,pro(read]s ,,initiation ,,into ,,philosophy ,by ,emile ,faguet ,( ! ,fr5* ,academy ,au?or ( ,! ,cult ,( ,incompet5ce1 ,initiation ,into ,lit]ature1 etc4 ,translat$ f ! ,fr5* by ,sir ,hom] ,gordon1 ,b>t4 #aiad ,,preface ,?is volume1 z indicat$ by ! title1 is design$ to %[ ! way to ! beg9n]1 to satisfy & m especially to excite 8 initial curiosity4 ,x af=ds an adequate idea ( ! m>* ( facts & ( ideas4 ,! read] is l$1 some:at rapidly1 f ! remote orig9s to ! mo/ rec5t ef=ts ( ! human m9d4 ,x %\ld be a conv5i5t rep]tory to :i* ! m9d may rev]t 9 ord] to see broadly ! g5]al op9ion ( an epo*--& :at connect$ x ) ^? t foll[$ or prec$$ x4 ,x aims above all at be+ a frame 9 :i* c conv5i5tly be inscrib$1 9 ! c\rse ( fur!r /udies1 new conceptions m detail$ & m ?or\ghly exam9$4 ,x w h fulfill$ its design %\ld x incite to rese>* & m$itation1 & if x prep>es = !m correctly4 ,e4 ,,faguet4 ,,cont5ts ,,"p ,i ,,antiquity ,,*apt] ,i ,,be=e ,,socrates ,philosophical ,int]pret]s ( ! ,univ]se1 ( ! ,creation & ,con/itution ( ! ,_w4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,sophi/s ,logicians & ,pr(essors ( ,logic1 & ( ! ,analysis ( ,ideas1 & ( ,discussion4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,socrates ,philosophy ,entirely ,r$uc$ to ,morality1 & ,morality ,consid]$ z ! ,end ( all ,intellectual ,activity4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,plato ,plato1 l ,socrates1 is ,pre-em95tly a ,morali/1 b he ,rev]ts to ,g5]al ,consid]ation ( ! ,univ]se1 & ,deals ) ,politics & ,legislation4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,ari/otle ,a ,man ( ,encyclopa$ic ,le>n+2 z ,philosoph]1 m especially ,morali/ & ,logician4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,v>i\s ,,s*ools ,! ,developm5t 9 ,v>i\s ,s*ools ( ! ,g5]al ,ideas ( ,socrates1 ,plato1 & ,ari/otle4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,epicureanism ,epicureanism ,believes t ! ,duty ( ,man is to seek ,happ9ess1 & t ,happ9ess ,consi/s 9 ,wisdom4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,/oicism ,! ,passions are ,diseases :i* c & mu/ be ,extirpat$4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,eclectics ,,& ,,sceptics ,philosoph]s :o ,wi%$ to ,belong to ,no ,s*ool4 ,philosoph]s :o ,decri$ ,all ,s*ools & ,all ,doctr9es4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,neoplatonism ,rev]sion to ,metaphysics4 ,imag9ative ,metaphysicians aft] ! ,mann] ( ,plato1 b 9 ,excess4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,*ri/ianity ,philosophic ,ideas :i* ,*ri/ianity ,welcom$1 ,adopt$1 or ,creat$2 ,h[ x mu/ ,give a ,fre% ,aspect to ,all ,philosophy1 ev5 t ,=eign to ,itself4 ,,"p ,,ii ,,9 ,,! ,,middle ,,ages ,,*apt] ,i ,,f ,,! ,,fif? ,,c5tury ,,to ,,! ,,?irte5? ,philosophy is only an ,int]pret] ( ,dogma4 ,:5 x is ,decl>$ ,contr>y to ,dogma by ! ,au?ority ( ,religion1 x is a ,h]esy4 ,or?odox & ,het]odox ,int]pretations4 ,"s ,indep5d5t ,philosoph]s4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,?irte5? ,,c5tury ,influ5ce ( ,ari/otle4 ,8 ,adoption by ! ,*ur*4 ,religi\s ,philosophy ( ,/4 ,?omas ,aqu9as4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,f\rte5? ,,& ,,fifte5? ,,c5turies ,decad5ce ( ,s*ola/icism4 ,=ebod+s ( ! ,com+ ,era4 ,great ,morali/s4 ,! ,kabbala4 ,sorc]y4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,sixte5? ,,c5tury ,x ,is ,fairly ,accurate to ,consid] t f ! ,po9t ( ,view ( ,philosophy1 ! ,middle ,ages ,la/$ until ,desc>tes4 ,free-?9k]s ,m or ,less ,disguis$4 ,p>tisans ( ,reason ,ap>t f ,fai?1 ( ,obs]vation1 & ( ,exp]im5t4 ,,"p ,,iii ,,mod]n ,,times ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,sev5te5? ,,c5tury ,desc>tes4 ,c>tesianism4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,c>tesians ,all ! ,sev5te5? ,c5tury 0 "u ! ,influ5ce ( ,desc>tes4 ,port-,royal1 ,bossuet1 ,f5elon1 ,malebran*e1 ,sp9oza1 ,leibnitz4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,engli% ,,philosoph]s ,,( ,,! ,,sev5te5? ,,c5tury4 ,locke3 ,8 ,ideas on ,human ,lib]ty1 ,morality1 ,g5]al ,politics1 & ,religi\s ,politics4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,engli% ,,philosoph]s ,,( ,,! ,,eighte5? ,,c5tury ,b]keley3 ,a ,highly ,ideali/ ,philosophy :i* ,reg>d$ ,matt] z ,non-exi/5t4 ,david ,hume3 ,sceptical ,philosophy4 ,! ,scotti% ,s*ool3 ,philosophy ( ,common ,s5se4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,! ,,fr5* ,,philosoph]s ,,( ,,! ,,eighte5? ,,c5tury ,voltaire a ,disciple ( ,locke4 ,r\sseau a ,free-?9k+ ,*ri/ian1 b deeply ,imbu$ ) ,religi\s ,s5tim5ts4 ,did]ot a ,caprici\s ,mat]iali/4 ,d',holba* & ,helvetius ,av[$ ,mat]iali/s4 ,condillac a ,philosoph] ( ,s5sations4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,kant ,kant ,recon/ruct$ all ,philosophy by ,support+ x on ,morality4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,! ,,n9ete5? ,,c5tury3 ,,g]many ,! ,great ,recon/ructors ( ! ,_w1 ,analog\s to ! ,fir/ ,philosoph]s ( ,antiquity4 ,great ,g5]al ,sy/ems1 ,fi*te1 ,s*ell+1 ,hegel1 etc4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,! ,,n9ete5? ,,c5tury3 ,,engl& ,! ,doctr9es ( ,evolution & ( ,trans=mism3 ,lam>ck 7,fr5*71 ,d>w91 ,sp5c]4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,! ,,n9ete5? ,,c5tury3 ,,france ,! ,eclectic ,s*ool3 ,victor ,c\s94 ,! ,positivi/ ,s*ool3 ,augu/e ,comte4 ,! ,kanti/ ,s*ool3 ,r5\vi]4 ,indep5d5t & ,complex ,positivi/s3 ,ta9e1 ,r5an4 ,,index ,,initiation ,,into ,,philosophy ,,"p ,i ,,antiquity ,,*apt] ,i ,,be=e ,,socrates ,philosophical ,int]pret]s ( ! ,univ]se1 ( ! ,creation & ,con/itution ( ! ,_w4 ,,philosophy4--,! aim ( philosophy is to seek ! explanation ( all ?+s3 ! que/ is = ! fir/ causes ( ev]y?+1 & also h[ all ?+s are1 & f9ally :y1 ) :at design1 ) a view to :at1 ?+s are4 ,t is :y1 tak+ pr9ciple 9 all ! s5ses ( ! ^w1 x has be5 call$ ! sci5ce ( fir/ pr9ciples4 ,philosophy has always exi/$4 ,religions--all religions--are philosophies4 ,!y are inde$ ! mo/ complete4 ,b1 ap>t f religions1 m5 h s\ght ! causes & pr9ciples ( ev]y?+ & endeav\r$ to acquire g5]al ideas4 ,^! rese>*es ap>t f religi\s dogmas 9 pagan antiquity are ! only ones ) :i* we are "h to be conc]n$4 ,,! ,,ionian ,,s*ool3 ,,?ales4--,! ,ionian ,s*ool is ! mo/ anci5t s*ool ( philosophy kn[n4 ,x dates back to ! sev5? c5tury be=e ,*ri/4 ,?ales ( ,miletus1 a natural philosoph] & a/ronom]1 z we %\ld describe him1 believ$ matt]--namely1 t ( :i* all ?+s & all be+s are made--to be 9 p]petual trans=mation1 & t ^! trans=mations are produc$ by p[]ful be+s atta*$ to e portion ( matt]4 ,^! p[]ful be+s 7 gods4 ,ev]y?+1 !re=e1 0 full ( gods4 ,8 philosophy 0 a my?ology4 ,he also ?\ght t ! ess5tial elem5t ( matt] 0 wat]1 & t x 0 wat]1 "u ! influ5ce ( ! gods1 :i* trans=m$ itself into e>?1 air1 & fire1 :il/ f wat]1 e>?1 air1 & fire came ev]y?+ t is 9 nature4 ,,anaxim&]2 ,,h]aclitus4--,anaxim&] ( ,miletus1 an a/ronom] also1 & a geograph]1 believ$ t ! pr9ciple ( all ?+s is indet]m9ate--a k9d ( *aos :]e9 no?+ has =m or %ape2 t f *aos come ?+s & be+s1 & t !y return ?i!r 9 ord] to em]ge aga94 ,"o ( 8 p>ticul> !ories 0 t fi% 7 ! mo/ anci5t ( animals1 & t all animals _h issu$ f !m ?r\gh successive trans=mations4 ,?is !ory 0 reviv$ = a :ile ab\t fifty ye>s ago4 ,h]aclitus ( ,ephesus 7v obscure1 & ) ?is epi!t atta*$ p]man5tly to 8 "n7 saw all ?+s z a p]petual gr[?--9 an indef9ite /ate ( becom+4 ,no?+ is2 all ?+s gr[ & are de/9$ to et]nal gr[?4 ,beh9d !m1 nev]!less1 !re is an et]nal ma/] :o does n *ange4 ,x is our duty to resemble him z mu* z we c2 t is to say1 z mu* z an ape c resemble a man4 ,calmness is imp]ative3 to be z motionless z transi5t be+s c4 ,! popul> leg5d runs t ,h]aclitus always wept2 :at is kn[n ( him only t5ds to prove t he 0 grave1 & did n fav\r emotionalism4 ,,anaxagoras2 ,,emp$ocles4--,anaxagoras ( ,clazom5ae1 above all else a natural philosoph]1 settl$ at ,a!ns ab\t #dgj ,b4,c42 0 ! ma/] & fri5d ( ,p]icles2 0 on ! po9t ( be+ put to dea?1 z ,socrates 0 lat] on1 = ! crime ( indiff]5ce t[>ds ! religion ( ! ,a!nians1 & _h to take refuge at ,lampsacus1 :]e he di$4 ,l ,anaxim&]1 he believ$ t ev]y?+ em]g$ f some?+ indet]m9ate & confus$2 b he add$ t :at caus$ ! em]g5ce f t /ate 0 ! organiz+ intellig5ce1 ! ,m9d1 j z 9 man1 x is ! intellig5ce :i* draws ?\ght f c]ebral undulations1 & =ms a cle> idea out ( a confus$ idea4 ,anaxagoras ex]t$ an almo/ incomp>able influ5ce ov] ,greek philosophy ( ! classical times4 ,emp$ocles ( ,agrig5tum1 a sort ( magician & high-prie/1 almo/ a deity1 ^: life & dea? are b little kn[n1 appe>s to h possess$ an encyclopa$ic bra94 ,f him is d]iv$ ! doctr9e ( ! f\r elem5ts1 = :]eas ! philosoph]s :o prec$$ him gave z ! sole s\rce ( ?+s--"s wat]1 o!rs air1 o!rs fire1 o!rs ! e>?1 he reg>d$ !m all f\r equally z ! primal elem5ts ( ev]y?+4 ,he believ$ t ! _w is sway$ by two contr>y =ces--love & hate1 ! "o desir+ et]nally to unite1 ! o!r et]nally to dis9tegrate4 ,amid ?is /ruggle goes on a movem5t ( organization1 incessantly ret>d$ by hate1 p]petually facilitat$ by love2 & f ?is movem5t h issu$--fir/1 vegetation1 !n ! l[] animals1 !n ! high] animals1 !n m54 ,9 ,emp$ocles c be f\nd ei!r evid5t traces ( ! religion ( ,zoroa/] ( ,p]sia 7! p]petual antagonism ( two great gods1 t ( good & t ( evil71 or else a curi\s co9cid5ce ) ?is doctr9e1 :i* w appe> aga9 lat] among ! ,mani*eans4 ,,py?agoras4--,py?agoras appe>s to h be5 born ab\t ,b4,c4 #ejj on ! ,isle ( ,elea1 to h travell$ mu*1 & to h f9ally settl$ 9 ,great] ,greece 7s\!rn ,italy74 ,py?agoras1 l ,emp$ocles1 0 a sort ( magician or god4 ,8 doctr9e 0 a religion1 ! respect ) :i* he 0 surr\nd$ 0 a cult1 ! obs]vances he impos$ on 8 family & on 8 disciples 7 rites4 ,:at he taught 0 t ! true realities1 :i* d n *ange1 7 numb]s4 ,! fundam5tal & supreme reality is "o2 ! be+ :o is "o is ,god2 f ?is numb]1 :i* is "o1 are d]iv$ all ! o!r numb]s :i* are ! f\ndation ( be+s1 _! inw>d cause1 _! ess5ce2 we are all m or less p]fect numb]s2 ea* creat$ ?+ is a m or less p]fect numb]4 ,! _w1 gov]n$ ?us by comb9ations ( numb]s1 has always exi/$ & w always exi/4 ,x develops itself1 h[ev]1 accord+ to a num]ical s]ies ( :i* we d n possess ! key1 b :i* we c guess4 ,z = human de/9y x is ?is3 we h be5 animat$ be+s1 human or animal2 accord+ z we h liv$ well or ill we %all be re9c>nat$ ei!r z sup]ior m5 or z animals m or less inf]ior4 ,?is is ! doctr9e ( metempsy*osis1 :i* _h _m adh]5ts 9 anci5t days1 & also 9 a m or less fanciful fa%ion 9 mod]n times4 ,to ,py?agoras h be5 attribut$ a c]ta9 numb] ( maxims :i* are call$ ! ,gold5 ,v]ses4 ,,x5ophanes2 ,,p>m5ides4--,x5ophanes ( ,colophon is also a unit>ian4 ,he accepts only "o ,god1 & ( all ! anci5t philosoph]s appe>s to be ! mo/ oppos$ to my?ology1 to belief 9 a multiplicity ( gods resembl+ m51 a doctr9e :i* he despises z be+ immoral4 ,!re is "o ,god1 et]nal1 immutable1 immovable1 :o has no ne$ to transf] ,himself f "o locality to ano!r1 :o is )\t place1 & :o gov]ns all ?+s by ,8 ?\ght alone4 ,advanc+ fur!r1 ,p>m5ides told himself t if ,he alone really exi/s :o is "o & et]nal & un*angeable1 all else is n only inf]ior to ,him1 b is only a semblance1 & t mank9d1 e>?1 sky1 plants1 & animals are only a va/ illusion--phantoms1 a mirage1 :i* w\ld disappe>1 :i* w\ld no long] exi/1 & w\ld nev] h exi/$ if we c\ld p]ceive ! ,self-exi/5t4 ,,z5o2 ,,democritus4--,z5o ( ,elea1 :o mu/ be m5tion$ m especially because he 0 ! ma/] ( t ,gorgias ( :om ,socrates 0 ! adv]s>y1 0 pre-em95tly a subtle dialectician 9 :om ! sophi/ already made 8 appe>ance1 & :o emb>rass$ ! ,a!nians by capti\s argum5ts1 at ! bottom ( :i* always c\ld be f\nd ?is fundam5tal pr9ciple3 ap>t f ! ,et]nal ,be+ all is only semblance2 ap>t f ,him :o is all1 all is no?+4 ,democritus ( ,abd]a1 disciple ( ,leucippus ( ,abd]a 7ab\t :om no?+ is kn[n71 is ! inv5tor ( ! !ory ( atoms4 ,matt] is compos$ ( an inf9ite numb] ( t9y indivisible bodies :i* are call$ atoms2 ^! atoms f all et]nity1 or at lea/ s9ce ! comm5cem5t ( matt]1 h be5 endu$ ) c]ta9 movem5ts by :i* !y atta* !mselves to "o ano!r1 & agglom]ate or sep>ate1 & !nce is caus$ ! =mation ( all ?+s1 & ! de/ruction1 :i* is only ! dis9tegration1 ( all ?+s4 ,! s\l itself is only an aggregation ( specially t5u\s & subtle atoms4 ,x is probable t :5 a c]ta9 numb] ( ^! atoms quit ! body1 sleep ensues2 t :5 ne>ly all dep>t1 x causes ! appe>ance ( dea? 7le?>gy1 catalepsy72 t :5 !y all dep>t1 dea? occurs4 ,we are br\ght into relation ) ! ext]nal _w by ! adv5t 9 u ( extremely subtle atoms--reflections ( ?+s1 semblances ( ?+s--:i* ent] & m+le ) ! con/itu5t atoms ( our s\ls4 ,!re is no?+ 9 our intellig5ce :i* has n be5 br\ght !re by our s5ses1 & our intellig5ce is only ! comb9ation ( ! atoms compos+ our s\ls ) ! atoms t ext]nal matt] s5ds1 s to speak1 into our s\ls4 ,! doctr9es ( ,democritus w be f\nd aga9 9 ^? ( ,epicurus & ,lucretius4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,sophi/s ,logicians & ,pr(essors ( ,logic1 & ( ! ,analysis ( ,ideas1 & ( ,discussion4 ,,doctr9es ,,( ,,! ,,sophi/s4--,! ,sophi/s desc5d f ,p>m5ides & ,z5o ( ,elea2 ,gorgias 0 ! disciple ( ! latt]4 ,by d9t ( ?9k+ t all is semblance save ! ,supreme ,be+1 :o alone is real1 x is v easy to arrive at belief 9 all be+ semblance1 includ+ t ,be+2 or at lea/ :at is almo/ tantam\nt1 t all is semblance1 inclusive ( any idea we c possibly conceive ( ! ,supreme ,be+4 ,to believe no?+1 & to demon/rate t !re is no reason to believe 9 any?+1 is ! c>d9al pr9ciple ( all ! ,sophi/s4 ,!n1 x may be sugge/$1 !re is no?+ = x b to be sil5t4 ,no1 !re is ! cultivation ( "o's m9d 7! only ?+ ( ! exi/5ce ( :i* we are sure71 s z to give x ability1 read9ess1 & /r5g?4 ,) :at object8 ,to become a dext]\s ?9k]1 :i* 9 itself is a f9e ?+2 to be also a man ( consid]ation1 li/5$ to 9 "o's city1 & to arrive at its gov]nm5t4 ,! ,sophi/s accord+ly gave lessons1 especially 9 psy*ology1 dialectics1 & eloqu5ce4 ,!y fur!r taught philosophy1 b 9 ord] to demon/rate t all philosophy is false2 &1 z ,pascal obs]v$ lat]1 t to ridicule philosophy is truly philosophical4 ,!y seem to h be5 extremely intellectual1 v le>n$1 & mo/ s]i\s despite _! scepticism1 & to h r5d]$ ,greece ! v great s]vice ( mak+ a p5etrat+ analysis--! fir/ record$--( our faculty ( k & ( ! limitations1 real1 possible1 or probable1 ( t faculty4 ,,protagoras2 ,,gorgias2 ,,prodicus4--,!y 7 v num]\s1 ! ta/e = _! art1 :i* might be call$ philosophical criticism1 be+ widespread 9 ,attica4 ,x may be believ$1 z ,plato ma9ta9s1 t "s 7 ( v m$iocre capacity1 & ?is is natural2 b !re 7 also "s :o cle>ly 7 em95t au?orities4 ,! mo/ illu/ri\s 7 ,protagoras1 ,gorgias1 & ,prodicus ( ,ceos4 ,protagoras seems to h be5 ! mo/ philosophical ( !m all1 ,gorgias ! be/ orator & ! *ief pr(essor ( rhetoric1 ,prodicus ! mo/ em95t morali/ & poet4 ,protagoras reject$ all metaphysics--t is1 all inve/igation ( fir/ causes & ( ! univ]se--& r$uc$ all philosophy to ! sci5ce ( self-control ) a view to happ9ess1 & control ( o!rs ) a view to _! happ9ess4 ,l ,anaxagoras1 he 0 bani%$ f ! city "u ! *>ge ( impiety1 & 8 books 7 publicly burnt4 ,gorgias appe>s to h ma9ta9$ ! same ideas ) m mod]ation & also ) less pr(undity4 ,he claim$1 above all1 to be able to make a good orator4 ,accord+ to ,plato1 x 0 he :om ,socrates mo/ p]si/5tly made ! butt ( 8 s>casms4 ,prodicus1 :om ,plato himself e/eem$1 appe>s to h be5 pr9cipally preoccupi$ ) ! moral problem4 ,he 0 ! au?or ( ! fam\s apologue :i* repres5t$ ,h]cules hav+ to *oose betwe5 two pa?s1 ! "o be+ t ( virtue1 ! o!r ( pleasure4 ,l ,socrates lat] on1 he too 0 subject to ! t]rible accusation ( impiety1 & und]w5t capital puni%m5t4 ,! ,sophi/s furni% ! mo/ important epo* 9 ! hi/ory ( anci5t philosophy2 until _! adv5t ! philosophic sy/ems 7 great poems on ! total ( all ?+s1 kn[n & unkn[n4 ,! ,sophi/s oppos$ ^! ambiti\s & precipitate g5]alizations1 9 :i* imag9ation _h ! l>g] %>e1 & _! discov]y 0 to br+ philosophy back to its true />t+ po9t by affirm+ t ! fir/ ?+ to d1 & t be=e all else1 0 to "k our own m9d & its me*anism4 ,_! error possibly 01 :ile say+ t x 0 ! fir/ ?+ to d1 too (t5 to affirm t x 0 ! only ?+ to d2 /ill ! fact rema9s t !y 7 p]fectly accurate 9 _! assurance t x 0 prim>y4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,socrates ,philosophy ,entirely ,r$uc$ to ,morality1 & ,morality ,consid]$ z ! ,end ( all ,intellectual ,activity4 ,,! ,,philosophy ,,( ,,socrates4--,( ,socrates no?+ is kn[n except t he 0 born at ,a!ns1 t he held _m public discussions ) all & sundry 9 ! /reets ( ,a!ns1 & t he di$ "u ! ,?irty ,tyrants4 ,( 8 ideas we "k no?+1 because he wrote no?+1 & because 8 disciples 7 f> too intellig5t2 9 consequ5ce ( :i* x is impossible to "k if :at !y said 0 ?\ght by him1 _h really be5 8 ideas or !irs4 ,:at seems c]ta9 is t nei!r ,ari/ophanes nor ! judges at ! trial ( ,socrates 7 completely deceiv$ 9 consid]+ him a ,sophi/2 = he proce$$ f !m4 ,x is true he proce$$ f !m by reaction1 because evid5tly _! univ]sal scepticism _h t]rifi$ him2 b nev]!less he 0 _! direct outcome1 = l !m he 0 extremely mi/ru/ful ( ! old va/ sy/ems ( philosophy1 & to ^? m5 :o pret5d$ to "k ev]y?+ he oppos$ a phrase :i* is probably au!ntic3 ,i "k t ,i "k no?+2 =1 l ! ,sophi/s1 he wi%$ to recall philosophy to e>? f heav51 namely f metaphysics to ! /udy ( man1 & no?+ else2 =1 l ! ,sophi/s1 he conf9$ & limit$ ! field ) a k9d ( sev]e & imp]i\s mode/y :i* 0 none ! less contemptu\s ( ! audaci\s2 =1 f9ally1 l ! ,sophi/s1 b 9 ?is highly analog\s to _m philosoph]s prec$+ ! ,sophi/s1 he _h b a v mod]ate & mitigat$ respect = ! religion ( 8 fell[-citiz5s4 ,accord+ to :at we "k ( ,socrates f ,x5ophon1 unque/ionably ! lea/ imag9ative ( 8 disciples1 ,socrates1 l ! ,sophi/s1 r$uc$ philosophy to ! /udy ( man2 b 8 great & incomp>able orig9ality lay 9 ! fact t :]eas ! ,sophi/s wi%$ man to /udy himself 9 ord] to be happy1 ,socrates wi%$ him to /udy himself 9 ord] to be moral1 hone/1 & j1 )\t any reg>d to happ9ess4 ,= ,socrates1 ev]y?+ _h to t5d t[>ds morality1 to contribute to x1 & to be subord9at$ to x z ! goal & z ! f9al aim4 ,he appli$ himself unceas+ly1 relates ,x5ophon1 to exam9e & to det]m9e :at is good & evil1 j & unju/1 wise & fooli%1 brave & c[>dly1 etc4 ,he incessantly appli$ himself1 relates ,ari/otle--& !re9 he 0 z mu* a true pr(essor ( rhetoric z ( morality--?or\ghly to def9e & c>efully to specify ! mean+ ( words 9 ord] n to be put (f ) vague t]ms :i* are illusions ( ?\ght1 & 9 ord] to discipl9e 8 m9d rigor\sly s z to make x an organ = ! asc]ta9m5t ( tru?4 ,,8 ,,me?od4--,he _h dialectical me?ods1 ! art ( conf]r+1 z ,montaigne call$ x1 m or less happy1 :i* he _h probably borr[$ f ! ,sophi/s1 t contribut$ to cause him to be consid]$ "o ( !m1 & ex]cis$ a wide vogue long aft] him4 ,he deliv]$ m5's m9ds1 z he himself said--t is1 he believ$1 or affect$ to believe1 t ! v]ities are 9 a lat5t /ate 9 all m9ds1 & t x ne$$ only pati5ce1 dext]ity1 & skillful inve/igation to br+ !m to light4 ,else:]e1 he int]rogat$ 9 a capti\s fa%ion 9 ord] to set ! int]locutor 9 contradiction to himself & to make him confess t he _h said :at he _h n ?\ght he _h said1 agre$ to :at he _h n believ$ he _h agre$ to2 & he triumph$ malici\sly ov] su* confusions4 ,9 %ort1 he seems to h be5 a witty & teas+ ,frankl91 & to h taught true wisdom by laugh+ at ev]yone4 ,folk nev] l to be ridicul$1 & no d\bt ! recollection ( ^! ironies _h mu* to d ) ! iniquit\s judgm5t :i* condemn$ him1 & :i* he seems to h *all5g$ up to ! la/4 ,,8 ,,influ5ce4--,8 influ5ce 0 inf9ite4 ,x is f him t morality became ! end itself1 ! la/ & supreme end ( all philosophy--! reason ( philosophy2 &1 z 0 obs]v$ by ,nietzs*e1 ! ,circe ( philosoph]s1 :o en*ants !m1 :o dictates to !m be=eh&1 or :o modifies _! sy/ems 9 advance by t]rify+ !m z to :at _! sy/ems may conta9 irrev]5t t[>ds itself or dang]\s 9 relation to x4 ,f ,socrates to ,kant & !nce onw>d1 morality has be5 ! ,circe ( philosoph]s1 & morality is1 z x 71 ! spiritual daught] ( ,socrates4 ,on ! o!r h&1 8 influ5ce 0 t]rible = ! religion ( antiquity because x direct$ ! m9d t[>ds ! idea t morality is ! sole object wor?y ( k1 & t ! anci5t religions 7 immoral1 or ( su* a dubi\s morality z to des]ve ! des]tion & scorn ( hone/ m54 ,*ri/ianity f\ght paganism ) ! argum5ts ( ! disciples ( ,socrates--) ,socratic argum5ts2 mod]n philosophies & cre$s are all impregnat$ ) ,socraticism4 ,:5 x 0 obs]v$ t ! ,sophi/s =m ! mo/ important epo* 9 ! hi/ory ( anci5t philosophy1 x 0 because !y taught ,socrates to seek a philosophy :i* 0 entirely human & preoccupi$ solely ) ! happ9ess ( man4 ,?is l$ a great m9d1 & 9 8 track o!r v great m9ds1 to direct all philosophy1 & ev5 all human sci5ce1 t[>ds ! inve/igation ( goodness1 goodness be+ reg>d$ z ! condition ( happ9ess4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,plato ,plato1 l ,socrates1 is ,pre-em95tly a ,morali/1 b he rev]ts to ,g5]al ,consid]ation ( ! ,univ]se & ,deals ) ,politics & ,legislation4 ,,plato ,a ,,disciple ,,( ,,socrates4--,plato1 l ,x5ophon1 0 a pupil ( ,socrates1 b ,x5ophon only want$ to be ! cl]k ( ,socrates2 & ,plato1 z an en?usia/ic disciple1 0 at ! same "t v fai?ful & v unfai?ful to ,socrates4 ,he 0 a fai?ful disciple to ,socrates 9 nev] fail+ to place morality 9 ! =emo/ rank ( all philosophical consid]ations2 9 t he nev] v>i$4 ,he 0 an unfai?ful disciple to ,socrates 9 t1 imag9ative & an admirable poet1 he bore back philosophy f e>? to heav52 he did n =bid himself--q ! contr>y--to pile up great sy/ems ab\t all ?+s & to envelop ! univ]se 9 8 va/ & d>+ conceptions4 ,he inv9cibly e/abli%$ morality1 ! sci5ce ( virtue1 z ! f9al goal ( human k1 9 8 brilliant & *>m+ ,socratic ,dialogues2 he =m$ great sy/ems 9 all ! works 9 :i* he introduces himself z speak+ 9 8 own "n4 ,he 0 v le>n$1 & acqua9t$ ) ev]y?+ t _h be5 writt5 by all ! philosoph]s be=e ,socrates1 p>ticul>ly ,h]aclitus1 ,py?agoras1 ,p>m5ides1 & ,anaxagoras4 ,he reconsid]$ all _! tea*+1 & he himself br\ght to consid]ation a =ce & a weal? ( m9d su* z appe> to h _h no p>allel 9 ! _w4 ,,! ,,ideas4--,seek+1 9 8 turn1 :at are ! fir/ causes ( all & :at is et]nally real beh9d ! simulations ( ?is transi5t _w1 he believ$ 9 a s+le ,god1 z _h _m be=e him2 b 9 ! bosom ( ?is ,god1 s to speak1 he plac$1 he seem$ to see1 ,ideas--t is to say1 et]nal types ( all ?+s :i* 9 ?is _w are v>iable1 transi5t1 & p]i%able4 ,:at he effect$ by su* novel1 orig9al1 & p[]ful imag9ation is cle>4 ,he replac$ ! ,olympus ( ! populace by a spiritual ,olympus2 ! mat]ial my?ology by an ideali/ic my?ology2 poly!ism by polyideism1 if x may be s express$--! gods by types4 ,beh9d e ph5om5on1 /ream1 =e/1 m\nta91 ! ,greeks p]ceiv$ a deity1 a mat]ial be+ l !mselves1 m p[]ful ?an !mselves4 ,beh9d e ph5om5on1 beh9d e ?\ght z well1 e feel+1 e in/itution--beh9d ev]y?+1 no matt] :at x be1 ,plato p]ceiv$ an idea1 immortal1 et]nal1 inde/ructible1 & incorruptible1 :i* exi/$ 9 ! bosom ( ! ,et]nal1 & ( :i* all t comes "u our obs]vation is only ! vacillat+ & tr\bl$ reflection1 & :i* supports1 animates1 & = a "t pres]ves ev]y?+ t we c p]ceive4 ,h5ce1 all philosophy consi/s 9 hav+ "s k ( ^! ,ideas4 ,h[ is x possible to atta9 su* k8 ,by rais+ ! m9d f ! p>ticul> to ! g5]al2 by di/+ui%+ 9 ea* ?+ :at is its p]man5t f\ndation1 :at x conta9s t is lea/ *ang+1 lea/ v>iable1 lea/ circum/antial4 ,= example1 a man is a v complex be+2 he has c\ntless feel+s1 c\ntless div]sifi$ ideas1 c\ntless me?ods ( conduct & exi/5ce4 ,:at is 8 p]man5t f\ndation8 ,x is 8 consci5ce1 :i* does n v>y1 und]goes no trans=mation1 always ob/9ately repeats ! same ?+2 ! f\ndation ( man1 ! et]nal idea ( :i* e man on e>? is "h ! reflection1 is ! consci\sness ( good2 man is an inc>nation on e>? ( t "p ( ,god :i* is ! w = good2 accord+ z he div]ges f or approa*es m ne>ly to ?is w1 is he less or m man4 ,,! ,,platonic ,,dialectic ,,& ,,morality4--,?is me?od ( rais+ oneself to ! ideas is :at ,plato t]m$ dialectic--t is to say1 ! art ( disc]nm5t4 ,dialectic diff]5tiates betwe5 ! fundam5tal & ! sup]ficial1 ! p]man5t & ! transi5t1 ! inde/ructible & ! de/ructible4 ,?is is ! supreme philosophic me?od :i* conta9s all ! o!rs & to :i* all ! o!rs are r$uc$4 ,^u ?is metaphysic & by ! aid ( ?is dialectic1 ,plato con/ruct$ an extremely pure sy/em ( morality :i* 0 simply an ,imitation ( ,god 7z1 lat] on1 came ! ,imitation ( ,jesus ,*ri/74 ,! :ole duty ( man 0 to be z l ,god z he c\ld4 ,9 ,god exi/ ! ideas ( tru?1 goodness1 beauty1 greatness1 p[]1 etc42 man ought to aim at relatively realiz+ ^? ideas :i* ,god absolutely realizes4 ,god is j1 or ju/ice lies 9 ! bosom ( ,god1 :i* is ! same ?+2 man _c be ! j "o1 b he c be a j man1 & !re is ! :ole matt]2 = ju/ice comprises ev]y?+1 or1 to express x diff]5tly1 is ! *>act]i/ic common to all :i* is valuable4 ,ju/ice is goodness1 ju/ice is beautiful1 ju/ice is true2 ju/ice is great1 because x r$uces all p>ticul> cases to "o g5]al pr9ciple2 ju/ice is p[]ful1 be+ ! =ce :i* ma9ta9s1 oppos$ to ! =ce :i* de/roys2 ju/ice is et]nal & inv>iable4 ,to be j 9 all ! mean+s ( ! ^w is ! duty ( man & 8 prop] goal4 ,,! ,,immortality ,,( ,,! ,,s\l4--,plato %[s m>k$ res]ve z to ! immortality ( ! s\l & z to rew>ds & p5alties beyond ! grave4 ,he is nei!r 9 opposition nor =mally fav\rable4 ,we feel t he wi%es to believe 9 x r ?an t he is sure ab\t x4 ,he says t x is a f9e wag] to make2 :i* means t ev5 %\ld we lose1 x is bett] to believe 9 ?is possible ga9 ?an to disbelieve4 ,fur!r1 x is legitimate to conclude--bo? f c]ta9 passages 9 ! ,laws & f ! beautiful !ory ( ,plato on ! puni%m5t :i* is an expiation1 & on ! expiation :i* is m$ic9al to ! s\l & consequ5tly highly desirable--t ,plato (t5 incl9$ /rongly t[>ds ! doctr9e ( po/hum\s p5alties & rew>ds1 :i* presupposes ! immortality ( ! s\l4 ,,platonic ,,love4--,platonic love1 ab\t :i* !re has be5 s mu* talk & on :i*1 consequ5tly1 we mu/ say a ^w1 at lea/ to def9e x1 is "o ( ! applications ( 8 moral sy/em4 ,z 9 ! case ( all o!r ?+s1 ! idea ( love is 9 ,god4 ,!re x exi/s 9 absolute purity1 )\t any mixture ( ! idea ( pleasure1 s9ce pleasure is ess5tially ephem]al & p]i%able4 ,love 9 ,god consi/s simply 9 ! impassion$ contemplation ( beauty 7physical & moral72 we %all resemble ,god if we love beauty precisely 9 ?is way1 )\t excitem5t or agitation ( ! s5ses4 ,,politics4--,"o ( ! orig9alities 9 ,plato is t he busies himself ) politics--t is1 t he makes politics a "p ( philosophy1 :i* _h b>ely be5 ?\ght ( be=e him 7,i say b>ely1 because ,py?agoras 0 a legislator71 b :i* has ev] s9ce be5 tak5 into consid]ation4 ,plato is ari/ocratic1 no d\bt because 8 ?\ght is g5]ally su*1 indep5d5tly ( circum/ances1 also1 p]haps1 because he attribut$ ! great mis=tunes ( 8 c\ntry :i* he witness$ to ! ,a!nian democracy2 !n yet aga91 p]haps1 because t ,a!nian democracy _h be5 viol5tly ho/ile & sometimes cruel to philosoph]s1 & m especially to 8 own ma/]4 ,accord+ to ,plato1 j z man has ?ree s\ls1 or if x be pref]r$1 ?ree c5tres ( activity1 :i* gov]n him--intellig5ce 9 ! head1 c\rage 9 ! he>t1 & appetite 9 ! b[els--ev5 s ! city is compos$ ( ?ree classes3 wise & le>n$ m5 at ! top1 ! w>riors bel[1 & ! artisans & slaves l[] /ill4 ,! wise m5 w gov]n3 accord+ly ! nations w nev] be happy save :5 philosoph]s are k+s1 or :5 k+s are philosoph]s4 ,! w>riors w fight to def5d ! city1 nev] z aggressors4 ,!y w =m a ca/e--poor1 /]n to itself1 & r$\btable4 ,!y w h no individual possessions2 ev]y?+ w be 9 common1 h\ses1 furniture1 weapons1 wives ev51 & *ildr54 ,! p1 f9ally1 liv+ 9 /rict equality1 ei!r by equal p>tition ( l&1 or on l& cultivat$ 9 common1 w be /rictly ma9ta9$ 9 probity1 hone/y1 au/]ity1 morality1 sobriety1 & submissiv5ess4 ,all arts1 except milit>y music & w> dances1 w be elim9at$ f ! city4 ,%e ne$s nei!r poets nor pa9t]s n yet musicians1 :o corrupt morals by s(t5+ !m1 & by mak+ all feel ! secret pang ( voluptu\sness4 ,all !ories1 :e!r ari/ocratic or t5d+ m or less to communism1 are d]iv$ f ! politics ( ,plato ei!r by be+ evolv$ f !m or by h>k+ back to !m4 ,,! ,,ma/] ,,( ,,! ,,ideali/ic ,,philosophy4--,plato is = all ?9k]s1 ev5 = 8 oppon5ts1 ! greate/ "n 9 human philosophy4 ,he is ! supreme au?ority ( ! ideali/ic philosophy--t is1 ( all philosophy :i* believes t ideas gov]n ! _w1 & t ! _w is progress+ t[>ds a p]fection :i* is some:]e & :i* directs & attracts x4 ,= ^? ev5 :o are n ( 8 s*ool1 ,plato is ! mo/ prodigi\s ( all ! ?9k]s :o h unit$ psy*ological wisdom1 dialectical /r5g?1 ! p[] ( ab/raction & creative imag9ation1 :i* la/ 9 him atta9s to ! m>vell\s4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,ari/otle ,a ,man ( ,encyclop$ic ,le>n+2 z ,philosoph]1 m especially ,morali/ & ,logician4 ,,ari/otle1 ,,pupil ,,( ,,plato4--,ari/otle ( ,/agira 0 a pupil ( ,plato1 & he rememb]$ x1 z ! be/ pupils d z a rule1 9 ord] to oppose him4 ,= "s ye>s he 0 tutor to ,alex&]1 son ( ,philip1 ! future ,alex&] ! ,great4 ,he taught long at ,a!ns4 ,aft] ! dea? ( ,alex&]1 be+ ! t>get 9 8 turn ( ! et]nal accusation ( impiety1 he 0 =c$ to retire to ,*alcis1 :]e he di$4 ,ari/otle is1 be=e all else1 a le>n$ man4 ,he desir$ to embrace ! :ole ( ! k ( 8 "t1 :i* 0 !n possible by d9t ( prodigi\s ef=t1 & he succe$$4 ,8 works1 c\ntless 9 numb]1 are ! record ( 8 k4 ,!y are ! summa ( all ! sci5ces ( 8 epo*4 ,"h we h only to occupy ourselves ) 8 m especially philosophical ideas4 ,to ,ari/otle1 z to ,plato1 b m precisely1 man is compos$ ( s\l & body4 ,! body is compos$ ( organs1 a well-made piece ( me*anism2 ! s\l is its f9al purpose2 ! body1 s to speak1 results 9 ! s\l1 b1 9 turn1 ! s\l acts on ! body1 & is 9 x n its end b its means ( act+ ^u ?+s1 & ! :ole =ms a full & cont9u\s h>mony4 ,! faculties ( ! s\l are its div]s aspects1 & its div]s me?ods ( act+2 = ! s\l is "o & indivisible4 ,reason is ! s\l consid]$ z be+ able to conceive :at is mo/ g5]al1 & 9 consequ5ce x =ms )9 u an int]m$i>y betwe5 ourselves & ,god4 ,god is unique2 ,he is et]nal2 f all et]nity ,he has giv5 motion to matt]4 ,he is purely spiritual1 b all is mat]ial save ,him1 & ,he has n1 z ,plato w\ld h x1 ideas--immat]ial liv+ p]sonifications--resid+ 9 ,8 bosom4 ,"h may be p]ceiv$1 9 a c]ta9 s5se1 progress1 f ,plato to ,ari/otle1 t[>ds mono!ism2 ! ,olympus ( ideas 9 ,plato 0 /ill a poly!ism1 a spiritual poly!ism c]ta9ly1 yet none ! less a poly!ism2 !re is no long] any poly!ism at all 9 ,ari/otle4 ,,8 ,,!ories ,,( ,,morals ,,& ,,politics4--,! moral sy/em ( ,ari/otle sometimes approa*es t ( ,plato1 z :5 he deems t ! supreme happ9ess is ! supreme good1 & t ! supreme good is ! contemplation ( ?\ght by ?\ght--?\ght be+ self-suffic+2 :i* is approximately ! imitation ( ,god :i* ,plato recomm5d$4 ,sometimes1 on ! contr>y1 x is v practical & almo/ m$iocre1 z :5 he makes x consi/ ( a mean betwe5 ! extremes1 a j measure1 a c]ta9 tact1 art r ?an sci5ce1 & practical sci5ce r ?an consci5ce1 :i* w "k h[ to di/+ui% :i* are ! practices suitable = an hone/ & a well-born man4 ,x is only j to add t 9 detail & :5 aft] all d$uctions he describes ! j man1 he invites u to contemplate virtues :i* if n sublime are none ! less rem>kably l(ty4 ,8 v confus$ political philosophy 7! volume conta9+ x1 accord+ to all appe>ance1 hav+ be5 compos$1 aft] 8 dea?1 ( passages & fragm5ts & diff]5t portions ( 8 lectures7 is specially a review ( ! div]g5t political con/itutions :i* exi/$ ?r\gh\t ! ,greek _w4 ,! t5d5cies1 = !re are no conclusions1 are /ill v ari/ocratic1 b less radically ari/ocratic ?an ^? ( ,plato4 ,,! ,,au?ority ,,( ,,ari/otle4--,ari/otle1 by reason ( 8 univ]sality1 also because he is cle>] ?an 8 ma/]1 & aga9 because he dogmatises--n always1 b v frequ5tly--in/ead ( discuss+ & collat+1 _h ?r\gh\t bo? antiquity & ! ,middle ,ages an au?ority great] ?an t ( ,plato1 an au?ority :i* became 7except on matt]s ( fai?7 despotic & well-nigh sacrosanct4 ,s9ce ! sixte5? c5tury he has be5 relegat$ to 8 due rank--"o :i* is /ill v di/+ui%$1 & he has be5 reg>d$ z among ! g5iuses ( ! wide/ range1 if n ( ! greate/ p[]1 t h appe>$ among m52 ev5 n[ he is v f> f hav+ lo/ 8 importance4 ,= "s he is a transition betwe5 ! ,greek g5ius--extremely subtle1 b always poetic & always some:at ori5tal--& ! ,roman g5ius3 m positive1 m bald1 m practical1 m atta*$ to reality & to pure sci5ce4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,v>i\s ,,s*ools ,! ,developm5t 9 ,v>i\s ,s*ools ( ! ,g5]al ,ideas ( ,socrates1 ,plato1 & ,ari/otle4 ,,! ,,s*ool ,,( ,,plato2 ,,!ophra/us4--,! s*ool ( ,plato 7n reg>d+ ,ari/otle z belong+ entirely to t s*ool7 0 cont9u$ by ,speusippus1 ,polemo1 ,x5ocrates1 ,crates1 & ,crantor4 ,ow+ to a retrograde movem5t1 widely diff]5t f t ( ,ari/otle1 x dabbl$ 9 ! ,py?agorean ideas1 ) :i* ,plato 0 acqua9t$ & :i* he (t5 appreciat$1 b n bl9dly1 & to :i* he nev] conf9$ himself4 ,! mo/ brilliant pupil ( ,ari/otle 0 ,!ophra/us1 naturali/1 botani/1 & morali/4 ,8 great claim to fame among po/]ity1 :i* kn[s no?+ ( him b ?is1 is ! small volume ( ,*>act]s1 :i* s]v$ z a model = ,la ,bruy]e1 & be=e him to ! comic poets ( antiquity1 & :i* is full ( wit & flav\r1 &--to make use ( a mod]n ^w exactly applicable to ?is anci5t "w--hum\r4 ,,s*ools ,,( ,,meg>a ,,& ,,( ,,elis4--,we may j m5tion ! v celebrat$ s*ools :i*1 ow+ to lack ( texts1 are unkn[n to u--t ( ,meg>a1 :i* 0 call$ ! ,eri/ic or wrangl+ s*ool1 s m>k$ 0 its pr$ilection = polemics2 & t ( ,elis1 :i* appe>s to h be5 well v]s$ 9 ! sophi/ic me?ods ( ,z5o ( ,elea & ( ,gorgias4 ,,! ,,cynic ,,s*ool2 ,,anti/h5es2 ,,diog5es4--,mu* m important is ! ,cynic s*ool1 because a s*ool1 :i* 0 no?+ less ?an ,/oicism itself1 emanat$ or appe>$ to emanate f x4 ,z (t5 happ5s1 ! vague comm5cem5ts ( ,/oicism bore a close resemblance to its end4 ,! ,/oics ( ! la/ c5turies ( antiquity 7 a sort ( m5dicant fri>s1 ill-clo!d1 ill-f$1 ( neglect$ appe>ance1 despis+ all ! com=ts ( life2 ! ,cynics at ! "t ( ,alex&] 7 mu* ! same1 pr(ess+ t happ9ess is ! possession ( all good ?+s1 & t ! only way to possess all ?+s is to "k h[ to d )\t !m4 ,x 0 ,anti/h5es :o f\nd$ ?is s*ool1 or r ?is ord]4 ,he _h be5 ! pupil ( ,socrates1 & !re c be no d\bt t 8 sole idea 0 to imitate ,socrates by exagg]ation4 ,socrates _h be5 poor1 _h scorn$ weal?1 _h d]id$ pleasure1 & p\r$ contempt on sci5ce4 ,! cult ( pov]ty1 ! contempt = pleasures1 = hon\rs1 = ri*es1 & ! p]fect conviction t any k is p]fectly useless to man--t is all ! tea*+ ( ,anti/h5es4 ,t c lead f>1 at lea/ 9 sy/ematic m9ds4 ,if all is contemptible except individual virtue1 x is rev]sion to savage & solit>y exi/5ce :i* is prea*$3 !re is no m civilization or society or patriotism4 ,anti/h5es 9 ^! ideas 0 surpass$ by 8 disciples & successors2 !y 7 cosmopolitans & an>*i/s4 ,! mo/ illu/ri\s ( ?is s*ool--illu/ri\s especially ?r\gh 8 ecc5tricity--0 ,diog5es1 :o roll$ on ! ramp>ts ( ,cor9? ! tub :i* s]v$ him z a h\se1 light$ 8 lant]n 9 broad daylight on ! pretext ( se>*+ = a man1 call$ himself a citiz5 ( ! _w1 0 accus$ ( be+ bani%$ f ,s9ope by 8 fell[-c\ntrym5 & repli$1 ,x 0 ,i :o condemn$ !m to rema91 & said to ,alex&]1 :o ask$ him :at he c\ld d = him3 ,get out ( my sun%9e2 y are putt+ me 9 ! %ade4 ,,crates2 ,,m5ippus2 ,,ari/ippus4--,crates ( ,!bes is also m5tion$1 less insol5t & bett]-mann]$1 yet also a despis] ( ! goods ( ?is _w2 & ,m5ippus1 ! mak] ( satires1 :om ,lucian1 mu* lat]1 made ! mo/ div]t+ int]locutor ( 8 amus+ dialogues4 ,9 an opposite direction1 at ! same epo*1 ,ari/ippus1 a pupil ( ,socrates1 l ,anti/h5es1 f\nd$ ! s*ool ( pleasure1 & ma9ta9$ t ! sole se>* wor?y ( man 0 t ( happ9ess1 & t x 0 8 duty to make himself happy2 t 9 consequ5ce1 x hav+ be5 suffici5tly prov$ & be+ ev5 self-evid5t1 t happ9ess _c come to u f )\t1 b mu/ be s\ght )9 ourselves1 x is necess>y to /udy to "k ourselves ?or\ghly 7& ?is 0 f ,socrates7 9 ord] to decide :at are ! /ates ( ! m9d :i* give u a durable1 sub/antial1 &1 if possible1 a p]man5t happ9ess4 ,n[ ! seek] & ! f9d] ( sub/antial happ9ess is wisdom1 or r1 !re is no o!r wisdom ?an ! art ( di/+ui%+ betwe5 pleasure & *oos+1 ) a v ref9$ discrim9ation1 ^? :i* are g5u9e4 ,wisdom fur!r consi/s 9 dom9at+ mis=tunes by ! ma/]y ( self s z n to be affect$ by !m1 & 9 dom9at+ also pleasures ev5 :il/ enjoy+ !m1 s t !y may n obta9 dom9ion ov] u2 possess+ )\t be+ possess$ 0 "o ( 8 mottoes :i* ,horace ?us translat$3 ,i /rive to subject ?+s to myself1 n myself to ?+s4 ,?is em95tly practical wisdom1 :i* is only a highly-develop$ egoism1 is t ( ,horace & ,montaigne1 & 0 express$ by ,voltaire 9 v]ses t 7 sometimes felicit\s4 ,,! ,,s*ool ,,( ,,cyr5e4--,ari/ippus _h = successor 9 ! direction ( 8 s*ool1 fir/ 8 daught] ,arete1 !n 8 gr&son4 ,! ,ari/ippi/s1 or ,cyr5aics 7! s*ool be+ e/abli%$ 9 ,cyr5e71 frankly despis$ ! gods1 reg>d+ !m z inv5tions to fright5 wom5 & little *ildr54 ,"o ( !m1 ,euhem]us1 inv5t$ ! !ory1 :i* 9 "p is false & 9 "p accurate1 t ! gods are simply h]oes1 k+s1 great m5 deifi$ aft] _! dea? by ! gratitude or t]ror ( ! populace4 ,z (t5 happ5s1 philosophic !ories be+ ess5tially pla/ic & tak+ ! =m ( ! temp]am5t :i* receives !m1 a c]ta9 ,cyr5aic 7,hegesias7 enunciat$ ! doctr9e t ! supreme happ9ess ( man 0 suicide4 ,9 fact1 if ! object ( man is happ9ess1 s9ce life af=ds f> few] joys ?an sorr[s1 ! philosophy ( happ9ess is to get rid ( life1 & ! sole wisdom lies 9 suicide4 ,x does n appe> t ,hegesias gave ! only pro( ( s9c]e belief 9 ?is doctr9e :i* c be giv5 by anyone pr(ess+ x4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,epicureanism ,epicureanism ,believes t ! ,duty ( ,man is to ,seek ,happ9ess1 & t ,happ9ess ,consi/s 9 ,wisdom4 ,,moral ,,philosophy4--,cont9u+ to feel ! /rong impulse :i* x _h receiv$ f ,socrates1 philosophy 0 n[ = a long :ile to be almo/ exclusively moral philosophy4 ,only x divid$ v %>ply 9 two directions4 ,anti/h5es & ,ari/ippus 7 bo? pupils ( ,socrates4 ,f ,anti/h5es came ! ,cynics2 f ,ari/ippus ! philosoph]s ( pleasure4 ,! ,cynics gave bir? to ! ,/oics1 ! philosoph]s ( pleasure to ! ,epicureans1 & ^! two great s*ools practically divid$ all antiquity betwe5 !m4 ,we w take ! ,epicureans fir/ because1 *ronologically1 !y slightly prec$$ ! ,/oics4 ,,epicurus4--,epicurus1 born at ,a!ns a little aft] ! dea? ( ,plato1 br\ght up at ,samos by 8 p>5ts :o _h be5 =c$ to expatriate !mselves ow+ to rev]ses ( =tune1 return$ to ,a!ns ab\t #cje ,b4,c41 & !re f\nd$ a s*ool4 ,p]sonally he 0 a true wise man1 sob]1 scrupul\s1 a despis] ( pleasure1 sev]e to himself1 9 practice a ,/oic4 ,z 8 g5]al view ( ! univ]se1 he taught approximately ! doctr9e ( ,democritus3 ! _w is compos$ ( a multitude ( atoms1 end[$ ) c]ta9 movem5ts1 :i* atta* !mselves to "o ano!r & comb9e toge!r1 & !re is no?+ else 9 ! _w4 ,is !re n a fir/ cause1 a be+ :o set all ^! atoms 9 motion--9 %ort1 a ,god8 ,epicurus did n ?9k s4 ,are !re gods1 z ! vulg> believe8 ,epicurus believ$ s2 b he consid]$ t ! gods are brilliant1 sup]ior1 happy creatures1 :o d n tr\ble ab\t ?is _w1 d n int]f]e ) x1 & are ev5 less occupi$1 7 x possible1 ) mank9d4 ,also !y did n create ! _w1 = :y %\ld !y h creat$ x8 ,f goodness1 said ,plato2 b !re is s mu* evil 9 ! _w t if !y creat$ x f goodness1 !y 7 mi/ak5 & mu/ be fools2 & if !y will+ly p]mitt$ evil1 !y are wick$2 & !re=e x is *>itable t[>ds !m to believe t !y did n create x4 ,,epicurean ,,morality4--,f ! e?ical po9t ( view1 ,epicurus c]ta9ly atta*es himself to ,ari/ippus2 b ) ! diff]5ce t lies betwe5 pleasure & happ9ess4 ,ari/ippus taught t ! aim ( life 0 intellig5t pleasure1 ,epicurus decl>$ t ! aim ( life 0 happ9ess4 ,n[1 does happ9ess consi/ 9 pleasures1 or does x exclude !m8 ,epicurus 0 q conv9c$ t x exclud$ !m4 ,l ,"l ,beaconsfield1 he w\ld say1 ,life w\ld be almo/ be>able1 7 x n = its pleasures4 ,happ9ess = ,epicurus lay 9 phlegm1 z ,phil9te w\ld put x2 x lay 9 ! calm ( ! m9d t has r5d]$ itself inaccessible to e emotion ( passion1 :i* is nev] irritat$1 nev] mov$1 nev] annoy$1 nev] desires1 & nev] fe>s4 ,:y1 = in/ance1 %\ld we dread dea?8 ,s long z we fe> x1 x is n "h2 :5 x arrives1 we %all no long] fe> x2 !n1 :y is x an evil8--,b1 dur+ life itself1 h[ ab\t suff]+s8--,we greatly increase our suff]+s by compla9ts & by self-commis]ation4 ,if we act$ 9 ! rev]se way1 if :5 we 7 tortur$ by !m we recall$ pa/ pleasures & ?\ght ( pleasures to come1 !y w\ld be inf9itely mitigat$4--,b1 ( :at pleasures c a man speak :o makes happ9ess consi/ 9 ! exclusion ( pleasures8 ,! pleasures ( ! wise man are ! satisfaction he feels 9 assur+ himself ( 8 own happ9ess4 ,he f9ds pleasure :5 he controls a passion 9 ord] to rev]t to calmness2 he feels pleasure :5 he conv]ses ) 8 fri5ds ab\t ! nature ( true happ9ess2 he feels pleasure :5 he has div]t$ a y\? f passionate follies or f despair1 & br\ght him back to peace ( m9d1 etc4--,b :at ab\t suff]+s aft] dea?8 ,!y d n exi/4 ,!re is no hell because !re is no immortality ( ! s\l4 ,! s\l is z mat]ial z ! body1 & dies ) x4 ,y w say1 p]haps1 t ?is v sev]e & au/]e morality m ne>ly approa*es to ,/oicism ?an to ! tea*+ ( ,ari/ippus4 ,?is is s true t :5 ,horace confess$ ) a smile t he return$ to ! morality ( pleasure1 he did n say1 z we %\ld1 ,i feel t ,i am becom+ an ,epicurean1 he said1 ,i fall back on ! precepts ( ,ari/ippus2 & ,s5eca1 a pr(ess$ ,/oic1 cites ,epicurus almo/ z (t5 z ,z5o 9 8 lessons4 ,x may n be q accurate to /ate1 b !re w\ld n be mu* exagg]ation 9 affirm+1 t ,epicureanism is a smil+ ,/oicism & ,/oicism a gloomy ,epicureanism4 ,9 ! curr5t use ( ! ^w we h *ang$ ! mean+ ( ,epicurean to make x mean addict$ to pleasure4 ,! w>n+ mu/ be giv5 t !re is no m griev\s error4 ,,! ,,vogue ,,( ,,epicureanism4--,epicureanism _h an imm5se vogue 9 antiquity4 ,! pr9cipal pr(essors ( x at ,a!ns 7 ,metrodorus1 ,h]m>*us1 ,poly/ratus1 & ,apollodorus4 ,p5etrat+ to ,italy ,epicureanism f\nd its mo/ brilliant repres5tative 9 ,lucretius1 :o ( ! sy/em made a poem--! admirable ,de ,natura ,r]um2 !re 7 also ,atticus1 ,horace1 ,pl9y ! y\ng]1 & _m m4 ,x ev5 became a political op9ion3 ! ,caes>ians 7 ,epicureans1 ! ,republicans ,/oics4 ,on ! appe>ance ( ,*ri/ianity ,epicureanism came into direct opposition ) x1 & s did ,/oicism also2 b 9 a f> less degree4 ,9 mod]n times1 z w be se51 ,epicureanism has enjoy$ a revival4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,/oicism ,! ,passions are ,diseases :i* c & mu/ be ,extirpat$4 ,,! ,,logic ,,( ,,/oicism4--,/oicism exi/$ z a g]m 9 ! ,cynic philosophy 7& also 9 ,socrates7 z did ,epicureanism 9 ,ari/ippus4 ,z5o 0 ! pupil ( ,crates4 ,9 extreme y\? he op5$ a s*ool at ,a!ns 9 ! ,poecile4 ,! ,poecile 0 a portico2 portico 9 ,greek is /oa1 h5ce ! "n ( ,/oic4 ,z5o taught = ab\t ?irty ye>s2 !n1 on ! approa* ( age1 he di$ by 8 own h&4 ,z5o ?\ght1 z did ,epicurus & ,socrates1 t philosophy %\ld only be ! sci5ce ( life & t ! sci5ce ( life lay 9 wisdom4 ,wisdom consi/s 9 ?9k+ ju/ly & act+ rightly2 b to ?9k ju/ly only 9 ord] to act rightly--:i* is q 9 ! _s ( ,socrates1 & elim9ates all ! sci5ce ( rese>*1 all consid]ation ( ! con/itution ( ! _w z well z ! total & ev5 ! details ( matt]4 ,!re9 is ,/oicism m n>r[ ?an ,epicureanism4 ,9 consequ5ce1 man ne$s cle>1 precise1 & sev]e logic 7! ,/oics 7 ! fir/ to use ?is ^w74 ,arm$ ) ?is weapon1 & only employ+ x = self-k & self-control1 man makes himself wise4 ,! wise man ( ! ,/oic is a k9d ( sa9t--a sup]man1 z x has s9ce be5 call$--v analog\s to 8 ,god4 ,all 8 ef=ts are conc5trat$ on safegu>d+1 conqu]+1 & suppress+ 8 passions1 :i* are no?+ save diseases ( ! s\l4 ,9 ! ext]nal _w he disreg>ds all ! ?+s ( *ance--ev]y?+1 t is1 t does n dep5d on human w--& consid]s !m z non-exi/5t3 ! ailm5ts ( ! body1 pangs1 suff]+s1 mis=tunes1 & humiliations are n evils1 !y are ?+s indiff]5t4 ,on ! contr>y1 crimes & errors are su* evils t !y are equally execrable1 & ! wise man %\ld reproa* himself z sev]ely = ! slighte/ fault z = ! greate/ crime--a p>adoxical doctr9e :i* has ar\s$ ! w>m? ( ev5 respectful oppon5ts ( ,/oicism1 notably ,cic]o4 ,,maxims ,,( ,,! ,,/oics4--,_! mo/ frequ5tly repeat$ maxim is ab/a9 & endure2 ab/a9 f all evil1 suff] all aggression & s-call$ mis=tune )\t rebell+ or compla9+4 ,ano!r precept widely propagat$ among !m & by !m1 ,live accord+ to nature1 rem>kably resembles an ,epicurean maxim4 ,?is mu/ be made cle>4 ,?is precept z !y int]pret$ x meant3 adh]e freely & respectfully to ! laws ( ! univ]se4 ,! _w is a ,god :o lives accord+ to ! laws ,he ,himself made1 & ( :i* we are n judges4 ,^! laws surr\nd u & compel u2 sometimes !y w\nd u4 ,we mu/ respect & obey !m1 h a sort ( pi\s desire t !y %\ld op]ate ev5 aga9/ ourselves1 & live 9 rev]5t con=mity ) !m4 ,?us und]/ood1 ! life 9 con=mity ) nature is no?+ else ?an an aspect ( ! maxim1 ,endure4 ,,pr9cipal ,,/oics4--,! pr9cipal adepts & ma/]s ( ,/oicism ) & aft] ,z5o 7 ,clean!s1 ,*rysippus1 ,ari/o1 & ,h]illus 9 ,greece2 at ,rome1 ,cato1 ,brutus1 ,cic]o to a c]ta9 degree1 ,?rasea1 ,epictetus 7)al a ,greek1 :o wrote 9 ,greek71 ,s5eca1 & f9ally ! ,emp]or ,m>cus ,aurelius4 ,/oicism rapidly develop$ into a religion1 hav+ its rites1 ob$i5ces1 ascetic practices1 directors ( consci5ce1 exam9ation ( consci5ce1 & its adepts ) a traditional dress1 long cloak1 & long be>d4 ,x ex]t$ consid]able influ5ce1 comp>able 7comp>able only7 to ,*ri/ianity1 b x p5etrat$ only ! upp] & middle classes ( society 9 antiquity )\t desc5d+1 or b>ely desc5d+1 to ! masses4 ,l ,epicureanism1 ,/oicism _h a r5aissance 9 mod]n times 9 opposition to ,*ri/ianity2 ?is w be dealt ) lat]4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,eclectics ,,& ,,sceptics ,philosoph]s :o ,wi%$ to ,belong to ,no ,s*ool ,philosoph]s :o ,decri$ ,all ,s*ools & ,all ,doctr9es4 ,,! ,,two ,,t5d5cies4--,z might be expect$ to happ51 & z always happ5s1 ! multiplicity ( sects br\ght ab\t two t5d5cies1 "o consi/+ 9 select+ some:at arbitr>ily f ea* sect :at "o f\nd be/ 9 x1 :i* is call$ eclecticism1 ! o!r 9 ?9k+ t no s*ool grasp$ ! tru?1 t ! tru? is n to be grasp$1 :i* is call$ scepticism4 ,,! ,,eclectics3 ,,plut>*4--,! ,eclectics1 :o did n =m a s*ool1 :i* w\ld h be5 difficult 9 ! _s 9 :i* !y act$1 _h only ?is 9 common1 t !y v5]at$ ! great ?9k]s ( anci5t ,greece1 & t !y felt or endeav\r$ to feel respect & tol]ation = all religions4 ,!y v5]at$ ,socrates1 ,plato1 ,ari/otle1 ,epicurus1 ,z5o1 ,moses1 ,jesus1 ,/4 ,paul1 & lov$ to imag9e t !y 7 ea* a p>tial revelation ( ! great div9e ?\ght1 & !y endeav\r$ to reconcile ^! div]g5t revelations by proce$+ on broad l9es & g5]al consid]ations4 ,among !m 7 ,mod]atus1 ,nicoma*us1 ,nemesius1 etc4 ,! mo/ illu/ri\s1 )\t be+ ! mo/ pr(\nd--?\gh 8 lit]>y tal5t has always kept him prom95t--0 ,plut>*4 ,8 *ief ef=t1 s9ce !n (t5 r5ew$1 0 to reconcile reason & fai? 7,i am writ+ ( ! poly!i/ic fai?74 ,p]ceiv+ 9 my?ology +5i\s allegories1 he %[$ t "u ! "n ( allegories cov]+ & conta9+ pr(\nd ideas1 all poly!ism c\ld be accept$ by ! reason ( a ,platoni/1 an ,ari/otelian1 or a ,/oic4 ,! ,eclectics _h n mu* influ5ce1 & only pleas$ two sorts ( m9ds3 ^? :o pref]r$ k r ?an conviction1 & f\nd 9 ,eclecticism an agreeable v>iety ( po9ts ( view2 & ^? :o lik$ to believe a little 9 ev]y?+1 & possess+ receptive b n /eadfa/ m9ds 7 n f> f sceptics & :o might be call$ affirmative sceptics 9 opposition to ! negative sceptics3 sceptics :o say1 ,heav5s1 yes1 z oppos$ to sceptics :o always say1 ,presumably1 no4 ,,! ,,sceptics3 ,,pyrrho4--,! ,sceptics prop] 7 *ronologically m anci5t4 ,! fir/ fam\s ,sceptic 0 a contempor>y ( ,ari/otle2 he foll[$ ,alex&] on 8 great exp$ition into ,asia4 ,?is 0 ,pyrrho4 ,he taught1 z x appe>s1 some:at obscurely at ,a!ns1 & = successor _h ,timon4 ,^! philosoph]s1 l s _m o!rs1 s\ght happ9ess & affirm$ t x lay 9 ab/5tion f decision1 9 ! m9d rema9+ 9 abeyance1 9 aphasia4 ,pyrrho be+ accu/om$ to say t he 0 indiff]5t :e!r he 0 alive or dead1 on be+ ask$1 ,!n :y d y live8 answ]$3 ,j because x is indiff]5t :e!r "o lives or is dead4 ,z may be imag9$1 _! fav\rite sport 0 to draw ! v>i\s s*ools into mutual opposition1 to r\t "s by ! re/1 to %[ t all 7 /rong 9 :at !y negativ$1 b weak 9 :at !y affirm$1 & s to dismiss !m 9 diff]5t directions4 ,,! ,,new ,,academy4--,scepticism1 albeit att5uat$1 s(t5$1 & less aggressive1 reappe>$ 9 a s*ool call+ itself ! ,new ,academy4 ,x claim$ to adh]e to ,socrates--n )\t "s %[ ( reason1 s9ce ,socrates _h decl>$ t ! only ?+ he knew 0 t he knew no?+--& ! ess5tial t5et ( ?is s*ool 0 to affirm no?+4 ,only ! ,academicians believ$ t c]ta9 ?+s 7 probable1 m probable ?an o!rs1 & !y are ! f\nd]s ( probabilism1 :i* is no?+ m ?an conviction accompani$ ) mode/y4 ,!y 7 m or less mod]ate1 accord+ to p]sonal temp]am5t4 ,arcesilaus 0 emphatically mod]ate1 & limit$ himself to ! developm5t ( ! critical faculties ( 8 pupil4 ,c>neades 0 m negative1 & arriv$ at or rev]t$ to scepticism & sophi/ry pure & simple4 ,cic]o1 ) a c]ta9 f\ndation ( ,/oicism1 0 a pupil1 & "o ( ! mo/ mod]ate1 ( ! ,new ,academy4 ,,a5esidemus2 ,,agrippa2 ,,empiricus4--,o!rs built on exp]i5ce itself1 on ! inc]titude ( our s5sations & obs]vations1 on ev]y?+ t c *eat u & cause u illusion 9 ord] to display h[ relative & h[ mis]ably p>tial is human k4 ,su* 0 ,a5esidemus1 :om x might be ?\ght ,pascal _h read1 s mu* does ! latt] give ! reasons ( ! =m] :5 he is n absorb$ 9 fai?1 & :5 he assumes ! position ( a sceptic precisely 9 ord] to prove ! necessity ( tak+ refuge 9 fai?4 ,su* 0 ,agrippa2 su*1 too1 0 ,sextus ,empiricus1 s (t5 critical ( sci5ce1 :o demon/rates 7z to a slight ext5t ,m4 ,h5ri ,po9c>e does 9 our own day7 t all sci5ces1 ev5 ^? :i*1 l ma!matics & geometry1 are pr\de/ ( _! c]ta9ty1 re/ ^u conv5tions & intellectual conv5i5ces4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,neoplatonism ,rev]sion to ,metaphysics4 ,imag9ative ,metaphysicians aft] ! ,mann] ( ,plato1 b 9 ,excess4 ,,alex&r9ism4--,amid all ?is1 metaphysics--namely1 ! ef=t to compreh5d ! univ]se--appe>s some:at at a disc\nt4 ,x enjoy$ a r5aissance 9 ! ?ird c5tury ( our era among "s tea*]s f ,alex&ria 7h5ce ! "n ( ! ,alex&r9e s*ool7 :o came to lecture at ,rome ) great success4 ,alex&r9ism is a ,neoplatonism--t is1 a r5ew$ ,platonism &1 z consid]$ by its au?ors1 an augm5t$ "o4 ,,plot9us4--,plot9us taught ?is3 ,god & matt] exi/4 ,god is "o1 matt] is multiple & divisible4 ,god 9 ,himself is incompreh5sible1 & is only to be appreh5d$ 9 8 manife/ations4 ,man rises n to compreh5sion ( ,him b to ! p]ception ( ,him by a s]ies ( degrees :i* are1 z x 71 ! progressive purification ( fai?1 & :i* lead u to a k9d ( union ) ,him resembl+ t ( "o be+ ) ano!r :om he c\ld nev] see1 b ( ^: pres5ce he c\ld h no d\bt4 ,matt]1 t is1 ! univ]se1 is an emanation f ,god1 z p]fume comes f a fl[]4 ,all is n ,god1 & only ,god c be ,god1 b all is div9e & all p>ticipates 9 ,god1 j z ea* ( our ?\ghts p>ticipates ( our s\l4 ,n[1 if all emanates f ,god1 all also t5ds to return to ,him1 z bodies born ( e>?1 n\ri%$ by e>?1 invigorat$ by ! =ces proce$+ f ! e>?1 t5d to return to ! e>?4 ,?is is :at makes ! h>mony ( ! _w4 ,! law ( laws is1 t e fragm5t ( ! univ]se d]iv$ f ,god returns to ,him & desires to return to ,him4 ,! univ]se is an emanation f ! p]fect1 & an ef=t t[>ds p]fection4 ,! univ]se is a ,god 9 exile :o has no/algia = himself4 ,! univ]se is a progressive desc5t f ,god ) a t5d5cy t[>ds re9tegration ) ,him4 ,h[ does ?is emanation f ,god becom+ matt] take place8 ,t is a my/]y2 b x may be suppos$ to take place by successive /ages4 ,f ,god emanates _s1 imp]sonal _s :i* is n _s ( ?is or t1 b univ]sal _s spread ?r\gh ! :ole _w & animat+ x4 ,f _s emanates ! s\l1 :i* c unite itself to a body & =m an individual4 ,! s\l is less div9e ?an _s1 :i* 9 turn is less div9e ?an ,god1 b yet reta9s div9ity4 ,f ! s\l emanates ! body to :i* x unites itself4 ,! body is less div9e ?an ! s\l1 :i* 0 less div9e ?an _s1 :i* 0 less div9e ?an ,god2 b x /ill possesses div9ity = x has a =m1 a figure1 a design m>k$ & impress$ ) div9e _s4 ,f9ally1 matt] )\t =m is ! mo/ di/ant ( ! emanations f ,god1 & ! l[e/ ( ! desc5d+ /ages ( ,god4 ,god is 9 ,himself2 ,he ?9ks 9 pure ?\ght 9 _s2 ,he ?9ks 9 mix$ & confus$ ?\ght 9 ! s\l2 ,he feels 9 ! body2 ,he sleeps 9 un=m$ matt]4 ,! object ( un=m$ matt] is to acquire =m1 t is a body2 & ! object ( a body is to h a s\l2 & ! aim ( a s\l is to be unit$ 9 _s1 & ! aim ( _s is to be absorb$ into ,god4 ,s\ls n unit$ to bodies contemplate _s & enjoy absolute happ9ess4 ,o!r s\ls n unit$ to bodies1 b solicit$ by a c]ta9 in/9ct to unite !mselves to bodies1 are ( ambigu\s b /ill v exalt$ nature4 ,s\ls unit$ to bodies 7our own7 h desc5d$ f>1 b c raise !mselves & be purifi$ by contemplation ( ! et]nal intellig5ce1 & by relative union ) x4 ,?is contemplation has sev]al degrees1 s to speak1 ( int5sity1 degrees :i* ,plot9us t]m$ hypo/ases4 ,by p]ception we obta9 a glimpse ( ideas1 by dialectics we p5etrate !m2 by a f9al hypo/asis1 :i* is ec/asy1 we c sometimes unite ourselves directly to ,god & live 9 ,him4 ,,! ,,pupils ,,( ,,plot9us4--,plot9us _h z pupils & successors1 among/ o!rs1 ,porphyry & ,iambli*us4 ,porphyry a*ieves little except ! exposition ( ! doctr9e ( 8 ma/]1 & %[s orig9ality only z a logician4 ,iambli*us & 8 s*ool made a mo/ int]e/+ ef=t to revive exhau/$ & expir+ paganism & to con/itute a philosophic paganism4 ,! philosoph]s ( ! s*ool ( ,iambli*us are1 by ! way1 magicians1 *>latans1 miracle-mong]s1 m5 z antipositivi/ z possible4 ,iambli*us himself s\ght to reconcile poly!ism ) ,neoplatonism by putt+ 9 ! c5tre ( all a supreme deity1 an ess5tial deity f :om he made a cr[d ( second>y1 t]ti>y1 & quat]n>y deities to emanate1 rang+ f ^? purely immat]ial to ^? inh]5t 9 matt]4 ,! subtle w&]+s ( ,neoplatonism 7 cont9u$ obscurely 9 ! s*ool ( ,a!ns until x 0 clos$ = ev] 9 #ebi by ! ,emp]or ,ju/9ian z be+ ho/ile to ! religion ( ! ,empire1 :i* at t epo* 0 ,*ri/ianity4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,*ri/ianity ,philosophic ,ideas :i* ,*ri/ianity ,welcom$1 ,adopt$1 or ,creat$ ,h[ x mu/ ,give a ,fre% ,aspect to ,all ,philosophy1 ev5 t ,=eign to ,itself4 ,,*ri/ian ,,philosophy ,,& ,,morality4--,*ri/ianity spread ?r\gh ! ,empire by ! propag&a ( ! ,apo/les1 & m especially ,/4 ,paul1 f ab\t ! ye> #dj4 ,its success 0 extremely rapid1 especially among ! populace1 & little by little x won ov] ! upp] classes4 ,z a g5]al philosophy1 primitive ,*ri/ianity did n absolutely br+ m ?an ! ,hebrew dogmas3 ! unity ( ,god1 a provid5tial ,deity1 t is1 "o directly int]f]+ 9 human affairs2 immortality ( ! s\l ) rew>ds & p5alties beyond ! grave 7a rec5t !ory among ! ,jews1 yet "o ant]ior to ,*ri/ianity74 ,z a moral sy/em1 ,*ri/ianity br\ght some?+ s novel & s beautiful t x is n v probable t humanity w ev] surpass x1 :i* may be imp]fectly & incompletely summ$ up ?us3 love ( ,god2 ,he mu/ n only be fe>$ z ,he 0 by ! pagans & ! anci5t ,jews2 ,he mu/ be lov$ passionately z a son loves 8 fa!r1 & all ?+s mu/ be done = ?is love & 9 consid]ation ( ?is love2 all m5 are bre?r5 z sons ( ,god1 & !y %\ld love "o ano!r z bro!rs2 love y\r neighb\r z y\rself1 love him :o does n love y2 love y\r enemies2 be n gre$y = ! goods ( ?is _w1 nor ambiti\s1 nor pr\d2 = ,god loves ! l[ly1 ! humble1 ! suff]+1 & ! mis]able1 & ,he w exalt ! l[ly & put d[n ! mighty f _! seats4 ,no?+ l ?is _h be5 said 9 all antiquity1 & x ne$s extraord9>y +5uity 7( a highly int]e/+ "*1 by ! way71 to f9d 9 anci5t wisdom ev5 a few traces ( ?is doctr9e4 ,f9ally1 into politics1 s to speak1 ,*ri/ianity br\ght ?is novelty3 !re are two empires1 ! empire ( ,god & ! empire ( man2 y d n owe ev]y?+ to ! e>?ly empire2 y are b\nd to give x fai?fully only :at is ne$$ = x to be /rong & to pres]ve society2 ap>t f t1 & t done1 y are ! subject ( ,god & h only to answ] to ,god = y\r ?\ghts1 y\r belief1 y\r consci5ce2 & ov] t portion ( y\rself ! ,/ate has nei!r "r nor au?ority unless x be usurp$ & tyrannical4 ,& !re9 lay ! *>t] ( individual lib]ty l ! *>t] ( ! rights ( man4 ,z appeal to ! feel+s1 ,*ri/ianity br\ght ! /ory ( a "y ,god1 inf9itely good & g5tle1 :o _h nev] curs$1 :o _h be5 inf9itely lov$1 :o _h be5 p]secut$ & betray$1 :o _h =giv5 8 execution]s1 & :o di$ 9 great suff]+s & :o 0 to be imitat$ 7:5ce came ! ?ir/ = m>tyrdom74 ,?is /ory 9 itself is n m affect+ ?an t ( ,socrates1 b x is t ( a "y m>tyr & n ( an old "o1 & !re9 lies a m>k$ diff]5ce = ! imag9ation & emotions ( ! multitude4 ,,! ,,success ,,( ,,*ri/ianity4--,! prodigi\s rapidity ( ! success ( ,*ri/ianity is easily explicable4 ,poly!ism _h no long] a great hold on ! masses1 & no philosophic doctr9e _h f\nd or _h ev5 s\ght ! pa? to ! cr[d2 ,*ri/ianity1 ess5tially democratic1 lov$ ! weak & humble1 _h a t5d5cy to pref] !m to ! great ones ( ?is _w1 & to reg>d !m z be+ m ! *ildr5 ( ,god1 & 0 !re=e receiv$ by ! masses z ! only doctr9e :i* c\ld replace ! worm-eat5 poly!ism4 ,& 9 ,*ri/ianity !y saw ! religion = :i* !y 7 wait+1 & 9 ! heads ( ,*ri/ianity _! own protectors & def5d]s4 ,,its ,,evolution4--,! evolution ( ,*ri/ianity 0 v rapid1 & f a great moral doctr9e ) a m9imum ( rudim5t>y metaphysics x became1 p]*ance mi/ak5ly1 a philosophy giv+ acc\nt1 or desir\s ( giv+ acc\nt ( ev]y?+2 x s to speak incorporat$ a metaphysic1 borr[$ 9 great "p f ,greek philosophy1 9 great "p f ! ,hebrew traditions4 ,x possess$ ideas on ! orig9 ( matt]1 & :il/ ma9ta9+ t ,god 0 et]nal1 d5i$ t matt] 01 & ass]t$ t ,god creat$ x out ( no?+4 ,x _h !ories on ! ess5ce ( ,god1 & saw ,him 9 ?ree ,p]sons1 or hypo/ases1 "o aspect ( ,god z p[]1 ano!r z love1 & ! o!r z intellig5ce4 ,x pres5t$ !ories on ! inc>nation & humanisation ( ,god1 ,god be+ made man 9 ,jesus ,*ri/ )\t ceas+ to be ,god4 ,x conceiv$ new relation%ips ( man to ,god1 man hav+ 9 himself p[]s ( purgation & p]fection1 b always ne$+ div9e help = self-p]fection 7!ory ( grace74 ,& ?is he mu/ believe2 if n he w\ld feel insol5t pride 9 8 fre$om4 ,x _h ideas ab\t ! exi/5ce ( evil1 decl>+ 9 ju/ification ( ,god = hav+ p]mitt$ evil on e>?1 t ! _w 0 a place ( trial1 & t evil 0 only a way ( putt+ man to ! te/ & discov]+ :at 7 8 m]its4 ,x _h its notions on ! rew>ds & p5alties beyond ! grave1 hell = ! wick$ & heav5 = ! good1 z _h be5 kn[n to antiquity1 b add$ purgatory1 a place = bo? puni%m5t & purification by puni%m5t1 an entirely ,platonic !ory1 :i* ,plato may h inspir$ b did n himself ent]ta94 ,f9ally1 x 0 a complete philosophy answ]+1 & t 9 a mann] (t5 admirable1 all ! que/ions t mank9d put or c\ld ev] put4 ,&1 z s (t5 happ5s1 t has prov$ a weakness & a /r5g? to x3 a weakness because emb>rass$ ) subtle1 complicat$1 insoluble que/ions :]e9 mank9d w always be involv$1 x 0 =c$ to engage 9 endless discussions :]e9 ! bad or feeble reasons advanc$ by ?is or t vot>y compromis$ ! :ole "w2 a /r5g? because :oev] br+s a rule ( life is practically compell$ to support x by g5]al ideas be>+ on ! relations ( ?+s & to give x a place 9 a g5]al survey ( ! _w2 o!rwise he appe>s impot5t1 weak1 disqualifi$ to give t v rule ( life1 incapable ( reply+ to ! int]rogations rais$ by t rule ( life2 & f9ally1 lack+ 9 au?ority4 ,,s*isms ,,& ,,h]esies4--,"r or wrong1 & x is difficult & highly haz>d\s to decide ! "q1 ,*ri/ianity 0 a complete philosophy1 :i* 0 :y x _h its s*isms & h]esies1 a c]ta9 numb] ( s9c]e ,*ri/ians n resolv+ ! metaphysical que/ions 9 ! way ( ! majority4 ,h]esies 7 innum]able2 only ! two %all be cit$ :i* are deeply int]e/+ 9 ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,manes1 an ,arab 7& ,arabia 0 !n a ,p]sian prov9ce71 reviv$ ! old ,zoroa/rian doctr9e ( two pr9ciples ( good & evil1 & saw 9 ! _w two cont5d+ gods1 ! ,god ( p]fection & ! god ( s91 & laid ^u man ! duty ( assi/+ ! ,god ( goodness s t ,8 k+dom %\ld come & cause ! de/ruction ( evil 9 ! _w4 ,f him proce$$ ! ,mani*eans1 :o ex]t$ great influ5ce & 7 condemn$ by _m ,c\ncils until _! sect di$ out1 only to reappe> or seem to reappe> fairly (t5 9 ! ,middle ,ages & 9 mod]n times4 ,arius d5i$ ! ,tr9ity1 believ+ only 9 "o ,god1 n only unique1 b 9 "o ,p]son1 & 9 consequ5ce d5i$ ! div9ity ( ,jesus ,*ri/4 ,he 0 p]petually involv$ 9 controv]sies & polemics1 support$ by "s ,bi%ops1 oppos$ by ! majority4 ,aft] 8 dea? 8 doctr9e spread /rangely4 ,x 0 /ifl$ 9 ! ,ea/ by ,!odosius1 b 0 widely adopt$ by ! b>b>ians ( ! ,we/ 7,go?s1 ,v&als1 ,burgundians1 ,lomb>ds74 ,x 0 reviv$1 m or less exactly1 aft] ! ,re=mation1 among ! ,soc9ians4 ,,rome ,,& ,,*ri/ianity4--,! relations ( ,*ri/ianity ) ! ,roman gov]nm5t 7 9 ! highe/ degree tragic1 z is common k4 ,!re 7 t5 sangu9>y p]secutions1 "s be+ atroci\s4 ,x has (t5 be5 ask$ :at 0 ! cause ( ?is animosity aga9/ ! ,*ri/ians on ! "p ( a gov]nm5t :i* tol]at$ all religions & all philosophies4 ,p]secutions 7 natural at ,a!ns :]e a democracy1 ob/9ately atta*$ to ! local deities1 treat$ z enemies ( ! c\ntry ^? :o did n take ^! gods into consid]ation2 p]secutions 7 natural on ! "p ( a ,calv9 or a ,l\is ,,xiv :o comb9$ 9 !mselves ! two au?orities & w\ld n admit t anyone 9 ! ,/ate _h ! "r to ?9k diff]5tly f its head2 b x has be5 argu$ t !y 7 incompreh5sible on ! "p ( a gov]nm5t :i* admitt$ all cults & all doctr9es4 ,! explanation p]haps prim>ily lies 9 ! fact t ,*ri/ianity 0 ess5tially popul>1 & t ! gov]nm5t saw 9 x n only plebeianism1 :i* 0 disquiet+1 b an organisation ( plebeianism1 :i* 0 /ill m s4 ,! adm9i/ration ( religion _h always be5 9 ! h&s ( ! ari/ocracy2 ! ,roman pontiffs 7 patricians1 ! ,emp]or 0 ! sov]eign pontiff2 to yield ob$i5ce1 ev5 7 x only spiritually1 to private m5 z prie/s 0 to be disob$i5t to ! ,roman ari/ocracy1 to ! ,emp]or himself1 & 0 prop]ly speak+ a revolt4 ,a fur!r explanation1 p]haps1 is t ea* new religion t 0 introduc$ at ,rome did n oppose & did n contradict poly!ism1 ! pr9ciple ( poly!ism be+ precisely t !re are _m gods2 :]eas ,*ri/ianity d5y+ all ^? gods & affirm+ t !re is only "o1 & t all o!rs mu/ be despis$ z non-exi/5t1 inveigh$ aga9/1 d5i$1 & ru9$ or ?reat5$ to de/roy ! v ess5ce ( poly!ism4 ,x 0 n a v>iation1 x 0 a h]esy2 x 0 m ?an h]etical1 x 0 an>*ical2 x did n only condemn ?is or t religion1 b ev5 ! v tol]ance ) :i* ! ,roman gov]nm5t accept$ all religions4 ,h5ce x is natural en\gh t x %\ld h be5 combat$ to ! utmo/ by practically all ! ,emp]ors1 f ! mo/ execrable1 su* z ,n]o1 to ! be/1 su* z ,m>cus ,aurelius4 ,,*ri/ianity ,,& ,,! ,,philosoph]s4--,! relations ( ,*ri/ianity ) philosophy 7 confus$4 ,! imm5se majority ( philosoph]s reject$ x1 consid]+ _! own views sup]ior to x1 & moreov]1 feel+ x to be =midable1 made use aga9/ x ( all t c\ld be f\nd beautiful1 speci\s1 or exp$i5t 9 anci5t philosophy2 & ! ard\r ( ,neoplatonism1 :i* we h consid]$1 9 "p arose f precisely ?is in/9ct ( rivalry & ( /ruggle4 ,at t epo* !re 0 a ?rong ( m5 l ,erne/ ,havet pres5t+ ,hell5ism 9 opposition to ,*ri/ianity1 & ,erne/ ,havet is only a ,neoplatoni/ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,a c]ta9 numb] ( philosoph]s1 nev]!less1 ei!r on ! ,jewi%-,*ri/ian side or on ! ,hell5ic1 tri$ "s reconciliation ei!r z ,jews mak+ advances to ,hell5ism or z ,greeks admitt+ !re 0 some?+ acceptable on ! "p ( ,sion4 ,ari/obulus1 a ,jew 7prior to ,jesus ,*ri/71 seems to h endeav\r$ to br+ ,moses into agreem5t ) ,plato2 ,philo 7a ,jew contempor>y ) & surviv+ ,jesus ,*ri/ & a non-,*ri/ian71 ab\t :om !re is m in=mation1 ?r\gh\t 8 life pursu$ ! plan ( demon/rat+ all ! resemblances he c\ld discov] betwe5 ,plato & ! ,old ,te/am5t1 mu* 9 ! same way z 9 our "t "s h /riv5 to po9t out ! surpris+ agreem5t ( ! ,d>w9ian !ory ) ,g5esis4 ,he 0 call$ ! ,jewi% ,plato1 & at ,alex&ria x 0 said3 ,philo imitates ,plato or ,plato imitates ,philo4 ,on _! side1 lat] on1 c]ta9 eclectic ,greeks already cit$1 ,mod]atus1 ,nicoma*us1 ,nemesius1 ext5d$ goodwill s f> z to take into acc\nt1 if n ,jesus1 at lea/ ,moses1 & to admit ,israeliti% ?\ght into ! hi/ory ( philosophy & ( human wisdom4 ,b1 9 g5]al x 0 by ! s*ools ( philosophy & by ! ev] dw9dl+ section ( society prid+ itself ^u its philosophy t ,*ri/ianity 0 mo/ decisively repuls$1 ?ru/ on "o side & misund]/ood4 ,,*ri/ian ,,philosoph]s4--,)\t deal+ ) _m o!rs :o belong m especially to ! hi/ory ( ! ,*ur* r ?an to t ( philosophy1 ! ,*ri/ians did n lack two v illu/ri\s philosoph]s :o mu/ receive att5tion--,orig5 & ,/4 ,augu/9e4 ,,orig54--,orig5 0 a native ( ,alex&ria at ! close ( ! second c5tury1 & a pupil ( ,/4 ,clem5t ( ,alex&ria4 ,a ,*ri/ian & a ,platoni/1 9 ord] to give himself p]mission & excuse = reconcil+ ! two doctr9es1 he alleg$ t ! ,apo/les _h giv5 only s mu* ( ! ,*ri/ian tea*+ z ! multitude c\ld compreh5d1 & t ! le>n$ c\ld int]pret x 9 a mann] m subtle1 m pr(\nd1 & m complete4 ,hav+ obs]v$ ?is precaution1 he reveal$ 8 sy/em1 :i* 0 ?is3 ,god is a pure _s4 ,he already has desc5d$ "o /ep 9 spirits :i* are emanations f ,him4 ,^! spirits are capable ( good & evil4 ,:5 addict$ to evil1 !y clo! !mselves ) matt] & become s\ls 9 bodies2--:i* is :at we are4 ,!re are o!rs l[] ?an ourselves4 ,!re are impure spirits :i* h clo!d !mselves ) unclean bodies2 ^! are demons4 ,n[1 z ! fall5 bre?r5 ( angels1 we are free1 less free ?an !y1 b /ill free4 ,?r\gh ?is fre$om we c 9 our pres5t exi/5ce ei!r raise or l[] ourselves4 ,b ?is fre$om does n suffice u2 a little help is ess5tial4 ,?is help comes to u f ! spirits :i* h rema9$ pure4 ,! help !y af=d u is oppos$ by ! ef=ts ( ! utt]ly fall5 spirits :o are l[] 9 ! scale ?an ourselves4 ,to combat ^! fall5 spirits1 to help ! pure spirits :o help u1 & to help !m to help u1 su* is our duty 9 ?is life1 :i* is a m$ic9e1 ! m$ic9e ( ,plato1 namely a puni%m5t2 /]ile :5 x is n accept$ by u1 salut>y :5 gratefully accept$ by u1 x !n becomes expiation & 9 consequ5ce purification4 ,! "p ( ! ,r$eem] 9 all ?is is ! same z t ( ! spirits1 b on a gr&] & m decisive plane4 ,k+ ( spirits1 ,_s ( spirits1 by revelation ,he illum9es our confus$ intellig5ce & =tifies our weak w aga9/ temptation4 ,,/4 ,,augu/9e4--,/4 ,augu/9e ( ,taga/e 79 ,africa71 long a pagan ex]cis+ ! pr(ession ( pr(essor ( rhetoric1 became a ,*ri/ian & 0 ,bi%op ( ,hippo4 ,x is he :o fix$ ! ,*ri/ian doctr9e 9 ! way mo/ suitable to & mo/ acceptable to ,we/]n intellig5ce4 ,in/ead ( confus+ x1 m or less int5tionally1 m or less inadv]t5tly1 ) philosophy1 he ex]t$ all 8 great tal5ts to make ! mo/ precise di/9ction f x4 ,philosoph]s 7he says7 h always reg>d$ ! _w z an emanation f ,god4 ,!n all is ,god4 ,su* is n ! way to reason4 ,!re is no emanation1 b creation2 ,god creat$ ! _w & has rema9$ di/9ct f x4 ,he lives 9 x 9 su* a way t we live 9 ,him2 9 ,him we live & move & h our be+2 ,he dwells ?r\gh\t ! _w1 b ,he is n ! _w2 ,he is ev]y:]e b ,he is n all4 ,god creat$ ! _w4 ,!n1 c x be said t be=e ! _w 0 creat$ ,god rema9$ do+ no?+ dur+ an imm5se space ( "t8 ,c]ta9ly n1 because "t only began at ! creation ( ! _w4 ,god is outside "t4 ,! et]nal is ! abs5ce ( "t4 ,god1 !re=e1 0 n an in/ant be=e ,he creat$ ! _w4 ,or1 if x be pref]r$1 !re 0 an et]nity be=e ! bir? ( ! _w4 ,b x is ! same ?+2 = et]nity is ! non-exi/5ce ( "t4 ,"s und]/& ,god 9 ?ree ,p]sons z ?ree ,gods4 ,?is poly!ism1 ?is paganism mu/ be reject$4 ,b h[ to und]/&8 ,h[8 ,y feel 9 y\rself sev]al s\ls8 ,no4 ,& yet !re are sev]al faculties ( ! s\l4 ,! ?ree ,p]sons ( ,god are ! ?ree div9e faculties4 ,man has body & s\l4 ,no "o ought to h d\bts ab\t ! s\l1 = to h d\bts presupposes ?\ght1 & to ?9k is to be2 above all ?+s we are ?9k+ be+s4 ,b :at is ! s\l8 ,some?+ immat]ial1 assur$ly1 s9ce x c conceive immat]ial ?+s1 su* z a l9e1 a po9t1 surface1 space4 ,x is z necess>y = ! s\l to be immat]ial 9 ord] to be able to grasp ! immat]ial1 z x is necess>y = ! h& to be mat]ial 9 ord] t x c grasp a /one4 ,:5ce comes ! s\l8 ,f ! s\ls ( ance/ors by transmission8 ,?is is n probable1 = ?is w\ld be to reg>d x z mat]ial4 ,f ,god by emanation8 ,?is is inadmissible2 x is ! same error z believ+ t ! _w emanates f ,god4 ,"h1 too1 !re is no emanation1 b creation4 ,god creates ! s\ls 9 de/9ation = bodies !mselves born f h]$ity4 ,once ! body is de/roy$1 :at becomes ( ! s\l8 ,x _c p]i%2 = ?\ght n be+ dep5d5t ^u ! s5ses1 !re is no reason = its disappe>ance on ! disappe>ance ( ! s5ses4 ,human lib]ty is an assur$ fact2 we are free to d good or evil4 ,b !n ,god has n be5 able to "k 9 advance :at ,i %all d to-day1 & 9 consequ5ce ,god1 at lea/ 9 ,8 k1 has limitations1 is n omnipot5t4 ,/4 ,augu/9e replies confus$ly 7= ! "q is und\bt$ly insoluble7 t we h an illusion ( lib]ty1 an illusion t we are free1 :i* suffices = u to acquire m]it if we d "r & dem]it if we d wrong1 & t ?is illusion ( lib]ty is a relative lib]ty1 :i* leaves ! presci5ce ( ,god1 & !re=e ,8 omnipot5ce1 absolute4 ,man is also extremely weak1 debilitat$1 & incapable ( good on acc\nt ( orig9al s91 ! s9 ( our fir/ p>5ts1 :i* is transmitt$ to u ?r\gh h]$ity & p>alyses u4 ,b ,god helps u1 & ?is is :at is t]m$ grace4 ,he helps u gratuit\sly1 z is indicat$ by ! ^w grace--if ,he wi%es & :5 ,he wi%es & 9 ! measure t ,he wi%es4 ,f ?is arises ! doctr9e ( pr$e/9ation1 by :i* x is preorda9$ :e!r a man is to be sav$ or lo/4 ,,"p ,,ii ,,9 ,,! ,,middle ,,ages ,,*apt] ,i ,,f ,,! ,,fif? ,,c5tury ,,to ,,! ,,?irte5? ,philosophy is only an ,int]pret] ( ,dogma4 ,:5 x is ,decl>$ ,contr>y to ,dogma by ! ,au?ority ( ,religion1 x is a ,h]esy4 ,or?odox & ,het]odox ,int]pretations4 ,"s ,indep5d5t ,philosoph]s4 ,,dogma4--,aft] ! invasion ( ! b>b>ians1 philosophy1 l lit]ature1 s\ght refuge 9 mona/]ies & 9 ! s*ools :i* prelates in/itut$ & ma9ta9$ ne> !m4 ,b ! ,*ur* does n p]mit ! free se>* = tru?4 ,! tru? has be5 e/abli%$ by ! ,fa!rs ( ! ,*ur* & fix$ by ! ,c\ncils4 ,!nce=? ! philosophic life1 s to speak1 :i* _h nev] be5 int]rupt$1 assum$ a fre% "*4 ,)9 ! ,*ur* x %elt]$--,i w n say disguis$--itself "u ! int]pretation ( dogma2 x became a sort ( respectful auxili>y ( !ology1 & 0 accord+ly call$ ! h&maid ( !ology1 ancilla !ologiae4 ,:5 emancipat$1 :5 dep>t+ f dogma1 x is a h]esy1 & all ! great h]esies are no?+ else ?an s*ools ( philosophy1 :i* is :y h]esies mu/ come into a hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,& at la/1 b only t[>ds ! close ( ! ,middle ,ages1 lay ?\ght )\t di/urb+ itself ab\t dogma & no long] ?9k+ ab\t its int]pretation1 creat$ philosophic doctr9es exactly z ! philosoph]s ( antiquity inv5t$ !m ap>t f religion1 to :i* !y 7 ei!r ho/ile or indiff]5t4 ,,s*ola/icism3 ,,scotus ,,erig5a4--,! or?odox philosophy ( ! ,middle ,ages 0 ! s*ola/ic4 ,s*ola/icism consi/$ 9 amass+ & 9 mak+ kn[n sci5tific facts & matt]s ( k ( :i* x 0 useful = a well-br$ man n to be ignorant & = ?is purpose encyclopa$ias 7 con/ruct$2 on ! o!r h&1 x consi/$ n precisely 9 ! reconciliation ( fai? ) reason1 n precisely & f> less 9 ! submission ( fai? to ! criticism ( reason1 b 9 mak+ fai? s5sible to reason1 z _h be5 ! (fice ( ! ,fa!rs ( ! ,*ur*1 m especially ,/4 ,augu/9e4 ,scotus ,erig5a1 a ,scotsman atta*$ to ! ,palat9e ,academy ( ,*>les ! ,bald1 liv$ 9 ! elev5? c5tury4 ,he 0 extremely le>n$4 ,8 philosophy 0 ,platonic1 or r ! b5t ( 8 m9d 0 ,platonic4 ,god is ! absolute ,be+2 ,he is unnamable1 s9ce any "n is a delimitation ( ! be+2 ,he is absolutely & inf9itely4 ,z ! creator ( all & uncreat$1 ,he is ! cause p] se2 z ! goal to :i* all ?+s t5d1 ,he is ! supreme end4 ,! human s\l is ( imp5etrable ess5ce l ,god ,himself2 accord+ly1 x is ,god 9 u4 ,we h fall5 ?r\gh ! body &1 :il/ 9 ! fle%1 we c1 by virtue & m especially by ! virtue ( p5it5ce1 raise ourselves to ! height ( ! angels4 ,! _w is ! cont9u\s creation ( ,god4 ,x mu/ n be said t ,god creat$ ! _w1 b t ,he creates x2 = if ,he ceas$ f su/a9+ x1 ! _w w\ld no long] exi/4 ,god is p]petual creation & p]petual attraction4 ,he draws all be+s to ,himself1 & 9 ! end ,he w h !m all 9 ,himself4 ,!re is pr$e/9ation to p]fection 9 ev]y?+4 ,^! !ories1 "s ( :i*1 z has be5 se51 g beyond dogma & =m at lea/ ! beg9n+ ( h]esy1 are all impregnat$ ) ,platonism1 especially ) ,neoplatonism1 & lead to ! supposition t ,scotus ,erig5a possess$ v wide ,greek le>n+4 ,,arabian ,,sci5ce4--,a great lit]>y & philosophical fact 9 ! eigh? c5tury 0 ! invasion ( ! ,arabs4 ,mahometans successively invad$ ,syria1 ,p]sia1 ,africa1 & ,spa91 =m+ a cresc5t1 ! two po9ts ( :i* t\*$ ! two extremities ( ,europe4 ,inquisitive & sagaci\s pupils ( ! ,greeks 9 ,africa & ,asia1 !y f\nd$ ev]y:]e brilliant univ]sities :i* rapidly acquir$ r5[n 7,bagdad1 ,bassorah1 ,cordova1 ,granada1 ,seville1 ,murcia7 & br\ght to ,europe a new quota ( sci5ce2 = in/ance1 all ! works ( ,ari/otle1 ( :i* ,we/]n ,europe possess$ practically no?+4 ,/ud5ts gre$y = k came to le>n f !m 9 ,spa92 = in/ance1 ,g]b]t1 :o develop$ into a man ( great le>n+1 :o taught at ,rheims & became ,pope4 ,individually ! ,arabs 7 (t5 great philosoph]s1 & at lea/ ! names mu/ be m5tion$ ( ,avic5na 7a ,neoplatoni/ ( ! t5? c5tury7 & ,av]roes 7an ,ari/otelian ( ! twelf? c5tury :o betray$ t5d5cies t[>ds admitt+ ! et]nity ( nature1 & its evolution ?r\gh its own initiative dur+ ! c\rse ( "t74 ,_! doctr9es 7 propagat$1 & ! anci5t books :i* !y made kn[n became widely diffus$4 ,f !m dates ! sway ( ,ari/otle ?r\gh\t ! middle ages4 ,,/4 ,,anselm4--,/4 ,anselm1 9 ! elev5? c5tury1 a ,savoy>d1 :o 0 long ,abbot ( ,bec 9 ,norm&y & di$ ,ar*bi%op ( ,cant]bury1 is "o ( ! mo/ illu/ri\s doctors ( philosophy 9 ! s]vice ( !ology t ev] liv$4 ,a new ,/4 ,augu/9e 7z he has be5 call$71 he />ts f fai? to arrive at fai? aft] x has be5 r5d]$ s5sible to reason4 ,l ,/4 ,augu/9e he says3 ,i believe 9 ord] to und]/& 7well p]suad$ t if ,i nev] believ$ ,i %\ld nev] und]/&71 & he adds :at _h be5 9 ! ?\ght ( ,/4 ,augu/9e3 ,i und]/& 9 ord] to believe4 ,/4 ,anselm prov$ ! exi/5ce ( ,god by ! mo/ ab/ract argum5ts4 ,= example1 ,x is necess>y to h a cause1 "o or multiple2 "o is ,god2 multiple1 x c be d]iv$ f "o s+le cause1 & t "o cause is ,god2 x c be a p>ticul> cause 9 ea* ?+ caus$2 b !n x is necess>y to suppose a p]sonal =ce :i* mu/ itself h a cause & ?us we "w back to a common cause1 t is to say to a s+le "o4 ,he prov$ ,god aga9 by ! pro( :i* has rema9$ fam\s "u ! "n ( ! argum5t ( ,/4 ,anselm3 ,to conceive ,god is to prove t ,he is2 ! conception ( ,god is pro( ( ,8 exi/5ce2 = e idea has its object2 above all1 an idea :i* has inf9ity = object takes = grant$ ! exi/5ce ( inf9ity2 = all be+ f9ite "h bel[1 :at w\ld give ! idea ( inf9ity to ! human m9d8 ,!re=e1 if ! human bra9 has ! idea ( inf9ity x is because ( ! exi/5ce ( inf9ity4 ,! argum5t is p]haps op5 to diff]5ce ( op9ion1 b z pro( ( a s+ul> vig\r ( m9d on ! "p ( its au?or1 x is indisputable4 ,highly intellectual also is 8 explanation ( ! necessity ( r$emption4 ,cur ,deus ,homo8 7! title ( "o ( 8 works7 ask$ ,/4 ,anselm4 ,because s9 9 relation to an inf9ite ,god is an inf9ite crime4 ,man1 f9ite & limit$ 9 capacity1 c\ld !re=e nev] expiate x4 ,!n :at c\ld ,god d to av5ge ,8 hon\r & to h satisfaction r5d]$ to ,him8 ,he c\ld only make ,himself man )\t ceas+ to be ,god1 9 ord] t z man ,he %\ld (f] to ,god a rep>ation to :i* z ,god ,he w\ld give ! "* ( inf9itude4 ,x 0 !re=e absolutely necess>y t at a giv5 mom5t man %\ld become ,god1 :i* c\ld only be done ^u ! condition t ,god made ,himself man4 ,,reali/s2 ,,nom9ali/s2 ,,conceptuali/s4--,x 0 9 ! "t ( ,/4 ,anselm t !re arose ! celebrat$ philosophic qu>rel betwe5 ! reali/s1 nom9ali/s1 & conceptuali/s4 ,x is "h ess5tial to employ ^! te*nical t]ms or else n to allude to ! dispute at all1 because ! /rife is above all a w> ( words4 ,! reali/s 7( :om ,/4 ,anselm 0 "o71 said3 ,! ideas 7idea ( virtue1 idea ( s91 idea ( greatness1 idea ( littl5ess7 are realities2 !y exi/1 9 a spiritual mann] ( c\rse1 b !y really exi/2 !y are3 !re is a virtue1 a s91 a greatness1 a littl5ess1 a reason1 etc4 7& ?is 0 an exact rem9isc5ce ( ! ideas ( ,plato74 ,x is inde$ only ! idea1 ! g5]al1 ! univ]sal1 :i* is real1 & ! p>ticul> has only ! appe>ance ( reality4 ,m5 d n exi/1 ! individual man does n exi/2 :at exi/s is 'man' 9 g5]al1 & individual m5 are only ! appe>ance (--! col\r$ reflections (--! univ]sal man4 ,! nom9ali/s 7,roscel9 ! ,canon ( ,compiegne1 = in/ance7 answ]$3 ,no2 ! g5]al ideas1 ! univ]sals z y say1 are only names1 are only words1 emissions ( ! voice1 labels1 if y l1 :i* we place on su* & su* categories ( facts obs]v$ by u2 !re is no greatness2 !re are a c]ta9 numb] ( great ?+s1 & :5 we ?9k ( !m we inscribe ?is ^w 'greatness' on ! g5]al idea :i* we conceive4 ',man' does n exi/2 !re are m5 & ! ^w humanity is only a ^w :i* to u repres5ts a collective idea4 ,:y did ! reali/s cl+ s to _! univ]sals1 held to be realities & ! sole realities8 ,= _m reasons4 ,if ! individual alone be real1 !re are n ?ree ,p]sons 9 ! ,godhead1 !re are ?ree ,gods & ! unity ( ,god is n real1 x is only a ^w1 & ,god is n real1 ,he is only an utt]ance ( ! voice4 ,if ! individual is n real1 ! ,*ur* is n real2 %e does n exi/1 !re only exi/ ,*ri/ians :o possess fre$om ( ?\ght & ( fai?4 ,n[ ! ,*ur* is real & x is n only desirable t %e %\ld be real1 b ev5 t %e alone %\ld possess reality & t ! individuals con/itut+ h] %\ld exi/ by h] & n by !mselves4 7,?is is precisely ! doctr9e ) reg>d to society n[ curr5t among c]ta9 philosoph]s3 society exi/s indep5d5tly ( its memb]s2 x has laws ( its own indep5d5tly ( its memb]s2 x is a reality on its own basis2 & its memb]s are by x1 n x by !m1 & !re=e !y %\ld obey x2 ,m4 ,durckheim is a reali/47 ,,abel>d ( ,nantes1 pupil ( ! nom9ali/1 ,william ( ,*ampeaux1 le>n$ man1 arti/1 man ( lett]s1 an incomp>able orator1 tri$ to effect a conciliation4 ,he said3 ,! univ]sal is n a reality1 c]ta9ly2 b x is some?+ m ?an a simple ^w2 x is a conception ( ! m9d1 :i* is some?+ m ?an an utt]ance ( ! voice4 ,z conception ( ! m9d1 9 fact1 x lives ) a life :i* goes beyond ! individual1 because x c be common to sev]al individuals to _m individuals1 & because 9 fact x is common to !m4 ,! g5]al idea t ,i h & :i* ,i h communicat$ to my he>]s1 & :i* returns to me f my he>]s1 is m ?an a ^w s9ce x is a l9k betwe5 my he>]s & myself1 & an atmosph]e 9 :i* ,i & my he>]s live4 ,is ! ,*ur* only to be a ^w8 ,god =bid t ,i %\ld say s4 ,%e is a bond betwe5 all ,*ri/ians2 %e is a g5]al idea common to !m all1 s t 9 h] ea* individual feels himself sev]al1 feels himself _m2 al?\gh x is true t 7 %e n believ$ 9 by anyone %e w\ld be no?+4 ,at bottom he 0 a nom9ali/1 b m subtle1 also m pr(\nd & m precise1 hav+ a bett] grasp ( :at ,william ( ,*ampeaux _h desir$ to say4 ,he %>$ 9 8 condemnation4 ,ap>t f ! great dispute1 8 ideas 7 s+ul>ly broad & bold4 ,half kn[+1 half guess+ at anci5t philosophy1 he held x 9 high e/eem2 he f\nd !re1 because he delight$ 9 f9d+ !re1 all ! ,*ri/ian ideas3 ! "o ,god1 ! ,tr9ity1 ! ,inc>nation1 ! imputation ( ! m]its ( ! sa9ts1 orig9al s92 & he f\nd less ( a gulf betwe5 anci5t philosophy & ,*ri/ianity ?an betwe5 ! ,old & ! ,new ,te/am5t 7?is is because ! only ,*ri/ianity kn[n to ,abel>d1 n ! primitive b t con/itut$ 9 ! f\r? c5tury1 0 pr(\ndly impregnat$ ) ,hell5ism74 ,he believ$ ! ,holy ,gho/ to h reveal$ ,himself to ! wise m5 ( antiquity z well z to ! ,jews & ! ,*ri/ians1 & t virtu\s pagans may h be5 sav$4 ,! moral philosophy ( ,abel>d is v elevat$ & pure4 ,our acts proce$ f ,god2 = x is impossible t !y %\ld n2 b ,he p]mits u ! faculty ( disob$i5ce 9 ord] t virtue may exi/1 to :i* x t5ds2 = if ! t5d5cy to evil did n exi/1 !re w\ld be no possibility ( ef=t aga9/ evil1 & if no ef=ts1 !n no virtue2 ,god1 :o _c be virtu\s s9ce ,he _c be tempt$ by evil1 c be virtu\s 9 man1 :i* is :y ,he leaves him ! t5d5cy to evil = him to triumph ov] x & be virtu\s s t virtue may exi/2 ev5 if ,he 7 ,himself to lead u into temptation1 ! t5d5cy w\ld /ill be ! same2 ,he w\ld only lead u into x to give u ! opportunity = /ruggle & victory1 & !re=e 9 ord] t virtue might exi/2 ! possibility ( s9 is ! condition ( virtue1 & 9 consequ5ce1 ev5 9 ! admission ( ?is possibility & above all by its admission1 ,god is virtu\s4 ,! bad de$1 fur!rmore1 is n ! mo/ consid]able f ! po9t ( view ( guilt2 z m]it or dem]it ! int5tion is wor? z mu* z ! de$ & he is crim9al :o has _h ! int5tion to be s 7:i* is cle>ly accord+ to ! ,gospel74 ,,hugo ,,de ,,sa9t-,,victor2 ,,ri*>d4--,abel>d possess$ p]haps ! broade/ & greate/ m9d ( ! :ole ( ! ,middle ,ages4 ,aft] ^! fam\s names mu/ be m5tion$ ,hugo de ,sa9t-,victor1 a some:at obscure my/ic ( ,g]man orig92 & ! n less my/ical ,ri*>d1 :o1 ?or\ghly p]suad$ t ,god is n atta9$ by reason b by feel+1 taught exaltation to ,him by deta*m5t f self & by six degrees3 r5unciation1 elevation1 impulsion1 precipitation1 ec/asy1 & absorption4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,! ,,?irte5? ,,c5tury ,influ5ce ( ,ari/otle ,8 ,adoption by ! ,*ur*4 ,religi\s ,philosophy ( ,/4 ,?omas ,aqu9as4 ,,ari/otle ,,& ,,! ,,*ur*4--,f ! ?irte5? c5tury1 ,ari/otle1 completely kn[n & translat$ into ,lat91 0 adopt$ by ! ,*ur* & became 9 "s sort its lay vic>4 ,he 0 reg>d$1 & ,i ?9k rightly1 z ( all ! ,greek ?9k]s ! lea/ dang]\s to h] & z ! "o to :om c\ld be left all ! sci5tific in/ruction :il/ %e res]v$ to h]self all ! religi\s tea*+4 ,ari/otle1 9 fact1 def5d$ h] f ,plato1 9 :om 7 always f\nd "s g]ms ( adoration ( ?is _w1 or "s t5d5cies 9 ?is direction1 9 :om 0 also f\nd a c]ta9 poly!ism mu* disguis$1 or r mu* purifi$1 b actual & dang]\s2 !re=e1 f ! mom5t :5 x became necess>y to select1 ,ari/otle 0 tol]at$ & f9ally inve/$ ) (fice4 ,,/4 ,,?omas ,,aqu9as4--,z ,ari/otelian !ologians mu/ be cit$ ,william ( ,auv]gne1 ,v9c5t ( ,beauvais1 ,alb]tus ,magnus2 b ! sov]eign "n ( ?is p]iod ( ! hi/ory ( philosophy is ,/4 ,?omas ,aqu9as4 ,/4 ,?omas ,aqu9as wrote sev]al small works b1 surpass+ !m all1 ! ,summa 7encyclopa$ia7 :i* be>s 8 "n4 ,9 g5]al philosophy ,/4 ,?omas ,aqu9as is an ,ari/otelian1 b5d+ b n di/ort+ ! ideas ( ,ari/otle to ,*ri/ian conceptions4 ,l ,ari/otle1 he demon/rat$ ,god by ! exi/5ce ( motion & ! necessity ( a fir/ motive p[]2 he fur!r demon/rat$ x by ! cont+5t1 relative1 & imp]fect "* ( all "h bel[3 ,!re is 9 ?+s m or less goodness1 m or less tru?4 ,b we only affirm ! m or less ( a ?+ by comp>+ x ) some?+ absolute & z x approa*es m or less to ?is absolute2 !re is !re=e an absolute be+1 namely ,god--& ?is argum5t appe>$ to him bett] ?an t ( ,/4 ,anselm1 :i* he refut$4 ,,8 ,,conception ,,( ,,nature4--,he %[$ ! :ole ( nature z a great hi]>*y1 proce$+ f ! lea/ p]fect & ! mo/ %apeless to ! mo/ complete & det]m9ate2 f ano!r aspect1 z sep>at$ into two great k+doms1 t ( necessity 7m9]al1 vegetable1 animal71 & t ( grace 7humanity74 ,he display$ x will$ by ,god1 project$ by ,god1 creat$ by ,god2 gov]n$ by ,god accord+ to antec$5t & consequ5t wills1 t is1 by g5]al wills 7,god desires man to be sav$7 & by p>ticul> wills 7,god wi%es ! s9n] to be puni%$71 & ! union ( ! g5]al wills is ! creation1 & ! result ( all ! p>ticul> wills is ,provid5ce4 ,nature & man ) x are ! "w n only ( ! p[] b ( ! goodness ( ,god1 & x is by love t ,he creat$ u & we mu/ r5d] ,him love = love1 :i* is involunt>ily done by ,nature h]self 9 h] ob$i5ce to ,8 laws1 & :i* we mu/ d volunt>ily by ob$i5ce to ,8 comm&m5ts4 ,,! ,,s\l4--,our s\l is immat]ial & m complete ?an t ( animals1 = ,/4 ,?omas does n =mally d5y t animals h s\ls2 ! in/9ct ( animals is ! s5sitive s\l accord+ to ,ari/otle1 :i* is capable ( f\r faculties3 s5sibility1 imag9ation1 memory1 & e/imation1 t is elem5t>y intellig5ce3 ,! bird picks up /raw1 n because x gratifies h] feel+s n by a movem5t ( s5sibility1 b because x s]ves to make h] ne/4 ,x is !re=e necess>y t an animal %\ld p]ceive ^? intuitions :i* d n come )9 ! scope ( ! s5ses4 ,x is by op9ion or e/imation t x p]ceives ^! intuitions1 ^! di/ant ends4 ,we1 mank9d1 possess a s\l :i* is s5sibility1 imag9ation1 memory1 & reason4 ,reason is ! faculty n only ( hav+ ideas1 b ( e/abli%+ connections & *a9s ( connection betwe5 ! ideas & ( conceiv+ g5]al ideas4 ,reason pauses be=e rea*+ ,god because ! idea ( ,god precisely is ! only "o :i* _c be br\ght to ! m9d by ! int]relation ( ideas1 = ,god surpasses all ideas2 ! idea ( ,god is giv5 by fai?1 :i* c be subsequ5tly help$ by reason1 = ! latt] c "w to make fai? p]ceptible to reason4 ,our s\l is full ( passions1 divisible into two great categories1 ! passions ( desire & ^? ( ang]4 ,! passions ( desire are rapid or viol5t movem5ts t[>ds "s object :i* seems to u a good2 ! passions ( ang] are movem5ts ( revolt aga9/ some?+ :i* opposes our movem5t t[>ds a good4 ,! common root ( all ! passions is love1 = x is obvi\s t f x are d]iv$ ! passions ( desire2 & z = ! passions ( wra? !y w\ld n exi/ if we _h no love ( any?+1 9 :i* case our desire n com+ into collision w\ld n turn into revolt aga9/ ! ob/acle4 ,we are free to d good or evil1 to ma/] our evil passions & to foll[ ^? ( :i* reason approves4 ,"h reappe>s ! objection ( ! k ,god mu/ h be=eh& ( our actions3 if ,god =esees our actions we are n free2 if free1 we act contr>y to 8 previsions1 !n ,he is n all-p[]ful4 ,/4 ,?omas makes answ] ?us3 ,!re is n prevision1 !re is vision1 because we are 9 "t :]eas ,god is 9 et]nity4 ,he sees at "o glance & in/antane\sly all ! pa/1 pres5t1 & future4 ,!re=e1 ,he does n =esee b see1 & ?is vision does n h9d] human fre$om any m ?an be+ se5 act+ prev5ts "o f act+4 ,because ,god kn[s our de$s aft] !y are done1 no "o c plead t t prev5ts our full lib]ty to d !m2 if ,he knew !m be=e x is ! same z kn[+ !m aft]1 because = ,him pa/1 pres5t1 & future are all ! same mom5t4 ,?is appe>s subtle b is n1 = x only am\nts to ! /atem5t t 9 speak+ ( ,god "t mu/ n be m5tion$1 = ,god is z mu* outside "t z outside space4 ,,! ,,moral ,,sy/em ,,( ,,/4 ,,?omas4--,! v detail$ & circum/antial moral sy/em ( ,/4 ,?omas may ?us be summ>iz$3 !re is 9 consci5ce1 fir/1 an intellectual act :i* is ! di/9ction betwe5 good & evil2 secondly1 an act ( w :i* leads u to ! good4 ,?is p[] = good urges ! practice ( virtue4 ,!re are human virtues1 well kn[n to ! anci5t philosoph]s1 temp]ance1 c\rage1 wisdom1 ju/ice1 :i* lead to happ9ess on e>?2 !re are div9e virtues1 inspir$ 9 man by ,god1 :i* are fai?1 hope1 & *>ity1 & !y lead to et]nal happ9ess4 ,we practise ! virtues1 :5 we are well-dispos$1 because we are free2 b our lib]ty & our w d n suffice2 x is necess>y = ,god to help u1 & t is grace4 ,,fai? ,,& ,,reason4--,on ! "q ( ! relation ( reason to fai?1 ,/4 ,?omas ,aqu9as recognizes1 or r proclaims1 t reason w nev] demon/rate fai?1 t ! reveal$ tru?s1 ! ,tr9ity1 orig9al s91 grace1 etc41 are above reason & inf9itely exce$ x4 ,h[1 !n1 c "o believe8 ,by w1 aid$ by ! grace ( ,god4 ,!n h5ce=? mu/ no appeal be made to reason8 ,yes1 inde$6 ,reason s]ves to refute ! errors ( ! adv]s>ies ( ! fai?1 & by ?is refutation to confirm itself 9 belief4 ,! fam\s ,cr$o ut intelligam--,i believe 9 ord] to und]/&--is !re=e true4 ,compreh5sion is only possible on condition ( belief2 b subsequ5tly compreh5sion helps to believe1 if n m1 at lea/ ) a great] precision & 9 a m abundant light4 ,/4 ,?omas ,aqu9as "h is 9 exactly ! position :i* ,pascal seems to h tak5 up3 ,believe & y w und]/&2 und]/& & y w believe m exactly4 ,!re=e an act ( w3 ,i wi% to believe--a grace ( ,god =tify+ ?is w3 fai? exi/s--/udies & reason+3 fai? is ! cle>]4 ,,/4 ,,bonav5tura2 ,,raymond ,,lulle4--,beside ^! m5 ( ! highe/ bra9-p[] !re are f\nd 9 ! ?irte5? c5tury my/ics1 t is1 poets & ecc5trics1 bo? by ! way mo/ int]e/+4 ,x 0 ,/4 ,bonav5tura :o1 be+ p]suad$1 almo/ l an ,alex&r9e1 t "o rises to ,god by syn!tic feel+ & n by s]ies ( argum5ts1 & t "o j\rneys t[>ds ,him by successive /ates ( ! s\l ea* m pure & m passionate--wrote ,! ,j\rney ( ! ,s\l to ,god1 :i* is1 s to speak1 a manual ( my/icism4 ,le>n$ z he 01 :il/ pursu+ 8 own purpose1 he digress$ 9 agreeable & in/ructive fa%ion into ! realms ( real k4 ,widely diff]5t f him1 ,raymond ,lulle or de ,lulle1 an unbridl$ s*oolman1 9 8 ,ars magna inv5t$ a reason+ ma*9e1 analog\s to an ari?metical ma*9e1 9 :i* ideas 7 automatically d$uc$ f "o ano!r z ! figures inscribe !mselves on a c\nt]4 ,z (t5 happ5s1 ! excess ( ! me?od 0 its own criticism1 & an enemy ( s*ola/icism c\ld n h m +5i\sly demon/rat$ t x 0 a k9d ( me*anism4 ,raymond de ,lulle 0 at once a le>n$ man & a well-in=m$ & mo/ enquir+ naturali/ = :om ,arabian sci5ce held no secrets4 ,) t he 0 poet1 tr\bad\r1 orator1 z well z v ecc5tric & attractive4 ,he 0 belov$ & p]secut$ 9 8 lifetime1 & long aft] 8 dea? /ill f\nd en?usia/ic disciples4 ,,bacon4--,contemporane\sly liv$ ! man :om x is g5]ally ! cu/om to reg>d z ! di/ant precursor ( exp]im5tal sci5ce1 ,rog] ,bacon 7:o mu/ n be confus$ ) ,francis ,bacon1 ano!r le>n$ man :o liv$ mu* ne>] to our own "t74 ,rog] ,bacon1 a ,franciscan fri>1 occupi$ himself almo/ exclusively ) physical & natural sci5ce4 ,he pass$ ! great] portion ( 8 life 9 prison by reason ( alleg$ sorc]y &1 m especially1 p]haps1 because he _h d5\nc$ ! evil lives ( 8 bre?r54 ,he _h at lea/ a pres5tim5t ( almo/ all mod]n inv5tions3 gunp[d]1 magnify+ glass1 telescope1 air-pump2 he 0 di/9ctly an inv5tor 9 optics4 ,9 philosophy1 prop]ly speak+1 he d5\nc$ :at 0 holl[ & empty 9 s*ola/icism1 dete/+ t pref]5ce %\ld be giv5 to ! /raw ( words r ?an to ! gra9 ( fact1 & proclaim+ t reason+ is good to conclude b n to e/abli%4 ,)\t discov]+ ! law ( progress1 z has too (t5 be5 alleg$1 he arriv$ at ! conclusion t antiquity be+ ! y\? ( ! _w1 ! mod]ns are ! adults1 :i* only meant t x w\ld be at our s*ool t ! anci5ts w\ld le>n 7 !y to return to e>? & t we ought n to believe bl9dly 9 ! anci5ts2 & ?is 0 an insurrection aga9/ ! pr9ciple ( au?ority & aga9/ ! idolatry ( ,ari/otle4 ,he prea*$ ! direct /udy ( nature1 obs]vation1 & exp]im5t ) ! subsequ5t application ( d$uction1 & especially ( ma!matical d$uction1 to exp]im5t & obs]vation4 ,) all t1 he believ$ 9 a/rology2 = ^? :o are 9 advance ( _! "t none ! less belong to x3 b he 0 a v great man4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,f\rte5? ,,& ,,fifte5? ,,c5turies ,decad5ce ( ,s*ola/icism4 ,=ebod+s ( ! ,com+ ,era4 ,great ,morali/s4 ,! ,kabbala4 ,sorc]y4 ,,decad5ce ,,( ,,s*ola/icism4--,! f\rte5? c5tury dat$ ! decad5ce ( s*ola/icism1 b saw little new4 ,realism 0 g5]ally ab&on$1 & ! field 0 swept by nom9alism1 :i* 0 ! !ory t ideas only h exi/5ce 9 ! bra9s :i* conceive !m4 ,?us ,dur& de ,sa9t-,p\rca9 rema9s fam\s = hav+ said1 ,to exi/ is to be individually1 :i* at t epo* 0 v audaci\s4 ,william ( ,ockham repeat$ ! phrase ) emphasis2 !re is no?+ real except ! individual4 ,t w5t s f> z to ca/ suspicion on all metaphysics1 & some:at on !ology4 ,9 fact1 al?\gh a dev\t believ]1 ,ockham reject$ !ology1 implor$ ! ,*ur* n to be le>n$1 because h] sci5ce prov$ no?+1 & to cont5t h]self ) fai?3 ,sci5ce belongs to ,god1 fai? to m54 ,b1 or r 9 addition1 if ! m9i/]s ( ,god 7 no long] impos+ because ( _! ambiti\s sci5ce1 x 0 necess>y = !m to rega9 _! sway ov] s\ls by o!r & bett] means4 ,x 0 incumb5t on !m to be sa9tly1 to rev]t to ! purity1 ! simplicity1 & ! div9e *ildi%ness ( ! primitive ,*ur*2 & "h he 0 virtually a =]unn] ( ! ,re=mation4 ,ockham 0 inde$ "o ( ! auxili>ies ( ,philip ! ,fair 9 8 /ruggle ) ! ,holy ,see1 suff]$ excommunication1 & s\ght refuge ) ! ,duke ( ,bav>ia1 ! foe ( ! ,pope4 ,,buridan3 ,,! ,,lib]ty ,,( ,,indiff]5ce4--,reali/s & nom9ali/s cont9u$ _! mutual /rife1 sometimes physically ev51 until ! middle ( ! fifte5? c5tury4 ,b nom9alism always ga9$ gr\nd1 hav+ among o!r celebrat$ *ampions1 ,pet] d',ailly & ,buridan2 ! "o succe$$ 9 becom+ ,*ancellor ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is1 ! o!r 9 becom+ its ,rector4 ,buridan has rema9$ fam\s ?r\gh 8 dea? & 8 donkey1 bo? alike leg5d>y4 ,accord+ to a ballad by ,villon1 ,buridan hav+ be5 too t5d]ly lov$ by ,joan ( ,nav>re1 wife ( ,philip ! ,fair1 0 by 8 ord] ?r[n 9 a sack into ! ,se9e4 ,by comp>ison ( dates1 ! fact seems impossible4 ,accord+ to tradition1 ei!r 9 ord] to %[ ! fre$om ( indiff]5ce1 or t animals are m]e ma*9es1 ,buridan decl>$ t an ass ) two baskets full ( corn plac$ "o on ea* side ( him & at equal di/ance f him1 w\ld nev] decide f :i* he %\ld fe$ & w\ld die ( />vation4 ,no?+ ( ! k9d is to be f\nd 9 8 works1 b he may h said s 9 a lecture & 8 pupils rememb]+ x h h&$ x d[n z a prov]b4 ,,pet] ,d',,ailly2 ,,g]son4--,pet] d',ailly1 a highly important ecclesia/ic1 head ( ! ,college ( ,nav>re1 *evali] ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is1 ,c>d9al1 a lead] 9 ! discussions at ! ,c\ncils at ,pisa & ,con/ance1 a dra/ic re=m] ( ! morals & cu/oms ( ! ,*ur*1 did n ev9ce any m>k$ orig9ality z a philosoph]1 b ma9ta9$ ! already kn[n doctr9es ( nom9alism ) extraord9>y dialectical skill4 ,among 8 pupils he numb]$ ,g]son1 :o 0 also ,*ancellor ( ! ,univ]sity ( ,p>is1 ano!r highly zeal\s & en]getic re=m]1 a m av[$ enemy ( s*ola/icism & my/icism1 ( exagg]at$ au/]ity & a/rology1 em95tly mod]n 9 ! be/ s5se ( ! ^w1 ^: political & religi\s enemies are 8 title ( respect4 ,he 0 ! au?or ( _m small books devot$ to ! popul>ization ( sci5ce1 religion1 & morality4 ,to him 0 long attribut$ ! ,imitation ( ,jesus ,*ri/1 :i* on ! :ole be>s no resemblance to 8 writ+s1 b :i* he might v well h writt5 9 old age 9 8 retreat 9 ! peaceful sil5ce ( ! ,cele/9es ( ,lyons4 ,,! ,,kabbala4--,f ! beg9n+ ( ! fifte5? c5tury ! ,r5aissance 0 h]ald$ by a revival ( ,platonism1 bo? 9 philosophy & lit]ature4 ,b x 0 a ,platonism /rangely und]/ood1 a qua9t m$ley ( ,py?agoreanism & ,alex&r9ism1 ! s\rce ( :i* is n v cle> 7! p]iod n hav+ be5 mu* /udi$74 ,!n arose an incr$ible infatuation = ! ,kabbala--a doctr9e :i* 0 = a long :ile ! secret ( ! ,jews1 brood$ ov] by !m s to speak dur+ ! d>kness ( ! ,middle ,ages1 9 :i* are to be f\nd traces ( ! mo/ sublime speculations & ( ! base/ sup]/itions ( antiquity4 ,x conta9$ a k9d ( pan!i/ic !ology closely analog\s to ^? ( ,porphyry & ,iambli*us1 z well z processes ( magic m+l$ ) a/rology4 ,! ,kabbali/s believe t ! sage1 :o by 8 a/rological k is br\ght into relation ) ! cele/ial p[]s1 c affect nature1 alt] ! c\rse ( ph5om5a1 & "w miracles4 ,! ,kabbala =ms "p ( ! hi/ory ( ! m>vel\s & ( occult sci5ce r ?an ( ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,nev]!less m5 ( real le>n+ 7 initiat$ & 7 infatuat$1 among !m ! m>vel\s ,pico della ,mir&ola1 ,reu*l91 n less rem>kable z humani/ & ,hebrai/1 :o w\ld h run grave risk at ! h&s ( ! ,inquisition at ,cologne if he _h n be5 sav$ by ,leo ,x4 ,c>dan1 a ma!matician & physician1 0 "o ( ! le>n$ m5 ( ! day mo/ impregnat$ ) ,kabbalism4 ,he believ$ 9 a k9d ( infallibility ( ! inn] s5se1 ( ! intuition1 & reg>d$ z futile all sci5ces t proce$$ by sl[ rational op]ations4 ,he believ$ himself a mage & magician4 ,f vanity he spoke ( himself 9 ! highe/ t]ms & f cynicism 9 ! l[e/4 ,d\bt has be5 ca/ on 8 s9c]ity & also on 8 sanity4 ,,magic4--,!re 7 also ,p>acelsus & ,agrippa4 ,p>acelsus1 l ,c>dan1 believ$ 9 an int5se light inf9itely sup]ior to be/ial reason+ & calls to m9d c]ta9 philosophy ( intuition ( ! pres5t day4 ,he too believ$ himself a magician & physician1 & effect$ cures by ! application ( a/rology to !rapeutics4 ,agrippa did ! same ) yet /rang] phantasies1 pass+ f absolute scepticism ?r\gh my/icism to magi & demonology2 9 8 own "t & 9 subsequ5t c5turies enjoy+ ! reputation ( a devil inc>nate z man4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,sixte5? ,,c5tury ,x ,is ,fairly ,accurate to ,consid] t f ! ,po9t ( ,view ( ,philosophy1 ! ,middle ,ages ,la/$ until ,desc>tes4 ,free-?9k]s ,m or ,less ,disguis$4 ,p>tisans ( ,reason ,ap>t f ,fai?1 ( ,obs]vation1 & ,( ,exp]im5t4 ,,! ,,fre$om ,,( ,,philosophy3 ,,pomponazzo4--,! fre$om & ev5 ! audacity ( philosophy rapidly increas$4 ,le>n$ & conv9c$ ,ari/otelians 7 b5t1 ei!r f %e] love ( tru? or f a m secret purpose1 on demon/rat+ to :at ext5t ,ari/otle1 accurately read1 0 oppos$ to ! tea*+ ( ! ,*ur*4 ,= in/ance1 ,pomponazzo reveal$ t no?+ c\ld be drawn f ,ari/otle 9 fav\r ( ! immortality ( ! s\l1 9 :i* he himself believ$ f]v5tly1 b 9 :i* ,ari/otle did n believe1 h5ce x 0 necess>y to *oose betwe5 ! ,*ur* & ,ari/otle2 t )\t ! immortality ( ! s\l !re c\ld be no rew>ds beyond ! grave1 :i* 0 entirely 8 own op9ion1 b :oev] %\ld desire to (f] excuses = ,ari/otle c\ld say x 0 precisely ! exi/5ce ( puni%m5ts & rew>ds :i* depriv$ virtue ( exi/5ce1 :i* did away ) virtue1 s9ce ! good t is done = ! sake ( rew>d or f fe> ( puni%m5t is no long] good2 t1 /ill accord+ to ,ari/otle1 !re c\ld nev] be miracles2 t he1 ,pomponazzo1 believ$ 9 all ! miracles record$ 9 ! ,scriptures2 b t ,ari/otle w\ld n h believ$ 9 !m1 & c\ld n h believ$ 9 !m1 a fact :i* dem&$ consid]ation1 n assur$ly 9 ord] to reject belief 9 miracles1 b 9 ord] n to be/[ on ,ari/otle t confid5ce :i* = s long _h be5 too readily plac$ 9 him4 ,9 ! same way1 he took up aga9 ! et]nal "q ( ! presci5ce ( ,god & ( human lib]ty1 & %[$ t no matt] :at _h be5 said x 0 necess>y to *oose3 ei!r we are free & ,god is n omnipot5t1 or ,god is omnipot5t & we are n free4 ,to reg>d z true ?is latt] hypo!sis1 t[>ds :i* ! philosoph] evid5tly leans1 w\ld cause ,god to be ! au?or ( evil & ( s94 ,x w\ld n be impossible = ,god to be ! au?or ( evil z an ess5tial condition ( good1 = if evil 7 n to exi/ !n !re c\ld n be good2 nor w\ld x be impossible t ,he %\ld be ! au?or1 n ( s91 b ( ! possibility ( s9 9 ord] t virtue might be possible1 !re be+ no virtue :]e x is impossible to commit s92 b !re9 lies a my/]y :i* fai? alone c solve1 & :i* ,ari/otle at any rate has n solv$1 !re=e let u n place reliance on ,ari/otle4 ,?is disguis$ free?9k]1 = he does n appe> to me to be any?+ else1 0 "o ( ! mo/ orig9al ?9k]s ( ! p]iod int]m$iate betwe5 ! ,middle ,ages & ,desc>tes4 ,,mi*ael ,,s]vetus2 ,,van9i4--,su* in/ances ( tem]ity 7 sometimes fatal to _! au?ors4 ,mi*ael ,s]vetus1 a v le>n$ ,spani% physician :o p]haps discov]$ ! circulation ( ! blood be=e ,h>vey1 disbeliev$ 9 ! ,tr9ity & 9 ! div9ity ( ,jesus1 &1 z he 0 a ,platoni/1 p]ceiv$ no int]m$i>ies betwe5 ,god & man save ideas4 ,p]secut$ by ! ,ca?olics1 he s\ght refuge at ,g5eva1 believ+ ,calv9 to be m m]ciful ?an ! ,inquisitors1 & ,calv9 burn$ him alive4 ,van9i1 half a c5tury lat]1 t is at ! comm5cem5t ( ! sev5te5?1 a re/less1 va91 & insol5t man1 aft] a life full ( sudd5 *anges ( =tune1 & yet di/+ui%$1 0 burnt alive at ,t\l\se = c]ta9 passages 9 8 ,de admir&is 444 arcanis1 & = hav+ said t he w\ld n express 8 op9ion on ! immortality ( ! s\l until he 0 old1 a ,jew1 & a ,g]man4 ,,bruno2 ,,campanella4--,giordano ,bruno1 an a/ronom] & "o ( ! fir/ to affirm t ! sun 0 ! c5tre ( ! _w1 pr(ess$1 despite c]ta9 precautions1 a doctr9e :i* confus$ ,god ) ! _w & d5i$ or exclud$ creation4 ,giordano ,bruno 0 arre/$ at ,v5ice 9 #aeic1 kept sev5 ye>s 9 prison1 & f9ally burnt at ,rome 9 #afjj4 ,campanella1 likewise an ,italian1 :o sp5t tw5ty-sev5 ye>s 9 a dungeon = hav+ conspir$ aga9/ ! ,spani% ma/]s ( 8 c\ntry1 & :o di$ 9 exile 9 ,p>is 9 #afci1 0 a sceptic 9 philosophy1 or r an anti-metaphysician1 &1 z w\ld be said n[adays1 a positivi/4 ,!re are only two s\rces ( k1 obs]vation & reason+4 ,obs]vation makes u "k ?+s--is ?is true8 ,may n ! s5sations ( ?+s :i* we h be a simple phantasmagoria8 ,no2 = we h an int]nal s5se1 a s5se ( our own1 :i* _c deceive u1 :i* affirms our exi/5ce 7"h is ! ,cogito ( ,desc>tes anticipat$7 & :i*1 at ! same "t1 affirms t !re are ?+s :i* are n ourselves1 s t co9cid5tly ! ego & ! non-ego are e/abli%$4 ,yes1 b is ?is non-ego really :at x seems8 ,x is2 grant$2 b :at is x & c we "k :at x is8 ,n )\t d\bt1 & "h scepticism is un%akable2 b 9 t !re is c]titude ( ! exi/5ce ( ! non-ego1 ! presumption is t we c "k x1 p>tially1 relatively1 v relatively1 :ile we rema9 inf9itely di/ant f an absolute k1 :i* w\ld be div9e4 ,!re=e let u obs]ve & exp]im5t2 let u make ! hi/ory ( nature z hi/orians make ! hi/ory ( ! human race4 ,& ?is is ! simple & solid philosophy ( exp]im5t4 ,b ,campanella1 l s _m m1 0 a metaphysician possess$ by ! devil ( metaphysics1 & aft] hav+ imp]i\sly recomm5d$ ! writ+ ( only ! hi/ory ( nature1 he himself wrote its romance z well4 ,e be+1 he said 7& ! ?\ght 0 a v f9e "o71 exi/s on condition ( be+ able to exi/1 & on condition t !re be an idea ( :i* x is ! realization1 & aga9 on condition t nature is will+ to create x4 ,9 o!r words1 nature c1 kn[s :at %e wi%es1 & wi%es4 ,n[ all be+s1 9 a great] or less degree accord+ to _! p]fection or imp]fection1 feel ?is triple condition ( be+ able1 kn[+1 & wi%+4 ,e be+ c1 kn[s1 & wi%es1 ev5 inorganic matt] 7"h already is ! _w z w & repres5tation ( ,s*op5hau]71 & ,god is only absolute p[]1 absolute k1 & absolute w4 ,?is is :y all creative ?+s gravitate to ,god & desire to return to ,him z to _! orig91 & z ! p]fection ( :at !y are3 ! univ]se has no/algia = ,god4 ,campanella 0 also1 z we %\ld say n[adays1 a sociologi/4 ,he made 8 ,republic z ,plato _h made 84 ,! ,republic ( ,campanella 0 call$ ! ,city ( ! ,sun4 ,x 0 a community republic1 leav5$ ) ari/ocracy ) spiritual p[] & temporal p[] some:at aft] ! mann] ( ,augu/e ,comte4 ,campanella 0 a great s[] ( ideas4 ,,francis ,,bacon4--,francis ,bacon1 lawy]1 memb] ( ,p>liam5t1 ,"l ,*ancellor ( ,engl&1 p]sonal fri5d ( ,james ,i1 fri5d1 protector1 & p]haps collaborator ) ,%akespe>e1 ov]?r[n z ! result ( political animosity & relegat$ to private life1 0 a v le>n$ man ) a m>vell\s m9d4 ,l 8 namesake1 ,rog] ,bacon1 b 9 an age m fav\rable to intellectual re=m1 he attempt$ a sort ( r5ewal ( ! human m9d 7,in/auratio ,magna7 or at lea/ a radical revolution 9 ! me?ods & work+s ( ! human m9d4 ,al?\gh ,francis ,bacon pr(ess$ admiration = _m ( ! ?9k]s ( antiquity1 he urg$ t x 0 wrong to rely on !m because !y _h n suffici5tly obs]v$2 "o mu/ n1 l ! s*oolm51 h ideas a priori1 :i* are idols1 & !re are idols ( tribe1 ( p>ty1 ( s*ool1 ( eras2 int5tions mu/ n be p]ceiv$ ev]y:]e 9 nature1 & we mu/ n1 because ! sun w>ms1 believe x 0 creat$ to w>m1 or because ! e>? yields n\ri%m5t believe h] creation 0 = ! purpose ( fe$+ u1 & t all ?+s conv]ge to man & are put at 8 s]vice4 ,x is necess>y to proce$ by obs]vation1 by exp]im5t1 & !n by induction1 b ) prodigi\s mi/ru/ ( induction4 ,induction consi/s 9 draw+ conclusions f ! p>ticul> to ! g5]al1 f a c]ta9 numb] ( facts to a law4 ,?is is legitimate on condition t ! conclusion is n drawn f a few facts to a law1 :i* is precipitate induction1 fruitful 9 errors2 b f a v l>ge numb] ( facts to a law1 :i* ev5 !n is consid]$ z provisional4 ,z = metaphysics1 z = ! inve/igation ( univ]sal law1 t %\ld be entirely sep>at$ f philosophy itself1 f ! prim>y philosophy :i* does n lead to x2 x has its own field1 :i* is t ( fai?3 ,give to fai? :at belonge? to fai?4 ,9 ! ma9 he is un9t]e/$ 9 metaphysics1 believ+ !m always to revolve 9 a circle &1 ,i d n say1 only believes 9 sci5ce & 9 me?od1 b has hope only f k & me?od1 an en?usia/ 9 ?is respect j z ano!r might be ab\t ! sup]-s5sible _w or ab\t ideas1 say+ human k & human p[] are really co9cid5t1 & believ+ t k w support humanity 9 all calamities1 w prolong human life1 w e/abli% a new gold5 age1 etc4 ,moreov]1 let !re be none ( t et]nal & unf\nd$ fe> t k w cause ! disappe>ance ( ! religi\s feel+4 ,) pr(\nd conviction & judg+ by himself1 ,bacon said3 ,a little philosophy incl9e? a man's m9d to a!ism1 b dep? 9 philosophy br+e? a man's m9d ab\t to religion4 ,su* is true philosophy1 subord9ate to ! object1 att5tive to ! object1 li/5+ to ! voices ( ! _w & only anxi\s to translate !m into human language3 t is true philosophy :i* r5d]s ! voices ( ! _w ! mo/ accurately possible1 l an e*o1 :i* writes z if at ! dictation ( ! _w itself1 add+ no?+ ( its own1 only repeat+ & res\nd+4 ,&1 z a man is always ( 8 "t1 he believ$ 9 al*emy & 9 ! possibility ( transmut+ base metals into gold4 ,b note h[ he und]/ood x3 ,to create a new nature 9 a giv5 body or to produce new natures & to introduce !m 444 he :o is acqua9t$ ) ! =ms & modes ( sup]-induc+ yell[ness1 weight1 ductility1 fixity1 fluidity1 solution1 & ! re/1 ) _! gradations & me?ods1 w see & take c>e t ^! prop]ties be unit$ 9 "s body1 :5ce its trans=mation into gold may foll[4 ,mod]n *emi/ry1 ) sci5tific me?ods highly analog\s to ^? :i* ,bacon indicat$ or =esaw1 has n made gold1 :i* is n a v useful ?+ to d1 b has done bett]4 ,,?omas ,,hobbes4--,at ! end ( ! sixte5? c5tury1 ano!r ,engli%man1 ,?omas ,hobbes1 began to ?9k4 ,he 01 above all else1 a lit]>y man & a sociologi/2 he translat$ ,?ucydides & ,hom]1 he wrote ,levia?an1 or ! ,matt]1 ,=m1 & ,p[] ( a ,commonweal?1 :i* is a manual ( despotism1 demon/rat+ t all m5 9 a natural /ate 7 bea/s ( prey ) reg>d to "o ano!r1 b t !y escap$ ?is unpleasant fate by submission to a pr9ce :o has all rights because he is p]petually sav+ 8 subjects f dea?1 & :o c !re=e impose on !m :atev] he pleases1 ev5 sci5tific dogma or religi\s beliefs4 ,m]ely reg>d$ z a philosoph]1 prop]ly s call$1 ,hobbes has an important position 9 ! hi/ory ( ideas4 ,l ,francis ,bacon1 b m rigor\sly & au?oritatively1 he began by sep>at+ metaphysics & !ology f philosophy4 ,philosophy is ! art ( ?9k+4 ,t :i* is n s5sible--m9d1 s\l1 ,god--_c be ?\ght3 c only be believ$2 philosophy does n d5y all t2 m]ely x does n conc]n itself !re)4 ,"h is ! :ole ( positivism e/abli%$ 9 pr9ciple4 ,:at we c ?9k is :at we feel4 ,?+s are kn[n to u only ?r\gh s5sations2 a ?\ght is a s5sation1 ! human m9d is a comp\nd ( s5sations4 ,no2 = ,i c ?9k ( a ?+ )\t he>+1 see+1 feel+ x1 etc4 ,?is is because we h memory1 :i* is itself a s5sation2 x is a s5sation :i* prolongs itself2 to rememb] is to feel t "o has felt2 x is to feel a =m] s5sation :i* ! bra9 is able to pres]ve4 ,we ?9k only by comb9+ curr5t s5sations ) o!r curr5t s5sations1 or mu* m (t5 inde$1 ?anks to memory1 by comb9+ curr5t s5sations ) old] ones1 or =m] s5sations ) ea* o!r4 ,?is is b a fragile basis = k & ?\ght1 = s5sation is only a modification ( ourselves caus$ by an ext]nal object1 & consequ5tly gives u no?+ at all ( ! ext]nal object1 & ( itself ! ext]nal _w is et]nally unkn[n to u2 b we comb9e ) ea* o!r ! illusions t ! ext]nal _w deposits 9 u ?r\gh ! delusive or d\btful int]m$i>y ( our s5ses4 ,:5 ! s5sation ?us comb9$ ) o!r s5sations has become ?\ght1 !n ideas beg9 to exi/4 ,!y are products ( s5sation deta*$ f s5sation4 ,!y are int]associat$ by laws t are obscure1 yet :i* c be vaguely p]ceiv$4 ,!y awake1 s to speak1 & call to "o ano!r2 e "t an idea previ\sly acquir$ reappe>s1 x is foll[$ by ! ?\ght :i* accompani$ x :5 x 0 acquir$4 ,9 a conv]sation a traitor is spok5 (4 ,someone asks :at 0 ! value ( a piece ( silv] 9 anci5t times4 ,?is appe>s incoh]5t2 really x is a natural & simple association ( ideas 9 :i* !re are few int]m$iate /eps4 ,! p]son :o li/5$ z ! traitor 0 m5tion$ ?\ght ( ,judas1 :o 0 ! fir/ traitor ( :om he _h he>d1 & ( ! ?irty pieces ( silv]1 ! price ( ! betrayal by ,judas4 ,! association ( ideas is m or less close1 m or less loose2 x is disconnect$ 9 dreams1 irregul> 9 mus+1 close directly x is dom9at$ & 9 consequ5ce direct$ by an end pursu$1 by a goal s\ght2 = !n !re is a desire to atta9 :i* associates no?+ ( itself1 b :i*1 elim9at+ all ideas t are n p]t95t to ! end pursu$1 p]mits only ! association ( ^? :i* h relation to x4 ,see+ 9 ! human s\l only successive impulses aris+ f ^? fir/ impulses :i* are ! s5sations1 ,hobbes does n believe we are free to d :at we wi%2 we are c>ri$ away by ! /ronge/ impulse ( our int]nal impulses1 desire1 fe>1 av]sion1 love1 etc4 ,nev]!less we delib]ate1 we consid] diff]5t c\rses to pursue & we decide on ! "o we desire to *oose4 ,no2 we d n delib]ate1 we only imag9e we delib]ate4 ,delib]ation is only a succession ( diff]5t feel+s1 & to ! "o t ga9s ! day we give ! "n ( volition4 ,9 ! s-call$ delib]ation1 ! f9al desire or ! f9al fe> is call$ w4 ,!re=e lib]ty has no m exi/5ce among m5 ?an among animals2 w & desire are only "o & ! same ?+ consid]$ "u diff]5t aspects4 ,,utilit>ian ,,morality4--,h5ce=? !re is no morality2 )\t ! p[] to w ?is & n to w t1 !re is no possible morality4 ,hobbes retorts ) utilit>ian morality3 ,:at man %\ld seek is pleasure1 z ,ari/ippus ?\ght2 b true pleasure--t :i* is p]man5t & t :i* is useful to him4 ,n[ x is useful to be a good citiz51 a loyal subject1 sociable1 s]viceable to o!rs1 c>eful to obta9 _! e/eem by good conduct1 etc4 ,morality is int]e/ rightly und]/ood1 & int]e/ rightly und]/ood is absolutely bl5d$ ) ! morality ( duty4 ,! crim9al is n a crim9al b an idiot2 ! hone/ man is n an hone/ man b an intellig5t "o4 ,obs]ve t a man is h>dly conv9c$ :5 prea*$ to 9 ! "n ( duty1 b always conv9c$ :5 address$ 9 ! "n ( 8 own int]e/4 ,all ?is is fairly s5sible2 b f ! "t t fre$om ceases !re c be no morality1 n ev5 utilit>ian2 = x is useless ev5 f ! po9t ( view ( 8 own int]e/s1 to prea* to a man :o is only a ma*9e mov$ by ! /ronge/ =ce2 &1 if he be only t1 to lay d[n a moral code = him ei!r f ! po9t ( view ( 8 own int]e/s1 or f t ( morality1 or f t ( ! love ( ,god are ?+s :i* are ! same & :i* are z absurd ! "o z ! o!r4 ,all philosophy1 :i* does n believe 9 human lib]ty1 yet :i* enunciates a sy/em ( morality1 is 9 p]petual contradiction4 ,,"p ,,iii ,,mod]n ,,times ,,*apt] ,i ,,! ,,sev5te5? ,,c5tury ,desc>tes4 ,c>tesianism4 ,,desc>tes4--,! sev5te5? c5tury1 :i* 0 ! greate/ philosophic c5tury ( mod]n times & p]haps ( any "t1 began ) ,r5e ,desc>tes4 ,desc>tes1 born at ,la ,haye 9 ,t\ra9e 9 #aeif1 ( noble family 78 real "n 0 des ,qu>tes71 0 educat$ by ! ,jesuits ( ! college ( ,la ,fle*e1 foll[$ ! milit>y pr(ession = sev]al ye>s1 !n gave himself up to ma!matics & became "o ( ! greate/ ma!maticians ( ,europe1 travel$ all ov] ,europe = 8 own amusem5t & in/ruction1 wrote sci5tific & philosophical works1 ( :i* ! mo/ fam\s are ! ,disc\rse on ,,me?od1 ! ,m$itations1 & ! ,rules = ! ,control ( ! ,m9d1 resid$ sometimes 9 ,p>is1 sometimes 9 ,holl&1 & f9ally1 at fifty-f\r ye>s ( age1 unhappily attract$ by ! flatt]+ invitations ( ,que5 ,*ri/9a ( ,sw$51 proce$$ to ,/ockholm1 :]e he succumb$ 9 f\r mon?s to ! sev]ity ( ! climate4 ,he di$ 9 ,febru>y1 #afej4 ,,! ,,sy/em ,,( ,,desc>tes4--,9 ! works ( ,desc>tes !re are a g5]al sy/em ( philosophy1 a psy*ology1 & a me?od4 ,?is ord] is "h adopt$ because ( ! ?ree1 9 ,desc>tes2 x is ! ?ird :i* is ! mo/ important1 & :i* has left ! mo/ pr(\nd traces4 ,! f\ndation ( ! sy/em ( ,desc>tes is belief 9 ,god & 9 ! goodness ( ,god4 ,i say ! f\ndation & n ! />t+-po9t4 ,! />t+-po9t is ano!r matt]2 b x w be cle>ly se5 t ! f\ndation is :at has j be5 /at$4 ,! />t+-po9t is ?is3 ,i d n believe1 provisionally1 9 any?+1 n wi%+ to take into acc\nt :at ,i h be5 taught4 ,i d\bt ev]y?+4 ,is !re any?+ ,i _c d\bt8 ,x seems to me !re is3 ,i _c d\bt t ,i d\bt4 ,n[ if ,i d\bt1 ,i ?9k2 if ,i ?9k1 ,i am4 ,!re is "o c]ta9ty1 ,i am4 ,& hav+ arriv$ !re1 ,desc>tes is at a dead /op1 = f ! c]titude ( "o's own exi/5ce no?+ c be d$uc$ save ! c]titude ( "o's exi/5ce4 ,= in/ance1 %all ,i believe 9 ! exi/5ce ( ev]y?+ t is n myself8 ,!re is no reason :y ,i %\ld believe 9 x4 ,! _w may be a dream4 ,b if ,i believe 9 ,god & 9 a ,god ( p]fect goodness1 ,i c !n believe 9 some?+ outside ( myself1 = ,god n be+ able to deceive ,himself or me1 if ,he p]mits me to see ! ext]nal _w1 x is because ?is ext]nal _w exi/s4 ,!re are already1 !re=e1 ?ree ?+s 9 :i* ,i believe3 my own exi/5ce1 t ( ,god1 & t ( ! univ]se4 ,:i* ( ^! beliefs is ! fundam5tal "o8 ,evid5tly1 ! "o n demon/rat$2 ! axiom is t ^u :i* "o re/s to demon/rate ev]y?+ except itself4 ,n[ ( ! ?ree ?+s 9 :i* ,desc>tes believ$1 8 own exi/5ce is demon/rat$ by ! impossibility ( ?9k+ or feel+1 )\t feel+ 8 own exi/5ce2 ! o!r is demon/rat$ by ! exi/5ce ( a good ,god2 ! exi/5ce ( a good ,god is demon/rat$ by no?+4 ,x is believ$4 ,h5ce belief 9 a good ,god is ,desc>tes' f\ndation4 ,?is has n be5 introduc$ 9 ord] t he may escape f ! ,i am at :i* he came to a /op2 t belief c]ta9ly exi/$ previ\sly1 & if he _h rec\rse to x1 x 0 because x exi/$ fir/4 ,)\t t1 he _h too mu* intellectual hone/y to inv5t x = a p>ticul> ne$4 ,he _h x1 & he f\nd x z x 7 9 res]ve :5 he ask$ himself if he c\ld g beyond ,i am4 ,"h 0 8 f\ndation2 all ! re/ w\ld complete ! pro(4 ,,! ,,exi/5ce ,,( ,,god4--,al?\gh ,desc>tes re/s on ,god z be+ 8 fir/ pr9ciple1 he does n fail to prove ,8 exi/5ce1 & t is begg+ ! "q1 some?+ prov$ by :at has to be prov$4 ,= if ,desc>tes believ$ only 9 some?+ outside himself because ( a good ,god1 t ,be+ outside himself1 ,god1 he c prove only because ( ! exi/5ce ( a good ,god1 :o _c deceive u1 & ?us is ,god prov$ by ! belief 9 ,him4 ,t is begg+ ! "q4 ,desc>tes does n fail to prove ! exi/5ce ( ,god by sup]abundance z x 72 & ?is1 too1 9 itself indicates cle>ly t fai? 9 ,god is ! v f\ndation ( ! philosophy ( ,desc>tes4 ,aft] hav+ tak5 x z ! basis ( reason+1 he takes x z ! goal ( reason+1 :i* indicates t ! idea ( ,god1 s to speak1 encircl$ 8 m9d & t he f\nd x at e ultimate po9t ( ?\ght4 ,he proves x1 !re=e1 fir/ by an argum5t analog\s to t ( ,/4 ,anselm1 :i* is ?is3 we1 imp]fect & f9ite1 h ! idea ( a p]fect & inf9ite ,be+2 we are n capable ( ?is idea4 ,!re=e x mu/ h come to u f a ,be+ really p]fect & inf9ite1 & h5ce ?is p]fect ,be+ exi/s4 ,ano!r pro(1 t ( ,god reg>d$ z cause4 ,fir/3 ,i exi/4 ,:o made me8 ,0 x myself8 ,no1 if x _h be5 myself ,i %\ld h end[$ myself ) all ! p]fections ( :i* ,i c conceive & 9 :i* ,i am s+ul>ly defici5t4 ,!re=e x mu/ be "s o!r be+ :o creat$ me4 ,x 0 my p>5ts4 ,no d\bt1 b :o creat$ my p>5ts & ! p>5ts ( my p>5ts8 ,"o _c g back indef9itely f cause to cause1 & !re mu/ h be5 a fir/ "o4 ,secondly3 ev5 my own actual exi/5ce1 my exi/5ce at ?is v mom5t1 is x ! result ( my exi/5ce ye/]day8 ,no?+ proves x1 & !re is no necessity because ,i exi/$ j n[ t ,i %\ld exi/ at pres5t4 ,!re mu/ !re=e be a cause at ea* mom5t & a cont9u\s cause4 ,t cont9u\s cause is ,god1 & ! :ole _w is a creation p]petually cont9u$1 & is only compreh5sible z cont9u\s creation & is only explicable by a ,creator4 ,,! ,,_w4--,?us sure ( himself1 ( ,god1 & ( ! _w1 ,desc>tes /udies ! _w & himself4 ,9 ! _w he sees s\ls & matt]2 matt] is sub/ance 9 ext5sions1 s\ls are sub/ance n 9 ext5sion1 spiritual sub/ance4 ,! ext5d$ sub/ance is end[$ ) impulse4 ,is ! impulse self-g5]at$1 are ! bodies self-impell$8 ,no1 !y are mov$4 ,:at is ! prim>y motive =ce8 ,x is ,god4 ,s\ls are sub/ances )\t ext5sion & motive =ces4 ,9 ?is respect !y are analog\s to ,god4 ,!y are unit$ to bodies & act on !m4 ,h[8 ,?is is an imp5etrable my/]y1 b !y are closely & sub/antially unit$ to ! bodies1 :i* is prov$ by physical pa9s depress+ ! s\l & moral suff]+s depress+ ! body2 & !y act on !m1 n by creat+ movem5ts1 = ! quantity ( movem5ts is always ! same1 b by direct+ ! movem5ts aft] ?is fa%ion or t4 ,s\ls be+ spiritual1 !re is no reason = _! disaggregation1 t is1 _! demise1 & 9 fact !y d n die4 ,x is = ?is reason t ,desc>tes lays su* /ress on animals n hav+ s\ls4 ,if !y _h s\ls1 ! s\ls w\ld be spiritual1 !y w\ld n be susceptible to disaggregation & w\ld be immortal4 ,save a!ism1 !re is no doctr9e m dang]\s & dete/able ?an t1 b animals are s\lless & purely me*anism2 ,desc>tes ex]ts himself to prove ?is 9 great detail1 & he ?us escapes av[+ ! immortality ( ! s\ls ( animals1 :i* is repugnant to him1 or by all[+ t !y p]i% ) ! bodies to be expos$ to ! objection3 ,w x n be ! same ) ! s\ls ( m58 ,,! ,,fre$om ,,( ,,! ,,s\l4--,! human s\l is end[$ ) fre$om to d good or evil4 ,:at pro( is !re ( ?is fre$om8 ,fir/1 ! inw>d feel+ t we h4 ,e evid5t idea is true4 ,n[1 n only h we ! idea ( ?is fre$om1 b x w\ld be impossible = u n to h x4 ,fre$om is kn[n )\t pro(s1 m]ely by ! exp]i5ce we h ( x4 ,x is by ! feel+ ( our fre$om1 ( our free-w t we und]/& t we exi/ z a be+1 z a ?+ :i* is n m]ely a ?+4 ,! true ego is ! w4 ,ev5 m ?an an intellig5t be+1 man is a free individual1 & only feels himself to be a man :5 feel+ himself free1 s t he might n believe himself to be intellig5t1 nor ?9k himself s5sible1 etc41 b n to ?9k himself free w\ld = him be moral suicide2 & 9 fact he actually nev] does any?+ :i* he does n believe himself to be free to d--t is1 :i* he does n believe t he might avoid do+1 if he s wi%$4 ,^? :o say1 ,x is simply ! feel+ t x is bett] = ourselves :i* t5ds to make u d ?is in/ead ( do+ t1 are deeply 9 error4 ,!y =get t we (t5 pref] ! wor/ = ourselves 9 ord] to prove to ourselves t we are free & !re=e h no o!r motive p[] ?an our own fre$om4 7,& ?is is exactly :at contemporane\s philosophy has ?us =mulat$3 ,w is nei!r det]m9ate nor indet]m9ate1 x is det]m9ative47 ,ev5 :5 a v obvi\s reason leads u to a ?+1 al?\gh morally speak+ x is difficult = u to d ! opposite1 nev]!less1 speak+ absolutely1 we c1 = we are always free to prev5t ourselves f pursu+ a good ?+ cle>ly kn[n 444 provid$ only t we ?9k x is b5eficial !reby to give evid5ce ( ! tru? ( our free-w4 ,x is ! pure & simple wi% to be free :i* creates an action2 x is ! all-p[]ful lib]ty4 ,z has be5 happily obs]v$1 9 relation to ! univ]se ! philosophy ( ,desc>tes is a me*anical philosophy2 9 relation to man ! philosophy ( ,desc>tes is a philosophy ( w4 ,z has also be5 rem>k$1 !re are v /rik+ analogies betwe5 ,corneille & ,desc>tes f ! po9t ( view ( ! apo!osis ( ! w1 & ! ,m$itations hav+ appe>$ aft] ! great works ( ,corneille1 x is n s mu* t ,corneille 0 a ,c>tesian1 z t ,desc>tes 0 a foll[] ( ,corneille4 ,,psy*ology ,,( ,,desc>tes4--,desc>tes has almo/ writt5 a psy*ology1 :at ) 8 ,treatise on ! ,passions & 8 lett]s &1 besides1 c]ta9 passages 9 8 ,m$itations4 ,! s\l ?9ks & has passions4 ,!re are ?ree k9ds ( ideas1 ! factiti\s1 ! adv5titi\s1 & ! innate2 ! factiti\s ideas are ^? :i* ! imag9ation =ms2 ! adv5titi\s ideas are ^? sugge/$ by ! ext]nal _w ?r\gh ! int]m$i>y ( ! s5ses2 ! innate ideas are ^? con/itut+ ! m9d itself1 ! conditions "u :i* x ?9ks & ap>t f :i* x _c ?9k3 we _c conceive an object n ext5d$1 nor an object ap>t f "t1 nor any?+ )\t a cause2 ! ideas ( "t1 space1 & cause are innate ideas2 we _c conceive ourselves z o!r ?an free2 ! idea ( lib]ty is an innate idea4 ,! s\l has passions2 x is !re9 t1 )\t dep5d5ce on ! body1 x has intimate relations ) & is modifi$ by x1 n radically1 b 9 its daily life4 ,!re are op]ations ( ! s\l :i* _c /rictly be t]m$ passions1 & yet :i* are direct$ or at lea/ influ5c$ by ! body4 ,memory is passive1 & consequ5tly memory is a species ( passion4 ,! lively s5sations :i* ! body transmits to ! bra9 leave impressions 7,malebran*e w\ld say traces71 & accord+ to ^! impressions ! s\l is mov$ a second or a ?ird "t1 & t is :at is call$ memory4 ,! impressions ( ! bra9 r5d] x suitable to /ir ! s\l 9 ! same way z x has be5 /irr$ be=e1 & also to make x recollect some?+1 j z ! folds 9 a piece ( pap] or l95 make x m suitable to be fold$ anew z x 0 be=e ?an if x _h nev] be5 ?us fold$4 ,simil>ly1 ! association ( ideas is passive1 & 9 consequ5ce is a k9d ( passion4 ,! association ( ideas is ! fact t ?\ght passes along ! same pa? x has already trav]s$1 & foll[s 9 its labyr9? ! ?read :i* int]l9ks its ?\ghts1 & ?is ?read is ! traces :i* ?\ghts h left 9 ! bra94 ,9 ab&on+ ourselves to ! association ( ideas1 we are passive & we yield ourselves freely to a passion4 ,t is s true t curr5t spee* itself recognizes ?is3 mus+ is a passion1 x is possible to h a passion = mus+1 & mus+ is no?+ else ?an ! association ( ideas 9 :i* ! w does n int]v5e4 ,,! ,,passions4--,com+ to ! passions /rictly speak+1 !re are "s :i* are ( ! s\l & only ( ! s\l2 ! passion = ,god is a passion ( ! s\l1 ! passion = lib]ty is a passion ( ! s\l2 b !re are _m m :i* are ! effects ( ! union ( ! s\l ) ! body4 ,^! passions are excit$ 9 ! s\l by a /ate ( ! body or a movem5t ( ! body or ( "s "p ( ! body2 !y are emotions ( ! s\l correspond+ to movem5ts ( ! ma*9e4 ,all passions h relation to ! desire = pleasure & ! fe> ( pa91 & accord+ z !y relate to ! =m] or ! latt] are !y expansive or oppressive4 ,!re are six pr9cipal passions1 ( :i* all ! re/ are only modifications3 admiration1 love1 desire1 joy1 hav+ relation to ! appetite ( happ9ess2 hatr$1 sadness1 hav+ relation to ! fe> ( pa94 ,all ! passions are good & may become bad 7,desc>tes 9 ?is deviates emphatically f ,/oicism = :i* ! passions are simply maladies ( ! s\l74 ,all passions are good 9 !mselves4 ,!y are de/9$ 7?is is a rem>kable !ory7 to cause ! duration ( ?\ghts :i* w\ld o!rwise pass & be rapidly effac$2 by reason ( ?is1 !y cause man to act2 if he 7 only direct$ by 8 ?\ghts1 unaccompani$ by 8 passions1 he w\ld nev] act1 & if x be recogniz$ t man is born = action1 x w at ! same "t be recogniz$ t x is necess>y he %\ld h passions4 ,b1 y w say1 !re c be good passions 7( a nature to give =ce to j ideas7 & evil passions4 ,no1 !y are all good1 b all also h _! bad side1 _! deviation1 r1 :i* enables !m to become bad4 ,!re=e1 9 ea* passion no matt] :at x be1 x is always possible to di/+ui% betwe5 ! passion itself1 :i* is always good1 & ! excess1 ! deviation1 ! degradation or corruption ( ?is passion :i* con/itutes1 if x be desir$ to call x s1 an evil passion1 & ?is is :at ,desc>tes demon/rates1 passion by passion1 9 ! fulle/ detail1 9 8 ,treatise on ! ,passions4 ,,! ,,"p ,,( ,,! ,,s\l4--,if x is ?us1 :at w be ! "p ( ! s\l 7! s\l is ! w78 ,x w be to ab&on itself to good passions1 or m accurately to ! good t is 9 all passions1 & to r$uce ! passions to be no?+ m ?an !mselves4 ,9 c\rage1 = example1 !re is c\rage & tem]ity4 ,! action ( ! w1 enlight5$ by ! judgm5t1 w consi/ 9 r$uc+ c\rage to be no?+ b c\rage4 ,9 fe>1 !re is c[>dice & !re is ! feel+ ( self-pres]vation :i*1 accord+ to ,desc>tes1 is ! f\ndation ( fe> & :i* is a v good passion4 ,! action ( ! s\l is to r$uce fe> to simple prud5ce4 ,b h[ w ! w effect ^! metamorphoses or at lea/ ^! dep>tures1 ^! sep>ations1 ^! r$uctions to ! due proportion8 ,directly x c effect no?+ ^u ! passions2 x _c remove !m2 x _c ev5 remove ! bas] portions ( !m2 b x c ex]cise influ5ce ov] !m by ! int]m$i>y ( reason+2 x c lead !m to ! att5tive consid]ation ( ! ?\ght t !y c>ry ) !m1 & by ?is consid]ation modify !m4 ,= in/ance1 if x is a "q ( fe>1 ! s\l =ces fe> to consid] t ! p]il is mu* less ?an 0 imag9$1 & ?us little by little br+s x back to simple prud5ce4 ,note t ?is me?od1 al?\gh indirect1 is v pot5t2 = x ends by really trans=m+ ! passions into _! opposites4 ,p]suade fe> t !re is less p]il 9 m>*+ =w>d ?an 9 flight & t ! mo/ salut>y flight is ! flight =w>d & y h *ang$ fe> to c\rage4--,b su* an influ5ce ( ! w ov] ! passions is extraord9>ily unlikely3 x w nev] take place4--,yes1 by habit6 ,habit too is a passion1 or1 if y w1 a passive /ate1 l t ( memory or ! association ( ideas1 & !re are m5 possess$ only ( t passion4 ,b ! w1 by ! means :i* h be5 describ$1 by impos+ an act1 a fir/ act1 creates a comm5cem5t ( habit1 by impos+ a second confirms t habit1 by impos+ a ?ird /r5g!ns x1 & s on4 ,9 pla9 words1 ! w1 by reason+ ) ! passions & reason+ ) !m incessantly1 br+s !m back to :at is good 9 !m & ends by br++ !m back !re p]man5tly1 s t x arrives at hav+ only ! passions x desires1 or1 if y pref] x1 = x is ! same ?+1 at hav+ only ! passion = good4 ,morality consi/s 9 lov+ noble passions1 z 0 lat] obs]v$ by ,vauv5>gues1 & t means to love all ! passions1 ea* = :at is good 9 x1 t is to r$uce ea* passion to :at real goodness is inh]5t 9 x1 & t is to ga!r all ! passions into "o1 :i* is ! passion ( duty4 ,,! ,,me?od ,,( ,,desc>tes4--,z has be5 obs]v$1 n only _h ,desc>tes influ5ce ?r\gh all t he wrote1 b x 0 by 8 me?od t he has ex]t$ ! greate/ & mo/ durable sway1 & t is :y we conclude ) ! exam9ation ( 8 me?od4 ,x is all conta9$ 9 ?is3 to accept no?+ z true except :at is evid5t2 to accept z true all t is evid5t4 ,desc>tes !re=e made evid5ce ! t\*/one ( c]ta9ty4 ,b m>k well ! pr(\nd mean+ ( ?is me?od3 :at is x t gives me ! assurance ( ! evid5ce ( su* or su* an idea8 ,h[ %all ,i "k t su* an idea is really evid5t to me8 ,because ,i see x 9 p]fect cle>ness8 ,no1 t does n suffice3 ! evid5ce may be deceptive2 !re c be false evid5ce2 all ! wrong ideas ( ! philosoph]s ( antiquity1 save :5 !y 7 sophi/s1 _h = !m ! "* ( be+ evid5t4 ,:y8 ,:y %\ld error be pres5t$ to ! m9d z an evid5t tru?8 ,because 9 tru?1 9 pr(\nd tru?fulness1 x mu/ be admitt$ t judgm5t does n dep5d ^u ! intellig5ce4 ,& on :at does x dep5d8 ,on w1 on free-w4 ,?is is h[4 ,no d\bt1 error dep5ds on our judgm5t1 b our judgm5t dep5ds on our w 9 ! s5se t x dep5ds on u :e!r we adh]e to our judgm5t )\t x be+ suffici5tly precise or d n adh]e to x because x is n suffici5tly precise3 ,if ,i ab/a9 f giv+ my judgm5t on a subject :5 ,i d n conceive x ) suffici5t cle>ness & di/9ction1 x is evid5t t ,i %all n be deceiv$4 ,evid5ce is !re=e n only a matt] ( judgm5t1 ( und]/&+1 ( intellig5ce1 x is a matt] ( en]getic w & ( fre$om c\rage\sly acquir$4 ,we are confront$ ) evid5ce :51 ) a cle> bra91 we are capable1 9 ord] to accept or refuse :at x lays be=e u1 ( act+ aft] su* a fa%ion1 ( hav+ put ourselves 9 su* a /ate ( ! s\l t we feel t no ext]nal =ce c con/ra9 u to ?9k 9 su* or su* a way4 ,^! ext]nal =ces are au?ority1 prejudices1 p]sonal int]e/1 or t ( p>ty4 ,! faculty ( p]ceiv+ evid5ce is !re=e ! triumph bo? ( s\nd judgm5t 9 itself & ( a fre$om ( m9d :i*1 suppos+ probity1 scrupul\sness1 & c\rage1 & p]haps ! mo/ difficult ( all c\rage1 supposes a pr(\nd & vigor\s morality4 ,evid5ce is giv5 only to m5 :o are fir/ highly intellig5t & next1 or r be=e all else1 are pr(\ndly hone/4 ,evid5ce is n a consequ5ce ( morality2 b morality is ! condition ( evid5ce4 ,!re is ! f\ndation ( ! me?od ( ,desc>tes2 add to x 8 advice on ! art ( reason+1 :i* ev5 9 8 "t 0 n at all novel1 b :i* ) him is v precise2 n to g5]alize too ha/ily1 n to be put (f ) words1 b to h a cle> def9ition ( e ^w1 etc41 & ?us a suffici5t idea ( x w be obta9$4 ,n[ fir/1 to ?is me?od ,desc>tes 0 unfai?ful1 z always happ5s1 & (t5 accept$ ! sugge/ions ( 8 magnific5t imag9ation z ! evid5ces ( 8 reason2 secondly1 ! t\*/one ( evid5ce is c]ta9ly ! be/1 b is f> f be+ infallible 7& ,vico has ridicul$ x ) z mu* s5se z wit7 & ! free/ m9d c /ill f9d false ?+s evid5t2 yet1 ?irdly1 fav\r+ fre$om ( rese>* self-controll$1 individual & scornful ( all au?ority1 ! me?od ( ,desc>tes has become a bann]1 a motto1 & a flag = all mod]n philosophy4 ,,desc>tes ,,! ,,fa!r ,,( ,,mod]n ,,philosophy4--,& f all t ! result has be5 t all mod]n philosophy1 ) few exceptions1 has recognis$ ,desc>tes z its p>5t--t individual evid5ce1 if x may be ?us express$1 fav\r+ tem]ity & ea* believ+ himself clos] to ! tru? ! m he diff]$ f o!rs1 & consequ5tly 0 unable to suspect himself ( be+ subject to influ5ces1 individual evid5ce has provid$ a fre% opportunity = self-deception2 f9ally1 t ,desc>tes1 by a n uncommon metamorphosis1 by means ( 8 sy/em :i* he did n foll[1 has become ! head or ! v5]at$ ance/or ( doctr9es :i* he w\ld h dete/$ & :i* he already did dete/ m ?an all o!rs4 ,because he said t evid5ce alone & ! free inve/igation ( evid5ce l$ to tru?1 he has become ! ance/or ( ! sceptics :o are p]suad$ t surr5d] mu/ be made only to evid5ce & t evid5ce _c be f\nd2 & he has become ! ance/or ( ! positivi/s :o believe t evid5ce c]ta9ly exi/s some:]e1 b n 9 metaphysics or 9 !odicy1 or 9 k ( ! s\l1 ( immortality1 & ( ,god1 bran*es ( k :i* surpass our means ( kn[+1 :i* are 9 fact outside k4 ,s t ?is man :o conceiv$ m ?an any man1 ?is man :o s (t5 con/ruct$ )\t a sure f\ndation1 & ?is man1 yet aga91 z has be5 aptly said1 :o always ?\ght by innate ideas1 by 8 =mula has become ! ma/] & above all ! gu>antor ( ^? :o are ! mo/ res]v$ & mo/ di/ru/ful z to philosophic con/ruction1 innate ideas1 & imag9ation4 ,?is does n 9 ! lea/ dim9i% 8 brilliant m]it2 x is only "o ( ^? *anges ( direction 9 :i* ! hi/ory ( ideas ab\nds4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,c>tesians ,all ! ,sev5te5? ,c5tury 0 "u ! ,influ5ce ( ,desc>tes4 ,port-,royal1 ,bossuet1 ,f5elon1 ,malebran*e1 ,sp9oza1 ,leibnitz4 ,,c>tesian ,,influ5ce4--,ne>ly all ! sev5te5? c5tury 0 ,c>tesian1 & 9 ! g5]al s5se ( ! ^w1 n only z support]s ( ! me?od ( evid5ce1 b z adh]5ts ( ! g5]al philosophy ( ,desc>tes4 ,gass5di 7a ,prov5cal1 & n an ,italian71 pr(essor ( philosophy at ,aix1 subsequ5tly 9 ,p>is1 0 n precisely a fai?ful disciple ( ,desc>tes1 & he oppos$ him sev]al times2 he _h lean+s t[>ds ,epicurus & ! doctr9e ( atoms2 he drew t[>ds ,hobbes1 b he 0 also a f]v5t admir] ( ,bacon1 & s approa*$ ,desc>tes1 :o ?\ght v highly ( him1 ?\gh impati5tly gall$ by 8 criticisms4 ,aft] ! example ( ,epicurus he 0 ! mo/ sob] & au/]e ( m51 & ( ! two x 0 ,desc>tes r ?an he :o 0 ,epicurean 9 ! common use ( ! ^w4 ,accord+ to a tradition1 :i* to my m9d re/s on insuffici5t pro(1 he 0 an in/ructor ( ,moli]e4 ,all ! ?9k]s ( ! sev5te5? c5tury came m or less pr(\ndly "u ! ,c>tesian influ5ce3 ,pascal1 ,bossuet1 ,f5elon1 ,arnauld1 & all ,port-,royal4 ,?is influ5ce 0 to dim9i% only 9 ! eighte5? c5tury1 ?\gh kept up by ! imp5it5t ,font5elle1 b outweigh$ by t ( ,locke1 to reappe> v vigor\sly 9 ! n9ete5? c5tury 9 ,france 9 ! s*ool ( ,ma9e de ,biran & ( ,c\s94 ,,malebran*e4--,a sep>ate ni*e mu/ be made = ! ,c>tesians1 almo/ z great z ,desc>tes1 :o fill$ ! sev5te5? c5tury ) _! r5[n1--! ,fr5*man ,malebran*e1 ! ,dut*man ,sp9oza1 & ! ,g]man ,leibnitz4 ,pu%+ ! !ories ( ,desc>tes fur!r ?an ,desc>tes w\ld himself 9 all probability h desir$ to1 f :at ,desc>tes _h said t x 0 only ?r\gh ,god t we p]ceiv$ accurately1 ,malebran*e decl>$ t x 0 only 9 ,god t we p]ceiv$ accurately1 & fundam5tally ?is is ! same idea2 x c only be deem$ t ,malebran*e is ! m precise3 ,god alone is kn[n by ,himself is believ$ 9 )\t unc]ta9ty2 !re is only ,he t we c see 9 imm$iate & direct p]spective4 ,all ! re/ we see 9 ,him1 9 ,8 light1 9 ! light ,he creates 9 our m9ds4 ,:5 we see1 x is t we are 9 ,him4 ,evid5ce is div9e light4 ,he is ! l9k ( ideas4 7,& ?us ,malebran*e br\ght ,plato ne> to ,desc>tes & %[$ t1 )\t ! latt] be+ aw>e ( x1 !y bo? said ! same ?+47 ,god is always ! cause & z ,he is ! cause ( all real ?+s1 ,he is cause also ( all tru?s1 & z ,he is ev]y:]e 9 real objects1 ,he is also ev]y:]e 9 ! true ideas :i* we c h1 or r 9 :i* we c p>ticipate4 ,:5 we seek a tru? we pray )\t ?9k+ we d s2 att5tion is a pray]4 ,9 ! same way1 f ! say+ ( ,desc>tes t ! univ]se is a cont9u\s creation1 ,malebran*e d$uc$ or r conclud$ t our ?\ghts & actions are acts ( ,god4 ,!re c be no action ( ! body on ! s\l to produce ideas2 t w\ld be inconceivable2 b on ! occasion1 = in/ance1 ( our eyes re/+ on an object1 ,god gives u an idea ( t object1 :e!r 9 con=mity or n we _c tell2 b at any rate ,he gives u t idea ( ! object :i* ,he wi%es u to h4 ,!re is no action ( our s\l on our body2 t w\ld be inconceivable4 ,b ,god to our w adds a =ce hav+ a t5d5cy t[>ds goodness z a rule1 & to ea* ( our volitions adds a =ce t5d+ to its execution & capable ( execut+ x4 ,!n1 :5 our w is evil & we execute x1 does ,god s9 9 our "n8 ,c]ta9ly n2 because s9 is n an act2 x consi/s 9 do+ no?+2 x consi/s precisely 9 ! s\l n act+ on ! body2 !re=e x is n a =ce b a weakness4 ,s9 is t ,god has )drawn ,himself f u4 ,! s9n] is only a be+ :o is )\t /r5g? because he is lack+ 9 grace4 ,! pr9ciple ( morality is ! respect = ord] & ! love ( ord]4 ,t makes two degrees1 ! fir/ ( :i* is regul>ity & ! second virtue4 ,to con=m to ord] is highly rational b )\t m]it 7e4g41 to give money to ! poor f habit or possibly f vanity74 ,to love ord] & to desire t x %\ld be great]1 m complete1 & ne>] to ! w ( ,god1 is to adh]e to ,god1 to live 9 ,god1 j z to see rightly is to see 9 ,god4 ,all morality1 into ! details ( :i* we w n ent]1 evolves f ! love ( ord]4 ,! univ]se is a va/ me*anism1 z 0 /at$ by ,desc>tes1 set 9 motion & direct$ by ,god--t is to say1 by ! laws e/abli%$ by ,god2 = ,god acts only by g5]al dispositions 7:i* are laws7 & n by p>ticul> dispositions4 ,9 o!r words1 !re exi/s a w1 b !re are no volitions4 ,,miracles4--,b !n y w say !re are no miracles2 = miracle is precisely a p>ticul> w trav]s+ & int]rupt+ ! g5]al w4 ,to beg9 )1 !re are v few miracles1 :i* !re=e p]mits ord] to subsi/2 x w\ld be only if !re 7 incessant miracles t ord] w\ld be non-exi/5t4 ,next1 a miracle is a w>n+ ,god gives to m5 because ( _! weakness1 to rem9d !m t beh9d ! laws !re is a ,lawgiv]1 beh9d ! g5]al dispositions a ,be+ :o disposes4 ,because ( _! intellectual weakness1 if !y nev] saw any d]ogation f ! g5]al laws !y w\ld take !m to be fatalities4 ,a miracle is a grace int]v5+ 9 ?+s1 j z grace prop]ly s-call$ int]v5es 9 human actions4 ,& x is n contradictory to ! g5]al design ( ,god1 s9ce by br++ human m9ds back to ! tru? t !re is a ,be+ :o wills1 x accu/oms !m to consid] all g5]al laws z p]man5t acts1 b also z ! acts ( ! ,be+ :o wills4 ,! miracle has ! virtue ( mak+ ev]y?+ 9 ! _w miracul\s1 :i* is true4 ,h5ce ! miracle confirms ! idea ( ord]4 ,!re91 p]haps alone1 ! exception proves ! rule4 ,,sp9oza4--,sp9oza1 :o dur+ 8 life 0 a pure ,/oic & ! pure/ ( ,/oics1 poli%+ ! l5ses ( a/ronomical telescopes 9 ord] to ga9 8 liv+1 refus+ all p5sions & all ! pr(essorial positions (f]$ to him1 & liv+ well-nigh on no?+1 _h read ,desc>tes &1 to con=m to ! pr9ciple ( evid5ce1 _h begun by r5\nc+ 8 religion1 :i* 0 t ( ! ,jews4 ,8 g5]al outlook on ! _w 0 ?is3 ,!re is only "o ,god4 ,god is all4 ,only ,he has ,8 attributes--t is to say1 ,8 mann]s ( be+ & ,8 modes1 t is ,8 modifications1 z ! sun 7m]ely a comp>ison7 has z its mann]s ( be+1 its r\ndness1 col\r1 & heat1 z modifications its rays1 t]re/rial heat1 direct & diffus$ light1 etc4 ,n[ ,god has two attributes1 ?\ght & ext5sion1 z _h already be5 obs]v$ by ,desc>tes2 & = modifications ,he has exactly all we c see1 t\*1 or feel1 etc4 ,! human s\l is an attribute ( ,god1 z is ev]y?+ else2 x is an attribute ( ,god 9 ,8 p[]4 ,x is n free1 = all t comes f ,god1 all t is ( ,god1 is a regul> & necess>y developm5t ( ,god ,himself4 ,!re is no?+ cont+5t no?+ :i* may ei!r happ5 or n happ54 ,all ?+s are det]m9$1 by ! necessity ( ! div9e nature1 to exi/ & to act 9 a giv5 mann]4 ,!re is !re=e no free-w 9 ! s\l1 ! s\l is det]m9$ to w ?is or t by a cause :i* is itself det]m9$ by ano!r & t by ano!r1 & s on to inf9ity4 ,nev]!less we believe ourselves to be free & accord+ to ! pr9ciple ( evid5ce we are2 = no?+ is m evid5t to u ?an our lib]ty4 ,we are z intimately conv9c$ ( our lib]ty z ( our exi/5ce & we all affirm1 ,i am free1--) ! same emphasis t ,desc>tes affirms3 ,i am4 ,i am & ,i am free are ! two ?+s x is impossible = man to d\bt1 no matt] :at ef=t he makes4 ,no d\bt1 b x is an illusion4 ,x is ! illusion ( a be+ :o feels himself z cause1 b does n feel himself z effect4 ,try to imag9e a billi>d ball :i* feels x moves o!rs1 b :i* does n feel t x is mov$4 ,:at we call decision is an idea :i* decides u because x ex]cises m p[] ov] u ?an ! o!rs d2 :at we t]m delib]ation is a hesitancy betwe5 two or ?ree ideas :i* at ! mom5t h equal =ce2 :at we "n volition is an idea1 & :at we call w is our und]/&+ appli$ to facts4 ,we d n want to fight2 we conceive ! idea ( fight+ & ! idea c>ries u away2 we d n want to hang ourselves2 we h ! obsess+ idea ( hang+ ourselves & ?is ?\ght runs away ) u4 ,,8 ,,moral ,,sy/em4--,sp9oza wrote a sy/em ( morality4 ,is x n radically impossible to write a sy/em ( morality :5 ! au?or does n believe 9 free-w8 ,! admirable orig9ality ( ,sp9oza1 ev5 ?\gh 8 idea c be conte/$1 is precisely t morality dep5ds on belief 9 ! necessity ( all ?+s--t is1 ! m "o is conv9c$ ( ?is necessity s mu* ! m does "o atta9 high morality--t is1 ! m "o believes oneself free ! m "o is immoral4 ,! man :o believes himself free claims to run c\nt] to ! univ]sal ord]1 & morality precisely is adh]5ce to x2 ! man :o believes himself free seeks = an individual good j z if !re c\ld be an individual good1 j z if ! be/ = ea* "o 7 n to submit to ! necess>y laws ( ev]y?+1 laws :i* con/itute :at is good2 ! man :o ?9ks himself free sets himself aga9/ ,god1 believes himself ,god s9ce he believes himself to be creator ( :at he does1 & s9ce he believes himself capable ( d]ang+ some?+ 9 ! me*anism & ( introduc+ a c]ta9 am\nt ( movem5t4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 he does no?+ ( ! k9d2 b he believes t he does x1 & ?is m]e ?\ght1 false & l[ z x is1 keeps him 9 ! mo/ mis]able condition ( life2 to sum up1 a man :o believes himself free may n p]haps be an a!i/1 b he is ungodly4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! man :o does n believe himself free believes he is 9 ! h&s ( ,god1 & t is ! beg9n+ ( wisdom & ! beg9n+ ( virtue4 ,we are 9 ! h&s ( ,god z ! clay is 9 ^? ( ! pott]2 ! mad vase w\ld be ! "o :i* reproa*$ ! pott] = hav+ made x small in/ead ( big1 common in/ead ( decorative4 ,x is ! beg9n+ ( wisdom to believe oneself 9 ! h&s ( ,god2 to see ,him1 to see ,him ! lea/ indi/9ctly t we c1 !re9 lies ! highe/ wisdom2 we mu/ see ,8 designs1 or at lea/ ,8 great design & associate ourselves ) x1 ?us becom+ n only "p ( ,him1 :i* we always are1 b a consci5t "p ( ,him4 ,?is is ! love ( ,god1 & ! love ( ,god is virtue itself4 ,we ought to love ,god )\t consid]ation ( ! good ,he c d u & ( ! p5alties ,he c inflict ^u u2 = to love ,god f love ( a b5efic5t ,god or f fe> ( a punitive ,god is n to love ,god b to love oneself4 ,,! ,,passions4--,we h our passions z enemies & z ob/acles to our elevation to ?is semi-p]fection4 ,x is !y :i* cause u to d immoral acts4 ,immoral1 has t a mean+ f ! mom5t t we d no?+ :i* we are n oblig$ to d8 ,yes1 j z :5 l$ by our deceitful m9d we h arriv$ necess>ily at a false idea1 ! fact ( ?is ?\ght be+ necess>y does n prev5t x f be+ false2 we may h be5 l$ by necessity to commit a villa9\s action1 b t does n prev5t its be+ immoral4 ,! passions are our imp]fections1 omissions1 gaps 9 a s\l :i* is n full ( ! idea ( ,god & ( univ]sal ord] & ! love ( ,god & ( univ]sal ord]1 & :i*1 9 consequ5ce1 lives individually--t is1 sep>at$ f ! univ]se4 ,! passions are inf9ite 9 numb] & ,sp9oza1 9 a bulky volume1 furni%$ a m9ute & s+ul>ly pr(\nd description ( ! pr9cipal ones alone1 into ! details ( :i* we regret t we _c ent]4 ,! ,e?ics ( ,sp9oza is an incomp>able ma/]piece4 ,! /udy ( ! passions is v salut>y1 because 9 /udy+ !m "o gets s deta*$ f !m t "o c p]ceive _! empt9ess1 _! meanness1 & _! pu]ile1 nay1 ev5 be/ial "*4 ,x might ev5 be add$ t ! m]e ?\ght ( /udy+ !m is already an act ( deta*m5t 9 ref]5ce to !m4 ,?\ w\ld/ n seek ,me1 had/ ?\ n already f\nd ,me1 said ,god to ,pascal4 ,?\ w\ld/ n make inve/igations ab\t u1 had/ ?\ n already quitt$ u1 ! passions might say to ! philosoph]4 ,,sanctions ,,( ,,morality4--,:at are ! sanctions ( morality8 ,!y are necess>y sanctions2 j z ev]y?+ is necess>y & may ev5 be said to be me*anical4 ,!re is nei!r m]it nor dem]it & ! crim9al is n culpable2 only he is outside ord]1 & ev]y?+ mu/ be 9 ord]4 ,he :o is madd5$ by ! bite ( a mad dog is c]ta9ly innoc5t2 yet anyone has ! "r to suffocate him4 ,9 ! same way1 ! man :o _c gov]n 8 passions by fe> ( ! law is a v excusable invalid2 yet he _c enjoy peace ( m9d1 or ! k ( ,god1 or ev5 ! love ( ,god1 & x is necess>y t he p]i%4 ,?r\gh dea? he has re-ent]$ )9 ord]4 ,b does ! sanction ( beyond-!-grave exi/1 & is ! s\l immortal1 & are we to be rew>d$ !re9 9 ano!r life8 ,! conclusion ( ,sp9oza on ?is matt] is hesitat+1 b at ! risk ( misrepres5t+ x1 :i* ,i fe> to d1 x seems to me t x c be ?us summ$ up--,! s\l makes itself immortal1 9 proportion z by ! k & love ( ,god x p>ticipates m 9 ,god4 ,9 proportion x makes itself div9e2 & approa*+ p]fection1 by ! same progress x also approa*es immortality4 ,x is conceivable t by error & s9 x kills itself1 & by virtue r5d]s itself imp]i%able4 ,?is immortality is n or does n seem to be p]sonal1 x is lit]ally a def9ite re-entry into ! bosom ( ,god2 ,sp9ozian immortality w\ld !re=e be a prolongation ( ! same ef=t :i* we make 9 ?is life to adh]e to univ]sal ord]2 ! recomp5se = hav+ adh]$ to x "h bel[ is to be absorb$ 9 x !re1 & 9 t lies true beatitude4 ,"h bel[ we ought to see ev]y?+ f ! po9t ( view ( et]nity 7sub specie aet]nitatis71 & ?is is a way ( be+ et]nal2 else:]e we %all be 9 et]nity itself4 ,,leibnitz4--,leibnitz possess$ a univ]sal m9d1 be+ hi/orian1 naturali/1 politician1 diplomati/1 s*ol>1 !ologian1 ma!matician2 "h we w reg>d him only z philosoph]4 ,= ,leibnitz ! basis1 ! sub/ance ( all be+s is n ei!r ?\ght or ext5sion z ) ,desc>tes1 b is =ce1 productive ( action4 ,:at does n act does n exi/4 ,ev]y?+ t exi/s is a =ce1 ei!r action or t5d5cy to action4 ,& =ce1 all =ce has two *>act]i/ics3 x desires to d1 x wi%es to ?9k4 ,! _w is ! graduat$ comp\nd ( all ^! =ces4 ,above all !re is ! supreme =ce1 ,god1 :o is inf9ite =ce1 inf9ite ?\ght2 by successive desc5ts ^? base & obscure =ces are rea*$ :i* seem to h nei!r p[] nor ?\ght1 & yet h a m9imum ( p[] & ev5 ( ?\ght1 s to speak1 lat5t4 ,god ?9ks & acts inf9itely2 man ?9ks & acts p[]fully1 ?anks to reason1 :i* di/+ui%es him f ! re/ ( creation2 ! animal acts & ?9ks dimly1 b x does act & ?9k1 = x has a s\l compos$ ( memory & ( ! results & consequ5ces ( memory1 & by p>5!sis ?ree-f\r?s ( our own actions are gov]n$ by memory1 & mo/ frequ5tly we act l animals2 plants act1 & if !y d n ?9k1 at lea/ feel 7:i* is /ill ?\ght71 ?\gh m dimly ?an animals2 & f9ally 9 ! m9]al k+dom ! p[] ( action & ?\ght slumb]1 b are n non-exi/5t s9ce !y c be trans=m$ into plants1 animals1 & m51 into liv+ matt] :i* feels & ?9ks4 ,!re=e1 z 0 lat] on to be ma9ta9$ by ,s*op5hau]1 ev]y?+ is full ( s\ls1 & ( s\ls :i* are =ces z well z intellig5ces4 ,! human s\l is a =ce too1 l ! body4 ,betwe5 ^! two =ces1 :i* seem to act on "o ano!r & :i* c]ta9ly act 9 conc]t 9 su* fa%ion t ! movem5t desir$ by ! s\l is execut$ by ! body or t ! s\l obvi\sly ass5ts to a movem5t desir$ by ! body1 :at c be ! aff9ity & ! relation1 9 :at consi/s _! concurr5ce & concord8 ,leibnitz 7& !re 0 already some?+ ( ! same nature sugge/$ by ,desc>tes7 believes t all ! =ces ( ! _w act1 ea* spontane\sly2 b t among all ! actions !y p]=m !re exi/s an agreem5t impos$ by ,god1 a concord e/abli%+ univ]sal ord]1 a pree/abli%$ h>mony caus+ !m all to co-op]ate 9 ! same design4 ,well1 !n1 betwe5 ! s\l1 ?is =ce1 & ! body1 ?is =ce also1 ?is h>mony reigns z betwe5 any =ce :atev] 9 nature & "o & all ( ! o!rs2 & t is ! explanation ( ! union & concord betwe5 ! s\l & ! body4 ,imag9e two well-con/ruct$ clocks w\nd up by ! same mak]2 !y indicate ! same h\r1 & x might appe> t ?is "o directs ! o!r1 or t ! o!r directs ! fir/4 ,all ! =ces ( ! _w are clocks :i* agree ) ea* o!r1 because !y h be5 regulat$ 9 advance by ! div9e clockmak]1 & !y all indicate ! et]nal h\r4 ,,! ,,radical ,,optimism ,,( ,,leibnitz4--,f all ^! g5]al views on matt]1 on m9d & on ! m9d1 ,leibnitz arriv$ at a radical optimism :i* is ! ?+ = :i* he has s9ce be5 mo/ ridicul$1 & by :i*1 at any rate1 he has rema9$ fam\s4 ,he believes t all is good1 despite ! evil ( :i* no "o c dispute ! exi/5ce2 & he believes t all is ! be/ possible 9 ! be/ ( possible worlds4 ,9 fact1 ,god is supreme wisdom & supreme goodness2 t 0 q evid5t to ,desc>tes1 :o 9 ! matt] ( evid5ce 0 n easily satisfi$4 ,?is p]fect wisdom & p]fect goodness c\ld *oose only :at is be/4--,b yet evil exi/s6 ,dim9i% x z mu* z y *oose1 x /ill exi/s4--,x exi/s by a necessity inh]5t 9 :at is creat$4 ,ev]y?+ creat$ is imp]fect4 ,god alone is p]fect2 :at is imp]fect is by its def9ition evil m+l$ ) good4 ,evil is only ! b\nd>y ( good1 :]e ,god 0 compell$ to /op 9 creat+ be+s & ?+s o!r ?an ,himself1 & if ,he _h creat$ only accord+ to absolute goodness1 ,he c\ld h creat$ only ,himself4 ,& t is ! precise mean+ ( ?is phrase ! be/ ( possible worlds2 ! _w is p]fect s f> z t :i* is creat$1 & !re=e imp]fect1 c be p]fect2 s f> z :at is n ,god c be div9e2 ! _w is ,god ,himself z f> z ,he c rema9 ,himself :il/ be+ any?+ else ?an ,himself4 ,,! ,,?ree ,,evils4--,let u di/+ui% 9 ord] to compreh5d bett]4 ,!re are ?ree evils3 ! metaphysical1 ! physical1 & ! moral4 ,metaphysical evil is ?is v fact ( n be+ p]fection2 x is natural en\gh t :at emanates only f p]fection %\ld n be p]fection4 ,physical evil is suff]+2 ,god _c w suff]+1 desire x1 or *]i% x2 b ,he c p]mit x z a means ( good1 z a condition ( good2 = !re w\ld be no moral good if !re 7 n occasion = /ruggle1 & !re w\ld be no occasion = /ruggl+ if physical evil did n exi/2 imag9e a p>adise2 all ! inhabitants m]ely exi/ & nev] h cause to %[ ! slighte/ endurance1 ! lea/ c\rage1 ! smalle/ virtue4 ,& f9ally1 z to moral evil1 :i* is s91 ,god c ev5 less desire t x %\ld exi/1 b ,he c admit its exi/5ce1 all[ x to be1 to af=d m5 occasion = m]it or dem]it4 ,no?+ is m easy ?an to criticize ,god :il/ consid]+ only a portion ( ,8 "w & n consid]+ x z a :ole4 ,he mu/ h creat$ x to be a :ole & x is z a :ole t x mu/ be judg$4 ,& precisely because ! :ole _c be compreh5d$ by anyone1 hold ?y peace1 fooli% reason1 z ,pascal said1 & judge n or judge a priori1 s9ce "h x is n possible to judge by exp]i5ce2 & decl>e t ! ,p]fect c h will$ only ! mo/ p]fect t is possible4 ,,! ,,possible ,,& ,,! ,,impossible4--,!re /ill rema9s ! fundam5tal objection3 to r$uce ,god to ! conditions ( ! possible is to limit ,him1 & x is useless to say t ,god is ju/ifi$ if ,he has done all ! good possible4 ,he is n2 ! words possible & impossible hav+ no mean+ to ,him :o is omnipot5t1 & by def9ition inf9ite p[] c\ld effect ! impossible4 ,yes1 ,leibnitz replies1 !re is a metaphysical impossibility1 !re is an impossibility 9 ! inf9ite2 ?is impossibility is absurdity1 is contradiction4 ,c\ld ,god make ! :ole small] ?an ! "p or any l9e %ort] ?an a /raight "o8 ,reason replies 9 ! negative4 ,is ,god !re=e limit$8 ,he is limit$ by ! absurd & t means ,he is unlimit$2 = ! absurd is a fall+ away4 ,x is !re=e cr$ible t ! mixture ( evil & good is a metaphysical necessity to :i* ,i w n say ,god submits1 b 9 :i* ,he acts naturally1 & t ! abs5ce ( evil is a metaphysical contradiction1 an absurdity 9 itself1 :i* ,god _c commit precisely because ,he is p]fect2 & no d\bt1 in/ead ( draw+ ?is conclusion1 we %\ld actually see x1 7 ! totality ( ?+s1 ( _! relations1 ( _! concordance1 & ( _! h>mony kn[n to u4 ,! optimism ( ,leibnitz 0 ridicul$ specially 9 ! ,c&ide ( ,voltaire1 +5i\sly def5d$ by ,r\sseau1 magnific5tly def5d$ by ,victor ,hugo 9 ! foll[+ v]ses1 well wor?y ( ,leibnitz3 ,oui peut-etre au dela de la sph]e des nues1 ,au se9 de cet azur immobile et dormant1 ,peut-etre faites-v\s des *oses inconnues ,ou la d\leur de l'homme entre comme elem5t4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,! ,,engli% ,,philosoph]s ,,( ,,! ,,sev5te5? ,,c5tury ,locke3 ,8 ,ideas on ,human ,lib]ty1 ,morality1 ,g5]al ,politics1 & ,religi\s ,politics4 ,,locke4--,locke1 v le>n$ 9 v>i\s sci5ces--physics1 *emi/ry1 m$ic9e1 (t5 associat$ ) politics1 receiv+ enlight5m5t f life1 f frequ5t travels1 f fri5d%ips ) int]e/+ & illu/ri\s m51 always /udy+ & reflect+ until an advanc$ old age1 wrote only c>efully prem$itat$ works3 8 ,treatise ( ,gov]nm5t & ,essay on ! ,human ,und]/&+4 ,locke appe>s to h writt5 on ! und]/&+ only 9 ord] to refute ! innate ideas ( ,desc>tes4 ,= ,locke innate ideas h no exi/5ce4 ,! m9d be=e x comes into contact ) ! ext]nal _w is a blank %eet1 & !re is no?+ 9 ! m9d :i* has n fir/ come ?r\gh ! s5ses4 ,:at1 !n1 are ideas8 ,!y are s5sations regi/]$ by ! bra91 & !y are also s5sations elaborat$ & modifi$ by reflection4 ,^! ideas !n comm+le 9 su* a mann] z to =m an enorm\s mass ( comb9ations4 ,!y are comm+l$ ei!r 9 a natural or an artificial mann]4 ,9 a natural mann]1 t is 9 a way con=m+ to ! great prim>y ideas giv5 u by reflection1 ! idea ( cause1 ! idea ( end1 ! idea ( means to an end1 ! idea ( ord]1 etc41 & x is ! h>mony ( ^! ideas :i* is commonly t]m$ reason2 !y become associat$ by accid5t1 by ! effects ( emotion1 by ! effect ( cu/om1 etc41 & !n !y give bir? to prejudices1 errors1 & sup]/itions4 ,! passions ( ! s\l are aspects ( pleasure & pa94 ,! idea ( a possible pleasure gives bir? 9 u to a desire :i* is call$ ambition1 love1 covet\sness1 gluttony2 ! idea ( a possible pa9 gives bir? 9 u to fe> & horror1 & ?is fe> & horror is call$ hatr$1 jeal\sy1 rage1 av]sion1 disgu/1 scorn4 ,at bottom we h only two passions1 ! desire ( enjoym5t1 & ! fe> ( suff]+4 ,,! ,,fre$om ,,( ,,man4--,is man free8 ,appeal+ to exp]i5ce & mak+ use only ( x & n ( intimate feel+1 ,locke decl>es 9 ! negative4 ,a w always seems to him det]m9$ by ano!r w1 & ?is o!r by ano!r to inf9ity1 or by a motive1 a weight1 a motive p[] :i* causes a lean+ to "r or left4 ,w c]ta9ly exi/s--t is to say1 an exact & lively desire to p]=m an action1 or to cont9ue an action1 or to int]rupt an action1 b ?is w is n free1 = to repres5t x z free is to repres5t x z capable ( wi%+ :at x does n wi%4 ,! w is an anxiety to act 9 su* or su* a fa%ion1 & ?is anxiety1 on acc\nt ( its "* ( anxiety1 ( /rong emotion1 ( t5sion ( ! s\l1 appe>s to u free1 appe>s to u an int]nal =ce :i* is self-gov]n$ & indep5d5t2 we feel consci\sness ( w 9 ! ef=t4 ,?is t5sion mu/ n be d5i$1 b x mu/ be recognis$ z ! effect ( a pot5t desire :i* ! ob/acle excites2 ?is t5sion1 !re=e1 is an indication ( no?+ except ! pot5cy ( ! desire & ! exi/5ce ( an ob/acle4 ,n[ ?is desire1 s pot5t t x is irritat$ by ! ob/acle1 &1 s to speak1 unites u aga9/ x1 is a passion dom9at+ & fill+ our be+2 s t we are nev] m sway$ by passion ?an :5 we believe ourselves to be ex]cis+ our w1 & 9 consequ5ce ! m we desire ! less are we free4 ,x is n ess5tial =mally & absolutely to conf\nd w ) desire4 ,ov]p[]$ by heat1 we desire to dr9k cold wat]1 & because we "k t t w\ld d u h>m we h ! w n to dr9k2 b al?\gh ?is is an important di/9ction x is n a fundam5tal "o2 :at incites u to dr9k is a passion1 :at prev5ts u is ano!r passion1 "o m g5]al & /rong]1 ! desire n to die1 & because ?is passion by meet+ ) & fight+ ano!r produces 9 all our be+ a p[]ful t5sion1 x is none ! less a passion1 ev5 if we ought n to say t x is a /ill m impassion$ passion4 ,,locke',s ,,!ory ,,( ,,politics4--,9 politics ,locke 0 ! adv]s>y ( ,hobbes1 ^: !ories ( absolutism h already be5 notic$4 ,he did n believe t ! natural /ate 0 ! w> ( all aga9/ all4 ,he believ$ m5 =m$ societies n to escape cannibalism1 b m easily to gu>antee & protect _! natural rights3 own]%ip1 p]sonal lib]ty1 legitimate def5ce4 ,society exi/s only to protect ^! rights1 & ! reason ( its exi/5ce lies 9 ?is duty to def5d !m4 ,! sov]eign !re=e is n ! savi\r ( ! nation1 he is its law-mak] & magi/rate4 ,if he violates ! rights ( man1 he acts s directly contr>y to 8 mission & 8 m&ate t insurrection aga9/ him is legitimate4 ,! wise ,locke1 z ,voltaire always call$ him1 0 ! inv5tor ( ! ,rights ( ,man4 ,9 religi\s politics he 0 equally lib]al & advocat$ ! sep>ation ( ,*ur* & ,/ate2 ! ,/ate1 accord+ to him1 %\ld n h any religion ( its own1 its prov9ce be+ only to protect equally ! lib]ty ( all d5om9ations4 ,locke 0 discuss$ m9utely by ,leibnitz1 :o1 )\t accept+ ! innate ideas ( ,desc>tes1 did n accept ! ideas ?r\gh s5sation ( ,locke1 & said3 ,!re is no?+ 9 ! intellig5ce :i* has n fir/ be5 9 ! s5ses1 grant$ 444 except ! intellig5ce itself4 ,! intellig5ce has n innate ideas born ready made2 b x possesses =ms ( its own 9 :i* ! ideas arrange !mselves & take %ape1 & ?is is ! due prov9ce ( ! intellig5ce4 ,& x 0 ^! =ms :i* lat] on ,kant 0 to call ! categories ( ! intellect1 & at bottom ,desc>tes meant no?+ else by 8 innate ideas4 ,locke ex]t$ a prodigi\s & ev5 imp]i\s influ5ce ov] ! ,fr5* philosoph]s ( ! eighte5? c5tury4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,engli% ,,philosoph]s ,,( ,,! ,,eighte5? ,,c5tury ,b]keley3 ,highly ,ideali/ ,philosophy :i* ,reg>d$ ,matt] z ,non-exi/5t4 ,david ,hume3 ,sceptical ,philosophy4 ,! ,scotti% ,s*ool3 ,common ,s5se ,philosophy4 ,,b]keley4--,to ! s5suali/ ,locke succe$$ ,b]keley1 ! unre/ra9$ ideali/1 l him an ,engli%man4 ,he began to write :5 v "y1 cont9u$ to write until he 0 sixty1 & di$ at sixty-eight4 ,he believ$ nei!r 9 matt] nor 9 ! ext]nal _w4 ,!re 0 ! :ole ( 8 philosophy4 ,:y did he n believe 9 !m8 ,because all ?9k]s are agre$ t we _c "k :e!r we see ! ext]nal _w z x is4 ,!n1 if we d n "k x1 :y d we affirm t x exi/s8 ,we "k no?+ ab\t x4 ,n[ we ought to build up ! _w only ) :at we "k ( x1 & to d o!rwise is n philosophy b yield+ to imag9ation4 ,:at is x t we "k ( ! _w8 ,our ideas1 & no?+ b our ideas4 ,v well !n1 let u say3 !re are only ideas4 ,b :5ce d ^! ideas come to u8 ,to expla9 !m z com+ f ! ext]nal _w :i* we h nev] se5 is to expla9 obscurity by d5s] d>kness4 ,!y are spiritual1 !y come to u )\t d\bt f a _s1 f ,god4 ,?is is possible1 x is n illogical1 & ,b]keley believes x4 ,?is doctr9e reg>d$ by ! eyes ( common s5se may appe> a m]e phantasy2 b ,b]keley saw 9 x _m ?+s ( high importance & great use4 ,if y believe 9 matt]1 y c believe 9 matt] only1 & t is mat]ialism ) its moral consequ5ces1 :i* are immoral2 if y believe 9 matt] & 9 ,god1 y are s hamp]$ by ?is dualism t y d n "k h[ to sep>ate nature f ,god1 & x !re=e comes to pass t y see ,god 9 matt]1 :i* is call$ pan!ism4 ,9 a ^w1 betwe5 u & ,god ,b]keley has suppress$ matt] 9 ord] t we %\ld come1 z x 71 into direct contact ) ,god4 ,he d]ives mu* f ,malebran*e1 & x may be said he only pu%es 8 !ories to _! extreme4 ,al?\gh a bi%op1 he 0 n *eck$1 l ,desc>tes1 by ! idea ( ,god n be+ able to deceive u1 & he answ]$ t ,god does n deceive u1 t ,he gives u ideas & t x is we :o deceive ourselves by attribut+ !m to any o!r orig9 ?an to ,him2 nor 0 he *eck$1 l ,malebran*e1 by ! au?ority ( ,scripture1 :i* 9 ,g5esis portrays ,god creat+ matt]4 ,he saw !re1 no d\bt1 only a symbolical s5se1 a simple way ( speak+ accord+ to ! compreh5sion ( ! multitude4 ,,david ,,hume4--,david ,hume1 a ,scotsman1 bett] kn[n1 at lea/ 9 8 own times1 z ! hi/orian ( ,engl& ?an z a philosoph]1 nev]!less well m]its consid]ation 9 ! latt] category4 ,david ,hume believes 9 no?+1 &1 9 consequ5ce1 x may be said t he is n a philosoph]2 he has no philosophic sy/em4 ,he has no philosophic sy/em1 x is true2 b he is a critic ( philosophy1 & !re=e he philosophizes4 ,matt] has no exi/5ce2 z we "k no?+ ab\t x1 we %\ld n say x exi/s4 ,b we ourselves1 we exi/4 ,all t we c "k ab\t t is t 9 u !re is a succession ( ideas1 ( repres5tations2 b we1 b ,i1 :at is t8 ,( t we "k no?+4 ,we are pres5t at a s]ies ( pictures1 & we may call _! totality ! ego2 b we d n grasp ourselves z a ?+ ( unity1 z an individual4 ,we are ! spectators ( an inw>d dramatic piece beh9d :i* we c see no au?or4 ,!re is no m reason to believe 9 oneself ?an 9 ! ext]nal _w4 ,,innate ,,ideas4--,z = innate ideas1 !y are simply g5]al ideas1 :i* are g5]al delusions4 ,we believe1 = in/ance1 t e effect has a cause1 or1 to express x m correctly1 t ev]y?+ has a cause4 ,:at d we "k ab\t x8 ,:at d we see8 ,t "o ?+ foll[s ano!r1 succe$s to ano!r4 ,:at tells u t ! latt] proce$s f ! =m]1 t ! ?+ ,b mu/ necess>ily come1 ow+ to ! ?+ ,a exi/+8 ,we believe x because e "t ! ?+ ,a has be51 ! ?+ ,b has come4 ,well1 let u say t e "t ,a has be5 7?us f>7 ,b has come2 & say no m4 ,!re are regul> successions1 b we are completely ignorant :e!r !re are causes = !m4 ,,! ,,lib]ty ,,& ,,morality ,,( ,,hume4--,x results f ?is t = ,hume !re is no lib]ty4 ,v obvi\sly2 = :5 we believe ourselves free1 x is because we believe we c fix ^u ourselves z a cause4 ,n[ ! ^w cause means no?+4 ,we are a succession ( ph5om5a v absolutely det]m9$4 ,! pro( is t we =esee & ne>ly always accurately 7& we c\ld always =esee accurately if we completely knew ! "* ( ! p]sons & ! influ5ces act+ on !m7 :at p we "k w d1 :i* w\ld be impossible if !y did z !y wi%$4 ,& ,i1 at ! v mom5t :5 ,i am absolutely sure ,i am do+ su* & su* a ?+ because ,i desir$ to1 ,i see my fri5d smile z he says3 ,i 0 sure y w\ld d t4 ,see1 ,i wrote x d[n on ?is piece ( pap]4 ,he und]/ood me z a necessity1 :5 ,i felt myself to be free4 ,& he1 reciprocally1 w believe himself free 9 do+ a ?+ ,i w\ld h wag]$ to a c]ta9ty t he w\ld n fail to d4 ,:at sy/em ( morality c ,hume h ) ^! pr9ciples8 ,fir/ ( all1 he prote/s aga9/ ^? :o %\ld d$uce f 8 pr9ciples ! immorality ( 8 sy/em4 ,take c>e1 said he wittily 7j l ,sp9oza1 by ! way71 x is ! p>tisans ( free-w :o are immoral4 ,no d\bt6 ,x is :5 !re is lib]ty t !re is no responsibility4 ,i am n responsible = my actions if !y h no connection 9 me ) any?+ durable or con/ant4 ,i h committ$ murd]4 ,truly x is by *ance1 if x 0 by an entirely isolat$ det]m9ation1 entirely deta*$ f ! re/ ( my "*1 & mom5t>y2 & ,i am only inf9itesimally responsible4 ,b if all my actions are l9k$ toge!r1 are conditional ^u "o ano!r1 dep5d5t on "o ano!r1 if ,i h committ$ murd] x is because ,i am an assass9 at e mom5t ( my life or ne>ly s1 & !n1 oh6 h[ responsible ,i am6 ,note t ?is is ! l9e tak5 up by judges1 s9ce !y make c>eful inve/igation ( ! antec$5ts ( ! accus$4 ,!y f9d him all ! m culpable if he has always %[n bad in/9cts4--,!re=e !y f9d him ! m responsible1 ! m he has be5 compell$ by necessity4--,yes4 ,hume !n does n believe himself =eclos$ 9 morality2 he does n believe he is =bidd5 by 8 pr9ciples to h a sy/em ( morality & he has "o4 ,x is a morality ( s5tim5t4 ,we h 9 u ! in/9ct ( happ9ess & we seek happ9ess2 b we h also 9 u an in/9ct ( goodwill :i* t5ds to make u seek ! g5]al happ9ess1 & reason tells u t !re is conciliation or r concordance betwe5 ^! two in/9cts1 because x is only 9 ! g5]al happ9ess t we f9d our p>ticul> happ9ess4 ,,! ,,scotti% ,,s*ool3 ,,reid2 ,,/ew>t4--,! ,scotti% ,s*ool 7end ( ! eighte5? c5tury7 0 pre-em95tly a s*ool ( m5 :o atta*$ !mselves to common s5se & 7 excell5t morali/s4 ,we mu/ at any rate m5tion ,?omas ,reid & ,dugald ,/ew>t4 ,!y 7 b5t especially on oppos+ ! transc5d5t idealism ( ,b]keley & ! scepticism ( ,david ,hume1 also 9 "s measure ,locke's doctr9e ( ! blank %eet4 ,!y recon/itut$ ! human m9d & ev5 ! _w 7:i* _h be5 s to speak driv5 (f 9 vap\r by _! pr$ecessors71 mu* z !y 7 9 ! "t ( ,desc>tes4 ,let u believe1 !y said1 9 ! reality ( ! ext]nal _w2 let u believe t !re are causes & effects2 let u believe !re is an ego1 a human p]son :om we directly appreh5d1 & :o is a cause2 let u believe t we are free & t we are responsible because we are free1 etc4 ,!y 71 pre-em95tly1 excell5t describ]s ( /ates ( ! s\l1 admirable psy*ological morali/s & !y 7 ! ance/ors ( ! highly rem>kable pleiad ( ,engli% psy*ologi/s ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,fr5* ,,philosoph]s ,,( ,,! ,,eighte5? ,,c5tury ,voltaire a ,disciple ( ,locke4 ,r\sseau a ,free?9k+ ,*ri/ian1 b deeply ,imbu$ ) ,religi\s ,s5tim5ts4 ,did]ot a ,caprici\s ,mat]iali/4 ,d',holba* & ,helvetius ,av[$ ,mat]iali/s4 ,condillac a ,philosoph] ( ,s5sations4 ,,voltaire2 ,,r\sseau4--,! ,fr5* philosophy ( ! eighte5? c5tury1 fairly feeble x mu/ be av[$1 seem$ z if dom9at$ by ! ,engli% philosophy1 except+ ,b]keley1 b especially by ,locke & ,david ,hume1 m p>ticul>ly ,locke1 :o 0 ! intellectual deity ( ^? ,fr5*m5 ( t epo* :o 7 int]e/$ 9 philosophy4 ,:5ev] ,voltaire dealt ) philosophy1 he 0 only ! e*o ( ,locke ^: dep?s he fail$ to fa?om1 & to :om he has done "s injury1 = read+ ,locke only ?r\gh ,voltaire has l$ to ! belief t ,locke 0 sup]ficial4 ,r\sseau 0 bo? ! disciple & adv]s>y ( ,hobbes1 z (t5 occurs1 & dealt out to ! public ! doctr9es ( ,hobbes 9 an inv]t$ =m1 mak+ ! /ate ( nature angelic in/ead ( inf]nal1 & putt+ ! gov]nm5t ( all by all 9 ! place ( gov]nm5t by "o1 inv>iably rea*+ ! same po9t ) a simple diff]5ce ( =m2 = if ,hobbes argu$ = despotism ex]cis$ by "o ov] all1 ,r\sseau argu$ = ! despotism ( all ov] ea*4 ,9 ,emile1 he 0 inconte/ably inspir$ by ! ideas ( ,locke on education 9 "s degree1 b 9 my op9ion less ?an has be5 ass]t$4 ,on ne>ly all sides x has be5 ass]t$ t ,r\sseau ex]cis$ great influ5ce ov] ,kant4 ,i "k t ,kant felt inf9ite admiration = ,r\sseau1 b ( ! influ5ce ( ,r\sseau ^u ,kant ,i h nev] be5 able to discov] a trace4 ,,did]ot2 ,,helvetius2 ,d',,holba*4--,x 0 p>ticul>ly on ,david ,hume t ,did]ot dep5d$4 ,! diff]5ce1 :i* is great1 is t ,david ,hume 9 8 scepticism rema9$ a grave1 res]v$ man1 well-br$ & discreet1 & 0 only a sceptic1 :il/ ,did]ot 0 viol5t 9 d5ial & a man ( p>adoxes & je/s1 bo? imp]t95t & cynical4 ,x is almo/ ridicul\s 9 a summ>y hi/ory ( philosophy to "n z sub-,did]ots1 if "o may s express x1 ,helvetius & ,d',holba*1 :o 7 m]ely wits believ+ !mselves philosoph]s1 & :o 7 n always wits4 ,,condillac4--,condillac belongs to ano!r category4 ,he 0 a v s]i\s philosoph] & a vigor\s ?9k]4 ,an exagg]at$ disciple ( ,locke1 :ile ! latt] admitt$ s5sation & reflection z ! orig9 ( ideas1 ,condillac admitt$ only pure s5sation & trans=m$ s5sation--t is to say1 s5sation trans=m+ itself4 ,! def9ition ( man t he d$uces f ^! pr9ciples is v celebrat$ & x is int]e/+3 ,! ego ( ea* man is only ! collection ( ! s5sations t he feels & ( ^? 8 memory recalls2 x is ! consci\sness ( :at he is comb9$ ) ! recollection ( :at he has be54 ,to ,condillac1 ! idea is a s5sation :i* has fix$ itself & :i* has be5 r5ew$ & vivifi$ by o!rs2 desire is a s5sation :i* wi%es to be repeat$ & seeks :at opportunity (f]s = its r5ewal1 & ! w itself is only ! mo/ pot5t ( desires4 ,condillac 0 volunt>ily & sy/ematically limit$1 b 8 sy/em is well knit & pres5t$ 9 admirably cle> & precise language4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,kant ,kant ,recon/ruct$ all ,philosophy by ,support+ x on ,morality4 ,,k4--,kant1 born at ,ko5igsb]g 9 #agbd1 0 pr(essor !re all 8 life & di$ !re 9 #ahjd4 ,no?+ happ5$ to him except ! possession ( g5ius4 ,he _h comm5c$ ) ! !ological philosophy 9 use 9 8 c\ntry1 t ( ,wolf1 :i* on broad l9es 0 t ( ,leibnitz4 ,b he e>ly read ,david ,hume1 & ! tra9 ( ?\ght ( ! sceptical ,scotsman at lea/ gave him ! idea ( submitt+ all philosophic ideas to a sev]e & close criticism4 ,he fir/ ( all ask$ himself :at ! true value is ( our k & :at k is4 ,we believe g5]ally t x is ! ?+s :i* give u ! k t we h ( !m4 ,b1 r1 is x n we :o impose on ?+s ! =ms ( our m9d & is n ! k t we believe we h ( ?+s only ! k :i* we take ( ! laws ( our m9d by apply+ x to ?+s8 ,?is is :at is mo/ probable4 ,we p]ceive ! ?+s by m\lds1 s to speak1 :i* are 9 ourselves & :i* give !m _! %apes & !y w\ld be %apeless & *aotic 7 x o!rwise4 ,consequ5tly1 x is necess>y to di/+ui% ! matt] & ! =m ( our k3 ! matt] ( ! k is ! ?+s !mselves4 ,! =m ( our k is ourselves3 ,our exp]im5tal k is a comp\nd ( :at we receive f impressions & ( :at our individual faculty ( kn[+ draws f itself on ! occasion ( ^! impressions4 ,,s5sibility2 ,,und]/&+2 ,,reason4--,^? :o believe t all we ?9k proce$s f ! s5ses are !re=e wrong2 s too are ^? wrong :o believe t all we ?9k proce$s f ourselves4 ,to say1 ,matt] is an appe>ance1 & to say1 ,ideas are appe>ances1 are equally false doctr9es4 ,n[ we "k by s5sibility1 by und]/&+1 & by reason4 ,by s5sibility we receive ! impression ( ph5om5a2 by ! und]/&+ we impose on ^! impressions _! =ms1 & l9k !m up toge!r2 by reason we give ourselves g5]al ideas ( ?+s--univ]sal ones1 go+ beyond or believ+ !y g beyond ! data1 ev5 :5 l9k$ up & sy/ematiz$4 ,let u analyse s5sibility1 und]/&+1 & reason4 ,s5sibility already has ! =ms x imposes on ?+s4 ,^! =ms are "t & space4 ,"t & space are n giv5 u by matt] l col\r1 smell1 ta/e1 or s\nd2 !y are n p]ceiv$ by ! s5ses2 !y are !re=e ! =ms ( our s5sibility3 we c feel only accord+ to "t & space1 by lodg+ :at we feel 9 space & "t2 ^! are ! conditions ( s5sibility4 ,ph5om5a are ?us p]ceiv$ by u "u ! laws ( space & ( "t4 ,:at d !y become 9 u8 ,!y are seiz$ by ! und]/&+1 :i* also has its =ms1 its p[]s ( classification1 ( arrangem5t1 & ( connection4 ,its =ms or p[]s1 or1 putt+ x m exactly1 its active =ms are1 = example1 ! conception ( quantity be+ always equal3 ?r\gh all ph5om5a ! quantity ( sub/ance rema9s always ! same2 ! conception ( causality3 ev]y?+ has a cause & e cause has an effect & x is ev] ?us4 ,^? are ! conditions ( our und]/&+1 ^? )\t :i* we d n und]/& & ! =ms :i* )9 u we impose on all ?+s 9 ord] to und]/& !m4 ,x is ?us t we "k ! _w2 :i* is tantam\nt to /at+ t ! _w exi/s1 s f> z we are conc]n$1 only s long z we ?9k s4 ,reason w\ld g fur!r3 x w\ld seize ! mo/ g5]al1 ! univ]sal1 beyond exp]i5ce1 beyond ! limit$ & re/rict$ sy/ematizations e/abli%$ by ! und]/&+2 to "k1 = in/ance1 ! fir/ cause ( all causes1 ! la/ & collective end1 s to speak1 ( all purposes2 to "k :y is !re some?+8 & 9 view ( :at end is !re some?+8 9 fact1 to answ] all ! que/ions ( inf9ity & et]nity4 ,be sure t x _c4 ,h[ c\ld x8 ,x only op]ates1 c only op]ate1 on ! data ( exp]i5ce & ! sy/ematizations ( ! und]/&+1 :i* classify exp]i5ce b d n g beyond x4 ,only op]at+ ^u t1 hav+ no?+ except t z matt]1 h[ c\ld x itself g beyond exp]i5ce8 ,x _c4 ,x is only 7a highly important fact1 & "o :i* mu/ on no acc\nt be =gott57--x is only a sign1 m]ely a witness4 ,x is ! sign t ! human _s has ne$ ( ! absolute2 x is itself t ne$2 )\t t x w\ld n exi/2 x is ! witness ( our inv9cible insi/5ce on kn[+ & ( our t5d5cy to e/imate t we "k no?+ if we only "k some?+2 x is itself t insi/5ce & t t5d5cy3 )\t t x w\ld n exi/4 ,let u pause !re = ! mom5t4 ,man kn[s ( nature only ^? impressions :i* he receives f x1 co-ord9at$ by ! =ms ( s5sibility1 & fur!r ! ideas ( x :i* he pres]ves co-ord9at$ by ! =ms ( 8 und]/&+4 ,?is is v little4 ,x is all1 if we consid] only pure reason4 ,,practical ,,reason4--,b !re is p]haps ano!r reason1 or ano!r aspect ( reason--to wit1 practical reason4 ,:at is practical reason8 ,some?+ 9 u tells u3 y %\ld act1 & y %\ld act 9 su* a way2 y %\ld act rightly2 ?is is n "r1 s d n d x2 t is "r1 d x4 ,z a fact ?is is unconte/able4 ,:at is ! explanation8 ,f :at data ( exp]i5ce1 f :at sy/ematization ( ! und]/&+ has our m9d borr[$ ?is8 ,:]e has x got x8 ,does nature yield ob$i5ce to a y ought8 ,n at all4 ,x exi/s1 & x develops & x goes its way1 accord+ to our way ( see+ x 9 "t & space1 & t is all4 ,does ! und]/&+ furni% ! idea ( y ought8 ,by no means2 x gives u ideas ( quantity1 ( quality1 ( cause & effect1 etc41 & t is all2 !re is no y ought 9 all t4 ,!re=e ?is y ought is purely human2 x is ! only pr9ciple :i* comes exactly f ourselves only4 ,x might !re=e well be ! v f\ndation ( u4--,x may be an illusion4--,no d\bt1 b x is highly rem>kable t x exi/s1 ?\gh no?+ gives x bir? or is ( a nature to give x bir?4 ,an illusion is a weakness ( ! s5ses or an error ( logic & is ?us expla9$2 b an illusion 9 itself & by itself & only proce$+ f itself is mo/ s+ul> & n to be expla9$ z an illusion4 ,h5ce x rema9s t x is a reality1 a reality ( our nature1 & giv5 ! co]cive =ce ( its voice & act1 x is ! mo/ real reality !re is 9 u4 ,,! ,,categorical ,,imp]ative4--,?us1 at lea/1 ?\ght ,kant1 & he said3 ,!re is a practical reason :i* does n g beyond exp]i5ce & does n seek to g beyond x2 b :i* does n dep5d on x1 is absolutely sep>at$ f x1 & is its own 7human7 exp]i5ce by itself4 ,?is practical reason says to u3 y ought to d good4 ,! cr[d call x consci5ce2 ,i call x 9 a g5]al way practical reason1 & ,i call x ! categorical imp]ative :5 ,i take x 9 its pr9ciple1 )\t tak+ into acc\nt ! applications :i* ,i =esee4 ,:y ?is "n8 ,to di/+ui% x cle>ly2 = we feel ourselves comm&$ by o!r ?+s ?an x1 b n 9 ! same way4 ,we feel ourselves comm&$ by prud5ce1 = in/ance1 :i* tells u3 d n run d[n t /aircase if y d n wi% to break y\r neck2 we feel ourselves comm&$ by ! conv5tions :i* say3 be polite if y d n wi% m5 to leave y sev]ely alone1 etc4 ,b consci5ce does n say if to u3 x says bluntly y ought )\t consid]ation ( :at may or may n happ51 & x is ev5 "p ( its "* to scorn all consid]ation ( consequ5ces4 ,x w\ld tell u3 run d[n t /aircase to save t *ild ev5 at ! risk ( break+ y\r neck4 ,because ( t ,i call all ! o!r comm&m5ts made to u hypo!tical imp]atives & t ( consci5ce1 alone1 ! categorical or absolute imp]ative4 ,"h is a def9ite result4 ,,morality1 ,,! ,,law ,,( ,,man4--,yet reflect3 if ! =ego+ be true1 morality is ! v law ( man1 8 especial law1 z ! law ( ! tree is to spread 9 roots & bran*es4 ,well4 ,b = man to be able to obey 8 law he mu/ be free1 mu/ be able to d :at he wi%es4 ,t is c]ta94 ,!n x mu/ be believ$ t we are free1 = 7 we n1 we c\ld n obey our law2 & ! moral law w\ld be absurd4 ,! moral law is ! sign t we are free4 ,comp>$ to ?is1 all ! o!r pro(s ( fre$om are wor?less or weak4 ,we are free because we mu/ be s 9 ord] to d ! good :i* our law comm&s u to d4 ,let u exam9e fur!r4 ,i d :at is "r 9 ord] to obey ! law2 b1 :5 ,i h done x1 ,i h ! idea t x w\ld be unju/ t ,i %\ld be puni%$ = x1 or t ,i %\ld n be rew>d$ = x1 t x w\ld be unju/ 7 !re n concordance betwe5 "r & happ9ess4 ,z x happ5s1 virtue is seldom rew>d$ 9 ?is _w & (t5 is ev5 puni%$2 x draws mis=tune or evil on him :o practises x4 ,w\ld n t be ! sign t !re are two worlds ( :i* we see only "o8 ,w\ld n t be ! sign t virtue unrew>d$ "h w be rew>d$ else:]e 9 ord] t !re %\ld n be inju/ice8 ,x is highly probable t ?is is s4 ,b = t x is necess>y t ! s\l be immortal4 ,x is s1 s9ce x is necess>y t x %\ld be4 ,! moral law is accompli%$ & consummat$ 9 rew>ds or p5alties beyond ! grave1 :i* pre-suppose ! immortality ( ! s\l4 ,all ! o!r pro(s ( ! immortality ( ! s\l are wor?less or feeble beside ?is "o :i* demon/rates t 7 !re no immortality ( ! s\l !re w\ld be no morality4 ,,god4--,&1 f9ally1 if ju/ice is "o day to be done1 ?is supposes a ,judge4 ,x is nei!r ourselves :o 9 ano!r life w d ju/ice to ourselves nor yet "s =ce ( circum/ances :i* w d x to u4 ,x is necess>y to h an intellig5ce conceiv+ ju/ice & a w to realise x4 ,god is ?is intellig5ce & ?is w4 ,all ! o!r pro(s ( ,god are weak or wor?less beside ?is "o4 ,! exi/5ce ( ,god has be5 d$uc$ f ! idea ( ,god3 if we h ! idea ( ,god1 x is necess>y t ,he %\ld exi/4 ,a weak pro(1 = we c h an idea :i* does n correspond ) an object4 ,! exi/5ce ( ,god has be5 d$uc$ f ! idea ( causality2 = all t is1 a cause is necess>y1 ?is cause is ,god4 ,a weak pro(1 = ?+s be+ z !y are1 !re is necessity = 444 cause2 b a cause & a s+le cause1 :y8 ,!re c\ld be a s]ies ( causes to inf9ity & ?us ! cause ( ! _w c\ld be ! _w itself4 ,! exi/5ce ( ,god has be5 d$uc$ f ! idea ( design well c>ri$ out4 ,! composition1 ! ord]+ ( ?is _w is admir$2 ?is _w is well made2 x is l a clock4 ,! clock supposes a clock-mak]2 ! f9e composition ( ! _w supposes an intellig5ce :i* conceiv$ a "w to be made & :i* made x4 ,p]haps2 b ?is consid]ation only leads to ! idea ( a manipulation ( matt]1 ( a demiurge1 z ! ,greeks said1 ( an ar*itect1 b n to ! idea ( a ,creator2 x may ev5 lead only to ! idea ( sev]al ar*itects & ! ,greeks p]fectly possess$ ! idea ( a f9e arti/ic ord] exi/+ 9 ! _w :5 !y believ$ 9 a great numb] ( deities4 ,?is pro( also is !re=e weak1 al?\gh ,kant always treats x ) respect4 ,! sole conv9c+ pro( is ! exi/5ce ( ! moral law 9 ! he>t ( man4 ,= ! moral law to be accompli%$1 = x n to be m]ely a tyrant ov] man1 = x to be realis$ 9 all its fullness1 weigh+ on man "h b rew>d+ him inf9itely else:]e1 :i* means !re is ju/ice 9 all t1 x is necess>y t some:]e !re %\ld be an absolute realiz] ( ju/ice4 ,god mu/ exi/ = ! _w to be moral4 ,:y is x necess>y = ! _w to be moral8 ,because an immoral _w ) ev5 a s+le moral be+ 9 x w\ld be a v /range ?+4 ,?us1 :il/ ! majority ( philosoph]s d$uc$ human lib]ty f ,god1 & ! spirituality ( ! s\l f human lib]ty1 ! immortality ( ! s\l f human spirituality1 & morality f human immortality1 ,kant />ts f morality z f ! inconte/able fact1 & f morality d$uces lib]ty1 & f lib]ty spirituality1 & ,god f ! immortality ( ! s\l ) ! consequ5t realization ( ju/ice4 ,he has effect$ an extraord9>ily p[]ful rev]sal ( ! argum5t g5]ally employ$4 ,,! ,,influ5ce ,,( ,,kant4--,! influ5ce ( ,kant has be5 incomp>able or1 if y w1 comp>able only to ^? ( ,plato1 ,z5o1 & ,epicurus4 ,half at lea/ ( ! ,european philosophy ( ! n9ete5? c5tury has proce$$ f him & is closely connect$ ) him4 ,ev5 9 our own day1 pragmatism1 z x is call$--t is1 ! doctr9e :i* lays d[n t morality is ! measure ( tru? & t an idea is true only if x be morally useful--is p]haps an alt]ation ( ,kantism1 a ,kantian h]esy1 b entirely p5etrat$ ) &1 z x 71 excit$ by ! _s ( ,kant4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,! ,,n9ete5? ,,c5tury3 ,,g]many ,! great recon/ructors ( ! _w1 analog\s to ! fir/ philosoph]s ( antiquity4 ,great g5]al sy/ems3 ,fi*te1 ,s*ell+1 ,hegel1 etc4 ,,fi*te4--,fi*te1 emb>rass$ by :at rema9$ ( exp]i5ce 9 ! ideas ( ,kant1 by ! "p1 re/rict$ ?\gh x 01 :i* ,kant left to ?+s 9 ! ext]nal _w1 completely suppress$ ! ext]nal _w1 l ,b]keley1 & affirm$ ! exi/5ce ( ! human ego alone4 ,kant said t ! _w furni%$ u ) ! matt] ( ! idea & t we furni%$ ! =m4 ,accord+ to ,fi*te1 =m & matt] alike came f u4 ,:at !n is s5sation8 ,x is no?+ except ! pause ( ! ego enc\nt]+ :at is n self1 ! impact ( ! ego aga9/ :at limits x4--,b !n ! ext]nal _w does exi/1 = h[ c\ld our m9d be enc\nt]$ by no?+ & !re be an impact ( our m9d aga9/ no?+8--,b ?is non-self t enc\nt]s self is precisely a product ( self1 a product ( ! imag9ation :i* creates an object1 :i* projects outside u an appe>ance be=e :i* we pause z be=e some?+ real :i* %\ld be outside u4 ,?is !ory is v difficult to und]/&1 b indicates a v f9e ef=t ( ! m9d4 ,yet outside ourselves is !re any?+8 ,!re is pure _s1 ,god4 ,:at is ,god8 ,= ,fi*te ,he is moral ord] 7a v evid5t recollection ( ,kant74 ,morality is ,god & ,god is morality4 ,we are 9 ,god1 & x is ! :ole ( religion1 :5 we d our duty )\t any reg>d to ! consequ5ces ( our actions2 we are outside ,god1 & x is a!ism1 :5 we act 9 view ( :at results our actions may h4 ,& ?us morality & religion run into "o ano!r1 & religion is only morality 9 its pl5itude & complete morality is ! :ole ( religion4 ,! holy1 ! beautiful1 & ! good are ! imm$iate app>ition if x c\ld be 9 u ( ! ess5ce ( ,god4 ,,s*ell+4--,s*ell+ desir$ to correct :at1 accord+ to him1 0 too radical 9 ! idealism ( ,fi*te4 ,he re/or$ ! ext]nal _w2 = him ! non-ego & ! ego bo? exi/ & ! two are nature1 nature :i* is ! object 9 ! _w reg>d$ by man1 ! subject :5 x reg>ds man1 subject & object accord+ to ! case2 9 itself & 9 its totality nei!r subject nor object1 b absolute1 unlimit$1 indet]m9ate4 ,confront+ ?is _w 7t is nature & man7 !re is ano!r _w :i* is ,god4 ,god is ! inf9ite & ! p]fect1 & p>ticul>ly ! p]fect & inf9ite w4 ,! _w t we "k is a debasem5t f t )\t our be+ able to conceive h[ ! p]fect c be degrad$1 & h[ an emanation ( ! p]fect c be imp]fect & h[ ! non-be+ c come out ( be+1 s9ce relatively to ! inf9ite1 ! f9ite has no exi/5ce1 & relatively to p]fection1 ! imp]fect is no?+4 ,x appe>s h[ev] t x is ?us1 & t ! _w is an emanation ( ,god 9 :i* ,he degrades ,himself & a degradation ( ,god su* t x opposes itself to ,him z no?+ to ev]y?+4 ,x is a fall4 ,! fall ( man 9 ! ,scriptures may give an idea1 h[ev] di/ant1 ( t4 ,,hegel4--,hegel1 a contempor>y ( ,s*ell+1 & (t5 9 contradiction to him1 is ! philosoph] ( becom+ & ( ! idea :i* always becomes some?+4 ,! ess5ce ( all is ! idea1 b ! idea 9 progress2 ! idea makes itself a ?+ accord+ to a rational law :i* is inh]5t 9 x1 & ! ?+ makes itself an idea 9 ! s5se t ! idea contemplat+ ! ?+ x has become ?9ks x & fills itself ) x 9 ord] to become yet ano!r ?+1 always foll[+ ! rational law2 & ?is v evolution1 all ?is evolution1 all ?is becom+1 is t absolute = :i* we are always se>*+ beh9d ?+s1 at ! root ( ?+s1 & :i* is 9 ! ?+s !mselves4 ,! rationally active is ev]y?+2 & activity & reality are synonyms1 & all reality is active1 & :at is n active is n real1 & :at is n active has no exi/5ce4 ,let n ?is activity be reg>d$ z always advanc+ =w>d2 ! becom+ is n a riv] :i* fl[s2 activity is activity & retro-activity4 ,! cause is cause ( ! effect1 b also ! effect is cause ( its cause4 ,9 fact ! cause w\ld n be cause if x _h no effect2 x is !re=e1 ?anks to its effect1 because ( its effect1 t ! cause is cause2 & !re=e ! effect is ! cause ( ! cause z mu* z ! cause is cause ( ! effect4 ,a gov]nm5t is ! effect ( ! "* ( a p1 & ! "* ( a p is ! effect also ( its gov]nm5t2 my son proce$s f me1 b he reacts on me1 & because ,i am 8 fa!r ,i h ! "* :i* ,i gave him1 m pron\nc$ ?an be=e1 etc4 ,h5ce1 all effect is cause z all cause is effect1 :i* ev]ybody has recogniz$1 b 9 addition all effect is cause ( its cause & 9 consequ5ce1 to speak 9 common language1 all effect is cause =w>d & backw>d1 & ! l9e ( causes & effects is n a /raight l9e b a circle4 ,,! ,,deism ,,( ,,hegel4--,god disappe>s f all t4 ,no1 ,hegel is v =mally a dei/1 b he sees ,god 9 ! total ( ?+s & n outside ?+s1 yet di/9ct4 ,9 :at way di/9ct8 ,9 ?is1 t ,god is ! totality ( ?+s consid]$ n 9 !mselves b 9 ! _s t animates !m & ! =ce t urges !m1 & because ! s\l is ( necessity 9 ! body1 unit$ to ! body1 t is no reason :y x %\ld n be di/9ct f x4 ,& hav+ tak5 up ?is position1 ,hegel is a dei/ & ev5 accepts pro(s ( ! exi/5ce ( ,god :i* are reg>d$ by "s z hackney$4 ,he accepts !m1 only hold+ !m n exactly z pro(s1 b z reasons = belief1 & z highly fai?ful descriptions ( ! necess>y elevation ( ! s\l to ,god4 ,= example1 ! anci5t philosoph]s prov$ ! exi/5ce ( ,god by ! contemplation ( ! m>vels ( ! univ]se3 ,t is n a 'pro(1' said ,hegel1 t is n a pro(1 b x is a great reason = belief2 = x is an exposition1 a v exact al?\gh incomplete acc\nt r5d]$ ( ! fact t by contemplation ( ! _w ! human m9d rises to ,god4 ,n[ ?is fact is ( s+ul> importance3 x indicates t x is impossible to ?9k /rongly )\t ?9k+ ( ,god4 ,:5 ! passage al?\gh insuffici5tly logical f ! f9ite to ! inf9ite does n take place1 x may be said t !re is no ?\ght4 ,n[ ?is is a reason = belief4' ,aft] ! same fa%ion1 ! philosoph]s h said f ! mom5t t we imag9e ,god1 ! reason is t ,he is4 ,kant ridicul$ ?is pro(4 ,grant$1 x is n an inv9cible pro(1 b ?is fact alone t we _c imag9e ,god )\t affirm+ ,8 exi/5ce indicates a t5d5cy ( our m9d :i* is to relate f9ite ?\ght to inf9ite ?\ght & n to admit an imp]fect ?\ght :i* %\ld n h its s\rce 9 a p]fect ?\ght2 & t is r an inv9cible belief ?an a pro(1 b t ?is belief is inv9cible & necess>y 9 itself is an extremely comm&+ pro(1 al?\gh a relative "o4 ,,8 ,,political ,,philosophy4--,! philosophy ( ! human m9d & political philosophy accord+ to ,hegel are ^!4 ,primitive man is m9d1 reason1 consci5ce1 b he is s only pot5tially1 z ! philosoph]s express x2 t is to say1 he is s only 9 t he is capable ( becom+ s4 ,really1 practically1 he is only in/9cts3 he is egoi/ l ! animals x %\ld be said l ! great] "p ( ! animals1 & foll[s 8 egoi/ical appetites4 ,society1 9 :atev] mann] x has manag$ to con/itute itself1 trans=ms him & 8 becom+ comm5ces4 ,f ! sexual in/9ct x makes m>riage1 f capture x =ms regulat$ proprietor%ip1 out ( def5ce aga9/ viol5ce x makes legal puni%m5t1 etc4 ,h5ce-=?1 & all 8 evolution t5ds to t1 man proce$s to sub/itute 9 himself ! g5]al w = ! p>ticul> w2 he t5ds to dis9dividualize himself4 ,! g5]al w1 f\nd$ ^u g5]al utility1 is t ! man be m>ri$1 fa!r1 head ( a family1 good husb&1 good fa!r1 good relative1 good citiz54 ,all t man ought to be 9 consid]ation ( ! g5]al w :i* he has put 9 ! place ( 8 own1 & :i* he has made 8 own w4 ,t is ! fir/ advance4 ,x is realiz$ 7always imp]fectly7 9 ! smalle/ societies1 9 ! cities1 9 ! little ,greek republics1 = example4 ,"h is ! second advance4 ,by w>1 by conque/1 by annexations1 by m g5tle means :5 possible1 ! /rong] cities subdue ! weak]1 & ! great ,/ate is creat$4 ,! great ,/ate has a m important "p ?an ! city2 x cont9ues to sub/itute ! g5]al w = ! p>ticul> wills2 b1 9 addition1 x is an idea1 a great civiliz+ idea1 b5evol5t1 elevat+1 aggr&iz+1 to :i* private int]e/s mu/ & %\ld be sacrific$4 ,su* 7 ! ,romans :o consid]$ !mselves1 n )\t reason1 z ! legislators & civiliz]s ( ! _w4 ,,! ,,ideal ,,=m ,,( ,,/ate4--,putt+ aside = a :ile ! cont9uation ( ?is subject1 :at political =m %\ld ! great ,/ate take to con=m to its de/9y8 ,assur$ly ! mon>*ical =m2 = ! republican =m is always too individuali/4 ,to ,hegel1 ! ,greeks & ev5 ! ,romans seem to h conc$$ too mu* to individual lib]ty or to ! int]e/s ( class1 ( ca/e2 !y possess$ an imp]fect idea ( ! rights & functions ( ! ,/ate4 ,! ideal =m ( ! ,/ate is mon>*y4 ,x is necess>y = ! ,/ate to be contract$1 ga!r$ up1 & p]sonifi$ 9 a pr9ce :o c be p]sonally lov$1 :o c be rev]5c$1 :i* is precisely :at is ne$$4 ,^! great ,/ates are only really great if !y possess /rong cohesion2 x is !re=e necess>y t !y %\ld be nationalities1 z x is call$--t is1 t !y %\ld be inw>dly v unit$ & highly homog5e\s by community ( race1 religion1 cu/oms1 language1 etc4 ,! idea to be realiz$ by a ,/ate c only be accompli%$ if !re be a suffici5t community ( ideas 9 ! p con/itut+ x4 ,h[ev] ! great ,/ate w be able to1 & ev5 ought to1 conqu] & annex ! small ones 9 ord] to become /rong] & m capable1 be+ /rong]1 ( realiz+ its idea4 ,only ?is %\ld be done m]ely :5 x is c]ta9 or cle>ly app>5t t x repres5ts an idea z aga9/ a p :i* does n1 or t x pres5ts a bett]1 great]1 & nobl] idea ?an t repres5t$ by ! p x attacks4 ,,w>4--,b1 z ea* p w always f9d its own idea f9] ?an t ( ano!r1 h[ is ?is to be recogniz$8--,by victory itself4 ,x is victory :i* proves t a p 444 0 /rong] ?an ano!r6--,n only /rong] mat]ially b repres5t+ a great]1 m practical1 m fruitful idea ?an ! o!r2 = x is precisely ! idea :i* supports a p & r5d]s x /rong4 ,?us1 victory is ! sign ( ! moral sup]iority ( a p1 & 9 consequ5ce =ce indicates :]e "r is & is indi/+ui%able f "r itself1 & we mu/ n say z may already p]haps h be5 said3 ,might excels "r1 b ,might is "r or ,"r is might4 ,= example ,hegel might h said1 ,france 0 app>5tly )9 h] rights 9 endeav\r+ to conqu] ,europe f #agib to #ahae2 = %e repres5t$ an idea1 ! revolution>y idea1 :i* %e might consid]1 & :i* _m besides ! ,fr5* did consid]1 an advance & a civiliz+ idea2 b %e 0 beat51 :i* proves t ! idea 0 false2 & be=e ?is demon/ration by ev5ts is x n true t ! republican or ,caes>ian idea is inf]ior to t ( traditional mon>*y8 ,hegel w\ld c]ta9ly h reason$ ?us on ?is po9t4 ,!re=e w> is et]nal & mu/ be s4 ,x is hi/ory itself1 be+ ! condition ( hi/ory2 x is ev5 ! evolution ( humanity1 be+ ! condition ( t evolution2 !re-=e1 x is div9e4 ,only x is purify+ itself2 =m]ly m5 only f\ght1 or practically always1 f ambition2 n[ w>s are wag$ = pr9ciples1 to effect ! triumph ( an idea :i* has a future1 & :i* conta9s ! future1 ov] "o t is out ( date & decay$4 ,! future w see a succession ( ! triumphs ( might :i*1 by def9ition1 w be triumphs ( "r & :i* w be triumphs ( increas+ly f9e ideas ov] ideas t are b>b>\s & ju/ly condemn$ to p]i%4 ,hegel has ex]cis$ great influ5ce on ! ideas ( ! ,g]man p bo? 9 int]nal & ext]nal politics4 ,,art1 ,,sci5ce1 ,,& ,,religion4--,! ideas ( ,hegel on art1 sci5ce1 & religion are ! foll[+3 ,"u ! %elt] ( ! ,/ate :i* is necess>y = _! peaceful developm5t 9 security & lib]ty1 sci5ce1 lit]ature1 art1 & religion pursue aims n sup]ior to b o!r ?an ^? ( ! ,/ate4 ,!y seek1 )\t deta*+ ! individual f ! society1 to unite him to ! :ole _w4 ,sci5ce makes him "k all x c ( nature & its laws2 lit]ature1 by /udy+ man 9 himself & 9 8 relations ) ! _w1 imbues him ) ! s5tim5t ( ! possible concordance ( ! individual ) ! univ]se2 ! arts make him love creation by unravell+ & br++ into ! light & into relief all t is beautiful 9 x relatively to man1 & all t 9 consequ5ce %\ld r5d] x lovely1 respect$1 & de> to him2 religion1 f9ally1 seeks to be a bond betwe5 all m5 & a bond betwe5 all m5 & ,god2 x sket*es ! plan ( univ]sal bro!rhood :i* is ideally ! la/ /ate ( humanity1 a /ate :i* no d\bt x w nev] atta91 b :i* x is ess5tial x %\ld imag9e & believe to be possible1 )\t :i* x always w\ld be drawn t[>ds animality m & mu* m ?an x is4 ,! ,hegelian philosophy has ex]cis$ an imm5se influ5ce ?r\gh\t ,europe n only on philosophic /udies1 b on hi/ory1 art1 & lit]ature4 ,x may be reg>d$ z ! la/ univ]sal sy/em & z ! mo/ d>+ t has be5 attempt$ by ! human m9d4 ,,s*op5hau]4--,s*op5hau] 0 ! philosoph] ( ! w4 ,p]suad$1 l ,leibnitz1 t man is an epitome & a picture ( ! _w1 & t ! _w resembles u 7:i* is hypo!tical71 he takes up ! ?\ght ( ,leibnitz1 *ang+ & trans=m+ x ?us3 ,all ! univ]se is n ?\ght1 b all ! univ]se is w2 ?\ght is only an accid5t ( ! w :i* appe>s 9 ! sup]ior animals2 b ! w1 :i* is ! f\ndation ( man1 is ! f\ndation ( all2 ! univ]se is a comp\nd ( wills t act4 ,all be+s are wills :i* possess organs con=m$ to _! purpose4 ,x is ! w to be :i* gave claws to ! lion1 tusks to ! bo>1 & intellig5ce to man1 because he 0 ! mo/ un>m$ ( animals1 j z to "o :o becomes bl9d x gives extraord9>ily s5sitive & p[]ful s5se ( he>+1 smell1 & t\*4 ,plants /rive t[>ds light by _! tops & t[>ds moi/ure by _! roots2 ! se$ turns itself 9 ! e>? to s5d =? its /alk upw>ds & its rootlet d[nw>d4 ,9 m9]als !re are con/ant t5d5cies :i* are no?+ b obscure wills2 :at we curr5tly t]m weight1 fluidity1 imp5etrability1 electricity1 *emical aff9ities1 are no?+ b natural wills or inconsci5t wills4 ,because ( ?is1 ! div]se wills oppos+ & cla%+ ) "o ano!r1 ! _w is a w> ( all aga9/ all & ( ev]y?+ lit]ally aga9/ ev]y?+2 & ! _w is a sc5e ( c>nage4 ,! tru? is t w is an evil & is ! evil4 ,:at is ne$$ = happ9ess is to kill ! w1 to de/roy ! wi% to be4--,b ?is w\ld be ! end ( exi/5ce8--,& 9 fact to be no m or n to be at all is ! true happ9ess & x w\ld be necess>y to bl[ up ! :ole _w 9 an explosion = x to escape unhapp9ess4 ,at lea/1 z ,buddhism desir$ &1 9 "s degree1 ?\gh less1 ,*ri/ianity also1 x is necess>y to make an approa* to dea? by a k9d ( r$uction to ! absolute m9imum ( w1 by deta*m5t & r5unciation pu%$ z f> z c be4 ,,nietzs*e4--,a v respectful b highly indep5d5t & untractable pupil ( ,s*op5hau]1 ,nietzs*e turns ,s*op5hau] inside out z x 71 say+3 ,yes1 assur$ly ! w to be is ev]y?+2 b precisely because ( t x is ess5tial n to oppose b to foll[ x & to foll[ x z f> z x w lead u4 ,b is x n true t x w lead to suff]+8 ,be sure ( t1 b 9 suff]+ !re is an intoxication ( pa9 :i* is q compreh5sible2 = x is ! intoxication ( ! w 9 action2 & ?is intoxication is an enjoym5t too & 9 any case a good ?+2 = x is ! end to :i* we are urg$ by our nature compos$ ( w & ( hung] = exi/5ce4 ,n[ wisdom1 l happ9ess1 is to foll[ our nature4 ,! happ9ess & wisdom ( man is to obey 8 w = p[]1 z ! wisdom & happ9ess ( wat] is to fl[ t[>ds ! sea4 ,f ^! ideas is d]iv$ a morality ( viol5ce :i* c be legitimately reg>d$ z immoral & :i*1 9 any case1 is nei!r ,buddhi/ nor ,*ri/ian1 b :i* is susceptible ( sev]al int]pretations1 all ! m s because ,nietzs*e1 :o 0 a poet1 nev] fails1 :il/ always arti/ically v f9e1 to fall into pl5ty ( contradictions4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,! ,,n9ete5? ,,c5tury3 ,,engl& ,! ,doctr9es ( ,evolution & ( ,trans=mism3 ,lam>ck 7,fr5*71 ,d>w91 ,sp5c]4 ,,trans=mism ,,& ,,evolution4--,! great philosophic inv5tion ( ! ,engli% ( ! n9ete5? c5tury has be5 ! idea1 bas$ on a wide k ( natural hi/ory1 t !re nev] 0 creation4 ,! animal species _h be5 consid]$ by all ! philosoph]s 7except ,epicurus & ! ,epicureans7 z be+ creat$ once & = all & rema9+ inv>iable4 ,no?+ ( ! k9d4 ,matt]1 et]nally fruitful1 has trans=m$ itself fir/ into plants1 !n into l[] animals1 !n into high] animals1 !n into man2 our ance/or is ! fi%2 trac+ back yet m remotely1 our ance/or is ! plant4 ,trans=mation 7h5ce ! "n trans=mism71 discrim9ation & sep>ation ( species1 ! /ronge/ individuals ( ea* k9d alone surviv+ & creat+ desc5dants 9 _! image :i* con/itute a species2 evolution 7h5ce ! "n evolutionism7 ( liv+ nature ?us op]at+ f ! l[e/ types to ! highe/ & !re=e ! mo/ complicat$2 !re is no?+ b t 9 ! _w4 ,,lam>ck2 ,,d>w92 ,,sp5c]4--,! ,fr5*man ,lam>ck 9 ! eighte5? c5tury _h already conceiv$ ?is idea2 ,d>w91 purely a naturali/1 set x =? cle>ly1 ,sp5c] aga9 /at$ x & drew f x consequ5ces ( g5]al philosophy4 ,?us1 to ,sp5c]1 ! evolutioni/ !ory conta9s no immorality4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! progressive trans=mation ( ! human species is an asc5t t[>ds morality2 f egoism is born altruism because ! species1 seek+ its be/ law & its be/ condition ( happ9ess1 p]ceives a great] happ9ess 9 altruism2 seek+ its be/ law & its be/ condition ( happ9ess1 p]ceives t a great] happ9ess lies 9 ord]1 regul> life1 social life1 etc42 s t humanity raises itself to a high] & yet high] morality by ! m]e fact ( adapt+ itself bett] to ! conditions ( ! life ( humanity4 ,morality develops physiologically z ! g]m becomes ! /em & ! bud becomes ! fl[]4 ,z = religion x is ! doma9 ( ! unkn[able4 ,t is n to ass]t t x is no?+4 ,on ! contr>y x is some?+ =midable & imm5se4 ,x is ! feel+ t some?+1 ap>t f all t we "k1 surpasses u & t we %all nev] "k x4 ,n[ ?is feel+ at ! same "t ma9ta9s u 9 a humility highly fav\rable to ! heal? ( ! s\l & also 9 a s]5e confid5ce 9 ! my/]i\s be+ :o presides ov] univ]sal evolution & :o1 no d\bt1 is ! all-p[]ful & et]nal s\l ( x4 ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,! ,,n9ete5? ,,c5tury3 ,,france ,! ,eclectic ,s*ool3 ,victor ,c\s94 ,! ,positivi/ ,s*ool3 ,augu/e ,comte4 ,! ,kanti/ ,s*ool3 ,r5\vi]4 ,indep5d5t & ,complex ,positivi/s3 ,ta9e1 ,r5an4 ,,l>omigui]e3 ,,roy]-,,coll>d4--,em]g+ f ! s*ool ( ,condillac1 ,france saw ,l>omigui]e :o 0 a sort ( s(t5$ ,condillac1 less tr5*ant1 & n ins5sible to ! influ5ce ( ,r\sseau2 b he 0 little m ?an a cle> & elegant pr(essor ( philosophy4 ,roy]-,coll>d introduc$ into ,france ! ,scotti% philosophy 7,?omas ,reid1 ,dugald ,/ew>t7 & did n dep>t f x or g beyond x2 b he set x =? ) magnific5t au?ority & ) a rem>kable inv5tion ( cle> & magi/]ial =mulae4 ,,ma9e ,,de ,,biran4--,ma9e de ,biran 0 a r5ovator4 ,he atta*$ himself to ,desc>tes l9k+ ! *a9 anew t _h = s long be5 int]rupt$4 ,he devot$ 8 att5tion to ! notion ( ego4 ,9 full reaction f ! s5sualism ( ,condillac1 he re/or$ a due activity to ! ego2 he made x a =ce n re/rict$ to ! reception ( s5sations1 :i* trans=m !mselves1 b "o :i* seiz$ ^u1 elaborat$1 l9k$ toge!r1 & comb9$ !m4 ,= him !n1 z = ,desc>tes1 b f a fre% po9t ( view1 ! volunt>y de$ is ! primitive de$ ( ! s\l & ! w is ! f\ndation ( man4 ,also1 ! w is n all man2 man has1 s to say1 ?ree lives sup]impos$ b v closely int]-unit$ & :i* _c d )\t "o ano!r3 ! life ( s5sation1 ! life ( w1 & ! life ( love4 ,! life ( s5sation is almo/ passive1 ) a comm5cem5t ( activity :i* consi/s 9 classify+ & organiz+ ! s5sations2 ! life ( w is prop]ly speak+ ! human life2 ! life ( love is ! life ( activity & yet aga9 ( w1 b :i* unites ! human ) ! div9e life4 ,by ! +5i\s & pr(\nd subtlety ( 8 analyses1 ,ma9e de ,biran has plac$ himself 9 ! front rank ( ,fr5* ?9k]s &1 9 any case1 he is "o ( ! mo/ orig9al4 ,,victor ,,c\s9 ,,& ,,8 ,,disciples4--,victor ,c\s91 :o appe>s to h be5 influ5c$ almo/ concurr5tly by ,ma9e de ,biran1 ,roy]-,coll>d1 & ! ,g]man philosophy1 yield$ rapidly to a t5d5cy :i* is *>act]i/ically ,fr5* & is also1 p]haps1 good1 & :i* consi/s 9 see+ "s good 9 all ! op9ions1 & he 0 eclectic1 t is1 a borr[]4 ,8 maxim1 :i* he _h no d\bt read 9 ,leibnitz1 0 t ! sy/ems are true 9 :at !y affirm & false 9 :at !y d5y4 ,/>t+ !nce1 he re/$ ^u bo? ! ,engli% & ,g]man philosophy1 correct+ "o by ! o!r4 ,p]sonally 8 t5d5cy 0 to make metaphysics come f philosophy & to prove ,god by ! human s\l & ! relations ( ,god ) ! _w by ! relations ( man ) matt]4 ,to him ,god is always an augm5t$ human s\l4 ,all philosophies1 n to m5tion all religions1 h r an incl9ation to consid] ?+s ?us3 b ?is t5d5cy is p>ticul>ly m>k$ 9 ,c\s94 ,9 ! c\rse ( 8 c>e]1 :i* 0 div]sifi$1 = he 0 at "o "t a pr(essor & at ano!r a /atesman1 he v>i$ some:at1 because be=e #ahcj he became v ,hegelian1 & aft] #ahcj he h>k$ back t[>ds ,desc>tes1 endeav\r+ especially to make philosophic in/ruction a moral prie/hood2 highly cauti\s1 v well-balanc$1 feel+ great di/ru/ ( ! unassailable tem]ities ( ! "o & 9 sympa!tic relations ) ! o!r4 ,:at has rema9$ ( ?is eclecticism is an excell5t ?+1 ! great reg>d = ! hi/ory ( philosophy1 :i* _h nev] be5 held 9 hon\r 9 ,france & :i*1 s9ce ,c\s91 has nev] ceas$ to be s4 ,! pr9cipal disciples ( ,c\s9 7 ,j\ffroy1 ,damiron1 ,emile ,saisset1 & ! great morali/ ,jules ,simon1 well-kn[n because ( ! important political "p he play$4 ,,lam5nais4--,lam5nais1 long celebrat$ = 8 great book1 ,essay on ,indiff]5ce 9 ! ,matt] ( ,religion1 !n1 :5 he _h sev]$ himself f ,rome1 by 8 ,words ( a ,believ] & o!r works ( revolution>y _s1 0 above all a publici/2 b he 0 a philosoph]1 prop]ly speak+1 9 8 ,sket* ( a ,philosophy4 ,to him1 ,god is nei!r ! ,creator1 z und]/ood by ! e>ly ,*ri/ians1 nor ! ,be+ f :om ! _w emanates1 z o!rs h ?\ght4 ,he has n creat$ ! _w f no?+2 b ,he has creat$ x2 ,he creat$ x f ,himself1 ,he made x issue f ,8 sub/ance2 & ,he made x issue by a purely volunt>y act4 ,he creat$ x 9 ,8 own image2 x is n man alone :o is 9 ! image ( ,god1 b ! :ole _w4 ,! ?ree ,p]sons ( ,god1 t is1 ! ?ree *>act]i/ics1 p[]1 intellig5ce1 & love are f\nd--dim9i%$ & disfigur$ inde$1 b yet are to be f\nd--9 e be+ 9 ! univ]se4 ,!y are especially our own ?ree p[]s1 "u ! =m ( w1 reason1 sympa?y2 !y are also ! ?ree p[]s ( society1 "u ! =ms ( executive p[]1 delib]ation1 & frat]nity4 ,e be+1 individual or collective1 has 9 x a pr9ciple ( dea? if x _c reproduce h[ev] imp]fectly all ! ?ree t]ms ( ?is tr9ity )\t ! loss ( "o4 ,,augu/e ,,comte4--,augu/e ,comte1 a ma!matician1 v]s$ also 9 all sci5ces1 con/ruct$ a pre-em95tly negative philosophy 9 spite ( 8 great pret5sion to replace ! negations ( ! eighte5? c5tury by a positive doctr9e2 above all else he d5i$ all au?ority & d5i$ to metaphysics ! "r ( exi/5ce4 ,metaphysics ought n to exi/1 d n exi/1 are a m]e no?+4 ,we "k no?+1 we c "k no?+1 ab\t ! comm5cem5t or ! end ( ?+s1 or yet _! ess5ce or _! object2 philosophy has always laid d[n z its task a g5]al explanation ( ! univ]se2 x is precisely ?is g5]al explanation1 all g5]al explanation ( ! aggregate ( ?+s1 :i* is impossible4 ,?is is ! negative "p ( positivism4 ,x is ! only "o :i* has endur$ & :i* is ! cr$o or r ! non cr$o ( a fairly l>ge numb] ( m9ds4 ,! affirmative "p ( ! ideas ( ,comte 0 ?is3 :at c be done is to make a classification ( sci5ces & a philosophy ( hi/ory4 ,! classification ( sci5ces accord+ to ,comte1 proce$+ f ! mo/ simple to ! mo/ complex--t is1 f ma!matics to a/ronomy1 physics1 *emi/ry1 biology to end at sociology1 is g5]ally consid]$ by ! le>n$ z int]e/+ b arbitr>y4 ,! philosophy ( hi/ory1 accord+ to ,comte1 is ?is3 humanity passes ?r\gh ?ree /ates3 !ological1 metaphysical1 positive4 ,! !ological /ate 7antiquity7 consi/s 9 man expla9+ ev]y?+ by cont9ual miracles2 ! metaphysical /ate 7mod]n times7 consi/s 9 man expla9+ ev]y?+ by ideas1 :i* he /ill cont9ues to consid] some:at z be+s1 by ab/ractions1 entities1 vital pr9ciple1 attraction1 gravitation1 s\l1 faculty ( ! s\l1 etc4 ,! positive /ate consi/s 9 t man expla9s & w expla9 all ?+s1 or r limits himself & w limit himself to v]ify+ !m1 by ! l9ks t he w see !y h ) "o ano!r1 l9ks he w cont5t himself ) obs]v+ & subsequ5tly ) controll+ by exp]im5t4 ,also !re is always some?+ ( ! succe$+ /ate 9 ! prec$+ /ate & ! anci5ts did n ignore obs]vation1 & !re is always some?+ ( ! prec$+ /ate 9 ! succe$+ /ate & we h /ill !ological & metaphysical habits ( m9d1 !ological & metaphysical residues1 & p]haps x w be always ?us2 b = !ology to decl9e be=e metaphysics & metaphysics be=e sci5ce is progress4 ,ov] & above ?is1 ,comte 9 ! la/ portion ( 8 life--z if to prove 8 doctr9e ( residues & to furni% an example--f\nd$ a sort ( religion1 a pseudo-religion1 ! religion ( humanity4 ,humanity mu/ be wor%ipp$ 9 its sl[ asc5t t[>ds intellectual & moral p]fection 7&1 9 consequ5ce1 we %\ld specially wor%ip humanity to come2 b ,comte might reply t humanity pa/ & pres5t is v5]able because x be>s 9 its womb ! humanity ( ! future74 ,! wor%ip ( ?is new religion is ! commemoration & v5]ation ( ! dead4 ,^! la/ conceptions1 fruits ( ! s5sibility & ( ! imag9ation ( ,augu/e ,comte1 h no relation ) ! basis ( 8 doctr9e4 ,,r5\vi]4--,aft] him1 by a vigor\s reaction1 ,r5\vi] re/or$ ! philosophy ( ,kant1 depriv+ x ( its too symmetrical1 too m9utely sy/ematic1 too s*ola/ic "* & br++ x ne>] to facts2 f him 0 to come ! doctr9e already m5tion$1 pragmatism1 :i* measures ! tru? ( e idea by ! moral consequ5ce t x conta9s4 ,,ta9e4--,v diff]5t & atta*+ himself to ! g5]al ideas ( ,comte1 ,hippolyte ,ta9e believ$ only 9 :at has be5 obs]v$1 exp]im5t$1 & demon/rat$2 b be+ also z famili> ) ,hegel z ) ,comte1 ) ,sp5c] z ) ,condillac1 he nev] d\bt$ t ! ne$ ( go+ beyond & escap+ f oneself 0 also a fact1 a human fact et]nal among humanity1 & ( ?is fact he took acc\nt z ( a fact obs]v$ & prov$1 say+ if man is on "o side a fi]ce & lascivi\s gorilla1 on ! o!r side he is a my/ic animal1 & t 9 a d\ble nature1 my/]i\s hym51 z ,hugo wrote1 lay ! explanation ( all ! bas5ess 9 ideas & actions z well z all ! sublimity 9 ideas & actions ( humanity4 ,p]sonally he 0 a ,/oic & 8 practice 0 ! cont9u\s developm5t ( ! intellig5ce reg>d$ z ! condition & gu>antee ( morality4 ,,r5an4--,r5an1 de/9$ = ! ecclesia/ical pr(ession & always pres]v+ pr(\nd traces ( 8 cl]ical education1 01 nev]!less1 a ,positivi/ & believ$ only 9 sci5ce1 hop+ ev]y?+ f x 9 y\? & cont9u+ to v5]ate x at lea/ dur+ 8 mature ye>s4 ,?us =m$1 a ,*ri/ian ,positivi/1 z has be5 said1 z well z a poet above all else1 he c\ld n proscribe metaphysics & _h a weakness = !m ) :i* p]haps he reproa*$ himself4 ,he extricat$ himself f ?is difficulty by decl>+ all metaphysical conceptions to be only dreams1 b %elt]$1 s to say1 by ?is concession he _h made & ?is precaution he _h tak51 he ?rew himself into ! dream ) all 8 he>t & recon/itut$ ,god1 ! immortal s\l1 ! future exi/5ce1 et]nity & creation1 giv+ !m new1 un=ese51 & fasc9at+ names4 ,x 0 only ! idea ( ,provid5ce--t is1 ( ! p>ticul> & circum/antial int]v5tion ( ,god 9 human affairs1 :i* 0 intol]able to him & aga9/ :i* he always prote/$1 quot+ ! phrase ( ,malebran*e1 ,god does n act by p>ticul> wills4 ,& yet he paid a complim5t1 :i* seems s9c]e1 to ! idea ( grace1 & if !re be a p>ticul> & circum/antial int]v5tion by ,god 9 human affairs1 x is c]ta9ly grace accord+ to all appe>ances4 ,he 0 above all an amateur ( ideas1 a dilettante 9 ideas1 toy+ ) !m ) inf9ite pleasure1 l a sup]ior ,greek sophi/1 & 9 all ,fr5* philosophy no "o calls ,plato to m9d m ?an he does4 ,he possess$ a *>m+ m9d1 a v l(ty "*1 & 0 a m>vell\s writ]4 ,,to-,,day4--,! liv+ ,fr5* philosoph]s :om we %all cont5t ourselves ) nam+ because !y are liv+ & receive contempor>y criticism r ?an t ( hi/ory1 are ,,mm4 ,f\illee1 ,!odule ,ribot1 ,li>d1 ,durckheim1 ,iz\let1 & ,b]gson4 ,,! ,,future ,,( ,,philosophy4--,x is impossible to =eca/ 9 :at direction philosophy w move4 ,! summ>y hi/ory we h be5 able to trace suffici5tly %[s1 z x seems to u1 t x has no regul> advance su* t by see+ h[ x has progress$ "o c conjecture :at pa? x w pursue4 ,x seems 9 no s5se to dep5d1 or at all ev5ts1 to dep5d rem>kably little1 at any p]iod1 on ! g5]al /ate ( civilization ar\nd x1 & ev5 = ^? :o believe 9 a philosophy ( hi/ory !re is n1 z x appe>s to me1 a philosophy ( ! hi/ory ( philosophy4 ,! only ?+ t c be affirm$ is t philosophy w always exi/ 9 response to a ne$ ( ! human m9d1 & t x w always be bo? an ef=t to ga!r sci5tific discov]ies into "s great g5]al ideas & an ef=t to g beyond sci5ce & to seek z x c ! mean+ ( ! univ]sal enigma2 s t nei!r philosophy1 prop]ly speak+1 nor ev5 metaphysics w ev] disappe>4 ,nietzs*e has said t life is valuable only z ! in/rum5t ( k4 ,h[ev] eag] humanity may be & become = bran*es ( k1 x w be always passionately & indefatigably anxi\s ab\t complete k4 ,,index ,,( ,,names ,a ,ael>d ,a5esidemus ,agrippa ,agrippa1 ,cornelius ,ailly1 ,pet] d' ,alb]tus ,magnus ,alex&] ! ,great ,anaxagoras ,anaxim&] ,anselm1 ,/4 ,anti/h5es ,apollodorus ,arcesilaus ,arete ,ari/ippus ,ari/o ,ari/obulus ,ari/ophanes ,ari/otle ,arius ,arnauld ,atticus ,augu/9e1 ,/4 ,av]roes ,avic5na ,b ,bacon1 ,francis ,bacon1 ,rog] ,beaconsfield ,b]gson ,b]keley ,bonav5tura1 ,/4 ,bossuet ,bruno1 ,giordano ,brutus ,buridan ,c ,calv9 ,campanella ,c>dan ,c>neades ,cato ,*ampeaux1 ,william ( ,*>les ! ,bald ,*ri/9a ( ,sw$5 ,*rysippus ,cic]o ,clean!s ,clem5t1 ,/41 ( ,alex&ria ,comte1 ,augu/e ,cnodillac ,corneille ,c\s91 ,victor ,crantor ,crates ,d ,damiron ,d>w9 ,democritus ,desc>tes ,did]ot ,diog5es ,dur& de ,sa9t-,p\rca9 ,durckheim ,e ,emp$ocles ,epictetus ,epicurus ,euhem]us ,f ,f5elon ,fi*te ,font5elle ,f\illee ,frankl9 ,g ,gass5di ,g]b]t ,g]son ,gorgias ,h ,h>vey ,havet1 ,erne/ ,hegel ,hegesias ,helvetius ,h]aclitus ,h]illus ,h]m>*us ,hobbes1 ,?omas ,holba*1 d' ,horace ,hugo1 ,victor ,hugo de ,sa9t-,victor ,hume1 ,david ,i ,iambli*us ,iz\let ,j ,james ,i ,jesus ,*ri/ ,joan ( ,nav>re ,j\ffroy ,ju/9ian ,k ,kant ,l ,la ,bruy]e ,lam>ck ,lam5nais ,l>omigui]e ,leibnitz ,leo ,x ,leucippus ,li>d ,locke ,l\is ,,xiv ,lucian ,lucretius ,lulle1 ,raymond ,m ,ma9e de ,biran ,malebran*e ,manes ,m>cus ,aurelius ,m5ippus ,metrodorus ,mod]atus ,moli]e ,montaigne ,moses ,n ,nemesius ,n]o ,nicoma*us ,nietzs*e ,o ,ockham1 ,william ( ,orig5 ,p ,p>acelsus ,p>m5ides ,pascal ,paul1 ,/4 ,p]icles ,philips ! ,fair ,philo ,pico della ,mir&ola ,plato ,pl9y ! ,y\ng] ,plot9us ,plut>* ,po9c>e1 ,h5ri ,polemo ,poly/ratus ,pomponazzo ,porphyry ,prodicus ,protagoras ,pyrrho ,py?agoras ,r ,reid1 ,?omas ,r5an ,r5\vi] ,reu*l9 ,ribot1 ,!odule ,ri*>d de ,sa9t-,victor ,roscel9 ,r\sseau1 ,j4 ,j4 ,roy]-,coll>d ,s ,saisset1 ,emile ,s*ell+ ,s*op5hau] ,scotus ,erig5a ,s5eca ,s]vetus1 ,mi*ael ,sextus ,empiricus ,%akespe>e ,simon1 ,jules ,socrates ,sp5c]1 ,h]b]t ,speusippus ,sp9oza ,/ew>t1 ,dugald ,t ,ta9e1 ,hippolyte ,?ales ,!odosius ,!ophra/us ,?omas ,aqu9as1 ,/4 ,?rasea ,timon ,v ,van9i ,vauv5>gues ,vico ,villon ,v9c5t ( ,beauvais ,voltaire ,w ,william ( ,auv]gne ,wolf ,x ,x5ocrates ,x5ophanes ,x5ophon ,z ,z5o 7( ,citium7 ,z5o 7( ,elea7 ,zoroa/]