number may regard the time or quantity1 
composition the sound1 and figurative   
expression the form and polish of our   
language1--and yet1 in fact1 composition
 be the source and fountain of all the  
rest1 and give rise both to the         
varieties of number1 and to those       
figurative and luminous dashes of       
expression1 which by the ,greeks1 as ,i 
have before observed1 are called        
7,greek3 schaemaia17 attitudes or       
figures4 ,but to me there appears to be 
a real distinction between what is      
agreeable in sound1 exact in measure1   
and ornamental in the mode of           
expression2 though the latter1 it must  
be owned1 is very closely connected with
 number1 as being for the most part     
sufficiently numerous without any labour
 to make it so3 but composition is      
apparently different from both1 as      
attending entirely either to the        
majestic or agreeable sound of our      
words4 ,such then are the enquiries     

which relate to the nature of prosaic   
harmony4  ,from what has been said it is
 easy to infer that prose is susceptible
 of number4 ,our sensations tell us so3 
and it would be excessively unfair to   
reject their evidence1 because we cannot
 account for the fact4 ,even poetic     
metre was not discovered by any effort  
of reason1 but by mere natural taste and
 sensation1 which reason afterwards     
correcting1 improved and methodized what
 had been noticed by accident2 and thus 
an attention to nature1 and an accurate 
observation of her various feelings and 
sensations gave birth to art4 ,but in   
verse the use of number is more obvious2
 though some particular species of it1  
without the assistance of music1 have   
the air of harmonious prose1 and        
especially the lyric poetry1 and that   
even the best of the kind1 which1 if    
divested of the aid of music1 would be  
almost as plain and naked as common     
language4 ,we have several specimens of 
this nature in our own poets ,footnote3 

,it must here be remarked1 that the     
,romans had no lyric poet before        
,horace1 who did not flourish till after
 the times of ,cicero42 such as the     
following line in the tragedy of        
,thyestes1    ,quemnam te esse dicam8   
qui in tard senectute2  ,whom shall ,i  
call thee8 who in tardy age1 c42  which1
 unless when accompanied by the lyre1   
might easily be mistaken for prose4 ,but
 the iambic verses of the comic poets1  
to maintain a resemblance to the style  
of conversation1 are often so low and   
simple that you can scarcely discover in
 them either number or metre2 from      
whence it is evident that it is more    
difficult to adapt numbers to prose than
 to verse4  ,there are two things1      
however1 which give a relish to our     
language1--well- chosen words1 and      
harmonious numbers4 ,words may be       
considered as the materials of language1
 and it is the business of number to    
smooth and polish them4 ,but as in other
 cases1 what was invented to serve our  

necessities was always prior to that    
which was invented for pleasure2 so1 in 
the present1 a rude and simple style    
which was merely adapted to express our 
thoughts1 was discovered many centuries 
before the invention of numbers1 which  
are designed to please the ear4         
,accordingly ,herodotus1 and both his   
and the preceding age had not the least 
idea of prosaic number1 nor produced any
 thing of the kind1 unless at random1   
and by mere accident3--and even the     
ancient masters of rhetoric 7,i mean    
those of the earliest date7 have not so 
much as mentioned it1 though they have  
left us a multitude of precepts upon the
 conduct and management of our style4   
,for what is easiest1 and most necessary
 to be known1 is1 for that reason1      
always first discovered4 ,metaphors1    
therefore1 and new-made and compounded  
words1 were easily invented1 because    
they were borrowed from custom and      
conversation3 but number was not        
selected from our domestic treasures1   

nor had the least intimacy or connection
 with common language2 and1 of          
consequence1 not being noticed and      
understood till every other improvement 
had been made1 it gave the finishing    
grace1 and the last touches to the style
 of ,eloquence4  ,as it may be remarked 
that one sort of language is interrupted
 by frequent breaks and intermissions1  
while another is flowing and diffusive2 
it is evident that the difference cannot
 result from the natural sounds of      
different letters1 but from the various 
combinations of long and short          
syllables1 with which our language1     
being differently blended and           
intermingled1 will be either dull and   
motionless1 or lively and fluent2 so    
that every circumstance of this nature  
must be regulated by number4 ,for by the
 assistance of numbers1 the period1     
which ,i have so often mentioned before1
 pursues it's course with greater       
strength and freedom till it comes to a 
natural pause4 ,it is therefore plain   

that the style of an ,orator should be  
measured and harmonized by numbers1     
though entirely free from verse2 but    
whether these numbers should be the same
 as those of the poets1 or of a         
different species1 is the next thing to 
be considered4 ,in my opinion there can 
be no sort of numbers but those of the  
poets2 because they have already        
specified all their different kinds with
 the utmost precision2 for every number 
may be comprized in the three following 
varieties3--viz4 a foot 7which is the   
measure we apply to numbers7 must be so 
divided1 that one part of it will be    
either equal to the other1 or twice as  
long1 or equal to three halves of it4   
,thus1 in a dactyl 7breve-macron-macron7
 7long-short-short7 the first syllable1 
which is the former part of the foot1 is
 equal to the two others1 in the iambic 
7macron-breve77short-long7 the last is  
double the first1 and in the paeon      
7macron-macron-macron-breve1 or         
breve-macron-macron-macron77short-      

short-short-long1 or                    
long-short-short-short7 one of its      
parts1 which is the long syllable1 is   
equal to two-thirds of the other4 ,these
 are feet which are unavoidably incident
 to language2 and a proper arrangement  
of them will produce a numerous style4  
,but it will here be enquired1 ,what    
numbers should have the preference8 ,to 
which ,i answer1 ,they must all occur   
promiscuously2 as is evident from our   
sometimes speaking verse without knowing
 it1 which in prose is reckoned a       
capital fault2 but in the hurry of      
discourse we cannot always watch and    
criticise ourselves4 ,as to senarian and
 hipponactic ,footnote3 ,verses chiefly 
composed of iambics verses1 it is       
scarcely possible to avoid them2 for a  
considerable part1 even of our common   
language1 is composed of iambics4 ,to   
these1 however1 the hearer is easily    
reconciled2 because custom has made them
 familiar to his ear4 ,but through      
inattention we are often betrayed into  

verses which are not so familiar2--a    
fault which may easily be avoided by a  
course of habitual circumspection4      
,hieronymus1 an eminent ,peripatetic1   
has collected out of the numerous       
writings of ,isocrates about thirty     
verses1 most of them senarian1 and some 
of them anapest1 which in prose have a  
more disagreeable effect than any       
others4 ,but he quotes them with a      
malicious partiality3 for he cuts off   
the first syllable of the first word in 
a sentence1 and annexes to the last word
 the first syllable of the following    
sentence2 and thus he forms what is     
called an ,aristophanean anapest1 which 
it is neither possible nor necessary to 
avoid entirely4 ,but1 this redoubtable  
critic1 as ,i discovered upon a closer  
inspection1 has himself been betrayed   
into a senarian or iambic verse in the  
very paragraph in which he censures the 
composition of ,isocrates4  ,upon the   
whole1 it is sufficiently plain that    
prose is susceptible of numbers1 and    

that the numbers of an ,orator must be  
the same as those of a ,poet4 ,the next 
thing to be considered is1 what are the 
numbers which are most suitable to his  
character1 and1 for that reason1 should 
occur more frequently than the rest8    
,some prefer the ,iambic                
7macron-breve77short- long7 as          
approaching the nearest to common       
language2 for which reason1 they say1 it
 is generally made use of in fables and 
comedies1 on account of it's resemblance
 to conversation2 and because the       
dactyl1 which is the favourite number of
 hexameters1 is more adapted to a       
pompous style4 ,ephorus1 on the other   
hand1 declares for the paeon and the    
dactyl2 and rejects the spondee and the 
trochee 7long short74 ,for as the paeon 
has three short syllables1 and the      
dactyl two1 he thinks their shortness   
and celerity give a brisk and lively    
flow to our language2 and that a        
different effect would be produced by   
the trochee and the spondee1 the one    

consisting of short syllables1 and the  
other of long ones2--so that by using   
the former1 the current of our words    
would become too rapid1 and too heavy by
 employing the latter1 losing1 in either
 case1 that easy moderation which best  
satisfies the ear4 ,but both parties    
seem to be equally mistaken3 for those  
who exclude the paeon1 are not aware    
that they reject the sweetest and       
fullest number we have4 ,aristotle was  
far from thinking as they do3 he was of 
opinion that heroic numbers are too     
sonorous for prose2 and that1 on the    
other hand1 the iambic has too much the 
resemblance of vulgar talk3--and1       
accordingly1 he recommends the style    
which is neither too low and common1 nor
 too lofty and extravagant1 but retains 
such a just proportion of dignity1 as to
 win the attention1 and excite the      
admiration of the hearer4 ,he1          
therefore1 calls the trochee 7which has 
precisely the same quantity as the      
choree7 the rhetorical jigg ,footnote3  

,cordacem appellat4 ,the cordax was a   
lascivious dance very full of           
agitation42 because the shortness and   
rapidity of it's syllables are          
incompatible with the majesty of        
,eloquence4 ,for this reason he         
recommends the paeon1 and says that     
every person makes use of it1 even      
without being sensible when he does so4 
,he likewise observes that it is a      
proper medium between the different feet
 above-mentioned3--the proportion       
between the long and short syllables1 in
 every foot1 being either sesquiplicate1
 duple1 or equal4  ,the authors1        
therefore1 whom ,i mentioned before     
attended merely to the easy flow of our 
language1 without any regard to it's    
dignity4 ,for the iambic and the dactyl 
are chiefly used in poetry2 so that to  
avoid versifying in prose1 we must shun1
 as much as possible1 a continued       
repetition of either2 because the       
language of prose is of a different     
cast1 and absolutely incompatible with  

verse4 ,as the paeon1 therefore1 is of  
all other feet the most improper for    
poetry1 it may1 for that reason be more 
readily admitted into prose4 ,but as to 
,ephorus1 he did not reflect that even  
the spondee1 which he rejects1 is equal 
in time to his favourite dactyl2 because
 he supposed that feet were to be       
measured not by the quantity1 but the   
number of their syllables2--a mistake of
 which he is equally guilty when he     
excludes the trochee1 which1 in time and
 quantity1 is precisely equal to the    
iambic2 though it is undoubtedly faulty 
at the end of a period1 which always    
terminates more agreeably in a long     
syllable than a short one4 ,as to what  
,aristotle has said of the paeon1 the   
same has likewise been said by          
,theophrastus and ,theodectes4  ,but1   
for my part1 ,i am rather of opinion    
that our language should be intermingled
 and diversified with all the varieties 
of number2 for should we confine        
ourselves to any particular feet1 it    

would be impossible to escape the       
censure of the hearer2 because our style
 should neither be so exactly measured  
as that of the poets1 nor entirely      
destitute of number1 like that of the   
common people4 ,the former1 as being too
 regular and uniform1 betrays an        
appearance of art2 and the other1 which 
is as much too loose and undetermined1  
has the air of ordinary talk2 so that we
 receive no pleasure from the one1 and  
are absolutely disgusted with the other4
 ,our style1 therefore1 as ,i have just 
observed1 should be so blended and      
diversified with different numbers1 as  
to be neither too vague and             
unrestrained1 nor too openly numerous1  
but abound most in the paeon 7so much   
recommended by the excellent author     
above-mentioned7 though still in        
conjunction with many other feet which  
he entirely omits4  ,but we must now    
consider what number like so many dashes
 of purple1 should tincture and enrich  
the rest1 and to what species of style  

they are each of them best adapted4 ,the
 iambic1 then1 should be the leading    
number in those subjects which require a
 plain and simple style2--the paeon in  
such as require more compass and        
elevation2 and the dactyl is equally    
applicable to both4 ,so that in a       
discourse of any length and variety1 it 
will be occasionally necessary to blend 
and intermingle them all4 ,by this      
means1 our endeavours to modulate our   
periods1 and captivate the ear1 will be 
most effectually concealed2 especially1 
if we maintain a suitable dignity both  
of language and sentiment4 ,for the     
hearer will naturally attend to these   
7,i mean our words and sentiments7 and  
to them alone attribute the pleasure he 
receives2 so that while he listens to   
these with admiration1 the harmony of   
our numbers will escape his notice3     
though it must indeed be acknowledged   
that the former would have their charms 
without the assistance of the latter4   
,but the flow of our numbers is not to  

be so exact 7,i mean in prose1 for in   
poetry the case is different7 as that   
nothing may exceed the bounds of        
regularity2 for this would be to compose
 a poem4 ,on the contrary1 if our       
language neither limps nor fluctuates1  
but keeps an even and a steady pace1 it 
is sufficiently numerous2 and it        
accordingly derives the title1 not from 
its consisting entirely of numbers1 but 
from its near approach to a numerous    
form4 ,this is the reason why it is more
 difficult to make elegant prose1 than  
to make verses2 because there are fixed 
and invariable rules for the latter2    
whereas nothing is determined in the    
former1 but that the current of our     
language should be neither immoderate   
nor defective1 nor loose and unconfined4
 ,it cannot be supposed1 therefore1 to  
admit of regular beats and divisions1   
like a piece of music2 but it is only   
necessary that the general compass and  
arrangement of our words should be      
properly restrained and limited1--a     

circumstance which must be left entirely
 to the decision of the ear4  ,another  
question which occurs before us1        
is--whether an attention to our numbers 
should be extended to every part of a   
sentence1 or only to the beginning and  
the end4 ,most authors are of opinion   
that it is only necessary that our      
periods should end well1 and have a     
numerous cadence4 ,it is true1 indeed1  
that this ought to be principally       
attended to1 but not solely3 for the    
whole compass of our periods ought      
likewise to be regulated1 and not       
totally neglected4 ,as the ear1         
therefore1 always directs it's view to  
the close of a sentence1 and there fixes
 it's attention1 it is by no means      
proper that this should be destitute of 
number3 but it must also be observed    
that a period1 from it's first          
commencement1 should run freely on1 so  
as to correspond to the conclusion2 and 
the whole advance from the beginning    
with such an easy flow1 as to make a    

natural1 and a kind of voluntary pause4 
,to those who have been we'll practised 
in the art1 and who have both written   
much2 and often attempted to discourse  
extempore with the same accuracy which  
they observe in their writings1 this    
will be far less difficult than is      
imagined4 ,for every sentence is        
previously formed and circumscribed in  
the mind of the ,speaker1 and is then   
immediately attended by the proper words
 to express it1 which the same mental   
faculty 7than which there is nothing    
more lively and expeditious7 instantly  
dismisses1 and sends off each to its    
proper post3 but1 in different          
sentences1 their particular order and   
arrangement will be differently         
terminated2 though1 in every sentence1  
the words both in the beginning and the 
middle of it1 should have a constant    
reference to the end4 ,our language1 for
 instance1 must sometimes advance with  
rapidity1 and at other times it's pace  
must be moderate and easy2 so that it   

will be necessary at the very beginning 
of a sentence1 to resolve upon the      
manner in which you would have it       
terminate2 but we must avoid the least  
appearance of poetry1 both in our       
numbers1 and in the other ornaments of  
language2 though it is true1 indeed1    
that the labours of the ,orator must be 
conducted on the same principles as     
those of the ,poet4 ,for in each we have
 the same materials to work upon1 and a 
similar art of managing them2 the       
materials being words1 and the art of   
managing them relating1 in both cases1  
to the manner in which they ought to be 
disposed4 ,the words also in each may be
 divided into three classes1--the       
metaphorical1--the new-coined1--and the 
antique2--for at present we have no     
concern with words proper3--and three   
parts may also be distinguished in the  
art of disposing them2 which1 ,i have   
already observed1 are juncture1         
concinnity1 and number4 ,the poets make 
use both of one and the other more      

frequently1 and with greater liberty    
than we do2 for they employ the tropes  
not only much oftener1 but more boldly  
and openly2 and they introduce antique  
words with a higher taste1 and new ones 
with less reserve4 ,the same may be said
 in their numbers1 in the use of which  
they are subjected to invariable rules1 
which they are scarcely ever allowed to 
transgress4 ,the two arts1 therefore1   
are to be considered neither as wholly  
distinct1 nor perfectly conjoined4 ,this
 is the reason why our numbers are not  
to be so conspicuous in prose as in     
verse2 and that in prose1 what is called
 a numerous style1 does not always      
become so by the use of numbers1 but    
sometimes either by the concinnity of   
our language1 or the smooth juncture of 
our words4  ,to conclude this head2 ,if 
it should be enquired1 ,what are the    
numbers to be used in prose8 ,i answer1 
,all2 though some are certainly better1 
and more adapted to it's character than 
others4--,if ,where is their proper     

seat8--,in the different quantity of our
 syllables3--,if ,from whence their     
origin8--,from the sole pleasure of the 
ear3--,if ,what the method of blending  
and intermingling them8--,this shall be 
explained in the sequel1 because it     
properly relates to the manner of using 
them1 which was the fourth and last     
article in my division of the subject4  
,if it be farther enquired1 ,for what   
purpose they are employed8 ,i           
answer1--,to gratify the ear3--,if      
,when8 ,i reply1 ,at all times3--,if ,in
 what part of a sentence8 ,through the  
whole length of it3--and if ,what is the
 circumstance which gives them a        
pleasing effect8 ,the same as in        
poetical compositions1 whose metre is   
regulated by art1 though the ear alone1 
without the assistance of art1 can      
determine it's limits by the natural    
powers of sensation4 ,enough1 therefore1
 has been said concerning the nature and
 properties of number4 ,the next article
 to be considered is the manner in which

 our numbers should be employed1--a     
circumstance which requires to be       
accurately discussed4  ,here it is usual
 to enquire1 whether it is necessary to 
attend to our numbers through the whole 
compass of a period1 ,footnote3 ,our    
author here informs us1 that what the   
,greeks called ,greek3 periodos1 a      
period1 was distinguished among the     
,romans by the words ambitus1 circuitus1
 comprehensio1 continuatio1 and         
circumscriptio4 ,as ,i thought this     
remark would appear much better in the  
form of a note1 than in the body of the 
work1 ,i have introduced it accordingly4
 or only at the beginning or end of it1 
or equally in both4 ,in the next place1 
as exact number seems to be one thing1  
and that which is merely numerous       
another1 it might be enquired wherein   
lies the difference4 ,we might likewise 
consider whether the members of a       
sentence should all indifferently be of 
the same length1 whatever be the numbers
 they are composed of2--or whether1 on  

this account1 they should not be        
sometimes longer1 and sometimes         
shorter2--and when1 and for what        
reasons1 they should be made so1 and of 
what numbers they should be             
composed2--whether of several sorts1 or 
only of one2 and whether of equal or    
unequal numbers2--and upon what         
occasions either the one or the other of
 these are to be used2-and what numbers 
accord best together1 and in what order2
 or whether1 in this respect1 there is  
no difference between them2--and 7which 
has still a more immediate reference to 
our subject7 by what means our style may
 be rendered numerous4 ,it will likewise
 be necessary to specify the rise and   
origin of a periodical form of language1
 and what degree of compass should be   
allowed to it4 ,after this1 we may      
consider the members or divisions of a  
period1 and enquire of how many kinds1  
and of what different lengths they are2 
and1 if they vary in these respects1    
where and when each particular sort is  

to be employed3 and1 in the last place1 
the use and application of the whole is 
to be fully explained2--a very extensive
 subject1 and which is capable of being 
accommodated not only to one1 but to    
many different occasions4 ,but without  
adverting to particulars1 we may discuss
 the subject at large in such a manner  
as to furnish a satisfactory answer in  
all subordinate cases4  ,omitting1      
therefore1 every other species of       
composition1 we shall attend to that    
which is peculiar to forensic causes4   
,for in those performances which are of 
a different kind1 such as history1      
panegyric1 and all discourses which are 
merely ornamental1 every sentence should
 be constructed after the exact manner  
of ,isocrates and ,theopompus2 and with 
that regular compass1 and measured flow 
of language1 that our words may         
constantly run within the limits        
prescribed by art1 and pursue a uniform 
course1 till the period is completed4   
,we may1 therefore1 observe that after  

the invention of this1 periodical form1 
no writer of any account has made a     
discourse which was intended as a mere  
display of ornament1 and not for the    
service of the ,forum1 without squaring 
his language1 7if ,i may so express     
myself7 and confining every sentence of 
it to the strictest laws of number4 ,for
 as1 in this case1 the hearer has no    
motive to alarm his suspicions against  
the artifice of the speaker1 he will    
rather think himself obliged to him than
 otherwise1 for the pains he takes to   
amuse and gratify his ear4 ,but1 in     
forensic causes1 this accurate species  
of composition is neither to be wholly  
adopted1 nor entirely rejected4 ,for if 
we pursue it too closely1 it will create
 a satiety1 and our attention to it will
 be discovered by the most illiterate   
observer4 ,we may add1 it will check the
 pathos and force of action1 restrain   
the sensibility of the ,speaker1 and    
destroy all appearance of truth and open
 dealing4 ,but as it will sometimes be  

necessary to adopt it1 we must consider 
when1 and how long1 this ought to be    
done1 and how many ways it may be       
changed and varied4  ,a numerous style1 
then1 may be properly employed1 either  
when any thing is to be commended in a  
free and ornamental manner1 7as in my   
second ,invective against ,verres1 where
 ,i spoke in praise of ,sicily1 and in  
my ,speech before the ,senate1 in which 
,i vindicated the honour of my          
consulship27--or2 in the next place1    
when a narrative is to be delivered     
which requires more dignity than pathos1
 7as in my fourth ,invective1 where ,i  
described the ,ceres of the ,ennensians1
 the ,diana of the ,segestani1 and the  
situation of ,syracuse47 ,it is likewise
 often allowable to speak in a numerous 
and flowing style1 when a material      
circumstance is to be amplified4 ,if ,i 
myself have not succeeded in this so    
well as might be wished1 ,i have at     
least attempted it very frequently2 and 
it is still visible in many of my       

,perorations1 that ,i have exerted all  
the talents ,i was master of for that   
purpose4 ,but this will always have most
 efficacy1 when the ,speaker has        
previously possessed himself of the     
hearer's attention1 and got the better  
of his judgment4 ,for then he is no     
longer apprehensive of any artifice to  
mislead him2 but hears every thing with 
a favourable ear1 wishes the ,orator to 
proceed1 and1 admiring the force of his 
,eloquence1 has no inclination to       
censure it4  ,but this measured and     
numerous flow of language is never to be
 continued too long1 ,i will not say in 
the peroration1 7of which the hearer    
himself will always be a capable judge7 
but in any other part of a discourse3   
for1 except in the cases                
above-mentioned1 in which ,i have shewn 
it is allowable1 our style must be      
wholly confined to those clauses or     
divisions which we erroneously call     
incisa and membra2 but the ,greeks1 with
 more propriety1 the comma and colon    

,footnote3 ,the ancients apply these    
terms to the sense1 and not to any      
points of distinction4 ,a very short    
member1 whether simple or compound1 with
 them is a comma2 and a longer1 a colon2
 for they have no such term as a        
semicolon4 ,besides1 they call a very   
short sentence1 whether simple or       
compound1 a comma2 and one of somewhat a
 greater length1 a colon4 ,and          
therefore1 if a person expressed himself
 either of these ways1 in any           
considerable number of sentences        
together1 he was said to speak by       
commas1 or colons4 ,but a sentence      
containing more words than will consist 
with either of these terms1 they call a 
simple period2 the least compound period
 with them requiring the length of two  
colons4  ,ward's ,rhetoric1 volume #ast1
 page #cdd44 ,for it is impossible that 
the names of things should be rightly   
applied1 when the things themselves are 
not sufficiently understood3 and as we  
often make use of metaphorical terms1   

either for the sake of ornament1 or to  
supply the place of proper ones1 so in  
other arts1 when we have occasion to    
mention any thing which 7through our    
unacquaintance with it7 has not yet     
received a name1 we are obliged either  
to invent a new one1 or to borrow it    
from something similar4 ,we shall soon  
consider what it is to speak in commas  
and colons1 and the proper method of    
doing it3 but we must first attend to   
the various numbers by which the cadence
 of our periods should be diversified4  
,our numbers will advance more rapidly  
by the use of short feet1 and more      
coolly and sedately by the use of long  
ones4 ,the former are best adapted to a 
warm and spirited style1 and the latter 
to sober narratives and explanations4   
,but there are several numbers for      
concluding a period1 one of which       
7called the dichoree1 or double choree1 
and consisting of a long and a short    
syllable repeated alternately7 is much  
in vogue with the ,asiatics2 though     

among different people the same feet are
 distinguished by different names4 ,the 
dichoree1 indeed1 is not essentially bad
 for the close of a sentence3 but in    
prosaic numbers nothing can be more     
faulty than a continued or frequent     
repetition of the same cadence3 as the  
dichoree1 therefore1 is a very sonorous 
number1 we should be the more sparing in
 the use of it1 to prevent a satiety4   
,c4 ,carbo1 the son of ,caius1 and a    
,tribune of the people1 once said in a  
public trial in which ,i was personally 
engaged1--,o ,marce ,druse1 ,patrem     
appello2 where you may observe two      
commas1 each consisting of two feet4 ,he
 then made use of the two following     
colons1 each consisting of three        
feet1--,tu dicere solebas1 sacram esse  
,rempublicam3--and afterwards of the    
period1-- ,quicunque eam violavissent1  
ab omnibus esse ei poenas persolutas    
which ends with a dichoree2 for it is   
immaterial whether the last syllable is 
long or short4 ,he added1 ,patris dictum

 sapiens1 temeritas filii comprobavit   
concluding here also with a dichoree2   
which was received with such a general  
burst of applause1 as perfectly         
astonished me4 ,but was not this the    
effect of number8--,only change the     
order of the words1 and                 
say1--,comprobavit filii temeritas and  
the spirit of them will be lost1 though 
the word temeritas consists of three    
short syllables and a long one1 which is
 the favourite number of ,aristotle1    
from whom1 however1 ,i here beg leave to
 dissent4 ,the words and sentiments are 
indeed the fame in both cases2 and yet1 
in the latter1 though the understanding 
is satisfied1 the ear is not4 ,but these
 harmonious cadences are not to be      
repeated too often3 for1 in the first   
place1 our numbers will be soon         
discovered1--in the next1 they will     
excite the hearer's disgust1--and1 at   
last1 be heartily despised on account of
 the apparent facility with which they  
are formed4  ,but there are several     

other cadences which will have a        
numerous and pleasing effect3 for even  
the cretic1 which consists of a long1 a 
short1 and a long syllable1 and it's    
companion the paeon1 which is equal to  
it in quantity1 though it exceeds it in 
the number of syllables1 is reckoned a  
proper and a very useful ingredient in  
harmonious prose3 especially as the     
latter admits of two varieties1 as      
consisting either of one long and three 
short syllables1 which will be lively   
enough at the beginning of a sentence1  
but extremely flat at the end2--or of   
three short syllables and a long one1   
which was highly approved of by the     
ancients at the close of a sentence1 and
 which ,i would not wholly reject1      
though ,i give the preference to others4
 ,even the sober spondee is not to be   
entirely discarded2 for though it       
consists of two long syllables1 and for 
that reason may seem rather dull and    
heavy1 it has yet a firm and steady     
step1 which gives it an air of dignity1 

and especially in the comma and the     
colon2 so that it sufficiently          
compensates for the slowness of it's    
motion1 by it's peculiar weight and     
solemnity4 ,when ,i speak of feet at the
 close of a period1 ,i do not mean      
precisely the last4 ,i would be         
understood1 at least1 to include the    
foot which immediately precedes it2 and1
 in many cases1 even the foot before    
that4 ,the iambic1 therefore1 which     
consists of a long syllable and a short 
one1 and is equal in time1 though not in
 the number of it's syllables1 to a     
choree1 which has three short ones2 or  
even the dactyl1 which consists of one  
long and two short syllables1 will unite
 agreeably enough with the last foot of 
a sentence1 when that foot is either a  
choree or a spondee2 for it is          
immaterial which of them is employed4   
,but the three feet ,i am mentioning1   
are neither of them very proper for     
closing a period1 7that is1 to form the 
last foot of it7 unless when a dactyl is

 substituted for a cretic1 for you may  
use either of them at pleasure2 because1
 even in verse1 it is of no consequence 
whether the last syllable is long or    
short4 ,he1 therefore1 who recommended  
the paeon1 as having the long syllable  
last1 was certainly guilty of an        
oversight2 because the quantity of the  
last syllable is never regarded4 ,the   
paeon1 however1 as consisting of four   
syllables1 is reckoned by some to be    
only a number1 and not a foot4 ,but call
 it which you please1 it is in general1 
what all the ancients have represented  
it1 7such as ,aristotle1 ,theophrastus1 
,theodectes1 and ,euphorus7 the fittest 
of all others both for the beginning and
 the middle of a period4 ,they are      
likewise of opinion1 that it is equally 
proper at the end2 where1 in my opinion1
 the cretic deserves the preference4    
,the dochimus1 which consists of five   
syllables1 7i4e4 a short and two long   
ones1 and a short1 and a long one1 as in
 amicos tenes7 may be used indifferently

 in any part of a sentence1 provided it 
occurs but once3 for if it is continued 
or repeated1 our attention to our       
numbers will be discovered1 and alarm   
the suspicion of the hearer4 ,on the    
other hand1 if we properly blend and    
intermingle the several varieties       
above-mentioned1 our design will not be 
so readily noticed2 and we shall also   
prevent that satiety which would arise  
from an elaborate uniformity of cadence4
  ,but the harmony of language does not 
result entirely from the use of numbers1
 but from the juncture and composition  
of our words2 and from that neatness and
 concinnity of expression which ,i have 
already mentioned4 ,by composition1 ,i  
here mean when our words are so         
judiciously connected as to produce an  
agreeable sound 7independent of numbers7
 which rather appears to be the effect  
of nature than of art2 as in the        
following passage from ,crassus1 ,nam   
ubi lubido dominatur1 innocentiae leve  
praesidium est ,footnote3 ,in the       

sentence which is here quoted from      
,crassus1 every word which ends with a  
consonant is immediately succeeded by   
another which begins with a vowel2 and1 
vice versa1 if the preceding word ends  
with a vowel1 the next begins with a    
consonant43 for here the mere order in  
which the words are connected1 produces 
a harmony of sound1 without any visible 
attention of the ,speaker4 ,when the    
ancients1 therefore1 7,i mean           
,herodotus1 and ,thucydides1 and all who
 flourished in the same age7 composed a 
numerous and a musical period1 it must  
rather be attributed to the casual order
 of their words1 than to the labour and 
artifice of the writer4  ,but there are 
likewise certain forms of expression1   
which have such a natural concinnity1 as
 will necessarily have a similar effect 
to that of regular numbers4 ,for when   
parallel circumstances are compared1 or 
opposite ones contrasted1 or words of   
the same termination are placed in a    
regular succesion1 they seldom fail to  

produce a numerous cadence4 ,but ,i have
 already treated of these1 and subjoined
 a few examples2 so that we are hereby  
furnished with an additional and a      
copious variety of means to avoid the   
uniformity of cadence above-mentioned2  
especially as these measured forms of   
expression may be occasionally relaxed  
and dilated4 ,there is1 however1 a      
material difference between a style     
which is merely numerous1 7or1 in other 
words1 which has a moderate resemblance 
to metre7 and that which is entirely    
composed of numbers3 the latter is an   
insufferable fault2 but our language1   
without the former1 would be absolutely 
vague1 unpolished1 and dissipated4  ,but
 as a numerous style 7strictly so       
called7 is not frequently1 and indeed   
but seldom admissible in forensic       
causes1--it seems necessary to enquire1 
in the next place1 what are those commas
 and colons before-mentioned1 and which1
 in real causes1 should occupy the major
 part of an ,oration4 ,the period1 or   

complete sentence1 is usually composed  
of four divisions1 which are called     
members1 7or colons7 that it may        
properly fill the ear1 and be neither   
longer nor shorter than is requisite for
 that purpose4 ,but it sometimes1 or    
rather frequently happens1 that a       
sentence either falls short of1 or      
exceeds the limits of a regular period1 
to prevent it from fatiguing the ear on 
the one hand1 or disappointing it on the
 other4 ,what ,i mean is to recommend an
 agreeable mediocrity3 for we are not   
treating of verse1 but of rhetorical    
prose1 which is confessedly more free   
and unconfined4 ,a full period1 then1 is
 generally composed of four parts1 which
 may be compared to as many hexameter   
verses1 each of which have their proper 
points1 or particles of continuation1 by
 which they are connected so as to form 
a perfect period4 ,but when we speak by 
colons1 we interupt their union1 and1 as
 often as occasion requires 7which      
indeed will frequently be the case7     

break off with ease from this laboured  
and suspicious flow of language2 but yet
 nothing should be so numerous in       
reality as that which appears to be     
least so1 and yet has a forcible effect4
 ,such is the following passage in      
,crassus3--,missos faciant patronos2    
ipsi prodeant4 ,let them dismiss their  
patrons3 let them answer for themselves4
 ,unless ipsi prodeant was pronounced   
after a pause1 the hearer must have     
discovered a complete iambic verse4 ,it 
would have had a better cadence in prose
 if he had said prodeant ipsi4 ,but ,i  
am only to consider the species1 and not
 the cadence of the sentence4 ,he goes  
on1 ,cur clandestinis consiliis nos     
oppugnant8 cur de perfugis nostris      
copias comparant contra nos8 ,why do    
they attack us by clandestine measures8 
why do they collect forces against us   
from our own deserters8 ,in the former  
passage there are two commas3 in the    
latter he first makes use of the colon1 
and afterwards of the period3 but the   

period is not a long one1 as only       
consisting of two colons1 and the whole 
terminates in spondees4 ,in this manner 
,crassus generally expressed himself2   
and ,i much approve his method4 ,but    
when we speak either in commas1 or      
colons1 we should be very attentive to  
the harmony of their cadence3 as in the 
following instance4--,domus tibi deerat8
 at habebas4 ,pecunia superabat8 at     
egebas4 ,was you without a habitation8  
,you had a house of your own4 ,was your 
pocket well provided8 ,you was not      
master of a farthing4 ,these are four   
commas2 but the two following members   
are both colons2--,incurristi omens in  
columnas1 in alienos insanus insanisti4 
,you rushed like a madman upon your best
 supporters2 you vented your fury on    
your enemies withput mercy4 ,the whole  
is afterwards supported by a full       
period1 as by a solid                   
basis2--,depressam1 caecam1 jacentem    
domum1 pluris quam te1 et fortunas tuas 
aestimsti4 ,you have shewn more regard  

to an unprosperous1 an obscure1 and a   
fallen family1 than to your own safety  
and reputation4 ,this sentence ends with
 a dichoree1 but the preceeding one in a
 double spondee4 ,for in those sentences
 which are to be used like daggers for  
close-fighting1 their very shortness    
makes our numbers less exceptionable4   
,they frequently consist of a single    
number2-- generally of two1 with the    
addition perhaps of half a foot to each3
 and very seldom of more than three4 ,to
 speak in commas or colons has a very   
good effect in real causes2 and         
especially in those parts of an ,oration
 where it is your business either to    
prove or refute3 as in my second defence
 of ,cornelius1 where ,i exclaimed1 ,o  
callidos homines6 ,o rem excogitatam6 ,o
 ingenia metuenda6 ,what admirable      
schemers6 what a curious contrivance6   
what formidable talents6 ,thus far ,i   
spoke in colons2 and afterwards by      
commas2 and then returned to the colon1 
in ,testes dare volumus1 ,we are willing

 to produce our witnesses4 ,this was    
succeeded by the following period1      
consisting of two colons1 which is the  
shortest that can be formed1--,quem1    
quaeso1 nostrm sesellit ita vos esse    
facturos8 ,which of us1 think you1 had  
not the sense to foresee that you would 
proceed in this manner8  ,there is no   
method of expressing ourselves which1 if
 properly timed1 is more agreeable or   
forcible1 than these rapid turns1 which 
are completed in two or three words1 and
 sometimes in a single one2 especially1 
when they are properly diversified1 and 
intermingled here and there with a      
numerous period2 which ,egesias avoids  
with such a ridiculous nicety1 that     
while he affects to imitate ,lysias 7who
 was almost a second ,demosthenes7 he   
seems to be continually cutting capers1 
and clipping sentence after sentence4   
,he is as frivolous in his sentiments as
 in his language3 so that no person who 
is acquainted with his writings1 need to
 seek any farther for a coxcomb4 ,but ,i

 have selected several examples from    
,crassus1 and a few of my own1 that any 
person1 who is so inclined1 may have an 
opportunity of judging with his own     
ears1 what is really numerous1 as well  
in the shortest as in any other kind of 
sentences4  ,having1 therefore1 treated 
of a numerous style more copiously than 
any author before me1 ,i shall now      
proceed to say something of it's        
utility4 ,for to speak handsomely1 and  
like an ,orator 7as no one1 my ,brutus1 
knows better than yourself7 is nothing  
more than to express the choicest       
sentiments in the finest language4 ,the 
noblest thoughts will be of little      
service to an orator1 unless he is able 
to communicate them in a correct and    
agreeable style3 nor will the splendor  
of our expressions appear to a proper   
advantage1 unless they are carefully and
 judiciously ranged4 ,permit me to add1 
that the beauty of both will be         
considerably heightened by the harmony  
of our numbers3--such numbers 7for ,i   

cannot repeat it too often7 as are not  
only not cemented together1 like those  
of the poets1 but which avoid all       
appearance of metre1 and have as little 
resemblance to it as possible2 though it
 is certainly true that the numbers     
themselves are the same1 not only of the
 ,poets and ,orators1 but of all in     
general who exercise the faculty of     
speech1 and1 indeed1 of every instrument
 which produces a sound whose time can  
be measured by the ear4 ,it is owing    
entirely to the different arrangement of
 our feet that a sentence assumes either
 the easy air of prose1 or the          
uniformity of verse4 ,call it1          
therefore1 by what name you please      
7,composition1 ,perfection1 or ,number7 
it is a necessary restraint upon our    
language2 not only 7as ,aristotle and   
,theophrastus have observed7 to prevent 
our sentences 7which should be limited  
neither by the breath of the speaker1   
nor the pointing of a transcriber1 but  
by the sole restraint of number7 from   

running on without intermission like a  
babbling current of water2 but chiefly1 
because our language1 when properly     
measured1 has a much greater effect than
 when it is loose and unconfined4 ,for  
as ,wrestlers and ,gladiators1 whether  
they parry or make an assault1 have a   
certain grace in their motions1 so that 
every effort which contributes to the   
defence or the victory of the           
combatants1 presents an agreeable       
attitude to the eye3 so the powers of   
language can neither give nor evade an  
important blow1 unless they are         
gracefully exerted4 ,that style1        
therefore1 which is not regulated by    
numbers1 is to me as unbecoming as the  
motions of a ,gladiator who has not been
 properly trained and exercised3 and so 
far is our language from being enervated
 by a skilful arrangement of our words  
7as is pretended by those who1 for want 
either of proper instructors1 capacity1 
or diligence1 have not been able to     
attain it7 that1 on the contrary1       

without this1 it is impossible it should
 have any force or efficacy4  ,but it   
requires a long and attentive course of 
practice to avoid the blemishes of those
 who were unacquainted with this        
numerous species of composition1 so as  
not to transpose our words too openly to
 assist the cadence and harmony of our  
periods2 which ,l4 ,caelius ,antipater1 
in the ,introduction to his ,punic ,war1
 declares he would never attempt1 unless
 when compelled by necessity4 ,o virum  
simplicem1 7says he1 speaking of        
himself7 qui nos nihil celat2 sapientem1
 qui serviendum necessitati putet4 ,o   
simple man1 who has not the skill his   
art to conceal2 and yet to the rigid    
laws of necessity he has the wisdom to  
submit4 ,but he was totally unskilled in
 composition4 ,by us1 however1 both in  
writing and speaking1 necessity is never
 admitted as a valid plea2 for1 in fact1
 there is no such thing as an absolute  
constraint upon the order and           
arrangement of our words2 and1 if there 

was1 it is certainly unnecessary to own 
it4 ,but ,antipater1 though he requests 
the indulgence of ,laelius1 to whom he  
dedicates his work1 and attempts to     
excuse himself1 frequently transposes   
his words without contributing in the   
least either to the harmony1 or         
agreeable cadence of his periods4       
,there are others1 and particularly the 
,asiatics1 who are such slaves to       
number1 as to insert words which have no
 use nor meaning to fill up the         
vacuities in a sentence4 ,there are     
likewise some who1 in imitation of      
,hegesias 7a notorious trifler as well  
in this as in every other respect7      
curtail and mince their numbers1 and are
 thus betrayed into the low and paltry  
style of the ,sicilians4 ,another fault 
in composition is that which occurs in  
the speeches of ,hierocles and          
,menecles1 two brothers1 who may be     
considered as the princes of ,asiatic   
,eloquence1 and1 in my opinion1 are by  
no means contemptible3 for though they  

deviate from the style of nature1 and   
the strict laws of ,atticism1 yet they  
abundantly compensate the defect by the 
richness and fertility of their         
language4 ,but they have no variety of  
cadence1 and their sentences are almost 
always terminated in the same manner4   
,he therefore1 who carefully avoids     
these blemishes1 and who neither        
transposes his words too openly1--nor   
inserts any thing superfluous or        
unmeaning to fill up the chasms of a    
period1--nor curtails and clips his     
language1 so as to interrupt and        
enervate the force of it1-- nor confines
 himself to a dull uniformity of        
cadence1--he may justly be said to avoid
 the principal and most striking defects
 of prosaic harmony4 ,as to its positive
 graces1 these we have already          
specified2 and from thence the          
particular blemishes which are opposite 
to each1 will readily occur to the      
attentive reader4  ,of what consequence 
it is to regulate the structure of our  

language1 may be easily tried by        
selecting a well-wrought period from    
some ,orator of reputation1 and changing
 the arrangement of the words2          
,footnote3 ,professor ,ward has         
commented upon an example of this kind  
from the preface to the ,vth volume of  
the ,spectator3--,you have acted in so  
much consistency with yourself1 and     
promoted the interests of your country  
in so uniform a manner2 that even those1
 who would misrepresent your generous   
designs for the public good1 cannot but 
approve the steadiness and intredipity1 
with which you pursue them4 ,i think1   
says the ,doctor1 this may be justly    
esteemed an handsome period4 ,it begins 
with ease1 rises gradually till the     
voice is inflected1 then sinks again1   
and ends with a just cadency1 ,and      
perhaps there is not a word in it1 whole
 situation would be altered to an       
advantage4 ,let us now but shift the    
place of one word in the last member1   
and we shall spoil the beauty of the    

whole sentence4 ,for if1 instead of     
saying1 as it now stands1 cannot but    
approve the steadiness and intrepidity1 
with which you pursue them2 we put it   
thus1 cannot but approve the steadiness 
and intrepidity which you pursue them   
with2 the cadency will be flat and      
languid1 and the harmony of the period  
entirely lost4 ,let us try it again by  
altering the place of the two last      
members1 which at present stand in this 
order1 that even those who would        
misrepresent your generous designs for  
the public good1 cannot but approve the 
steadiness and intrepidity1 with which  
you pursue them4 ,now if the former     
member be thrown last1 they will run    
thus1 that even those cannot but approve
 the steadiness and intrepidity1 with   
which you pursue them1 who would        
misrepresent your generous designs for  
the public good4 ,here the sense is much
 obscured by the inversion of the       
relative them1 which ought to refer to  
something that went before1 and not to  

the words generous designs1 which in    
this situation of the members are placed
 after it4 ,,ward',s ,rhetoric4 ,vol4   
#a1 p4 #cch1 #cci4 the beauty of it     
would then be mangled and destroyed4    
,suppose1 for instance1 we take the     
following passage from my ,defence of   
,cornelius1--,neque me divitae movent1  
quibus omnes ,africanos et ,laelios1    
multi venalitii mercatoresque           
superarunt4 ,nor am ,i dazzled by the   
splendor of wealth1 in which many       
retailers1 and private tradesmen have   
outvied all the ,africani and the ,lelii
 ,only invert the order a little1 and   
say1--,multi superrunt mercatores1      
venatitiique1 and the harmony of the    
period will be loft4 ,try the experiment
 on the next sentence2--,neque vestes1  
aut celatum aurum1  argentum1 quo       
nostros veteres ,marcellos1 ,maximosque 
multi eunuchi e ,syri ,egyptoque        
vicerunt3 ,nor do4 ,i pay the least     
regard to costly habits1 or magnificent 
services of plate1 in which many        

eunuchs1 imported from ,syria and       
,egypt1 have far surpassed the          
illustrious ,marcelli1 and the ,maximi4 
,alter the disposition of the words     
into1 vicerunt eunuchi e ,syria1        
,egyptoque1 and the whole beauty of the 
sentence will be destroyed4 ,take a     
third passage from the same             
paragraph2--,neque vero ornamenta ista  
villarum1 quibus ,paulum  ,l4 ,mummium1 
qui rebus his urbem1 ,italiamque omnem  
reserserunt1 ab aliquo video perfacile  
,deliaco aut ,syro potuisse             
superari3--,nor the splendid ornaments  
of a rural villa1 in which ,i daily     
behold every paltry ,delian and ,syrian 
outvying the dignity of ,paulus and     
,lucius ,mummius1 who1 by their         
victories1 supplied the whole city1 and 
indeed every part of ,italy1 with a     
super- fluity of these glittering       
trifles6 ,only change the latter part of
 the sentence into1-- potuisse superari 
ab aliquo ,syro aut ,deliaco1 and you   
will see1 though the meaning and the    

words are still the same1 that1 by      
making this slight alteration in the    
order1 and breaking the form of the     
period1 the whole force and spirit of it
 will be lost4  ,on the other hand1 take
 one of the broken sentences of a writer
 unskilled in composition1 and make the 
smallest alteration in the arrangement  
of the words1--and that which before was
 loose and disordered1 will assume a    
just and a regular form4 ,let us1 for   
instance1 take the following passage    
from the speech of ,gracchus to the     
,censors2--,abesse non potest1 quin     
ejusdem hominis fit1 probos improbare1  
qui improbos probet2 ,there is no       
possibility of doubting that the same   
person who is an enemy to virtue1 must  
be a friend to vice4 ,how much better   
would the period have terminated if he  
had said1--quin ejusdem hominis fit1 qui
 improbos probet1 probos                
improbare6--that the same person who is 
a friend to vice1 must be an enemy to   
virtue6 ,there is no one who would      

object to the last3--nay1 it is         
impossible that any one who was able to 
speak thus1 should have been willing to 
express himself otherwise4 ,but those   
who have pretended to speak in a        
different manner1 had not skill enough  
to speak as they ought2 and for that    
reason1 truly1 we must applaud them for 
their ,attic taste2--as if the great    
,,demosthenes could speak like an       
,asiatic ,footnote3 ,quasi vero         
,trallianus fuerit ,demosthenes4        
,trallianus signifies an inhabitant of  
,tralles1 a city in the lesser ,asia1   
between ,caria and ,lydia4 ,the         
,asiatics1 in the estimation of ,cicero1
 were not distinguished by the delicacy 
of their taste41--that ,demosthenes1    
whose thunder would have lost half it's 
force1 if it's flight had not been      
accelerated by the rapidity of his      
numbers4  ,but if any are better pleased
 with a broken and dissipated style1 let
 them follow their humour1 provided they
 condescend to counterbalance it by the 

weight1 and dignity of their sentiments3
 in the same manner1 as if a person     
should dash to pieces the celebrated    
shield of ,phidias1 though he would     
destroy the symmetry of the whole1 the  
fragments would still retain their      
separate beauty2--or1 as in the history 
of ,thucydides1 though we discover no   
harmony in the structure of his periods1
 there are yet many beauties which      
excite our admiration4 ,but these       
triflers1 when they present us with one 
of their rugged and broken sentences1 in
 which there is neither a thought1 nor  
word1 but what is low and puerile1      
appear to me 7if ,i may venture on a    
comparison which is not indeed very     
elevated1 but is strictly applicable to 
the case in hand7 to have untied a      
besom1 that we may contemplate the      
scattered twigs4 ,if1 however1 they wish
 to convince us that they really despise
 the species of composition which ,i    
have now recommended1 let them favour us
 with a few lines in the taste of       

,isocrates1 or such as we find in the   
orations of ,aeschines and ,demosthenes4
 ,i will then believe they decline the  
use of it1 not from a consciousness of  
their inability to put it in practice1  
but from a real conviction of it's      
futility2 or1 at least1 ,i will engage  
to find a person1 who1 on the same      
condition1 will undertake either to     
speak or write1 in any language they may
 please to fix upon1 in the very manner 
they propose4 ,for it is much easier to 
disorder a good period1 than to         
harmonize a bad one4  ,but1 to speak my 
whole meaning at once1 to be            
scrupulously attentive to the measure   
and harmony of our periods1 without a   
proper regard to our sentiments1 is     
absolute madness3--and1 on the other    
hand1 to speak sensibly and judiciously1
 without attending to the arrangement of
 our words1 and the regularity of our   
periods1 is 7at the best7 to speak very 
awkwardly2 but it is such a kind of     
awkwardness that those who are guilty of

 it1 may not only escape the title of   
blockheads1 but pass for men of         
good-sense and understanding2--a        
character which those speakers who are  
contented with it1 are heartily welcome 
to enjoy6 ,but an ,orator who is        
expected not only to merit the          
approbation1 but to excite the wonder1  
the acclamations1 and the plaudits of   
those who hear him1 must excel in every 
part of ,eloquence1 and be so thoroughly
 accomplished1 that it would be a       
disgrace to him that any thing should be
 either seen or heard with greater      
pleasure than himself4         99       
99       99       99       99  ,thus1 my
 ,brutus1 ,i have given you my opinion  
of a complete ,orator2 which you are at 
liberty either to adopt or reject1 as   
your better judgment shall incline you4 
,if you see reason to think differently1
 ,i shall have no objection to it2 nor  
so far indulge my vanity as to presume  
that my sentiments1 which ,i have so    
freely communicated in the present      

,essay1 are more just and accurate than 
yours4 ,for it is very possible not only
 that you and ,i may have different     
notions1 but that what appears true even
 to myself at one time1 may appear      
otherwise at another4 ,nor only in the  
present case1 which be determined by the
 taste of the multitude1 and the        
capricious pleasure of the ear 7which   
are1 perhaps1 the most uncertain judges 
we can fix upon7--but in the most       
important branches of science1 have ,i  
yet been able to discover a surer rule  
to direct my judgment1 than to embrace  
that which has the greatest appearance  
of probability3 for ,truth is covered   
with too thick a veil to be             
distinguished to a certainty4 ,i        
request1 therefore1 if what ,i have     
advanced should not have the happiness  
to merit your approbation1 that you will
 be so much my friend as to conclude1   
either that the talk ,i have attempted  
is impracticable1 or that my            
unwillingness to disoblige you has      

betrayed me into the rash presumption of
 undertaking a subject to which my      
abilities are unequal4