,b5$ict de ,sp9oza1 ,,! ,,e?ics 7,e?ica 
,ord9e ,geometrico ,demon/rata7         
,translat$ by ,r4 ,h4 ,m4 ,elwes        
,,"p ,i3  ,,conc]n+ ,,god4              
,,def9itions4  ,i4  ,by t :i* is        
'self-caus$' ,i mean t ( :i* ! ess5ce   
involves exi/5ce1 or t ( :i* ! nature is
 only conceivable z exi/5t4  ,,ii4  ,a  
?+ is call$ 'f9ite aft] its k9d' :5 x c 
be limit$ by ano!r ?+ ( ! same nature2 =
 in/ance1 a body is call$ f9ite because 
we always conceive ano!r great] body4   
,s1 also1 a ?\ght is limit$ by ano!r    
?\ght1 b a body is n limit$ by ?\ght1   
nor a ?\ght by body4  ,,iii4  ,by       
'sub/ance' ,i mean t :i* is 9 itself1 & 
is conceiv$ ?r\gh itself3  9 o!r words1 
t ( :i* a conception c be =m$           
indep5d5tly ( any o!r conception4  ,,iv4
  ,by 'attribute' ,i mean t :i* !       
intellect p]ceives z con/itut+ ! ess5ce 
( sub/ance4  ,v4  ,by 'mode' ,i mean !  
modifications 7affectiones7 ( sub/ance1 
or t :i* exi/s 91 & is conceiv$ ?r\gh1  
some?+ o!r ?an itself4  ,,vi4  ,by      

',god' ,i mean a be+ absolutely         
inf9ite--t is1 a sub/ance consi/+ 9     
inf9ite attributes1 ( :i* ea* expresses 
et]nal & inf9ite ess5tiality4           
,explanation--,i say absolutely inf9ite1
 n inf9ite aft] its k9d3  =1 ( a ?+     
inf9ite only aft] its k9d1 inf9ite      
attributes may be d5i$2 b t :i* is      
absolutely inf9ite1 conta9s 9 its ess5ce
 :atev] expresses reality1 & involves no
 negation4  ,,vii4  ,t ?+ is call$      
'free1' :i* exi/s solely by ! necessity 
( its own nature1 & ( :i* ! action is   
det]m9$ by itself alone4  ,on ! o!r h&1 
t ?+ is necess>y1 or r con/ra9$1 :i* is 
det]m9$ by some?+ ext]nal to itself to a
 fix$ & def9ite me?od ( exi/5ce or      
action4  ,,viii4  ,by 'et]nity' ,i mean 
exi/5ce itself1 9 s f> z x is conceiv$  
necess>ily to foll[ solely f ! def9ition
 ( t :i* is et]nal4                     
,explanation--,exi/5ce ( ?is k9d is     
conceiv$ z an et]nal tru?1 l ! ess5ce ( 
a ?+ &1 !re=e1 _c be expla9$ by means ( 
cont9uance or "t1 ?\gh cont9uance may be

 conceiv$ )\t a beg9n+ or end4          
,,axioms4 ,i4  ,ev]y?+ :i* exi/s1 exi/s 
ei!r 9 itself or 9 some?+ else4  ,,ii4  
,t :i* _c be conceiv$ ?r\gh any?+ else  
mu/ be conceiv$ ?r\gh itself4  ,,iii4   
,f a giv5 def9ite cause an effect       
necess>ily foll[s2 &1 on ! o!r h&1 if no
 def9ite cause be grant$1 x is          
impossible t an effect c foll[4  ,,iv4  
,! k ( an effect dep5ds on & involves ! 
k ( a cause4  ,v4  ,?+s :i* h no?+ 9    
common _c be und]/ood1 ! "o by means ( !
 o!r2 ! conception ( "o does n involve !
 conception ( ! o!r4  ,,vi4  ,a true    
idea mu/ correspond ) its ideate or     
object4  ,,vii4  ,if a ?+ c be conceiv$ 
z non-exi/+1 its ess5ce does n involve  
exi/5ce4  ,,propositions4 ,i4  ,sub/ance
 is by nature prior to its              
modifications4  ,pro(--,?is is cle> f   
,deff4 iii4 & v4  ,,ii4  ,two sub/ances1
 ^: attributes are diff]5t1 h no?+ 9    
common4  ,pro(--,also evid5t f ,def4    
iii4  ,= ea* mu/ exi/ 9 itself1 & be    
conceiv$ ?r\gh itself2 9 o!r words1 !   

conception ( "o does n imply !          
conception ( ! o!r4  ,,iii4  ,?+s :i* h 
no?+ 9 common _c be "o ! cause ( ! o!r4 
,pro(--,if !y h no?+ 9 common1 x foll[s 
t "o _c be appreh5d$  by means ( ! o!r  
7,ax4 v471 &1 !re=e1 "o _c be ! cause ( 
! o!r 7,ax4  iv474 ,q4,e4,d4  ,,iv4     
,two or m di/9ct ?+s are di/+ui%$ "o f !
 o!r1 ei!r by ! diff]5ce ( ! attributes 
( ! sub/ances1 or by ! diff]5ce ( _!    
modifications4  ,pro(--,ev]y?+ :i*      
exi/s1 exi/s ei!r 9 itself or 9 some?+  
else 7,ax4 i471-- t is 7by ,deff4 iii4 &
 v471 no?+ is grant$ 9 addition to !    
und]/&+1 except sub/ance & its          
modifications4  ,no?+ is1 !re=e1 giv5   
besides ! und]/&+1 by :i* sev]al ?+s may
 be di/+ui%$ "o f ! o!r1 except !       
sub/ances1 or1 9 o!r words 7see ,ax4    
iv471 _! attributes & modifications4    
,q4,e4,d4  ,v4  ,!re _c exi/ 9 ! univ]se
 two or m sub/ances hav+ ! same nature  
or attribute4  ,pro(--,if sev]al di/9ct 
sub/ances be grant$1 !y mu/ be di/+ui%$ 
"o f ! o!r1 ei!r by ! diff]5ce ( _!     

attributes1 or by ! diff]5ce ( _!       
modifications 7,prop4 iv474  ,if only by
 ! diff]5ce ( _! attributes1 x w be     
grant$ t !re _c be m ?an "o ) an        
id5tical attribute4  ,if by ! diff]5ce (
 _! modifications--z sub/ance is        
naturally prior to its modifications    
7,prop4 i47--x foll[s t sett+ !         
modifications aside1 & consid]+ sub/ance
 9 itself1 t is truly1 7,deff4 iii  &   
vi471 !re _c be conceiv$ "o sub/ance    
diff]5t f ano!r--t is 7by ,prop4 iv471  
!re _c be grant$ sev]al sub/ances1 b "o 
sub/ance only4 ,q4,e4,d4  ,,vi4  ,"o    
sub/ance _c be produc$ by ano!r         
sub/ance4  ,pro(--,x is impossible t !re
 %\ld be 9 ! univ]se two sub/ances ) an 
id5tical attribute1 i4e4 :i* h any?+    
common to !m bo? 7,prop ii471 &1  !re=e 
7,prop4 iii471 "o _c be ! cause ( ! o!r1
 nei!r c "o be produc$ by ! o!r4        
,q4,e4,d4  ,,vi4  ,coroll>y--,h5ce x    
foll[s t a sub/ance _c be produc$ by    
any?+ ext]nal to itself4  ,= 9 ! univ]se
 no?+ is grant$1 save sub/ances & _!    

modifications 7z appe>s f ,ax4 i4 &     
,deff4 iii4 & v474  ,n[ 7by ! la/       
,prop47 sub/ance _c be produc$ by ano!r 
sub/ance1 !re=e x _c be produc$ by any?+
 ext]nal to itself4 ,q4,e4,d4  ,?is is  
%[n /ill m readily by ! absurdity ( !   
contradictory4  ,=1 if sub/ance be      
produc$ by an ext]nal cause1 ! k ( x    
w\ld dep5d on ! k ( its cause 7,ax4     
iv471 & 7by ,deff4 iii47 x w\ld itself n
 be sub/ance4  ,,vii4  ,exi/5ce belongs 
to ! nature ( sub/ances4                
,pro(--,sub/ance _c be produc$ by any?+ 
ext]nal 7,cor41 ,prop vi471 x mu/1      
!re=e1 be its own cause--t is1 its      
ess5ce necess>ily involves exi/5ce1 or  
exi/5ce belongs to its nature4  ,,viii4 
,e sub/ance is necess>ily inf9ite4      
,pro(--,!re c only be "o sub/ance ) an  
id5tical attribute1 & exi/5ce foll[s f  
its nature 7,prop4 vii472 its nature1   
!re=e1 involves exi/5ce1 ei!r z f9ite   
or inf9ite4  ,x does n exi/ z f9ite1 =  
7by ,deff4 ii47 x w\ld !n be limit$ by  
some?+ else ( ! same k9d1 :i* w\ld also 

necess>ily exi/ 7,prop4 vii472 & !re    
w\ld be two sub/ances ) an id5tical     
attribute1 :i* is absurd 7,prop4 v474   
,x !re=e exi/s z inf9ite4  ,q4,e4,d4    
9999999999,note ,i4--,z f9ite exi/5ce   
involves a p>tial negation1 & inf9ite   
exi/5ce is !  absolute affirmation ( !  
giv5 nature1 x foll[s 7solely f ,prop4  
vii47 t e sub/ance is necess>ily        
inf9ite4  9999999999,note ,,ii4--,no    
d\bt x w be difficult = ^? :o ?9k ab\t  
?+s loosely1 & h n be5 accu/om$ to "k !m
 by _! prim>y causes1 to compreh5d !    
demon/ration ( ,prop4 vii43  = su*      
p]sons make no di/9ction betwe5 !       
modifications ( sub/ances & ! sub/ances 
!mselves1 & are ignorant ( ! mann] 9 :i*
 ?+s are produc$2 h5ce !y may attribute 
to sub/ances ! beg9n+ :i* !y obs]ve 9   
natural objects4  ,^? :o are ignorant ( 
true causes make complete confusion--?9k
 t trees might talk j z well z m5--t m5 
might be =m$ f /ones z well z f se$2 &  
imag9e t any =m might be *ang$ into any 
o!r4 ,s1 also1 ^? :o confuse ! two      

natures1 div9e & human1 readily         
attribute human  passions to ! deity1   
especially s long z !y d n "k h[        
passions orig9ate 9 ! m9d4 ,b1 if p w\ld
 consid] ! nature ( sub/ance1 !y w\ld h 
no d\bt ab\t ! tru? ( ,prop4 vii4  ,9   
fact1 ?is proposition w\ld be a univ]sal
 axiom1 & acc\nt$ a truism4 ,=1 by      
sub/ance1 w\ld be und]/ood t :i* is 9   
itself1 & is conceiv$ ?r\gh itself--t   
is1 some?+ ( :i* ! conception requires n
 !  conception ( any?+ else2 :]eas      
modifications exi/ 9 some?+ ext]nal to  
!mselves1 & a conception ( !m is =m$ by 
means ( a conception ( ! ?+s 9  :i* !y  
exi/4  ,!re=e1 we may h true ideas (    
non-exi/5t modifications2 =1 al?\gh !y  
may h no actual exi/5ce ap>t f !        
conceiv+ intellect1 yet _! ess5ce is s  
involv$ 9 some?+ ext]nal to !mselves t  
!y may ?r\gh x be conceiv$4  ,:]eas !   
only tru? sub/ances c h1 ext]nal to !   
intellect1 mu/  consi/ 9 _! exi/5ce1    
because !y are conceiv$ ?r\gh !mselves4 
,!re=e1 = a p]son to say t he has a cle>

 & di/9ct--t is1 a true--idea ( a       
sub/ance1 b t he is n sure :e!r su*     
sub/ance exi/s1 w\ld be ! same z if he  
said t he _h a true idea1 b 0 n sure    
:e!r or no x 0 false 7a little          
consid]ation w make ?is pla972 or if    
anyone affirm$ t sub/ance is creat$1 x  
w\ld be ! same z say+ t a false idea 0  
true--9 %ort1 ! height ( absurdity4  ,x 
mu/1 !n1 necess>ily be admitt$ t !      
exi/5ce ( sub/ance z its ess5ce is an   
et]nal tru?4  ,& we c h5ce conclude by  
ano!r process ( reason+--t !re is b "o  
su* sub/ance4  ,i ?9k t ?is may         
pr(itably be done at once2 &1 9 ord] to 
proce$ regul>ly ) ! demon/ration1 we mu/
 premise3--  #a4  ,! true def9ition ( a 
?+ nei!r involves nor expresses any?+   
beyond ! nature ( ! ?+ def9$4  ,f ?is x 
foll[s t--  #b4  ,no def9ition implies  
or expresses a c]ta9 numb] (            
individuals1 inasmu* z x expresses no?+ 
beyond ! nature ( ! ?+ def9$4  ,=       
in/ance1 ! def9ition ( a triangle       
expresses no?+ beyond ! actual nature ( 

a triangle3  x does n imply any fix$    
numb] ( triangles4  #c4  ,!re is        
necess>ily = ea* individual exi/5t ?+ a 
cause :y x %\ld  exi/4  #d4  ,?is cause 
( exi/5ce mu/ ei!r be conta9$ 9 ! nature
 & def9ition ( ! ?+ def9$1 or mu/ be    
po/ulat$ ap>t f su* def9ition4  ,x !re=e
 foll[s t1 if a giv5 numb] ( individual 
?+s exi/ 9 nature1 !re mu/ be "s cause =
 ! exi/5ce ( exactly t numb]1 nei!r m   
nor less4  ,= example1 if tw5ty m5 exi/ 
9 ! univ]se 7= simplicity's sake1 ,i w  
suppose !m exi/+ simultane\sly1 & to h  
_h no pr$ecessors71 & we want to acc\nt 
= ! exi/5ce ( ^! tw5ty m51 x w n be     
en\gh to %[ ! cause ( human exi/5ce 9   
g5]al2 we mu/ also %[ :y !re are exactly
 tw5ty m51 nei!r m nor less3  = a cause 
mu/ be assign$ = ! exi/5ce ( ea*        
individual4  ,n[ ?is cause _c be conta9$
 9 ! actual nature ( man1 = ! true      
def9ition ( man does n involve any      
consid]ation ( ! numb] tw5ty4           
,consequ5tly1 ! cause = ! exi/5ce ( ^!  
tw5ty m51 &1 consequ5tly1 ( ea* ( !m1   

mu/ necess>ily be s\ght ext]nally to ea*
 individual4 ,h5ce we may lay d[n !     
absolute rule1 t ev]y?+ :i* may consi/ (
 sev]al individuals mu/ h an ext]nal    
cause4  ,&1 z x has be5 %[n already t   
exi/5ce app]ta9s to ! nature ( sub/ance1
 exi/5ce mu/ necess>ily be includ$ 9 its
 def9ition2 & f its def9ition alone     
exi/5ce mu/ be d$ucible4  ,b f its      
def9ition 7z we h %[n1 ,notes ii41      
iii471 we _c inf] ! exi/5ce ( sev]al    
sub/ances2 !re=e x foll[s t !re is only 
"o sub/ance ( ! same nature4  ,q4,e4,d4 
,,ix4  ,! m reality or be+ a ?+ has1 !  
great] ! numb] ( its attributes 7,def4  
iv474  ,x4  ,ea* p>ticul> attribute ( ! 
"o sub/ance mu/ be conceiv$ ?r\gh       
itself4  ,pro(--,an attribute is t :i* !
 intellect p]ceives ( sub/ance1 z       
con/itut+ its ess5ce 7,def4 iv471 &1    
!re=e1 mu/ be conceiv$ ?r\gh itself     
7,def4 iii474  ,q4,e4,d4                
9999999999,note--,x is ?us evid5t t1    
?\gh two attributes are1 9 fact1        
conceiv$ z di/9ct--t is1 "o )\t ! help (

 ! o!r--yet we _c1 !re=e1 conclude  t !y
 con/itute two entities1 or two diff]5t 
sub/ances4  ,= x is ! nature ( sub/ance 
t ea* ( its attributes is conceiv$ ?r\gh
 itself1 inasmu* z all ! attributes x   
has h always exi/$ simultane\sly 9 x1 & 
none c\ld be produc$ by any o!r2 b ea*  
expresses ! reality or be+ ( sub/ance4  
,x is1 !n1 f> f an absurdity to ascribe 
sev]al attributes to "o sub/ance3  =    
no?+ 9 nature is m cle> ?an t ea* & e   
entity mu/ be conceiv$ "u "s attribute1 
& t its  reality or be+ is 9 proportion 
to ! numb] ( its attributes express+    
necessity or et]nity & inf9ity4         
,consequ5tly x is abundantly cle>1 t an 
absolutely inf9ite be+ mu/ necess>ily be
 def9$ z consi/+ 9 inf9ite attributes1  
ea* ( :i* expresses a  c]ta9 et]nal &   
inf9ite ess5ce4  ,if anyone n[ ask1 by  
:at sign %all he be able to di/+ui%     
diff]5t sub/ances1 let him read ! foll[+
 propositions1 :i* %[ t !re is b "o     
sub/ance 9 ! univ]se1 & t x is          
absolutely inf9ite1 :]e=e su* a sign    

w\ld be s\ght 9 va94  ,,xi4  ,god1 or   
sub/ance1 consi/+ ( inf9ite attributes1 
( :i* ea* expresses et]nal & inf9ite    
ess5tiality1 necess>ily exi/s4          
,pro(--,if ?is be d5i$1 conceive1 if    
possible1 t ,god does n exi/3  !n 8     
ess5ce does n involve exi/5ce4 ,b ?is   
7,prop4 vii47 is absurd4  ,!re=e ,god   
necess>ily exi/s4  ,ano!r pro(--,(      
ev]y?+ :atsoev] a cause or reason mu/ be
 assign$1  ei!r = its exi/5ce1 or = its 
non-exi/5ce--e4g4 if a triangle exi/1 a 
reason or cause mu/ be grant$ = its     
exi/5ce2 if1 on ! contr>y1 x does n     
exi/1 a cause mu/ also be grant$1 :i*   
prev5ts x f exi/+1 or annuls its        
exi/5ce4  ,?is reason or cause mu/ ei!r 
be conta9$ 9 ! nature ( ! ?+ 9 "q1 or be
 ext]nal to x4  ,= in/ance1 ! reason = !
 non-exi/5ce ( a squ>e circle is        
indicat$ 9 its nature1 namely1 because x
 w\ld involve a contradiction4  ,on !   
o!r h&1 ! exi/5ce ( sub/ance foll[s also
 solely f its nature1 inasmu* z its     
nature involves exi/5ce4 7,see ,prop4   

vii47   ,b ! reason = ! exi/5ce ( a     
triangle or a circle does n foll[ f !   
nature ( ^? figures1 b f ! ord] (       
univ]sal nature 9 ext5sion4  ,f ! latt] 
x mu/ foll[1 ei!r t a triangle          
necess>ily exi/s1 or t x is impossible t
 x %\ld exi/4  ,s mu* is self-evid5t4   
,x foll[s !refrom t a ?+ necess>ily     
exi/s1 if no cause or reason be grant$  
:i* prev5ts its exi/5ce4  ,if1 !n1 no   
cause or reason c be giv51 :i* prev5ts !
 exi/5ce ( ,god1 or :i* de/roys 8       
exi/5ce1 we mu/ c]ta9ly conclude t he   
necess>ily does exi/4  ,if su* a reason 
or cause %\ld be giv51 x mu/ ei!r be    
drawn f ! v nature ( ,god1 or be ext]nal
 to him--t is1 drawn f ano!r sub/ance ( 
ano!r nature4  ,= if x 7 ( ! same       
nature1 ,god1 by t v fact1 w\ld be      
admitt$ to exi/4  ,b sub/ance ( ano!r   
nature c\ld h no?+ 9 common ) ,god 7by  
,prop4 ii471 & !re=e w\ld be unable ei!r
 to cause or to de/roy 8 exi/5ce4  ,z1  
!n1 a reason or cause :i* w\ld annul !  
div9e exi/5ce _c be drawn f  any?+      

ext]nal to ! div9e nature1 su* cause mu/
 p]=ce1 if ,god does n exi/1 be drawn f 
,god's own nature1 :i* w\ld involve a   
contradiction4  ,to make su* an         
affirmation ab\t a be+ absolutely       
inf9ite & supremely p]fect is absurd2   
!re=e1 nei!r 9 ! nature ( ,god1 nor     
ext]nally to 8 nature1 c a cause or     
reason be assign$ :i* w\ld annul 8      
exi/5ce4  ,!re=e1 ,god necess>ily exi/s4
  ,q4,e4,d4  ,ano!r pro(--,! pot5tiality
 ( non-exi/5ce is a negation ( p[]1 &   
contr>iwise ! pot5tiality ( exi/5ce is a
 p[]1 z is obvi\s4  ,if1 !n1 t :i*      
necess>ily exi/s is no?+ b f9ite be+s1  
su* f9ite be+s are m p[]ful ?an a be+   
absolutely inf9ite1 :i* is obvi\sly     
absurd2 !re=e1 ei!r no?+ exi/s1 or else 
a be+ absolutely inf9ite necess>ily     
exi/s also4  ,n[ we exi/ ei!r 9         
ourselves1 or 9  some?+ else :i*        
necess>ily exi/s 7see ,ax4 i4 & ,prop4  
vii474  ,!re=e a be+ absolutely         
inf9ite--9 o!r words1 ,god 7,def4       
vi47--necess>ily exi/s4 ,q4,e4,d4       

9999999999,note--,9 ?is la/ pro(1 ,i h  
purposely %[n ,god's exi/5ce 'a         
po/]iori1' s t ! pro( might be m easily 
foll[$1 n because1 f ! same premises1   
,god's exi/5ce does n foll[ 'a priori4' 
,=1 z ! pot5tiality ( exi/5ce is a p[]1 
x foll[s t1 9 proportion z reality      
increases 9 ! nature ( a ?+1 s also w x 
increase its /r5g? = exi/5ce4  ,!re=e a 
be+ absolutely inf9ite1 su* z ,god1 has 
f himself an absolutely inf9ite p[] (   
exi/5ce1 & h5ce he does absolutely exi/4
 ,p]haps !re w be _m :o w be unable to  
see ! =ce ( ?is pro(1 inasmu* z !y are  
accu/om$ only to consid] ^? ?+s :i* fl[ 
f ext]nal causes4  ,(  su* ?+s1 !y see t
 ^? :i* quickly come to pass--t is1     
quickly come into exi/5ce--quickly also 
disappe>2 :]eas !y reg>d z m difficult (
 accompli%m5t --t is1 n s easily br\ght 
into exi/5ce--^? ?+s :i* !y conceive z m
 complicat$4  ,h[ev]1 to d away ) ?is   
misconception1 ,i ne$ n "h %[ ! measure 
( tru? 9 ! prov]b1 ,:at comes quickly1  
goes quickly1 nor discuss :e!r1 f ! po9t

 ( view ( univ]sal nature1 all ?+s are  
equally easy1 or o!rwise3  ,i ne$ only  
rem>k t ,i am n "h speak+ ( ?+s1 :i*    
come to pass ?r\gh causes ext]nal to    
!mselves1 b only ( sub/ances :i* 7by    
,prop4 vi47 _c be produc$ by any ext]nal
 cause4   ,?+s :i* are produc$ by       
ext]nal causes1 :e!r !y consi/ ( _m p>ts
 or few1 owe :atsoev] p]fection or      
reality !y possess solely to ! efficacy 
( _! ext]nal  cause2 :]e=e ! exi/5ce (  
sub/ance mu/ arise solely f its own     
nature1 :i* is no?+ else b its ess5ce4  
,?us1 ! p]fection ( a ?+ does n annul   
its exi/5ce1  b1 on ! contr>y1 ass]ts x4
  ,imp]fection1 on ! o!r h&1 does annul 
x2 !re=e we _c be m c]ta9 ( ! exi/5ce ( 
any?+1 ?an ( ! exi/5ce ( a be+          
absolutely inf9ite or p]fect--t is1 (   
,god4  ,= inasmu* z 8 ess5ce excludes   
all imp]fection1 & involves absolute    
p]fection1 all cause = d\bt conc]n+ 8   
exi/5ce is done away1 & ! utmo/ c]ta9ty 
on ! "q is giv54 ,?is1 ,i ?9k1 w be     
evid5t to e mod]ately att5tive read]4   

,,xii4  ,no attribute ( sub/ance c be   
conceiv$ f :i* x w\ld foll[ t sub/ance c
 be divid$4  ,pro(--,! p>ts into :i*    
sub/ance z ?us conceiv$ w\ld be divid$  
ei!r  w reta9 ! nature ( sub/ance1 or !y
 w n4  ,if ! =m]1 !n 7by ,prop4 viii47  
ea* "p w necess>ily be inf9ite1 & 7by   
,prop vi47 self-caus$1 & 7by ,prop4 v47 
w p]=ce consi/ ( a diff]5t attribute1 s 
t1 9 t case1 sev]al sub/ances c\ld be   
=m$ out ( "o sub/ance1 :i* 7by ,prop4   
vi47 is absurd4  ,moreov]1 ! p>ts 7by   
,prop4 ii47 w\ld h no?+ 9 common ) _!   
:ole1 & ! :ole 7by ,def4 iv4 & ,prop4   
,x7 c\ld bo? exi/ & be conceiv$ )\t its 
p>ts1 :i* ev]yone w admit to be absurd4 
,if we adopt ! second                   
alt]native--namely1 t ! p>ts w n reta9 !
  nature ( sub/ance--!n1 if ! :ole      
sub/ance 7 divid$ into equal p>ts1 x    
w\ld  lose ! nature ( sub/ance1 & w\ld  
cease to exi/1 :i* 7by ,prop4 vii47 is  
absurd4  ,,xiii4  ,sub/ance absolutely  
inf9ite is indivisible4  ,pro(--,if x   
c\ld be divid$1 ! p>ts into :i* x 0     

divid$ w\ld ei!r reta9 ! nature (       
absolutely inf9ite sub/ance1 or !y w\ld 
n4  ,if ! =m]1 we %\ld h sev]al         
sub/ances ( ! same nature1 :i* 7by      
,prop4 v47 is absurd4  ,if ! latt]1  !n 
7by ,prop4 vii47 sub/ance absolutely    
inf9ite c\ld cease to exi/1 :i* 7by     
,prop4 xi47 is also absurd4             
,coroll>y--,x foll[s t no sub/ance1 &   
consequ5tly no ext5d$ sub/ance1 9 s f> z
 x is sub/ance1 is divisible4           
9999999999,note--,! indivisibility (    
sub/ance may be m easily und]/ood z     
foll[s4  ,! nature ( sub/ance c only be 
conceiv$ z inf9ite1 & by a "p (         
sub/ance1 no?+ else c be und]/ood ?an   
f9ite sub/ance1 :i* 7by ,prop4 viii47   
involves a manife/  contradiction4      
,,xiv4  ,besides ,god no sub/ance c be  
grant$ or conceiv$4  ,pro(--,z ,god is a
 be+ absolutely inf9ite1 ( :om no       
attribute t expresses ! ess5ce (        
sub/ance c be d5i$ 7by ,def4 vi471 & he 
necess>ily exi/s 7by ,prop4 xi472 if any
 sub/ance besides ,god 7 grant$1 x w\ld 

h to be expla9$ by "s attribute ( ,god1 
& ?us two sub/ances ) ! same attribute  
w\ld exi/1 :i* 7by ,prop4 v47 is absurd2
 !re=e1 besides ,god no sub/ance c be   
grant$1 or consequ5tly be conceiv$4 ,if 
x c\ld be conceiv$1 x w\ld necess>ily h 
to be conceiv$ z exi/5t2 b ?is 7by !    
fir/ "p ( ?is pro(7 is absurd4  ,!re=e1 
besides ,god no sub/ance c be grant$ or 
conceiv$4  ,q4,e4,d4  ,coroll>y         
,i4--,cle>ly1 !re=e3  #a4  ,god is "o1 t
 is 7by ,def4 vi47 only "o sub/ance c be
 grant$ 9 ! univ]se1 & t sub/ance is    
absolutely inf9ite1 z we h already      
indicat$ 79 ! note to ,prop4 x474       
,coroll>y ,,ii4--,x foll[s3  #b4  ,t    
ext5sion & ?\ght are ei!r attributes (  
,god or 7by ,ax4 i47 accid5ts           
7affectiones7 ( ! attributes ( ,god4    
,,xv4  ,:atsoev] is1 is 9 ,god1 & )\t   
,god no?+ c be1 or be conceiv$4         
,pro(--,besides ,god1 no sub/ance is    
grant$ or c be conceiv$ 7by ,prop4      
xiv471 t is 7by ,def4 iii47 no?+ :i* is 
9 itself & is conceiv$ ?r\gh itself4  ,b

 modes 7by ,def4 v47 c nei!r be1 nor be 
conceiv$ )\t sub/ance2 :]e=e !y c only  
be 9 ! div9e nature1 & c only ?r\gh x be
 conceiv$4  ,b sub/ances & modes =m !   
sum total ( exi/5ce 7by ,ax4 i471 !re=e1
 )\t ,god no?+ c be1 or be conceiv$4    
,q4,e4,d4  9999999999,note--,"s ass]t t 
,god1 l a man1 consi/s ( body & m9d1 &  
is  susceptible ( passions4  ,h[ f> su* 
p]sons h /ray$ f ! tru? is suffici5tly  
evid5t f :at has be5 said4  ,b ^! ,i    
pass ov]4  ,= all :o h 9 anywise        
reflect$ on ! div9e nature d5y t ,god   
has a body4  ,( ?is !y f9d excell5t pro(
 9 ! fact t we und]/& by body a def9ite 
quantity1 s long1 s broad1 s deep1 b\nd$
 by a c]ta9 %ape1 & x is ! height (     
absurdity to pr$icate su* a ?+ ( ,god1 a
 be+ absolutely inf9ite4  ,b mean:ile by
 o!r reasons ) :i* !y try to prove _!   
po9t1 !y %[ t !y ?9k corporeal or ext5d$
 sub/ance :olly ap>t f ! div9e nature1 &
 say x 0 creat$ by ,god4  ,:]efrom !    
div9e nature c h be5 creat$1 !y are     
:olly ignorant2 ?us !y cle>ly %[ t !y d 

n "k  ! mean+ ( _! own words4  ,i myself
 h prov$ suffici5tly cle>ly1 at any rate
 9 my own judgm5t 7,cor4 ,prop4 vi41 &  
,note #b1 ,prop4 viii471 t no sub/ance c
 be  produc$ or creat$ by any?+ o!r ?an 
itself4  ,fur!r1 ,i %[$ 79 ,prop4 xiv47 
t  besides ,god no sub/ance c be grant$ 
or conceiv$4 ,h5ce we drew ! conclusion 
t ext5d$ sub/ance is "o ( ! inf9ite     
attributes ( ,god4  ,h[ev]1 9 ord] to   
expla9 m fully1 ,i w refute ! argum5ts (
 my adv]s>ies1 :i* all />t f ! foll[+   
po9ts3--  ,ext5d$ sub/ance1 9 s f> z x  
is sub/ance1 consi/s1 z !y ?9k1 9 p>ts1 
:]e=e !y d5y t x c be inf9ite1 or       
consequ5tly1 t x c app]ta9 to ,god4     
,?is !y illu/rate ) _m examples1 ( :i*  
,i w take "o or two4  ,if ext5d$        
sub/ance1 !y say1 is inf9ite1 let x be  
conceiv$ to be divid$ into two p>ts2 ea*
 "p w !n be ei!r f9ite or inf9ite4  ,if 
! =m]1 !n inf9ite sub/ance is compos$ ( 
two f9ite p>ts1 :i* is absurd4  ,if !   
latt]1 !n "o inf9ite w be twice z l>ge z
 ano!r inf9ite1 :i* is also absurd4     

,fur!r1 if an inf9ite l9e be measur$ out
 9 foot l5g?s1 x w consi/ ( an inf9ite  
numb] ( su* p>ts2 x w\ld equally consi/ 
( an inf9ite numb] ( p>ts1 if ea* "p    
measur$ only an in*3  !re=e1 "o inf9ity 
w\ld be twelve times z great z ! o!r4   
,la/ly1 if f a s+le po9t !re be conceiv$
 to be drawn two div]g+ l9es :i* at     
fir/ are at a def9ite di/ance ap>t1 b   
are produc$ to inf9ity1 x is c]ta9 t !  
di/ance betwe5 ! two l9es w be          
cont9ually increas$1 until at l5g? x    
*anges f def9ite to indef9able4  ,z ^!  
absurdities foll[1 x is said1 f consid]+
 quantity z inf9ite1 ! conclusion is    
drawn t ext5d$ sub/ance mu/ necess>ily  
be f9ite1 &1 consequ5tly1 _c app]ta9 to 
! nature ( ,god4  ,! second argum5t is  
also drawn f ,god's supreme p]fection4  
,god1 x is said1  inasmu* z he is a     
supremely p]fect be+1 _c be passive2 b  
ext5d$ sub/ance1 ins(> z x is divisible1
 is passive4  ,x foll[s1 !re=e1 t ext5d$
 sub/ance does n app]ta9 to ! ess5ce (  
,god4  ,su* are ! argum5ts ,i f9d on !  

subject 9 writ]s1 :o by !m try to prove 
t ext5d$ sub/ance is unwor?y ( ! div9e  
nature1 & _c possibly app]ta9 !reto4    
,h[ev]1 ,i ?9k an att5tive read] w see t
 ,i h already answ]$ _! propositions2 = 
all _! argum5ts are f\nd$ on ! hypo!sis 
t ext5d$ sub/ance is compos$ ( p>ts1 &  
su* a hypo!sis ,i h %[n 7,prop4 xii41 & 
,cor4 ,prop4 xiii47 to be absurd4       
,moreov]1 anyone :o reflects w see t all
 ^! absurdities 7if  absurdities !y be1 
:i* ,i am n n[ discuss+71 f :i* x is    
s\ght to extract ! conclusion t ext5d$  
sub/ance is f9ite1 d n at all foll[ f ! 
notion ( an inf9ite quantity1 b m]ely f 
! notion t an inf9ite quantity is       
measurable1 & compos$ ( f9ite p>ts3     
!re=e1 ! only fair conclusion to be     
drawn is t inf9ite quantity is n        
measurable1 & _c be compos$ ( f9ite     
p>ts4  ,?is is exactly :at we h already 
prov$ 79 ,prop4 xii474  ,:]e=e ! weapon 
:i* !y aim$ at u has 9 reality recoil$  
^u !mselves4  ,if1 f ?is absurdity (    
!irs1 !y p]si/ 9 draw+ ! conclusion t   

ext5d$ sub/ance mu/ be f9ite1 !y w 9    
good soo? be act+ l a man :o ass]ts t   
circles h ! prop]ties ( squ>es1 &1 f9d+ 
himself !reby l&$ 9 absurdities1 proce$s
 to d5y t circles h any c5t]1 f :i* all 
l9es drawn to ! circumf]5ce are equal4  
,=1 tak+ ext5d$ sub/ance1 :i* c only be 
conceiv$ z inf9ite1 "o1 & indivisible   
7,props4 viii41 v41 xii47 !y ass]t1 9   
ord] to prove t x is f9ite1 t x is      
compos$ ( f9ite p>ts1 & t x c be        
multipli$ & divid$4  ,s1 also1 o!rs1    
aft] ass]t+ t a l9e is compos$ ( po9ts1 
c produce _m argum5ts to prove t a l9e  
_c be inf9itely divid$4  ,assur$ly x is 
n less absurd to ass]t t ext5d$ sub/ance
 is made up ( bodies or p>ts1 ?an x w\ld
 be to ass]t t a solid is made up (     
surfaces1 a surface ( l9es1 & a l9e (   
po9ts4  ,?is mu/ be admitt$ by all :o "k
 cle> reason to be infallible1 & mo/ (  
all by ^? :o d5y ! possibility ( a      
vacuum4  ,= if ext5d$ sub/ance c\ld be s
 divid$ t its p>ts 7 really sep>ate1 :y 
%\ld n "o "p admit ( be+ de/roy$1 ! o!rs

 rema9+ jo9$ toge!r z be=e8  ,& :y %\ld 
all be s fitt$ into "o ano!r z to leave 
no vacuum8  ,surely 9 ! case ( ?+s1 :i* 
are really di/9ct "o f ! o!r1 "o c exi/ 
)\t ! o!r1 & c rema9 9 its orig9al      
condition4  ,z1 !n1 !re does n exi/ a   
vacuum 9 nature 7( :i* anon71 b all p>ts
 are b\nd to come toge!r to prev5t x1 x 
foll[s f ?is t ! p>ts _c really be      
di/+ui%$1 & t ext5d$ sub/ance 9 s f> z x
 is sub/ance _c be divid$4  ,if anyone  
asks me ! fur!r "q1 ,:y are we naturally
 s prone to divide quantity8 ,i answ]1 t
 quantity is conceiv$ by u 9 two ways2 9
 ! ab/ract & sup]ficially1 z we imag9e  
x2 or z sub/ance1 z we conceive x solely
 by ! intellect4 ,if1 !n1 we reg>d      
quantity z x is repres5t$ 9 our         
imag9ation1 :i* we (t5 & m easily d1 we 
%all f9d t x is f9ite1 divisible1 &     
comp\nd$ ( p>ts2 b if we reg>d x z x is 
repres5t$ 9 our intellect1 & conceive x 
z sub/ance1 :i* x is v difficult to d1  
we %all !n1 z ,i h suffici5tly prov$1   
f9d t x is inf9ite1 "o1 & indivisible4  

,?is w be pla9 en\gh to all :o make a   
di/9ction betwe5 ! intellect & !        
imag9ation1 especially if x be rememb]$ 
t matt] is ev]y:]e ! same1 t its p>ts   
are n di/+ui%able1 except 9 s f> z we   
conceive matt] z div]sely modifi$1 :5ce 
its p>ts are di/+ui%$1 n really1 b      
modally4  ,= in/ance1 wat]1 9 s f> z x  
is wat]1 we conceive to be divid$1 & its
 p>ts to be sep>at$ "o f ! o!r2 b n 9 s 
f> z x is ext5d$ sub/ance2 f ?is po9t ( 
view x is nei!r sep>at$ nor  divisible4 
,fur!r1 wat]1 9 s f> z x is wat]1 is    
produc$ & corrupt$2 b1 9 s f> z x is    
sub/ance1 x is nei!r produc$ nor        
corrupt$4  ,i ?9k ,i h n[ answ]$ !      
second argum5t2 x is1 9 fact1 f\nd$ on !
 same assumption z ! fir/--namely1 t    
matt]1 9 s f> z x is sub/ance1 is       
divisible1 & compos$ ( p>ts4  ,ev5 if x 
7 s1 ,i d n "k :y x %\ld be consid]$    
unwor?y ( ! div9e nature1 inasmu* z     
besides ,god 7by ,prop4 xiv47 no        
sub/ance c be grant$1 :]efrom x c\ld    
receive its modifications4  ,all ?+s1 ,i

 repeat1 are 9 ,god1 & all ?+s :i* come 
to pass1 come to pass solely ?r\gh !    
laws ( ! inf9ite nature ( ,god1 & foll[ 
7z ,i w %ortly %[7 f ! necessity ( 8    
ess5ce4   ,:]e=e x c 9 n[ise be said t  
,god is passive 9 respect to any?+ o!r  
?an himself1 or t ext5d$ sub/ance is    
unwor?y ( ! div9e nature1 ev5 if x be   
suppos$ divisible1 s long z x is grant$ 
to be inf9ite & et]nal4  ,b en\gh ( ?is 
= ! pres5t4  ,,xvi4  ,f ! necessity ( ! 
div9e nature mu/ foll[ an inf9ite numb] 
( ?+s 9  inf9ite ways--t is1 all ?+s :i*
 c fall )9 ! sph]e ( inf9ite intellect4 
,pro(--,?is proposition w be cle> to    
ev]yone1 :o rememb]s t f ! giv5         
def9ition ( any ?+ ! intellect inf]s    
sev]al prop]ties1 :i* really necess>ily 
foll[ !refrom 7t is1 f ! actual ess5ce (
 ! ?+ def9$72 & x inf]s m prop]ties 9   
proportion z ! def9ition ( ! ?+         
expresses m reality1 t is1 9 proportion 
z ! ess5ce ( ! ?+ def9$ involves m      
reality4  ,n[1 z ! div9e nature has     
absolutely inf9ite attributes 7by ,def4 

vi471 ( :i* ea* expresses inf9ite ess5ce
 aft] its k9d1 x foll[s t f ! necessity 
( its nature an inf9ite numb] ( ?+s 7t  
is1 ev]y?+ :i* c fall )9 ! sph]e ( an   
inf9ite intellect7 mu/ necess>ily foll[4
  ,q4,e4,d4  ,coroll>y ,i4--,h5ce x     
foll[s1 t ,god is ! effici5t cause ( all
 t c fall )9 ! sph]e ( an inf9ite       
intellect4  ,coroll>y ,,ii4--,x also    
foll[s t ,god is a cause 9 himself1 & n 
?r\gh an accid5t ( 8 nature4  ,coroll>y 
,,iii4--,x foll[s1 ?irdly1 t ,god is !  
absolutely fir/ cause4  ,,xvii4  ,god   
acts solely by ! laws ( 8 own nature1 & 
is n con/ra9$ by anyone4  ,pro(--,we h j
 %[n 79 ,prop4 xvi471 t solely f !      
necessity ( ! div9e nature1 or1 :at is !
 same ?+1 solely f ! laws ( 8 nature1 an
 inf9ite  numb] ( ?+s absolutely foll[ 9
 an inf9ite numb] ( ways2 & we prov$ 79 
,prop4 xv471 t )\t ,god no?+ c be nor be
 conceiv$2 b t all ?+s are 9 ,god4      
,:]e=e no?+ c exi/ outside himself1     
:]eby he c be condition$ or con/ra9$ to 
act4  ,:]e=e ,god acts solely by ! laws 

( 8 own nature1 & is n con/ra9$ by      
anyone4  ,q4,e4,d4  ,coroll>y ,i--,x    
foll[s3  #a4  ,t !re c be no cause :i*1 
ei!r extr9sically or intr9sically1      
besides ! p]fection ( 8 own nature1     
moves ,god to act4  ,coroll>y ,,ii--,x  
foll[s3  #b4  ,t ,god is ! sole free    
cause4  ,= ,god alone exi/s by ! sole   
necessity ( 8 nature 7by ,prop4 xi4 &   
,prop4 xiv41 ,cor4 i471 & acts by ! sole
 necessity ( 8 own nature1 :]e=e ,god is
 7by ,def4 vii47 ! sole free cause4     
,q4,e4,d4  9999999999,note--,o!rs ?9k t 
,god is a free cause1 because he c1 z !y
 ?9k1 br+ x ab\t1 t ^? ?+s :i* we h said
 foll[ f 8 nature--t is1 :i* are 9 8    
p[]1 %\ld n come to pass1 or %\ld n be  
produc$ by him4  ,b ?is is ! same z if  
!y said1 t ,god c\ld br+ x ab\t1 t x    
%\ld foll[ f ! nature ( a  triangle t   
its ?ree int]ior angles %\ld n be equal 
to two "r angles2 or t f a giv5 cause no
 effect %\ld foll[1 :i* is absurd4      
,moreov]1 ,i w %[ bel[1 )\t ! aid ( ?is 
proposition1 t nei!r intellect nor w    

app]ta9 to ,god's nature4  ,i "k t !re  
are _m :o ?9k t !y c %[1 t supreme      
intellect & free w d app]ta9 to ,god's  
nature2 = !y say !y "k ( no?+ m p]fect1 
:i* !y c attribute to ,god1 ?an t :i* is
 ! highe/ p]fection 9 ourselves4        
,fur!r1 al?\gh !y conceive ,god z       
actually supremely intellig5t1 !y yet d 
n believe t he c br+ into exi/5ce ev]y?+
 :i* he actually und]/&s1 = !y ?9k t !y 
w\ld ?us de/roy ,god's p[]4  ,if1 !y    
cont5d1 ,god _h creat$ ev]y?+ :i* is 9 8
 intellect1 he w\ld n be able to create 
any?+ m1 & ?is1 !y ?9k1 w\ld cla% )     
,god's omnipot5ce2 !re=e1 !y pref] to   
asset t ,god is indiff]5t to all ?+s1 & 
t he creates no?+ except t :i* he has   
decid$1 by "s absolute ex]cise ( w1 to  
create4  ,h[ev]1 ,i ?9k ,i h %[n        
suffici5tly cle>ly 7by ,prop4 xvi47 t f 
,god's supreme p[]1 or inf9ite nature1  
an inf9ite numb] ( ?+s--t is1 all ?+s h 
necess>ily fl[$ =? 9 an inf9ite numb] ( 
ways1 or always fl[ f ! same necessity2 
9 ! same way z f ! nature ( a triangle x

 foll[s f et]nity & = et]nity1 t its    
?ree int]ior angles are equal to two "r 
angles4  ,:]e=e ! omnipot5ce ( ,god has 
be5 display$ f all et]nity1 & w = all   
et]nity rema9 9 ! same /ate ( activity4 
,?is mann] ( treat+ ! "q attributes to  
,god an omnipot5ce1 9 my op9ion1 f> m   
p]fect4  ,=1 o!rwise1 we are compell$ to
 confess t ,god und]/&s an inf9ite numb]
 ( creatable ?+s1 :i* he w nev] be able 
to create1 =1 if he creat$ all t he     
und]/&s1 he w\ld1 accord+ to ?is %[+1   
exhau/ 8 omnipot5ce1 & r5d] himself     
imp]fect4  ,:]e=e1 9 ord] to e/abli% t  
,god is p]fect1 we %\ld be r$uc$ to     
e/abli%+ at ! same "t1 t he _c br+ to   
pass ev]y?+ ov] :i* 8 p[] ext5ds2 ?is   
seems to be a hypo!sis mo/ absurd1 & mo/
 repugnant to ,god's omnipot5ce4  ,fur!r
 7to say a ^w conc]n+ ! intellect & ! w 
:i* we attribute to ,god71 if intellect 
& w app]ta9 to ! et]nal ess5ce ( ,god1  
we mu/ take ^! words 9 "s significance q
 diff]5t f ^? !y usually be>4  ,=       
intellect & w1 :i* %\ld con/itute !     

ess5ce ( ,god1 w\ld p]=ce be z f> ap>t z
 ! poles f ! human intellect & w1 9     
fact1 w\ld h no?+ 9 common ) !m b ! "n2 
!re w\ld be ab\t z mu* correspond5ce    
betwe5 ! two z !re is betwe5 ! ,dog1 !  
heav5ly con/ellation1 & a dog1 an animal
 t b>ks4  ,?is ,i w prove z foll[s4  ,if
 intellect belongs to ! div9e nature1 x 
_c be 9 nature1 z ours is g5]ally ?\ght 
to be1 po/]ior to1 or simultane\s ) !   
?+s und]/ood1 inasmu* z ,god is prior to
 all ?+s by reason ( 8 causality 7,prop4
 xvi41 ,cor4 i474  ,on !  contr>y1 !    
tru? & =mal ess5ce ( ?+s is z x is1     
because x exi/s by repres5tation z su* 9
 ! intellect ( ,god4  ,:]e=e ! intellect
 ( ,god1 9 s f> z x is conceiv$ to      
con/itute ,god's ess5ce1 is1 9 reality1 
! cause ( ?+s1 bo? ( _! ess5ce & ( _!   
exi/5ce4  ,?is seems to h be5 recogniz$ 
by ^? :o h ass]t$1 t ,god's intellect1  
,god's w1 & ,god's p[]1 are "o & ! same4
  ,z1 !re=e1 ,god's intellect is ! sole 
cause ( ?+s1 namely1 bo? ( _! ess5ce &  
exi/5ce1 x mu/ necess>ily diff] f !m 9  

respect to its ess5ce1 & 9 respect to   
its exi/5ce4  ,= a cause diff]s f a ?+ x
 causes1 precisely 9 ! quality :i* !    
latt] ga9s f ! =m]4  ,= example1 a man  
is ! cause ( ano!r man's exi/5ce1 b n ( 
8 ess5ce 7= ! latt] is an et]nal tru?71 
&1 !re=e1 ! two m5 may be entirely      
simil> 9 ess5ce1 b mu/ be diff]5t 9     
exi/5ce2 & h5ce if ! exi/5ce ( "o ( !m  
cease1 ! exi/5ce ( ! o!r w n necess>ily 
cease also2 b if ! ess5ce ( "o c\ld be  
de/roy$1 & be made false1 ! ess5ce ( !  
o!r w\ld be de/roy$ also4 ,:]e=e1 a ?+  
:i* is ! cause bo? ( ! ess5ce & ( !     
exi/5ce ( a giv5 effect1 mu/ diff] f su*
 effect bo? 9 respect to its ess5ce1 &  
also 9 respect to its exi/5ce4  ,n[ !   
intellect ( ,god is ! cause bo? ( !     
ess5ce & ! exi/5ce ( our intellect2     
!re=e1 ! intellect ( ,god 9 s f> z x is 
conceiv$ to con/itute ! div9e ess5ce1   
diff]s f our intellect bo? 9 respect to 
ess5ce & 9 respect to  exi/5ce1 nor c x 
9 anywise agree !re) save 9 "n1 z we    
said be=e4  ,!  reason+ w\ld be id5tical

 9 ! case ( ! w1 z anyone c easily see4 
,,xviii4  ,god is ! indwell+ & n !      
transi5t cause ( all ?+s4 ,pro(--,all   
?+s :i* are1 are 9 ,god1 & mu/ be       
conceiv$ ?r\gh ,god 7by ,prop4 xv471    
!re=e 7by ,prop4 xvi41 ,cor4 i47 ,god is
 ! cause ( ^? ?+s :i* are 9 him4 ,?is is
 our fir/ po9t4  ,fur!r1 besides ,god   
!re c be no sub/ance 7by ,prop4 xiv471 t
 is no?+ 9 itself ext]nal to ,god4  ,?is
 is our second po9t4  ,god1 !re=e1 is ! 
indwell+ & n ! transi5t cause ( all ?+s4
  ,q4,e4,d4  ,,xix4  ,god1 & all !      
attributes ( ,god1 are et]nal4          
,pro(--,god 7by ,def4 vi47 is sub/ance1 
:i* 7by ,prop4 xi47 necess>ily exi/s1 t 
is 7by ,prop4 vii47 exi/5ce app]ta9s to 
its nature1 or 7:at is ! same ?+7 foll[s
 f its def9ition2 !re=e1 ,god is et]nal 
7by ,def4 vii474  ,fur!r1 by !          
attributes ( ,god we mu/ und]/& t :i*   
7by ,def4 iv47 expresses ! ess5ce ( !   
div9e sub/ance--9 o!r words1 t :i*      
app]ta9s to sub/ance3  t1 ,i say1 %\ld  
be involv$ 9 ! attributes ( sub/ance4   

,n[ et]nity app]ta9s to ! nature (      
sub/ance 7z ,i h already %[n 9 ,prop4   
vii472 !re=e1 et]nity mu/ app]ta9 to ea*
 ( ! attributes1 & ?us all are et]nal4  
,q4,e4,d4  9999999999,note--,?is        
proposition is also evid5t f ! mann] 9  
:i* 79 ,prop4 xi47 ,i  demon/rat$ !     
exi/5ce ( ,god2 x is evid5t1 ,i repeat1 
f t pro(1 t ! exi/5ce ( ,god1 l 8       
ess5ce1 is an et]nal tru?4  ,fur!r 79   
,prop4 xix4 ( my  ,pr9ciples ( !        
,c>tesian ,philosophy71 ,i h prov$ !    
et]nity ( ,god1 9 ano!r mann]1 :i* ,i   
ne$ n "h repeat4  ,,xx4  ,! exi/5ce (   
,god & 8 ess5ce are "o & ! same4        
,pro(--,god 7by ! la/ ,prop47 & all 8   
attributes are et]nal1 t is 7by ,def4   
viii47 ea* ( 8 attributes expresses     
exi/5ce4  ,!re=e ! same attributes (    
,god :i* expla9 8 et]nal ess5ce1 expla9 
at ! same "t 8 et]nal exi/5ce--9 o!r    
words1 t :i* con/itutes ,god's ess5ce   
con/itutes at ! same "t 8 exi/5ce4      
,:]e=e ,god's exi/5ce & ,god's ess5ce   
are "o & ! same4  ,q4,e4,d4  ,coroll>y  

,i4--,h5ce x foll[s t ,god's exi/5ce1 l 
8 ess5ce1 is an et]nal tru?4  ,coroll>y 
,,ii4--,secondly1 x foll[s t ,god1 & all
 ! attributes ( ,god1 are un*angeable4  
,= if !y c\ld be *ang$ 9 respect to     
exi/5ce1 !y mu/ also be able to be *ang$
 9 respect to ess5ce--t is1 obvi\sly1 be
 *ang$ f true to false1 :i* is absurd4  
,,xxi4  ,all ?+s :i* foll[ f ! absolute 
nature ( any attribute ( ,god mu/ always
 exi/ & be inf9ite1 or1 9 o!r words1 are
 et]nal & inf9ite ?r\gh ! said          
attribute4  ,pro(--,conceive1 if x be   
possible 7suppos+ ! proposition to be   
d5i$71 t some?+ 9 "s attribute ( ,god c 
foll[ f ! absolute nature ( ! said      
attribute1 & t at ! same "t x is f9ite1 
& has a condition$ exi/5ce or duration2 
= in/ance1 ! idea ( ,god express$ 9 !   
attribute ?\ght4  ,n[ ?\ght1 9 s f> z x 
is suppos$ to be an attribute ( ,god1 is
 necess>ily 7by ,prop4 xi47 9 its nature
 inf9ite4 ,b1 9 s f> z x possesses !    
idea ( ,god1 x is suppos$ f9ite4  ,x _c1
 h[ev]1 be conceiv$ z f9ite1 unless x be

 limit$ by ?\ght 7by ,def4 ii472 b x is 
n limit$ by ?\ght itself1 9 s f> z x has
 con/itut$ ! idea ( ,god 7= s f> x is   
suppos$ to be f9ite72 !re=e1 x is limit$
 by ?\ght1 9 s f> z x has n con/itut$ ! 
idea ( ,god1 :i* nev]!less 7by ,prop4   
xi47 mu/ necess>ily exi/4  ,we h n[     
grant$1 !re=e1 ?\ght n con/itut+ ! idea 
( ,god1 &1 accord+ly1 ! idea ( ,god does
 n naturally foll[ f its nature 9 s f> z
 x is absolute ?\ght 7= x is conceiv$ z 
con/itut+1 & also z n con/itut+1 ! idea 
( ,god71 :i* is aga9/ our hypo!sis4     
,:]e=e1 if ! idea ( ,god express$ 9 !   
attribute ?\ght1 or1 inde$1 any?+ else 9
 any attribute ( ,god 7= we may take any
 example1 z ! pro( is ( univ]sal        
application7 foll[s f ! necessity ( !   
absolute nature ( ! said attribute1 !   
said ?+ mu/ necess>ily be inf9ite1 :i* 0
 our fir/ po9t4  ,fur!rmore1 a ?+ :i*   
?us foll[s f ! necessity ( ! nature (   
any attribute _c h a limit$ duration4   
,= if x c1 suppose a ?+1 :i* foll[s f ! 
necessity ( ! nature ( "s attribute1 to 

exi/ 9 "s attribute ( ,god1 = in/ance1 !
 idea ( ,god express$ 9 ! attribute     
?\ght1 & let x be suppos$ at "s "t n to 
h exi/$1 or to be ab\t n to exi/4  ,n[  
?\ght be+ an attribute ( ,god mu/       
necess>ily exi/ un*ang$ 7by ,prop4 xi41 
& ,prop4 xx41 ,cor4 ii472 & beyond !    
limits ( ! duration ( ! idea ( ,god     
7suppos+ ! latt] at "s "t n to h exi/$1 
or n to be go+ to exi/7 ?\ght w\ld p]=ce
 h exi/$ )\t ! idea ( ,god1 :i* is      
contr>y to our hypo!sis1 = we suppos$ t1
 ?\ght be+ giv51 ! idea ( ,god          
necess>ily fl[$ !refrom4  ,!re=e ! idea 
( ,god express$ 9 ?\ght1 or any?+ :i*   
necess>ily foll[s f ! absolute nature ( 
"s attribute ( ,god1 _c h a limit$      
duration1 b ?r\gh ! said attribute is   
et]nal1 :i* is our second po9t4 ,be> 9  
m9d t ! same proposition may be affirm$ 
( any?+1 :i* 9 any attribute necess>ily 
foll[s f ,god's absolute nature4        
,,xxii4  ,:atsoev] foll[s f any         
attribute ( ,god1 9 s f> z x is modifi$ 
by a modification1 :i* exi/s necess>ily 

& z inf9ite1 ?r\gh ! said attribute1 mu/
 also exi/ necess>ily & z inf9ite4      
,pro(--,! pro( ( ?is proposition is     
simil> to t ( ! prec$+ "o4  ,,xxiii4  ,e
 mode1 :i* exi/s bo? necess>ily & z     
inf9ite1 mu/ necess>ily foll[ ei!r f !  
absolute nature ( "s attribute ( ,god1  
or f an attribute modifi$ by a          
modification :i* exi/s necess>ily1 & z  
inf9ite4  ,pro(--,a mode exi/s 9 some?+ 
else1 ?r\gh :i* x mu/ be conceiv$ 7,def4
 v471 t is 7,prop4 xv471 x exi/s solely 
9 ,god1 & solely ?r\gh ,god c be        
conceiv$4 ,if !re=e a mode is conceiv$ z
 necess>ily exi/+ & inf9ite1 x mu/      
necess>ily be inf]r$ or p]ceiv$ ?r\gh "s
 attribute ( ,god1 9 s f> z su*         
attribute is conceiv$ z express+ !      
inf9ity & necessity ( exi/5ce1 9 o!r    
words 7,def4 viii47 et]nity2 t is1 9 s  
f> z x is consid]$ absolutely4  ,a mode1
 !re=e1 :i* necess>ily exi/s z inf9ite1 
mu/ foll[ f ! absolute nature ( "s      
attribute ( ,god1 ei!r imm$iately       
7,prop4 xxi47 or ?r\gh ! means ( "s     

modification1 :i* foll[s f ! absolute   
nature ( ! said attribute2 t is 7by     
,prop4 xxii471 :i* exi/s necess>ily & z 
inf9ite4  ,,xxiv4  ,! ess5ce ( ?+s      
produc$ by ,god does n involve exi/5ce4 
,pro(--,?is proposition is evid5t f     
,def4 i4  ,= t ( :i* ! nature 7consid]$ 
9 itself7 involves exi/5ce is           
self-caus$1 & exi/s by ! sole necessity 
( its own nature4  ,coroll>y--,h5ce x   
foll[s t ,god is n only ! cause ( ?+s   
com+ into exi/5ce1 b also ( _! cont9u+ 9
 exi/5ce1 t is1 9 s*ola/ic phraseology1 
,god is cause ( ! be+ ( ?+s 7ess5di     
r]um74  ,= :e!r ?+s exi/1 or d n exi/1  
:5ev] we contemplate _! ess5ce1 we see t
 x involves nei!r exi/5ce nor duration2 
consequ5tly1 x _c be ! cause ( ei!r ! "o
 or ! o!r4  ,god mu/ be ! sole cause1   
inasmu* z to him alone does exi/5ce     
app]ta94  7,prop4 xiv4 ,cor4 i47        
,q4,e4,d4  ,,xxv4  ,god is ! effici5t   
cause n only ( ! exi/5ce ( ?+s1 b also (
 _! ess5ce4  ,pro(--,if ?is be d5i$1 !n 
,god is n ! cause ( ! ess5ce ( ?+s2 &   

!re=e ! ess5ce ( ?+s c 7by ,ax4 iv47 be 
conceiv$ )\t ,god4  ,?is 7by ,prop4 xv47
 is absurd4  ,!re=e1 ,god is ! cause ( !
 ess5ce ( ?+s4 ,q4,e4,d4                
9999999999,note--,?is proposition foll[s
 m cle>ly f ,prop4 xvi4 ,= x is evid5t  
!reby t1 giv5 ! div9e nature1 ! ess5ce (
 ?+s mu/ be inf]r$ f x1 no less ?an _!  
exi/5ce--9 a ^w1 ,god mu/ be call$ !    
cause ( all ?+s1 9 ! same s5se z he is  
call$ ! cause ( himself4  ,?is w be made
 /ill cle>] by ! foll[+ coroll>y4       
,coroll>y--,individual ?+s are no?+ b   
modifications ( ! attributes ( ,god1 or 
modes by :i* ! attributes ( ,god are    
express$ 9 a fix$ & def9ite mann]4  ,!  
pro( appe>s f ,prop4 xv4 & ,def4 v4     
,,xxvi4  ,a ?+ :i* is condition$ to act 
9 a p>ticul> mann]1 has necess>ily be5  
?us condition$ by ,god2 & t :i* has n   
be5 condition$ by ,god _c condition     
itself to act4  ,pro(--,t by :i* ?+s are
 said to be condition$ to act 9 a       
p>ticul> mann] is necess>ily some?+     
positive 7?is is obvi\s72 !re=e bo? (   

its ess5ce & ( its exi/5ce ,god by !    
necessity ( 8 nature is ! effici5t cause
 7,props4 xxv4 & xvi472 ?is is our fir/ 
po9t4  ,our second po9t is pla9ly to be 
inf]r$ !refrom4  ,= if a ?+1 :i* has n  
be5 condition$ by ,god1 c\ld condition  
itself1 ! fir/ "p ( our pro( w\ld be    
false1 & ?is1 z we h %[n is absurd4     
,,xxvii4  ,a ?+1 :i* has be5 condition$ 
by ,god to act 9 a p>ticul> way1 _c r5d]
 itself uncondition$4  ,pro(--,?is      
proposition is evid5t f ,ax4 iii4       
,,xxviii4  ,e individual ?+1 or ev]y?+  
:i* is f9ite & has a condition$ exi/5ce1
 _c exi/ or be condition$ to act1 unless
 x be condition$ = exi/5ce & action by a
 cause o!r ?an itself1 :i* also is      
f9ite1 & has a condition$ exi/5ce2 &    
likewise ?is cause _c 9 its turn exi/1  
or be condition$ to act1 unless x be    
condition$ = exi/5ce & action by ano!r  
cause1 :i* also is f9ite1 & has a       
condition$ exi/5ce1 & s on to inf9ity4  
,pro(--,:atsoev] is condition$ to exi/ &
 act1 has be5 ?us condition$ by ,god 7by

 ,prop4 xxvi4 & ,prop4 xxiv41 ,cor47  ,b
 t :i* is f9ite1 & has a condition$     
exi/5ce1 _c be produc$ by ! absolute    
nature ( any attribute ( ,god2 =        
:atsoev] foll[s f ! absolute nature (   
any attribute ( ,god is inf9ite & et]nal
 7by ,prop4 xxi474  ,x mu/1 !re=e1 foll[
 f "s attribute ( ,god1 9 s f> z ! said 
attribute is consid]$ z 9 "s way        
modifi$2 = sub/ance & modes make up !   
sum total ( exi/5ce 7by ,ax4 i4 & ,def4 
iii41 v471 :ile modes are m]ely         
modifications ( ! attributes ( ,god4  ,b
 f ,god1 or f any ( 8 attributes1 9 s f>
 z ! latt] is modifi$ by a modification 
inf9ite & et]nal1 a condition$ ?+ _c    
foll[4  ,:]e=e x mu/ foll[ f1 or be     
condition$ =1 exi/5ce & action by ,god  
or "o ( 8 attributes1 9 s f> z ! latt]  
are modifi$ by "s modification :i* is   
f9ite1 & has a condition$ exi/5ce4  ,?is
 is our fir/ po9t4  ,aga91 ?is cause or 
?is modification 7= ! reason by :i* we  
e/abli%$ ! fir/ "p ( ?is pro(7 mu/ 9 its
 turn be condition$ by ano!r cause1 :i* 

also is f9ite1 & has a condition$       
exi/5ce1 &1 aga91 ?is la/ by ano!r 7= ! 
same reason72 & s on 7= ! same reason7  
to inf9ity4 ,q4,e4,d4                   
9999999999,note--,z c]ta9 ?+s mu/ be    
produc$ imm$iately by ,god1 namely ^?   
?+s :i* necess>ily foll[ f 8 absolute   
nature1 ?r\gh ! means ( ^! prim>y       
attributes1 :i*1 nev]!less1 c nei!r exi/
 nor be conceiv$ )\t ,god1 x foll[s3 #a4
 ,t ,god is absolutely ! proximate cause
 ( ^? ?+s imm$iately produc$ by him4  ,i
 say absolutely1 n aft] 8 k9d1 z is     
usually /at$4  ,= ! effects ( ,god _c   
ei!r exi/ or be conceiv$ )\t a cause    
7,prop4 xv4 & ,prop4 xxiv4 ,cor474  #b4 
,t ,god _c prop]ly be /yl$ ! remote     
cause ( individual ?+s1 except = ! sake 
( di/+ui%+ ^! f :at he imm$iately       
produces1 or r f :at foll[s f 8 absolute
 nature4  ,=1 by a remote cause1 we     
und]/& a cause :i* is 9 no way conjo9$  
to ! effect4  ,b all ?+s :i* are1 are 9 
,god1 & s dep5d on ,god1 t )\t him !y c 
nei!r be nor be conceiv$4  ,,xxix4      

,no?+ 9 ! univ]se is cont+5t1 b all ?+s 
are condition$ to exi/ & op]ate 9 a     
p>ticul> mann] by ! necessity ( ! div9e 
nature4  ,pro(--,:atsoev] is1 is 9 ,god 
7,prop4 xv474  ,b ,god _c be call$ a ?+ 
cont+5t4  ,= 7by ,prop4 xi47 he exi/s   
necess>ily1 & n cont+5tly4  ,fur!r1 !   
modes ( ! div9e nature foll[ !refrom    
necess>ily1 & n cont+5tly 7,prop4 xvi472
 & !y ?us foll[1 :e!r we consid] ! div9e
 nature absolutely1 or :e!r we consid] x
 z 9 any way condition$ to act 7,prop4  
xxvii474  ,fur!r1 ,god is n only ! cause
 ( ^! modes1 9 s f> z !y simply exi/ 7by
 ,prop4 xxiv41 ,cor471 b also 9 s f> z  
!y are consid]$ z condition$ = op]at+ 9 
a p>ticul> mann] 7,prop4 xxvi474 ,if !y 
be n condition$ by ,god 7,prop4 xxvi471 
x is impossible1 & n cont+5t1 t !y %\ld 
condition !mselves2 contr>iwise1 if !y  
be condition$ by ,god1 x is impossible1 
& n cont+5t1 t !y %\ld r5d] !mselves    
uncondition$4 ,:]e=e all ?+s are        
condition$ by ! necessity ( ! div9e     
nature1 n only to exi/1 b also to exi/ &

 op]ate 9 a p>ticul> mann]1 & !re is    
no?+ t is cont+5t4 ,q4,e4,d4            
9999999999,note--,be=e go+ any fur!r1 ,i
 wi% "h to expla91 :at we %\ld und]/& by
 nature view$ z active 7natura          
naturans71 & nature view$ z passive     
7natura naturata74  ,i say to expla91 or
 r call att5tion to x1 = ,i ?9k t1 f :at
 has be5 said1 x is suffici5tly cle>1 t 
by nature view$ z active we %\ld und]/& 
t :i* is 9 itself1 & is conceiv$ ?r\gh  
itself1 or ^? attributes ( sub/ance1 :i*
 express et]nal & inf9ite ess5ce1 9 o!r 
words 7,prop4 xiv41 ,cor4 i41 & ,prop4  
xvii41 ,cor4 ii47 ,god1 9 s f> z he is  
consid]$ z a free cause4  ,by nature    
view$ z passive ,i und]/& all t :i*     
foll[s f ! necessity ( ! nature ( ,god1 
or ( any ( ! attributes ( ,god1 t is1   
all ! modes ( ! attributes ( ,god1 9 s  
f> z !y are consid]$ z ?+s :i* are 9    
,god1 & :i* )\t ,god _c exi/ or be      
conceiv$4  ,,xxx4  ,intellect1 9        
function 7actu7 f9ite1 or 9 function    
inf9ite1 mu/ compreh5d ! attributes (   

,god & ! modifications ( ,god1 & no?+   
else4  ,pro(--,a true idea mu/ agree )  
its object 7,ax4 vi472 9 o!r words      
7obvi\sly7 t :i* is conta9$ 9 !         
intellect 9 repres5tation mu/ necess>ily
 be grant$ 9 nature4  ,b 9 nature 7by   
,prop4 xiv41 ,cor4 i47 !re is no        
sub/ance save ,god1 nor any             
modifications save ^? 7,prop4 xv47 :i*  
are 9 ,god1 & _c )\t ,god ei!r be or be 
conceiv$4  ,!re=e ! intellect1 9        
function f9ite1 or 9 function inf9ite1  
mu/ compreh5d ! attributes ( ,god & !   
modifications ( ,god1 & no?+ else4      
,q4,e4,d4  ,,xxxi4  ,! intellect 9      
function1 :e!r f9ite or inf9ite1 z w1   
desire1 love1 c41 %\ld be ref]r$ to     
passive nature & n to active nature4    
,pro(--,by ! intellect we d n 7obvi\sly7
 mean absolute ?\ght1 b only a c]ta9    
mode ( ?9k+1 diff]+ f o!r modes1 su* z  
love1 desire1 c41 & !re=e 7,def4 v47    
requir+ to be conceiv$ ?r\gh absolute   
?\ght4  ,x mu/ 7by ,prop4 xv4 & ,def4   
vi471 ?r\gh "s attribute ( ,god :i*     

expresses ! et]nal & inf9ite ess5ce (   
?\ght1 be s conceiv$1 t )\t su*         
attribute x c\ld nei!r be nor be        
conceiv$4  ,x mu/ !re=e be ref]r$ to    
nature passive r ?an to nature active1 z
 mu/ also ! o!r modes ( ?9k+4  ,q4,e4,d4
  9999999999,note--,i d n "h1 by speak+ 
( intellect 9 function1 admit t !re is  
su* a ?+ z intellect 9 pot5tiality3 b1  
wi%+ to avoid all confusion1 ,i desire  
to speak only ( :at is mo/ cle>ly       
p]ceiv$ by u1 namely1 ( ! v act (       
und]/&+1 ?an :i* no?+ is m cle>ly       
p]ceiv$4  ,= we _c p]ceive any?+ )\t    
add+ to our k ( ! act ( und]/&+4        
,,xxxii4  ,w _c be call$ a free cause1 b
 only a necess>y cause4  ,pro(--,w is   
only a p>ticul> mode ( ?9k+1 l          
intellect2 !re=e 7by ,prop4 xxviii47 no 
volition c exi/1 nor be condition$ to   
act1 unless x be condition$ by "s cause 
o!r ?an itself1 :i* cause is condition$ 
by a ?ird cause1 & s on to inf9ity4 ,b  
if w be suppos$ inf9ite1 x mu/ also be  
condition$ to exi/ & act by ,god1 n by  

virtue ( 8 be+ sub/ance absolutely      
inf9ite1 b by virtue ( 8 possess+ an    
attribute :i* expresses ! inf9ite &     
et]nal ess5ce ( ?\ght 7by ,prop4        
xxiii474  ,?us1 h[ev] x be conceiv$1    
:e!r z f9ite or inf9ite1 x requires a   
cause by :i* x %\ld be condition$ to    
exi/ & act4  ,?us 7,def4 vii47 x _c be  
call$ a free cause1 b only a necess>y or
 con/ra9$ cause4  ,q4,e4,d4  ,coroll>y  
,i--,h5ce x foll[s1 fir/1 t ,god does n 
act accord+ to fre$om ( ! w4  ,coroll>y 
,,ii--,x foll[s1 secondly1 t w &        
intellect /& 9 ! same relation to !     
nature ( ,god z d motion1 & re/1 &      
absolutely all natural ph5om5a1 :i* mu/ 
be condition$ by ,god 7,prop4 xxix47 to 
exi/ & act 9 a p>ticul> mann]4  ,= w1 l 
! re/1 /&s 9 ne$ ( a cause1 by :i* x is 
condition$ to exi/ & act 9 a p>ticul>   
mann]4 ,& al?\gh1 :5 w or intellect be  
grant$1 an inf9ite numb] ( results may  
foll[1 yet ,god _c on t acc\nt be said  
to act f fre$om ( ! w1 any m ?an !      
inf9ite numb] ( results f motion & re/  

w\ld ju/ify u 9 say+ t motion & re/ act 
by free w4  ,:]e=e w no m app]ta9s to   
,god ?an does any?+ else 9 nature1 b /&s
 9 ! same relation to him z motion1 re/1
 & ! l1 :i* we h %[n to foll[ f !       
necessity ( ! div9e nature1 & to be     
condition$ by x to exi/ & act 9 a       
p>ticul> mann]4  ,,xxxiii4  ,?+s c\ld n 
h be5 br\ght into be+ by ,god 9 any     
mann] or 9 any ord] diff]5t f t :i* has 
9 fact obta9$4  ,pro(--,all ?+s         
necess>ily foll[ f ! nature ( ,god      
7,prop4 xvi471 & by !  nature ( ,god are
 condition$ to exi/ & act 9 a p>ticul>  
way 7,prop4 xxix74  ,if ?+s1  !re=e1    
c\ld h be5 ( a diff]5t nature1 or h be5 
condition$ to act 9 a  diff]5t way1 s t 
! ord] ( nature w\ld h be5 diff]5t1     
,god's nature w\ld  also h be5 able to  
be diff]5t f :at x n[ is2 & !re=e 7by   
,prop4 xi47t  diff]5t nature also w\ld h
 p]=ce exi/$1 & consequ5tly !re w\ld h  
be5  able to be two or m ,gods4 ,?is 7by
 ,prop4 xiv41 ,cor4 i47 is absurd4      
,!re=e1 ?+s c\ld n h be5 br\ght into be+

 by ,god 9 any o!r mann]1 c4  ,q4,e4,d4 
9999999999,note ,i--,z ,i h ?us %[n1 m  
cle>ly ?an ! sun at noonday1 t !re is   
no?+ to ju/ify u 9 call+ ?+s cont+5t1 ,i
 wi% to expla9 briefly :at mean+ we     
%all atta* to ! ^w cont+5t2 b ,i w fir/ 
expla9 ! words necess>y &  impossible4  
,a ?+ is call$ necess>y ei!r 9 respect  
to its ess5ce or 9 respect to its cause2
 = !  exi/5ce ( a ?+ necess>ily foll[s1 
ei!r f its ess5ce & def9ition1 or f a   
giv5 effici5t cause4  ,= simil> reasons 
a ?+ is said to be impossible2 namely1  
inasmu* z its ess5ce or def9ition       
involves a contradiction1 or because no 
ext]nal cause  is grant$1 :i* is        
condition$ to produce su* an effect2 b a
 ?+ c 9 no respect be  call$ cont+5t1   
save 9 relation to ! imp]fection ( our  
k4  ,a ?+ ( :i* we d n "k :e!r ! ess5ce 
does or does n involve a  contradiction1
 or ( :i*1 kn[+ t x does n involve a    
contradiction1 we are /ill 9  d\bt      
conc]n+ ! exi/5ce1 because ! ord] (     
causes escapes u1--su* a ?+1 ,i  say1 _c

 appe> to u ei!r necess>y or impossible4
  ,:]e=e we call x cont+5t  or possible4
  9999999999,note ,,ii--,x cle>ly foll[s
 f :at we h said1 t ?+s h be5 br\ght    
into be+ by ,god 9 ! highe/ p]fection1  
inasmu* z !y h necess>ily foll[$  f a   
mo/ p]fect nature4  ,nor does ?is prove 
any imp]fection 9 ,god1 = x has         
compell$ u to affirm 8 p]fection4  ,f   
its contr>y proposition1 we %\ld cle>ly 
ga!r 7z ,i h j %[n71 t ,god is n        
supremely p]fect1 = if ?+s _h be5 br\ght
 into be+ 9 any o!r way1 we %\ld h to   
assign to ,god a nature diff]5t  f t1   
:i* we are b\nd to attribute to him f ! 
consid]ation ( an absolutely  p]fect    
be+4  ,i d n d\bt1 t _m w sc\t ?is idea 
z absurd1 & w refuse to give _! m9ds  up
 to contemplat+ x1 simply because !y are
 accu/om$ to assign to ,god a fre$om  v 
diff]5t f t :i* we 7,def4 vii47 h d$uc$4
  ,!y assign to him1 9 %ort1  absolute  
free w4  ,h[ev]1 ,i am also conv9c$ t if
 su* p]sons reflect on ! matt]1  & duly 
weigh 9 _! m9ds our s]ies (             

propositions1 !y w reject su* fre$om z  
!y n[ attribute to ,god1 n only z       
nugatory1 b also z a great imp$im5t to  
organiz$ k4  ,!re is no ne$ = me to     
repeat :at ,i h said 9 ! note to  ,prop4
 xvii4  ,b1 = ! sake ( my oppon5ts1 ,i w
 %[ fur!r1 t al?\gh x be  grant$ t w    
p]ta9s to ! ess5ce ( ,god1 x nev]!less  
foll[s f 8 p]fection1  t ?+s c\ld n h   
be5 by him creat$ o!r ?an !y are1 or 9 a
 diff]5t ord]2  ?is is easily prov$1 if 
we reflect on :at our oppon5ts !mselves 
conc$e1 namely1 t  x dep5ds solely on ! 
decree & w ( ,god1 t ea* ?+ is :at x is4
  ,if x 7  o!rwise1 ,god w\ld n be !    
cause ( all ?+s4 ,fur!r1 t all ! decrees
 ( ,god  h be5 ratifi$ f all et]nity by 
,god himself4  ,if x 7 o!rwise1 ,god    
w\ld be convict$ ( imp]fection or *ange4
  ,b 9 et]nity !re is no su* ?+ z :51   
be=e1 or aft]2 h5ce x foll[s solely f ! 
p]fection ( ,god1 t ,god nev] c  decree1
 or nev] w\ld h decre$ any?+ b :at is2 t
 ,god did n exi/ be=e  8 decrees1 & w\ld
 n exi/ )\t !m4  ,b1 x is said1 suppos+ 

t ,god _h  made a diff]5t univ]se1 or _h
 orda9$ o!r decrees f all et]nity       
conc]n+  nature & h] ord]1 we c\ld n    
!re=e conclude any imp]fection 9 ,god4  
,b  p]sons :o say ?is mu/ admit t ,god c
 *ange 8 decrees4  ,= if ,god _h  orda9$
 any decrees conc]n+ nature & h] ord]1  
diff]5t f ^? :i* he has orda9$--9 o!r   
words1 if he _h will$ & conceiv$ some?+ 
diff]5t conc]n+  nature--he w\ld p]=ce h
 _h a diff]5t intellect f t :i* he has1 
& also a diff]5t w4  ,b if x 7 all[able 
to assign to ,god a diff]5t intellect & 
a diff]5t  w1 )\t any *ange 9 8 ess5ce  
or 8 p]fection1 :at w\ld !re be to      
prev5t him *ang+ ! decrees :i* he has   
made conc]n+ creat$ ?+s1 & nev]!less    
rema9+ p]fect8  ,= 8 intellect & w      
conc]n+ ?+s creat$ & _! ord] are  !     
same1 9 respect to 8 ess5ce & p]fection1
 h[ev] !y be conceiv$4  ,fur!r1 all !   
philosoph]s :om ,i h read admit t ,god's
 intellect is entirely actual1  & n at  
all pot5tial2 z !y also admit t ,god's  
intellect1 & ,god's w1 & ,god's ess5ce  

are id5tical1 x foll[s t1 if ,god _h _h 
a diff]5t actual intellect & a  diff]5t 
w1 8 ess5ce w\ld also h be5 diff]5t2 &  
?us1 z ,i conclud$ at fir/1  if ?+s _h  
be5 br\ght into be+ by ,god 9 a diff]5t 
way f t :i* has  obta9$1 ,god's         
intellect & w1 t is 7z is admitt$7 8    
ess5ce w\ld p]=ce h be5 diff]5t1 :i* is 
absurd4  ,z ^! ?+s c\ld n h be5 br\ght  
into be+ by ,god 9 any b ! actual way  &
 ord] :i* has obta9$2 & z ! tru? ( ?is  
proposition foll[s f !  supreme         
p]fection ( ,god2 we c h no s\nd reason 
= p]suad+ ourselves to believe t ,god   
did n wi% to create all ! ?+s :i* 7 9 8 
intellect1 & to  create !m 9 ! same     
p]fection z he _h und]/ood !m4  ,b1 x w 
be said1 !re is 9 ?+s no p]fection nor  
imp]fection2 t :i* is 9 !m1  & :i*      
causes !m to be call$ p]fect or         
imp]fect1 good or bad1 dep5ds solely on 
! w ( ,god4  ,if ,god _h s will$1 he    
might h br\ght x ab\t t :at is n[       
p]fection %\ld be extreme imp]fection1 &
 vice v]sa4  ,:at is su* an ass]tion1 b 

an op5 decl>ation t ,god1 :o necess>ily 
und]/&s t :i* he wi%es1 might  br+ x    
ab\t by 8 w1 t he %\ld und]/& ?+s       
diff]5tly f ! way 9  :i* he does und]/& 
!m8  ,?is 7z we h j %[n7 is ! height (  
absurdity4  ,:]e=e1 ,i may turn !       
argum5t aga9/ its employ]s1 z           
foll[s3--,all ?+s dep5d  on ! p[] (     
,god4 ,9 ord] t ?+s %\ld be diff]5t f   
:at !y are1 ,god's  w w\ld necess>ily h 
to be diff]5t4  ,b ,god's w _c be       
diff]5t 7z we h  j mo/ cle>ly           
demon/rat$7 f ,god's p]fection4  ,!re=e 
nei!r c ?+s be  diff]5t4  ,i confess1 t 
! !ory :i* subjects all ?+s to ! w ( an 
indiff]5t  deity1 & ass]ts t !y are all 
dep5d5t on 8 fiat1 is less f> f ! tru?  
?an !  !ory ( ^?1 :o ma9ta9 t ,god acts 
9 all ?+s ) a view ( promot+ :at is     
good4  ,= ^! latt] p]sons seem to set up
 some?+ beyond ,god1 :i* does n dep5d on
 ,god1 b :i* ,god 9 act+ looks to z an  
exempl>1 or :i* he aims at z  a def9ite 
goal4  ,?is is only ano!r "n = subject+ 
,god to ! dom9ion ( de/9y1  an utt]     

absurdity 9 respect to ,god1 :om we h   
%[n to be ! fir/ & only free  cause ( ! 
ess5ce ( all ?+s & also ( _! exi/5ce4   
,i ne$1 !re=e1 sp5d no  "t 9 refut+ su* 
wild !ories4  ,,xxxiv4  ,god's p[] is   
id5tical ) 8 ess5ce4  ,pro(--,f ! sole  
necessity ( ! ess5ce ( ,god x foll[s t  
,god is !  cause ( himself 7,prop4 xi47 
& ( all ?+s 7,prop4 xvi4 & ,cor474      
,:]e=e ! p[]  ( ,god1 by :i* he & all   
?+s are & act1 is id5tical ) 8 ess5ce4  
,q4,e4,d4  ,,xxxv4  ,:atsoev] we        
conceive to be 9 ! p[] ( ,god1          
necess>ily exi/s4  ,pro(--,:atsoev] is 9
 ,god's p[]1 mu/ 7by ! la/ ,prop47 be   
compreh5d$  9 8 ess5ce 9 su* a mann]1 t 
x necess>ily foll[s !refrom1 & !re=e    
necess>ily exi/s4 ,q4,e4,d4  ,,xxxvi4   
,!re is no cause f ^: nature "s effect  
does n foll[4  ,pro(--,:atsoev] exi/s   
expresses ,god's nature or ess5ce 9 a   
giv5 condition$  mann] 7by ,prop4 xxv41 
,cor472 t is1 7by ,prop4 xxxiv471       
:atsoev] exi/s1 expresses 9 a  giv5     
condition$ mann] ,god's p[]1 :i* is !   

cause ( all ?+s1 !re=e an effect  mu/   
7by ,prop4 xvi47 necess>ily foll[4      
,q4,e4,d4   ,,app5dix3  ,9 ! =ego+ ,i h 
expla9$ ! nature & prop]ties ( ,god4  ,i
 h %[n t he  necess>ily exi/s1 t he is  
"o3  t he is1 & acts solely by !        
necessity ( 8 own  nature2 t he is !    
free cause ( all ?+s1 & h[ he is s2 t   
all ?+s are 9 ,god1  & s dep5d on him1 t
 )\t him !y c\ld nei!r exi/ nor be      
conceiv$2 la/ly1 t all ?+s are pr$et]m9$
 by ,god1 n ?r\gh 8 free w or absolute  
fiat1 b f  ! v nature ( ,god or inf9ite 
p[]4  ,i h fur!r1 :]e occasion af=d$1   
tak5 c>e to remove ! prejudices1 :i*    
might imp$e ! compreh5sion ( my         
demon/rations4  ,yet !re /ill rema9     
misconceptions n a few1 :i* might & may 
prove v grave h9drances to ! und]/&+ ( !
 concat5ation ( ?+s1 z ,i h  expla9$ x  
above4  ,i h !re=e ?\ght x wor? :ile to 
br+ ^! misconceptions  be=e ! b> (      
reason4  ,all su* op9ions spr+ f !      
notion commonly ent]ta9$1 t all ?+s 9   
nature act  z m5 !mselves act1 namely1 )

 an end 9 view4  ,x is accept$ z c]ta91 
t ,god himself directs all ?+s to a     
def9ite goal 7= x is said t ,god made   
all ?+s = man1  & man t he might wor%ip 
him74  ,i w1 !re=e1 consid] ?is op9ion1 
ask+ fir/1 :y x obta9s g5]al cr$5ce1 &  
:y all m5 are naturally s prone to adopt
 x82   secondly1 ,i w po9t out its      
falsity2 &1 la/ly1 ,i w %[ h[ x has giv5
 rise to  prejudices ab\t good & bad1 "r
 & wrong1 praise & blame1 ord] &        
confusion1  beauty & ugl9ess1 & ! l4    
,h[ev]1 ?is is n ! place to d$uce ^!    
misconceptions f ! nature ( ! human m9d3
  x w be suffici5t "h1 if ,i assume  z a
 />t+ po9t1 :at ought to be univ]sally  
admitt$1 namely1 t all m5 are born      
ignorant ( ! causes ( ?+s1 t all h !    
desire to seek = :at is useful to !m1  &
 t !y are consci\s ( su* desire4        
,h]efrom x foll[s1 fir/1 t m5 ?9k       
!mselves free inasmu* z !y are consci\s 
( _! volitions & desires1 & nev]  ev5   
dream1 9 _! ignorance1 ( ! causes :i* h 
dispos$ !m s to wi% & desire4           

,secondly1 t m5 d all ?+s = an end1     
namely1 = t :i* is useful to  !m1 & :i* 
!y seek4  ,?us x comes to pass t !y only
 look = a k (  ! f9al causes ( ev5ts1 & 
:5 ^! are le>n$1 !y are cont5t1 z hav+  
no cause  = fur!r d\bt4  ,if !y _c le>n 
su* causes f ext]nal s\rces1 !y are     
compell$ to turn to consid]+ !mselves1 &
 reflect+ :at end w\ld h induc$  !m     
p]sonally to br+ ab\t ! giv5 ev5t1 & ?us
 !y necess>ily judge o!r  natures by _! 
own4  ,fur!r1 z !y f9d 9 !mselves &     
outside !mselves _m  means :i* assi/ !m 
n a little 9 ! se>* = :at is useful1 =  
in/ance1 eyes =  see+1 tee? = *ew+1 h]bs
 & animals = yield+ food1 ! sun = giv+  
light1 !  sea = bre$+ fi%1 c41 !y come  
to look on ! :ole ( nature z a means =  
obta9+ su* conv5i5ces4  ,n[ z !y are    
aw>e1 t !y f\nd ^! conv5i5ces  & did n  
make !m1 !y ?9k !y h cause = believ+1 t 
"s o!r be+ has made !m = _! use4  ,z !y 
look ^u ?+s z means1 !y _c believe !m to
  be self-creat$2 b1 judg+ f ! means :i*
 !y are accu/om$ to prep>e =  !mselves1 

!y are b\nd to believe 9 "s rul] or     
rul]s ( ! univ]se end[$ )  human fre$om1
 :o h arrang$ & adapt$ ev]y?+ = human   
use4  ,!y are  b\nd to e/imate ! nature 
( su* rul]s 7hav+ no in=mation on !     
subject7 9 accordance ) _! own nature1 &
 !re=e !y ass]t t ! gods orda9$  ev]y?+ 
= ! use ( man1 9 ord] to b9d man to     
!mselves & obta9 f him !  highe/ honor4 
,h5ce also x foll[s1 t ev]yone ?\ght out
 = himself1 accord+ to  8 abilities1 a  
diff]5t way ( wor%ipp+ ,god1 s t ,god   
might love him m ?an 8  fell[s1 & direct
 ! :ole c\rse ( nature = ! satisfaction 
( 8 bl9d cupidity &  insatiable av>ice4 
,?us ! prejudice develop$ into          
sup]/ition1 & took deep root 9  ! human 
m9d2 & = ?is reason ev]yone /rove mo/   
zeal\sly to und]/& &  expla9 ! f9al     
causes ( ?+s2 b 9 _! endeavor to %[ t   
nature does no?+  9 va91 i4e4 no?+ :i*  
is useless to man1 !y only seem to h    
demon/rat$ t  nature1 ! gods1 & m5 are  
all mad toge!r4  ,consid]1 ,i pray y1 ! 
result3 among  ! _m helps ( nature !y 7 

b\nd to f9d "s h9drances1 su* z /orms1  
e>?quakes1 diseases1 c43  s !y decl>$ t 
su* ?+s happ51 because ! gods  are angry
 at "s wrong done to !m by m51 or at "s 
fault committ$ 9 _!  wor%ip4  ,exp]i5ce 
day by day prote/$ & %[$ by inf9ite     
examples1 t good  & evil =tunes fall to 
! lot ( pi\s & impi\s alike2 /ill !y    
w\ld n ab&on  _! invet]ate prejudice1 = 
x 0 m easy = !m to class su*            
contradictions among  o!r unkn[n ?+s (  
^: use !y 7 ignorant1 & ?us to reta9 _! 
actual &  innate condition ( ignorance1 
?an to de/roy ! :ole fabric ( _! reason+
 & />t  afre%4  ,!y !re=e laid d[n z an 
axiom1 t ,god's judgm5ts f> transc5d    
human  und]/&+4  ,su* a doctr9e might   
well h suffic$ to conceal ! tru? f !    
human race = all et]nity1 if ma!matics  
_h n furni%$ ano!r /&>d ( v]ity 9       
consid]+ solely ! ess5ce & prop]ties (  
figures )\t reg>d to _! f9al causes4    
,!re are o!r reasons 7:i* ,i ne$ n      
m5tion "h7 besides ma!matics1 :i* might 
h caus$ m5's m9ds to be direct$ to ^!   

g5]al prejudices1 & h l$ !m to  ! k ( ! 
tru?4  ,i h n[ suffici5tly expla9$ my   
fir/ po9t4  ,!re is no ne$ to %[ at     
l5g?1 t  nature has no p>ticul> goal 9  
view1 & t f9al causes are m]e human     
figm5ts4  ,?is1  ,i ?9k1 is already     
evid5t en\gh1 bo? f ! causes &          
f\ndations on :i* ,i h  %[n su*         
prejudice to be bas$1 & also f ,prop4   
xvi41 & ! ,coroll>y ( ,prop4  xxxii41 &1
 9 fact1 all ^? propositions 9 :i* ,i h 
%[n1 t ev]y?+ 9 nature  proce$s f a sort
 ( necessity1 & ) ! utmo/ p]fection4    
,h[ev]1 ,i w add a  few rem>ks 9 ord] to
 ov]?r[ ?is doctr9e ( a f9al cause      
utt]ly4  ,t :i* is  really a cause x    
consid]s z an effect1 & vice v]sa3  x   
makes t :i* is by nature  fir/ to be    
la/1 & t :i* is highe/ & mo/ p]fect to  
be mo/ imp]fect4 ,pass+  ov] ! que/ions 
( cause & priority z self-evid5t1 x is  
pla9 f ,props4 xxi41 xxii41  xxiii4 t ! 
effect is mo/ p]fect :i* is produc$     
imm$iately by ,god2 ! effect  :i*       
requires = its production sev]al        

int]m$iate causes is1 9 t respect1 m    
imp]fect4  ,b if ^? ?+s :i* 7 made      
imm$iately by ,god 7 made to enable  him
 to atta9 8 end1 !n ! ?+s :i* come aft]1
 = ! sake ( :i* ! fir/ 7  made1 are     
necess>ily ! mo/ excell5t ( all4        
,fur!r1 ?is doctr9e does away ) !       
p]fection ( ,god3 =1 if ,god acts = an  
object1  he necess>ily desires some?+   
:i* he lacks4  ,c]ta9ly1 !ologians &    
metaphysicians  draw a di/9ction betwe5 
! object ( want & ! object (            
assimilation2 /ill !y  confess t ,god   
made all ?+s = ! sake ( himself1 n = !  
sake ( creation4  ,!y  are unable to    
po9t to any?+ prior to creation1 except 
,god himself1 z an object =  :i* ,god   
%\ld act1 & are !re=e driv5 to admit 7z 
!y cle>ly mu/71 t ,god lack$ ^? ?+s = ^:
 atta9m5t he creat$ means1 & fur!r t he 
desir$  !m4  ,we mu/ n omit to notice t 
! foll[]s ( ?is doctr9e1 anxi\s to      
display _!  tal5t 9 assign+ f9al causes1
 h import$ a new me?od ( argum5t 9 pro( 
( _! !ory--namely1 a r$uction1 n to !   

impossible1 b to ignorance2 ?us %[+ t !y
  h no o!r me?od ( exhibit+ _! doctr9e4 
,= example1 if a /one falls f a ro(     
onto someone's head1 & kills him1 !y w  
demon/rate by _! new me?od1 t !  /one   
fell 9 ord] to kill ! man2 =1 if x _h n 
by ,god's w fall5 ) t object1 h[ c\ld s 
_m circum/ances 7& !re are (t5 _m       
concurr5t circum/ances7  h all happ5$   
toge!r by *ance8 ,p]haps y w answ] t !  
ev5t is due to  ! facts t ! w9d 0 bl[+1 
& ! man 0 walk+ t way4  ,b :y1 !y  w    
insi/1 0 ! w9d bl[+1 & :y 0 ! man at t v
 "t walk+ t  way8  ,if y aga9 answ]1 t !
 w9d _h !n sprung up because ! sea _h   
begun  to be agitat$ ! day be=e1 ! wea!r
 be+ previ\sly calm1 & t ! man _h  be5  
invit$ by a fri5d1 !y w aga9 insi/3  ,b 
:y 0 ! sea agitat$1 & :y 0  ! man invit$
 at t "t8  ,s !y w pursue _! que/ions f 
cause to cause1 till  at la/ y take     
refuge 9 ! w ( ,god--9 o!r words1 !     
sanctu>y ( ignorance4  ,s1  aga91 :5 !y 
survey ! frame ( ! human body1 !y are   
amaz$2 & be+  ignorant ( ! causes ( s   

great a "w ( art1 conclude t x has be5  
fa%ion$1 n  me*anically1 b by div9e &   
sup]natural skill1 & has be5 s put      
toge!r t "o  "p %all n hurt ano!r4      
,h5ce anyone :o seeks = ! true causes ( 
miracles1 & /rives to und]/& natural    
ph5om5a z an intellig5t be+1 & n to gaze
 at !m l a fool1 is set d[n &  d5\nc$ z 
an impi\s h]etic by ^?1 :om ! masses    
adore z ! int]pret]s (  nature & ! gods4
  ,su* p]sons "k t1 ) ! removal (       
ignorance1 ! wond]  :i* =ms _! only     
available means = prov+ & pres]v+ _!    
au?ority w\ld vani% also4  ,b ,i n[ quit
 ?is subject1 & pass on to my ?ird po9t4
  ,aft] m5 p]suad$ !mselves1 t ev]y?+   
:i* is creat$ is creat$ = _! sake1  !y 7
 b\nd to consid] z ! *ief quality 9     
ev]y?+ t :i* is mo/ useful to !mselves1 
& to acc\nt ^? ?+s ! be/ ( all :i* h !  
mo/ b5eficial effect  on mank9d4        
,fur!r1 !y 7 b\nd to =m ab/ract notions 
= ! explanation ( !  nature ( ?+s1 su* z
 goodness1 badness1 ord]1 confusion1    
w>m?1 cold1 beauty1  de=mity1 & s on2 & 

f ! belief t !y are free ag5ts arose !  
fur!r notions  ( praise & blame1 s9 &   
m]it4  ,i w speak ( ^! latt] h]eaft]1 :5
 ,i treat ( human nature2 ! =m] ,i w    
briefly  expla9 "h4  ,ev]y?+ :i*        
conduces to heal? & ! wor%ip ( ,god !y h
 call$ good1  ev]y?+ :i* h9d]s ^!       
objects !y h /yl$ bad2 & inasmu* z ^? :o
  d n und]/& ! nature ( ?+s d n v]ify   
ph5om5a 9 any way1 b m]ely imag9e !m    
aft] a fa%ion1 & mi/ake _! imag9ation = 
und]/&+1 su*  p]sons firmly believe t   
!re is an ord] 9 ?+s1 be+ really        
ignorant bo? ( ?+s  & _! own nature4    
,:5 ph5om5a are ( su* a k9d1 t !        
impression !y make  on our s5ses        
requires little ef=t ( imag9ation1 & c  
consequ5tly be easily  rememb]$1 we say 
t !y are well-ord]$2 if ! contr>y1 t !y 
are ill-ord]$ or  confus$4  ,fur!r1 z   
?+s :i* are easily imag9$ are m pleas+  
to u1 m5 pref]  ord] to confusion--z    
?\gh !re 7 any ord] 9 nature1 except 9  
relation to our  imag9ation--& say t    
,god has creat$ all ?+s 9 ord]2 ?us1 )\t

 kn[+ x1  attribut+ imag9ation to ,god1 
unless1 inde$1 !y w\ld h x t ,god =esaw 
human  imag9ation1 & arrang$ ev]y?+1 s t
 x %\ld be mo/ easily imag9$4  ,if ?is  
be  _! !ory1 !y w\ld n1 p]haps1 be      
daunt$ by ! fact t we f9d an inf9ite    
numb] ( ph5om5a1 f> surpass+ our        
imag9ation1 & v _m o!rs :i*  conf\nd its
 weakness4  ,b en\gh has be5 said on ?is
 subject4  ,! o!r ab/ract  notions are  
no?+ b modes ( imag9+1 9 :i* !          
imag9ation is diff]5tly  affect$3  ?\gh 
!y are consid]$ by ! ignorant z ! *ief  
attributes ( ?+s1  inasmu* z !y believe 
t ev]y?+ 0 creat$ = ! sake ( !mselves2  
&1  accord+ z !y are affect$ by x1 /yle 
x good or bad1 heal?y or rott5 or       
corrupt4  ,=  in/ance1 if ! motion :i*  
objects we see communicate to our n]ves 
be conducive to  heal?1 ! objects caus+ 
x are /yl$ beautiful2 if a contr>y      
motion be excit$1 !y are  /yl$ ugly4    
,?+s :i* are p]ceiv$ ?r\gh our s5se (   
smell are /yl$ fragrant or fetid2 if    
?r\gh our ta/e1 sweet or bitt]1         

full-flavor$ or insipid2 if ?r\gh our   
t\*1 h>d or  s(t1 r\gh or smoo?1 c4     
,:atsoev] affects our e>s is said to    
give rise to noise1 s\nd1 or h>mony4  ,9
 ?is la/  case1 !re are m5 lunatic en\gh
 to believe1 t ev5 ,god himself takes   
pleasure 9  h>mony2 & philosoph]s are n 
lack+ :o h p]suad$ !mselves1 t !  motion
 ( ! heav5ly bodies gives rise to       
h>mony--all ( :i* in/ances suffici5tly  
%[ t ev]yone judges ( ?+s accord+ to !  
/ate ( 8 bra91 or r mi/akes  = ?+s ! =ms
 ( 8 imag9ation4  ,we ne$ no long] wond]
 t !re h aris5  all ! controv]sies we h 
witness$1 & f9ally skepticism3  =1      
al?\gh human bodies  9 _m respects      
agree1 yet 9 v _m o!rs !y diff]2 s t :at
 seems good to "o  seems confus$ to     
ano!r2 :at is pleas+ to "o displeases   
ano!r1 & s on4  ,i ne$  n fur!r         
enum]ate1 because ?is is n ! place to   
treat ! subject at l5g?1 & also  because
 ! fact is suffici5tly well kn[n4 ,x is 
commonly said3  ,s _m m51 s _m  m9ds2   
ev]yone is wise 9 8 own way2 bra9s diff]

 z completely z palates4 ,all (  :i*    
prov]bs %[1 t m5 judge ( ?+s accord+ to 
_! m5tal disposition1 &  r imag9e ?an   
und]/&3 =1 if !y und]/ood ph5om5a1 !y   
w\ld1 z ma!maticians atte/1 be conv9c$1 
if n attract$1 by :at ,i h urg$4  ,we h 
n[ p]ceiv$1 t all ! explanations        
commonly giv5 ( nature are m]e  modes ( 
imag9+1 & d n indicate ! true nature (  
any?+1 b only !  con/itution ( !        
imag9ation2 &1 al?\gh !y h names1 z ?\gh
 !y 7 entities1 exi/+ ext]nally to !    
imag9ation1 ,i call !m entities imag9>y 
r ?an real2  &1 !re=e1 all argum5ts     
aga9/ u drawn f su* ab/ractions are     
easily rebutt$4  ,_m argue 9 ?is way4   
,if all ?+s foll[ f a necessity ( !     
absolutely p]fect  nature ( ,god1 :y are
 !re s _m imp]fections 9 nature8  su*1 =
 in/ance1 z  ?+s corrupt to ! po9t (    
putridity1 loa?some de=mity1 confusion1 
evil1 s91 c4  ,b  ^! reason]s are1 z ,i 
h said1 easily confut$1 = ! p]fection ( 
?+s is to be  reckon$ only f _! own     
nature & p[]2 ?+s are n m or less       

p]fect1  accord+ z !y are s]viceable or 
repugnant to mank9d4  ,to ^? :o ask :y  
,god  did n s create all m51 t !y %\ld  
be gov]n$ only by reason1 ,i give no    
answ] b ?is3  because matt] 0 n lack+ to
 him = ! creation ( e degree (          
p]fection f highe/ to l[e/2 or1 m       
/rictly1 because ! laws ( 8 nature are s
  va/1 z to suffice = ! production (    
ev]y?+ conceivable by an inf9ite        
intellig5ce1  z ,i h %[n 9 ,prop4 xvi4  
,su* are ! misconceptions ,i h und]tak5 
to note2 if !re are any m ( ! same      
sort1 ev]yone may easily dissipate !m = 
himself ) ! aid ( a little reflection4  
,,end ,,( ,,"p ,i