,illustration     ,,scientific          
,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #ddg      
,,new ,,york1 ,,july #bf1 #ahhd         
,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4
 ,,xviii1 ,no4 #ddg4  ,scientific       
,american established #ahde  ,scientific
 ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4      
,scientific ,american and ,supplement1  
#g a year4          99       99       99
       99       99  ,,table ,,of        
,,contents4  ,i4    ,,chemistry4--,the  
,bitter ,substance of ,hops4--,by ,dr4  
,h4 ,,bungener4       --,what gives hops
 their bitter taste8--,processes for    
obtaining       hop-bitter              
acid4--,analysis of the same4  ,,ii4    
,,engineering ,,and                     
,,mechanics4--,improvements in the      
,harbor       of ,antwerp4--,with       
engraving of caisson for deepening the  
river4        ,progress of              
,antwerp4--,recent works in the harbor4 
,bicycles and ,tricycles4--,by ,c4,v4   
,,boys4---,advantages of the            
different machines4--,manner of finding 

the steepness of a hill       and       
representing same on a                  
map4--,experiments on ball bearings4--  
,the ,otto bicycle4        ,the ,canal  
,iron ,works1 ,london4                  
,marinoni's ,rotary ,printing           
,press4--,with #b engravings4           
,chenot's ,economic ,filter             
,press4--,with engraving4        ,steel 
,chains without ,welding4--,method and  
machines for making                     
same4--,several figures4  ,,iii4        
,,technology4--,some ,economic          
,processes connected with the           
,cloth ,making ,industry4--,by ,dr4     
,,wm4 ,,ramsay4--,how to save and       
utilize soap used in wool scouring4--,to
 recover the indigo from       the      
refuse4--,extraction of potash from     
suint4--,use of       bisulphide of     
carbon4  ,,iv4   ,,physics4             
,,electricity1 ,,etc4--,thury's ,dynamo 
,electric ,machine4       --#e figures4 
,breguet's ,telephone4        ,munro's  
,telephonic ,experiments4--#i figures4  

,apparatus for ,maneuvering ,bichromate 
of ,potassa ,piles from a               
,distance4--#b figures4        ,magnetic
 ,rotations4--,by ,e4,l4 ,,voice4--#a   
figure4        ,lighton's ,immersion    
,illuminator4--#a figure4               
,foucault's ,pendulum ,experiments4--,by
 ,,richard ,a4 ,,proctor4       --#d    
figures4  ,v4    ,,architecture1 ,,art1 
,,etc4--,st4 ,paul's ,vicarage1 ,forest 
,hill1       ,kent4--#b engravings4     
,designs for ,iron ,gates4--,an         
engraving4  ,,vi4   ,,astronomy4--,a    
,new ,lunarian4--,by ,prof4 ,c4,w4      
,,maccord4       --,with #c figures4    
,,vii4  ,,geology4--,coal and its       
,uses4--,by ,,james ,,pyke4--,formation 
of carboniferous rocks and the coal in  
the same4--,processes of                
nature4--,greatness of this country due 
to coal4--,manufacture of               
gas4--,products of the same4  ,,viii4   
,,natural ,,history1 ,,botany4          
,,etc4--,the ,wine ,fly4--,the          
egg4--,larva4--,pupa and fly4           

,the ,potetometer4 an ,instrument for   
,measuring the ,transpiration       of  
,water by ,plants4--#a figure4          
,bolivian ,cinchona ,forests4           
,ferns4--,nephrolepis ,davillioides     
,furcans and ,nephrolepis ,duffi4       
--#b engravings4  ,,ix4   ,,physiology1 
,,hygiene1 ,,etc4--,the ,upright        
,attitude of ,mankind4       --,review  
of a lecture by ,dr4 ,s4,v4 ,,clevenger1
 in which he       tries to prove that  
man must have originated from a four    
footed       being4        ,our         
,enemies1 the ,microbes4--,affections   
caused by the same4--       ,experiments
 of ,davaine1 ,pasteur1 and             
others4--,how to prevent                
bacterides from entering the body4--#e  
figures4  ,x4    ,,biography4--,gaston  
,plante1 the ,scientist4--,with portrait
        ,warren ,colburn1 the ,american 
,mathematician4         99       99     
99       99       99     ,,improvements 
,,in ,,the ,,harbor ,,of ,,antwerp4     
,the harbor of ,antwerp1 which1         

excepting those of ,london and          
,liverpool1 is the largest in ,europe1  
has been improved wonderfully during the
 last decade4 ,before #ahgj it was      
inferior to the harbor at ,havre1 but   
now it far surpasses the same4 ,the     
river ,scheldt1 which is about #a1ejj   
ft4 wide1 was badgered out up to the    
vertical walls of the basin1 so that the
 largest ships can land at the docks4   
,the river was deepened by the use of   
caissons1 in the lower parts of which   
the workmen operated in compressed air4 
,the annexed cut shows that part of one 
of the caissons which projects above the
 surface of the water4 ,the depth of the
 river at low tide is about #bf ft41 and
 at high tide about #ci ft4 ,some of the
 old sluices1 channels1 basins1 etc41   
which were rendered useless by the      
improvements made in the river ,scheldt 
have been filled up1 and thereby the    
city has been enriched by several       
handsome and elegant                    
squares4--,illustrirte ,zeitung4        

99       99       99       99       99  
,,progress ,,of ,,antwerp4   ,antwerp is
 now the chief port on the ,continent4  
,since #ahgc the progress has continued1
 and made very rapid advances4 ,in #ahhc
 the tonnage of the port reached        
#c1gcd1dbh registered tons4 ,this       
marvelous development is partly due to  
the position of ,antwerp as the         
embarking point from the ,continent of  
,europe to ,america1 and partly also to 
the recent additions and changes which  
have been carried out there1 and which1 
now nearly completed1 have made this    
cosmopolitan port one of the best       
organized in the world4 ,this is so well
 known that vessels bound for           
,switzerland with a cargo of corn from  
,russia pass ,marseilles and go two     
thousand miles out of their way for the 
purpose of unloading at ,antwerp4 ,no   
other port1 in fact1 offers the same    
facilities4 ,there is not another place 
in the world where fifty vessels of     
#c1jjj tons can come alongside as easily

 as the penny boats on the ,thames run  
into the landing4  ,illustration3       
,,caissons ,,for ,,deepening ,,the      
,,river ,,at ,,antwerp4  ,since the     
opening of the ,st4 ,gothard ,tunnel    
nearly all the alimentary provisions    
that ,italy sends to the ,british ,isles
 pass through ,antwerp4 ,in #ahhb       
#hb1jjj1jjj eggs and #cj1jjj pounds of  
fruit were shipped there for ,england4  
,the greater part of these came from    
,italy4 ,antwerp has become also an     
important port for emigrants2 #ce1abe   
embarked in #ahhb1 out of which number  
#c1jee were bound for ,new ,york4 ,the  
city was always destined1 from its      
topographical position1 to be at the    
head of a very considerable traffic2    
political reasons alone for many years  
prevented this being the case4 ,these   
have happily now disappeared1 and1 since
 #ahfc1 when the ,scheldt was liberated1
 the progress of commerce has been more 
rapid than even the most ardent ,antwerp
 patriot dared hope4 ,at that date the  

toll of #as4 #aa;d4 on all vessels going
 up the river1 and of #g;d4 on vessels  
going down1 was abolished1 and reforms  
were introduced among the taxes on the  
general navigation2 the tax on tonnage  
in the port itself was abolished1 and   
the pilot tax was lowered4 ,the results 
of these measures became immediately    
apparent4 ,traffic increased with such  
rapidity that in #ahgf the crowding on  
the quays was such that the relation of 
the tonnage to the length of the quay   
was about #bgj tons per yard1 which is  
four times as great as at ,liverpool4   
,a few words now1 briefly1 as to the    
nature of the important works#a         
completed at ,antwerp4 ,they were       
commenced in #ahgg1 and have opened for 
the port an era of prosperity such as   
was never experienced even during the   
sixteenth century1 the zenith of her    
splendor4 ,these works have cost        
#d1jjj1jjj1 and have necessitated the   
employment of #ab1jjj tons of wrought   
iron1 of #dij1jjj cubic yards of        

brickwork and concrete1 of #cb1jjj cubic
 yards of masonry1 and of more than     
#c1cjj1jjj cubic yards of earthwork in  
filling and dredging1 etc4 ,the quay    
walls run the whole length of the town1 
a distance of rather more than two      
miles4 ,it rests on a foundation laid   
without timber footings1 and giving a   
depth of twenty-six feet at low water1  
sufficient drawing for the largest ships
 afloat4 ,beyond this wall are the real 
quays1 which consists of first a line of
 rails reserved for hydraulic cranes    
serving to unload vessels and deposit   
their cargo railway trucks2 secondly1 a 
second line of rails parallel with the  
first1 on which these trucks are        
stationed2 thirdly1 sheds extending     
toward the town for a width of one      
hundred and fifty feet1 and covered with
 galvanized iron sheetings4 ,a third    
line of rails parallel with the two     
others runs from end to end of these    
sheds1 and a number of lines placed     
transversely with this one connect it by

 means of spring bridges with1 fourthly1
 four more lines also parallel with the 
quays1 whence the goods start for the   
different stations1 and thence to their 
destinations4 ,the total width of these 
immense constructions is about three    
hundred and twenty feet4 ,such is their 
magnitude that about six hundred houses 
had to be pulled down to make place for 
them4 ,a railing running along their    
entire length cuts them off from the    
town4  ,transcribers note #a3 changed   
from 'words'  ,during the course of last
 year #d1cgi vessels entered the port of
 ,antwerp1 gauging a total of #c1gcd1dbh
 tons1 which places ,antwerp1 as ,i have
 already stated1 at the head of         
,european ports4 ,in #ahhb the tonnage  
of ,havre was only #b1bjj1jjj1 that of  
,genoa #b1bej1jjj1 and of ,bilboa       
#cae1jjj1 owing to its iron ore exports4
 ,among the ,english ports a few only   
exceed ,antwerp4 ,london is still the   
first port in the world1 with a tonnage 
of #aj1dba1jjj tons1 and ,liverpool the 

second1 with #g1cea1jjj tons2 ,newcastle
 follows with #f1jjj1jjj tons1 also in  
excess of ,antwerp1 but both ,hull and  
,glasgow are below1 with respectively   
#a1hge1jjj and #b1aaj1jjj tons4--,pall  
,mall ,gazette4         99       99     
99       99       99     ,,bicycles     
,,and ,,tricycles4  ,footnote3 ,a recent
 lecture before the ,society of ,arts1  
,london4  ,by ,c4,v4 ,,boys4   ,the     
subject of this paper is one of such    
wide interest1 and of such great        
importance1 that it is quite unnecessary
 for me to make any apology for bringing
 it to your notice4 ,exactly two months 
ago1 ,i had the honor of dealing with   
the same subject at the ,royal          
,institution4 ,on that occasion ,i      
considered main principles only1 and    
avoided anything in which none but      
riders were likely to take an interest1 
or which was in any way a matter of     
dispute4 ,as it may be assumed that the 
audience here consists largely of       
riders1 and of those who are following  

those matters of detail1 the            
elaboration1 simplification1 and        
perfection of which have brought the art
 of constructing cycles to its present  
state of perfection1 ,i purpose treating
 the subject from a totally different   
point of view4 ,i do not intend1 in     
general1 to describe anything1 assuming 
that the audience is familiar with the  
construction of the leading types of    
machines1 but rather to consider the    
pros and cons of the various methods by 
which manufacturers have striven to     
attain perfection4 ,as a discussion on  
the subject of this paper will doubtless
 follow--and ,i hope makers or riders of
 every class of machine will freely     
express their opinion1 for by so doing  
they will lend an interest which ,i     
alone could not hope to awaken--,i shall
 not consider it necessary to assume an 
absolutely neutral position1 which might
 be expected of me if there were no     
discussion1 but shall explain my own    
views without reserve4  ,the great      

variety of cycles may be grouped under  
the following heads3    #a4 ,the        
,bicycle unmodified4   #b4 ,the ,safety 
bicycle1 a modification of #a4   #c4    
,the ,center-cycle4   #d4 ,the          
,tricycle1 which includes five general  
types3   7a47 ,rear steerer of any sort4
   7b47 ,coventry rotary4   7c47 ,front 
steerer of any sort 7except e74   7d47  
,humber pattern4   7e47 ,the ,oarsman4  
#e4 ,double machines3 sociables and     
tandems4   #f4 ,the ,otto4  ,it is      
perfectly obvious that not one machine  
is superior to all others in every      
respect1 for if that were the case1 the 
rest would rapidly become extinct4 ,not 
one shows any signs of becoming extinct1
 and1 therefore1 it may be assumed that 
each one possesses some points in which 
it is superior to others1 the value of  
which is considered by its riders to far
 outweigh any points in which it may be 
inferior4 ,the widely varying conditions
 under which1 and purposes for which1   
machines are used and the very different

 degrees of importance which differently
 constituted minds attach to the        
peculiarities of various machines1 will1
 probably1 prevent any from becoming    
extinct4 ,nevertheless1 the very great  
advantages which some of these possess  
over others will1 no doubt1 in time     
become evident by the preponderance of  
the better class of machines4  ,the     
bicycle1 which surpasses all other      
machines in simplicity1 lightness1 and  
speed1 will probably1 for these reasons1
 always remain a favorite with a large  
class4 ,the fact that it requires only  
one track places it at a great advantage
 with respect to other machines1 for it 
is common for a road which is unpleasant
 from mud or stones to have a hard1     
smooth edge1 a kind of path1 where the  
bicyclist can travel in peace1 but which
 is of little advantage to other        
machines4 ,again1 the bicycle can be    
wheeled through narrow gates or door    
ways1 and so kept in places which are   
inaccessible to tricycles4 ,one         

peculiarity of the bicycle1 and to a    
certain extent of the center-cycle1 is  
that the plane of the machine always    
lies in the direction of the resultant  
force1 that the machine leans over to an
 amount depending on the velocity and   
the sharpness of the curve described4   
,for this reason all lateral strain on  
the parts is abolished1 and if we except
 the slipping away of the wheel from    
under the rider1 which can hardly occur 
on a country road1 an upset from taking 
a curve too quickly is impossible4 ,this
 leaning to either side by the machine  
and rider gives rise to that delightful 
gliding which none but the bicyclist or 
the skater can experience4 ,in this     
respect the bicycle has an enormous     
advantage over any machine1 tricycle or 
,otto1 which must at all times remain   
upright1 and which must1 therefore1 at a
 high speed1 be taken round a curve with
 discretion4  ,the perfect and          
instantaneous steering of the bicycle1  
combined with its narrowness1           

counteract1 to a great extent1 the      
advantage which the tricyclist has of   
being able to stop so much more quickly1
 for the bicyclist can dodge past a     
thing for which the rider of the        
three-wheeler must pull up4 ,in one     
other respect the bicyclist has an      
advantage which1 though of no real      
importance1 has great weight with many  
people4 ,the bicycle well ridden        
presents a picture of such perfect      
elegance that no one on anything else   
need expect to appear to advantage in   
comparison4  ,the chief disadvantage of 
the bicycle is the fact that a rider    
cannot stop for any purpose1 or go back 
a little1 without dismounting4 ,for town
 riding1 where a stoppage is frequently 
necessitated by the traffic1 this       
perpetual mounting and dismounting is   
not only tiresome1 but wearying1 so much
 so that few bicyclists care to ride    
daily in town4  ,the position of the    
rider on a bicycle1 with respect to the 
treadles1 is by no means good1 for if he

 is placed sufficiently far forward to  
be able to employ his weight to         
advantage without bending himself       
double1 he will be in so critical a     
position that a mere touch will send him
 over the handles4 ,he has1 therefore1  
to balance stability and safety against 
comfort and power2 the more forward he  
is1 the more furiously he can drive his 
machine1 and the less does he suffer    
from friction and the shaking of the    
little wheel2 the more backward he is1  
the less is he likely to come to grief  
riding down hill1 or over unseen stones4
 ,the bicyclist is no better off than   
the rider of any other machine with a   
little wheel1 the vibration from which  
may weary him nearly as much as the work
 he does4 ,the little wheel as a        
mud-throwing machine engine is still    
more effective on the bicycle than it is
 on any tricycle1 for in general it is  
run at a higher speed4  ,i now come to  
the usual complaint about the bicycle4  
,there is a fashion just now to call it 

dangerous and the tricycle safe4 ,but   
the difference in safety has been much  
exaggerated4 ,the bicyclist is more     
likely to suffer from striking a stone  
than his friend on three wheels1 but    
then he should not strike one where the 
tricyclist would strike a dozen4        
,properly ridden1 neither class of      
machine can be considered dangerous2 an 
accident should never happen except it  
be due to the action of others4 ,people1
 carts1 cattle1 and dogs on the road are
 liable to such unexpected movements1   
that the real danger of the cyclist     
comes from the outside2 to danger from  
absolute collapse1 due to a hidden flaw 
in the materials employed1 every one is 
liable1 but1 the bicyclist more remotely
 than the tricyclist1 owing to the      
greater simplicity of his machine4 ,the 
bicyclist1 though he has further to fall
 in case of an accident from any of     
these causes1 is in a better position   
than the tricyclist1 for he is outside  
instead of inside his machine2 he can in

 an instant get clear4  ,it would appear
 that many tricyclists consider         
accidents of the kind next to           
impossible1 for in several machines the 
rider is so involved that an            
instantaneous dismount without a        
moment's notice1 at any speed1 is       
absolutely impossible4 ,there remains   
one objection1 which1 however1 should be
 of next to no importance--the          
difficulty of learning the bicycle      
prevents many from taking to the light  
and fast machine1 because they are      
afraid of a little preliminary trouble4 
,the chief objections to the bicycle1   
then1 are the liability of the rider to 
go over the handles1 the impossibility  
of stopping very quickly1 and the       
inability to remain at rest or go       
backward1 and the difficulty of         
learning4  ,the first two of these are1 
to a large extent1 overcome in the      
safety bicycles1 but not without the    
introduction of what is in comparison a 
certain degree of complication1 or      

without the loss of the whole of the    
grace or elegance of the bicycle4 ,on   
almost all of these safety bicycles the 
rider is better placed than on the      
unmodified bicycle1 but though safer1 ,i
 do not think bicyclists find them      
complete in speed1 though1 no doubt1    
they are superior in that respect to the
 tricycle4 ,though they do not allow the
 rider to stop without dismounting1 the 
fatigue resulting from this cause is    
less than it is with a bicycle1 owing to
 the fact that with the small machines  
the rider has so small a distance to    
climb4 ,of these machines1 the          
,extraordinary leaves the rider high up 
in the air on a full-sized wheel1 but   
places him further back and more over   
the pedals4 ,the motion of these is     
peculiar1 being not circular1 but oval1 
a form which has certain advantages4    
,in the ,sun and ,planet and ,kangaroo  
bicycles a small wheel is geared up1    
that is1 is made to turn faster than the
 pedals1 so as to avoid the very rapid  

pedaling which is necessary to obtain an
 ordinary amount of speed out of a small
 wheel4 ,in each of these the pedals    
move in a circular path1 and their      
appearance is in consequence less       
peculiar than that of the ,facile1      
which1 in this respect1 does not compare
 favorably with any good machine4 ,the  
pedal motion on the ,facile is merely   
reciprocating4 ,riders of machines where
 circular motion is employed1 among them
 myself1 do not believe that this       
reciprocating motion can be so good as  
circular1 but ,i understand that this   
view is not held by those who are used  
to it4 ,of course1 the harmonic motion  
of the ,facile pedal is superior to the 
equable reciprocating motion employed in
 some machines where speed is an object1
 especially with small wheels4  ,if ,i  
have overlooked anything typical in the 
modified bicycle class1 ,i hope some one
 will afterward supply the omission1 and
 point out any peculiarities or         
advantages4  ,that very peculiar        

machine1 the center-cycle1 seems to     
combine many of the advantages of the   
bicycle and tricycle4 ,on it the rider  
can remain at rest1 or can move         
backward2 he can travel at any speed    
round curves without an upset being     
possible2 he can ride over brickbats1 or
 obstructions1 not only without being   
upset1 but1 if going slowly1 without    
even touching them4 ,as this machine is 
very little known1 a few words of       
explanation may be interesting4  ,in the
 first place1 the rider is placed over  
the main wheel1 as in the bicycle1 but  
much further forward4 ,there are around 
him1 on or near the ground1 four little 
wheels1 two before and two behind1      
supported in a manner the ingenuity of  
which calls for the utmost admiration4  
,turning the steering handle not only   
causes the front and rear pairs to turn 
opposite ways1 but owing to their       
swiveling about an inward pointing axis1
 the machine is compelled to lean over  
toward the inside of the curve2 not only

 is this the case1 but each pair rises  
and falls with every inequality of the  
road1 if the rider chooses that they run
 on the ground2 but he can1 if he       
pleases1 arrange that in general they   
ride in the air1 any one touching at    
such times as are necessary to keep him 
on the top of the one wheel1 on which   
alone he is practically riding4 ,he can1
 if he likes1 at any time lift the main 
wheel off the ground and run along on   
the others only4 ,the very few machines 
of the kind which ,i have seen have been
 provided with foot straps1 to enable   
the rider to pull as well as push1 which
 is a great advantage when climbing a   
hill1 but this is on every machine      
except the ,otto1 of which ,i shall     
speak later1 considered a dangerous     
practice4  ,some of the objections to   
the bicycle to which ,i have referred   
were sufficient to prevent many1        
especially elderly men1 from dreaming of
 becoming cyclists4 ,so long as the     
tricycle was a crude and clumsy machine1

 there was no chance of cycling becoming
 a part1 as it almost is and certainly  
soon will be1 of our national life4 ,the
 tricycle has been brought to such a    
state of perfection that it is difficult
 to imagine where further progress can  
be made4  ,perhaps it will be well to   
mention what is necessary in order that 
a three-wheeled machine may be made to  
roll freely in a straight line1 and also
 round curves4 ,at all times each wheel 
must be able to travel in its own plane 
in spite of the united action of the    
other two4 ,to run straight1 the axes of
 all the wheels must obviously be       
parallel4 ,to run round a curve1 the    
axis of each must1 if continued1 pass   
through the center of curvature of the  
curve4 ,if two wheels have a common     
axis1 the intersection of the two lines 
forming the axes can only meet in one   
point4 ,to steer such a combination1    
therefore1 the plane of the third wheel 
only need be turned4 ,if the axis of no 
two are common1 then the planes of two  

of the wheels must be turned in order   
that the three axes may meet in a point4
  ,not only does free rolling depend on 
the suitable direction of the planes of 
the wheels1 each wheel must be able to  
run at a speed proportional to its      
distance from the point of intersection 
of the three axes1 i4e41 from the       
ever-shifting center of curvature4  ,the
 most obvious way1 then1 of contriving a
 three wheeler is to drive one wheel1   
steer with another1 and leave the third1
 which must be opposite the driver1     
idle4 ,the next in simplicity is to     
drive with one wheel1 and steer with the
 other two1 having one in front and the 
other behind4 ,so far then1 the single  
driving rear-steerer and the ,coventry  
rotary pattern are easily understood4   
,the evils of single driving1 minimized1
 it is true1 to a large extent1 in the  
,coventry rotary1 have led to the       
contrivance of means by which a wheel on
 each side may be driven without        
interfering with their differential     

motion in turning a corner4  ,three     
methods are commonly used1 but as only  
two are employed on tricycles1 ,i shall 
leave the third till ,i come to the     
special machine for which it is         
necessary4 ,the most easy to understand 
is the clutch1 a model of which ,i have 
on the table4 ,if each main wheel is    
driven by means of one of these1 though 
compelled to go forward by the          
crankshaft1 it is yet free to go faster 
without restraint4 ,by this means double
 driving is effected in several forms of
 tricycle4  ,differential gear1 which is
 well understood1 and of which there are
 several mechanically equivalent forms1 
divides the applied driving power1      
whether forward or backward1 between the
 main wheels1 equally if the gear is    
perfect1 unequally if imperfect4 ,to    
understand the effect of the two systems
 of driving1 and of single driving1 let 
us place on grooves a block which offers
 resistance to a moving force4 ,if we   
wish to move it1 and apply our force at 

the end of one side1 it will tend to    
turn round as well as move forward1 and 
much friction will be spent on the      
guides by their keeping it straight4    
,this is the single driver4 ,if1 instead
 of applying force at one side1 we push 
the block bodily forward by a beam      
moving parallel to itself1 then so long 
as the guides are straight no strain    
will be put upon them1 even though one  
side of the block is resisted more than 
the other2 if1 however1 the guides      
compelled the block to travel round a   
curve1 then the power1 instead of being 
divided between the two sides in such   
proportion as is necessary to relieve   
the guides of all strain1 is suddenly   
applied only to the inside1 and the     
effect is that of a single driver only4 
,this is the clutch4 ,lastly1 if the    
last-mentioned beam1 instead of being   
pushed along parallel to itself1 were   
pivoted in the middle1 and that pivot   
only pushed1 the same power would be    
applied to each side of the block1 and  

no strain would be thrown on the guides1
 whether straight or curved1 so long as 
the resistance opposed to the block on  
the two sides were equal2 if1 however1  
one side met with more resistance than  
the other1 then the guides would have to
 keep the block straight4 ,this is the  
differential gear4  ,i have assumed that
 in the last case the force was applied 
to the middle of the beam2 this         
corresponds to every evenly-balanced    
gear4 ,in the gear employed by ,singer1 
which is not evenly balanced1 but which 
derives its good qualities from its     
simplicity1 the same effect is produced 
as if the beam were pivoted on one side 
of the center instead of on the center4 
,thus1 though both sides are driven1 one
 is driven more than the other4 ,on the 
whole1 there is no doubt that the       
balanced gear gives a superior action to
 the clutch1 for except when the two    
sides of the machine meet with very     
different resistance1 and then only when
 running straight1 the clutch will not  

compare with the other4 ,the clutch also
 gives rise to what is considered by    
most riders a grave defect1 the         
inability to back treadle1 while the    
free pedal1 which is an immediate       
consequence1 is considered by others a  
luxury4  ,on the other hand1 this same  
free pedal can be obtained on           
differentially driven machines to which 
speed and power gear have been applied4 
,of the relative merits of different    
forms of differential gear there is     
little to be said4 ,perhaps it will not 
be thought ,i am unduly thrusting myself
 forward1 if ,i refer to a scheme of my 
own1 in which no toothed wheels are     
employed1 but in which two conical      
surfaces are driven by a series of balls
 lying in the groove between them1 and  
jambed against them by a recessed ring4 
,i have here a large wooden diagrammatic
 model1 and a small working model in    
steel1 which shows that the new         
principle employed is correct1 namely1  
that a ball while jambed is free to     

turn1 or if turning is able to jamb4    
,all ,humbers1 and most front steerers1 
employ differential gearing2 in some    
front steerers the clutch of necessity  
is used4  ,neglecting for the present   
the different modes of transmitting     
power from the pedals to the main       
wheels1 it is possible now to consider  
the four typical builds of tricycle4    
,the only advantage that a rider can    
find in a rear-steerer is the open      
front1 so that in case of accident he   
can more easily clear himself of his    
machine2 as ,i have already remarked1   
this power of instantly escaping seems  
to be considered by many as of no       
importance4  ,in a rear-steerer which   
has not an open front1 whether driven by
 a clutch or by differential gear1 ,i   
fail to discover any good quality4 ,the 
steering of a rear-steerer is so very   
uncertain1 that such machines cannot    
safely be driven at anything like a high
 speed1 because any wheel meeting with  
an obstruction will1 by checking the    

machine1 diminish the weight on the     
steering wheel just at the time when a  
greater weight than usual should be     
applied4 ,it is for the corresponding   
reason that the steering of a           
front-steerer is so excellent2 the more 
the machine is checked by obstruction1  
by back treading1 or by the brake1 the  
greater is the weight on the front      
wheel4  ,for shooting hills1 or for     
pulling up suddenly1 no machine of any  
kind will compare with a good           
front-steerer4 ,in all respects it is   
superior to the rear-steerer if we      
except the open front1 but against this 
may be set the fact that on many the    
rider can mount from behind1 or can     
dismount in the same manner while the   
machine is in motion4 ,experience shows 
that the front-steerer is for general   
excellence1 safety1 easy management1 and
 light-running1 the best all-round      
tricycle that is to be had4  ,the       
,humber build1 which departs less from  
the ordinary bicycle than any othar1 is 

far superior to all others for speed2 it
 is1 however1 somewhat difficult to     
manage1 for the steering is not only    
delicate1 but critical1 requiring       
constant care lest a stone or other     
obstruction should take the rider       
unawares1 and steer the machine for him4
  ,the control which a skillful rider of
 the ,humber has over his machine is    
wonderful2 the elegance of the machine  
among tricycles is unequaled4 ,so great 
a favorite is this form1 especially     
among the better class of riders1 that  
almost every firm have brought out their
 own ,humber1 each with a distinguishing
 name4  ,the only improvement or change1
 whichever it may be1 that has been made
 by others with which ,i am acquainted1 
is the triple steering1 in which the    
hind wheel moves the opposite way to the
 others4 ,the corresponding change in   
the bicycle was soon discarded2 ,i do   
not know what advantage can result from 
the increased delicacy of steering here4
 ,i should have thought it delicate     

enough already4  ,one noticeable change 
in the front-steering tricycle1 which   
has been largely made1 lately1 is the   
substitution of central for side        
gearing1 in consequence of which bicycle
 cranks can be employed1 instead of the 
cranked axle1 with its fixed throw4     
,this gives an appearance of lightness  
which the older types of machine do not 
possess4  ,i now come to that very      
difficult and all-important subject1 the
 method of transmitting power from the  
body of the rider to the main axle4     
,next to the structural arrangement1    
this is most important in distinguishing
 one type of machine from another4  ,the
 first to which ,i shall refer is the   
direct action employed on the ,national 
and the ,monarch tricycles4 ,it is      
obvious that by having no separate crank
 shaft1 much greater simplicity and     
cheapness and less friction are attained
 than can be possible when the extra    
bearings and gear generally used are    
employed4 ,in this respect the direct   

action machines undoubtedly have an     
advantage1 but an advantage of any kind 
may be too dearly bought1 as it         
certainly is here4  ,in the first place1
 the direct action can only be applied  
to a rear-steering1 clutch-driven       
machine1 or single driver1 for if the   
wheels were not free to run ahead1 it   
would be impossible to go round a curve4
 ,in the second place1 the rider must be
 placed at such a height for his feet to
 work on the axle that the machine1 of  
necessity1 is very unstable1 and is     
likely to upset if ridden without great 
caution round a curve4 ,thirdly1 to     
diminish as far as possible this last   
objection1 miserable little wheels must 
be employed1 which cannot be geared up1 
that is1 made to travel faster than the 
treadles1 and so be equivalent to larger
 wheels4 ,therefore1 though it is likely
 that at such low speeds only as it is  
safe to run such a machine it may move  
more easily than a machine of a         
recognized type1 and though direct      

action would undoubtedly be advantageous
 if it did not entail defects of a most 
serious order of magnitude1 we may      
dismiss this at once from our           
consideration4 ,it is true that in the  
,monarch a few inches of height are     
gained by the hanging pedals1 but ,i    
question very much whether one machine  
is much better than the other4  ,the    
chain which is used on almost every make
 of machine cannot be considered        
perfect2 it is1 on the whole1 a dirty   
and noisy contrivance1 giving rise to   
friction where the links take and leave 
the teeth of the pulleys2 stretching1 or
 rather lengthening1 by wear1 and1      
finally1 allowing back lash1 which is   
most unpleasant4 ,in spite of all this1 
it affords a convenient and reliable    
means of transmitting power1 which is   
applicable to every type of tricycle1   
except one4  ,instead of a chain1 an    
intermediate or idle wheel has been     
tried1 but this has not been found      
advantageous4 ,the intermediate wheel   

has been removed1 and the crank and     
wheel pulley allowed to gear directly   
together1 making reverse motion of the  
feet necessary1 and possibly reducing   
friction4  ,the crank and connecting rod
 are employed in some machines4 ,if     
there are two only1 they must not be    
placed in opposite positions1 but be    
fixed at an angle1 so that there are    
times when each rod is under            
compression1 a strain which delicate    
rods cannot stand4 ,in the three-throw  
crank1 employed in the ,matchless       
tricycle1 this objection is obviated1   
for one1 at least1 is at all times in   
such a position as to be in tension4    
,the objection to the crank is the fact 
that it weakens the shaft1 and that it  
can only be used with a clutch1 not with
 a differential gear4  ,the most silent1
 neatest1 and cleanest driver1 the one  
of which the working friction is least1 
is the endless steel band1 so well known
 in connection with the ,otto bicycle4  
,this is not1 as far as ,i am aware1    

employed on any tricycle1 makers        
probably fearing lest it should slip4   
,the ,otto shows that it can safely be  
employed4  ,i have devised a scheme1 of 
which ,i now show a model1 which seems  
to me to be free from the objections    
which may be urged against other        
methods2 but ,i1 of course1 cannot be   
considered in this respect a judge4     
,eccentrics are well known as equivalent
 to cranks1 but if used in the same way1
 with a connecting rod1 either fatal    
friction or enormous ball-bearings would
 be necessary4 ,instead of these1 ,i    
connect two pair of equal eccentrics by 
an endless band embracing each1 so that 
the band acts like a connecting rod     
without friction1 and1 at the same time1
 acts by its turning power as on the    
,otto1 thus making two eccentrics       
sufficient instead of three1 and        
carrying them over the dead points4     
,there is one more system of            
transmitting power employed on a few    
machines4 ,in these1 a band or line     

passes over the circumference of a      
sector or wheel1 and the power is       
directly applied to it4 ,the motion of  
the feet in the omnicycle1 and of the   
hands and body in the ,oarsman1 is      
therefore uniform4 ,there would be no   
harm in this if it were not for the     
starting and the stopping1 which cannot 
be gradual and at the same time         
effective in machines of this type4 ,for
 this reason1 a high speed cannot be    
obtained2 nevertheless1 these machines  
are better able to climb hills than are 
tricycles with the usual rotary motion1 
for1 at all parts of the stroke--which  
may be of any length that the rider     
chooses--his driving power on the wheels
 is equal4 ,the ingenious expanding     
drums on the omnicycle make this machine
 exceptionally good in this respect1 for
 increased leverage is effected without 
increased friction1 which is the result 
of putting on the power in some of the  
two-speed contrivances4  ,having spoken 
of the ,oarsman tricycle1 ,i must       

express regret that ,i have not been    
able to find an opportunity to ride on  
or with the machine1 so that ,i cannot  
from observation form an opinion of its 
going qualities4 ,there can be no doubt 
that the enormous amount of work that   
can be got from the body in each stroke 
on a sliding seat in a boat must1       
applied in the same manner on the       
,oarsman tricycle1 make it shoot away in
 a surprising manner2 whether such      
motion1 when continued for hours1 is    
more tiring than the ordinary leg motion
 only1 ,i cannot say for certain1 but ,i
 should imagine that it would be4 ,the  
method by which the steering is effected
 by the feet1 and can with one foot be  
locked to a rigidly straight course1 is 
especially to be admired4  ,there is    
much difference of opinion with respect 
to the most suitable size for the wheels
 of machines4 ,except with certain      
machines1 this has nothing to do with   
the speed at which the machine will     
travel at a given rate of pedaling1 for 

the wheels may be geared up or down to  
any extent1 that is made to turn more   
quickly or slowly than the cranks4 ,thus
 the most suitable speeding is a        
separate question1 and must be treated  
by itself4  ,large wheels are far       
superior to small wheels in allowing    
comfortable1 easy motion1 a matter of   
considerable importance in a long       
journey4 ,they are also far better than 
small for running over loose or muddy   
ground1 for with a given weight upon    
them they sink in less1 from the longer 
bearing they present1 and this1 combined
 with their less curvature1 makes the   
everlasting ascent which the mud        
presents to them far less than with a   
smaller wheel4 ,on the other hand1 the  
large wheel is heavier1 and suffers more
 from air resistance than the small     
wheel4 ,for racing purposes a little    
wheel1 geared up of course1 is certainly
 better than a high wheel2 for          
comfortable traveling1 and in general1  
the high wheel is preferable4 ,though   

this is certainly the case1 it does not 
follow that large wheels are worth      
having on a machine when there is       
already one little wheel4 ,if the rider 
is to be worried with the evils of a    
little wheel at all1 it is possible that
 any advantage which large wheels would 
give him would be swamped by the        
vibration and mud-sticking properties of
 the small steering wheel4 ,one firm1 in
 their endeavors to minimize these      
evils1 have designed machines without   
any very small wheels2 all three wheels 
are large1 and a steadier and more      
comfortable motion no doubt results4    
,high and low gearing are the natural   
sequel to high and low wheels4 ,of      
course the lower the gearing the greater
 is the mechanical advantage in favor of
 the rider when meeting with much       
resistance1 whether from wind1 mud1 or  
steepness of slope4 ,in spite of this1  
for some reason which ,i cannot divine1 
the machines with excessively low gear  
do not seem to obtain so great an       

advantage in climbing hills as might be 
expected4 ,to make such a machine travel
 at a moderate speed only1 excessively  
rapid pedaling is necessary1 and the    
rider is made tired more by the motion  
of his legs than by any work he is      
doing4 ,the slow1 steady stroke by which
 a rider propels a high-geared machine  
is far more graceful and less wearying  
than the furious motion which is        
necessary on a low-geared machine4 ,the 
height up to which the driving-wheels   
are usually geared may be taken as an   
indication of the ease with which any   
class of machines runs4 ,a rider on a   
low-geared machine can start his machine
 much more quickly than an equal man on 
one that has high gearing1 and therefore
 in a race he has an advantage at first1
 which he speedily loses as his rapid   
pedaling begins to tell4 ,for ordinary  
riding the slight loss of time at       
starting is a matter of no importance   
whatever4  ,there are several devices   
which enable us to obtain the advantages

 of high and low gearing on the same    
machine1 which at the same time give the
 rider the benefit of a free pedal      
whenever he wishes4 ,on some single     
driving rear-steering tricycles the     
connection on one side is for speed1 and
 that on the other for power1 either    
being in action at the wish of the      
rider1 or both speed and power          
combinations are applied on the same    
side4 ,to drive with a power gear a     
single wheel only seems to me to be the 
height of folly2 in my opinion no       
arrangement of this type is worthy of   
serious attention4 ,among the better    
class of machines there are three       
methods by which this change is         
effected--first1 that employed on the   
omnicycle1 to which ,i have already     
referred2 secondly1 an epicyclic        
combination of wheelwork which moves as 
one piece when set for speed1 thus      
adding nothing to the working friction  
except by its weight1 but which works   
internally when set for power1 thus     

reducing to a small extent1 by the      
additional friction1 the gain of power  
which the rider desires2 thirdly1 a     
double set of chains and pulleys1 each  
set always in movement1 so that1 whether
 set for speed or power1 there is rather
 more friction than there would be if   
there were no additional chains1 but    
these are free from that increased      
friction due to toothed wheel gearing1  
from which the epicyclic contrivances   
suffer only when set for power4 ,there  
is much difference of opinion whether   
any of these arrangements are worth     
carrying1 for perhaps nine miles1 for   
the sake of any advantage that may be   
obtained in the tenth4 ,it is on this   
account that the drums on the omnicycle 
are so excellent2 whether expanded or   
not1 there is1 on their account1 no loss
 of work whatever1 for there is no      
additional friction4 ,the subject of    
these two speed gears will1 ,i hope1 be 
discussed2 it is one which1 though not  
new1 is coming more to the front1 and   

about which much may be said4  ,having  
now dealt with the means by which       
tricycles are made to climb hills more  
easily1 ,i wish to leave the subject of 
bicycles and tricycles altogether for a 
few minutes1 to say a few words which   
may specially interest those who are    
fond of trying their power in riding up 
our best known hills4 ,the difficulty of
 getting up depends to a large extent on
 the surface and on the wind1 but       
chiefly on the steepness4 ,the vague    
manner in which one hill is compared    
with another1 and the wild ideas that   
many hold who have not made any         
measurements1 induces me to describe a  
method which ,i have found specially    
applicable for the measurement of       
steepness of any hill on which a cyclist
 may find himself1 and also a scheme for
 the complete representation of the     
steepness and elevation of every part of
 a hill on a map so as to be taken in at
 a glance4 ,the force required to move  
the thing up a slope is directly        

proportional not to the angle1 but to   
the trigonometrical sine of that angle4 
,to measure this1 place the tricycle1 or
 ,otto--a bicycle will not stand square 
to the road1 and therefore cannot be    
used--pointing in direction at right    
angles to the slope of the hill1 so that
 it will not tend to move4 ,clip on the 
top of the wheel a level1 and mark that 
part of the road which is in the line of
 sight4 ,take a string made up of pieces
 alternately black and white1 each      
exactly as long as the wheel is high1   
and stretch it between the mark and the 
top of the wheel4 ,if there are n pieces
 of string included1 the slope is #a in 
n1 for by similar triangles the diameter
 of the wheel is to the length of the   
string as the vertical rise is to the   
distance on the road4 ,this gives the   
average steepness of a piece            
sufficiently long to be worth testing1  
because an incline only a few feet in   
length1 of almost any steepness1 can be 
mounted by the aid of momentum4  ,there 

is only one process1 with which ,i am   
acquainted1 which supplies a method of  
representing on a map the steepness of a
 road at every part4 ,contours1 of      
course1 show how far one has to go to   
rise #ej or #ajj feet1 but as to whether
 the ascent is made uniformly or in an  
irregular manner1 with steep and level  
places1 they tell us nothing4 ,let the  
course of a road be indicated by a      
single line where it is level1 and by a 
pair of lines where inclined4 ,let the  
distance between the lines be everywhere
 proportional to the steepness1 then the
 greatest width will show the steepest  
part1 and an intermediate width will    
show places of intermediate steepness2  
the crossing of the lines1 which must be
 distinguishable from one another1 will 
show where the direction of the slope   
changes4 ,further1 the size of the      
figure bounded by the two lines will    
show the total rise2 a great height     
being reached only by great steepness or
 by great length1 a large figure being  

formed only by great width or by great  
length4 ,those who are mathematically   
inclined will recognize here that ,i    
have differentiated the curve           
representing the slope of the bill1 and 
laid the differential curve down in     
plan4  ,having wandered off my subject1 
,i must return to more mechanical       
things1 and give the results of some    
experiments which ,i have made on the   
balls of ball bearings4 ,there is no    
necessity to argue the case of ball vs4 
plain bearings1 the balls have so       
clearly won their case1 that it would be
 waste of time to show why4 ,of the wear
 of the twelve balls forming one set    
belonging to the bearings of the wheels 
of my ,otto1 ,i have on a previous      
occasion spoken2 ,i may1 however1 repeat
 that in running #a1jjj miles1 the      
twelve balls lost in weight only        
#a_/bj4h grain1 or each ball lost only  
#a_/bej grain4 ,the wear of the surface 
amounted to only #a_/aehjjj inch2 at the
 same rate of wear1 the loss in         

traveling from here to the moon would   
amount to only #a_/cd4c of their weight4
 ,i examined each ball every #bjj miles1
 and was surprised to find that on the  
whole the wear of each1 during each     
journey1 varied very little4 ,the balls 
experimented on were a new set obtained 
from ,mr4 ,bown4 ,i also had from him   
one ball of each of each of the         
following sizes #c1 #d1 #e1 #f1 and #g  
#afths of an inch in diameter1 as ,i was
 curious to know what weight they would 
suppport without crushing4 ,as as       
preliminary experiment1 ,i placed a     
spare #e_/af ball between the crushing  
faces of the new testing machine at     
,south ,kensington1 and applied a       
gradually increasing force up to #g tons
 #i cwt41 at which it showed no signs of
 distress4 ,on removing it ,i found that
 it had buried itself over an angle of  
about #fj in the hard steel faces1 faces
 so hard that a file would not touch    
them4 ,those marks will be a permanent  
record of the stuff of which the ball   

was made4 ,the ball itself is sealed in 
a tube1 so that any one who is curious  
to see it can do so4 ,finding that the  
crushing faces were not sufficiently    
hard1 ,i made two anvils of the best    
tool steel1 and very carefully hardened 
them4 ,these1 though they were impressed
 slightly1 were sufficiently good for   
the purpose4 ,in the following table are
 the results of the crushing            
experiments3  #c_/af ball at #b tons #ac
 cwt4 did not break1 but crushed on     
removing part of the weight4   ball at  
#c tons #ae cwt4 did not break1 but     
crushed on removing part of the weight4 
#e_/af ball at #d tons #i cwt4 broke4   
#c_/h ball at #h tons #f cwt4 did not   
break1 crushed under another #abj lb4   
#g_/af ball crushed before #c tons1 with
 which ,i was starting1 had been        
applied4 ,examination showed that the   
steel bar of which it was made had been 
laminated4  ,these experiments do not   
tell much of importance2 they are       
curious1 and perhaps of sufficient      

interest to bring before your notice4   
,the fragments are all preserved in     
tubes1 and labeled1 so that any one who 
likes to see them can do so4  ,of the   
advantage which a machine which will    
collapse or fold up when desired1 but   
retain its form on the road1 offers in  
convenience1 it is unnecessary for me to
 speak4  ,of double machines1 the       
,rucker tandem bicycle seems to me to be
 in every respect the best1 but ,i      
should add that ,i speak only from      
imagination and not from experience4    
,the independent steering1 the          
impossibility of capsizing forward or   
sideways1 the position of the rider over
 his work1 the absence of any little    
wheel with its mud throwing and         
vibrating tendencies1 combine to make a 
machine which ought to be superior in   
almost every desirable quality to any   
other2 what it may be in practice ,i    
hope to hear in the discussion4  ,of    
double tricycles1 the ,sociable has been
 tried by many1 and is practically a    

failure in so far as traveling quickly  
and easily is concerned4 ,the ,tandem1  
though it presents so objectionable an  
appearance1 seems likely to become a    
favorite1 for it surpasses any single   
tricycle1 and rivals the bicycle in     
speed4 ,how it may compare in comfort or
 in safety with the single machine1     
perhaps those few who are well          
acquainted with them will say2 at any   
rate1 in the case of the ,humber1       
greater stability is given to the       
steering1 owing to the weight of the    
front rider4  ,time will not allow me to
 say more of these machines1 or to      
attack the subject of steam1 electric1  
or magic tricycles1 which ,i had hoped  
to do4 ,with steam and electricity we   
are well acquainted2 by magic tricycles1
 ,i mean those driven by a motor which1 
without any expense1 will drive one     
twenty miles an hour1 up or down hill1  
with perfect safety4 ,highway           
regulations1 and certain reasons not    
well understood1 have at present        

prevented these contrivances from making
 a revolution4  ,there remains one      
machine which must be considered        
separately1 for it cannot be classed    
with any other4 ,this is the ,otto      
bicycle4 ,my opinion of this machine is 
so pronounced that ,i do not care to    
state it fully4 ,i shall merely give the
 reasons why ,i prefer it to anything   
else1 and in so doing ,i shall be taking
 the first step in the discussion1 in   
which it will be interesting to hear    
from riders of other machines the       
reasons for their preference4  ,in the  
first place1 the evils of a third or    
little wheel1 the cause of trouble in   
all tricycles1 are avoided4 ,there is   
none of the vibration which makes all   
other machines almost unbearable to     
,ottoists1 vibration which tricyclists  
have learnt to consider a necessary     
accompaniment of cycling1 but which has1
 no doubt1 been diminished by the use of
 the spring support of the front        
steering ,humber4 ,it would be          

presumptuous in me to make any remarks  
on the effect of this vibration on the  
human system2 we shall all be anxious to
 hear what our ,chairman has to say on  
this point4 ,by having only two wheels1 
we have only two tracks1 so that we can 
travel at a fair speed along those      
places in the country called roads1     
which consist of alternate lines of ruts
 and stones1 where a three-track machine
 could not be driven1 and where1 from   
the quantity of loose limestone in the  
ruts1 a little wheel of a two-track     
tricycle would be likely to suffer4 ,by 
having no little wheel1 we can ride in  
dirty weather without having the rest of
 our machine pelted with mud1 so that   
cleaning takes less time than it does   
with anything else4 ,as ,i have already 
remarked1 the small wheel is the culprit
 which makes the bicycle and tricycle   
drive so heavily on a soft road4 ,the   
ease with which the ,otto can therefore 
be run through the mud astonishes every 
one4 ,having no little wheel1 we can    

obtain the full advantage of the high   
#ef inch wheel1 which almost every one  
prefers4 ,as ,i have ridden all         
combinations1 from a #ej inch geared up 
to #fj inch1 to a #fj inch geared level1
 ,i can speak from experience of the    
increased comfort to be derived from    
these large wheels1 though for speed    
only they do not compare with the       
smaller and lighter wheels geared up4 ,a
 further point gained by the use of two 
wheels only is the fact that the whole  
weight of machine and rider is on the   
driving-wheel1 as it is also on the     
steering-wheel1 so that by no           
possibility can the wheels be made to   
slip in the driving1 or to fail in      
steering from want of pressure upon     
them4  ,the most important consequence1 
however1 is the absence of any fixed    
frame4 ,in all machines1 bicycles and   
tricycles1 with the usual fixed frame1 a
 position is found for the saddle which 
is1 on the whole1 most suitable4 ,for   
some particular gradient it will be     

perfect2 on a steeper gradient the      
treadles will be further in advance1 but
 with a steeper gradient the rider      
should be more over the front of the    
treadles4 ,to get his weight further to 
the front1 he has to double up in the   
middle1 and assume a position in which  
he cannot possibly work to advantage4   
,the swinging frame of the ,otto carries
 the treadles1 of necessity1 further    
back1 so that the ,ottoist1 when working
 at his hardest1 is still upright1 with 
his hands in the line between his       
shoulders1 and his feet and his arms    
straight1 so that he can hold himself   
down1 and employ his strength in a      
perfectly natural position4 ,on going   
down a slope1 the fixed frame of a      
bicycle or tricycle leans forward1 and  
places the rider in such a position that
 extra weight is thrown on his arms and 
his shoulders1 whereas the swing frame  
of the ,otto goes back1 and the rider of
 necessity assumes that position in     
which his arms are relieved of all      

strain4 ,in so far as the general       
position taken by the automatic ,otto   
frame is concerned1 nearly the same     
effect can be obtained by using the     
swing frame of the ,devon tricycle1     
which can be shifted and locked in any  
position which the rider wishes1 or by  
the sliding saddle1 which can be slid   
backward or forward and locked so as to 
place the rider in one of three         
positions4 ,though the rider can by     
these devices assume nearly that        
position with respect to the treadles   
which is most advantageous1 he cannot   
obtain that curious fore and aft        
oscillation made use of by the ,ottoist 
in climbing hills1 which1 as the model  
on the table shows1 enables him to get  
past the dead points without even       
moving1 and which1 therefore1 makes the 
,otto by far the best hill-climbing     
machine there is1 if account is taken of
 the high speeding with which all       
,ottoists ride4 ,this is a proposition  
which none who knows the machine will   

question for one moment4  ,the freedom  
of motion resulting from the swing of   
the frame of the ,otto gives a          
pleasurable sensation1 which those who  
have only experienced the constrained   
motion of a three-wheeler cannot even   
understand4  ,the very peculiar method  
of driving and steering1 which seems so 
puzzling to the novice1 especially if he
 is a good rider of other machines--for 
in that case he is far worse off than   
one who has never ridden anything--give 
the rider1 when he is familiar with     
them1 a control over the machine which  
is still surprising to me4 ,in the first
 place1 the machine will run along      
straight1 backward or forward1 so long  
as the handles are let alone4 ,this     
automatic straight running is a luxury1 
for until a deviation has to be made1   
the steering handles need not be        
touched1 and the rider may1 if          
sufficiently confident1 travel with his 
arms folded or his hands in his pockets4
 ,the rigid connection between the      

cranks and the wheels does away with all
 the backlash1 which is so unpleasant   
with chain or toothed wheel gearing4    
,there is no differential gear or       
clutch1 but the machine possesses the   
advantage of the clutch over the        
differential gear when meeting with     
unequal resistance on a straight course1
 for each wheel must travel at the same 
speed2 but1 in turning a corner1 instead
 of driving the inner wheel only1 which 
is done by the clutch or both wheels    
equally1 which is the case with         
differential gear1 each wheel is driven1
 but the outer one more than the inner4 
,at high speeds1 the steering of the    
,otto has this advantage1 that whereas1 
with a given action on a tricyle1 the   
same deviation will be effected in the  
same space at high as at low speeds1 the
 same action on the ,otto will1 at high 
speeds1 produce the same deviation in   
the same time as it does at low speeds2 
and so instead of becoming more         
sensitive at high speeds1 as is the case

 with the tricyle1 the steering of the  
,otto remains the same4 ,this is because
 the steering of the tricycle depends on
 a kinematical1 that of the ,otto on a  
dynamical principle4  ,in another       
respect1 no machine can approach the    
,otto2 at almost any speed the rider    
can1 if there is reason1 instantly      
dismount1 by which action he puts on the
 brakes1 and the machine will save him  
from falling1 stopping with him almost  
instantly4 ,as is well known1 we can    
move backward and forward1 we can twist 
around and around in our own width1 or  
can ride over bricks with impunity4     
,one objection to the machine is the    
difficulty of learning1 which is        
considerable1 but which presents no     
danger4 ,this difficulty has been much  
exaggerated1 for before the present     
powerful brake was applied it did       
require considerable skill to ride it   
down a steep hill4 ,the way to do this  
must still be learnt1 but it is now     
comparatively easy4 ,for going down     

steep hills1 the front steering tricycle
 is without a rival2 ,i do not know what
 other machine will do this better than 
the ,otto4 ,lastly1 the foot straps1    
which would be a great advantage on any 
machine1 if only they were safe1 are    
not--though none but riders will believe
 it--in any way a source of danger on   
the ,otto4 ,having ridden this machine  
for close upon #aj1jjj miles1 ,i can    
speak with more authority on this point 
than can those who are not able to sit  
upon it for a moment4  ,the only        
disadvantage which the machine presents 
is the fact that it is impossible to    
remove the feet from the pedals while   
running1 without dismounting2 but though
 they must at all times follow the      
pedals1 the ,ottoist is not1 as is      
generally thought1 working when         
descending a hill4  ,the enthusiastic   
terms in which every one who has        
mastered the peculiarities of the ,otto 
speaks of it would be considered as     
evidence in its favor1 if we were not   

all considered by other cyclists to be  
in various stages of lunacy4         99 
99       99       99       99     ,,the 
,,canal ,,iron ,,works1 ,,london4       
,some interest is awakened in           
engineering circles in ,london1 just    
now1 by the approaching close of the old
 engineering works so well known as the 
,canal ,ironworks1 at the entrance to   
the ,isle of ,dogs1 ,london1 ,e4 ,this  
notable establishment stands second in  
priority in ,london--that of ,messrs4   
,maudslay1 ,sons  ,field being the      
oldest--for the manufacture of marine   
engines4 ,it was founded by the late    
,messrs4 ,seawards1 above sixty years   
ago4 ,here was originated ,seaward's    
hoisting sheers with the traveling back 
leg1 a modern example of which1 #ajj    
feet high1 in iron1 stands on the wharf4
 ,an interesting tool1 also1 is the     
large vertical boring machine for       
largest size cylinders2 ,seaward spent  
#e1jjj upon this1 and it is certainly an
 admirable tool4 ,there is also the     

large vertical slotting machine1 with a 
stroke up to #e feet #b inches1 a       
wonderfully powerful and compact        
machine4 ,the extensive collection of   
screwing tackle is1 perhaps1            
unsurpassed1 and extends up to #h inches
 diameter4 ,there is a peculiar erecting
 shop roof1 which will still repay      
examination4         99       99        
99       99       99     ,,marinoni',s  
,,rotary ,,printing ,,press4   ,the     
greatest progress that has been made in 
recent years in the art of printing is  
in the invention of the high speed press
 provided with continuous paper4  ,three
 ,french constructors1 ,messrs4         
,marinoni1 ,alauzet1 and ,derriey1 have 
brought this kind of apparatus to such a
 degree of perfection that the majority 
of foreign journals having a large      
circulation buy their presses in        
,france4 ,we reproduce in ,fig4 #a a    
perspective view of the ,marinoni press1
 and in ,fig4 #b a diagram showing the  
parts of the same4 ,in order to give a  

complete description of it1 we cannot do
 better than to reproduce the very      
interesting study that has been made of 
it by ,mr4 ,monet1 a civil engineer4    
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,marinoni',s
 ,,rotary ,,printing ,,press4  ,the     
roller1 ,j 7,fig4 #b71 is placed in the 
machine in the state in which it is     
received from the paper manufactory4    
,the paper unwinds1 runs over the       
rollers1 e and e'1 which serve only for 
tautening it1 and then passes between   
the two cylinders1 ,a and ,b4 ,the      
cylinder1 ,a1 carries the form1 and ,b  
carries the blanket1 and the paper thus 
receives its first impression4 ,it      
afterward passes between the cylinders1 
,a' and ,b'1 and receives an impression 
on the other side1 the cylinder1 ,a'1   
carrying the form1 and ,b' the blanket4 
,being now printed on both sides1 it    
passes between the cylinders1 ,,kk'1    
which cut it off and allow the sheet to 
slide between the cords of the rollers4 
,these latter lead the sheets over the  

rollers1 g h1 on which they wind1 one   
over the other1 when the rollers1 a a'1 
are in the position shown by unbroken   
lines in the cut4  ,the part of the     
machine that holds the rollers1 g h1 and
 the different cords that wind over     
them1 is the accumulator1 and it is in  
this part of the press that the sheets  
accumulate1 one over the other1 to any  
number desired4  ,the size of the       
rollers1 g h1 and their distance apart  
are so regulated that when the sheet    
reaches the accumulator1 it falls       
exactly on those that have preceded it4 
,when the proper number of sheets is in 
the accumulator 7#d or #e being the     
number most employed for afterward      
facilitating the separation into packets
 on the receiving table71 the two small 
rollers1 a a'1 advance over the rack1   
,n1 and the sheets1 instead of          
continuing to roll over into the        
accumulator1 fall on the rack and are   
deposited by it upon the receiving      
table1 ,o4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4       

#b4--,,marinoni',s ,,press4  ,the rack  
having fallen twenty times1 and         
deposited five sheets each time1 or one 
hundred in all1 the table moves in such 
a way as to prevent the sheets          
subsequently deposited from getting     
mixed with them4 ,when the rack has     
fallen twenty times1 the table returns  
to its initial position4  ,the          
distributing rollers1 ,d1 come in       
contact with the inking rollers1 ,i1    
once during each revolution of the      
printing cylinders1 and are mounted on  
racking levers provided with regulating 
screws that permit of easily regulating 
the amount of ink taken up4 ,the        
supports of the inking rollers are      
movable and can be made to approach or  
recede from the distributing rollers1 so
 as to still further vary the amount of 
ink taken up by them4  ,the distributing
 rollers supply the ink to a roller1 ,e1
 of large diameter1 which1 having a     
backward and forward motion1 begins to  
distribute the ink and to transmit it to

 a second roller1 ,f1 of the same       
diameter4 ,this latter then spreads it  
over a metallic cylinder1 ,g1 which is  
of the same diameter as the printing    
cylinders1 and against which revolve    
three distributing rollers1 ,h1 that    
have a backward and forward motion4     
,between the cylindrical inking table1  
,g1 and the type cylinder1 there are    
situated inking cylinders1 ,t1 of large 
diameter1 that constantly take up ink   
from the inking table and distribute it 
over the types4  ,the machine here      
described1 when designed for printing   
large sized journals1 has cylinders     
whose circumference corresponds to the  
size of paper for two widths of pages1  
and whose length is sufficient to allow 
it to receive two forms4 ,each cylinder1
 then1 carries four forms1 or eight in  
all1 and prints two complete copies at  
each revolution4  ,the large sheet cut  
off by the cylinders1 ,k ,k'1 contains1 
then1 two copies2 and this sheet1 on    
passing under the roller1 f is again cut

 in two by a disk which separates it in 
a direction perpendicular to the        
cylinders4  ,to this press there may be 
added a mechanical folder of ,mr4       
,marinoni's invention1 capable of       
folding a journal five times4--,annales 
,industrielles4         99       99     
99       99       99     ,,chenot',s    
,,economic ,,filter ,,press4   ,mr4 ,e4 
,chenot1 who is occupied in the         
manufacture of wine from dry grapes1 has
 been led to devise a new style of      
filter1 which by reason of its mode of  
action and its construction1 he calls   
the ,economic ,filter ,press4  ,the     
apparatus1 which is shown in the        
accompanying cut1 consists of flat bags 
whose mouth may be at the top1 as usual1
 or at the side4 ,through this orifice  
there is introduced a flat piece of wood
 or metal1 which1 like the bag1 has an  
aperture through the center4 ,the whole 
is suspended from a distributing pipe   
that is fixed at one end to the frame   
and is free at the other4 ,this pipe is 

slotted beneath1 and the pieces of wood 
or metal contain1 opposite the slot1 a  
number of small apertures that put the  
distributer in communication with the   
interior of the bags4 ,between these    
latter there are placed wire cloth      
frames which hold them in position and  
facilitate the flow of the filtered     
liquid4 ,the cut shows the filter       
provided with a portion of its bags and 
frames4 ,when all the frames are in     
place they are locked by causing the    
movable plate to move forward by means  
of two screws connected with an endless 
chain and actuated by a hand wheel4 ,the
 pressure of this plate closes up the   
bags hermetically4 ,then1 the feed cock 
being opened1 the liquid flows into all 
the bags1 deposits therein what it holds
 in suspension1 and the clarified       
product flows to the inclined bottom of 
the filter and from thence to the       
exterior4  ,illustration3 ,,chenot',s   
,,economic ,,filter ,,press4  ,the      
apparatus may be supplied either through

 an upper reservoir1 a juice elevator1  
or a pump4 ,the discharge is            
proportional to the square root of the  
pressure4 ,when the bags are full of    
residuum1 the feed cock is closed1 the  
filter is unscrewed1 and the bags and   
frames are taken out4 ,with fresh bags  
and the same frames1 it is possible to  
at once set the apparatus in operation  
again4  ,before the filter is taken     
apart1 the residuum may be exhausted by 
washing it either with water or steam1  
or by pressure4 ,to effect the operation
 by pressure1 the pieces of wood or     
metal are removed1 the mouths are closed
 by making a fold in the top of the     
bags1 and the latter are then put back  
into the apparatus or into an ordinary  
press and submitted to another          
squeezing4  ,to render the maneuvering  
of it easier1 the apparatus has been    
given a horizontal position4--,revue    
,industrielle4         99       99      
99       99       99  ,american         
,engineer     ,,steel ,,chains ,,without

 ,,welding4   ,we take the following    
description1 together with the          
illustrations1 of a method and machine  
for making steel chain without welding1 
from our valued contemporary1 ,le ,genie
 ,civil1 of ,paris3  ,when we regard an 
ordinary oval-linked chain endwise1 it  
presents itself in the form of a metal  
cross1 and it was this that gave the cue
 to ,m4 ,oury1 of the ,government       
,arsenals1 to construct chain without   
welding4 ,by a series of matrices and   
punches1 etc41 he contrives1 with small 
loss of metal1 to model a chain out of  
cross-shaped steel bar4  ,steel is the  
better material for such usage1 from its
 homogeneity1 both as to composition and
 strength4  ,referring to the plate     
below1 ,figs4 #a to #aj explain the     
successive steps from the bar to the    
finished chain4  ,fig4 #a shows in plan 
and section the steel bar1 whose length 
may be some #dj feet1 and which would   
make a chain say #ej feet long4 ,the    
shape of the bar presents no            

difficulties in the way of rolling4     
,figs4 #b and #c give1 in side          
elevations of the two faces and         
sections1 the first rough form of the   
links4 ,these first begin to take the   
exterior shape with the rounding of the 
angles4  ,the operations following1     
represented by ,figs4 #d and #e1 is the 
piercing of the center of the links1    
which can later be furnished with a stay
 for such chains as require special     
strength4 ,the point now is to detach   
the links1 which is accomplished by     
oblique piercings1 as shown in ,fig4 #f4
 ,in the operation represented by ,fig4 
#g1 the oval shape is imparted to the   
link1 and the operation finishes as     
shown in ,fig4 #h4  ,actually1 the links
 are circular and separate4 ,this       
separation is retarded as much as       
possible1 for it is plain that it is    
easier to operate a rigid bar than a    
chain1 above all when the operation     
necessitates its being pushed forward4  
,by means of a good system of heating1  

analogous to that employed on the large 
parts entering into ship construction1  
it is hoped to perform a major part of  
the operations1 of which we have given  
but an idea1 at a single heat4          
,illustration3 ,,machine ,,for ,,making 
,,chain ,,without ,,welding4  ,these    
operations require work on both faces   
alternately--this presents no           
difficulties2 but what appears to us    
most difficult to realize is continuous 
work1 the bar passing through several   
machines which successively impress upon
 it the steps of progress toward the    
finished chain4 ,if the machines are end
 on to each other in a direct line1     
there will necessarily be a fixed place 
for each tool2 the rough cut chain must 
accurately reach the point where another
 tool is ready to continue the modeling4
 ,this appears to us practically        
impossible1 the more so as the          
elongation which the bar takes at each  
stamp varies with its initial diameter4 
,what is more admissible is that with   

one heat and in the same machine an     
operation could be performed on the two 
faces perpendicularly4 ,the bar could   
then be taken from one furnace and put  
in another immediately1 to pass at once 
to another machine to again undergo the 
operations following4 ,the work could   
then be done rapidly1 submitting the bar
 to several heats4  ,a few words on the 
tools as they exist4  ,the most         
important principle to note1 and on     
which the different machines employed   
are designed1 is this3 ,the punches or  
matrices acting on the chain at its     
different points of progress are put in 
motion by spiral springs worked by means
 of tappets or cams distributed over the
 circumference of a cylinder1 having a  
rotary movement imparted to it by       
pulleys and belts4  ,the figures on our 
plate show with sufficient clearness the
 working of one of these machines4 ,it  
will be seen that the bar traverses     
through and through the machine for     
stamping1 and that it can be disengaged 

for a reheating before passing to       
subsequent operations4         99       
99       99       99       99  ,the bog 
peat of ,mexico is now being used on a  
considerable scale as fuel for          
locomotives1 stationary engines1        
smelting purposes1 smiths' fires1 and   
househould use4 ,the peat is mixed with 
a proper proportion of bitumen1 and is  
said not only to burn freely1 and       
without smoke in much quantity1 but to  
give a higher dynamic equivalent of heat
 than the same amount of wood4          
99       99       99       99       99  
,,the ,,bitter ,,substance ,,of ,,hops4 
,footnote3 ,the ,brewers' ,guardian1    
from the ,zeit4 f4 d4 gesammte          
,brauwesen4  ,by ,,dr4 ,h4 ,,bungener4  
,little that is definite is known of the
 substance or substances to which the   
hop owes its bitterness4 ,lermer has    
succeeded1 it is true1 in separating    
from hops a crystallized colorless      
substance1 insoluble in water1 an       
alkaline solution of which has a marked 

bitter flavor1 and which easily changes 
on exposure to the air1 assuming a      
resinous form4 ,according to ,lermer1   
the formula of this substance is        
,c#cb;,h#ej,o#g2 it possesses the       
properties of a weak acid and forms a   
characteristic copper salt1 which is    
soluble in ether4 ,this hop bitter is1  
however1 produced from the hop by a very
 roundabout process1 by treatment of the
 extract with alkalies2 it is not       
therefore regarded by many as present in
 this form in the hop1 and they hold    
that it is only produced by the action  
of the alkalies4 ,on the other hand1    
however1 ,etti1 by a complicated        
extracting process1 but without using an
 alkali1 succeeded in producing a bitter
 substance from hops1 which is1 however1
 soluble in water4  ,several experiments
 convinced me that there really existed 
in hops a crystallizable substance1     
insoluble in water1 the alcoholic and   
alkaline solution of which had a bitter 
flavor1 in short1 which possessed all   

the properties of ,lermer's hop bitter  
acid4 ,petroleum ether is the best      
practical solvent in use for its        
isolation1 as it does not dissolve the  
majority of the remaining constituents  
of the hop1 especially the hop-resin1   
which they contain in considerable      
quantity4 ,still1 the extraction of     
hop-bitter acid from hops is a          
troublesome and thankless job1 the      
petroleum ether taking up certain       
substances which add greatly to the     
difficulty of purifying the crystals4   
,on the other hand1 we can readily and  
quickly attain our object1 if we employ 
for our original material fresh lupuline
 from unsulphured hops4  ,the following 
process has furnished me the best       
results3  ,the lupuline is first freed  
from gross impurities 7hop-seed leaves1 
etc471 and then covered with petroleum  
ether boiling at a low temperature 7#dj 
to #gj7 in stoppered flasks4 ,the       
mixture is shaken up from time to time4 
,after twenty-four hours1 by means of a 

,zullowsky filter immersed in the mass1 
and with the aid of a suction-pump1 the 
dark brown solution is drawn off2 then  
fresh ether is poured on to the         
lupuline1 and it is allowed to stand for
 another twenty-four hours4 ,after this 
process has been three times repeated1  
nearly everything the petroleum will    
dissolve has probably been extracted4   
,the solutions are put together1 and the
 petroleum ether distilled off in vacuo 
at a low temperature1 until there       
remains in the flask a dark brown sirup1
 which on cooling solidifies into a     
crystalline mass4 ,this is pulverized   
and turned on to a filter composed of a 
large funnel1 in which a smaller funnel 
covered with muslin is inserted4 ,with  
the aid of a suction-pump1 the greater  
portion of the thick1 crude solution can
 be filtered through4 ,there remains on 
the filter a highly colored crystalline 
cake1 which should be pulverized with a 
small quantity of petroleum ether and   
again filtered4 ,after this operation   

has been repeated three or four times1  
we obtain an almost colorless mass1     
consisting of hop-bitter acid1          
contaminated by small quantities of a   
fatty substance1 and a substance which  
,i could not isolate1 and which ,i had  
at first great trouble in separating    
from the hop-bitter acid4  ,if we do not
 wish to utilize this crude substance at
 once1 it will be necessary to melt it  
in the water bath and pour it into a    
bottle under close seal1 where it will  
at once crystallize and solidify4 ,if it
 remains exposed to the atmosphere1 it  
will soon become sticky and turn partly 
into resin4 ,six kilos of lupuline1     
which included a large proportion of    
sand1 furnished #djj grammes of crude   
hop-bitter acid4 ,the first experiments 
in crystallization with petroleum ether 
gave poor results2 it is difficult to   
produce the acid pure in large          
quantities by this process1 as a small  
quantity of the above substance         
obstinately clings to it1 and it readily

 assumes a non-crystallizable form4 ,our
 object is more readily attained if we  
crystallize it once from alcohol1 for   
which purpose we dissolve it in a little
 lukewarm alcohol1 then quickly cool the
 solution2 flakes of a fatty substance  
will be separated1 which are removed by 
filtration with the aid of a            
suction-pump4 ,then we throw a few small
 crystals of the acid into the solution1
 and after a short time crystallization 
commences4 ,as soon as it appears to be 
ended1 the mother solution is removed   
with the aid of a platinum cone1 and the
 crystals washed with a little cold     
alcohol4 ,the alcoholic mother solution1
 which still contains the chief part of 
the bitter acid1 must be quickly        
evaporated1 and the residue consigned to
 a flask4 ,the acid crystallized from   
the alcohol is then recrystallized      
several times from petroleum-ether4 ,in 
order to quickly dissolve the bitter    
substance1 it should be carefully melted
 in a flask1 and double its volume of   

ether gradually added2 on its cooling1  
we obtain beautiful prismatic crystals1 
which attain a length of #a cm41 and    
become perfectly pure after four or five
 crystallizations4 ,the mother solutions
 must be speedily evaporated if we still
 wish to obtain crystals2 after a time  
they will only furnish a resinous       
residue4  ,the hop-bitter acid melts at 
#ib to #ic4 ,it is easily soluble in    
alcohol1 ether1 benzol1 chloroform1     
sulphide of carbon1 and vinegar2 to a   
lesser extent in cold petroleum ether1  
and not at all in water4  ,in the       
analysis ,i obtained figures which      
correspond best with those calculated   
from the formula ,c#be;,h#ce,o#d4       
,obtained4   ,calculated4               
----------------------------------------
-------   ----------  #b4 ,crystal4 #c4 
,crystal4  #e4 ,crystal4 #f4 ,crystal4  
p4c4   p4c4    p4c4     p4c4   p4c4     
p4c4    p4c4     ,c  #ge4ai   #gd4gi    
#gd4hc    #gd4i   #ge4jd   #ge4je       
#ge4jg     ,h   #h4gg    #h4ig    #h4ij 

#h4he   #h4hg    #h4hc    #h4hj     ,o  
#af4jd  ,if we shake up the ether       
solution of bitter substance with an    
aqueous solution of acetate of copper1  
the ether will assume a green color1 and
 gradually deposits a green crystalline 
powder1 a cupreous combination of the   
bitter acid4 ,it is difficult to obtain 
in a pure state1 as the solutions are   
readily subject to slight decomposition1
 accompanied by a small deposit of      
copper oxide4 ,this combination is      
readily soluble in alcohol1 to a lesser 
extent in ether1 and is insoluble in    
water4  ,in the course of analysis1 ,i  
obtained the following figures3     ,c  
#fi4d per cent4        #fi4c  per cent4 
,h     #g4ie                 #g4ih      
,cu    #g4bj                 #g4ah      
,if we suppose that the copper combines 
with two molecules of hop-bitter acid1  
by the decomposition of one of its      
atoms1 ,h1 we obtain the formula        
,c#ej;,h#fh,o#h;,cu4 ,this combination  
will contain #fi4hg per cent4 ,c1 #g4ia 

per cent4 ,h1 and #g4cc per cent4 ,cu4  
,the figures obtained do not perfectly  
coincide with those calculated2 it is   
nevertheless probable that the formula  
is correct1 and the combined substance  
analyzed was not perfectly true4  ,i    
have already referred to the fact that  
solutions of hop-bitter acid1 if left   
standing too long1 assume a yellow      
color1 and on evaporation leave only a  
yellow resinous residue4 ,this1 as its  
reaction shows1 evinces a complete      
analogy with the crystallized acid4 ,the
 dark-colored mother solution1 from     
which the crystalline cakes of bitter   
acid are obtained1 contains a large     
proportion of this resinous compound1   
which can be isolated by treatment with 
a weak soda-lye2 this substance1 like   
the crystallized acid1 is soluble in    
alkalies1 and can be precipitated from  
an alkaline solution by an acid4 ,old   
hops furnish far less crystallizable    
acid than new hops2 from some samples ,i
 have been able to obtain only a few    

crystals2 the remainder had been        
transformed into the resinous           
modification4  ,if pure hop-bitter acid 
be pulverized and exposed to the        
atmosphere1 it soon turns yellow and the
 surface assumes a resinous consistency4
 ,at the same time1 a more pronounced   
odor of fatty acids and aldehydes is    
apparent4 ,still more rapidly will this 
oxidation occur if a thin layer of an   
alcoholic solution of the acid is       
allowed to evaporate in the air4 ,on the
 other hand1 we can allow hop-oil to    
stand for days without its odor being   
perceptibly changed2 it appears to me   
more than probable that the peculiar    
smell of old hops is due far more to the
 oxidation of the bitter substance than 
to the oxidation of oil4  ,hop-bitter   
acid appears to possess the character of
 an aldehyde and of a weak acid2 for the
 present ,i am not in a position to     
state its constitution more clearly4    
,most of the oxidizing processes have an
 energetic effect on it1 forming also   

considerable quantities of valerianic   
acid4  ,the question as to whether the  
hop owes chiefly to this acid and its   
resinous modifications the property of  
imparting a pronounced bitter flavor to 
a solution1 ,i must for the present     
leave unanswered4 ,the acid and its     
isomer are both insoluble in water2 they
 are1 on the other hand1 very readily   
dissolved in hop oil2 they also furnish 
a tolerably bitter solution1 if boiled  
for a long time in water1 probably on   
their account of their gradual          
decomposition4 ,i will not for the      
present go further into the subject1 as 
,i hope soon to be in a position to give
 more definite information4         99  
99       99       99       99     ,,st4 
,,paul',s ,,vicarage1 ,,forest ,,hill1  
,,kent4   ,this vicarage1 for the ,rev4 
,frank ,jones1 has recently been        
completed from the designs of ,mr4      
,e4,w4 ,mountford1 ,a4,r4,i4,b4,a42 of  
#bb ,buckingham ,street1 ,strand1 ,w4   
,c41 and ,mr4 ,h4 ,d4 ,appleton1        

,a4,r4,i4,b4,a41 of the ,wool ,exchange1
 ,coleman ,street1 ,e4 ,c41 who were the
 joint architects4 ,the builder was ,mr4
 ,william ,robinson1 of ,lower ,tooting1
 ,s4 ,w4 ,the walls are of yellow stock 
bricks1 with red brick arches1 quoins1  
etc41 the gables being hung with        
,kentish tiles and the roofs covered    
with ,broseley tiles4 ,the internal     
joinery is of pitch pine4               
,illustration3 ,,st4 ,,paul',s          
,,vicarage1 ,,forest ,,hill4--,,view    
,,from ,,road4  ,illustration3 ,,st4    
,,paul',s ,,vicarage1 ,,forest          
,,hill4--,,view ,,from ,,garden4  ,the  
illustrations are from drawings by ,mr4 
,j4 ,stonier4--,the ,architect4         
99       99       99       99       99  
,,some ,,economical ,,processes         
,,connected ,,with ,,the ,,clothworking 
,,industry4  ,footnote3 ,read before the
 ,society of ,arts1 ,london1 ,may1      
#ahhd4  ,by ,dr4 ,,william ,,ramsay1    
,professor of ,chemistry at ,university 
,college1 ,bristol4   ,in this present  

age of scientific and technical         
activity1 there is one branch which has1
 ,i think1 been the subject of an       
article in the ,quarterly ,journal of   
,science4 ,it is one which deserves     
attention4 ,it was there termed ,the    
,investigation of ,residual ,phenomena1 
and ,i can conceive no better title to  
express the idea4 ,the investigator who 
first explores an unknown region is     
content if he can in some measure       
delineate its grand features--its       
rivers1 its mountain chains1 its plains2
 if he be a geologist1 he attempts no   
more than broadly to observe its most   
important rock formations2 if a         
botanist1 its more striking forms of    
vegetation4 ,so with the scientific     
investigator4 ,the chemist or physicist 
who discovers a new law seldom succeeds 
in doing more than testing its general  
accuracy by experiments2 it is reserved 
for his successors to note the          
divergence between his broad and        
sweeping generalization and particular  

instances which do not quite accord with
 it4 ,so it was with ,boyle's law that  
the volume of a gas varies in inverse   
ratio to the pressure to which it is    
exposed2 so it is with the ,darwinian   
theory1 inasmuch as deterioration and   
degeneration play a part which was1     
perhaps1 at first overlooked2 and       
similar instances may be found in almost
 all pure sciences4  ,i conceive that   
the parallel from the technical point of
 view is a double one4 ,for just as     
every technical process cannot be       
considered to be beyond improvement1    
there is always scope for technical     
investigation2 but the true residual    
phenomena of which ,i would speak       
to-night are waste products4 ,there is1 
,i imagine1 no manufacture in which     
every substance produced meets with a   
market4 ,some products are always       
allowed to run to waste1 yet it is      
evident that every effort consistent    
with economy should be made to prevent  
such waste2 and it has been frequently  

found that an attempt in this direction1
 though at first unsuccessful1 has      
finally been worked into such a form as 
to remunerate the manufacturer4  ,it is 
my purpose to-night to bring under your 
notice methods by which saving can be   
effected in the cloth industry4 ,i am   
aware that these methods have not much  
claim to novelty2 but ,i also know that 
there are1 unfortunately1 few works     
where they are practiced4  ,the first of
 these relates to the saving and        
utilization of the soap used in wool    
scouring and milling4 ,it is1 perhaps1  
hardly necessary to explain that woolen 
goods are scoured by being run between  
rollers1 after passing through a bath of
 soap1 and this is continued for several
 hours1 the cloth being repeatedly      
moistened with the lye1 and repeatedly  
wrung out by the rollers4 ,the process  
is analogous to ordinary washing2 the   
soap dissolves the greasy film adhering 
to the fibers1 and the dirt mechanically
 retained is thus loosened1 and washed  

away4 ,now1 in order to dissolve this   
greasy matter1 a considerable amount of 
soap must be employed2 and in the course
 of purification of the fabric1 not     
merely what may be characterized as dirt
 is removed1 but also short fibers1 and 
various dye-stuffs with which the fabric
 has been dyed1 many of which are       
partially soluble in alkaline water2    
moreover1 it invariably happens that    
some dye does not combine with the fiber
 and mordant1 thus becoming fixed1 but  
merely incrusts the fiber2 hence this   
portion is washed off when the retaining
 film of grease is removed from the     
fiber4 ,the suds1 therefore1 after      
fulfilling this purpose1 are no longer a
 pure solution of soap1 but contain many
 foreign matters2 and the problem is so 
to treat these suds as to recover the   
fat in some condition available for     
re-conversion into soap4  ,for this     
purpose wooden runnels are placed       
beneath the rollers1 through which the  
cloth passes in the scouring machine1 so

 as to collect the suds after they have 
been spent4 ,these runnels lead to a    
wooden pipe or runnel1 which receives   
the spent suds from all the scouring    
machines1 and the whole of the waste1   
instead of being let off into the       
stream1 polluting it1 delivers into a   
tank or trough1 which may also be       
constructed of wood1 but1 as it has to  
withstand the action of acid1 is better 
lined with lead4 ,this tank is          
necessarily proportioned in size to the 
number of scouring machines and the     
quantity of spent suds to be treated4   
,when a sufficient quantity has         
collected1 oil of vitriol1 diluted with 
twice its bulk of water1 is added1 one  
workman pouring it in gradually while   
another stirs the contents of the tank  
vigorously4 ,at short intervals1 the    
liquid is tested by means of litmus     
paper1 and when it shows a faint acid   
reaction1 by turning the blue paper red1
 the addition of acid is stopped4 ,the  
acid has then combined with the alkali  

of the soap1 while the fatty acids      
formerly in combination with the alkali 
are liberated1 and float to the surface 
of the liquid1 carrying with them the   
impurities in the shape of short fibers 
and dye stuffs2 the sand and heavier    
impurity1 should any be present1 sinks  
to the bottom4  ,after standing for some
 hours1 the separation is complete4 ,in 
order to separate the two layers1 the   
tank is provided with an exit in the    
side1 near the bottom1 closed by a      
sluice or valve4 ,this valve is opened1 
and the watery portion is allowed to    
escape into a sand filter bed4  ,the    
filter serves to retain any solid       
impurities which may still remain       
suspended in the water2 but it will be  
found that the escaping water is nearly 
pure4  ,the dark brown fatty acid is    
mixed with a large amount of impurity1  
such as short wool fibers1 burrs1 sand1 
and dye stuffs washed from the wool4 ,to
 remove water more completely1 the      
semi-fluid mass is pumped from the tank1

 and delivered into hair-cloth filters2 
the liquid which drains from these bags 
finds its ways to the sand filters      
joining the drainage which formerly     
passed out from the tank through the    
sluice4 ,after being turned over in the 
filter several times1 the residue is    
transferred to canvas sacks4 ,these     
sacks are placed in a filter press1     
where they are exposed to pressure while
 heated to a temperature sufficient to  
melt the fat4 ,the solid impurities     
remain in the bags1 while the fatty     
acids escape1 and are received in a     
barrel or tank for the purpose4 ,the    
fatty acids1 when cold1 are of a deep   
brown color1 and of the consistency of  
butter4 ,the residue is kept1 and the   
method of treating it for the recovery  
of indigo will afterward be described4  
,the fatty acids are now ready for      
conversion into soap4 ,it may here be   
remarked that1 on distillation1 they    
yield a nearly white fatty mass1 which1 
when treated with soda-lye1 is capable  

of yielding a perfectly white soap4     
,but1 for the clothworker's purpose1    
this purification is unnecessary4  ,the 
conversion into soap is a very simple   
matter4 ,as the fats are acids--a       
mixture of palmitic1 oleic1 and stearic 
acids--and not the glycerine salts of   
these acids1 like ordinary fats1 soap is
 made by causing them directly to unite 
with caustic soda4 ,the fats are melted 
in a copper1 by means of a steam-jacket1
 or coil of steam-pipe in the copper1   
and the soda-lye is run in until        
complete union has taken place4 ,the    
exact point of neutralization can easily
 be found by taking out a small sample  
after stirring1 and dissolving it in    
some methylated spirits4 ,a few drops of
 alcoholic tincture of phenol-phthalein 
are then added1 and as soon as a faint  
red color appears1 addition of soda is  
stopped4 ,this shows that the fatty     
acids have been over-saturated4         
,addition of a little more fat renders  
them perfectly neutral1 and the soap is 

then ladled out into wooden moulds1     
lined with loose sheets of zinc4  ,the  
resulting soap is of a brown color1 but 
is perfectly adapted for the purpose of 
wool-scouring4 ,it should here be       
mentioned that1 in practice1 the soap is
 always made somewhat alkaline2 in point
 of fact1 it contains about #b per cent4
 of free alkali4 ,this is found to      
assist in scouring2 ,i presume that the 
free alkali forms a soap with the oil   
added to the wool during spinning1 and  
if no free alkali be present1 this oil  
would not be so thoroughly removed4  ,it
 will be noticed that in this simple    
method of soap-making1 there is no      
salting out to separate the true soap   
from the watery solution of glycerine1  
for no glycerine is present4 ,the       
apparatus may be of the simplest nature1
 and on any required scale1             
proportionate to the size of the mill4  
,it is a process which requires no      
specially skilled labor2 in any works   
some hand may be told off to conduct the

 process as occasion requires2 and as a 
very large proportion of the fatty      
matter is recovered1 the soap-bill is   
reduced to a very small fraction of the 
amount which would be paid were recovery
 not practiced4 ,and lastly1 the streams
 are not polluted2 the only waste is a  
little sulphate of soda1 which can      
hardly be regarded as a nuisance1       
inasmuch as it is a not unfrequent      
constituent of many natural waters4     
,let us now return to the solid matter  
from which the fatty acids have been    
removed by pressure4 ,this brown1       
earthly-looking cake consists of        
vegetable impurity washed off from the  
cloth1 of short fibers1 and of various  
dye stuffs4 ,it is divided into two     
lots3 ,that which contains indigo1 and  
that which contains none1 or which      
contains too small a quantity for       
profitable extraction4 ,and it may here 
be remarked1 that it is advisable to    
collect the suds from cloth dyed with   
indigo separate from that to dye which  

no indigo has been employed4 ,the       
residue from indigo-dyed cloth has      
always a more or less blue shade1 and if
 much indigo is present1 the well-known 
copper-color is evident4 ,of course1 the
 amount of indigo must greatly vary1 but
 it may rise to #h or #aj per cent4 of  
the total weight of the refuse4  ,to    
recover the indigo from this refuse1 the
 somewhat hard cakes are broken up1     
placed in a tank1 and allowed to steep  
in water4 ,when quite disintegrated1    
they are transferred to another tank--a 
barrel may be used for small            
quantities--and thus this refuse is     
exposed to the reducing action of       
copperas and lime4 ,the indigo is       
converted into indigo-white1 and is     
rendered soluble1 and it oxidizes on the
 surface1 forming a layer of blue froth 
on the top of the liquid1 while the     
remainder of the impurities sinks4 ,this
 process of reduction may last for      
twenty-four hours1 and is helped by     
frequent stirring4  ,the indigo scum is 

preserved1 and placed in filter cloths1 
where it is thoroughly washed with water
 two or three times4 ,the residue which 
has sunk to the bottom is removed1      
dried1 and forms a valuable manure1     
owing to the amount of the nitrogen     
which it contains4 ,its value may be    
increased by addition of weak vitriol1  
which exercises a decomposing action on 
the nitrogenous matter1 forming with it 
sulphate of ammonia4 ,the original      
residue from the filter-press1 if it    
does not contain indigo1 may be at once 
put to similar use4  ,in large works1   
which dye their own goods1 it is well   
known that the fermentation vat is in   
general use for indigo-dyeing4 ,but this
 vat requires constant superintendence1 
and must be kept in continual action2   
besides1 it is successful only on a     
comparatively large scale4 ,and1        
moreover1 it requires skilled labor4    
,small works1 or works in which dyeing  
is only occasionally practiced1 find it 
more convenient to use ,schtzenberger   

and ,lalande's process4 ,although this  
process is well known1 a short          
description of it may not here be out of
 place4  ,the process depends on the    
reduction of indigo to indigo-white1 or 
soluble indigo1 by means of             
hyposulphite1 or1 as it is generally    
termed to avoid confusion with          
antichlore1 rightly named thiosulphate  
of soda1 hydrosulphite of soda4 ,the    
formula of this substance is            
,na,h,s,o#b1 as distinguished from what 
is commonly known as hyposulphite of    
soda1 ,na#b,s#b,o#c4 ,it is produced by 
the action of zinc-dust on the acid     
sulphite of soda4 ,the zinc may be      
supposed to remove oxygen from the acid 
sulphite1 ,na,h,s,o#c1 giving           
hyposulphite1 ,na,h,s#jb4 ,the reduction
 of the acid sulphite is best performed 
in a cask1 which can be closed at the   
top1 so as to avoid entrance of air4    
,the acid sulphite of soda1 at a        
strength of #ej or #fj ,twaddell        
7specific gravity #a4bf to #a4c71 is    

placed in the cask1 and zinc-dust is    
added1 with frequent stirring4 ,the     
liquid is then mixed with milk of lime1 
and after again thoroughly stirring1 the
 liquid is allowed to settle1 and the   
clear is decanted into the              
dyeing-copper4 ,the indigo1 in the      
frothy state in which it is skimmed from
 the purifying barrels or tanks1 is then
 added1 with sufficient lime to dissolve
 it when it has been reduced4 ,it is    
heated gently by a steam coil1 to about 
#ij ,fahr41 and the goods are dyed in   
it4 ,the colors obtained by means of    
this indigo are light in shade1 and the 
goods must be dipped several times if   
dark shades are required4 ,but it is    
found better in practice not to attempt 
to dye dark shades by this process2 the 
ordinary indigo-vat is better adapted   
for such work4 ,the object of not       
wasting indigo is sufficiently attained 
by employing it for the purpose to which
 it is best adapted4 ,of course the     
recovered indigo may be used in the     

ordinary manner4 ,i merely mention the  
most convenient way of disposing of it  
in works where only a small quantity is 
recovered1 and which do not practice    
dyeing on an extensive scale4  ,i have  
now to ask you to turn to a different   
subject1 namely1 the scouring of wool1  
not by the usual agent1 water1 but by a 
liquid1 bisulphide of carbon1 made by   
the action of sulphur vapor on red hot  
coke or charcoal4  ,this1 again1 is not 
wholly a new process1 for various       
attempts have been made to dissolve out 
the yolk1 or suint1 or greasy matter    
from unwashed wool1 as it comes from the
 back of the sheep4 ,fusel oil has been 
patented for this purpose4 ,carbon      
disulphide has also been patented1 but1 
as will afterward be shown1 the old     
method of removing it from the wool     
injured the color and quality of the    
fiber1 so as to make the application of 
this scouring agent a failure4  ,wool in
 its unwashed state contains a          
considerable proportion of what is      

termed suint4 ,this consists of the     
fatty matter exuded as perspiration from
 the sheep1 along with1 or in some form 
of combination with1 potash derived from
 the grass on which the sheep feed4     
,suint was first investigated by        
,vauquelin4 ,he obtained it by          
evaporating1 after filtration1 the water
 in which raw fleeces had been washed4  
,the residue is of a brown color1 and   
has a saline1 bitter taste4 ,on addition
 of an acid to its solution in water1 it
 coagulates1 and a fatty matter rises to
 the surface4 ,it is1 in fact1 a potash 
soap1 to a great extent containing      
carbonate and acetate of potash1 along  
with chloride of potassium and lime1    
probably in combination also with fatty 
acids4 ,it is usually mixed with sand   
and carbonate of lime4  ,in #ahbh1 ,m4  
,chevreul1 who is still alive in ,paris1
 although nearly a century old1         
published an analysis of merino wool4   
,it consisted of3                       
,per cent4   ,pure wool                 

#ca4bc   ,soluble suint                 
#cb4gd   ,insoluble                     
#h4eg   ,earthy matter                  
#bg4df                                  
------                                  
#ajj4jj  ,it is easily seen that suint  
forms a very important constituent of   
raw wool4 ,its proportion varies1 of    
course1 according to the nature of the  
pasture on which the sheep are fed1 the 
climate1 etc4 ,wool from ,buenos ,ayres1
 for example1 contains much less than   
that analyzed by ,m4 ,chevreul2 its     
amount is only #ab per cent4 of the     
weight of the raw wool4  ,this suint    
contains always about #eb per cent4 of  
residue when ignited4 ,the composition  
of this residue is3                     
,per cent4   ,carbonate of potash       
#hf4gh   ,chloride of potassium         
#f4ah   ,sulphate of potash             
#b4hc   ,silica1 alumina1 etc4          
#d4ba                                   
------                                  
#ajj4jj  ,in #ahei1 ,,mm4 ,maumene and  

,rogelet patented the use of the water  
in which wool has been washed as a      
source of potash1 and at present the    
extraction of potash from suint is      
practiced in ,france on a large scale4  
,the wool is washed in a systematic     
manner1 in casks1 with cold water1 which
 runs out of the last cask with specific
 gravity #a4a4 ,these washings are      
evaporated to dryness1 and the residue  
is calcined in iron retorts1 the gas    
evolved being used for illuminating     
purposes4 ,the remaining cinder1        
consisting of a mixture of charcoal and 
carbonate of potash1 is treated with    
water1 whereby the latter is dissolved  
out4 ,the residue left on evaporation of
 this water consists largely--almost    
entirely--of white carbonate of potash4 
,at present there are works at ,rheims1 
,elboeuf1 ,fourmier1 and ,vervier1 which
 yield about #a1jjj tons of carbonate of
 potash annually4 ,now1 only #ae1jjj    
tons are made per annum by ,leblanc's   
process4 ,in #ahfh1 #fb1jjj tons of wool

 were imported into ,britain from       
,australia alone1 and from this #g1jjj  
to #h1jjj tons of carbonate of potash   
might have been recovered1 the value of 
which is #bfj1jjj4 ,yet it was all      
wasted6 ,and this estimate does not     
include the fats of the suint1 which are
 worth an even greater sum4  ,now1 it is
 evident that there is here a profitable
 source of economy4 ,so far as ,i am    
aware1 no work in this country saves its
 washings4 ,the water all goes to       
pollute the nearest river4  ,the use of 
carbon disulphide has again been        
introduced1 and it is to be hoped with  
better success1 for methods have been   
devised whereby the wool is not injured 
by it1 but is even rendered better than 
when scoured by the old process of      
washing with carbonate of soda and      
water1 or by soap4 ,the process is due  
to ,mr4 ,thomas ,j4 ,mullings4 ,briefly 
described1 it consists in exposing the  
wool1 placed in a hydro-extractor1 to   
the action of bisulphide of carbon2 the 

machine is then made to revolve1 and the
 excess of solvent is expelled1 carrying
 with it the fatty matters2 the solvent 
finds its way into a tank1 from which it
 flows into a still1 heated with steam2 
the carbon disulphide1 which boils at a 
very low temperature1 distills over1 and
 is again ready for use1 while the      
residue in the still consists of suint  
washed from the wool4 ,to remove the    
last trace of carbon disulphide from the
 wool in the hydro-extractor1 cold water
 is admitted1 and when the wool is      
soaked1 the machine again revolves4 ,on 
expulsion of the water1 the wool is     
ready for washing in the ordinary       
machines1 but with cold water only      
instead of hot soapsuds4  ,the          
distinguishing features of ,mr4         
,mullings' process are1 method by which 
loss of carbon disulphide is avoided1   
and the extraction of that solvent by   
means of cold water4 ,the apparatus     
consists of a hydro-extractor or        
centrifugal machine of special          

construction1 fitted with a bell-shaped 
cover1 which can be lifted into and out 
of position by means of a weighted      
lever4 ,the rim of this cover fits into 
an annular cup filled with water1 which 
surrounds the top of the machine1       
forming an effective seal or joint4     
,upon the spindle of this machine is    
suspended1 as in ordinary forms of the  
hydro-extractor1 a perforated basket1   
and in this basket is placed the wool to
 be treated4 ,the cover being closed1   
the carbon disulphide is admitted1 and  
passing through the wool1 the greasy    
matter is dissolved1 and along with the 
solvent enters a reservoir4 ,the machine
 is now set in motion1 and the bulk of  
the solvent is drawn off4 ,cold water is
 then admitted1 and the machine being   
again caused to rotate1 the whole of the
 bisulphide is expelled4 ,it is a       
curious fact that1 although wool soaks  
remarkably easily with carbon           
disulphide1 and at once becomes wet1    
cold water expels and replaces almost   

all that liquid4 ,this operation takes  
about twenty minutes1 and at one        
operation about #a cwt4 of raw wool may 
be treated4 ,the wool is then washed in 
suitable washing machines of the        
ordinary type1 but with cold water1 no  
soap or alkali being employed4 ,the     
bisulphide of carbon1 mixed with water1 
flows into a reservoir1 provided with   
diaphragms to prevent splashing1 and    
consequent loss by evaporation4 ,from   
its gravity it sinks1 forming a layer   
below the water2 it is then separated   
and recovered by distillation1 and may  
be used in subsequent operations4  ,the 
point in which this process differs from
 the old and unsuccessful ones formerly 
tried1 is in the expulsion of the carbon
 disulphide4 ,it was imagined that it   
was necessary to expel it by means of   
heat or steam4 ,now1 when wool moist    
with bisulphide is heated1 it invariably
 turns yellow4 ,no heat must1 therefore1
 be employed4 ,as already remarked1 the 
solvent is expelled with cold water4    

,the residue1 after distillation of the 
carbon disulphide1 is a grayish colored1
 very viscous oily matter1 still        
retaining a little bisulphide1 as may be
 perceived from the smell4 ,it has not  
the composition of ordinary suint1      
inasmuch as it contains no carbonate of 
potash1 and indeed little mineral matter
 of any kind4 ,a sample which ,i        
analyzed lost in drying #cf4b per cent41
 the loss consisting of water and carbon
 disulphide4 ,it gave a residue on      
ignition amounting only to #a4f per     
cent4 of the original fatty matter1 or  
#b4e per cent4 of the dried fat4 ,the   
oil appears1 from some experiments which
 ,i made1 to be a mixture of a glycerine
 salt and a cholesterine salt of fatty  
acids4 ,it distills without much        
decomposition1 giving a brown-yellow    
oil1 which fluoresces strongly1 and has 
a somewhat pungent smell4 ,the molecular
 weight was determined by saponification
 with alcoholic potash1 and subsequent  
titration of the excess of potash       

employed4 ,this was found to equal      
#edf4c4 ,this would correspond to a     
mixture of #ah4g parts of stearate1     
palmitate1 and oleate of glycerine1 with
 #ha4c parts of the same acids combined 
with cholesteryl4 ,but this is largely  
conjecture4 ,the boiling point of the   
oil is high1 much above the range of a  
mercurial thermometer1 so that it is    
difficult to gain an insight into its   
composition4  ,an objection which has   
been raised to this process is that the 
use of such an easily inflammable       
substance as bisulphide of carbon is    
attended by great risk of fire4 ,were   
the bisulphide to be exposed to free    
air1 there might be force in this       
objection2 but there is no reason why it
 should ever be removed from under a    
layer of water4 ,the apparatus1 to make 
all safe1 should not be under the same  
roof as the mill2 and no open fire need 
be used in the building set apart for   
it4 ,it is easy to rotate the           
centrifugal machine by a belt from the  

mill1 but better by a small engine      
attached1 the power for which can be    
conducted by a small steam-pipe1 and the
 distillation of the bisulphide can also
 be conducted without danger by the use 
of steam1 as its boiling point is a very
 low one4 ,the question may be naturally
 asked1 ,how do the wool and fabric made
 from the wool scoured by this process1 
compare with that scoured in the usual  
way8 ,to answer this question ,i may    
refer to a test made by ,messrs4 ,isaac 
,holden  ,co41 at their works at        
,roubaix4 ,a sample of wool was divided 
into two portions1 one of which was     
scoured by the usual method1 and the    
other by the turbine or ,mullings'      
process4 ,skilled workers then span each
 sample to as fine a thread as possible4
 ,now the thinness to which a wool can  
be spun is evidence of its power of     
cohesion--in other words1 its strength4 
,the weight of #a1jjj meters of the wool
 cleaned by the new process bore to that
 scoured by the old process the         

proportion of #a1jae to #a1jhe1 showing 
that a considerably finer thread had    
been produced4 ,and in total quantity1  
#fg4ec kilos4 of the former corresponded
 to #ga4gg kilos4 of the latter1 showing
 a proportionately less waste4 ,such    
fine yarn had never before been obtained
 from similar wool4 ,the yarn of the    
soap-washed wool could not be spun1 for 
it could not withstand the strain2      
whereas1 that scoured by the new process
 gave an admirable thread4  ,another    
test to which it was subjected may be   
cited4 ,it is the custom in ,france1    
before the wool is scoured1 to put it   
through a sorting process1 by which all 
the short lengths are weeded out4 ,on a 
quantity exceeding #aa1jjj kilogrammes1 
half of which was scoured by the turbine
 process1 and half by the ordinary      
process1 the former in scouring lost in 
weight #b per cent4 less than the       
latter1 although the short length       
extracted from the moiety thus treated  
weighed only #aj kilogrammes1 while that

 taken from the other weighed over #aej 
kilogrammes4 ,this saving1 even with the
 unequal treatment1 amounted in value to
 from #cj to #dj centimes per           
kilogramme4  ,in order that the         
importance of this application may be   
realized1 ,i shall conclude with some   
figures3  ,the raw wool imported into   
,england1 in the year #ahhb1 amounted to
 #a1dhg1afi bales1 its total value being
 about #bb1jjj1jjj4 ,the cost of washing
 this wool by the old process1 with     
carbonate of soda1 amounts to about d4  
per lb4 of the raw material4 ,the cost  
for the total quantity of wool imported 
is at least #a1bad1jjj4 ,but it is      
customary to wash wool with soap1       
especially for the combing trade1 and   
the cost is then about #a;d4 per lb4    
,the cost of scouring by the new process
 is about #a #es4 per ton1 or #j4ac;d4  
per lb4 ,taking the least favorable     
comparison1 were all the imported wool  
7home-grown wool is here left out of the
 calculation1 for want of sufficient    

returns7 cleansed by the turbine        
process1 the actual saving would be     
#a1bad1ejj minus #cae1gjj1 or nearly    
#ijj1jjj per annum4  ,it is thus seen   
that there is room for a very important 
economy in the treatment of wool4 ,i    
have endeavored to show how economy may 
be practiced in scouring by the old     
process with soap1 and how one dye stuff
 may be profitably recovered4 ,it is to 
be hoped that means of extracting other 
dyes from the residue may soon follow4  
,unless the process were too costly to  
repay the trouble of extraction1 it     
would be well worth practicing2 for it  
would not merely be a solution of the   
problem of how to avoid waste1 but would
 at the same time prevent the pollution 
of our streams1 now1 unfortunately1 only
 too rarely pellucid2 and were the last 
process to have as successful a future  
as ,i hope it may have1 a very important
 saving of expense would result1 and a  
large quantity of valuable fatty matter 
would no longer be thrown away4         

99       99       99       99       99  
,illustration3 ,,suggestions ,,in       
,,decorative ,,art4--,,designs ,,for    
,,iron ,,gates4         99       99     
99       99       99     ,,coal ,,and   
,,its ,,uses4  ,footnote3 ,from a paper 
lately read before the ,association of  
,foremen ,engineers4  ,by ,,james       
,,pyke4   ,the records from which       
geologists draw their information can   
scarcely be compared to written or      
printed histories4 ,there are1 however1 
nations of whom no written account      
exists1 who perhaps never had any       
written history1 but about whom we are  
still able to gather from other sources 
a vast amount of information4 ,their    
houses1 their monuments1 their weapons1 
and their tools have survived1 and these
 tell us the kind of life1 the state of 
civilization1 and the skill of the men  
to whom they belonged2 from the contents
 of their tombs we learn what manner of 
men they were physically2 sometimes a   
sudden change in the appointments and   

belongings of the folk indicates that   
tribes which had for a long time        
inhabited a district were driven out and
 replaced by a new race4 ,thus1 then1   
from waifs and strays we can piece      
together a fairly connected account of  
the events of a period long antecedent  
to any written history4  ,the           
investigations of ,dr4 ,schliemann on   
the supposed site of the city of ,troy  
furnish a good example of this method of
 research4 ,he found lying1 one on the  
top of another1 traces of the existence 
of five successive communities of men1  
differing in customs and social         
development1 and was able to establish  
the fact that some of the cities had    
been destroyed by fire1 and that later  
on other towns had grown up over the    
buried remains of the earlier           
settlements4 ,the lowest layers were1 of
 course1 the oldest1 and the position of
 each layer in the pile gives its date1 
not in years1 but with regard to the    
layers above and below it4  ,now1 from  

time immemorial nature has been at work 
building up monuments and providing     
tombs which tell us what were the events
 going on1 and what kind of inhabitants 
the earth had long before man made his  
appearance on its surface4 ,the         
monuments are the rocks which compose   
the ground under our feet1 and these1   
like many ancient monuments of human    
construction1 are the tombs of the      
creatures that lived while they were    
being built4  ,many facts testify that  
the earth's crust did not come into     
existence exactly as we find it now1 but
 that its rocks have been built up by   
the slow action of natural agencies4    
,these rocks constantly inclose the     
remains of plants and animals1 and as it
 is evident that neither plant nor      
animal could have lived in the heart of 
a solid rock1 this fact shows that the  
rock must in some way have gathered     
round the remains that are now found in 
it4 ,again1 many of these remains1 or   
fossils1 belonged to animals that lived 

in water1 the larger part1 indeed1 to   
marine creatures4 ,this indicates that  
the rock was formed beneath the sea1 and
 when we examine the way in which the   
constituents of the rock are arranged1  
we frequently find it to correspond     
exactly with the manner in which the    
sand and mud that rivers sweep down into
 the sea or lakes are spread out over   
the bottom of the water4 ,in a pile of  
rocks formed in this way it is clear    
that the lowest is the oldest of all1   
and that any one stratum lying above is 
younger than the one beneath it4        
,further1 the occurrence of rocks inland
 containing marine fossils far above the
 sea level shows that the sea and land  
have changed places4 ,when1 again1 we   
find that the fossils of one group of   
rocks differ entirely from those of a   
group lying above them1 we learn that   
one race of creatures died out and was  
supplanted by a new assemblage of animal
 forms4  ,these general remarks will1 ,i
 trust1 give some notion of the evidence

 which is available for reconstructing  
the history of those remote periods with
 which geology deals1 and of the kind of
 reasoning which the geologist employs  
for interpreting the records that are   
submitted to him4  ,we will now briefly 
examine1 by aid of these methods1 the   
group of rocks in which coal occurs in  
,great ,britain1 and see how far we can 
read the story they have to tell4  ,the 
group with which we have to deal is     
called the carboniferous or coal bearing
 system1 and it includes four classes of
 rocks1 viz43 #a1 sandstone2 #b1 shale  
or bind2 #c1 limestone2 #d1 coal and    
underclay4  ,we will take the sandstones
 and shales first4 ,they are grains of  
sand known to mineralogists as quartz1  
and consisting of a substance called    
silica by chemists4 ,the grains of sand 
are bound together by a cement which in 
some few cases is identical in          
composition with themselves1 and        
consists of pure silica1 but usually is 
a mixture of sandy1 clayey1 and other   

substances4 ,the shales are made up very
 largely of clay1 mixed1 however1       
usually with sand and other substances1 
forming a conglomerate4 ,both sandstones
 and shales are divided into layers or  
beds1 and are said to be stratified4 ,it
 is this stratified or bedded structure 
that gives us the first clew to the way 
in which these rocks were formed4       
,rivers are constantly carrying down    
sand and mud into the sea or lakes1 and 
when their flow is slackened on entering
 the still water the materials they     
bring down with them sink and are spread
 out in layers over the bottom4 ,the    
structure of the sandstones and shales  
shows that they were formed in this way2
 they often inclose the remains of      
plants that have been carried down from 
land1 and occasionally of animals that  
lived in the water where they were      
deposited4  ,the next we have to        
consider is limestone1 which is mainly  
made up of a substance known to chemists
 as calcium carbonate1 or carbonate of  

lime4  ,in some districts1 especially in
 volcanic countries1 springs occur very 
highly charged with carbonate of lime4  
,the warm springs of ,matlock are a case
 in point2 they are probably the last   
vestige of volcanic action which was in 
operation in that neighborhood during   
carboniferous times4 ,limestone is      
chiefly formed by the agency of small   
marine creatures of low organization4   
,by the aid of these animals the        
carbonate of lime is brought back to a  
solid form2 at their death their hard   
parts fall to the bottom and accumulate 
in a mass of pure limestone1 which      
afterward becomes solidified into       
limestone rock4  ,the information that  
limestone gives us is this3  ,when we   
find1 as is often the case1 a mass of   
limestone hundreds of feet thick1 and   
composed of little else but carbonate of
 lime1 we know that the spot where it   
occurs was1 at the time it was formed1  
far out at sea1 covered by the clear    
water of mid ocean2 and when we find    

that this limestone grows in certain    
directions earthy and impure1 and that  
layers of shale and sandstone1 thin at  
first1 but gradually thickening out in a
 wedge-shape form1 come in between its  
beds1 we know that in those directions  
we are traveling toward the shore lines 
of that sea whence the water was        
receiving from time to time supplies of 
muddy and sandy sediment4  ,the next    
class of rocks are the clays that are   
found beneath every bed of coal1 and    
which are known as underclays1 or       
warrant1 or spavins4 ,they vary very    
much in mineral composition4 ,sometimes 
they are soft clay2 sometimes clay mixed
 with a certain portion of sand2 and    
sometimes they contain such a large     
proportion of silicious matters that    
they become hard1 flinty rock1 which    
many of you know under the name of      
gannister4 ,but all underclays agree in 
two points3 they are all unstratified4  
,they differ totally from the shales and
 sandstones in this respect1 and instead

 of splitting up readily into thin      
flakes1 they break up into irregular    
lumpy masses4 ,and they all contain a   
very peculiar vegetable fossil called   
,stigmaria4  ,this strange fossil was   
for a long time a sore puzzle to fossil 
botanists1 and after much discussion the
 question was fairly solved by ,mr4     
,binney by the discovery of a tree      
embedded in the coal measures1 and      
standing erect just as it grew1 with its
 roots spread out into the stratum on   
which it stood4 ,these roots were       
,stigmaria1 and the stuff into which    
they penetrated was an underclay4 ,sir  
,charles ,lyell mentions an individual  
sigillaria #gb feet in length found at  
,newcastle1 and a specimen taken from   
the ,jarrow coal mine was more than #dj 
feet in length and #ac feet in diameter 
near the base4 ,it is not often these   
trees are found erect1 because the      
action of water1 combined with natural  
decay1 has generally thrown them down4  
,they are1 however1 found in very large 

numbers in the roof of the coal1        
evidently having been tossed over1 and  
lying there flat and squeezed thin by   
the pressure of the measures that lie   
above them4  ,lastly1 we come to coal   
itself--a rock which constitutes a small
 portion of the whole bulk of the       
carboniferous deposits1 but which may be
 fairly looked upon as the most         
important member of that group1 both on 
account of its intrinsic value and also 
from the interest that attaches to its  
history4 ,that coal is little else but  
mineralized vegetable matter is a point 
on which there has for a long time been 
but small doubt4 ,the more minute       
investigations of recent years have not 
only placed this completely beyond      
question1 but have also enabled us to   
say what the plants were which          
contributed to the formation of coal1   
and in some cases even to decide what   
portions of those plants enter into its 
composition4 ,it is a thing so          
universally admitted on all hands1 that 

,i shall take it for granted you are all
 perfectly convinced that coal has been 
nothing in the world but a great mass of
 vegetable matter4 ,the only question   
is3 ,how were these great masses of     
vegetable matter brought together8 ,and 
you must realize that they were very    
large masses indeed4 ,just to take one  
instance4 ,the ,yorkshire and           
,derbyshire coal field is somewhere     
about #gjj to #hjj square miles in area1
 and ,lancashire about #bjj4 ,well1 in  
both these coal fields you have a great 
number of beds of coal that spread over 
the whole of them with tolerable        
regularity and thickness1 and very often
 with scarcely any break whatever4 ,and 
this is only a very small portion of    
what must have been the original sheet  
of coal1 so that you see we have to     
account for a mass of vegetable matter  
perfectly free from any admixture of    
sand1 mud1 or dirt1 and laid down with  
tolerably uniform thickness over many   
hundreds of square miles4  ,at one time 

it was supposed that coal was formed out
 of dead trees and plants which were    
swept down by rivers into the sea1 just 
in the same way as shales and sandstones
 were formed out of mud and sand so     
swept down4 ,the fatal objection to this
 theory1 however1 is that rivers would  
not bring down dead wood alone1 but they
 would bring down sand and mud1 and     
other matters1 and that in the bottom of
 the sea the dead wood would be mixed   
with these matters1 and instead of      
getting a perfectly unmixed mass of     
vegetable matter1 we should get a       
mixture of dead plants1 sand1 mud1 and  
other things1 which would give rise to  
something like coal1 but something very 
different1 as any one who tries to burn 
such coal will soon find out1 from      
really good1 pure house coal4 ,so that  
this theory1 which is generally known as
 the drift theory1 was totally          
inadequate to account for the facts as  
we know them4  ,the other theory was    
that coal was formed out of plants and  

trees that grew on the spot where we now
 find coal itself4 ,on this supposition 
it is easy to account for the absence of
 foreign admixtures of sand1 mud1 and   
clay in the coal2 and we can also       
understand very much better than by the 
aid of the drift theory how the coal had
 accumulated with such wonderful        
uniformity of thickness over such very  
large areas4 ,this theory was for some  
time but poorly received2 but after the 
discovery of ,sir ,william ,logan1 that 
every bed of coal had a bed of underclay
 beneath1 and the discovery of ,mr4     
,binney1 that these underclays were true
 soils on which plants had undoubtedly  
grown1 there was no doubt whatever that 
this was the real and true explanation  
of the matter4  ,i dare say many of you 
have had occasion to walk across peat   
bogs4 ,the peat bog is a great mass of  
vegetable matter1 which is every year   
growing thicker and thicker2 and        
underneath it there is almost always a  
bed of thin clay1 in look very much like

 the underclays1 and this thin clay is  
penetrated by the rootlets of the moss  
forming the peat1 exactly the same way  
as the underclays of the coal measures  
are penetrated by the stigmaria and its 
rootlets4 ,but you must not suppose that
 the plants out of which coal was formed
 were exactly the same low type of moss 
which forms our present peat bogs4      
,however1 it is pretty certain that they
 were for the most part of a loose1     
succulent texture1 and that they grew   
very rapidly indeed4  ,you will have    
noticed that there is one step more     
wanted to make good this theory of the  
growth of coal on the spot where we now 
find it4 ,the coal is found1 as already 
described1 interbedded with shales and  
sandstones4 ,these shales and           
sandstones1 as shown1 were formed       
beneath the water of the sea1 and as    
long as they remained there of course no
 plants could grow upon them4 ,the      
question is1 ,how was the land surface  
formed for the growth of plants8 ,it    

must have been formed in some way or    
other by the sea bottom having been     
raised above the level of the water4    
,now1 we have distinct proof in many    
cases that elevation of the sea bottom  
and depression of the land is now going 
on in many parts of the earth's surface4
 ,and1 therefore1 we shall be assuming  
nothing beyond the range of experience  
if we say that such elevations and      
depressions went on during coal measure 
times4 ,the coal measure times must have
 been times during which the same spot  
was now below the sea1 and now dry land1
 over and over again4 ,there was a land 
surface on which plants grew fast and   
multiplied rapidly1 and as they died    
fell and accumulated in a great heap of 
dead vegetable matter4 ,after a time    
this layer of vegetable matter was      
slowly and gently let down beneath the  
waters of the sea--so slowly that the   
water flowing over it did not1 as a     
rule1 disturb the loose1 pasty mass2 and
 then1 by the method ,i have described  

to you1 shales and sandstones were      
deposited on the top of this mass of    
dead vegetable matter4 ,by their weight 
they compressed it1 and by certain      
chemical changes 7which we have not time
 to go into this evening7 this dense    
mass of vegetable matter became         
converted into coal4 ,after a time the  
shales and sandstones which had been    
piled above this stuff1 which was to    
form coal for the future1 were again    
elevated to form a land surface2 upon   
this another forest sprang up1 and by   
its decay produced another mass of      
vegetable matter fit to form coal4 ,this
 again was let down below the water1    
more shales and sandstones were         
deposited on the top1 and this process  
went on over and over again till the    
whole mass of our present coal measures 
was formed4 ,you will now see how it is 
that trees are so seldom found in an    
upright position in the coal beds4 ,as  
the land went down1 they would in very  
many cases be toppled over by the water 

as it flowed against them1 or their base
 would be rotted1 and they would then   
either fall or be blown over2 that is   
the reason why in most cases they are   
found lying flat on the roof of the coal
 bed4 ,but in a few cases1 when the     
depression was very gentle and gradual1 
the trees were not overthrown1 and the  
shales and sandstones accumulated round 
them and preserved them in the position 
in which they grew4  ,i do not know that
 ,i can point out to you anything       
nowadays that exactly resembles the     
state of things that must have gone on  
during the times these coal measures    
were being formed2 but there are a great
 many cases strikingly analogous to     
them4 ,i shall not attempt to describe  
them to you1 but may just mention the   
mangrove swamps that very often fringe  
the coasts in the tropics1 and the      
cypress swamps of the ,mississippi1     
which are so well described by ,sir     
,charles ,lyell in his recent works2    
also the great ,dismal ,swamp of        

,virginia1 which appears to me to       
furnish the nearest analogue to the     
state of things that existed during coal
 measure times4  ,having explained the  
way in which coal measures have been    
formed1 we will now take a brief sketch 
of its uses and products4 ,the year     
#abei is memorable in the annals of coal
 mining4 ,hitherto the mineral had not  
been raised by authority1 but in that   
year ,henry ,,iii4 granted a charter to 
the freemen of ,newcastle-on-,tyne for  
liberty to dig coal1 and a considerable 
export trade was established with       
,london1 and it speedily became an      
article among the various manufacturers 
of the metropolis4 ,but its popularity  
was but short lived4 ,an impression     
became general that the smoke arising   
therefrom contaminated the atmosphere   
and was injurious to public health4     
,years of experience have proved the    
fallacy of the imputation2 but in #acjf 
the outcry became so general that a     
proclamation was issued by ,edward ,i   

forbidding the use of the offending     
fuel1 and authorizing the destruction of
 all furnaces1 etc41 of those persons   
who should persist in using it4         
,prejudice gradually gave way as the    
value of the fossil fuel became better  
known1 and from that time downward its  
use has become more and more extended   
down to the enormous extent of our      
present trade4 ,the annual increase in  
the production of coal in the ,british  
,isles since the year #ahed is over #b  
million tons4 ,in that year the coal    
produce was about #fe million tons1 and 
it has grown up to the year #ahhj to the
 grand total of #ace million tons4  ,we 
will now deal with some of the uses that
 this valuable black diamond is now     
being put to4 ,it is1 in the first      
place1 the center of all our enterprise 
and prosperity1 and upon it depends our 
chief success as a manufacturing nation 
for the future4 ,when it is exhausted we
 shall have to look forward to the      
condition of things which now obtains in

 those regions where there is no        
coal--that is to say1 instead of our    
being a nation full of manufacturing and
 mercantile enterprise1 a great nation  
to which all the people of the earth    
resort1 we shall be merely a people who 
live for ourselves by the cultivation of
 the ground4 ,the duration of our coal  
fields has been ascertained within      
certain limits4 ,mr4 ,hall1 an          
accomplished geologist1 tells us that in
 ,england at the present time we have a 
stock of coal sufficient for our        
consumption for no less than #a1jjj     
years4 ,on the other hand1 ,professor   
,jevons1 whose opinion is worthy of the 
very greatest weight on such questions1 
calculates that #ajj years is about the 
tenure of our coal fields1 according to 
the present rate of increase in the     
consumption4 ,whichever view we take1   
sooner or later the end must ultimately 
come when the coal will be exhausted2   
when the great mainspring of our        
commercial enterprise will be gone1 and 

we shall revert to that condition in    
which we were before the coal fields    
were worked4 ,in this point of view1    
therefore1 coal has an especial interest
 to us as engineers4 ,if coal is        
important in this direction1 it is no   
less important in a purely scientific   
point of view1 apart from any mercantile
 end4  ,the chemist or physicist will   
tell you the wondrous story that the    
black substance which you burn is simply
 so much light and heat and motion      
borrowed from the sun and invested in   
the tissues of plants4 ,he will tell you
 that when you sit round your firesides 
the flame which enlivens you1 and the   
gas which enables you to read1 and which
 civilizes you1 is nothing in the world 
but so much sunlight and so much sunheat
 bottled up in the tissues of           
vegetables1 and simply reproduced in    
your grates and gas burners4 ,very few  
persons1 ,i am afraid1 realize this1    
which is one of the many stories which  
science in its higher teachings shows   

us--one of those fairy tales which are  
the result of the most careful          
scientific investigation4 ,of the       
hundred and odd million tons of coal    
which we in this country burn in the    
course of a year1 about #bj1jjj1jjj tons
 are thrown on our house fires2         
#cj1jjj1jjj tons find their way into our
 blast furnaces1 or are otherwise used  
in the smelting and manufacture of      
metals2 about #dh1jjj1jjj are burnt     
under steam boilers2 #f1jjj1jjj are used
 in gas-making2 while the remainder is  
consumed in potteries1 glass works1     
brick and lime kilns1 chemical works1   
and other sundries which ,i need not    
speak of4  ,to go into the chemistry of 
coal is quite sufficient to take up more
 time than ,i have at my disposal this  
evening1 therefore ,i will briefly touch
 on a few of the main points4 ,coal gas 
is made1 as you are all aware1 by       
heating coal or cannel1 which is the    
special form of coal most valued for the
 purpose1 on account of the high quality

 of gas it produces in cylindrical      
fireclay retorts4  ,the by-products     
obtained in the manufacture of coal gas1
 the tar and the ammonia water1 are     
nowadays scarcely less important than   
the coal gas itself4 ,the ammonia water 
furnishes large quantities of salts to  
be used1 among other applications1 as   
food for plants4 ,we thus restore to-day
 to our vegetation the nitrogen which   
existed in plants of primeval times4    
,the tar1 black and noisome though it   
be1 is a marvelous product1 by the      
reason of scores of beautiful substances
 which are concealed within it4  ,coal  
tar when distilled yields three main    
products3 naphtha1 dead oil1 and pitch  
or asphalt4 ,the naphtha on             
redistillation yields benzine1 from     
which are prepared some of our most     
beautiful dyes2 the dead oil1 as the    
less volatile portion is termed1        
furnishes carbolic acid1 used as a      
disinfectant and antiseptic1 together   
with anthracene and naphthaline2 all    

three substances the starting points of 
new series of coloring matters4  ,this  
discovery of these coloring matters     
marks an era in the history of chemical 
science2 it exercised an extraordinary  
influence on the development of organic 
chemistry4 ,theoretical and applied     
chemistry were knit together in closer  
union than ever1 and dye followed dye in
 quick succession2 after mauve came     
magenta1 and in close attendance        
followed a brilliant train of reds1     
yellows1 oranges1 greens1 blues1 and    
violets2 in fact1 all the simple and    
beautiful colors of the rainbow4  ,but  
there is still another story of coal tar
 to be told4 ,among the many curious    
substances that wonderful fluid contains
 is the beautiful wax-like body called  
paraffine1 the development of which     
chiefly owes its origin to the genius   
and energy of ,mr4 ,james ,young4 ,as   
early as #ahdh1 ,mr4 ,young had worked a
 small petroleum spring in a coal mine  
in ,derbyshire1 and had produced oils   

suitable for burning and lubricating    
purposes1 but the spring gave out1 and  
then ,mr4 ,young sought to obtain these 
oils by distilling coal4 ,after many    
trials1 in conjunction with other       
gentlemen connected therewith1 he proved
 successful1 and the present magnitude  
of this industry is without parallel in 
the history of ,british manufactures4   
,in ,scotland alone there are about     
sixty paraffine oil works1 one alone    
occupying a site of nearly forty acres4 
,here about #abj1jjj gallons of crude   
oil are produced weekly1 and among the  
various works in ,scotland about        
#hjj1jjj tons of shale are distilled per
 annum1 producing nearly #cj1jjj1jjj    
gallons of crude oil1 from which about  
#ab1jjj1jjj gallons of refined burning  
oil are obtained in addition to the     
large quantities of naphtha1 solid      
paraffine1 ammonia1 and other chemical  
products4 ,twenty-five years ago        
scarcely a dozen persons had seen this  
paraffine1 and now it is turned out by  

the ton1 fashioned into candles         
delicately tinted with colors obtained  
from coal tar4  ,i might dwell on this  
subject until it becomes wearisome to   
you1 therefore ,i will not trespass too 
much on your time4 ,but from every point
 we look we reach this fact1 that our   
coal trade is one which develops itself 
according to laws that we are perfectly 
powerless to control2 if it seems to    
promise a less rapid increase here1 it  
is only that it may spread abroad with  
accelerated vigor elsewhere2 if it is   
our slave in some aspects1 it seems as  
if it were our master in others4        
,finally1 we have to ask1 ,what of our  
export coals8 ,rapid as has been the    
growth of our total production during   
the last twenty-three years1 the growth 
of our export of coals has been greater 
still4 ,beginning at #d1cjj1jjj tons in 
'#ed1 we find it reaching #af1bej1jjj   
tons in '#gf1 and an increase at a      
corresponding ratio up to the present   
date as far as statistics will carry us4

 ,at such a rate of increase it would   
seem as if our whole annual production  
would be ultimately swallowed up in our 
exports1 and it is not1 perhaps1        
impossible that after we have ceased to 
be to any great extent a manufacturing  
people1 a certain export trade in coal  
may still continue4 ,just the same as   
the export trade in coal preceded by    
centuries our own uses for it other than
 domestic1 so may it also survive these 
by a period as prolonged4 ,if our       
descent from our present favored        
position be a gradual one1 much may be  
done in the interval to adapt ourselves 
to the future outcome1 but it is certain
 that nothing will be done except under 
the stern persuasion of necessity4      
,when our coal fields become exhausted1 
be it soon or late1 he would be a wise  
or1 perhaps1 a rash speculator who fixed
 himself to a year or a generation4     
,being inevitable1 the best philosophy  
is to make our decline more gradual and 
less bitter4 ,sentimental regrets that  

these hills and valleys will no longer  
resound with the din of labor1 or be    
blackened by the smoke of the factory1  
would surely be out of place4 ,what we  
might regret is that ,britain1 which we 
know and are proud of1 the ,britain of  
great achievements in politics and      
literature1 of free thought and         
self-respecting obedience1 of a thousand
 years of high endeavor and constant    
progress1 was indeed to perish when     
these factories and furnaces whirled and
 blazed their last4 ,but1 it is not so4 
,this country's fortunes are gradually  
being merged into those of a ,greater   
,britain1 which largely1 through the aid
 of coal1 whose prospective loss we are 
lamenting1 has grown beyond the limits  
of these islands to overspread the      
vastest and richest regions of the      
earth2 and we have no reason to fear    
that the great inheritance that ,america
 and ,australia and ,new ,zealand have  
accepted from us will in their hands be 
dealt unworthily with in the future4    

99       99       99       99       99  
,,gaston ,,plante4   ,this eminent      
scientist was born in ,orthez           
7,department of ,basses-,pyrnes7 on the 
#bb;d of ,april1 #ahcd2 at present in   
his fiftieth year4 ,he began his        
scientific career as assistant to       
,edmund ,becquerel at the ,conservatoire
 des ,arts et ,mtiers at ,paris4 ,in the
 year #ahei1 after resigning his        
position at the above named institution1
 he entered upon his researches in      
electricity1 and has continued them ever
 since4 ,his work entitled ,recherches  
sur l',electricit is a model of clear   
language and elegant demonstration1 and 
contains all the papers presented by    
,plant to the ,paris ,academy of        
,sciences since #ahei4  ,illustration3  
,,gaston ,,plante4  ,at the ,paris      
,electrical ,exhibition in #ahha1 ,plant
 received a ,diploma of ,honor1 the     
highest distinction conferred1 while in 
the same year the ,academy of ,sciences 
voted him the ,lacaze prize1 and the    

,society for the ,encouragement of      
,national ,industry presented him with  
the ,ampre medal1 its highest award4    
,plant deserves not only the honors     
conferred upon him by his own country1  
but those of the world on account of his
 cosmopolitan character--a rarity among 
his countrymen4 ,he sends his apparatus 
to all exhibitions of any consequence2  
they appeared at ,munich and ,vienna1   
where their interpretation by the       
attendant added considerably to the     
renown of their author4--,zeitch f4     
,elektrotechnik4         99       99    
99       99       99     ,,warren       
,,colburn4   ,warren ,colburn1 the      
eminent ,american mathematician1 was    
born in ,dedham1 ,mass41 ,march #a1     
#agic4  ,he was the eldest son of a     
large family of children4 ,his parents  
were poor1 and ,warren was1 during his  
childhood1 frequently employed in       
different manufacturing establishments  
to aid the family by his small earnings4
  ,in early boyhood he manifested an    

unusual taste for mathematics1 and in   
the common district school was regarded 
as remarkable in this department4 ,he   
learned the trade of a machinist1       
studying winters1 until he was over     
twenty-two years of age1 when he began  
to fit for ,harvard ,college1 which he  
entered in #ahag and graduated with high
 honors in #ahbj4 ,he taught school in  
the winter months1 while in college1 in 
,boston1 ,leominster1 and in ,canton1   
,mass4 ,from #ahbj to #ahbc he taught a 
select school in ,boston4  ,while in    
college he was regarded as by far the   
best mathematician in his class1 and    
during this period thought there was the
 necessity for such a book as his ,first
 ,lessons in ,intellectual ,arithmetic4 
,this conviction had been forced upon   
his mind by his experience in teaching4 
,in the autumn of #ahba he published his
 first edition4 ,his plan was well      
digested1 although he was accustomed to 
say that the pupils who were under his  
tuition made his arithmetic for him2    

that the questions they asked and the   
necessary answers and explanations which
 he gave in reply were embodied in the  
book1 which has had a sale unprecedented
 for any book on elementary arithmetic  
in the world1 having reached over       
#b1jjj1jjj copies in this country1 and  
the sale still continues1 both in this  
country and in ,great ,britain4 ,it has 
been translated into most of the        
,european languages and by missionaries 
into many ,asiatic languages4  ,after   
teaching in ,boston about two and       
one-half years1 he was chosen           
superintendent of the ,boston           
,manufacturing ,company's works at      
,waltham1 ,mass41 and accepted the      
position2 and in ,august1 #ahbd1 owing  
to the mechanical genius he displayed in
 applying power to machinery1 combined  
with his great administrative ability1  
he was appointed superintendent of the  
,lowell ,merrimac ,manufacturing ,co41  
at ,lowell1 ,mass4 ,here he projected a 
system of lectures of an instructive    

character1 presenting commerce and      
useful subjects in such a way as to gain
 attention and enlighten the people4    
,for several years he delivered         
gratuitous lectures on the ,natural     
,history of ,animals1 ,light1           
,electricity1 the ,seasons1 ,hydraulics1
 ,eclipses1 etc4 ,his knowledge of      
machinery enabled him admirably to      
illustrate these lectures by models of  
his own construction2 and his successful
 experiments and simple teaching added  
much to the practical knowledge of his  
operatives4  ,he proposed to occupy the 
space between the common schools and the
 college halls by carrying1 so far as   
might be practicable1 the design of the 
,rumford ,lectures of ,harvard into the 
community of the actual workers of      
common life4  ,in the mean time he      
discharged his official duties          
efficiently1 and the superintendence of 
the schools of ,lowell was also added to
 his labors4 ,he never relinquished1    
during these busy years1 the design     

formed in his college days of furnishing
 to the children of the country a series
 of text-books on the inductive plan in 
mathematics4  ,his ,algebra upon the    
,inductive ,method of ,instruction1     
appeared in #ahbe1 and his ,sequel to   
,intellectual ,arithmetic in #ahcf4 ,he 
regarded the ,sequel as a book of more  
merit and importance than the ,first    
,lessons4  ,he also published a series  
of selections from ,miss ,edgeworth's   
stories1 in a suitable form for reading 
exercises for the younger classes of the
 ,lowell schools1 in the use of which   
the teachers were carefully instructed4 
,in ,may1 #ahbg1 he was elected a       
,fellow of the ,american ,academy of    
,sciences4 ,for several years he was a  
member of the ,examining ,committee for 
,mathematics at ,harvard ,college4  ,he 
was a member of the ,superintending     
,school ,committee of ,lowell2 and so   
busy were he and his coworkers that they
 were repeatedly obliged to hold their  
meetings at six o'clock in the morning4 

,warren ,colburn was ardently           
admired--almost revered--by the teachers
 who were trained to use his ,inductive 
,methods of ,instruction in teaching    
elementary mathematics4  ,in personal   
appearance ,mr4 ,colburn was decidedly  
pleasing4 ,his height was five feet ten1
 and his figure was well proportioned4  
,his face was one not to be forgotten2  
it indicated sweetness of disposition1  
benevolence1 intelligence1 and          
refinement4 ,his mental operations were 
not rapid1 and it was only by great     
patience and long continued thought that
 he achieved his objects4 ,he was not   
fluent in conversation2 his hesitancy of
 speech1 however1 was not so great when 
with friends as with strangers4 ,the    
tendency of his mind was toward the     
practical in knowledge2 his study was to
 simplify science1 and to make it       
accessible to common minds4  ,mr4       
,colburn will live in educational       
history as the author of ,warren        
,colburn's ,first ,lessons1 one of the  

very best books ever written1 and which1
 for a quarter of a century1 was in     
almost universal use as a text-book in  
the best common schools1 not only in the
 primary and intermediate grades1 but   
also in the grammar school classes4  ,in
 accordance with the method of this     
famous book1 the pupils were taught in a
 natural way1 a knowledge of the        
fundamental principles of arithmetic4   
,by its use they developed the ability  
to solve mentally and with great        
facility all of the simple questions    
likely to occur in the every day        
business of common life4  ,undoubtedly  
,pestalozzi first conceived the idea of 
the true inductive method of teaching   
numbers2 but it was ,mr4 ,colburn who   
adapted it to the needs of the children 
of the common elementary schools4 ,it   
has wrought a great change in teaching1 
and placed ,warren ,colburn on the roll 
as one of the educational benefactors of
 his age4  ,he died at ,lowell1 ,mass41 
,sept4 #ac1 #ahhc1 at the age of #ij    

years4--,journal of ,education4         
99       99       99       99       99  
,,thury',s ,,dynamo-,,electric          
,,machine4   ,thury's dynamo-electric   
machine1 which presents some            
peculiarities1 has never to our         
knowledge been employed outside of      
,sweden and a few neighboring regions2  
but this is doubtless due to some       
personal motive or other of its         
constructors1 since it has1 it would    
seem1 given excellent results in every  
application that has been made of it4   
,it is represented in perspective in    
,fig4 #a1 and in longitudinal section   
and elevation in ,figs4 #b and #c4  ,as 
may be seen1 it is a multipolar         
7#f-pole7 machine in which an attempt   
has been made to utilize magnetically1  
as far as possible1 all the iron used in
 the frame4 ,for this reason the system 
has been given the form of a hexagonal  
prism1 whose faces are formed of flat   
electro-magnets1 ,a1 ,a1 xxx1           
constituting the inductors4  ,the       

internal angles of this prism are filled
 by polar expansions1 ,p1 ,p1 xxx1      
alternately north and south1 that thus  
form in the interior of the apparatus an
 inscribed cylinder designed to receive 
the armature4 ,this latter belongs to   
the kinds that are wound upon a cylinder
 in which the wire is external thereto4 
,the conductors are placed upon the iron
 drum longitudinally and parallel with  
its axis4 ,but instead of being         
connected with each other at the        
posterier end of the armature1 as in the
 ,siemens system1 they are connected    
according to chords that correspond to a
 fourth1 a sixth1 or any equal fraction 
whatever of the circumference4 ,fig4 #d 
gives a perspective view of the         
cylinder1 upon which the conductors #a1 
#b1 #c1 #d1 and so on1 are placed       
according to generatrices4 ,the armature
 is supposed to be divided into six     
parts1 each conductor passing over the  
bases of the drum through a chord equal 
to the radius1 that is to say1          

corresponding to a sixth of the         
circumference4  ,three conductors are   
all connected together in such a way as 
to form but a single circuit closed upon
 itself4 ,conductor #a1 for example1 is 
connected with ,no4 #f in such a way    
that the end issuing from #a becomes the
 end that enters ,no4 #f4 ,conductor    
,no4 #c is connected in the same way    
with ,no4 #h1 and so on1 up to the last 
conductor1 which is connected in its    
turn with the end that enters the first4
  ,as the figure shows1 the conductor   
before passing from #c to #h1 for       
example1 returns several times upon     
itself in following #f and #c1 and the  
same is the case with all the rest of   
the winding4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 
,,perspective ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,thury 
,,machine4  ,in this way the cylinder   
becomes inclosed within nine rectangular
 wire frames1 each of which is connected
 with the following one by a conductor  
that is at the same time connected with 
one of the nine plates of the collector4

 ,the number of the rubbers corresponds 
to that of the inducting poles4 ,they   
may be coupled in different ways1 but   
they are in most cases united for       
quantity4  ,it will be seen that the    
,thury armature resembles1 in the system
 of winding1 those of the ,siemens      
machines and their derivatives4 ,but it 
differs from these1 however1 in the     
details connected with the coupling of  
the wires1 from the very fact that the  
features of a two-pole machine are not  
found exactly in a multipolar one4      
,illustration3 ,,figs4 #b ,,and #c4     
,this latter kind of machine is         
considered advantageous by its          
inventors1 in that there is no need of  
revolving it with much velocity4 ,it    
must not be forgotten1 however1 that    
although we reduce the velocity by this 
mode of construction1 we are1 on another
 hand1 obliged to increase the size of  
the machine1 so that1 according to the  
circumstances under which we chanced to 
be placed1 the advantage may now be on  

the one side and now on the other4      
,illustration3 ,,figs4 #d ,,and #e4  ,it
 goes without saying that ,fig4 #d is   
essentially diagrammatic1 and is        
designed to give a clearer idea of the  
mode of winding the armature4 ,in       
practice the number of the frames1 and  
consequently that of the plates of the  
conductor1 is much greater1 and the     
arrangement that we have described is   
repeated a certain number of times1 the 
conducter always forming a circuit that 
is closed upon itself4  ,the ,thury     
machines are constructed in different   
styles4 ,no4 #a is a #ajj-lamp 7#af     
candles and #ajj volts7 machine1 and    
,nos4 #b and #c are nominally #bej-lamp 
ones1 but may be more4 ,their weight is 
#a1ajj kilogrammes1 and their velocity1 
for #ajj volts1 is from #djj to #ejj    
revolutions1 according to the mode of   
coupling4  ,a later type1 now in course 
of construction1 is to furnish from #gej
 to #b1jjj lamps1 with #bej revolutions1
 for #ajj volts1 and is not to weigh    

more than #b1jjj kilogrammes4 ,let us   
add that ,messrs4 ,meuron and ,cuenod1  
the manufacturers1 have likewise applied
 their mode of winding to conductors    
arranged radially upon the surface of a 
circle4 ,fig4 #e shows this arrangement4
  ,in this case the inductors will1 it  
is unnecessary to say1 be arranged      
laterally as in all flat ring machines4 
,the arrangement will recall1 for       
example1 that of the ,victoria machines 
7,brush-,mordey74  ,we do not think that
 the inventors have applied this radial 
arrangement practically1 for it does not
 appear to be advantageous4 ,the parts  
of conductors which are perpendicular to
 the radius1 and which can be only inert
 7even if they do not become the seat of
 disadvantageous currents71 have1 in    
fact1 too great an importance with      
respect to the radial parts4--,a4       
,guerout1 in ,la ,lumiere ,electrique4  
99       99       99       99       99  
,,breguet',s ,,telephone4   ,prof4 ,g4  
,forbes gives the following description3

 ,the instrument which ,i call ,bregut's
 telephone is founded upon the          
instrument which was described by       
,lipmann1 called the capillary          
electrometer4 ,the phenomenon may be    
shown in a variety of ways4 ,one of the 
easiest methods to show it is by taking 
a long glass tube and bending it into   
two glasses of dilute acid1 and1 the    
tube being filled with acid itself1 a   
piece of mercury is placed in the center
 of the tube4 ,then if one pole of a    
battery is connected with one vessel of 
acid1 and the other pole of the battery 
is connected with the other vessel of   
acid1 at the moment of connection the   
bit of mercury will be seen to travel to
 the right or left1 according to the    
direction of the current4 ,m4 ,lipmann  
explained the action by showing that the
 electro-motive force which is generated
 tends to alter the convexity of the    
surface of the mercury4 ,the surface of 
the mercury1 looked at from one side1   
has a convex form1 which is altered by  

the electro-motive force set up when    
connection is made with the battery4    
,the equilibrium of the mercury is      
dependent upon the convexity1 and       
consequently when the convexity is      
disturbed the mercury moves to one side 
or the other4 ,lipmann also showed that 
if a tube containing a bit of mercury1  
and tapering to a point1 is taken and   
dipped into acid1 and then the tube     
filled with acid1 on one pole of a      
battery being dipped into the tube and  
another into the acid the mercury will  
move up or down1 showing similar action 
to that which ,i have just described4   
,lipmann further showed the reverse     
effect1 that if a piece of mercury be   
forcibly pressed1 so as to alter the    
convexity of its surface1 such as by    
bringing it into a narrower part of the 
tube1 then there is an electro-motive   
force produced4  ,it occurred to me1 and
 no doubt it did to ,breguet also1 that 
if we speak either against the surface  
of the glass tube1 and caused the tube  

to vibrate1 or if the mercury were      
caused to vibrate in the manner ,i have 
shown1 we ought to be able to introduce 
a varying current in the wires which    
might have sufficient electro-motive    
force to produce audible speech in a    
,bell telephone4 ,further1 the same     
instrument1 since varying electro-motive
 force affected the drop of mercury and 
produced varying displacement1 ought    
also to act as a receiving instrument1  
and should vibrate in accordance with   
the currents that arrive4 ,my           
experiments have only been in the way of
 using the instrument as a transmitter2 
but ,bregut1 ,i find1 used it as a      
receiver as well as a transmitter1      
though ,i am not aware that ,m4 ,breguet
 made any actual experiments so as to   
produce articulate speech4 ,i presume   
that this was done1 although ,i have not
 come across any description of the     
experiments1 and it was for that reason 
that ,i thought possibly some account of
 my own experiments might be interesting

 to the members of the ,society4 ,the   
first tubes that ,i used were bits of   
glass tube about a centimeter diameter1 
and simply drawn out to a tapering      
point4 ,i have the tubes here4 ,the     
first experiment ,i tried was by tapping
 the glass tube so as to mechanically   
shift the position of the mercury1 and  
by listening on the telephone for the   
effect4 ,for a long time1 at least an   
hour1 ,i could get no effect at all4 ,at
 last ,i got a sound1 but could not     
understand how it was that at one time  
of tapping ,i could not hear1 while at  
another time it was quite loud4  ,at the
 top ,i always got sound1 but at the    
side ,i got no sound1 although the      
mercury was shaking4 ,i then tried to   
see how feeble a current was audible in 
the telephone4 ,an assistant tapped the 
tube while ,i stood out of the way1 and 
where ,i could not see4 ,i got him to   
tap it gentler and gentler1 and could   
hear the most feeble tap4 ,a pellet of  
paper was next dropped from various     

heights down to an inch1 and each tap   
was perfectly audible in the telephone4 
,i tried many methods1 and one1 purely  
accidentally chosen1 was a piece of     
glass tube which ,i had drawn out into a
 tube about #b mm4 diameter1 and then   
nearly closed the end of it4 ,i have    
that tube here1 and you will see what an
 ill-shapen and ugly-looking tube it is1
 but it is one of the best tubes ,i ever
 got2 and finally1 ,i found that small  
bits of thermometer tube1 which were    
simply closed at their ends with a      
blow-pipe1 gave very good results1 and  
,i was able to make them useful for     
various purposes4 ,i then tried mounting
 a tube on the end of a speaking-trumpet
 and speaking to the mercury1 but got no
 effect4 ,in every place where ,i       
attached the glass tube itself to a     
sounding-board ,i got a very accurate   
reproduction4 ,i put one on a piece of  
ferrotype plate1 and that gave really   
the best result ,i ever got4 ,the tube  
was fastened with sealing-wax1 and with 

it ,i got excellent speech heard in a   
,bell receiver4 ,i tried putting in a   
large number of these tubes1 all in     
quantity1 on the bottom of a ferrotype  
plate1 but with no advantage4 ,i have   
not yet tried putting them in series1   
one behind the other1 so as to increase 
the electro-motive force1 but ,i think  
that probably would be an improvement2  
of course it would require many vessels 
of acidulated water to dip into4 ,the   
most distinct articulate speech was     
obtained from an ordinary ferrotype     
telephone plate1 secured at the edges1  
and one of the glass tubes you see here 
attached to it4         99       99     
99       99       99     ,,munro',s     
,,telephonic ,,experiments4   ,mr4 ,j4  
,munro1 whose name is well known not    
only as a very clear writer upon        
electrical subjects1 but as an original 
investigator1 has recently1 with the    
assistance of ,mr4 ,benjamin ,warwick1  
been conducting a most interesting      
experimental investigation of the action

 of the microphone as a telephonic      
transmitter1 with the result of proving 
that metals may advantageously be       
employed in the place of carbon in a    
transmitting instrument1 a practical    
development of one of the very earliest 
of ,professor ,hughes' microphones4 ,the
 fact that metallic electrodes can      
practically be employed in microphonic  
transmitters has been denied of late    
with so much assurance and in such high 
quarters1 that ,mr4 ,munro's successful 
applications of that portion of         
,professor ,hughes' discovery possess an
 especial interest1 and must to a       
considerable extent affect the aspect of
 litigation in future contests in which 
the discovery of the microphone and the 
invention of the carbon transmitter are 
vital points at issue4  ,in             
investigating the properties of metallic
 conductors employed in the construction
 of microphones1 ,mr4 ,munro's first    
experiments were made with wires4       
,these1 in some cases1 were caused by   

the action of a diaphragm1 to rub the   
one on the other in such a manner as to 
make the point of contact vary 7under   
the influence of the vibrations of the  
diaphragms7 on one side or other of a   
position of normal potential1 so that by
 the movement of a wire attached to a   
vibrating tympan along a fixed wire     
conveying a current from a battery1 and 
thereby shunting the current at various 
positions along the length of the fixed 
wire1 the strength of the current in the
 derived circuit1 in which was included 
a suitable receiver1 was varied         
accordingly4 ,in other experiments      
mercury was employed1 either as a       
sliding-drop1 inclosing the fixed wire1 
or as an oscillating column2 but these  
experiments1 though instructive and     
interesting1 did not for various reasons
 give encouraging results with a view to
 the practical application of the       
principle4  ,they1 however1 led ,mr4    
,munro to proceed with compound wire    
structures1 such as gratings resting    

upon or rubbing against one another1 and
 one of the first experiments in this   
direction proved very successful1 and   
led ,mr4 ,munro to the construction of  
his gauze telephone1 which is the most  
characteristic and efficient of his     
practical apparatus4  ,this instrument  
consists essentially of two pieces of   
iron-wire gauze1 the one fixed in a     
vertical plane1 and the other resting   
more or less lightly against it1 the    
pressure between them being regulated by
 an adjustable spring or weight4 ,these 
gauze plates are so connected in a      
telephonic circuit as to constitute the 
electrodes of a microphone2 for touching
 one another lightly in several points1 
they allow the current to be transmitted
 between them in inverse proportion to  
the resistance offered to it in its     
passage from one to the other4 ,under   
the influence of sonorous vibrations the
 one plate dances more or less on the   
other1 thus varying the resistance2 and 
very perfect articulation is produced in

 a telephonic receiver included in the  
circuit4 ,the gauze transmitter so      
constructed may be fixed within a       
wall-box with or without a mouthpiece2  
but as the sound waves acting directly  
upon the gauze plates set them into     
agitation through their sympathetic     
vibration or by direct impact1 no sort  
of diaphragm or equivalent device is    
necessary1 and none is employed4        
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4  ,a convenient
 form of this apparatus is shown in     
,fig4 #a1 and to which the name of ,the 
,lyre ,telephone has been given from its
 resemblance to that impossible musical 
instrument4 ,in this apparatus1 ,g is a 
plate of iron wire gauze stretched      
vertically between two horizontal wires 
attached to a lyre-shaped framework of  
mahogany2 against the plate rests the   
smaller plate1 ,g1 the normal pressure  
between them being regulated by an      
adjustable spring acting in opposition  
to a weighted lever1 ,w4 ,the two plates
 are connected respectively with the    

attachment screws1 ,x and ,y1 by which  
the instrument is placed in a circuit   
with a battery and telephonic circuit4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4  ,a           
modification of this apparatus is shown 
in the diagram sketch1 ,fig4 #b1 which  
will probably be a more practical form4 
,in this instrument the electrodes      
consist of two circular disks of iron   
wire gauze of different diameters1 the  
larger disk1 ,g1 which is fixed1 being  
pierced with holes of smaller diameter  
than the smaller disk1 ,g4 ,in the      
diagram the two disks are shown         
separated for the purpose of            
explanation1 but in reality they rest   
the one against the other2 the smaller  
and movable disk1 ,g1 is held up against
 ,g with greater or less pressure by the
 spiral spring1 ,s1 the tension of which
 can be adjusted by a screw or other    
suitable device at ,n4 ,this form of the
 apparatus is more suitable for         
inclosure in a wall box with or without 
a mouthpiece1 but it does not require   

the employment of any kind of diaphragm 
or tympan4 ,mr4 ,munro can employ with  
all his instruments an induction coil   
for installations where the resistance  
of the line wire makes it desirable to  
do so2 the microphone and battery being 
included in the primary circuit and the 
telephones in the secondary4            
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4  ,fig4 #c is  
an ingenious arrangement devised by ,mr4
 ,munro1 in which the adjusting spring  
or weight is substituted by a magnet    
which may be either a permanent or an   
electro-magnet4 ,the figure shows an    
arrangement in which the fixed gauze1 g1
 is perforated as in the apparatus      
illustrated in ,fig4 #b1 and the movable
 electrode1 g1 is bent or dished so as  
to press upon g around its edge4 ,e is a
 magnet which by its attractive         
influence upon g holds t up against g   
with a pressure dependent upon its      
magnetic intensity and upon its distance
 from the gauze4 ,by making ,e an       
electro-magnet1 and including its coil  

in the telephonic circuit1 an instrument
 may be constructed in which the normal 
pressure between the electrodes can be  
automatically adjusted to the strength  
of the current1 and in cases where an   
induction coil is employed the magnet1  
,e1 may be the core of such a coil4     
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4  ,fig4 #d     
illustrates an apparatus devised by ,mr4
 ,munro1 and to which the name          
thermo-microphone might be given1 as it 
is a microphone in which thermo-electric
 currents are employed in the place of  
voltaic currents1 its special feature of
 interest lying in the fact that the    
heated junction of the thermo-electric  
couple is identical with the microphone 
contacts of the two electrodes4 ,in this
 very elegant experiment a piece of iron
 wire gauze1 ,g1 is supported in a      
horizontal position by a light metallic 
support1 ,b4 ,to another support4 ,a1 is
 loosely hinged a frame1 which at its   
further extremity carries a little coil 
of ,german silver wire1 ,c1 which by its

 weight rests upon the center of the    
gauze plate1 ,g2 and in contact         
therewith1 and to increase the pressure 
of contact1 a little bar weight is laid 
within the convolutions of the core4    
,the two electrodes1 the gauze1 and the 
coil are connected1 as shown1 to a      
receiving telephone1 ,t4 ,upon the      
application of heat1 as from the flame  
of a spirit lamp placed below1 a        
thermo-electric current is set up       
throughout the circuit2 in this         
condition the apparatus becomes a very  
perfect microphone1 and when the        
pressure between the electrodes is      
properly adjusted it is a very efficient
 telephonic transmitter1 transmitting   
articulate speech and musical sounds    
with remarkable clearness and fidelity4 
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e  ,mr4 ,munro   
is1 with the aid of ,mr4 ,warwick's     
manipulative skill1 extending this      
portion of his investigation further by 
experimenting with gauzes and coils of  
various metals forming other couples in 

the thermo-electric series1 as well as  
with iron and other gauzes electrotyped 
with bismuth and other metals1 and we   
hope in due time to lay the results of  
those experiments before our readers4   
,mr4 ,munro has1 moreover1 observed that
 if two pieces of gauze of identical    
material and in microphonic contact be  
heated1 a peculiar sighing sound is     
heard in a telephone connected with them
 and with a battery1 and he attributes  
this phenomenon to the electrical       
discharge between the gauze plates being
 facilitated and increased by the action
 of heat1 but we are rather inclined to 
trace the effect to the mechanical      
action of the one gauze moving over the 
other under the influence of expansion  
and contraction of the metals by the    
variable temperature of the flame and   
convection currents of heated air1 such 
movement producing the sounds just as   
would be produced if one of the         
electrodes of an ordinary microphone    
were as delicately moved by the hand or 

other agent4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f  
,figs4 #e and #f illustrate another and 
distinct form of metallic microphone    
transmitter designed by ,mr4 ,munro and 
,mr4 ,warwick1 in which a small chain1  
preferably of iron1 forms the           
microphonic portion of the apparatus4   
,in ,fig4 #e1 ,a is a plate of sonorous 
wood forming a diaphragm or collector of
 the sonorous waves2 to the back of this
 is attached a short length of chain1   
,c1 the opposite ends of which are by   
the wires1 ,x and ,y1 included in the   
telephonic circuit4 ,the points of      
junction of the links with one another  
constitute the variable microphonic     
contacts1 and the normal pressure       
between them is adjusted by the spiral  
spring1 ,s1 the tension of which may be 
varied by the cord and winding pin1 ,b4 
,fig4 #f is the section of a transmitter
 constructed upon this principle1 and in
 which two chains1 c and c'1 are        
employed attached at one end by a wire1 
f1 to a diaphragm mouthpiece1 ,n1 and at

 their opposite extremities to the      
adjusting springs1 s and s'2 an         
induction coil1 ,d1 may be employed if  
the resistance of the line render it    
advantageous4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g 
,fig4 #g is a form of pencil microphone 
experimented with by ,mr4 ,munro1 which 
differs from some of the ,hughes'       
transmitters adopted by ,crossley1      
,gower1 ,ader1 and many others only in  
the material of which it is composed1   
,mr4 ,munro's being of cast iron1 while 
the others to which we have referred are
 of carbon rods such as are used in     
electric lighting4 ,in ,fig4 #g a light 
cast-iron bar1 i1 of the form shown1 is 
supported in holes drilled in two blocks
 of cast iron1 i i'1 and the pressure   
between the bar and the blocks can be   
adjusted by a regulating spring1 s4 ,in 
connection with this apparatus ,mr4     
,munro has observed that rust has no    
appreciable effect upon the efficiency  
of the instrument unless it be to such  
an extent as to cause the two to adhere1

 or to be rusted up together4           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h  ,we now come  
to another class of metallic            
transmitters with which ,mr4 ,munro and 
his associate have been making          
experiments1 and to which he has given  
the name ,grain transmitter1 since it   
consists of a box having metallic sides1
 e e'1 to which terminal screws1 t t'1  
are attached and filled in between with 
iron or brass filings1 granules of      
spongy iron1 or indeed small metallic   
particles in any form2 one of the most  
efficient transmitters being a box such 
as is shown in ,fig4 #h1 filled with a  
quantity of  in4 screws4  ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #i  ,the results of ,mr4        
,munro's experiments have led him to the
 opinion that the action of the         
microphone must be attributed to the    
action of sonorous vibrations upon the  
air or gaseous medium separating the    
so-called contact-points of the         
electrodes1 and that across these       
spaces1 or films of gaseous matter1     

silent electrical discharges take place1
 the strengths of which1 being          
determined by the thickness of the      
gaseous strata through which they pass1 
vary with the motion of the electrodes2 
and as1 according to this hypothesis1   
the distances of the electrodes from one
 another is determined by the           
sound-waves1 the sound in that way      
controls the current4--,engineering4    
99       99       99       99       99  
,,apparatus ,,for ,,maneuvring          
,,bichromate ,,of ,,potassa ,,piles     
,,from ,a ,,distance4   ,bichromate of  
potassa piles1 especially those single  
liquid ones that are applied to domestic
 lighting1 all present the grave defect 
of consuming almost as much zinc in open
 as in closed circuit1 and of becoming  
rapidly exhausted if care be not taken  
to remove the zinc from the liquid when 
the battery is not in use4 ,this        
operation1 which is a purely mechanical 
one1 has hitherto required the pile to  
be located near the place where it was  

to be used1 or to have at one's disposal
 a system of mechanical transmission    
that was complicated and not very       
ornamental4  ,in order to do away with  
this inconvenience1 which is inherent to
 all bichromate piles1 ,mr4 ,g4         
,mareschal has invented and had         
constructed an ingenious system that we 
shall now describe4  ,illustration3     
,,fig4 #a4--;,,bichromate ,,of          
,,potassium ,,pile1 ,,with ,,maneuvering
 ,,apparatus4  ,mr4 ,mareschal's plan   
consists in suspending the frame that   
carries all the battery zincs 7,fig4 #a7
 from the extremity of a horizontal     
beam1 and balancing them by means of    
weights at the other extremity4  ,the   
system1 being balanced1 the lifting or  
immersion of the zincs then only        
requires a slight mechanical power1 such
 as may be obtained from an ordinary    
kitchen jack through a combination that 
will be readily understood upon         
reference to ,fig4 #b4 ,the axis1 ,m1 of
 the jack1 on revolving1 carries along a

 crank1 ,,md1 to which is fixed a       
connecting-rod1 ,a1 whose other         
extremity is attached to the horizontal 
beam that supports the zincs and        
counterpoises4 ,if the axle1 ,m1 be     
given a continuous revolution1 it will  
communicate to the rod1 ,a1 an upward   
and downward motion that will be        
transmitted to the beam and produce an  
alternate immersion and emersion of the 
zincs4  ,upon stopping the jack at      
certain properly selected positions of  
the rod1 ,,md1 the zincs may1 at will1  
be kept immersed in the liquids1 or vice
 versa4 ,this is brought about by ,mr4  
,mareschal in the following way3 ,the   
jack carries along in its motion a      
horizontal fly-wheel1 ,v1 against whose 
rim there bears an iron shoe1 ,f1 placed
 opposite an electro-magnet1 ,e4 ,in the
 ordinary position1 this shoe1 which is 
fixed to a spring1 bears against the    
felly of the wheel and stops the jack   
through friction4 ,when a current is    
sent into the electro-magnet1 ,e1 the   

brake shoe1 ,f1 is attracted1 leaves the
 fly wheel1 and sets free the jack1     
which continues to revolve until the    
current ceases to pass into the electro4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,principle
 ,,of ,,the ,,apparatus4  ,the problem1 
then1 is reduced to sending a current   
into the electro and in shutting it off 
at the proper moment4 ,this result is   
obtained very simply by means of an     
auxiliary ,leclauche pile4 7,the piles  
got up for house bells will answer47    
,the current from this pile is cut off  
from the electro1 ,f1 by means of a     
button1 ,b1 when it is desired to light 
or extinguish the lamps4 ,in a position 
of rest1 for example1 the crank1 ,,md1  
is vertical1 as shown in the diagram to 
the right in ,fig4 #b4 ,the circuit is  
open between ,m and ,n through the      
effect of the small rod1 ,c1 which      
separates the spring1 ,r1 from the      
spring1 ,r'4 ,as soon as the circuit has
 been closed1 be it only for an instant1
 the crank leaves its vertical position1

 the rod1 ,c1 quits the bend1 ,s1 and   
the spring1 ,r1 by virtue of its        
elasticity1 touches the spring1 ,r'1 and
 continues its contact until the crank1 
,,md1 having made a half revolution1 the
 rod1 ,c'1 repulses the spring1 ,r1 and 
breaks the circuit anew4 ,the brake then
 acts1 and the crank stops after making 
a revolution of #ahj1 and immersing the 
zincs to a maximum depth4 ,in order to  
extinguish the lamp1 it is only         
necessary to press the button1 ,b1      
again4 ,the axle1 ,m1 will then make    
another half revolution1 and1 when it   
stops1 the zinks will be entirely out of
 the liquid4 ,the depth of immersion is 
regulated by fixing the crank-pin4 ,d1  
in the apertures1 ,t#a1 or ,t#b1 of the 
connecting rod4 ,this permits the       
travel1 and consequently the degree of  
immersion1 to be varied4  ,the device   
requires three wires1 two for connecting
 the lamp with the battery1 and one for 
maneuvering the apparatus through a     
closing of the contact1 ,b4  ,with ,mr4 

,mareschal's system1 bichromate of      
potassa piles may be utilized in a large
 number of cases where a light of but   
short duration is required until the    
battery is exhausted1 without the       
tedious maneuvering of a winch and      
without inconvenience4 ,the jack permits
 of a large number of lightings and     
extinctions being effected before it    
becomes necessary to wind up its        
clockwork movement4 ,this operation1    
however1 is very simple1 and may be     
performed every time the battery is     
visited in order to see what state it is
 in4  ,we regard ,mr4 ,mareschal's      
apparatus as an indispensable addition  
to every case of domestic electric      
lighting in which bichromate of potassa 
piles are used1 and1 in general1 to all 
cases where the pile becomes uselessly  
exhausted in open circuit4 ,it will     
likewise find an application in         
laboratories1 where the bichromate pile 
is in much demand because of its        
powerful qualities1 and where it is     

often necessary to order it from quite a
 distant point4--,la ,nature4         99
       99       99       99       99    
,,magnetic ,,rotations4  ,by ,e4 ,l4    
,,voice4   ,the remarkable researches   
and experiments of ,professor ,hughes   
clearly show that magnetism is totally  
independent of iron1 and that its       
molecules1 particles1 or polarities are 
capable of rotation in that metal4 ,it  
would also appear that by reason of the 
friction between magnetism and iron1 the
 molecules of the latter are only       
partially moved1 such movement being the
 result of the tendency of iron to      
retard magnetic change4  ,i have found  
that the magnetic molecules also possess
 inertia1 that they are capable of      
acquiring momentum1 and that their      
rotation continues for a considerable   
time after the exciting cause of their  
rotation has ceased4  ,these facts may  
be proved in a very evident manner1     
inasmuch as induced electric currents   
are generated by this after rotation1   

which may be made to light incandescent 
lamps4  ,in this case the magnetic      
rotations are produced in an electro    
magnet by means of alternate currents   
supplied by alternating ,gramme machine4
  ,in order to better explain the       
action1 it will be necessary to refer to
 a new electro-motor1 which was the     
subject of an article in the ,electrical
 ,review of ,february #ai last4 ,it is  
of that type of motor in which the field
 magnet and armature poles are          
alternately arranged1 and which requires
 a periodical reversibility of magnetism
 in the armature to cause the latter to 
revolve1 as in the ,griscom motor4 ,the 
insulating strips in the commutator are 
sufficiently wide to demagnetize the    
whole of the machine before             
reversibility in the armature takes     
place1 and this demagnetization sets up 
a direct induced current1 which is      
caught in a shunt circuit by the aid of 
a second commutator1 which only comes   
into action when the first commutator   

goes out4  ,when this motor is supplied 
by a continuous current1 it is easy to  
understand that the induced current     
which passes through the shunt circuit1 
and which is caused by the              
demagnetization1 is proportional to the 
mass of iron and wire of which the      
machine is composed1 or proportional to 
its inductive capacity4 ,this current is
 purely a secondary effect1 of short    
duration1 and only occurs once at each  
break of the commutator4  ,the motor is 
of such a size that when supplied with a
 continuous current of proper strength  
the induced electrical effect in the    
shunt circuit will light one            
incandescent lamp4 ,if1 however1 it is  
supplied with an alternating current of 
the same power1 it will light eight     
lamps1 and the mechanical power given   
off is even more than with a continuous 
current1 provided that the alternations 
from the dynamo do not exceed #f1jjj a  
minute4  ,at first ,i was considerably  
puzzled by this great difference1       

because in both cases it is impossible  
for the lamp circuit to be acted upon by
 the main current4 ,it occurred to me1  
however1 that the rapid alternations of 
the exciting current from the dynamo1   
and the consequent speed of magnetic    
molecular rotation1 gave the latter a   
certain momentum1 and that by widening  
the insulating strips of the first or   
main current commutator1 and            
proportionately increasing the width of 
conducting surface in the shunt         
commutator up to certain limits1 this   
effect would be increased4 ,i found such
 to be the case1 from which ,i inferred 
that the increase of induced current in 
the shunt circuit was on account of its 
longer duration1 by reason of the       
acquired momentum of the magnetic       
molecular rotations after the           
alternating exciting current had ceased4
  ,illustration  ,those who have        
facilities for carrying out experiments 
may prove it in the following manner3   
,e1 in the inclosed drawing1 is an      

electro-magnet whose brushes press on   
two metallic bands1 ,b and ,b1 fixed to 
but insulated from the spindle1 ,a4 ,the
 band1 ,b1 is in electrical circuit with
 the shunt commutator1 ,s1 and the main 
commutator1 ,m2 while the band1 ,b1 is  
in contact with shunt commutator1 ,s1   
and main commutator1 ,m4 ,this contact  
is made by conducting rods1 as          
indicated4 ,the commutators1 as regards 
their brushes1 are so arranged that when
 ,m and ,m are in action1 ,s and ,s are 
out of action1 and vice versa4 ,the     
spindle and commutators are rotated by  
the pulley1 ,p4 ,l is an incandescent   
lamp in the shunt circuit4  ,let us now 
suppose the apparatus at rest1 and the  
brushes in electrical contact with the  
main commutators1 ,m and ,m4 ,the       
current from an alternating dynamo      
passes into the magnet1 ,e1 and rapidly 
reverses its polarity4 ,by actuating the
 pulley1 ,p1 the commutators are        
rotated1 when ,m and ,m go out of1 and  
the shunt commutators1 ,s and ,s1 come  

into action1 enabling the after current 
set up in the magnet to light the lamp1 
,l1 in the shunt circuit4  ,in order to 
make comparative tests1 the same        
apparatus may be supplied with          
continuous instead of alternating       
currents4 ,the after current in the     
former case1 however1 is much smaller1  
consisting of one electrical impulse    
only at each break of the commutator1   
whereas in the alternating system these 
impulses are practically continued2 the 
result being that1 all things being     
equal1 a far greater number of lamps may
 be used in the shunt than when supplied
 by continuous current only1 and it     
would appear that this difference can   
only be attributed to the fact that the 
rotatory motion of magnetic molecules1  
or polarity of the magnet1 ,e1 acquires 
momentum when acted upon by a suitable  
physical cause1 such as alternating     
currents of electricity2 this momentum  
lasting a sensible time after the       
cessation of the acting cause4  ,if we  

had the gift of magnetic sight1 and     
could see what is going on in the       
electro-magnet when it is excited by    
alternating currents1 we should probably
 see the molecules or polarities        
tumbling over each other at an enormous 
rate4 ,i do not think1 however1 that we 
should see anything but a vibratory     
motion as regards the iron              
molecules4--,elec4 ,review4         99  
99       99       99       99  ,,amer4  
,,microscop4 ,,jour4     ,,lighton',s   
,,immersion ,,illuminator   ,the        
following extremely simple plan for an  
immersion illuminator was first brought 
to the notice of microscopists a few    
years ago1 and1 in the absence of the   
inventor1 was kindly described by ,prof4
 ,albert ,mc,calla1 at the meeting of   
the ,american ,society of               
,microscopists1 at ,columbus1 ,o4 ,it   
consists of a small disk of silvered    
plate glass1 c1 about one-eighth of an  
inch thick1 which is cemented by        
glycerine or some homogeneous immersion 

medium to the under surface of the      
glass-slide1 s4 ,let r represent the    
silvered surface of the glass disk1 b1  
the immersion objective1 f1 the thin    
glass cover4 ,it will be easily seen    
that the ray of light1 h1 from the      
mirror or condenser above the stage will
 enter the slide and thence be refracted
 to the silvered surface of the         
illuminator1 r1 whence it is reflected  
at a corresponding angle to the object  
in the focus of the objective4 ,a shield
 to prevent unnecessary light from      
entering the objective can be made of   
any material at hand1 by taking a strip 
one inch long and three-fourths of an   
inch wide and turning up one end4 ,a    
hole not more than three-sixteenths of  
an inch in diameter should be made at   
the angle4 ,the shield should be placed 
on the upper surface of the slide1 so   
that the hole will cover the point where
 the light from the mirror enters the   
glass4 ,with this illuminator ,mller's  
balsam test-plate is resolved with ease1

 with suitable objectives4 ,diatoms     
mounted dry are shown in a manner far   
surpassing that by the usual arrangement
 of mirror1 particularly with large     
angle dry objectives4  ,ottumwa1 ,ia4   
,,wm4 ,,lighton4  ,illustration3        
,,lighton',s ,,illuminator4         99  
99       99       99       99           
,,foucault',s ,,pendulum ,,experiments4 
,by ,,richard ,a4 ,,proctor4   ,science 
owes to ,m4 ,foucault the suggestion    
that the motions of a pendulum so       
suspended as to be free to swing in any 
vertical plane might be made to give    
ocular demonstration of the earth's     
rotation4 ,the principle of proof may be
 easily exhibited1 though1 like nearly  
all of the evidences of the earth's     
rotation1 the complete theory of the    
matter can only be mastered by the aid  
of mathematical researches of           
considerable complexity4 ,suppose ,a ,b 
7,fig4 #a7 to be a straight rod in a    
horizontal position bearing the free    
pendulum ,c ,d suspended in some such   

manner as is indicated at ,c2 and       
suppose the pendulum to be set swinging 
in the direction of the length of the   
rod ,a ,b1 so that the bob ,d remains   
throughout the oscillations vertically  
under the rod ,a ,b4 ,now1 if ,a ,b be  
shifted in the manner indicated by the  
arrows1 its horizontality being         
preserved1 it will be found that the    
pendulum does not partake in this       
motion4 ,thus1 if the direction of ,a ,b
 was north and south at first1 so that  
the pendulum was set swinging in a north
 and south direction1 it will be found  
that1 the pendulum will still swing in  
that direction1 even though the rod be  
made to take up an east and west        
position4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4     
,nor will it matter if we suppose ,b    
7say7 fixed and the rod shifted by      
moving the end ,a horizontally round ,b4
 ,further1 as this is true whatever the 
length of the rod1 it is clear that the 
same fixity of the plane of swing will  
be observed if the rod be shifted       

horizontally as though forming part of a
 radial line from a point ,e in its     
length4 ,in these cases the plane of the
 pendulum's swing will indeed be shifted
 bodily1 but the direction of swing will
 still continue to be from north to     
south4  ,now1 let ,p ,o ,p' represent   
the polar axis of the earth2 a b a      
horizontal rod at the pole bearing a    
pendulum1 as in ,fig4 #a4 ,it is clear  
that if the earth is rotating about ,p  
,o ,p' in the direction shown by the    
arrow1 the rod a b is being shifted     
round1 precisely as in the case first   
considered4 ,the swinging pendulum below
 it will not partake in its motion2 and 
thus1 through whatever arc the earth    
rotates from west to east1 through the  
same arc will the plane of swing of the 
pendulum appear to travel from east to  
west under a b4  ,but we cannot set up a
 pendulum to swing at the pole of the   
earth4 ,let us inquire1 then1 whether   
the experiment ought to have similar    
results if carried out elsewhere4       

,suppose ,a ,b to be our                
pendulum-bearing rod1 placed 7for       
convenience of description merely7 in a 
north and south position4 ,then it is   
clear that ,a ,b produced meets the     
polar axis produced 7in ,e1 suppose71   
and when1 owing to the earth's rotation1
 the rod has been carried to the        
position ,a' ,b'1 it still passes       
through the point ,e4 ,hence it has     
shifted through the angle ,a ,e ,a'1 a  
motion which corresponds to the case of 
the motion of ,a ,b 7in ,fig4 #a7 about 
the point ,e1#a and the plane of the    
pendulum's swing will therefore show a  
displacement equal to the angle ,a ,e   
,a'4 ,it will be at once seen that for a
 given arc of rotation the displacement 
is smaller in this case than in the     
former1 since the angle ,a ,e ,a' is    
obviously less than the angle ,a ,k     
,a'4#b ,in our latitude a free pendulum 
should seem to shift through one degree 
in about five minutes4  ,footnote #a3   
,in reality ,a ,e moves to the position 

,a' ,e over the surface of a cone having
 ,e ,p' as axis1 and ,e as vertex2 but  
for any small part of its motion1 the   
effect is the same as though it traveled
 in a plane through ,e1 touching this   
cone2 and the sum of the effects should 
clearly be proportioned to the sum of   
the angular displacements4  ,footnote   
#b3 ,in fact1 the former angle is less  
than the latter1 in the same proportion 
that ,a ,k is less than ,a ,e1 or in the
 proportion of the sine of the angle ,a 
,e ,p1 which is obviously the same as   
the sine of the latitude4  ,it is       
obvious that a great deal depends on the
 mode of suspension4 ,what is needed is 
that the pendulum should be as little   
affected as possible by its connection  
with the rotating earth4 ,it will       
surprise many1 perhaps1 to learn that in
 ,foucault's original mode of suspension
 the upper end of the wire bearing the  
pendulum bob was fastened to a metal    
plate by means of a screw4 ,it might be 
supposed that the torsion of the wire   

would appreciably affect the result4 ,in
 reality1 however1 the torsion was very 
small4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4        
,still1 other modes of suspension are   
obviously suggested by the requirements 
of the problem4 ,hansen made use of the 
mode of suspension exhibited in ,fig4   
#c4 ,mr4 ,worms1 in a series of         
experiments carried out at ,king's      
,college1 ,london1 adopted a somewhat   
similar arrangement1 but in place of the
 hemispherical segment he employed a    
conoid1 as shown in ,fig4 #d1 and a     
socket was provided in which the conoid 
could work freely4 ,from some           
experiments ,i made myself a score of   
years ago1 ,i am inclined to prefer a   
plane surface for the conoid to work    
upon4 ,care must be taken that the first
 swing of the pendulum may take place   
truly in one plane4 ,the mode of        
liberation is also a matter of          
importance4  ,illustration3 ,fig4#c4    
,many interesting experiments have been 
made upon the motions of a free         

pendulum1 regarded as a proof of the    
earth's rotation1 and when carefully    
conducted1 the experiments have never   
failed to afford the most satisfactory  
results4 ,space1 however1 will only     
permit me to dwell on a single series of
 experiments4 ,i select those made by   
,mr4 ,worms in the ,hall of ,king's     
,college1 ,london1 in the year #ahei3   
,the bob was a truly turned ball of     
brass weighing #dj lb42 the suspending  
medium was a thick steel wire2 the      
length of the pendulum was #ag feet #i  
inches4 ,the amplitude of the first     
oscillation was #f #db'1 and during the 
time of the experiment--about half an   
hour--the arcs were not much diminished4
 ,as ,i had to demonstrate to a large   
number of spectators1 ,i encountered    
considerable difficulty1 says ,mr4      
,worms1 in rendering the small          
deviations of the plane of oscillation  
visible to all4 ,i accomplished it in   
three different ways4 ,these he proceeds
 to describe4 ,he had first a set of    

small cones set up1 which were          
successively knocked down as the change 
in the plane of the pendulum slowly     
brought the pointer under the bob to    
bear on cone after cone4 ,secondly1 a   
small cannon was so placed that the     
first touch of the pendulum pointer     
against a platinum wire across the      
touch-hole completed a galvanic circuit1
 and so fired the cannon4 ,lastly1 a    
candle was placed so as to throw the    
shadow of the pendulum bob upon a       
ground-glass screen1 and so to exhibit  
the gradual change of the plane of      
swing4  ,the results accorded most      
satisfactorily with the deductions from 
the theory of the earth's rotation4     
,illustration3 ,fig4#d4         99      
99       99       99       99     ,a    
,,new ,,lunarian4  ,by ,prof4 ,c4 ,w4   
,,maccord1 ,sc4,d4   ,the construction  
of apparatus for illustrating the       
motions of the heavenly bodies has often
 occupied the attention of both         
mathematicians and mechanicians1 who    

have produced many very ingenious1 and  
in some cases very complicated1         
combinations4 ,these may be divided into
 two classes2 the object of the first   
being to represent exactly what         
occurs--to reproduce the precise        
movements of the various bodies         
represented in their true proportions   
and relations to each other1 in respect 
to distances1 magnitudes1 times1 and    
phases4 ,when the absolute complexity of
 the movements of the bodies composing  
the solar system is considered1 it is   
not so much a matter of wonder that a   
planetarium which shall thus imitate    
them is a very delicate and complicated 
machine as that it should lie within the
 limits of human ingenuity4  ,in the    
second class1 the object is to show the 
nature and the causes of specific       
phenomena1 without regard to others     
perhaps1 and without necessarily paying 
attention to exact proportions of       
distances and dimensions4 ,indeed1 it is
 often the case that the illustration is

 made clearer by exaggerating some of   
these and reducing others2 thus1 for    
example1 the causes of the variation in 
the lengths of the days and nights1 and 
of the changes in the seasons1 can be   
exhibited to much better advantage by an
 apparatus in which the diameter of the 
sun and its distance from the earth are 
enormously reduced than they possibly   
could be were they of their proper      
proportionate magnitudes2 nor is the    
presence of any other planet1 or the    
attendance of a satellite1 at all       
necessary or even desirable for the     
purpose named4  ,it is apparent that    
machines of this class can be made much 
more simple than those of the first1    
while at the same time it may safely be 
asserted that for educational purposes  
they are far more useful4  ,in both     
classes1 the action involves the use of 
some sort of epicyclic train1 since the 
motions to be explained are both orbital
 and axial4 ,the planetary body is      
carried round by a train-arm1 and its   

rotation about its axis is usually given
 it by a train of gearing1 the inner or 
central wheel of which is stationary1   
being fastened to the fixed frame       
supporting the whole4  ,illustration3   
,,an ,,improved ,,lunarian4  ,the       
lunarian which we herewith present      
belongs to the second of the classes    
above named2 in its construction an     
attempt has been made to show by as     
simple means and in as clear a manner as
 possible the nature of the following   
phenomena1 viz43  #a4 ,apogee and       
perigee4  #b4 ,the moon's phases4  #c4  
,the rotation on her axis1 by reason of 
which she always presents nearly the    
same face to the earth4  #d4 ,the       
inclination of her axis to the plane of 
her orbit1 and her consequent libration 
in latitude4  #e4 ,her varying angular  
velocity1 and consequent libration in   
longitude4  ,the mechanism consists of a
 train-arm1 ,t1 which turns upon the    
vertical pivot1 ,p1 fixed in the stand4 
,in this arm1 ,t1 are the bearings of   

two cranks1 ,b and ,c4 equal in length  
to each other and to a third crank1 ,a1 
which is stationary1 being fixed to the 
pivot1 ,p1 by a pin1 p4 ,to the         
crank-pin of ,a is secured a reverted   
arm1 ,a'1 which supports the earth1 ,e1 
and keeps it also stationary4 ,the three
 cranks are connected by the rod1 ,r1   
like the parallel rod of a locomotive3  
to which is fastened by a steady-pin1 o1
 the bevel wheel1 ,d1 concentric with   
the crank-pin1 b4 ,the head of this     
crank-pin is first made spherical1 then 
faced off at an angle with the axis of  
b1 and in the sloping face is firmly    
fixed the long screw1 ,s1 forming the   
support for the moon1 ,m1 which is      
caused to rotate about the axis of ,s1  
by means of the wheel1 ,f1 equal to and 
engaging with ,d4 ,the upper end of ,s  
projects slightly through a perforation 
in the moon1 and to it the hemispherical
 black shell or cap1 ,g1 is fixed by the
 screw1 ,k2 this cap represents the     
unilluminated part of the moon1 and     

since ,g1 s1 b1 and ,b1 are in effect   
but one piece1 the cap moves precisely  
as the crank does4  ,now as the         
train-arm1 ,t1 is carried round1 the    
cranks1 ,b and ,c1 will turn in their   
bearings2 but by their connection with  
,a1 they are compelled to remain always 
parallel to themselves1 and thus the    
axis of the moon receives a motion of   
translation4 ,but since during this     
action the wheel ,d turns relatively to 
the pin b1 the moon evidently rotates   
about its axis with an angular velocity 
precisely equal to that of its orbital  
motion4  ,the black shell however has   
the motion of translation only1 and thus
 exhibits the phases of the moon1 on the
 supposition that the source of light is
 infinitely remote and the rays come    
always in the same direction1 which is  
not strictly true1 of course2 but the   
reasons of the varying appearance are as
 clearly shown as if it were absolutely 
exact4 ,the same may be said in regard  
to the phenomena of libration2 the      

inclination of the moon's axis to the   
plane of her orbit is really small1 but 
is purposely exaggerated in this        
apparatus in order to make the results  
apparent2 in the position represented1  
it is quite obvious that an observer    
upon the earth can see a little past one
 pole1 and cannot quite see the other1  
as well as that this condition will be  
reversed after half a revolution4  ,the 
action in reference to the phases is    
clearly shown in the small diagram on   
the right4 ,the one on the left         
illustrates the manner in which the     
libration in longitude is made apparent4
 ,it will be noted that the center of ,m
 is not directly over the axis of the   
bearing of the crank1 ,b1 so that after 
half a revolution the moon will be      
farther from the earth than she is here 
shown4 ,her orbit here is circular1     
whereas1 in fact1 it is an ellipse2 but 
the earth not being in the center1 her  
angular velocity in relation to the     
earth is variable1 the result of which  

is that1 when she is near her           
quadrature1 the actual force presented  
to the earth is slightly different from 
that presented when in conjunction or   
opposition4  ,thus these various        
peculiarities of the motion of our      
satellite are exhibited by comparatively
 simple means--the number of moving     
parts being1 it is believed1 as small as
 it can be made2 and the substitution of
 a crank motion for the usual train of  
wheels1 we think1 is a new device4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,,the ,,upright ,,attitude ,,of         
,,mankind4   ,every one must have heard 
or have read of the supposed perfect    
adaptation of the human frame to bipedal
 locomotion and to an upright attitude1 
as well as the advantages which we gain 
by this erect position4 ,we are told1   
and with perfect truth1 that in man the 
occipital foramen--the aperture through 
which the brain is connected with the   
spinal cord--is so placed that the head 
is nearly in equilibrium when he stands 

upright4 ,in other mammalia this        
aperture lies further back1 and takes a 
more oblique direction1 so that the head
 is thrown forward1 and requires to be  
upheld partly by muscular effort and    
partly by the ligamentum nuch1 popularly
 known in cattle as the pax-wax4        
,again1 the relative lengths of the     
bones of the hinder extremities in man  
form an obstacle to his walking on      
all-fours4 ,if we keep the legs straight
 we may touch the ground in front of our
 feet with the tips of the fingers1 but 
we cannot place the palms of the hands  
upon the ground and use them to support 
any part of our weight in walking4 ,not 
a few other points of a similar tendency
 have been so often enlarged upon1 in   
works of a teleological character1 that 
there can be no need even to specify    
them at present4  ,but till lately it   
has never been asked1 ,is man's         
adaptation to an upright posture        
perfect8 and ,is this posture attended  
with no drawbacks8 ,these questions have

 been raised by ,dr4 ,s4 ,v4 ,clevenger 
in a lecture delivered before the       
,chicago ,university ,club1 on ,april   
#ah1 #ahhb1 and recently published in   
the ,american ,naturalist4 ,this        
lecture1 we may add1 cost the speaker   
the chair of ,comparative ,anatomy and  
,physiology at the ,chicago ,university6
  ,dr4 ,clevenger first discusses the   
position of the valves in the veins4    
,the teleologists have long told us that
 the valves in the veins of the arms and
 legs assist in the return of blood to  
the heart against gravitation4 ,but what
 earthly use has a man for valves in the
 intercostal veins which carry blood    
almost horizontally backward to the     
azygos veins8 ,when recumbent1 these    
valves are an actual obstacle to the    
free flow of the blood4 ,the inferior   
thyroid veins which drop their blood    
into the innominate are obstructed by   
valves at their junction4 ,two pairs of 
valves are situate in the external      
jugular1 and another pair in the        

internal jugular1 but they do not       
prevent regurgitation of blood upward4  
,an anomaly exists in the absence of    
valves from parts where they are most   
needed1 such as the ven cav1 the spinal1
 iliac1 hmorrhoidal1 and portal veins4  
,but if we place man upon all-fours     
these anomalies disappear1 and a law is 
found regulating the presence or absence
 of valves1 and1 according to ,dr4      
,clevenger1 it is applicable to all     
quadrupeds and to the so-called         
,quadrumana4 ,veins flowing toward the  
back1 i4e41 against gravitation in the  
all-fours posture--are fitted with      
valves2 those flowing in other          
directions are without4 ,for the few    
exceptions a very feasible explanation  
is given4  ,valves in the hmorrhoidal   
veins would be useless to quadrupeds2   
but to man1 in his upright position1    
they would be very valuable4 ,to their  
absence in man many a life has been and 
will be sacrificed1 to say nothing of   
the discomfort and distress occasioned  

by the engorgement known as piles1 which
 the presence of valves in their veins  
would obviate4  ,a noticeable departure 
from the rule obtaining in the vascular 
system of mammalia also occurs to the   
exposed situation of the femoral artery 
in man4 ,the arteries lie deeper than   
the veins1 or are otherwise protected1  
for the purpose--as a teleologist would 
say--of preventing serious loss of blood
 from superficial cuts4 ,translating    
this view into evolutionary language1 it
 appears that only animals with deeply  
placed arteries can survive and transmit
 their structural peculiarities to their
 offspring4 ,the ordinary abrasions to  
which all animals are exposed1 not to   
mention their onslaughts upon each      
other1 would quickly kill off species   
with superficially placed arteries4 ,but
 when man assumed the upright posture   
the femoral artery1 which in the        
quadrupedal position is placed out of   
reach on the inner part of the thigh1   
became exposed4 ,were not this defect   

greatly compensated by man's ability to 
protect this part in ways not open to   
brutes1 he1 too1 might have become      
extinct4 ,as it is1 this exposure of so 
large an artery is a fruitful cause of  
trouble and death4  ,we may here mention
 some other disadvantages of the upright
 position which ,dr4 ,clevenger has     
omitted4 ,foremost comes the liability  
to fall due to an erect posture         
supported upon two feet only4           
,four-footed animals in their natural   
haunts are little liable to fall2 if one
 foot slips or fails to find hold1 the  
other three are available4 ,if a fall   
does occur on level ground1 there is    
very little danger to any mammal nearly 
approaching man in bulk and weight4     
,their vital parts1 especially the heart
 and the head1 are ordinarily so near   
the ground that to them the shock is    
comparatively slight4 ,to human beings  
the effects of a fall on smooth1 level  
ground are often serious1 or even       
deadly4 ,we need merely call to mind the

 case of the illustrious physicist whom 
we have so recently and suddenly lost4  
,the upright attitude involves a further
 sourge of danger4 ,in few parts 7if    
any7 of the body is a blow more fatal   
than over what is popularly called the  
pit of the stomach4 ,in the quadruped   
this part is little exposed either to   
accidental or intentional injuries4 ,in 
man it is quite open to both4 ,a blow1 a
 kick1 a fall among stones1 etc41 may   
thus easily prove fatal4  ,another point
 is the exposure and prominence of the  
generative organs1 which in most other  
animals are well protected4 ,leaving    
danger out of the question1 it may be   
asked whether we have not here the      
origin of clothing8 ,the assumption of  
the upright posture may have made       
primitive man aware of his nakedness4   
,returning to the illustrations         
furnished by ,dr4 ,clevenger1 we are    
reminded that another disadvantage which
 occurs from the upright position of man
 is his greater liability to inguinal   

hernia4 ,in quadrupeds the main weight  
of the abdominal viscera is supported by
 the ribs and by strong pectoral and    
abdominal muscles4 ,the weakest part of 
the latter group of muscles is in the   
region of ,poupart's ligament1 above the
 groin4 ,inguinal hernia is rare in     
other vertebrates because this weak part
 is relieved by the pressure of the     
viscera4 ,in man the pelvis receives    
almost the entire load of the           
intestines1 and hence ,art is called in 
to compensate the deficiencies of       
nature1 and an immense number of trusses
 have to be manufactured and used4 ,it  
is calculated that #bj per cent4 of the 
human family suffer in this way4        
,strangulated hernia frequently causes  
death4 ,the liability to femoral hernia 
is in like manner increased by the      
upright position4  ,now1 if man has     
always been erect from his creation--or1
 if that term be disliked1 from his     
origin--we have evidently nothing to    
hope from the future in the way of an   

amendment of this and other defects4    
,but if we have sprung from a           
quadrupedal animal1 and have by degrees 
adopted an upright position1 to which we
 are as yet imperfectly adapted1 the    
muscular tissues of the abdomen will    
doubtless in the lapse of ages become   
strengthened to meet the demand made    
upon them1 so that the liability to     
rupture will decrease4 ,in like manner  
the other defects above enumerated may  
gradually be rendered less serious4  ,a 
most important point remains2 the       
peritoneal ligaments of the uterus fully
 subserve suspensory functions4 ,the    
anterior1 posterior1 and lateral        
ligaments are mainly concerned in       
preventing the gravid uterus1 in        
quadrupeds1 from pitching too far       
forward toward the diaphragm4 ,the round
 ligaments are utterly unmeaning in the 
human female1 but in the lower animals  
they serve the same purpose as the other
 ligaments4 ,prolapsus uteri1 from the  
erect position and the absence of       

supports adapted to the position1 is    
thus rendered common1 destroying the    
health and happiness of multitudes4  ,as
 a simple deduction from mechanical     
laws1 it would readily follow that any  
animal or race of men which had for the 
longest time maintained an erect        
position would have straighter abdomens1
 wider pelvic brims with contracted     
pelvic outlets1 and that the weight of  
the spinal column would force the sacrum
 lower down4 ,this1 generally speaking1 
we find to be the case4 ,in quadrupeds  
the box-shaped pelvis1 which admits of  
easy parturition1 is prevalent4 ,where  
the position of the animal is such as to
 throw the weight of the viscera into   
the pelvis1 the brim necessarily widens1
 these weighty organs sink lower1 and   
the beads of the thigh-bones acting as  
fulcra permit the crest of the ilium to 
be carried outward1 while the lower part
 of the pelvis is at the same time      
contracted4  ,in the innominate bones of
 a young child the box-shape exists1    

while its prominent abdomen resembles   
that of the gorilla4 ,the gibbon        
exhibits this iliac expansion through   
the sitting posture which developed his 
ischial callosities4 ,similarly iliac   
expansion occurs in the chimpanzee4 ,the
 megatherium had wide iliacal expansions
 due to its semi-erect habits2 but as   
its weight was in great part supported  
by the huge tail1 and as the fermora    
rested in acetabula placed far forward1 
the leverage necessary to contract the  
lower portion of the pelvis was absent4 
,prof4 ,weber1 of ,bonn1 quoted in ,karl
 ,vogt's ,vorlesungen ueber den         
,mensohen1 distinguishes four chief     
forms of the pelvis in mankind--the oval
 in ,aryans1 the round among the ,red   
,indians1 the square in the ,mongols1   
and the wedge-shaped in the ,negro4     
,examining this question mechanically it
 would seem that the longer a race had  
remained in an upright position the     
lower is the sacrum1 and the greater is 
the tendency to approximate to the      

larger lateral diameter of the ,european
 female4 ,the front to back diameter of 
the ape's pelvis is usually greater than
 the measurement from side to side4 ,a  
similar condition affords the cuneiform1
 from which it may be inferred that the 
erect position in the ,negro has not    
been maintained so long as in the       
,mongol1 whose pelvis has assumed the   
quadrilateral shape owing to persistence
 of spinal axis weight for a greater    
time4 ,this pressure has finally        
culminated in forcing the sacrum of the 
,european nearer the pubes1 with        
consequent lateral expansion and        
contraction of the diameter from front  
to back4 ,from the marsupials to the    
lemurs the box-shaped pelvis remains4   
,with the wedge-shape occasioned in the 
lowest human types there occurs a       
further remarkable phenomenon in the    
increased size of the foetal head       
accompanying the contraction of the     
pelvic outlet4 ,while the marsupial head
 is about one-sixth the size of the     

narrowest part of the bony parturient   
canal1 the moment we pass to erect      
animals the greater relative increase is
 there seen in cranial size1 with a     
coexisting decrease in the area of the  
outlet4 ,this altered condition of      
things has caused the death of millions 
of otherwise perfectly healthy and      
well-formed human mothers and children4 
,the palontologist might tell us if some
 such case of ischial approximation by  
natural mechanical causes has not caused
 the probable extinction of whole genera
 of vertebrates4 ,if we are to believe  
that for our original sin the pangs and 
labor of childbirth were increased1 and 
if we also believe in the               
disproportionate contraction of the     
pelvic space being an efficient cause of
 the same difficulties of parturition1  
the logical inference is that man's     
original sin consisted in his getting   
upon his hind legs4  ,this subject is   
not without direct applications4        
,accoucheurs cause their patients to    

assume what is called the knee-chest    
position1 a prone one1 for the purpose  
of restoring the uterus to something    
near a natural position4 ,brown-,sequard
 recommends1 in myelitis1 or spinal     
congestion1 drawing away the blood from 
the spine by placing the patient on his 
abdomen or side1 with hands and feet    
somewhat hanging down4 ,the liability to
 spina bifida is greatest in the human  
infant1 through the stress thrown on the
 spine4 ,the easy parturition in the    
lower human races is due to the         
discrepancy between cranial and pelvic  
sizes not having been as yet reached by 
those races4 ,the ,sandwich ,island     
mother has a difficult delivery only    
when her child is half white1 and has   
consequently a longer head than the     
unmixed native strain4  ,at present the 
world goes on in its blindness1         
apparently satisfied that everything is 
all right because its exists1 ignorant  
of the evil consequences of apparently  
beneficial pecularities1 vaunting man's 

erectness and its advantages1 while     
ignoring the disadvantages4  ,the       
observation that the lower the animal   
the more prolific 7not universally      
true67 would warrant the belief that the
 higher the animal the more difficulties
 encompass its propagation and          
development4 ,the cranio-pelvic         
difficulty may perhaps settle the       
,malthusian question as far as the      
higher races of men are concerned by    
their extinction4  ,if the facts brought
 forward by ,dr4 ,clevenger cannot be   
controverted1 they seem to prove that   
man must have originated by gradual     
development from a four-footed being4   
,had he been created an erect1 bipedal  
animal1 as we find him1 his structure   
would have been not in partial1 but in  
perfect1 adaptation to the conditions of
 that attitude4 ,that some of the       
peculiarities of his structure are      
better in harmony with a horizontal than
 a vertical position of the spinal      
column1 is perhaps the strongest        

argument against the theory of direct   
creation and the radical toto coelo     
distinction between man and beast that  
has yet been advanced4 ,we cannot at the
 moment lay our hands upon any thorough 
and trustworthy account of the valves in
 the veins of the sloth3 as that animal 
spends its life hanging1 back downward1 
the structure of the veins would be     
interesting in this connection4--,,ed4  
,j4 ,s4--,journal of ,science4          
99       99       99       99       99  
,,our ,,enemies1 ,,the ,,microbes4   ,we
 have seen the microbes1 as our         
servants#a1 often performing1 unbeknown 
to us1 the work of purifying and        
regenerating the soil and atmosphere4   
,let us now examine our enemies1 for    
they are numerous4 ,everywhere          
frequent--in the air1 in the earth1 in  
the water--they only await an occasion  
to introduce themselves into our body in
 order to engage in a contest for       
existence with the cells that make up   
our tissues2 and1 often victorious1 they

 cause death with fearful rapidity4     
,when we have named charbon1 septicmia1 
diphtheria1 typhoid fever1 pork measles1
 etc41 we shall have indicated the      
serious affections that microbes are    
capable of engendering in the animal    
organism4  ,footnote #a3 ,,supplement1  
,no4 #ddf1 page #gabe4  ,we call those  
diseases parasitic that are occasioned  
by the introduction of a living organism
 into the bodies of animals4 ,although a
 knowledge of such diseases is easy     
where it concerns parasites such as     
acari and worms1 it becomes very        
difficult when it is a question of      
diseases that are caused by the         
,bacteriace4 ,in fact1 the germs of     
these plants exist in the air in large  
quantities1 as is shown by the analysis 
of pure air by a sunbeam1 and we are    
obliged to take minute precautions to   
prevent then from invading organic      
substances4 ,if1 then1 during an autopsy
 of an individual or animal1 a          
microscopic examination reveals the     

presence of microbes1 we cannot affirm  
that the latter were the cause of the   
affection that it is desired to study1  
since they might have introduced        
themselves during the manipulation1 and 
by reason of their rapid vegetation have
 invaded the tissues of the dead animal 
in a very short time4 ,the presumption  
exists1 nevertheless1 that when the same
 form of bacteria is present in the same
 tissue with the same affection1 it is  
connected with the disease4 ,this was   
what ,davaine was the first to show with
 regard to ,bacillus anthracis1 which   
causes charbon4 ,he1 in #ahej1 having   
examined the blood of an animal that had
 died of this disease1 found therein    
amid the globules 7,fig4 #a71 small1    
immovable1 very narrow rods of a length 
double that of the blood corpuscles4 ,it
 was not till #ahfc that he suspected   
the active role of these organisms in   
the charbon malady1 and endeavored to   
demonstrate it by experiments in        
inoculation4 ,is the presence of these  

little rods in the blood of an animal   
that has died of charbon sufficient of  
itself to demonstrate the parasitic     
nature of the affection8 ,no2 in order  
that the demonstration shall be         
complete1 the bacteria must be isolated1
 cultivated in a state of purity in     
proper liquids1 and then be used to     
inoculate animals with4 ,if the latter  
die with all the symptoms of charbon1   
the demonstration will be complete4     
,davaine did1 indeed1 perform some      
experiments in inoculation that were    
successful1 but his results were        
contradicted by the experiments of      
,messrs4 ,jaillard and ,leplat1 and     
those of ,mr4 ,bert concerning the toxic
 influence of oxygen at high tension    
upon microbes4 ,as ,davaine was unable  
to explain the contradiction between his
 results and those of ,messrs4          
,jaillard1 ,leplat1 and ,bert1 minds    
were not as yet convinced1              
notwithstanding the support that his    
ideas received from ,mr4 ,koch's        

researches4  ,in #ahgg ,mr4 ,pasteur    
took up ,davaine's experiments1 and     
confirmed his affirmations step by step 
by employing the method of culture that 
he had used with such success in his    
studies upon fermentation4 ,he isolated 
,davaine's bacterium by cultivating it  
in a decoction of beer yeast that had   
been previously sterilized 7,fig4 #b72  
and after from ten to twenty cultures1  
he found that a portion of the liquid   
containing a few bacteria1 when used for
 inoculating a rabbit1 quickly caused   
the latter to die of charbon1 while the 
same liquid1 when filtered through      
plaster or porcelain1 became harmless4  
,davaine's bacterium develops           
exclusively in the blood1 and is never  
found at any depth in the tissues4 ,this
 is due to the fact that the alga1      
having need of oxygen in order to live1 
borrows its flow from the blood1 and    
thus extracts from the globules that    
which they should have carried to the   
tissue4 ,the animal therefore dies      

asphyxiated4 ,it is on account of the   
absence of oxygen in the blood that the 
latter assumes the blackish-brown color 
that characterizes the malady1 and that 
has given its name of charbon 7coal74   
,the parasitic nature of charbon was    
therefore absolutely demonstrated1      
first1 by the constant presence of      
,bacillus anthracis in the blood of     
anthracoid animals1 and second1 by the  
pure culture of the parasite and the    
inoculation of animals with charbon by  
means of it4  ,davaine began the        
demonstration in #ahfc1 and ,pasteur    
finished it in #ahgg4 ,these facts are  
now incontestable2 yet1 to show how     
slowly truth is propagated1 even in     
these days of telegraphs and telephones1
 there might have been read a few months
 ago1 in an interesting article on      
microbes1 by ,dr4 ,fol1 a distinguished 
savant1 the statement that charbon and  
tuberculosis were discovered by ,dr4    
,koch6  ,new parasitic affections1 whose
 existence was suspected1 were soon     

discovered and scientifically           
demonstrated1 such1 for example1 as     
septicmia1 or the putrefaction which    
occurs in living animals1 which in      
ambulances causes so fearful havoc among
 the wounded1 and which proceeds from   
,bacillus septicus4 ,this parasite      
exhibits itself under the form of little
 articulated rods that live isolated    
from oxygen in the mass of the tissues1 
and disorganize the latter in           
disengaging a large quantity of putrid  
gas4 ,other parasites of this class are 
the micrococcus of chicken cholera      
7,fig4 #c71 the micrococcus of hog      
measles1 and the ,spirochoete           
,obermeieri of recurrent fever1         
discovered by ,obermeier 7,fig4 #e74    
,besides these1 there are a certain     
number of maladies that seem as if they 
must be due to the ,bacteriace1 although
 a demonstration of the fact by the     
method of cultures and inoculation has  
not as yet been attempted4 ,among such1 
we may cite typhoid fever1 diphtheria1  

murrain1 tuberculosis 7,fig4 #d71       
malarial fever 7,fig4 #f71 etc4  ,as may
 be seen1 the list is already a long    
one1 and it tends every day to still    
further increase4 ,all the progress that
 has been made in so few years in our   
knowledge of contagious or epidemic     
diseases is due exclusively to ,m4      
,pasteur and the scientific method that 
he introduced through his remarkable    
labors on fermentation4 ,now that we    
know our most formidable enemies1 how   
shall we defend ourselves against them8 
,as we have seen1 bacteria exist        
everywhere1 mixed with the dust that    
interferes with the transparency of the 
air and covers all objects2 and they are
 likewise found in water4  ,under normal
 conditions1 our body is closed to these
 organisms through the epidermis and    
epithelium1 and1 as has been shown by   
,mr4 ,pasteur1 no bacteria are found in 
the blood and tissues of living animals4
 ,but let a rupture or wound occur1 and 
bacteria will enter the body1 and1 when 

once the enemy is in place1 it will be  
too late4 ,one sole chance of safety    
remains to us1 and that is that in the  
warfare that it is raging against our   
tissues the enemy may succumb4 ,m4      
,pasteur has shown that the blood       
corpsucles sometimes engage in the      
contest against bacterides and come off 
victorious4 ,in fact1 chickens are proof
 against poisoning by charbon1 because1 
owing to the high temperature of their  
blood1 the bacterides are unable to     
extract oxygen from the corpuscles      
thereof4 ,but1 if the chickens be       
chilled1 the conditions are changed1 and
 they will die of charbon just as do    
cattle and sheep2 but1 as the result of 
the contest cannot always be foreseen1  
it is necessary at any cost to prevent  
bacterides from entering the body4      
,illustration3 ,i4 ,bacteria of charbon 
7,bacillus antracis47 ,,ii4 ,the same   
cultivated in yeast4 ,,iii4 ,the        
,micrococcus of chicken cholera4 ,,iv4  
,the ,bacillus of tuberculosis4 ,v4 ,the

 ,spirillun of recurrent fever4 ,,vi4   
,the ,bacillus of malaria4  ,under      
ordinary circumstances a severe hygiene 
will suffice to preserve us2 if a wound 
is received it should be washed with    
water mixed with antiseptics1 such as   
phenic acid1 borax1 or salicylic acid4  
,if water is impure1 it must be boiled  
and then aerated before it is drunk4 ,if
 the air is the vehicle of the germs of 
the disease1 it will have to be filtered
 by means of a muslin curtain kept wet  
with a hygroscopic solution1 glycerine  
for example4 ,finally1 when1 after an   
epidemic1 contaminated apartments are to
 be occupied1 the walls and floor and   
the clothing must be washed with        
antiseptic solutions whose nature will  
vary according to circumstances--steam  
charged with phenic acid1 water mixed   
with a millionth part of sulphuric acid1
 boric acid1 ozone1 chlorine1 etc4      
,these preventives only prove efficient 
on condition that they be used          
persistently4 ,let our vigilance be     

lacking for an instant1 and the enemy   
will enter to work destruction1 for it  
only requires a spore less than a       
hundredth of a millimeter in diameter to
 produce the most serious affections4   
,fortunately1 and it is again to ,mr4   
,pasteur that we owe these wonderful    
discoveries1 the parasitic microbes     
themselves1 which sow sickness and      
death1 may1 through proper culture1     
become true vaccine viri that are       
capable of preserving the organism      
against any future attack of the disease
 that they were capable of producing2   
such vaccine matters have been          
discovered for charbon1 chicken cholera1
 the measles of swine1 etc4  ,when the  
micrococcus of chicken cholera 7,fig4   
#c47 is cultivated1 it is seen that the 
activity of the microbe in cultures     
exposed to the air gradually diminishes4
 ,while a drop of the liquid would1 in  
twenty-four hours1 have killed all the  
chickens that were inoculated with it1  
its effect after two1 three1 or four    

days considerably diminishes1 and an    
inoculation with it produces nothing    
more than a slight indisposition in the 
animal1 and one that is never followed  
by a serious accident4 ,it is then said 
that the virulence of the microbe is    
attenuated4  ,the air is the agent of   
this transformation that gradually      
renders the bacteria benign1 for in     
cultures made under the same            
circumstances as the preceding1 but with
 the absence of air1 the activity of    
these alg is preserved for days or      
weeks1 and they will then cause death   
just as surely as they would have done  
at the end of one day4  ,what is        
remarkable is that animals inoculated   
with the attenuated micrococcus become  
for a varying length of time refractory 
to the action of the most formidable    
parasites of this kind4 ,mr4 ,pasteur   
has discovered two such vaccine         
viri--one for chicken cholera and the   
other for charbon4 ,his results have not
 been accepted without a struggle1 and  

it required nothing less than public    
experiment in vaccination1 both in      
,france and abroad1 to convince the     
incredulous4 ,there are still people at 
the present time who assert that ,mr4   
,pasteur's process of vaccination has   
not a great practical range6 ,and yet1  
here we have the results2 more than     
#djj1jjj animals have been vaccinated   
since #ahha1 and it has been found that 
the mortality is ten times less in these
 than in those that have not been       
vaccinated6  ,an impetus has now been   
given1 and we can look to the future    
with confidence1 for1 if our enemies are
 numerous1 the use of a severe hygiene  
and preventive vaccination will permit  
us to gradually free humanity from the  
terrible scourges that sap the sources  
of fortune and life4--,science et       
,nature4         99       99       99   
99       99     ,,the ,,wine ,,fly4     
,at the last meeting of the ,new ,york  
,microscopical ,society1 a paper was    
read by ,dr4 ,samuel ,lockwood1         

secretary of the ,new ,jersey ,state    
,microscopical ,society4 ,his subject   
was the ,wine ,fly1 ,drosophila         
ampelophila4 ,the paper was a           
contribution to the life-history of this
 minute insect4 ,he had given in part   
three years to its study1 beginning in  
,september1 #ahha1 when nothing whatever
 of its life-history seemed to have been
 known4 ,in ,october the flies attacked 
his ,concords4 ,he found upon a grape   
which he was inspecting with a          
pocket-lens an extremely small white    
egg2 but lost it4 ,the grapes when      
brought on the table were infested by   
the flies1 which proved to be the above 
mentioned species4 ,when driven from the
 grapes they would fly to the window1   
where he captured two of them ,these    
were placed in a jar with a grape for   
food4 ,in two days he found one egg on  
the outer skin of the grape4 ,the laying
 was kept up for four or five days1     
until there were about thirty1 some on  
the outside of the grape and some at an 

opening where the two flies had fed4    
,the egg had a pair of curious          
suspenders near the end where the mouth 
of the larva would develop4 ,these      
suspenders were attached at their ends  
to the grape1 but where the egg was laid
 in the soft part of the fruit the      
suspenders were spread out at the       
surface2 thus the larva would emerge    
clean from the shell4 ,the egg was #j4e 
mm4 in length1 and about a fourth of    
that in width4 ,the larva when grown was
 at least four times as long as the egg4
 ,as the larva burrowed in the juices of
 the fruit1 two quite prominent         
breathing tubes at the posterior end    
were kept in the air4 ,between these    
cardinal tubes were several teat-like   
points1 much smaller1 but having a      
similar function4  ,the larvae appeared 
in five days after the eggs were laid4  
,in about as many more days the puparium
 state would be entered1 and in about   
six days more the fly or imago would    
appear4 ,in ovipositing the suspensors  

would leave the oviparous duct last4    
,the paper claimed that the curious     
shape of the egg compelled the female to
 oviposit slowly1 as it took time for   
the egg to assume its form2 hence1 the  
eggs were not laid in strings or masses1
 but singly and at considerable         
intervals4  ,the flies are very hairy1  
especially the females4 ,the neck and   
even the eyes are very hirsute4 ,the    
eyes are red1 quite large and pretty1   
though somewhat outre under the         
microscope1 for from between the little 
lenses are projecting1 straight1 stiff  
hairs4 ,as the insect is quite active1  
it must be that this fringing of the    
tiny eyelets with hair does not         
materially obscure its vision4 ,when the
 minuteness of this singular arrangement
 is considered1 it is surely remarkable4
 ,this general hairiness of the female  
especially1 and that about the head1    
neck1 and forward part of the thorax1   
stands correlated to a beautiful        
structure found only in the male1 which 

has on the tarsus of each leg in the    
forward pair what the lecturer called a 
sexual comb4 ,it is a beautiful comb of 
a very dark brown color1 each comb      
having ten pointed and strong teeth4 ,in
 the nuptial embrace these combs are    
fixed in the hairy front of the thorax  
of the female1 thus becoming little     
grapnels4  ,the flies love any vegetable
 substance in fermentation1 whether     
acetic or vinous4 ,hence it will abound 
about cider mills1 swarm on preserves in
 the pantry1 and in cellars or places   
where wine is being made or stored4 ,the
 paper showed the tendency of the       
glucose in the over-ripe grape to the   
vinous ferment1 and that the fly        
delighted in it4 ,a singular accident   
showed how they loved even the very high
 spirits4 ,in making some of the mounts 
shown to the society1 ,dr4 ,lockwood had
 left a bottle of #ij per cent4 alcohol 
uncorked over night4 ,next morning he   
was astonished to find his alcohol of a 
beautiful amethystine color1 and the    

cork out4 ,inspection showed a number of
 these tiny creatures1 which1 when      
filled with the purple juice of the     
grape1 had smelt the alcohol in the open
 bottle1 and had gone in to drink4 ,they
 had ignominiously perished1 and had    
given color to the liquid4--,micro4     
,journal4         99       99       99  
99       99  ,,nature4     ,,the        
,,potetometer1 ,,an ,,instrument ,,for  
,,measuring ,,the ,,transpiration ,,of  
,,water ,,by ,,plants4   ,in view of the
 interest now attaching to recent       
advances in vegetable physiology1 it    
seems not unlikely that a description of
 the instrument bearing the above name1 
lately published by ,moll 7,archives    
,neerlandaises1 t4 xviii471 will serve  
as useful purpose4 ,the apparatus was   
designed to do away with certain sources
 of error in ,sachs' older form of the  
instrument1 described in his            
,experimental ,physiologie--errors      
chiefly due to the continual alteration 
of pressure during the progress of the  

experiment4  ,as shown in the diagram1  
the potetometer consists essentially of 
a glass tube1 a d1 open at both ends1   
and blown out into a bulb near the lower
 end2 an aperture also exists on either 
side of the bulb at or about its        
equator4 ,the two ends of the main tube 
are governed by the stopcocks1 a and d1 
and the greater length of the tube is   
graduated4 ,a perforated caoutchouc     
stopper is fitted into one aparture of  
the bulb1 e1 and the tube1 g k1 fits    
hermetically to the other4 ,this latter 
tube is dilated into a cup at h to      
receive the caoutchouc stopper1 into    
which the end of the shoot to be        
experimented upon is properly fixed4    
,the fixing of the shoot is effected by 
caoutchouc and wire or silk1 as shown at
 i1 and must be performed so that the   
clean-cut end of the shoot is exactly at
 the level of a tube passing through the
 perforated stopper1 e1 of the bulb2    
this is easily managed1 and is provided 
for by the bending of the tube1 g h4    

,the tube1 f1 passing horizontally      
through the caoutchouc stopper1 e1 is   
intended to admit bubbles of air1 and so
 equalize the pressure and at the same  
time afford a means of measuring the    
rapidity of the absorption of water by  
the transpiring shoot4 ,this tube 7see  
,fig4 #b1 f7 is a short piece of        
capillary glass tubing1 to which is     
fixed a thin sheath of copper1 b'1 which
 slides on it1 and supports a small     
plate of polished copper1 a'1 in such a 
manner that the latter can be held      
vertically at a small distance from the 
inner opening of the tube1 and so       
regulate the size of the bubble of air  
to be directed upward into the graduated
 tube1 a b4  ,illustration  ,the        
apparatus is filled by placing the lower
 end of the main tube under water1      
closing the tubes1 f and i 7with        
caoutchouc tubing and clips71 and       
opening the stopcocks1 a and d4 ,water  
is then sucked in from a1 and the whole 
apparatus carefully filled4 ,the cocks  

are then turned1 and the cut end of the 
shoot fixed into i1 as stated2 care must
 be taken that no air remains under the 
cut end at i1 and the end of the shoot  
must be at the level1 k l4 ,this done1  
the tube1 f1 may then be opened4  ,the  
leaves of the shoot transpire water1    
which is replaced through the stem at   
the cut end in i from the water in the  
apparatus4 ,a bubble of air passes      
through the tube1 f1 and at once ascends
 into the graduated tube1 a c4 ,the     
descent of the water-level in this      
tube--which may conveniently be         
graduated to measure cubic              
millimeters--enables the experimenter at
 once to read off the amount of water   
employed in a given time4  ,it is not   
necessary to dwell on obvious           
modifications of these essentials1 nor  
to speak of the slight difficulties of  
manipulation 7especially with the tube1 
f74 ,of course the apparatus might be   
mounted in several ways2 and excellent  
results for demonstration in class could

 be obtained by arranging the whole on  
one of the pans of a sensitive balance4 
,h4 ,,marshall ,,ward4  ,botanical      
,laboratory1 ,owens ,college4         99
       99       99       99       99    
,,bolivian ,,cinchona ,,forests4   ,the 
great progress made in the acclimation  
of cinchona trees in ,india1 ,ceylon1   
and elsewhere has awakened the          
governments of countries where the      
plants are indigenous to the necessity  
of conserving from reckless destruction1
 and replanting denuded forests1 so as  
to be able to keep up the supply of this
 valuable product4  ,in ,bolivia1 since 
#ahgh1 according to the report of the   
,netherlands ,consul1 private           
individuals and land owners have taken  
up the question with great earnestness1 
and at the present time on the banks of 
the ,mapiri1 in the department of ,la   
,paz1 there are over a million of young 
trees growing4  ,new plantations have   
also sprung up in various other         
localities1 either on private ground or 

that owned by ,government4 ,the         
competition of ,india and ,ceylon in    
supplying the markets has had also the  
effect of inducing more care in         
collecting and also of revisiting old   
spots1 often with the result of a rich  
harvest of bark which had been left on  
partly denuded trunks1 and the opening  
up of new localities4 ,the new shoots   
springing up from the old stumps have   
yielded much quill bark1 and the root   
bark of the old stumps has also been    
utilized4  ,the replanting entails very 
little expense4 ,the ,indian tenant on  
an estate has a house and land from the 
owner 7hacienda7 of the estate4 ,for    
this he binds himself to work for two to
 four days a week1 at from #bh to #cf   
cents per day1 women and children       
obtaining #af to #ba cents per day4     
,thus the planting1 weeding1 etc41      
during the first two years is but       
nominal in expense2 after this period   
the trees may be left to themselves4    
,on ,government land the expense is     

greater1 as1 after an application being 
made1 the land is put up to public      
auction1 and may fetch a very low or    
higher price according to the bidding4  
,the land secured1 contracts are made   
with natives of the lower class to clear
 the forest and plant cinchona4 ,the    
contracts are often sublet to ,indians4 
,the young plants are planted from five 
to six feet apart1 with banana trees    
between1 on account of their rapid      
growth and the shade the latter afford4 
,from ,march to ,june1 after the wet    
season is over1 is the best time for    
planting1 and the contractor keeps the  
plantation free from weeds and in good  
order for twelve months1 when it is     
handed over to the owner4 ,the following
 is given as the cost of the ,mapiri    
,river plantation of an area from #fj or
 more miles in extent3    ,ground4      
#a1bjj   #cjj1jjj plants at #j4ad4      
#db1jjj   ,superintendent1 buildings1   
etc4            #d1djj   ,interest4     
#d1hjj                                  

-------   ,total4                       
#eb1djj  ,till the plants are above two 
years of age1 they are liable to die    
from drought or the attacks of ants1 and
 during #ahgh many thousands died from  
these causes4 ,at the end of the fourth 
year some proprietors begin to collect  
the quill bark by the method of         
coppicing4  ,it is feared by some that1 
should this new venture be successful1  
it will prove a dangerous rival to the  
plantations of ,india1 ,ceylon1 and     
,java1 and lower the price of bark      
considerably4--,jour4 ,society of ,arts4
         99       99       99       99  
99     ,,ferns4   ,n4 ,davallioides     
,furcans4--,among the many crested ferns
 in cultivation1 this1 of which the     
annexed is an illustration1 is one of   
the most distinct2 so different indeed  
it is from the type1 that it is         
questionable if it really is a form of  
it2 the most essential characteristic1  
that of the fructification at the       
extreme edge of the lobes of the pinn1  

is altogether absent1 and the whole     
habit of the plant is also thoroughly   
distinct4 ,it is of equally robust      
growth1 but its handsomely arching      
fronds1 which are from #c feet to #d    
feet in length1 are produced in great   
abundance from a central tuft or        
agglomeration of crowns4 ,its most      
distinct characteristic is the furcation
 of the pinn1 which are all of the same 
dimensions1 whether sterile or fertile2 
they are all opposite and closely set   
along the mid-rib1 whereas those of ,n4 
davallioides are set much further apart4
 ,in the barren pinn which are only     
situated on the lower portion of the    
frond1 and which generally are only few 
in number1 the furcation is rudimentary2
 in the fertile pinn it is twice and    
even three times repeated in the        
extremities of the first division1      
becoming more complex toward the point  
of the frond1 where it often forms quite
 a large tassel1 whose weight gives the 
fronds quite an elegant1 arching habit4 

,on that account this plant is valuable 
for growing in baskets of large         
dimensions1 in which it shows itself off
 to good advantage1 and never fails to  
prove attractive4 ,although it produces 
spores freely1 it is best to propagate  
it by means of the young plants produced
 from rhizomes in the ordinary way1 on  
account of the extreme variations which 
take place among the seedlings1 a small 
percentage only of which are possessed  
of the true character of the parent     
plant4 ,stove4--,the ,garden4           
,illustration3 ,,nephrolepis            
,,davallioides ,,furcans4  ,n4          
,duffi4--,this pretty1 neat-habited     
species1 of which an illustration1      
kindly lent us by ,mr4 ,bull1 appears in
 another place1 is a native of the ,duke
 of ,york's ,island1 in the ,south      
,pacific ,ocean1 and is undoubtedly one 
of the most interesting of the whole    
genus4 ,its compact habit1 its          
comparatively small dimensions1 and the 
bright1 glossy color of its beautifully 

tasseled fronds render it a most welcome
 addition to a group of ferns naturally 
rich in decorative plants4 ,its         
curiously and irregularly pinnate fronds
 are borne on slender stalks1 terete    
toward the base1 and covered with       
reddish brown1 downy scales1 instead of 
being produced loosely1 as in most other
 ,nephrolepises2 these are densily      
crowded1 and the outcome of closely     
clustered crowns4 ,they measure from #ae
 inches to #ah inches long1 and are     
terminated by very handsome massive     
crests1 which vary in size according to 
the temperature in which the plant is   
grown4 ,we have at different times heard
 complaints of these fronds being simply
 furcate1 when the same plant1 after    
being subjected to a greater amount of  
heat and moisture1 produced fronds very 
heavily tasseled1 and partaking of an   
elegant vase-shaped appearance4 ,in     
fact1 nothing short of the moist heat of
 a stove will induce it to show its     
characters in their best condition4 ,the

 pinn1 which are small1 of different    
sizes1 rounded and serrated at the      
edges1 are produced in pairs1 one       
overlying the other1 and1 curiously     
enough1 those on the top are the        
largest4 ,the pairs are sometimes       
opposite1 but mostly alternate1 distant 
toward the base1 approximate higher up1 
and crowded and quite overlapping in the
 crested portion of the frond4 ,this1   
being a thoroughly barren kind1 can only
 be propagated by division of the       
crowns1 an operation easily done at any 
time of the year1 but most safely in    
early spring and by young plants        
produced from the rhizomes1 which1      
however1 are produced much more         
sparingly than in any other species4 ,it
 is also one of the best adapted for pot
 or pan culture1 its somewhat upright   
habit making it less suitable for       
baskets1 brackets1 and wall covering    
than other species4 ,stove4--,the       
,garden4  ,illustration3 ,,nephrolepis  
,,duffi4         99       99       99   

99       99     ,,formation ,,of        
,,sugar4   ,a paper on ,the ,formation  
of ,sugar in the ,sugar-cane was        
recently read by ,m4 ,aim ,girard before
 the ,paris ,academy of ,sciences4 ,by  
comparative investigations of the amount
 of cane sugar and grape sugar in       
different parts of the sugar-cane in the
 afternoon and before sunrise1 the      
author has found that only in the       
substance of the leaves does this       
quantity vary1 and that the quantity of 
cane sugar sinks during the night to    
one-half1 while the quantity of reducing
 sugar remains almost unaltered4 ,he    
finds further that the quantity of      
sugar-cane in the leaves increases with 
the illumination1 on very bright days   
reaching nearly one per cent41          
considerably less on dull ones1 and in  
either case diminishing during the night
 by one-half4 ,from this the author     
concludes that the formation of         
saccharose from glucose takes place     
entirely in the leaves under the        

influence of sunlight1 and that the     
saccharose thereupon ascends the cane   
through the petioles1 etc41 and collects
 there4         99       99       99    
99       99  ,a catalogue1 containing   
brief notices of many important         
scientific papers heretofore published  
in the ,,supplement1 may be had gratis  
at this office4         99       99     
99       99       99     ,,the          
,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement4   
,,published ,,weekly4  ,,terms ,,of     
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,,york1 ,n4 ,y4         99       99     
99       99       99     ,,patents4     
,in connection with the ,,scientific    
,,american1 ,messrs4 ,,munn  ,co4 are   
,solicitors of ,american and ,foreign   
,patents1 have had #ci years'           
experience1 and now have the largest    
establishment in the world4 ,patents are
 obtained on the best terms4  ,a special
 notice is made in the ,,scientific     
,,american of all ,inventions patented  
through this ,agency1 with the name and 
residence of the ,patentee4 ,by the     
immense circulation thus given1 public  
attention is directed to the merits of  
the new patent1 and sales or            
introduction often easily effected4     
,any person who has made a new discovery

 or invention can ascertain1 free of    
charge1 whether a patent can probably be
 obtained1 by writing to ,,munn  ,co4   
,we also send free our ,hand ,book about
 the ,patent ,laws1 ,patents1 ,caveats4 
,trade ,marks1 their costs1 and how     
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,branch ,office1 cor4 ,f and #gth ,sts41
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