,,youth ,,its ,,education1 ,,regimen1 ,,and ,,hygiene ,,by ,g4 ,,stanley ,,hall1 ,ph4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,president of ,clark ,university and ,professor of ,psychology ,and ,pedagogy ,,preface ,i have often been asked to select and epitomize the practical and especially the pedagogical conclusions of my large volumes on ,adolescence1 published in #aijd1 in such form that they may be available at a minimum cost to parents1 teachers1 reading circles1 normal schools1 and college classes1 by whom even the larger volumes have been often used4 ,this1 with the coperation of the publishers and with the valuable aid of ,superintendent ,c4,n4 ,kendall of ,indianapolis1 ,i have tried to do1 following in the main the original text1 with only such minor changes and additions as were necessary to bring the topics up to date1 and adding a new chapter on moral and religions education4 ,for the scientific justification of my educational conclusions ,i must1 of course1 refer to the larger volumes4 ,the last chapter is not in ,adolescence1 but is revised from a paper printed elsewhere4 ,i am indebted to ,dr4 ,theodore ,l4 ,smith of ,clark ,university for verification of all references1 proof-reading1 and many minor changes4 ,g4 ,,stanley ,,hall4 ,,contents ,i4--,,pre-,,adolescence ,introduction3 ,characterization of the age from eight to twelve--,the era of recapitulating the stages of primitive human development--,life close to nature--,the age also for drill1 habituation1 memory work1 and regermination--,adolescence superposed upon this stage of life1 but very distinct from it ,,ii4--,,the ,,muscles ,,and ,,motor ,,powers ,,in ,,general ,muscles as organs of the will1 of character1 and even of thought--,the muscular virtues--,fundamental and accessory muscles and functions--,the development of the mind and of the upright position--,small muscles as organs of thought--,school lays too much stress upon these--,chorea--,vast numbers of automatic movements in children--,great variety of spontaneous activities--,poise1 control1 and spurtiness--,pen and tongue wagging--,sedentary school life vs4 free out-of-door activities--,modern decay of muscles1 especially in girls--,plasticity of motor habits at puberty ,,iii4--,,industrial ,,education4 ,trade classes and schools1 their importance in the international market--,our dangers and the superiority of ,german workmen--,the effects of a tariff--,description of schools between the kindergarten and the industrial school--,equal salaries for teachers in ,france--,dangers from machinery--,the advantages of life on the old ,new ,england farm--,its resemblance to the education we now give negroes and ,indians--,its advantage for all-sided muscular development ,,iv4--,,manual ,,training ,,and ,,sloyd4 ,history of the movement--,its philosophy--,the value of hand training in the development of the brain and its significance in the making of man--,a grammar of our many industries hard--,the best we do can reach but few--,very great defects in manual training methods which do not base on science and make nothing salable--,the ,leipzig system--,sloyd is hypermethodic--,these crude peasant industries can never satisfy educational needs--,the gospel of work2 ,william ,morris and the arts and crafts movement--,its spirit desirable--,the magic effects of a brief period of intense work--,the natural development of the drawing instinct in the child ,v4--,,gymnastics ,the story of ,jahn and the ,turners--,the enthusiasm which this movement generated in ,germany--,the ideal of bringing out latent powers--,the concept of more perfect voluntary control--,swedish gymnastics--,doing everything possible for the body as a machine--,liberal physical culture--,ling's orthogenic scheme of economic postures and movements and correcting defects--,the ideal of symmetry and prescribing exercises to bring the body to a standard--,lamentable lack of correlation between these four systems--,illustrations of the great good that a systematic training can effect--,athletic records--,greek physical training ,,vi4--,,play1 ,,sports1 ,,and ,,games ,the view of ,groos partial1 and a better explanation of play proposed as rehearsing ancestral activities--,the glory of ,greek physical training1 its ideals and results--,the first spontaneous movements of infancy as keys to the past--,necessity of developing basal powers before those that are later and peculiar to the individual--,plays that interest due to their antiquity--,play with dolls--,play distinguished by age--,play preferences of children and their reasons--,the profound significance of rhythm--,the value of dancing and also its significance1 history1 and the desirability of reintroducing it--,fighting--,boxing--,wrestling--,bus hido--,foot-ball--,military ideals--,showing off--,cold baths--,hill climbing--,the playground movement--,the psychology of play--,its relation to work ,,vii4--,,faults1 ,,lies1 ,,and ,,crimes4 ,classification of children's faults--,peculiar children--,real fault as distinguished from interference with the teacher's ease--,truancy1 its nature and effects--,the genesis of crime--,the lie1 its classes and relations to imagination--,predatory activities--,gangs--,causes of crime--,the effects of stories of crime--,temibility--,juvenile crime and its treatment ,,viii4--,,biographies ,,of ,,youth4 ,knightly ideals and honor--,thirty adolescents from ,shakespeare--,goethe--,c4,d4 ,warner--,aldrich--,the fugitive nature of adolescent experience--,extravagance of autobiographies--,stories that attach to great names--,some typical crazes--,illustrations from ,george ,eliot1 ,edison1 ,chatterton1 ,hawthorne1 ,whittier1 ,spencer1 ,huxley1 ,lyell1 ,byron1 ,heine1 ,napoleon1 ,darwin1 ,martineau1 ,agassiz1 ,madame ,roland1 ,louisa ,alcott1 ,f4,h4 ,burnett1 ,helen ,keller1 ,marie ,bashkirtseff1 ,mary ,mac,lane1 ,ada ,negri1 ,de ,quincey1 ,stuart ,mill1 ,jefferies1 and scores of others ,,ix4--,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,social ,,ideals4 ,change from childish to adult friends--,influence of favorite teachers--,what children wish or plan to do or be--,property and the money sense--,social judgments--,the only child--,first social organizations--,student life--,associations for youth controlled by adults ,x4--,,intellectual ,,education ,,and ,,school ,,work4 ,the general change and plasticity at puberty--,english teaching--,causes of its failure1 7#a7 too much time to other languages1 7#b7 subordination of literary content to form1 7#c7 too early stress on eye and hand instead of ear and mouth1 7#d7 excessive use of concrete words--,children's interest in words--,their favorites--,slang--,story telling--,age of reading crazes--,what to read--,the historic sense--,growth of memory span ,,xi4--,,the ,,education ,,of ,,girls4 ,equal opportunities of higher education now open--,brings new dangers to women--,ineradicable sex differences begin at puberty1 when the sexes should and do diverge--,different interests--,sex tension--,girls more mature than boys at the same age--,radical psychic and physiological differences between the sexes--,the bachelor women--,needed reconstruction--,food--,sleep--,regimen- -,manners--,religion--,regularity-- ,the topics for a girls' curriculum--,the eternally womanly ,,xii4--,,moral ,,and ,,religious ,,training4 ,dangers of muscular degeneration and overstimulus of brain--,difficulties in teaching morals--,methods in ,europe--,obedience to commands--,good habits should be mechanized--,value of scolding--,how to flog aright--,its dangers--,moral precepts and proverbs--,habituation--,training will through intellect--,examinations--,concentration --,originality--,froebel and the naive--,first ideas of ,god--,conscience--,importance of ,old and ,new ,testaments--,sex dangers--,love and religion--,conversion ,,chapter ,i ,,pre-,,adolescence ,introduction3 ,characterization of the age from eight to twelve--,the era of recapitulating the stages of primitive human development--,life close to nature--,the age also for drill1 habituation1 memory1 work and regermination--,adolescence superposed upon this stage of life1 but very distinct from it4 ,the years from about eight to twelve constitute a unique period of human life4 ,the acute stage of teething is passing1 the brain has acquired nearly its adult size and weight1 health is almost at its best1 activity is greater and more varied than it ever was before or ever will be again1 and there is peculiar endurance1 vitality1 and resistance to fatigue4 ,the child develops a life of its own outside the home circle1 and its natural interests are never so independent of adult influence4 ,perception is very acute1 and there is great immunity to exposure1 danger1 accident1 as well as to temptation4 ,reason1 true morality1 religion1 sympathy1 love1 and esthetic enjoyment are but very slightly developed4 ,everything1 in short1 suggests that this period may represent in the individual what was once for a very protracted and relatively stationary period an age of maturity in the remote ancestors of our race1 when the young of our species1 who were perhaps pygmoid1 shifted for themselves independently of further parental aid4 ,the qualities developed during pre-adolescence are1 in the evolutionary history of the race1 far older than hereditary traits of body and mind which develop later and which may be compared to a new and higher story built upon our primal nature4 ,heredity is so far both more stable and more secure4 ,the elements of personality are few1 but are well organised on a simple1 effective plan4 ,the momentum of these traits inherited from our indefinitely remote ancestors is great1 and they are often clearly distinguishable from those to be added later4 ,thus the boy is father of the man in a new sense1 in that his qualities are indefinitely older and existed1 well compacted1 untold ages before the more distinctly human attributes were developed4 ,indeed there are a few faint indications of an earlier age node1 at about the age of six1 as if amid the instabilities of health we could detect signs that this may have been the age of puberty in remote ages of the past4 ,i have also given reasons that lead me to the conclusion that1 despite its dominance1 the function of sexual maturity and procreative power is peculiarly mobile up and down the age-line independently of many of the qualities usually so closely associated with it1 so that much that sex created in the phylum now precedes it in the individual4 ,rousseau would leave prepubescent years to nature and to these primal hereditary impulsions and allow the fundamental traits of savagery their fling till twelve4 ,biological psychology finds many and cogent reasons to confirm this view if only a proper environment could be provided4 ,the child revels in savagery2 and if its tribal1 predatory1 hunting1 fishing1 fighting1 roving1 idle1 playing proclivities could be indulged in the country and under conditions that now1 alas6 seem hopelessly ideal1 they could conceivably be so organized and directed as to be far more truly humanistic and liberal than all that the best modern school can provide4 ,rudimentary organs of the soul1 now suppressed1 perverted1 or delayed1 to crop out in menacing forms later1 would be developed in their season so that we should be immune to them in maturer years1 on the principle of the ,aristotelian catharsis for which ,i have tried to suggest a far broader application than the ,stagirite could see in his day4 ,these inborn and more or less savage instincts can and should be allowed some scope4 ,the deep and strong cravings in the individual for those primitive experiences and occupations in which his ancestors became skilful through the pressure of necessity should not be ignored1 but can and should be1 at least partially1 satisfied in a vicarious way1 by tales from literature1 history1 and tradition which present the crude and primitive virtues of the heroes of the world's childhood4 ,in this way1 aided by his vivid visual imagination1 the child may enter upon his heritage from the past1 live out each stage of life to its fullest and realize in himself all its manifold tendencies4 ,echoes only of the vaster1 richer life of the remote past of the race they must remain1 but just these are the murmurings of the only muse that can save from the omnipresent dangers of precocity4 ,thus we not only rescue from the danger of loss1 but utilize for further psychic growth the results of the higher heredity1 which are the most precious and potential things on earth4 ,so1 too1 in our urbanized hothouse life1 that tends to ripen everything before its time1 we must teach nature1 although the very phrase is ominous4 ,but we must not1 in so doing1 wean still more from1 but perpetually incite to visit1 field1 forest1 hill1 shore1 the water1 flowers1 animals1 the true homes of childhood in this wild1 undomesticated stage from which modern conditions have kidnapped and transported him4 ,books and reading are distasteful1 for the very soul and body cry out for a more active1 objective life1 and to know nature and man at first hand4 ,these two staples1 stories and nature1 by these informal methods of the home and the environment1 constitute fundamental education4 ,but now another remove from nature seems to be made necessary by the manifold knowledges and skills of our highly complex civilization4 ,we should transplant the human sapling1 ,i concede reluctantly1 as early as eight1 but not before1 to the schoolhouse with its imperfect lighting1 ventilation1 temperature4 ,we must shut out nature and open books4 ,the child must sit on unhygienic benches and work the tiny muscles that wag the tongue and pen1 and let all the others1 which constitute nearly half its weight1 decay4 ,even if it be prematurely1 he must be subjected to special disciplines and be apprenticed to the higher qualities of adulthood2 for he is not only a product of nature1 but a candidate for a highly developed humanity4 ,to many1 if not most1 of the influences here there can be at first but little inner response4 ,insight1 understanding1 interest1 sentiment1 are for the most part only nascent2 and most that pertains to the true kingdom of mature manhood is embryonic4 ,the wisest requirements seem to the child more or less alien1 arbitrary1 heteronomous1 artificial1 falsetto4 ,there is much passivity1 often active resistance and evasion1 and perhaps spasms of obstinacy1 to it all4 ,but the senses are keen and alert1 reactions immediate and vigorous2 and the memory is quick1 sure and lasting2 and ideas of space1 time1 and physical causation1 and of many a moral and social licit and non-licit1 are rapidly unfolding4 ,never again will there be such susceptibility to drill and discipline1 such plasticity to habituation1 or such ready adjustment to new conditions4 ,it is the age of external and mechanical training4 ,reading1 writing1 drawing1 manual training1 musical technic1 foreign tongues and their pronunciations1 the manipulation of numbers and of geometrical elements1 and many kinds of skill have now their golden hour2 and if it passes unimproved1 all these can never be acquired later without a heavy handicap of disadvantage and loss4 ,these necessities may be hard for the health of body1 sense1 mind1 as well as for morals2 and pedagogic art consists in breaking the child into them betimes as intensely and as quickly as possible with minimal strain and with the least amount of explanation or coquetting for natural interest1 and in calling medicine confectionery4 ,this is not teaching in its true sense so much as it is drill1 inculcation1 and regimentation4 ,the method should be mechanical1 repetitive1 authoritative1 dogmatic4 ,the automatic powers are now at their very apex1 and they can do and bear more than our degenerate pedagogy knows or dreams of4 ,here we have something to learn from the schoolmasters of the past back to the middle ages1 and even from the ancients4 ,the greatest stress1 with short periods and few hours1 incessant insistence1 incitement1 and little reliance upon interest1 reason or work done without the presence of the teacher1 should be the guiding principles for pressure in these essentially formal and1 to the child1 contentless elements of knowledge4 ,these should be sharply distinguished from the indigenous1 evoking1 and more truly educational factors described in the last paragraph1 which are meaty1 content-full1 and relatively formless as to time of day1 method1 spirit1 and perhaps environment and personnel of teacher1 and possibly somewhat in season of the year1 almost as sharply as work differs from play1 or perhaps as the virility of man that loves to command a phalanx1 be a martinet and drill-master1 differs from femininity which excels in persuasion1 sympathetic insight1 story-telling1 and in the tact that discerns and utilizes spontaneous interests in the young4 ,adolescence is a new birth1 for the higher and more completely human traits are now born4 ,the qualities of body and soul that now emerge are far newer4 ,the child comes from and harks back to a remoter past2 the adolescent is neo-atavistic1 and in him the later acquisitions of the race slowly become prepotent4 ,development is less gradual and more saltatory1 suggestive of some ancient period of storm and stress when old moorings were broken and a higher level attained4 ,the annual rate of growth in height1 weight1 and strength is increased and often doubled1 and even more4 ,important functions1 previously non-existent1 arise4 ,growth of parts and organs loses its former proportions1 some permanently and some for a season4 ,some of these are still growing in old age and others are soon arrested and atrophy4 ,the old measures of dimensions become obsolete1 and old harmonies are broken4 ,the range of individual differences and average errors in all physical measurements and all psychic tests increases4 ,some linger long in the childish stage and advance late or slowly1 while others push on with a sudden outburst of impulsion to early maturity4 ,bones and muscles lead all other tissues1 as if they vied with each other2 and there is frequent flabbiness or tension as one or the other leads4 ,nature arms youth for conflict with all the resources at her command--speed1 power of shoulder1 biceps1 back1 leg1 jaw--strengthens and enlarges skull1 thorax1 hips1 makes man aggressive and prepares woman's frame for maternity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,muscles ,,and ,,motor ,,powers ,,in ,,general ,muscles as organs of the will1 of character and even of thought--,the muscular virtues--,fundamental and accessory muscles and functions--,the development of the mind and of the upright position--,small muscles as organs of thought--,school lays too much stress upon these--,chorea--vast numbers of automatic movements in children--,great variety of spontaneous activities--,poise1 control and spurtiness--,pen and tongue wagging--,sedentary school life vs free out-of-door activities--,modern decay of muscles1 especially in girls--,plasticity of motor habits at puberty4 ,the muscles are by weight about forty-three per cent4 of the average adult male human body4 ,they expend a large fraction of all the kinetic energy of the adult body1 which a recent estimate places as high as one-fifth4 ,the cortical centers for the voluntary muscles extend over most of the lateral psychic zones of the brain1 so that their culture is brain building4 ,in a sense they are organs of digestion1 for which function they play a very important rle4 ,muscles are in a most intimate and peculiar sense the organs of the will4 ,they have built all the roads1 cities1 and machines in the world1 written all the books1 spoken all the words1 and1 in fact1 done everything that man has accomplished with matter4 ,if they are undeveloped or grow relaxed and flabby1 the dreadful chasm between good intentions and their execution is liable to appear and widen4 ,character might be in a sense defined as a plexus of motor habits4 ,to call conduct three-fourths of life1 with ,matthew ,arnold2 to describe man as one-third intellect and two-thirds will1 with ,schopenhauer2 to urge that man is what he does or that he is the sum of his movements1 with ,f4,w4 ,robertson2 that character is simply muscle habits1 with ,maudsley2 that the age of art is now slowly superseding the age of science1 and that the artist will drive out with the professor1 with the anonymous author of ,rembrandt als ,erzicher2#a that history is consciously willed movements1 with ,bluntschli2 or that we could form no conception of force or energy in the world but for our own muscular effort2 to hold that most thought involves change of muscle tension as more or less integral to it--all this shows how we have modified the antique ,ciceronian conception vivere est cogitari1 ,to live is to think to vivere est velle1 ,to live is to will and gives us a new sense of the importance of muscular development and regimen4#b ,modern psychology thus sees in muscles organs of expression for all efferent processes4 ,beyond all their demonstrable functions1 every change of attention and of psychic states generally plays upon them unconsciously1 modifying their tension in subtle ways so that they may be called organs of thought and feeling as well as of will1 in which some now see the true ,kantian thing-in-itself the real substance of the world1 in the anthropomorphism of force4 ,habits even determine the deeper strata of belief2 thought is repressed action2 and deeds1 not words1 are the language of complete men4 ,the motor areas are closely related and largely identical with the psychic1 and muscle culture develops brain-centers as nothing else yet demonstrably does4 ,muscles are the vehicles of habituation1 imitation1 obedience1 character1 and even of manners and customs4 ,for the young1 motor education is cardinal1 and is now coming to due recognition2 and1 for all1 education is incomplete without a motor side4 ,skill1 endurance1 and perseverance may almost be called muscular virtues2 and fatigue1 velleity1 caprice1 ennui1 restlessness1 lack of control and poise1 muscular faults4 ,to understand the momentous changes of motor functions that characterize adolescence we must consider other than the measurable aspects of the subject4 ,perhaps the best scale on which to measure all normal growth of muscle structure and functions is found in the progress from fundamental to accessory4 ,the former designates the muscles and movements of the trunk and large joints1 neck1 back1 hips1 shoulders1 knees1 and elbows1 sometimes called central1 and which in general man has in common with the higher and larger animals4 ,their activities are few1 mostly simultaneous1 alternating and rhythmic1 as of the legs in walking1 and predominate in hard-working men and women with little culture or intelligence1 and often in idiots4 ,the latter or accessory movements are those of the hand1 tongue1 face1 and articulatory organs1 and these may be connected into a long and greatly diversified series1 as those used in writing1 talking1 piano-playing4 ,they are represented by smaller and more numerous muscles1 whose functions develop later in life and represent a higher standpoint of evolution4 ,these smaller muscles for finer movements come into function later and are chiefly associated with psychic activity1 which plays upon them by incessantly changing their tensions1 if not causing actual movement4 ,it is these that are so liable to disorder in the many automatisms and choreic tics we see in school children1 especially if excited or fatigued4 ,general paralysis usually begins in the higher levels by breaking these down1 so that the first symptom of its insidious and never interrupted progress is inability to execute the more exact and delicate movements of tongue or hand1 or both4 ,starting with the latest evolutionary level1 it is a devolution that may work downward till very many of the fundamental activities are lost before death4 ,nothing better illustrates this distinction than the difference between the fore foot of animals and the human hand4 ,the first begins as a fin or paddle or is armed with a hoof1 and is used solely for locomotion4 ,some carnivora with claws use the fore limb also for holding well as tearing1 and others for digging4 ,arboreal life seems to have almost created the simian hand and to have wrought a revolution in the form and use of the forearm and its accessory organs1 the fingers4 ,apes and other tree-climbing creatures must not only adjust their prehensile organ to a wide variety of distances and sizes of branches1 but must use the hands more or less freely for picking1 transporting1 and eating fruit2 and this has probably been a prime factor in lifting man to the erect position1 without which human intelligence as we know it could have hardly been possible4 ,when we attempt to measure the gap between man and the lower animals in terms of the form of movement1 the wonder is no less great than when we use the term of mentality4#c ,the degree of approximation to human intelligence in anthropoid animals follows very closely the degree of approximation to human movements4 ,the gradual acquirement of the erect position by the human infant admirably repeats this long phylogenetic evolution4#d ,at first the limbs are of almost no use in locomotion1 but the fundamental trunk muscles with those that move the large joints are more or less spasmodically active4 ,then comes creeping1 with use of the hip muscles1 while all below the knee is useless1 as also are the fingers4 ,slowly the leg and foot are degraded to locomotion1 slowly the great toe becomes more limited in its action1 the thumb increases in flexibility and strength of opposition1 and the fingers grow more mobile and controllable4 ,as the body slowly assumes the vertical attitude1 the form of the chest changes till its greatest diameter is transverse instead of from front to back4 ,the shoulder-blades are less parallel than in quadrupeds1 and spread out till they approximate the same plane4 ,this gives the arm freedom of movement laterally1 so that it can be rotated one hundred and eighty degrees in man as contrasted to one hundred degrees in apes1 thus giving man the command of almost any point within a sphere of which the two arms are radii4 ,the power of grasping was partly developed from and partly added to the old locomotor function of the fore limbs2 the jerky aimless automatisms1 as well as the slow rhythmic flexion and extension of the fingers and hand1 movements which are perhaps survivals of arboreal or of even earlier aquatic life1 are cordinated2 and the bilateral and simultaneous rhythmic movements of the heavier muscles are supplemented by the more finely adjusted and specialized activities which as the end of the growth period is approached are determined less by heredity and more by environment4 ,in a sense1 a child or a man is the sum total of his movements or tendencies to move2 and nature and instinct chiefly determine the basal1 and education the accessory parts of our activities4 ,the entire accessory system is thus of vital importance for the development of all of the arts of expression4 ,these smaller muscles might almost be called organs of thought4 ,their tension is modified with the faintest change of soul1 such as is seen in accent1 inflection1 facial expressions1 handwriting1 and many forms of so-called mind-reading1 which1 in fact1 is always muscle-reading4 ,the day-laborer of low intelligence1 with a practical vocabulary of not over five hundred words1 who can hardly move each of his fingers without moving others or all of them1 who can not move his brows or corrugate his forehead at will1 and whose inflection is very monotonous1 illustrates a condition of arrest or atrophy of this later1 finer1 accessory system of muscles4 ,on the other hand1 the child1 precocious in any or all of these later respects1 is very liable to be undeveloped in the larger and more fundamental parts and functions4 ,the full unfoldment of each is1 in fact1 an inexorable condition precedent for the normal development to full and abiding maturity of the higher and more refined muscularity1 just as conversely the awkwardness and clumsiness of adolescence mark a temporary loss of balance in the opposite direction4 ,if this general conception be correct1 then nature does not finish the basis of her pyramid in the way ,ross1 ,mercier1 and others have assumed1 but lays a part of the foundation and1 after carrying it to an apex1 normally goes back and adds to the foundation to carry up the apex still higher and1 if prevented from so doing1 expends her energy in building the apex up at a sharper angle till instability results4 ,school and kindergarten often lay a disproportionate strain on the tiny accessory muscles1 weighing altogether but a few ounces1 that wag the tongue1 move the pen1 and do fine work requiring accuracy4 ,but still at this stage prolonged work requiring great accuracy is irksome and brings dangers homologous to those caused by too much fine work in the kindergarten before the first adjustment of large to small muscles1 which lasts until adolescence1 is established4 ,then disproportion between function and growth often causes symptoms of chorea4 ,the chief danger is arrest of the development and control of the smaller muscles4 ,many occupations and forms of athletics1 on the contrary1 place the stress mainly upon groups of fundamental muscles to the neglect of finer motor possibilities4 ,some who excel in heavy athletics no doubt coarsen their motor reactions1 become not only inexact and heavy but unresponsive to finer stimuli1 as if the large muscles were hypertrophied and the small ones arrested4 ,on the other hand1 many young men1 and probably more young women1 expend too little of their available active energy upon basal and massive muscle work1 and cultivate too much1 and above all too early1 the delicate responsive work4 ,this is1 perhaps1 the best physiological characterization of precocity and issues in excessive nervous and muscular irritability4 ,the great influx of muscular vigor that unfolds during adolescent years and which was originally not only necessary to successful propagation1 but expressive of virility1 seems to be a very plastic quantity1 so that motor regimen and exercise at this stage is probably more important and all-conditioning for mentality1 sexuality1 and health than at any other period of life4 ,intensity1 and for a time a spurty diathesis1 is as instinctive and desirable as are the copious minor automatisms which spontaneously give the alphabet out of which complex and finer motor series are later spelled by the conscious will4 ,mercier and others have pointed out that1 as most skilled labor1 so school work and modern activities in civilized life generally lay premature and disproportionate strains upon those kinds of movement requiring exactness4 ,stress upon basal movements is not only compensating but is of higher therapeutic value against the disorders of the accessory system2 it constitutes the best core or prophylactic for fidgets and tense states1 and directly develops poise1 control1 and psycho-physical equilibrium4 ,even when contractions reach choreic intensity the best treatment is to throw activities down the scale that measures the difference between primary and secondary movements and to make the former predominate4 ,the number of movements1 the frequency with which they are repeated1 their diversity1 the number of combinations1 and their total kinetic quantum in young children1 whether we consider movements of the body as a whole1 fundamental movements of large limbs1 or finer accessory motions1 is amazing4 ,nearly every external stimulus is answered by a motor response4 ,dresslar#e observed a thirteen months' old baby for four hours1 and found1 to follow ,preyer's classification1 impulsive or spontaneous1 reflex1 instinctive1 imitative1 inhibitive1 expressive1 and even deliberative movements1 with marked satisfaction in rhythm1 attempts to do almost anything which appealed to him1 and almost inexhaustible efferent resources4 ,a friend has tried to record every word uttered by a four-year-old girl during a portion of a day1 and finds nothing less than verbigerations4 ,a teacher noted the activities of a fourteen-year-old boy during the study time of a single school day#f1 with similar results4 ,lindley#g studied #hig common motor automatisms in children1 which he divided into #ib classes3 #de in the region of the head1 #bj in the feet and legs1 #ai in the hands and fingers4 ,arranged in the order of frequency with which each was found1 the list stood as follows3 fingers1 feet1 lips1 tongue1 head1 body1 hands1 mouth1 eyes1 jaws1 legs1 forehead1 face1 arms1 ears4 ,in the last five alone adolescents exceeded children1 the latter excelling the former most in those of head1 mouth1 legs1 and tongue1 in this order4 ,the writer believes that there are many more automatisms than appeared in his returns4 ,school life1 especially in the lower grades1 is a rich field for the study of these activities4 ,they are familiar1 as licking things1 clicking with the tongue1 grinding the teeth1 scratching1 tapping1 twirling a lock of hair or chewing it1 biting the nails 7,brillon's onychophagia71 shrugging1 corrugating1 pulling buttons or twisting garments1 strings1 etc41 twirling pencils1 thumbs1 rotating1 nodding and shaking the head1 squinting and winking1 swaying1 pouting and grimacing1 scraping the floor1 rubbing hands1 stroking1 patting1 flicking the fingers1 wagging1 snapping the fingers1 muffling1 squinting1 picking the face1 interlacing the fingers1 cracking the joints1 finger plays1 biting and nibbling1 trotting the leg1 sucking things1 etc4 ,the average number of automatisms per #ajj persons ,smith found to be in children #agf1 in adolescents #aaj4 ,swaying is chiefly with children2 playing and drumming with the fingers is more common among adolescents2 the movements of fingers and feet decline little with age1 and those of eyes and forehead increase1 which is significant for the development of attention4 ,girls excel greatly in swaying1 and also1 although less1 in finger automatism2 and boys lead in movements of tongue1 feet1 and hands4 ,such movements increase1 with too much sitting1 intensity of effort1 such as to fix attention1 and vary with the nature of the activity willed1 but involve few muscles directly used in a given task4 ,they increase up the kindergarten grades and fall off rapidly in the primary grades2 are greater with tasks requiring fine and exact movements than with those involving large movements4 ,automatisms are often a sign of the difficulty of tasks4 ,the restlessness that they often express is one of the commonest signs of fatigue4 ,they are mostly in the accessory muscles1 while those of the fundamental muscles 7body1 legs1 and arms7 disappear rapidly with age2 those of eye1 brow1 and jaw show greatest increase with age1 but their frequency in general declines with growing maturity1 although there is increased frequency of certain specialized contractions1 which indicate the gradual settling of expression in the face4 ,often such movements pass over by insensible gradation into the morbid automatism of chorea1 and in yet lower levels of decay we see them in the aimless picking and plucking movements of the fingers of the sick4 ,in idiots#h arrest of higher powers often goes with hypertrophy of these movements1 as seen in head-beaters 7as if1 just as nature impels those partially blind to rub the eyes for light-hunger1 so it prompts the feeble-minded to strike the head for cerebrations71 rockers1 rackers1 shakers1 biters1 etc4 ,movements often pass to fixed attitudes and postures of limbs or body1 disturbing the normal balance between flexors and extensors1 the significance of which as nerve signs or exponents of habitual brain states and tensions ,warner has so admirably shown4 ,abundance and vigor of automatic movements are desirable1 and even a considerable degree of restlessness is a good sign in young children4 ,many of what are now often called nerve signs and even choreic symptoms1 the fidgetiness in school on cloudy days and often after a vacation1 the motor superfluities of awkwardness1 embarrassment1 extreme effort1 excitement1 fatigue1 sleepiness1 etc41 are simply the forms in which we receive the full momentum of heredity and mark a natural richness of the raw material of intellect1 feeling1 and especially of will4 ,hence they must be abundant4 ,all parts should act in all possible ways at first and untrammeled by the activity of all other parts and functions4 ,some of these activities are more essential for growth in size than are later and more conscious movements4 ,here as everywhere the rule holds that powers themselves must be unfolded before the ability to check or even to use them can develop4 ,all movements arising from spontaneous activity of nerve cells or centers must be made in order even to avoid the atrophy of disease4 ,not only so1 but this purer kind of innateness must often be helped out to some extent in some children by stimulating reflexes2 a rich and wide repertory of sensation must be made familiar2 more or less and very guarded1 watched and limited experiences of hunger1 thirst1 cold1 heat1 tastes1 sounds1 smells1 colors1 brightnesses1 tactile irritations1 and perhaps even occasional tickling and pain to play off the vastly complex function of laughing1 crying1 etc41 may in some cases be judicious4 ,conscious and unconscious imitation or repetition of every sort of copy may also help to establish the immediate and low-level connection between afferent and efferent processes that brings the organism into direct rapport and harmony with the whole world of sense4 ,perhaps the more rankly and independently they are developed to full functional integrity1 each in its season1 if we only knew that season1 the better4 ,premature control by higher centers1 or cordination into higher compounds of habits and ordered serial activities1 is repressive and wasteful1 and the mature will of which they are components1 or which must at least domesticate them1 is stronger and more forcible if this serial stage is not unduly abridged4 ,but1 secondly1 many1 if not most1 of these activities when developed a little1 group after group1 as they arise1 must be controlled1 checked1 and organized into higher and often more serial compounds4 ,the inhibiting functions are at first hard4 ,in trying to sit still the child sets its teeth1 holds the breath1 clenches its fists and perhaps makes every muscle tense with a great effort that very soon exhausts4 ,this repressive function is probably not worked from special nervous centers1 nor can we speak with confidence of collisions with sums of arrest in a sense analogous to that of ,herbart1 or of stimuli that normally cause catabolic molecular processes in the cell1 being mysteriously diverted to produce increased instability or anabolic lability in the sense of ,wundt's ,mechanik der ,nerven4 ,the concept now suggested by many facts is that inhibition is irradiation or long circuiting to higher and more complex brain areas1 so that the energy1 whether spontaneous or reflex1 is diverted to be used elsewhere4 ,these combinations are of a higher order1 more remote from reflex action1 and modified by some ,jacksonian third level4#i ,action is now not from independent centers1 but these are slowly associated1 so that excitation may flow off from one point to any other and any reaction may result from any stimulus4 ,the more unified the brain the less it suffers from localization1 and the lower is the level to which any one function can exhaust the whole4 ,the tendency of each group of cells to discharge or overflow into those of lower tension than themselves increases as correspondence in time and space widens4 ,the more one of a number of activities gains in power to draw on all the brain1 or the more readily the active parts are fed at cost of the resting parts1 the less is rest to be found in change from one of these activities to another1 and the less do concentration and specialization prove to be dangerous4 ,before1 the aim was to wake all parts to function2 now it is to connect them4 ,intensity of this cross-section activity now tends to unity1 so that all parts of the brain energize together4 ,in a brain with this switchboard function well organized1 each reaction has grown independent of its own stimulus and may result from any stimulation1 and each act1 e4g41 a finger movement of a peculiar nature1 may tire the whole brain4 ,this helps us to understand why brain-workers so often excel laborers not only in sudden dynamometric strength test1 but in sustained and long-enduring effort4 ,in a good brain or in a good machine1 power may thus be developed over a large surface1 and all of it applied to a small one1 and hence the dangers of specialization are lessened in exact proportion as the elements of our ego are thus compacted together4 ,it is in the variety and delicacy of these combinations and all that they imply1 far more than in the elements of which they are composed1 that man rises farthest above the higher animals2 and of these powers later adolescence is the golden age4 ,the aimless and archaic movements of infancy1 whether massive and complex or in the form of isolated automatic tweaks or twinges1 are thus1 by slow processes of combined analysis and synthesis1 involving changes as radical as any in all the world of growth1 made over into habits and conduct that fit the world of present environment4 ,but1 thirdly1 this long process carried out with all degrees of completeness may be arrested at any unfinished stage4 ,some automatisms refuse to be controlled by the will1 and both they and it are often overworked4 ,here we must distinguish constantly between 7#a7 those growing rankly in order to be later organized under the will1 and 7#b7 those that have become feral after this domestication of them has lost power from disease or fatigue1 and 7#c7 those that have never been subjugated because the central power that should have used them to weave the texture of willed action--the proper language of complete manhood--was itself arrested or degenerate4 ,with regard to many of these movements these distinctions can be made with confidence1 and in some children more certainly than in others4 ,in childhood1 before twelve1 the efferent patterns should be developed into many more or less indelible habits1 and their colors set fast4 ,motor specialties requiring exactness and grace like piano-playing1 drawing1 writing1 pronunciation of a foreign tongue1 dancing1 acting1 singing1 and a host of virtuosities1 must be well begun before the relative arrest of accessory growth at the dawn of the ephebic regeneration and before its great afflux of strength4 ,the facts seem to show that children of this age1 such as ,hancock#aj described1 who could not stand with feet close together and eyes closed without swaying much1 could not walk backward1 sit still half a minute1 dress alone1 tie two ends of a string together1 interlace slats1 wind thread1 spin a top1 stand on toes or heels1 hop on each foot1 drive a nail1 roll a hoop1 skate1 hit fingers together rapidly in succession beginning at the little finger and then reversing1 etc41 are the very ones in whom automatisms are most marked or else they are those constitutionally inert1 dull1 or uneducable4 ,in children these motor residua may persist as characteristic features of inflection1 accent1 or manners2 automatisms may become morbid in stammering or stuttering1 or they may be seen in gait1 handwriting1 tics or tweaks1 etc4 ,instead of disappearing with age1 as they should1 they are seen in the blind as facial grimaces uncorrected by the mirror or facial consciousness1 in the deaf as inarticulate noises2 and they may tend to grow monstrous with age as if they were disintegrated fragments of our personality1 split off and aborted1 or motor parasites leaving our psycho-physic ego poorer in energy and plasticity of adaptation1 till the distraction and anarchy of the individual nature becomes conspicuous and pathetic4 ,at puberty1 however1 when muscle habits are so plastic1 when there is a new relation between quantity or volume of motor energy and qualitative differentiation1 and between volitional control and reflex activities1 these kinetic remnants strongly tend to shoot together into wrong aggregates if right ones are not formed4 ,good manners and correct motor form generally1 as well as skill1 are the most economic ways of doing things2 but this is the age of wasteful ways1 awkwardness mannerisms1 tensions that are a constant leakage of vital energy1 perhaps semi-imperative acts1 contortions1 quaint movements1 more elaborated than in childhood and often highly anesthetic and disagreeable1 motor cordinations that will need laborious decomposition later4 ,the avoidable factor in their causation is1 with some modification1 not unlike that of the simpler feral movements and faulty attitudes1 carriage1 and postures in children2 viz41 some form of overpressure or misfit between environment and nature4 ,as during the years from four to eight there is great danger that overemphasis of the activities of the accessory muscles will sow the seeds of chorea1 or aggravate predispositions to it1 now again comes a greatly increased danger1 hardly existing from eight to twelve1 that overprecision1 especially if fundamental activities are neglected1 will bring nervous strain and stunting precocity4 ,this is again the age of the basal1 e4g41 hill-climbing muscle1 of leg and back and shoulder work1 and of the yet more fundamental heart1 lung1 and chest muscles4 ,now again1 the study of a book1 under the usual conditions of sitting in a closed space and using pen1 tongue1 and eye combined1 has a tendency to overstimulate the accessory muscles4 ,this is especially harmful for city children who are too prone to the distraction of overmobility at an age especially exposed to maladjustment of motor income and expenditure2 and it constitutes not a liberal or power-generating1 but a highly and prematurely specialized1 narrowing1 and weakening education unless offset by safeguards better than any system of gymnastics1 which is at best artificial and exaggerated4 ,as ,bryan well says1 ,the efficiency of a machine depends so far as we know upon the maximum force1 rate1 amplitude1 and variety of direction of its movements and upon the exactness with which below these maxima the force1 rate1 amplitude1 and direction of the movements can be controlled4 ,the motor efficiency of a man depends upon his ability in all these respects4 ,moreover1 the education of the small muscles and fine adjustments of larger ones is as near mental training as physical culture can get2 for these are the thought-muscles and movements1 and their perfected function is to reflect and express by slight modifications of tension and tone every psychic change4 ,only the brain itself is more closely and immediately an organ of thought than are these muscles and their activity1 reflex1 spontaneous1 or imitative in origin4 ,whether any of them are of value1 as ,lindley thinks1 in arousing the brain to activity1 or as ,mller suggests1 in drawing off sensations or venting efferent impulses that would otherwise distract1 we need not here discuss4 ,if so1 this is1 of course1 a secondary and late function--nature's way of making the best of things and utilizing remnants4 ,with these facts and their implications in mind we can next pass to consider the conditions under which the adolescent muscles best develop4 ,here we confront one of the greatest and most difficult problems of our age4 ,changes in modern motor life have been so vast and sudden as to present some of the most comprehensive and all-conditioning dangers that threaten civilized races4 ,not only have the forms of labor been radically changed within a generation or two1 but the basal activities that shaped the body of primitive man have been suddenly swept away by the new methods of modern industry4 ,even popular sports1 games1 and recreations1 so abundant in the early life of all progressive peoples1 have been reduced and transformed2 and the play age1 that once extended on to middle life and often old age1 has been restricted4 ,sedentary life in schools and offices1 as we have seen1 is reducing the vigor and size of our lower limbs4 ,our industry is no longer under hygienic conditions2 and instead of being out of doors1 in the country1 or of highly diversified kinds1 it is now specialized1 monotonous1 carried on in closed spaces1 bad air1 and perhaps poor light1 especially in cities4 ,the diseases and arrest bred in the young by life in shops1 offices1 factories1 and schools increase4 ,work is rigidly bound to fixed hours1 uniform standards1 stints and piece-products2 and instead of a finished article1 each individual now achieves a part of a single process and knows little of those that precede or follow4 ,machinery has relieved the large basal muscles and laid more stress upon fine and exact movements that involve nerve strain4 ,the coarser forms of work that involve hard lifting1 carrying1 digging1 etc41 are themselves specialized1 and skilled labor requires more and more brain-work4 ,it has been estimated that the diminution of manual labor required to do a given quantity of work in #ahhd as compared with #ahgj is no less than #gj per cent4#aa ,personal interest in and the old native sense of responsibility for results1 ownership and use of the finished products1 which have been the inspiration and soul of work in all the past1 are in more and more fields gone4 ,those who realize how small a proportion of the young male population train or even engage in amateur sports with zest and regularity1 how very few and picked men strive for records1 and how immediate and amazing are the results of judicious training1 can best understand how far below his possibilities as a motor being the average modern man goes through life1 and how far short in this respect he falls from fulfilling nature's design for him4 ,for unnumbered generations primitive man in the nomad age wandered1 made perhaps annual migrations1 and bore heavy burdens1 while we ride relatively unencumbered4 ,he tilled the reluctant soil1 digging with rude implements where we use machines of many man-power4 ,in the stone1 iron1 and bronze age1 he shaped stone and metals1 and wrought with infinite pains and effort1 products that we buy without even knowledge of the processes by which they are made4 ,as hunter he followed game1 which1 when found1 he chased1 fought1 and overcame in a struggle perhaps desperate1 while we shoot it at a distance with little risk or effort4 ,in warfare he fought hand to hand and eye to eye1 while we kill with as much black powder as can be put in a woman's thimble4 ,he caught and domesticated scores of species of wild animals and taught them to serve him2 fished with patience and skill that compensated his crude tools1 weapons1 implements1 and tackle2 danced to exhaustion in the service of his gods or in memory of his forebears imitating every animal1 rehearsing all his own activities in mimic form to the point of exhaustion1 while we move through a few figures in closed spaces4 ,he dressed hides1 wove baskets which we can not reproduce1 and fabrics which we only poorly imitate by machinery1 made pottery which set our fashions1 played games that invigorated body and soul4 ,his courtship was with feats of prowess and skill1 and meant physical effort and endurance4 ,adolescent girls1 especially in the middle classes1 in upper grammar and high school grades1 during the golden age for nascent muscular development1 suffer perhaps most of all in this respect4 ,grave as are the evils of child labor1 ,i believe far more pubescents in this country now suffer from too little than from too much physical exercise1 while most who suffer from work do so because it is too uniform1 one-sided1 accessory1 or performed under unwholesome conditions1 and not because it is excessive in amount4 ,modern industry has thus largely ceased to be a means of physical development and needs to be offset by compensating modes of activity4 ,many labor-saving devices increase neural strain1 so that one of the problems of our time is how to preserve and restore nerve energy4 ,under present industrial systems this must grow worse and not better in the future4 ,healthy natural industries will be less and less open to the young4 ,this is the new situation that now confronts those concerned for motor education1 if they would only make good what is lost4 ,some of the results of these conditions are seen in average measurements of dimensions1 proportions1 strength1 skill1 and control4 ,despite the excellence of the few1 the testimony of those most familiar with the bodies of children and adults1 and their physical powers1 gives evidence of the ravages of modern modes of life that1 without a wide-spread motor revival1 can bode only degeneration for our nation and our race4 ,the number of common things that can not be done at all2 the large proportion of our youth who must be exempted from any kinds of activity or a great amount of any2 the thin limbs1 collapsed shoulders or chests1 the bilateral asymmetry1 weak hearts1 lungs1 eyes1 puny and bad muddy or pallid complexions1 tired ways1 automatism1 dyspeptic stomachs1 the effects of youthful error or of impoverished heredity1 delicate and tender nurture1 often1 alas1 only too necessary1 show the lamentable and cumulative effects of long neglect of the motor abilities1 the most educable of all man's powers1 and perhaps the most important for his well-being4 ,if the unfaithful stewards of these puny and shameful bodies had again1 as in ,sparta1 to strip and stand before stern judges and render them account1 and be smitten with a conviction of their weakness1 guilty deformity1 and arrest of growth2 if they were brought to realize how they are fallen beings1 as weak as stern theologians once deemed them depraved1 and how great their need of physical salvation1 we might hope again for a physical renaissance4 ,such a rebirth the world has seen but twice or perhaps thrice1 and each was followed by the two or three of the brightest culture periods of history1 and formed an epoch in the advancement of the kingdom of man4 ,a vast body of evidence could be collected from the writings of anthropologists showing how superior unspoiled savages are to civilized man in correct or esthetic proportions of body1 in many forms of endurance of fatigue1 hardship1 and power to bear exposure1 in the development and preservation of teeth and hair1 in keenness of senses1 absence of deformities1 as well as immunity to many of our diseases4 ,their women are stronger and bear hardship and exposure1 monthly periods and childbirth1 better4 ,civilization is so hard on the body that some have called it a disease1 despite the arts that keep puny bodies alive to a greater average age1 and our greater protection from contagious and germ diseases4 ,the progressive realization of these tendencies has prompted most of the best recent and great changes motor-ward in education and also in personal regimen4 ,health- and strength-giving agencies have put to school the large motor areas of the brain1 so long neglected1 and have vastly enlarged their scope4 ,thousands of youth are now inspired with new enthusiasm for physical development2 and new institutions of many kinds and grades have arisen1 with a voluminous literature1 unnumbered specialists1 specialties1 new apparatus1 tests1 movements1 methods1 and theories2 and the press1 the public1 and the church are awakened to a fresh interest in the body and its powers4 ,all this is magnificent1 but sadly inadequate to cope with the new needs and dangers1 which are vastly greater4 ,footnote #a3 ,dieterich4 ,gttingen1 #ahhf4 ,footnote #b3 ,see ,chap4 xii4 ,footnote #c3 ,f4 ,burk in ,from ,fundamental to ,accessory4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,oct41 #ahih1 vol4 #f1 pp4 #e-fd4 ,footnote #d3 ,creeping and ,walking1 by ,a4,w4 ,trettien4 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 ,october1 #aijj1 vol4 #ab1 pp4 #a-eg4 ,footnote #e3 ,a ,morning ,observation of a ,baby4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,december #aija1 vol4 #h1 pp4 #dfi-dha4 ,footnote #f3 ,kate ,carman4 ,notes on ,school ,activity4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,march1 #aijb1 vol4 #i1 pp4 #ajf-aag4 ,footnote #g3 ,a ,preliminary ,study of ,some of the ,motor ,phenomena of ,mental ,effort4 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 ,july1 #ahif1 vol4 #g1 pp4 #dia-eag4 ,footnote #h3 ,g4,e4 ,johnson4 ,psychology and ,pegagogy of ,feeble-,minded ,children4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,october1 #ahie1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #bdf-cja4 ,footnote #i3 ,dr4 ,hughlings ,jackson1 the eminent ,english pathologist1 was the first to make practical application of the evolutionary theory of the nervous system to the diagnosis and treatment of epilepsies and mental diseases4 ,the practical success of this application was so great that the ,hughlings-,jackson three-level theory is now the established basis of ,english diagnosis4 ,he conceived the nervous mechanism as composed of three systems1 arranged in the form of a hierarchy1 the higher including the lower1 and yet each having a certain degree of independence4 ,the first level represents the type of simplest reflex and involuntary movement and is localized in the gray matter of the spinal cord1 medulla1 and pons4 ,the second1 or middle level1 comprises those structures which receive sensory impulses from the cells of the lowest level instead of directly from the periphery or the non-nervous tissues4 ,the motor cells of this middle level also discharge into the motor mechanisms of the lowest level4 ,jackson located these middle level structures in the cortex of the central convolutions1 the basal ganglia and the centers of the special senses in the cortex4 ,the highest level bears the same relation to the middle level that it bears to the lowest i4e41 no continuous connection between the highest and the lowest is assumed2 the structures of the middle level mediate between them as a system of relays4 ,according to this hierarchical arrangement of the nervous system1 the lowest level which is the simplest and oldest contains the mechanism for the simple fundamental movements in reflexes and involuntary reactions4 ,the second level regroups these simple movements by combinations and associations of cortical structure in wider1 more complex mechanisms1 producing a higher class of movements4 ,the highest level unifies the whole nervous system and1 according to ,jackson1 is the anatomical basis of mind4 ,for a fuller account of this theory see ,burk3 ,from ,fundamental to ,accessory in the ,nervous ,system and of ,movements4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,october1 #ahih1 vol4 #f1 pp4 #ag-bc4 ,footnote #aj3 ,a ,preliminary ,study of ,some of the ,motor ,phenomena of ,mental ,effort4 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 ,july1 #ahif1 vol4 #g1 pp4 #dia-eag4 ,footnote #aa3 ,encyclopedia of ,social ,reform1 ,funk and ,wagnalls1 #ahif1 p4 #ajie 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,industrial ,,education ,trade classes and schools1 their importance in the international market--,our dangers and the superiority of ,german workmen--,the effects of a tariff--,description of schools between the kindergarten and the industrial school--,equal salaries for teachers in ,france--,dangers from machinery--,the advantages of life on the old ,new ,england farm--,its resemblance to the education we now give negroes and ,indians--,its advantage for all-sided muscular development4 ,we must glance at a few of the best and most typical methods of muscular development1 following the order3 industrial education1 manual training1 gymnastics1 and play1 sports1 and games4 ,industrial education is now imperative for every nation that would excel in agriculture1 manufacture1 and trade1 not only because of the growing intensity of competition1 but because of the decline of the apprentice system and the growing intricacy of processes1 requiring only the skill needed for livelihood4 ,thousands of our youth of late have been diverted from secondary schools to the monotechnic or trade classes now established for horology1 glass-work1 brick-laying1 carpentry1 forging1 dressmaking1 cooking1 typesetting1 bookbinding1 brewing1 seamanship1 work in leather1 rubber1 horticulture1 gardening1 photography1 basketry1 stock-raising1 typewriting1 stenography and bookkeeping1 elementary commercial training for practical preparation for clerkships1 etc4 ,in this work not only is ,boston1 our most advanced city1 as ,president ,pritchett#a has shown in detail1 far behind ,berlin1 but ,german workmen and shopmen a slowly taking the best places even in ,england2 and but for a high tariff1 which protects our inferiority1 the competitive pressure would be still greater4 ,in ,germany1 especially1 this training is far more diversified than here1 always being colored if not determined by the prevalent industry of the region and more specialised and helped out by evening and even ,sunday classes in the school buildings1 and by the still strong apprentice system4 ,froebelian influence in manual training reaches through the eight school years and is in some respects better than ours in lower grades1 but is very rarely coeducational1 girls' work of sewing1 knitting1 crocheting1 weaving1 etc41 not being considered manual training4 ,there are now over #a1ejj schools and workshops in ,germany where manual training is taught2 twenty-five of these are independent schools4 ,the work really began in #ahge with v4 ,kass1 and is promoted by the great ,society for ,boys' ,handwork4 ,much stress is laid on paper and pasteboard work in lower grades1 under the influence of ,kurufa of ,darmstadt4 ,many objects for illustrating science are made1 and one course embraces the ,seyner water-wheel4#b ,in ,france it is made more effective by the equal salaries of teachers everywhere1 thus securing better instruction in the country4 ,adolescence is the golden period for acquiring the skill that comes by practice1 so essential in the struggle for survival4 ,in general this kind of motor education is least of all free1 but subservient to the tool1 machine1 process1 finished product1 or end in view2 and to these health and development are subordinated1 so that they tend to be ever more narrow and special4 ,the standard here is maximal efficiency of the capacities that earn4 ,it may favor bad habitual attitudes1 muscular development of but one part1 excessive large or small muscles1 involve too much time or effort1 unhealthful conditions1 etc41 but it has the great advantage of utility1 which is the mainspring of all industry4 ,in a very few departments and places this training has felt the influence of the arts and crafts movement and has been faintly touched with the inspiration of beauty4 ,while such courses give those who follow them marked advantage over those who do not1 they are chiefly utilitarian and do little to mature or unfold the physical powers1 and may involve arrest or degeneration4 ,where not one but several or many professes are taught1 the case is far better4 ,of all work-schools1 a good farm is probably the best for motor development4 ,this is due to its great variety of occupations1 healthful conditions1 and the incalculable phyletic renforcement from immemorial times4 ,i have computed some three-score industries#c as the census now classifies them2 that were more or less generally known and practiced sixty years ago in a little township1 which not only in this but in other respects has many features of an ideal educational environment for adolescent boys1 combining as it does not only physical and industrial1 but civil and religious elements in wise proportions and with pedagogic objectivity1 and representing the ideal of such a state of intelligent citizen voters as was contemplated by the framers of our ,constitution4 ,contrast this life with that of a hand in a modern shoe factory1 who does all day but one of the eighty-one stages or processes from a tanned hide to a finished shoe1 or of a man in a shirt shop who is one of thirty-nine1 each of whom does as piece-work a single step requiring great exactness1 speed1 and skill1 and who never knows how a whole shirt is made1 and we shall see that the present beginning of a revival of interest in muscular development comes none too early4 ,so liberal is muscular education of this kind that its work in somewhat primitive form has been restored and copied many features by many educational institutions for adolescents1 of the ,abbotsholme type and grade1 and several others1 whose purpose is to train for primitive conditions of colonial life4 ,thousands of school gardens have also been lately developed for lower grades1 which have given a new impetus to the study of nature4 ,farm training at its best instills love of country1 ruralizes taste1 borrows some of its ideals from ,goethe's pedagogic province1 and perhaps even from ,gilman's pie-shaped communities1 with villages at the center irradiating to farms in all directions4 ,in ,england1 where by the law of primogeniture holdings are large and in few hands1 this training has never flourished1 as it has greatly in ,france1 where nearly every adult male may own land and a large proportion will come to do so4 ,so of processes4 ,as a student in ,germany ,i took a few lessons each of a bookbinder1 a glassblower1 a shoemaker1 a plumber1 and a blacksmith1 and here ,i have learned in a crude way the technique of the gold-beater and old-fashioned broom-maker1 etc41 none of which come amiss in the laboratory2 and ,i am proud that ,i can still mow and keep my scythe sharp1 chop1 plow1 milk1 churn1 make cheese and soap1 braid a palm-leaf hat complete1 knit1 spin and even put in a piece in an old-fashioned hand loom1 and weave frocking4 ,but thus pride bows low before the pupils of our best institutions for negroes1 ,indians1 and juvenile delinquents1 whose training is often in more than a score of industries and who to-day in my judgment receive the best training in the land1 if judged by the annual growth in mind1 morals1 health1 physique1 ability1 and knowledge1 all taken together4 ,instead of seeking soft1 ready-made places near home1 such education impels to the frontier1 to strike out new careers1 to start at the bottom and rise by merit1 beginning so low that every change must be a rise4 ,wherever youth thus trained are thrown1 they land like a cat on all-fours and are armed cap--pie for the struggle of life4 ,agriculture1 manufacture1 and commerce are the bases of national prosperity2 and on them all professions1 institutions1 and even culture1 are more and more dependent1 while the old ideals of mere study and brain-work are fast becoming obsolete4 ,we really retain only the knowledge we apply4 ,we should get up interest in new processes like that of a naturalist in new species4 ,those who leave school at any age or stage should be best fitted to take up their life work instead of leaving unfitted for it1 aimless and discouraged4 ,instead of dropping out limp and disheartened1 we should train struggle-for-lifeurs1 in ,daudet's phrase1 and that betimes1 so that the young come back to it not too late for securing the best benefits1 after having wasted the years best fitted for it in profitless studies or in the hard school of failure4 ,by such methods many of our flabby1 undeveloped1 anemic1 easy-living city youth would be regenerated in body and spirit4 ,some of the now oldest1 richest1 and most famous schools of the world were at first established by charity for poor boys who worked their way1 and such institutions have an undreamed-of future4 ,no others so well fit for a life of respectable and successful muscle work1 and perhaps this should be central for all at this stage4 ,this diversity of training develops the muscular activities rendered necessary by man's early development1 which were so largely concerned with food1 shelter1 clothing1 making and selling commodities necessary for life1 comfort and safety4 ,the natural state of man is not war1 hot peace2 and perhaps ,dawson#d is right in thinking that three-fourths of man's physical activities in the past have gone into such vocations4 ,industry has determined the nature and trend of muscular development2 and youth1 who have pets1 till the soil1 build1 manufacture1 use tools1 and master elementary processes and skills1 are most truly repeating the history of the race4 ,this1 too1 lays the best foundation for intellectual careers4 ,the study of pure science1 as well as its higher technology1 follows rather than precedes this4 ,in the largest sense this is the order of nature1 from fundamental and generalized to finer accessory and specialized organs and functions2 and such a sequence best weeds out and subordinates automatisms4 ,the age of stress in most of these kinds of training is that of most rapid increment of muscular power1 as we have seen in the middle and later teens rather than childhood1 as some recent methods have mistakenly assumed2 and this prepolytechnic work1 wherever and in whatever degree it is possible1 is a better adjunct of secondary courses than manual training1 the sad fact being that1 according to the best estimates1 only a fraction of one per cent of those who need this training in this country are now receiving it4 ,footnote #a3 ,the ,place of ,industrial and ,technical ,training in ,public ,education4 ,technology ,review1 ,january1 #aijb1 vol4 #d1 pp4 #aj-cg4 ,footnote #b3 ,see an article by ,dr4 ,h4,e4 ,kock1 ,education1 ,december1 #aijb1 vol4 #bc1 pp4 #aic-bjc4 ,footnote #c3 ,see my ,boy ,life in a ,massachusetts ,country ,town ,forty ,years ,ago4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,june1 #aijf1 vol4 #ac1 pp4 #aib-bjg4 ,footnote #d3 ,the ,muscular ,activities ,rendered ,necessary by ,man's ,early ,environment1 ,american ,physical ,education ,review1 ,june1 #aijb1 vol4 #g1 pp4 #hj-he4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,manual ,,training ,,and ,,sloyd ,history of the movement--,its philosophy--,the value of hand training in the development of the brain and its significance in the making of man--,a grammar of our many industries hard--,the best we do can reach but few--,very great defects in our manual training methods which do not base on science and make nothing salable--,the ,leipzig system--,sloyd is hypermethodic--,these crude peasant industries can never satisfy educational needs--,the gospel of work1 ,william ,morris and the arts and crafts movement--,its spirit desirable--,the magic effects of a brief period of intense work--,the natural development of the drawing instinct in the child4 ,manual training has many origins2 but in its now most widely accepted form it came to us more than a generation ago from ,moscow1 and has its best representation here in our new and often magnificent manual-training high schools and in many courses in other public schools4 ,this work meets the growing demand of the country for a more practical education1 a demand which often greatly exceeds the accommodations4 ,the philosophy1 if such it may be called1 that underlies the movement1 is simple1 forcible1 and sound1 and not unlike ,pestalozzi's keine ,kentnisse ohne ,fertigkeiten1 ,no knowledge without skill in that it lessens the interval between thinking and doing2 helps to give control1 dexterity1 and skill an industrial trend to taste2 interests many not successful in ordinary school2 tends to the better appreciation of good1 honest work2 imparts new zest for some studies2 adds somewhat to the average length of the school period2 gives a sense of capacity and effectiveness1 and is a useful preparation for a number of vocations4 ,these claims are all well founded1 and this work is a valuable addition to the pedagogic agencies of any country or state4 ,as man excels the higher anthropoids perhaps almost as much in hand power as in mind1 and since the manual areas of the brain are wide near the psychic zones1 and the cortical centers are thus directly developed1 the hand is a potent instrument in opening the intellect as well as in training sense and will4 ,it is no reproach to these schools that1 full as they are1 they provide for but an insignificant fraction of the nearly sixteen millions or twenty per cent of the young people of the country between fifteen and twenty-four4 ,when we turn to the needs of these pupils1 the errors and limitations of the method are painful to contemplate4 ,the work is essentially manual and offers little for the legs1 where most of the muscular tissues of the body lie1 those which respond most to training and are now most in danger of degeneration at this age2 the back and trunk also are little trained4 ,consideration of proportion and bilateral asymmetry are practically ignored4 ,almost in proportion as these schools have multiplied1 the rage for uniformity1 together with motives of economy and administrative efficiency on account of overcrowding1 have made them rigid and inflexible1 on the principle that as the line lengthens the stake must be strengthened4 ,this is a double misfortune2 for the courses were not sufficiently considered at first and the plastic stage of adaptation was too short1 while the methods of industry have undergone vast changes since they were given shape4 ,there are now between three and four hundred occupations in the census1 more than half of these involving manual work1 so that never perhaps was there so great a pedagogic problem as to make these natural developments into conscious art1 to extract what may be called basal types4 ,this requires an effort not without analogy to ,aristotle's attempt to extract from the topics of the marketplace the underlying categories eternally conditioning all thought1 or to construct a grammar of speech4 ,hardly an attempt worthy the name1 not even the very inadequate one of a committee1 has been made in this field to study the conditions and to meet them4 ,like ,froebel's gifts and occupations1 deemed by their author the very roots of human occupations in infant form1 the processes selected are underived and find their justification rather in their logical sequence and coherence than in being true norms of work4 ,if these latter be attainable at all1 it is not likely that they will fit so snugly in a brief curriculum1 so that its simplicity is suspicious4 ,the wards of the keys that lock the secrets of nature and human life are more intricate and mazy4 ,as ,h4,t4 ,bailey well puts it in substance1 a master in any art-craft must have a fourfold equipment3 #a4 ,ability to grasp an idea and embody it4 #b4 ,power to utilize all nerve1 and a wide repertory of methods1 devices1 recipes1 discoveries1 machines1 etc4 #c4 ,knowledge of the history of the craft4 #d4 ,skill in technical processes4 ,american schools emphasize chiefly only the last4 ,the actual result is thus a course rich in details representing wood and iron chiefly1 and mostly ignoring other materials2 the part of the course treating of the former1 wooden in its teachings and distinctly tending to make joiners1 carpenters1 and cabinet-makers2 that of the latter1 iron in its rigidity and an excellent school for smiths1 mechanics1 and machinists4 ,these courses are not liberal because they hardly touch science1 which is rapidly becoming the real basis of every industry4 ,almost nothing that can be called scientific knowledge is required or even much favored1 save some geometrical and mechanical drawing and its implicates4 ,these schools instinctively fear and repudiate plain and direct utility1 or suspect its educational value or repute in the community because of this strong bias toward a few trades4 ,this tendency also they even fear1 less often because unfortunately trade-unions in this country sometimes jealously suspect it and might vote down supplies1 than because the teachers in these schools were generally trained in older scholastic and even classic methods and matter4 ,industry is everywhere and always for the sake of the product1 and to cut loose from this as if it were a contamination is a fatal mistake4 ,to focus on process only1 with no reference to the object made1 is here an almost tragic case of the sacrifice of content to form1 which in all history has been the chief stigma of degeneration in education4 ,man is a tool-using animal2 but tools are always only a means to an end1 the latter prompting even their invention4 ,hence a course in tool manipulation only1 with persistent refusal to consider the product lest features of trade-schools be introduced1 has made most of our manual-training high schools ghastly1 hollow1 artificial institutions4 ,instead of making in the lower grades certain toys which are masterpieces of mechanical simplification1 as tops and kites1 and introducing such processes as glass-making and photography1 and in higher grades making simple scientific apparatus more generic than machines1 to open the great principles of the material universe1 all is sacrificed to supernormalized method4 ,as in all hypermethodic schemes1 the thought side is feeble4 ,there is no control of the work of these schools by the higher technical institutions such as the college exercises over the high school1 so that few of them do work that fits for advanced training or is thought best by technical faculties4 ,in most of its current narrow forms1 manual training will prove to be historically1 as it is educationally1 extemporized and tentative1 and will soon be superseded by broader methods and be forgotten and obsolete1 or cited only as a low point of departure from which future progress will loom up4 ,indeed in more progressive centers1 many new departures are now in the experimental stage4 ,goetze at ,leipzig1 as a result of long and original studies and trials1 has developed courses in which pasteboard work and modeling are made of equal rank with wood and iron1 and he has connected them even with the kindergarten below4 ,in general the whole industrial life of our day is being slowly explored in the quest of new educational elements2 and rubber1 lead1 glass1 textiles1 metallurgical operations1 agriculture1 every tool and many machines1 etc41 are sure to contribute their choicest pedagogical factors to the final result4 ,in every detail the prime consideration should be the nature and needs of the youthful body and will at each age1 their hygiene and fullest development2 and next1 the closest connection with science at every point should do the same for the intellect4 ,each operation and each tool--the saw1 knife1 plane1 screw1 hammer1 chisel1 draw-shave1 sandpaper1 lathe--will be studied with reference to its orthopedic value1 bilateral asymmetry1 the muscles it develops1 and the attitudes and motor habits it favors2 and uniformity1 which in ,france often requires classes to saw1 strike1 plane up1 down1 right1 left1 all together1 upon count and command1 will give place to individuality4 ,sloyd has certain special features and claims4 ,the word means skilful1 deft4 ,the movement was organised in ,sweden a quarter of a century ago as an effort to prevent the extinction by machinery of peasant home industry during the long winter night4 ,home sloyd was installed in an institution of its own for training teachers at ,ns4 ,it works in wood only1 with little machinery1 and is best developed for children of from eleven to fifteen4 ,it no longer aims to make artisans2 but its manipulations are meant to be developmental1 to teach both sexes not only to be useful but self-active and self-respecting1 and to revere exactness as a form of truthfulness4 ,it assumes that all and especially the motor-minded can really understand only what they make1 and that one can work like a peasant and think like a philosopher4 ,it aims to produce wholes rather than parts like the ,russian system1 and to be so essentially educational that1 as a leading exponent says1 its best effects would be conserved if the hands were cut off4 ,this change of its original utilitarianism from the lower to the liberal motor development of the middle and upper classes and from the land where it originated to another1 has not eliminated the dominant marks of its origin in its models1 the ,penates of the sloyd household1 the unique features of which persist like a national school of art1 despite transplantation and transformation4#a ,sloyd at its best tries to correlate several series1 viz41 exercises1 tools1 drawing1 and models4 ,each must be progressive1 so that every new step in each series involves a new and next developmental step in all the others1 and all together1 it is claimed1 fit the order and degree of development of each power appealed to in the child4 ,yet there has been hardly an attempt to justify either the physiological or the psychological reason of a single step in any of these series1 and the cordination of the series even with each other1 to say nothing of their adaptation to the stages of the child's development4 ,this1 if as pat and complete as is urged1 would indeed constitute on the whole a paragon of all the harmony1 beauty1 totality in variety1 etc41 which make it so magnificent in the admirer's eyes4 ,but the #de tools1 #gb exercises1 #ca models1 #ae of which are joints1 all learned by teachers in one school year of daily work and by pupils in four years1 are overmethodic2 and such correlation is impossible in so many series at once4 ,every dual order1 even of work and unfoldment of powers1 is hard enough1 since the fall lost us ,eden2 and woodwork1 could it be upon that of the tree of knowledge itself1 incompatible with enjoying its fruit4 ,although a philosopher may see the whole universe in its smallest part1 all his theory can not reproduce educational wholes from fragments of it4 ,the real merits of sloyd have caused its enthusiastic leaders to magnify its scope and claims far beyond their modest bounds2 and although its field covers the great transition from childhood to youth1 one searches in vain both its literature and practise for the slightest recognition of the new motives and methods that puberty suggests4 ,especially in its partially acclimatized forms to ,american conditions1 it is all adult and almost scholastic2 and as the most elaborate machinery may sometimes be run by a poor power-wheel1 if the stream be swift and copious enough1 so the mighty rent that sets toward motor education would give it some degree of success were it worse and less economic of pedagogic momentum than it is4 ,it holds singularly aloof from other methods of efferent training and resists cordination with them1 and its provisions for other than hand development are slight4 ,it will be one of the last to accept its true but modest place as contributing certain few but precious elements in the greater synthesis that impends4 ,indian industries1 basketry1 pottery1 bead1 leather1 bows and arrows1 bark1 etc41 which our civilization is making lost arts by forcing the white man's industries upon red men at reservation schools and elsewhere1 need only a small part of the systemization that ,swedish peasant work has received to develop even greater educational values2 and the same is true of the indigenous household work of the old ,new ,england farm1 the real worth and possibilities of which are only now1 and perhaps too late1 beginning to be seen by a few educators4 ,this brings us to the arts and crafts movement1 originating with ,carlyle's gospel of work and ,ruskin's medievalism1 developed by ,william ,morris and his disciples at the ,red ,house1 checked awhile by the ridicule of the comic opera ,patience1 and lately revived in some of its features by ,cobden-,sanderson1 and of late to some extent in various centers in this country4 ,its ideal was to restore the day of the seven ancient guilds and of ,hans ,sachs1 the poet cobbler1 when conscience and beauty inspired work1 and the hand did what machines only imitate and vulgarize4 ,in the past1 which this school of motor culture harks back to1 work1 for which our degenerate age lacks even respect1 was indeed praise4 ,refined men and women have remembered these early days1 when their race was in its prime1 as a lost paradise which they would regain by designing and even weaving tapestries and muslins2 experimenting in vats with dyes to rival ,tyrian purple2 printing and binding by hand books that surpass the best of the ,aldine1 and ,elzevirs2 carving in old oak2 hammering brass2 forging locks1 irons1 and candlesticks2 becoming artists in burned wood and leather2 seeking old effects of simplicity and solidity in furniture and decoration1 as well as architecture1 stained glass1 and to some extent in dress and manners2 and all this toil and moil was ad majorem gloriam hominis ,to the greater glory of man in a new socialistic state1 where the artist1 and even the artisan1 should take his rightful place above the man who merely knows4 ,the day of the mere professor1 who deals in knowledge1 is gone2 and the day of the doer1 who creates1 has come4 ,the brain and the hand1 too long divorced and each weak and mean without the other2 use and beauty1 each alone vulgar2 letters and labor1 each soulless without the other1 are henceforth to be one and inseparable2 and this union will lift man to a higher level4 ,the workman in his apron and paper hat1 inspired by the new socialism and the old spirit of chivalry as revived by ,scott1 revering ,wagner's revival of the old ,deutschenthum that was to conquer ,christenthum1 or ,tennyson's ,arthurian cycle--this was its ideal2 even as the ,jews rekindled their loyalty to the ancient traditions of their race and made their ,bible under ,ezra2 as we begin to revere the day of the farmer-citizen1 who made our institutions1 or as some of us would revive his vanishing industrial life for the red man4 ,although this movement was by older men and women and had in it something of the longing regret of senescence for days that are no more1 it shows us the glory which invests racial adolescence when it is recalled in maturity1 the time when the soul can best appreciate the value of its creations and its possibilities1 and really lives again in its glamour and finds in it its greatest inspiration4 ,hence it has its lessons for us here4 ,a touch1 but not too much of it1 should be felt in all manual education1 which is just as capable of idealism as literary education4 ,this gives soul1 interest1 content1 beauty1 taste4 ,if not a polyphrastic philosophy seeking to dignify the occupation of the workshop by a pretentious ,volapk of reasons and abstract theories1 we have here the pregnant suggestion of a psychological quarry of motives and spirit opened and ready to be worked4 ,thus the best forces from the past should be turned on to shape and reinforce the best tendencies of the present4 ,the writings of the above gospelers of work not only could and should1 but will be used to inspire manual-training high schools1 sloyd and even some of the less scholastic industrial courses2 but each is incomplete without the other4 ,these books and those that breathe their spirit should be the mental workshop of all who do tool1 lathe1 and forge work2 who design and draw patterns1 carve or mold2 or of those who study how to shape matter for human uses1 and whose aim is to obtain diplomas or certificates of fitness to teach all such things4 ,the muse of art and even of music will have some voice in the great synthesis which is to gather up the scattered1 hence ineffective1 elements of secondary motor training1 in forms which shall represent all the needs of adolescents in the order and proportion that nature and growth stages indicate1 drawing1 with this end supreme1 upon all the resources that history and reform offer to our selection4 ,all this can never make work become play4 ,indeed it will and should make work harder and more unlike play and of another genus1 because the former is thus given its own proper soul and leads its own distinct1 but richer1 and more abounding life4 ,i must not close this section without brief mention of two important studies that have supplied each a new and important determination concerning laws of work peculiar to adolescence4 ,the main telegraphic line requires a speed of over seventy letters per minute of all whom they will employ4 ,as a sending rate this is not very difficult and is often attained after two months' practise4 ,this standard for a receiving rate is harder and later1 and inquiry at schools where it is taught shows that about seventy-five per cent of those who begin the study fail to reach this speed and so are not employed4 ,bryan and ,harter#b explained the rate of improvement in both sending and receiving1 with results represented for one typical subject in the curve on the following page4 ,from the first1 sending improves most rapidly and crosses the dead-line a few months before the receiving rate1 which may fall short4 ,curves #a and #b represent the same student4 ,i have added line #c to illustrate the three-fourths who fail4 ,receiving is far less pleasant than sending1 and years of daily practise at ordinary rates will not bring a man to his maximum rate2 he remains on the low plateau with no progress beyond a certain point4 ,if forced by stress of work1 danger of being dropped1 or by will power to make a prolonged and intense effort1 he breaks through his hidebound rate and permanently attains a faster pace4 ,this is true at each step1 and every advance seems to cost even more intensive effort than the former one4 ,at length1 for those who go on1 the rate of receiving1 which is a more complex process1 exceeds that of sending2 and the curves of the above figure would cross if prolonged4 ,the expert receives so much faster than he sends that abbreviated codes are used1 and he may take eighty to eighty-five words a minute on a typewriter in correct form4 ,illustration3 ,letters per ,minute x ,weeks of ,practice4 ,the motor curve seems to asymptotically approach a perhaps physiological limit1 which the receiving curve does not suggest4 ,this seems a special case of a general though not yet explained law4 ,in learning a foreign language1 speaking is first and easiest1 and hearing takes a late but often sudden start to independence4 ,perhaps this holds of every ability4 ,to ,bryan this suggests as a hierarchy of habits1 the plateau of little or no improvement1 meaning that lower order habits are approaching their maximum but are not yet automatic enough to leave the attention free to attack higher order habits4 ,the second ascent from drudgery to freedom1 which comes through automatism1 is often as sudden as the first ascent4 ,one stroke of attention comes to do what once took many4 ,to attain such effective speed is not dependent on reaction time4 ,this shooting together of units distinguishes the master from the man1 the genius from the hack4 ,in many1 if not all1 skills where expertness is sought1 there is a long discouraging level1 and then for the best a sudden ascent1 as if here1 too1 as we have reason to think in the growth of both the body as a whole and in that of its parts1 nature does make leaps and attains her ends by alternate rests and rushes4 ,youth lives along on a low level of interest and accomplishment and then starts onward1 is transformed1 converted2 the hard becomes easy2 the old life sinks to a lower stratum2 and a new and higher order1 perhaps a higher brain level and functions1 is evolved4 ,the practical implication here of the necessity of hard concentrative effort as a condition of advancement is re-enforced by a quotation from ,senator ,stanford on the effect of early and rather intensive work at not too long periods in training colts for racing4 ,let-ups are especially dangerous4 ,he says1 ,it is the supreme effort that develops4 ,this1 ,i may add1 suggests what is developed elsewhere1 that truly spontaneous attention is conditioned by spontaneous muscle tension1 which is a function of growth1 and that muscles are thus organs of the mind2 and also that even voluntary attention is motivated by the same nisus of development even in its most adult form1 and that the products of science1 invention1 discovery1 as well as the association plexus of all that was originally determined in the form of consciousness1 are made by rhythmic alternation of attack1 as it moves from point to point creating diversions and recurrence4 ,the other study1 although quite independent1 is part a special application and illustration of the same principle4 ,at the age of four or five1 when they can do little more than scribble1 children's chief interest in pictures is as finished products2 but in the second period1 which ,lange calls that of artistic illusion1 the child sees in his own work not merely what it represents1 but an image of fancy back of it4 ,this1 then1 is the golden period for the development of power to create artistically4 ,the child loves to draw everything with the pleasure chiefly in the act1 and he cares little for the finished picture4 ,he draws out of his own head1 and not from copy before his eye4 ,anything and everything is attempted in bold lines in this golden age of drawing4 ,if he followed the teacher1 looked carefully and drew what he saw1 he would be abashed at his production4 ,indians1 conflagrations1 games1 brownies1 trains1 pageants1 battles--everything is graphically portrayed2 but only the little artist himself sees the full meaning of his lines4 ,criticism or drawing strictly after nature breaks this charm1 since it gives place to mechanical reproduction in which the child has little interest4 ,thus awakens him from his dream to a realization that he can not draw1 and from ten to fifteen his power of perceiving things steadily increases and he makes almost no progress in drawing4 ,adolescence arouses the creative faculty and the desire and ability to draw are checked and decline after thirteen or fourteen4 ,the curve is the plateau which ,barnes has described4 ,the child has measured his own productions upon the object they reproduced and found them wanting1 is discouraged and dislikes drawing4 ,from twelve on1 ,barnes found drawing more and more distasteful2 and this1 too1 ,lukens found to be the opinion of our art teachers4 ,the pupils may draw very properly and improve in technique1 but the interest is gone4 ,this is the condition in which most men remain all their lives4 ,their power to appreciate steadily increases4 ,only a few gifted adolescents about this age begin a to develop a new zest in production1 rivaling that of the period from five to ten1 when their satisfaction is again chiefly in creation4 ,these are the artists whose active powers dominate4 ,lukens#c finds in his studies of drawing1 that in what he calls his fourth period of artistic development1 there are those who during adolescence experience a rebirth of creative power4 ,zest in creation then often becomes a stronger incentive to work than any pleasure or profit to be derived from the finished product1 so that in this the propitious conditions of the first golden age of childhood are repeated and the deepest satisfaction is again found in the work itself4 ,at about fourteen or fifteen1 which is the transition period1 nascent faculties sometimes develop very rapidly4 ,lukens#d draws the interesting curve shown on the following page4 ,illustration3 ,motor1 creative or productive power4 ,sensory or receptive interest in the finished product4 ,the reciprocity between the power to produce and that to appreciate1 roughly represented in the above curve1 likely is true also in the domain of music1 and may be1 perhaps1 a general law of development4 ,certain it is that the adolescent power to apperceive and appreciate never so far outstrips his power to produce or reproduce as about midway in the teens4 ,now impressions sink deepest4 ,the greatest artists are usually those who paint later1 when the expressive powers are developed1 what they have felt most deeply and known best at this age1 and not those who in the late twenties1 or still later1 have gone to new environments and sought to depict them4 ,all young people draw best those objects they love most1 and their proficiency should be some test of the contents of their minds4 ,they must put their own consciousness into a picture4 ,at the dawn of this stage of appreciation the esthetic tastes should be stimulated by exposure to1 and instructed in feeling for1 the subject-matter of masterpieces2 and instruction in technique1 detail1 criticism1 and learned discrimination of schools of painting should be given intermittently4 ,art should not now be for art's sake1 but for the sake of feeling and character1 life1 and conduct2 it should be adjunct to morals1 history1 and literature2 and in all1 edification should be the goal2 and personal interest1 and not that of the teacher1 should be the guide4 ,insistence on production should be eased1 and the receptive imagination1 now so hungry1 should be fed and reinforced by story and all other accessories4 ,by such a curriculum1 potential creativeness1 if it exists1 will surely be evoked in its own good time4 ,it will1 at first1 attempt no commonplace drawing-master themes1 but will essay the highest that the imagination can bode forth4 ,it may be crude and lame in execution1 but it will be lofty1 perhaps grand2 and if it is original in consciousness1 it will be in effect4 ,most creative painters before twenty have grappled with the greatest scenes in literature or turning points in history1 representations of the loftiest truths1 embodiments of the most inspiring ideals4 ,none who deserve the name of artist copy anything now1 and least of all with objective fidelity to nature2 and the teacher that represses or criticizes this first point of genius1 or who can not pardon the grave faults of technique inevitable at this age when ambition ought to be too great for power1 is not an educator but a repressor1 a pedagogic ,philistine committing1 like so many of his calling in other fields1 the unpardonable sin against budding promise1 always at this age so easily blighted4 ,just as the child of six or seven should be encouraged in his strong instinct to draw the most complex scenes of his daily life1 so now the inner life should find graphic utterance in all its intricacy up to the full limit of unrepressed courage4 ,for the great majority1 on the other hand1 who only appreciate and will never create1 the mind1 if it have its rights1 will be stored with the best images and sentiments of art2 for at this time they are best remembered and sink deepest into heart and life4 ,now1 although the hand may refuse1 the fancy paints the world in brightest hues and fairest forms2 and such an opportunity for infecting the soul with vaccine of ideality1 hope1 optimism1 and courage in adversity1 will never come again4 ,i believe that in few departments are current educational theories and practises so hard on youth of superior gifts1 just at the age when all become geniuses for a season1 very brief for most1 prolonged for some1 and permanent for the best4 ,we do not know how to teach to1 see1 hear1 and feel when the sense centers are most indelibly impressible1 and to give relative rest to the hand during the years when its power of accuracy is abated and when all that is good is idealized furthest1 and confidence in ability to produce is at its lowest ebb4 ,finally1 our divorce between industrial and manual training is abnormal1 and higher technical education is the chief sufferer4 ,professor ,thurston1 of ,cornell1 who has lately returned from a tour of inspection abroad1 reported that to equal ,germany we now need3 #a4 ,twenty technical universities1 having in their schools of engineering #ej instructors and #ejj students each4 #b4 ,two thousand technical high schools or manual-training schools1 each having not less than #bjj students and #aj instructors4 ,if we have elementary trade-schools1 this would mean technical high schools enough to accommodate #gjj1jjj students1 served by #bj1jjj teachers4 ,with the strong economic arguments in this direction we are not here concerned2 but that there are tendencies to unfit youth for life by educational method and matter shown in strong relief from this standpoint1 we shall point out in a later chapter4 ,footnote #a3 ,this ,i have elsewhere tried to show in detail4 ,criticisms of ,high ,school ,physics and ,manual ,training and ,mechanic ,arts in ,high ,schools4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,june1 #aijb1 vol4 #i1 pp4 #aic-bjd4 ,footnote #b3 ,studies in the ,physiology and ,psychology of the ,telegraphic ,language4 ,psychological ,review1 ,january1 #ahig1 vol4 #d1 pp4 #bg-ec1 and ,july1 #ahii1 vol4 #f1 pp4 #cdd-cge4 ,footnote #c3 ,a ,study of ,children's ,drawings in the ,early ,years4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,october1 #ahif1 vol4 #d1 pp4 #gi-aja4 ,see also ,drawing in the ,early ,years1 ,proceedings of the ,national ,educational ,association1 #ahii1 pp4 #idf-iec4 ,das ,kind als ,knstler1 von ,c4 ,gtze4 ,hamburg1 #ahih4 ,the ,genetic vs4 the ,logical ,order in ,drawing1 by ,f4 ,burk4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,september1 #aijb1 vol4 #i1 pp4 #bif-cbc4 ,footnote #d3 ,die ,entwickelungsstufen beim ,zeichnen4 ,die ,kinderfehler1 ,september1 #ahig1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #aff-agi4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,v ,,gymnastics ,the story of ,jahn and the ,turners--,the enthusiasm which this movement generated in ,germany--,the ideal of bringing out latent powers--,the concept of more perfect voluntary control--,swedish gymnastics--,doing everything possible for the body as a machine--,liberal physical culture--,ling's orthogenic scheme of economic postures and movements and correcting defects--,the ideal of symmetry and prescribing exercises to bring the body to a standard--,lamentable lack of correlation between these four systems--,illustrations of the great good that a systematic training can effect--,athletic records--,greek physical training4 ,under the term gymnastics1 literally naked exercises1 we here include those denuded of all utilities or ulterior ends save those of physical culture4 ,this is essentially modern and was unknown in antiquity1 where training was for games1 for war1 etc4 ,several ideals underlie this movement1 which although closely related are distinct and as yet by no means entirely harmonized4 ,these may be described as follows3 ,a4 ,one aim of ,jahn1 more developed by ,spiess1 and their successors1 was to do everything physically possible for the body as a mechanism4 ,many postures and attitudes are assumed and many movements made that are never called for in life4 ,some of these are so novel that a great variety of new apparatus had to be devised to bring them out2 and ,jahn invented many new names1 some of them without etymologies1 to designate the repertory of his discoveries and inventions that extended the range of motor life4 ,common movements1 industries1 and even games1 train only a limited number of muscles1 activities1 and cordinations1 and leave more or less unused groups and combinations1 so that many latent possibilities slumber1 and powers slowly lapse through disuse4 ,not only must these be rescued1 but the new nascent possibilities of modern progressive man must be addressed and developed4 ,even the common things that the average untrained youth can not do are legion1 and each of these should be a new incentive to the trainer as he realizes how very far below their motor possibilities meet men live4 ,the man of the future may1 and even must1 do things impossible in the past and acquire new motor variations not given by heredity4 ,our somatic frame and its powers must therefore be carefully studied1 inventoried1 and assessed afresh1 and a kind and amount of exercise required that is exactly proportioned1 not perhaps to the size but to the capability of each voluntary muscle4 ,thus only can we have a truly humanistic physical development1 analogous to the training of all the powers of the mind in a broad1 truly liberal1 and non-professional or non-vocational educational curriculum4 ,the body will thus have its rightful share in the pedagogic traditions and inspirations of the renaissance4 ,thus only can we have a true scale of standardised culture values for efferent processes2 and from this we can measure the degrees of departure1 both in the direction of excess and defect1 of each form of work1 motor habit2 and even play4 ,many modern ,epigoni in the wake of this great ideal1 where its momentum was early spent1 feeling that new activities might be discovered with virtues hitherto undreamed of1 have almost made fetiches of special disciplines1 both developmental and corrective1 that are pictured and landed in scores of manuals4 ,others have had expectations no less excessive in the opposite direction and have argued that the greatest possible variety of movements best developed the greatest total of motor energy4 ,jahn especially thus made gymnastics a special art and inspired great enthusiasm of humanity1 and the songs of his pupils were of a better race of man and a greater and united fatherland4 ,it was this feature that made his work unique in the world1 and his disciples are fond of reminding us of the fact that it was just about one generation of men after the acme of influence of his system that1 in #ahgj1 ,germany showed herself the greatest military power since ancient ,rome1 and took the acknowledged leadership of the world both in education and science4 ,these theorizations even in their extreme forms have been not only highly suggestive but have brought great and new enthusiasms and ideals into the educational world that admirably fit adolescence4 ,the motive of bringing out latent1 decaying1 or even new powers1 skills1 knacks1 and feats1 is full of inspiration4 ,patriotism is aroused1 for thus the country can be better served2 thus the ,german ,fatherland was to be restored and unified after the dark days that followed the humiliation of ,jena4 ,now the ideals of religion are invoked that the soul may have a better and regenerated somatic organism with which to serve ,jesus and the ,church4 ,exercise is made a form of praise to ,god and of service to man1 and these motives are renforced by those of the new hygiene which strives for a new wholeness-holiness1 and would purify the body as the temple of the ,holy ,ghost4 ,thus in ,young ,men's ,christian ,association training schools and gymnasiums the gospel of ,christianity is preached anew and seeks to bring salvation to man's physical frame1 which the still lingering effects of asceticism have caused to be too long neglected in its progressive degeneration4 ,as the ,greek games were in honor of the gods1 so now the body is trained to better glorify ,god2 and regimen1 chastity1 and temperance are given a new momentum4 ,the physical salvation thus wrought will be1 when adequately written1 one of the most splendid chapters in the modern history of ,christianity4 ,military ideals have been revived in cult and song to hearten the warfare against evil within and without4 ,strength is prayed for as well as worked for1 and consecrated to the highest uses4 ,last but not least1 power thus developed over a large surface may be applied to athletic contests in the field1 and victories here are valuable as fore-gleams of how sweet the glory of achievements in higher moral and spiritual tasks will taste later4 ,the dangers and sources of error in this ideal of all-sided training are1 alas1 only too obvious1 although they only qualify its paramount good4 ,first1 it is impossible thus to measure the quanta of training needed so as rightly to assign to each its modicum and best modality of training4 ,indeed no method of doing this has ever been attempted1 but the assessments have been arbitrary and conjectural1 probably right in some and wrong in other respects1 with no adequate criterion or test for either save only empirical experience4 ,secondly1 heredity1 which lays its heavy ictus upon some neglected forms of activity and fails of all support for others1 has been ignored4 ,as we shall see later1 one of the best norms here is phyletic emphasis1 and what lacks this must at best be feeble2 and if new powers are unfolding1 their growth must be very slow and they must be nurtured as tender buds for generations4 ,thirdly1 too little regard is had for the vast differences in individuals1 most of whom need much personal prescription4 ,b4 ,in practise the above ideal is never isolated from others4 ,perhaps the most closely associated with it is that of increased volitional control4 ,man is largely a creature of habit1 and many of his activities are more or less automatic reflexes from the stimuli of his environment4 ,every new power of controlling these by the will frees man from slavery and widens the field of freedom4 ,to acquire the power of doing all with consciousness and volition mentalizes the body1 gives control over to higher brain levels1 and develops them by rescuing activities from the dominance of lower centers4 ,thus mens agitat molem4 ,footnote3 ,mind rules the body4 ,this end is favored by the ,swedish commando exercises1 which require great alertness of attention to translate instantly a verbal order into an act and also1 although in somewhat less degree1 by quick imitation of a leader4 ,the stimulus of music and rhythm are excluded because thought to interfere with this end4 ,a somewhat sophisticated form of this goal is sought by several ,delsartian schemes of relaxation1 decomposition1 and recomposition of movements4 ,to do all things with consciousness and to encroach on the field of instinct involves new and more vivid sense impressions1 the range of which is increased directly as that of motion1 the more closely it approaches the focus of attention4 ,by thus analyzing settled and established cordinations1 their elements are set free and may be organized into new combinations1 so that the former is the first stage toward becoming a virtuoso with new special skills4 ,this is the road to inner secrets or intellectual rules of professional and expert successes1 such as older athletes often rely upon when their strength begins to wane4 ,every untrained automatism must be domesticated1 and every striated muscle capable of direct muscular control must be dominated by volition4 ,thus tensions and incipient contractures that drain off energy can be relaxed by fiat4 ,sandow's muscle dance1 the differentiation of movements of the right and left hand--one1 e4g41 writing a ,french madrigal while the other is drawing a picture of a country dance1 or each playing tunes of disparate rhythm and character simultaneously on the piano--controlling heart rate1 moving the ears1 crying1 laughing1 blushing1 moving the bowels1 etc41 at will1 feats of inhibition of reflexes1 stunts of all kinds1 proficiency with many tools1 deftness in sports--these altogether would mark the extremes in this direction4 ,this1 too1 has its inspiration for youth4 ,to be a universal adept like ,hippias suggests ,diderot and the encyclopedists in the intellectual realm4 ,to do all with consciousness is a means to both remedial and expert ends4 ,motor life often needs to be made over to a greater or less extent2 and that possibilities of vastly greater accomplishments exist than are at present realized1 is undoubted1 even in manners and morals1 which are both at root only motor habits4 ,indeed consciousness itself is largely and perhaps wholly corrective in its very essence and origin4 ,thus life is adjusted to new environments2 and if the ,platonic postulate be correct1 that untaught virtues that come by nature and instinct are no virtues1 but must be made products of reflection and reason1 the sphere and need of this principle is great indeed4 ,but this implies a distrust of physical human nature as deep-seated and radical as that of ,calvinism for the unregenerate heart1 against which modern common sense1 so often the best muse of both psychophysics and pedagogy1 protests4 ,individual prescription is here as imperative as it is difficult4 ,wonders that now seem to be most incredible1 both of hurt and help1 can undoubtedly be wrought1 but analysis should always be for the sake of synthesis and never be beyond its need and assured completion4 ,no thoughtful student fully informed of the facts and tentatives in this field can doubt that here lies one of the most promising fields of future development1 full of far-reaching and rich results for those1 as yet far too few1 experts in physical training1 who have philosophic minds1 command the facts of modern psychology1 and whom the world awaits now as never before4 ,c4 ,another yet closely correlated ideal is that of economic postures and movements4 ,the system of ,ling is less orthopedic than orthogenic1 although he sought primarily to correct bad attitudes and perverted growth4 ,starting from the respiratory and proceeding to the muscular system1 he and his immediate pupils were content to refer to the ill-shapen bodies of most men about them4 ,one of their important aims was to relax the flexor and tone up the extensor muscles and to open the human form into postures as opposite as possible to those of the embryo1 which it tends so persistently to approximate in sitting1 and in fatigue and collapse attitudes generally4 ,the head must balance on the cervical vertebra and not call upon the muscles of the neck to keep it from rolling off2 the weight of the shoulders must be thrown back off the thorax2 the spine be erect to allow the abdomen free action2 the joints of the thigh extended2 the hand and arm supinated1 etc4 ,bones must relieve muscles and nerves4 ,thus an erect1 self-respecting carriage must be given1 and the unfortunate association1 so difficult to overcome1 between effort and an involuted posture must be broken up4 ,this means economy and a great saving of vital energy4 ,extensor action goes with expansive1 flexor with depressive states of mind2 hence courage1 buoyancy1 hope1 are favored and handicaps removed4 ,all that is done with great effort causes wide irradiation of tensions to the other half of the body and also sympathetic activities in those not involved2 the law of maximal ease and minimal expenditure of energy must be always striven for1 and the interests of the viscera never lost sight of4 ,this involves educating weak and neglected muscles1 and like the next ideal1 often shades over by almost imperceptible gradation into the passive movements by the ,zander machines4 ,realizing that certain activities are sufficiently or too much emphasized in ordinary life1 stress is laid upon those which are complemental to them1 so that there is no pretense of taking charge of the totality of motor processes1 the intention being principally to supplement deficiencies1 to insure men against being warped1 distorted1 or deformed by their work in life1 to compensate specialties and perform more exactly what recreation to some extent aims at4 ,this wholesome but less inspiring endeavor1 which combats one of the greatest evils that under modern civilization threatens man's physical weal1 is in some respects as easy and practical as it is useful4 ,the great majority of city bred men1 as well as all students1 are prone to deleterious effects from too much sitting2 and indeed there is anatomical evidence in the structure of the tissues1 and especially the blood-vessels of the groins1 that1 at his best1 man is not yet entirely adjusted to the upright position4 ,so a method that straightens knees1 hips1 spine1 and shoulders1 or combats the school-desk attitude1 is a most salutary contribution to a great and growing need4 ,in the very act of stretching1 and perhaps yawning1 for which much is to be said1 nature itself suggests such correctives and preventives4 ,to save men from being victims of their occupations is often to add a better and larger half to their motor development4 ,the danger of the system1 which now best represents this ideal1 is inflexibility and overscholastic treatment4 ,it needs a great range of individual variations if it would do more than increase circulation1 respiration1 and health1 or the normal functions of internal organs and fundamental physiological activities4 ,to clothe the frame with honest muscles that are faithful servants of the will adds not only strength1 more active habits and efficiency1 but health2 and in its material installation this system is financially economic4 ,personal faults and shortcomings are constantly pointed out where this work is best represented1 and it has a distinct advantage in inciting an acquaintance with physiology and inviting the larger fields of medical knowledge4 ,d4 ,the fourth gymnastic aim is symmetry and correct proportions4 ,anthropometry and average girths and dimensions1 strength1 etc41 of the parts of the body are first charted in percentile grades2 and each individual is referred to the apparatus and exercises best fitted to correct weaknesses and subnormalities4 ,the norms here followed are not the canons of ,greek art1 but those established by the measurement of the largest numbers properly grouped by age1 weight1 height1 etc4 ,young men are found to differ very widely4 ,some can lift #a1jjj pounds1 and some not #ajj2 some can lift their weight between twenty and forty times1 and some not once2 some are most deficient in legs1 others in shoulders1 arms1 backs1 chests4 ,by photography1 tape1 and scales1 each is interested in his own bodily condition and incited to overcome his greatest defects2 and those best endowed by nature to attain ideal dimensions and make new records are encouraged along these lines4 ,thus this ideal is also largely though not exclusively remedial4 ,this system can arouse youth to the greatest pitch of zest in watching their own rapidly multiplying curves of growth in dimensions and capacities1 in plotting curves that record their own increment in girths1 lifts1 and other tests1 and in observing the effects of sleep1 food1 correct and incorrect living upon a system so exquisitely responsive to all these influences as are the muscles4 ,to learn to know and grade excellence and defect1 to be known for the list of things one can do and to have a record1 or to realize what we lack of power to break best records1 even to know that we are strengthening some point where heredity has left us with some shortage and perhaps danger1 the realization of all this may bring the first real and deep feeling for growth that may become a passion later in things of the soul4 ,growth always has its selfish aspects1 and to be constantly passing our own examination in this respect is a new and perhaps sometimes too self-conscious endeavor of our young college barbarians2 but it is on the whole a healthful regulative1 and this form of the struggle toward perfection and escape from the handicap of birth will later move upward to the intellectual and moral plane4 ,to kindle a sense of physical beauty of form in every part1 such as a sculptor has1 may be to start youth on the lowest round of the ,platonic ladder that leads up to the vision of ideal beauty of soul1 if his ideal be not excess of brawn1 or mere brute strength1 but the true proportion represented by the classic or mean temperance balanced like justice between all extremes4 ,hard1 patient1 regular work1 with the right dosage for this self-cultural end1 has thus at the same time a unique moral effect4 ,the dangers of this system are also obvious4 ,nature's intent can not be too far thwarted2 and as in mental training the question is always pertinent1 so here we may ask whether it be not best in all cases to some extent1 and in some cases almost exclusively1 to develop in the direction in which we most excel1 to emphasize physical individuality and even idiosyncrasy1 rather than to strive for monotonous uniformity4 ,weaknesses and parts that lag behind are the most easily overworked to the point of reaction and perhaps permanent injury4 ,again1 work for curative purposes lacks the exuberance of free sports3 it is not inspiring to make up areas2 and therapeutic exercises imposed like a sentence for the shortcomings of our forebears bring a whiff of the atmosphere of the hospital1 if not of the prison1 into the gymnasium4 ,these four ideals1 while so closely interrelated1 are as yet far from harmonized4 ,swedish1 ,turner1 ,sargent1 and ,american systems are each1 most unfortunately1 still too blind to the others' merits and too conscious of the others' shortcomings4 ,to some extent they are prevented from getting together by narrow devotion to a single cult1 aided sometimes by a pecuniary interest in the sale of their own apparatus and books or in the training of teachers according to one set of rubrics4 ,the real elephant is neither a fan1 a rope1 a tree nor a log1 as the blind men in the fable contended1 each thinking the part he had touched to be the whole4 ,this inability of leaders to combine causes uncertainty and lack of confidence in1 and of enthusiastic support for1 any system on the part of the public4 ,even the radically different needs of the sexes have failed of recognition from the same partisanship4 ,all together represent only a fraction of the nature and needs of youth4 ,the world now demands what this country has never had1 a man who1 knowing the human body1 gymnastic history1 and the various great athletic traditions of the past1 shall study anew the whole motor field1 as a few great leaders early in the last century tried to do2 who shall gather and correlate the literature and experiences of the past and present with a deep sense of responsibility to the future2 who shall examine martial training with all the inspirations1 warnings1 and new demands2 and who shall know how to revive the inspiration of the past animated by the same spirit as the ,turners1 who were almost inflamed by referring back to the hardy life of the early ,teutons and trying to reproduce its best features2 who shall catch the spirit of1 and make due connections with1 popular sports past and present1 study both industry and education to compensate their debilitating effects1 and be himself animated by a great ethical and humanistic hope and faith in a better future4 ,such a man1 if he ever walks the earth1 will be the idol of youth1 will know their physical secrets1 will come almost as a savior to the bodies of men1 and will1 like ,jahn1 feel his calling and work sacred1 and his institution a temple in which every physical act will be for the sake of the soul4 ,the world of adolescence1 especially that part which sits in closed spaces conning books1 groans and travails all the more grievously and yearningly1 because unconsciously1 waiting for a redeemer for its body4 ,till he appears1 our culture must remain for most a little hollow1 falsetto1 and handicapped by school-bred diseases4 ,the modern gymnasium performs its chief service during adolescence and is one of the most beneficent agencies of which not a few1 but every youth1 should make large use4 ,its spirit should be instinct with euphoria1 where the joy of being alive reaches a point of high1 although not quite its highest1 intensity4 ,while the stimulus of rivalry and even of records is not excluded1 and social feelings may be appealed to by unison exercises and by the club spirit1 and while competitions1 tournaments1 and the artificial motives of prizes and exhibitions may be invoked1 the culture is in fact largely individual4 ,and yet in this country the annual ,turnerfest brings #d1jjj or #e1jjj men from all parts of the ,union1 who sometimes all deploy and go through some of the standard exercises together under one leader4 ,instead of training a few athletes1 the real problem now presented is how to raise the general level of vitality so that children and youth may be fitted to stand the strain of modern civilization1 resist zymotic diseases1 and overcome the deleterious influences of city life4 ,the almost immediate effects of systematic training are surprising and would hardly be inferred from the annual increments tabled earlier in this chapter4 ,sandow was a rather weakly boy and ascribes his development chiefly to systematic training4 ,we have space but for two reports believed to be typical4 ,enebuske reports on the effects of seven months' training on young women averaging #bb4c years4 ,the figures are based on the #ej percentile column4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,strength of ,lung right left ,total capacity legs back chestforearmforearm,strength ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,before training #b4fe #ic #fe4e #bg #bf #bc #bcj ,after six months #b4hg #abj #ha4e #cb #bh #be #bic ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,by comparing records of what he deems standard normal growth with that of #ahh naval cadets from sixteen to twenty-one1 who had special and systematic training1 just after the period of most rapid growth in height1 ,beyer concluded that the effect of four years of this added a little over an inch of stature1 and that this gain as greatest at the beginning4 ,this increase was greatest for the youngest cadets4 ,he found also a marked increase in weight1 nearly the same for each year from seventeen to twenty one4 ,this he thought more easily influenced by exercise than height4 ,a high vital index ratio of lung capacity to weight is a very important attribute of good training4 ,beyer#a found1 however1 that the addition of lung area gained by exercise did not keep up with the increase thus caused in muscular substance1 and that the vital index always became smaller in those who had gained weight and strength by special physical training4 ,how much gain in weight is desirable beyond the point where the lung capacity increases at an equal rate is unknown4 ,if such measurements were applied to the different gymnastic systems1 we might be able to compare their efficiency1 which would be a great desideratum in view of the unfortunate rivalry between them4 ,total strength1 too1 can be greatly increased4 ,beyer thinks that from sixteen to twenty-one it may exceed the average or normal increment fivefold1 and he adds1 ,i firmly believe that the now so wonderful performances of most of our strong men are well within the reach of the majority of healthy men1 if such performances were a serious enough part of their ambition to make them do the exercises necessary to develop them4 ,power of the organs to respond to good training by increased strength probably reaches well into middle life4 ,it is not encouraging to learn that1 according to a recent writer1#b we now have seventy times as many physicians in proportion to the general population as there are physical directors1 even for the school population alone considered4 ,we have twice as many physicians per population as ,great ,britain1 four times a many as ,germany1 or #b physicians1 #a4h ministers1 #a4d lawyers per thousand of the general population2 while even if all male teachers of physical training taught only males of the military age1 we should have but #j4je of a teacher per thousand1 or if the school population alone be considered1 #bj teachers per million pupils4 ,hence1 it is inferred that the need of wise and classified teachers in this field is at present greater than in any other4 ,but fortunately while spontaneous1 unsystematic exercise in a well-equipped modern gymnasium may in rare cases do harm1 so far from sharing the prejudice often felt for it by professional trainers1 we believe that free access to it without control or direction is unquestionably a boon to youth4 ,even if its use be sporadic and occasional1 as it is likely to be with equal opportunity for out-of-door exercises and especially sports1 practise is sometimes hygienic almost inversely to its amount1 while even lameness from initial excess has its lessons1 and the sense of manifoldness of inferiorities brought home by experiences gives a wholesome self-knowledge and stimulus4 ,in this country more than elsewhere1 especially in high school and college1 gymnasium work has been brought into healthful connection with field sports and record competitions for both teams and individuals who aspire to championship4 ,this has given the former a healthful stimulus although it is felt only by a picked few4 ,scores of records have been established for running1 walking1 hurdling1 throwing1 putting1 swimming1 rowing1 skating1 etc41 each for various shorter and longer distances and under manifold conditions1 and for both amateurs and professionals1 who are easily accessible4 ,these1 in general1 show a slow but steady advance in this country since #ahgf1 when athletics were established here4 ,in that year there was not a single world's best record held by an ,american amateur1 and high-school boys of to-day could in most1 though not in all lines1 have won the ,american championship twenty-five years ago4 ,of course1 in a strict sense1 intercollegiate contests do not show the real advance in athletics1 because it is not necessary for a man in order to win a championship to do his best2 but they do show general improvement4 ,we select for our purpose a few of those records longest kept4 ,not dependent on external conditions like boat-racing1 or on improved apparatus like bicycling1 we have interesting data of a very different order for physical measurements4 ,these down to present writing--,july1 #aijf--;are as follows3 ,for the #ajj-yard dash1 every annual record from #ahgf to #ahie is #aj or #aa seconds1 or between these1 save in #ahij1 where ,owen's record of #i-d_/e seconds still stands4 ,in the #bbj-yard run there is slight improvement since #ahgg1 but here the record of #ahif 7,wefers1 #ba-a_/e seconds7 has not been surpassed4 ,in the quarter-mile run1 the beet record was in #aijj 7,long1 #dg seconds74 ,the half-mile record1 which still stands1 was made in #ahie 7,kilpatrick1 #a minute #eb-b_/e seconds72 the mile run in #ahie 7,conneff1 #d minutes #ae-c_/e seconds74 ,the running broad jump shows a very steady improvement1 with the best record in #aijj 7,prinstein1 #bd feet #g-a_/d inches74 ,the running high jump shows improvement1 but less1 with the record of #ahie still standing 7,sweeney1 #f feet #e-e_/h inches74 ,the record for pole vaulting1 corrected to ,november1 #aije1 is #ab feet #acb_/ajj inches 7,dole72 for throwing the #af-pound hammer head1 #ajj feet #e inches 7,queckberner72 for putting the #af-pound shot1 #di feet #f inches 7,coe1 #aije72 the standing high jump1 #e feet #e-a_/b inches 7,ewry72 for the running high jump1 #f feet #e-e_/h inches 7,sweeney74 ,we also find that if we extend our purview to include all kinds of records for physical achievement1 that not a few of the amateur records for activities involving strength combined with rapid rhythm movement are held by young men of twenty or even less4 ,in putting the #af-pound shot under uniform conditions the record has improved since the early years nearly #aj feet 7,coe1 #di feet #f inches1 best at present writing1 #aijf74 ,pole vaulting shows a very marked advance culminating in #aijd 7,dole1 #ab feet #acb_/ajj inches74 ,most marked of all perhaps is the great advance in throwing the #af-pound hammer4 ,beginning between #gj and #hj feet in the early years1 the record is now #agb feet #aa inches 7,flanagan1 #aijd74 ,the two-mile bicycle race also shows marked gain1 partly1 of course1 due to improvement in the wheel1 the early records being nearly #g minutes1 and the best being #b minutes #ai seconds 7,mc,lean1 #aijc74 ,some of these are world records1 and more exceed professional records4#c ,these1 of course1 no more indicate general improvement than the steady reduction of time in horse-racing suggests betterment in horses generally4 ,in ,panhellenic games as well as at present1 athleticism in its manifold forms was one of the most characteristic expressions of adolescent nature and needs4 ,not a single time or distance record of antiquity has been preserved1 although ,grasberger#d and other writers would have us believe that in those that are comparable1 ancient youthful champions greatly excelled ours1 especially in leaping and running4 ,while we are far from cultivating mere strength1 our training is very one-sided from the ,greek norm of unity or of the ideals that develop the body only for the salve of the soul4 ,while gymnastics in our sense1 with apparatus1 exercises1 and measurements independently of games was unknown1 the ideal and motive were as different from ours as was its method4 ,nothing1 so far as is known1 was done for correcting the ravages of work1 or for overcoming hereditary defects2 and until athletics degenerated there were ,do exercises for the sole purpose of developing muscle4 ,on the whole1 while modern gymnastics has done more for the trunk1 shoulders1 and arms than for the legs1 it is now too selfish and ego-centric1 deficient on the side of psychic impulsion1 and but little subordinated to ethical or intellectual development4 ,yet it does a great physical service to all who cultivate it1 and is a safeguard of virtue and temperance4 ,its need is radical revision and coordination of various cults and theories in the light of the latest psycho-physiological science4 ,gymnastics allies itself to biometric work4 ,the present academic zeal for physical development is in great need of closer affiliation with anthropometry4 ,this important and growing department will be represented in the ideal gymnasium of the future--,first1 by courses1 if not by a chair1 devoted to the apparatus of measurements of human proportions and symmetry1 with a kinesological cabinet where young men are instructed in the elements of auscultation1 the use of calipers1 the sphygmograph1 spirometer1 plethysmograph1 kinesometer to plot graphic curves1 compute average errors1 and tables of percentile grades and in statistical methods1 etc4 ,second1 anatomy1 especially of muscles1 bones1 heart1 and skin1 will be taught1 and also their physiology1 with stress upon myology1 the effects of exercise on the flow of blood and lymph1 not excluding the development of the upright position1 and all that it involves and implies4 ,third1 hygiene will be prominent and comprehensive enough to cover all that pertains to body-keeping1 regimen1 sleep1 connecting with school and domestic and public hygiene--all on the basis of modern as distinct from the archaic physiology of ,ling1 who1 it is sufficient to remember1 died in #ahci1 before this science was recreated1 and the persistence of whose concepts are an anomalous survival to-day4 ,mechanico-therapeutics1 the purpose and service of each chief kind of apparatus and exercise1 the value of work on stall bars with chest weights1 of chinning1 use of the quarter-staff1 somersaults1 rings1 clubs1 dumb-bells1 work with straight and flexed knees on machinery1 etc41 will be taught4 ,fourth1 the history of gymnastics from the time of its highest development in ,greece to the present is full of interest and has a very high and not yet developed culture value for youth4 ,this department1 both in its practical and theoretical side1 should have its full share of prizes and scholarships to stimulate the seventy to seventy-five per cent of students who are now unaffected by the influence of athletics4 ,by these methods the motivation of gymnastics1 which now in large measure goes to waste in enthusiasm1 could be utilised to aid the greatly needed intellectualization of those exercises which in their nature are more akin to work than play4 ,indeed1 ,gutsmuths's first definition of athletics was work under the garb of youthful pleasure4 ,so to develop these courses that they could chiefly1 if not entirely1 satisfy the requirements for the ,a4,b4 degree1 would coordinate the work of the now isolated curriculum of the training-schools with that of the college and thus broaden the sphere of the latter2 but besides its culture value1 which ,i hold very high1 such a step would prepare for the new1 important1 and1 as we have seen1 very inadequately manned profession of physical trainers4 ,this has1 moreover1 great but yet latent and even unsuspected capacities for the morals of our academic youth4 ,grote states that among the ancient ,greeks one-half of all education as devoted to the body1 and ,galton urges that they as much excelled us as we do the ,african negro4 ,they held that if physical perfection was cultivated1 moral and mental excellence would follow2 and that1 without this1 national culture rests on an insecure basis4 ,in our day there are many new reasons to believe that the best nations of the future will be those which give most intelligent care to the body4 ,footnote #a3 ,see ,h4,g4 ,beyer4 ,the ,influence of ,exercise on ,growth4 ,american ,physical ,education ,review1 ,september-,december1 #ahif1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #gf-hg4 ,footnote #b3 ,j4,h4 ,mc,curdy1 ,physical ,training as a ,profession4 ,association ,seminar1 ,march1 #aijb1 vol4 #aj1 pp4 #aa-bd4 ,footnote #c3 ,these records are taken from the ,world ,almanac1 #aijf1 and ,olympic ,games of #aijf at ,athens4 ,edited by ,j4,e4 ,sullivan1 ,commissioner from the ,united ,states to the ,olympic ,games4 ,spalding's ,athletic ,library1 ,new ,york1 ,july1 #aijf4 ,footnote #d3 ,o4,h4 ,jaeger1 ,die ,gymnastik der ,hellenen4 ,heitz1 ,stuttgart #ahha4 ,l4 ,grasberger's great standard work1 ,erziehung und ,untericht im klassischen ,alterthum4 ,wrzburg1 #ahfd-ha1 #c vols4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,play1 ,,sports1 ,,and ,,games ,the view of ,groos partial and a better explanation of play proposed as rehearsing ancestral activities--,the glory of ,greek physical training1 its ideals and results--,the first spontaneous movements of infancy as keys to the past--,necessity of developing basal powers before those that are later and peculiar to the individual--,plays that interest due to their antiquity--,play with dolls--,play distinguished by age--,play preferences of children and their reasons--,the profound significance of rhythm--,the value of dancing and also its significance1 history1 and the desirability of re-introducing it--,fighting--,boxing--,wrestling--,bus hido--,foot-ball--,military ideals--,showing off--,cold baths--,hill climbing--,the playground movement--,the psychology of play--,its relation to work4 ,play1 sports1 and games constitute a more varied1 far older1 and more popular field4 ,here a very different spirit of joy and gladness rules4 ,artifacts often enter but can not survive unless based upon pretty purely hereditary momentum4 ,thus our first problem is to seek both the motor tendencies and the psychic motives bequeathed to us from the past4 ,the view of ,groos that play is practise for future adult activities is very partial1 superficial1 and perverse4 ,it ignores the past where lie the keys to all play activities4 ,true play never practises what is phyletically new2 and this1 industrial life often calls for4 ,it exercises many atavistic and rudimentary functions1 a number of which will abort before maturity1 but which live themselves out in play like the tadpole's tail1 that must be both developed and used as a stimulus to the growth of legs which will otherwise never mature4 ,in place of this mistaken and misleading view1 ,i regard play as the motor habits and spirit of the past of the race1 persisting in the present1 as rudimentary functions sometimes of and always akin to rudimentary organs4 ,the best index and guide to the stated activities of adults in past ages is found in the instinctive1 untaught1 and non-imitative plays of children which are the most spontaneous and exact expressions of their motor needs4 ,the young grow up into the same forms of motor activity1 as did generations that have long preceded them1 only to a limited extent2 and if the form of every human occupation were to change to-day1 play would be unaffected save in some of its superficial imitative forms4 ,it would develop the motor capacities1 impulses1 and fundamental forms of our past heritage1 and the transformation of these into later acquired adult forms is progressively later4 ,in play every mood and movement is instinct with heredity4 ,thus we rehearse the activities of our ancestors1 back we know not how far1 and repeat their life work in summative and adumbrated ways4 ,it is reminiscent albeit unconsciously1 of our line of descent2 and each is the key to the other4 ,the psycho-motive impulses that prompt it are the forms in which our forebears have transmitted to us their habitual activities4 ,thus stage by stage we renact their lives4 ,once in the phylon many of these activities were elaborated in the life and death struggle for existence4 ,now the elements and combinations oldest in the muscle history of the race are rerepresented earliest in the individual1 and those later follow in order4 ,this is why the heart of youth goes out into play as into nothing else1 as if in it man remembered a lost paradise4 ,this is why1 unlike gymnastics1 play has as much soul as body1 and also why it so makes for unity of body and soul that the proverb ,man is whole only when he plays suggests that the purest plays are those that enlist both alike4 ,to address the body predominantly strengthens unduly the fleshy elements1 and to overemphasize the soul causes weakness and automatisms4 ,thus understood1 play is the ideal type of exercise for the young1 most favorable for growth1 and most self-regulating in both kind and amount4 ,for its forms the pulse of adolescent enthusiasm beats highest4 ,it is unconstrained and free to follow any outer or inner impulse4 ,the zest of it vents and satisfies the strong passion of youth for intense erethic and perhaps orgiastic states1 gives an exaltation of self-feeling so craved that with no vicarious outlet it often impels to drink1 and best of all realizes the watchword of the ,turners1 frisch1 frei1 frhlich1 fromm ,fresh1 free1 jovial1 pious44 ,ancient ,greece1 the history and literature of which owe their perennial charm for all later ages to the fact that they represent the eternal adolescence of the world1 best illustrates what this enthusiasm means for youth4 ,jger and ,guildersleeve1 and yet better ,grasberger1 would have us believe that the ,panhellenic and especially the ,olympic games combined many of the best features of a modern prize exhibition1 a camp-meeting1 fair1 ,derby day1 a ,wagner festival1 a meeting of the ,british ,association1 a country cattle show1 intercollegiate games1 and medieval tournament2 that they were the acme of festive life and drew all who loved gold and glory1 and that night and death never seemed so black as by contrast with their splendor4 ,the deeds of the young athletes were ascribed to the inspiration of the gods1 whose abodes they lit up with glory2 and in doing them honor these discordant states found a bond of unity4 ,the victor was crowned with a simple spray of laurel2 cities vied with each other for the honor of having given him birth1 their walls were taken down for his entry and immediately rebuilt2 sculptors1 for whom the five ancient games were schools of posture1 competed in the representation of his form2 poets gave him a pedigree reaching back to the gods1 and ,pindar1 who sang that only he is great who is great with his hands and feet1 raised his victory to symbolize the eternal prevalence of good over evil4 ,the best body implied the best mind2 and even ,plato1 to whom tradition gives not only one of the fairest souls1 but a body remarkable for both strength and beauty1 and for whom weakness was perilously near to wickedness1 and ugliness to sin1 argues that education must be so conducted that the body can be safely entrusted to the care of the soul and suggests1 what later became a slogan of a more degenerate gladiatorial athleticism1 that to be well and strong is to be a philosopher--valare est philosophari4 ,the ,greeks could hardly conceive bodily apart from psychic education1 and physical was for the sake of mental training4 ,a sane1 whole mind could hardly reside in an unsound body upon the integrity of which it was dependent4 ,knowledge for its own sake1 from this standpoint1 is a dangerous superstition1 for what frees the mind is disastrous if it does not give self-control2 better ignorance than knowledge that does not develop a motor side4 ,body culture is ultimately only for the sake of the mind and soul1 for body is only its other ego4 ,not only is all muscle culture at the same time brain-building1 but a book-worm with soft hands1 tender feet1 and tough rump from much sitting1 or an anemic girl prodigy1 in the morning hectic1 in the evening electric1 is a monster4 ,play at its best is only a school of ethics4 ,it gives not only strength but courage and confidence1 tends to simplify life and habits1 gives energy1 decision1 and promptness to the will1 brings consolation and peace of mind in evil days1 is a resource in trouble and brings out individuality4 ,how the ideals of physical preformed those of moral and mental training in the land and day of ,socrates is seen in the identification of knowledge and virtue1 ,kennen und ,knnen4 ,to know and to have the power to do ,only an extreme and one-sided intellectualism separates them and assumes that it is easy to know and hard to do4 ,from the ethical standpoint1 philosophy1 and indeed all knowledge1 is the art of being and doing good1 conduct is the only real subject of knowledge1 and there is no science but morals4 ,he is the best man1 says ,xenophon1 who is always studying how to improve1 and he is the happiest who feels that he is improving4 ,life is a skill1 an art like a handicraft1 and true knowledge a form of will4 ,good moral and physical development are more than analogous2 and where intelligence is separated from action the former becomes mystic1 abstract1 and desiccated1 and the latter formal routine4 ,thus mere conscience and psychological integrity and righteousness are allied and mutually inspiring4 ,not only play1 which is the purest expression of motor heredity1 but work and all exercise owe most of whatever pleasure they bring to the past4 ,the first influence of all right exercise for those in health is feeling of well-being and exhilaration4 ,this is one chief source of the strange enthusiasm felt for many special forms of activity1 and the feeling is so strong that it animates many forms of it that are hygienically unfit4 ,to act vigorously from a full store of energy gives a reflex of pleasure that is sometimes a passion and may fairly intoxicate4 ,animals must move or cease growing and die4 ,while to be weak is to be miserable1 to feel strong is a joy and glory4 ,it gives a sense of superiority1 dignity1 endurance1 courage1 confidence1 enterprise1 power1 personal validity1 virility1 and virtue in the etymological sense of that noble word4 ,to be active1 agile1 strong1 is especially the glory of young men4 ,our nature and history have so disposed our frame that thus all physiological and psychic processes are stimulated1 products of decomposition are washed out by oxygenation and elimination1 the best reaction of all the ganglionic and sympathetic activities is accused1 and vegetative processes are normalized4 ,activity may exalt the spirit almost to the point of ecstasy1 and the physical pleasure of it diffuse1 irradiate1 and mitigate the sexual stress just at the age when its premature localization is most deleterious4 ,just enough at the proper time and rate contributes to permanent elasticity of mood and disposition1 gives moral self-control1 rouses a love of freedom with all that that great word means1 and favors all higher human aspirations4 ,in all these modes of developing our efferent powers1 we conceive that the race comes very close to the individual youth1 and that ancestral momenta animate motor neurons and muscles and preside over most of the combinations4 ,some of the elements speak with a still small voice raucous with age4 ,the first spontaneous movements of infancy are hieroglyphs1 to most of which we have as yet no good key4 ,many elements are so impacted and felted together that we can not analyze them4 ,many are extinct and many perhaps made but once and only hint things we can not apprehend4 ,later the rehearsals are fuller1 and their significance more intelligible1 and in boyhood and youth the correspondences are plain to all who have eyes to see4 ,pleasure is always exactly proportional to the directness and force of the current of heredity1 and in play we feel most fully and intensely ancestral joys4 ,the pain of toil died with our forebears2 its vestiges in our play give pure delight4 ,its variety prompts to diversity that enlarges our life4 ,primitive men and animals played1 and that too has left its traces in us4 ,some urge that work was evolved or degenerated from play2 but the play field broadens with succeeding generations youth is prolonged1 for play is always and everywhere the best synonym of youth4 ,all are young at play and only in play1 and the best possible characterization of old age is the absence of the soul and body of play4 ,only senile and overspecialized tissues of brain1 heart1 and muscles know it not4 ,gulick#a has urged that what makes certain exercises more interesting than others is to be found in the phylon4 ,the power to throw with accuracy and speed was once pivotal for survival1 and non-throwers were eliminated4 ,those who could throw unusually well best overcame enemies1 killed game1 and sheltered family4 ,the nervous and muscular systems are organized with certain definite tendencies and have back of them a racial setting4 ,so running and dodging with speed and endurance1 and hitting with a club1 were also basal to hunting and fighting4 ,now that the need of these is leas urgent for utilitarian purposes1 they are still necessary for perfecting the organism4 ,this makes1 for instance1 baseball racially familiar1 because it represents activities that were once and for a long time necessary for survival4 ,we inherit tendencies of muscular cordination that have been of great racial utility4 ,the best athletic sports and games a composed of these racially old elements1 so that phylogenetic muscular history is of great importance4 ,why is it1 this writer asks1 that a city man so loves to sit all day and fish6 ,it is because this interest dates back to time immemorial4 ,we are the sons of fishermen1 and early life was by the water's side1 and this is our food supply4 ,this explains why certain exercises are more interesting than others4 ,it is because they touch and revive the deep basic emotions of the race4 ,thus we see that play is not doing things to be useful later1 but it is rehearsing racial history4 ,plays and games change only in their external form1 but the underlying neuro-muscular activities1 and also the psychic content of them1 are the same4 ,just as psychic states must be lived out up through the grades1 so the physical activities most be played off1 each in its own time4 ,the best exercise for the young should thus be more directed to develop the basal powers old to the race than those peculiar to the individual1 and it should enforce those psycho-neural and muscular forms which race habit has banded down rather than insist upon those arbitrarily designed to develop our ideas of symmetry regardless of heredity4 ,the best guide to the former is interest1 zest1 and spontaneity4 ,hereditary moment1 really determine1 too1 the order in which nerve centers come into function4 ,the oldest1 racial parts come first1 and those which are higher and represent volition come in much later4#b ,as ,hughlings ,jackson has well shown1 speech uses most of the same organs as does eating1 but those concerned with the former are controlled from a higher level of nerve-cells4 ,by right mastication1 deglutition1 etc41 we are thus developing speech organs4 ,thus not only the kind but the time of forms and degrees of exercise is best prescribed by heredity4 ,all growth is more or less rhythmic4 ,there are seasons of rapid increment followed by rest and then perhaps succeeded by a period of augmentation1 and this may occur several times4 ,roberts's fifth parliamentary report shows that systematic gymnastics1 which1 if applied at the right age1 produce such immediate and often surprising development of lung capacity1 utterly fail with boys of twelve1 because this nascent period has not yet come4 ,donaldson showed that if the eyelid of a young kitten be forced open prematurely at birth and stimulated with light1 medullation was premature and imperfect2 so1 too1 if proper exercise is deferred too long1 we know that little result is achieved4 ,the sequence in which the maturation of levels1 nerve areas1 and bundles of fibers develop may be1 as ,flechsig thinks1 causal2 or1 according to ,cajal1 energy1 originally employed in growth by cell division1 later passes to fiber extension and the development of latent cells2 or as in young children1 the nascent period of finger movements may stimulate that of the thumb which comes later1 and the independent movement of the two eyes1 their subsequent cordination1 and so on to perhaps a third and yet higher level4 ,thus exercise ought to develop nature's first intention and fulfil the law of nascent periods1 or else not only no good but great harm may be done4 ,hence every determination of these periods is of great practical as well as scientific importance4 ,the following are the chief attempts yet made to fix them1 which show the significance of adolescence4 ,the doll curve reaches its point of highest intensity between eight and nine1#c and it is nearly ended at fifteen1 although it may persist4 ,children can give no better reason why they stop playing with dolls than because other things are liked better1 or they are too old1 ashamed1 love real babies1 etc4 ,the ,roman girl1 when ripe for marriage1 hung up her childhood doll as a votive offering to ,venus4 ,mrs4 ,carlyle1 who was compelled to stop1 made sumptuous dresses and a four-post bed1 and made her doll die upon a funeral pyre like ,dido1 after speaking her last farewell and stabbing herself with a penknife by way of ,tyrian sword4 ,at thirteen or fourteen it is more distinctly realized that dolls are not real1 because they have no inner life or feeling1 yet many continue to play with them with great pleasure1 in secret1 till well on in the teens or twenties4 ,occasionally single women or married women with no children1 and in rare cases even those who have children1 play dolls all their lives4 ,gales's#d student concluded that the girls who played with dolls up to or into pubescent years were usually those who had the fewest number1 that they played with them in the most realistic manner1 kept them because actually most fond of them1 and were likely to be more scientific1 steady1 and less sentimental than those who dropped them early4 ,but the instinct that dollifies new or most unfit things is gone1 as also the subtle points of contact between doll play and idolatry4 ,before puberty dolls are more likely to be adults2 after puberty they are almost always children or babies4 ,there is no longer a struggle between doubt and reality in the doll cosmos1 no more abandon to the doll illusion2 but where it lingers it is a more atavistic rudiment1 and just as at the height of the fever dolls are only in small part representatives of future children1 the saying that the first child is the last doll is probably false4 ,nor are doll and child comparable to first and second dentition1 and it is doubtful if children who play with dolls as children with too great abandonment are those who make the best mothers later1 or if it has any value as a preliminary practise of motherhood4 ,the number of motor activities that are both inspired and unified by this form of play and that can always be given wholesome direction is almost incredible1 and has been too long neglected both by psychologists and teachers4 ,few purer types of the rehearsal by the individual of the history of the race can probably be found even though we can not yet analyze the many elements involved and assign to each its phyletic correlate4 ,in an interesting paper ,dr4 ,gulick#e divides play into three childish periods1 separated by the ages three and seven1 and attempts to characterize the plays of early adolescence from twelve to seventeen and of later adolescence from seventeen to twenty-three4 ,of the first two periods he says1 children before seven rarely play games spontaneously1 but often do so under the stimulus of older persons4 ,from seven to twelve1 games are almost exclusively individualistic and competitive1 but in early adolescence two elements predominate--first1 the plays are predominantly team games1 in which the individual is more or less sacrificed for the whole1 in which there is obedience to a captain1 in which there is coperation among a number for a given end1 in which play has a program and an end4 ,the second characteristic of the period is with reference to its plays1 and there seems to be all of savage out-of-door life--hunting1 fishing1 stealing1 swimming1 rowing1 sailing1 fighting1 hero-worship1 adventure1 love of animals1 etc4 ,this characteristic obtains more with boys than with girls4 ,the plays of adolescence are socialistic1 demanding the heathen virtues of courage1 endurance1 self-control1 bravery1 loyalty1 enthusiasm4 ,croswell#f found that among #b1jjj children familiar with #gjj kinds of amusements1 those involving physical exercises predominated over all others1 and that at every age after the eighth year they were represented as almost two to one and in the sixteenth year rose among boys as four to one4 ,the age of the greatest number of different amusements is from ten to eleven1 nearly fifteen being mentioned1 but for the next eight or nine years there is a steady decline of number1 and progressive specialisation occurs4 ,the games of chase1 which are suggestive on the recapitulation theory1 rise from eleven per cent in boys of six to nineteen per cent at nine1 but soon after decline1 and at sixteen have fallen to less than four per cent4 ,toys and original make-believe games decline still earlier1 while ball rises steadily and rapidly to eighteen1 and card and table games rise very steadily from ten to fifteen in girls1 but the increment is much less in boys4 ,a third or more of all the amusements of boys just entering their teens are games of contest--games in which the end is in one way or another to gain an advantage one's fellows1 in which the interest is n the struggle between peers4 ,as children approach the teens1 a tendency arises that is well expressed by one of the girls who no longer makes playthings but things that are useful4 ,parents and society must1 therefore1 provide the most favorable conditions for the kind of amusement fitting at each age4 ,as the child grows older1 society plays a larger rle in all the child's amusements1 and from the thirteenth year amusements take on a decidedly coperative and competitive character1 and efforts are ore and more confined to the accomplishments of some definite aim4 ,the course for this period will concentrate the effort upon fewer lines1 and more time will be devoted to each4 ,the desire for mastery is now at its height4 ,the instinct is to maintain one's self independently and ask no odds4 ,at fourteen1 especially1 the impulse is1 in manual training1 to make something and perhaps to coperate4 ,mc,ghee#g collected the play preferences of #ae1gah children1 and found a very steady decline in running plays among girls from nine to eighteen1 but a far more rapid rise in plays of chance from eleven to fifteen1 and a very rapid rise from sixteen to eighteen4 ,from eleven onward with the most marked fall before fourteen1 there was a distinct decline in imitative games for girls and a slower one for boys4 ,games involving rivalry increased rapidly among boys from eleven to sixteen and still more rapidly among girls1 their percentage of preference even exceeding that of boys at eighteen1 when it reached nearly seventy per cent4 ,with adolescence1 specialization upon a few plays was markedly increased in the teens among boys1 whereas with girls in general there were a large number of plays which were popular with none preminent4 ,even at this age the principle of organization in games so strong with boys is very slight with girls4 ,puberty showed the greatest increase of interest among pubescent girls for croquet1 and among boys for swimming1 although baseball and football1 the most favored for boys1 rose rapidly4 ,although the author does not state it1 it would seem from his data that plays peculiar to the different seasons were most marked among boys1 in part1 at least1 because their activities are more out of doors4 ,ferrero and others have shown that the more intense activities of primitive people tend to be rhythmic and with strongly automatic features4 ,no form of activity is more universal than the dance1 which is not only intense but may express chiefly in terms of fundamental movements1 stripped of their accessory finish and detail1 every important act1 vocation1 sentiment1 or event in the life of man in language so universal and symbolic that music and poetry themselves seem to have arisen out of it4 ,before it became specialized much labor was cast in rhythmic form and often accompanied by time-marking and even tone to secure the stimulus of concert on both economic and social principles4 ,in the dark background of history there is now much evidence that at some point1 play1 art1 and work were not divorced4 ,they all may have sprung from rhythmic movement which is so deep-seated in biology because it secures most joy of life with least expense4 ,by it ,eros of old ordered chaos1 and by its judicious use the human soul is cadenced to great efforts toward high ideals4 ,the many work-songs to secure concerted action in lifting1 pulling1 stepping1 the use of flail1 lever1 saw1 ax1 hammer1 hoe1 loom1 etc41 show that areas and thesis represent flexion and extension1 that accent originated in the acme of muscular stress1 as well as how rhythm eases work and also makes it social4 ,most of the old work-canticles are lost1 and machines have made work more serial1 while rhythms are obscured or imposed from without so as to limit the freedom they used to express4 ,now all basal1 central1 or strength movements tend to be oscillatory1 automatically repetitive1 or rhythmic like savage music1 as if the waves of the primeval sea whence we came still beat in them1 just as all fine peripheral and late movements tend to be serial1 special1 vastly complex1 end diversified4 ,it is thus natural that during the period of greatest strength increment in muscular development1 the rhythmic function of nearly all fundamental movements should be strongly accentuated4 ,at the dawn of this age boys love marching2 and1 as our returns show1 there is a very remarkable rise in the passion for beating time1 jigging1 double shuffling1 rhythmic clapping1 etc4 ,the more prominent the factor of repetition the more automatic and the less strenuous is the hard and new effort of constant psychic adjustment and attention4 ,college yells1 cheers1 rowing1 marching1 processions1 bicycling1 running1 tug-of-war1 calisthenics and class gymnastics with counting1 and especially with music1 horseback riding1 etc41 are rhythmic2 tennis1 baseball and football1 basketball1 golf1 polo1 etc41 are less rhythmic1 but are concerted and intense4 ,these latter emphasise the conflict factor1 best brought out in fencing1 boxing1 and wrestling1 and lay more stress on the psychic elements of attention and skill4 ,the effect of musical accompaniment1 which the ,swedish system wrongly rejects1 is to make the exercises more fundamental and automatic1 and to proportionately diminish the conscious effort and relieve the neuro-muscular mechanism involved in fine movements4 ,adolescence is the golden period of nascency for rhythm4 ,before this change many children have a very imperfect sense of it1 and even those who march1 sing1 play1 or read poetry with correct and overemphasised time marking1 experience a great broadening of the horizon of consciousness1 and a marked1 and1 for mental power and scope1 all-conditioning increase in the carrying power of attention and the sentence-sense4 ,the soul now feels the beauty of cadences1 good ascension1 and the symmetry of well-developed periods--and all1 as ,i am convinced1 because this is the springtime of the strength movements which are predominantly rhythmic4 ,not only does music start in time marking1 the drum being the oldest instrument1 but quantity long took precedence of sense and form of content1 both melody and words coming later4 ,even rhythmic tapping or beating of the foot 7whence the poetic feet of prosody and meter thus later imposed monotonous prose to make poetry7 exhilarates1 makes glad the soul and inspires it to attack1 gives compulsion and a sense of unity4 ,the psychology of rhythm shows its basal value in cadencing the soul4 ,we can not conceive what war1 love1 and religion would be without it4 ,the old adage that the parent of prose is poetry1 the parent of poetry is music1 the parent of music is rhythm1 and the parent of rhythm is ,god seems borne out not only in history1 but by the nature of thought and attention that does not move in a continuum1 but flies and perches alternately1 or on stepping-stones and as if influenced by the tempo of the leg swinging as a compound pendulum4 ,dancing is one of the best expressions of pure play and of the motor needs of youth4 ,perhaps it is the most liberal of all forms of motor education4 ,schopenhauer thought it the apex of physiological irritability and that it made animal life most vividly conscious of its existence and most exultant in exhibiting it4 ,in very ancient times ,china ritualised it in the spring and made it a large part of the education of boys after the age of thirteen4 ,neale thinks it was originally circular or orbicular worship1 which he deems oldest4 ,in ,japan1 in the priestly ,salic ,college of ancient ,rome1 in ,egypt1 in the ,greek ,apollo cult1 it was a form of worship4 ,st4 ,basil advised it2 ,st4 ,gregory introduced it into religious services4 ,the early ,christian bishops1 called prsuls1 led the sacred dance around the altar2 and only in #fib1 and again in #afag1 was it forbidden in church4 ,neale and others have shown how the choral processionals with all the added charm of vestment and intonation have had far more to do in ,christianizing many low tribes1 who could not understand the language of the church1 than has preaching4 ,savages are nearly all great dancers1 imitating every animal they know1 dancing out their own legends1 with ritual sometimes so exacting that error means death4 ,the character of people is often learned from their dances1 and ,molire says the destiny of nations depends on them4 ,the gayest dancers are often among the most downtrodden and unhappy people4 ,some mysteries can be revealed only in them1 as holy passion-plays4 ,if we consider the history of secular dances1 we find that some of them1 when first invented or in vogue1 evoked the greatest enthusiasm4 ,one writer says that the polka so delighted ,france and ,england that statesmen forgot politics4 ,the spirit of the old ,polish aristocracy still lives in the polonaise4 ,the gipsy dances have inspired a new school of music4 ,the ,greek drama grew out of the evolution of the tragic chorus4 ,national dances like the hornpipe and reel of ,scotland1 the ,reihen1 of ,germany1 the rondes of ,france1 the ,spanish tarantella and chaconne1 the strathspey from the ,spey ,valley1 the ,irish jig1 etc41 express racial traits4 ,instead of the former vast repertory1 the stately pavone1 the graceful and dignified saraband1 the wild salterrelle1 the bourre with song and strong rhythm1 the light and skippy bolero1 the courtly bayedere1 the dramatic plugge1 gavotte1 and other peasant dances in costume1 the fast and furious fandango1 weapon and military dances2 in place of the pristine power to express love1 mourning1 justice1 penalty1 fear1 anger1 consolation1 divine service1 symbolic and philosophical conceptions1 and every industry or characteristic act of life in pantomime and gesture1 we have in the dance of the modern ballroom only a degenerate relict1 with at best but a very insignificant culture value1 and too often stained with bad associations4 ,this is most unfortunate for youth1 and for their sake a work of rescue and revival is greatly needed2 for it is perhaps1 not excepting even music1 the completest language of the emotions and can be made one of the best schools of sentiment and even will1 inculcating good states of mind and exorcising bad ones as few other agencies have power to do4 ,right dancing can cadence the very soul1 give nervous poise and control1 bring harmony between basal and finer muscles1 and also between feeling and intellect1 body and mind4 ,it can serve both as an awakener and a test of intelligence1 predispose the heart against vice1 and turn the springs of character toward virtue4 ,that its present decadent forms1 for those too devitalized to dance aright1 can be demoralizing1 we know in this day too well1 although even questionable dances may sometimes work off vicious propensities in ways more harmless than those in which they would otherwise find vent4 ,its utilization for and influence on the insane would be another interesting chapter4 ,very interesting scientifically and suggestive practically is another correspondence which ,i believe to be new1 between the mode of spontaneous activity in youth and that of labor in the early history of the race4 ,one of the most marked distinctions between savage and civilized races is in the longer rhythm of work and relaxation4 ,the former are idle and lazy for days1 weeks1 and perhaps months1 and then put forth intense and prolonged effort in dance1 hunt1 warfare1 migration1 or construction1 sometimes dispensing with sleep and manifesting remarkable endurance4 ,as civilization and specialization advance1 hours become regular4 ,the cultured man is less desultory in all his habits1 from eating and sleeping to performing social and religious duties1 although he may put forth no more aggregate energy in a year than the savage4 ,women are schooled to regular work long before men1 and the difficulty of imposing civilization upon low races is compared by ,bcher#h to that of training a eat to work when harnessed to a dog-cart4 ,it is not dread of fatigue but of the monotony of method makes them hate labor4 ,the effort of savages is more intense and their periods of rest more prolonged and inert4 ,darwin thinks all vital function bred to go in periods1 as vertebrates are descended from tidal ascidian4#i ,there is indeed much that suggests some other irregular rhythm more or less independent of day and night1 and perhaps sexual in its nature1 but not lunar1 and for males4 ,this mode of life not only preceded the industrial and commercial period of which regularity is a prime condition1 but it lasted indefinitely longer than the latter has yet existed2 during this early time great exertion1 sometimes to the point of utter exhaustion and collapse1 alternated with seasons of almost vegetative existence4 ,we see abundant traces of this psychosis in the muscle habits of adolescents1 and1 ,i think1 in student and particularly in college life1 which can enforce regularity only to a limited extent4 ,this is not reversion1 but partly expression of the nature and perhaps the needs of this stage of immaturity1 and partly the same instinct of revolt against uniformity imposed from without1 which rob life of variety and extinguish the spirit of adventure and untrammeled freedom1 and make the savage hard to break to the harness of civilization4 ,the hunger for fatigue1 too1 can become a veritable passion and is quite distinct from either the impulse for activity for its own sake or the desire of achievement4 ,to shout and put forth the utmost possible strength in crude ways is erethic intoxication at a stage when every tissue can become erectile and seems1 like the crying of infants1 to have a legitimate function in causing tension and flushing1 enlarging the caliber of blood vessels1 and forcing the blood perhaps even to the point of extravasation to irrigate newly growing fibers1 cells1 and organs which atrophy if not thus fed4 ,when maturity is complete this need abates4 ,if this be correct1 the phenomenon of second breath1 so characteristic of adolescence1 and one factor in the inebriate's propensity1 is ontogenetic expression of a rhythm trait of a long racial period4 ,youth needs overexertion to compensate for underexertion1 to undersleep in order to offset oversleep at times4 ,this seems to be nature's provision to expand in all directions its possibilities of the body and soul in this plastic period when1 without this occasional excess1 powers would atrophy or suffer arrest for want of use1 or larger possibilities world not be realized without this regimen peculiar to nascent periods4 ,this is treated more fully elsewhere4 ,perhaps next to dancing in phyletic motivation come personal conflicts1 such as wrestling1 fighting1 boxing1 dueling1 and in some sense1 hunting4 ,the animal world is full of struggle for survival1 and primitive warfare is a wager of battle1 of personal combat of foes contesting eye to eye and hand to hand1 where victory of one is the defeat and perhaps death of the other1 and where life is often staked against life4 ,in its more brutal forms we see one of the most degrading of all the aspects of human nature4 ,burk#aj has shown how the most bestial of these instincts survive and crop out irresistibly in boyhood1 where fights are often engaged in with desperate abandon4 ,noses are bitten1 ears torn1 sensitive places kicked1 hair pulled1 arms twisted1 the head stamped on and pounded on stones1 fingers twisted1 and hoodlums sometimes deliberately try to strangle1 gouge out an eye1 pull off an ear1 pull out the tongue1 break teeth1 nose1 or bones1 or dislocate jaws or other joints1 wring the neck1 bite off a lip1 and torture in utterly nameless ways4 ,in unrestrained anger1 man becomes a demon in love with the blood of his victim4 ,the face is distorted1 and there are yells1 oaths1 animal snorts and grunts1 cries1 and then exultant laughter at pain1 and each is bruised1 dirty1 disheveled and panting with exhaustion4 ,for coarser natures1 the spectacle of such conflicts has an intense attraction1 while some morbid souls are scarred by a distinct phobia for everything suggestive of even lower degrees of opposition4 ,these instincts1 more or less developed in boyhood1 are repressed in normal cases before strength and skill are sufficiently developed to inflict serious bodily injury1 while without the reductives that orthogenetic growth brings they become criminal4 ,repulsive as are these grosser and animal manifestations of anger1 its impulsion can not and should not be eliminated1 but its expression transformed and directed toward evils that need all its antagonism4 ,to be angry aright is a good part of moral education1 and non-resistance under all provocations is unmanly1 craven1 and cowardly4#aa ,an able-bodied young man1 who can not fight physically1 can hardly have a high and true sense of honor1 and is generally a milksop1 a lady-boy1 or sneak4 ,he lacks virility1 his masculinity does not ring true1 his honesty can not be sound to the core4 ,hence1 instead of eradicating this instinct1 one of the great problems of physical and moral pedagogy is rightly to temper and direct it4 ,sparta sedulously cultivated it in boys2 and in the great ,english schools1 where for generations it has been more or less tacitly recognized1 it is regulated by custom1 and their literature and traditions abound in illustrations of its man-making and often transforming influence in ways well appreciated by ,hughes and ,arnold4 ,it makes against degeneration1 the essential feature of which is weakening of will and loss of honor4 ,real virtue requires enemies1 and women and effeminate and old men want placid1 comfortable peace1 while a real man rejoices in noble strife which sanctifies all great causes1 casts out fear1 and is the chief school of courage4 ,bad as is overpugnacity1 a scrapping boy is better than one who funks a fight1 and ,i have no patience with the sentimentality that would here pour out the child with the bath1 but would have every healthy boy taught boxing at adolescence if not before4 ,the prize-ring is degrading and brutal1 but in lieu of better illustrations of the spirit of personal contest ,i would interest a certain class of boys in it and try to devise modes of pedagogic utilization of the immense store of interest it generates4 ,like dancing it should be rescued from its evil associations1 and its educational force put to do moral work1 even though it be by way of individual prescriptions for specific defects of character4 ,at its best1 it is indeed a manly art1 a superb school for quickness of eye and hand1 decision1 force of will1 and self-control4 ,the moment this is lost stinging punishment follows4 ,hence it is the surest of all cures for excessive irascibility and has been found to have a most beneficent effect upon a peevish or unmanly disposition4 ,it has no mean theoretic side1 of rules1 kinds of blow and counters1 arts of drawing out and tiring an opponent1 hindering but not injuring him1 defensive and offensive tactics1 etc41 and it addresses chiefly the fundamental muscles in both training and conflict4 ,i do not underestimate the many and great difficulties of proper purgation1 but ,i know from both personal practise and observation that they are not unconquerable4 ,this form of personal conflict is better than dueling even in its comparatively harmless ,german student form1 although this has been warmly defended by ,jacob ,grimm1 ,bismarck1 and ,treitschke1 while ,paulsen1 ,professor of ,philosophy and ,pedagogy1 and ,schrempf1 of ,theology1 have pronounced it but a slight evil1 and several ,americans have thought it better than hazing1 which it makes impossible4 ,the dark side of dueling is seen in the hypertrophied sense of honor which under the code of the corps becomes an intricate and fantastic thing1 prompting1 according to ,ziegler1#ab a club of sixteen students to fight over two hundred duels in four weeks in ,jena early in this century4 ,it is prone to degenerate to an artificial etiquette demanding satisfaction for slight and unintended offenses4 ,although this professor who had his own face scarred on the mensur1 pleaded for a student court of honor1 with power to brand acts as infamous and even to expel students1 on the ground that honor had grown more inward1 the traditions in favor of dueling were too strong4 ,the duel had a religious romantic origin as revealing ,god's judgment1 and means that the victim of an insult is ready to stake body1 or even life1 and this is still its ideal side4 ,anachronism as it now is and degenerating readily to sport or spectacle1 overpunishing what is often mere awkwardness or ignorance1 it still impresses a certain sense of responsibility for conduct and gives some physical training1 slight and specialized though it be4 ,the code is conventional1 drawn directly from old ,french military life1 and is not true to the line that separates real honor from dishonor1 deliberate insult that wounds normal self-respect from injury fancied by oversensitiveness or feigned by arrogance2 so that in its present form it is not the best safeguard of the sacred shrine of personality against invasion of ifs rights4 ,if1 as is claimed1 it is some diversion from or fortification against corrosive sensuality1 it has generally allied itself with excessive beer-drinking4 ,fencing1 while an art susceptible of high development and valuable for both pose and poise1 and requiring great quickness of eye1 arm1 and wrist1 is unilateral and robbed of the vest of inflicting real pain on an antagonist4 ,bushido1#ac which means military-knightly ways1 designates the ,japanese conception of honor in behavior and in fighting4 ,the youth is inspired by the ideal of ,tom ,brown to leave behind him the name of a fellow who never bullied a little boy or turned his back on a big one4 ,it expresses the race ideal of justice1 patriotism1 and the duty of living aright and dying nobly4 ,it means also sympathy1 pity1 and love1 for only the bravest can be the tenderest1 and those most in love are most daring1 and it includes politeness and the art of poetry4 ,honor is a sense of personal dignity and worth1 so the bushi is truthful without an oath4 ,at the tender age of five the samurai is given a real sword1 and this gives self-respect and responsibility4 ,at fifteen1 two sharp and artistic ones1 long and short1 are given him1 which must be his companions for life4 ,they were made by a smith whose shop is a sanctuary and who begins his work with prayer4 ,they have the finest hilts and scabbards1 and are besung as invested with a charm or spell1 and symbolic of loyalty and self-control1 for they must never be drawn lightly4 ,he is taught fencing1 archery1 horsemanship1 tactics1 the spear1 ethics and literature1 anatomy1 for offence and defense2 he must be indifferent to money1 hold his life cheap beside honor1 and die if it is gone4 ,this chivalry is called the soul of ,japan1 and if it fades life is vulgarised4 ,it is a code of ethics and physical training4 ,football is a magnificent game if played on honor4 ,an ,english tennis champion was lately playing a rubber game with the ,american champion4 ,they were even and near the end when the ,american made a bad fluke which would have lost this country its championship4 ,the ,english player1 scorning to win on an accident1 intentionally made a similar mistake that the best man might win4 ,the chief evil of modern ,american football which now threatens its suppression in some colleges is the lust to win at any price1 and results in tricks and secret practise4 ,these sneaky methods impair the sentiment of honor which is the best and most potent of all the moral safeguards of youth1 so that a young man can not be a true gentleman on the gridiron4 ,this ethical degeneration is far worse than all the braises1 sprains1 broken bones and even deaths it causes4 ,wrestling is a form of personal encounter which in antiquity reached a high development1 and which1 although now more known and practised as athletics of the body than of the soul1 has certain special disciplinary capacities in its various forms4 ,it represents the most primitive type of the struggle of unarmed and unprotected man with man4 ,purged of its barbarities1 and in its ,greco-,roman form and properly subject to rules1 it cultivates more kinds of movements than any other form--for limbs1 trunk1 neck1 hand1 foot1 and all in the upright and in every prone position4 ,it1 too1 has its manual of feints1 holds1 tricks1 and specialties1 and calls out wariness1 quickness1 strength1 and shiftiness4 ,victory need involve no cruelty or even pain to the vanquished4 ,the very closeness of body to body1 emphasizing flexor rather than extensor arm muscles1 imparts to it a peculiar tone1 gives it a vast variety of possible activities1 developing many alternatives at every stage1 and tempts to many undiscovered forms of permanent mayhem4 ,its struggle is usually longer and less interrupted by pauses than pugilism1 and its situations and conclusions often develop slowly1 so that all in all1 its character among contests is unique4 ,as a school of posture for art1 its varieties are extremely manifold and by no means developed1 for it contains every kind of emphasis of every part and calls out every muscle group and attitude of the human body2 hence its training is most generic and least specialized1 and victories have been won by very many kinds of excellence4 ,perhaps nothing is more opposed to the idea of a gentleman than the sva animi tempestas ,fierce tempest of the soul of anger4 ,a testy1 quarrelsome1 mucky humor is antisocial1 and an outburst of rage is repulsive4 ,even non-resistance1 turning the other cheek1 has its victories and may be a method of moral combat4 ,a strong temper well controlled and kept in leash makes a kinetic character2 but in view of bullying1 unfair play1 cruel injustice to the weak and defenseless1 of outrageous wrong that the law can not reach1 patience and forbearance may cease to be virtues1 and summary redress may have a distinct advantage to the ethical nature of man and to social order1 and the strenuous soul must fight or grow stagnant or flabby4 ,if too repressed1 righteous indignation may turn to sourness and sulks1 and the disposition be spoiled4 ,hence the relief and exhilaration of an outbreak that often clears the psychic atmosphere like a thunderstorm1 and gives the peace that passeth understanding so often dilated on by our correspondents4 ,rather than the abject fear of making enemies whatever the provocation1 ,i would praise those whose best title of honor is the kind of enemies they make4 ,better even an occasional nose dented by a fist1 a broken bone1 a rapier-scarred face1 or even sometimes the sacrifice of the life of one of our best academic youth than stagnation1 general cynicism and censoriousness1 bodily and psychic cowardice1 and moral corruption1 if this indeed be1 as it sometimes is1 its real alternative4 ,so closely are love and war connected that not only is individual pugnacity greatly increased at the period of sexual maturity1 when animals acquire or develop horns1 fangs1 claws1 spurs1 and weapons of offense and defense1 but a new spirit of organization arises which makes teams possible or more permanent4 ,football1 baseball1 cricket1 etc41 and even boating can become schools of mental and moral training4 ,first1 the rules of the game are often intricate1 and to master and observe them effectively is no mean training for the mind controlling the body4 ,these are steadily being revised and improved1 and the reasons for each detail of construction and conduct of the game require experience and insight into human nature4 ,then the subordination of each member to the whole and to a leader cultivates the social and coperative instincts1 while the honor of the school1 college1 or city1 which each team represents1 is confided to each and all4 ,group loyalty in ,anglo-,saxon games1 which shows such a marked increment in cordination and self-subordination at the dawn of puberty as to constitute a distinct change in the character of sports at this age1 can be so utilized as to develop a spirit of service and devotion not only to town1 country1 and race1 but to ,god and the church4 ,self must be merged and a sportsmanlike spirit cultivated that prefers defeat to tricks and secret practise1 and a clean game to the applause of rooters and fans1 intent only on victory1 however won4 ,the long1 hard fight against professionalism that brings in husky muckers1 who by every rule of true courtesy and chivalry belong outside academic circles1 scrapping and underhand advantages1 is a sad comment on the character and spirit of these games1 and eliminates the best of their educational advantages4 ,the necessity of intervention1 which has imposed such great burdens on faculties and brought so much friction with the frenzy of scholastic sentiment in the hot stage of seasonal enthusiasms1 when fanned to a white heat by the excessive interest of friends and patrons and the injurious exploitation of the press1 bears sad testimony to the strength and persistence of warlike instincts from our heredity4 ,but even thus the good far predominates4 ,the elective system has destroyed the class games1 and our institutions have no units like the ,english colleges to be pitted against each other1 and so colleges grow1 an ever smaller percentage of students obtain the benefit of practise on the teams1 while electioneering methods often place second-best men in place of the best4 ,but both students and teachers are slowly learning wisdom in the dear school of experience4 ,on the whole1 there is less license in breaking training and in celebrating victories1 and even at their worst1 good probably predominates1 while the progress of recent years bids us hope4 ,finally1 military ideals and methods of psycho-physical education are helpful regulations of the appetite for combat1 and on the whole more wholesome and robust than those which are merely esthetic4 ,marching in step gives proper and uniform movement of legs1 arms1 and carriage of body2 the manual of arms1 with evolution and involution of figures in the ranks1 gives each a corporate feeling of membership1 and involves care of personal appearance and accouterments1 while the uniform levels social distinction in dress4 ,for the ,french and ,italian and especially the ,german and ,russian adolescent of the lower classes1 the two or three years of compulsory military service is often compared to an academic course1 and the army is called1 not without some justification1 the poor man's university4 ,it gives severe drill1 strict discipline1 good and regular hours1 plain but wholesome fare and out-of-door exercise1 exposure1 travel1 habits of neatness1 many useful knacks and devices1 tournaments and mimic or play battles2 these1 apart from its other functions1 make this system a great promoter of national health and intelligence4 ,naval schools for midshipmen1 who serve before the mast1 schools on board ship that visit a wide curriculum of ports each year1 cavalry schools1 where each boy is given a horse to care for1 study and train1 artillery courses and even an army drill-master in an academy1 or uniform1 and a few exterior features of soldierly life1 all give a distinct character to the spirit of any institution4 ,the very fancy of being in any sense a soldier opens up a new range of interests too seldom utilized2 and tactics1 army life and service1 military history1 battles1 patriotism1 the flag1 and duties to country1 should always erect a new standard of honor4 ,youth should embrace every opportunity that offers in this line1 and instruction should greatly increase the intellectual opportunities created by every interest in warfare4 ,it would be easy to create pregnant courses on how soldiers down the course of history have lived1 thought1 felt1 fought1 and died1 how great battles were won and what causes triumphed in them1 and to generalize many of the best things taught in detail in the best schools of war in different grades and lands4 ,a subtle but potent intersexual influence is among the strongest factors of all adolescent sport4 ,male birds and beasts show off their charms of beauty and accomplishment in many a liturgy of love antics in the presence of the female4 ,this instinct seems somehow continuous with the growth of ornaments in the mating season4 ,song1 tumbling1 balking1 mock fights1 etc41 are forms of animal courtship4 ,the boy who turns cartwheels past the home of the girl of his fancy1 is brilliant1 brave1 witty1 erect1 strong in her presence1 and elsewhere dull and commonplace enough1 illustrates the same principle4 ,the true cake-walk as seen in the ,south is perhaps the purest expression of this impulse to courtship antics seen in man1 but its irradiations are many and pervasive4 ,the presence of the fair sex gives tonicity to youth's muscles and tension to his arteries to a degree of which he is rarely conscious4 ,defeat in all contests is more humiliating and victory more glorious thereby4 ,each sex is constantly passing the examination of the other1 and each judges the other by standards different from its own4 ,alas for the young people who are not different with the other sex from what they are with their own6--and some are transformed into different beings4 ,achievement proclaims ability to support1 defend1 bring credit and even fame to the object of future choice1 and no good point is lost4 ,physical force and skill1 and above all1 victory and glory1 make a hero and invest him with a romantic glamour1 which1 even though concealed by conventionality or etiquette1 is profoundly felt and makes the winner more or less irresistible4 ,the applause of men and of mates is sweet and even intoxicating1 but that of ladies is ravishing4 ,by universal acclaim the fair belong to the brave1 strong1 and victorious4 ,this stimulus is wholesome and refining4 ,as is shown later1 a bashful youth often selects a maiden onlooker and is sometimes quite unconsciously dominated in his every movement by a sense of her presence1 stranger and apparently unnoticed though she be1 although in the intellectual work of coeducation girls are most influenced thus4 ,in athletics this motive makes for refinement and good form4 ,the ideal knight1 however fierce and terrible1 must not be brutal1 but show capacity for fine feeling1 tenderness1 magnanimity1 and forbearance4 ,evolutionists tell us that woman has domesticated and educated savage man and taught him all his virtues by exercising her royal prerogative of selecting in her mate just those qualities that pleased her for transmission to future generations and eliminating others distasteful to her4 ,if so1 she is still engaged in this work as much as ever1 and in his dull1 slow way man feels that her presence enforces her standards1 abhorrent though it would be to him to compromise in one iota his masculinity4 ,most plays and games in which both sexes participate have some of the advantages with some of the disadvantages of coeducation4 ,where both are partners rather than antagonists1 there is less eviration4 ,a gallant man would do his best to help1 but his worst not to beat a lady4 ,thus1 in general1 the latter performs her best in her true rule of sympathetic spectator rather than as fellow player1 and is now an important factor in the physical education of adolescents4 ,how pervasive this femininity is1 which is slowly transforming our schools1 is strikingly seen in the church4 ,gulick holds that the reason why only some seven per cent of the young men of the country are in the churches1 while most members and workers are women1 is that the qualities demanded are the feminine ones of love1 rest1 prayer1 trust1 desire for fortitude to endure1 a sense of atonement--traits not involving ideals that most stir young men4 ,the church has not yet learned to appeal to the more virile qualities4 ,fielding ,hall#ad asks why ,christ and ,buddha alone of great religious teachers were rejected by their own race and accepted elsewhere4 ,he answers that these mild beliefs of peace1 nonresistance1 and submission1 rejected by virile warrior races1 ,jews and ancient ,hindus1 were adopted where women were free and led in these matters4 ,confucianism1 ,mohammedanism1 etc41 are virile1 and so indigenous1 and in such forms of faith and worship women have small place4 ,this again suggests how the sex that rules the heart controls men4 ,too much can hardly be said in favor of cold baths and swimming at this age4 ,marro#ae quotes ,father ,kneipp1 and almost rivals his hydrotherapeutic enthusiasm4 ,cold bathing sends the blood inward partly by the cold which contracts the capillaries of the skin and tissue immediately underlying it1 and partly by the pressure of the water over all the dermal surface1 quickens the activity of kidneys1 lungs1 and digestive apparatus1 and the reactive glow is the best possible tonic for dermal circulation4 ,it is the best of all gymnastics for the nonstriated or involuntary muscles and for the heart and blood vessels4 ,this and the removal of the products of excretion preserve all the important dermal functions which are so easily and so often impaired in modern life1 lessen the liability to skin diseases1 promote freshness of complexion2 and the moral effects of plunging into cold and supporting the body in deep water is not inconsiderable in strengthening a spirit of hardihood and reducing overtenderness to sensory discomforts4 ,the exercise of swimming is unique in that nearly all the movements and combinations are such as are rarely used otherwise1 and are perhaps in a sense ancestral and liberal rather than directly preparatory for future avocations4 ,its stimulus for heart and lungs is1 by general consent of all writers upon the subject1 most wholesome and beneficial4 ,nothing so directly or quickly reduces to the lowest point the plethora of the sex organs4 ,the very absence of clothes and running on the beach is exhilarating and gives a sense of freedom4 ,where practicable it is well to dispense with bathing suits1 even the scantiest4 ,the warm bath tub is enfeebling and degenerative1 despite the cold spray later1 while the free swim in cold water is most invigorating4 ,happily1 city officials1 teachers1 and sanitarians are now slowly realizing the great improvement in health and temper that comes from bathing and are establishing beach and surf1 spray1 floating and plunge summer baths and swimming pools2 often providing instruction even in swimming in clothes1 undressing in the water1 treading water1 and rescue work1 free as well as fee days1 bathing suits1 and1 in ,london1 places for nude bathing after dark2 establishing time and distance standards with certificates and even prizes2 annexing toboggan slides1 swings1 etc41 realizing that in both the preference of youth and in healthful and moral effects1 probably nothing outranks this form of exercise4 ,such is its strange fascination that1 according to one comprehensive census1 the passion to get to the water outranks all other causes of truancy1 and plays an important part in the motivation of runaways4 ,in the immense public establishment near ,san ,francisco1 provided by private munificence1 there are accommodations for all kinds of bathing in hot and cold and in various degrees of fresh and salt water1 in closed spaces and in the open sea1 for small children and adults1 with many appliances and instructors1 all in one great covered arena with seats in an amphitheater for two thousand spectators1 and many adjuncts and accessories4 ,so elsewhere the presence of visitors is now often invited and provided for4 ,sometimes wash-houses and public laundries are annexed4 ,open hours and longer evenings and seasons are being prolonged4 ,prominent among the favorite games of early puberty and the years just before are those that involve passive motion and falling1 like swinging in its many forms1 including the ,may-pole and single rope varieties4 ,mr4 ,lee reports that children wait late in the evening and in cold weather for a turn at a park swing4 ,psychologically allied to these are wheeling and skating4 ,places for the latter are now often provided by the fire department1 which in many cities floods hundreds of empty lots4 ,ponds are cleared of snow and horse-plowed1 perhaps by the park commission1 which often provides lights and perhaps ices the walks and streets for coasting1 erects shelters1 and devises space economy for as many diamonds1 bleachers1 etc41 as possible4 ,games of hitting1 striking1 and throwing balls and other objects1 hockey1 tennis1 all the courts of which are usually crowded1 golf and croquet1 and sometimes fives1 cricket1 bowling1 quoits1 curling1 etc41 have great thumogenic or emotional power4 ,leg exercise has perhaps a higher value than that of any other part4 ,man is by definition an upright being1 but only after a long apprenticeship4#af ,thus the hand was freed from the necessity of locomotion and made the servant of the mind4 ,locomotion overcomes the tendency to sedentary habits in modern schools and life1 and helps the mind to helpful action1 so that a peripatetic philosophy is more normal than that of the easy chair and the study lamp4 ,hill-climbing is unexcelled as a stimulus at once of heart1 lungs1 and blood4 ,if ,hippocrates is right1 inspiration is possible only on a mountain-top4 ,walking1 running1 dancing1 skating1 coasting are also alterative and regulative of sex1 and there is a deep and close though not yet fully explained reciprocity between the two4 ,arm work is relatively too prominent a feature in gymnasia4 ,those who lead excessively sedentary lives are prone to be turbulent and extreme in both passion and opinion1 as witness the oft-adduced revolutionary disposition of cobblers4 ,the play problem is now fairly open and is vast in its relation to many other things4 ,roof playgrounds1 recreation piers1 schoolyards and even school-buildings1 open before and after school hours2 excursions and outings of many kinds and with many purposes1 which seem to distinctly augment growth2 occupation during the long vacation when1 beginning with spring1 most juvenile crime is committed2 theatricals1 which according to some police testimony lessen the number of juvenile delinquents2 boys' clubs with more or less self-government of the ,george ,junior ,republic and other types1 treated in another chapter2 nature-study2 the distinctly different needs and propensities of both good and evil in different nationalities2 the advantages of playground fences and exclusion1 their disciplinary worth1 and their value as resting places2 the liability that the boy without a playground will become the father without a job2 the relation of play and its slow transition to manual and industrial education at the savage age when a boy abhors all regular occupation2 the necessity of exciting interest1 not by what is done for boys1 but by what they do2 the adjustment of play to sex2 the determination of the proper average age of maximal zest in and good from sandbox1 ring-toss1 bean-bag1 shuffle-board1 peg top1 charity1 funeral play1 prisoner's base1 hill-dill2 the value and right use of apparatus1 and of rabbits1 pigeons1 bees1 and a small menagerie in the playground2 tan-bark1 clay1 the proper alternation of excessive freedom1 that often turns boys stale through the summer1 with regulated activities2 the disciplined work of play and sedentary games2 the value of the washboard rubbing and of the hand and knee exercise of scrubbing1 which a late writer would restore for all girls with clever and ,greek-named play apparatus2 as well as digging1 shoveling1 tamping1 pick-chopping1 and hod-carrying exercises in the form of games for boys2 the relations of women's clubs1 parents' clubs1 citizens' leagues and unions1 etc41 to all this work--such are the practical problems4 ,the playground movement encounters its chief obstacles in the most crowded and slum districts1 where its greatest value and success was expected for boys in the early teens1 who without supervision are prone to commit abuses upon property and upon younger children1#ag and are so disorderly as to make the place a nuisance1 and who resent the fathering of the police1 without1 at least1 the minimum control of a system of permits and exclusions4 ,if hoodlums play at all1 they become infatuated with baseball and football1 especially punting2 they do not take kindly to the soft large ball of the ,hall ,house or the ,civic ,league1 and prefer at first scrub games with individual self-exhibition to organized teams4 ,lee sees the arboreal instincts of our progenitors in the very strong propensity of boys from ten to fourteen to climb in any form2 to use traveling rings1 generally occupied constantly to their fullest extent2 to jump from steps and catch a swinging trapeze2 to go up a ladder and slide down poles2 to use horizontal and parallel bars4 ,the city boy has plenty of daring at this age1 but does not know what he can do and needs more supervision than the country youth4 ,the young tough is commonly present1 and though admired and copied by younger boys1 it is1 perhaps1 as often for his heroic as for his bad traits4 ,dr4 ,sargent and others have well pointed out that athletics afford a wealth of new and profitable topics for discussion and enthusiasm which helps against the triviality and mental vacuity into which the intercourse of students is prone to lapse4 ,it prompts to discussion of diet and regimen4 ,it gives a new standard of honor4 ,for a member of a team to break training would bring reprobation and ostracism1 for he is set apart to win fame for his class or college4 ,it supplies a splendid motive against all errors and vices that weaken or corrupt the body4 ,it is a wholesome vent for the reckless courage that would otherwise go to disorder or riotous excess4 ,it supplies new and advantageous topics for compositions and for terse1 vigorous1 and idiomatic theme-writing1 is a great aid to discipline1 teaches respect for deeds rather than words or promises1 lays instructors under the necessity of being more interesting1 that their work be not jejune or dull by contrast2 again the business side of managing great contests has been an admirable school for training young men to conduct great and difficult financial operations1 sometimes involving #ajj1jjj or more1 and has thus prepared some for successful careers4 ,it furnishes now the closest of all links between high school and college1 reduces the number of those physically unfit for college1 and should give education generally a more real and vigorous ideal4 ,its obvious dangers are distraction from study and overestimation of the value of victory1 especially in the artificial glamours which the press and the popular furor give to great games2 unsportsmanlike secret tricks and methods1 over-emphasis of combative and too stalwart impulses1 and a disposition to carry things by storm1 by rush-line tactics2 friction with faculties1 and censure or neglect of instructors who take unpopular sides on hot questions2 action toward license after games1 spasmodic excitement culminating in excessive strain for body and mind1 with alternations of reaction2 beefiness2 overdevelopment of the physical side of life1 and1 in some cases1 premature features of senility in later life1 undergrowth of the accessory motor parts and powers1 and erethic diathesis that makes steady and continued mental toil seem monotonous1 dull1 and boresome4 ,the propensity to codify sports1 to standardize the weight and size of their implements1 and to reduce them to what ,spencer calls regimentation1 is a outcrop of uniformitarianism that works against that individuation which is one of the chief advantages of free play4 ,this1 to be sure1 has developed old-fashioned rounders to modern baseball1 and this is well1 but it is seen in the elaborate ,draconian laws1 diplomacy1 judicial and legislative procedures1 concerning eligibility1 transfer1 and even sale of players4 ,in some games international conformity is gravely discussed4 ,even where there is no tyranny and oppression1 good form is steadily hampering nature and the free play of personality4 ,togs and targets1 balls and bats1 rackets and oars are graded or numbered1 weighed1 and measured1 and every emergency is legislated on and judged by an autocratic martinet1 jealous of every prerogative and conscious of his dignity4 ,all this separates games from the majority and makes for specialism and professionalism4 ,not only this1 but men are coming to be sized up for hereditary fitness in each point and for each sport4 ,runners1 sprinters1 and jumpers1#ah we are told1 on the basis of many careful measurements1 must be tall1 with slender bodies1 narrow but deep chests1 longer legs than the average for their height1 the lower leg being especially long1 with small calf1 ankle1 and feet1 small arms1 narrow hips1 with great power of thoracic inflation1 and thighs of small girth4 ,every player must be studied by trainers for ever finer individual adjustments4 ,his dosage of work must be kept well within the limits of his vitality1 and be carefully adjusted to his recuperative power4 ,his personal nascent periods must be noted1 and initial embarrassment carefully weeded out4 ,the field of play is as wide as life and its varieties far outnumber those of industries and occupations in the census4 ,plays and games differ in seasons1 sex1 and age4 ,mc,ghee#ai has shown on the basis of some #h1jjj children1 that running plays are pretty constant for boys from six to seventeen1 but that girls are always far behind boys and run steadily less from eight to eighteen4 ,in games of choice1 boys showed a slight rise at sixteen and seventeen1 and girls a rapid increase at eleven and a still more rapid one after sixteen4 ,in games of imitation girls excel and show a marked1 as boys do a slight1 pubescent fall4 ,in those games involving rivalry boys at first greatly excel girls1 but are overtaken by the latter in the eighteenth year1 both showing marked pubescent increment4 ,girls have the largest number of plays and specialise on a few less than boys1 and most of these plays are of the unorganized kinds4 ,johnson#bj selected from a far larger number #ddj plays and games and arranged the best of them in a course by school grades1 from the first to the eighth1 inclusive1 and also according to their educational value as teaching observation1 reading and spelling1 language1 arithmetic1 geography1 history1 and biography1 physical training1 and specifically as training legs1 hand1 arm1 back1 waist1 abdominal muscles1 chest1 etc4 ,most of our best games are very old and1 ,johnson thinks1 have deteriorated4 ,but children are imitative and not inventive in their games1 and easily learn new ones4 ,since the ,berlin ,play ,congress in #ahid the sentiment has grown that these are of national importance and are preferable to gymnastics both for soul and body4 ,hence we have play-schools1 teachers1 yards1 and courses1 both for their own value and also to turn on the play impulse to aid in the drudgery of school work4 ,several have thought that a well-rounded1 liberal education could be given by plays and games alone on the principle that there is no profit where there is no pleasure or true euphoria4 ,play is motor poetry4 ,too early distinction between play and work should not be taught4 ,education perhaps should really begin with directing childish sports aright4 ,froebel thought it the purest and most spiritual activity of childhood1 the germinal leaves of all later life4 ,schooling that lacks recreation favors dulness1 for play makes the mind alert and its joy helps all anabolic activities4 ,says ,brinton1 the measure of value of work is the amount of play there is in it1 and the measure of value of play is the amount of work there is in it4 ,johnson adds that it is doubtful if a great man ever accomplished his life work without having reached a play interest in it4 ,sully#ba deplores the increase of agolasts or non-laughers in our times in merry old ,england#bb every one played games2 and laughter1 their natural accompaniment1 abounded4 ,queen ,elizabeth's maids of honor played tag with hilarity1 but the spirit of play with full abandon seems taking its departure from our overworked1 serious1 and tons1 age4 ,to requote ,stevenson with variation1 as laborari1 ,to labor so ludere1 et joculari orare sunt4 ,to play and to jest are to pray ,laughter itself1 as ,khne long ago showed1 is one of the most precious forms of exercise1 relieving the arteries of their tension4#bc ,the antithesis between play and work is generally wrongly conceived1 for the difference is essentially in the degree of strength of the psycho-physic motivations4 ,the young often do their hardest work in play4 ,with interest1 the most repellent tasks become pure sport1 as in the case ,johnson reports of a man who wanted a pile of stone thrown into a ditch and1 by kindling a fire in the ditch and pretending the stones were buckets of water1 the heavy and long-shirked job was done by tired boys with shouting and enthusiasm4 ,play1 from one aspect of it1 is superfluous energy over and above what is necessary to digest1 breathe1 keep the heart and organic processes going2 and most children who can not play1 if they have opportunity1 can neither study nor work without overdrawing their resources of vitality4 ,bible psychology conceives the fall of man as the necessity of doing things without zest1 and this is not only ever repeated but now greatly emphasized when youth leaves the sheltered paradise of play to grind in the mills of modern industrial civilization4 ,the curse is overcome only by those who come to love their tasks and redeem their toil again to play4 ,play1 hardly less than work1 can be to utter exhaustion2 and because it draws upon older stores and strata of psycho-physic impulsion its exhaustion may even more completely drain our kinetic resources1 if it is too abandoned or prolonged4 ,play can do just as hard and painful tasks as work1 for what we love is done with whole and undivided personality4 ,work1 as too often conceived1 is all body and no soul1 and makes for duality and not totality4 ,its constraint is external1 mechanical1 or it works by fear and not love4 ,not effort but zestless endeavor is the tragedy of life4 ,interest and play are one and inseparable as body and soul4 ,duty itself is not adequately conceived and felt if it is not pleasure1 and is generally too feeble and fitful in the young to awaken much energy or duration of action4 ,play is from within from congenital hereditary impulsion4 ,it is the best of all methods of organizing instincts4 ,its cathartic or purgative function regulates irritability1 which may otherwise be drained or vented in wrong directions1 exactly as ,breuer#bd shows psychic traumata may1 if overtense1 result in hysterical convulsions4 ,it is also the best form of self-expression2 and its advantage is variability1 following the impulsion of the idle1 perhaps hyperemic1 and overnourished centers most ready to act4 ,it involves play illusion and is the great agent of unity and totalization of body and soul1 while its social function develops solidarity and unison of action between individuals4 ,the dances1 feasts1 and games of primitive people1 wherein they rehearse hunting and war and act and dance out their legends1 bring individuals and tribes together4#be ,work is menial1 cheerless1 grinding1 regular1 and requires more precision and accuracy and1 because attended with less ease and pleasure and economy of movement1 is more liable to produce erratic habits4 ,antagonistic as the forms often are1 it may be that1 as ,carr says1 we may sometimes so suffuse work with the play spirit1 and vice versa1 that the present distinction between work and play will vanish1 the transition will be less tragic and the activities of youth will be slowly systematised into a whole that better fits his nature and needs2 or1 if not this1 we may at least find the true proportion and system between drudgery and recreation4 ,the worst product of striving to do things with defective psychic impulsion is fatigue in its common forms1 which slows down the pace1 multiplies errors and inaccuracies1 and develops slovenly habits1 ennui1 flitting will specters1 velleities and caprices1 and neurasthenic symptoms generally4 ,it brings restlessness1 and a tendency to many little heterogeneous1 smattering efforts that weaken the will and leave the mind like a piece of well-used blotting paper1 covered with traces and nothing legible4 ,all beginnings are easy1 and only as we leave the early stages of proficiency behind and press on in either physical or mental culture and encounter difficulties1 do individual differences and the tendency of weak will1 to change and turn to something else increase4 ,perhaps the greatest disparity between men is the power to make a long concentrative1 persevering effort1 for ,in der ,beschrnkung zeigt sich der ,meister ,the master shows himself in limitation4 ,now no kind or line of culture is complete till it issues in motor habits1 and makes a well-knit soul texture that admits concentration series in many directions and that can bring all its resources to bear at any point4 ,the brain unorganized by training has1 to recur to ,richter's well-worn aphorism1 saltpeter1 sulfur1 and charcoal1 or all the ingredients of gunpowder1 but never makes a grain of it because they never get together4 ,thus willed action is the language of complete men and the goal of education4 ,when things are mechanized by right habituation1 there is still further gain2 for not only is the mind freed for further and higher work1 but this deepest stratum of motor association is a plexus that determines not only conduct and character1 but even beliefs4 ,the person who deliberates is lost1 if the intellect that doubts and weighs alternatives is less completely organised than habits4 ,all will culture is intensive and should safeguard us against the chance influence of life and the insidious danger of great ideas in small and feeble minds4 ,now fatigue1 personal and perhaps racial1 is just what arrests in the incomplete and mere memory or noetic stage4 ,it makes weak bodies that command1 and not strong ones that obey4 ,it divorces knowing and doing1 ,kennen and ,knnen1 a separation which the ,greeks could not conceive because for them knowledge ended in skill or was exemplified in precepts and proverbs that were so clear cut that the pain of violating them was poignant4 ,ideas must be long worked over till life speaks as with the rifle and not with the shotgun1 and still less with the water hose4 ,the purest thought1 if true1 is only action repressed to be ripened to more practical form4 ,not only do muscles come before mind1 will before intelligence1 and sound ideas rest on a motor basis1 but all really useless knowledge tends to be eliminated as error or superstition4 ,the roots of play lie close to those of creative imagination and idealism4 ,the opposite extreme is the factitious and superficial motivation of fear1 prizes1 examinations1 artificial and immediate rewards and penalties1 which can only tattoo the mind and body with conventional patterns pricked in1 but which lead an unreal life in the soul because they have no depth of soil in nature or heredity4 ,however precious and coherent in themselves1 all subject-matters thus organized are mere lugs1 crimps1 and frills4 ,all such culture is spurious1 unreal1 and parasitic4 ,it may make a scholastic or sophistic mind1 but a worm is at the root and1 with a dim sense of the vanity of all knowledge that does not become a rule of life1 some form of pessimism is sure to supervene in every serious soul4 ,with age a civilization accumulates such impedimenta1 traditional flotsam and jetsam1 and race fatigue proceeds with equal step with its increasing volume4 ,immediate utilities are better1 but yet not so much better than acquisitions that have no other than a school or examination value4 ,if1 as ,ruskin says1 all true work is praise1 all true play is love and prayer4 ,instil into a boy's soul learning which he sees and feels not to have the highest worth and which can not become a part of his active life and increase it1 and his freshness1 spontaneity1 and the fountains of play slowly run dry in him1 and his youth fades to early desiccation4 ,the instincts1 feelings1 intuitions1 the work of which is always play1 are superseded by method1 grind1 and education by instruction which is only an effort to repair the defects of heredity1 for which1 at its best1 it is vulgar1 pinchbeck substitute4 ,the best play is true genius1 which always comes thus into the world1 and has this way of doing its work1 and all the contents of the memory pouches is luggage to be carried rather than the vital strength that carries burdens4 ,grosswell says that children are young because they play1 and not vice versa2 and he might have added1 men grow old because they stop playing1 and not conversely1 for play is1 at bottom1 growth1 and at the top of the intellectual scale it is the eternal type of research from sheer love of truth4 ,home1 school1 church1 state1 civilization1 are measured in one supreme scale of values1 viz41 whether and how1 for they aid in bringing youth to its fullest maturity4 ,even vice1 crime1 and decline are often only arrest or backsliding or reversion4 ,national and racial decline beginning in eliminating one by one the last and highest styles of development of body and mind1 mental stimulus of excessive dosage lowers general nutrition4 ,a psychologist that turns his back on mere subtleties and goes to work in a life of service has here a great opportunity1 and should not forget1 as ,horace ,mann said1 that for all that grows1 one former is worth one hundred reformers4 ,footnote #a3 ,interest in ,relation to ,muscular ,exercise4 ,american ,physical ,education ,review1 ,june1 #aijb1 vol4 #g1 pp4 #eg-fe4 ,footnote #b3 ,the ,influence of ,exercise upon ,growth by ,frederic ,burk4 ,american ,physical ,education ,review1 ,december1 #ahii1 vol4 #d1 pp4 #cdj-cdi4 ,footnote #c3 ,a ,study of ,dolls1 by ,g4 ,stanley ,hall and ,a4,c4 ,ellis4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,december1 #ahif1 vol4 #d1 pp4 #abi-age4 ,footnote #d3 ,studies in ,imagination1 by ,lilian ,h4 ,chalmers4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,april1 #aijj1 vol4 #g1 pp4 #aaa-abc4 ,footnote #e3 ,some ,psychical ,aspects of ,physical ,exercise4 ,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,october1 #ahih1 vol4 #ec1 pp4 #gjc-hje4 ,footnote #f3 ,amusements of ,worcester ,school ,children4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,september1 #ahii1 vol4 #f1 pp4 #cad-cga4 ,footnote #g3 ,a ,study in the ,play ,life of ,some ,south ,carolina ,children4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,december1 #aijj1 vol4 #g1 pp4 #dci-dgh4 ,footnote #h3 ,arbeit und ,rythmus4 ,trubner1 ,leipzig1 #ahif4 ,footnote #i3 ,descent of ,man4 ,d4 ,appleton and ,co41 #ahgb1 vol4 #a1 chap4 vi1 p4 #bjd et seq ,footnote #aj3 ,teasing and ,bullying4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,april1 #ahig1 vol4 #d1 pp4 #ccf-cga4 ,footnote #aa3 ,see my ,study of ,anger4 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 ,july1 #ahii1 vol4 #aj1 pp4 #eaf-eia4 ,footnote #ab3 ,der deutsche ,student am ,ende des #ai ,jahrhunderts1 #fth ed41 ,gschen1 ,leipzig1 #ahif4 ,see also ,h4 ,p4 ,shelden3 ,history and ,pedagogy of ,american ,student ,societies1 ,new ,york1 #aija1 p4 #ca et seq4 ,footnote #ac3 ,bushido3 ,the ,soul of ,japan4 ,an exposition of ,japanese thought1 by ,inazo ,nitob4 ,new ,york1 #aije1 pp4 #bjc et seq4 ,footnote #ad3 ,the ,hearts of ,men4 ,macmillan1 #aija1 chap4 xxii4 ,footnote #ae3 ,la ,pubert4 ,schleicher ,frres1 diteurs1 ,paris1 #aijb4 ,footnote #af3 ,see ,a4,w4 ,trettien4 ,creeping and ,walking4 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 ,october1 #aijj1 vol4 #ab1 pp4 #a-eg4 ,footnote #ag3 ,constructive and ,preventive ,philanthropy1 by ,joseph ,lee4 ,macmillan1 ,new ,york1 #aijb1 chaps4 x and xi4 ,footnote #ah3 ,c4,o4 ,bernies4 ,physical ,characteristics of the ,runner and ,jumper4 ,american ,physical ,education ,review1 ,september1 #aijj1 vol4 #e1 pp4 #bce-bde4 ,footnote #ai3 ,a ,study in the ,play ,life of some ,south ,carolina ,children4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,december1 #aijj1 vol4 #g1 pp4 #dei-dgh4 ,footnote #bj3 ,education by ,plays and ,games4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,october1 #ahid1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #ig-acc4 ,footnote #ba3 ,an ,essay on ,laughter4 ,longmans1 ,green and ,co41 ,london1 #aijb1 p4 #dbg et seq4 ,footnote #bb3 ,see ,brand's ,popular ,antiquities of ,great ,britain1 #c ,vols41 ,london1 #ahhc4 ,footnote #bc3 ,psychology of ,tickling1 ,laughing1 and the ,comic1 by ,g4 ,stanley ,hall and ,arthur ,allin4 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 ,october1 #ahig1 vol4 #i1 pp4 #a-da4 ,footnote #bd3 ,i4 ,breuer and ,s4 ,freud4 ,studien ber ,hysterie4 ,f4 ,deuticke1 ,wien1 #ahie4 ,see especially p4 #agg et seq4 ,footnote #be3 ,see a valuable discussion by ,h4 ,a4 ,carr4 ,the ,survival ,values of ,play1 ,investigations of the ,department of ,psychology and ,education of the ,university of ,colorado1 ,arthur ,allin1 ,ph4,d41 ,editor1 ,november1 #aijb1 vol4 #a1 pp4 #c-dg 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,faults1 ,,lies1 ,,and ,,crimes ,classifications of children's faults--,peculiar children--,real faults as distinguished from interference with the teacher's ease--,truancy1 its nature and effects--,the genesis of crime--,the lie1 its classes and relations to imagination--,predatory activities--,gangs--,causes of crime--,the effects of stories of crime--,temibility--,juvenile crime and its treatment4 ,siegert#a groups children of problematical nature into the following sixteen classes3 the sad1 the extremely good or bad1 star-gazers1 scatter-brains1 apathetic1 misanthropic1 doubters and investigators1 reverent1 critical1 executive1 stupid and clownish1 naive1 funny1 anamnesic1 disposed to learn1 and blas2 patience1 foresight1 and self-control1 he thinks1 are chiefly needed4 ,a unique and interesting study was undertaken by ,kzle#b by collecting and studying thirty ,german writers on pedagogical subjects since ,pestalozzi1 and cataloguing all the words they use describing the faults of children4 ,in all1 this gave #iad faults1 far more in number than their virtues4 ,these were classified as native and of external origin1 acute and chronic1 egoistic and altruistic1 greed1 perverted honor1 self-will1 falsity1 laziness1 frivolity1 distraction1 precocity1 timidity1 envy and malevolence1 ingratitude1 quarrelsomeness1 cruelty1 superstition2 and the latter fifteen were settled on as resultant groups1 and the authors who describe them best are quoted4 ,bohannon#c on the basis of questionnaire returns classified peculiar children as heavy1 tall1 short1 small1 strong1 weak1 deft1 agile1 clumsy1 beautiful1 ugly1 deformed1 birthmarked1 keen and precocious1 defective in sense1 mind1 and speech1 nervous1 clean1 dainty1 dirty1 orderly1 obedient1 disobedient1 disorderly1 teasing1 buoyant1 buffoon1 cruel1 selfish1 generous1 sympathetic1 inquisitive1 lying1 ill-tempered1 silent1 dignified1 frank1 loquacious1 courageous1 timid1 whining1 spoiled1 gluttonous and only child4 ,marro#d tabulated the conduct of #c1jab boys in gymnasial and lyceal classes in ,italy from eleven to eighteen years of age 7see table given above74 ,conduct was marked as good1 bad1 and indifferent1 according to the teacher's estimate1 and was good at eighteen in #gd per cent of the cases2 at eleven in #gj per cent2 at seventeen in #fi per cent2 and at fourteen in only #eh per cent4 ,in positively bad conduct1 the age of fifteen led1 thirteen and fourteen were but little better1 while it improved at sixteen1 seventeen1 and eighteen4 ,in general1 conduct was good at eleven2 declined at twelve and thirteen2 said1 to its worst at fourteen2 and then improved in yearly increments that did not differ much1 and at seventeen was nearly as good as at eleven1 and at eighteen four points better4 ,illustration3 ,percentage x ,age ,he computed also the following percentage table of the causes of punishments in certain ,italian schools for girls and boys near pubescent ages3 ,boys ,girls ,quarrels and blows #ec4ij #ag4d ,laziness1 negligence #a4hj #ba4c ,untidiness #aj4gj #bd4g ,improper language 4#da #ad4f ,indecent acts and words #a4jj 4#bd ,refusal to work 4#hb #a4bf ,various offenses against discipline #ai4jj #ai4i ,truancy #i4fj 4#j ,plots to run away #a4gj 4#j ,running away 4#gb 4#j ,mr4 ,sears#e reports in percentages statistics of the punishments received by a thousand children for the following offenses3 ,disorder1 #ag-a_/c2 disobedience1 #af2 carelessness1 #ac-a_/c2 running away1 #ab-b_/c2 quarreling1 #aj2 tardiness1 #f-b_/c2 rudeness1 #f2 fighting1 #e-a_/c2 lying1 #d2 stealing1 #a2 miscellaneous1 #g-a_/c4 ,he names a long list of punishable offenses1 such as malice1 swearing1 obscenity1 bullying1 lying1 cheating1 untidiness1 insolence1 insult1 conspiracy1 disobedience1 obstinacy1 rudeness1 noisiness1 ridicule2 injury to books1 building1 or other property2 and analyzes at length the kinds of punishment1 modes of making it fit the offense and the nature of the child1 the discipline of consequences1 lapse of time between the offense and its punishment1 the principle of slight but sure tasks as penalties1 etc4 ,triplett#f attempted a census of faults and defeats named by the teacher4 ,here inattention by far led all others4 ,defects of sense and speech1 carelessness1 indifference1 lack of honor and of self-restraint1 laziness1 dreamy listlessness1 nervousness1 mental incapacity1 lack of consideration for others1 vanity1 affectation1 disobedience1 untruthfulness1 grumbling1 etc41 follow4 ,inattention to a degree that makes some children at the mercy of their environment and all its changes1 and their mental life one perpetual distraction1 is a fault which teachers1 of course1 naturally observe4 ,children's views of their own faults and those of other children lay a very different emphasis4 ,here fighting1 bullying1 and teasing lead all others2 then come stealing1 bad manners1 lying1 disobedience1 truancy1 cruelty to animals1 untidiness1 selfishness1 etc4 ,parents' view of this subject ,triplett found still different4 ,here wilfulness and obstinacy led all others with teasing1 quarreling1 dislike of application and effort1 and many others following4 ,the vast number of faults mentioned contrasts very strikingly with the seven deadly sins4 ,in a suggestive statistical study on the relations of the conduct of children to the weather1 ,dexter#g found that excessive humidity was most productive of misdemeanors2 that when the temperature was between #ij and #ajj the probability of bad conduct was increased #cjj per cent1 when between #hj and #ij it was increased #ajd per cent4 ,abnormal barometric pressure1 whether great or small1 was found to increase misconduct #ej per cent2 abnormal movements of the wind increased it from #bj to #ff per cent2 while the time of year and precipitation seemed to have almost no effect4 ,while the effect of weather has been generally recognized by superintendents and teachers and directors of prisons and asylums1 and even by banks1 which in ,london do not permit clerks to do the more important bookkeeping during very foggy days1 the statistical estimates of its effect in general need larger numbers for more valuable determinations4 ,temperature is known to have a very distinct effect upon crime1 especially suicide and truancy4 ,workmen do less in bad weather1 blood pressure is modified1 etc4#h ,in his study of truancy1 ,kline#i starts with the assumption that the maximum metabolism is always consciously or unconsciously sought1 and that migrations are generally away from the extremes of hot and cold toward an optimum temperature4 ,the curve of truancies and runaways increases in a marked ratio at puberty1 which probably represents the age of natural majority among primitive people4 ,dislike of school1 the passion for out-of-door life1 and more universal interests in man and nature now arise1 so that runaways may be interpreted as an instinctive rebellion against limitations of freedom and unnatural methods of education as well as against poor homes4 ,hunger is one of its most potent1 although often unconscious causes4 ,the habitual environment now begins to seem dull and there is a great increase in impatience at restraint4 ,sometimes there is a mania for simply going away and enjoying the liberty of nomadic life4 ,just as good people in foreign parts sometimes allow themselves unwonted liberties1 so vagrancy increases crime4 ,the passion to get to and play at or in the water is often strangely dominant4 ,it seems so fine out of doors1 especially in the spring1 and the woods and fields make it so hard to voluntarily incarcerate oneself in the schoolroom1 that pubescent boys and even girls often feel like animals in captivity4 ,they long intensely for the utter abandon of a wilder life1 and very characteristic is the frequent discarding of foot and head dress and even garments in the blind instinct to realise again the conditions of primitive man4 ,the manifestations of this impulse1 if read aright1 are grave arraignments of the lack of adaptability of the child's environment to his disposition and nature1 and with home restraints once broken1 the liabilities to every crime1 especially theft1 are enormously increased4 ,the truant1 although a cording to ,kline's measurements slightly smaller than the average child1 is more energetic and is generally capable of the greatest activity and usefulness in more out-of-door vocations4 ,truancy is augmented1 too1 just in proportion as legitimate and interesting physical exercise is denied4 ,the vagrant1 itinerant1 vagabond1 gadabout1 hobo1 and tramp1 that ,riis has made so interesting1 is an arrested1 degenerate1 or perverted being who abhors work2 feels that the world owes him a living2 and generally has his first real nomad experience in the teens or earlier4 ,it is a chronic illusion of youth that gives elsewhere a special charm4 ,in the immediate present things are mean1 dulled by wont1 and perhaps even nauseating because of familiarity4 ,there must be a change of scene to see the world2 man is not sessile but locomotor2 and the moment his life becomes migratory all the restraints and responsibilities of settled life vanish4 ,it is possible to steal and pass on undiscovered and unsuspected1 and to steal again4 ,the vagabond escapes the control of public sentiment1 which normally is an external conscience1 and having none of his own within him thus lapses to a feral state4 ,the constraint of city1 home1 and school is especially irksome1 and if to this repulsion is added the attraction of a love of nature and of perpetual change1 we have the diathesis of the roadsman already developed4 ,adolescence is the normal time of emancipation from the parental roof1 when youth seeks to set up a home of its own1 but the apprentice to life must wander far and long enough to find the best habitat in which to set up for himself4 ,this is the spring season of emigration2 and it should be an indispensable part of every life curriculum1 just before settlement1 to travel far and wide1 if resources and inclination permit4 ,but this stage should end in wisely chosen settlement where the young life can be independently developed1 and that with more complacency and satisfaction because the place has been wisely chosen on the basis of a wide comparison4 ,the chronic vagrant has simply failed to develop the reductives of this normal stage4 ,crime is cryptogamous and flourishes in concealment1 so that not only does falsehood facilitate it1 but certain types of lies often cause and are caused by it4 ,the beginning of wisdom in treatment is to discriminate between good and bad lies4 ,my own study#aj of the lies of #cjj normal children1 by a method carefully devised in order to avoid all indelicacy to the childish consciousness1 suggested the following distinct species of lies4 ,it is often a well-marked epoch when the young child first learns that it can imagine and state things that have no objective counterpart in its life1 and there is often a weird intoxication when some absurd and monstrous statement is made1 while the first sensation of a deliberate break with truth causes a real excitement which is often the birth pang of the imagination4 ,more commonly this is seen in childish play1 which owes a part of its charm to self-deception4 ,children make believe they are animals1 doctors1 ogres1 play school1 that they are dead1 mimic all they see and hear4 ,idealising temperaments sometimes prompt children of three or four suddenly to assert that they saw a pig with five ears1 apples on a cherry tree1 and other ,munchausen wonders1 which really means merely that they have had a new mental combination independently of experience4 ,sometimes their fancy is almost visualisation and develops into a kind of mythopeic faculty which spins clever yarns and suggests in a sense1 quite as pregnant as ,froschmer asserts of all mental activity and of the universe itself1 that all their life is imagination4 ,its control and not its elimination in a ,gradgrind age of crass facts is what should be sought in the interests of the highest truthfulness and of the evolution of thought as something above reality1 which prepares the way for imaginative literature4 ,the life of ,hartley ,coleridge1#aa by his brother1 is one of many illustrations4 ,he fancied cataract of what he named jug-force would burst out in a certain field and flow between populous banks1 where an ideal government1 long wars1 and even a reform in spelling1 would prevail1 illustrated in a journal devoted to the affairs of this realm--all these developed in his imagination1 where they existed with great reality for years4 ,the vividness of this fancy resembles the pseudo-hallucinations of ,kandinsky4 ,two sisters used to say1 ,let us play we are sisters1 as if this made the relation more real4 ,cagliostro found adolescent boys particularly apt for training for his exhibition of phrenological impostures1 illustrating his thirty-five faculties4 ,he lied when he confessed he had lied1 said a young ,sancho ,panza1 who had believed the wild tales of another boy who later admitted their falsity4 ,sir ,james ,mackintosh1 near puberty1 after reading ,roman history1 used to fancy himself the ,emperor of ,constantinople1 and carried on the administration of the realm for hours at a time4 ,his fancies never quite became convictions1 but adolescence is the golden age of this kind of dreamery and reverie which supplements reality and totalizes our faculties1 and often gives a special charm to dramatic activities and in morbid cases to simulation and dissimulation4 ,it is a state from which some of the bad1 but far more of the good qualities of life and mind arise4 ,these are the noble lies of poetry1 art1 and idealism1 but their pedagogic regime must be wise4 ,again with children as with savages1 truth depends largely upon personal likes and dislikes4 ,truth is for friends1 and lies are felt to be quite right for enemies4 ,the young often see no wrong in lies their friends wish told1 but may collapse and confess when asked if they would have told their mother thus4 ,boys best keep up complotted lies and are surer to own up if caught than girls4 ,it is harder to cheat in school with a teacher who is liked4 ,friendships are cemented by confidences and secrets1 and when they wane1 promises not to tell weaken in their validity4 ,lies to the priest1 and above all to ,god1 are the worst4 ,all this makes special attention to friendships1 leaders1 and favorites important1 and suggests the high value of science for general veracity4 ,the worst lies1 perhaps1 are those of selfishness4 ,they ease children over many hard places in life1 and are convenient covers for weakness and vice4 ,these lies are1 on the whole1 judging from our census1 most prevalent4 ,they are also most corrupting and hard to correct4 ,all bad habits particularly predispose to the lie of concealment2 for those who do wrong are almost certain to have recourse to falsehood1 and the sense of meanness thus slowly bred1 which may be met by appeals to honor1 for so much of which school life is responsible1 is often mitigated by the fact that falsehoods are frequently resorted to in moments of danger and excitement1 are easily forgotten when it is over1 and rarely rankle4 ,these1 even more than the pseudomaniac cases mentioned later1 grow rankly in those with criminal predispositions4 ,the lie heroic is often justified as a means of noble ends4 ,youth has an instinct which is wholesome for viewing moral situations as wholes4 ,callow casualists are fond of declaring that it would be a duty to state that their mother was out when she was in1 if it would save her life1 although they perhaps would not lie to save their own4 ,a doctor1 many suggested1 might tell an overanxious patient or friend that there was hope1 saving his conscience perhaps by reflecting that there was hope1 although they had it while he had none4 ,the end at first in such cases may be very noble and the fib or quibble very petty1 but worse lies for meaner objects may follow4 ,youth often describes such situations with exhilaration as if there were a feeling of easement from the monotonous and tedious obligation of rigorous literal veracity1 and here mentors are liable to become nervous and err4 ,the youth who really gets interested in the conflict of duties may reverently be referred to the inner lie of his own conscience1 the need of keeping which as a private tribunal is now apparent4 ,many adolescents become craven literalists and distinctly morbid and pseudophobiac1 regarding every deviation from scrupulously literal truth as alike heinous2 and many systematized palliatives and casuistic word-splittings1 methods of whispering or silently interpolating the words not1 perhaps1 or ,i think1 sometimes said over hundreds of times to neutralize the guilt of intended or unintended falsehoods1 appear in our records as a sad product of bad methods4 ,next to the selfish lie for protection--of special psychological interest for adolescent crime--is what we may call pseudomania1 seen especially in pathological girls in their teens1 who are honeycombed with selfishness and affectation and have a passion for always acting a part1 attracting attention1 etc4 ,the recent literature of telepathy and hypnotism furnishes many striking examples of this diathesis of impostors of both sexes4 ,it is a strange psychological paradox that some can so deliberately prefer to call black white and find distinct inebriation in flying diametrically in the face of truth and fact4 ,the great impostors1 whose entire lives have been a fabric of lies1 are cases in point4 ,they find a distinct pleasure not only in the sense of power which their ability to make trouble gives1 but in the sense of making truth a lie1 and of decreeing things into and out of existence4 ,sheldon's interesting statistics show that among the institutional activities of ,american children1#ab predatory organizations culminate from eleven to fifteen1 and are chiefly among boys4 ,these include bands of robbers1 clubs for hunting and fishing1 play armies1 organized fighting bands between separate districts1 associations for building forts1 etc4 ,this form of association is the typical one for boys of twelve4 ,after this age their interests are gradually transferred to less loosely organized athletic clubs4 ,sheldon's statistics are as follows3 ,age #h #i #aj #aa #ab #ac #ad #ae #af #ag ,total ,no4 of predatory #d #e #c #j #g #a #a #c #a #j #be ,girls societies #d #b #ag #ca #ah #bb 7#aa7 #g #a #j #aaa ,boys ,innocent though these predatory habits may be in small boys1 if they are not naturally and normally reduced at the beginning of the teens and their energy worked off into athletic societies1 they become dangerous4 ,the robber knight1 the pirate chief1 and the marauder become the real models4 ,the stealing clubs gather edibles and even useless things1 the loss of which causes mischief1 into some den1 cellar1 or camp in the woods1 where the plunder of their raids is collected4 ,an organized gang of boy pilferers for the purpose of entering stores had a cache1 where the stolen goods were brought together4 ,some of these bands have specialized on electric bells and connections1 or golf sticks and balls4 ,jacob ,riis says that on the ,east ,side of ,new ,york1 every corner has its gang with a program of defiance of law and order1 where the young tough who is a coward alone becomes dangerous when he hunts with the pack4 ,he is ambitious to get pinched or arrested and to pose as a hero4 ,his vanity may obliterate common fear and custom as his mind becomes inflamed with flash literature and penny dreadfuls4 ,sometimes whole neighborhoods are terrorized so that no one dares to testify against the atrocities they commit4 ,riis even goes so far as to say that a bare enumeration of the names of the best-known gangs would occupy the pages of this book4#ac ,the names are sufficiently suggestive--hell's kitchen gang1 stable gang1 dead men1 floaters1 rock1 pay1 hock gang1 the soup-house gang1 plug uglies1 back-alley men1 dead beats1 cop beaters1 and roasters1 hell benders1 chain gang1 sheeny skinners1 street cleaners1 tough kids1 sluggers1 wild ,indians1 cave and cellar men1 moonlight howlers1 junk club1 crook gang1 being some ,i have heard of4 ,some of the members of these gangs never knew a home1 were found perhaps as babies wrapped in newspapers1 survivors of the seventy-two dead infants ,riis says were picked up on the streets in ,new ,york in #ahhi1 or of baby farming4 ,they grow up street arabs1 slum waifs1 the driftwood of society1 its flotsam and jetsam1 or plankton1 fighting for a warn corner in their resorts or living in crowded tenement-houses that rent for more than a house on ,fifth ,avenue4 ,arrant cowards singly1 they dare and do anything together4 ,a gang stole a team in ,east ,new ,york and drove down the avenue1 shopping to throw in supplies1 one member sitting in the back of the wagon and shooting at all who interfered4 ,one gang specialized on stealing baby carriages1 depositing their inmates on the sidewalk4 ,another blew up a grocery store because its owner refused a gift they demanded4 ,another tried to saw off the head of a ,jewish pedler4 ,one member killed another for calling him no gent4 ,six murderous assaults were made at one time by these gangs within a single week4 ,one who is caught and does his bit or stretch is a hero1 and when a leader is hanged1 as has sometimes happened1 he is almost envied for his notoriety4 ,a frequent ideal is to pound a policeman with his own club4 ,the gang federates all nationalities4 ,property is depreciated and may be ruined if it is frequented by these gangs or becomes their lair or hang-out4 ,a citizen residing on the ,hudson procured a howitzer and pointed it at a boat gang1 forbidding them to land on his river frontage4 ,they have their calls1 whistles1 signs1 rally suddenly from no one knows where1 and vanish in the alleys1 basements1 roofs1 and corridors they know so well4 ,their inordinate vanity is well called the slum counterpart of self-esteem1 and ,riis calls the gang a club run wild4 ,they have their own ideality and a gaudy pinchbeck honor4 ,a young tough1 when arrested1 wrenched away the policeman's club1 dashed into the street1 rescued a baby from a runaway1 and came back and gave himself up4 ,they batten on the yellowest literature4 ,those of foreign descent1 who come to speak our language better than their parents1 early learn to despise them4 ,gangs emulate each other in hardihood1 and this is one cause of epidemics in crime4 ,they passionately love boundless independence1 are sometimes very susceptible to good influence if applied with great wisdom and discretion1 but easily fall away4 ,what is the true moral antitoxin for this class1 or at least what is the safety-valve and how and when to pull it1 we are now just beginning to learn1 but it is a new specialty in the great work of salvage from the wreckage of city life4 ,in ,london1 where these groups are better organised and yet more numerous1 war is often waged between them1 weapons are used and murder is not so very infrequent4 ,normally this instinct passes harmlessly over into associations for physical training1 which furnishes a safe outlet for these instincts1 until the reductives of maturer years have perfected their work4 ,the causation of crime1 which the cure seeks to remove1 is a problem comparable with the origin of sin and evil4 ,first1 of course1 comes heredity1 bad antenatal conditions1 bad homes1 unhealthful infancy and childhood1 overcrowded slums with their promiscuity and squalor1 which are always near the border of lawlessness1 and perhaps are the chief cause of crime4 ,a large per cent of juvenile offenders1 variously estimated1 but probably one-tenth of all1 are vagrants or without homes1 and divorce of parents and illegitimacy seem to be nearly equal as causative agencies4 ,if whatever is physiologically wrong is morally wrong1 and whatever is physiologically right is morally right1 we have an important ethical suggestion from somatic conditions4 ,there is no doubt that conscious intelligence during a certain early stage of its development tends to deteriorate the strength and infallibility of instinctive processes1 so that education is always beset with the danger of interfering with ancestral and congenital tendencies4 ,its prime object ought to be moralization1 but it can not be denied that in conquering ignorance we do not thereby conquer poverty or vice4 ,after the free schools in ,london were opened there was an increase of juvenile offenders4 ,new kinds of crime1 such as forgery1 grand larceny1 intricate swindling schemes1 were doubled1 while sneak thieves1 drunkards1 and pick-pockets decreased1 and the proportion of educated criminals was greatly augmented4#ad ,to collect masses of children and ram them with the same unassimilated facts is not education in this sense1 and we ought to confess that youthful crime is an expression of educational failure4 ,illiterate criminals are more likely to be detected1 and also to be condemned1 than are educated criminals4 ,every anthropologist knows that the deepest poverty and ignorance among primitive people are in nowise incompatible with honesty1 integrity1 and virtue4 ,indeed there is much reason to suspect that the extremes of wealth and poverty are more productive of crime than ignorance1 or even intemperance4 ,educators have no doubt vastly overestimated the moral efficiency of the three ,r's and forgotten that character in infancy is all instinct2 that in childhood it is slowly made over into habits2 while at adolescence more than at any other period of life1 it can be cultivated through ideals4 ,the dawn of puberty1 although perhaps marked by a certain moral hebetude1 is soon followed by a stormy period of great agitation1 when the very worst and best impulses in the human soul struggle against each other for its possession1 and when there is peculiar proneness to be either very good or very bad4 ,as the agitation slowly subsides1 it is found that there has been a renaissance of either the best or the worst elements of the soul1 if not indeed of both4 ,although pedagogues make vast claims for the moralizing effect of schooling1 ,i cannot find a single criminologist who is satisfied with the modern school1 while most bring the severest indictments against it for the blind and ignorant assumption that the three ,r's or any merely intellectual training can moralize4 ,by nature1 children are more or less morally blind1 and statistics show that between thirteen and sixteen incorrigibility is between two and three times as great as at any other age4 ,it is almost impossible for adults to realize the irresponsibility and even moral neurasthenia incidental to this stage of development4 ,if we reflect what a girl would do if dressed like a boy and leading his life and exposed to the same moral contagion1 or what a boy would do if corseted and compelled to live like a girl1 perhaps we can realize that whatever rle heredity plays1 the youth who go wrong are1 in the vast majority of cases1 victims of circumstances or of immaturity1 and deserving of both pity and hope4 ,it was this sentiment that impelled ,zarnadelli to reconstruct the criminal law of ,italy1 in this respect1 and it was this sympathy that made ,rollet a self-constituted advocate1 pleading each morning for the twenty or thirty boys and eight or ten girls arrested every day in ,paris4 ,those smitten with the institution craze or with any extreme correctionalist views will never solve the problem of criminal youths4 ,first of all1 they must be carefully and objectively studied1 lived with1 and understood as in this country ,gulick1 ,johnson1 ,forbush and ,yoder are doing in different ways1 but each with success4 ,criminaloid youth is more sharply individualized than the common good child1 who is less differentiated4 ,virtue is more uniform and monotonous than sin4 ,there is one right but there are many wrong ways1 hence they need to be individually studied by every paidological method1 physical and psychic4 ,keepers1 attendants1 and even sponsors who have to do with these children should be educators with souls full of fatherhood and motherhood1 and they should understand that the darkest criminal propensities are frequently offset by the very best qualities2 that juvenile murderers are often very tender-hearted to parents1 sisters1 children1 or pets2#ae they should understand that in the criminal constitution there are precisely the same ingredients1 although perhaps differently compounded1 accentuated1 mutually controlled1 etc41 by the environment1 as in themselves1 so that to know all would1 in the great majority of cases1 be to pardon all2 that the home sentiments need emphasis2 that a little less stress of misery to overcome the effects of economic malaise and1 above all1 a friend1 mentor1 adviser are needed4 ,i incline to think that many children would be better and not worse for reading1 provided it can be done in tender years1 stories like those of ,captain ,kidd1 ,jack ,sheppard1 ,dick ,turpin1 and other gory tales1 and perhaps later tales like ,eugene ,aram1 and the ophidian medicated novel1 ,elsie ,venner1 etc41 on the principle of the ,aristotelian catharsis to arouse betimes the higher faculties which develop later1 and whose function it is to deplete the bad centers and suppress or inhibit their activity4 ,again1 ,i believe that judicious and incisive scolding is a moral tonic1 which is often greatly needed1 and if rightly administered would be extremely effective1 because it shows the instinctive reaction of the sane conscience against evil deeds and tendencies4 ,special pedagogic attention should be given to the sentiment of justice1 which is almost the beginning of personal morals in boys2 and plays should be chosen and encouraged that hold the beam even1 regardless of personal wish and interest4 ,further yet benevolence and its underlying impulse to do more than justice to our associates2 to do good in the world2 to give pleasure to those about1 and not pain1 can be directly cultivated4 ,truth-telling presents a far harder problem1 as we have seen4 ,it is no pedagogical triumph to clip the wings of fancy1 but effort should be directed almost solely against the cowardly lies1 which cover evil2 and the heroism of telling the truth and taking the consequences is another of the elements of the moral sense1 so complex1 so late in development1 and so often permanently crippled4 ,the money sense1 by all the many means now used for its development in school1 is the surest safeguard against the most common juvenile crime of theft1 and much can be taught by precept1 example1 and moral regimen of the sacredness of property rights4 ,the regularity of school work and its industry is a valuable moralizing agent1 but entirely inadequate and insufficient by itself4 ,educators must face the fact that the ultimate verdict concerning the utility of the school will be determined1 as ,talleck well says1 by its moral efficiency in saving children from personal vice and crime4 ,wherever any source of pollution of school communities occurs1 it must be at once and effectively detected1 and some artificial elements must be introduced into the environment4 ,in other words1 there must be a system of moral orthopedics4 ,garofalo's#af new term and principle of temibility is perhaps of great service4 ,he would thus designate the quantum of evil feared that is sufficient to restrain criminal impulsion4 ,we can not measure guilt or culpability1 which may be of all degrees from nothing to infinity perhaps1 but we can to some extent scale the effectiveness of restraint1 if criminal impulse is not absolutely irresistible4 ,pain then must be so organised as to follow and measure the offense by as nearly a natural method as possible1 while on the other hand the rewards for good conduct must also be more or less accentuated4 ,thus the problem of criminology for youth can not be based on the principles now recognised for adults4 ,they can not be protective of society only1 but must have marked reformatory elements4 ,solitude#ag which tends to make weak1 agitated1 and fearful1 at this very gregarious age should be enforced with very great discretion4 ,there must be no personal and unmotivated clemency or pardon in such scheme1 for1 according to the old saw1 ,mercy but murders1 pardoning those who kill2 nor on the other hand should there be the excessive disregard of personal adjustments1 and the uniformitarian1 who perhaps celebrated his highest triumph in the old sentence1 ,kill all offenders and suspects1 for ,god will know his own1 should have no part nor lot here4 ,the philosopher ,hartmann has a suggestive article advocating that penal colonies made up of transported criminals should be experimented upon by statesmen in order to put various theories of self-government to a practical test4 ,however this may be1 the penologist of youth must face some such problem in the organization of the house of detention1 boys' club1 farm1 reformatory1 etc4 ,we must pass beyond the clumsy apparatus of a term sentence41 or the devices of a jury1 clumsier yet1 for this purpose2 we must admit the principle of regret1 fear1 penance1 material restoration of damage1 and understand the sense in which1 for both society and for the individual1 it makes no practical difference whether experts think there is some taint of insanity1 provided only that irresponsibility is not hopelessly complete4 ,in few aspects of this theme do conceptions of and practises in regard to adolescence need more radical reconstruction4 ,a mere accident of circumstance often condemns to criminal careers youths capable of the highest service to society1 and for a mere brief season of temperamental outbreak or obstreperousness exposes them to all the infamy to which ignorant and cruel public opinion condemns all those who have once been detected on the wrong side of the invisible and arbitrary line of rectitude4 ,the heart of criminal psychology is here2 and not only that1 but ,i would conclude with a most earnest personal protest against the current methods of teaching and studying ethics in our academic institutions as a speculative1 historical1 and abstract thing4 ,here in the concrete and saliently objective facts of crime it should have its beginning1 and have more blood and body in it by getting again close to the hot battle line between vice and virtue1 and then only1 when balanced and sanified by a rich ballast of facts1 can it with advantage slowly work its way over to the larger and higher philosophy of conduct1 which1 when developed from this basis1 will be a radically different thing from the shadowy phantom1 schematic speculations of many contemporary moralists1 taught in our schools and colleges4 ,footnote #a3 ,problematische ,kindesnaturen4 ,eine ,studie fr ,schule und ,haus4 ,voigtlnder1 ,leipzig1 #ahhi4 ,footnote #b3 ,die pdagogische ,pathologie in der ,erziehungskunde des #ai ,jahrhunderts4 ,bertelsman1 ,gtersloh1 #ahic1 p4 #did4 ,footnote #c3 ,peculiar and ,exceptional ,children4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,october1 #ahif1 vol4 #d1 pp4 #c-fj4 ,footnote #d3 ,la ,pubert4 ,schleicher ,frres1 ,paris1 #aijb1 p4 #gb4 ,footnote #e3 ,home and ,school ,punishments4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,march1 #ahii1 vol4 #f1 pp4 #aei-ahg4 ,footnote #f3 ,a ,study of the ,faults of ,children4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,june1 #aijc1 vol4 #aj1 p4 #bjj et seq4 ,footnote #g3 ,the ,child and the ,weather1 by ,edwin ,g4 ,dexter4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,april1 #ahih1 vol4 #e1 pp4 #eab-ebb4 ,footnote #h3 ,psychic ,effects of the ,weather1 by ,j4,s4 ,lemon4 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 ,january1 #ahid1 vol4 #f1 pp4 #bgg-bgi4 ,footnote #i3 ,truancy as ,related to the ,migrating ,instinct1 by ,l4,w4 ,kline4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,january1 #ahih1 vol4 #e1 pp4 #cha-dbj4 ,footnote #aj3 ,children's ,lies4 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 ,january1 #ahij1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #ei-gj4 ,footnote #aa3 ,poems4 ,with memoir by his brother1 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahea4 ,footnote #ab3 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 ,july1 #ahih1 vol4 #i1 pp4 #dbe-ddh4 ,footnote #ac3 ,how the ,other ,half ,lives4 ,scribner's ,sons1 ,new ,york1 #ahij1 p4 #bbi4 ,footnote #ad3 ,the ,curse in ,education1 by ,rebecca ,harding ,davis4 ,north ,american ,review1 ,may1 #ahii1 vol4 #afh1 pp4 #fji-fad4 ,footnote #ae3 ,holtzendorff3 ,psychologie des ,mordes4 ,c4 ,pfeiffer1 ,berlin1 #ahge ,footnote #af3 ,la ,criminologie4 ,paris1 ,alcan1 #ahij1 p4 #ccb ,footnote #ag3 ,see its psychology and dangers well pointed out by ,m4,h4 ,small3 ,psychical ,relations of ,society and ,solitude4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,april1 #aijj1 vol4 #g1 pp4 #ac-fi 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,biographies ,,of ,,youth ,knightly ideals and honor--,thirty adolescents from ,shakespeare--,goethe--,c4,d4 ,warner--,aldrich--,the fugitive nature of adolescent experience--,extravagance of autobiographies--,stories that attach to great names--,some typical crazes--,illustrations from ,george ,eliot1 ,edison1 ,chatterton1 ,hawthorne1 ,whittier1 ,spencer1 ,huxley1 ,lyell1 ,byron1 ,heine1 ,napoleon1 ,darwin1 ,martineau1 ,agassiz1 ,madame ,roland1 ,louisa ,alcott1 ,f4,h4 ,burnett1 ,helen ,keller1 ,marie ,bashkirtseff1 ,mary ,mac,lane1 ,ada ,negri1 ,de ,quincey1 ,stuart ,mill1 ,jefferies1 and scores of others4 ,the knightly ideals and those of secular life generally during the middle ages and later were in striking contrast to the ascetic ideals of the early ,christian ,church2 in some respects they were like those of the ,greeks4 ,honor was the leading ideal1 and muscular development and that of the body were held in high respect2 so that the spirit of the age fostered conceptions not unlike those of the ,japanese ,bushido4 ,where elements of ,christianity were combined with this we have the spirit of the pure chivalry of ,king ,arthur and the ,knights of the ,round ,table1 which affords perhaps the very best ideals for youth to be found in history1 as we shall see more fully later4 ,in a very interesting paper1 entitled ,shakespeare and ,adolescence1 ,dr4 ,m4,f4 ,libby#a very roughly reckons seventy-four interesting adolescents among the comedies1 forty-six among the tragedies1 and nineteen among the histories4 ,he selects thirty characters who1 either on account of direct references to their age1 or because of their love-stories1 or because they show the emotional and intellectual plasticity of youth1 may be regarded as typical adolescents4 ,his list is as follows3 ,romeo1 ,juliet1 ,hamlet1 ,ophelia1 ,imogen1 ,perdita1 ,arviragus1 ,guiderius1 ,palamon1 ,arcite1 ,emilia1 ,ferdinand1 ,miranda1 ,isabella1 ,mariana1 ,orlando1 ,rosalind1 ,biron1 ,portia1 ,jessica1 ,phebe1 ,katharine1 ,helena1 ,viola1 ,troilus1 ,cressida1 ,cassio1 ,marina1 ,prince ,hal1 and ,richard of ,gloucester4 ,the proof of the youth of these characters1 as set forth1 is of various kinds1 and ,libby holds that besides these1 the sonnets and poems perhaps show a yet greater1 more profound and concentrated knowledge of adolescence4 ,he thinks ,venus and ,adonis a successful attempt to treat sex in a candid1 naive way1 if it be read as it was meant1 as a catharsis of passion1 in which is latent a whole philosophy of art4 ,to some extent he also finds the story of the ,passionate ,pilgrim replete with the deepest knowledge of the passions of early adolescence ,the series culminates in ,sonnet #aaf1 which makes love the sole beacon of humanity4 ,it might be said that it is connected by a straight line with the best teachings of ,plato1 and that here humanity picked up the clue1 lost1 save with some ,italian poets1 in the great interval4 ,in looking over current autobiographies of well-known modern men who deal with their boyhood1 one finds curious extremes4 ,on the one hand are those of which ,doctor's is a type1 where details are dwelt upon at great length with careful and suggestive philosophic reflections4 ,the development of his own tastes1 capacities1 and his entire adult consciousness was assumed to be due to the incidents of childhood and youth1 and especially the latter stage was to him full of the most serious problems essential to his self-knowledge2 and in the story of his life he has exploited all available resources of this genetic period of storm and stress more fully perhaps than any other writer4 ,at the other extreme1 we have writers like ,charles ,dudley ,warner1#b a self-made man1 whose early life was passed on the farm1 and who holds his own boyhood there in greater contempt than perhaps any other reputable writer of such reminiscences4 ,all the incidents are treated not only with seriousness1 but with a forced drollery and catchy superficiality which reflect unfavorably at almost every point upon the members of his household1 who are caricatured2 all the precious associations of early life on a ,new ,england farm are not only made absurd1 but from beginning to end his book has not a scintilla of instruction or suggestion for those that are interested in child life4 ,aldrich#c is better1 and we have interesting glimpses of the pet horse and monkeys1 of his fighting the boy bully1 running way1 and falling in love with an older girl whose engagement later blighted his life4 ,howells1#d ,white1#e ,mitter1#f ,grahame1#g ,heidi1#h and ,mrs4 ,barnett1#i might perhaps represent increasing grades of merit in this field in this respect4 ,yoder1#aj in his interesting study of the boyhood of great men1 has called attention to the deplorable carelessness of their biographers concerning the facts and influences of their youth4 ,he advocates the great pedagogic influence of biography1 and would restore the high appreciation of it felt by the ,bolandists1 which ,comte's positivist calendar1 that renamed all the days of the year from three hundred and sixty-five such accounts in #ahdi1 also sought to revive4 ,yoder selected fifty great modern biographies1 autobiographies preferred1 for his study4 ,he found a number of lives whose equipment and momentum have been strikingly due to some devoted aunt1 and that give many glimpses of the first polarization of genius in the direction in which fame is later achieved4 ,he holds that1 while the great men excelled in memory1 imagination is perhaps still more a youthful condition of eminence2 magnifies the stimulus of poverty1 the fact that elder sons become prominent nearly twice as often as younger ones2 and raises the question whether too exuberant physical development does not dull genius and talent4 ,one striking and cardinal fact never to be forgotten considering its each and every phenomenon and stage is that the experiences of adolescence are extremely transitory and very easily forgotten1 so that they are often totally lost to the adult consciousness4 ,lancaster#aa observes that we are constantly told by adults past thirty that they never had this and that experience1 and that those who have had them are abnormal2 that they are far more rare than students of childhood assert1 etc4 ,he says1 ,not a single young person with whom ,i have had free and open conversation has been free from serious thoughts of suicide1 but these are forgotten later4 ,a typical case of many ,i could gather is that of a lady1 not yet in middle life1 precise and carefully trained1 who1 on hearing a lecture on the typical phases of adolescence1 declared that she must have been abnormal1 for she knew nothing of any of these experiences4 ,her mother1 however1 produced her diary1 and there she read for the first time since it was written1 beginning in the ,january of her thirteenth year1 a long series of resolutions which revealed a course of conduct that brought the color to her face1 that she should have found it necessary to pledge not to swear1 lie1 etc41 and which showed conclusively that she had passed through about all the phases described4 ,these phenomena are sometimes very intense and may come late in life1 but it is impossible to remember feelings and emotions with definiteness1 and these now make up a large part of life4 ,hence we are prone to look with some incredulity upon the immediate records of the tragic emotions and experiences typical and normal at this time1 because development has scored away their traces from the conscious soul4 ,there is a wall around the town of ,boyville1 says ,white1#ab in substance1 which is impenetrable when its gates have once shut upon youth4 ,an adult may peer over the wall and try to ape the games inside1 but finds it all a mockery and himself banished among the purblind grown-ups4 ,the town of ,boyville was old when ,nineveh was a hamlet2 it is ruled by ancient laws2 has its own rulers and idols2 and only the dim1 unreal noises of the adult world about it have changed4 ,in exploring such sources we soon see how few writers have given true pictures of the chief traits of this developmental period1 which can rarely be ascertained with accuracy4 ,the adult finds it hard to recall the emotional and instinctive life of the teens which is banished without a trace1 save as scattered hints may be gathered from diaries1 chance experiences1 or the recollections of others4 ,but the best observers see but very little of what goes on in the youthful soul1 the development of which is very largely subterranean4 ,only when the feelings erupt in some surprising way is the process manifest4 ,the best of these sources are autobiographies1 and of these only few are full of the details of this stage4 ,just as in the mythic prehistoric stage of many nations there is a body of legendary matter1 which often reappears in somewhat different form1 so there is a floating plankton-like mass of tradition and storiology that seems to attach to eminence wherever it emerges and is repeated over and over again1 concerning the youth of men who later achieve distinction1 which biographers often incorporate and attach to the time1 place1 and person of their heroes4 ,as ,burnham#ac well intimates1 many of the literary characterizations of adolescence are so marked by extravagance1 and sometimes even by the struggle for literary effects1 that they are not always the best documents1 although often based on personal experience4 ,confessionalism is generally overdrawn1 distorted1 and especially the pains of this age are represented as too keen4 ,of ,george ,eliot's types of adolescent character1 this may best be seen in ,maggie ,tulliver1 with her enthusiastic self-renunciation1 with her volcanic upheavings of imprisoned passions1 with her wide1 hopeless yearning for that something1 whatever it was1 that was greatest and best on this earth1 and in ,gwendolen1 who1 from the moment she caught ,deronda's eye1 was totally swayed in feeling and action by the presence of a person of the other sex whom she had never seen before4 ,there was the resolute action from instinct and the setting at defiance of calculation and reason1 the want of any definite desire to marry1 while all her conduct tended to promote proposals4 ,exaggeration1 although not the perversions of this age often found in adult characterizations1 is marked trait of the writings of adolescents1 whose conduct meanwhile may appear rational1 so that this suggests that consciousness may at this stage serve as a harmless vent for tendencies that would otherwise cause great trouble if turned to practical affairs4 ,if ,harmodius and ,aristogeiton1 the adolescent tyrant slayers of ,greece1 had been theorists1 they might have been harmless on the principle that its analysis tends to dissipate emotion4 ,lancaster#ad gathered and glanced over a thousand biographies1 from which he selected #bjj for careful study1 choosing them to show different typical directions of activity4 ,of these1 #abj showed a distinct craze for reading in adolescence2 #aji became great lovers of nature2 #eh wrote poetry1 #eh showed a great and sudden development of energy2 #ee showed great eagerness for school2 #ec devoted themselves for a season to art and music2 #ec became very religious2 #ea left home in the teens2 #ea showed dominant instincts of leadership2 #di had great longings of many kinds2 #df developed scientific tastes2 #da grew very anxious about the future2 #cd developed increased keenness of sensation or at least power of observation2 in #cb cases health was better2 #ca were passionately altruistic2 #bc became idealists2 #bc showed powers of invention2 #ag were devoted to older friends2 #ae would reform society2 #g hated school4 ,these1 like many other statistics1 have only indicative value1 as they are based on numbers that are not large enough and upon returns not always complete4 ,a few typical instances from ,lancaster must here suffice4 ,savonarola was solitary1 pondering1 meditating1 felt profoundly the evils of the world and need of reform1 and at twenty-two spent a whole night planning his career4 ,shelley during these years was unsocial1 much alone1 fantastic1 wandered much by moonlight communing with stars and moon1 was attached to an older man4 ,beecher was intoxicated with nature1 which he declared afterward to have been the inspiration of his life4 ,george ,eliot at thirteen had a passion for music and became a clever pianist4 ,at sixteen she was religious1 founded societies for the poor and for animals1 and had fitting spells of misanthropy4 ,edison undertook to read the ,detroit ,free ,library through1 read fifteen solid feet as the books stand on the shelves1 was stopped1 and says he has read comparatively little since4 ,tolstoi found the aspect of things suddenly changed4 ,nature put on a new appearance4 ,he felt he might commit the most dreadful crimes with no purpose save curiosity and the need of action4 ,the future looked gloomy4 ,he became furiously angry without cause2 thought he was lost1 hated by everybody1 was perhaps not the son of his father1 etc4 ,at seventeen he was solitary1 musing about immortality1 human destiny1 feeling death at hand1 giving up his studies1 fancying himself a great man with new truths for humanity4 ,by and by he took up the old virtuous course of life with fresh power1 new resolutions1 with the feeling that he had lost much time4 ,he had a deep religious experience at seventeen and wept for joy over his new life4 ,he had a period before twenty when he told desperate lies1 for which he could not account1 then a passion for music1 and later for ,french novels4 ,rousseau at this age was discontented1 immensely in love1 wept often without cause1 etc4 ,keats had a great change at fourteen1 wrestling with frequent obscure and profound stirrings of soul1 with a sudden hunger for knowledge which consumed his days with fire1 and with passionate longing to drain the cup of experience at a draft4 ,he was at the morning hour when the whole world turns to gold4 ,the boy had suddenly become a poet4 ,chatterton was too proud to eat a gift dinner1 though nearly starved1 and committed suicide at seventeen for lack of appreciation4 ,john ,hunter was dull and hated study1 but at twenty his mind awoke as did that of ,patrick ,henry1 who before was a lonely wanderer1 sitting idly for hours under the trees4 ,alexander ,murray awoke to life at fifteen and acquired several languages in less than two years4 ,gifford was distraught for lack of reading1 went to sea at thirteen1 became a shoemaker1 studying algebra late at night1 was savagely unsociable1 sunk into torpor from which he was roused to do splenetic and vexatious tricks1 which alienated his friends4 ,rittenhouse at fourteen was a plowboy1 covering the fences with figures1 musing on infinite time and space4 ,benjamin ,thompson was roused to a frenzy for sciences at fifteen2 at seventeen walked nine miles daily to attend lectures at ,cambridge2 and at nineteen married a widow of thirty-three4 ,franklin had a passion for the sea2 at thirteen read poetry all night2 wrote verses and sold them on the streets of ,boston2 doubted everything at fifteen2 left home for good at seventeen2 started the first public library in ,philadelphia before he was twenty-one4 ,robert ,fulton was poor1 dreamy1 mercurial1 devoted to nature1 art1 and literature4 ,he became a painter of talent1 then a poet1 and left home at seventeen4 ,bryant was sickly till fourteen and became permanently well thereafter2 was precociously devoted to nature1 religion1 prayed for poetic genius and wrote ,thanatopsis before he was eighteen4 ,jefferson doted on animals and nature at fourteen1 and at seventeen studied fifteen hours a day4 ,garfield1 though living in ,ohio1 longed for the sea1 and ever after this period the sight of a ship gave him a strange thrill4 ,hawthorne was devoted to the sea and wanted to sail on and on forever and never touch shore again4 ,he would roam through the ,maine woods alone2 was haunted by the fear that he would die before twenty-five4 ,peter ,cooper left home at seventeen2 was passionately altruistic2 and at eighteen vowed he would build a place like his ,new ,york ,institute4 ,whittier at fourteen found a copy of ,burns1 which excited him and changed the current of his life4 ,holmes had a passion for flowers1 broke into poetry at fifteen1 and had very romantic attachments to certain trees4 ,j4 ,t4 ,trowbridge learned ,german1 ,french1 and ,latin alone before twenty-one2 composed poetry at the plow and wrote it out in the evening4 ,henry followed a rabbit under the ,public ,library at ,albany1 found a hole in the floor that admitted him to the shelves1 and1 unknown to any one1 read all the fiction the library contained1 then turned to physics1 astronomy1 and chemistry1 and developed a passion for the sciences4 ,he was stage-struck1 and became a good amateur actor4 ,h4 ,h4 ,boyesen was thrilled by nature and by the thought that he was a ,norseman4 ,he had several hundred pigeons1 rabbits1 and other pets2 loved to be in the woods at night2 on leaving home for school was found with his arms around the neck of a calf to which he was saying good-by4 ,maxwell1 at sixteen1 had almost a horror of destroying a leaf1 flower1 or fly4 ,jahn found growing in his heart1 at this age1 an inextinguishable feeling for right and wrong--which later he thought the cause of all his inner weal and outer woe4 ,when ,nansen was in his teens he spent weeks at a time alone in the forest1 full of longings1 courage1 altruism1 wanted to get away from every one and live like ,crusoe4 ,t4 ,b4 ,reed1 at twelve and thirteen1 had a passion for reading2 ran away at seventeen2 painted1 acted1 and wrote poetry4 ,cartwright1 at sixteen1 heard voices from the sky saying1 ,look above1 thy sins are forgiven thee4 ,herbert ,spencer became an engineer at seventeen1 after one idle year4 ,he never went to school1 but was a private pupil of his uncle4 ,sir ,james ,mackintosh grew fond of history at eleven2 fancied he was the ,emperor of ,constantinople2 loved solitude at thirteen2 wrote poetry at fourteen2 and fell in love at seventeen4 ,thomas ,buxton loved dogs1 horses1 and literature1 and combined these while riding on an old horse4 ,at sixteen be fell in love with an older literary woman1 which aroused every latent power to do or die1 and thereafter he took all the school prizes4 ,scott began to like poetry at thirteen4 ,pascal wrote treatises on conic sections at sixteen and invented his arithmetical machine at nineteen4 ,nelson went to sea at twelve2 commanded a boat in peril at fifteen1 which at the same age he left to fight a polar bear4 ,banks1 the botanist1 was idle and listless till fourteen1 could not travel the road marked out for him2 when coming home from bathing1 he was struck by the beauty of the flowers and at once began his career4 ,montcalm and ,wolfe both distinguished themselves as leaders in battle at sixteen4 ,lafayette came to ,america at nineteen1 thrilled by our bold strike for liberty4 ,gustavus ,adolphus declared his own majority at seventeen and was soon famous4 ,ida ,lewis rescued four men in a boat at sixteen4 ,joan of ,arc began at thirteen to have the visions which were the later guide of her life4 ,mr4 ,swift has collected interesting biographical material#ae to show that school work is analytic1 while life is synthetic1 and how the narrowness of the school enclosure prompts many youth in the wayward age to jump fences and seek new and more alluring pastures4 ,according to school standards1 many were dull and indolent1 but their nature was too large or their ideals too high to be satisfied with it4 ,wagner at the ,nikolaischule at ,leipzig was relegated to the third form1 having already attained to the second at ,dresden1 which so embittered him that he lost all taste for philology and1 in his own words1 became lazy and slovenly4 ,priestley never improved by any systematic course of study4 ,w4,h4 ,gibson was very slow and was rebuked for wasting his time in sketching4 ,james ,russell ,lowell was reprimanded1 at first privately and then publicly1 in his sophomore year for general negligence in themes1 forensics1 and recitations1 and finally suspended in #ahch on account of continued neglect of his college duties4 ,in early life ,goldsmith's teacher thought him the dullest boy she had ever taught4 ,his tutor called him ignorant and stupid4 ,irving says that a lad whose passions are not strong enough in youth to mislead him from that path of science which his tutors1 and not his inclinations1 have chalked out1 by four or five years' perseverance1 will probably obtain every advantage and honor his college can bestow4 ,i would compare the man whose youth has been thus passed in the tranquility of dispassionate prudence1 to liquors that never ferment1 and1 consequently1 continue always muddy4 ,huxley detested writing till past twenty4 ,his schooling was very brief1 and he declared that those set over him cared about as much for his intellectual and moral welfare as if they were baby farmers4 ,humphry ,davy was faithful but showed no talent in school1 having the reputation of being an idle boy1 with a gift for making verses1 but with no aptitude for studies of a graver sort4 ,later in life he considered it fortunate that he was left so much to himself4 ,byron was so poor a scholar that he only stood at the head of the class when1 as was the custom1 it was inverted1 and the bantering master repeatedly said to him1 ,now1 ,george1 man1 let me see how soon you'll be at the foot4 ,schiller's negligence and lack of alertness called for repeated reproof1 and his final school thesis was unsatisfactory4 ,hegel was a poor scholar1 and at the university it was stated that he was of middling industry and knowledge but especially deficient in philosophy4 ,john ,hunter nearly became a cabinetmaker4 ,lyell had excessive aversion to work4 ,george ,combe wondered why he was so inferior to other boys in arithmetic4 ,heine agreed with the monks that ,greek was the invention of the devil4 ,god knows what misery ,i suffered with it4 ,he hated ,french meters1 and his teacher vowed he had no soul for poetry4 ,he idled away his time at ,bonn1 and was horribly bored by the odious1 stiff1 cut-and-dried tone of the leathery professors4 ,humboldt was feeble as a child and had less facility in his studies than most children4 ,until ,i reached the age of sixteen1 he says1 ,i showed little inclination for scientific pursuits4 ,he was essentially self-taught1 and acquired most of his knowledge rather late in life4 ,at nineteen he had never heard of botany4 ,sheridan was called inferior to many of his schoolfellows4 ,he was remarkable for nothing but idleness and winning manners1 and was not only slovenly in construing1 but unusually defective in his ,greek grammar4 ,swift was refused his degree because of dulness and insufficiency1 but given it later as a special favor4 ,wordsworth was disappointing4 ,general ,grant was never above mediocrity1 and was dropped as corporal in the junior class and served the last year as a private4 ,w4 ,h4 ,seward was called too stupid to learn4 ,napoleon graduated forty-second in his class4 ,who1 asks ,swift1 were the forty-one above him8 ,darwin was singularly incapable of mastering any language4 ,when he left school1 he says1 ,i was considered by all my masters and by my father as a very ordinary boy1 rather below the common standard in intellect4 ,to my deep mortification1 my father once said to me1 ',you care for nothing but shooting1 dogs1 and rat-catching1 and you will be a disgrace to yourself and to all your family4' ,harriet ,martineau was thought very dull4 ,though a horn musician1 she could do absolutely nothing in the presence of her irritable master4 ,she wrote a cramped1 untidy scrawl until past twenty4 ,a visit to some very brilliant cousins at the age of sixteen had much to do in arousing her backward nature4 ,at this age ,j4 ,pierpont ,morgan wrote poetry and was devoted to mathematics4 ,booker ,t4 ,washington1 at about thirteen or fourteen 7he does not know the date of his birth71 felt the new meaning of life and started off on foot to ,hampton1 five hundred miles away1 not knowing even the direction1 sleeping under a sidewalk his first night in ,richmond4 ,vittorino da ,feltre1#af according to ,dr4 ,burnham1 had a low1 tardy development1 lingering on a sluggish dead level from ten to fourteen1 which to his later unfoldment was as the barren1 improving years sometimes called the middle ages1 compared with the remainder which followed when a new world-consciousness intensified his personality4 ,lancaster's summaries show that of #ajj actors1 the average age of their first great success was exactly #ah years4 ,those he chose had taken to the stage of their own accord1 for actors are more born than made4 ,nearly half of them were ,irish1 the unemotional ,american stock having furnished far less4 ,few make their first success on the stage after #bb1 but from #af to #bj is the time to expect talent in this line1 although there is a second rise in his curve before and still more after #be1 representing those whose success is more due to intellect4 ,taking the average age of #ajj novelists when their first story met with public approval1 the curve reaches its highest point between #cj and #ce4 ,averaging #ec poets1 the age at which most first poems were published falls between #ae and #bj4 ,the average age at which first publication showed talent he places at #ah1 which is in striking contrast with the average age of inventors at time of the first patent1 which is #cc years4 ,a still more striking contrast is that between #ajj musicians and #ajj professional men4 ,music is by far the most precocious and instinctive of all talents4 ,the average age when marked talent was first shown is a little less than #aj years1 #ie per cent showed rare talent before #af1 while the professional men graduated at an average age of #bd years and #aa months1 and #aj years must be added to mark the point of recognized success4 ,of #ec artists1 #ij per cent showed talent before #bj1 the average age being #ag4b years4 ,of #ajj pioneers who made their mark in the ,far ,west1 leaving home to seek fortunes near the frontier1 the greatest number departed before they were #ah4 ,of #aah scientists1 ,lancaster estimates that their life interest first began to glow on the average a little before they were #ai4 ,in general1 those whose success is based on emotional traits antedate by some years those whose renown is more purely in intellectual spheres1 and taking all together1 the curves of the first class culminate between #ah and #bj4 ,while men devoted to physical science1 and their biographers1 give us perhaps the least breezy accounts of this seething age1 it may be1 because they mature late1 nearly all show its ferments and its circumnutations1 as a few almost random illustrations clearly show3 ,tycho ,brahe1 born in #aeif of illustrious ,danish stock1 was adopted by an uncle1 and entered the ,university of ,copenhagen at thirteen1 where multiplication1 division1 philosophy1 and metaphysics were taught4 ,when he was fourteen1 an eclipse of the sun occurred1 which aroused so much interest that he decided to devote himself to the study of the heavenly bodies4 ,he was able to construct a series of interesting instruments on a progressive scale of size1 and finally to erect the great ,observatory of ,uraniberg on the ,island of ,hven4 ,strange to say1 his scientific conclusions had for him profound astrological significance4 ,an important new star he declared was at first like ,venus and ,jupiter and its effects will therefore first be pleasant2 but as it then became like ,mars1 there will next come a period of wars1 seditions1 captivity1 and death of princes1 and destruction of cities1 together with dryness and fiery meteors in the air1 pestilence1 and venomous snakes4 ,lastly1 the star became like ,saturn1 and thus will finally come a time of want1 death1 imprisonment1 and all kinds of sad things6 ,he says that a special use of astronomy is that it enables us to draw conclusions from the movements in the celestial regions as to human fate4 ,he labored on his island twenty years4 ,he was always versifying1 and inscribed a poem over the entrance of his underground observatory expressing the astonishment of ,urania at finding in the interior of the earth a cavern devoted to the study of the heavens4 ,galileo#ag was born in #aefd of a ,florentine noble1 who was poor4 ,as a youth he became an excellent lutist1 then thought of devoting himself to painting1 but when he was seventeen studied medicine1 and at the ,university of ,pisa fell in love with mathematics4 ,isaac ,newton1#ah born in #afdb1 very frail and sickly1 solitary1 had a very low piece in the class lists of his school2 wrote poetry1 and at sixteen tried farming4 ,in one of his university examinations in ,euclid be did so poorly as to incur special censure4 ,his first incentive to diligent study came from being severely kicked by a high class boy4 ,he then resolved to pass him in studies1 and soon rose to the head of the school4 ,he made many ingenious toys and windmills2 a carriage1 the wheels of which were driven by the hands of the occupants1 and a clock which moved by water2 curtains1 kites1 lanterns1 etc42 and before he was fourteen fell in love with ,miss ,storey1 several yeas older than himself4 ,he entered ,trinity ,college at ,cambridge at eighteen4 ,william ,herschel1 born in #agch1 at the outbreak of the ,seven ,years' ,war1 when he was eighteen1 was a performer in the regimental band1 and after a battle passed a night in a ditch and escaped in disguise1 to ,england1 where he eked out a precarious livelihood by teaching music4 ,he supported himself until middle age as an organist4 ,in much of his later work he was greatly aided by his sister ,caroline4 ,when he discovered a sixth planet he became famous1 and devoted himself exclusively to astronomy1 training his only son to follow in his footsteps1 and dying in #ahbb4 ,agassiz#ai at twelve had developed a mania for collecting4 ,he memorized ,latin names1 of which he accumulated great volumes of ,,mss41 and modestly expressed the hope that in time he might be able to give the name of every known animal4 ,at fourteen he revolted at mercantile life1 for which he was designed1 and issued a manifesto planning to spend four years at a ,cermem university1 then in ,paris1 when he could begin to write4 ,rooks were scarce1 and a little later he copied1 with the aid of his brother1 several large volumes1 and had fifty live birds in his room at one time4 ,at twelve ,huxley#bj became an omnivorous reader1 and two or three years later devoured ,hamilton's ,logic and became deeply interested in metaphysics4 ,at fourteen he saw and participated in his first post-mortem examination1 was left in a strange state of apathy by it1 and dates his life-long dyspepsia to this experience4 ,his training was irregular2 he taught himself ,german with a book in one hand while he made hay with the other2 speculated about the basis of matter1 soul1 and their relations1 on radicalism and conservatism2 and reproached himself that he did not work and get on enough4 ,at seventeen he attempted a comprehensive classification of human knowledge1 and having finished his survey1 resolved to master the topics one after another1 striking them out from his table with ink as soon us they were done4 ,may the list soon get black1 although at present ,i shall hardly be able1 ,i am afraid1 to spot the paper4 ,beneath the top skimmings of these years he afterward conceived seething depths working beneath the froth1 but could give hardly any account of it4 ,he undertook the practise of pharmacy1 etc4 ,women with literary gifts perhaps surpass men in their power to reproduce and describe the great but so often evanescent ebullitions of this age2 perhaps because their later lives1 on account of their more generic nature1 depart less from this totalizing period1 or because1 although it is psychologically shorter than in men1 the necessities of earning a livelihood less frequently arrest its full development1 and again because they are more emotional1 and feeling constitutes the chief psychic ingredient of this stage of life1 or they dwell more on subjective states4 ,manon ,philipon 7,madame ,roland7 was born in #aged4 ,her father was an engraver in comfortable circumstances4 ,her earliest enthusiasm was for the ,bible and ,lives of the ,saints1 and she had almost a mania for reading books of any kind4 ,in the corner of her father's workshop she would read ,plutarch for hours1 dream of the past glories of antiquity1 and exclaim1 weeping1 ,why was ,i not born a ,greek8 ,she desired to emulate the brave men of old4 ,books and flowers aroused her to dreams of enthusiasm1 romantic sentiment1 and lofty aspiration4 ,finding that the ,french society afforded no opportunity for heroic living1 in her visionary fervor she fell back upon a life of religious mysticism1 and ,xavier1 ,loyola1 ,st4 ,elizabeth1 and ,st4 ,theresa became her new idols4 ,she longed to follow even to the stake those devout men and women who had borne obloquy1 poverty1 hunger1 thirst1 wretchedness1 and the agony of a martyr's death for the sake of ,jesus4 ,her capacities for self-sacrifice became perhaps her leading trait1 always longing after a grand life like ,george ,eliot's ,dorothea ,brooke4 ,she was allowed at the age of eleven to enter a convent1 where1 shunning her companions1 she courted solitude apart1 under the trees1 reading and thinking4 ,artificial as the atmosphere was here1 it no doubt inspired her life with permanent tenderness of feeling and loftiness of purpose1 and gave a mystic quality to her imagination4 ,later she experienced to the full revulsion of thought and experience which comes when doubt reacts upon youthful credulity4 ,it was the age of the encyclopedia1 and now she came to doubt her creed and even ,god and the soul1 but clung to the ,gospels as the best possible code of morals1 and later realized that while her intellect had wandered her heart had remained constant4 ,at seventeen she was1 if not the moat beautiful1 perhaps the noblest woman in all ,france1 and here the curtain moat drop upon her girlhood4 ,all her traits were1 of course1 set off by the great life she lived and the yet greater death she died4 ,gifted people seem to conserve their youth and to be all the more children1 and perhaps especially all the more intensely adolescents1 because of their gifts1 and it is certainly one of the marks of genius that the plasticity and spontaneity of adolescence persists into maturity4 ,sometimes even its passions1 reveries1 and hoydenish freaks continue4 ,in her ,histoire de ,ma ,vie1 it is plain that ,george ,sand inherited at this age an unusual dower of gifts4 ,she composed many and interminable stories1 carried on day after day1 so that her confidants tried to tease her by asking if the prince had got out of the forest yet1 etc4 ,she personated an echo and conversed with it4 ,her day-dreams and plays were so intense that she often came back from the world of imagination to reality with a shock4 ,she spun a weird zoological romance out of a rustic legend of la grande bte4 ,when her aunt sent her to a convent1 she passed a year of rebellion and revolt1 and was the leader of les diables1 or those who refused to be devout1 and engaged in all wild pranks4 ,at fifteen she became profoundly interested in the lives of the saints1 although ridiculing miracles4 ,she entered one evening the convent church for service1 without permission1 which was an act of disobedience4 ,the mystery and holy charm of it penetrated her2 she forgot everything outward and was left alone1 and some mysterious change stole over her4 ,she breathed an atmosphere of ineffable sweetness more with the mind than the senses2 had a sudden indescribable perturbation2 her eyes swam2 she was enveloped in a white glimmer1 and heard a voice murmur the words written under a convent picture of ,st4 ,augustine1 ,tolle1 lege1 and turned around thinking ,mother ,alicia spoke1 but she was alone4 ,she knew it was an hallucination1 but saw that faith had laid hold of her1 as she wished1 by the heart1 and she sobbed and prayed to the unknown ,god till a nun heard her groaning4 ,at first her ardor impelled her not only to brave the jeers of her madcap club of harum-scarums and tomboys1 but she planned to become a nun1 until this feverish longing for a recluse life passed1 but left her changed4#ba ,when she passed from the simple and ,catholic faith of her grisette mother to the atmosphere of her cynical grandmother at ,nohant1 who was a disciple of ,voltaire1 she found herself in great straits between the profound sentiments inspired by the first communion and the concurrent contempt for this faith1 instilled by her grandmother for all those mummeries through which1 however1 for conventional reasons she was obliged to pass4 ,her heart was deeply stirred1 and yet her head holding all religion to be fiction or metaphor1 it occurred to her to invent a story which might be a religion or a religion which might be a story into any degree of belief in which she could lapse at will4 ,the name and the form of her new deity was revealed to her in a dream4 ,he was ,coramb1 pure as ,jesus1 beautiful as ,gabriel1 as graceful as the nymphs and ,orpheus1 less austere than the ,christian ,god1 and as much woman as man1 because she could best understand this sex from her love for her mother4 ,he appeared in many aspects of physical and moral beauty2 was eloquent1 master of all arts1 and above all of the magic of musical improvisation2 loved as a friend and sister1 and at the same time revered as a god2 not awful and remote from impeccability1 but with the fault of excess of indulgence4 ,she estimated that she composed about a thousand sacred books or songs developing phases of his mundane existence4 ,in each of these he became incarnate man on touching the earth1 always in a new group of people who were good1 yet suffering martyrdoms from the wicked known only by the effects of their malice4 ,in this gentle hallucination she could lose herself in the midst of friends1 and turn to her hero deity for comfort4 ,there must be not only sacred books1 but a temple and ritual1 and in a garden thicket1 which no eye could penetrate1 in a moss-carpeted chamber she built an altar against a tree-trunk1 ornamented with a wreath hung over it4 ,instead of sacrificing1 which seemed barbaric1 she proceeded to restore life and liberty to butterflies1 lizards1 green frogs1 and birds1 which she put in a box1 laid on the altar1 and after having invoked the good genius of liberty and protection1 opened it4 ,in these mimic rites and delicious reveries she found the germs of a religion that fitted her heart4 ,from the instant1 however1 that a boy playmate discovered and entered this sanctuary1 ,coramb ceased to dwell in it4 ,the dryads and the cherubim deserted it1 and it seemed unreal4 ,the temple was destroyed with great care1 and the garlands and shells were buried under the tree4#bb ,louisa ,alcott's romantic period opened at fifteen1 when she began to write poetry1 keep a heart journal1 and wander by moonlight1 and wished to be the ,bettine of ,emerson1 in whose library she foraged2 wrote him letters which were never sent2 sat in a tall tree at midnight2 left wild flowers on the doorstep of her master2 sang ,mignon's song under his window2 and was refined by her choice of an idol4 ,her diary was all about herself4 ,if she looked in the glass at her long hair and well-shaped head1 she tried to keep down her vanity2 her quick tongue1 moodiness1 poverty1 impossible longings1 made every day a battle until she hardly wished to live1 only something must be done1 and waiting is so hard4 ,she imagined her mind a room in confusion which must be put in order2 the useless thought swept out2 foolish fancies dusted away2 newly furnished with good resolutions4 ,but she was not a good housekeeper2 cobwebs got in1 and it was hard to rule4 ,she was smitten with a mania for the stage1 and spent most of her leisure in writing and acting plays of melodramatic style ad high-strung sentiment1 improbable incidents1 with no touch of common life or sense of humor1 full of concealments and surprises1 bright dialogues1 and lofty sentiments4 ,she had much dramatic power and loved to transform herself into ,hamlet and declaim in mock heroic style4 ,from sixteen to twenty-three was her apprenticeship to life4 ,she taught1 wrote for the papers1 did housework for pay as a servant1 and found sewing a pleasant resource because it was tranquillizing1 left her free1 and set her thoughts going4 ,mrs4 ,burnett1#bc like most women who record their childhood and adolescent memories1 is far more subjective and interesting than most men4 ,in early adolescence she was never alone when with flowers1 but loved to speak to them1 to bend down and say caressing things1 to stoop and kiss them1 to praise them for their pretty ways of looking up at her as into the eyes of a friend and beloved4 ,there were certain little blue violets which always seemed to lift their small faces childishly1 as if they were saying1 ',kiss me2 don't go by like that4' ,she would sit on the porch1 elbows on knees and chin on hands1 staring upward1 sometimes lying on the grass4 ,heaven was so high and yet she was a part of it and was something even among the stars4 ,it was a weird1 updrawn1 overwhelming feeling as she stared so fixedly and intently that the earth seemed gone1 left far behind4 ,every hour and moment was a wonderful and beautiful thing4 ,she felt on speaking terms with the rabbits4 ,something was happening in the leaves which waved and rustled as she passed4 ,just to walk1 sit1 lie around out of doors1 to loiter1 gaze1 watch with a heart fresh as a young dryad1 following birds1 playing hide-and-seek with the brook-these were her halcyon hours4 ,with the instability of genius1 ,beth#bd did everything suddenly4 ,when twelve or thirteen1 she had grown too big to be carried1 pulled or pushed2 she suddenly stood still one day1 when her mother1 commanded her to dress4 ,she had been ruled before by physical force1 but her will and that of her mother were now in collision1 and the latter realised she could make her do nothing unless by persuasion or moral influence4 ,being constantly reproved1 scolded1 and even beaten by her mother1 ,beth one day impulsively jumped into the sea1 and was rescued with difficulty4 ,she had spells of being miserable with no cause4 ,she was well and happy1 but would burst into tears suddenly1 which seemed often to surprise her4 ,being very sensitive herself1 she was morbidly careful of the feelings of others and incessantly committed grave sins of insincerity without compunction in her effort to spare them4 ,to those who confided in her abilities1 praised her1 and thought she could do things1 her nature expanded1 but her mother checked her mental growth over and over1 instead of helping her by saying1 ,don't try1 you can't do it1 etc4 ,just before the dawn of adolescence she had passed through a long period of abject superstition1 largely through the influence of a servant4 ,all the old woman's signs were very dominant in her life4 ,she even invented methods of divination1 as1 if the boards do not creak when ,i walk across the room ,i shall get through my lessons without trouble4 ,she always preferred to see two rooks together to one and became expert in the black arts4 ,she used to hear strange noises at night for a time1 which seemed signs and portents of disaster at sea1 fell into the ways of her neighbors1 and had more faith in incantations than in doctors' doses4 ,she not only heard voices and very ingeniously described them1 but claimed to know what was going to happen and compared her forebodings with the maid4 ,she got religion very intensely under the influence of her aunt1 grew thin1 lost her appetite and sleep1 had heartache to think of her friends burning in hell1 and tried to save them4 ,beth never thought at all of her personal appearance until she overheard a gentleman call her rather nice-looking1 when her face flushed and she had a new feeling of surprise and pleasure1 and took very clever ways of cross-examining her friends to find if she was handsome4 ,all of a sudden the care of her person became of great importance1 and every hint she had heard of was acted on4 ,she aired her bed1 brushed her hair glossy1 pinched her waist and feet1 washed in buttermilk1 used a parasol1 tortured her natural appetite in every way1 put on gloves to do dirty work1 etc4 ,the house always irked her4 ,once stealing out of the school by night1 she was free1 stretched herself1 drew a long breath1 bounded and waved her arms in an ecstasy of liberty1 danced around the magnolia1 buried her face in the big flowers one after another and bathed it in the dew of the petals1 visited every forbidden place1 was particularly attracted to the water1 enjoyed scratching and making her feet bleed and eating a lot of green fruit4 ,this liberty was most precious and all through a hot summer she kept herself healthy by exercise in the moonlight4 ,this revived her appetite1 and she ended these night excursions by a forage in the kitchen4 ,beth had times when she hungered for solitude and for nature4 ,sometimes she would shut herself in her room1 but more often would rove the fields and woods in ecstasy4 ,coming home from school1 where she had long been1 she had to greet the trees and fields almost before she did her parents4 ,she had a great habit of stealing out often by the most dangerous routes over roofs1 etc41 at night in the moonlight1 running and jumping1 waving her arms1 throwing herself on the ground1 rolling over1 walling on all-fours1 turning somersaults1 hugging trees1 playing hide-and-seek with the shadow fairy-folk1 now playing and feeling fear and running away4 ,she invoked trees1 stars1 etc4 ,beth's first love affair was with a bright1 fair-haired1 fat-faced boy1 who sat near her pew ,sundays4 ,they looked at each other once during service1 and she felt a glad glow in her chest spread over her1 dwelt on his image1 smiled1 and even the next day felt a new desire to please4 ,she watched for him to pass from school4 ,when he appeared1 had a most delightful thrill shoot through her4 ,the first impulse to fly was conquered2 she never thought a boy beautiful before4 ,they often met after dark1 wrote2 finally she grew tired of him because she could not make him feel deeply1 sent him off1 called him an idiot1 and then soliloquized on the most dreadful grief of her life4 ,the latter stages of their acquaintance she occasionally used to beat him1 but his attraction steadily waned4 ,once later1 as she was suffering from a dull1 irresolute feeling due to want of a companion and an object1 she met a boy of seventeen1 whose face1 like her own1 brightened as they approached4 ,it was the first appearance of nature's mandate to mate4 ,this friendly glance suffused her whole being with the glory and vision of love4 ,religion and young men were her need4 ,they had stolen interviews by night and many an innocent embrace and kiss1 and almost died once by being caught4 ,they planned in detail what they would do after they were married1 but all was taken for granted without formal vows4 ,only when criticized did they ever dream of caution and concealment1 and then they made elaborate parades of ignoring each other in public and fired their imaginations with thoughts of disguises1 masks1 etc4 ,this passion was nipped in the bud by the boy's removal from his school4 ,in preparing for her first communion1 an anonymous writer#be became sober and studious1 proposing to model her life on that of each fresh saint and to spend a week in retreat examining her conscience with vengeance4 ,she wanted to revive the custom of public confession and wrote letters of penitence and submission1 which she tore up later1 finding her mind not all of a piece4 ,she lay prostrate on her prie-dieu weeping from ecstasy1 lying on the rim of heaven held by angels1 wanting to die1 now bathed in bliss or aching intolerably with spiritual joy1 but she was only twelve and her old nature often reasserted itself4 ,religion at that time became an intense emotion nourished on incense1 music1 tapers1 and a feeling of being tangible4 ,it was rapturous and sensuous4 ,while under its spell1 she seemed to float and touch the wings of angels4 ,here solemn ,gregorian chants are sung1 so that when one comes back to earth there is a sense of hunger1 deception1 and self-loathing4 ,now she came to understand how so many sentimental and virtuous souls sought oblivion in the narcotic of religious excitement4 ,here1 at the age of twelve1 youth began and childhood ended with her book4 ,pathetic is the account of ,helen ,keller's effort to understand the meaning of the word love in its season4#bf ,is it the sweetness of flowers8 she asked4 ,no1 said her teacher4 ,is it the warm sun8 ,not exactly4 ,it can not be touched1 'but you feel the sweetness that it pours into everything4 ,without love1 you would not be happy or want to play4' ,the beautiful truth burst upon my mind4 ,i felt that there were invisible lines stretched between my spirit and the spirit of others4 ,this period seems to have came gradually and naturally to this wonderful child1 whose life has been perhaps the purest ever lived and one of the sweetest4 ,none has ever loved every aspect of nature accessible to her more passionately1 or felt more keenly the charm of nature or of beautiful sentiments4 ,the unhappy ,frost ,king episode has been almost the only cloud upon her life1 which unfortunately came at about the dawn of this period1 that is perhaps better marked by the great expansion of mind which she experienced at the ,world's ,fair in ,chicago in #ahic1 when she was thirteen4 ,about this time1 too1 her great ambition of going to college and enjoying all the advantages that other girls did1 which1 considering her handicap1 was one of the greatest human resolutions1 was strengthened and deepened4 ,the fresh1 spontaneous1 and exquisite reactions of this pellucid mind1 which felt that each individual could comprehend all the experiences and emotions of the race and that chafed at every pedagogical and technical obstacle between her soul and nature1 and the great monuments of literature1 show that she has conserved to a remarkable degree1 which the world will wish may be permanent1 the best impulses of this golden age4 ,marie ,bashkirtseff1#bg who may be taken as one of the best types of exaggerated adolescent confessionalists1 was rich and of noble birth1 and began in #ahgc1 at the age of twelve1 to write a journal that should be absolutely true and frank1 with no pretense1 affectation1 or concealment4 ,the journal continues until her death1 ,october1 #ahhd1 at the age of twenty-three4 ,it may be described as in some sense a feminine counterpart of ,rousseau's confessions1 but is in some respects a more precious psychological document than any other for the elucidation of the adolescent ferment in an unusually vigorous and gifted soul4 ,twice ,i have read it from cover to cover and with growing interest4 ,at twelve she is passionately in love with a duke1 whom she sometimes saw pass1 but who had no knowledge of her existence1 and builds many air castles about his throwing himself at her feet and of their life together4 ,she prays passionately to see him again1 would dazzle him on the stage1 would lead a perfect life1 develop her voice1 and would be an ideal wife4 ,she agonizes before the glass on whether or not she is pretty1 and resolves to ask some young man1 but prefers to think well of herself even if it is an illusion2 constantly modulates over into passionate prayer to ,god to grant all her wishes2 is oppressed with despair2 gay and melancholy by turn2 believes in ,god because she prayed ,him for a set of croquet and to help her to learn ,english1 both of which ,he granted4 ,at church some prayers and services seem directly aimed at her2 ,paris now seems a frightful desert1 and she has no motive to avoid carelessness in her appearance4 ,she has freaky and very changeable ideas of arranging the things in her room4 ,when she hears of the duke's marriage she almost throws herself over a bridge1 prays ,god for pardon of her sins1 and thinks all is ended2 finds it horrible to dissemble her feelings in public2 goes through the torture of altering her prayer about the duke4 ,she is disgusted with common people1 harrowed by jealousy1 envy1 deceit and every hideous feeling1 yet feels herself frozen in the depth1 and moving only on the surface4 ,when her voice improves she welcomes it with tears and feels an all-powerful queen4 ,the man she loves should never speak to another4 ,her journal she resolves to make the most instructive book that ever was or ever will be written4 ,she esteems herself so great a treasure that no one is worthy of her2 pities those who think they can please her2 thinks herself a real divinity2 prays to the moon to show her in dreams her future husband1 and quarrels with her photographs4 ,in some moods she feels herself beautiful1 knows she shall succeed1 everything smiles upon her and she is absolutely happy and yet in the next paragraph the fever of life at high pressure palls upon her and things seem asleep and unreal4 ,her attempts to express her feelings drive her to desperation because words are inadequate4 ,she loves to weep1 gives up to despair to think of death1 and finds everything transcendently exquisite4 ,she comes to despise men and wonder whether the good are always stupid and the intelligent always false and saturated with baseness1 but on the whole believes that some time or other she is destined to meet one true good and great man4 ,now she is inflated with pride of her ancestry1 her gifts1 and would subordinate everybody and everything2 she would never speak a commonplace word1 and then again feels that her life has been a failure and she is destined to be always waiting4 ,she falls on her knees sobbing1 praying to ,god with outstretched hands as if ,he were in her room2 almost vows to make a pilgrimage to ,jerusalem one-tenth of the way on foot2 to devote her money to good works2 lacks the pleasures proper to her age2 wonders if she can ever love again4 ,on throwing a bouquet from a window into a crowd in the ,corso a young man choked so beautifully a workman who caught it that by that one act of strangling and snatching the bouquet she fell in love4 ,the young man calls and they see each other often4 ,now she is clad from head to foot in an armor of cold politeness1 now vanity and now passion seem uppermost in their meetings4 ,she wonders if a certain amount of sin1 like air1 is necessary to a man to sustain life4 ,finally they vow mutual love and ,pietro leaves1 and she begins to fear that she has cherished illusions or been insulted2 is torments at things unsaid or of her spelling in ,french4 ,she coughs and for three days has a new idea that she is going to die2 prays and prostrates herself sixty times1 one for each bead in her rosary1 touching the floor with her forehead every time2 wonders if ,god takes intentions into account2 resolves to read the ,new ,testament1 but can not find one and reads ,dumas instead4 ,in novel-reading she imagines herself the heroine of every scene2 sees her lover and they plan their mode of life together and at last kiss each other1 but later she feels humiliated1 chilled1 doubts if it is real love2 studies the color of her lips to see if they have changed2 fears that she has compromised herself2 has eye symptoms that make her fear blindness4 ,once on reading the ,testament she smiled and clasped her hands1 gazed upward1 was no longer herself but in ecstasy2 she makes many programs for life2 is haunted by the phrase ,we live but once2 wants to live a dozen lives in one1 but feels that she does not live one-fourth of a life2 has several spells of solitary illumination4 ,at other times she wishes to be the center of a salon and imagines herself to be so4 ,she soars on poets' wings1 but often has hell in her heart2 slowly love is vowed henceforth to be a word without meaning to her4 ,although she suffers from ennui1 she realizes that women live only from sixteen to forty and cannot bear the thought of losing a moment of her life2 criticizes her mother2 scorns marriage and child-bearing1 which any washerwoman can attain1 but pants for glory2 now hates1 now longs to see new faces2 thinks of disguising herself as a poor girl and going out to seek her fortunes2 thinks her mad vanity is her devil2 that her ambitions are justified by no results2 hates moderation in anything1 would have intense and constant excitement or absolute repose2 at fifteen abandons her idea of the duke but wants an idol1 and finally decides to live for fame2 studies her shoulders1 hips1 bust1 to gauge her success in life2 tries target-shooting1 hits every time and feels it to be fateful2 at times despises her mother because she is so easily influenced by her2 meets another man whose affection for her she thinks might be as reverent as religion and who never profaned the purity of his life by a thought1 but finally drops him because the possible disappointment would be unbearable2 finds that the more unhappy any one is for love of us the happier we are2 wonders why she has weeping spells2 wonders what love that people talk so much about really is1 and whether she is ever to know4 ,one night1 at the age of seventeen1 she has a fit of despair which vents itself in moans until arising1 she seizes the dining-room clock1 rushes out and throws it into the sea1 when she becomes happy4 ,poor clock6 ,at another time she fears she has used the word love lightly and resolves to no longer invoke ,god's help1 yet in the next line prays ,him to let her die as everything is against her1 her thoughts are incoherent1 she hates herself and everything is contemptible2 but she wishes to die peacefully while some one is singing a beautiful air of ,verdi4 ,again she thinks of shaving her head to save the trouble of arranging her hair2 is crazed to think that every moment brings her nearer death2 to waste a moment of life is infamous1 yet she can trust no one2 all the freshness of life is gone2 few things affect her now2 she wonders how in the past she could have acted so foolishly and reasoned so wisely2 is proud that no advice in the world could ever keep her from doing anything she wished4 ,she thinks the journal of her former years exaggerated and resolves to be moderate2 wants to make others feel as she feels2 finds that the only cure for disenchantment with life is devotion to work2 fears her face is wearing an anxious look instead of the confident expression which was its chief charm4 ,impossible is a hideous1 maddening word2 to think of dying like a dog as most people do and leaving nothing behind is a granite wall against which she every instant dashes her head4 ,if she loved a man1 every expression of admiration for anything1 or anybody else in her presence would be a profanation4 ,now she thinks the man she loves must never know what it is to be in want of money and must purchase everything he wishes2 must weep to see a woman want for anything1 and find the door of no palace or club barred to him4 ,art becomes a great shining light in her life of few pleasures and many griefs1 yet she dares hope for nothing4 ,at eighteen all her caprices are exhausted2 she vows and prays in the name of the ,father1 ,son1 and ,holy ,ghost for her wishes4 ,she would like to be a millionaire1 get back her voice1 obtain the prix de ,rome under the guise of a man and marry ,napoleon ,,iv4 ,on winning a medal for her pictures she does nothing but laugh1 cry1 and dream of greatness1 but the next day is scolded and grows discouraged4 ,she has an immense sense of growth and transformation1 so that not a trace of her old nature remains2 feels that she has far too much of some things1 and far too little of others in her nature2 sees defects in her mother's character1 whose pertinacity is like a disease2 realizes that one of her chief passions is to inspire rather than to feel love2 that her temper is profoundly affected by her dress2 deplores that her family expect her to achieve greatness rather than give her the stimulus of expecting nothing2 declares that she thanks a million thoughts for every word that she writes2 is disgusted with and sometimes absolutely hates herself4 ,at one time she coquets with ,kant1 and wonders if he is right that all things exist only in the imagination2 has a passion for such abracadabrante follies that seem so learned and logical1 but is grieved to feel them to be false2 longs to penetrate the intellectual world1 to see1 learn1 and know everything2 admires ,balzac because he describes so frankly all that he has felt2 loves ,fleury1 who has shown her a wider horizon2 still has spells of admiring her dazzling complexion and deploring that she can not go out alone2 feels that she is losing her grip on art and also on ,god1 who no longer hears her prayers1 and resolves to kill herself if she is not famous at thirty4 ,at nineteen1 and even before1 she has spells of feeling inefficient cries1 calls on ,god1 feels exhausted2 is almost stunned when she hears that the young ,french prince about whom she has spun romances was killed by the ,kaffirs2 feels herself growing serious and sensible2 despises death2 realizes that ,god is not what she thought1 but is perhaps ,nature and ,life or is perhaps ,chance2 she thinks out possible pictures she might paint2 develops a ,platonic friendship for her professor2 might marry an old man with twenty-seven millions1 but spurns the thought2 finds herself growing deaf gradually1 and at nineteen finds three grey hairs2 has awful remorse for days1 when she cannot work and so loses herself in novels and cigarettes2 makes many good resolutions and then commits some folly as if in a dream2 has spells of reviewing the past4 ,when the doctor finds a serious lung trouble and commands iodine1 cod-liver oil1 hot milk1 and flannel1 she at first scorns death and refuses all1 and is delighted at the terror of her friends1 but gradually does all that is necessary2 feels herself too precocious and doomed2 deplores especially that consumption will cost her her good looks2 has fits of intense anger alternating with tears2 concludes that death is annihilation2 realizes the horrible thought that she has a skeleton within her that some time or other will come out2 reads the ,new ,testament again and returns to belief in miracle1 and prayer to ,jesus and the ,virgin2 distributes one thousand francs to the poor2 records the dreamy delusions that flow through her brain at night and the strange sensations by day4 ,her eye symptoms cause her to fear blindness again2 she grows superstitious1 believing in signs and fortune-tellers2 is strongly impelled to embrace and make up with her mother2 at times defies ,god and death2 sees a ,spanish bull-fight and gets from it a general impression of human cowardice1 but has a strange intoxication with blood and would like to thrust a lance into the neck of every one she meets2 coquets a great deal with the thought of marriage2 takes up her art and paints a few very successful pictures2 tries to grapple with the terrible question1 ,what is my unbiased opinion concerning myself8 pants chiefly for fame4 ,when the other lung is found diseased the diary becomes sometimes more serious1 sometimes more fevered2 she is almost racked to find some end in life2 shall she marry1 or paint8 and at last finds much consolation in the visits of ,bastien-,lepage1 who comes to see her often while he is dying of some gastric trouble4 ,she keeps up occasional and often daily entries in her journal until eleven days before her death1 occurring in ,october1 #ahhd1 at the age of twenty-three1 and precipitated by a cold incurred while making an open-air sketch4 ,the confessional outpourings of ,mary ,mac,lane#bh constitute a unique and valuable adolescent document1 despite the fact that it seems throughout affected and written for effect2 however1 it well illustrates a real type1 although perhaps hardly possible save in this country1 and was inspired very likely by the preceding4 ,she announces at the outset that she is odd1 a genius1 an extreme egotist2 has no conscience2 despises her father1 ,jim ,mac,lane of selfish memory2 loves scrubbing the floor because it gives her strength and grace of body1 although her daily life is an empty damned weariness4 ,she is a female ,napoleon passionately desiring fame2 is both a philosopher and a coward2 her heart is wooden2 although but nineteen1 she feels forty2 desires happiness even more than fame1 for an hour of which she would give up at once fame1 money1 power1 virtue1 honor1 truth1 and genius to the devil1 whose coming she awaits4 ,she discusses her portrait1 which constitutes the frontispiece2 is glad of her good strong body1 and still awaits in a wild1 frenzied impatience the coming of the devil to take her sacrifice1 and to whom she would dedicate her life4 ,she loves but one in all the world1 an older anemone lady1 once her teacher4 ,she ran not distinguish between right and wrong2 love is the only thing real which will some day bring joy1 but it is agony to wait4 ,oh1 dame6 damn6 damn6 damn6 every living thing in the world6--the universe be damned6 herself included4 ,she is marvelously deep1 but thanks the good devil who has made her without conscience and virtue so that she may take her happiness when it comes4 ,her soul seeks but blindly1 for nothing answers4 ,how her happiness will seethe1 quiver1 writhe1 shine1 dance1 rush1 surge1 rage1 blare1 and wreak with love and light when it comes6 ,the devil she thinks fascinating and strong1 with a will of steel1 conventional clothes1 whom she periodically falls in love with and would marry1 and would love to be tortured by him4 ,she holds imaginary conversations with him4 ,if happiness does not come soon she will commit suicide1 and she finds rapture in the thought of death4 ,in ,butte1 ,montana1 where she lives1 she wanders among the box rustlers1 the beer jerkers1 biscuit shooters1 and plunges out into the sand and barrenness1 but finds everything dumb4 ,the six toothbrushes in the bathroom make her wild and profane4 ,she flirts with death at the top of a dark1 deep pit1 and thinks out the stages of decomposition if she yielded herself to ,death1 who would dearly love to have her4 ,she confesses herself a thief on several occasions1 but comforts herself because the stolen money was given to the poor4 ,sometimes her very good legs carry her out into the country1 where she has imaginary love confabs with the devil1 but the world is so empty1 dreary1 and cold1 and it is all so hard to bear when one is a woman and nineteen4 ,she has a litany from which she prays in recurrent phrases ,kind devil1 deliver me--as1 e4g41 from musk1 boys with curls1 feminine men1 wobbly hips1 red note-paper1 codfish-balls1 lisle-thread stockings1 the books of ,a4,c4 ,gunter and ,albert ,ross1 wax flowers1 soft old bachelors and widowers1 nice young men1 tin spoons1 false teeth1 thin shoes1 etc4 ,she does not seem real to herself everything is a blank4 ,though she doubts everything else1 she will keep the one atom of faith in love and the truth that is love and life in her heart4 ,when something shrieks within her1 she feels that all her anguish is for nothing and that she is a fool4 ,she is exasperated that people call her peculiar1 but confesses that she loves admiration2 she can fascinate and charm company if she tries2 imagines an admiration for ,messalina4 ,she most desires to cultivate badness when there is lead in the sky4 ,i would live about seven years of judicious badness1 and then death if you will4 ,i long to cultivate the of badness in me4 ,she describes the fascination of making and eating fudge2 devotes a chapter to describing how to eat an olive2 discusses her figure4 ,in the front of my shirt-waist there are nine cambric handkerchiefs cunningly distributed4 ,she discusses her foot1 her beautiful hair1 her hips2 describes each of the seventeen little engraved portraits of ,napoleon that she keeps1 with each of which she falls in love2 vows she would give up even her marvelous genius far one dear1 bright day free from loneliness4 ,when her skirts need sewing1 she simply pins them2 this lasts longer1 and had she mended them with needle and thread she would have been sensible1 which she hates4 ,as she walks over the sand one day she vows that she would like a man to come so be that he was strong and a perfect villain and she would pray him to lead her to what the world calls her ruin4 ,nothing is of consequence to her except to be rid of unrest and pain4 ,she would be positively and not merely negatively wicked4 ,to poison her soul would rouse her mental power4 ,oh1 to know just once what it is to be loved6 ,i know that ,i am a genius more than any genius that has lived1 yet she often thinks herself a small vile creature for whom no one cares4 ,the world is ineffably dull1 heaven has always fooled her1 and she is starving for love4 ,ada ,negri illustrates the other extreme of genuineness and is desperately in earnest4#bi ,she began to teach school in a squalid1 dismal ,italian village1 and at eighteen to write the poetry that has made her famous4 ,she lived in a dim room back of a stable1 up two flights1 where the windows were not glass but paper1 and where she seems to have been1 like her mother1 a mill head before she was a teacher4 ,she had never seen a theater1 but had read of ,duse with enthusiasm2 had never seen the sea1 mountain1 or even a hill1 lake1 or large city1 but she had read of them4 ,after she began to write1 friends gave her two dream days in the city4 ,then she returned1 put on her wooden shoes1 and began to teach her eighty children to spell4 ,the poetry she writes is from the heart of her own experience4 ,she craved the kiss of genius and of light2 but the awful figure of misfortune with its dagger stood by her bed at night4 ,she writes3 ,i have no name--my home a hovel damp2 ,i grew up from the mire2 ,wretched and outcast folk my family1 ,and yet within me burns a flame of fire4 ,there is always a praying angel and an evil dwarf on either side4 ,the black abyss attracts her yet she is softened by a child's caress4 ,she laughs at the blackest calamities that threaten her1 but weeps over thin1 wan children without bread4 ,her whole life goes into song4 ,the boy criminal on the street fascinates her and she would kiss him4 ,she writes of jealousy as a ghost of vengeance4 ,if death comes1 she fears that the haggard doctor will dissect my naked corpse1 and pictures herself dying on the operating-table like a stray dog and her well-made body disgraced by the lustful kiss of the too eager blade as1 with sinister smile untiring1 they tear my bowels out and still gloat over my sold corpse1 go on to bare my bones1 and veins at will1 wrench out my heart1 probe vainly for the secrets of hunger and the mystery of pain1 until from her dead breast gurgles a gasp of malediction4 ,much of her verse is imprecation4 ,a crimson rain of crying blood dripping from riddled chests of those slain for liberty falls1 on her heart2 the sultry factories where monsters1 of steel1 huge engines1 snort all day1 and where the pungent air poisons the blood of the pale weaver girls2 the fate of the mason who felt from a high roof and struck the stone flagging1 whose funeral she attends1 all inspire her to sing occasionally the songs of enfranchised labor4 ,misery as a drear1 toothless ghost visits her1 as when gloomy pinions had overspread her dying mother's bed1 to wrench with sharp nails all the hope from her breast with which she had defied it4 ,a wretched old man on the street inspires her to sing of what she imagines is his happy though humble prime4 ,there is the song of the pickaxe brandished in revolution when mobs cry ,peace1 labor bread1 and in mines of industry beneath the earth4 ,she loves the defeated in whose house no fire glows1 who live in caves and dens1 and writes of the mutilation of a woman in the factory machinery4 ,at eighteen years a loom1 two handsome eyes that know no tears1 a cotton dress1 a love1 belong to me4 ,she is inspired by a master of the forge beating a red-hot bar1 with his bare neck swelled4 ,he is her demon1 her ,god1 and her pride in him is ecstasy4 ,she describes jealousy of two rival women1 so intense that they fight and bite1 and the pure joy of a guileless1 intoxicating1 life-begetting first kiss4 ,she longs for infinite stretches of hot1 golden sand1 over which she would gallop wildly on her steed2 anticipates an old age of cap and spectacles2 revels in the hurricane1 and would rise in and fly and whirl with it adrift far out in the immensity of space4 ,she tells us1 ,of genius and light ,i'm a blithe1 millionaire1 and elsewhere she longs for the everlasting ice of lofty mountains1 the immortal silence of the ,alps2 sings of her sad twenty years1 how all1 all goes when love is gone and spent4 ,she imagines herself springing into the water which closes over her1 while her naked soul1 ghostly pale1 whirls past through the lonely dale4 ,she imprecates the licentious world of crafty burghers1 coquettes1 gamblers1 well-fed millionaires1 cursed geese and serpents that make the cowardly vile world1 and whom she would smite in the face with her indignant verse4 ,thou crawlest and ,i soar4 ,she chants the champions of the spade1 hammer1 pick1 though they are ground and bowed with toil1 disfigured within1 with furrowed brows4 ,she pants for war with outrage and with wrong2 questions the abyss for its secret2 hears moans and flying shudders2 and sees phantoms springing from putrid tombs4 ,the full moon is an old malicious spy1 peeping stealthily with evil eye4 ,she is a bird caught in a cursed cage1 and prays some one to unlock the door and give her space and light1 and let her soar away in ecstasy and glory4 ,nothing less than infinite space will satisfy her4 ,even the tempest1 the demon1 or a malevolent spirit might bear her away on unbridled wings4 ,in one poem she apostrophizes ,marie ,bashkirtseff as warring with vast genius against unknown powers1 but who now is in her coffin among worms1 her skull grinning and showing its teeth4 ,she would be possessed by her and thrilled as by an electric current4 ,a dwarf beggar wrings her heart with pity1 but she will not be overwhelmed4 ,though a daring peasant1 she will be free and sing out her pan to the sun1 though amid the infernal glow of furnaces1 forges1 and the ringing noise of hammers and wheels4 ,literary men who record their experiences during this stage seem to differ from women in several important respects4 ,first1 they write with less abandon4 ,i can recall no male ,mac,lanes4 ,a ,bashkirtseff would be less impossible1 and a ,negri with social reform in her heart is still less so4 ,but men are more prone to characterize their public metamorphoses later in life1 when they are a little paled1 and perhaps feel less need of confessionalism for that reason4 ,it would1 however1 be too hazardous to elaborate this distinction too far4 ,secondly and more clearly1 men tend to vent their ephebic calentures more in the field of action4 ,they would break the old moorings of home and strike out new careers1 or vent their souls in efforts and dreams of reconstructing the political1 industrial1 or social world4 ,their impracticabilities are more often in the field of practical life and remoter from their own immediate surroundings4 ,this is especially true in our practical country1 which so far lacks subjective characterizations of this age of eminent literary merit1 peculiarly intense as it is here4 ,thirdly1 they erupt in a greater variety of ways1 and the many kinds of genius and talent that now often take possession of their lives like fate are more varied and individual4 ,this affords many extreme contrasts1 as1 e4g41 between ,trollope's pity for1 and ,goethe's apotheosis of his youth2 ,mill's loss of feeling1 and ,jefferies's unanalytic1 passionate outbursts of sentiment2 the esthetic ritualism of ,symonds1 and the progressive religious emancipation of ,fielding ,hall2 the moral and religious supersensitiveness of ,oliphant1 who was a reincarnation of medieval monkhood1 and the riotous storminess of ,mller and ,ebers2 the abnormalities and precocity of ,de ,quincey1 and the steady1 healthful growth of ,patterson2 the simultaneity of a fleshly and spiritual love in ,keller and ,goethe1 and the duality of ,pater1 with his great and tyrannical intensification of sensation for nature and the sequent mysticity and symbolism4 ,in some it is fulminating but episodic1 in others gradual and lifelong like the advent of eternal spring4 ,fourth1 in their subjective states women outgrow less in their consciousness1 and men depart farther from their youth1 in more manifold ways4 ,lastly1 in its religious aspects1 the male struggles more with dogma1 and his enfranchisement from it is more intellectually belabored4 ,yet1 despite all these differences1 the analogies between the sexes are probably yet more numerous1 more all-pervasive4 ,all these biographic facts reveal nothing not found in questionnaire returns from more ordinary youth1 so that for our purposes they are only the latter1 writ large because superior minds only utter what all more inwardly feel4 ,the arrangement by nationality which follows gives no yet adequate basis for inference unless it be the above ,american peculiarity4 ,in his autobiography from #aghe-ahjc1 ,de ,quincey#cj remembered feeling that life was finished and blighted for him at the age of six1 up to which time the influence of his sister three years older had brooded over him4 ,his first remembrance1 however1 is of a dream of terrific grandeur before he was two1 which seemed to indicate that his dream tendencies were constitutional and not due to morphine1 but the chill was upon the first glimpse that this was a world of evil4 ,he had been brought up in great seclusion from all knowledge of poverty and oppression in a silent garden with three sisters1 but the rumor that a female servant had treated one of them rudely just before her death plunged him into early pessimism4 ,he felt that little ,jane would come back certainly in the spring with the roses1 and he was glad that his utter misery with the blank anarchy confusion which her death brought could not be completely remembered4 ,he stole into the chamber where her corpse lay1 and as he stood1 a solemn wind1 the saddest he ever heard1 that might have swept the fields of mortality for a thousand centuries1 blew1 and that same hollow ,memnonian wind he often had heard since1 and it brought back the open summer window and the corpse4 ,a vault above opened into the sky1 and he slept and dreamed there1 standing by her1 he knew not how long2 a worm that could not die was at his heart1 for this was the holy love between children that could not perish4 ,the funeral was full of darkness and despair for him1 and after it he sought solitude1 gazed into the heavens to see his sister till he was tired1 and realized that he was alone4 ,thus1 before the end of his sixth year1 with a mind already adolescent1 although with a retarded body1 the minor tone of life became dominant and his awakening to it was hard4 ,as a penniless schoolboy wandering the streets of ,london at night1 he was on familiar and friendly terms of innocent relationship with a number of outcast women4 ,in his misery they were to him simply sisters in calamity1 but he found in them humanity1 disinterested generosity1 courage1 and fidelity4 ,one night1 after he had walked the streets for weeks with one of these friendless girls who had not completed her sixteenth year1 as they sat on the steps of a house1 he grew very ill1 and had she not rushed to buy from her slender purse cordials and tenderly ministered to and revived him1 he would have died4 ,many years later he used to wander past this house1 and he recalled with real tenderness this youthful friendship2 he longed again to meet the noble-minded ,ann ---- with whom he had so often conversed familiarly more ,socratico1 whose betrayer he had vainly sought to punish1 and yearned to hear from her in order to convey to her some authentic message of gratitude1 peace1 and forgiveness4 ,his much older brother came home in his thirty-ninth year to die4 ,he had been unmanageable in youth and his genius for mischief was an inspiration1 yet he was hostile to everything pusillanimous1 haughty1 aspiring1 ready to fasten a quarrel on his shadow for running before1 at first inclined to reduce his boy brother to a fag1 but finally before his death became a great influence in his life4 ,prominent were the fights between ,de ,quincey and another older brother on the one hand1 and the factory crowd of boys on the other1 a fight incessantly renewed at the close of factory hours1 with victory now on one and now on the other side2 fought with stones and sticks1 where thrice he was taken prisoner1 where once one of the factory women kissed him1 to the great delight of his heart4 ,he finally invented a kingdom like ,hartley ,coleridge1 called ,gom ,broon4 ,he thought first that it had no location1 but finally because his brother's imaginary realm was north and he wanted wide water between them1 his was in the far south4 ,it was only two hundred and seventy miles in circuit1 and he was stunned to be told by his brother one day that his own domain swept south for eighty degrees1 so that the distance he had relied on vanished4 ,here1 however1 he continued to rule for well or ill1 raising taxes1 keeping an imaginary standing army1 fishing herring and selling the product of his fishery for manure1 and experiencing how uneasy lies the head that wears a crown4 ,he worried over his obligations to ,gom ,broon1 and the shadow froze into reality1 and although his brother's kingdom ,tigrosylvania was larger1 his was distinguished for eminent men and a history not to be ashamed of4 ,a friend had read ,lord ,monboddo's view that men had sprung from apes1 and suggested that the inhabitants of ,gom ,broon had tails1 so that the brother told him that his subjects had not emerged from apedom and he must invent arts to eliminate the tails4 ,they must be made to sit down for six hours a day as a beginning4 ,abdicate he would not1 though all his subjects had three tails apiece4 ,they had suffered together4 ,vain was his brother's suggestion that they have a ,roman toga to conceal their ignominious appendages4 ,he was greatly interested in two scrofulous idiots1 who finally died1 and feared that his subjects were akin to them4 ,john ,stuart ,mill's ,autobiography presents one of the most remarkable modifications of the later phases of adolescent experience4 ,no boy ever had more diligent and earnest training than his father gave him or responded better4 ,he can not remember when he began to learn ,greek1 but was told that it was at the age of three4 ,the list of classical authors alone that he read in the original1 to say nothing of history1 political1 scientific1 logical1 and other works before he was twelve1 is perhaps unprecedented in all history4 ,he associated with his father and all his many friends on their own level1 but modestly ascribes everything to his environment1 insists that in natural gifts he is other below than above par1 and declares that everything he did could be done by every boy of average capacity and healthy physical constitution4 ,his father made the ,greek virtue of temperance or moderation cardinal1 and thought human life a poor thing at best after the freshness of youth and unsatisfied curiosity had gone by4 ,he scorned the intense and had only contempt for strong emotion4 ,in his teens ,mill was an able debater and writer for the quarterlies1 and devoted to the propagation of the theories of ,bentham1 ,ricardo1 and associationism4 ,from the age of fifteen he had an object in life1 viz41 to reform the world4 ,this gave him happiness1 deep1 permanent1 and assured for the future1 and the idea of struggling to promote utilitarianism seemed an inspiring program for life4 ,but in the autumn of #ahbf1 when he was twenty years of age1 he felt into a dull state of nerves1 where he could no longer enjoy and what had produced pleasure seemed insipid2 the state1 ,i should think1 in which converts to ,methodism usually are when smitten by their first 'conviction of sin4' ,in this frame of mind it occurred to me to put the question directly to myself2 ',suppose that all your objects in life were realized2 that all the changes in institutions and opinions which you are looking forward to could be completely effected at this very instant2 would this be a great joy and happiness to you8' ,and an irrepressible self-consciousness distinctly answered1 ',no4' ,at this my heart sank within me3 the whole foundation on which my life was constructed fell down4 ,all my happiness was to have been found in the continual pursuit of this end4 ,the end had ceased to charm1 and how could there ever again be any interest in the means8 ,i seemed to have nothing left to live for4 ,at first ,i hoped that the cloud would pass away of itself1 but it did not4 ,a night's sleep1 the sovereign remedy for the smaller vexations of life1 had no effect on it4 ,i awoke to a renewed consciousness of the woful fact4 ,i carried it with me into all companies1 into all occupations4 ,hardly anything had power to cause me even a few minutes' oblivion of it4 ,for some months the cloud seemed to grow thicker and thicker4 ,the lines in ,coleridge's ',dejection'--,i was not then acquainted with them--exactly described my case3 ',a grief without a pang1 void1 dark1 and drear1 ,a drowsy1 stifled1 unimpassioned grief1 ,which finds no natural outlet or relief ,in word1 or sigh1 or tear4' ,in vain ,i sought relief from my favorite books1 those memorials of past nobleness and greatness from which ,i had always hitherto drawn strength and animation4 ,i read them now without feeling1 or with the accustomed feeling minus all its charm2 and ,i became persuaded that my love of mankind1 and of excellence for its own sake1 had worn itself out4 ,i sought no comfort by speaking to others of what ,i felt4 ,if ,i had loved any one sufficiently to make confiding my griefs a necessity1 ,i should not have been in the condition ,i was4 ,i felt1 too1 that mine was not an interesting or in anyway respectable distress4 ,there was nothing in it to attract sympathy4 ,advice1 if ,i had known where to seek it1 would have been most precious4 ,the words of ,macbeth to the physician often occurred to my thoughts4 ,but there was no one on whom ,i could build the faintest hope of such assistance4 ,my father1 to whom it would have been natural to me to have recourse in any practical difficulties1 was the last person to whom1 in such a case as this1 ,i looked for help4 ,everything convinced me that he had no knowledge of any such mental state as ,i was suffering from1 and that even if he could be made to understand it1 he was not the physician who could heal it4 ,my education1 which was wholly his work1 had been conducted without any regard to the possibility of its ending in this result1 and ,i saw no use in giving him the pain of thinking that his plans had failed1 when the failure was probably irremediable1 and1 at all event1 beyond the power of his remedies4 ,of other friends1 ,i had at that time none to whom ,i had any hope of making my condition intelligible4 ,it was1 however1 abundantly intelligible to myself1 and the more ,i dwelt upon it the more hopeless it appeared4 ,he now saw what had hitherto seemed incredible1 that the habit of analysis tends to wear away the feelings4 ,he felt stranded at the commencement of my voyage1 with a well-equipped ship and a rudder1 but no sail2 without any real desire for the ends which ,i had been so carefully fitted out to work for3 no delight in virtue1 or the general good1 but also just as little in anything else4 ,the fountains of vanity and ambition seemed to have dried up within me as completely as those of benevolence4 ,his vanity had been gratified at too early an age1 and1 like all premature pleasures1 they had caused indifference1 until he despaired of creating any fresh association of pleasure with any objects of human dire4 ,meanwhile1 dejected and melancholy as he was through the winter1 he went on mechanically with his tasks2 thought he found in ,coleridge the first description of what he was feeling2 feared the idiosyncrasies of his education had made him a being unique and apart4 ,i asked myself if ,i could or if ,i was bound to go on living1 when life must be passed in this manner4 ,i generally answered to myself that ,i did not think ,i could possibly bear it beyond a year4 ,but within about half that time1 in reading a pathetic page of how a mere boy felt that he could save his family and take the place of all they had lost1 a vivid conception of the scene came over him and he was moved to tears4 ,from that moment1 his burden grew lighter4 ,he saw that his heart was not dead and that he still had some stuff left of which character and happiness are made2 and although there were several later lapses1 some of which lasted many months1 he was never again as miserable as he had been4 ,these experience left him changed in two respects4 ,he had a new theory of life1 having much in common with the anti-consciousness theory of ,carlyle4 ,he still held happiness the end of life1 but thought it must be aimed at indirectly and taken incidentally4 ,the other change was that for the first time he gave its proper place to internal culture of the individual1 especially the training of the feelings which became now cardinal4 ,he relished and felt the power of poetry and art2 was profoundly moved by music2 fell in love with ,wordsworth and with nature1 and his later depressions were best relieved by the power of rural beauty1 which wrought its charm not because of itself but by the states and feelings it aroused4 ,his ode on the intimations of immortality showed that he also had felt that the first freshness of youthful joy was not lasting1 and had sought and found compensation4 ,he had thus come to a very different standpoint from that of his father1 who had up to this time formed his mind and life1 and developed on this basis his unique individuality4 ,jefferies1 when eighteen1 began his ,story of ,my ,heart1#ca which he said was an absolutely true confession of the stages of emotion in a soul from which all traces of tradition and learning were erased1 and which stood face to face with nature and the unknown4 ,his heart long seemed dusty and parched for want of feeling1 and he frequented a hill1 where the pores of his soul opened to a new air4 ,lying down on the grass1 ,i spoke in my soul to the earth1 the sun1 the air and the distant sea4444 ,i desired to have its strength1 its mystery and glory4 ,i addressed the sun1 desiring the sole equivalent of his light and brilliance1 his endurance1 and unwearied race4 ,i turned to the blue heaven over1 gazing into its depth1 inhaling its exquisite color and sweetness4 ,the rich blue of the unobtainable flower of the sky drew my soul toward it1 and there it rested1 for pure color is the rest of the heart4 ,by all these ,i prayed4 ,i felt an emotion of the soul beyond all definition2 prayer is a puny thing to it4 ,he prayed by the thyme2 by the earth2 the flowers which he touched2 the dust which he let fall through his fingers2 was filled with a rapture1 an ecstasy1 an inflatus4 ,with this inflatus ,i prayed4444 ,i hid my face in the grass2 ,i was wholly prostrated2 ,i lost myself in the wrestle4444 ,i see now that what ,i labored for was soul life1 more soul learning4 ,after gazing upward he would turn his face into the grass1 shutting out everything with hands each side1 till he felt down into the earth and was absorbed in it1 whispering deep down to its center4 ,every natural impression1 trees1 insects1 air1 clouds1 he used for prayer1 that my soul might be more than the cosmos of life4 ,his ,lyra prayer was to live a more exalted and intense soul life2 enjoy more bodily pleasure and live long and find power to execute his designs4 ,he often tried1 but failed for years to write at least a meager account of these experiences4 ,he felt himself immortal just as he felt beauty4 ,he was in eternity already2 the supernatural is only the natural misnamed4 ,as he lay face down on the grass1 seizing it with both hands1 he longed for death1 to be burned on a pyre of pine wood on a high hill1 to have his ashes scattered wide and broadcast1 to be thrown into the space he longed for while living1 but he feared that such a luxury of resolution into the elements would be too costly4 ,thus his naked mind1 close against naked mother ,nature1 wrested from her the conviction of soul1 immortality1 deity1 under conditions as primitive as those of the cave man1 and his most repeated prayer was ,give me the deepest soul life4 ,in other moods he felt the world outr-human1 and his mind could by no twist be fitted to the cosmos4 ,ugly1 designless creatures caused him to cease to look for deity in nature1 where all happens by chance4 ,he at length concluded there is something higher than soul and above deity1 and better than ,god1 for which he searched and labored4 ,he found favorite thinking places1 to which he made pilgrimages1 where he felt out into the depths of the ether4 ,his frame could not bear the labor his heart demanded4 ,work of body was his meat and drink4 ,never have ,i had enough of it4 ,i wearied long before ,i was satisfied1 and weariness did not bring a cessation of desire1 the thirst was still there4 ,i rode2 ,i used the ax2 ,i split tree-trunks with wedges2 my arms tired1 but my spirit remained fresh and chafed against the physical weariness4 ,had he been indefinitely stronger1 he would have longed for more strength4 ,he was often out of doors all day and often half the night2 wanted more sunshine2 wished the day was sixty hours long2 took pleasure in braving the cold so that it should be not life's destroyer but its renewer4 ,yet he abhorred asceticism4 ,he wrestled with the problem of the origin of his soul and destiny1 but could find no solution2 revolted at the assertion that all is designed for the best2 a man of intellect and humanity could cause everything to happen in an infinitely superior manner4 ,he discovered that no one ever died of old age1 but only of disease2 that we do not even know what old age would be like2 found that his soul is infinite1 but lies in abeyance2 that we are murdered by our ancestors and must roll back the tide of death2 that a hundredth part of man's labor would suffice for his support2 that idleness is no evil2 that in the future nine-tenths of the time will be leisure1 and to that end he will work with all his heart4 ,i was not more than eighteen when an inner and esoteric meaning began to come to me from all the visible universe1 and indefinable aspirations filled me4 ,interesting as is this document1 it is impossible to avoid the suspicion that the seventeen years which intervened between the beginning of these experiences and their final record1 coupled with the perhaps unconscious tendency toward literary effect1 detract more or less from their value as documents of adolescent nature4 ,mr4 ,h4 ,fielding ,hall1 author of ,the ,soul of a ,people1 has since written a book#cb in which1 beginning with many definitions of ,christianity1 weighing the opinion of those who think all our advance is made because of1 against those who think it in spite of ,christianity1 he proceeds to give the story of a boy1 probably himself1 who till twelve was almost entirely reared by women and with children younger than himself4 ,he was sickly1 and believed not in the ,old but in the ,new ,testament2 in the ,sermon on the ,mount1 which he supposed all accepted and lived by2 that war and wealth were bad and learning apt to be a snare2 that the ideal life was that of a poor curate1 working hard and unhappy4 ,at twelve1 he went to a boarding-school1 passed from a woman's world into a man's1 out of the ,new ,testament into the ,old1 out of dreams into reality4 ,war was a glorious opportunity1 and all followed the ,british victories1 which were announced publicly4 ,big boys were going to ,sandhurst or ,woolwich2 there were parties2 and the school code never turned the other cheek4 ,wars were ,god's storms1 stirring stagnant natures to new life2 wealth was worshiped2 certain lies were an honor2 knowledge was an extremely desirable thing--all this was at first new and delightful1 but extremely wicked4 ,sunday was the only other ,old ,testament rule1 but was then forgotten4 ,slowly a repugnance of religion in all its forms arose4 ,he felt his teachers hypocrites2 he raised no alarm1 for he was hardly conscious that his anchor had dragged or that he had lost hold of it forever4 ,at eighteen1 he read ,darwin and found that if he were right1 ,genesis was wrong2 man had risen1 not fallen2 if a part was wrong1 the whole was4 ,if ,god made the world1 the devil seemed to rule it2 prayer can not influence him2 the seven days of creation were periods1 ,heaven knows how long4 ,why did all profess and no one believe religion8 ,why is ,god so stern and yet so partial1 and how about the ,trinity8 ,then explanations were given4 ,heaven grew repulsive1 as a place for the poor1 the maimed1 the stupid1 the childish1 and those unfit for earth generally4 ,faiths came from the ,east4 ,the ,north has originated only ,thor1 ,odin1 ,balder1 ,valkyres4 ,the gloom and cold drive man into himself2 do not open him4 ,in the ,east one can live in quiet solitude1 with no effort1 close to nature4 ,the representatives of all faiths wear ostentatiously their badges1 pray in public1 and no one sneers at all religions4 ,oriental faiths have no organization2 there is no head of ,hinduism1 ,buddhism1 or hardly of ,mohammedanism4 ,there are no missions1 but religion grows rankly from a rich soil1 so the boy wrote three demands3 a reasonable theory of the universe1 a workable and working code of conduct1 and a promise of something desirable hereafter4 ,so he read books and tried to make a system4 ,on a hill1 in a thunder-storm in the ,east1 he realized how ,thor was born4 ,man fears thunder2 it seems the voice of a greater man4 ,deny eyes1 legs1 and body of the ,deity1 and nothing is left4 ,god as an abstract spirit is unthinkable1 but ,buddhism offers us no ,god1 only law4 ,necessity1 blind force1 law1 or a free personal will--that is the alternative4 ,freedom limits omnipotence2 the two can never mix4 ,the ,german ,emperor's ,god1 clanking round the heavenly mansions wearing a ,german ,pickelhaube and swearing ,german oaths1 is not satisfactory4 ,man's ,god is what he admires most in himself2 he can be propitiated1 hence atonement2 you can not break a law1 but you can study it4 ,inquiry1 not submission1 is the attitude4 ,perhaps both destiny and freedom are true1 but truth is for the sake of light4 ,thor had no moral code2 the ,greeks were unmoral4 ,jehovah at first asked only fear1 reverence1 and worship4 ,this gives no guide to life4 ,most codes are directed against a foe and against pain4 ,truth1 mercy1 courtesy--these were slowly added to reverence2 then sanitary rules1 hence castes4 ,two codes1 those of ,christ and ,buddha1 tower above all others4 ,they are the same in praising not wealth1 greatness1 or power1 but purity1 renunciation of the world1 as if one fitted one's self for one by being unfitted for the other world4 ,is heaven a bribe8 ,its ideals are those of children1 of girl angels1 white wings1 floating dresses1 no sheep1 but lambs4 ,surely there is nothing in all the world so babyish4 ,one can hardly imagine a man with a deep voice1 with the storm of life beating his soul1 amid those baby faces4 ,if happiness in any act or attitude is perfect1 it will last forever4 ,where is due the weariness or satiety8 ,but if happiness be perfect1 this is impossible2 so life would be monotony akin to annihilation4 ,but life is change1 and change is misery4 ,there is effort here2 but there will be none in the great peace that passes understanding2 no defeat1 therefore no victory2 no friends1 because no enemies2 no joyous meetings1 because no farewells4 ,it is the shadows and the dark mysteries that sound the depths of our hearts4 ,no man that ever lived1 if told that he could be young again or go to any heaven1 would choose the latter4 ,men die for many things1 but all fear the beyond4 ,thus no religion gives us an intelligible ,first ,cause1 a code or a heaven that we want4 ,the most religious man is the peasant listening to the angelus1 putting out a little ghi for his ,god2 the woman crying in the pagoda4 ,thus we can only turn to the hearts of men for the truth of religion4 ,biographies and autobiographies furnish many photographic glimpses of the struggles and experiences of early adolescent years4 ,anthony ,trollope's autobiography#cc is pitiful4 ,he was poor and disliked by most of his masters and treated with ignominy by his fellow pupils4 ,he describes himself as always in disgrace4 ,at fifteen he walked three miles each way twice a day to and from school4 ,as a sizar he seemed a wretched farmer's boy1 reeking from the dunghill1 sitting next the sons of big peers4 ,all were against him1 and he was allowed to join no games1 and learned1 he tells us1 absolutely nothing but a little ,greek and ,latin4 ,once only1 goaded to desperation1 he rallied and whipped a bully4 ,the boy was never able to overcome the isolation of his school position1 and while he coveted popularity with an eagerness which was almost mean1 and longed exceedingly to excel in cricket or with the racquet1 was allowed to know nothing of them4 ,he remembers at nineteen never to have had a lesson in writing1 arithmetic1 ,french1 or ,german4 ,he knew his masters by their ferules and they him4 ,he believes that he has been flogged oftener than any human being alive4 ,it was just possible to obtain five scourgings in one day at ,winchester1 and ,i have often boasted that ,i have obtained them all4 ,prizes were distributed prodigally1 but he never got one4 ,for twelve years of tuition1 he says1 ,i do not remember that ,i ever knew a lesson4 ,at this age he describes himself as an idle1 desolate1 hanger on 444 without an idea of a career or a profession or a trade1 but he was tolerably happy because he could fancy himself in love with pretty girls and had been removed from the real misery of school1 but had not a single aspiration regarding his future4 ,three of his household were dying of consumption1 and his mother was day nurse1 night nurse1 and divided her time between pill-boxes and the ink-bottle1 for when she was seventy-six she had written one hundred and forty volumes1 the first of which was not written till she was fifty4 ,gradually the boy became alive to the blighted ambition of his father's life and the strain his mother was enduring1 nursing the dying household and writing novels to provide a decent roof for them to die under4 ,anthony got a position at the post-office without an examination4 ,he knew no ,french nor science2 was a bad speller and worse writer and could not have sustained an examination on any subject4 ,still he could not bear idleness1 and was always going about with some castle in the air finely built in his mind1 carrying on for weeks and years the same continuous story2 binding himself down to certain laws1 proprieties1 and unities2 always his own hero1 excluding everything violently improbable4 ,to this practise1 which he calls dangerous and which began six or seven years before he went to the post-office1 he ascribes his power to maintain an interest in a fictitious story and to live in a entirely outside imaginative life4 ,during these seven years he acquired a character of irregularity and grew reckless4 ,mark ,pattison#cd shows us how his real life began in the middle teens1 when his energy was directed to one end1 to improve myself2 to form my own mind2 to sound things thoroughly2 to be free from the bondage of unreason and the traditional prejudices which1 when ,i first began to think1 constituted the whole of my mental fabric4 ,he entered upon life with a hide-bound and contracted intellect1 and depicts something of the steps by which ,i emerged from that frozen condition4 ,he believes that to remember the dreams and confusions of childhood and never to lose the recollection of the curiosity and simplicity of that age1 is one of the great gifts of the poetic character1 although this1 he tells us1 was extraordinarily true of ,george ,sand1 but not of himself4 ,from the age of twelve on1 a ,fellowship at ,oriel was the ideal of his life1 and although he became a commoner there at seventeen1 his chief marvel is that he was so immature and unimpressionable4 ,william ,hale ,white#ce learned little at school1 save ,latin and good penmanship1 but his very life was divided into halves--,sundays and week days--and he reflects at some length upon the immense dangers of the early teens2 the physiological and yet subtler psychic penalties of error2 callousness to fine pleasures2 hardening of the conscience2 and deplores the misery which a little instruction might have saved him4 ,at fourteen he underwent conversion1 understood in his sect to be a transforming miracle1 releasing higher and imprisoning lower powers4 ,he compares it to the saving of a mind from vice by falling in love with a woman who is adored1 or the reclamation of a young woman from idleness and vanity by motherhood4 ,but as a boy he was convinced of many things which were mere phrases1 and attended prayer-meetings for the clanship of being marked off from the world and of walking home with certain girls4 ,he learned to say in prayer that there was nothing good in him1 that he was rotten and filthy and his soul a mass of putrefying sores2 but no one took him at his word and expelled him from society1 but thought the better of him4 ,soon he began to study theology1 but found no help in suppressing tempestuous lust1 in understanding the ,bible1 or getting his doubts answered1 and all the lectures seemed irrelevant chattering4 ,an infidel was a monster whom he had rarely ever seen4 ,at nineteen he began to preach1 but his heart was untouched till he read ,wordsworth's lyrical ballads1 and this recreated a living ,god for him1 melted his heart to tears1 and made him long for companionship2 its effect was instantly seen in his preaching1 and soon made him slightly suspected as heretical4#cf ,john ,addington ,symonds1 in his autobiography1 describes his insect-like devotion to creed in the green infancy of ritualism4 ,in his early teens at boarding-school he and his mates1 with half sincerity1 followed a classmate to compline1 donned surplices1 tossed censers1 arranged altars in their studies1 bought bits of painted glass for their windows and illuminated crucifixes with gold dust and vermilion4 ,when he was confirmed1 this was somewhat of an epoch4 ,preparation was like a plowshare1 although it turned up nothing valuable1 and stimulated esthetic and emotional ardor4 ,in a dim way he felt ,god near1 but he did not learn to fling the arms of the soul in faith around the cross of ,christ4 ,later the revelation he found in ,plato removed him farther from boyhood4 ,he fell in love with gray ,gothic churches1 painted glass1 organ lofts1 etc4 ,walter ,pater has described phases of ferment1 perhaps largely his own1 in the character of ,florian ,deleal2 his rapture of the red hawthorn blossoms1 absolutely the reddest of all things2 his times of seemingly exclusive predominance of interest in beautiful physical things1 a kind of tyranny of the senses2 and his later absorbing efforts to estimate the proportion of the sensuous and ideal1 assigning most importance to sensible vehicles and occasions2 associating all thoughts with touch and sight as a link between himself and things1 till he became more and more unable to care for or think of soul but as in an actual body2 comforted in the contemplation of death by the thought of flesh turning to violets and almost oppressed by the pressure of the sensible world1 his longings for beauty intensifying his fear of death4 ,he loved to gaze on dead faces in the ,paris ,morgue although the haunt of them made the sunshine sickly for days1 and his long fancy that they had not really gone nor were quite motionless1 but led a secret1 half fugitive life1 freer by night1 and perhaps dodging about in their old haunts with no great good-will toward the living1 made him by turns pity and hate the ghosts who came back in the wind1 beating at the doors4 ,his religious nature gradually yielded to a mystical belief in ,bible personages in some indefinite place as the reflexes and patterns of our nobler self1 whose companionship made the world more satisfying4 ,there was a constant substitution of the typical for the actual1 and angels might be met anywhere4 ,a deep mysticity brooded over real things and partings1 marriages and many acts and accidents of life4 ,the very colors of things became themselves weighty with meanings1 or full of penitence and peace4 ,for a time he walked through the world in a sustained1 not unpleasurable awe generated by the habitual recognition1 beside every circumstance and event of life1 of its celestial correspondent4 ,in ,d4 ,c4 ,boulger's ,life of ,general ,charles ,gordon#cg he records how1 like ,nelson ,clive1 his hero was prone to boys' escapades and outbreaks that often made him the terror of his superiors4 ,he was no bookworm1 but famous as the possessor of high spirits1 very often involved in affairs that necessitated discipline1 and seemed greatly out of harmony with the popular idea of the ascetic of ,mount ,carmel4 ,as a schoolboy he made wonderful squirts that would wet you through in a minute4 ,one ,sunday twenty-seven panes of glass in a large storehouse were broken with screws shot through them by his cross-bow for ventilation4 ,ringing bells and pushing young boys in1 butting an unpopular officer severely in the stomach with his head and taking the punishment1 hitting a bully with a clothes-brush and being put back six months in the ,royal ,military ,academy at ,woolwich2 these are the early outcrops of one side of his dual character4 ,although more soldier than saint1 he had a very cheery1 genial side4 ,he was always ready to take even the severest punishment for all his scrapes due to excessive high spirits4 ,when one of his superiors declared that he would never make an officer1 he felt his honor touched1 and his vigorous and expressive reply was to tear the epaulets from his shoulders and throw them at his superior's feet4 ,he had already developed some of the rather moody love of seclusion that was marked later1 but religion did not strike him deeply enough to bring him into the church until he was twenty-one1 when he took his first sacrament4 ,on one occasion he declined promotion within his reach because he would have had to pass a friend to get it4 ,he acted generally on his impulses1 which were perhaps better than his judgments1 took great pleasure in corresponding on religious topics with his elder sister1 and early formed the habit of excessive smoking which gravely affected his health later4 ,his was the rare combination of inner repose and confidence1 interrupted by spells of gaiety4 ,williamson1 in his ,life of ,holman ,hunt1#ch tells us that at thirteen he was removed from school as inapt in study4 ,he began to spend his time in drawing in his copybooks4 ,he was made clerk to an auctioneer1 who fortunately encouraged his passion1 and at sixteen was with a calico printer4 ,here he amused himself by drawing flies on the window1 which his employer tried to brush off4 ,there was the greatest home opposition to his studying art4 ,after being rejected twice1 he was admitted at seventeen to the ,academy school as a probationer1 and the next year1 in #ahde1 as a student4 ,here he met ,millais and ,rossetti and was able to relieve the strain on his mind1 which the worry of his father concerning his course caused him1 and very soon his career began4 ,at thirteen ,fitzjames ,stephen#ci roused himself to thrash a big boy who had long bullied him1 and became a fighter4 ,in his sixteenth year1 he grew nearly five inches1 but was so shy and timid at ,eton that he says1 ,i was like a sensible grown-up woman among a crowd of rough boys2 but in the reaction to the long abuse his mind was steeled against oppression1 tyranny1 and every kind of unfairness4 ,he read ,paine's ,age of ,reason1 and went through the ,bible as a man might go through a wood1 cutting down trees4 ,the priests can stick them in again1 but they will not make them grow4 ,dickens has given us some interesting adolescents4 ,miss ,dingwall in ,sketches by ,boz1 very sentimental and romantic2 the tempery young ,nickleby1 who1 at nineteen1 thrashed ,squeers2 ,barnaby ,rudge1 idiotic and very muscular2 ,joe ,willet1 persistently treated as a boy till he ran away to join the army and married ,dolly ,varden1 perhaps the most exuberant1 good-humored1 and beautiful girl in all the ,dickens gallery2 ,martin ,chuzzlewit1 who also ran away1 as did ,david ,copperfield1 perhaps the most true to adolescence because largely reminiscent of the author's own life2 ,steerforth1 a stranger from home1 and his victim1 ,little ,emily2 and to some extent ,sam ,weller1 ,dick ,swiveller1 the ,marchioness1 young ,podsnap1 the ,artful ,dodger1 and ,charley ,bates2 while ,oliver ,twist1 ,little ,nell1 and ,little ,dorrit1 ,joe and ,turveydrop in ,bleak ,house1 and ,paul ,dombey1 young as they were1 show the beginning of the pubescent change4 ,most of his characters1 however1 are so overdrawn and caricatured as to be hardly true to life4#dj ,in the ,romance of ,john ,inglesant1#da by ,j4 ,h4 ,shorthouse1 we have a remarkable picture of an unusually gifted youth1 who played an important rle in the days of ,cromwell and ,king ,charles1 and who was long poised in soul between the ,church of ,rome and the ,english party4 ,he was very susceptible to the fascination of superstition1 romance1 and day-dreaming1 and at eleven absorbed his master's ,rosicrucian theories of spiritual existence where spirits held converse with each other and with mankind4 ,a mystic ,platonism1 which taught that ,pindar's story of the ,argo was only a recipe for the philosopher's stone1 fascinated him at fourteen4 ,the philosophy of obedience and of the subjection of reason to authority was early taught him1 and he sought to live from within1 hearing only the divine law1 as the worshipers of ,cybele heard only the flutes4 ,his twin brother ,eustace was an active worldling1 and soon he followed him to court as page to the ,queen1 but delighted more and more in wandering apart and building air castles4 ,for a time he was entirely swayed1 and his life directed1 by a ,jesuit ,father1 who taught him the crucifix and the rosary4 ,at sixteen the doctrine of divine illumination fascinated him4 ,he struggled to find the path of true devotion2 abandoned himself to extremely ritualistic forms of worship2 dabbled a little in alchemy and astrology to help develop the divine nature within him and to attain the beatific vision4 ,soon he was introduced to the ,protestant nunnery1 as it was called1 where the venerable ,mr4 ,ferran1 a friend of ,george ,herbert's1 was greatly taken by ,inglesant's accomplishments and grace of manner4 ,various forms of extremely ,high ,church yet ,protestant worship were celebrated here each day with great devotion1 until he became disgusted with ,puritanism and craved to participate in the office of mass4 ,at this point1 however1 he met ,mr4 ,hobbes1 whose rude but forcible condemnation of papacy restrained him from casting his lot with it4 ,at seventeen1 he saw one night a real apparition of the just executed ,strafford4 ,the last act of his youth1 which we can note here1 was soon after he was twenty1 when he fell in love with the charming and saintly ,mary ,collet4 ,the rough ,puritan ,thorne had made her proposals at which she revolted1 but she and ,inglesant confessed love to each other2 she saw1 however1 that they had a way of life marked out for themselves by an inner impulse and light4 ,this calling they must follow and abandon love1 and now ,john plunged into the war on the side of the ,king4 ,w4 ,j4 ,stillman#db has written with unusual interest and candor the story of his own early life4 ,as a boy he was frenzied at the first sight of the sea2 caught the whip and lashed the horses in an unconscious delirium1 and always remembered this as one of the most vivid experiences of his life4 ,he had a period of nature worship4 ,his first trout was a delirium1 and he danced about wildly and furiously4 ,he relates his very vivid impressions of the religious orthodoxy in which he was reared1 especially revival sermons2 his occasional falsehoods to escape severe punishment2 his baptism at ten or eleven in a river in midwinter2 the somberness of his intellectual life1 which was long very apathetic2 his phenomenal stupidity for years2 his sudden insurrections in which he thrashed bullies at school2 his fear that he should be sent home in disgrace for bad scholarship2 and how at last1 after seven years of dulness1 at the age of fourteen1 the mental fog broke away suddenly1 and before the term ended ,i could construe the ,latin in less time than it took to recite it1 and the demonstrations of ,euclid were as plain and clear as a fairy story4 ,my memory came back so distinctly that ,i could recite long poems after a single reading1 and no member of the class passed a more brilliant examination at the end of the term than ,i2 and1 at the end of the second term1 ,i could recite the whole of ,legendre's geometry1 plane and spherical1 from beginning to end without a question1 and the class examination was recorded as the most remarkable which the academy had witnessed for many years4 ,i have never been able to conceive an explanation of this curious phenomenon1 which ,i record only as of possible interest to some one interested in psychology4 ,a4 ,bronson ,alcott#dc was the son of a ,connecticut farmer4 ,he began a diary at twelve2 aspired vainly to enter ,yale1 and after much restlessness at the age of nineteen left home with two trunks for ,virginia to peddle on foot1 hoping to teach school4 ,here he had a varying and often very hard experience for years4 ,hornes ,bushnell's#dd parents represented the ,episcopal and liberal ,congregational ,church4 ,his early life was spent on a farm and in attending a country academy4 ,he became profoundly interested in religion in the early teens and developed extreme interest in nature4 ,at seventeen1 while tending a carding machine1 he wrote a paper on ,calvinism4 ,at nineteen he united with the church1 and entered ,yale when he was twenty-one1 in #ahbc4 ,later he tried to teach school1 but left it1 declaring he would rather lay stone wall2 worked on a journal1 but withdrew1 finding it a terrible life2 studied law for a year1 became a tutor at ,yale1 experienced a reconversion and entered the ministry4 ,a well-known ,american1 who wishes his name withheld1 writes me of his youth as follows3 ,first came the love of emotion and lurid romance reading4 ,my mind was full of adventure1 dreams of underground passages1 and imprisoned beauties whom ,i rescued4 ,i wrote a story in red ink1 which ,i never read1 but a girl friend did1 and called it magnificent4 ,the girl fever1 too1 made me idealize first one five years older than ,i1 later another three years older1 and still later one of my own age4 ,i would have eaten dirt for each of them for a year or two2 was extremely gallant and the hero of many romances for two1 but all the time so bashful that ,i scarcely dared speak to one of them1 and no schoolmate ever suspected it all4 ,music also became a craze at fourteen4 ,before1 ,i had hated lessons1 now ,i was thrilled and would be a musician1 despite my parents' protests4 ,i practised the piano furiously2 wrote music and copied stacks of it2 made a list of several hundred pieces and tunes1 including everything musical ,i knew2 would imagine a crowded hall1 where ,i played and swayed with fine airs4 ,the vast assembly applauded and would not let me go1 but all the time it was a simple piece and ,i was a very ordinary player4 ,at fifty years1 this is still a relic4 ,i now in hours of fatigue pound the piano and dreamily imagine dazed and enchanted audiences4 ,then came oratory1 and ,i glowed and thrilled in declaiming ,webster's ,reply to ,hayne1 ,thanatopsis1 ,byron's ,darkness1 ,patrick ,henry1 and best of all ,the ,maniac1 which ,i spouted in a fervid way wearing a flaming red necktie4 ,i remember a fervid scene with myself on a high solitary hill with a bald summit two miles from home1 where ,i once went because ,i had been blamed4 ,i tried to sum myself up1 inventory my good and bad points4 ,it was ,sunday1 and ,i was keyed up to a frenzy of resolve1 prayer1 idealization of life2 all grew all in a jumble4 ,my resolve to go to college was clinched then and there1 and that hill will always remain my ,pisgah and ,moriah1 ,horeb and ,sinai all in one4 ,i paced back and forth in the wind and shouted1 ',i will make people know and revere me2 ,i will do something'2 and called everything to witness my vow that ,i never again would visit this spot till all was fulfilled4 ,alas6 he says1 ,i have never been there since4 ,once1 to a summer party who went1 ,i made excuse for not keeping this rendezvous4 ,it was too sacramental4 ,certainly it was a very deep and never-to-be-forgotten experience there all alone1 when something of great moment to me certainly took place in my soul4 ,in the biography of ,frederick ,douglas#de we are told that when he was about thirteen he began to feel deeply the moral yoke of slavery and to seek means of escaping it4 ,he became interested in religion1 was converted1 and dreamed of and prayed for liberty4 ,with great ingenuity he extracted knowledge of the alphabet and reading from white boys of his acquaintance4 ,at sixteen1 under a brutal master he revolted and was beaten until he was faint from loss of blood1 and at seventeen he fought and whipped the brutal overseer ,covey1 who would have invoked the law1 which made death the punishment for such an offense1 but for shame of having been worsted by a negro boy and from the reflection that there was no profit from a dead slave4 ,only at twenty did he escape into the new world of freedom4 ,jacob ,riis#df fell head over heels in love with sweet ,elizabeth when he was fifteen and she thirteen4 ,his courtship proceeded at a tumultuous pace1 which first made the town laugh1 then put it out of patience and made some staid matrons express the desire to box my ears soundly4 ,she played among the lumber where he worked1 and he watched her so intently that he scarred his shinbone with an adze he should have been minding4 ,he cut off his forefinger with an ax when she was dancing on a beam near by1 and once fell off a roof when craning his neck to see her go round a corner4 ,at another time he ordered her father off the dance-floor1 because he tried to take his daughter home a few minutes before the appointed hour of midnight4 ,young as he was1 he was large and tried to run away to join the army1 but finally went to ,copenhagen to serve his apprenticeship with a builder1 and here had an interview with ,hans ,christian ,andersen4 ,ellery ,sedgwick tells as that at thirteen the mind of ,thomas ,paine ran on stories of the sea which his teacher had told him1 and that he attempted to enlist on the privateer ,terrible4 ,he was restless at home for years1 and shipped on a trading vessel at nineteen4 ,indeed1 modern literature in our tongue abounds in this element1 from ,childe ,harold to the second and third long chapters in ,mrs4 ,ward's ,david ,grieve1 ending with his engagement to ,lucy ,purcell2 ,thackeray's ,arthur ,pendennis and his characteristic love of the far older and scheming ,fanny ,fotheringay2 ,david in ,james ,lane ,allen's ,reign of ,law1 who read ,darwin1 was expelled from the ,bible ,college and the church1 and finally was engaged to ,gabriella2 and scores more might be enumerated4 ,there is even ,sonny1#dg who1 rude as he was and poorly as he did in all his studies1 at the same age when he began to keep company1 tallered his hair1 tied a bow of ribbon to the buggy whip1 and grew interested in manners1 passing things1 putting on his coat and taking off his hat at table1 began to study his menagerie of pet snakes1 toads1 lizards1 wrote ,john ,burroughs1 helped him and got help in return1 took to observing1 and finally wrote a book about the forest and its occupants1 all of which is very bien trouv if not historic truth4 ,two singular reflections always rearise in reading ,goethe's autobiographical writings3 first1 that both the age and the place1 with its ceremonies1 festivals1 great pomp and stirring events in close quarters in the little province where he lived1 were especially adapted to educate children and absorb them in externals2 and1 second1 that this wonderful boy had an extreme propensity for moralizing and drawing lessons of practical service from all about him4 ,this is no less manifest in ,wilhelm ,meister's ,apprenticeship and ,travels1 which supplements the autobiography4 ,both together present a very unique type of adolescence1 the elaborate story of which defies epitome4 ,from the puppet craze well on into his precocious university life it was his passion to explore the widest ranges of experience and then to reflect1 moralize1 or poetize upon them4 ,perhaps no one ever studied the nascent stages of his own life and elaborated their every incident with such careful observation and analysis4 ,his peculiar diathesis enabled him to conserve their freshness on to full maturity1 when he gave them literary form4 ,most lack power to fully utilize their own experience even for practical self-knowledge and guidance1 but with ,goethe nothing was wasted from which self-culture could be extracted4 ,goethe's first impression of female loveliness was of a girl named ,gretchen1 who served wine one evening1 and whose face and form followed him for a long time4 ,their meetings always gave him a thrill of pleasure1 and though his love was like many first loves1 very spiritual and awakened by goodness and beauty1 it gave a new brightness to the whole world1 and to be near her seemed to him an indispensable condition of his being4 ,her fianc was generally with her1 and ,goethe experienced a shock in finding that she had become a milliner's assistant for although1 like all natural boys of aristocratic families1 he loved common people1 this interest was not favored by his parents4 ,the night following the coronation day several were compelled to spend in chairs1 and he and his ,gretchen1 with others1 slept1 she with her head upon his shoulder1 until all the others had awakened in the morning4 ,at last they parted at her door1 and for the first and last time they kissed but never met again1 although he often wept in thinking of her4 ,he was terribly affronted to fully realize that1 although only two years older than himself1 she should have regarded him as a child4 ,he tried to strip her of all loving qualities and think her odious1 but her image hovered over him4 ,the sanity of instinct innate in youth prompted him to lay aside as childish the foolish habit of weeping and railing1 and his mortification that she regarded him somewhat as a nurse might1 gradually helped to work his cure4 ,he was very fond of his own name1 and1 like young and uneducated people1 wrote or carved it anywhere2 later placed near it that of a new love1 ,annette1 and afterward on finding the tree he shed tears1 melted toward her1 and made an idyl4 ,he was also seized with a passion of teasing her and dominating over her devotedness with wanton and tyrannical caprice1 venting upon her the ill humor of his disappointments1 and grew absurdly jealous and lost her after she had borne with him with incredible patience and after terrible scenes with her by which he gained nothing4 ,frenzied by his loss1 he began to abuse his physical nature and was only saved from illness by the healing power of his poetic talent2 the ,lover's ,caprice was written with the impetus of a boiling passion4 ,in the midst of many serious events1 a reckless humor1 which was due to the excess of life1 developed which made him feel himself superior to the moment1 and even to court danger4 ,he played tricks1 although rarely with premeditation4 ,later he mused much upon the transient nature of love and the mutability of character2 the extent to which the senses could be indulged within the bounds of morality2 he sought to rid himself of all that troubled him by writing song or epigram about it1 which made him seem frivolous and prompted one friend to seek to subdue him by means of church forms1 which he had severed on coming to ,leipzig4 ,by degrees he felt an epoch approaching when all respect for authority was to vanish1 and he became suspicious and even despairing with regard to the best individuals he had known before and grew chummy with a young tutor whose jokes and fooleries were incessant4 ,his disposition fluctuated between gaiety and melancholy1 and ,rousseau attracted him4 ,meanwhile his health declined until a long illness1 which began with a hemorrhage1 caused him to oscillate for days between life and death2 and convalescence1 generally so delightful1 was marred by a serious tumor4 ,his father's disposition was stern1 and he could become passionate and bitter1 and his mother's domesticity made her turn to religion1 so that on coming home he formed the acquaintance of a religious circle4 ,again ,goethe was told by a hostile child that he was not the true son of his father4 ,this inoculated him with a disease that long lurked in his system and prompted various indirect investigations to get at the truth1 during which he compared all distinguished guests with his own physiognomy to detect his own likeness4 ,up to the ,leipzig period he had great joy in wandering unknown1 unconscious of self2 but he soon began to torment himself with an almost hypertrophied fancy that he was attracting much attention1 that others' eyes were turned on his person to fix it in their memories1 that he was scanned and found fault with2 and hence he developed a love of the country1 of the woods and solitary places1 where he could be hedged in and separated from all the world4 ,here he began to throw off his former habit of looking at things from the art standpoint and to take pleasure in natural objects for their own sake4 ,his mother had almost grownup to consciousness in her two oldest children1 and his first disappointment in love turned his thought all the more affectionately toward her and his sister1 a year younger4 ,he was long consumed with amazement over the newly awakening sense impulse that took intellectual forms and the mental needs that clothed themselves in sense images4 ,he fell to building air castles of opposition lecture courses and gave himself up to many dreams of ideal university conditions4 ,he first attended lectures diligently1 but suffered much harm from being too advanced2 learned a great deal that he could not regulate1 and was thereby made uncomfortable2 grew interested in the fit of his clothes1 of which hitherto he had been careless4 ,he was in despair at the uncertainty of his own taste and judgment1 and almost feared he must make a complete change of mind1 renouncing what he had hitherto learned1 and so one day in great contempt for his past burned up his poetry1 sketches1 etc4 ,he had learned to value and love the ,bible1 and owed his moral culture to it4 ,its events and symbols were deeply stamped upon him1 so without being a pietist he was greatly moved at the scoffing spirit toward it which he met at the university4 ,from youth he had stood on good terms with ,god1 and at times he had felt that he had some things to forgive ,god for not having given better assistance to his infinite good-will4 ,under all this influence he turned to cabalism and became interested in crystals and the microcosm and macrocosm1 and fell into the habit of despair over what he had been and believed just before4 ,he conceived a kind of hermetical or neoplatonic godhead creating in more and more eccentric circles1 until the last1 which rose in contradiction1 was ,lucifer to whom creation was committed4 ,he first of all imagined in detail an angelic host1 and finally a whole theology was wrought out in petto4 ,he used a gilt ornamented music-stand as a kind of altar with fumigating pastils for incense1 where each morning ,god was approached by offerings until one day a conflagration put a sudden end to these celebrations4 ,hans ,anderson1#dh the son of a poor shoemaker1 taught in a charity school at the dawn of puberty2 vividly animated ,bible stories from pictures painted on the wall2 was dreamy and absent-minded2 told continued stories to his mates2 at confirmation vowed he would be famous and finally1 at fourteen1 left home for ,copenhagen1 where he was violently stage-struck and worked his way from friendship with the bill-poster to the stage as page1 shepherd1 etc42 called on a famous dancer1 who scorned him1 and then1 feeling that he had no one but ,god to depend on1 prayed earnestly and often4 ,for nearly a year1 until his voice broke1 he was a fine singer4 ,he wet with his tears the eyes of a portrait of a heartless man that he might feel for him4 ,he played with a puppet theater and took a childish delight in decking the characters with gay remnants that he begged from shops2 wrote several plays which no one would accept2 stole into an empty theater one ,new ,year's day to pray aloud on the middle of the stage2 shouted with joy2 hugged and kissed a beech-tree till people thought him insane2 abhorred the thought of apprenticeship to ,latin as he did to that of a trade1 which was a constant danger2 and was one of the most dreamy and sentimental1 and by spells religious and prayerful1 of youth4 ,george ,ebers#di remembered as a boy of eleven the revolution of '#dh in ,berlin1 soon after which he was placed in ,froebel's school at ,keilhau4 ,this great teacher with his noble associates1 ,middendorf1 ,barop1 and ,langekhal1 lived with the boys2 told the stirring stories of their own lives as soldiers in the war of liberation2 led their pupils on long excursions in vacation1 often lasting for months1 and gave much liberty to the boys1 who were allowed to haze not only their new mates1 but new teachers4 ,this transfer from the city to the country roused a veritable passion in the boy1 who remained here till he was fifteen4 ,trees and cliffs were climbed1 collections made1 the ,saale by moonlight and the lofty ,steiger at sunset were explored4 ,there were swimming and skating and games1 and the maxim of the school1 ,friede1 ,freude1 ,freiheit1,peace1 joy1 freedom was lived up to4 ,the boys hung on their teachers for stories4 ,the teachers took their boys into their confidence for all their own literary aims1 loves1 and ideals4 ,one had seen the corpse of ,krner and another knew ,prohaska4 ,the ,roman postulate that knowledge should be imparted to boys according to a thoroughly tested method approved by the mature human intellect and which seems most useful to it for later life was the old system of sacrificing the interests of the child for those of the man4 ,here childhood was to live itself out completely and naturally into an ever renewed paradise4 ,the temperaments1 dispositions1 and characters of each of the sixty boys were carefully studied and recorded4 ,some of these are still little masterpieces of psychological penetration1 and this was made the basis of development4 ,the extreme ,teutonism cultivated by wrestling1 shooting1 and fencing1 giving each a spot of land to sow1 reap1 and shovel1 and all in an atmosphere of adult life1 made an environment that fitted the transition period as well as any that the history of education affords4 ,every tramp and battle were described in a book by each boy4 ,when at fifteen ,ebers was transferred to the ,kottbus ,gymnasium1 he felt like a colt led from green pastures to the stable1 and the period of effervescence made him almost possessed by a demon1 so many sorts of follies did he commit4 ,he wrote a poem of the world1 fell in love with an actress older than himself1 became known as foolhardy for his wild escapades1 and only slowly sobered down4 ,in ,gottfried ,kelley's ,der grne ,heinrich1#ej the author1 whom ,r4,m4 ,meyer calls the most eminent literary ,german of the nineteenth century1 reviews the memories of his early life4 ,this autobiography is a plain and very realistic story of a normal child1 and not adulterated with fiction like ,goethe's or with psychoses like ,rousseau or ,bashkirtseff4 ,he seems a boy like all other boys1 and his childhood and youth were in no wise extraordinary4 ,the first part of this work1 which describes his youth up to the age of eighteen1 is the most important1 and everything is given with remarkable fidelity and minuteness4 ,it is a tale of little things4 ,all the friendships and loves and impulses are there1 and he is fundamentally selfish and utilitarian2 ,god and nature were one1 and only when his beloved ,army died did he wish to believe in immortality4 ,he1 too1 as a child1 found two kinds of love in his heart--the idea and the sensual1 very independent--the one for a young and innocent girl and the other for a superb young woman years older than he1 pure1 although the personification of sense4 ,he gives a rich harvest of minute and sagacious observations about his strange simultaneous loves2 the peculiar tastes of food2 his day-dream period2 and his rather prolonged habit of lying1 the latter because he had no other vent for invention4 ,he describes with great regret his leaving school at so early an age2 his volcanic passion of anger2 his self-distrust2 his periods of abandon2 his passion to make a success of art though he did not of life2 his spells of self-despair and cynicism2 his periods of desolation in his single life2 his habit of story-telling2 his wrestling with the problem of theology and ,god2 the conflict between his philosophy and his love of the girls1 etc4 ,from a private school in ,leipzig1 where he had shown all a boy's tact in finding what his masters thought the value of each subject they taught2 where he had joined in the vandalism of using a battering-ram to break a way to the hated science apparatus and to destroy it2 feeling that the classical writers were overpraised2 and where at the age of sixteen he had appeared several times in public as a reciter of his own poems1 ,max ,mller returned to ,leipzig and entered upon the freedom of university life there at the age of seventeen4 ,for years his chief enjoyment was music4#ea ,he played the piano well1 heard everything he could in concert or opera1 was an oratorio tenor1 and grew more and more absorbed in music1 so that he planned to devote himself altogether to it and also to enter a musical school at ,dessau1 but nothing came of it4 ,at the university he saw little of society1 was once incarcerated for wearing a club ribbon1 and confesses that with his boon companions he was guilty of practises which would now bring culprits into collision with authorities4 ,he fought three duels1 participated in many pranks and freakish escapades1 but nevertheless attended fifty-three different courses of lectures in three years4 ,when ,hegelism was the state philosophy1 he tried hard to understand it1 but dismissed it with the sentiments expressed by a ,french officer to his tailor1 who refused to take the trousers he had ordered to be made very tight because they did not fit so closely that he could not get into them4 ,darwin attracted him1 yet the wildness of his followers repelled4 ,he says1 ,i confess ,i felt quite bewildered for a time and began to despair altogether of my reasoning powers4 ,he wonders how young minds in ,german universities survive the storms and fogs through which they pass4 ,with bated breath he heard his elders talk of philosophy and tried to lay hold of a word here and there1 but it all floated before his mind like mist4 ,later he had an ,hegelian period1 but found in ,herbart a corrective1 and at last decided upon ,sanskrit and other ancient languages1 because he felt that he must know something that no other knew1 and also that the ,germans had then heard only the after-chime and not the real striking of the bells of ,indian philosophy4 ,from twenty his struggles and his queries grew more definite1 and at last1 at the age of twenty-two1 he was fully launched upon his career in ,paris1 and later went to ,oxford4 ,at thirteen ,wagner#eb translated about half the ,odyssey voluntarily2 at fourteen began the tragedy which was to combine the grandeur of two of ,shakespeare's dramas2 at sixteen he tried his new-fledged musical wings by soaring at once to the highest peaks of orchestral achievement without wasting any time on the humble foot-hills4 ,he sought to make a new departure1 and1 compared to the grandeur of his own composition1 ,beethoven's ,ninth ,symphony appeared like a simple ,pleyel ,sonata4 ,to facilitate the reading of his astounding score1 he wrote it in three kinds of ink--red for strings1 green for the wood-wind1 and black for the brass instruments4 ,he writes that this overture was the climax of his absurdities1 and although the audience before which an accommodating orchestra played it were disgusted and the musicians were convulsed with laughter1 it made a deep impression upon the author's mind4 ,even after matriculating at the university he abandoned himself so long to the dissipations common to student life before the reaction came that his relatives feared that he was a good-for-nothing4 ,in his ,hannele1 ,hauptmann1 the dramatist1 describes in a kind of dream poem what he supposed to pass through the mind of a dying girl of thirteen or fourteen1 who does not wish to live and is so absorbed by the ,brownies of her brain that she hardly knows whether she is alive on earth or dead in heaven1 and who sees the ,lord ,jesus in the form of the schoolmaster whom she adores4 ,in her closing vision there is a symbolic representation of her own resurrection4 ,to the passionate discussions in ,germany1 ,england1 and ,france1 as to whether this character is true to adolescence1 we can only answer with an emphatic affirmative2 that her heaven abounds in local color and in fairy tale items1 that it is very material1 and that she is troubled by fears of sin against the ,holy ,ghost1 is answer enough in an ill-used1 starving child with a fevered brain1 whose dead mother taught her these things4 ,saint-,pierre's ,paul and ,virginia is an attempt to describe budding adolescence in a boy and girl born on a remote island and reared in a state of natural simplicity ,the descriptions are sentimental after the fashion of the age in ,france1 and the pathos1 which to us smacks of affectation and artificiality1 nevertheless has a vein of truth in it4 ,the story really begins when the two children were twelve2 and the description of the dawn of love and melancholy in ,virginia's heart1 for some time concealed from ,paul1 of her disquiet and piety1 of the final frank avowal of eternal love by each1 set of by the pathetic separation1 and of the undying love1 and finally the tragic death and burial of each--all this owes its charm1 for its many generations of readers1 to its merits as an essentially true picture of the human heart at this critical age4 ,this work and ,rousseau#ec have contributed to give ,french literature its peculiar cast in its description of this age4 ,the first explosions of combustible constitution in ,rousseau's1 precocious nature were troublesome1 and he felt premature sensations of erotic voluptuousness1 but without any sin4 ,he longed to fall at the feet of an imperious mistress1 obey her mandates or implore pardon4 ,he only wanted a lady1 to become a knight errant4 ,at ten he was passionately devoted to a ,mlle4 ,vulson1 whom he publicly and tyrannically claimed as his own and would allow no other to approach4 ,he had very different sensuous feelings toward ,mlle4 ,goton1 with whom his relations were very passionate1 though pure4 ,absolutely under the power of both these mistresses1 the effects they produced upon him were in no wise related to each other4 ,the former was a brother's affection with the jealousy of a lover added1 but the latter a furious1 tigerish1 ,turkish rage4 ,when told of the former's marriage1 in his indignation and heroic fury he swore never more to see a perfidious girl4 ,a slightly neurotic vein of prolonged ephebeitis pervades much of his life4 ,pierre ,loti's ,story of a ,child#ed was written when the author was forty-two1 and contains hardly a fact1 but it is one of the best of inner autobiographies1 and is nowhere richer than in the last chapters1 which bring the author down to the age of fourteen and a half4 ,he vividly describes the new joy at waking1 which he began to feel at twelve or thirteen2 the clear vision into the bottomless pit of death2 the new1 marvelous susceptibility to nature as comradeship with boys of his own age was lacking2 the sudden desires from pure bravado and perversity to do something unseemly1 e4 g41 making a fly omelet and carrying it in a procession with song2 the melting of pewter plates and pouring them into water and salting a wild tract of land with them2 organizing a band of miners1 whom he led as if with keen scent to the right spot and rediscovered his nuggets1 everything being done mysteriously and as a tribal secret4 ,loti had a new feeling for the haunting music of ,chopin1 which he had been taught to play but had not been interested in2 his mind was inflamed1 by a home visit of an elder brother1 with the idea of going to the ,south ,sea ,islands1 and this became a long obsession which finally led him to enlist in the navy1 dropping1 with a beating heart1 the momentous letter into the post-office after long misgivings and delays4 ,he had a superficial and a hidden self1 the latter somewhat whimsical and perhaps ridiculous1 shared only with a few intimate friends for whom he would have let himself be cut into bits4 ,he believes his transition period lasted longer than with the majority of men1 and during it he was carried from one extreme to another2 had rather eccentric and absurd manners1 and touched moat of the perilous rocks on the voyage of life4 ,he had an early love for an older girl whose name he wrote in cipher on his books1 although he felt it a little artificial1 but believed it might have developed into a great and true hereditary friendship1 continuing that which their ancestors had felt for many generations4 ,the birth of love in his heart was in a dream after having read the forbidden poet1 ,alfred de ,musset4 ,he was fourteen1 and in his dream it was a soft1 odorous twilight4 ,he walked amid flowers seeking a nameless some one whom he ardently desired1 and felt that something strange and wonderful1 intoxicating as it advanced1 was going to happen4 ,the twilight grew deeper1 and behind a rose-bush he saw a young girl with a languorous and mysterious smile1 although her forehead and eyes were hidden4 ,as it darkened rather suddenly1 her eyes came out1 and they were very personal and seemed to belong to some one already much beloved1 who had been found with transports of infinite joy and tenderness4 ,he woke with a start and sought to retain the phantom1 which faded4 ,he could not conceive that was a mere illusion1 and as he realized that she had vanished he felt overwhelmed with hopelessness4 ,it was the first stirring of true love with all its great melancholy and deep mystery1 with its overwhelming but sad enchantment--love which like a perfume endows with a fragrance all it touches4 ,it is1 ,i believe1 high time that ephebic literature should be recognized as a class by itself1 and have a place of its own in the history of letters and in criticism4 ,much of it should be individually prescribed for the reading of the young1 for whom it has a singular zest and is a true stimulus and corrective4 ,this stage of life now has what might almost be called a school of its own4 ,here the young appeal to and listen to each other as they do not to adults1 and in a way the latter have failed to appreciate4 ,again1 no biography1 and especially no autobiography1 should henceforth be complete if it does not describe this period of transformation so all-determining for future life to which it alone can often give the key4 ,rightly to draw the lessons of this age not only saves us from waste ineffable of this rich but crude area of experience1 but makes maturity saner and more complete4 ,lastly1 many if not most young people should be encouraged to enough of the confessional private journalism to teach them self-knowledge1 for the art of self-expression usually begins now if ever1 when it has a wealth of subjective material and needs forms of expression peculiar to itself4 ,for additional references on the subject of this chapter1 see3 ,alcafarado1 ,marianna1 ,love ,letters of a ,portuguese ,nun4 ,translated by ,r4 ,h41 ,new ,york1 #ahhg4 ,richardson1 ,abby ,sage1 ,abelard and ,hloise1 and ,letters of ,hloise1 ,houghton1 ,mifflin and ,co41 ,boston4 ,smith1 ,theodote ,l41 ,types of ,adolescent ,affection4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,june1 #aijd1 vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #agh-bjc4 ,footnote #a3 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,june #aija1 vol4 #h1 pp4 #afc-bje ,footnote #b3 ,being a ,boy4 ,footnote #c3 ,story of a ,bad ,boy4 ,footnote #d3 ,a ,boy's ,town4 ,footnote #e3 ,court of ,boyville4 ,footnote #f3 ,the ,spoilt ,child1 by ,peary ,chandmitter4 ,translated by ,g4 ,d4 ,oswell4 ,thacker1 ,spink and ,co41 ,calcutta1 #ahic4 ,footnote #g3 ,the ,golden ,age ,footnote #h3 ,frau ,spyri4 ,footnote #i3 ,the ,one ,i ,knew the ,best of ,all4 ,footnote #aj3 ,the ,study of the ,boyhood of ,great ,men4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,october1 #ahid1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #acd-aef4 ,footnote #aa3 ,the ,vanishing ,character of ,adolescent ,experiences4 ,northwestern ,monthly1 ,june1 #ahih1 vol4 #h1 p4 #fdd4 ,footnote #ab3 ,the ,count of ,boyville1 by ,william ,allen ,white4 ,new ,york1 #ahii1 p4 #ceh4 ,footnote #ac3 ,the ,study of ,adolescence4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,june1 #ahia1 vol4 #a1 pp4 #agd-aie4 ,footnote #ad3 ,lancaster3 ,the ,psychology and ,pedagogy of ,adolescence4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,july1 #ahig1 vol4 #e1 p4 #ajf4 ,footnote #ae3 ,standards of ,efficiency in ,school and in ,life4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,march1 #aijc1 vol4 #aj1 pp4 #c-bb4 ,footnote #af3 ,see also ,vittorio da ,feltre and other ,humanist ,educators1 by ,w4 ,h4 ,woodward4 ,cambridge ,university ,press1 #ahig4 ,footnote #ag3 ,see ,the ,private ,life of ,galileo2 from his ,correspondence and that of his ,eldest ,daughter4 ,anon1 ,macmillan1 ,london1 #ahgj4 ,footnote #ah3 ,see ,sir ,david ,brewster's ,life of ,newton4 ,harper1 ,new ,york1 #ahgd4 ,footnote #ai3 ,louis ,agassiz1 ,his ,life and ,work1 by ,c4 ,f4 ,holder4 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons1 ,new ,york1 #ahic4 ,footnote #bj3 ,life and ,letters of ,thomas ,h4 ,huxley1 by his son ,leonard ,huxley4 ,d4 ,appleton and ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aija4 ,footnote #ba3 ,see also ,sully3 ,a ,girl's ,religion4 ,longman's ,magazine1 ,may1 #ahij1 pp4 #hi-ii4 ,footnote #bb3 ,sheldon 7,institutional ,activities of ,american ,children2 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 ,july1 #ahih1 vol4 #i1 p4 #dcd7 describes a faintly analogous case of a girl of eleven1 who organised the worship of ,pallas ,athena on two flat rocks1 in a deep ravine by a stream where a young sycamore grew from an old stump1 as did ,pallas from the head of her father ,zeus4 ,there was a court consisting of king1 queen and subjects1 and priests who officiated at sacrifices4 ,the king and queen wore goldenrod upon their heads and waded in streams attended by their subjects2 gathered flowers for ,athena2 caught crayfish which were duly smashed upon her altar4 ,sometimes there was a special celebration1 when1 in addition to the slaughtered crayfish and beautiful flower decorations1 and pickles stolen from the dinner-table1 there would be an elaborate ceremony1 which because of its uncanny acts was intensely disliked by the people at hand4 ,footnote #bc3 ,the ,one ,i ,know ,the ,best of ,all4 ,a ,memory of the ,mind of a ,child4 ,by ,frances ,hodgson ,burnett4 ,scribner's ,sons1 ,new ,york1 #ahic ,footnote #bd3 ,the ,beth ,book1 by ,sarah ,grand4 ,d4 ,appleton and ,co41 ,new ,york1 #ahig4 ,footnote #be3 ,autobiography of a ,child4 ,hannah ,lynch1 ,w4 ,blackwood and ,sons1 ,london1 #ahii1 p4 #bee4 ,footnote #bf3 ,the ,story of ,my ,life4 ,by ,helen ,keller4 ,doubleday1 ,page and ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aijc1 p4 #ci4 ,footnote #bg3 ,journal of a ,young ,artist4 ,cassell and ,co41 ,new ,york1 #ahhi1 p4 #dcd4 ,footnote #bh3 ,the ,story of ,mary ,mac,lane4 ,by herself4 ,herbert ,s4 ,stone and ,co41 ,chicago1 #aijb1 p4 #cbb4 ,footnote #bi3 ,fate4 ,translated from the ,italian by ,a4,m4 ,von ,blomberg4 ,copeland and ,day1 ,boston1 #ahih4 ,footnote #cj3 ,confessions of an ,opium ,eater4 ,part ,i4 ,introductory ,narrative4 7,cambridge ,classics7 #ahif4 ,footnote #ca3 ,longmans1 ,green and ,co4 ,london1 #ahia1 #bnd ed4 ,footnote #cb3 ,the ,hearts of ,men4 ,macmillan1 ,london1 #ahia1 p4 #cbd4 ,footnote #cc3 ,an ,autobiography4 ,edited by ,h4,m4 ,trollope4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahhc4 ,footnote #cd3 ,see his ,memoirs4 ,london1 #ahhe4 ,footnote #ce3 ,see ,autobiography of ,mark ,rutherford 7pseudonym for ,w4,h4 ,white71 edited by ,reuben ,shapcott4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahha4 ,footnote #cf3 ,the rest of the two volumes is devoted to his further life as a dissenting minister1 who later became something of a literary man2 relating how he was slowly driven to leave his little church1 how he outgrew and broke with the girl to whom he was engaged1 whom he marvelously met and married when both were well on in years1 and how strangely he was influenced by the free-thinker ,mardon and his remarkable daughter4 ,all in all it is a rare study of emancipation4 ,footnote #cg3 ,london1 #ahif1 vol4 #a4 ,footnote #ch3 ,macmillan1 #aijb4 ,footnote #ci3 ,life of ,sir ,j4,f4 ,stephen4 ,by his brother1 ,leslie ,stephen1 ,london1 #ahie4 ,footnote #dj3 ,see the very impressive account of ,dicken's characterization of childhood and youth1 and of his great but hitherto inadequately recognized interest and influence as an educator4 ,dickens as an ,educator4 ,james ,l4 ,hughes4 ,d4 ,appleton and ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aija1 p4 #cai4 ,footnote #da3 ,john ,inglesant3 ,a ,romance4 #fth ed4 ,macmillan1 #ahhf4 ,footnote #db3 ,the ,autobiography of a ,journalist4 #b vols4 ,houghton1 ,mifflin and ,co41 ,boston1 #aija4 ,footnote #dc3 ,a4 ,bronson ,alcott1 ,his ,life and ,philosophy4 ,by ,f4 ,b4 ,sanborn and ,w4 ,t4 ,harris4 ,roberts ,bros41 ,boston1 #ahic4 ,footnote #dd3 ,horace ,bushnell1 ,preacher and ,theologian4 ,by ,theodore ,f4 ,munger4 ,houghton1 ,mifflin and ,co41 ,boston1 #ahii4 ,footnote #de3 ,by ,c4,w4 ,chesnutt4 7,beacon ,biographies47 ,small1 ,maynard and ,co41 ,boston1 #ahii4 ,footnote #df3 ,the ,making of an ,american4 ,macmillan1 #aija4 ,footnote #dg3 ,sonny4 ,by ,ruth ,mc,enery ,stuart4 ,the ,century ,co41 ,new ,york1 #ahif4 ,footnote #dh3 ,the ,story of ,my ,life4 ,works1 vol4 #h new edition4 ,houghton1 ,mifflin and ,co41 ,boston1 #ahid4 ,footnote #di3 ,the ,story of ,my ,life4 ,translated by ,m4 ,j4 ,safford4 ,d4 ,appleton and ,co41 ,new ,york #ahic4 ,footnote #ej3 ,gesammelte ,werke4 ,vierter ,band4 ,wilhelm ,hertz1 ,berlin1 #ahig4 ,footnote #ea3 ,my ,autobiography1 p4 #ajf4 ,chas4 ,scribner's ,sons1 ,new ,york1 #aija4 ,footnote #eb3 ,wagner and ,his ,works4 ,by ,henry ,t4 ,finck4 ,chas4 ,scribner's ,sons1 ,new ,york1 #ahic4 ,footnote #ec3 ,les ,confessions4 ,oeuvres ,compltes1 vols4 #h and #i4 ,hachette et ,cie41 ,paris1 #aijc4 ,footnote #ed3 ,translated from the ,french by ,c4,f4 ,smith4 ,c4,c4 ,birchard and ,co41 ,boston1 #aija4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,social ,,ideals ,change from childish to adult friends--,influence of favorite teachers--,what children wish or plan to do or be--,property and the money sense--,social judgments--,the only child--,first social organizations--,student life--,associations for youth1 controlled by adults4 ,in a few aspects we are already able to trace the normal psychic outgrowing of the home of childhood as its interests irradiate into an ever enlarging environment4 ,almost the only duty of small children is habitual and prompt obedience4 ,our very presence enforces one general law--that of keeping our good-will and avoiding our displeasure4 ,they respect all we smile at or even notice1 and grow to it like the plant toward the light4 ,their early lies are often saying what they think will please4 ,at bottom1 the most restless child admires and loves those who save him from too great fluctuations by coercion1 provided the means be rightly chosen and the ascendency extend over heart and mind4 ,but the time comes when parents are often shocked at the lack of respect suddenly shown by the child4 ,they have ceased to be the highest ideals4 ,the period of habituating morality and making it habitual is ceasing2 and the passion to realize freedom1 to act on personal experience1 and to keep a private conscience is in order4 ,to act occasionally with independence from the highest possible ideal motives develops the impulse and the joy of pure obligation1 and thus brings some new and original force into the world and makes habitual guidance by the highest and best1 or by inner as opposed to outer constraint1 the practical rule of life4 ,to bring the richest streams of thought to bear in interpreting the ethical instincts1 so that the youth shall cease to live in a moral interregnum1 is the real goal of self-knowledge4 ,this is true education of the will and prepares the way for love of overcoming obstacles of difficulty1 perhaps even of conflict4 ,this impulse is often the secret of obstinacy4#a ,and yet1 at no time in life will a human being respond ,so heartily if treated by older and wiser people as if he were an equal or even a superior4 ,the attempt to treat a child at adolescence as you would treat an inferior is instantly fatal to good discipline4#b ,parents still think of their offspring as mere children1 and tighten the rein when they should loosen it4 ,many young people feel that they have the best of homes and yet that they will go crazy if they must remain in them4 ,if the training of earlier years has been good1 guidance by command may now safely give way to that by ideals1 which are sure to be heroic4 ,the one unpardonable thing for the adolescent is dullness1 stupidity1 lack of life1 interest1 and enthusiasm in school or teachers1 and1 perhaps above all1 too great stringency4 ,least of all1 at this stage1 can the curriculum school be an ossuary4 ,the child must now be taken into the family councils and find the parents interested in all that interests him4 ,where this is not done1 we have the conditions for the interesting cases of so many youth1 who now begin to suspect that father1 mother1 or both1 are not their true parents4 ,not only is there interest in rapidly widening associations with coevals1 but a new lust to push on and up to maturity4 ,one marked trait now is to seek friends and companions older than themselves1 or next to this1 to seek those younger4 ,this is marked contrast with previous years1 when they seek associates of their own age4 ,possibly the merciless teasing instinct1 which culminates at about the same time1 may have some influence1 but certain it is that now interest is transpolarized up and down the age scale4 ,one reason is the new hunger for information1 not only concerning reproduction1 but a vast variety of other matters1 so that there is often an attitude of silent begging for knowledge4 ,in answer to ,lancaster's#c questions on this subject1 some sought older associates because they could learn more from them1 found them better or more steadfast friends1 craved sympathy and found most of it from older and perhaps married people4 ,some were more interested in their parents' conversation with other adults than with themselves1 and were particularly entertained by the chance of hearing things they had no business to4 ,there is often a feeling that adults do not realize this new need of friendship with them and show want of sympathy almost brutal4 ,stableton1#d who has made interesting notes on individual boys entering the adolescent period1 emphasizes the importance of sympathy1 appreciation1 and respect in dealing with this age4 ,they must now be talked to as equals1 and in this way their habits of industry and even their dangerous love affairs run be controlled4 ,he says1 ,there is no more important question before the teaching fraternity today than how to deal justly and successfully with boys at this time of life4 ,this is the age when they drop out of school in far too large numbers1 and he thinks that the small percentage of male graduates from our high schools is due to the inability of the average grammar grade or high-school teacher to deal rightly with boys in this critical period of their school life4 ,most teachers know all their bad points1 but fail to discover their good ones4 ,the fine disciplinarian1 the mechanical movement of whose school is so admirable and who does not realize the new need of liberty or how loose-jointed1 mentally and physically1 all are at this age1 should be supplanted by one who can look into the heart and by a glance make the boy feel that he or she is his friend4 ,the weakest work in our schools is the handling of boys entering the adolescent period of life1 and there is no greater blessing that can come to a boy at this age1 when he does not understand himself1 than a good strong teacher that understands him1 has faith in him1 and will day by day lead him till he can walk alone4 ,small#e found the teacher a focus of imitation whence many influences1 both physical and mental1 irradiated to the pupils4 ,every accent1 gesture1 automatism1 like and dislike is caught consciously and unconsciously4 ,every intellectual interest in the teacher permeates the class--liars1 if trusted1 became honest2 those treated as ladies and gentlemen act so2 those told by favorite teachers of the good things they are capable of feel a strong impulsion to do them2 some older children are almost transformed by being made companions to teachers1 by having their good traits recognized1 and by frank apologies by the teacher when in error4 ,an interesting and unsuspected illustration of the growth of independence with adolescence was found in #b1daa papers from the second to eighth grades on the characteristics of the best teacher as seen by children4#f ,in the second and third grades1 all1 and in the fourth1 ninety-five per cent specified help in studies4 ,this falls off rapidly in the sixth1 seventh1 and eighth grades to thirty-nine per cent1 while at the same time the quality of patience in the upper grades rises from a mention by two to twenty-two per cent4 ,sanford ,bell#g collated the answers of #edc males and #dhh females as to who of all their past teachers did them most good1 and wherein2 whom they loved and disliked most1 and why4 ,his most striking result is presented in which shows that fourteen in girls and sixteen in boys is the age in which most good was felt to have been done1 and that curves culminating at twelve for both sexes but not falling rapidly until fifteen or sixteen represent the period when the strongest and most indelible dislikes were felt4 ,what seems to be most appreciated in teachers is the giving of purpose1 arousing of ideals1 kindling of ambition to be something or do something and so giving an object in life1 encouragement to overcome circumstances1 and1 in general1 inspiring self-confidence and giving direction4 ,next came personal sympathy and interest1 kindness1 confidence1 a little praise1 being understood2 and next1 special help in lessons1 or timely and kindly advice1 while stability and poise of character1 purity1 the absence of hypocrisy1 independence1 personal beauty1 athleticism and vigor are prominent4 ,it is singular that those of each sex have been most helped by their own sex and that this prominence is far greatest in men4 ,four-fifths of the men and nearly one-half of the women1 however1 got most help from men4 ,male teachers1 especially near adolescence1 seem most helpful for both sexes4 ,the qualities that inspire most dislike are malevolence1 sarcasm1 unjust punishment1 suspicion1 severity1 sternness1 absence of laughing and smiling1 indifference1 threats and broken vows1 excessive scolding and roasting1 and fondness for inflicting blows4 ,the teacher who does not smile is far more liable to excite animosity4 ,most boys dislike men most1 and girls' dislikes are about divided4 ,the stories of school cruelties and indignities are painful4 ,often inveterate grudges are established by little causes1 and it is singular how permanent and indelible strong dislike1 are for the majority of children4 ,in many cases1 aversions engendered before ten have lasted with little diminution till maturity1 and there is a sad record of children who have lost a term1 a year1 or dropped school altogether because of ill treatment or partiality4 ,nearly two thousand children were asked what they would do in a specific case of conflict between teacher and parents4 ,it was found that1 while for young children parental authority was preferred1 a marked decline began about eleven and was most rapid after fourteen in girls and fifteen in boys1 and that there was a nearly corresponding increase in the number of pubescents who preferred the teacher's authority4 ,the reasons for their choice were also analyzed1 and it was found that whereas for the young1 unconditioned authority was generally satisfactory1 with pubesecents1 abstract authority came into marked predominance1 until when the children have reached the age of sixteen almost seventy-five per cent of their reasons belong to this class1 and the children show themselves able to extend the idea of authority without violence to their sense of justice4 ,on a basis of #a1djj papers answering the question whom1 of anyone ever heard or read of1 they would like to resemble1 ,barnes#h found that girls' ideals were far more often found in the immediate circle of their acquaintance than boys1 and that those within that circle were more often in their own family1 but that the tendency to go outside their personal knowledge and choose historical and public characters was greatly augmented at puberty1 when also the heroes of philanthropy showed marked gain in prominence4 ,boys rarely chose women as their ideals2 but in ,america1 half the girls at eight and two-thirds at eighteen chose male characters4 ,the range of important women ideals among the girls was surprisingly small4 ,barnes fears that if from the choice of relative as ideals1 the expansion to remote or world heroes is too fast1 it may lead to disintegration of character and reckless living4 ,if1 on the other hand1 it is expanded too slowly we shall have that arrested development which makes good ground in which to grow stupidity1 brutality1 and drunkenness--the first fruits of a sluggish and self-contained mind4 ,no one can consider the regularity with which local ideals die out and are replaced by world ideals without feeling that he is in the presence of law-abiding forces1 and this emphasizes the fact that the teacher or parent does not work in a world governed by caprice4 ,the compositions written by thousands of children in ,new ,york on what they wanted to do when they were grown up were collated by ,dr4 ,thurber4#i ,the replies were serious1 and showed that poor children looked forward willingly to severe labor and the increased earnestness of adolescent years1 and the better answers to the question why were noteworthy4 ,all anticipated giving up the elastic joyousness of childhood and felt the need of patience4 ,up to ten1 there was an increase in the number of those who had two or more desires4 ,this number declined rapidly at eleven1 rose as rapidly at twelve1 and slowly fell later4 ,preferences for a teacher's life exceeded in girls up to nine1 fell rapidly at eleven1 increased slightly the next year1 and declined thereafter4 ,the ideal of becoming a dressmaker and milliner increased till ten1 fell at eleven1 rose rapidly to a maximum at thirteen1 when it eclipsed teaching1 and then fell permanently again4 ,the professions of clerk and stenographer showed a marked rise from eleven and a half4 ,the number of boys who chose the father's occupation attained its maximum at nine and its minimum at twelve1 with a slight rise to fourteen1 when the survey ended4 ,the ideal of tradesman culminated at eight1 with a second rise at thirteen4 ,the reason to earn money reached its high maximum of fifty per cent at twelve1 and fell very rapidly4 ,the reason because ,i like it culminated at ten and fell steadily thereafter4 ,the motive that influenced the choice of a profession and which was altruistic toward parents or for their benefit culminated at twelve and a half1 and then declined4 ,the desire for character increased somewhat throughout1 but rapidly after twelve1 and the impulse to do good to the world1 which had risen slowly from nine1 mounted sharply after thirteen4 ,thus1 at eleven all the ideas and tendencies are increasing toward a maximum4 ,at twelve we find the altruistic desires for the welfare of parents1 the reason 'to earn money'2 at thirteen the desire on the part of the girls to be dressmakers1 also to be clerks and stenographers4 ,at fourteen culminates the desire for a business career in bank or office among the boys1 the consciousness of life's uncertainties which appeared first at twelve1 the desire for character1 and the hope of doing the world good4 ,what would you like to be in an imaginary new city8 was a question answered by #a1bcd written papers4#aj ,one hundred and fourteen different occupations were given2 that of teacher led with the girls at every age except thirteen and fourteen1 when dressmaker and milliner took precedence4 ,the motive of making money led among the boys at every age except fourteen and sixteen1 when occupations chosen because they were liked led4 ,the greatest number of those who chose the parent's occupation was found at thirteen1 but from that age it steadily declined and independent choice came into prominence4 ,the maximum of girls who chose parental vocations was at fourteen4 ,motives of philanthropy reached nearly their highest point in girls and boys at thirteen4 ,jegi#aa obtained letters addressed to real or imaginary friends from #c1jjj ,german children in ,milwaukee1 asking what they desired to do when they grew up1 and why1 and tabulated returns from #bjj boys and #bjj girls for each age from eight to fourteen inclusive4 ,he also found a steadily decreasing influence of relatives to thirteen2 in early adolescence1 the personal motive of choosing an occupation because it was liked increased1 while from twelve in boys and thirteen in girls the consideration of finding easy vocations grew rapidly strong4 ,l4 ,w4 ,cline#ab studied by the census method returns from #b1eid children1 who were asked what they wished to be and do4 ,he found that in naming both ideals and occupations girls were more conservative than boys1 but more likely to give a reason for their choice4 ,in this respect country children resembled boys more than city children4 ,country boys were prone to inattention1 were more independent and able to care for themselves1 suggesting that the home life of the country child is more effective in shaping ideals and character than that of the city child4 ,industrial occupations are preferred by the younger children1 the professional and technical pursuits increasing with age4 ,judgments of rights and justice with the young are more prone to issue from emotional rather than from intellectual processes4 ,country children seem more altruistic than those in the city1 and while girls are more sympathetic than boys1 they are also more easily prejudiced4 ,many of these returns bear unmistakable marks that in some homes and schools moralization has been excessive and has produced a sentimental type of morality and often a feverish desire to express ethical views instead of trusting to suggestion4 ,children are very prone to have one code of ideals for themselves and another for others4 ,boys1 too1 are more original than girls1 and country children more than city children4 ,friedrich#ac asked ,german school children what person they chose as their pattern4 ,the result showed differences of age1 sex1 and creed4 ,first of all came characters in history1 which seemed to show that this study for children of the sixth and seventh grades was essentially ethical or a training of mood and disposition 7,gesinnungsunterricht71 and this writer suggests reform in this respect4 ,he seems to think that the chief purpose of history for this age should be ethical4 ,next came the influence of the ,bible1 although it was plain that this was rather in spite of the catechism and the method of memoriter work4 ,here1 too1 the immediate environment at this age furnished few ideals 7four and one-fifth per cent71 for children seem to have keener eyes for the faults than for the virtues of those near them4 ,religion1 therefore1 should chiefly be directed to the emotions and not to the understanding4 ,this census also suggested more care that the reading of children should contain good examples in their environment1 and also that the matter of instruction should be more fully adapted to the conditions of sex4 ,friedrich found as his chief age result that children of the seventh or older class in the ,german schools laid distinctly greater stress upon characters distinguished by bravery and courage than did the children of the sixth grade1 while the latter more frequently selected characters illustrating piety and holiness4 ,the author divided his characters into thirty-five classes1 illustrating qualities1 and found that national activity led1 with piety a close second2 that then came in order those illustrating firmness of faith1 bravery1 modesty1 and chastity2 then pity and sympathy1 industry1 goodness1 patience1 etc4 ,taylor1 ,young1 ,hamilton1 ,chambers1 and others1 have also collected interesting data on what children and young people hope to be1 do1 whom they would like to be1 or resemble1 etc4 ,only a few at adolescence feel themselves so good or happy that they are content to be themselves4 ,most show more or less discontent at their lot4 ,from six to eleven or twelve1 the number who find their ideals among their acquaintances falls off rapidly1 and historical characters rise to a maximum at or before the earliest teens4 ,from eleven or twelve on into the middle teens contemporary ideals increase steadily4 ,london children are more backward in this expansion of ideals than ,americans1 while girls choose more acquaintance ideals at all ages than do boys4 ,the expansion1 these authors also trace largely to the study of history4 ,the ,george ,washington ideal1 which leads all the rest by far and is greatly overworked1 in contrast with the many heroes of equal rank found in ,england1 pales soon1 as imperfections are seen and those now making history loom up4 ,this is the normal age to free from bondage to the immediate present1 and this freedom is one measure of education4 ,bible heroes are chosen as ideals by only a very small percentage1 mostly girls1 far more characters being from fiction and mythology2 where ,jesus is chosen1 ,his human is preferred to ,his divine side4 ,again1 it would seem that teachers would be ideals1 especially as many girls intend to teach1 but they are generally unpopular as choices4 ,in an ideal system they would be the first step in expansion from home ideals4 ,military heroes and inventors play leading rles in the choices of pubescent boys4 ,girls at all school ages and increasingly up the grades prefer foreign ideals1 to be the wife of a man of title1 as aristocracies offer special opportunities for woman to shine1 and life near the source of fashion is very attractive1 at least up to sixteen4 ,the saddest fact in these studies is that nearly half our ,american pubescent girls1 or nearly three times as many as in ,england1 choose male ideals1 or would be men4 ,girls1 too1 have from six to fifteen times as many ideals as boys4 ,in this significant fact we realize how modern woman has cut loose from all old moorings and is drifting with no destination and no anchor aboard4 ,while her sex has multiplied in all lower and high school grades1 its ideals are still too masculine4 ,text-books teach little about women4 ,when a woman's ,bible1 history1 course of study1 etc41 is proposed1 her sex fears it may reduce her to the old servitude4 ,while boys rarely1 and then only when very young1 choose female ideals1 girls' preference for the life of the other sex sometimes reaches sixty and seventy per cent4 ,the divorce between the life preferred and that demanded by the interests of the race is often absolute4 ,saddest and most unnatural of all is the fact that this state of things increases most rapidly during just those years when ideals of womanhood should be developed and become most dominant1 till it seems as if the female character was threatened with disintegration4 ,while statistics are not yet sufficient to be reliable on the subject1 there is some indication that woman later slowly reverts toward ideals not only from her own sex but also from the circle of her own acquaintances4 ,the reasons for the choice of ideals are various and not yet well determined4 ,civic virtues certainly rise2 material and utilitarian considerations do not seem to much1 if at all1 at adolescence1 and in some data decline4 ,position1 fame1 honor1 and general greatness increase rapidly1 but moral qualities rise highest and also fastest just before and near puberty and continue to increase later yet4 ,by these choices both sexes1 but girls far most1 show increasing admiration of ethical and social qualities4 ,artistic and intellectual traits also rise quite steadily from ten or eleven onward1 but with no such rapidity1 and reach no such height as military ability and achievement for boys4 ,striking in these studies is the rapid increase1 especially from eight to fourteen1 of the sense of historic time for historic persons4 ,these long since dead are no longer spoken of as now living4 ,most of these choices are direct expressions of real differences of taste and character4 ,property1 ,kline and ,france#ad have defined as anything that the individual may acquire which sustains and prolongs life1 favors survival1 and gives an advantage over opposing forces4 ,many animals and even insects store up food both for themselves and for their young4 ,very early in life children evince signs of ownership4 ,letourneau#ae says that the notion of private property1 which seems to us so natural1 dawned late and slowly1 and that common ownership was the rule among primitive people4 ,value is sometimes measured by use and sometimes by the work required to produce it4 ,before puberty1 there is great eagerness to possess things that are of immediate service2 but after its dawn1 the desire of possession takes another form1 and money for its own sake1 which is at first rather an abstraction1 comes to be respected or regarded as an object of extreme desire1 because it is seen to be the embodiment of all values4 ,the money sense1 as it is now often called1 is very complex and has not yet been satisfactorily analyzed by psychology4 ,ribot and others trace its origin to provision which they think animals that hoard food feel4 ,monroe#af has tabulated returns from #igg boys and #a1jij girls from six to sixteen in answer to the question as to what they would do with a small monthly allowance4 ,the following table shows the marked increase at the dawn of adolescence of the number who would save it3 ,age4 ,boys4 ,girls4 ,age4 ,boys4 ,girls4 #g4444dc per cent #cf per cent #ab4444hb per cent #fd per cent #h4444de #cd #ac4444hh #gh #i4444dh #ce #ad4444he #hj #aj4444eh #ej #ae4444hc #gh #aa4444ga #eh #af4444he #hb ,this tendency to thrift is strongest in boys1 and both sexes often show the tendency to moralize1 that is so strong in the early teens4 ,much of our school work in arithmetic is dominated by the money sense2 and school savings-banks1 at first for the poor1 are now extending to children of all classes4 ,this sense tends to prevent pauperism1 prodigality1 is an immense stimulus to the imagination and develops purpose to pursue a distant object for a long time4 ,to see all things and values in terms of money has1 of course1 its pedagogic and ethical limitations2 but there is a stage when it is a great educational advance1 and it1 too1 is full of phylogenetic suggestions4 ,social judgement1 cronies1 solitude--,the two following observations afford a glimpse of the development of moral judgments4 ,from #a1jjj boys and #a1jjj girls of each age from six to sixteen who answered the question as to what should be done to a girl with a new box of paints who beautified the parlor chairs with them with a wish to please her mother1 the following conclusion was drawn4#ag ,most of the younger children would whip the girl1 but from fourteen on the number declines very rapidly4 ,few of the young children suggest explaining why it was wrong2 while at twelve1 #aha1 and at sixteen1 #gea would explain4 ,the motive of the younger children in punishment is revenge2 with the older ones that of preventing a repetition of the act comes in2 and higher and later comes the purpose of reform4 ,with age comes also a marked distinction between the act and its motive and a sense of the girl's ignorance4 ,only the older children would suggest extracting a promise not to offend again4 ,thus with puberty comes a change of view-point from judging actions by results to judging by motives1 and only the older ones see that wrong can be done if there are no bad consequences4 ,there is also with increased years a great development of the quality of mercy4 ,one hundred children of each sex and age between six and sixteen asked what they would do with a burglar1 the question stating that the penalty was five years in prison4#ah ,of the younger children nearly nine-tenths ignored the law and fixed upon some other penalty1 but from twelve years there is a steady advance in those who would inflict the legal penalty1 while at sixteen1 seventy-four per cent would have the criminal punished according to law4 ,thus with the dawn of adolescence at the age of twelve or shortly after comes the recognition of a larger life1 a life to be lived in common with others1 and with this recognition the desire to sustain the social code made for the common welfare1 and punishment is no longer regarded as an individual and arbitrary matter4 ,from another question answered by #a1iad children#ai it was found that with the development of the psychic faculties in youth1 there was an increasing appreciation of punishment as preventive2 an increasing sense of the value of individuality and of the tendency to demand protection of personal rights2 a change from a sense of justice based on feeling and on faith in authority to that based on reason and understanding4 ,children's attitude toward punishment for weak time sense1 tested by #b1ecf children from six to sixteen1#bj showed also a marked pubescent increase in the sense of the need of the remedial function of punishment as distinct from the view of it as vindictive1 or getting even1 common in earlier years4 ,there is also a marked increase in discriminating the kinds and degrees of offenses2 in taking account of mitigating circumstances1 the inconvenience caused others1 the involuntary nature of the offense and the purpose of the culprit4 ,all this continues to increase up to sixteen1 where these studies leave the child4 ,an interesting effect of the social instinct appears in ,august ,mayer's#ba elaborate study made up on fourteen boys in the fifth and sixth grade of a ,wrzburg school to determine whether they could work better together or alone4 ,the tests were in dictation1 mental and written arithmetic1 memory1 and ,ebbinghaus's combination exercises and all were given with every practicable precaution to make the other conditions uniform4 ,the conclusions demonstrate the advantages of collective over individual instruction4 ,under the former condition1 emulation is stronger and work more rapid and better in quality4 ,from this it is inferred that pupils should not be grouped according to ability1 for the dull are most stimulated by the presence of the bright1 the bad by the good1 etc4 ,thus work at home is prone to deteriorate1 and experimental pedagogy shows that the social impulse is on the whole a stronger spur for boys of eleven or twelve than the absence of distraction which solitude brings4 ,from the answers of #a1jfh boys and #a1bfh girls from seven to sixteen on the kind of chum they liked best1#bb it appears that with the teens children are more anxious for chums that can keep secrets and dress neatly1 and there is an increased number who are liked for qualities that supplement rather than duplicate those of the chooser4 ,there is an apparent struggle between the real actual self and the ideal self2 a pretty strong desire to have a chum that embodies the traits youth most desire but which they are conscious of lacking4 ,the strong like the weak2 those full of fun the serious2 the timid the bold2 the small the large1 etc4 ,only children#bc illustrate differing effects of isolation1 while mashes and crushes and ultra-crony-ism with selfishness for two show the results of abnormal restriction of the irradiation of the social instinct which should now occur4#bd ,m4 ,h4 ,small1#be after pointing out that communal animals are more intelligent than those with solitary habits1 and that even to name all the irradiations of the social instinct would be write a history of the human race1 studied nearly five hundred cases of eminent men who developed proclivities to solitude4 ,it is interesting to observe in how many of these cases this was developed in adolescence when1 with the horror of mediocrity1 comes introspection1 apathy1 irresolution1 and subjectivism4 ,the grounds of repulsion from society at this age may be disappointed hunger for praise1 wounded vanity1 the reaction from over-assertion1 or the nursing of some high ideals1 as it is slowly realized that in society the individual cannot be absolute4 ,the motives to self-isolation may be because youth feels its lack of physical or moral force to compete with men1 or they may be due to the failure of others to concede to the exactions of inordinate egotism and are directly proportional to the impulse to magnify self1 or to the remoteness of common social interests from immediate personal desire or need1 and inversely as the number and range of interests seen to be common and the clearness with which social relations are realized4 ,while maturity of character needs some solitude1 too much dwarfs it1 and more or less of the same paralysis of association follows which is described in the nostalgia of arctic journeys1 deserts1 being lost in the jungle1 solitary confinement1 and in the interesting stories of feral men4#bf ,in some of these cases the mind is saved from entire stultification by pets1 imaginary companions1 tasks1 etc4 ,normally the tendency to solitude at adolescence indicates not fulness but want2 and a judicious balance between rest and work1 pursuit of favorite lines1 genuine sympathy1 and wise companionship will generally normalize the social relation4 ,first forms of spontaneous social organizations4-- ,gulick has studied the propensity of boys from thirteen on to consort in gangs1 do dawsies and stumps1 get into scrapes together1 and fight and suffer for one another4 ,the manners and customs of the gang are to build shanties or hunkies1 hunt with sling shots1 build fires before huts in the woods1 cook their squirrels and other game1 play ,indian1 build tree-platforms1 where they smoke or troop about some leader1 who may have an old revolver4 ,they find or excavate caves1 or perhaps roof them over2 the barn is a blockhouse or a battleship4 ,in the early teens boys begin to use frozen snowballs or put pebbles in them1 or perhaps have stone-fights between gangs than which no contiguous ,african tribes could be more hostile4 ,they become toughs and tantalize policemen and peddlers2 lick every enemy or even stranger found alone on their grounds2 often smash windows2 begin to use sticks and brass knuckles in their fights2 pelt each other with green apples2 carry shillalahs1 or perhaps air-rifles4 ,the more plucky arrange fights beforehand2 rifle unoccupied houses2 set ambushes for gangs with which they are at feud2 perhaps have secrets and initiations where new boys are triced up by the legs and butted against trees and rocks4 ,when painted for their ,indian fights1 they may grow so excited as to perhaps rush into the water or into the school-room yelling2 mimic the violence of strikes2 kindle dangerous bonfires2 pelt policemen1 and shout vile nicknames4 ,the spontaneous tendency to develop social and political organizations among boys in pubescent years was well seen in a school near ,baltimore in the midst of an eight-hundred-acre farm richly diversified with swamp and forest and abounding with birds1 squirrels1 rabbits1 etc4 ,soon after the opening of this school#bg the boys gathered nuts in parties4 ,when a tree was reached which others had shaken1 an unwritten law soon required those who wished to shake it further first to pile up all nuts under the tree1 while those who failed to do so were universally regarded as dishonest and every boy's hand was against them4 ,to pile them involved much labor1 so that the second party usually sought fresh trees1 and partial shaking practically gave possession of all the fruits on a tree4 ,they took birds' eggs freely1 and whenever a bird was found in building1 or a squirrel's hole was discovered1 the finder tacked his name on the tree and thereby confirmed his ownership1 as he did if he placed a box in which a nest was built4 ,the ticket must not blow off1 and the right at first lasted only one season4 ,in the rabbit-land every trap that was set prempted ground for a fixed number of yards about it4 ,some grasping boys soon made many traps and set them all over a valuable district1 so that the common land fell into a few hands4 ,traps were left out all winter and simply set the next spring4 ,all these rights finally came into the ownership of two or three boys1 who slowly acquired the right and bequeathed their claims to others for a consideration1 when they left school4 ,the monopolists often had a large surplus of rabbits which they bartered for butters1 the unit being the ounce of daily allowance4 ,these could be represented by tickets transferred1 so that debts were paid with butters that had never been seen4 ,an agrarian party arose and demanded a redistribution of land from the monopolists1 as ,sir ,henry ,maine shows often happened in the old village community4 ,legislation and judicial procedure were developed and quarrels settled by arbitration1 ordeal1 and wager1 and punishment by bumping often followed the decision of the boy folk-mote4 ,scales of prices for commodities in butters or in pie-currency were evolved1 so that we here have an almost entirely spontaneous but amazingly rapid recapitulation of the social development of the race by these boys4 ,from a study of #a1aff children's organizations described as a language lesson in school composition1 ,mr4 ,sheldon#bh arrives at some interesting results4 ,american children tend strongly to institutional activities1 only about thirty per cent of all not having belonged to some such organization4 ,imitation plays a very important rle1 and girls take far more kindly than boys to societies organized by adults for their benefit4 ,they are also more governed by adult and altruistic motives in forming their organizations1 while boys are nearer to primitive man4 ,before ten comes the period of free spontaneous imitation of every form of adult institution4 ,the child reproduces sympathetically miniature copies of the life around him4 ,on a farm1 his play is raking1 threshing1 building barns1 or on the seashore he makes ships and harbors4 ,in general1 he plays family1 store1 church1 and chooses officers simply because adults do4 ,the feeling of caste1 almost absent in the young1 culminates about ten and declines thereafter4 ,from ten to fourteen1 however1 associations assume a new character2 boys especially cease to imitate adult organizations and tend to form social units characteristic of lower stages of human evolution--pirates1 robbers1 soldiers1 lodges1 and other savage reversionary combinations1 where the strongest and boldest is the leader4 ,they build huts1 wear feathers and tomahawks as badges1 carry knives and toy-pistols1 make raids and sell the loot4 ,cowards alone1 together they fear nothing4 ,their imagination is perhaps inflamed by flash literature and penny-dreadfuls4 ,such associations often break out in decadent country communities where1 with fewer and feebler offspring1 lax notions of family discipline prevail and hoodlumism is the direct result of the passing of the rod4 ,these barbaric societies have their place and give vigor2 but if unreduced later1 as in many unsettled portions of this country1 a semisavage state of society results4 ,at twelve the predatory function is normally subordinated1 and if it is not it becomes dangerous1 because the members are no longer satisfied with mere play1 but are stronger and abler to do harm1 and the spice of danger and its fascination may issue in crime4 ,athleticism is now the form into which these wilder instincts can be best transmuted1 and where they find harmless and even wholesome vent4 ,another change early in adolescence is the increased number of social1 literary1 and even philanthropic organizations and institutions for mutual help--perhaps against vice1 for having a good time1 or for holding picnics and parties4 ,altruism now begins to make itself felt as a motive4 ,student life and organizations4 ,student life is perhaps the best of all fields1 unworked though it is1 for studying the natural history of adolescence4 ,its modern record is over eight hundred years old and it is marked with the signatures of every age1 yet has essential features that do not vary4 ,cloister and garrison rules have never been enforced even in the hospice1 bursa1 inn1 house1 hall1 or dormitory1 and in loco parentis ,in place of a parent practises are impossible1 especially with large numbers4 ,the very word school means leisure1 and in a world of toil and moil suggests paradise4 ,some have urged that lite youth1 exempt from the struggle to live and left to the freedom of their own inclinations1 might serve as a biological and ethnic compass to point out the goal of human destiny4 ,but the spontaneous expressions of this best age and condition of life1 with no other occupation than their own development1 have shown reversions as often as progress4 ,the rupture of home ties stimulates every wider vicarious expression of the social instinct4 ,each taste and trait can find congenial companionship in others and thus be stimulated to more intensity and self-consciousness4 ,very much that has been hitherto repressed in the adolescent soul is now renforced by association and may become excessive and even aggressive4 ,while many of the race-correlates of childhood are lost1 those of this stage are more accessible in savage and sub-savage life4 ,freedom is the native air and vital breath of student life4 ,the sense of personal liberty is absolutely indispensable for moral maturity2 and just as truth can not be found without the possibility of error1 so the posse non peccare ,ability not to sin precedes the non posse peccare1 ,inability to sin and professors must make abroad application of the rule abusus non tollit usum ,abuse does not do away with use4 ,the student must have much freedom to be lazy1 make his own minor morals1 vent his disrespect for what he can see no use in1 be among strangers to act himself out and form a personality of his own1 be baptized with the revolutionary and skeptical spirit1 and go to extremes at the age when excesses teach wisdom with amazing rapidity1 if he is to become a true knight of the spirit and his own master4 ,ziegler#bi frankly told ,german students that about one-tenth of them would be morally lost in this process1 but insisted that on the whole more good was done than by restraint2 for1 he said1 youth is now in the stage of ,schiller's bell when it was molten metal4 ,of all safeguards ,i believe a rightly cultivated sense of honor is the most effective at this age4 ,sadly as the written code of student honor in all lands needs revision1 and partial1 freaky1 and utterly perverted1 tainted and cowardly as it often is1 it really means what ,kant expressed in the sublime precept1 ,thou canst because thou oughtest4 ,fichte said that ,faulheit1 ,feigheit1 and ,falschheit ,laziness1 cowardice1 falsehood were the three dishonorable things for students4 ,if they would study the history and enter into the spirit of their own fraternities1 they would often have keener and broader ideas of honor to which they are happily so sensitive4 ,if professors made it always a point of honor to confess and never to conceal the limitation of their knowledge1 would scorn all pretense of it1 place credit for originality frankly where it belongs1 teach no creeds they do not profoundly believe1 or topics in which they are not interested1 and withhold nothing from those who want the truth1 they could from this vantage with more effect bring students to feel that the laziness that1 while outwardly conforming1 does no real inner work2 that getting a diploma1 as a professor lately said1 an average student could do1 on one hour's study a day2 living beyond one's means1 and thus imposing a hardship on parents greater than the talent of the son justifies2 accepting stipends not needed1 especially to the deprivation of those more needy2 using dishonest ways of securing rank in studies or positions on teams1 or social standing1 are1 one and all1 not only ungentlemanly but cowardly and mean1 and the axe would be laid at the root of the tree4 ,honor should impel students to go nowhere where they conceal their college1 their fraternity1 or even their name2 to keep themselves immaculate from all contact with that class of women which1 ,ziegler states1 brought twenty-five per cent of the students of the ,university of ,berlin in a single year to physicians2 to remember that other's sisters are as cherished as their own2 to avoid those sins against confiding innocence which cry for vengeance1 as did ,valentine against ,faust1 and which strengthen the hate of social classes and make mothers and sisters seem tedious because low ideas of womanhood have been implanted1 and which give a taste for mucky authors that reek with suggestiveness2 and to avoid the waste of nerve substance and nerve weakness in ways which ,ibsen and ,tolstoi have described4 ,these things are the darkest blot on the honor of youth4 ,associations for youth1 devised or guided by adults4 ,here we enter a very different realm4 ,forbush#cj undertakes an analysis of many such clubs which he divides according to their purpose into nine chief classes3 physical training1 handicraft1 literary1 social1 civic and patriotic1 science-study1 hero-love1 ethical1 religious4 ,these he classifies as to age of the boys1 his purview generally ending at seventeen2 discusses and tabulates the most favorable number1 the instincts chiefly utilized1 the kinds of education gained in each and its percentage of interest1 and the qualities developed4 ,he commends ,riis's mode of pulling the safety-valve of a rather dangerous boy-gang by becoming an adult honorary member1 and interpreting the impulsions of this age in the direction of adventure instead of in that of mischief4 ,he reminds us that nearly one-third of the inhabitants of ,america are adolescents1 that #c1jjj1jjj are boys between twelve and sixteen1 that the do-called heathen people are1 whatever their age1 all in the adolescent stage of life4 ,a few ,american societies of this class we may briefly characterize as follows3 7a7 ,typical of a large class of local juvenile clubs is the ,captains of ,ten1 originally for boys of from eight to fourteen1 and with a later graduate squad of those over fifteen4 ,the ,ten are the fingers2 and whittling1 scrap-book making1 mat-weaving1 etc41 are taught4 ,the motto is1 ,the hand of the diligent shall bear rule2 its watchword is ,loyalty2 and the prime objects are to promote a spirit of loyalty to ,christ among the boys of the club1 and to learn about and work for ,christ's kingdom4 ,the members wear a silver badge2 have an annual photograph2 elect their leaders2 vote their money to missions 7on which topic they hold meetings72 act ,bible stories in costume2 hear stories and see scientific experiments2 enact a ,chinese school2 write articles for the children's department of religious journals2 develop comradeship1 and have a good time4 7b7 ,the ,agassiz ,association1 founded in #ahge to encourage personal work in natural science1 now numbers some #be1jjj members1 with chapters distributed all over the country1 and was said by the late ,professor ,hyatt to include the largest number of persons ever bound together for the purpose of mutual help in the study of nature4 ,it furnishes practical courses of study in the sciences2 has local chapters in thousands of towns and cities in this and other countries2 publishes a monthly organ1 ,the ,swiss ,cross1 to facilitate correspondence and exchange of specimens2 has a small endowment1 a badge1 is incorporated1 and is animated by a spirit akin to that of ,university ,extension2 and1 although not exclusively for young people1 is chiefly sustained by them4 7c7 ,the ,catholic ,total ,abstinence ,union is a strong1 well-organized1 and widely extended society1 mostly composed of young men4 ,the pledge required of all members explains its object3 ,i promise with the ,divine assistance and in honor of the ,sacred ,thirst and the ,agony of our ,saviour1 to abstain from all intoxicating drinks and to prevent as much as possible by advice and example the sin of intemperance in others and to discountenance the drinking customs of society4 ,a general convention of the ,union has been held annually since #ahgg4 7d7 ,the ,princely ,knights of ,character ,castle is an organization founded in #ahie for boys from twelve to eighteen to inculcate1 disseminate1 and practise the principles of heroism--endurance--love1 purity1 and patriotism4 ,the central incorporated castle grants charters to local castles1 directs the ritual and secret work4 ,its officers are supreme prince1 patriarch1 scribes1 treasurer1 director1 with captain of the guard1 watchman1 porter1 keeper of the dungeon1 musician1 herald1 and favorite son4 ,the degrees of the secret work are shepherd lad1 captive1 viceroy1 brother1 son1 prince1 knight1 and royal knight4 ,there are jewels1 regalia1 paraphernalia1 and initiations4 ,the pledge for the first degree is1 ,i hereby promise and pledge that ,i will abstain from the use of intoxicating liquor in any form as a beverage2 that ,i will not use profane or improper language2 that ,i will discourage the use of tobacco in any form2 that ,i will strive to live pure in body and mind2 that ,i will obey all rules and regulations of the order and not reveal any of the secrets in any way4 ,there are benefits1 reliefs1 passwords1 a list of offenses and penalties4 7e7 ,some #ce1jjj ,bands of ,mercy are now organized under the direction of the ,american ,humane ,education ,society4 ,the object of the organization is to cultivate kindness to animals and sympathy with the poor and oppressed4 ,the prevention of cruelty in driving1 cattle transportation1 humane methods of killing1 care for the sick and abandoned or overworked animals1 are the themes of most of its voluminous literature4 ,it has badges1 hymnbooks1 cards1 and certificates of membership1 and a motto1 ,kindness1 ,justice1 and ,mercy to ,all4 ,its pledge is1 ,i will try to be kind to all harmless living creatures1 and try to protect them from cruel usage1 and is intended to include human as well as dumb creatures4 ,the founder and secretary1 with great and commendable energy1 has instituted prize contests for speaking on humane subjects in schools1 and has printed and circulated prize stories2 since the incorporation of the society in #ahfh1 he has been indefatigable in collecting funds1 speaking before schools and colleges1 and prints fifty to sixty thousand copies of the monthly organ4 ,in addition to its mission of sentiment1 and to make it more effective1 this organization clearly needs to make more provision for the intellectual element by well-selected or constructed courses1 or at least references on the life1 history1 habits1 and instincts of animals1 and it also needs more recognition that modern charity is a science as well as a virtue4 7f7 ,the ,coming ,men of ,america1 although organized only in #ahid1 now claims to be the greatest chartered secret society for boys and young men in the country4 ,it began two years earlier in a lodge started by a nineteen-year-old boy in ,chicago in imitation of such ideas of ,masons1 ,odd-,fellows1 etc41 as its founder could get from his older brother1 and its meetings were first held in a basement4 ,on this basis older heads aided in its development1 so that it is a good example of the boy-imitative helped out by parents4 ,the organization is now represented in every ,state and ,territory1 and boys travel on its badge4 ,there is an official organ1 ,the ,star1 a badge1 sign1 and a secret sign language called bestography4 ,its secret ritual work is highly praised4 ,its membership is limited to white boys under twenty-one4 7g7 ,the first ,harry ,wadsworth ,club was established in #ahga as a result of ,e4,e4 ,hale's ,ten ,times ,one1 published the year before4 ,its motto is1 ,look up1 and not down2 look forward1 and not back2 look out1 and not in2 lend a hand1 or ,faith1 ,hope1 and ,charity4 ,its organ is the ,ten ,times ,one ,record2 its badge is a silver ,maltese cross4 ,each club may organize as it will1 and choose its own name1 provided it accepts the above motto4 ,its watchword is1 ,in ,his ,name4 ,it distributes charities1 conducts a ,noonday ,rest1 outings in the country1 and devotes itself to doing good4#ca ,footnote #a3 ,tarde3 ,l',opposition ,universelle4 ,alcan1 ,paris1 #ahig1 p4 #dfa4 ,footnote #b3 ,the ,adolescent at ,home and in ,school4 ,by ,e4 ,g4 ,lancaster4 ,proceedings of the ,national ,educational ,association1 #ahii1 p4 #ajci4 ,footnote #c3 ,the ,psychology and ,pedagogy of ,adolescence4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,july1 #ahig1 vol4 #e1 p4 #hg4 ,footnote #d3 ,study of ,boys ,entering the ,adolescent ,period of ,life4 ,north ,western ,monthly1 ,november1 #ahig1 vol4 #h1 pp4 #bdh-bej1 and a series thereafter4 ,footnote #e3 ,the ,suggestibility of ,children4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,december1 #ahif1 vol4 #d1 p4 #baa ,footnote #f3 ,characteristics of the ,best ,teacher as ,recognized by ,children4 ,by ,h4,e4 ,kratz4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,june1 #ahif1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #dac-dah4 ,see also ,the ,high ,school ,teacher from the ,pupil's ,point of ,view1 by ,w4,f4 ,book4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,september1 #aije1 vol4 #ab1 pp4 #bci-bhh4 ,footnote #g3 ,a ,study of the ,teacher's ,influence4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,december1 #aijj1 vol4 #g1 pp4 #dib-ebe4 ,footnote #h3 ,children's ,ideals4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,april1 #aijj1 vol4 #g1 pp4 #c-ab ,footnote #i3 ,transactions of the ,illinois ,society for ,child ,study1 vol4 #b1 ,no4 #b1 #ahif1 pp4 #da-df4 ,footnote #aj3 ,children's ,ambitions4 ,by ,h4,m4 ,willard4 ,barnes's ,studies in ,education1 vol4 #b1 pp4 #bdc-beh4 7,privately printed by ,earl ,barnes1 #ddja ,sansom ,street1 ,philadelphia47 ,footnote #aa3 ,transactions of the ,illinois ,society for ,child ,study1 ,october1 #ahih1 vol4 #c1 ,no4 #c1 pp4 #aca-add4 ,footnote #ab3 ,a ,study in ,juvenile ,ethics4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,june1 #aijc1 vol4 #aj1 pp4 #bci-bff ,footnote #ac3 ,die ,ideale der ,kinder4 ,zeitschrift fr pdagogische ,psychologie1 ,pathologie und ,hygiene1 ,jahrgang #c1 ,heft #a1 pp4 #ch-fd4 ,footnote #ad3 ,the ,psychology of ,ownership1 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,december1 #ahii1 vol4 #f1 pp4 #dba-dgj4 ,footnote #ae3 ,property3 ,its ,origin and ,development4 ,chas4 ,scribner's ,sons1 #ahib4 ,footnote #af3 ,money-,sense of ,children4 ,will ,s4 ,monroe4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,march1 #ahii1 vol4 #f1 pp4 #aeb-aef ,footnote #ag3 ,a ,study of ,children's ,rights1 as ,seen by ,themselves4 ,by ,m4,e4 ,schallenberger4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,october1 #ahid1 vol4 #c1 pp4 #hg-if4 ,footnote #ah3 ,children's ,attitude toward ,law4 ,by ,e4 ,m ,darrah4 ,barnes's ,studies in ,education1 vol4 #a1 pp4 #bac-baf4 7,stanford ,university1 #ahig47 ,g4 ,e4 ,stechert and ,co41 ,new ,york4 ,footnote #ai3 ,class ,punishment4 ,by ,caroline ,frear4 ,barnes's ,studies in ,education1 vol4 #a1 pp4 #ccb-ccg4 ,footnote #bj3 ,children's ,attitude toward ,punishment for ,weak ,time ,sense4 ,by ,d4,s4 ,snedden4 ,barnes's ,studies in ,education1 vol4 #a1 pp4 #cdd-cea ,footnote #ba3 ,ueber ,einzel- und ,gesamtleistung des ,schulkindes4 ,archiv fr die gesamte ,psychologie1 #a ,band1 #b and #c ,heft1 #aijc1 pp4 #bgf-daf ,footnote #bb3 ,development of the ,social ,consciousness of ,children4 ,by ,will ,s4 ,monroe4 ,north-,western ,monthly1 ,september1 #ahih1 vol4 #i1 pp4 #ca-cf4 ,footnote #bc3 ,bohannon3 ,the ,only ,child in a ,family4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,april1 #ahih1 vol4 #e1 pp4 #dge-dif4 ,footnote #bd3 ,j4 ,delitsch3 ber ,schlerfreundschaften in einer ,volksschulklasse1 ,die ,kinderfehler4 ,fnfter ,jahrgang1 ,mai1 #aijj1 pp4 #aej-afc4 ,footnote #be3 ,on ,some ,psychical ,relations of ,society and ,solitude4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,april #aijj1 vol4 #g1 pp4 #ac-fi ,footnote #bf3 ,a4 ,rauber3 ,homo ,sapiens ,ferus4 ,j4 ,brehse1 ,leipzig1 #ahhh4 ,see also my ,social ,aspects of ,education2 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,march1 #aijb1 vol4 #i1 pp4 #ha-ia4 ,also ,kropotkin3 ,mutual ,aid a ,factor of ,evolution4 ,w4 ,heinemann1 ,london1 #aijb4 ,footnote #bg3 ,rudimentary ,society among ,boys1 by ,john ,h4 ,johnson1 ,mc,donogh1 ,md4 ,mc,donogh ,school1 #aihc1 reprinted from ,johns ,hopkins ,university ,studies ,series #b 7,historical and ,political ,studies1 vol4 #b1 ,no4 #aa74 ,footnote #bh3 ,the ,institutional ,activities of ,american ,children4 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 ,july1 #ahih1 vol4 #i1 pp4 #dbe-ddh4 ,footnote #bi3 ,der deutsche ,student am ,ende des #ai4 ,jahrhunderts4 #fth ,ed4 ,gschen1 ,leipzig1 #ahif4 ,footnote #cj3 ,the ,social ,pedagogy of ,boyhood4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,october1 #aijj1 vol4 #g1 pp4 #cjg-cdf4 ,see also his ,the ,boy ,problem1 with an introduction by ,g4 ,stanley ,hall1 ,the ,pilgrim ,press1 ,boston1 #aija1 p4 #aid4 ,also ,winifred ,buck 7,boys' ,self-governing ,clubs1 ,macmillan1 ,new ,york1 #aijc71 who thinks ten million dollars could be used in training club advisers who should have the use of schools and grounds after hours and evenings1 conduct excursions1 organize games1 etc41 but avoid all direct teaching and book work generally4 ,this writer thinks such an institution would soon result in a marked increase of public morality and an augmented demand for technical instruction1 and that for the advisers themselves the work would be the best training for high positions in politics and reform4 ,clubs of boys from eight to sixteen or eighteen must not admit age disparities of more than two years4 ,footnote #ca3 ,see ,young ,people's ,societies1 by ,l4,w4 ,bacon4 ,d4 ,appleton and ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aijj1 p4 #bfe4 ,also1 ,f4,g4 ,cressey3 ,the ,church and ,young ,men4 ,fleming ,h4 ,revell ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aijc1 p4 #bcc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,x ,,intellectual ,,education ,,and ,,school ,,work ,the general change and plasticity at puberty--,english teaching--,causes of its failure3 7#a7 too much time to other languages1 7#b7 subordination of literary content to form1 7#c7 too early stress on eye and hand instead of ear and mouth1 7#d7 excessive use of concrete words--,children's interest in words--,their favorites--,slang--,story telling--,age of reading crazes--,what to read--,the historic sense--,growth of memory span4 ,just as about the only duty of young children is implicit obedience1 so the chief mental training from about eight to twelve is arbitrary memorization1 drill1 habituation1 with only limited appeal to the understanding4 ,after the critical transition age of six or seven1 when the brain has achieved its adult size and weight1 and teething has reduced the chewing surface to its least extent1 begins a unique stage of life marked by reduced growth and increased activity and power to resist both disease and fatigue1 which suggests what was1 in some just post-simian age of our race1 its period of maturity4 ,here belong discipline in writing1 reading1 spelling1 verbal memory1 manual training1 practise of instrumental technic1 proper names1 drawing1 drill in arithmetic1 foreign languages by oral methods1 the correct pronunciation of which is far harder if acquired later1 etc4 ,the hand is never so near the brain4 ,most of the content of the mind has entered it through the senses1 and the eye-and ear-gates should be open at their widest4 ,authority should now take precedence of reason4 ,children comprehend much and very rapidly if we can only refrain from explaining1 but this slows down intuition1 tends to make casuists and prigs and to enfeeble the ultimate vigor of reason4 ,it is the age of little method and much matter4 ,the good teacher is now a pedotrieb1 or boy-driver4 ,boys of this age at now not very affectionate4 ,they take pleasure in obliging and imitating those they like and perhaps in disobliging those they dislike4 ,they have much selfishness and little sentiment4 ,as this period draws to a close and the teens begin1 the average normal child will not be bookish but should read and write well1 know a few dozen well-chosen books1 play several dozen games1 be well started in one or more ancient and modern languages--if these must be studied at all1 should know something of several industries and how to make many things he is interested in1 belong to a few teams and societies1 know much about nature in his environment1 be able to sing and draw1 should have memorized much more than he now does1 and be acquainted1 at least in story form1 with the outlines of many of the best works in literature and the epochs and persons in history4#a ,morally he should have been through many if not most forms of what parents and teachers commonly call badness1 and ,professor ,yoder even calls meanness4 ,he should have fought1 whipped and been whipped1 used language offensive to the prude and to the prim precisian1 been in some scrapes1 had something to do with bad1 if more with good1 associates1 and been exposed to and already recovering from as many forms of ethical mumps and measles as1 by having in mild form now he can be rendered immune to later when they become far more dangerous1 because his moral and religious as well as his rational nature is normally rudimentary4 ,he is not depraved1 but only in a savage or half-animal stage1 although to a large-brained1 large-hearted and truly parental soul that does not call what causes it inconvenience by opprobrious names1 an altogether lovable and even fascinating stage4 ,the more we know of boyhood the more narrow and often selfish do adult ideals of it appear4 ,something is amiss with the lad of ten who is very good1 studious1 industrious1 thoughtful1 altruistic1 quiet1 polite1 respectful1 obedient1 gentlemanly1 orderly1 always in good toilet1 docile to reason1 who turns away from stories that reek with gore1 prefers adult companionship to that of his mates1 refuses all low associates1 speaks standard ,english1 or is as pious and deeply in love with religious services as the typical maiden teacher or the la mode parent wishes4 ,such a boy is either under-vitalized and anemic and precocious by nature1 a repressed1 overtrained1 conventionalized manikin1 a hypocrite1 as some can become under pressure thus early in life1 or else a genius of some kind with a little of all these4 ,but with the teens all this begins to be changed and many of these precepts must be gradually reversed4 ,there is an outburst of growth that needs a large part of the total kinetic energy of the body4 ,there is a new interest in adults1 a passion to be treated like one's elders1 to make plans for the future1 a new sensitiveness to adult praise or blame4 ,the large muscles have their innings and there is a new clumsiness of body and mind4 ,the blood-vessels expand and blushing is increased1 new sensations and feelings arise1 the imagination blossoms1 love of nature is born1 music is felt in a new1 more inward way1 fatigue comes easier and sooner2 and if heredity and environment enable the individual to cross this bridge successfully there is sometimes almost a break of continuity1 and a new being emerges4 ,the drill methods of the preceding period must be slowly relaxed and new appeals made to freedom and interest4 ,we can no longer coerce a break1 but must lead and inspire if we would avoid arrest4 ,individuality must have a longer tether4 ,never is the power to appreciate so far ahead of the power to express1 and never does understanding so outstrip ability to explain4 ,overaccuracy is atrophy4 ,both mental and moral acquisition sink at once too deep to be reproduced by examination without injury both to intellect and will4 ,there is nothing in the environment to which the adolescent nature does not keenly respond4 ,with pedagogic tact we can teach about everything we know that is really worth knowing2 but if we amplify and morselize instead of giving great wholes1 if we let the hammer that strikes the bell rest too long against it and deaden the sound1 and if we wait before each methodic step till the pupil has reproduced all the last1 we starve and retard the soul1 which is now all insight and receptivity4 ,plasticity is at its maximum1 utterance at its minimum4 ,the inward traffic obstructs the outer currents4 ,boys especially are often dumb-bound1 monophrastic1 inarticulate1 and semi-aphasic save in their own vigorous and inelegant way4 ,nature prompts to a modest reticence for which the deflowerers of all ephebic naivet should have some respect4 ,deep interests arise which are almost as sacred as is the hour of visitation of the ,holy ,ghost to the religious teacher4 ,the mind at times grows in leaps and bounds in a way that seems to defy the great enemy1 fatigue2 and yet when the teacher grows a little tiresome the pupil is tired in a moment4 ,thus we have the converse danger of forcing knowledge upon unwilling and unripe minds that have no love for it1 which is in many ways psychologically akin to a nameless crime that in some parts of the country meets summary vengeance4 7,a7 ,the heart of education as well as its phyletic root is the vernacular literature and language4 ,these are the chief instruments of the social as well as of the ethnic and patriotic instinct4 ,the prime place of the former we saw in the last chapter1 and we now pass to the latter1 the uniqueness of which should first be considered4 ,the ,century1 the largest complete dictionary of ,english1 claims to have #bej1jjj words1 as against #ee1jjj in the old ,webster's ,unabridged4 ,worcester's ,unabridged of #ahfj has #aje1jjj2 ,murray's1 now in ,l1 it is said1 will contain #bdj1jjj principal and #adj1jjj compound words1 or #chj1jjj words in all4 ,the dictionary of the ,french ,academy has #cc1jjj2 that of the ,royal ,spanish ,academy1 #ej1jjj2 the ,dutch dictionary of ,van ,dale1 #hf1jjj2 the ,italian and ,portuguese1 each about #ej1jjj literary1 or #aej1jjj encyclopedic words4 ,of course1 words can really be counted hardly more than ideas or impressions1 and compounds1 dialects1 obsolete terms1 localisms1 and especially technical terms1 swell the number indefinitely4 ,a competent philologist#b says1 if given large liberty1 he will undertake to supply #a1jjj1jjj ,english words for #a1jjj1jjj ,american dollars4 ,chamberlain#c estimates that our language contains more than two score as many words as all those left us from the ,latin4 ,many savage languages contain only a very few thousand1 and some but a few hundred1 words4 ,our tongue is essentially ,saxon in its vocabulary and its spirit and1 from the time when it was despised and vulgar1 has followed an expansion policy1 swallowing with little modification terms not only from classical antiquity1 but from all modern languages--,indian1 ,african1 ,chinese1 ,mongolian--according to its needs1 its adopted children far outnumbering those of its own blood4 ,it absorbs at its will the slang of the street gamin1 the cant of thieves and beggars2 is actually creative in the baby talk of mothers and nurses2 drops1 forgets1 and actually invents new words with no pedigree like those of ,lear1 ,carrol1 and many others4#d ,in this vast field the mind of the child early begins to take flight4 ,here his soul finds its native breath and vital air4 ,he may live as a peasant1 using1 as ,max ,mller says many do1 but a few hundred words during his lifetime2 or he may need #h1jjj1 like ,milton1 #ae1jjj1 like ,shakespeare1 #bj1jjj or #cj1jjj1 like ,huxley1 who commanded both literary and technical terms2 while in understanding1 which far outstrips1 use1 a philologist may master perhaps #ajj1jjj or #bjj1jjj words4 ,the content of a tongue may contain only folk-lore and terms for immediate practical life1 or this content may be indefinitely elaborated in a rich literature and science4 ,the former is generally well on in its development before speech itself becomes an abject of study4 ,greek literature was fully grown when the ,sophists1 and finally ,aristotle1 developed the rudiments of grammar1 the parts of speech being at first closely related with his ten metaphysical categories4 ,our modern tongue had the fortune1 unknown to those of antiquity1 when it was crude and despised1 to be patronized and regulated by ,latin grammarians1 and has had a long experience1 both for good and evil1 with their conserving and uniformitizing instincts4 ,it has1 too1 a long history of resistance to this control4 ,once spelling was a matter of fashion or even individual taste2 and as the constraint grew1 two pedagogues in the thirteenth century fought a duel for the right spelling of the word1 and that maintained by the survivor prevailed4 ,phonic and economic influences are now again making some headway against orthographic orthodoxy here2 so with definitions4 ,in the days of ,johnson's dictionary1 individuality still had wide range in determining meanings4 ,in pronunciation1 too3 we may now pronounce the word tomato in six ways1 all sanctioned by dictionaries4 ,of our tongue in particular it is true1 as ,tylor says in general1 condensing a longer passage1 take language all in all1 it is the product of a rough-and-ready ingenuity and of the great rule of thumb4 ,it is an old barbaric engine1 which in its highest development is altered1 patched1 and tinkered into capability4 ,it is originally and naturally a product of low culture1 developed by ages of conscious and unconscious improvement to answer more or less perfectly the requirements of modern civilization4 ,it is plain1 therefore1 that no grammar1 and least of all that derived from the prim1 meager ,latin contingent of it1 is adequate to legislate for the free spirit of our magnificent tongue4 ,again1 if this is ever done and ,english ever has a grammar that is to it what ,latin grammar is to that language1 it will only be when the psychology of speech represented1 e4g41 in ,wundt's ,psychologie der ,sprache1#e which is now compiling and organizing the best elements from all grammars1 is complete4 ,the reason why ,english speakers find such difficulty in learning other languages is because ours has so far outgrown them by throwing off not only inflections but many old rules of syntax1 that we have had to go backward to an earlier and more obsolescent stage of human development4 ,in #adad1 at the ,council of ,constance1 when ,emperor ,sigismund was rebuked for a wrong gender1 he replied1 ,i am ,king of the ,romans and above grammar4 ,thomas ,jefferson later wrote1 ,where strictures of grammar does not weaken expression it should be attended to2 but where by a small grammatical negligence the energy of an idea is condensed or a word stands for a sentence1 ,i hold grammatical rigor in contempt4 ,browning1 ,whitman1 and ,kipling deliberately violate grammar and secure thereby unique effects neither asking nor needing excuse4 ,by general consent both high school and college youth in this country are in an advanced stage of degeneration in the command of this the world's greatest organ of the intellect2 and that1 despite the fact that the study of ,english often continues from primary into college grades1 that no topic counts for more1 and that marked deficiency here often debars from all other courses4 ,every careful study of the subject for nearly twenty years shows deterioration1 and ,professor ,shurman1 of ,nebraska1 thinks it now worse than at any time for forty years4 ,we are in the case of many ,christians described by ,dante1 who strove by prayers to get nearer to ,god when in fact with every petition they were departing farther from him4 ,such a comprehensive fact must have many causes4 ,i4 ,one of these is the excessive time given to other languages just at the psychological period of greatest linguistic plasticity and capacity for growth4 ,school invention and tradition is so inveterate that it is hard for us to understand that there is little educational value--and perhaps it is deducational--to learn to tell the time of day or name a spade in several different tongues or to learn to say the ,lord's ,prayer in many different languages1 any one of which the ,lord only can understand4 ,the polyglot people that one meets on great international highways of travel are linguists only in the sense that the moke on the variety stage who plays a dozen instruments equally badly is a musician4 ,it is a psychological impossibility to pass through the apprenticeship stage of learning foreign languages at the age when the vernacular is setting without crippling it4 ,the extremes are the youth in ancient ,greece studying his own language only and the modern high school boy and girl dabbling in three or perhaps four languages4 ,latin1 which in the eight years preceding #ahih increased one hundred and seventy-four per cent4 in ,american high schools1 while the proportion entering college in the country and even in ,massachusetts steadily declined1 is the chief offender4 ,in the day of its pedagogical glory ,latin was the universal tongue of the learned4 ,sturm's idea was to train boys so that if suddenly transported to ancient ,rome or ,greece they would be at home there4 ,language1 it was said1 was the chief instrument of culture2 ,latin1 the chief language and therefore a better drill in the vernacular than the vernacular itself4 ,its rules were wholesome swathing bands for the modern languages when in their infancy4 ,boys must speak only ,latin on the playground4 ,they thought1 felt1 and developed an intellectual life in and with that tongue4#f ,but how changed all this is now4 ,statistical studies show that five hours a week for a year gives command of but a few hundred words1 that two years does not double this number1 and that command of the language and its resources in the original is almost never attained1 but that it is abandoned not only by the increasing percentage that do not go to college but also by the increasing percentage who drop it forever at the college door4 ,its enormous numerical increase due to high school requirements1 the increasing percentage of girl pupils more ready to follow the teacher's advice1 in connection with the deteriorating quality of the girls--inevitable with their increasing numbers1 the sense that ,latin means entering upon a higher education1 the special reverence for it by ,catholic children1 the overcrowded market for ,latin teachers whom a recent writer says can be procured by the score at less rates than in almost any other subject1 the modern methods of teaching it which work well with less knowledge of it by the teacher than in the case of other school topics1 have been attended perhaps inevitably by steady pedagogic decline despite the vaunted new methods2 until now the baby ,latin in the average high school class is a kind of sanctified relic1 a ghost of a ghost1 suggesting ,swift's ,struldbrugs1 doomed to physical immortality but shriveling and with increasing horror of all things new4 ,in #ahib the ,german emperor declared it a shame for a boy to excel in ,latin composition1 and in the high schools of ,sweden and ,norway it has been practically abandoned4 ,in the present stage of its educational decadence the power of the dead hand is strongly illustrated by the new installation of the old ,roman pronunciation with which our tongue has only remote analogies1 which makes havoc with proper names which is unknown and unrecognized in the schools of the ,european continent1 and which makes a pedantic affectation out of more vocalism4 ,i do not know nor care whether the old ,romans pronounced thus or not1 but if historic fidelity in this sense has pedagogic justification1 why still teach a text like the ,viri ,romae1 which is not a classic but a modern pedagogue's composition8 ,i believe profoundly in the ,latin both as a university specialty and for all students who even approach mastery1 but for the vast numbers who stop in the early stages of proficiency it is disastrous to the vernacular4 ,compare the evils of translation ,english1 which not even the most competent and laborious teaching can wholly prevent and which careless mechanical instruction directly fosters1 with the vigorous fresh productions of a boy or girl writing or speaking of something of vital present interest4 ,the psychology of translation shows that it gives the novice a consciousness of etymologies which rather impedes than helps the free movement of the mind4 ,jowett said in substance that it is almost impossible to render either of the great dead languages into ,english without compromise1 and this tends to injure the idiomatic mastery of one's own tongue1 which can be got only by much hard experience in uttering our own thoughts before trying to shape the dead thoughts of others into our language4 ,we confound the little knowledge of word-histories which ,latin gives with the far higher and subtler sentence-sense which makes the soul of one language so different from that of another1 and training in which ought not to end until one has become more or less of a stylist and knows how to hew out modes of expressing his own individuality in great language4 ,there is a sense in which ,macaulay was not an ,englishman at all1 but a ,ciceronian ,latinist who foisted an alien style upon our tongue2 and even ,addison is a foreigner compared to the virile ,kipling4 ,the nature and needs of the adolescent mind demand bread and meat1 while ,latin rudiments are husks4 ,in his autobiography1 ,booker ,washington says that for ten years after their emancipation1 the two chief ambitions of the young negro of the ,south were to hold office and to study ,latin1 and he adds that the chief endeavor of his life has been against these tendencies4 ,for the ,american boy and girl1 high school too often means ,latin4 ,this gives at first a pleasing sense of exaltation to a higher stage of life1 but after from one to three years the great majority who enter the high school drop out limp and discouraged for many reasons1 largely1 however1 because they are not fed4 ,defective nutrition of the mind also causes a restlessness1 which enhances all the influences which make boys and girls leave school4 ,,ii4 ,the second cause of this degeneration is the subordination of literature and content to language study4 ,grammar arises in the old age of language4 ,as once applied to our relatively grammarless tongue it always was more or less of a school-made artifact and an alien yoke1 and has become increasingly so as ,english has grown great and free4 ,its ghost1 in the many textbooks devoted to it1 lacks just the quality of logic which made and besouled it4 ,philology1 too1 with all its magnificence1 is not a product of the nascent stages of speech4 ,in the college1 which is its stronghold1 it has so inspired professors of ,english that their ideal is to be critical rather than creative till they prefer the minute reading of a few masterpieces to a wide general knowledge1 and a typical university announces that in every case the examiners will treat mere knowledge of books as less important than the ability to write good ,english that will parse and that is spelled1 punctuated1 capitalized1 and paragraphed aright4 ,good professors of ,english literature are hard to find1 and upon them philologists1 who are plentiful1 look with a certain condescension4 ,many academic chairs of ,english are filled by men whose acquaintance of our literature is very narrow1 who wish to be linguistic and not literary1 and this is true even in ancient tongues4 ,at a brilliant examination1 a candidate for the doctor's degree who had answered many questions concerning the forms of ,lucretius1 when asked whether he was a dramatist1 historian1 poet1 or philosopher1 did not know1 and his professor deemed the question improper4 ,i visited the eleventh recitation in ,othello in a high school class of nineteen pupils1 not one of whom knew how the story ended1 so intent had they been kept on its verbiage4 ,hence1 too1 has come the twelve feet of text-books on ,english on my shelves with many standard works1 edited for schools1 with more notes than text4 ,fashion that works from above down the grades and college entrance requirements are in large measure responsible for this1 perhaps now the worst case of the prostitution of content to form4 ,long exposure to this method of linguistic manicuring tends to make students who try to write ultra-fastidiously1 seeking an over-refined elaboration of petty trifles1 as if the less the content the greater the triumph of form alone could be4 ,these petty but pretty nothings are like ,german confectionery1 that appeals to the eye but has little for taste and is worse than nothing for the digestion4 ,it is like straining work on an empty stomach4 ,for youth this embroidery of details is the precocious senescence that ,nordau has so copiously illustrated as literary decadence4 ,language is vastly larger than all its content1 and the way to teach it is to focus the mind upon story1 history1 oratory1 drama1 ,bible1 for their esthetic1 mental1 and above all1 moral content1 as shown in the last chapter4 ,the more unconscious processes that reflect imitatively the linguistic environment and that strike out intuitively oral and written vents for interests so intense that they must be told and shared1 are what teach us how to command the resources of our mother tongue4 ,these prescriptions and corrections and consciousness of the manifold ways of error are never so peculiarly liable to hinder rather than to help as in early adolescence1 when the soul has a new content and a new sense for it1 and so abhors and is so incapable of precision and propriety of diction4 ,to hold up the flights of exuberant youth by forever being on the hunt for errors is1 to borrow the language of the gridiron1 low tackle1 and ,i would rather be convicted of many errors by such methods than use them4 ,of course this has its place1 but it must always be subordinated to a larger view1 as in one of the newly discovered logia ascribed to ,jesus1 who1 when he found a man gathering sticks on ,sunday1 said to him1 ,if you understand what you are doing1 it is well1 but if not1 thou shalt be damned4 ,the great teacher who1 when asked how he obtained such rare results in expression1 answered1 ,by carefully neglecting it and seeking utter absorption in subject-matter1 was also a good practical psychologist4 ,this is the inveterate tendency that in other ages has made pedagogic scribes1 ,talmudists1 epigoni1 and sophists1 who have magnified the letter and lost the spirit4 ,but there are yet other seats of difficulty4 ,,iii4 ,it is hard and1 in the history of the race1 a late change1 to receive language through the eye which reads instead of through the ear which hears4 ,not only is perception measurably quite distinctly slower1 but book language is related to oral speech somewhat as an herbarium is to a garden1 or a museum of stuffed specimens to a menagerie4 ,the invention of letters is a novelty in the history of the race that spoke for countless ages before it wrote4 ,the winged word of mouth is saturated with color1 perhaps hot with feeling1 musical with inflection1 is the utterance of a living present personality1 the consummation of man's gregarious instincts4 ,the book is dead and more or less impersonal1 best apprehended in solitude1 its matter more intellectualized2 it deals in remoter second-hand knowledge so that ,plato reproached ,aristotle as being a reader1 one remove from the first spontaneous source of original impressions and ideas1 and the doughty medieval knights scorned reading as a mere clerk's trick1 not wishing to muddle their wits with other people's ideas when their own were good enough for them4 ,but although some of the great men in history could not read1 and though some of the illiterate were often morally and intellectually above some of the literate1 the argument here is that the printed page must not be too suddenly or too early thrust between the child and life4 ,the plea is for moral and objective work1 more stories1 narratives1 and even vivid readings1 as is now done statedly in more than a dozen of the public libraries of the country1 not so often by teachers as by librarians1 all to the end that the ear1 the chief receptacle of language1 be maintained in its dominance1 that the fine sense of sound1 rhythm1 cadence1 pronunciation1 and speech-music generally be not atrophied1 that the eye which normally ranges freely from far to near be not injured by the confined treadmill and zigzag of the printed page4 ,closely connected with this1 and perhaps psychologically worse1 is the substitution of the pen and the scribbling fingers for the mouth and tongue4 ,speech is directly to and from the soul4 ,writing1 the deliberation of which fits age better than youth1 slows down its impetuosity many fold1 and is in every way farther removed from vocal utterance than is the eye from the ear4 ,never have there been so many pounds of paper1 so many pencils1 and such excessive scribbling as in the calamopapyrus ,pen-paper pedagogy of to-day and in this country4 ,not only has the daily theme spread as infection1 but the daily lesson is now extracted through the point of a pencil instead of from the mouth4 ,the tongue rests and the curve of writer's cramp takes a sharp turn upward1 as if we were making scribes1 reporters1 and proof-readers4 ,in some schools1 teachers seem to be conducting correspondence classes with their own pupils4 ,it all makes excellent busy work1 keeps the pupils quiet and orderly1 and allows the school output to be quantified1 and some of it gives time for more care in the choice of words4 ,but is it a gain to substitute a letter for a visit1 to try to give written precedence over spoken forms8 ,here again we violate the great law that the child repeats the history of the race1 and that1 from the larger historic standpoint1 writing as a mode of utterance is only the latest fashion4 ,of course the pupils must write1 and write well1 just as they must read1 and read much2 but that ,english suffers from insisting upon this double long circuit too early and cultivates it to excess1 devitalizes school language and makes it a little unreal1 like other affectations of adult ways1 so that on escaping from its thraldom the child and youth slump back to the language of the street as never before4 ,this is a false application of the principle of learning to do by doing4 ,the young do not learn to write by writing1 but by reading and hearing4 ,to become a good writer one must read1 feel1 think1 experience1 until he has something to say that others want to hear4 ,the golden age of ,french literature1 as ,gaston ,deschamps and ,brunetire have lately told us1 was that of the salon1 when conversation dominated letters1 set fashions1 and made the charm of ,french style4 ,its lowest ebb was when bookishness led and people began to talk as they wrote4 ,,iv4 ,the fourth cause of degeneration of school ,english is the growing preponderance of concrete words for designating things of sense and physical acts1 over the higher element of language that names and deals with concepts1 ideas1 and non-material things4 ,the object-lesson came in as a reaction against the danger of merely verbal and definition knowledge and word memory4 ,now it has gone so far that not only things but even languages1 vernacular and foreign1 are taught by appeals to the eye4 ,more lately1 elementary science has introduced another area of pictures and things while industrial education has still further greatly enlarged the material sensori-motor element of training4 ,geography is taught with artifacts1 globes1 maps1 sand boxes1 drawing4 ,miss ,margaret ,smith#g counted two hundred and eighty objects that must be distributed and gathered for forty pupils in a single art lesson4 ,instruction1 moreover1 is more and more busied upon parts and details rather than wholes1 upon analysis rather than synthesis4 ,thus in modern pedagogy there is an increased tyranny of things1 a growing neglect or exclusion of all that is unseen4 ,the first result of this is that the modern school child is more and more mentally helpless without objects of sense4 ,conversation is increasingly concrete1 if not of material things and persons present in time and even place4 ,instead of dealing with thoughts and ideas1 speech and writing is close to sense and the words used are names for images and acts4 ,but there is another higher part of language that is not so abjectly tied down to perception1 but that lives1 moves1 and has its being in the field of concepts rather than percepts1 which1 to use ,earle's distinction1 is symbolic and not presentative1 that describes thinking that is not mere contiguity in space or sequence in time but that is best in the far higher and more mental associations of likeness1 that is more remote from activity1 that1 to use logical terminology1 is connotative and not merely denotative1 that has extension as well as intension1 that requires abstraction and generalization4 ,without this latter element higher mental development is lacking because this means more than word-painting the material world4 ,our school youth today suffer from just this defect4 ,if their psychic operations can be called thought it is of that elementary and half animal kind that consists imagery4 ,their talk with each other is of things of present and immediate interest4 ,they lack even the elements of imagination1 which makes new combinations and is creative1 because they are dominated by mental pictures of the sensory4 ,large views that take them afield away from the persons and things and acts they know do not appeal to them4 ,attempts to think rigorously are too hard4 ,the teacher feels that all the content of mind must come in through the senses1 and that if these are well fed1 inferences and generalizations will come of themselves later4 ,many pupils have never in their lives talked five minutes before others on any subject whatever that can properly be called intellectual4 ,it irks them to occupy themselves with purely mental processes1 so enslaved are they by what is near and personal1 and thus they are impoverished in the best elements of language4 ,it is as if what are sometimes called the associative fibers1 both ends of which are in the brain1 were dwarfed in comparison with the afferent and efferent fibers that mediate sense and motion4 ,that the soul of language as an instrument of thought consists in this non-presentative element1 so often lacking1 is conclusively shown in the facts of speech diseases4 ,in the slowly progressive aphasias1 of late so carefully studied1 the words first lost are those of things and acts most familiar to the patient1 while the words that persist longest in the wreckage of the speech-centers are generally words that do not designate the things of sense4 ,a tailor loses the power to name his chalk1 measure1 shears1 although he can long talk fluently of what little he may chance to know of ,god1 beauty1 truth1 virtue1 happiness1 prosperity1 etc4 ,the farmer is unable to name the cattle in his yard or his own occupations1 although he can reason as well as ever about politics2 can not discuss coin or bills1 but can talk of financial policies and securities1 or about health and wealth generally4 ,the reason obvious4 ,it is because concrete thinking has two forms1 the word and the image1 and the latter so tends to take the place of the former that it can be lost to both sense and articulation without great impairment1 whereas conceptual thinking lacks imagery and depends upon words alone1 and hence these must persist because they have no alternate form which vicariates for them4 ,in its lower stages1 speech is necessarily closely bound up with the concrete world2 but its real glory appears in its later stages and its higher forms1 because there the soul takes flight in the intellectual world1 learns to live amidst its more spiritual realities1 to put names to thoughts1 which is far higher than to put names to things4 ,it is in this world that the best things in the best books live2 and the modern school-bred distaste for them1 the low-ranged mental action that hovers near the coastline of matter and can not launch out with zest into the open sea of thoughts1 holding communion with the great dead of the past or the great living of the distant present1 seems almost like a slow progressive abandonment of the high attribute of speech and the lapse toward infantile or animal picture-thinking4 ,if the school is slowly becoming speechless in this sense1 if it is lapsing in all departments toward busy work and losing silence1 repose1 the power of logical thought1 and even that of meditation1 which is the muse of originality1 this is perhaps the gravest of all these types of decay4 ,if the child has no resources in solitude1 can not think without the visual provocation1 is losing subjective life1 enthusiasm for public1 social1 ethical questions1 is crippled for intellectual pursuits1 cares only in a languid way for literary prose and poetry1 responds only to sensuous stimuli and events at short range1 and is indifferent to all wide relations and moral responsibility1 cares only for commercial self-interest1 the tactics of field sport1 laboratory occupations and things which call be illustrated from a pedagogic museum1 then the school is dwarfing1 in dawning maturity1 the higher powers that belong to this stage of development and is responsible for mental arrest4 ,in this deplorable condition1 if we turn to the child study of speech for help1 we find that1 although it has been chiefly occupied with infant vocabularies1 there are already a very few and confessedly crude and feeble beginnings1 but even these shed more light on the lost pathway than all other sources combined4 ,the child once set in their midst again corrects the wise men4 ,we will first briefly recapitulate these and then state and apply their lessons4 ,miss ,williams#h found that out of #bec young ladies only #acc did not have favorite sounds1 long a and a leading among the vowels1 and l1 r and m among the constants4 ,eighty-five had favorite words often lugged in1 #cbi being good4 ,two hundred and twenty-one1 as children1 had favorite proper names in geography1 and also for boys1 but especially for girls4 ,the order of a few of the latter is as follows3 ,helen1 #cf2 ,bessie1 #be2 ,violet and ,lilly1 #bj2 ,elsie and ,beatrice1 #ah2 ,dorothy and ,alice1 #ag2 ,ethel1 #ae2 ,myrtle1 #ad2 ,mabel1 ,marguerite1 ,pearl1 and ,rose1 #ac2 ,may1 #ab2 ,margaret1 ,daisy1 and ,grace1 #aa2 ,ruth and ,florence1 #i2 ,gladys1 #h2 ,maud1 ,nellie1 and ,gertrude1 #g2 ,blanche and ,mary1 #f2 ,eveline and ,pansy1 #e2 ,belle1 ,beulah1 ,constance1 ,eleanor1 ,elizabeth1 ,eve1 ,laura1 ,lulu1 ,pauline1 ,virginia1 and ,vivian1 #d each1 etc4 ,of ten words found interesting to adolescents1 murmur was the favorite1 most enjoying its sound4 ,lullaby1 supreme1 annannamannannaharoumlemay1 immemorial1 lillibulero1 burbled1 and incarnadine were liked by most1 while zigzag and shigsback were not liked4 ,this writer says that adolescence is marked by some increased love of words for motor activity and in interest in words as things in themselves1 but shows a still greater rise of interest in new words and pronunciations2 above all1 there is a tremendous rise in interest in words as instruments of thought4 ,the flood of new experiences1 feelings1 and views finds the old vocabulary inadequate1 hence the dumb1 bound feeling of which most adolescents at one time or another complain and also ,i suspect from this study in the case of girls1 we have an explanation of the rise of interest in slang4 ,the second idea suggested by our study is the tremendous importance of hearing in the affective side of language4 ,conradi#i found that of #bgc returns concerning children's pleasure in knowing or using new words1 ninety-two per cent were affirmative1 eight per cent negative1 and fifty per cent gave words especially liked4 ,some were partial to big words1 some for those with z in them4 ,some found most pleasure in saying them to themselves and some in using them with others4 ,in all there were nearly three hundred such words1 very few of which were artificial4 ,as to words pretty or queer in form or sound1 his list was nearly as large1 but the greater part of the words were different4 ,sixty per cent of all had had periods of spontaneously trying to select their vocabulary by making lists1 studying the dictionary1 etc4 ,the age of those who did so would seem to average not far from early puberty1 but the data are too meager for conclusion4 ,a few started to go through the dictionary1 some wished to astonish their companions or used large new words to themselves or their dolls4 ,seventy percent had had a passion for affecting foreign words when ,english would do as well4 ,conradi says the age varies from twelve to eighteen1 most being fourteen to sixteen4 ,some indulge this tendency in letters1 and would like to do so in conversation1 but fear ridicule4 ,fifty-six per cent reported cases of superfine elegance or affected primness or precision in the use of words4 ,some had spells of effort in this direction1 some belabor compositions to get a style that suits them1 some memorise fine passages to this end1 or modulate their voices to aid them1 affect elegance with a chosen mate by agreement soliloquize before a glass with poses4 ,according to his curve this tendency culminates at fourteen4 ,adjectivism1 adverbism1 and nounism1 or marked disposition to multiply one or more of the above classes of words1 and in the above order1 also occur near the early teens4 ,adjectives are often used as adverbial prefixes to other adjectives1 and here favorite words are marked4 ,nearly half of ,conradi's reports show it1 but the list of words so used is small4 ,illustration3 ,graph showing ,slang1 ,reading ,craze1 and ,precision by ,age4 ,miss ,williams presents on interesting curve of slang confessed as being both attractive and used by #bbf out of #bea4 ,from this it appears that early adolescence is the curve of greatest pleasure in its use1 fourteen being the culminating year4 ,there is very little until eleven1 when the curve for girls rises very rapidly1 to fall nearly us rapidly from fifteen to seventeen4 ,ninety-three out of #ajd who used it did so despite criticism4 ,conradi1 who collected and prints a long list of current slang words and phrases1 found that of #bie young boys and girls not one failed to confess their use1 and eighty-five per cent of all gave the age at which they thought it most common4 ,on this basis he constructs the above curve1 comparing with this the curve of a craze for reading and for precision in speech4 ,the reasons given are1 in order of frequency1 that slang was more emphatic1 more exact1 more concise1 convenient1 sounded pretty1 relieved formality1 was natural1 manly1 appropriate1 etc4 ,only a very few thought it was vulgar1 limited the vocabulary1 led to or was a substitute for swearing1 destroyed exactness1 etc4 ,this writer attempts a provisional classification of slang expressions under the suggestive heads of rebukes to pride1 boasting and loquacity1 hypocrisy1 quaint and emphatic negatives1 exaggerations1 exclamations1 mild oaths1 attending to one's own business and not meddling or interfering1 names for money1 absurdity1 neurotic effects of surprise or shock1 honesty and lying1 getting confused1 fine appearance and dress1 words for intoxication which ,partridge has collected1#aj;for anger collated by ,chamberlain1#aa crudeness or innocent navet1 love and sentimentality1 etc4 ,slang is also rich in describing conflicts of all kinds1 praising courage1 censuring inquisitiveness1 and as a school of moral discipline1 but he finds1 however1 a very large number unclassified2 and while he maintains throughout a distinction between that used by boys and by girls1 sex differences are not very marked4 ,the great majority of terms are mentioned but once1 and a few under nearly all of the above heads have great numerical precedence4 ,a somewhat striking fact is the manifold variations of a pet typical form4 ,twenty-three shock expletives1 e4g41 are1 ,wouldn't that ---- you8 the blank being filled by jar1 choke1 cook1 rattle1 scorch1 get1 start1 etc41 or instead of you adjectives are devised4 ,feeling is so intense and massive1 and psychic processes are so rapid1 forcible1 and undeveloped that the pithiness of some of those expressions makes them brilliant and creative works of genius1 and after securing an apprenticeship are sure of adoption4 ,their very lawlessness helps to keep speech from rigidity and desiccation1 and they hit off nearly every essential phrase of adolescent life and experience4 ,conventional modes of speech do not satisfy the adolescent1 so that he is often either reticent or slangy4 ,walt ,whitman#ab says that slang is an attempt of common humanity to escape from bald literalism and to express itself illimitably1 which in the highest walks produces poets and poems2 and again1 ,daring as it is to say so1 in the growth of language it is certain that the retrospect of slang from the start would be the recalling from their nebulous condition of all that is poetical in the stores of human utterance4 ,lowell#ac says1 ,there is death in the dictionary1 and where language is too strictly limited by convention1 the ground for expression to grow in is limited also1 and we get a potted literature1 ,chinese dwarfs instead of healthy trees4 ,lounsbury asserts that slang is an effort on the part of the users of language to say something more vividly1 strongly1 concisely than the language existing permits it to be said4 ,it is the source from which the decaying energies of speech are constantly refreshed4 ,conradi adds in substance that weak or vicious slang is too feeble to survive1 and what is vital enough to live fills a need4 ,the final authority is the people1 and it is better to teach youth to discriminate between good and bad slang rather than to forbid it entirely4 ,emerson calls it language in the making1 its crude1 vital1 material4 ,it is often an effective school of moral description1 a palliative for profanity1 and expresses the natural craving for superlatives4 ,faults are hit off and condemned with the curtness sententiousness of proverbs devised by youth to sanctify itself and correct its own faults4 ,the pedagogue objects that it violates good form and established usage1 but why should the habits of hundreds of years ago control when they can not satisfy the needs of youth1 which requires a lingua franca of its own1 often called slanguage8 ,most high school and college youth of both sexes have two distinct styles1 that of the classroom which is as unnatural as the etiquette of a royal drawing-room reception or a formal call1 and the other1 that of their own breezy1 free1 natural life4 ,often these two have no relation to or effect upon each other1 and often the latter is at times put by with good resolves to speak as purely and therefore as self-consciously as they knew1 with petty fines for every slang expression4 ,but very few1 and these generally husky boys1 boldly try to assert their own rude but vigorous vernacular in the field of school requirements4 ,these simple studies in this vast field demonstrate little or nothing1 but they suggest very much4 ,slang commonly expresses a moral judgment and falls into ethical categories4 ,it usually concerns ideas1 sentiment1 and will1 has a psychic content1 and is never1 like the language of the school1 a mere picture of objects of sense or a description of acts4 ,to restate it in correct ,english would be a course in ethics1 courtesy1 taste1 logical predication and opposition1 honesty1 self-possession1 modesty1 and just the ideal and non-presentative mental content that youth most needs1 and which the sensuous presentation methods of teaching have neglected4 ,those who see in speech nothing but form condemn it because it is vulgar4 ,youth has been left to meet these high needs alone1 and the prevalence of these crude forms is an indictment of the delinquency of pedagogues in not teaching their pupils to develop and use their intellect properly4 ,their pith and meatiness are a standing illustration of the need of condensation for intellectual objects that later growth analyzes4 ,these expressions also illustrate the law that the higher and larger the spiritual content1 the grosser must be the illustration in which it is first couched4 ,further studies now in progress will1 ,i believe1 make this still clearer4 ,again1 we see in the above1 outcrops of the strong pubescent instinct to enlarge the vocabulary in two ways4 ,one is to affect foreign equivalents4 ,this at first suggests an appetency for another language like the dog-,latin gibberish of children4 ,it is one of the motives that prompts many to study ,latin or ,french1 but it has little depth1 for it turns out1 on closer study1 to be only the affectation of superiority and the love of mystifying others4 ,the other is a very different impulse to widen the vernacular4 ,to pause to learn several foreign equivalents of things of sense may be anti-educational if it limits the expansion of thought in our own tongue4 ,the two are1 in fact1 often inversely related to each other4 ,in giving a foreign synonym when the mind seeks a new native word1 the pedagogue does not deal fairly4 ,in this irradiation into the mother tongue1 sometimes experience with the sentiment or feeling1 act1 fact1 or object precedes1 and then a name for it is demanded1 or conversely the sound1 size1 oddness or jingle of the word is first attractive and the meaning comes later4 ,the latter needs the recognition and utilization which the former already has4 ,lists of favorite words should be wrought out for spelling and writing and their meanings illustrated1 for these have often the charm of novelty as on the frontier of knowledge and enlarge the mental horizon like new discoveries4 ,we must not starve this voracious new appetite for words as instruments of thought4 ,interest in story-telling rises till twelve or thirteen1 and thereafter falls off perhaps rather suddenly1 partly because youth is now more interested in receiving than in giving4 ,as in the drawing curve we saw a characteristic age when the child loses pleasure in creating as its power of appreciating pictures rapidly arises1 so now1 as the reading curve rises1 auditory receptivity makes way for the visual method shown in the rise of the reading curve with augmented zest for book-method of acquisition4 ,darkness or twilight enhances the story interest in children1 for it eliminates the distraction of sense and encourages the imagination to unfold its pinions1 but the youthful fancy is less bat-like and can take its boldest flights in broad daylight4 ,a camp-fire1 or an open hearth with tales of animals1 ghosts1 heroism1 and adventure can teach virtue1 and vocabulary1 style1 and substance in their native unity4 ,the pubescent reading passion is partly the cause and partly an effect of the new zest in and docility to the adult world and also of the fact that the receptive are now and here so immeasurably in advance of the creative powers4 ,now the individual transcends his own experience and learns to profit by that of others4 ,there is now evolved a penumbral region in the soul more or less beyond the reach of all school methods1 a world of glimpses and hints1 and the work here is that of the prospector and not of the careful miner4 ,it is the age of skipping and sampling1 of pressing the keys lightly4 ,what is acquired is not examinable but only suggestive4 ,perhaps nothing read now fails to leave its mark4 ,it can not be orally reproduced at call1 but on emergency it is at hand for use4 ,as ,augustine said of ,god1 so the child might say of most of his mental content in these psychic areas1 ,if you ask me1 ,i do not know2 but if you do not ask me1 ,i know very well--a case analogous to the typical girl who exclaimed to her teacher1 ,i can do and understand this perfectly if you only won't explain it4 ,that is why examinations in ,english1 if not impossible1 as ,goldwin ,smith and ,oxford hold1 are very liable to be harmful1 and recitations and critical notes an impertinence1 and always in danger of causing arrest of this exquisite romantic function in which literature comes in the closest relation to life1 keeping the heart warm1 renforcing all its good motives1 preforming choices1 and universalizing its sympathies4 ,r4 ,w4 ,bullock#ad classified and tabulated #b1jjj returns from school-children from the third to the twelfth grade1 both inclusive1 concerning their reading4 ,from this it appeared that the average boy of the third grade read #d4i books in six months2 that the average falls to #c4f in the fourth and fifth grades and rises to a maximum of #f4e at the seventh grade1 then drops quite regularly to #c in the twelfth grade at the end of the high school course4 ,the independent tabulation of returns from other cities showed little variation4 ,grade for grade1 the girls read more than the boys1 and as a rule they reach their maximum a year sooner1 and from a general maximum of #e4i books there is a drop to #c4c at the end of the course4 ,the age of reading may be postponed or accelerated perhaps nearly a year by the absence or presence of library facilities4 ,tabulating the short stories read per week1 it was found that these averaged #b4a in the third grade1 rose to #g4g per week in the seventh grade1 and in the twelfth had fallen to #b4c1 showing the same general tendency4 ,the percentage tables for boys' preference for eight classes of stories are here only suggestive4 ,war stories seem popular with third grade boys1 and that liking seems well marked through the sixth1 seventh1 and eighth grades4 ,stories of adventure are popular all through the heroic period1 reaching their maximum in the eighth and ninth grades4 ,the liking for biography and travel or exploration grows gradually to a climax in the ninth grade1 and remains well up through the course4 ,the tender sentiment has little charm for the average grade boy1 and only in the high school course does he acknowledge any considerable use of love stories4 ,in the sixth grade he is fond of detective stories1 but they lose their charm for him as he grows older4 ,for girls1 stories of adventure are popular in the sixth grade1 and stories of travel are always enjoyed4 ,the girl likes biography1 but in the high school1 true to her sex1 she prefers stories of great women rather than great men1 but because she can not get them reads those of men4 ,pity it is that the biographies of so few of the world's many great women are written4 ,the taste for love stories increases steadily to the end of the high school course4 ,beyond that we have no record4 ,thus the maximum amount of reading is done in every instance between the sixth and eighth grades1 the average being in the seventh grade at an average age of fourteen and one-tenth years4 ,seventy-five per cent of all discuss their reading with some one1 and the writer urges that when ninety-five per cent of the boys prefer adventure or seventy-five per cent of the girls prefer love stories1 that is what they are going to read1 and the duty of the teacher or librarian is to see that they have both in the highest1 purest form4 ,henderson#ae found that of #b1ihi children from nine to fifteen1 least books were read at the age of nine and most at the age of fifteen1 and that there was a gradual rise in amount throughout1 the only break being in the case of girls at the age of fourteen and the boys at the age of twelve4 ,for fiction the high-water mark was reached for both sexes at eleven1 and the subsequent fall is far less rapid for girls than for boys4 ,at the age of thirteen the record for travel and adventure stands highest in the case of the boys1 phenomenally so4 ,there is a gradual rise in history with age1 and a corresponding decline in fiction4 ,kirkpatrick#af classified returns from #e1jjj children from the fourth to the ninth grade in answer to questions that concerned their reading4 ,he found a sudden increase in the sixth grade1 when children are about twelve1 when there is often a veritable1 reading craze4 ,dolls are abandoned and plays1 games1 and companionship of others are less attractive1 and the reading hunger in many children becomes insatiable and is often quite indiscriminate4 ,it seems to most frequently begin at about twelve years of age and continue at least three or four years1 after which increased home duties1 social responsibilities1 and school requirements reduce it and make it more discriminating in quality4 ,the fact that boys read about twice1 as much history and travel as girls and only about two-thirds as much poetry and stories shows beyond question that the emotional and intellectual wants of boys and girls are essentially different before sexual maturity4 ,miss ,vostrovsky#ag found that among #a1bfi children there was a great increase of taste for reading as shown by the number of books taken from the library1 which began with a sharp rise at eleven and increased steadily to nineteen1 when her survey ended2 that boys read most till seventeen1 and then girls took the precedence4 ,the taste for juvenile stories was declining and that for fiction and general literature was rapidly increased4 ,at about the sixteenth year a change took place in both sexes1 showing then the beginning of a greater interest in works of a more general character4 ,girls read more fiction than boys at every age1 but the interest in it begins to be very decided at adolescence4 ,with girls it appears to come a little earlier and with greater suddenness1 while the juvenile story maintains a strong hold upon boys even after the fifteenth year4 ,the curve of decline in juvenile stories is much more pronounced in both sexes than the rise of fiction4 ,through the teens there is a great increase in the definiteness of answers to the questions why books were chosen4 ,instead of being read because they were good or nice1 they were read because recommended1 and later because of some special interest4 ,girls relied on recommendations more than boys4 ,the latter were more guided by reason the former by sentiment4 ,nearly three times as many boys in the early teens chose books because they were exciting or venturesome4 ,even the stories which girls called exciting were tame compared with those chosen by boys4 ,girls chose books more than four times as often because of children in them1 and more often because they ware funny4 ,boys care very little for style1 but must have incidents and heroes4 ,the author says the special interest that girls have in fiction begins about the age of adolescence4 ,after the sixteenth year the extreme delight in stories fades1 or school demands become more imperative and uniform4 ,girls prefer domestic stories and those with characters like themselves and scenes like those with which they are familiar4 ,no boy confesses to a purely girl's story1 while girls frankly do to an interesting story about boys4 ,women writers seem to appeal more to girls1 men writers to boys4 ,hence1 the authors named by each sex are almost entirely different4 ,in fiction more standard works1 were drawn by boys than by girls4 ,when left to develop according to chance1 the tendency is often toward a selection of books which unfit one for every-day living1 either by presenting1 on the one hand1 too many scenes of delicious excitement or1 on the other1 by narrowing the vision to the wider possibilities of life4 ,out of #ebc full answers1 ,lancaster found that #dec had what might be called a craze for reading at some time in the adolescent period1 and thinks parents little realize the intensity of the desire to read or how this nascent period is the golden age to cultivate taste and inoculate against reading what is bad4 ,the curve rises rapidly from eleven to fourteen1 culminates at fifteen1 after which it falls rapidly4 ,some become omnivorous readers of everything in their way2 others are profoundly1 and perhaps for life1 impressed with some single book2 others have now crazes for history1 now for novels1 now for dramas or for poetry2 some devour encyclopedias2 some imagine themselves destined to be great novelists and compose long romances2 some can give the dates with accuracy of the different periods of the development of their tastes from the fairy tales of early childhood to the travels and adventures of boyhood and then to romance1 poetry1 history1 etc2 and some give the order of their development of taste for the great poets4 ,the careful statistics of ,dr4 ,reyer show that the greatest greed of reading is from the age of fifteen to twenty-two1 and is on the average greatest of all at twenty4 ,he finds that ten per cent of the young people of this age do forty per cent of all the reading4 ,before twenty the curve ascends very rapidly1 to fall afterward yet more rapidly as the need of bread-winning becomes imperative4 ,after thirty-five the great public reads but little4 ,every youth should have his or her own library1 which1 however small1 should be select4 ,to seal some knowledge of their content with the delightful sense of ownership helps to preserve the apparatus of culture1 keeps green early memories1 or makes one of the best tangible mementoes of parental care and love4 ,for the young especially1 the only ark of safety in the dark and rapidly rising flood of printer's ink is to turn resolutely away from the ideal of quantity to that of quality4 ,while literature rescues youth from individual limitations and enables it to act and think more as spectators of all time1 and sharers of all existence1 the passion for reading may be excessive1 and books which from the silent alcoves of our nearly #e1ejj ,american libraries rule the world more now than ever before1 may cause the young to neglect the oracles within1 weaken them by too wide reading1 make conversation bookish1 and overwhelm spontaneity and originality with a superfetation of alien ideas4 ,the reading passion may rage with great intensity when the soul takes its first long flight in the world of books1 and ninety per cent of all ,conradi's cases showed it4 ,of these1 thirty-two per cent read to have the feelings stirred and the desire of knowledge was a far less frequent motive4 ,some read to pass idle time1 others to appear learned or to acquire a style or a vocabulary4 ,romance led4 ,some specialized1 and with some the appetite was omnivorous4 ,some preferred books about or addressed to children1 some fairy tales1 and some sought only those for adults4 ,the night is often invaded and some become perfectly wild over exciting adventures or the dangers and hardships of true lovers1 laughing and crying as the story turns from grave to gay1 and a few read several books a week4 ,some were forbidden and read by stealth alone1 or with books hidden in their desks or under school books4 ,some few live thus for years in an atmosphere highly charged with romance1 and burn out their fires wickedly early with a sudden and extreme expansiveness that makes life about them uninteresting and unreal1 and that reacts to commonplace later4 ,conradi prints some two or three hundred favorite books and authors of early and of later adolescence4 ,the natural reading of early youth is not classic nor blighted by compulsion or uniformity for all4 ,this age seeks to express originality and personality in individual choices and tastes4 ,suggestive and briefly descriptive lists of best books and authors by authorities in different fields on which some time is spent in making selection1 talks about books1 pooling knowledge of them1 with no course of reading even advised and much less prescribed1 is the best guidance for developing the habit of rapid cursory reading4 ,others before professor ,de ,long1 of ,colorado1 have held that the power of reading a page in moment1 as a mathematician sums up a column of figures and as the artist ,dor was able to read a book by turning the leaves1 can be attained by training and practise4 ,school pressure should not suppress this instinct of omnivorous reading1 which at this age sometimes prompts the resolve to read encyclopedias1 and even libraries1 or to sample everything to be found in books at home4 ,along with1 but never suppressing1 it there should be some stated reading1 but this should lay down only kinds of reading like the four emphasized in the last chapter or offer a goodly number of large alternative groups of books and authors1 like the five of the ,leland ,stanford ,university1 and permit wide liberty of choice to both teacher and pupil4 ,few triumphs of the uniformitarians1 who sacrifice individual needs to mechanical convenience in dealing with youth in masses1 have been so sad as marking off and standardizing a definite quantum of requirements here4 ,instead of irrigating a wide field1 the well-springs of literary interest are forced to cut a deep canyon and leave wide desert plains of ignorance on either side4 ,besides imitation1 which reads what others do1 is the desire to read something no one else does1 and this is a palladium of individuality4 ,bad as is the principle1 the selections are worse1 including the saccharinity ineffable of ,tennyson's ,princess 7a strange expression of the progressive feminization of the high school and yet satirizing the scholastic aspiration of girls7 which the virile boy abhors1 books about books which are two removes from life1 and ponderous ,latinity authors which for the ,saxon boy suggest ,david fighting in ,saul's armor1 and which warp and pervert the nascent sentence-sense on a foreign model4 ,worst of all1 the prime moral purpose of youthful reading is ignored in choices based on form and style2 and a growing profusion of notes that distract from content to language1 the study of which belongs in the college if not in the university1 develops the tendencies of criticism before the higher powers of sympathetic appreciation have done their work4#ah 7,b7 ,other new mental powers and aptitudes are as yet too little studied4 ,very slight are the observations so far made1 of children's historic1 which is so clearly akin to literary1 interest and capacity4 ,with regard to this and several other subjects in the curriculum we are in the state of ,watts when he gazed at the tea-kettle and began to dream of the steam-engine2 we are just recognizing a new power and method destined to reconstruct and increase the efficiency of education1 but only after a long and toilsome period of limited successes4 ,mrs4 ,barnes#ai1 told a story without date1 place1 name1 or moral and compared the questions which #a1bej children would like to have answered about it4 ,she found that the interest of girls in persons1 or the number who asked the question who1 culminated at twelve1 when it coincided with that of boys1 but that the latter continued to rise to fifteen4 ,the interest to know place where events occurred culminated at eleven with girls1 and at fifteen1 and at a far higher point1 with boys4 ,the questions how and why1 calling for the method and reason1 both culminated at twelve for girls and fifteen for boys1 but were more infrequent and showed less age differences than the preceding question4 ,interest in the results of the action was most pronounced of all1 culminating at twelve in girls and fifteen in boys4 ,details and time excited far less interest1 the former jointly culminating for both sexes at eleven4 ,interest in the truth of the narrative was extremely slight1 although it became manifest at fifteen1 and was growing at sixteen4 ,the number of inferences drawn steadily increased with age1 although the increase was very slight after thirteen4 ,both legitimate and critical inferences increased after eleven1 while imaginative inferences at that age had nearly reached their maximum4 ,interest in names was very strong throughout1 as in primitive people4 ,boys were more curious concerning who1 where1 and how2 girls as to why4 ,in general1 the historic curiosity of boys was greater than that of girls1 and culminated later4 ,the inferences drawn from an imagined finding of a log-house1 boat1 and arrows on a lonely island indicate that the power of inference1 both legitimate and imaginative1 develops strongly at twelve and thirteen1 after which doubt and the critical faculties are apparent2 which coincides with ,mr4 ,m4,a4 ,tucker's conclusion1 that doubt develops at thirteen and that personal inference diminishes about that age4 ,the children were given two accounts of the fall of ,fort ,sumter1 one in the terms of a school history and the other a despatch of equal length from ,major ,anderson1 and asked which was best1 should be kept1 and why4 ,choice of the narrative steadily declined after eleven and that of the despatch increased1 the former reaching its lowest1 the latter its highest1 point at fifteen1 indicating a preference for the first-hand record4 ,the number of those whose choice was affected by style showed no great change1 from twelve to fifteen1 but rose very rapidly for the nest two years4 ,those who chose the despatch because it was true1 signed1 etc41 increased rapidly in girls and boys throughout the teens1 and the preference for the telegram as a more direct source increased very rapidly from thirteen to seventeen4 ,other studies of this kind led ,mrs4 ,barnes to conclude that children remembered items by groups2 that whole groups were often omitted2 that those containing most action were best remembered2 that what is remembered is remembered with great accuracy2 that generalities are often made more specific2 that the number of details a child carries away from a connected narrative is not much above fifty1 so that their numbers should be limited2 and from it all was inferred the necessity of accuracy1 of massing details about central characters or incidents1 letting action dominate1 omitting all that is aside from the main line of the story1 of bringing out cause and effect and dramatizing where possible4 ,miss ,patterson#bj collated the answers of #b1bcg children to the question ,what does #ahie mean8 ,the blanks ,don't know decreased very rapidly from six to eight1 and thereafter maintained a slight but constant percentage4 ,those who expanded the phase a little without intelligence were most numerous from eight to ten1 while the proportion who gave a correct explanation rose quite steadily for both sexes and culminated at fourteen for girls and fifteen for boys4 ,the latter only indicates the pupils of real historic knowledge4 ,the writer concludes that the sense of historical time is altogether lacking with children of seven1 and may be described as slight up to the age of twelve4 ,history1 it is thought1 should be introduced early with no difference between boys and girls1 but up to the age of twelve or thirteen it should be presented in a series of striking biographies and events1 appearing if possible in contemporary ballads and chronicles1 and illustrated by maps1 chronological charts1 and as richly as possible by pictures of contemporary objects1 buildings1 and people4 ,at the age of fourteen or fifteen1 another sort of work should appear4 ,original sources should still be used1 but they should illustrate not the picture of human society moving before us in a long panorama1 but should give us the opportunity to study the organization1 thought1 feeling1 of a time as seen in its concrete embodiments1 its documents1 monuments1 men1 and books4 ,the statesmen1 thinkers1 poets1 should now exceed explorers and fighters2 reflection and interpretation1 discrimination of the true from the false1 comparison1 etc41 are now first in order2 while later yet1 perhaps in college1 should come severer methods and special monographic study4 ,studies of mentality1 so well advanced for infants and so well begun for lower grades1 are still very meager for adolescent stages so far as they bear on growth in the power to deal with arithmetic1 drawing and pictures1 puzzles1 superstitions1 collections1 attention1 reason1 etc4 ,enough has been done to show that with authority to collect data on plans and by methods that can now be operated and with aid which should now be appropriated by school boards and teachers' associations1 incalculable pedagogic economy could be secured and the scientific and professional character of teaching every topic in upper grammar and high school and even in the early college grades be greatly enhanced4 ,to enter upon this laborious task in every branch of study is perhaps our chief present need and duty to our youth in school1 although individual studies like that of ,binet#ba belong elsewhere4 7,c7 ,the studies of memory up the grades show characteristic adolescent changes1 and some of these results are directly usable in school4 ,bolton#bb tested the power of #a1ejj children to remember and write dictated digits1 and found1 of course1 increasing accuracy with the older pupils4 ,he also found that the memory span increased with age rather than with the growth of intelligence as determined by grade4 ,the pupils depended largely upon visualisation1 and this and concentrated attention suggested that growth of memory did not necessarily accompany intellectual advancement4 ,girls generally surpassed boys1 and as with clicks too rapid to be counted1 it was found that when the pupils reached the limits of their span1 the number of digits was overestimated4 ,the power of concentrated and prolonged attention was tested4 ,the probability of error for the larger number of digits1 #g and #h1 decreased in a marked way with the development of pubescence1 at least up to fourteen years1 with the suggestion of a slight rise again at fifteen4 ,in comprehensive tests of the ability of ,chicago children to remember figures seen1 heard1 or repeated by them1 it was found that1 from seven to nine1 auditory were slightly better remembered than visual impressions4 ,from that age the latter steadily increased over the former4 ,after thirteen1 auditory memory increased but little1 and was already about ten per cent behind visual1 which continued to increase at least till seventeen4 ,audiovisual memory was better than either alone1 and the span of even this was improved when articulatory memory was added4 ,when the tests were made upon pupils of the same age in different grades it was found in ,chicago that memory power1 whether tested by sight1 hearing1 or articulation1 was best in those pupils whose school standing was highest1 and least where standing was lowest4 ,when a series of digits was immediately repeated orally and a record made1 it was found#bc that while from the age of eight to twelve the memory span increased only eight points1 from fourteen to eighteen it increased thirteen points4 ,the number of correct reproductions of numbers of seven places increased during the teens1 although this class of children remain about one digit behind normal children of corresponding age4 ,in general1 though not without exceptions1 it was found that intelligence grew with memory span1 although the former is far more inferior to that of the normal child than the latter1 and also that weakness of this kind of memory is not an especially prominent factor of weak-mindedness4 ,shaw#bd tested memory in #gjj school children by dividing a story of #cbd words into #aeb phrases1 having it read and immediately reproduced by them1 and selecting alternate grades from the third grammar to the end of the high school1 with a few college students4 ,the maximum power of this kind of memory was attained by boys in the high school period4 ,girls remembered forty-three per cent in the seventh grade1 and in the high school forty-seven per cent4 ,the increase by two-year periods was most rapid between the third and fifth grades4 ,four terms were remembered on the average by at least ninety per cent of the pupils1 #da by fifty per cent1 and #acj by ten per cent4 ,the story written out in the terms remembered by each percentage from ten to ninety affords a most interesting picture of the growth of memory1 and even its errors of omission1 insertion1 substitution and displacement4 ,the growth of memory is more rapid in the case of girls than boys1 and the figures suggest a coincidence with the general law1 that the rapid development incident to puberty occurs earlier in girls than in boys4 ,in a careful study of children's memory1 ,kemsies#be concludes that the quality of memory improves with age more rapidly than the quantity4 ,w4,g4 ,monroe tested #bge boys and #bic girls1 well distributed1 from seven to seventeen years of age1 and found a marked rise for both visual and auditory memory at fifteen for both sexes4 ,for both sexes1 also1 auditory memory was best at sixteen and visual at fifteen4 ,when accuracy in remembering the length of tone was used as a test1 it was found there was loss from six to seven and gain from seven to eight for both sexes4 ,from eight to nine girls lost rapidly for one and gained rapidly for the following year1 while boys were nearly stationary till ten1 after which both sexes gained to their maximum at fourteen years of age and declined for the two subsequent years1 both gaining power from sixteen to seventeen1 but neither attaining the accuracy they had at fourteen4#bf ,illustration3 ,girls and ,boys at ,memory ,reproductions compared4 ,netschajeff#bg subjected #fcg school children1 well distributed between the ages of nine and eighteen1 to the following tests4 ,twelve very distinct objects were shown them1 each for two seconds1 which must them be immediately written down4 ,twelve very distinct noises were made out of sight2 numbers of two figures each were read2 three-syllable words1 which were names of familiar objects1 objects that suggested noises1 words designating touch1 temperature1 and muscle sensations1 words describing states of feeling1 and names of abstract ideas also were given them4 ,the above eight series of twelve each were all reproduced in writing1 and showed that each kind of memory here tested increased with age1 with some slight tendency to decline at or just before puberty1 then to rise and to slightly decline after the sixteenth or seventeenth year4 ,memory for objects showed the greatest amount of increase during the year studied1 and works for feeling next1 although at all ages the latter was considerably below the former4 ,boys showed stronger memory for real impressions1 and girls excelled for numbers and words4 ,the difference of these two kinds of memory was less with girls than with boys4 ,the greatest difference between the sexes lay between eleven and fourteen years4 ,this seems1 at eighteen or nineteen1 to be slightly increased4 ,this is especially great at the age of puberty4 ,children from nine to eleven have but slight power of reproducing emotions1 but this increases in the next few years very rapidly1 as does that of the abstract words4 ,girls from nine to eleven deal better with words than with objects2 boys slightly excel with objects4 ,illusions in reproducing words which mistake sense1 sound1 and rhythm1 which is not infrequent with younger children1 decline with age especially at puberty4 ,up to this period girls are most subject to these illusions1 and afterward boys4 ,the preceding tables1 in which the ordinates represent the number of correct reproductions and the abscissas the age1 are interesting4 ,lobsien made tests similar to those of ,netschajeff1#bh with modifications for greater accuracy1 upon #bch boys and #bbd girls from nine to fourteen and a half years of age4 ,the preceding tables show the development of the various kinds of memory for boys and girls3 ,,boys4 ,age4 ,objects ,noises ,number ,visual ,acoustic ,touch ,feeling ,sounds ,concepts ,concepts ,concepts ,concepts #ac-ad-a_/b #ib4ef #ga4hi #hj4fg #gc4jj #gd4gh #ge4cc #ge4dd #dj4ef #ab-ac #gf4de #eg4ch #gb4cc #fi4fg #fd4hi #gc4fg #eh4fg #cg4hg #aa-ab #hi4gh #eg4ai #gj4bb #ei4fg #fc4jj #gc4cc #ee4cc #ai4ii #aj-aa #hg4ab #ee4cc #di4cc #ee4aa #dh4dd #eg4aa #ch4cc #ab4dd #i-aj #fd4jj #ec4cc #di4ji #df4eh #dc4gh #dc4fg #bg4bb #g4bb ,normal #hb4b #ei4jb #fd4h #fj4f #ei4d #fd4b #ca4b #bd4j value4 ,,girls4 #ac-ad-a_/b #ii4ef #hb4fg #hg4bb #if4fg #ga4dd #hb4jj #gj4bb #da4cc #ab-ac #ib4hi #ge4ef #gd4hi #gg4bb #fc4aa #gd4fg #fg4cc #cd4hi #aa-ab #id4jj #ef4jj #gc4ef #gb4gh #gb4aa #gj4hi #gc4cc #bh4bb #aj-aa #ge4gh #df4bb #fb4dd #ef4bb #ed4gh #eh4gh #dc4bb #aj4dd #i-aj #hi4cc #df4bb #ej4dd #ed4bb #ch4bb #ea4aa #cb4hi #f4hi ,normal #ia4d #fb4b #ga4h #ga4j #fj4b #fg4b #ei4d #bc4h value4 ,the table for boys shows in the fourteenth year a marked increase of memory for objects1 noises1 and feelings1 especially as compared with the marked relative decline the preceding year1 when there was a decided increase in visual concepts and senseless sounds4 ,the twelfth year shows the greatest increase in number memory1 acoustic impressions1 touch1 and feeling4 ,the tenth and eleventh years show marked increase of memory for objects and their names4 ,thus the increase in the strength of memory is by no means the same year by year1 but progress focuses on some forms and others are neglected4 ,hence each type of memory shows an almost regular increase and decrease in relative strength4 ,the table for girls shown marked increase of all memory forms about the twelfth year4 ,this relative increase is exceeded only in the fourteenth year for visual concepts4 ,the thirteenth year shows the greatest increase for sounds and a remarkable regression for objects in passing from the lowest to the next grade above4 ,in the accuracy of reproducing the order of impressions1 girls much exceeded boys at all ages4 ,for seen object1 their accuracy was twice that of boys1 the boys excelling in order only in number4 ,in general1 ability to reproduce a series of impressions increases and decreases with the power to reproduce in any order1 but by no means in direct proportion to it4 ,the effect of the last member in a series by a purely mechanical reproduction is best in boys4 ,the range and energy of reproduction is far higher than ordered sequence4 ,in general girls slightly exceed boys in recalling numbers1 touch concepts1 and sounds1 and largely exceed in recalling feeling concepts1 real things and visual concept4 ,colegrove#bi tabulated returns from the early memories of #a1feh correspondents with #f1jfi memories1 from which he reached the conclusions1 represented in the following curves1 for the earliest three memories of white males and females4 ,in the cuts on the following page1 the heavy line represents the first memory1 the broken the second1 and the dotted the third4 ,age at the time of reporting is represented in distance to the right1 and the age of the person at the time of the occurrence remembered is represented by the distance upward4 ,there is a rise in all the curves at adolescence4 ,this shows that1 from the age of twelve to fifteen1 boys do not recall so early memories as they do both before and after this period4 ,this ,colegrove ascribes to the fact that the present seems so large and rich4 ,at any rate1 the earliest memories of boys at the age of fourteen average almost four years4 ,his curves for girls show that the age of all the first three memories which they are able to recall is higher at fourteen than at any period before or after2 that at seven and eight the average age of the first things recalled is nearly a year earlier than it is at fourteen4 ,this means that at puberty there is a marked and characteristic obliteration of infantile memories which lapse to oblivion with augmented absorption in the present4 ,illustration3 ,untitled ,graph4 ,it was found that males have the greatest number of memories for protracted or repeated occurrences1 for people1 and clothing1 topographical and logical matters2 that females have better memories for novel occurrences or single impressions4 ,already at ten and eleven motor memories begin to decrease for females and increase for males4 ,at fourteen and fifteen1 motor memories nearly culminate for males1 but still further decline for females4 ,the former show a marked decrease in memory for relatives and playmates and an increase for other persons4 ,sickness and accidents to self are remembered less by males and better by females1 as are memories of fears4 ,at eighteen and nineteen there is a marked and continued increase in the visual memories of each sex and the auditory memory of females4 ,memory for the activity of others increases for both1 but far more strongly for males4 ,colegrove concludes from his data that the period of adolescence is one of great psychical awaking4 ,a wide range of memories is found at this time4 ,from the fourteenth year with girls and the fifteenth with boys the auditory memories are strongly developed4 ,at the dawn of adolescence the motor memory of voice nearly culminates1 and they have fewer memories of sickness and accidents to self4 ,during this time the memory of other persons and the activity of others is emphasized in case of both boys and girls4 ,in general1 at this period the special sensory memories are numerous1 and it is the golden age for motor memories4 ,now1 too1 the memories of high ideals1 self-sacrifice1 and self-forgetfulness are cherished4 ,wider interests than self and immediate friends become the objects of reflection and recollection4 ,after twenty there is marked change in the memory content4 ,the male acquires more and the female less visual and auditory memories4 ,the memories of the female are more logical1 and topographical features increase4 ,memories of sickness and accidents to self decrease with the males and increase with the females1 while in the case of both there is relative decline in the memories of sickness and accident to others4 ,from all this it would appear that different memories culminate at different periods1 and bear immediate relation to the whole mental life of the period4 ,while perhaps some of the finer analyses of ,colegrove may invite further confirmation1 his main results given above are not only suggestive1 but rendered very plausible by his evidence4 ,statistics based upon replies to the question as to whether pleasant or unpleasant experiences were best remembered1 show that the former increase at eleven1 rise rapidly at fourteen1 and culminate at eighteen for males1 and that the curve of painful memories follows the same course1 although for both there is a drop at fifteen4 ,for females1 the pleasant memories increase rapidly from eleven to thirteen1 decline a little at fourteen1 rise again at sixteen1 and culminate at seventeen1 and the painful memories follow nearly the same course1 only with a slight drop at fifteen4 ,thus1 up to twenty-two for males1 there is a marked preponderance of pleasant over painful memories1 although the two rise and fall together4 ,after thirty1 unpleasant memories are but little recalled4 ,for the ,indians and negroes in this census1 unpleasant memories play a far more and often preponderating rle suggesting persecution and sad experiences4 ,different elements of the total content of memory come to prominence at different ages4 ,he also found that the best remembered years of life are sixteen to seventeen for males and fifteen for females1 and that in general the adolescent period has more to do than any other in forming and furnishing the memory plexus1 while the seventh and eighth year are most poorly remembered4 ,it is also known that many false memories insert themselves into the texture of remembered experiences4 ,one dreams a friend is dead and thinks she is till she is met one day in the street2 or dreams of a fire and inquires about it in the morning2 dreams of a present and searches the house for it next day2 delays breakfast for a friend1 who arrived the night before in a dream1 to come down to breakfast2 a child hunts for a bushel of pennies dreamed of1 etc4 ,these phantoms falsify our memory most often1 according to ,dr4 ,colegrove1 between sixteen and nineteen4 ,mnemonic devices prompt children to change rings to keep appointments1 tie knots in the handkerchief1 put shoes on the dressing-table1 hide garments1 associate faces with hoods1 names with acts1 things1 or qualities they suggest2 visualize1 connect figures1 letters with colors1 etc4 ,from a scrutiny of the original material1 which ,i was kindly allowed to make1 this appears to rise rapidly at puberty4 ,footnote #a3 ,see my ,ideal ,school as ,based on ,child ,study4 ,proceedings of the ,national ,educational ,association1 #aija1 pp4 #dgj-dij4 ,footnote #b3 ,charles ,p4,g4 ,scott3 ,the ,number of ,words in the ,english and ,other ,languages4 ,princeton ,university ,bulletin1 ,may1 #aijb1 vol4 #ac1 pp4 #ajf-aaa4 ,footnote #c3 ,the ,teaching of ,english4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,june1 #aijb1 vol4 #i1 pp4 #afa-afh4 ,footnote #d3 ,see my ,some ,aspects of the ,early ,sense of ,self4 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 ,april1 #ahih1 vol4 #i1 pp4 #cea-cie4 ,footnote #e3 ,sprachgeschichte und ,sprachpsychologie1 mit ,rucksicht auf ,b4 ,delbrck's ,grundfragen der ,sprachforschung4 ,leipzig1 ,w4 ,engelmann1 #aija ,footnote #f3 ,latin in the ,high ,school4 ,by ,edward ,conradi4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,march1 #aije1 vol4 #ab1 pp4 #a-bf4 ,footnote #g3 ,the ,psychological and ,pedagogical ,aspect of ,language4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,december1 #aijc1 vol4 #aj1 pp4 #dch-deh4 ,footnote #h3 ,children's ,interest in ,words4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,september1 #aijb1 vol4 #i1 pp4 #bgd-bie4 ,footnote #i3 ,children's ,interests in ,words1 ,slang1 ,stories1 etc4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,october1 #aijc1 vol4 #aj1 pp4 #cei-djd4 ,footnote #aj3 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 ,april1 #aijj1 vol4 #aa1 p4 #cde et seq4 ,footnote #aa3 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 ,january1 #ahie1 vol4 #f1 pp4 #ehe-eib4 ,see also vol4 #aj1 p4 #eag et seq4 ,footnote #ab3 ,north ,american ,review1 ,november1 #ahhe1 vol4 #ada1 pp4 #dca-dce4 ,footnote #ac3 ,introduction to the ,biglow ,papers1 series ii4 ,footnote #ad3 ,some ,observations on ,children's ,reading4 ,proceedings of the ,national ,educational ,association1 #ahig1 pp4 #ajae-ajbl4 ,footnote #ae3 ,report on ,child ,reading4 ,new ,york ,report of ,state ,superintendent1 #ahig1 vol4 #b1 p4 #igi4 ,footnote #af3 ,children's reading4 ,north-,western ,monthly1 ,december1 #ahih1 vol4 #i1 pp4 #ahh-aia1 and ,january1 #ahii1 vol4 #i1 pp4 #bbi-bcc4 ,footnote #ag3 ,a study of ,children's ,reading ,tastes4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,december1 #ahii1 vol4 #f1 pp4 #ebc-ece4 ,footnote #ah3 ,perhaps the best and most notable school reader is ,das ,deutsche ,lesebuch1 begun nearly fifty years ago by ,hopf and ,paulsiek1 and lately supplemented by a corps of writers headed by ,dbeln1 all in ten volumes of over #c1ejj pages and containing nearly six times as much matter as the largest ,american series4 ,many men for years went over the history of ,german literature1 from the ,eddas and ,nibelungenlied down1 including a few living writers1 carefully selecting saga1 legends1 ,mrchen1 fables1 proverbs1 hymns1 a few prayers1 ,bible tales1 conundrums1 jests1 and humorous tales1 with many digests1 epitomes and condensation of great standards1 quotations1 epic1 lyric1 dramatic poetry1 adventure1 exploration1 biography1 with sketches of the life of each writer quoted1 with a large final volume on the history of ,german literature4 ,all this1 it is explained1 is stataric or required to be read between ,octava,a and ,obersecunda4 ,it is no aimless anthology or chrestomathy like ,chambers's ,encyclopedia1 but it is perhaps the best product of prolonged concerted study to select from a vast field the best to feed each nascent stage of later childhood and early youth1 and to secure the maximum of pleasure and profit4 ,the ethical end is dominant throughout this pedagogic canon4 ,footnote ,a3 ,the ,prussian gymnasium1 whose course is classical and fits for the ,university1 has nine classes in three divisions of three classes each4 ,the lower classes are ,octava1 ,septa1 ,sexta1 ,quinta1 and ,quarta2 the middle classes1 ,untertertia1 ,obertertia1 and ,untersecunda2 the higher classes1 ,obersecunda1 ,unterprima1 and ,oberprima4 ,pupils must be at least nine years of age and have done three years preparatory work before entrance4 ,footnote #ai3 ,the ,historic ,sense among ,children4 ,in her ,studies in ,historical ,method4 ,d4 ,c4 ,heath and ,co41 ,boston1 #ahif1 p4 #eg4 ,footnote #bj3 ,special ,study on ,children's ,sense of ,historical ,time4 ,mrs4 ,barnes's ,studies in ,historical ,method1 ,d4,c4 ,heath and ,co41 ,boston1 #ahif1 p4 #id4 ,footnote #ba3 ,l',etude exprimentale de l'intelligence4 ,schleicher ,frres1 ,paris1 #aijc4 ,footnote #bb3 ,the ,growth of ,memory in ,school ,children4 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 ,april1 #ahib1 vol4 #i1 pp4 #cfb-chj4 ,footnote #bc3 ,contribution to the ,psychology and ,pedagogy of ,feeble-minded ,children4 ,by ,g4,e4 ,johnson4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,october1 #ahie1 vol4 #c1 p4 #bgj4 ,footnote #bd3 ,a ,test of ,memory in ,school ,children4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,october1 #ahih1 vol4 #d1 pp4 #fa-gh4 ,footnote #be3 ,zeitschrift fr pdagogische ,psychologie1 ,pathologie und ,hygiene4 ,february1 #aijj4 ,jahrgang ,,ii1 ,heft #a1 pp4 #ba-cj4 ,footnote #bf3 ,see ,scripture3 ,scientific ,child ,study4 ,transactions of the ,illinois ,society for ,child ,study1 ,may1 #ahie1 vol4 #a1 ,no4 #b1 pp4 #cb-cg4 ,footnote #bg3 ,experimentelle ,untersuchungen ber die ,gedchtnissentwickelung bei ,schulkindern4 ,zeits4 f4 ,psychologie1 u4 ,physiologie der ,sinnes-organe1 ,november1 #aijj4 ,bd4 #bd4 ,heft #e1 pp4 #cba-cea4 ,footnote #bh3 ,see ,note #d1 p4 #bgj4 ,footnote #bi3 ,memory3 ,an ,inductive ,study4 ,by ,f4,w4 ,colegrove4 ,henry ,holt and ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aijj1 p4 #bbi4 ,see also ,individual ,memories4 ,american ,journal of ,psychology1 ,january1 #ahii1 vol4 #aj1 pp #bbh-bee4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,the ,,education ,,of ,,girls ,equal opportunities of higher education now open--,brings new dangers to women--,ineradicable sex differences begin at puberty1 when the sexes should and do diverge--,different interests--,sex tension--,girls more mature than boys at the same age--,radical psychic and physiological differences between the sexes--,the bachelor women--,needed reconstruction--,food--,sleep--,regimen- -,manners--,religion--,regularity--,the topics for a girls' curriculum--,the eternal womanly4 ,the long battle of woman and her friends for equal educational and other opportunities is essentially won all along the line4 ,her academic achievements have forced conservative minds to admit that her intellect is not inferior to that of man4 ,the old cloistral seclusion and exclusion is forever gone and new ideals are arising4 ,it has been a noble movement and is a necessary first stage of woman's emancipation4 ,the caricatured maidens as beautiful as an angel but as silly as a goose who come from the kitchen to the husband's study to ask how much is two times two1 and are told it is four for a man and three for a woman1 and go back with a happy ,thank you1 my dear2 those who love to be called baby1 and appeal to instincts half parental in their lovers and husbands2 those who find all the sphere they desire in a doll's house1 like ,nora's1 and are content to be men's pets2 whose ideal is the clinging vine1 and who take no interest in the field where their husbands struggle1 will perhaps soon survive only as a diminishing remainder4 ,marriages do still occur where woman's ignorance and helplessness seem to be the chief charm to men1 and may be happy1 but such cases are no farther from the present ideal and tendency on the one hand than on the other are those which consist in intellectual partnerships1 in which there is no segregation of interests but which are devoted throughout to joint work or enjoyment4 ,a typical contemporary writer#a thinks the question whether a girl shall receive a college education is very like the same question for boys4 ,even if the four ,k's1 ,kirche1 ,kinder1 ,kuchen1 and ,kleider 7which may be translated by the four ,c's1 ,church1 ,children1 ,cooking1 and ,clothes71 are her vocation1 college may help her4 ,the best training for a young woman is not the old college course that has proven unfit for young men4 ,most college men look forward to a professional training as few women do4 ,the latter have often greater sympathy1 readiness of memory1 patience with technic1 skill in literature and language1 but lack originality1 are not attracted by unsolved problems1 are less motor-minded2 but their training is just as serious and important as that of men4 ,the best results are where the sexes are brought closer together1 because their separation generally emphasizes for girls the technical training for the profession of womanhood4 ,with girls1 literature and language take precedence over science2 expression stands higher than action2 the scholarship may be superior1 but is not effective2 the educated woman is likely to master technic rather than art2 method1 rather than substance4 ,she may know a good deal1 but she can do nothing4 ,in most separate colleges for women1 old traditions are more prevalent than in colleges for men4 ,in the annex system1 she does not get the best of the institution4 ,by the coeducation method1 young men are more earnest1 better in manners and morals1 and in all ways more civilized than under monastic conditions4 ,the women do more work in a more natural way1 with better perspective and with saner incentives than when isolated from the influence of the society of men4 ,there is less silliness and folly where a man is not a novelty4 ,in coeducational institutions of high standards1 frivolous conduct or scandals of any form are rarely known4 ,the responsibility for decorum is thrown from the school to the woman1 and the woman rises to the responsibility4 ,the character of college work has not been lowered but raised by coeducation1 despite the fact that most of the new1 small1 weak colleges are coeducational4 ,social strain1 ,jordan thinks1 is easily regulated1 and the dormitory system is on the whole best1 because the college atmosphere is highly prized4 ,the reasons for the present reaction against coeducation are ascribed partly to the dislike of the idle boy to have girls excel him and see his failures1 or because rowdyish tendencies are checked by the presence of women4 ,some think that girls do not help athletics2 that men count for most because they are more apt to be heard from later2 but the most serious new argument is the fear that woman's standards and amateurishness will take the place of specialization4 ,women take up higher education because they like it2 men because their careers depend upon it4 ,hence their studies are more objective and face the world as it is4 ,in college the women do as well as men1 but not in the university4 ,the half-educated woman as a social factor has produced many soft lecture courses and cheap books4 ,this is an argument for the higher education of the sex4 ,finally1 ,jordan insists that coeducation leads to marriage1 and he believes that its best basis is common interest and intellectual friendship4 ,from the available data it seems1 however1 that the more scholastic the education of women1 the fewer children and the harder1 more dangerous1 and more dreaded is parturition1 and the less the ability to nurse children4 ,not intelligence1 but education by present man-made ways1 is inversely as fecundity4 ,the sooner and the more clearly this is recognized as a universal rule1 not1 of course1 without many notable and much vaunted exceptions1 the better for our civilization4 ,for one1 ,i plead with no whit less earnestness and conviction than any of the feminists1 and indeed with more fervor because on nearly all their grounds and also on others1 for the higher education of women1 and would welcome them to every opportunity available to men if they can not do better2 but ,i would open to their election another education1 which every competent judge would pronounce more favorable to motherhood1 under the influence of female principals who do not publicly say that it is not desirable that women students should study motherhood1 because they do not know whether they will marry2 who encourage them to elect no special subjects because they are women1 and who think infant psychology foolish4 ,various interesting experiments in coeducation are now being made in ,england4#b ,some are whole-hearted and encourage the girls to do almost everything that the boys do in both study and play4 ,there are girl prefects2 cricket teams are formed sometimes of both sexes1 but often the sexes matched against each other2 one play-yard1 a dual staff of teachers1 and friendships between the boys and girls are not tabooed1 etc4 ,in other schools the sexes meet perhaps in recitation only1 have separate rooms for study1 entrances1 play-grounds1 and their relations are otherwise restricted4 ,the opinion of ,english writers generally favors coeducation up to about the beginning of the teens1 and from there on views are more divided4 ,it is admitted that1 if there is a very great preponderance of either sex over the other1 the latter is likely to lose its characteristic qualities1 and something of this occurs where the average age of one sex is distinctly greater than that of the other4 ,on the other hand1 several urge that1 where age and numbers are equal1 each sex is more inclined to develop the best qualities peculiar to itself in the presence of the other4 ,some girls are no doubt far fitter for boys' studies and men's careers than others4 ,coeducation1 too1 generally means far more assimilation of girls' to boys' ways and work than conversely4 ,many people believe that girls either gain or are more affected by coeducation1 especially in the upper grades1 than boys4 ,it is interesting1 however1 to observe the differences that still persist4 ,certain games1 like football and boxing1 girls can not play2 they do not fight2 they are not flogged or caned as ,english boys are when their bad marks foot up beyond a certain aggregate2 girls are more prone to cliques2 their punishments must be in appeals to school sentiment1 to which they are exceedingly sensitive2 it is hard for them to bear defeat in games with the same dignity and unruffled temper as boys2 it is harder for them to accept the school standards of honor that condemn the tell-tale as a sneak1 although they soon learn this4 ,they may be a little in danger of being roughened by boyish ways and especially by the crude and unique language1 almost a dialect in itself1 prevalent among schoolboys4 ,girls are far more prone to overdo2 boys are persistingly lazy and idle4 ,girls are content to sit and have the subject-matter pumped into them by recitations1 etc41 and to merely accept1 while boys are more inspired by being told to do things and make tests and experiments4 ,in this1 girls are often quite at sea4 ,one writer speaks of a certain feminine obliquity1 but hastens to say that girls in these schools soon accept its code of honor4 ,it is urged1 too1 that singing classes the voices of each sex are better in quality for the presence of the other4 ,in many topics of all kinds boys and girls are interested in different aspects of the same theme1 and therefore the work is broadened4 ,in manual training1 girls excel in all artistic work2 boys1 in carpentry4 ,girls can be made not only less noxiously sentimental and impulsive1 but their conduct tends to become more thoughtful2 they can be made to feel responsibility for bestowing their praise aright and thus influencing the tone of the school4 ,calamitous as it world be for the education of boys beyond a certain age to be entrusted entirely or chiefly to women1 it would be less so for that of girls to be given entirely to men4 ,perhaps the great women teachers1 whose life and work have made them a power with girls comparable to that of ,arnold and ,thring with boys1 are dying out4 ,very likely economic motives are too dominant for this problem to be settled on its merits only4 ,finally1 several writers mention the increased healthfulness of moral tone4 ,the vices that infest boys' schools1 which ,arnold thought a quantity constantly changing with every class1 are diminished4 ,healthful thoughts of sex1 less subterranean and base imaginings on the one hand1 and less gushy sentimentality on the other1 are favored4 ,for either sex to be a copy of the other is to be weakened1 and each comes normally to respect more and to prefer its own sex4 ,not to pursue this subject further here1 it is probable that many of the causes for the facts set forth are very different and some of them almost diametrically opposite in the two sexes4 ,hard as it is per se1 it is after all a comparatively easy matter to educate boys4 ,they are less peculiarly responsive in mental tone to the physical and psychic environment1 tend more strongly and early to special interests1 and react more vigorously against the obnoxious elements of their surroundings4 ,this is truest of the higher education1 and more so in proportion as the tendencies of the age are toward special and vocational training4 ,woman1 as we saw1 in every fiber of her soul and body is a more generic creature than man1 nearer to the race1 and demands more and more with advancing age an education that is essentially liberal and humanistic4 ,this is progressively hard when the sexes differentiate in the higher grades4 ,moreover1 nature decrees that with advancing civilization the sexes shall not approximate1 but differentiate1 and we shall probably be obliged to carry sex distinctions1 at least of method1 into many if not most of the topics of the higher education4 ,now that woman has by general consent attained the right to the best that man has1 she must seek a training that fits her own nature as well or better4 ,so long as she strives to be manlike she will be inferior and a pinchbeck imitation1 but she must develop a new sphere that shall be like the rich field of the cloth of gold for the best instincts of her nature4 ,divergence is most marked and sudden in the pubescent period--in the early teens4 ,at this age1 by almost world-wide consent1 boys and girls separate for a time1 and lead their lives during this most critical period more or less apart1 at least for a few years1 until the ferment of mind and body which results in maturity of functions then born and culminating in nubility1 has done its work4 ,the family and the home abundantly recognize this tendency4 ,at twelve or fourteen1 brothers and sisters develop a life more independent of each other than before4 ,their home occupations differ as do their plays1 games1 tastes4 ,history1 anthropology1 and sociology1 a well as home life1 abundantly illustrate this4 ,this is normal and biological4 ,what our schools and other institutions should do1 is not to obliterate these differences but to make boys more manly and girls more womanly4 ,we should respect the law of sexual differences1 and not forget that motherhood is a very different thing from fatherhood4 ,neither sex should copy nor set patterns to the other1 but all parts should be played harmoniously and clearly in the great sex symphony4 ,i have here less to say against coeducation in college1 still less in university grades after the maturity which comes at eighteen or twenty has been achieved2 but it is high time to ask ourselves whether the theory and practise of identical coeducation1 especially in the high school1 which has lately been carried to a greater extreme in this country than the rest of the world recognizes1 has not brought certain grave dangers1 and whether it does not interfere with the natural differentiations seen everywhere else4 ,i recognize1 of course1 the great argument of economy4 ,indeed1 we should save money and effort could we unite churches of not too diverse creeds4 ,we could thus give better preaching1 music1 improve the edifice1 etc4 ,i am by no means ready to advocate the radical abolition of coeducation1 but we can already sum up in a rough1 brief way our account of profit and loss with it4 ,on the one hand1 no doubt each sex develops some of its own best qualities best in the presence of the other1 but the question still remains1 how much1 when1 and in what way1 identical coeducation secures this end8 ,as has been said1 girls and boys are often interested in different aspects of the same topic1 and this may have a tendency to broaden the view-point of both and bring it into sympathy with that of the other1 but the question still remains whether one be not too much attracted to the sphere of the other1 especially girls to that of boys4 ,no doubt some girls become a little less gushy1 their conduct more thoughtful1 and their sense of responsibility greater2 for one of woman's great functions1 which is that of bestowing praise aright1 is increased4 ,there is also much evidence that certain boys' vices are mitigated2 they are made more urbane and their thoughts of sex made more healthful4 ,in some respects boys are stimulated to good scholarship by girls1 who in many schools and topics excel them4 ,we should ask1 however1 ,what is nature's way at this stage of life8 ,whether boys1 in order to be well virified later1 ought not to be so boisterous and even rough as to be at times unfit companions for girls2 or whether1 on the other hand1 girls to be best matured ought not to have their sentimental periods of instability1 especially when we venture to raise the question1 whether for a girl in the early teens1 when her health for her whole life depends upon normalizing the lunar month1 there is not something unhygienic1 unnatural1 not to say a little monstrous1 in school associations with boys when she must suppress and conceal her feelings and instinctive promptings at those times which suggest withdrawing1 to let nature do its beautiful work of inflorescence4 ,it is a sacred time of reverent exemption from the hard struggle of existence in the world and from mental effort in the school4 ,medical specialists1 many of the best of whom now insist that through this period she should be1 as it were1 turned out to grass1 or should lie fallow1 so far as intellectual efforts go1 one-fourth the time1 no doubt often go too far1 but their unanimous voice should not entirely be disregarded4 ,it is not this1 however1 that ,i have chiefly in mind here1 but the effects of too familiar relations and1 especially1 of the identical work1 treatment1 and environment of the modern school4 ,we have now at least eight good and independent statistical studies which show that the ideals of boys from ten years on are almost always those of their own sex1 while girls' ideals are increasingly of the opposite sex1 or those of men4 ,that the ideals of pubescent girls are not found in the great and noble women of the world or in their literature1 but more and more in men1 suggests a divorce between the ideals adopted and the line of life best suited to the interests of the race4 ,we are not furnished in our public schools with adequate womanly ideals in history or literature4 ,the new love of freedom which women have lately felt inclines girls to abandon the home for the office4 ,it surely can hardly be called an ideal education for women that permits eighteen out of one hundred college girls to state boldly that they would rather be men than women4 ,more than one-half of the schoolgirls in these censuses choose male ideals1 as if those of femininity are disintegrating4 ,a recent writer1#c in view of this fact1 states that unless there is a change of trend1 we shall soon have a female sex without a female character4 ,in the progressive numerical feminization of our schools most teachers1 perhaps naturally and necessarily1 have more or less masculine ideals1 and this does not encourage the development of those that constitute the glory of womanhood4 ,at every age from eight to sixteen1 girls named from three to twenty more ideals than boys4 ,these facts indicate a condition of diffused interests and lack of clear-cut purposes and a need of integration4 ,when we turn to boys the case is different4 ,in most public high schools girls preponderate1 especially in the upper classes1 and in many of them the boys that remain are practically in a girls' school1 sometimes taught chiefly1 if not solely1 by women teachers at an age when strong men should be in control more than at any other period of life4 ,boys need a different discipline and moral regimen and atmosphere4 ,they also need a different method of work4 ,girls excel them in learning and memorization1 accepting studies upon suggestion or authority1 but are often quite at sea when set to make tests and experiments that give individuality and a chance for self-expression1 which is one of the best things in boyhood4 ,girls preponderate in our overgrown high school ,latin and algebra1 because custom and tradition and1 perhaps1 advice incline them to it4 ,they preponderate in ,english and history classes more often1 let us hope1 from inner inclination4 ,the boy sooner grows restless in a curriculum where form takes precedence over content4 ,he revolts at much method with meager matter4 ,he craves utility1 and when all these instincts are denied1 without knowing what is the matter1 he drops out of school1 when with robust tone and with a truly boy life1 such as prevails at ,harrow1 ,eton1 and ,rugby1 he would have fought it through and have done well4 ,this feminization of the school spirit1 discipline1 and personnel is bad for boys4 ,of course1 on the whole1 perhaps1 they are made more gentlemanly1 more at ease1 their manners improved1 and all this to a woman teacher seems excellent1 but something is the matter with the boy in early teens who can be truly called a perfect gentleman4 ,that should come later1 when the brute and animal element have had opportunity to work themselves off in a healthful normal way4 ,they still have football to themselves1 and are the majority perhaps in chemistry1 and sometimes in physics1 but there is danger of a settled eviration4 ,the segregation1 which even some of our schools are now attempting1 is always in some degree necessary for full and complete development4 ,just as the boys' language is apt to creep into that of the girl1 so girls' interests1 ways1 standards and tastes1 which are crude at this age1 sometimes attract boys out of their orbit4 ,while some differences are emphasized by contact1 others are compromised4 ,boys tend to grow content with mechanical1 memorized work and1 excelling on the lines of girls' qualities1 fail to develop those of their own4 ,there is a little charm and bloom rubbed off the ideal of girlhood by close contact1 and boyhood seems less ideal to girls at close range4 ,in place of the mystic attraction of the other sex that has inspired so much that is best in the world1 familiar comradeship brings a little disenchantment4 ,the impulse to be at one's best in the presence of the other sex prows lax and sex tension remits1 and each comes to feel itself seen through1 so that there is less motive to indulge in the ideal conduct which such motives inspire1 because the call for it is incessant4 ,this disillusioning weakens the motivation to marriage sometimes on both sides1 when girls grow careless in their dress and too negligent in their manners1 one of the best schools of woman's morals2 and when boys lose all restraints which the presence of girls usually enforces1 there is a subtle deterioration4 ,thus1 ,i believe1 although of course it is impossible to prove1 that this is one of the factors of a decreasing percentage of marriage among educated young men and women4 ,at eighteen or twenty the girl normally reaches a stage of first maturity when her ideas of life are amazingly keen and true2 when1 if her body is developed1 she can endure a great deal2 when she is nearest1 perhaps1 the ideal of feminine beauty and perfection4 ,of this we saw illustrations in ,chapter ,,viii4 ,in our environment1 however1 there is a little danger that this age once well past there will slowly arise a slight sense of aimlessness or lassitude1 unrest1 uneasiness1 as if one were almost unconsciously feeling along the wall for a door to which the key was not at hand4 ,thus some lose their bloom and1 yielding to the great danger of young womanhood1 slowly lapse to a anxious state of expectancy1 or desire something not within their reach1 and so the diathesis of restlessness slowly supervenes4 ,the best thing about college life for girls is1 perhaps1 that it postpones this incipient disappointment2 but it is a little pathetic to me to read1 as ,i have lately done1 the class letters of hundreds of girl graduates1 out of college one1 two1 or three years1 turning a little to art1 music1 travel1 teaching1 charity work1 one after the other1 or trying to find something to which they can devote themselves1 some cause1 movement1 occupation1 where their capacity for altruism and self-sacrifice can find a field4 ,the tension is almost imperceptible1 perhaps quite unconscious4 ,it is everywhere overborne by a keen interest in life1 by a desire to know the world at first hand1 while susceptibilities are at their height4 ,the apple of intelligence has been plucked at perhaps a little too great cost of health4 ,the purely mental has not been quite sufficiently kept back4 ,the girl wishes to know a good deal more of the world and perfect her own personality1 and would not marry1 although every cell of her body and every unconscious impulse points to just that end4 ,soon1 it may be in five or ten years or more1 the complexion of ill health is in these notes1 or else life has been adjusted to independence and self-support4 ,many of these bachelor women are magnificent in mind and body1 but they lack wifehood and yet more--motherhood4 ,in fine1 we should use these facts as a stimulus to ask more searchingly the question whether the present system of higher education for both sexes is not lacking in some very essential elements1 and if so what these are4 ,indeed1 considering the facts that in our social system man makes the advances and that woman is by nature more prone than man to domesticity and parenthood1 it is not impossible that men's colleges do more to unfit for these than do those for women4 ,one cause may be moral4 ,ethics used to be taught as a practical power for life and renforced by religious motives4 ,now it is theoretical and speculative and too often led captive by metaphysical and epistemological speculations4 ,sometimes girls work or worry more over studies and ideals than is good for their constitution1 and boys grow idle and indifferent1 and this proverbially tends to bad habits4 ,perhaps fitting for college has been too hard at the critical age of about eighteen1 and requirements of honest1 persevering work during college years too little enforced1 or grown irksome by physiological reaction of lassitude from the strain of fitting and entering4 ,again1 girls mature earlier than boys2 and the latter who have been educated with them tend to certain elements of maturity and completeness too early in life1 and their growth period is shortened or its momentum lessened by an atmosphere of femininity4 ,something is clearly wrong1 and more so here than we have at present any reason to think is the case among the academic male or female youth of other lands4 ,to see and admit that there is an evil very real1 deep1 exceedingly difficult and complex in its causes1 but grave and demanding a careful reconsideration of current educational ideas and practises1 is the first step2 and this every thoughtful and well-informed mind1 ,i believe1 must now take4 ,it is utterly impossible without injury to hold girls to the same standards of conduct1 regularity1 severe moral accountability1 and strenuous mental work that boys need4 ,the privileges and immunities of her sex are inveterate1 and with these the ,american girl in the middle teens fairly tingles with a new-born consciousness4 ,already she occasionally asserts herself in the public high school against a male teacher or principal who seeks to enforce discipline by methods boys respect1 in a way that suggests that the time is at hand when popularity with her sex will be as necessary in a successful teacher as it is in the pulpit4 ,in these interesting oases where girl sentiment has made itself felt in school it has generally carried parents1 committeemen1 the press1 and public sentiment before it1 and has already made a precious little list of martyrs whom1 were ,i an educational pope1 ,i would promptly canonize4 ,the progressive feminization of secondary education works its subtle demoralization on the male teachers who remain4 ,public sentiment would sustain them in many parental exactions with boys which it disallows in mixed classes4 ,it is hard1 too1 for male principals of schools with only female teachers not to suffer some deterioration in the moral tone of their virility and to lose in the power to cope successfully with men4 ,not only is this often confessed and deplored1 but the incessant compromises the best male teachers of mixed classes must make with their pedagogic convictions in both teaching and discipline make the profession less attractive to manly men of large caliber and of sound fiber4 ,again1 the recent rapid increase of girls1 the percentage of which to population in high schools has in many communities doubled in but little more than a decade1 almost necessarily involves a decline in the average quality of girls1 perhaps as much greater for them as compared with boys as their increase has been greater4 ,when but few were found in these institutions they were usually picked girls with superior tastes and ability1 but now the average girl of the rank and file is1 despite advanced standard1 of admission1 of an order natively lower4 ,from this deterioration both boys and teachers suffer1 even though the greatest good for the greatest number may be enhanced4 ,once more1 it is generally admitted that girls in good boarding-schools1 where evenings1 food1 and regimen are controlled1 are in better health than day pupils with social1 church1 and domestic duties and perhaps worries to which boys are less subject4 ,this is the nascent stage of periodicity to the slow normalization of which1 during these few critical years1 everything that interferes should yield4 ,some kind of tacit recognition of this is indispensable1 but in mixed classes every form of such concession is baffling and demoralizing to boys4 ,the women who really achieve the higher culture should make it their cause or mission to work out the new humanistic or liberal education which the old college claimed to stand for and which now needs radical reconstruction to meet the demands of modern life4 ,in science they should aim to restore the humanistic elements of its history1 biography1 its popular features at their best1 and its applications in all the more non-technical fields1 as described in ,chapter ,,xii1 and feel responsibility not to let the moral1 religious1 and poetic aspects of nature be lost in utilities4 ,woman should be true to her generic nature and take her stand against all premature specialization1 and when the ,zeitgeist ,spirit of the ,times insists on specialized training for occupative pursuits without waiting for broad foundations to be laid1 she should resist all these influences that make for psychological precocity4 ,das ,ewig-,weibliche ,the eternal womanly is no iridescent fiction but a very definable reality1 and means perennial youth4 ,it means that woman at her best never outgrows adolescence as man does1 but lingers in1 magnifies and glorifies this culminating stage of life with its all-sided interests1 its convertibility of emotions1 its enthusiasm1 and zest for all that is good1 beautiful1 true1 and heroic4 ,this constitutes her freshness and charm1 even in age1 and makes her by nature more humanistic than man1 more sympathetic and appreciative4 ,it is not chiefly the #gj1jjj superfluous ,massachusetts women of the last census1 but representatives of every class and age in the #d1jjj women's clubs of this country that now find some leisure for general culture in all fields1 and in which most of them no doubt surpass their husbands4 ,those who still say that men do not like women to be their mental superiors and that no man was ever won by the attraction of intellect1 on the one hand1 and those who urge that women really want husbands to be their intellectual superiors1 both misapprehend4 ,the male in all the orders of life is the agent of variation and tends by nature to expertness and specialisation1 without which his individuality is incomplete4 ,in his chosen line he would lead and be authoritative1 and he rarely seeks partnership in it in marriage4 ,this is no subjection1 but woman instinctively respects and even reveres1 and perhaps educated woman coming to demand1 it in the man of her whole-hearted choice4 ,this granted1 man was never more plastic to woman's great work of creating in him all the wide range of secondary sex qualities which constitute his essential manhood4 ,in all this1 the pedagogic fathers we teach in the history of education are most of them about as luminous and obsolete as is patristics for the religious teacher1 or as methods of other countries are coming to be in solving our own peculiar pedagogic problems4 ,the relation of the academically trained sexes is faintly typified by that of the ideal college to the ideal university1 professional or technical school4 ,this is the harmony of counterparts and constitutes the best basis of psychic amphimixis4 ,for the reinstallation of the humanistic college1 the time has come when cultivated woman ought to come forward and render vital aid4 ,if she does so and helps to evolve a high school and an ,a4,b4 course that is truly liberal1 it will not only fit her nature and needs far better than anything now existing1 but young men at the humanistic stage of their own education will seek to profit by it1 and she will thus repay her debt to man in the past by aiding him to de-universitize the college and to rescue secondary education from its gravest dangers4 ,but even should all this be done1 coeducation would by means be thus justified4 ,if adolescent boys normally pass through a generalized or even feminized stage of psychic development in which they are peculiarly plastic to the guidance of older women who have such rare insight into their nature1 such infinite sympathy and patience with all the symptoms of their storm and stress metamorphosis1 when they seek everything by turns and nothing long1 and if young men will forever afterward understand woman's nature better for living out more fully this stage of their lives and will fail to do so if it is abridged or dwarfed1 it by no means follows that intimate daily and class-room association with girls of their own age is necessary or best4 ,the danger of this is that the boy's instinct to assert his own manhood will thus be made premature and excessive1 that he will react against general culture1 in the capacity for which girls1 who are older than boys at the same age1 naturally excel them4 ,companionship and comparisons incline him to take premature refuge in some one talent that emphasizes his psycho-sexual difference too soon4 ,again1 he is farther from nubile maturity than the girl classmate of his own age1 and coeducation and marriage between them are prone to violate the important physiological law of disparity that requires the husband to be some years the wife's senior1 both in their own interests1 as maturity begins to decline to age1 and in those of their offspring4 ,thus the young man with his years of restraint and probation ahead1 and his inflammable desires1 is best removed from the half-conscious cerebrations about wedlock1 inevitably more insistent with constant girl companionship4 ,if he resists this during all the years of his apprenticeship1 he grows more immune and inhibitive of it when its proper hour arrives1 and perhaps becomes in soul a bachelor before his time4 ,in this side of his nature he is forever incommensurate with and unintelligible to woman1 be she even teacher1 sister1 or mother4 ,better some risk of gross thoughts and even acts1 to which phylogeny and recapitulation so strongly incline him1 than this subtle eviration4 ,but if the boy is unduly repelled from the sphere of girls' interests1 the girl is in some danger of being unduly drawn to his1 and1 as we saw above1 of forgetting some of the ideals of her own sex4 ,riper in mind and body than her male classmate1 and often excelling him in the capacity of acquisition1 nearer the age of her full maturity than he to his1 he seems a little too crude and callow to fulfil the ideals of manhood normal to her age which point to older and riper men4 ,in all that makes sexual attraction best1 a classmate of her own age is too undeveloped1 and so she often suffers mute disenchantment1 and even if engagement be dreamed of1 it would be1 on her part1 with unconscious reservations if not with some conscious renunciation of ideals4 ,thus the boy is correct in feeling himself understood and seen through by his girl classmates to a degree that is sometimes quite distasteful to him1 while the girl finds herself misunderstood by and disappointed in men4 ,boys arrive at the humanistic stage of culture later than girls and pass it sooner2 and to find them already there and with their greater aptitude excelling him1 is not an inviting situation1 and so he is tempted to abridge or cut it out and to hasten on and be mature and professional before his time1 for thus he gravitates toward his normal relation to her sex of expert mastership on some bread- or fame-winning line4 ,of course1 these influences are not patent1 demonstrable by experiment1 or measurable by statistics2 but ,i have come to believe that1 like many other facts and laws1 they have a reality and a dominance that is all-pervasive and inescapable1 and that they will ultimately prevail over economic motives and traditions4 ,to be a true woman means to be yet more mother than wife4 ,the madonna conception expresses man's highest comprehension of woman's real nature4 ,sexual relations are brief1 but love and care of offspring are long4 ,the elimination of maternity is one of the great calamities1 if not diseases1 of our age4 ,marholm#d points out at length how art again to-day gives woman a waspish waist with no abdomen1 as if to carefully score away every trace of her mission2 usually with no child in her arms or even in sight2 a mere figurine1 calculated perhaps to entice1 but not to bear2 incidentally degrading the artist who depicts her to a fashion-plate painter1 perhaps with suggestions of the arts of toilet1 cosmetics1 and coquetry1 as if to promote decadent reaction to decadent stimuli4 ,as in the ,munchausen tale1 the wolf slowly ate the running nag from behind until he found himself in the harness1 so in the disoriented woman the mistress1 virtuous and otherwise1 is slowly supplanting the mother4 ,please she must1 even though she can not admire1 and can so easily despise men who can not lead her1 although she become thereby lax and vapid4 ,the more exhausted men become1 whether by overwork1 unnatural city life1 alcohol1 recrudescent polygamic inclinations1 exclusive devotion to greed and pelf2 whether they become weak1 stooping1 blear-eyed1 bald-headed1 bow-legged1 thin-shanked1 or gross1 coarse1 barbaric1 and bestial1 the more they lose the power to lead woman or to arouse her nature1 which is essentially passive4 ,thus her perversions are his fault4 ,man1 before he lost the soil and piety1 was not only her protector and provider1 but her priest4 ,he not only supported and defended1 but inspired the souls of women1 so admirably calculated to receive and elaborate suggestions1 but not to originate them4 ,in their inmost souls even young girls often experience disenchantment1 find men little and no heroes1 and so cease to revere and begin to think stupidly of them as they think coarsely of her4 ,sometimes the girlish conceptions of men are too romantic and exalted2 often the intimacy of school and college wear off a charm1 while man must not forget that to-day he too often fails to realize the just and legitimate expectations and ideals of women4 ,if women confide themselves1 body and soul1 less to him than he desires1 it is not she1 but he1 who is often chiefly to blame4 ,indeed1 in some psychic respects1 it seems as if in human society the processes of subordinating the male to the female1 carried so far in some of the animal species1 had already begun4 ,if he is not worshiped as formerly1 it is because he is less worshipful or more effeminate1 less vigorous and less able to excite and retain the great love of true1 not to say great1 women4 ,where marriage and maternity are of less supreme interest to an increasing number of women1 there are various results1 the chief of which are as follows3 #a4 ,women grow dollish2 sink more or less consciously to man's level2 gratify his desires and even his selfish caprices1 but exact in return luxury and display1 growing vain as he grows sordid2 thus1 while submitting1 conquering1 and tyrannizing over him1 content with present worldly pleasure1 unmindful of the past1 the future1 or the above4 ,this may react to intersexual antagonism until man comes to hate woman as a witch1 or1 as in the days of celibacy1 consider sex a wile of the devil4 ,along these lines even the stage is beginning to represent the tragedies of life4 #b4 ,the disappointed woman in whom something is dying comes to assert her own ego and more or less consciously to make it an end1 aiming to possess and realize herself fully rather than to transmit4 ,despairing of herself as a woman1 she asserts her lower rights in the place of her one great right to be loved4 ,the desire for love may be transmuted into the desire for knowledge1 or outward achievement become a substitute for inner content4 ,failing to respect herself as a productive organism1 she gives vent to personal solutions2 seeks independence2 comes to know very plainly what she wants2 perhaps becomes intellectually emancipated1 and substitutes science for religion1 or the doctor for the priest1 with the all-sided impressionability characteristic of her sex which1 when cultivated1 is so like an awakened child4 ,she perhaps even affects mannish ways1 unconsciously copying from those not most manly1 or comes to feel that she has been robbed of something2 competes with men1 but sometimes where they are most sordid1 brutish1 and strongest2 always expecting1 but never finding1 she turns successively to art1 science1 literature1 and reforms2 craves especially work that she can not do2 and seeks stimuli for feelings which have never found their legitimate expression4 #c4 ,another type1 truer to woman's nature1 subordinates self2 goes beyond personal happiness2 adopts the motto of self-immolation2 enters a life of service1 denial1 and perhaps mortification1 like the ,countess ,schimmelmann2 and perhaps becomes a devotee1 a saint1 and1 if need be1 a martyr1 but all with modesty1 humility1 and with a shrinking from publicity4 ,in our civilization1 ,i believe that bright girls of good environment of eighteen or nineteen1 or even seventeen1 have already reached the above-mentioned peculiar stage of first maturity1 when they see the world at first hand1 when the senses are at their very best1 their susceptibilities and their insights the keenest1 tension at its highest1 plasticity and all-sided interests most developed1 and their whole psychic soil richest and rankest and sprouting everywhere with the tender shoots of everything both good and bad4 ,some such--,stella ,klive1 ,mary ,mac,lane1 ,hilma ,strandberg1 ,marie ,bashkirtseff--have been veritable epics upon woman's nature2 have revealed the characterlessness normal to the prenubile period in which everything is kept tentative and plastic1 and where life seems to have least unity1 aim1 or purpose4 ,by and by perhaps they will see in all their scrappy past1 if not order and coherence1 a justification1 and then alone will they realize that life is governed by motives deeper than those which are conscious or even personal4 ,this is the age when1 if ever1 no girl should be compelled4 ,it is the experiences of this age1 never entirely obliterated in women1 that enable them to take adolescent boys seriously1 as men can rarely do1 in whom these experiences are more limited in range though no less intense4 ,it is this stage in woman which is most unintelligible to man and even unrealized to herself4 ,it is the echoes from it that make vast numbers of mothers pursue the various branches of culture1 often half secretly1 to maintain their position with their college sons and daughters1 with their husbands1 or with society4 ,but in a very few years1 ,i believe even in the early twenties with ,american girls1 along with rapidly in creasing development of capacity there is also observable the beginnings of loss and deterioration4 ,unless marriage comes there is lassitude1 subtle symptoms of invalidism1 the germs of a rather aimless dissatisfaction with life1 a little less interest1 curiosity1 and courage1 certain forms of self-pampering1 the resolution to be happy1 though at too great cost2 and thus the clear air of morning begins to haze over and unconsciously she begins to grope4 ,by thirty1 she is perhaps goaded into more or less sourness2 has developed more petty self-indulgences2 has come to feel a right to happiness almost as passionately as the men of the ,french ,revolution and as the women in their late movement for enfranchisement felt for liberty4 ,very likely she has turned to other women and entered into innocent ,platonic pairing-off relations with some one4 ,there is a little more affectation1 playing a rle1 and interest in dress and appearance is either less or more specialized and definite4 ,perhaps she has already begun to be a seeker who will perhaps find1 lose1 and seek again4 ,her temper is modified2 there is a slight stagnation of soul2 a craving for work or travel2 a love of children with flitting thoughts of adopting one1 or else aversion to them2 an analysis of psychic processes until they are weakened and insight becomes too clear2 sense of responsibility without an object2 a slight general malaise and a sense that society is a false margarine affair2 revolt against those that insist that in her child the real value of a woman is revealed4 ,there are alternations between excessive self-respect which demands something almost like adoration of the other sex and self-distrust1 with1 it may be1 many dreameries about forbidden subjects and about the relations of the sexes generally4 ,a new danger1 the greatest in the history of her sex1 now impends1 viz41 arrest1 complacency1 and a sense of finality in the most perilous first stage of higher education for girls1 when1 after all1 little has actually yet been won save only the right and opportunity to begin reconstructions1 so that now1 for the first time in history1 methods and matter could be radically transformed to fit the nature and needs of girls4 ,now most female faculties1 trustees1 and students are content to ape the newest departures in some one or more male institutions as far as their means or obvious limitations make possible with a servility which is often abject and with rarely ever a thought of any adjustment1 save the most superficial1 to sex4 ,it is the easiest1 and therefore the most common1 view typically expressed by the female head of a very successful institution1#e who was early convinced in my teaching experience that the methods for mental development for boys and girls applied equally without regard to sex1 and ,i have carried the same thought when ,i began to develop the physical1 and filled my gymnasium with the ordinary appliances used in men's gymnasia4 ,there is no sex in mind or in science1 it is said1 but it might as well be urged that there is no age1 and hence that all methods adapted to teaching at different stages of development may be ignored4 ,that woman can do many things as well as man does not prove that she ought to do the same things1 or that man-made ways are the best for her4 ,mrs4 ,alice ,freeman ,palmer#f was right in saying that woman's education has all the perplexities of that of man1 and many more1 still more difficult and intricate1 of its own4 ,hence1 we must conclude that1 while women's colleges have to a great extent solved the problem of special technical training1 they have done as yet very little to solve the larger one of the proper education of woman4 ,to assume that the latter question is settled1 as is so often done1 is disastrous4 ,i have forced myself to go through many elaborate reports of meetings where female education was discussed by those supposed to be competent2 but as a rule1 not without rare1 striking exceptions1 these proceedings are smitten with the same sterile and complacent artificiality that was so long the curse of woman's life4 ,i deem it almost reprehensible that1 save a few general statistics1 the women's colleges have not only made no study themselves of the larger problems that impend1 but have often maintained a repellent attitude toward others who wished to do so4 ,no one that ,i know of connected with any of these institutions1 where the richest material is going to waste1 is making any serious and competent research on lines calculated to bring out the psycho-physiological differences between the sexes and those in authority are either conservative by constitution or else intimidated because public opinion is still liable to panics if discussion here becomes scientific and fundamental1 and so tend to keep prudery and the old habit of ignoring everything that pertains to sex in countenance4 ,again1 while ,i sympathize profoundly with the claim of woman for every opportunity which she can fill1 and yield to none in appreciation of her ability1 ,i insist that the cardinal defect in the woman's college is that it is based upon the assumption1 implied and often expressed1 if not almost universally acknowledged1 that girls should primarily be trained to independence and self-support1 and that matrimony and motherhood1 if it come1 will take care of itself1 or1 as some even urge1 is thus best provided for4 ,if these colleges are1 as the above statistics indicate1 chiefly devoted to the training of those who do not marry1 or if they are to educate for celibacy1 this is right4 ,these institutions may perhaps come to be training stations of a new-old type1 the agamic or even agenic woman1 be she nut1 maid--old or young--nun1 school-teacher1 or bachelor woman4 ,i recognize the very great debt the world owes to members of this very diverse class in the past4 ,some of them have illustrated the very highest ideals of self-sacrifice1 service1 and devotion in giving to mankind what was meant for husband and children4 ,some of them belong to the class of superfluous women1 and others illustrate the noblest type of altruism and have impoverished the heredity of the world to its loss1 as did the monks1 who ,leslie ,stephens thinks contributed to bring about the ,dark ,ages1 because they were the best and most highly selected men of their age and1 by withdrawing from the function of heredity and leaving no posterity1 caused ,europe to degenerate4 ,modern ideas and training are now doing this1 whether for racial weal or woe1 can not yet be determined1 for many whom nature designed for model mothers4 ,the bachelor woman is an interesting illustration of ,spencer's law of the inverse relation of individuation and genesis4 ,the completely developed individual is always a terminal representative in her line of descent4 ,she has taken up and utilized in her own life all that was meant for her descendants1 and has so overdrawn her account with heredity that1 like every perfectly and completely developed individual1 she is also completely sterile4 ,this is the very apotheosis of selfishness from the standpoint of every biological ethics4 ,while the complete man can do and sometimes does this1 woman has a far greater and very peculiar power of overdrawing her reserves4 ,first she loses mammary functions1 so that should she undertake maternity its functions are incompletely performed because she can not nurse1 and this implies defective motherhood and leaves love of the child itself defective and maimed1 for the mother who has never nursed can not love or be loved aright by her child4 ,it crops out again in the abnormal or especially incomplete development of her offspring1 in the critical years of adolescence1 although they may have been healthful before1 and a less degree of it perhaps is seen in the diminishing families of cultivated mothers in the one-child system4 ,these women are the intellectual equals and often the superiors of the men they meet2 they are very attractive as companions1 like ,miss ,mehr1 the university student1 in ,hauptmann's ,lonely ,lives1 who alienated the young husband from his noble wife2 they enjoy all the keen pleasures of intellectual activity2 their very look1 step1 and bearing is free2 their mentality makes them good fellows and companionable in all the broad intellectual spheres2 to converse with them is as charming and attractive for the best men as was ,socrates's discourse with the accomplished hetaerae2 they are at home with the racquet and on the golf links2 they are splendid friends2 their minds1 in all their widening areas of contact1 are as attractive as their bodies2 and the world owes much and is likely to owe far more to high ,platonic friendships of this kind4 ,these women are often in every way magnificent1 only they are not mothers1 and sometimes have very little wifehood in them1 and to attempt to marry them to develop these functions is one of the unique and too frequent tragedies of modern life and literature4 ,some1 though by no means all1 of them are functionally castrated2 some actively deplore the necessity of child-bearing1 and perhaps are parturition phobiacs1 and abhor the limitations of married life2 they are incensed whenever attention is called to the functions peculiar to their sex1 and the careful consideration of problems of the monthly rest are thought not fit for cultivated women4 ,the slow evolution of this type is probably inevitable as civilization advances1 and their training is a noble function4 ,already it has produced minds of the greatest acumen who have made very valuable contributions to science1 and far more is to be expected of them in the future4 ,indeed1 it may be their noble function to lead their sex out into the higher1 larger life1 and the deeper sense of its true position and function1 for which ,i plead4 ,hitherto woman has not been able to solve her own problems4 ,while she has been more religious than man1 there have been few great women preachers2 while she has excelled in teaching young children1 there have been few ,pestalozzis1 or even ,froebels2 while her invalidism is a complex problem1 she has turned to man in her diseases4 ,this is due to the very intuitiveness and navet of her nature4 ,but now that her world is so rapidly widening1 she is in danger of losing her cue4 ,she must be studied objectively and laboriously as we study children1 and partly by men1 because their sex must of necessity always remain objective and incommensurate with regard to woman1 and therefore more or less theoretical4 ,again1 in these days of intense new interest in feelings1 emotions1 and sentiments1 when many a psychologist now envies and1 like ,schleiermacher1 devoutly wishes he could become a woman1 he can never really understand das ,ewig-,weibliche1 ,the eternal womanly one of the two supreme oracles of guidance in life1 because he is a man2 and here the cultivated woman must explore the nature of her sex as man can not1 and become its mouthpiece4 ,in many of the new fields opening in biology since ,darwin1 in embryology1 botany1 the study of children1 animals1 savages 7witness ,miss ,fletcher71 sociological investigation1 to say nothing of all the vast body of work that requires painstaking detail1 perseverance1 and conscience1 woman has superior ability1 or her very sex gives her peculiar advantages where she is to lead and achieve great things in enlarging the kingdom of man4 ,perhaps1 too1 the present training of women may in the end develop those who shall one day attain a true self-knowledge and lead n the next step of devising a scheme that shall fit woman's nature and needs4 ,for the slow evolution of such a scheme1 we must first of all distinctly and ostensively invert the present maxim1 and educate primarily and chiefly for motherhood1 assuming that1 if that does not come1 single life can best take care of itself1 because it is less intricate and lower and its needs far more easily met4 ,while girls may be trained with boys1 coeducation should cease at the dawn of adolescence1 at least for a season4 ,great daily intimacy between the sexes in high school1 if not in college1 tends to rub of the bloom and delicacy which can develop in each1 and girls suffer in this respect1 let us repeat1 far more than boys4 ,the familiar comradeship that ignores sex should be left to the agenic class4 ,to the care of their institutions1 we leave with pious and reverent hands the ideals inspired by characters like ,hypatia1 ,madame de ,stal1 the ,misses ,cobb1 ,martineau1 ,fuller1 ,bront1 by ,george ,eliot1 ,george ,sand1 and ,mrs4 ,browning2 and while accepting and profiting by what they have done1 and acknowledging every claim for their abilities and achievements1 prospective mothers must not be allowed to forget a still larger class of ideal women1 both in history and literature1 from the ,holy ,mother to ,beatrice ,clotilda de ,vaux1 and all those who have inspired men to great deeds1 and the choice and far richer anthology of noble mothers4 ,we must premise1 too1 that she must not be petted or pampered with regimen or diet unsuited to her needs2 left to find out as best she can1 from surreptitious or worthy sources1 what she most of all needs to know2 must recognize that our present civilization is hard on woman and that she is not yet adjusted to her social environment2 that as she was of old accused of having given man the apple of knowledge of good and evil1 so he now is liable to a perhaps no less serious indictment of having given her the apple of intellectualism and encouraged her to assume his standards at the expense of health4 ,we must recognize that riches are probably harder on her1 on the whole1 than poverty1 and that poor parents should not labor too hard to exempt her from its wholesome discipline4 ,the expectancy of change so stamped upon her sex by heredity as she advances into maturity must not be perverted into uneasiness or her soul sown with the tares of ambition or fired by intersexual competition and driven on1 to quote ,dr4 ,r4,t4 ,edes1 by a tireless sort of energy which is a compound of conscience1 ambition1 and desire to please1 plus a peculiar female obstinacy4 ,if she is bright1 she must not be overworked in the school factory1 studying in a way which parodies ,hood's ,song of the ,shirt2 and if dull or feeble1 she should not be worried by preceptresses like a eminent lady principal1#g who thought girls' weakness is usually imaginary or laziness1 and that doctors are to blame for suggesting illness and for intimating that men will have to choose between a healthy animal and an educated invalid for a wife4 ,without specifying here details or curricula1 the ideals that should be striven toward in the intermediate and collegiate education of adolescent girls with the proper presupposition of motherhood1 and which are already just as practicable as ,abbotsholme#h or ,l',ecole des ,roches1#i may be rudely indicated somewhat as follows4 ,first1 the ideal institution for the training of girls from twelve or thirteen on into the twenties1 when the period most favorable to motherhood begins1 should be in the country in the midst of hills1 the climbing of which is the best stimulus for heart and lungs1 and tends to mental elevation and breadth of view4 ,there should be water for boating1 bathing1 and skating1 aquaria and aquatic life2 gardens both for kitchen vegetables and horticulture2 forests for their seclusion and religious awe2 good roads1 walks1 and paths that tempt to walking and wheeling3 playgrounds and space for golf and tennis1 with large covered but unheated space favorable for recreations in weather really too bad for out-of-door life and for those indisposed2 and plenty of nooks that permit each to be alone with nature1 for this develops inwardness1 poise1 and character1 yet not too great remoteness from the city for a wise utilization of its advantages at intervals4 ,all that can be called environment is even more important for girls than boys1 significant as it is for the latter4 ,the first aim1 which should dominate every item1 pedagogic method and matter1 should be health--a momentous word that looms up beside holiness1 to which it is etymologically akin4 ,the new hygiene of the last few years should be supreme and make these academic areas soared to the cult of the goddess ,hygeia4 ,only those who realize what advances have been made in health culture and know something of its vast new literature can realize all that this means4 ,the health of woman is1 as we have seen1 if possible even more important for the welfare of the race than that of man2 and the influence of her body upon her mind is1 in a sense1 greater1 so that its needs should be supreme and primary4 ,foods should favor the completest digestion1 so that metabolism be on the highest plane4 ,the dietary should be abundant1 plain1 and varied1 and cooked with all the refinements possible in the modern cooking-school1 which should be one of its departments1 with limited use of rich foods or desserts and stimulating drinks1 but with wholesome proximity to dairy and farm4 ,nutrition is the first law of health and happiness1 the prime condition and creator of euphoria2 and the appetite should be1 as it always is if unperverted1 like a kind of somatic conscience steadfastly pointing toward the true pole of needs4 ,sleep should be regular1 with a fixed retiring hour and curfew1 on plain beds in rooms of scrupulous neatness reserved chiefly for it with every precaution for quiet1 and1 if possible1 with windows more or less open the year round1 and1 like other rooms1 never overheated4 ,bathing in moderation1 and especially dress and toilet should be almost raised to fine arts and objects of constant suggestion4 ,each student should have three rooms1 for bath1 sleep1 and study1 respectively1 and be responsible for their care1 with every encouragement for expressing individual tastes2 but will1 an all-dominant idea of simplicity1 convenience1 refinement1 and elegance1 without luxury4 ,girls need to go away from home a good part of every year to escape the indiscretion and often the coddling of parents and to learn self-reliance2 and a family dormitory system1 with but few1 twelve to twenty1 in each building1 to escape nervous wear and distraction1 to secure intimacy and acquaintance with one or more matrons or teachers and to ensure the most pedagogic dietetics1 is suggested4 ,exercise comes after regimen1 of which it is a special reform4 ,swedish gymnastics should be abandoned or reduced to a minimum of best points1 because it is too severe and1 in forbidding music1 lays too little stress upon the rhythm element4 ,out-of-door walks and games should have precedence over all else4 ,the principle sometimes advocated1 that methods of physical training should apply to both boys and girls without regard to sex1 and with all the ordinary appliances found in the men's gymnasia introduced1 should be reversed and every possible adjustment made to sex4 ,free plays and games should always have precedence over indoor or uniform commando exercises4 ,boating and basket-ball should be allowed1 but with the competition element sedulously reduced1 and with dancing of many kinds and forms the most prominent of indoor exercises4 ,the dance cadences the soul2 the stately minuet gives poise2 the figure dances train the mind2 and pantomime and dramatic features should be introduced and even specialties1 if there are strong individual predispositions4 ,the history of the dance1 which has often been a mode of worship1 a school of morals1 and which is the root of the best that is in the drama1 the best of all exercises and that could be again the heart of our whole educational system1 should be exploited1 and the dancing school and class rescued from its present degradation4 ,no girl is educated who can not dance1 although she need not know the ballroom in its modern form4#aj ,manners1 a word too often relegated to the past as savoring of the primness of the ancient dame school or female seminary1 are really minor or sometimes major morals4 ,they can express everything in the whole range of the impulsive or emotional life4 ,now that we understand the primacy of movement over feeling1 we can appreciate what a school of bearing and repose in daily converse with others means4 ,i would revive some of the ancient casuistry of details1 but less the rules of the drawing-room1 call and party1 although these should not be neglected1 than the deeper expressions of true ladyhood seen in an exquisite1 tender and unselfish regard for the feelings of others4 ,women's ideal of compelling every one whom they meet to like them is a noble one1 and the control of every automatism is not only a part of good breeding1 but nervous health4 ,regularity should be another all-pervading norm4 ,in the main1 even though he may have played his sex symphony too harshly1 ,e4,h4 ,clark was right4 ,periodicity1 perhaps the deepest law of the cosmos1 celebrates its highest triumphs in woman's life4 ,for years everything must give way to its thorough and settled establishment4 ,in the monthly ,sabbaths of rest1 the ideal school should revert to the meaning of the word leisure4 ,the paradise of stated rest should be revisited1 idleness be actively cultivated2 reverie1 in which the soul1 which needs these seasons of withdrawal for its own development1 expatiates over the whole life of the race1 should be provided for and encouraged in every legitimate way1 for1 in rest1 the whole momentum of heredity is felt in ways most favorable to full and complete development4 ,then woman should realize that to be is greater than to do2 should step reverently aside from her daily routine and let ,lord ,nature work4 ,in this time of sensitiveness and perturbation1 when anemia and chlorosis are so peculiarly immanent to her sex1 remission of toil should not only be permitted1 but required2 and yet the greatest individual liberty should be allowed to adjust itself to the vast diversities of individual constitutional needs4 7,see ,chapter ,,vii on this point47 ,the cottage home1 which should take the place of the dormitory1 should always have special interest and attractions for these seasons4 ,there should always be some personal instruction at these seasons during earlier adolescent years4 ,i have glanced over nearly a score of books and pamphlets that are especially written for girls2 while all are well meant and far better than the ordinary modes by which girls acquire knowledge of their own nature if left to themselves1 they are1 like books for boys1 far too prolix1 and most are too scientific and plain and direct4 ,moreover1 no two girls need just the same instruction1 and to leave it to reading is too indirect and causes the mind to dwell on it for too long periods4 ,best of all is individual instruction at the time1 concise1 practical1 and never1 especially in the early years1 without a certain mystic and religious tone which should pervade all and make everything sacred4 ,this should not be given by male physicians--and indeed most female doctors would make it too professional1 and the maiden teacher must forever lack reverence for it--but it should come from one whose soul and body are full of wifehood and motherhood and who is old enough to know and is not without the necessary technical knowledge4 ,another principle should be to broaden by retarding2 to keep the purely mental back and by every method to bring the intuitions to the front2 appeals to tact and taste should be incessant2 a purely intellectual man is no doubt biologically a deformity1 but a purely intellectual woman is far more so4 ,bookishness is probably a bad sign in a girl2 it suggests artificiality1 pedantry1 the lugging of dead knowledge4 ,mere learning is not the ideal1 and prodigies of scholarship are always morbid4 ,the rule should be to keep nothing that is not to become practical2 to open no brain tracts which are not to be highways for the daily traffic of thought and conduct2 not to overburden the soul with the impedimenta of libraries and records of what is afar off in time or zest1 and always to follow truly the guidance of normal and spontaneous interests wisely interpreted4 ,religion will always bold as prominent a place in woman's life as politics does in man's1 and adolescence is still more its seedtime with girls than with boys4 ,its roots are the sentiment of awe and reverence1 and it is the great agent in the world for transforming life from its earlier selfish to its only really mature form of altruism4 ,the tales of the heroes of virtue1 duty1 devotion1 and self-sacrifice from the ,old ,testament come naturally first2 then perhaps the prophets paraphrased as in the pedagogic triumph of ,kent and ,saunders's little series2 and when adolescence is at its height then the chief stress of religious instruction should be laid upon ,jesus's life and work4 ,he should be taught first humanly1 and only later when the limitations of manhood seem exhausted should ,his ,deity be adduced as welcome surplusage4 ,the supernatural is a reflex of the heart2 each sustains and neither can exist without the other4 ,if the transcendent and supernal had no objective existence1 we should have to invent and teach it or dwarf the life of feeling and sentiment4 ,whatever else religion is1 therefore1 it is the supremest poetry of the soul1 reflecting like nothing else all that is deepest1 most generic and racial in it4 ,theology should be reduced to a minimum1 but nothing denied where wanted4 ,paul and his works and ways should be for the most part deferred until after eighteen4 ,the juvenile well as the cyclone revivalist should be very carefully excluded2 and yet in every springtime1 when nature is recreated1 service and teaching should gently encourage the revival and even the regeneration of all the religious instincts4 ,the mission recruiter should be allowed to do his work outside these halls1 and everything in the way of infection and all that brings religion into conflict with good taste and good sense should be excluded1 while esthetics should supplement1 renforce1 and go hand in hand with piety4 ,religion is in its infancy2 and woman1 who has sustained it in the past1 must be the chief agent in its further and higher development4 ,orthodoxies and all narrowness should forever give place to cordial hospitality toward every serious view1 which should be met by the method of greater sympathy rather than by that of criticism4 ,nature in her many phases should1 of course1 make up a large part of the entire curriculum1 but here again the methods of the sexes should differ somewhat after puberty4 ,the poetic and mythic factors and some glimpses of the history of science should be given more prominence2 the field naturalist rather than the laboratory man of technic should be the ideal especially at first2 nature should be taught as ,god's first revelation1 as an ,old ,testament related to the ,bible as a primordial dispensation to a later and clearer and more special one4 ,reverence and love should be the motive powers1 and no aspect should be studied without beginning and culminating in interests akin to devotion4 ,mathematics should be taught only in its rudiments1 and those with special talents or tastes for it should go to agamic schools4 ,chemistry1 too1 although not excluded1 should have a subordinate place4 ,the average girl has little love of sozzling and mussing with the elements1 and cooking involves problems in organic chemistry too complex to be understood very profoundly1 but the rudiments of household chemistry should be taught4 ,physics1 too1 should be kept to elementary stages4 ,meteorology should have a larger1 and geology and astronomy increasingly larger places1 and are especially valuable because1 and largely in proportion as1 they are taught out of doors1 but the general principles and the untechnical and practical aspects should be kept in the foreground4 ,with botany more serious work should be done4 ,plant-lore and the poetic aspect1 as in astronomy1 should have attention throughout1 while ,latin nomenclature and microscopic technic should come late if at all1 and vulgar names should have precedence over ,latin terminology4 ,flowers1 gardening1 and excursions should never be wanting4 ,economic and even medical aspects should appear1 and prominent and early should come the whole matter of self cross-fertilization and that by insects4 ,the moral value of this subject will never be fully understood till we have what might almost be called a woman's botany1 constructed on lines different from any of the text-books ,i have glanced at4 ,here much knowledge interesting in itself can be early taught1 which will spring up into a world of serviceable insights as adolescence develops and the great law of sex unfolds4 ,zoology should always be taught with plenty of pets1 menagerie resources1 and with aquaria1 aviaries1 apiaries1 formicaries1 etc41 as adjuncts4 ,it should start in the environment like everything else4 ,bird and animal lore1 books1 and pictures should abound in the early stages1 and the very prolific chapter of instincts should have ample illustration1 while the morphological nomenclature and details of structure should be less essential4 ,woman has domesticated nearly all the animals1 and is so superior to man in insight into their modes of life and psychoses that many of them are almost exemplifications of moral qualities to her even more than to man4 ,the peacock is an embodied expression of pride2 the pig1 of filth2 the fox1 of cunning2 the serpent1 of subtle danger2 the eagle1 of sublimity2 the goose1 of stupidity2 and so on through all the range of human qualities1 as we have seen4 ,at bottom1 however1 the study of animal life is coming to be more and more a problem of heredity1 and its problems should have dominant position and to them the other matter should grade up4 ,this shades over into and prepares for the study of the primitive man and child so closely related to each other4 ,the myth1 custom1 belief1 domestic practises of savages1 vegetative and animal traits in infancy and childhood1 the development of which is a priceless boon for the higher education of women1 open of themselves a great field of human interest where she needs to know the great results1 the striking details1 the salient illustrations1 the basal principles rather than to be entangled in the details of anthropometry1 craniometry1 philology1 etc4 ,all this lays the basis for a larger study of modern man--history1 with the biographical element very prominent throughout1 with plenty of stories of heroes of virtue1 acts of valor1 tales of saintly lives and the personal element more prominent1 and specialization in the study of dynasties1 wars1 authorities1 and controversies relegated to a very subordinate place4 ,sociology1 undeveloped1 rudimentary1 and in some places suspected as it is1 should have in the curriculum of her higher education a place above political economy4 ,the stories of the great reforms1 and accounts of the constitution of society1 of the home1 church1 state1 and school1 and philanthropies and ideals1 should to the fore4 ,art in all its forms should be opened at least in a propdeutic way and individual tastes amply and judiciously fed1 but there should be no special training in music without some taste and gift1 and the aim should be to develop critical and discriminative appreciation and the good taste that sees the vast superiority of all that is good and classic over what is cheap and fustian4 ,in literature1 myth1 poetry1 and drama should perhaps lead1 and the knowledge of the great authors in the vernacular be fostered4 ,greek1 ,hebrew1 and perhaps ,latin languages should be entirely excluded1 not but that they are of great value and have their place1 but because a smattering knowledge is bought at too high a price of ignorance of more valuable things4 ,german1 ,french1 and ,italian should be allowed and provided for by native teachers and by conversational methods if desired1 and in their proper season4 ,in the studies of the soul of man1 generally called the philosophic branches1 metaphysics and epistemology should have the smallest1 and logic the next least place4 ,psychology should be taught on the genetic basis of animals and children1 and one of its tap-roots should be developed from the love of infancy and youth1 than which nothing in all the world is more worthy4 ,if a woman ,descartes ever arises1 she will put life before theory1 and her watchword will be not cogito1 ergo sum1 ,i think1 therefore ,i am but sum1 ergo cogito ,i am1 therefore ,i think4 ,the psychology of sentiments and feelings and intuitions will take precedence of that of pure intellect2 ethics will be taught on the basis of the whole series of practical duties and problems1 and the theories of the ultimate nature of right or the constitution of conscience will have small place4 ,domesticity will be taught by example in some ideal home building by a kind of laboratory method4 ,a nursery with all carefully selected appliances and adjuncts1 a dining-room1 a kitchen1 bedroom1 closets1 cellars1 outhouses1 building1 its material1 the grounds1 lawn1 shrubbery1 hothouse1 library1 and all the other adjuncts of the hearth will be both exemplified and taught4 ,a general course in pedagogy1 especially its history and ideals1 another in child study1 and finally a course in maternity the last year taught broadly1 and not without practical details of nursing1 should be comprehensive and culminating4 ,in its largest sense maternity might be the heart of all the higher training of young women4 ,applied knowledge will thus be brought to a focus in a department of teaching as one of the specialties of motherhood and not as a vocation apart4 ,the training should aim to develop power of maternity in soul as well as in body1 so that home influence may extend on and up through the plastic years of pubescence1 and future generations shall not rebel against these influences until they have wrought their perfect work4 ,the methods throughout should be objective1 with copious illustrations by way of object-lessons1 apparatus1 charts1 pictures1 diagrams1 and lectures1 far less book work and recitation1 only a limited amount of room study1 the function of examination reduced to a minimum1 and everything as suggestive and germinal as possible4 ,hints that are not followed up2 information not elaborated into a thin pedagogic sillabub or froth2 seed that is sown on the waters with no thought of reaping2 faith in a ,god who does not pay at the end of each week1 month1 or year1 but who always pays abundantly some time2 training which does not develop hypertrophied memory-pouches that carry1 or creative powers that discover and produce--these are lines on which such an institution should develop4 ,specialization has its place1 but it always hurts a woman's soul more than a man's1 should always come later1 and if there is special capacity it should be trained elsewhere4 ,unconscious education is a power of which we have yet to learn the full ranges4 ,in most groups in this series of ideal departments there should be at least one healthful1 wise1 large-souled1 honorable1 married and attractive man1 and1 if possible1 several of them4 ,his very presence in an institution for young women gives poise1 polarizes the soul1 and gives wholesome but long-circuited tension at root no doubt sexual1 but all unconsciously so4 ,this mentor should not be more father than brother1 though he should combine the best of each1 but should add another element4 ,he need not be a doctor1 a clergyman1 or even a great scholar1 but should be accessible for confidential conferences even though intimate4 ,he should know the soul of the adolescent girl and how to prescribe2 he should be wise and fruitful in advice1 but especially should be to all a source of contagion and inspiration for poise and courage even though religious or medical problems be involved4 ,but even if he lack all these latter qualities1 though he so poised that impulsive girls can turn their hearts inside out in his presence and perhaps even weep on his shoulder1 the presence of such a being1 though a complete realization of this ideal could be only remotely approximated1 would be the center of an atmosphere most wholesomely tonic4 ,in these all too meager outlines ,i have sketched a humanistic and liberal education and have refrained from all details and special curriculization4 ,many of the above features ,i believe would be as helpful for boys as for girls1 but woman has here an opportunity to resume her exalted and supreme position1 to be the first in this higher field1 to lead man and pay her debt to his educational institutions1 by resuming her crown4 ,the ideal institutions1 however1 for the two will always be radically and probably always increasingly divergent4 ,as a psychologist1 penetrated with the growing sense of the predominance of the heart over the mere intellect1 ,i believe myself not alone in desiring to make a tender declaration of being more and more passionately in love with woman as ,i conceive she came from the hand of ,god4 ,i keenly envy my ,catholic friends their ,maryolatry4 ,who ever asked if the ,holy ,mother1 whom the wise men adored1 knew the astronomy of the ,chaldees or had studied ,egyptian or ,babylonian1 or even whether she knew how to read or write her own tongue1 and who has ever thought of caring8 ,we can not conceive that she bemoaned any limitations of her sex1 but she has been an object of adoration all these centuries because she glorified womanhood by being more generic1 nearer the race1 and richer in love1 pity1 unselfish devotion and intuition than man4 ,the glorified madonna ideal shows us how much more whole and holy it is to be a woman than to be artist1 orator1 professor1 or expert1 and suggests to our own sex that to be a man is larger than to be gentleman1 philosopher1 general1 president1 or millionaire4 ,but with all this love and hunger in my heart1 ,i can not help sharing in the growing fear that modern woman1 at least in more ways and places than one1 is in danger of declining from her orbit2 that she is coming to lack just confidence and pride in her sex as such1 and is just now in danger of lapsing to mannish ways1 methods1 and ideals1 until her original divinity may become obscured4 ,but1 if our worship at her shrine is with a love and adoration a little qualified and unsteady1 we have a fixed and abiding faith without which we should have no resource against pessimism for the future of our race1 that she will ere long evolve a sphere of life and even education which fits her needs as well as1 if not better than those of man fit his4 ,meanwhile1 if the eternally womanly seems somewhat less divine1 we can turn with unabated faith to the eternally childish1 the best of which in each are so closely related4 ,the oracles of infancy and childhood will never fail4 ,distracted as we are in the maze of new sciences1 skills1 ideals1 knowledges that we can not fully cordinate by our logic or curriculize by our pedagogy2 confused between the claims of old and new methods2 needing desperately1 for survival as a nation and a race1 some clue to thrid the mazes of the manifold modern cultures1 we have now at least one source to which we can turn--we have found the only magnet in all the universe that points steadfastly to the undiscovered pole of human destiny4 ,we know what can and will ultimately cordinate in the generic1 which is larger than the logical order1 all that is worth knowing1 teaching1 or doing by the best methods1 that will save us from misfits and the waste ineffable of premature and belated knowledge1 and that is in the interests and line of normal development in the child in our midst that must henceforth ever lead us which epitomizes in its development all the stages1 human and prehuman2 that is the proper object of all that strange new love of everything that is naive1 spontaneous1 and unsophisticated in human nature4 ,the heart and soul of growing childhood is the criterion by which we judge the larger heart and soul of mature womanhood2 and these are ultimately the only guide into the heart of the new education which is to be1 when the school becomes what ,melanchthon said it must be--a true workshop of the ,holy ,ghost--and what the new psychology1 when it rises to the heights of prophecy1 foresees as the true paradise of restored intuitive human nature4 ,footnote #a3 ,david ,starr ,jordan3 ,the ,higher ,education of ,women4 ,popular ,science ,monthly1 ,december1 #aijb1 vol4 #fb1 pp4 #ig-ajg4 ,see also my article on this subject in ,munsey's ,magazine1 ,february1 #aijf1 and ,president ,jordan's reply in the ,march number1 #aijf4 ,footnote #b3 ,coeducation4 ,a series of essays by various authors1 edited by ,alice ,woods1 with an introduction by ,m4,e4 ,sadler4 ,longmans1 ,green and ,co41 ,london #aijc1 p4 #adh et seq4 ,footnote #c3 ,the ,evolution of ,ideals4 ,w4,g4 ,chambers1 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,march1 #aijc1 vol4 #aj1 pp4 #aja-adc4 ,also1 ,b4,e4 ,warner3 ,the ,young ,woman in ,modern ,life4 ,dodd1 ,mead ,co41 ,new ,york1 #aijc1 p4 #bah4 ,footnote #d3 ,the ,psychology of ,woman4 ,translated by ,g4,a4 ,etchison4 ,richards1 ,london1 #ahii4 ,footnote #e3 ,physical ,development of ,women and ,children4 ,by ,miss ,m4,e4 ,allen4 ,american ,association for ,physical ,education41 ,april1 #ahij4 ,footnote #f3 ,a ,review of the ,higher ,education of ,women4 ,forum1 ,september1 #ahia1 vol4 #ab1 pp #be-dj4 ,see also ,g4 von ,bunge3 ,die zunehmende ,unfhigkeit der ,frauen ihre ,kinder zu stillen4 ,mnchen ,reinhardt1 #aijc1 #c;d ed4 ,also ,president ,harper's ,decennial ,report1 pp4 xciv-cxi4 ,footnote #g3 ,physical ,hindrances to ,teaching ,girls1 by ,charlotte ,w4 ,porter4 ,forum1 ,september1 #ahia1 vol4 #ab1 pp4 #da-di4 ,footnote #h3 ,abbotsholme1 #ahhi-ahii3 or ,ten ,years' ,work in an ,educational ,laboratory1 by ,cecil ,reddie1 ,g4 ,allen ,london1 #aijj4 ,footnote #i3 ,see ,l',ecole des ,roches1 a school of the ,twentieth ,century1 by ,t4,r4 ,croswell4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,december1 #aijj1 vol4 #g1 pp4 #dgi-dia4 ,footnote #aj3 ,see ,chapter ,,vi4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,moral ,,and ,,religious ,,training ,dangers of muscular degeneration and overstimulus of brain--,difficulties in teaching morals--,methods in ,europe--,obedience to commands--,good habits should be mechanized--,value of scolding--,how to flog aright--,its dangers--,moral precepts and proverbs--,habituation--,training will through intellect--,examinations--,concentration --,originality--,froebel and the naive--,first ideas of ,god--,conscience--,importance of ,old and ,new ,testaments--,sex dangers--,love and religion--,conversion4 ,from its nature as well as from its central importance it might be easily shown that the will is no less dependent on the culture it receives than is the mind4 ,it is fast becoming as absurd to suppose that men can survive in the great practical strain to which ,american life subjects all who would succeed1 if the will is left to take its doubtful chances of training and discipline1 as to suppose that the mind develops in neglect4 ,our changed conditions make this chance of will-culture more doubtful than formerly4 ,a generation or two ago#a most school-boys had either farm work1 chores1 errands1 jobs self-imposed1 or required by less tender parents2 they made things1 either toys or tools1 out of school4 ,most school-girls did house-work1 more or less of which is1 like farm-work1 perhaps the most varied and most salutary as well as most venerable of all schools for the youthful body and mind4 ,they undertook extensive works of embroidery1 bed-quilting1 knitting1 sewing1 mending1 if not cleaning1 and even spinning and weaving their own or others' clothing1 and cared for the younger children4 ,the wealthier devised or imposed tasks for will-culture1 as the ,german ,kaiser has his children taught a trade as part of their education4 ,ten days at the hoe-handle1 axe1 or pitchfork1 said an eminent educator lately in substance1 with no new impression from without1 and one constant and only duty1 is a schooling in perseverance and sustained effort such as few boys now get in any shape2 while city instead of country life brings so many new1 heterogeneous and distracting impressions of motion rather than rest1 and so many privileges with so few corresponding duties1 that with artificial life and bad air the will is weakened1 and eupeptic minds and stomachs1 on which its vigor so depends1 are rare4 ,machines supersede muscles1 and perhaps our athleticism gives skill too great preponderance over strength1 or favors intense rather than constant1 long-sustained1 unintermittent energy4 ,perhaps too many of our courses of study are better fitted to turn out many-sided but superficial paragraphists1 than men who can lay deep plans1 and subordinate many complex means to one remote end4 ,meanwhile1 if there is any one thing of which our industries and practical arts are in more crying need than another1 it is the old-fashioned virtue of thoroughness1 of a kind and degree which does not address merely the eye1 is not limited by the letter of a contract1 but which has some regard for its products for their own sake1 and some sense for the future4 ,whether in science1 philosophy1 morals1 or business1 the fields for long-ranged cumulative efforts are wider1 more numerous1 and far more needy than in the days when it was the fashion for men contentedly to concentrate themselves to one vocation1 life-work1 or mission1 or when cathedrals or other yet vaster public works were transmitted1 unfinished but ever advancing1 from one generation of men to another4 ,it is because the brain is developed1 while the muscles are allowed to grow flabby and atrophied1 that the deplored chasm between knowing and doing is so often fatal to the practical effectiveness of mental and moral culture4 ,the great increase of city and sedentary life has been far too sudden for the human body--which was developed by hunting1 war1 agriculture1 and manifold industries now given over to steam and machinery--to adapt itself healthfully or naturally to its new environment4 ,let any of us take down an anatomical chart of the human muscles1 and reflect what movements we habitually make each day1 and realize how disproportionately our activities are distributed compared with the size or importance of the muscles1 and how greatly modern specialization of work has deformed our bodies4 ,the muscles that move the scribbling pen are insignificant fraction of those in the whole body1 and those that wag the tongue and adjust the larynx are also comparatively few and small4 ,their importance is1 of course1 not underrated1 but it is disastrous to concentrate education upon them too exclusively or too early in life4 ,the trouble is that few realize what physical vigor is in man or woman1 or how dangerously near weakness often is to wickedness1 how impossible healthful energy of will is without strong muscles which are its organ1 or how endurance and self-control1 no less than great achievement1 depend on muscle-habits4 ,both in ,germany and ,greece1 a golden age of letters was preceded1 by about a generation1 by a golden age of national gymnastic enthusiasm which constitutes1 especially in the former country1 one of the most unique and suggestive chapters in the history of pedagogy4 ,symmetry and grace1 hardihood and courage1 the power to do everything that the human body can do with and without all conceivable apparatus1 instruments1 and even tools1 are culture ideals that in ,greece1 ,rome1 and ,germany respectively have influenced1 as they might again influence1 young men1 as intellectual ideals never can do save in a select few4 ,we do not want will-virtuosos1 who perform feats hard to learn1 but then easy to do and good for show2 nor spurtiness of any sort which develops an erethic habit of work1 temper1 and circulation1 and is favored by some of our popular sports but too soon reacts into fatigue4 ,even will-training does not reach its end till it leads the young up to taking a intelligent1 serious and life-long interest in their own physical culture and development4 ,this is higher than interest in success in school or college sport2 and1 though naturally later than these1 is one of the earliest forms of will-culture in which it is safe and wise to attempt to interest the young for its own sake alone4 ,in our exciting life and trying climate1 in which the experiment of civilization has never been tried before1 these thoughts are merely exercises4 ,but this is1 of course1 preliminary4 ,great as is the need1 the practical difficulties in the way are very great4 ,first1 there are not only no good text-books in ethics1 but no good manual to guide teachers4 ,some give so many virtues or good habits to be taught per term1 ignoring the unity of virtue as well as the order in which the child's capacities for real virtue unfold4 ,advanced text-books discuss the grounds of obligation1 the nature of choice or freedom1 or the hedonistic calculus1 as if pleasures and pains could be balanced as measurable quantities1 etc41 so that philosophic morality is clearly not for children or teachers4 ,secondly1 evolution encourages too often the doubt whether virtue can be taught1 when it should have the opposite effect4 ,perversity and viciousness of will are too often treated as constitutional disease2 and insubordination or obstinacy1 especially in school1 are secretly admired as strength1 instead of being vigorously treated as crampy disorders of will1 and the child is coddled into flaccidity4 ,becomes the lowest develops first1 there is danger that it will interfere with the development of the higher1 and thus1 if left to his own1 the child may come to have no will4 ,the third and greatest difficulty is1 that with the best effort to do so1 so few teachers can separate morality from religious creed4 ,so vital is the religions sentiment here that it is hard to divorce the end of education from the end of life1 proximate from ultimate grounds of obligation1 or finite from infinite duties4 ,those whose training has been more religious than ethical can hardly teach morality per se satisfactorily to the noli me tangere ,touch me not spirit of denominational freedom so wisely jealous of conflicting standards and sanctions for the young4 ,how then can we ever hope to secure proper training for the will8 ,more than a generation ago ,germany developed the following method3 ,children of ,lutheran1 ,catholic and ,jewish parentage1 which include most ,german children1 were allowed one afternoon a week for several years1 and two afternoons a week for a few months preceding confirmation1 to spend half of a school day with instructors of these respective professions1 who were nominated by the church1 but examined by the state as to their competence4 ,these teachers are as professional1 therefore1 as those in the regular class work4 ,each religion is allowed to determine its own course of religious instruction1 subject only to the approval of the cultus minister or the local authorities4 ,in this way a rupture between the religious sentiments and teaching of successive generations is avoided and it is sought to bring religious training to bear upon morals4 ,these classes learn ,scripture1 hymns1 church service1--the ,catholics in ,latin and the ,jewish in ,hebrew1--the history of their church and people1 and sometimes a little systematic theology4 ,in some of these schools1 there are prizes and diplomas1 and the spirit of competition is appealed to4 ,a criticism sometimes made against them1 especially against the ,lutheran religious pedagogy1 is that it is too intellectual4 ,it is1 of course1 far more systematic and effective from this point of view than the ,american ,sunday ,school1 so that whatever may be said of its edifying effects1 the ,german child knows these topics far better than the ,american4 ,this system1 with modifications1 has been adopted in some places in ,france1 ,england and in ,america1 more often in private than in public schools1 however4 ,the other system originated in ,france some years after the ,franco-,prussian ,war when the clerical influence in ,french education gave way to the lay and secular spirit4 ,in these classes1 for which also stated times are set apart and which are continued through all the required grades under the name of moral and civic instruction1 the religious element is entirely absent1 except that there are a few hymns1 ,bible passages and stories which all agree upon as valuable4 ,most of the course is made up of carefully selected maxims and especially stories of virtue1 records of heroic achievements in ,french history and even in literature and the drama4 ,everything1 however1 has a distinct moral lesson1 although that lesson is not made offensively prominent4 ,we have here nearly a score of these textbooks1 large and small4 ,it would seen as though the resources of the ,french records and literature had been ransacked1 and indeed many deeds of heroism are culled from the daily press4 ,the matter is often arranged under headings such as cleanliness1 acts of kindness1 courage1 truthfulness versus lying1 respect for age1 good manners1 etc4 ,each virtue is thus taught in a way appropriate to each stage of childhood1 and quite often bands of mercy1 rescue leagues and other societies are the outgrowth of this instruction4 ,it is1 of course1 exposed to much criticism from the clergy on the cogent ground that morality needs the support of religion1 at the very least1 in childhood4 ,this system has had much influence in ,england where several similar courses have been evolved1 and in this country we have at least one very praiseworthy effort in this direction1 addressed mainly1 however1 to older children4 ,besides this1 two ways suggest themselves4 ,first1 we may try to assume1 or tediously enucleate a consensus of religious truth as a basis of will training1 e4g41 ,god and immortality1 and1 ignoring the minority who doubt these1 vote them into the public school4 ,pedagogy need have nothing whatever to say respecting the absolute truth or falsity of these ideas1 but there is little doubt that they have an influence on the will1 at a certain stage of average development1 greater and more essential than any other2 so great that even were their vitality to decay like the faith in the ,greek or ,german mythology1 we should still have to teach ,god and a future life as the most imperative of all hypotheses in a field where1 as in morals1 nothing is so practical as a good theory2 and we should have to fall to teaching the ,bible as a moral classic1 and cultivate a critical sympathy for its view of life4 ,but this way ignores revelation and supernatural claims1 while some have other objections to emancipating or rescuing the ,bible from theology just yet4 ,indeed1 the problem how to teach anything that the mind could not have found out for itself1 but that had to be revealed1 has not been solved by modern pedagogy1 which1 since ,pestalozzi1 has been more and more devoted to natural and developing methods4 ,the latter teaches that there must not be too much seed sown1 too much or too high precept1 or too much iteration1 and that1 in ,jean ,paul's phrase1 the hammer must not rest on bell1 but only tap and rebound1 to bring out a clear tone4 ,again1 a consensus of this content would either have to be carefully defined and would be too generic and abstract for school uses1 or else differences of interpretation1 which so pervade and are modified by character1 culture1 temperament1 and feeling1 would make the consensus itself nugatory4 ,religious training must be specific at first1 and1 omitting qualifications1 the more explicit the denominational faith the earlier may religious motives affect the will4 ,this is the way of our hopes1 to the closer consideration of which we intend to return in the future1 though it must be expected that the happiest consensus will be long quarantined from most schools4 ,meanwhile a second way1 however unpromising1 is still open4 ,noble types of character may rest on only the native instincts of the soul or even on broadly interpreted utilitarian considerations4 ,but if morality without religion were only a bloodless corpse or a plank in a shipwreck1 there is now need enough for teachers to study its form1 drift1 and uses by itself alone4 ,this1 at least1 is our purpose in considering the will1 and this only4 ,the will1 purpose1 and even mood of small children when alone1 are fickle1 fluctuating1 contradictory4 ,our very presence imposes one general law on them1 viz41 that of keeping our good will and avoiding our displeasure4 ,as the plant grows towards the light1 so they unfold in the direction of our wishes1 felt as by divination4 ,they respect all you smile at1 even buffoonery2 look up in their play to call your notice1 to study the lines of your sympathy1 as if their chief vocation was to learn your desires4 ,their early lies are often saying what they think will please us1 knowing no higher touchstones of truth4 ,if we are careful to be wisely and without excess happy and affectionate when they are good1 and saddened and slightly cooled in manifestations of love if they do wrong1 the power of association in the normal1 eupeptic child will early choose right as surely as pleasure increases vitality4 ,if our love is deep1 obedience is an instinct if not a religion4 ,the child learns that while it can not excite our fear1 resentment or admiration1 etc41 it can act on our love1 and this should be the first sense of its own efficiency4 ,thus1 too1 it first learns that the way of passion and impulse is not the only rule of life1 and that something is gained by resisting them4 ,it imitates our acts long before it can understand our words4 ,as if it felt its insignificance1 and dreaded to be arrested in some lower phase of its development1 its instinct for obedience becomes almost a passion4 ,as the vine must twine or grovel1 so the child comes unconsciously to worship idols1 and imitates bad patterns and examples in the absence of worthy ones4 ,he obeys as with a deep sense of being our chattel1 and1 at bottom1 admires those who coerce him1 if the means be wisely chosen4 ,the authority must1 of course1 be ascendancy over heart and mind4 ,the more absolute such authority the more the will is saved from caprice and feels the power of steadiness4 ,such authority excites the unique1 unfathomable sense of reverence1 which measures the capacity for will-culture1 and is the strongest and soundest of all moral motives4 ,it is also the most comprehensive1 for it is first felt only towards persons1 and personality is a bond1 enabling any number of complex elements to act or be treated as whole1 as everything does and is in the child's soul1 instead of in isolation and detail4 ,in the feeling of respect culminating in worship almost all educational motives are involved1 but especially those which alone can bring the will to maturity2 and happy the child who is bound by the mysterious and constraining sympathy of dependence1 by which1 if unblighted by cynicism1 a worthy mentor directs and lifts the will4 ,this unconscious reflection of our character and wishes is the diviner side of childhood1 by which it is quick and responsive to everything in its moral environment4 ,the child may not be able to tell whether its teacher often smiles1 dresses in this way or that1 speaks loud or low1 has many rules or not1 though every element of her personality affects him profoundly4 ,his acts of will have not been choices1 but a mass of psychic causes far greater than consciousness can estimate have laid a basis of character1 than which heredity alone is deeper1 before the child knows he has a will4 ,these influences are not transient but life-long1 for if the conscious and intentional may anywhere be said to be only a superficial wave over the depths of the unconscious1 it is in the sphere of will-culture4 ,but command and obedience must also be specific to supplant nature4 ,here begins the difficulty4 ,a young child can know no general commands4 ,sit in your chair1 means sit a moment1 a sort of trick1 with no prohibition to stand the next instant4 ,any just-forbidden act may be done in the next room4 ,all is here and now1 and patient reiteration1 till habit is formed1 and no havoc-making rules which it cannot understand or remember1 is our cue4 ,obedience can1 however1 be instinct even here1 and is its chief virtue1 and there is no more fear of weakening the will by it than in the case of soldiers4 ,as the child grows older1 however1 and as the acts commanded are repugnant1 or unusual1 there should be increasing care1 lest authority be compromised1 sympathy ruptured1 or lest mutual timidity and indecision1 if not mutual insincerity and dissimulation1 as well as parodied disobedience1 etc41 to test us1 result4 ,we should1 of course1 watch for favorable moods1 assume no unwonted or preternatural dignity or owlish air of wisdom1 and command in a low voice which does not too rudely break in upon the child's train of impressions4 ,the acts we command or forbid should be very few at first1 but inexorable4 ,we should be careful not to forbid where we cannot follow a untrusty child1 or what we can not prevent4 ,our own will should be a rock and not a wave4 ,our requirements should be uniform1 with no whim1 mood1 or periodicity of any sort about them4 ,if we alternate from caresses to severity1 are fields and capricious instead of commanding by a fixed and settled plan1 if we only now and then take the child in hand1 so he does not know precisely what to expect1 we really require the child to change its nature with every change in us1 and well for the child who can defy such a changeable authority1 which not only unsettles but breaks up character anew when it is just at the beginning of the formative period4 ,neglect is better than this1 and fear of inconsistency of authority makes the best parents often jealous of arbitrariness in teachers4 ,only thus can we develop general habits of will and bring the child to know general maxims of conduct inductively1 and only thus by judicious boldness and hardihood in command can we bring the child to feel the conscious strength that comes only from doing unpleasant things4 ,even if instant obedience be only external at first1 it will work inward1 for moods are controlled by work1 and it is only will which enlarges the bounds of personality4 ,yet we must not forget that even morality is relative1 and is one thing for adults and often quite another for children4 ,the child knows nothing of absolute truth1 justice1 or virtues4 ,the various stimuli of discipline are to enforce the higher though weaker insights which the child has already unfolded1 rather than to engraft entirely unintuited good4 ,the command must find some ally1 feeble though it be1 in the child's own soul4 ,we should strive to fill each moment with as little sacrifice or subordination1 as mere means or conditions to the future1 as possible1 for fear of affectation and insincerity4 ,but yet the hardier and sounder the nature1 the more we may address training to barely nascent intuitions1 with a less ingredient of immediate satisfaction1 and the deeper the higher element ,of interest will be grounded in the end4 ,the child must find as he advances towards maturity1 that every new insight1 or realization of his own reveals the fact that you have been there before with commands1 cultivating sentiments and habits1 and not that he was led to mistake your convenience or hobby for duty1 or failed to temper the will by temporizing with it4 ,the young are apt to be most sincere at an age when they are also most mistaken1 but if sincerity be kept at its deepest and best1 will be least harmful and easiest overcome4 ,if authority supplement rather than supersede good motives1 the child will so love authority as to overcome your reluctance to apply it directly1 and as a final result will choose the state and act you have pre-formed in its slowly-widening margin of freedom1 and will be all the less liable to undue subservience to priest or boss1 or fashion or tradition later1 as obedience gives place to normal1 manly independence4 ,in these and many other ways everything in conduct should be mechanized as early and completely as possible4 ,the child's notion of what is right is what is habitual1 and the simple1 to which all else is reduced in thought1 is identified with the familiar4 ,it is this primitive stratum of habits which principally determines our deepest belief which all must have over and above knowledge--to which men revert in mature years from youthful vagaries4 ,if good acts are a diet and not a medicine1 are repeated over and over again1 as every new beat of the loom pounds in one new thread1 and sense of justice and right is wrought into the very nerve-cells and fibers2 if this ground texture of the soul1 this memory and habit-plexus1 this sphere of thoughts we oftenest think and acts we oftenest do1 is early1 rightly and indiscerptibly wrought1 not only does it become a web of destiny for us1 so all-determining is it1 but we have something perdurable to fall back on if moral shock or crisis or change or calamity shall have rudely broken up the whole structure of later associations4 ,not only the more we mechanize thus1 the more force of soul is freed for higher work1 but we are insured against emergencies in which the choice and deed is likely to follow the nearest motive1 or that which acts quickest1 rather than to pause and be influenced by higher and perhaps intrinsically stronger motives4 ,reflection always brings in a new set of later-acquired motives and considerations1 and if these are better than habit-mechanism1 then pause is good2 if not1 he who deliberates is lost4 ,our purposive volitions are very few compared with the long series of desires1 acts and reactions1 often contradictory1 many of which were never conscious1 and many once willed but now lapsed to reflexes1 the traces of which crowding the unknown margins of the soul1 constitute the organ of the conscious will4 ,it is only so far as this primitive will is wrong by nature or training1 that drastic reconstructions of any sort are needed4 ,only those who mistake weakness for innocence1 or simplicity for candor1 or forget that childish faults are no less serious because universal1 deny the1 at least1 occasional depravity of all children1 or fail to see that fear and pain are among the indispensables of education1 while a parent1 teacher1 or even a ,god1 all love1 weakens and relaxes the will4 ,children do not cry for the alphabet2 the multiplication table is more like medicine than confectionery1 and it is only affected thoroughness that omits all that is hard4 ,the fruits of learning may be sweet1 but its roots are always bitter1 and it is this alone that makes it possible to strengthen the will while instructing the mind4 ,the well-schooled will comes1 like ,herder1 to scorn the luxury of knowing without the labor of learning4 ,we must anticipate the future penalties of sloth as well as of badness4 ,the will especially is a trust we are to administer for the child1 not as he may now wish1 but as he will wish when more mature4 ,we must now compel what he will later wish to compel himself to do4 ,to find his habits already formed to the same law that his mature will and the world later enjoin1 cements the strongest of all bonds between mentor and child4 ,nothing1 however1 must be so individual as punishment4 ,for some1 a threat at rare intervals is enough2 while for others1 however ominous threats may be1 they become at once like scarecrows1 on which the foulest birds soonest learn to perch4 ,to scold well and wisely is an art by itself4 ,for some children1 pardon is the worst punishment2 for others1 ignoring or neglect2 for others1 isolation from friends1 suspension from duties2 for others1 seclusion--which last1 however1 is for certain ages beset with extreme danger--and for still others1 shame from being made conspicuous4 ,mr4 ,spencer's natural penalties can be applied to but few kinds of wrong1 and those not the worst4 ,basedow tied boys who fell into temptation to a strong pillar to brace them up2 if stupid and careless1 put on a fool's cap and bells2 if they were proud1 they were suspended near the ceiling in a basket1 as ,aristophanes represented ,socrates4 ,two boys who quarreled1 were made to look into each other's eyes before the whole school till their angry expressions gave way before the general sense of the ridiculous4 ,this is more ingenious than wise4 ,the object of discipline is to avoid punishment1 but even flogging should never be forbidden4 ,it maybe reserved1 like a sword in its scabbard1 but should not get so rusted in that it can not be drawn on occasion4 ,the law might even limit the size and length of the rod1 and place of application1 as in ,germany1 but it should be of no less liberal dimensions here than there4 punishment should1 of course1 be minatory and reformatory1 and not vindictive1 and we should not forget that certainty is more effective than severity1 nor that it is apt to make motives sensuous1 and delay the psychic restraint which should early preponderate over the physical4 ,but will-culture for boys is rarely as thorough as it should be without more or less flogging4 ,i would not1 of course1 urge the extremes of the past4 ,the ,spartan beating as a gymnastic drill to toughen1 the severity which prevailed in ,germany for a long time after its ,thirty ,years' ,wars1#b the former fashion in many ,english schools of walking up not infrequently to take a flogging as a plucky thing to do1 and with no notion of disgrace attaching to it1 shows at least an admirable strength of will4 ,severe constraint gives poise1 inwardness1 self-control1 inhibition1 and not-willingness1 if not willingness1 while the now too common habit of coquetting for the child's favor1 and tickling its ego with praises and prizes1 and pedagogic pettifogging for its good-will1 and sentimental fear of a judicious slap to rouse a spoiled child with no will to break1 to make it keep step with the rest in conduct1 instead of delaying a whole school-room to apply a subtle psychology of motives on it1 is bad4 ,this reminds one of the ,jain who sweeps the ground before him lest he unconsciously tread on a worm4 ,possibly it may be well1 as ,schleiermacher suggests1 not to repress some one nascent bad act in some natures1 but let it and the punishment ensue for the sake of ,dr4 ,spankster's tonic4 ,dermal pain is not the worst thing in the world1 and by a judicious knowledge of how it feels at both ends of the rod1 by flogging and being flogged1 far deeper pains may be forefended4 ,insulting defiance1 deliberative disobedience1 ostentatious carelessness and bravado1 are diseases of the will1 and1 in very rare cases of ,promethean obstinacy1 the severe process of breaking the will is needful1 just as in surgery it is occasionally needful to rebreak a limb wrongly set1 or deformed1 to set it over better4 ,it is a cruel process1 but a crampy will in childhood means moral traumatism of some sort in the adult4 ,few parents have the nerve to do this1 or the insight to see just when it is needed4 ,it is1 as some one has said1 like knocking a man down to save him from stepping off a precipice4 ,even the worst punishments are but very faint types of what nature has in store in later life for some forms of perversity of will1 and are better than sarcasm1 ridicule1 or tasks1 as penalties4 ,the strength of obstinacy is admirable1 and every one ought to have his own will2 but a false direction1 though almost always the result of faulty previous training when the soul more fluid and mobile1 is all the more fatal4 ,while so few intelligent parents are able to refrain from the self-indulgence of too much rewarding or giving1 even though it injures the child1 it is perhaps too much to expect the hardihood which can be justly cold to the caresses of a child who seeks1 by displaying all its stock of goodness and arts of endearment1 to buy back good-will after punishment has been deserved4 ,if we wait too long1 and punish in cold blood1 a young child may hate us2 while1 if we punish on the instant1 and with passion1 a little of which is always salutary1 on the principle1 ohne ,affekt kein ,effekt1 ,without passion1 no effect an older child may fail of the natural reactions of conscience1 which should always be secured4 ,the maxim1 summum jus summa injuria1 ,the rigor of the law may be the greatest wrong we are often told1 is peculiarly true in school1 and so it is2 but to forego all punishment is no less injustice to the average child1 for it is to abandon one of the most effective means of will-culture4 ,we never punish but a part1 as it were1 of the child's nature2 he has lied1 but is not therefore a liar1 and we deal only with the specific act1 and must love all the rest of him4 ,and yet1 after all1 indiscriminate flogging is so bad1 and the average teacher is so inadequate to that hardest and most tactful of all his varied duties1 viz41 selecting the right outcrop of the right fault of the right child at the right time and place1 mood1 etc41 for best effect1 that the bold statement of such principles as above is perhaps not entirely without practical danger1 especially in two cases which ,madame ,necker and ,sigismund have pointed out1 and in several cases of which the present writer has notes4 ,first1 an habitually good child sometimes has a saturnalia of defiance and disobedience2 a series of insubordinate acts are suddenly committed which really mark the first sudden epochful and belated birth of the instinct of independence and self-regulation1 on which his future manliness will depend4 ,he is quite irresponsible1 the acts are never repeated1 and very lenient treatment causes him1 after the conflict of tumultuous feelings has expanded his soul1 to react healthfully into habitual docility again1 if some small field for independent action be at once opened him4 ,the other case is that of ennui1 of which children suffer such nameless qualms4 ,when ,i should open half a dozen books1 start for a walk1 and then turn back1 wander about in mind or body1 seeking but not finding content in anything1 a child in my mood will wish for a toy1 an amusement1 food1 a rare indulgence1 only to neglect or even reject it petulantly when granted4 ,these flitting will-spectres are physical1 are a mild form of the many fatal dangers of fatigue2 and punishment is the worst of treatment4 ,rest or diversion is the only cure1 and the teacher's mind must be fruitful of purposes to that end4 ,perhaps a third case for palliative treatment is1 those lies which attend the first sense of badness4 ,the desire to conceal it occasionally accompanies the nascent effort to reform and make the lie true4 ,these cases are probably rare1 while the temptation to lie is far greater for one who does ill than for one who does well1 for fear is the chief motive1 and a successful lie which concealed would weaken the desire to cure a fault4 ,we have thus far spoken of obedience1 and come now to the later necessity of self-guidance1 which1 if obedience has wrought its perfect work1 will be natural and inevitable4 ,it is very hard to combine reason and coercion1 yet it is needful that children think themselves free long before we cease to determine them4 ,as we slowly cease to prescribe and begin to inspire1 a very few well-chosen mottoes1 proverbs1 maxims1 should be taught very simply1 so that they will sink deep4 ,education has been defined as working against the chance influences of life1 and it is certain that without some precepts and rules the will will not exert itself4 ,if reasons are given1 and energy is much absorbed in understanding1 the child will assent but will not do4 ,if the mind is not strong1 many wide ideas are very dangerous4 ,strong wills are not fond of arguments1 and if a young person falls to talking or thinking beyond his experience1 subjective or objective1 both conduct and thought are soon confused by chaotic and incongruous opinions and beliefs2 and false expectations1 which are the very seducers of the will1 arise4 ,there can be little will-training by words1 and the understanding can not realize the ideals of the will4 ,all great things are dangerous1 as ,plato said1 and the truth itself is not only false but actually immoral to unexpanded minds4 ,will-culture is intensive1 not extensive1 and the writer knows a case in which even a vacation ramble with a moralizing fabulist has undermined the work of years4 ,our precepts must be made very familiar1 copiously illustrated1 well wrought together by habit and attentive thought1 and above all clear cut1 that the pain of violating them may be sharp and poignant4 ,vague and too general precepts beyond the horizon of the child's real experience do not haunt him if they are outraged4 ,now the child must obey these1 and will1 if he has learned to obey well the command of others4 ,one of the best sureties that he will do so is muscle-culture1 for if the latter are weaker than the nerves and brain1 the gap between knowing and doing appears and the will stagnates4 ,gutsmuths1 the father of gymnastics in ,germany before ,jahn1 used to warn men not to fancy that the few tiny muscles that moved the pen or tongue had power to elevate men4 ,they might titillate the soul with words and ideas2 but rigorous1 symmetrical muscle-culture alone1 he and his ,turner societies believed1 could regenerate the ,fatherland1 for it was one thing to paint the conflict of life1 and quite another to bear arms in it4 ,they said1 ,the weaker the body the more it commands2 the stronger it is the more it obeys4 ,in this way we shall have a strong1 well-knit soul-texture1 made up of volitions and ideas like warp and woof4 ,mind and will will be so compactly organized that all their forces can be brought to a single point4 ,each concept or purpose will call up those related to it1 and once strongly set toward its object1 the soul will find itself borne along by unexpected forces4 ,this power of totalizing1 rather than any transcendent relation of elements1 constitutes at least the practical unity of the soul1 and this unimpeded association of its elements is true or inner freedom of will4 ,nothing is wanting or lost when the powers of the soul are mobilized for a great task1 and its substance is impervious to passion4 ,with this organization1 men of really little power accomplish wonders4 ,without it great minds are confused and lost4 ,they have only velleity or caprice4 ,the will makes a series of vigorous1 perhaps almost convulsive1 but short1 inconsistent efforts4 ,as ,jean ,paul says1 there is sulphur1 charcoal1 and saltpetre in the soul1 but powder is not made1 for they never find each other4 ,to understand this will-plexus is preeminent among the new demands now laid on educators4 ,but1 although this focalizing power of acting with the whole rather than with a part of the soul1 gives independence of many external1 conventional1 proximate standards of conduct1 deepening our interests in life1 and securing us against disappointment by defining our expectations1 while such a sound and simple will-philosophy is proof against considerable shock and has firmness of texture enough to bear much responsibility1 there is1 of course1 something deeper1 without which all our good conduct is more or less hollow4 ,this is that better purity established by mothers in the plastic heart1 before the superfoetation of precept is possible1 or even before the soul takes flight in language2 it is perhaps pre-natal or hereditary4 ,much every way depends on how aboriginal our goodness is1 whether the will acts with effort1 as we solve an intricate problem1 in solitude1 or as we say the multiplication table1 which only much distraction can confuse1 or as we repeat the alphabet1 which the din of battle could not hinder4 ,later and earlier training should harmonize with each other and with nature4 ,thrice happy he who is so wisely trained that he comes to believe he believes what his soul deeply does believe1 to say what he feels and feel what he really does feel1 and chiefly whose express volitions square with the profounder drift of his will as the resultant of all he has desired or wished1 expected1 attended to1 or striven for4 ,when such an one comes to his moral majority by standing for the first time upon his own careful conviction1 against the popular cry1 or against his own material interests or predaceous passions1 and feels the constraint and joy of pure obligation which comes up from this deep source1 a new1 original force is brought into the world of wills4 ,call it inspiration1 or ,kant's transcendental impulse above and outside of experience1 or ,spencer's deep reverberations from a vast and mysterious past of compacted ancestral experiences1 the most concentrated1 distilled and instinctive of all psychic products1 and as old as ,mr4 ,tyndall's fiery cloud--the name or even source is little4 ,we would call it the purest1 freest1 most prevailing1 because most inward1 will or conscience4 ,this free1 habitual guidance by the highest and best1 by conviction with no sense of compulsion or obligation1 impractical if not dangerous ideal1 for it can be actually realized only by the rarest moral genius4 ,for most of us1 the best education is that which makes us the best and most obedient servants4 ,this is the way of peace and the way of nature1 for even if we seriously try to keep up a private conscience at all1 apart from feeling1 faction1 party or class spirit1 or even habit1 which are our habitual guides1 the difficulties are so great that most hasten1 more or less consciously and voluntarily1 to put themselves under authority again1 serving only the smallest margin of independence in material interests1 choice of masters1 etc1 and yielding to the pleasing and easy illusion that inflates the minimum to seem the maximum of freedom1 and uses the noblest ideal of history1 viz41 that of pure autonomous oughtness1 as a pedestal for idols of selfishness1 caprice and conceit4 ,the trouble is in interpreting these moral instincts1 for even the authorities lack the requisite self-knowledge in which all wisdom culminates4 ,the moral interregnum which the ,aufklrung ,enlightenment has brought will not end till these instincts are rightly interpreted by in intelligence4 ,the richest streams of thought must flow about them1 the best methods must peep and pry till their secrets are found and put into the idea-pictures in which most men think4 ,this brings us1 finally1 to the highest and also immediately practical method of moral education1 viz41 training the will by and for intellectual work4 ,youth and childhood must not be subordinated as means to maturity4 ,learning is more useful than knowing4 ,it is the way and not the goal1 the work and not the product1 the acquiring and not the acquisition1 that educates will and character4 ,to teach only results1 which are so simple1 without methods by which they were obtained1 which are so complex and hard1 to develop the sense of possession without the strain of activity1 to teach great matters too easily or even as play1 always to wind along the lines of least resistance into the child's mind1 is imply to add another and most enervating luxury to child-life4 ,only the sense and power of effort1 which made ,lessing prefer the search to the possession of truth1 which trains the will in the intellectual field1 which is becoming more and more the field of its activity1 counts for character and makes instruction really educating4 ,this makes mental work a series of acts1 or living thoughts1 and not merely words4 ,real education1 that we can really teach1 and that which is really most examinable1 is what we do1 while those who acquire without effort may be extremely instructed without being truly educated4 ,it is those who have been trained to put forth mental power that come to the front later1 while it is only those whose acquisitions are not transpeciated into power who are in danger of early collapse4 ,it is because of this imperfect appropriation through lack of volitional reaction that mental training is so often dangerous1 especially in its higher grades4 ,especially wherever good precepts are allowed to rest peacefully beside undiscarded bad habits1 moral weakness is directly cultivated4 ,volitional recollection1 or forcing the mind to reproduce a train of impressions1 strengthens what we may call the mental will2 while if multifarious impressions which excite at the time are left to take their chances1 at best1 fragmentary reproduction1 incipient amnesia1 the prelude of mental decay1 may be soon detected4 ,few can endure the long working over of ideas1 especially if at all fundamental1 which is needful to full maturity of mind1 without grave moral danger4 ,new standpoints and ideas require new combinations of the mental elements1 with constant risk that during the process1 what was already secured will fall back into its lower components4 ,even oar immigrants suffer morally from the change of manners and customs and ideas1 and yet education menus change2 the more training the more change1 as a rule1 and the more danger during the critical transition period while we oscillate between control by old habits1 or association within the old circle of thought1 and by the new insights1 as a medical student often suffers from trying to bring the regulation of his physical functions under new and imperfect hygienic insights4 ,thus most especially if old questions1 concerning which we have long since ceased to trust ourselves to give reasons1 need to be reopened1 there is especial danger that the new equilibrium about which the dynamic is to be re-resolved into static power will be established1 if at all1 with loss instead of with gain4 ,indeed1 it is a question not of schools but of civilization1 whether mental training1 from the three ,r's to science and philosophy1 shall really make men better1 as the theory of popular education assumes1 and whether the genius and talent of the few who can receive and bear it can be brought to the full maturity of a knowledge fully facultized--a question paramount1 even in a republic1 to the general education of the many4 ,the illusion is that beginnings are hard4 ,they are easy4 ,almost any mind can advance a little way into almost any subject4 ,the feeblest youth can push on briskly in the beginning of a new subject1 but he forgets1 and so does the examiner who marks him1 that difficulties increase not in arithmetical but in almost geometrical ratio as he advances4 ,the fact1 too1 that all topics are taught by all teachers and that we have no specialized teaching in elementary branches1 and that examinations are placed in the most debilitating part of our peculiarly debilitating spring1 these help us to solve the problem which ,china has solved so well1 viz41 how to instruct and not to educate4 ,a pass mark1 say of fifty1 should be given not for mastery of the first half of the book1 or for knowledge of half the matter in it1 but for that of three-fourths or more4 ,suppose one choose the easier method of tattooing his mind by attaining the easy early stages of proficiency in many subjects1 as is possible and even encouraged in too many of our school and college curricula1 he weakens the will-quality of his mind4 ,smattering is dissipation of energy4 ,only great1 concentrated and prolonged efforts in one direction really train the mind1 because only they train the will beneath it4 ,many little1 heterogeneous efforts of different sorts leave the mind in a muddle of heterogeneous impressions1 and the will like a rubber band is stretched to flaccidity around one after another bundle of objects too large for it to clasp into unity4 ,here again1 in der ,beschrnkung zeigt sich der ,meister ,the master shows himself in self-limitation2 all-sidedness through one-sidedness2 by stalking the horse or cow out in the spring time1 till he gnaws his small allotted circle of grass to the ground1 and not by roving and cropping at will1 can he be taught that the sweetest joint is nearest the root1 are convenient symbols of will-culture in the intellectual field4 ,even a long cram1 if only on one subject1 which brings out the relations of the parts1 or a one-study college1 as is already devised in the ,west1 or the combination of several subjects even in primary school grades into a concentration series1 as devised by ,ziller and ,rein1 the university purpose as defined by ,ziller of so combining studies that each shall stand in the course next to that with which it is inherently closest connected by matter and method1 or the requirements of one central and two collateral branches for the doctorate examination--all these devices no doubt tend to give a sense of efficiency1 which is one of the deepest and proudest joys of life1 in the place of a sense of possession so often attended by the exquisite misery of conscious weakness4 ,the unity of almost any even ideal purpose is better than none1 if it tend to check the superficial one of learning to repeat again or of boxing the whole compass of sciences and liberal arts1 as so many of our high schools or colleges attempt4 ,finally1 in the sphere of mental productivity and originality1 a just preponderance of the will-element makes men distrust new insights1 quick methods1 and short cuts1 and trust chiefly to the genius of honest and sustained work1 in power of which perhaps lies the greatest intellectual difference between men4 ,when ideas are ripe for promulgation they have been condensed and concentrated1 thought traverses them quickly and easily--in a word1 they have become practical1 and the will that waits over a new idea patiently and silently1 without anxiety1 even though with a deepening sense of responsibility1 till all sides have been seen1 all authorities consulted1 all its latent mental reserves heard from1 is the man who talks with the rifle and not with the water-hose1 or1 in a rough farmer's phrase1 boils his words till he can give his hearers sugar and not sap4 ,several of the more important discoveries of the present generation1 which cost many weary months of toil1 have been enumerated in a score or two of lines1 so that every experimenter could set up his apparatus and get the results in a few minutes4 ,let us not forget that1 in most departments of mental work1 the more we revise and reconstruct our thought1 the longer we inhibit its final expression1 while the oftener we return to it refreshed from other interests1 the clearer and more permeable for other minds it becomes1 because the more it tends to express itself in terms of willed action1 which is the language of complete men4 ,so closely bound together are moral and religious training that a discussion of one without the other would be incomplete4 ,in a word1 religion is the most generic kind of culture as opposed to all systems or departments which are one sided4 ,all education culminates in it because it is chief among human interests1 and because it gives inner unity to the mind1 heart1 and will4 ,how now should this common element of union be taught8 ,to be really effective and lasting1 moral and religious training must begin in the cradle4 ,it was a profound remark of ,froebel that the unconsciousness of a child is rest in ,god4 ,this need not be understood in guy pantheistic sense4 ,from this rest in ,god the childish soul should not be abruptly or prematurely aroused4 ,even the primeval stages of psychic growth are rarely so all-sided1 so purely unsolicited1 spontaneous1 and unprecocious1 as not to be in a sense a fall from ,froebel's unconsciousness or rest in ,god4 ,the sense of touch1 the mother of all the other senses1 is the only one which the child brings into the world already experienced2 but by the pats1 caresses1 hugs1 etc41 so instinctive with young mothers1 varied feelings and sentiments are communicated to the child long before it recognizes its own body as distinct from things about it4 ,the mother's face and voice are the first conscious objects as the infant soul unfolds1 and she soon comes to stand in the very place of ,god to her child4 ,all the religion of which the child is capable during this by no means brief stage of its development consists of those sentiments--gratitude1 trust1 dependence1 love1 etc41 now felt only for her--which are later directed toward ,god4 ,the less these are now cultivated toward the mother1 who is now their only fitting if not their only possible object1 the more feebly they will later be felt toward ,god4 ,this1 too1 adds greatly to the sacredness and the responsibilities of motherhood4 ,froebel perhaps is right that thus fundamental religious sentiments can be cultivated in the earliest months of infancy4 ,it is of course impossible not to seem1 perhaps even not to be1 sentimental upon this theme1 for the infant soul has no other content than sentiments1 and because upon these rests the whole superstructure of religion in child or adult4 ,the mother's emotions1 and physical and mental states1 indeed1 imparted and reproduced in the infant so immediately1 unconsciously1 and through so many avenues1 that it is no wonder that these relations see mystic4 ,whether the mother is habitually under the influence of calm and tranquil emotions1 or her temper is fluctuating or violent1 or her movements are habitually energetic or soft and caressing1 or she be regular or irregular in her ministrations to the infant in her arms1 all these characteristics and habits are registered in the primeval language of touch upon the nervous system of the child4 ,from this point of view1 poise and calmness1 the absence of all intense annuli and of sensations or transitions which are abrupt or sudden1 and an atmosphere of quieting influences1 like everything which retards by broadening1 is in the general line of religious culture4 ,the soul of an infant is well compared to a seed planted in a garden4 ,it is not pressed or moved by the breezes which rustle the leaves overhead4 ,the sunlight does not fall upon it1 and even dew and evening coolness scarcely reach it2 but yet there is not a breath of air or a ray of sunshine1 nor a drop of moisture to which it is responsive1 and which does not stir all its germinant forces4 ,the child is a plant1 must live out of doors in proper season1 and there must be no forcing4 ,religion1 then1 at this important stage1 at least1 is naturalism pure and simple1 and religious training is the supreme art of standing out of nature's way4 ,so implicit is the unity of soul and body at this formative age that care of the body is the most effective ethico-religious culture4 ,next to be considered are the sentiments which unfold under the influence of that fresh and naive curiosity which attends the first impressions of natural objects from which both religion and science spring as from one common root4 ,the awe and sublimity of a thunderstorm1 the sights and sounds of a spring morning1 objects which lead the child's thoughts to what is remote in time and space1 old trees1 ruins1 the rocks1 and1 above all1 the heavenly bodies--the utilization of these lessons is the most important task of the religious teacher during the kindergarten stage of childhood4 ,still more than the undevout astronomer1 the undevout child under such influences is abnormal4 ,in these directions the mind of the child is as open and plastic as that of the ancient prophet to the promptings of the inspiring ,spirit4 ,the child can recognize no essential difference between nature and the supernatural1 and the products of mythopoeic fancy which have been spun about natural objects1 and which have lain so long and so warm about the hearts of generations and races of men1 are now the best of all nutriments for the soul4 ,to teach scientific rudiments only about nature1 on the shallow principle that nothing should be taught which must be unlearned1 or to encourage the child to assume the critical attitude of mind1 is dwarfing the heart and prematurely forcing the head4 ,it has been said that country life is religion for children at this stage4 ,however this may be1 it is clear that natural religion is rooted in such experiences1 and precedes revealed religion in the order of growth and education1 whatever its logical order in systems of thought may be4 ,a little later1 habits of truthfulness#c are best cultivated by the use of the senses in exact observation4 ,to see a simple phenomenon in nature and report it fully and correctly is no easy matter1 but the habit of trying to do so teaches what truthfulness is and leaves the impress of truth upon the whole life and character4 ,i do not hesitate to say1 therefore1 that elements of science should be taught to children for the moral effects of its influences4 ,at the same time all truth is not sensuous1 and this training alone at this age tends to make the mind pragmatic1 dry1 and insensitive or unresponsive to that other kind of truth the value of which is not measured by its certainty so much as by its effect upon us4 ,we must learn to interpret the heart and our native instincts as truthfully as we do external nature1 for our happiness in life depends quite as largely upon bringing our beliefs into harmony with the deeper feelings of our nature as it does upon the ability to adapt ourselves to our physical environment4 ,thus not only all religious beliefs and moral acts will strengthen if they truly express the character instead of cultivating affectation and insincerity in opinion1 word1 and deed1 as with mistaken pedagogic methods they may do4 ,this latter can be avoided only by leaving all to naturalism and spontaneity at first1 and feeding the soul only according to its appetites and stage of growth4 ,no religious truth must be taught as fundamental--especially as fundamental to morality--which can be seriously doubted or even misunderstood4 ,yet it must be expected that convictions will be transformed and worked over and over again1 and only late1 if at all1 will an equilibrium between the heart and the truth it clings to as finally satisfying be attained4 ,hence most positive religious instruction1 or public piety1 if taught at all1 should be taught briefly as most serious but too high for the child yet1 or as rewards to stimulate curiosity for them later1 but sacred things should not become too familiar or be conventionalized before they can be felt or understood4 ,the child's conception of ,god should not be personal or too familiar at first1 but ,he should appear distant and vague1 inspiring awe and reverence far more than love2 in a word1 as the ,god of nature rather than as devoted to serviceable ministrations to the child's individual wants4 ,the latter should be taught to be a faithful servant rather than a favorite of ,god4 ,the inestimable pedagogic value of the ,god-idea consists in that it widens the child's glimpse of the whole1 and gives the first presentment of the universality of laws1 such as are observed in its experiences and that of others1 so that all things seem comprehended under one stable system or government4 ,the slow realization that ,god's laws are not like those of parents and teachers1 evadible1 suspensible1 but changeless1 and their penalties sure as the laws of nature1 is most important factor of moral training4 ,first the law1 the schoolmaster1 then the ,gospel2 first nature1 then grace1 is the order of growth4 ,the pains or pleasures which follow many acts are immediate1 while the results that follow others are so remote or so serious that the child must utilize the experience of others4 ,artificial rewards and punishments must be cunningly devised so as to simulate and typify as closely as possible the real natural penalty1 and they must be administered uniformly and impartially like laws of nature4 ,as commands are just1 and as they are gradually perceived to spring from superior wisdom1 respect arises1 which ,kant called the bottom motive of duty1 and defined as the immediate determination of the will by law1 thwarting self-love4 ,here the child reverences what is not understood as authority1 and to the childish ,why8 which always implies imperfect respect for the authority1 however displeasing its behest1 the teacher or parent should always reply1 ,you cannot understand why yet1 unless quite sure that a convincing and controlling insight can be given1 such as shall make all future exercise of outward authority in this particular unnecessary4 ,from this standpoint the great importance of the character and native dignity of the teacher is best seen4 ,daily contact with some teachers is itself all-sided ethical education for the child without a spoken precept4 ,here1 too1 the real advantage of male over female teachers1 especially for boys1 is seen in their superior physical strength1 which often1 if highly estimated1 gives real dignity and commands real respect1 and especially in the unquestionably greater uniformity of their moods and their discipline4 ,during the first years of school life1 a point of prime importance in ethico-religious training is the education of conscience4 ,this latter is the most complex and perhaps the most educable of all our so-called faculties4 ,a system of carefully arranged talks1 with copious illustrations from history and literature1 about such topics as fair play1 slang1 cronies1 dress1 teasing1 getting mad1 prompting in class1 white lies1 affectation1 cleanliness1 order1 honor1 taste1 self-respect1 treatment of animals1 reading1 vacation pursuits1 etc41 can be brought quite within the range of boy-and-girl interests by a sympathetic and tactful teacher1 and be made immediately and obviously practical4 ,all this is nothing more or less than conscience-building4 ,the old superstition that children have innate faculties of such a finished sort that they flash up and grasp the principle of things by a rapid sort of first intellection1 an error that made all departments of education so trivial1 assumptive and dogmatic for centuries before ,comenius1 ,basedow and ,pestalozzi1 has been banished everywhere save from moral and religious training1 where it still persists in full force4 ,the senses develop first1 and all the higher intuitions called by the collective name of conscience gradually and later in life4 ,they first take the form of sentiments without much insight1 and are hence liable to be unconscious affectation1 and are caught insensibly from the environment with the aid of inherited predisposition1 and only made more definite by such talks as the above4 ,but parents are prone to forget that healthful and correct sentiments concerning matters of conduct are1 at first1 very feeble1 and that the sense of obligation needs the long and careful guardianship of external authority4 ,just as a young medical student with a rudimentary notion of physiology and hygiene is sometimes disposed to undertake a more or less complete reform of his diet1 regimen1 etc41 to make it scientific in a way that an older and a more learned physician would shrink from1 so the half-insights of boys into matters of moral regimen are far too apt1 in the ,american temperament1 to expend1 in precocious emancipation and crude attempts at practical realization1 the force which is needed to bring their insights to maturity4 ,authority should be relaxed gradually1 explicitly1 and provisionally over one definite department of conduct at a time4 ,to distinguish right and wrong in their own nature is the highest and most complex of intellectual processes4 ,most men and all children are guided only by associations of greater or less subtlety4 ,perhaps the whole round of human duties might be best taught by gathering illustrations of selfishness and tracing it in its countless disguises and ramifications through every stage of life4 ,selfishness is opposed to a sense of the infinite and is inversely as real religion1 and the study of it is not1 like systematic ethics1 apt to be confused and made unpractical by conflicting theories4 ,the ,bible1 the great instrument in the education of conscience1 is far less juvenile than it is now the fashion to suppose4 ,at the very least1 it expresses the result of the ripest human experience1 the noblest traditions of humanity4 ,old ,testament history1 even more than most very ancient history1 is distilled to an almost purely ethical content4 ,for centuries ,scripture was withheld from the masses for the same reason that ,plato refused at first to put his thoughts into writing1 because it would be sure to be misunderstood by very many and lead to that worst of errors and fanaticism caused by half-truths4 ,children should not approach it too lightly4 ,the ,old ,testament1 perhaps before or more than the ,new1 is the ,bible for childhood4 ,a good1 protracted course of the law pedagogically prepares the way for the apprehension of the ,gospel4 ,then the study of the ,old ,testament should begin with selected tales1 told1 as in the ,german schools1 impressively1 in the teacher's language1 but objectively1 and without exegetical or hortatory comment4 ,the appeal is directly to the understanding only at first1 but the moral lesson is brought clearly and surely within the child's reach1 but not personally applied after the manner common with us4 ,probably the most important changes for the educator to study are those which begin between the ages of twelve and sixteen and are completed only some years later1 when the young adolescent receives from nature a new capital of energy and altruistic feeling4 ,it is physiological second birth1 and success in life depends upon the care and wisdom with which this new and final invoice of energy is husbanded4 ,these changes constitute a natural predisposition to a change of heart1 and may perhaps be called1 in ,kantian phrase1 its schema4 ,even from the psychophysic standpoint it is a correct instinct which has slowly led churches to center so much of their cultus upon regeneration4 ,in this ,i1 of course1 only assert here the neurophysical side1 which is everywhere present1 even if everywhere subordinate to the spiritual side4 ,as everywhere1 so here1 too1 the physical may be called in a sense regulative rather than constitutive4 ,it is therefore not surprising that statistics show that far more conversions1 proportionately1 take place during the adolescent period1 which does not normally end before the age of twenty-four or five1 than during any other period of equal length4 ,at this age most churches confirm4 ,before this age the child lives in the present1 is normally selfish1 deficient in sympathy1 but frank and confidential1 obedient to authority1 and without affectation save the supreme affectation of childhood1 viz41 assuming the words1 manners1 habits1 etc41 of those older than itself4 ,but now stature suddenly increases1 and the power of physical and mental endurance and effort diminishes for a time2 larynx1 nose1 chin change1 and normal and morbid ancestral traits and features appear4 ,far greater and more protracted1 though unseen1 are the changes which take place in the nervous system1 both in the development of the cortex and expansion of the convolutions and the growth of association-fibers by which the elements shoot together and relation of things are seen1 which hitherto seemed independent1 to which it seems as if for a few years the energies of growth were chiefly directed4 ,hence this period is so critical and changes in character are so rapid4 ,no matter how confidential the relations with the parent may have been1 an important domain of the soul now declares its independence4 ,confidences are shared with those of equal age and withheld from parents1 especially by boys1 to an extent probably little suspected by most parents4 ,education must be addressed to freedom1 which recognizes only self-made law1 and spontaneity of opinion and conduct is manifested1 often in extravagant and grotesque forms4 ,there is now a longing for that kind of close sympathy and friendship which makes cronies and intimates2 there is a craving for strong emotions which gives pleasure in exaggerations2 and there are nameless longings for what is far1 remote1 strange1 which emphasizes the self-estrangement which ,hegel so well describes1 and which marks the normal rise of the presentiment of something higher than self4 ,instincts of rivalry and competition now grow strong in boys1 and girls grow more conscientious and inward1 and begin to feel their music1 reading1 religion1 painting1 etc41 and to realize the bearing of these upon their future adult life4 ,there is often a strong instinct of devotion and self-sacrifice toward some1 perhaps almost any1 object1 or in almost any cause which circumstances may present4 ,moodiness and perhaps a love of solitude are developed4 ,growing fits make hard and severe labor of body and mind impossible without dwarfing or arresting the development1 by robbing of its nutrition some part of the organism--stomach1 lungs1 chest1 heart1 back1 brain1 etc4--which is peculiarly liable to disease later4 ,it is never so hard to tell the truth plainly and objectively and without any subjective twist4 ,the life of the mere individual ceases and that of person1 or better1 of the race1 begins4 ,it is a period of realization1 and hence often of introspection4 ,in healthy natures it is the golden age of life1 in which enthusiasm1 sympathy1 generosity1 and curiosity are at their strongest and best1 and when growth is so rapid that1 e4g41 each college class is conscious of a vast interval of development which separates it from the class below2 but it is also a period subject to ,wertherian crises1 such as ,hume1 ,richter1 ,j4,s4 ,mill1 and others passed through1 and all depends on the direction given to these new forces4 ,the dangers of this period are great and manifest4 ,the chief of these1 far greater even than the dangers of intemperance1 is that the sexual elements of soul and body will be developed prematurely and disproportionately4 ,indeed1 early maturity in this respect is itself bad4 ,if it occurs before other compensating and controlling powers are unfolded1 this element is hypertrophied and absorbs and dwarfs their energy and it is then more likely to be uninstructed and to suck up all that is vile in the environment4 ,far more than we realize1 the thoughts and feelings of youth center about this factor of his nature4 ,quite apart1 therefore1 from its intrinsic value1 education should serve the purpose of preoccupation1 and should divert attention from an element of our nature the premature or excessive development of which dwarfs every part of soul and body4 ,intellectual interests1 athleticism1 social and esthetic tastes1 should be cultivated4 ,there should be some change in external life4 ,previous routine and drill-work must be broken through and new occupations resorted to1 that the mind may not be left idle while the hands are mechanically employed4 ,attractive home-life1 friendships well chosen and on a high plane1 and regular habits1 should of course be cultivated4 ,now1 too1 though the intellect is not frequently judged insane1 so that pubescent insanity is comparatively rare1 the feelings1 which are yet more fundamental to mental sanity1 are most often perverted1 and lack of emotional steadiness1 violent and dangerous impulses1 unreasonable conduct1 lack of enthusiasm and sympathy1 are very commonly caused by abnormalities here4 ,neurotic disturbances1 such as hysteria1 chorea1 and1 in the opinion of some physicians1 sick-headache and early dementia are peculiarly liable to appear and become seated during this period4 ,in short1 the previous selfhood is broken up like the regulation copy handwriting of early school years1 and a new individual is in process of crystallization4 ,all is solvent1 plastic1 peculiarly susceptible to external influences4 ,between love and religion1 ,god and nature have wrought a strong and indissoluble bond4 ,flagellations1 fasts1 exposure1 excessive penances of many kinds1 the ,hindoo cultus of quietude1 and mental absorption in vacuity and even one pedagogic motive of a cultus of the spiritual and supernatural1 e4 g4 in the symposium of ,plato1 are all designed as palliatives and alteratives of degraded love4 ,change of heart before pubescent years1 there are several scientific reasons for thinking means precocity and forcing4 ,the age signalized by the ancient ,greeks as that at which the study of what was comprehensively called music should begin1 the age at which ,roman guardianship ended1 as explained by ,sir ,henry ,maine1 at which boys are confirmed in the modern ,greek1 ,catholic1 ,lutheran and ,episcopal churches1 and at which the child ,jesus entered the temple1 is as early as any child ought consciously to go about his heavenly ,father's business4 ,if children are instructed in the language of these sentiments too early1 the all-sided deepening and broadening of soul and of conscience which should come with adolescent years will be incomplete4 ,revival sermon which the writer has heard preached to very young children are analogous to exhorting them to imagine themselves married people and inculcating the duties of that relation4 ,it is because this precept is violated in the intemperate haste for immediate results that we may so often hear childish sentiments and puerile expressions so strangely mingled in the religious experience of otherwise apparently mature adults1 which remind one of a male voice constantly modulating from manly tones into boyish falsetto4 ,some one has said of very early risers that they were apt to be conceited all the forenoon1 and stupid and uninteresting all the afternoon and evening4 ,so1 too1 precocious infant ,christians are apt to be conceited and full of pious affectations all the forenoon of life1 and thereafter commonplace enough in their religious life4 ,one is reminded of ,aristotle's theory of ,catharsis1 according to which the soul was purged of strong or bad passions by listening to vivid representations of them on the stage4 ,so1 by the forcing method we deprecate1 the soul is given just enough religious stimulus to act as an inoculation against deeper and more serious interest later4 ,at this age the prescription of a series of strong feelings is very apt to cause attention to concentrate on physical states in a way which may culminate in the increased activity of the passional nature1 or may induce that sort of self-flirtation which is expressed in morbid love of autobiographic confessional outpourings1 or may issue in the supreme selfishness of incipient and often unsuspected hysteria4 ,those who are led to ,christ normally by obeying conscience are not apt to endanger the foundation of their moral character if they should later chance to doubt the doctrine of verbal inspiration or some of the miracles1 or even get confused about the ,trinity1 because their religious nature is not built on the sand4 ,the art of leading young men through college without ennobling or enlarging any of the religious notions of childhood is anti-pedagogic and unworthy philosophy1 and is to leave men puerile in the highest department of their nature4 ,at the age we have indicated1 when the young man instinctively takes the control of himself into his own hands1 previous ethico-religious training should be brought to a focus and given a personal application1 which1 to be most effective1 should probably1 in most cases1 be according to the creed of the parent4 ,it is a serious and solemn epoch1 and ought to be fittingly signalised4 ,morality now needs religion1 which cannot have affected life much before4 ,now duties should be recognised as divine commands1 for the strongest motives1 natural and supernatural1 are needed for the regulation of the new impulses1 passions1 desires1 half insights1 ambitions1 etc41 which come to the ,american temperament so suddenly before the methods of self-regulation can become established and operative4 ,now a deep personal sense of purity and impurity are first possible1 and indeed inevitable1 and this natural moral tension is a great opportunity to the religious teacher4 ,a serious sense of ,god within1 and of responsibilities which transcend this life as they do the adolescent's power of comprehension2 a feeling for duties deepened by a realization and experience of their conflict such as some have thought to be the origin of religion itself in the soul--these1 too1 are elements of the theology of the heart revealed at this age to every serious youth1 but to the judicious emphasis and utilization of which1 the teacher should lend his consummate skill4 ,while special lines of interest leading to a career must be now well grounded1 there must also be a culture of the ideal and an absorption in general views and remote and universal ends4 ,if all that is pure and disciplining in what is transcendent1 whether to the ,christian believers1 the poet or the philosopher1 had even been devised only for the better regulation of human energies set free at this age1 but not yet fully defined or realized1 they would still have a most potent justification on this ground alone4 ,at any rate1 what is often wasted in excess here1 if husbanded1 ripens into philosophy1 the larger love to the world1 the true and the good1 in a sense not unlike that in the symposium of ,plato4 ,finally1 there is danger lest this change1 as prescribed and formulated by the church1 be too sudden and violent1 and the capital of moral force which should last a lifetime be consumed in a brief1 convulsive effort1 like the sudden running down of a watch if its spring be broken4 ,piety is naturally the slowest because the most comprehensive kind of growth4 ,quetelet says that the measure of the state of civilization in a nation is the way in which it achieves its revolutions4 ,as it becomes truly civilized1 revolutions cease to be sudden and violent1 and become gradually transitory and without abrupt change4 ,the same is true of that individual crisis which psycho-physiology describes as adolescence1 and of which theology formulates a higher spiritual potency as conversion4 ,the adolescent period lasts ten years or more1 during all of which development of every sort is very rapid and constant1 and it is1 as already remarked1 intemperate haste for immediate results1 of reaping without sowing1 which has made so many regard change of heart as an instantaneous conquest rather than as a growth1 and persistently to forget that there is something of importance before and after it in healthful religious experience4 ,footnote #a3 ,see author's ,boy ,life1 in ,massachusetts ,country ,town ,forty ,years ,ago4 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,june1 #aijf1 vol4 #ac1 pp4 #aib-bjg4 ,footnote #b3 ,those interested in school statistics may value the record kept by a ,swabian schoolmaster named ,hauberle1 extending over fifty-one years and seven months' experience as a teacher1 as follows3 #iaa1ebg blows with a cane2 #abd1jaj with a rod2 #bj1ici with a ruler2 #acf1gae with the hand2 #ai1bie over the mouth2 #g1ije boxes on the ear2 #a1aae1hjj snaps on the head2 #bb1gfc nota benes with ,bible1 catechism1 hymnbook and grammar2 #ggg times boys had to kneel on peas2 #fac times on triangular blocks of wand2 #e1jja had to carry a timber mare2 and1 #g1gja hold the rod high2 the last two being punishments of his own invention4 ,of the blows with the cane #hjj1jjj were for ,latin vowels1 and #gf1jjj of those with the rod for ,bible verses and hymns4 ,he used a scolding vocabulary of over #c1jjj terms1 of which one-third were of his own invention4 ,footnote #c3 ,for most recent and elaborate study of children's lies see ,zeitschrift fr pdagogische ,psychologie1 ,pathologie und ,hygiene1 ,juli1 #aije4 ,jahrgang #g1 ,heft #c1 pp4 #agg-bje4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,glossary ,,agamic4 ,unmarried2 unmarriageable1 sometimes non-sexed4 ,,agenic4 ,lacking in reproductive power2 sterile4 ,,amphimixis4 ,that form of reproduction which involves the mingling of substance from two individuals so as to effect a mixture of hereditary characteristics4 ,it includes the phenomena of conjugation and fertilization among both unicellular and multicellular organisms4 ,,anabolism4 ,see ,,metabolism4 ,,anamnesic4 ,pertaining to or aiding recollection4 ,,anemic4 ,deficient in blood2 bloodless4 ,,anthropomorphism4 ,the attributing of human characteristics to natural1 supernatural1 or divine beings4 ,,anthropometry4 ,science of measurement of the human body4 ,,artifact4 ,any artificial product4 ,,aphasia4 ,impairment or lose of the ability to understand or use speech4 ,,associationism4 ,the psychological theory which regards the laws of association as the fundamental laws of mental action and development4 ,,atavistic4 ,pertaining to reversion through the influence of heredity to remote ancestral characteristics4 ,,ataxic4 ,pertaining to inability to cordinate voluntary movements2 irregular4 ,,calamo-,,papyrus4 ,reed papyrus or pen-paper4 ,,catabolism4 ,see ,,metabolism4 ,,catharsis4 ,purgation or cleansing4 ,aristotle's esthetic theory that little renders immune for much4 ,,cerebration4 ,brain action1 conscious or unconscious4 ,,chorea4 ,st4 ,vitus's dance2 a nervous disease marked by irregular and involuntary movements of the limbs and face4 ,,chrestomathy4 ,a collection of extracts and choice pieces4 ,,christenthum4 ,the ,christian belief2 the spirit of ,christianity4 ,,commando ,,exercises4 ,gymnastic exercises whose order is dependent upon the spoken command of the director4 ,,cortex4 ,the gray matter of the brain1 mostly on its surface4 ,,cortical4 ,pertaining to the cortex4 ,,craniometry4 ,the measurement of skulls4 ,,cryptogamous4 ,having an obscure mode of fertilization2 or1 of plants that do not blossom4 ,,cultus4 ,a system of religious belief and worship4 ,,deutschenthum4 ,the spirit of the ,german people4 ,,diathesis4 ,a constitutional predisposition4 ,,ephebic4 ,pertaining to the ,greek system of instruction given to young men to fit them for citizenship2 adolescent4 ,,epigoni4 ,successors2 followers who only follow4 ,,epistemology4 ,the theory of knowledge2 that branch of logic which undertakes to explain how knowledge is possible and to define its limitations1 meaning1 and worth4 ,,eupeptic4 ,having good digestion4 ,,euphoria4 ,the sense of well-being2 of fullness of life4 ,,eviration4 ,emasculation2 loss of manly characteristics4 ,,feral4 ,wild by nature2 untamed2 undomesticated4 ,,formicary4 ,an artificial ants' nest4 ,,gem,,th4 ,disposition2 the entire affective soul and its habitual state4 ,,hebetude4 ,dullness2 stupidity4 ,,hedonistic4 ,relating to hedonism1 that form of ,greek philosophy which taught that pleasure is the chief end of existence4 ,,hetaera4 ,a ,greek courtesan4 ,this class was often highly trained in music and social art1 and represented the highest grade of culture among ,greek women4 ,,heterogeny4 7#a7 ,the spontaneous generation of animals and vegetables1 low in the scale of organization1 from inorganic elements4 7#b7 ,that kind of generation in which the parent1 whether plant or animal1 produces offspring differing in structure or habit from itself1 but in which after one or more generations the original form reappears4 ,,heteronomous4 ,having a different name4 ,,horology4 ,the science of measuring time and of constructing instruments for that purpose4 ,,hygeia4 ,the ,greek goddess of health2 health4 ,,hypermethodic4 ,methodic to excess2 overmethodic4 ,,hypertrophy4 ,excessive growth4 ,,indiscerptible4 ,incapable of being destroyed by separation of parts4 ,,inhibition4 ,interference with the normal result of a nervous excitement by an opposing force4 ,,irradiation4 ,the diffusion of nervous stimuli out of the path of normal discharge which1 as a result of the excitation of a peripheral end organ may excite other central organs than those directly connected with it4 ,,kinesological4 ,pertaining to the science of tests and measurements of bodily strength4 ,,kinesometer4 ,an instrument for measuring muscular strength4 ,,medullation4 ,the investment of nerve fibers with a protective covering or medullary sheath1 consisting of white1 fat-like matter4 ,,meristic4 ,pertaining to the levels or spinal and cerebral segments of the body4 ,,metabolism4 ,the act or process by which1 on the one hand1 dead food is built up into living matter--anabolism1 and by which1 on the other1 the living matter is broken down into simpler products within a cell or organism--catabolism4 ,,metamorphosis4 ,change of form or structure2 transformation4 ,,metempsychosis4 ,the doctrine of the transmigration of the soul from one body to another4 ,,monophrastic4 ,pertaining to or consisting of a single phrase4 ,,monotechnic4 ,pertaining to a single art or craft4 ,,morphology4 ,the science of form and structure of plants and animals without regard to function4 ,,myology4 ,the scientific knowledge of the muscular system4 ,,mythopoeic4 ,producing or having a tendency to produce myths4 ,,noetic4 ,of1 pertaining to1 or conceived by1 mind4 ,,nuance4 ,slight shade2 difference2 distinction2 degree4 ,,orthogenic4 ,pertaining to right beginning and development4 ,,orthopedic4 ,relating to the art of curing deformities4 ,,ossuary4 ,a depository of dry bones4 ,,paleopsychic4 ,pertaining to the antiquity of the soul4 ,,pantheistic4 ,relating to that doctrine which holds that the entire phenomenal universe1 including man and nature1 is the ever-changing manifestation of ,god1 who rises to self-consciousness and personality only in man4 ,,patristics4 ,that department of study occupied with the doctrines and writings of the fathers of the ,christian ,church4 ,,phobia4 ,excessive or morbid fear of anything4 ,,phyletically4 ,in accordance with the phylum or race2 racially4 ,,phyletic4 ,pertaining to a race or clan4 ,,phylogeny4 ,the history of the evolution of a species or group2 tribal history2 ancestral development as opposed to ontogeny or the development of the individual4 ,,phylum4 ,a term introduced by ,haeckel to designate the great branches of the animal and vegetable kingdoms4 ,each phylum may include several classes4 ,,pickelhaube4 ,the spiked helmet of the ,german army4 ,,plankton4 ,sea animals and plants collectively2 distinguished from coast or bottom forms and floating in a great mass4 ,,polygamic 7,,love74 ,pertaining to the habit of having more than one mate of the opposite sex4 ,,polyphrastic4 ,having many phrases2 pertaining to rambling1 incoherent speech4 ,,post-,,simian4 ,pertaining to an age later than that in which simian or monkey-like forms prevailed4 ,,prenubile4 ,pertaining to the age before sexual maturity or marriageability is reached4 ,,prie ,,dieu4 ,a praying desk4 ,,propedeutic4 ,preliminary2 introductory4 ,,prophylactic4 ,any medicine or measure efficacious in preventing disease4 ,,pseudophobiac4 ,pertaining to a morbid condition in which the subject is continually in fear of having said something not strictly true4 ,,psychogenesis4 ,the origin and development of soul4 ,,psychonomic4 ,pertaining to the laws of mind4 ,,psychosis4 ,mental constitution or condition2 any change in consciousness1 especially if abnormal4 ,,puberty4 ,the age of sexual maturity4 ,,pubescent4 ,relating to the dawning of puberty4 ,,pygmoid4 ,of pygmy size and form4 ,,rabulist4 ,a chronic wrangler2 one who argues about everything4 ,,schema4 ,a synopsis2 a summary4 ,in the ,kantian sense1 a general type4 ,,schematism4 ,an outline of any systematic arrangement2 an outline4 ,,superfoetation4 ,a second conception some time after a prior one1 by which two foetuses of different age exist together in the same female4 ,often used figuratively4 ,,temibility4 7,from ,italian temibile1 to be feared47 ,the principle of adjustment of penalty to crime in just that degree necessary to prevent a repetition of the criminal act4 ,,tic4 ,a nervous affection of the muscles2 a twitching4 ,,transcendental4 ,in the ,kantian system having an a priori character1 transcending experience1 presupposed in and necessary to experience4 ,,traumata4 ,wounds4 ,,traumatism4 ,a wound2 any morbid condition produced by wounds or other external violence4 ,,verbigeration4 ,the continual utterance of certain words or phrases at short intervals1 without reference to their meaning1 as seen in insane ,gedankenflucht or rapid flight of thought4 ,,index 99 99 99 99 99 ,abstract words1 need of ,accessory and fundamental movement ,accuracy of memory overdone ,activity of children1 motor ,adolescence biography and literature of characterized ,agriculture ,alternations of physical and psychic states ,altruism of country children of woman1 cutlet for ,amphimixis1 psychic1 basis of ,anger ,anthropometry and ideal of gymnastics ,arboreal life and the hand ,art study ,arts and crafts movement ,associations devised or guided by adults ,astronomy ,athletic festivals in ,greece ,athletics as a conversation topic dangers and defects of records in ,attention fostered by commando exercises rhythm in spontaneous ,authority and adolescence ,autobiographies of boyhood ,automatisms motor1 causes and kinds of control and serialization of danger of premature control of desirable ,bachelor women ,basal muscles1 development of ,basal powers1 development of ,bathing ,beauty1 age of feminine ,belief1 habit and muscle determining ,bible1 the influence of1 in adolescence methods of teaching study of1 for girls study of1 in ,german method of will training study of1 order in study of1 postponed study of1 preparation for ,biography and adolescence ,blood vessels1 expansion at puberty ,blushing1 characteristic of puberty ,body training1 ,greek ,botany ,boxing ,boys age of little affection in dangers of coeducation for differences between1 and girls latitude in conduct and studies of1 before puberty puberty in1 characteristics of ,brain action1 unity in ,bullying ,bushido ,cakewalk ,castration1 functional in women ,catharsis1 ,aristotle's theory of ,character and muscles ,children faults and crimes of motor activity of motor defects of selfishness of ,chivalry1 medieval ,chorea ,christianity1 muscular ,chums and cronies ,church1 feminity in the ,city children vs4 country children ,civilized men1 savages physically superior to ,climbing hill muscles1 age for exercise of ,coeducation1 dangers in ,college coeducation in ,english requirements of woman's ideal school and ,combat1 personal1 as exercise ,commando exercises restricted for girls ,concentration ,concreteness in modern language study1 criticized ,conduct mechanized of ,italian schoolboys tabulated weather and ,confessionalism of young women passional inducement to ,conflict1 see ,combat ,control nervous1 through dancing of anger of brute instincts of children's movements ,conversation1 athletics in degeneration in1 causes of ,conversion ,cordination loosened at adolescence inherited tendencies of muscular ,corporal punishment ,country children vs4 city children ,crime1 juvenile causes of education and reading and ,cruelty1 a juvenile fault ,culture heroes ,dancing ,deadly sins1 the seven1 vs4 modern juvenile faults ,debate and will-training ,doll curve ,domesticity ,dramatic instinct of puberty ,drawing1 curve of stages of ,dueling ,education art in crime and industrial intellectual manual moral and religious of boys of girls physical ,effort1 as a developing force ,emotions dancing completest language of the religion directed to ,endurance ,energy and laziness ,english language and literature1 pedagogy of pedagogic degeneration in1 causes of requirements of college sense language1 dangers of ,ennui ,erect position and true life ,ethics1 study of1 criticized ,ethical judgments of children ,euphoria and exercise ,evolution1 movement as a measure of ,exercise health and measurements and music and nascent periods and rhythm and ,farm work ,fatigue at puberty chores and not a cause for punishment play and restlessness expressive of result of labor with defective psychic impulsion rhythm of activity and will-culture and ,faults of children ,favorite sounds and words ,fecundity of college women ,femininity in the church in the school and college ,feminists ,fighting ,flogging ,foreign languages1 dangers of ,france1 religious training in ,friendships of adolescence ,fundamental and accessory ,future life1 as a school teaching ,games groups ,panhellenic ,gangs1 organized juvenile ,genius1 early development of ,germany1 will-training in ,girl graduates aversion to marriage of fecundity of sterility of ,girls and boys1 differences between coeducation for1 dangers of education of education of1 humanistic education of1 manners in education of1 more difficult than of boys education of1 nature in education of1 regularity in education of1 religion in ideal school and curriculum for overdrawing their energy ,grammar1 place of ,greece1 athletic festivals in ,greek body training ,group games ,growth at puberty gymnastics and its effect on of muscle structure and function1 measure of periods rhythmic ,gymnastics effect on growth1 its ideal of1 and anthropometry ideals1 its four unharmonized1 and military ideals and nascent periods and patriotism and proportion and measurement for1 criticized ,swedish ,habits and muscle ,hand and arboreal life ,health1 exercise and of girls ,heredity1 a factor in development ,high ,school1 the coeducation in language study and ,hill-climbing ,historic interest1 growth of ,home1 restraint of1 detrimental ,honor1 among hoodlums in sports ,hoodlums ,hysteria ,imagination1 at puberty of children play and ,individuality1 growth of1 at puberty ,industrial education ,industry and movement ,inhibition ,intellect1 adolescence in ,intemperance ,knightly ideas of youth ,knowing and doing ,language1 concreteness in1 degeneration through dangers of1 through eye and hand precision curve of vs4 literature ,latin1 danger of ,laughter ,laziness and energy ,lies ,literary men1 youth of women1 youth of ,literature and adolescence language vs4 ,machinery and movement ,mammae1 loss of function of ,manners in girls' education ,manual training defects and criticisms of difficulties of ,marriage1 dangers in delay of influenced by coeducation influenced by college training ,mastery in art-craft1 equipment for ,maternity1 dangers of deferred ,measurements and exercise ,memory1 accuracy1 age1 and kinds of sex curve of types of ,military drill ideals and gymnastics ,mind and motility ,money sense ,monthly period and ,sabbath ,motherhood1 training for ,motor1 activity1 primitive automatisms defects of children defects1 general economies powers1 general growth of precocity psychoses1 muscles and recaptulation regularity ,movement and industry ,movements1 passive precocity of ,muscle tension and thought ,muscles1 per cent by weight of body character and motor psychoses and small1 and thought will and ,muscular ,christianity ,music and exercise ,myths1 study of ,nascent periods and exercises ,nature in girls' education ,obedience ,panhellenic games ,passive movements ,patriotism and gymnastics ,peace1 man's normal state ,periodicity in growth in women ,philology1 dangers of ,plasticity of growth at puberty ,play course of study imagination and prehistoric activity and problem sex and stages and ages of work and ,plays and games1 codification of ,precocity1 motor in the motor sphere ,predatory organizations ,primitive motor activity ,punishments in school1 causes of ,reading age crime and curve ,reason1 development of ,recapitulation and motor heredity ,records in athletics ,regularity in education of girls ,religious training1 age for for girls in ,europe premature two methods of ,retardation as a means of broadening ,revivalists ,rhythm1 exercise and in primitive activities of work and rest ,savages physically superior to civilized men ,school1 language study in need of enthusiasm in punishments in1 causes of reading in ,scientific men1 youth of ,sedentary life ,selfishness of children ,sex1 play and sports and ,slang curve value of ,sleep1 in education of girls ,sloyd1 origin1 aims1 criticism of ,social activities organizations of youth ,solitude ,sounds1 favorite1 and words ,sports1 values of different codification of sexual influence in team work in ,spurtiness ,sterility of girl graduates ,story-telling1 interest in ,struggle-for-lifeurs ,students' associations ,stuttering and stammering ,swedish gymnastics ,swimming ,talent1 early development of ,teachers1 aversions to ,team spirit ,technical courses1 need of ,telegraphic skill ,temibility ,theft1 juvenile ,thought and muscle tension ,transitory nature of youthful experiences ,tree life and erect posture ,truancy ,truth-telling ,turner movement ,unmarried women1 dangers to ,vagabondage ,vagrancy ,virility in the ,church ,weather and conduct ,will1 muscles and training ,womanly1 the eternal ,women1 bachelors dangers to1 in not marrying education of1 ideal young1 confessionalism of ,work at its best1 play play and rest and1 rhythm of ,wrestling ,young ,men's ,christian ,association 99 99 99 99 99 ,,international ,,education ,,series4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,an ,,ideal ,,school2 ,,or1 ,,looking ,,forward4 ,by ,preston ,w4 ,search1 ,honorary ,fellow in ,clark ,university4 ,with an ,introduction by ,pres4 ,g4 ,stanley ,hall4 ,vol4 #eb4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4bj net4 ,i am not concerned that the things presented in this little constructive endeavor will not find bodily incorporation in schools2 for it is cross-fertilization and not grafting that has given us our richest varieties of fruits and flowers4 ,this work is an attempt at spirit1 not letter2 at principle1 not method4--,from the ,author's ,preface4 ,a book ,i wish ,i could have written myself2 and ,i can think of no single educational volume in the world-wide range of literature in this field that ,i believe so well calculated to do so much good at the present time1 and which ,i could so heartily advise every teacher in the land1 of whatever grade1 to read and ponder4--,pres4 ,g4 ,stanley ,hall1 ,clark ,university4 ,it is to my mind the most stimulating book that has appeared for a long time4 ,the conception here set forth of the function of the school is1 ,i believe1 the broadest and best that has been formulated4 ,the chapter on ,illustrative ,methods is worth more than all the books on ',method' that ,i know of4 ,the diagrams and tables are very convincing4 ,i am satisfied that the author has given us an epoch-making book4--,henry ,h4 ,goddard1 ,ph4,d41 ,state ,normal ,school1 ,west ,chester1 ,pa4 ,i received a copy of ',an ,ideal ,school1' and ,i am satisfied that ,i made no mistake when ,i1 with the other two members of the book committee1 recommended the book to the #caj teachers in our county4--,j4,g4 ,dundore1 ,lycoming ,county1 ,pennsylvania4 ,certainly one of the most notable books on education published in many years--,p4,p4 ,claxton1 ,editor ,atlantic ,educational ,journal4 ,you have done the cause of real education an important service4 ,this book is1 in my opinion1 one of the most useful in the ,international ,education ,series4--,albert ,leonard1 ,editor of the ,journals of ,pedagogy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company1 ,,new ,,york4 ,,dickens ,,as ,,an ,,educator4 ,by ,,james ,i4 ,,hughes1 ,inspector of ,schools1 ,toronto4 ,vol4 #di4 #abmo4 ,cloth1 #a4ej4 ,,adopted ,,by ,,several ,,state ,,teachers' ,,reading ,,circles4 ,all teachers have read ,dickens's novels with pleasure4 ,probably few1 however have presumably thought definitely of him as a great educational reformer4 ,but ,inspector ,hughes demonstrates that such is his just title4 ,william ,t4 ,harris says of ,dickens as an ,educator3 ,this book is sufficient to establish the claim for ,dickens as an educational reformer4 ,he has done more than any one else to secure for the child considerate treatment of his tender age4 ,dickens stands apart and alone as one of the most potent influences of social reform in the nineteenth century1 and therefore deserves to be read and studied by all who have to do with schools1 and by all parents everywhere in our day and generation4 ,professor ,hughes asserts that ,dickens was the most profound exponent of the kindergarten and the most comprehensive student of childhood that ,england has yet produced4 ,the book brings into connected form1 under proper headings1 the educational principles of this most sympathetic friend of children4 ,mr4 ,james ,l4 ,hughes has just published a book that will rank as one of the finest appreciations of ,dickens ever written4--,colorado ,school ,journal4 ,mr4 ,hughes has brought together in an interesting and most effective manner the chief teachings of ,dickens on educational subjects4 ,his extracts make the reader feel again the reality of ,dickens's descriptions and the power of the appeal that he made for a saner1 kindlier1 more inspiring pedagogy1 and thus became1 through his immense vogue1 one of the chief instrumentalities working for the new education4--,wisconsin ,journal of ,education4