,b5$ict de ,sp9oza1 ,,! ,,e?ics 7,e?ica ,ord9e ,geometrico ,demon/rata7 ,translat$ by ,r4 ,h4 ,m4 ,elwes ,"p ,,ii3 ,,on ,,! ,,nature ,,& ,,orig9 ,,( ,,! ,,m9d ,,preface ,i n[ pass on to expla9+ ! results1 :i* mu/ necess>ily foll[ f ! ess5ce ( ,god1 or ( ! et]nal & inf9ite be+2 n1 inde$1 all ( !m 7= we prov$ 9 ,"p i41 ,prop4 xvi41 t an inf9ite numb] mu/ foll[ 9 an inf9ite numb] ( ways71 b only ^? :i* are able to lead u1 z x 7 by ! h&1 to ! k ( ! human m9d & its highe/ bless$ness4 ,,def9itions ,i4 ,by 'body' ,i mean a mode :i* expresses 9 a c]ta9 det]m9ate mann] ! ess5ce ( ,god1 9 s f> z he is consid]$ z an ext5d$ ?+4 7,see ,pt4 i41 ,prop4 xxv4 ,cor47 ,,ii4 ,i consid] z belong+ to ! ess5ce ( a ?+ t1 :i* be+ giv51 ! ?+ is necess>ily giv5 also1 &1 :i* be+ remov$1 ! ?+ is necess>ily remov$ also2 9 o!r words1 t )\t :i* ! ?+1 & :i* itself )\t ! ?+1 c nei!r be nor be conceiv$4 ,,iii4 ,by 'idea1' ,i mean ! m5tal conception :i* is =m$ by ! m9d z a ?9k+ ?+4 ,explanation--,i say 'conception' r ?an p]ception1 because ! ^w p]ception seems to imply t ! m9d is passive 9 respect to ! object2 :]eas conception seems to express an activity ( ! m9d4 ,,iv4 ,by 'an adequate idea1' ,i mean an idea :i*1 9 s f> z x is consid]$ 9 itself1 )\t relation to ! object1 has all ! prop]ties or intr9sic m>ks ( a true idea4 ,explanation--,i say 'intr9sic1' 9 ord] to exclude t m>k :i* is extr9sic1 namely1 ! agreem5t betwe5 ! idea & its object 7ideatum74 ,v4 ',duration' is ! indef9ite cont9uance ( exi/+4 ,explanation--,i say 'indef9ite1' because x _c be det]m9$ ?r\gh ! exi/5ce itself ( ! exi/+ ?+1 or by its effici5t cause1 :i* necess>ily gives ! exi/5ce ( ! ?+1 b does n take x away4 ,,vi4 ',reality' & 'p]fection' ,i use z synonym\s t]ms4 ,,vii4 ,by 'p>ticul> ?+s1' ,i mean ?+s :i* are f9ite & h a condition$ exi/5ce2 b if sev]al individual ?+s concur 9 "o action1 s z to be all simultane\sly ! effect ( "o cause1 ,i consid] !m all1 s f>1 z "o p>ticul> ?+4 ,,axioms ,i4 ,! ess5ce ( man does n involve necess>y exi/5ce1 t is1 x may1 9 ! ord] ( nature1 come to pass t ?is or t man does or does n exi/4 ,,ii4 ,man ?9ks4 ,,iii4 ,modes ( ?9k+1 su* z love1 desire1 or any o!r ( ! passions1 d n take place1 unless !re be 9 ! same individual an idea ( ! ?+ lov$1 desir$1 c4 ,b ! idea c exi/ )\t ! pres5ce ( any o!r mode ( ?9k+4 ,,iv4 ,we p]ceive t a c]ta9 body is affect$ 9 _m ways4 ,v4 ,we feel & p]ceive no p>ticul> ?+s1 save bodies & modes ( ?\ght4 ,n4,b4 ,! ,po/ulates are giv5 aft] ! conclusion ( ,prop4 xiii4 ,,propositions ,i4 ,?\ght is an attribute ( ,god1 or ,god is a ?9k+ ?+4 ,pro(--,p>ticul> ?\ghts1 or ?is & t ?\ght1 are modes :i*1 9 a c]ta9 condition$ mann]1 express ! nature ( ,god 7,pt4 i41 ,prop4 xxv41 ,cor474 ,god !re=e possesses ! attribute 7,pt4 i41 ,def4 v47 ( :i* ! concept is involv$ 9 all p>ticul> ?\ghts1 :i* latt] are conceiv$ !reby4 ,?\ght1 !re=e1 is "o ( ! inf9ite attributes ( ,god1 :i* express ,god's et]nal & inf9ite ess5ce 7,pt4 i41 ,def4 vi474 ,9 o!r words1 ,god is a ?9k+ ?+4 ,q4,e4,d4 9999999999,note--,?is proposition is also evid5t f ! fact1 t we are able to conceive an inf9ite ?9k+ be+4 ,=1 9 proportion z a ?9k+ be+ is conceiv$ z ?9k+ m ?\ghts1 s is x conceiv$ z conta9+ m reality or p]fection4 ,!re=e a be+1 :i* c ?9k an inf9ite numb] ( ?+s 9 an inf9ite numb] ( ways1 is1 necess>ily1 9 respect ( ?9k+1 inf9ite4 ,z1 !re=e1 f ! consid]ation ( ?\ght alone1 we conceive an inf9ite be+1 ?\ght is necess>ily 7,pt4 i41 ,deff4 iv4 & vi47 "o ( ! inf9ite attributes ( ,god1 z we 7 desir\s ( %[+4 ,,ii4 ,ext5sion is an attribute ( ,god1 or ,god is an ext5d$ ?+4 ,pro(--,! pro( ( ?is proposition is simil> to t ( ! la/4 ,,iii4 ,9 ,god !re is necess>ily ! idea n only ( 8 ess5ce1 b also ( all ?+s :i* necess>ily foll[ f 8 ess5ce4 ,pro(--,god 7by ! fir/ ,prop4 ( ?is ,"p7 c ?9k an inf9ite numb] ( ?+s 9 inf9ite ways1 or 7:at is ! same ?+1 by ,prop4 xvi41 ,"p i47 c =m ! idea ( 8 ess5ce1 & ( all ?+s :i* necess>ily foll[ !refrom4 ,n[ all t is 9 ! p[] ( ,god necess>ily is 7,pt4 i41 ,prop4 xxxv474 ,!re=e1 su* an idea z we are consid]+ necess>ily is1 & 9 ,god alone4 ,q4,e4,d4 7,"p i41 ,prop4 xv47 9999999999,note--,! multitude und]/& by ! p[] ( ,god ! free w ( ,god1 & ! "r ov] all ?+s t exi/1 :i* latt] are accord+ly g5]ally consid]$ z cont+5t4 ,= x is said t ,god has ! p[] to de/roy all ?+s1 & to r$uce !m to no?+4 ,fur!r1 ! p[] ( ,god is v (t5 lik5$ to ! p[] ( k+s4 ,b ?is doctr9e we h refut$ 7,pt4 i41 ,prop4 xxxii41 ,cors4 i4 & ii471 & we h %[n 7,"p i41 ,prop4 xvi47 t ,god acts by ! same necessity1 z t by :i* he und]/&s himself2 9 o!r words1 z x foll[s f ! necessity ( ! div9e nature 7z all admit71 t ,god und]/&s himself1 s also does x foll[ by ! same necessity1 t ,god p]=ms inf9ite acts 9 inf9ite ways4 ,we fur!r %[$ 7,"p i41 ,prop4 xxxiv471 t ,god's p[] is id5tical ) ,god's ess5ce 9 action2 !re=e x is z impossible = u to conceive ,god z n act+1 z to conceive him z non-exi/5t4 ,if we might pursue ! subject fur!r1 ,i c\ld po9t out1 t ! p[] :i* is commonly attribut$ to ,god is n only human 7z %[+ t ,god is conceiv$ by ! multitude z a man1 or 9 ! lik5ess ( a man71 b involves a negation ( p[]4 ,h[ev]1 ,i am unwill+ to g ov] ! same gr\nd s (t54 ,i w\ld only beg ! read] aga9 & aga91 to turn ov] frequ5tly 9 8 m9d :at ,i h said 9 ,"p i4 f ,prop4 xvi4 to ! end4 ,no "o w be able to foll[ my mean+1 unless he is scrupul\sly c>eful n to conf\nd ! p[] ( ,god ) ! human p[] & "r ( k+s4 ,,iv4 ,! idea ( ,god1 f :i* an inf9ite numb] ( ?+s foll[ 9 inf9ite ways1 c only be "o4 ,pro(--,inf9ite intellect compreh5ds no?+ save ! attributes ( ,god & 8 modifications 7,"p i41 ,prop4 xxx474 ,n[ ,god is "o 7,"p i41 ,prop4 xiv41 ,cor474 ,!re=e ! idea ( ,god1 :]efrom an inf9ite numb] ( ?+s foll[ 9 inf9ite ways1 c only be "o4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,v4 ,! actual be+ ( ideas owns ,god z its cause1 only 9 s f> z he is consid]$ z a ?9k+ ?+1 n 9 s f> z he is unfold$ 9 any o!r attribute2 t is1 ! ideas bo? ( ! attributes ( ,god & ( p>ticul> ?+s d n own z _! effici5t cause _! objects 7ideata7 or ! ?+s p]ceiv$1 b ,god himself 9 s f> z he is a ?9k+ ?+4 ,pro(--,?is proposition is evid5t f ,prop4 iii4 ( ?is ,"p4 ,we !re drew ! conclusion1 t ,god c =m ! idea ( 8 ess5ce1 & ( all ?+s :i* foll[ necess>ily !refrom1 solely because he is a ?9k+ ?+1 & n because he is ! object ( 8 own idea4 ,:]e=e ! actual be+ ( ideas owns = cause ,god1 9 s f> z he is a ?9k+ ?+4 ,x may be diff]5tly prov$ z foll[s3 ! actual be+ ( ideas is 7obvi\sly7 a mode ( ?\ght1 t is 7,"p i41 ,prop4 xxv41 ,cor47 a mode :i* expresses 9 a c]ta9 mann] ! nature ( ,god1 9 s f> z he is a ?9k+ ?+1 & !re=e 7,"p i41 ,prop4 x47 involves ! conception ( no o!r attribute ( ,god1 & consequ5tly 7by ,"p i41 ,ax4 iv47 is n ! effect ( any attribute save ?\ght4 ,!re=e ! actual be+ ( ideas owns ,god z its cause1 9 s f> z he is consid]$ z a ?9k+ ?+1 c4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,,vi4 ,! modes ( any giv5 attribute are caus$ by ,god1 9 s f> z he is consid]$ ?r\gh ! attribute ( :i* !y are modes1 & n 9 s f> z he is consid]$ ?r\gh any o!r attribute4 ,pro(--,ea* attribute is conceiv$ ?r\gh itself1 )\t any o!r "p 7,"p i41 ,prop4 x472 :]e=e ! modes ( ea* attribute involve ! conception ( t attribute1 b n ( any o!r4 ,?us 7,"p i41 ,ax4 iv47 !y are caus$ by ,god1 only 9 s f> z he is consid]$ ?r\gh ! attribute ^: modes !y are1 & n 9 s f> z he is consid]$ ?r\gh any o!r4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,coroll>y--,h5ce ! actual be+ ( ?+s1 :i* are n modes ( ?\ght1 does n foll[ f ! div9e nature1 because t nature has prior k ( ! ?+s4 ,?+s repres5t$ 9 ideas foll[1 & are d]iv$ f _! p>ticul> attribute1 9 ! same mann]1 & ) ! same necessity z ideas foll[ 7accord+ to :at we h %[n7 f ! attribute ( ?\ght4 ,,vii4 ,! ord] & connection ( ideas is ! same z ! ord] & connection ( ?+s4 ,pro(--,?is proposition is evid5t f ,"p i41 ,ax4 iv4 ,= ! idea ( ev]y?+ t is caus$ dep5ds on a k ( ! cause1 :]e( x is an effect4 ,coroll>y--,h5ce ,god's p[] ( ?9k+ is equal to 8 realiz$ p[] ( action-- t is1 :atsoev] foll[s f ! inf9ite nature ( ,god 9 ! _w ( ext5sion 7=malit]71 foll[s )\t exception 9 ! same ord] & connection f ! idea ( ,god 9 ! _w ( ?\ght 7objective74 9999999999,note--,be=e go+ any fur!r1 ,i wi% to recall to m9d :at has be5 po9t$ out above--namely1 t :atsoev] c be p]ceiv$ by ! inf9ite intellect z con/itut+ ! ess5ce ( sub/ance1 belongs altoge!r only to "o sub/ance3 consequ5tly1 sub/ance ?9k+ & sub/ance ext5d$ are "o & ! same sub/ance1 compreh5d$ n[ ?r\gh "o attribute1 n[ ?r\gh ! o!r4 ,s1 also1 a mode ( ext5sion & ! idea ( t mode are "o & ! same ?+1 ?\gh express$ 9 two ways4 ,?is tru? seems to h be5 dimly recogniz$ by ^? ,jews :o ma9ta9$ t ,god1 ,god's intellect1 & ! ?+s und]/ood by ,god are id5tical4 ,= in/ance1 a circle exi/+ 9 nature1 & ! idea ( a circle exi/+1 :i* is also 9 ,god1 are "o & ! same ?+ display$ ?r\gh diff]5t attributes4 ,?us1 :e!r we conceive nature "u ! attribute ( ext5sion1 or "u ! attribute ( ?\ght1 or "u any o!r attribute1 we %all f9d ! same ord]1 or "o & ! same *a9 ( causes--t is1 ! same ?+s foll[+ 9 ei!r case4 ,i said t ,god is ! cause ( an idea--= in/ance1 ( ! idea ( a circle1--9 s f> z he is a ?9k+ ?+2 & ( a circle1 9 s f> z he is an ext5d$ ?+1 simply because ! actual be+ ( ! idea ( a circle c only be p]ceiv$ z a proximate cause ?r\gh ano!r mode ( ?9k+1 & t aga9 ?r\gh ano!r1 & s on to inf9ity2 s t1 s long z we consid] ?+s z modes ( ?9k+1 we mu/ expla9 ! ord] ( ! :ole ( nature1 or ! :ole *a9 ( causes1 ?r\gh ! attribute ( ?\ght only4 ,&1 9 s f> z we consid] ?+s z modes ( ext5sion1 we mu/ expla9 ! ord] ( ! :ole ( nature ?r\gh ! attributes ( ext5sion only2 & s on1 9 ! case ( ! o!r attributes4 ,:]e=e ( ?+s z !y are 9 !mselves ,god is really ! cause1 inasmu* z he consi/s ( inf9ite attributes4 ,i _c = ! pres5t expla9 my mean+ m cle>ly4 ,,viii4 ,! ideas ( p>ticul> ?+s1 or ( modes1 t d n exi/1 mu/ be compreh5d$ 9 ! inf9ite idea ( ,god1 9 ! same way z ! =mal ess5ces ( p>ticul> ?+s or modes are conta9$ 9 ! attributes ( ,god4 ,pro(--,?is proposition is evid5t f ! la/2 x is und]/ood m cle>ly f ! prec$+ note4 ,coroll>y--,h5ce1 s long z p>ticul> ?+s d n exi/1 except 9 s f> z !y are compreh5d$ 9 ! attributes ( ,god1 _! repres5tations 9 ?\ght or ideas d n exi/1 except 9 s f> z ! inf9ite idea ( ,god exi/s2 & :5 ! p>ticul> ?+s are said to exi/1 n only 9 s f> z !y are involv$ 9 ! attributes ( ,god1 b also 9 s f> z !y are said to cont9ue1 _! ideas w also involve exi/5ce1 ?r\gh :i* !y are said to cont9ue4 9999999999,note--,if anyone desires an example to ?r[ m light on ?is "q1 ,i %all1 ,i fe>1 n be able to give him any1 :i* adequately expla9s ! ?+ ( :i* ,i "h speak1 inasmu* z x is unique2 h[ev]1 ,i w endeav\r to illu/rate x z f> z possible4 ,! nature ( a circle is su* t if any numb] ( /raight l9es int]sect )9 x1 ! rectangles =m$ by _! segm5ts w be equal to "o ano!r2 ?us1 inf9ite equal rectangles are conta9$ 9 a circle4 ,yet none ( ^! rectangles c be said to exi/1 except 9 s f> z ! circle exi/s2 nor c ! idea ( any ( ^! rectangles be said to exi/1 except 9 s f> z !y are compreh5d$ 9 ! idea ( ! circle4 ,let u grant t1 f ?is inf9ite numb] ( rectangles1 two only exi/4 ,! ideas ( ^! two n only exi/1 9 s f> z !y are conta9$ 9 ! idea ( ! circle1 b also z !y involve ! exi/5ce ( ^? rectangles2 :]e=e !y are di/+ui%$ f ! rema9+ ideas ( ! rema9+ rectangles4 ,,ix4 ,! idea ( an individual ?+ actually exi/+ is caus$ by ,god1 n 9 s f> z he is inf9ite1 b 9 s f> z he is consid]$ z affect$ by ano!r idea ( a ?+ actually exi/+1 ( :i* he is ! cause1 9 s f> z he is affect$ by a ?ird idea1 & s on to inf9ity4 ,pro(--,! idea ( an individual ?+ actually exi/+ is an individual mode ( ?9k+1 & is di/9ct f o!r modes 7by ! ,cor4 & ,note to ,prop4 viii4 ( ?is "p72 ?us 7by ,prop4 vi4 ( ?is "p7 x is caus$ by ,god1 9 s f> only z he is a ?9k+ ?+4 ,b n 7by ,prop4 xxviii4 ( ,"p i47 9 s f> z he is a ?+ ?9k+ absolutely1 only 9 s f> z he is consid]$ z affect$ by ano!r mode ( ?9k+2 & he is ! cause ( ?is latt]1 z be+ affect$ by a ?ird1 & s on to inf9ity4 ,n[1 ! ord] & connection ( ideas is 7by ,prop4 vii4 ( ?is book7 ! same z ! ord] & connection ( causes4 ,!re=e ( a giv5 individual idea ano!r individual idea1 or ,god1 9 s f> z he is consid]$ z modifi$ by t idea1 is ! cause2 & ( ?is second idea ,god is ! cause1 9 s f> z he is affect$ by ano!r idea1 & s on to inf9ity4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,coroll>y--,:atsoev] takes place 9 ! individual object ( any idea1 ! k !re( is 9 ,god1 9 s f> only z he has ! idea ( ! object4 ,pro(--,:atsoev] takes place 9 ! object ( any idea1 its idea is 9 ,god 7by ,prop4 iii4 ( ?is "p71 n 9 s f> z he is inf9ite1 b 9 s f> z he is consid]$ z affect$ by ano!r idea ( an individual ?+ 7by ! la/ ,prop472 b 7by ,prop4 vii4 ( ?is "p7 ! ord] & connection ( ideas is ! same z ! ord] & connection ( ?+s4 ,! k1 !re=e1 ( t :i* takes place 9 any individual object w be 9 ,god1 9 s f> only z he has ! idea ( t object4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,x4 ,! be+ ( sub/ance does n app]ta9 to ! ess5ce ( man--9 o!r words1 sub/ance does n con/itute ! actual be+ 7=ma7 ( man4 ,pro(--,! be+ ( sub/ance involves necess>y exi/5ce 7,"p i41 ,prop4 vii474 ,if1 !re=e1 ! be+ ( sub/ance app]ta9s to ! ess5ce ( man1 sub/ance be+ grant$1 man w\ld necess>ily be grant$ also 7,,ii4 ,def4 ii471 &1 consequ5tly1 man w\ld necess>ily exi/1 :i* is absurd 7,,ii4 ,ax4 i474 ,!re=e c4 ,q4,e4,d4 9999999999,note--,?is proposition may also be prov$ f ,i4v41 9 :i* x is %[n t !re _c be two sub/ances ( ! same nature2 = z !re may be _m m51 ! be+ ( sub/ance is n t :i* con/itutes ! actual be+ ( man4 ,aga91 ! proposition is evid5t f ! o!r prop]ties ( sub/ance--namely1 t sub/ance is 9 its nature inf9ite1 immutable1 indivisible1 c41 z anyone may see = himself4 ,coroll>y--,h5ce x foll[s1 t ! ess5ce ( man is con/itut$ by c]ta9 modifications ( ! attributes ( ,god4 ,= 7by ! la/ ,prop47 ! be+ ( sub/ance does n belong to ! ess5ce ( man4 ,t ess5ce !re=e 7by ,i4 xv47 is some?+ :i* is 9 ,god1 & :i* )\t ,god c nei!r be nor be conceiv$1 :e!r x be a modification 7,i4 xxv4 ,cor471 or a mode :i* expresses ,god's nature 9 a c]ta9 condition$ mann]4 9999999999,note--,ev]yone mu/ surely admit1 t no?+ c be or be conceiv$ )\t ,god4 ,all m5 agree t ,god is ! "o & only cause ( all ?+s1 bo? ( _! ess5ce & ( _! exi/5ce2 t is1 ,god is n only ! cause ( ?+s 9 respect to _! be+ made 7secundum fi]i71 b also 9 respect to _! be+ 7secundum esse74 ,at ! same "t _m ass]t1 t t1 )\t :i* a ?+ _c be nor be conceiv$1 belongs to ! ess5ce ( t ?+2 :]e=e !y believe t ei!r ! nature ( ,god app]ta9s to ! ess5ce ( creat$ ?+s1 or else t creat$ ?+s c be or be conceiv$ )\t ,god2 or else1 z is m probably ! case1 !y hold inconsi/5t doctr9es4 ,i ?9k ! cause = su* confusion is ma9ly1 t !y d n keep to ! prop] ord] ( philosophic ?9k+4 ,! nature ( ,god1 :i* %\ld be reflect$ on fir/1 inasmu* z x is prior bo? 9 ! ord] ( k & ! ord] ( nature1 !y h tak5 to be la/ 9 ! ord] ( k1 & h put into ! fir/ place :at !y call ! objects ( s5sation2 h5ce1 :ile !y are consid]+ natural ph5om5a1 !y give no att5tion at all to ! div9e nature1 &1 :5 aft]w>ds !y apply _! m9d to ! /udy ( ! div9e nature1 !y are q unable to be> 9 m9d ! fir/ hypo!ses1 ) :i* !y h ov]laid ! k ( natural ph5om5a1 inasmu* z su* hypo!ses are no help t[>ds und]/&+ ! div9e nature4 ,s t x is h>dly to be wond]$ at1 t ^! p]sons contradict !mselves freely4 ,h[ev]1 ,i pass ov] ?is po9t4 ,my int5tion h] 0 only to give a reason = n say+1 t t1 )\t :i* a ?+ _c be or be conceiv$1 belongs to ! ess5ce ( t ?+3 individual ?+s _c be or be conceiv$ )\t ,god1 yet ,god does n app]ta9 to _! ess5ce4 ,i said t ,i consid]$ z belong+ to ! ess5ce ( a ?+ t1 :i* be+ giv51 ! ?+ is necess>ily giv5 also1 & :i* be+ remov$1 ! ?+ is necess>ily remov$ also2 or t )\t :i* ! ?+1 & :i* itself )\t ! ?+ c nei!r be nor be conceiv$4 7,,ii4 ,def4 ii47 ,,xi4 ,! fir/ elem5t1 :i* con/itutes ! actual be+ ( ! human m9d1 is ! idea ( "s p>ticul> ?+ actually exi/+4 ,pro(--,! ess5ce ( man 7by ! ,cor4 ( ! la/ ,prop47 is con/itut$ by c]ta9 modes ( ! attributes ( ,god1 namely 7by ,,ii4 ,ax4 ii471 by ! modes ( ?9k+1 ( all :i* 7by ,,ii4 ,ax4 iii47 ! idea is prior 9 nature1 &1 :5 ! idea is giv51 ! o!r modes 7namely1 ^? ( :i* ! idea is prior 9 nature7 mu/ be 9 ! same individual 7by ! same ,axiom74 ,!re=e an idea is ! fir/ elem5t con/itut+ ! human m9d4 ,b n ! idea ( a non-exi/5t ?+1 = !n 7,,ii4 viii4 ,cor47 ! idea itself _c be said to exi/2 x mu/ !re=e be ! idea ( some?+ actually exi/+4 ,b n ( an inf9ite ?+4 ,= an inf9ite ?+ 7,i4 xxi41 xxii471 mu/ always necess>ily exi/2 ?is w\ld 7by ,,ii4 ,ax4 i47 involve an absurdity4 ,!re=e ! fir/ elem5t1 :i* con/itutes ! actual be+ ( ! human m9d1 is ! idea ( some?+ actually exi/+4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,coroll>y--,h5ce x foll[s1 t ! human m9d is "p ( ! inf9ite intellect ( ,god2 ?us :5 we say1 t ! human m9d p]ceives ?is or t1 we make ! ass]tion1 t ,god has ?is or t idea1 n 9 s f> z he is inf9ite1 b 9 s f> z he is display$ ?r\gh ! nature ( ! human m9d1 or 9 s f> z he con/itutes ! ess5ce ( ! human m9d2 & :5 we say t ,god has ?is or t idea1 n only 9 s f> z he con/itutes ! ess5ce ( ! human m9d1 b also 9 s f> z he1 simultane\sly ) ! human m9d1 has ! fur!r idea ( ano!r ?+1 we ass]t t ! human m9d p]ceives a ?+ 9 "p or inadequately4 9999999999,note--,"h1 ,i d\bt n1 read]s w come to a /&1 & w call to m9d _m ?+s :i* w cause !m to hesitate2 ,i !re=e beg !m to accompany me sl[ly1 /ep by /ep1 & n to pron\nce on my /atem5ts1 till !y h read to ! end4 ,,xii4 ,:atsoev] comes to pass 9 ! object ( ! idea1 :i* con/itutes ! human m9d1 mu/ be p]ceiv$ by ! human m9d1 or !re w necess>ily be an idea 9 ! human m9d ( ! said occurr5ce4 ,t is1 if ! object ( ! idea con/itut+ ! human m9d be a body1 no?+ c take place 9 t body )\t be+ p]ceiv$ by ! m9d4 ,pro(--,:atsoev] comes to pass 9 ! object ( any idea1 ! k !re( is necess>ily 9 ,god 7,,ii4 ix4 ,cor471 9 s f> z he is consid]$ z affect$ by ! idea ( ! said object1 t is 7,,ii4 xi471 9 s f> z he con/itutes ! m9d ( any?+4 ,!re=e1 :atsoev] takes place 9 ! object con/itut+ ! idea ( ! human m9d1 ! k !re( is necess>ily 9 ,god1 9 s f> z he con/itutes ! ess5ce ( ! human m9d2 t is 7by ,,ii4 xi4 ,cor47 ! k ( ! said ?+ w necess>ily be 9 ! m9d1 9 o!r words ! m9d p]ceives x4 9999999999,note--,?is proposition is also evid5t1 & is m cle>ly to be und]/ood f ,,ii4 vii41 :i* see4 ,,xiii4 ,! object ( ! idea con/itut+ ! human m9d is ! body1 9 o!r words a c]ta9 mode ( ext5sion :i* actually exi/s1 & no?+ else4 ,pro(--,if inde$ ! body 7 n ! object ( ! human m9d1 ! ideas ( ! modifications ( ! body w\ld n be 9 ,god 7,,ii4 ix4 ,cor47 9 virtue ( 8 con/itut+ our m9d1 b 9 virtue ( 8 con/itut+ ! m9d ( some?+ else2 t is 7,,ii4 xi4 ,cor47 ! ideas ( ! modifications ( ! body w\ld n be 9 our m9d3 n[ 7by ,,ii4 ,ax4 iv47 we d possess ! idea ( ! modifications ( ! body4 ,!re=e ! object ( ! idea con/itut+ ! human m9d is ! body1 & ! body z x actually exi/s 7,,ii4 xi474 ,fur!r1 if !re 7 any o!r object ( ! idea con/itut+ ! m9d besides body1 !n1 z no?+ c exi/ f :i* "s effect does n foll[ 7,i4 xxxvi47 !re w\ld necess>ily h to be 9 our m9d an idea1 :i* w\ld be ! effect ( t o!r object 7,,ii4 xi472 b 7,i4 ,ax4 v47 !re is no su* idea4 ,:]e=e ! object ( our m9d is ! body z x exi/s1 & no?+ else4 ,q4,e4,d4 9999999999,note--,we ?us compreh5d1 n only t ! human m9d is unit$ to ! body1 b also ! nature ( ! union betwe5 m9d & body4 ,h[ev]1 no "o w be able to grasp ?is adequately or di/9ctly1 unless he fir/ has adequate k ( ! nature ( our body4 ,! propositions we h advanc$ hi!rto h be5 entirely g5]al1 apply+ n m to m5 ?an to o!r individual ?+s1 all ( :i*1 ?\gh 9 diff]5t degrees1 are animat$ 7animata74 ,= ( ev]y?+ !re is necess>ily an idea 9 ,god1 ( :i* ,god is ! cause1 9 ! same way z !re is an idea ( ! human body2 ?us :atev] we h ass]t$ ( ! idea ( ! human body mu/ necess>ily also be ass]t$ ( ! idea ( ev]y?+ else4 ,/ill1 on ! o!r h&1 we _c d5y t ideas1 l objects1 diff] "o f ! o!r1 "o be+ m excell5t ?an ano!r & conta9+ m reality1 j z ! object ( "o idea is m excell5t ?an ! object ( ano!r idea1 & conta9s m reality4 ,:]e=e1 9 ord] to det]m9e1 :]e9 ! human m9d diff]s f o!r ?+s1 & :]e9 x surpasses !m1 x is necess>y = u to "k ! nature ( its object1 t is1 ( ! human body4 ,:at ?is nature is1 ,i am n able "h to expla91 nor is x necess>y = ! pro( ( :at ,i advance1 t ,i %\ld d s4 ,i w only say g5]ally1 t 9 proportion z any giv5 body is m fitt$ ?an o!rs = do+ _m actions or receiv+ _m impressions at once1 s also is ! m9d1 ( :i* x is ! object1 m fitt$ ?an o!rs = =m+ _m simultane\s p]ceptions2 & ! m ! actions ( ! body dep5d on itself alone1 & ! few] o!r bodies concur ) x 9 action1 ! m fitt$ is ! m9d ( :i* x is ! object = di/9ct compreh5sion4 ,we may ?us recognize ! sup]iority ( "o m9d ov] o!rs1 & may fur!r see ! cause1 :y we h only a v confus$ k ( our body1 & also _m k9dr$ que/ions1 :i* ,i w1 9 ! foll[+ propositions1 d$uce f :at has be5 advanc$4 ,:]e=e ,i h ?\ght x wor? :ile to expla9 & prove m /rictly my pres5t /atem5ts4 ,9 ord] to d s1 ,i mu/ premise a few propositions conc]n+ ! nature ( bodies4 ---,axiom ,i4 ,all bodies are ei!r 9 motion or at re/4 ---,axiom ,,ii4 ,e body is mov$ sometimes m sl[ly1 sometimes m quickly4 ,lemma ,i4 ,bodies are di/+ui%$ f "o ano!r 9 respect ( motion & re/1 quickness & sl[ness1 & n 9 respect ( sub/ance4 ,pro(--,! fir/ "p ( ?is proposition is1 ,i take x1 self-evid5t4 ,t bodies are n di/+ui%$ 9 respect ( sub/ance1 is pla9 bo? f ,i4 v4 & ,i4 viii4 ,x is br\ght out /ill m cle>ly f ,i4 xv41 ,note4 ,lemma ,,ii4 ,all bodies agree 9 c]ta9 respects4 ,pro(--,all bodies agree 9 ! fact1 t !y involve ! conception ( "o & ! same attribute 7,,ii41 ,def4 i474 ,fur!r1 9 ! fact t !y may be mov$ less or m quickly1 & may be absolutely 9 motion or at re/4 ,lemma ,,iii4 ,a body 9 motion or at re/ mu/ be det]m9$ to motion or re/ by ano!r body1 :i* o!r body has be5 det]m9$ to motion or re/ by a ?ird body1 & t ?ird aga9 by a f\r?1 & s on to inf9ity4 ,pro(--,bodies are individual ?+s 7,,ii41 ,def4 i471 :i* 7,lemma i47 are di/+ui%$ "o f ! o!r 9 respect to motion & re/2 ?us 7,i4 xxviii47 ea* mu/ necess>ily be det]m9$ to motion or re/ by ano!r individual ?+1 namely 7,,ii4 vi47 by ano!r body1 :i* o!r body is also 7,ax4 i47 9 motion or at re/4 ,& ?is body aga9 c only h be5 set 9 motion or caus$ to re/ by be+ det]m9$ by a ?ird body to motion or re/4 ,?is ?ird body aga9 by a f\r?1 & s on to inf9ity4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,coroll>y--,h5ce x foll[s1 t a body 9 motion keeps 9 motion1 until x is det]m9$ to a /ate ( re/ by "s o!r body2 & a body at re/ rema9s s1 until x is det]m9$ to a /ate ( motion by "s o!r body4 ,?is is inde$ self-evid5t4 ,= :5 ,i suppose1 = in/ance1 t a giv5 body1 ,a1 is at re/1 & d n take into consid]ation o!r bodies 9 motion1 ,i _c affirm any?+ conc]n+ ! body ,a1 except t x is at re/4 ,if x aft]w>ds comes to pass t ,a is 9 motion1 ?is _c h result$ f its hav+ be5 at re/1 = no o!r consequ5ce c\ld h be5 involv$ ?an its rema9+ at re/4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 ,a be giv5 9 motion1 we %all1 s long z we only consid] ,a1 be unable to affirm any?+ conc]n+ x1 except t x is 9 motion4 ,if ,a is subsequ5tly f\nd to be at re/1 ?is re/ _c be ! result ( ,a's previ\s motion1 = su* motion c only h l$ to cont9u$ motion2 ! /ate ( re/ !re=e mu/ h result$ f some?+1 :i* 0 n 9 ,a1 namely1 f an ext]nal cause det]m9+ ,a to a /ate ( re/4 -----,axiom ,i--,all modes1 :]e9 "o body is affect$ by ano!r body1 foll[ simultane\sly f ! nature ( ! body affect$ & ! body affect+2 s t "o & ! same body may be mov$ 9 diff]5t modes1 accord+ to ! diff]5ce 9 ! nature ( ! bodies mov+ x2 on ! o!r h&1 diff]5t bodies may be mov$ 9 diff]5t modes by "o & ! same body4 -----,axiom ,,ii--,:5 a body 9 motion imp+es on ano!r body at re/1 :i* x is unable to move1 x recoils1 9 ord] to cont9ue its motion1 & ! angle made by ! l9e ( motion 9 ! recoil & ! plane ( ! body at re/1 :]eon ! mov+ body has imp+$1 w be equal to ! angle =m$ by ! l9e ( motion ( incid5ce & ! same plane4 ,s f> we h be5 speak+ only ( ! mo/ simple bodies1 :i* are only di/+ui%$ "o f ! o!r by motion & re/1 quickness & sl[ness4 ,we n[ pass on to comp\nd bodies4 ,def9ition--,:5 any giv5 bodies ( ! same or diff]5t magnitude are compell$ by o!r bodies to rema9 9 contact1 or if !y be mov$ at ! same or diff]5t rates ( spe$1 s t _! mutual movem5ts %\ld pres]ve among !mselves a c]ta9 fix$ relation1 we say t su* bodies are '9 union1' & t toge!r !y compose "o body or individual1 :i* is di/+ui%$ f o!r bodies by ! fact ( ?is union4 -----,axiom ,,iii--,9 proportion z ! p>ts ( an individual1 or a comp\nd body1 are 9 contact ov] a great] or less sup]ficies1 !y w ) great] or less difficulty admit ( be+ mov$ f _! position2 consequ5tly ! individual w1 ) great] or less difficulty1 be br\ght to assume ano!r =m4 ,^? bodies1 ^: p>ts are 9 contact ov] l>ge sup]ficies1 are call$ 'h>d2' ^?1 ^: p>ts are 9 contact ov] small sup]ficies1 are call$ 's(t2' ^?1 ^: p>ts are 9 motion among "o ano!r1 are call$ 'fluid4' ,lemma ,,iv4 ,if f a body or individual1 comp\nd$ ( sev]al bodies1 c]ta9 bodies be sep>at$1 & if1 at ! same "t1 an equal numb] ( o!r bodies ( ! same nature take _! place1 ! individual w pres]ve its nature z be=e1 )\t any *ange 9 its actuality 7=ma74 ,pro(--,bodies 7,lemma i47 are n di/+ui%$ 9 respect ( sub/ance3 t :i* con/itutes ! actuality 7=mam7 ( an individual consi/s 7by ! la/ ,def47 9 a union ( bodies2 b ?is union1 al?\gh !re is a cont9ual *ange ( bodies1 w 7by our hypo!sis7 be ma9ta9$2 ! individual1 !re=e1 w reta9 its nature z be=e1 bo? 9 respect ( sub/ance & 9 respect ( mode4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,lemma ,v4 ,if ! p>ts compos+ an individual become great] or less1 b 9 su* proportion1 t !y all pres]ve ! same mutual relations ( motion & re/1 ! individual w /ill pres]ve its orig9al nature1 & its actuality w n be *ang$4 ,pro(--,! same z = ! la/ ,lemma4 ,lemma ,,vi4 ,if c]ta9 bodies compos+ an individual be compell$ to *ange ! motion1 :i* !y h 9 "o direction1 = motion 9 ano!r direction1 b 9 su* a mann]1 t !y be able to cont9ue _! motions & _! mutual communication 9 ! same relations z be=e1 ! individual w reta9 its own nature )\t any *ange ( its actuality4 ,pro(--,?is proposition is self-evid5t1 = ! individual is suppos$ to reta9 all t1 :i*1 9 its def9ition1 we spoke ( z its actual be+4 ,lemma ,,vii4 ,fur!rmore1 ! individual ?us compos$ pres]ves its nature1 :e!r x be1 z a :ole1 9 motion or at re/1 :e!r x be mov$ 9 ?is or t direction2 s long z ea* "p reta9s its motion1 & pres]ves its communication ) o!r p>ts z be=e4 ,pro(--,?is proposition is evid5t f ! def9ition ( an individual prefix$ to ,lemma iv4 9999999999,note--,we ?us see1 h[ a composite individual may be affect$ 9 _m diff]5t ways1 & pres]ve its nature not)/&+4 ,?us f> we h conceiv$ an individual z compos$ ( bodies only di/+ui%$ "o f ! o!r 9 respect ( motion & re/1 spe$ & sl[ness2 t is1 ( bodies ( ! mo/ simple "*4 ,if1 h[ev]1 we n[ conceive ano!r individual compos$ ( sev]al individuals ( div]se natures1 we %all f9d t ! numb] ( ways 9 :i* x c be affect$1 )\t los+ its nature1 w be greatly multipli$4 ,ea* ( its p>ts w\ld consi/ ( sev]al bodies1 & !re=e 7by ,lemma vi47 ea* "p w\ld admit1 )\t *ange to its nature1 ( quick] or sl[] motion1 & w\ld consequ5tly be able to transmit its motions m quickly or m sl[ly to ! rema9+ p>ts4 ,if we fur!r conceive a ?ird k9d ( individuals compos$ ( individuals ( ?is second k9d1 we %all f9d t !y may be affect$ 9 a /ill great] numb] ( ways )\t *ang+ _! actuality4 ,we may easily proce$ ?us to inf9ity1 & conceive ! :ole ( nature z "o individual1 ^: p>ts1 t is1 all bodies1 v>y 9 inf9ite ways1 )\t any *ange 9 ! individual z a :ole4 ,i %\ld feel b\nd to expla9 & demon/rate ?is po9t at m l5g?1 if ,i 7 writ+ a special treatise on body4 ,b ,i h already said t su* is n my object2 ,i h only t\*$ on ! "q1 because x enables me to prove easily t :i* ,i h 9 view4 ,,po/ulates ,i4 ,! human body is compos$ ( a numb] ( individual p>ts1 ( div]se nature1 ea* "o ( :i* is 9 itself extremely complex4 ,,ii4 ,( ! individual p>ts compos+ ! human body "s are fluid1 "s s(t1 "s h>d4 ,,iii4 ,! individual p>ts compos+ ! human body1 & consequ5tly ! human body itself1 are affect$ 9 a v>iety ( ways by ext]nal bodies4 ,,iv4 ,! human body /&s 9 ne$ = its pres]vation ( a numb] ( o!r bodies1 by :i* x is cont9ually1 s to speak1 reg5]at$4 ,v4 ,:5 ! fluid "p ( ! human body is det]m9$ by an ext]nal body to imp+e (t5 on ano!r s(t "p1 x *anges ! surface ( ! latt]1 &1 z x 71 leaves ! impression !reupon ( ! ext]nal body :i* impels x4 ,,vi4 ,! human body c move ext]nal bodies1 & arrange !m 9 a v>iety ( ways4 ,,propositions ,,xiv4 ,! human m9d is capable ( p]ceiv+ a great numb] ( ?+s1 & is s 9 proportion z its body is capable ( receiv+ a great numb] ( impressions4 ,pro(--,! human body 7by ,po/4 iii4 & vi47 is affect$ 9 v _m ways by ext]nal bodies1 & is capable 9 v _m ways ( affect+ ext]nal bodies4 ,b 7,,ii4xii47 ! human m9d mu/ p]ceive all t takes place 9 ! human body2 ! human m9d is1 !re=e1 capable ( p]ceiv+ a great numb] ( ?+s1 & is s 9 proportion1 c4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,,xv4 ,! idea1 :i* con/itutes ! actual be+ ( ! human m9d1 is n simple1 b comp\nd$ ( a great numb] ( ideas4 ,pro(--,! idea con/itut+ ! actual be+ ( ! human m9d is ! idea ( ! body 7,,ii4 xiii471 :i* 7,po/4 i47 is compos$ ( a great numb] ( complex individual p>ts4 ,b !re is necess>ily 9 ,god ! idea ( ea* individual "p :]e( ! body is compos$ 7,,ii4 viii4 ,cor472 !re=e 7,,ii4 vii471 ! idea ( ! human body is compos$ ( ea* ( ^! num]\s ideas ( its compon5t p>ts4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,,xvi4 ,! idea ( e mode1 9 :i* ! human body is affect$ by ext]nal bodies1 mu/ involve ! nature ( ! human body1 & also ! nature ( ! ext]nal body4 ,pro(--,all ! modes1 9 :i* any giv5 body is affect$1 foll[ f ! nature ( ! body affect$1 & also f ! nature ( ! affect+ body 7by ,ax4 i41 aft] ! ,cor4 ( ,lemma iii471 :]e=e _! idea is also necess>ily 7by ,i1 ,ax4 iv47 involves ! nature ( bo? bodies2 !re=e1 ! idea ( e mode1 9 :i* ! human body is affect$ by ext]nal bodies1 involves ! nature ( ! human body & ( ! ext]nal body4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,coroll>y ,i4--,h5ce x foll[s1 fir/1 t ! human m9d p]ceives ! nature ( a v>iety ( bodies1 toge!r ) ! nature ( its own4 ,coroll>y ,,ii4--,x foll[s1 secondly1 t ! ideas1 :i* we h ( ext]nal bodies1 indicate r ! con/itution ( our own body ?an ! nature ( ext]nal bodies4 ,i h amply illu/rat$ ?is 9 ! ,app5dix to ,"p ,i4 ,,xvii4 ,if ! human body is affect$ 9 a mann] :i* involves ! nature ( any ext]nal body1 ! human m9d w reg>d ! said ext]nal body z actually exi/+1 or z pres5t to itself1 until ! human body be affect$ 9 su* a way1 z to exclude ! exi/5ce or ! pres5ce ( ! said ext]nal body4 ,pro(--,?is proposition is self-evid5t1 = s long z ! human body cont9ues to be ?us affect$1 s long w ! human m9d 7,,ii4 xii47 reg>d ?is modification ( ! body --t is 7by ! la/ ,prop471 x w h ! idea ( ! mode z actually exi/+1 & ?is idea involves ! nature ( ! ext]nal body2 !re=e ! m9d 7by ,,ii4 xvi41 ,cor4 i47 w reg>d ! ext]nal body z actually exi/+1 until x is affect$1 c4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,coroll>y--,! m9d is able to reg>d z pres5t ext]nal bodies1 by :i* ! human body has once be5 affect$1 ev5 ?\gh !y be no long] 9 exi/5ce or pres5t4 ,pro(--,:5 ext]nal bodies det]m9e ! fluid p>ts ( ! human body1 s t !y (t5 imp+e on ! s(t] p>ts1 !y *ange ! surface ( ! la/ nam$ 7,po/4 v72 h5ce 7,ax4 ii41 aft] ! ,cor4 ( ,lemma iii47 !y are refract$ !refrom 9 a diff]5t mann] f t :i* !y foll[$ be=e su* *ange2 &1 fur!r1 :5 aft]w>ds !y imp+e on ! new surfaces by _! own spontane\s movem5t1 !y w be refract$ 9 ! same mann]1 z ?\gh !y _h be5 impell$ t[>ds ^? surfaces by ext]nal bodies2 consequ5tly1 !y w1 :ile !y cont9ue to be ?us refract$1 affect ! human body 9 ! same mann]1 :]e( ! m9d 7,,ii4 xii47 w aga9 take cognizance --t is 7,,ii4 xvii471 ! m9d w aga9 reg>d ! ext]nal body z pres5t1 & w d s1 z (t5 z ! fluid p>ts ( ! human body imp+e on ! a=esaid surfaces by _! own spontane\s motion4 ,:]e=e1 al?\gh ! ext]nal bodies1 by :i* ! human body has once be5 affect$1 be no long] 9 exi/5ce1 ! m9d w nev]!less reg>d !m z pres5t1 z (t5 z ?is action ( ! body is repeat$4 ,q4,e4,d4 9999999999,note--,we ?us see h[ x comes ab\t1 z is (t5 ! case1 t we reg>d z pres5t _m ?+s :i* are n4 ,x is possible t ! same result may be br\ght ab\t by o!r causes2 b ,i ?9k x suffices = me "h to h indicat$ "o possible explanation1 j z well z if ,i _h po9t$ out ! true cause4 ,inde$1 ,i d n ?9k ,i am v f> f ! tru?1 = all my assumptions are bas$ on po/ulates1 :i* re/1 almo/ )\t exception1 on exp]i5ce1 t _c be controv]t$ by ^? :o h %[n1 z we h1 t ! human body1 z we feel x1 exi/s 7,cor4 aft] ,,ii4 xiii474 ,fur!rmore 7,,ii4 vii4 ,cor41 ,,ii4 xvi4 ,cor4 ii471 we cle>ly und]/& :at is ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! idea1 say1 ( ,pet]1 :i* con/itutes ! ess5ce ( ,pet]'s m9d1 & ! idea ( ! said ,pet]1 :i* is 9 ano!r man1 say1 ,paul4 ,! =m] directly answ]s to ! ess5ce ( ,pet]'s own body1 & only implies exi/5ce s long z ,pet] exi/s2 ! latt] indicates r ! disposition ( ,paul's body ?an ! nature ( ,pet]1 &1 !re=e1 :ile ?is disposition ( ,paul's body la/s1 ,paul's m9d w reg>d ,pet] z pres5t to itself1 ev5 ?\gh he no long] exi/s4 ,fur!r1 to reta9 ! usual phraseology1 ! modifications ( ! human body1 ( :i* ! ideas repres5t ext]nal bodies z pres5t to u1 we w call ! images ( ?+s1 ?\gh !y d n recall ! figure ( ?+s4 ,:5 ! m9d reg>ds bodies 9 ?is fa%ion1 we say t x imag9es4 ,i w "h draw att5tion to ! fact1 9 ord] to indicate :]e error lies1 t ! imag9ations ( ! m9d1 look$ at 9 !mselves1 d n conta9 error4 ,! m9d does n err 9 ! m]e act ( imag9+1 b only 9 s f> z x is reg>d$ z be+ )\t ! idea1 :i* excludes ! exi/5ce ( su* ?+s z x imag9es to be pres5t to x4 ,if ! m9d1 :ile imag9+ non-exi/5t ?+s z pres5t to x1 is at ! same "t consci\s t !y d n really exi/1 ?is p[] ( imag9ation mu/ be set d[n to ! efficacy ( its nature1 & n to a fault1 especially if ?is faculty ( imag9ation dep5d solely on its own nature--t is 7,i4 ,def4 vii471 if ?is faculty ( imag9ation be free4 ,,xviii4 ,if ! human body has once be5 affect$ by two or m bodies at ! same "t1 :5 ! m9d aft]w>ds imag9es any ( !m1 x w /raightway rememb] ! o!rs also4 ,pro(--,! m9d 7,,ii4 xvii4 ,cor47 imag9es any giv5 body1 because ! human body is affect$ & dispos$ by ! impressions f an ext]nal body1 9 ! same mann] z x is affect$ :5 c]ta9 ( its p>ts are act$ on by ! said ext]nal body2 b 7by our hypo!sis7 ! body 0 !n s dispos$1 t ! m9d imag9$ two bodies at once2 !re=e1 x w also 9 ! second case imag9e two bodies at once1 & ! m9d1 :5 x imag9es "o1 w /raightway rememb] ! o!r4 ,q4,e4,d4 9999999999,note--,we n[ cle>ly see :at ',memory' is4 ,x is simply a c]ta9 association ( ideas involv+ ! nature ( ?+s outside ! human body1 :i* association arises 9 ! m9d accord+ to ! ord] & association ( ! modifications 7affectiones7 ( ! human body4 ,i say1 fir/1 x is an association ( ^? ideas only1 :i* involve ! nature ( ?+s outside ! human body3 n ( ideas :i* answ] to ! nature ( ! said ?+s3 ideas ( ! modifications ( ! human body are1 /rictly speak+ 7,,ii4 xvi471 ^? :i* involve ! nature bo? ( ! human body & ( ext]nal bodies4 ,i say1 secondly1 t ?is association arises accord+ to ! ord] & association ( ! modifications ( ! human body1 9 ord] to di/+ui% x f t association ( ideas1 :i* arises f ! ord] ( ! intellect1 :]eby ! m9d p]ceives ?+s ?r\gh _! prim>y causes1 & :i* is 9 all m5 ! same4 ,& h5ce we c fur!r cle>ly und]/&1 :y ! m9d f ! ?\ght ( "o ?+1 %\ld /raightway arrive at ! ?\ght ( ano!r ?+1 :i* has no simil>ity ) ! fir/2 = in/ance1 f ! ?\ght ( ! ^w 'pomum' 7an apple71 a ,roman w\ld /raightway arrive at ! ?\ght ( ! fruit apple1 :i* has no similitude ) ! articulate s\nd 9 "q1 nor any?+ 9 common ) x1 except t ! body ( ! man has (t5 be5 affect$ by ^! two ?+s2 t is1 t ! man has (t5 he>d ! ^w 'pomum1' :ile he 0 look+ at ! fruit2 simil>ly e man w g on f "o ?\ght to ano!r1 accord+ z 8 habit has ord]$ ! images ( ?+s 9 8 body4 ,= a soldi]1 = in/ance1 :5 he sees ! tracks ( a horse 9 s&1 w at once pass f ! ?\ght ( a horse to ! ?\ght ( a horseman1 & !nce to ! ?\ght ( w>1 c42 :ile a c\ntryman w proce$ f ! ?\ght ( a horse to ! ?\ght ( a pl\gh1 a field1 c4 ,?us e man w foll[ ?is or t tra9 ( ?\ght1 accord+ z he has be5 9 ! habit ( conjo9+ & associat+ ! m5tal images ( ?+s 9 ?is or t mann]4 ,,xix4 ,! human m9d has no k ( ! body1 & does n "k x to exi/1 save ?r\gh ! ideas ( ! modifications :]eby ! body is affect$4 ,pro(--,! human m9d is ! v idea or k ( ! human body 7,,ii4 xiii471 :i* 7,,ii4 ix47 is 9 ,god1 9 s f> z he is reg>d$ z affect$ by ano!r idea ( a p>ticul> ?+ actually exi/+3 or1 inasmu* z 7,po/4 iv47 ! human body /&s 9 ne$ ( v _m bodies :]eby x is1 z x 71 cont9ually reg5]at$2 & ! ord] & connection ( ideas is ! same z ! ord] & connection ( causes 7,,ii4 vii472 ?is idea w !re=e be 9 ,god1 9 s f> z he is reg>d$ z affect$ by ! ideas ( v _m p>ticul> ?+s4 ,?us ,god has ! idea ( ! human body1 or kn[s ! human body1 9 s f> z he is affect$ by v _m o!r ideas1 & n 9 s f> z he con/itutes ! nature ( ! human m9d2 t is 7by ,,ii4 xi4 ,cor471 ! human m9d does n "k ! human body4 ,b ! ideas ( ! modifications ( body are 9 ,god1 9 s f> z he con/itutes ! nature ( ! human m9d1 or ! human m9d p]ceives ^? modifications 7,,ii4 xii471 & consequ5tly 7,,ii4 xvi47 ! human body itself1 & z actually exi/+2 !re=e ! m9d p]ceives ?us f> only ! human body4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,,xx4 ,! idea or k ( ! human m9d is also 9 ,god1 foll[+ 9 ,god 9 ! same mann]1 & be+ ref]r$ to ,god 9 ! same mann]1 z ! idea or k ( ! human body4 ,pro(--,?\ght is an attribute ( ,god 7,,ii4 i472 !re=e 7,,ii4 iii47 !re mu/ necess>ily be 9 ,god ! idea bo? ( ?\ght itself & ( all its modifications1 consequ5tly also ( ! human m9d 7,,ii4 xi474 ,fur!r1 ?is idea or k ( ! m9d does n foll[ f ,god1 9 s f> z he is inf9ite1 b 9 s f> z he is affect$ by ano!r idea ( an individual ?+ 7,,ii4 ix474 ,b 7,,ii4 vii47 ! ord] & connection ( ideas is ! same z ! ord] & connection ( causes2 !re=e ?is idea or k ( ! m9d is 9 ,god & is ref]r$ to ,god1 9 ! same mann] z ! idea or k ( ! body4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,,xxi4 ,?is idea ( ! m9d is unit$ to ! m9d 9 ! same way z ! m9d is unit$ to ! body4 ,pro(--,t ! m9d is unit$ to ! body we h %[n f ! fact1 t ! body is ! object ( ! m9d 7,,ii4 xii4 & xiii472 & s = ! same reason ! idea ( ! m9d mu/ be unit$ ) its object1 t is1 ) ! m9d 9 ! same mann] z ! m9d is unit$ to ! body4 ,q4,e4,d4 9999999999,note--,?is proposition is compreh5d$ mu* m cle>ly f :at we h said 9 ! note to ,,ii4 vii4 ,we !re %[$ t ! idea ( body & body1 t is1 m9d & body 7,,ii4 xiii471 are "o & ! same individual conceiv$ n[ "u ! attribute ( ?\ght1 n[ "u ! attribute ( ext5sion2 :]e=e ! idea ( ! m9d & ! m9d itself are "o & ! same ?+1 :i* is conceiv$ "u "o & ! same attribute1 namely1 ?\ght4 ,! idea ( ! m9d1 ,i repeat1 & ! m9d itself are 9 ,god by ! same necessity & foll[ f him f ! same p[] ( ?9k+4 ,/rictly speak+1 ! idea ( ! m9d1 t is1 ! idea ( an idea1 is no?+ b ! di/9ctive quality 7=ma7 ( ! idea 9 s f> z x is conceiv$ z a mode ( ?\ght )\t ref]5ce to ! object2 if a man kn[s any?+1 he1 by t v fact1 kn[s t he kn[s x1 & at ! same "t kn[s t he kn[s t he kn[s x1 & s on to inf9ity4 ,b ,i w treat ( ?is h]eaft]4 ,,xxii4 ,! human m9d p]ceives n only ! modifications ( ! body1 b also ! ideas ( su* modifications4 ,pro(--,! ideas ( ! ideas ( modifications foll[ 9 ,god 9 ! same mann]1 & are ref]r$ to ,god 9 ! same mann]1 z ! ideas ( ! said modifications4 ,?is is prov$ 9 ! same way z ,,ii4 xx4 ,b ! ideas ( ! modifications ( ! body are 9 ! human m9d 7,,ii4 xii471 t is1 9 ,god1 9 s f> z he con/itutes ! ess5ce ( ! human m9d2 !re=e ! ideas ( ^! ideas w be 9 ,god1 9 s f> z he has ! k or idea ( ! human m9d1 t is 7,,ii4 xxi471 !y w be 9 ! human m9d itself1 :i* !re=e p]ceives n only ! modifications ( ! body1 b also ! ideas ( su* modifications4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,,xxiii4 ,! m9d does n "k itself1 except 9 s f> z x p]ceives ! ideas ( ! modifications ( ! body4 ,pro(--,! idea or k ( ! m9d 7,,ii4 xx47 foll[s 9 ,god 9 ! same mann]1 & is ref]r$ to ,god 9 ! same mann]1 z ! idea or k ( ! body4 ,b s9ce 7,,ii4 xix47 ! human m9d does n "k ! human body itself1 t is 7,,ii4 xi4 ,cor471 s9ce ! k ( ! human body is n ref]r$ to ,god1 9 s f> z he con/itutes ! nature ( ! human m9d2 !re=e1 nei!r is ! k ( ! m9d ref]r$ to ,god1 9 s f> z he con/itutes ! ess5ce ( ! human m9d2 !re=e 7by ! same ,cor4 ,,ii4 xi471 ! human m9d ?us f> has no k ( itself4 ,fur!r ! ideas ( ! modifications1 :]eby ! body is affect$1 involve ! nature ( ! human body itself 7,,ii4 xvi471 t is 7,,ii4 xiii471 !y agree ) ! nature ( ! m9d2 :]e=e ! k ( ^! ideas necess>ily involves k ( ! m9d2 b 7by ! la/ ,prop47 ! k ( ^! ideas is 9 ! human m9d itself2 :]e=e ! human m9d ?us f> only has k ( itself4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,,xxiv4 ,! human m9d does n involve an adequate k ( ! p>ts compos+ ! human body4 ,pro(--,! p>ts compos+ ! human body d n belong to ! ess5ce ( t body1 except 9 s f> z !y communicate _! motions to "o ano!r 9 a c]ta9 fix$ relation 7,def4 aft] ,lemma iii471 n 9 s f> z !y c be reg>d$ z individuals )\t relation to ! human body4 ,! p>ts ( ! human body are highly complex individuals 7,po/4 i471 ^: p>ts 7,lemma iv47 c be sep>at$ f ! human body )\t 9 any way de/roy+ ! nature & di/9ctive quality ( ! latt]1 & !y c communicate _! motions 7,ax4 i41 aft] ,lemma iii47 to o!r bodies 9 ano!r relation2 !re=e 7,,ii4 iii47 ! idea or k ( ea* "p w be 9 ,god1 inasmu* 7,,ii4 ix47 z he is reg>d$ z affect$ by ano!r idea ( a p>ticul> ?+1 :i* p>ticul> ?+ is prior 9 ! ord] ( nature to ! a=esaid "p 7,,ii4 vii474 ,we may affirm ! same ?+ ( ea* "p ( ea* individual compos+ ! human body2 !re=e1 ! k ( ea* "p compos+ ! human body is 9 ,god1 9 s f> z he is affect$ by v _m ideas ( ?+s1 & n 9 s f> z he has ! idea ( ! human body only1 9 o!r words1 ! idea :i* con/itutes ! nature ( ! human m9d 7,,ii4 xiii472 !re=e 7,,ii4 xi4 ,cor471 ! human m9d does n involve an adequate k ( ! human body4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,,xxv4 ,! idea ( ea* modification ( ! human body does n involve an adequate k ( ! ext]nal body4 ,pro(--,we h %[n t ! idea ( a modification ( ! human body involves ! nature ( an ext]nal body1 9 s f> z t ext]nal body conditions ! human body 9 a giv5 mann]4 ,b1 9 s f> z ! ext]nal body is an individual1 :i* has no ref]5ce to ! human body1 ! k or idea !re( is 9 ,god 7,,ii4 ix471 9 s f> z ,god is reg>d$ z affect$ by ! idea ( a fur!r ?+1 :i* 7,,ii4 vii47 is naturally prior to ! said ext]nal body4 ,:]e=e an adequate k ( ! ext]nal body is n 9 ,god1 9 s f> z he has ! idea ( ! modification ( ! human body2 9 o!r words1 ! idea ( ! modification ( ! human body does n involve an adequate k ( ! ext]nal body4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,,xxvi4 ,! human m9d does n p]ceive any ext]nal body z actually exi/+1 except ?r\gh ! ideas ( ! modifications ( its own body4 ,pro(--,if ! human body is 9 no way affect$ by a giv5 ext]nal body1 !n 7,,ii4 vii47 nei!r is ! idea ( ! human body1 9 o!r words1 ! human m9d1 affect$ 9 any way by ! idea ( ! exi/5ce ( ! said ext]nal body1 nor does x 9 any mann] p]ceive its exi/5ce4 ,b1 9 s f> z ! human body is affect$ 9 any way by a giv5 ext]nal body1 ?us f> 7,,ii4 xvi4 & ,cor47 x p]ceives t ext]nal body4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,coroll>y--,9 s f> z ! human m9d imag9es an ext]nal body1 x has n an adequate k !re(4 ,pro(--,:5 ! human m9d reg>ds ext]nal bodies ?r\gh ! ideas ( ! modifications ( its own body1 we say t x imag9es 7see ,,ii4 xvii4 note72 n[ ! m9d c only imag9e ext]nal bodies z actually exi/+4 ,!re=e 7by ,,ii4 xxv471 9 s f> z ! m9d imag9es ext]nal bodies1 x has n an adequate k ( !m4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,,xxvii4 ,! idea ( ea* modification ( ! human body does n involve an adequate k ( ! human body itself4 ,pro(--,e idea ( a modification ( ! human body involves ! nature ( ! human body1 9 s f> z ! human body is reg>d$ z affect$ 9 a giv5 mann] 7,,ii4 xvi474 ,b inasmu* z ! human body is an individual :i* may be affect$ 9 _m o!r ways1 ! idea ( ! said modification1 c4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,,xxviii4 ,! ideas ( ! modifications ( ! human body1 9 s f> z !y h ref]5ce only to ! human m9d1 are n cle> & di/9ct1 b confus$4 ,pro(--,! ideas ( ! modifications ( ! human body involve ! nature bo? ( ! human body & ( ext]nal bodies 7,,ii4 xvi472 !y mu/ involve ! nature n only ( ! human body b also ( its p>ts2 = ! modifications are modes 7,po/4 iii471 :]eby ! p>ts ( ! human body1 &1 consequ5tly1 ! human body z a :ole are affect$4 ,b 7by ,,ii4 xxiv41 xxv47 ! adequate k ( ext]nal bodies1 z also ( ! p>ts compos+ ! human body1 is n 9 ,god1 9 s f> z he is reg>d$ z affect$ by ! human m9d1 b 9 s f> z he is reg>d$ z affect$ by o!r ideas4 ,^! ideas ( modifications1 9 s f> z !y are ref]r$ to ! human m9d alone1 are z consequ5ces )\t premisses1 9 o!r words1 confus$ ideas4 ,q4,e4,d4 9999999999,note--,! idea :i* con/itutes ! nature ( ! human m9d is1 9 ! same mann]1 prov$ n to be1 :5 consid]$ 9 itself & alone1 cle> & di/9ct2 z also is ! case ) ! idea ( ! human m9d1 & ! ideas ( ! ideas ( ! modifications ( ! human body1 9 s f> z !y are ref]r$ to ! m9d only1 z ev]yone may easily see4 ,,xxix4 ,! idea ( ! idea ( ea* modification ( ! human body does n involve an adequate k ( ! human m9d4 ,pro(--,! idea ( a modification ( ! human body 7,,ii4 xxvii47 does n involve an adequate k ( ! said body1 9 o!r words1 does n adequately express its nature2 t is 7,,ii4 xiii47 x does n agree ) ! nature ( ! m9d adequately2 !re=e 7,i4 ,ax4 vi47 ! idea ( ?is idea does n adequately express ! nature ( ! human m9d1 or does n involve an adequate k !re(4 ,coroll>y--,h5ce x foll[s t ! human m9d1 :5 x p]ceives ?+s aft] ! common ord] ( nature1 has n an adequate b only a confus$ & fragm5t>y k ( itself1 ( its own body1 & ( ext]nal bodies4 ,= ! m9d does n "k itself1 except 9 s f> z x p]ceives ! ideas ( ! modifications ( body 7,,ii4 xxiii474 ,x only p]ceives its own body 7,,ii4 xix47 ?r\gh ! ideas ( ! modifications ( body 7,,ii4 xxiii474 ,x only p]ceives its own body 7,,ii4 xix47 ?r\gh ! ideas ( ! modifications1 & only p]ceives ext]nal bodies ?r\gh ! same means2 ?us1 9 s f> z x has su* ideas ( modification1 x has n an adequate k ( itself 7,,ii4 xxix471 nor ( its own body 7,,ii4 xxvii471 nor ( ext]nal bodies 7,,ii4 xxv471 b only a fragm5t>y & confus$ k !re( 7,,ii4 xxviii4 & note74 ,q4,e4,d4 9999999999,note--,i say expressly1 t ! m9d has n an adequate b only a confus$ k ( itself1 its own body1 & ( ext]nal bodies1 :5ev] x p]ceives ?+s aft] ! common ord] ( nature2 t is1 :5ev] x is det]m9$ f )\t1 namely1 by ! =tuit\s play ( circum/ance1 to reg>d ?is or t2 n at su* times z x is det]m9$ f )91 t is1 by ! fact ( reg>d+ sev]al ?+s at once1 to und]/& _! po9ts ( agreem5t1 diff]5ce1 & contra/4 ,:5ev] x is det]m9$ 9 anywise f )91 x reg>ds ?+s cle>ly & di/9ctly1 z ,i w %[ bel[4 ,,xxx4 ,we c only h a v inadequate k ( ! duration ( our body4 ,pro(--,! duration ( our body does n dep5d on its ess5ce 7,,ii4 ,ax4 i471 nor on ! absolute nature ( ,god 7,i4 xxi474 ,b 7,i4 xxviii47 x is condition$ to exi/ & op]ate by causes1 :i* 9 _! turn are condition$ to exi/ & op]ate 9 a fix$ & def9ite relation by o!r causes1 ^! la/ aga9 be+ condition$ by o!rs1 & s on to inf9ity4 ,! duration ( our body !re=e dep5ds on ! common ord] ( nature1 or ! con/itution ( ?+s4 ,n[1 h[ev] a ?+ may be con/itut$1 ! adequate k ( t ?+ is 9 ,god1 9 s f> z he has ! ideas ( all ?+s1 & n 9 s f> z he has ! idea ( ! human body only 7,,ii4 ix4 ,cor474 ,:]e=e ! k ( ! duration ( our body is 9 ,god v inadequate1 9 s f> z he is only reg>d$ z con/itut+ ! nature ( ! human m9d2 t is 7,,ii4 xi4 ,cor471 ?is k is v inadequate to our m9d4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,,xxxi4 ,we c only h a v inadequate k ( ! duration ( p>ticul> ?+s ext]nal to ourselves4 ,pro(--,e p>ticul> ?+1 l ! human body1 mu/ be condition$ by ano!r p>ticul> ?+ to exi/ & op]ate 9 a fix$ & def9ite relation2 ?is o!r p>ticul> ?+ mu/ likewise be condition$ by a ?ird1 & s on to inf9ity 7,i4 xxviii474 ,z we h %[n 9 ! =ego+ proposition1 f ?is common prop]ty ( p>ticul> ?+s1 we h only a v inadequate k ( ! duration ( our body2 we mu/ draw a simil> conclusion ) reg>d to ! duration ( p>ticul> ?+s1 namely1 t we c only h a v inadequate k ( ! duration !re(4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,coroll>y--,h5ce x foll[s t all p>ticul> ?+s are cont+5t & p]i%able4 ,= we c h no adequate idea ( _! duration 7by ! la/ ,prop471 & ?is is :at we mu/ und]/& by ! cont+5cy & p]i%abl5ess ( ?+s 7,i4 xxxiii41 ,note i474 ,= 7,i4 xxix471 except 9 ?is s5se1 no?+ is cont+5t4 ,,xxxii4 ,all ideas1 9 s f> z !y are ref]r$ to ,god1 are true4 ,pro(--,all ideas :i* are 9 ,god agree 9 e respect ) _! objects 7,,ii4 ii4 ,cor471 !re=e 7,i4 ,ax4 vi47 !y are all true4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,,xxxii4 ,!re is no?+ positive 9 ideas1 :i* causes !m to be call$ false4 ,pro(--,if ?is be d5i$1 conceive1 if possible1 a positive mode ( ?9k+1 :i* %\ld con/itute ! di/9ctive quality ( falsehood4 ,su* a mode ( ?9k+ _c be 9 ,god 7,,ii4 xxxii472 ext]nal to ,god x _c be or be conceiv$ 7,i4 xv474 ,!re=e !re is no?+ positive 9 ideas :i* causes !m to be call$ false4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,,xxxiv4 ,e idea1 :i* 9 u is absolute or adequate & p]fect1 is true4 ,pro(--,:5 we say t an idea 9 u is adequate & p]fect1 we say1 9 o!r words 7,,ii4 xi4 ,cor471 t ! idea is adequate & p]fect 9 ,god1 9 s f> z he con/itutes ! ess5ce ( our m9d2 consequ5tly 7,,ii4 xxxii471 we say t su* an idea is true4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,,xxxv4 ,falsity consi/s 9 ! privation ( k1 :i* inadequate1 fragm5t>y1 or confus$ ideas involve4 ,pro(--,!re is no?+ positive 9 ideas1 :i* causes !m to be call$ false 7,,ii4 xxxiii472 b falsity _c consi/ 9 simple privation 7= m9ds1 n bodies1 are said to err & to be mi/ak571 nei!r c x consi/ 9 absolute ignorance1 = ignorance & error are n id5tical2 :]e=e x consi/s 9 ! privation ( k1 :i* inadequate1 fragm5t>y1 or confus$ ideas involve4 ,q4,e4,d4 9999999999,note--,9 ! note to ,,ii4 xvii4 ,i expla9$ h[ error consi/s 9 ! privation ( k1 b 9 ord] to ?r[ m light on ! subject ,i w give an example4 ,= in/ance1 m5 are mi/ak5 9 ?9k+ !mselves free2 _! op9ion is made up ( consci\sness ( _! own actions1 & ignorance ( ! causes by :i* !y are condition$4 ,_! idea ( fre$om1 !re=e1 is simply _! ignorance ( any cause = _! actions4 ,z = _! say+ t human actions dep5d on ! w1 ?is is a m]e phrase )\t any idea to correspond !reto4 ,:at ! w is1 & h[ x moves ! body1 !y none ( !m "k2 ^? :o boa/ ( su* k1 & feign dwell+s & habitations = ! s\l1 are wont to provoke ei!r laught] or disgu/4 ,s1 aga91 :5 we look at ! sun1 we imag9e t x is di/ant f u ab\t two hundr$ feet2 ?is error does n lie solely 9 ?is fancy1 b 9 ! fact t1 :ile we ?us imag9e1 we d n "k ! sun's true di/ance or ! cause ( ! fancy4 ,= al?\gh we aft]w>ds le>n1 t ! sun is di/ant f u m ?an six hundr$ ( ! e>?'s diamet]s1 we none ! less %all fancy x to be ne>2 = we d n imag9e ! sun z ne> u1 because we are ignorant ( its true di/ance1 b because ! modification ( our body involves ! ess5ce ( ! sun1 9 s f> z our said body is affect$ !reby4 ,,xxxvi4 ,inadequate & confus$ ideas foll[ by ! same necessity1 z adequate or cle> & di/9ct ideas4 ,pro(--,all ideas are 9 ,god 7,i4 xv471 & 9 s f> z !y are ref]r$ to ,god are true 7,,ii4 xxxii47 & 7,,ii4 vii4 ,cor47 adequate2 !re=e !re are no ideas confus$ or inadequate1 except 9 respect to a p>ticul> m9d 7cf4 ,,ii4 xxiv4 & xxviii472 !re=e all ideas1 :e!r adequate or inadequate1 foll[ by ! same necessity 7,,ii4 vi474 ,q4,e4,d4 ,,xxxvii4 ,t :i* is common to all 7cf4 ,lemma ,,ii1 above71 & :i* is equally 9 a "p & 9 ! :ole1 does n con/itute ! ess5ce ( any p>ticul> ?+4 ,pro(--,if ?is be d5i$1 conceive1 if possible1 t x con/itutes ! ess5ce ( "s p>ticul> ?+2 = in/ance1 ! ess5ce ( ,b4 ,!n 7,,ii4 ,def4 ii47 x _c )\t ,b ei!r exi/ or be conceiv$2 b ?is is aga9/ our hypo!sis4 ,!re=e x does n app]ta9 to ,b's ess5ce1 nor does x con/itute ! ess5ce ( any p>ticul> ?+4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,,xxxviii4 ,^? ?+s1 :i* are common to all1 & :i* are equally 9 a "p & 9 ! :ole1 _c be conceiv$ except adequately4 ,pro(--,let ,a be some?+1 :i* is common to all bodies1 & :i* is equally pres5t 9 ! "p ( any giv5 body & 9 ! :ole4 ,i say ,a _c be conceiv$ except adequately4 ,= ! idea !re( 9 ,god w necess>ily be adequate 7,,ii4 vii4 ,cor471 bo? 9 s f> z ,god has ! idea ( ! human body1 & also 9 s f> z he has ! idea ( ! modifications ( ! human body1 :i* 7,,ii4 xvi41 xxv41 xxvii47 involve 9 "p ! nature ( ! human body & ! nature ( ext]nal bodies2 t is 7,,ii4 xii41 xiii471 ! idea 9 ,god w necess>ily be adequate1 bo? 9 s f> z he con/itutes ! human m9d1 & 9 s f> z he has ! ideas1 :i* are 9 ! human m9d4 ,!re=e ! m9d 7,,ii4 xi4 ,cor47 necess>ily p]ceives ,a adequately1 & has ?is adequate p]ception1 bo? 9 s f> z x p]ceives itself1 & 9 s f> z x p]ceives its own or any ext]nal body1 nor c ,a be conceiv$ 9 any o!r mann]4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,coroll>y--,h5ce x foll[s t !re are c]ta9 ideas or notions common to all m52 = 7by ,lemma ii47 all bodies agree 9 c]ta9 respects1 :i* 7by ! =ego+ ,prop47 mu/ be adequately or cle>ly & di/9ctly p]ceiv$ by all4 ,,xxxix4 ,t1 :i* is common to & a prop]ty ( ! human body & su* o!r bodies z are wont to affect ! human body1 & :i* is pres5t equally 9 ea* "p ( ei!r1 or 9 ! :ole1 w be repres5t$ by an adequate idea 9 ! m9d4 ,pro(--,if ,a be t1 :i* is common to & a prop]ty ( ! human body & ext]nal bodies1 & equally pres5t 9 ! human body & 9 ! said ext]nal bodies1 9 ea* "p ( ea* ext]nal body & 9 ! :ole1 !re w be an adequate idea ( ,a 9 ,god 7,,ii4 vii4 ,cor471 bo? 9 s f> z he has ! idea ( ! human body1 & 9 s f> z he has ! ideas ( ! giv5 ext]nal bodies4 ,let x n[ be grant$1 t ! human body is affect$ by an ext]nal body ?r\gh t1 :i* x has 9 common !re)1 namely1 ,a2 ! idea ( ?is modification w involve ! prop]ty ,a 7,,ii4 xvi471 & !re=e 7,,ii4 vii4 ,cor47 ! idea ( ?is modification1 9 s f> z x involves ! prop]ty ,a1 w be adequate 9 ,god1 9 s f> z ,god is affect$ by ! idea ( ! human body2 t is 7,,ii4 xiii471 9 s f> z he con/itutes ! nature ( ! human m9d2 !re=e 7,,ii4 xi4 ,cor47 ?is idea is also adequate 9 ! human m9d4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,coroll>y--,h5ce x foll[s t ! m9d is fitt$ to p]ceive adequately m ?+s1 9 proportion z its body has m 9 common ) o!r bodies4 ,,xl4 ,:atsoev] ideas 9 ! m9d foll[ f ideas :i* are !re9 adequate1 are also !mselves adequate4 ,pro(--,?is proposition is self-evid5t4 ,= :5 we say t an idea 9 ! human m9d foll[s f ideas :i* are !re9 adequate1 we say1 9 o!r words 7,,ii4 xi4 ,cor471 t an idea is 9 ! div9e intellect1 :]e( ,god is ! cause1 n 9 s f> z he is inf9ite1 nor 9 s f> z he is affect$ by ! ideas ( v _m p>ticul> ?+s1 b only 9 s f> z he con/itutes ! ess5ce ( ! human m9d4 9999999999,note ,i--,i h ?us set =? ! cause ( ^? notions1 :i* are common to all m51 & :i* =m ! basis ( our ratioc9ations4 ,b !re are o!r causes ( c]ta9 axioms or notions1 :i* x w\ld be to ! purpose to set =? by ?is me?od ( ours2 = x w\ld ?us appe> :at notions are m useful ?an o!rs1 & :at notions h sc>cely any use at all4 ,fur!rmore1 we %\ld see :at notions are common to all m51 & :at notions are only cle> & di/9ct to ^? :o are un%ackl$ by prejudice1 & we %\ld detect ^? :i* are ill-f\nd$4 ,aga9 we %\ld disc]n :5ce ! notions call$ second>y d]iv$ _! orig91 & consequ5tly ! axioms on :i* !y are f\nd$1 & o!r po9ts ( int]e/ connect$ ) ^! que/ions4 ,b ,i h decid$ to pass ov] ! subject "h1 p>tly because ,i h set x aside = ano!r treatise1 p>tly because ,i am afraid ( we>y+ ! read] by too great prolixity4 ,nev]!less1 9 ord] n to omit any?+ necess>y to be kn[n1 ,i w briefly set d[n ! causes1 :5ce are d]iv$ ! t]ms /yl$ transc5d5tal1 su* z ,be+1 ,?+1 ,some?+4 ,^! t]ms arose f ! fact1 t ! human body1 be+ limit$1 is only capable ( di/9ctly =m+ a c]ta9 numb] ( images 7:at an image is ,i expla9$ 9 ! ,,ii4 xvii4 note7 )9 itself at ! same "t2 if ?is numb] be exce$$1 ! images w beg9 to be confus$2 if ?is numb] ( images1 ( :i* ! body is capable ( =m+ di/9ctly )9 itself1 be l>gely exce$$1 all w become entirely confus$ "o ) ano!r4 ,?is be+ s1 x is evid5t 7f ,,ii4 ,prop4 xvii4 ,cor41 & xviii47 t ! human m9d c di/9ctly imag9e z _m ?+s simultane\sly1 z its body c =m images simultane\sly4 ,:5 ! images become q confus$ 9 ! body1 ! m9d also imag9es all bodies confus$ly )\t any di/9ction1 & w compreh5d !m1 z x 71 "u "o attribute1 namely1 "u ! attribute ( ,be+1 ,?+1 c4 ,! same conclusion c be drawn f ! fact t images are n always equally vivid1 & f o!r analog\s causes1 :i* !re is no ne$ to expla9 "h2 = ! purpose :i* we h 9 view x is suffici5t = u to consid] "o only4 ,all may be r$uc$ to ?is1 t ^! t]ms repres5t ideas 9 ! highe/ degree confus$4 ,f simil> causes arise ^? notions1 :i* we call g5]al1 su* z man1 horse1 dog1 c4 ,!y arise1 to wit1 f ! fact t s _m images1 = in/ance1 ( m51 are =m$ simultane\sly 9 ! human m9d1 t ! p[]s ( imag9ation break d[n1 n inde$ utt]ly1 b to ! ext5t ( ! m9d los+ c\nt ( small diff]5ces betwe5 individuals 7e4g4 col\r1 size1 c47 & _! def9ite numb]1 & only di/9ctly imag9+ t1 9 :i* all ! individuals1 9 s f> z ! body is affect$ by !m1 agree2 = t is ! po9t1 9 :i* ea* ( ! said individuals *iefly affect$ ! body2 ?is ! m9d expresses by ! "n man1 & ?is x pr$icates ( an inf9ite numb] ( p>ticul> individuals4 ,=1 z we h said1 x is unable to imag9e ! def9ite numb] ( individuals4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 be> 9 m9d1 t ^! g5]al notions are n =m$ by all m5 9 ! same way1 b v>y 9 ea* individual accord+ z ! po9t v>ies1 :]eby ! body has be5 mo/ (t5 affect$ & :i* ! m9d mo/ easily imag9es or rememb]s4 ,= in/ance1 ^? :o h mo/ (t5 reg>d$ ) admiration ! /ature ( man1 w by ! "n ( man und]/& an animal ( erect /ature2 ^? :o h be5 accu/om$ to reg>d "s o!r attribute1 w =m a diff]5t g5]al image ( man1 = in/ance1 t man is a laugh+ animal1 a two-foot$ animal )\t fea!rs1 a rational animal1 & ?us1 9 o!r cases1 ev]yone w =m g5]al images ( ?+s accord+ to ! habit ( 8 body4 ,x is ?us n to be wond]$ at1 t among philosoph]s1 :o seek to expla9 ?+s 9 nature m]ely by ! images =m$ ( !m1 s _m controv]sies %\ld h aris54 9999999999,note ,,ii--,f all t has be5 said above x is cle>1 t we1 9 _m cases1 p]ceive & =m our g5]al notions3--7#a47 ,f p>ticul> ?+s repres5t$ to our intellect fragm5t>ily1 confus$ly1 & )\t ord] ?r\gh our s5ses 7,,ii4 xxix4 ,cor472 ,i h settl$ to call su* p]ceptions by ! "n ( k f ! m]e sugge/ions ( exp]i5ce4 7#b47 ,f symbols1 e4g41 f ! fact ( hav+ read or he>d c]ta9 words we rememb] ?+s & =m c]ta9 ideas conc]n+ !m1 simil> to ^? ?r\gh :i* we imag9e ?+s 7,,ii4 xviii4 ,note74 ,i %all call bo? ^! ways ( reg>d+ ?+s k ( ! fir/ k9d1 op9ion1 or imag9ation4 7#c47 ,f ! fact t we h notions common to all m51 & adequate ideas ( ! prop]ties ( ?+s 7,,ii4 xxxviii4 ,cor41 xxxix4 & ,cor41 & xl472 ?is ,i call reason & k ( ! second k9d4 ,besides ^! two k9ds ( k1 !re is1 z ,i w h]eaft] %[1 a ?ird k9d ( k1 :i* we w call intuition4 ,?is k9d ( k proce$s f an adequate idea ( ! absolute ess5ce ( c]ta9 attributes ( ,god to ! adequate k ( ! ess5ce ( ?+s4 ,i w illu/rate all ?ree k9ds ( k by a s+le example4 ,?ree numb]s are giv5 = f9d+ a f\r?1 :i* %all be to ! ?ird z ! second is to ! fir/4 ,tradesm5 )\t hesitation multiply ! second by ! ?ird1 & divide ! product by ! fir/2 ei!r because !y h n =gott5 ! rule :i* !y receiv$ f a ma/] )\t any pro(1 or because !y h (t5 made trial ( x ) simple numb]s1 or by virtue ( ! pro( ( ! n9ete5? proposition ( ! sev5? book ( ,euclid1 namely1 9 virtue ( ! g5]al prop]ty ( proportionals4 ,b ) v simple numb]s !re is no ne$ ( ?is4 ,= in/ance1 "o1 two1 ?ree be+ giv51 ev]yone c see t ! f\r? proportional is six2 & ?is is mu* cle>]1 because we inf] ! f\r? numb] f an intuitive grasp+ ( ! ratio1 :i* ! fir/ be>s to ! second4 ,,xli4 ,k ( ! fir/ k9d is ! only s\rce ( falsity1 k ( ! second & ?ird k9ds is necess>ily true4 ,pro(--,to k ( ! fir/ k9d we h 79 ! =ego+ note7 assign$ all ^? ideas1 :i* are inadequate & confus$2 !re=e ?is k9d ( k is ! only s\rce ( falsity 7,,ii4 xxxv474 ,fur!rmore1 we assign$ to ! second & ?ird k9ds ( k ^? ideas :i* are adequate2 !re=e ^! k9ds are necess>ily true 7,,ii4 xxxiv474 ,q4,e4,d4 ,,xlii4 ,k ( ! second & ?ird k9ds1 n k ( ! fir/ k9d1 tea*es u to di/+ui% ! true f ! false4 ,pro(--,?is proposition is self-evid5t4 ,he1 :o kn[s h[ to di/+ui% betwe5 true & false1 mu/ h an adequate idea ( true & false4 ,t is 7,,ii4 xl41 note ii471 he mu/ "k ! true & ! false by ! second or ?ird k9d ( k4 ,,xliii4 ,he1 :o has a true idea1 simultane\sly kn[s t he has a true idea1 & _c d\bt ( ! tru? ( ! ?+ p]ceiv$4 ,pro(--,a true idea 9 u is an idea :i* is adequate 9 ,god1 9 s f> z he is display$ ?r\gh ! nature ( ! human m9d 7,,ii4 xi4 ,cor474 ,let u suppose t !re is 9 ,god1 9 s f> z he is display$ ?r\gh ! human m9d1 an adequate idea1 ,a4 ,! idea ( ?is idea mu/ also necess>ily be 9 ,god1 & be ref]r$ to him 9 ! same way z ! idea ,a 7by ,,ii4 xx41 :]e( ! pro( is ( univ]sal application74 ,b ! idea ,a is suppos$ to be ref]r$ to ,god1 9 s f> z he is display$ ?r\gh ! human m9d2 !re=e1 ! idea ( ! idea ,a mu/ be ref]r$ to ,god 9 ! same mann]2 t is 7by ,,ii4 xi4 ,cor471 ! adequate idea ( ! idea ,a w be 9 ! m9d1 :i* has ! adequate idea ,a2 !re=e he1 :o has an adequate idea or kn[s a ?+ truly 7,,ii4 xxxiv471 mu/ at ! same "t h an adequate idea or true k ( 8 k2 t is1 obvi\sly1 he mu/ be assur$4 ,q4,e4,d4 9999999999,note--,i expla9$ 9 ! note to ,,ii4 xxi4 :at is meant by ! idea ( an idea2 b we may rem>k t ! =ego+ proposition is 9 itself suffici5tly pla94 ,no "o1 :o has a true idea1 is ignorant t a true idea involves ! highe/ c]ta9ty4 ,= to h a true idea is only ano!r expression = kn[+ a ?+ p]fectly1 or z well z possible4 ,no "o1 inde$1 c d\bt ( ?is1 unless he ?9ks t an idea is some?+ lifeless1 l a picture on a panel1 & n a mode ( ?9k+--namely1 ! v act ( und]/&+4 ,& :o1 ,i ask1 c "k t he und]/&s any?+1 unless he d fir/ und]/& x8 ,9 o!r words1 :o c "k t he is sure ( a ?+1 unless he be fir/ sure ( t ?+8 ,fur!r1 :at c !re be m cle>1 & m c]ta91 ?an a true idea z a /&>d ( tru?8 ,ev5 z light displays bo? itself & d>kness1 s is tru? a /&>d bo? ( itself & ( falsity4 ,i ?9k ,i h ?us suffici5tly answ]$ ^! que/ions--namely1 if a true idea is di/+ui%$ f a false idea1 only 9 s f> z x is said to agree ) its object1 a true idea has no m reality or p]fection ?an a false idea 7s9ce ! two are only di/+ui%$ by an extr9sic m>k72 consequ5tly1 nei!r w a man :o has a true idea h any advantage ov] him :o has only false ideas4 ,fur!r1 h[ comes x t m5 h false ideas8 ,la/ly1 h[ c anyone be sure1 t he has ideas :i* agree ) _! objects8 ,^! que/ions1 ,i repeat1 ,i h1 9 my op9ion1 suffici5tly answ]$4 ,! diff]5ce betwe5 a true idea & a false idea is pla93 f :at 0 said 9 ,,ii4 xxxv41 ! =m] is relat$ to ! latt] z be+ is to n-be+4 ,! causes ( falsity ,i h set =? v cle>ly 9 ,,ii4 xix4 & ,,ii4 xxxv4 ) ! note4 ,f :at is !re /at$1 ! diff]5ce betwe5 a man :o has true ideas1 & a man :o has only false ideas1 is made app>5t4 ,z = ! la/ "q--z to h[ a man c be sure t he has ideas t agree ) _! objects1 ,i h j po9t$ out1 ) abundant cle>ness1 t 8 k arises f ! simple fact1 t he has an idea :i* corresponds ) its object--9 o!r words1 t tru? is its own /&>d4 ,we may add t our m9d1 9 s f> z x p]ceives ?+s truly1 is "p ( ! inf9ite intellect ( ,god 7,,ii4 xi4 ,cor472 !re=e1 ! cle> & di/9ct ideas ( ! m9d are z necess>ily true z ! ideas ( ,god4 ,,xliv4 ,x is n 9 ! nature ( reason to reg>d ?+s z cont+5t1 b z necess>y4 ,pro(--,x is 9 ! nature ( reason to p]ceive ?+s truly 7,,ii4 xli471 namely 7,i4 ,ax4 vi471 z !y are 9 !mselves--t is 7,i4 xxix471 n z cont+5t1 b z necess>y4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,coroll>y ,i--,h5ce x foll[s1 t x is only ?r\gh our imag9ation t we consid] ?+s1 :e!r 9 respect to ! future or ! pa/1 z cont+5t4 9999999999,note--,h[ ?is way ( look+ at ?+s arises1 ,i w briefly expla94 ,we h %[n above 7,,ii4 xvii4 & ,cor47 t ! m9d always reg>ds ?+s z pres5t to itself1 ev5 ?\gh !y be n 9 exi/5ce1 until "s causes arise :i* exclude _! exi/5ce & pres5ce4 ,fur!r 7,,ii4 xviii471 we %[$ t1 if ! human body has once be5 affect$ by two ext]nal bodies simultane\sly1 ! m9d1 :5 x aft]w>ds imag9es "o ( ! said ext]nal bodies1 w /raightway rememb] ! o!r--t is1 x w reg>d bo? z pres5t to itself1 unless !re arise causes :i* exclude _! exi/5ce & pres5ce4 ,fur!r1 no "o d\bts t we imag9e "t1 f ! fact t we imag9e bodies to be mov$ "s m sl[ly ?an o!rs1 "s m quickly1 "s at equal spe$4 ,?us1 let u suppose t a *ild ye/]day saw ,pet] = ! fir/ "t 9 ! morn+1 ,paul at noon1 & ,simon 9 ! ev5+2 !n1 t today he aga9 sees ,pet] 9 ! morn+4 ,x is evid5t1 f ,,ii4 ,prop4 xviii41 t1 z soon z he sees ! morn+ light1 he w imag9e t ! sun w trav]se ! same p>ts ( ! sky1 z x did :5 he saw x on ! prec$+ day2 9 o!r words1 he w imag9e a complete day1 &1 toge!r ) 8 imag9ation ( ! morn+1 he w imag9e ,pet]2 ) noon1 he w imag9e ,paul2 & ) ev5+1 he w imag9e ,simon--t is1 he w imag9e ! exi/5ce ( ,paul & ,simon 9 relation to a future "t2 on ! o!r h&1 if he sees ,simon 9 ! ev5+1 he w ref] ,pet] & ,paul to a pa/ "t1 by imag9+ !m simultane\sly ) ! imag9ation ( a pa/ "t4 ,if x %\ld at any "t happ51 t on "s o!r ev5+ ! *ild %\ld see ,james in/ead ( ,simon1 he w1 on ! foll[+ morn+1 associate ) 8 imag9ation ( ev5+ sometimes ,simon1 sometimes ,james1 n bo? toge!r3 = ! *ild is suppos$ to h se51 at ev5+1 "o or o!r ( !m1 n bo? toge!r4 ,8 imag9ation w !re=e wav]2 &1 ) ! imag9ation ( future ev5+s1 he w associate fir/ "o1 !n ! o!r--t is1 he w imag9e !m 9 ! future1 nei!r ( !m z c]ta91 b bo? z cont+5t4 ,?is wav]+ ( ! imag9ation w be ! same1 if ! imag9ation be conc]n$ ) ?+s :i* we ?us contemplate1 /&+ 9 relation to "t pa/ or "t pres5t3 consequ5tly1 we may imag9e ?+s z cont+5t1 :e!r !y be ref]r$ to "t pres5t1 pa/1 or future4 ,coroll>y ,,ii--,x is 9 ! nature ( reason to p]ceive ?+s "u a c]ta9 =m ( et]nity 7sub quadam aet]nitatis specie74 ,pro(--,x is 9 ! nature ( reason to reg>d ?+s1 n z cont+5t1 b z necess>y 7,,ii4 xliv474 ,reason p]ceives ?is necessity ( ?+s 7,,ii4 xli47 truly--t is 7,i4 ,ax4 vi471 z x is 9 itself4 ,b 7,i4 xvi47 ?is necessity ( ?+s is ! v necessity ( ! et]nal nature ( ,god2 !re=e1 x is 9 ! nature ( reason to reg>d ?+s "u ?is =m ( et]nity4 ,we may add t ! bases ( reason are ! notions 7,,ii4 xxxviii471 :i* answ] to ?+s common to all1 & :i* 7,,ii4 xxxvii47 d n answ] to ! ess5ce ( any p>ticul> ?+3 :i* mu/ !re=e be conceiv$ )\t any relation to "t1 "u a c]ta9 =m ( et]nity4 ,,xlv4 ,e idea ( e body1 or ( e p>ticul> ?+ actually exi/+1 necess>ily involves ! et]nal & inf9ite ess5ce ( ,god4 ,pro(--,! idea ( a p>ticul> ?+ actually exi/+ necess>ily involves bo? ! exi/5ce & ! ess5ce ( ! said ?+ 7,,ii4 viii474 ,n[ p>ticul> ?+s _c be conceiv$ )\t ,god 7,i4 xv472 b1 inasmu* z 7,,ii4 vi47 !y h ,god = _! cause1 9 s f> z he is reg>d$ "u ! attribute ( :i* ! ?+s 9 "q are modes1 _! ideas mu/ necess>ily involve 7,i4 ,ax4 iv47 ! conception ( ! attributes ( ^? ideas--t is 7,i4 vi471 ! et]nal & inf9ite ess5ce ( ,god4 ,q4,e4,d4 9999999999,note--,by exi/5ce ,i d n "h mean duration--t is1 exi/5ce 9 s f> z x is conceiv$ ab/ract$ly1 & z a c]ta9 =m ( quantity4 ,i am speak+ ( ! v nature ( exi/5ce1 :i* is assign$ to p>ticul> ?+s1 because !y foll[ 9 inf9ite numb]s & 9 inf9ite ways f ! et]nal necessity ( ,god's nature 7,i4 xvi474 ,i am speak+1 ,i repeat1 ( ! v exi/5ce ( p>ticul> ?+s1 9 s f> z !y are 9 ,god4 ,= al?\gh ea* p>ticul> ?+ be condition$ by ano!r p>ticul> ?+ to exi/ 9 a giv5 way1 yet ! =ce :]eby ea* p>ticul> ?+ p]sev]es 9 exi/+ foll[s f ! et]nal necessity ( ,god's nature 7cf4 ,i4 xxiv4 ,cor474 ,,xlvi4 ,! k ( ! et]nal & inf9ite ess5ce ( ,god :i* e idea involves is adequate & p]fect4 ,pro(--,! pro( ( ! la/ proposition is univ]sal2 & :e!r a ?+ be consid]$ z a "p or a :ole1 ! idea !re(1 :e!r ( ! :ole or ( a "p 7by ! la/ ,prop471 w involve ,god's et]nal & inf9ite ess5ce4 ,:]e=e1 t1 :i* gives k ( ! et]nal & inf9ite ess5ce ( ,god1 is common to all1 & is equally 9 ! "p & 9 ! :ole2 !re=e 7,,ii4 xxxviii47 ?is k w be adequate4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,,xlvii4 ,! human m9d has an adequate k ( ! et]nal & inf9ite ess5ce ( ,god4 ,pro(--,! human m9d has ideas 7,,ii4 xxii471 f :i* 7,,ii4 xxiii47 x p]ceives itself & its own body 7,,ii4 xix47 & ext]nal bodies 7,,ii4 xvi4 ,cor4 i4 & ,,ii4 xvii47 z actually exi/+2 !re=e 7,,ii4 xlv4 & xlvi47 x has an adequate k ( ! et]nal & inf9ite ess5ce ( ,god4 ,q4,e4,d4 9999999999,note--,h5ce we see1 t ! inf9ite ess5ce & ! et]nity ( ,god are kn[n to all4 ,n[ z all ?+s are 9 ,god1 & are conceiv$ ?r\gh ,god1 we c f ?is k inf] _m ?+s1 :i* we may adequately "k1 & we may =m t ?ird k9d ( k ( :i* we spoke 9 ! note to ,,ii4 xl41 & ( ! excell5ce & use ( :i* we %all h occasion to speak 9 ,"p ,v4 ,m5 h n s cle> a k ( ,god z !y h ( g5]al notions1 because !y are unable to imag9e ,god z !y d bodies1 & also because !y h associat$ ! "n ,god ) images ( ?+s t !y are 9 ! habit ( see+1 z inde$ !y c h>dly avoid do+1 be+1 z !y are1 m51 & cont9ually affect$ by ext]nal bodies4 ,_m errors1 9 tru?1 c be trac$ to ?is head1 namely1 t we d n apply names to ?+s rightly4 ,= in/ance1 :5 a man says t ! l9es drawn f ! c5tre ( a circle to its circumf]5ce are n equal1 he !n1 at all ev5ts1 assur$ly atta*es a mean+ to ! ^w circle diff]5t f t assign$ by ma!maticians4 ,s aga91 :5 m5 make mi/akes 9 calculation1 !y h "o set ( figures 9 _! m9d1 & ano!r on ! pap]4 ,if we c\ld see into _! m9ds1 !y d n make a mi/ake2 !y seem to d s1 because we ?9k1 t !y h ! same numb]s 9 _! m9d z !y h on ! pap]4 ,if ?is 7 n s1 we %\ld n believe !m to be 9 error1 any m ?an ,i ?\ght t a man 0 9 error1 :om ,i lately he>d exclaim+ t 8 entrance hall _h fl[n into a neighb\r's h51 = 8 mean+ seem$ to me suffici5tly cle>4 ,v _m controv]sies h aris5 f ! fact1 t m5 d n rightly expla9 _! mean+1 or d n rightly int]pret ! mean+ ( o!rs4 ,=1 z a matt] ( fact1 z !y flatly contradict !mselves1 !y assume n[ "o side1 n[ ano!r1 ( ! argum5t1 s z to oppose ! op9ions1 :i* !y consid] mi/ak5 & absurd 9 _! oppon5ts4 ,,xlviii4 ,9 ! m9d !re is no absolute or free w2 b ! m9d is det]m9$ to wi% ?is or t by a cause1 :i* has also be5 det]m9$ by ano!r cause1 & ?is la/ by ano!r cause1 & s on to inf9ity4 ,pro(--,! m9d is a fix$ & def9ite mode ( ?\ght 7,,ii4 xi471 !re=e x _c be ! free cause ( its actions 7,i4 xvii4 ,cor4 ii472 9 o!r words1 x _c h an absolute faculty ( positive or negative volition2 b 7by ,i4 xxviii47 x mu/ be det]m9$ by a cause1 :i* has also be5 det]m9$ by ano!r cause1 & ?is la/ by ano!r1 c4 ,q4,e4,d4 9999999999,note--,9 ! same way x is prov$1 t !re is 9 ! m9d no absolute faculty ( und]/&+1 desir+1 lov+1 c4 ,:5ce x foll[s1 t ^! & simil> faculties are ei!r entirely fictiti\s1 or are m]ely ab/ract & g5]al t]ms1 su* z we are accu/om$ to put toge!r f p>ticul> ?+s4 ,?us ! intellect & ! w /& 9 ! same relation to ?is or t idea1 or ?is or t volition1 z lapidity to ?is or t /one1 or z man to ,pet] & ,paul4 ,! cause :i* leads m5 to consid] !mselves free has be5 set =? 9 ! ,app5dix to ,"p ,i4 ,b1 be=e ,i proce$ fur!r1 ,i w\ld "h rem>k t1 by ! w to affirm & decide1 ,i mean ! faculty1 n ! desire4 ,i mean1 ,i repeat1 ! faculty1 :]eby ! m9d affirms or d5ies :at is true or false1 n ! desire1 :]e) ! m9d wi%es = or turns away f any giv5 ?+4 ,aft] we h prov$1 t ^! faculties ( ours are g5]al notions1 :i* _c be di/+ui%$ f ! p>ticul> in/ances on :i* !y are bas$1 we mu/ inquire :e!r volitions !mselves are any?+ besides ! ideas ( ?+s4 ,we mu/ inquire1 ,i say1 :e!r !re is 9 ! m9d any affirmation or negation beyond t1 :i* ! idea1 9 s f> z x is an idea1 involves4 ,on :i* subject see ! foll[+ proposition1 & ,,ii4 ,def4 iii41 le/ ! idea ( pictures %\ld sugge/ itself4 ,= by ideas ,i d n mean images su* z are =m$ at ! back ( ! eye1 or 9 ! mid/ ( ! bra91 b ! conceptions ( ?\ght4 ,,xlix4 ,!re is 9 ! m9d no volition or affirmation & negation1 save t :i* an idea1 inasmu* z x is an idea1 involves4 ,pro(--,!re is 9 ! m9d no absolute faculty ( positive or negative volition1 b only p>ticul> volitions1 namely1 ?is or t affirmation1 & ?is or t negation4 ,n[ let u conceive a p>ticul> volition1 namely1 ! mode ( ?9k+ :]eby ! m9d affirms1 t ! ?ree int]ior angles ( a triangle are equal to two "r angles4 ,?is affirmation involves ! conception or idea ( a triangle1 t is1 )\t ! idea ( a triangle x _c be conceiv$4 ,x is ! same ?+ to say1 t ! concept ,a mu/ involve ! concept ,b1 z x is to say1 t ,a _c be conceiv$ )\t ,b4 ,fur!r1 ?is affirmation _c be made 7,,ii4 ,ax4 iii47 )\t ! idea ( a triangle4 ,!re=e1 ?is affirmation c nei!r be nor be conceiv$1 )\t ! idea ( a triangle4 ,aga91 ?is idea ( a triangle mu/ involve ?is same affirmation1 namely1 t its ?ree int]ior angles are equal to two "r angles4 ,:]e=e1 & vice v]sa1 ?is idea ( a triangle c nei!r be nor be conceiv$ )\t ?is affirmation1 !re=e1 ?is affirmation belongs to ! ess5ce ( ! idea ( a triangle1 & is no?+ besides4 ,:at we h said ( ?is volition 7inasmu* z we h select$ x at r&om7 may be said ( any o!r volition1 namely1 t x is no?+ b an idea4 ,q4,e4,d4 ,coroll>y--,w & und]/&+ are "o & ! same4 ,pro(--,w & und]/&+ are no?+ beyond ! individual volitions & ideas 7,,ii4 xlviii4 & note74 ,b a p>ticul> volition & a p>ticul> idea are "o & ! same 7by ! =ego+ ,prop472 !re=e1 w & und]/&+ are "o & ! same4 ,q4,e4,d4 9999999999,note--,we h ?us remov$ ! cause :i* is commonly assign$ = error4 ,= we h %[n above1 t falsity consi/s solely 9 ! privation ( k involv$ 9 ideas :i* are fragm5t>y & confus$4 ,:]e=e1 a false idea1 inasmu* z x is false1 does n involve c]ta9ty4 ,:5 we say1 !n1 t a man acquiesces 9 :at is false1 & t he has no d\bts on ! subject1 we d n say t he is c]ta91 b only t he does n d\bt1 or t he acquiesces 9 :at is false1 inasmu* z !re are no reasons1 :i* %\ld cause 8 imag9ation to wav] 7see ,,ii4 xliv4 note74 ,?us1 al?\gh ! man be assum$ to acquiesce 9 :at is false1 we %all nev] say t he is c]ta94 ,= by c]ta9ty we mean some?+ positive 7,,ii4 xliii4 & note71 n m]ely ! abs5ce ( d\bt4 ,h[ev]1 9 ord] t ! =ego+ proposition may be fully expla9$1 ,i w draw att5tion to a few additional po9ts1 & ,i w fur!rmore answ] ! objections :i* may be advanc$ aga9/ our doctr9e4 ,la/ly1 9 ord] to remove e scruple1 ,i h ?\ght x wor? :ile to po9t out "s ( ! advantages1 :i* foll[ !refrom4 ,i say "s1 = !y w be bett] appreciat$ f :at we %all set =? 9 ! fif? "p4 ,i beg91 !n1 ) ! fir/ po9t1 & w>n my read]s to make an accurate di/9ction betwe5 an idea1 or conception ( ! m9d1 & ! images ( ?+s :i* we imag9e4 ,x is fur!r necess>y t !y %\ld di/+ui% betwe5 idea & words1 :]eby we signify ?+s4 ,^! ?ree--namely1 images1 words1 & ideas--are by _m p]sons ei!r entirely confus$ toge!r1 or n di/+ui%$ ) suffici5t accuracy or c>e1 & h5ce p are g5]ally 9 ignorance1 h[ absolutely necess>y is a k ( ?is doctr9e ( ! w1 bo? = philosophic purposes & = ! wise ord]+ ( life4 ,^? :o ?9k t ideas consi/ 9 images :i* are =m$ 9 u by contact ) ext]nal bodies1 p]suade !mselves t ! ideas ( ^? ?+s1 :]e( we c =m no m5tal picture1 are n ideas1 b only figm5ts1 :i* we inv5t by ! free decree ( our w2 !y ?us reg>d ideas z ?\gh !y 7 inanimate pictures on a panel1 &1 fill$ ) ?is misconception1 d n see t an idea1 inasmu* z x is an idea1 involves an affirmation or negation4 ,aga91 ^? :o confuse words ) ideas1 or ) ! affirmation :i* an idea involves1 ?9k t !y c wi% some?+ contr>y to :at !y feel1 affirm1 or d5y4 ,?is misconception w easily be laid aside by "o1 :o reflects on ! nature ( k1 & see+ t x 9 no wise involves ! conception ( ext5sion1 w !re=e cle>ly und]/&1 t an idea 7be+ a mode ( ?9k+7 does n consi/ 9 ! image ( any?+1 nor 9 words4 ,! ess5ce ( words & images is put toge!r by bodily motions1 :i* 9 no wise involve ! conception ( ?\ght4 ,^! few words on ?is subject w suffice3 ,i w !re=e pass on to consid] ! objections1 :i* may be rais$ aga9/ our doctr9e4 ,( ^!1 ! fir/ is advanc$ by ^?1 :o ?9k t ! w has a wid] scope ?an ! und]/&+1 & t !re=e x is diff]5t !refrom4 ,! reason = _! hold+ ! belief1 t ! w has wid] scope ?an ! und]/&+1 is t !y ass]t1 t !y h no ne$ ( an increase 9 _! faculty ( ass5t1 t is ( affirmation or negation1 9 ord] to ass5t to an inf9ity ( ?+s :i* we d n p]ceive1 b t !y h ne$ ( an increase 9 _! faculty ( und]/&+4 ,! w is ?us di/+ui%$ f ! intellect1 ! latt] be+ f9ite & ! =m] inf9ite4 ,secondly1 x may be object$ t exp]i5ce seems to tea* u especially cle>ly1 t we are able to susp5d our judgm5t be=e ass5t+ to ?+s :i* we p]ceive2 ?is is confirm$ by ! fact t no "o is said to be deceiv$1 9 s f> z he p]ceives any?+1 b only 9 s f> z he ass5ts or diss5ts4 ,= in/ance1 he :o feigns a w+$ horse1 does n !re=e admit t a w+$ horse exi/s2 t is1 he is n deceiv$1 unless he admits 9 addition t a w+$ horse does exi/4 ,no?+ !re=e seems to be taught m cle>ly by exp]i5ce1 ?an t ! w or faculty ( ass5t is free & diff]5t f ! faculty ( und]/&+4 ,?irdly1 x may be object$ t "o affirmation does n app>5tly conta9 m reality ?an ano!r2 9 o!r words1 t we d n seem to ne$ = affirm+1 t :at is true is true1 any great] p[] ?an = affirm+1 t :at is false is true4 ,we h1 h[ev]1 se5 t "o idea has m reality or p]fection ?an ano!r1 = z objects are "s m excell5t ?an o!rs1 s also are ! ideas ( !m "s m excell5t ?an o!rs2 ?is also seems to po9t to a diff]5ce betwe5 ! und]/&+ & ! w4 ,f\r?ly1 x may be object$1 if man does n act f free w1 :at w happ5 if ! inc5tives to action are equally balanc$1 z 9 ! case ( ,buridan's ass8 ,w he p]i% ( hung] & ?ir/8 ,if ,i say t he w\ld n1 he w\ld !n det]m9e 8 own action1 & w\ld consequ5tly possess ! faculty ( go+ & do+ :atev] he lik$4 ,o!r objections might also be rais$1 b1 z ,i am n b\nd to put 9 evid5ce ev]y?+ t anyone may dream1 ,i w only set myself to ! task ( refut+ ^? ,i h m5tion$1 & t z briefly z possible4 ,to ! fir/ objection ,i answ]1 t ,i admit t ! w has a wid] scope ?an ! und]/&+1 if by ! und]/&+ be meant only cle> & di/9ct ideas2 b ,i d5y t ! w has a wid] scope ?an ! p]ceptions1 & ! faculty ( =m+ conceptions2 nor d ,i see :y ! faculty ( volition %\ld be call$ inf9ite1 any m ?an ! faculty ( feel+3 =1 z we are able by ! same faculty ( volition to affirm an inf9ite numb] ( ?+s 7"o aft] ! o!r1 = we _c affirm an inf9ite numb] simultane\sly71 s also c we1 by ! same faculty ( feel+1 feel or p]ceive 79 succession7 an inf9ite numb] ( bodies4 ,if x be said t !re is an inf9ite numb] ( ?+s :i* we _c p]ceive1 ,i answ]1 t we _c atta9 to su* ?+s by any ?9k+1 nor1 consequ5tly1 by any faculty ( volition4 ,b1 x may /ill be urg$1 if ,god wi%$ to br+ x ab\t t we %\ld p]ceive !m1 he w\ld be oblig$ to end[ u ) a great] faculty ( p]ception1 b n a great] faculty ( volition ?an we h already4 ,?is is ! same z to say t1 if ,god wi%$ to br+ x ab\t t we %\ld und]/& an inf9ite numb] ( o!r entities1 x w\ld be necess>y = him to give u a great] und]/&+1 b n a m univ]sal idea ( entity ?an t :i* we h already1 9 ord] to grasp su* inf9ite entities4 ,we h %[n t w is a univ]sal entity or idea1 :]eby we expla9 all p>ticul> volitions--9 o!r words1 t :i* is common to all su* volitions4 ,z1 !n1 our oppon5ts ma9ta9 t ?is idea1 common or univ]sal to all volitions1 is a faculty1 x is little to be wond]$ at t !y ass]t1 t su* a faculty ext5ds itself into ! inf9ite1 beyond ! limits ( ! und]/&+3 = :at is univ]sal is pr$icat$ alike ( "o1 ( _m1 & ( an inf9ite numb] ( individuals4 ,to ! second objection ,i reply by d5y+1 t we h a free p[] ( susp5d+ our judgm5t3 =1 :5 we say t anyone susp5ds 8 judgm5t1 we m]ely mean t he sees1 t he does n p]ceive ! matt] 9 "q adequately4 ,susp5sion ( judgm5t is1 !re=e1 /rictly speak+1 a p]ception1 & n free w4 ,9 ord] to illu/rate ! po9t1 let u suppose a boy imag9+ a horse1 & p]ceive no?+ else4 ,inasmu* z ?is imag9ation involves ! exi/5ce ( ! horse 7,,ii4 xvii4 ,cor471 & ! boy does n p]ceive any?+ :i* w\ld exclude ! exi/5ce ( ! horse1 he w necess>ily reg>d ! horse z pres5t3 he w n be able to d\bt ( its exi/5ce1 al?\gh he be n c]ta9 !re(4 ,we h daily exp]i5ce ( su* a /ate ( ?+s 9 dreams2 & ,i d n suppose t !re is anyone1 :o w\ld ma9ta9 t1 :ile he is dream+1 he has ! free p[] ( susp5d+ 8 judgm5t conc]n+ ! ?+s 9 8 dream1 & br++ x ab\t t he %\ld n dream ^? ?+s1 :i* he dreams t he sees2 yet x happ5s1 not)/&+1 t ev5 9 dreams we susp5d our judgm5t1 namely1 :5 we dream t we are dream+4 ,fur!r1 ,i grant t no "o c be deceiv$1 s f> z actual p]ception ext5ds--t is1 ,i grant t ! m9d's imag9ations1 reg>d$ 9 !mselves1 d n involve error 7,,ii4 xvii4 note72 b ,i d5y1 t a man does n1 9 ! act ( p]ception1 make any affirmation4 ,= :at is ! p]ception ( a w+$ horse1 save affirm+ t a horse has w+s8 ,if ! m9d c\ld p]ceive no?+ else b ! w+$ horse1 x w\ld reg>d ! same z pres5t to itself3 x w\ld h no reasons = d\bt+ its exi/5ce1 nor any faculty ( diss5t1 unless ! imag9ation ( a w+$ horse be jo9$ to an idea :i* precludes ! exi/5ce ( ! said horse1 or unless ! m9d p]ceives t ! idea :i* x possess ( a w+$ horse is inadequate1 9 :i* case x w ei!r necess>ily d5y ! exi/5ce ( su* a horse1 or w necess>ily be 9 d\bt on ! subject4 ,i ?9k t ,i h anticipat$ my answ] to ! ?ird objection1 namely1 t ! w is some?+ univ]sal :i* is pr$icat$ ( all ideas1 & t x only signifies t :i* is common to all ideas1 namely1 an affirmation1 ^: adequate ess5ce mu/1 !re=e1 9 s f> z x is ?us conceiv$ 9 ! ab/ract1 be 9 e idea1 & be1 9 ?is respect alone1 ! same 9 all1 n 9 s f> z x is consid]$ z con/itut+ ! idea's ess5ce3 =1 9 ?is respect1 p>ticul> affirmations diff] "o f ! o!r1 z mu* z d ideas4 ,= in/ance1 ! affirmation :i* involves ! idea ( a circle1 diff]s f t :i* involves ! idea ( a triangle1 z mu* z ! idea ( a circle diff]s f ! idea ( a triangle4 ,fur!r1 ,i absolutely d5y1 t we are 9 ne$ ( an equal p[] ( ?9k+1 to affirm t t :i* is true is true1 & to affirm t t :i* is false is true4 ,^! two affirmations1 if we reg>d ! m9d1 are 9 ! same relation to "o ano!r z be+ & n-be+2 = !re is no?+ positive 9 ideas1 :i* con/itutes ! actual reality ( falsehood 7,,ii4 xxxv4 note1 & xlvii4 note74 ,we mu/ !re=e conclude1 t we are easily deceiv$1 :5 we confuse univ]sals ) s+ul>s1 & ! entities ( reason & ab/ractions ) realities4 ,z = ! f\r? objection1 ,i am q ready to admit1 t a man plac$ 9 ! equilibrium describ$ 7namely1 z p]ceiv+ no?+ b hung] & ?ir/1 a c]ta9 food & a c]ta9 dr9k1 ea* equally di/ant f him7 w\ld die ( hung] & ?ir/4 ,if ,i am ask$1 :e!r su* an "o %\ld n r be consid]$ an ass ?an a man2 ,i answ]1 t ,i d n "k1 nei!r d ,i "k h[ a man %\ld be consid]$1 :o hangs himself1 or h[ we %\ld consid] *ildr51 fools1 madm51 c4 ,x rema9s to po9t out ! advantages ( a k ( ?is doctr9e z be>+ on conduct1 & ?is may be easily ga!r$ f :at has be5 said4 ,! doctr9e is good1 #a4 ,inasmu* z x tea*es u to act solely accord+ to ! decree ( ,god1 & to be p>tak]s 9 ! ,div9e nature1 & s mu* ! m1 z we p]=m m p]fect actions & m & m und]/& ,god4 ,su* a doctr9e n only completely tranquilizes our _s1 b also %[s u :]e our highe/ happ9ess or bless$ness is1 namely1 solely 9 ! k ( ,god1 :]eby we are l$ to act only z love & piety %all bid u4 ,we may ?us cle>ly und]/&1 h[ f> a/ray f a true e/imate ( virtue are ^? :o expect to be decorat$ by ,god ) high rew>ds = _! virtue1 & _! be/ actions1 z = hav+ endur$ ! dire/ slav]y2 z if virtue & ! s]vice ( ,god 7 n 9 itself happ9ess & p]fect fre$om4 #b4 ,inasmu* z x tea*es u1 h[ we ought to conduct ourselves ) respect to ! gifts ( =tune1 or matt]s :i* are n 9 our p[]1 & d n foll[ f our nature4 ,= x %[s u1 t we %\ld await & endure =tune's smiles or fr[ns ) an equal m9d1 see+ t all ?+s foll[ f ! et]nal decree ( ,god by ! same necessity1 z x foll[s f ! ess5ce ( a triangle1 t ! ?ree angles are equal to two "r angles4 #c4 ,?is doctr9e raises social life1 inasmu* z x tea*es u to hate no man1 nei!r to despise1 to d]ide1 to envy1 or to be angry ) any4 ,fur!r1 z x tells u t ea* %\ld be cont5t ) 8 own1 & helpful to 8 neighb\r1 n f any womani% pity1 fav\r1 or sup]/ition1 b solely by ! guidance ( reason1 accord+ z ! "t & occasion dem&1 z ,i w %[ 9 ,"p ,,iii4 #d4 ,la/ly1 ?is doctr9e conf]s no small advantage on ! commonweal?2 = x tea*es h[ citiz5s %\ld be gov]n$ & l$1 n s z to become slaves1 b s t !y may freely d :atsoev] ?+s are be/4 ,i h ?us fulfill$ ! promise made at ! beg9n+ ( ?is note1 & ,i ?us br+ ! second "p ( my treatise to a close4 ,i ?9k ,i h !re9 expla9$ ! nature & prop]ties ( ! human m9d at suffici5t l5g?1 &1 consid]+ ! difficulty ( ! subject1 ) suffici5t cle>ness4 ,i h laid a f\ndation1 :]eon may be rais$ _m excell5t conclusions ( ! highe/ utility & mo/ necess>y to be kn[n1 z w1 9 :at foll[s1 be p>tly made pla94 ,,end ,,( ,,"p ,,ii