,illustration     ,,scientific          
,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #che      
,,new ,,york1 ,,may #ai1 #ahhc          
,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4
 ,,xv41 ,no4 #che4  ,scientific         
,american established #ahde  ,scientific
 ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4      
,scientific ,american and ,supplement1  
#g a year4          99       99       99
       99       99  ,,table ,,of        
,,contents4  ,i4    ,,natural           
,,history4--,fishes of ,cuban ,waters4  
,panax ,victori4--#a ,illustration4     
,a ,note on ,sap4 ,by ,prof4 ,,attfield4
        ,the ,crow4--,illustration4     
,the ,praying ,mantis and its           
,allies4--,illustration4        ,may    
,flies4--#b illustrations4  ,,ii4       
,,technology4--,a ,quick ,way to        
,ascertain the ,focus       of a        
,lens4--#a diagram4        ,the ,history
 of the ,pianoforte4 ,by ,a4,j4         
,,hipkins4--,different parts of a       
pianoforte and       their              
uses4--,inventor of the instrument and  

his       action4--,first ,german       
piano-maker4--,square                   
pianos4--,pianos of ,broadwood1         
,backers1 ,stodart1       and           
,erard4--,introduction of metal tubes1  
plates1       bars1 and                 
frames4--,improvements of ,meyer1 the   
,steinways1 ,chickerings1 and           
others4--,upright                       
pianos4--,several figures4  ,,iii4      
,,medicine ,,and ,,hygiene4--,the       
,poisonous ,properties of       ,nitrate
 of ,silver and a ,recent ,case of      
,poisoning       with the ,same4 ,by ,h4
 ,a4 ,,mott1 ,jr4        ,tubercle      
,bacilli in ,sputa4        ,malaria4 ,by
 ,dr4 ,,james ,h4 ,,salisbury4--,,viii4 
,local       observations4--,effect of  
the sun on ague                         
plants4--,investigations into the cause 
of       ague4--,notes on marsh         
miasm4--,analysis of malari a           
plant4--,numerous figures4  ,,iv4       
,,engineering4--,torpedo ,boats4--,full 
page illustration4        ,pictet's     

,high ,speed ,boat4--,several figures   
and       diagrams4        ,initial     
,stability ,indicator for ,ships4--#d   
figures4  ,v4    ,,electricity1 ,,light1
 ,,and ,,heat4--,scrivanow's ,chloride  
of       ,silver ,pile4--#b figures4    
,on the ,luminosity of ,flame4  ,,vi4   
,,chemistry4--,new ,bleaching ,process1 
with ,regeneration of       the ,baths  
,used4 ,by ,m4 ,,bonneville4            
,detection of ,magenta1 ,archil1 and    
,cudbear in ,wine4  ,,vii4              
,,architecture4--,the ,pantheon at      
,rome4  ,,viii4 ,,miscellaneous4--,the  
,raphael ,celebration at                
,rome4--#c ,illustrations4        ,great
 ,international ,fisheries              
,exhibition4--#a figure4        ,puppet 
,shows among the ,greeks4--#c           
illustrations4         99       99      
99       99       99     ,,the ,,raphael
 ,,celebration ,,at ,,rome4   ,the most 
famous of ,italian painters1 ,raffaele  
,sanzio1 whom the world commonly calls  
,raphael1 was born at ,urbino1 in       

,umbria1 part of the ,papal ,states1    
four hundred years ago4 ,the anniversary
 was celebrated1 on ,march #bh1 #ahhc1  
both in that town and in ,rome1 where he
 lived and worked1 and where he died in 
#aebj1 with processions1 orations1      
poetical recitations1 performances of   
music1 exhibitions of pictures1 statues1
 and busts1 visits to the tomb of the   
great artist in the ,pantheon1 and with 
banquets and other festivities4 ,the    
,king and ,queen of ,italy were present 
at the ,capitol of ,rome 7the ,palace of
 the ,city ,municipality7 where one part
 of these proceedings took place4       
,illustration3 ,,skeleton ,,of ,,raphael
 ,,as ,,found ,,in ,,his ,,tomb ,,in    
,,the ,,pantheon1 ,,in #ahcc4  ,at ten  
o'clock in the morning a procession set 
forth from the ,capitol to the          
,pantheon1 to render homage at the tomb 
of ,raphael4 ,it was arranged in the    
following order3 ,two ,fedeli1 or       
municipal ushers1 in picturesque        
costumes of the sixteenth century1      

headed the procession1 carrying two     
laurel wreaths fastened with ribbons    
representing the colors of ,rome1 red   
and dark yellow2 a company of ,vigili1  
the ,roman firemen2 the municipal band2 
the standard of ,rome1 carried by an    
officer of the ,vigili2 and the banners 
of the fourteen quarters of the city4   
,then came the ,minister of ,public     
,instruction and the ,minister of       
,public ,works2 the ,syndic of ,rome1   
,duke ,leopoldo ,torlonia2 and the      
,prefect of ,rome1 the ,marquis         
,gravina4 ,the members of the communal  
giunta1 the provincial deputation1 and  
the communal and provincial council     
followed the principal authorities4     
,next in order came the presidents of   
,italian and foreign academies and art  
institutions1 the president of the      
academy of the ,licei1 the              
representatives of all the foreign      
academies1 the members of the academy of
 ,st4 ,luke1 the general direction of   
antiquities1 the members of the         

,permanent ,commission of ,fine ,arts1  
the members of the ,communal            
,archological ,commission1 the guardians
 of the ,pantheon1 the members of the   
,international ,artistic ,club1 presided
 over by ,prince ,odescalchi2 the       
members of the art schools1 the pupils  
of the ,san ,michele and ,termini       
schools with their bands1 the pupils of 
the elementary and female art schools4  
,the procession was rendered more       
interesting by the presence of many     
,italian and foreign artists4 ,having   
arrived at the ,pantheon1 the chief     
personages took their place in front of 
,raphael's tomb4 ,every visitor to ,rome
 knows this tomb1 which is situated     
behind the third chapel on the left of  
the visitor entering the ,pantheon4 ,the
 altar was endowed by ,raphael1 and     
behind it is a picture of the ,virgin   
and ,child1 known as the ,madonna del   
,sasso1 which was executed at his       
request and was produced by ,lorenzo    
,lotto1 a friend and pupil of the great 

painter4 ,above the inscription usually 
hang a few small pictures1 which were   
presented by very poor artists who      
thought themselves cured by prayers at  
the shrine4 ,this is confirmed by a     
crutch hanging up close to the pilaster4
 ,the bones of ,raphael are laid in this
 tomb since #aebj1 with an epitaph      
recording the esteem in which he was    
held by ,popes ,julius ,,ii4 and ,leo   
,x42 but they have not always been      
allowed to lie undisturbed4 ,on ,sept4  
#ad1 #ahcc1 the tomb was opened to      
inspect the mouldering skeleton1 of     
which drawings were made1 and are       
reproduced in two of our illustrations4 
,the proceedings at the tomb in the     
recent anniversary visit were brief and 
simple2 a number of laurel or floral    
wreaths were suspended there1 one sent  
by the president and members of the     
,royal ,academy of ,london2 and the     
,syndic of ,rome unveiled a bronze bust 
of ,raphael1 which had been placed in a 
niche at the side4  ,illustration3 ,,the

 ,,ancient ,,roman ,,temple ,,now       
,,known ,,as ,,the ,,pantheon1 ,,at     
,,rome4  ,this ceremony at the ,pantheon
 was concluded by all visitors writing  
their names on two albums which had been
 placed near ,victor ,emmanuel's tomb   
and ,raphael's tomb4 ,the commemoration 
in the hall of the ,horatii and         
,curiatii in the ,capitol was a great   
success1 their ,majesties1 the          
,ministers1 the members of the          
diplomatic body1 and a distinguished    
assembly being present4 ,signor ,quirino
 ,leoni read an admirable discourse on  
,raphael and his times4  ,the ancient   
city of ,urbino1 ,raphael's birthplace1 
has fallen into decay1 but has          
remembered its historic renown upon this
 occasion4 ,the representatives of the  
,government and municipal authorities1  
and delegates of the leading ,italian   
cities went in procession to visit the  
house where ,raphael was born4          
,commemoration speeches were pronounced 
in the great hall of the ducal palace by

 ,signor ,minghetti and ,senator        
,massarani4 ,the commemoration ended    
with a cantata composed by ,signor      
,rossi4 ,the ,via ,raffaelle was        
illuminated in the evening1 and a gala  
spectacle was given at the ,sanzio      
,theater4 ,next day the exhibition of   
designs for a monument to ,raphael was  
inaugurated at ,urbino1 and at night a  
great torchlight procession took        
place4--,illustrated ,london ,news4     
,illustration3 ,,raphael',s ,,tomb ,,in 
,,the ,,pantheon1 ,,at ,,rome4          
99       99       99       99       99  
,,the ,,pantheon ,,at ,,rome4   ,the    
edifice known as the ,pantheon1 in      
,rome1 is one of the best preserved     
specimens of ,roman architecture4 ,it   
was erected in the year #bf ,b4,c41 and 
is therefore now about one thousand nine
 hundred years old4 ,it was consecrated 
as a ,christian church in the year #fjh4
 ,its rotunda is #adc ft4 in diameter   
and also #adc ft4 high4 ,its portico is 
remarkable for the elegance and number  

of its ,corinthian columns4         99  
99       99       99       99  ,seor    
,felipe ,poey1 a famous ichthyologist of
 ,cuba1 has recently brought out an     
exhaustive work upon the fishes of      
,cuban waters1 in which he describes and
 depicts no fewer than #ghb distinct    
varieties1 although he admits some      
doubts about #aje kinds1 concerning     
which he has yet to get more exact      
information4 ,there can be no question1 
however1 he claims1 about the #fgg      
species remaining1 more than half of    
which he first described in previous    
works upon this subject1 which has been 
the study of his life4         99       
99       99       99       99     ,,the 
,,great ,,international ,,fisheries     
,,exhibition4   ,her ,majesty the ,queen
 has appointed the #abth of ,may for the
 opening of the ,international          
,fisheries ,exhibition1 which an        
influential and energetic committee1    
under the active presidency of the      
,prince of ,wales1 had developed to a   

magnitude undreamt of by those concerned
 in its early beginnings4  ,the idea of 
an international ,fisheries ,exhibition 
arose out of the success of the show of 
,british fishery held at ,norwich a     
short time ago2 and the president and   
executive of the latter formed the      
nucleus of the far more powerful body by
 whom the present enterprise has been   
brought about4  ,the plan of the        
buildings embraces the whole of the     
twenty-two acres of the ,horticultural  
,gardens2 the upper half1 left in its   
usual state of cultivation1 will form a 
pleasant lounge and resting place for   
visitors in the intervals of their study
 of the collections4 ,this element of   
garden accommodation was one of the most
 attractive features at the ,paris      
,exhibition of #ahgh4  ,as the plan of  
the buildings is straggling and         
extended1 and widely separates the      
classes1 the most convenient mode of    
seeing the show will probably be found  
by going through the surrounding        

buildings first1 and then taking the    
annexes as they occur4  ,illustration3  
,,the ,,international ,,fisheries       
,,exhibition1 ,,london4  ,,block        
,,plan4--,a1 ,switzerland2 ,b1 ,isle of 
,man2 ,c1 ,bahamas and ,w4,i4 ,islands2 
,d1 ,hawaii2 ,e1 ,poland2 ,f1 ,portugal2
 ,g1 ,austria2 ,h1 ,germany2 ,i1        
,france2 ,j1 ,italy2 ,k1 ,greece2 ,l1   
,china2 ,m1 ,india and ,ceylon2 ,n1     
,straits ,settlements2 ,o1 ,japan2 ,p1  
,tasmania2 ,q1 ,new ,south              
,wales4--,scale #bjj feet to the inch4  
,on entering the main doors in the      
,exhibition ,road1 we pass through the  
,vestibule to the ,council ,room of the 
,royal ,horticultural ,society1 which   
has been decorated for the reception of 
marine paintings1 river subjects1 and   
fish pictures of all sorts1 by modern   
artists4  ,leaving the ,fine ,arts      
behind1 the principal building of the   
,exhibition is before us--that devoted  
to the deep sea fisheries of ,great     
,britain4 ,it is a handsome wooden      

structure1 #gej feet in length1 #ej feet
 wide1 and #cj feet at its greatest     
height4 ,the model of this1 as well as  
of the other temporary wooden buildings1
 is the same as that of the annexes of  
the great ,exhibition of #ahfb4  ,on our
 left are the ,dining ,rooms with the   
kitchens in the rear4 ,the third room1  
set apart for cheap fish dinners 7one of
 the features of the ,exhibition71 is to
 be decorated at the expense of the     
,baroness ,burdett ,coutts1 and its     
walls are to be hung with pictures lent 
by the ,fishmongers' ,company1 who have 
also furnished the requisite chairs and 
tables1 and have made arrangements for a
 daily supply of cheap fish1 while      
almost everything necessary to its      
maintenance 7forks1 spoons1 table-linen1
 etc47 will be lent by various firms4   
,the apsidal building attached is to be 
devoted to lectures on the cooking of   
fish4  ,having crossed the ,british     
,section1 and turning to the right and  
passing by another entrance1 we come    

upon what will be to all one of the most
 interesting features of the            
,exhibition1 and to the scientific      
student of ichthyology a collection of  
paramount importance4 ,we allude to the 
,western ,arcade1 in which are placed   
the ,aquaria1 which have in their       
construction given rise to more         
thoughtful care and deliberation than   
any other part of the works4 ,on the    
right1 in the bays1 are the twenty large
 asphalt tanks1 about #ab feet long1 #c 
feet wide1 and #c feet deep4 ,these are 
the largest dimensions that the space at
 command will allow1 but it is feared by
 some that it will be found somewhat    
confined for fast going fish4 ,along the
 wall on the left are ranged twenty     
smaller or table tanks of slate1 which  
vary somewhat in size2 the ten largest  
are about #e feet #h inches long1 #b    
feet #i inches wide1 and #a foot #i     
inches deep4  ,in this ,western ,arcade 
will be found all the new inventions in 
fish culture--models of hatching1       

breeding1 and rearing establishments1   
apparatus for the transporting of fish1 
ova1 models and drawings of fish-passes 
and ladders1 and representations of the 
development and growth of fish4 ,the    
chief exhibitors are specialists1 and   
are already well known to our readers4  
,sir ,james ,gibson ,maitland has taken 
an active part in the arrangement of    
this branch1 and is himself one of the  
principal contributors4  ,in the north  
of the ,arcade1 where it curves toward  
the ,conservatory1 will be shown an     
enormous collection of examples of      
stuffed fish1 contributed by many       
prominent angling societies4 ,in front  
of these on the counter will be ranged  
microscopic preparations of parasites1  
etc41 and a stand from the ,norwich     
,exhibition of a fauna of fish and      
fish-eating birds4  ,passing behind the 
,conservatory and down the ,eastern     
,arcade--in which will be arranged alg1 
sponges1 mollusca1 star-fish1 worms used
 for bait1 insects which destroy spawn  

or which serve as food for fish1        
etc4--on turning to the left1 we find   
ourselves in the fish market1 which will
 probably vie with the aquaria on the   
other side in attracting popular        
attention4 ,this model ,billingsgate is 
to be divided into two parts1 the one   
for the sale of fresh1 the other of     
dried and cured fish4  ,next in order   
come the two long iron sheds            
appropriated respectively to life-boats 
and machinery in motion4 ,then past the 
,royal pavilion 7the idea of which was  
doubtless taken from its prototype at   
the ,paris ,exhibition7 to the southern 
end of the central block1 which is      
shared by the ,netherlands and          
,newfoundland2 just to the north of the 
former ,belgium has a place4  ,while the
 ,committee of the ,netherlands was one 
of the earliest formed1 ,belgium only   
came in at the eleventh hour2 she will1 
however1 owing to the zealous activity  
of ,mr4 ,lenders1 the consul in ,london1
 send an important contribution worthy  

of her interest in the ,north ,sea      
fisheries4 ,we ought also to mention    
that ,newfoundland is among those       
colonies which have shown great energy1 
and she may be expected to send a large 
collection4  ,passing northward we come 
to ,sweden and ,norway1 with ,chili     
between them4 ,these two countries were1
 like the ,netherlands1 early in        
preparing to participate in the         
,exhibition4 ,each has had its own      
committee1 which has been working hard  
since early in #ahhb4  ,parallel to the 
,scandinavian section is that devoted to
 ,canada and the ,united ,states1 and   
each will occupy an equal space--ten    
thousand square feet4  ,in the northern 
,transept will be placed the inland     
fisheries of the ,united ,kingdom4 ,at  
each end of the building is aptly       
inclosed a basin formerly standing in   
the gardens3 and over the eastern one   
will be erected the dais from which the 
,queen will formally declare the        
,exhibition open4  ,shooting out at     

right angles are the ,spanish annex1 and
 the building shared by ,india and      
,ceylon4 ,china and ,japan and ,new     
,south ,wales2 while corresponding to   
those at the western end are the        
,russian annex1 and a shed allotted to  
several countries and colonies4 ,the    
,isle of ,man1 the ,bahamas1            
,switzerland1 ,germany1 ,hawaii1 ,italy1
 and ,greece--all find their space under
 its roof4  ,after all the buildings    
were planned1 the ,governments of       
,russia and ,spain declared their       
intention of participating2 and         
accordingly for each of these countries 
a commodious iron building has been     
specially erected4  ,the ,spanish       
collection will be of peculiar interest2
 it has been gathered together by a     
,government vessel ordered round the    
coast for the purpose1 and taking up    
contributions at all the seaports as it 
passed4  ,of the countries whose        
,governments for inscrutable reasons of 
state show disfavor and lack of         

sympathy1 ,germany is prominent2        
although by the active initiative of the
 ,london ,committee some important      
contributions have been secured from    
private individuals2 among them1 we are 
happy to say1 is ,mr4 ,max von dem      
,borne1 who will send his celebrated    
incubators1 which the ,english          
,committee have arranged to exhibit in  
operation at their own expense4         
,although the ,italian ,government1 like
 that of ,germany1 holds aloof1         
individuals1 especially ,dr4 ,dohrn1 of 
the ,naples ,zoological ,station1 will  
send contributions of great scientific  
value4  ,in the ,chinese and ,japanese  
annex1 on the east1 will be seen a large
 collection of specimens 7including the 
gigantic crabs71 which have been        
collected1 to great extent1 at the      
suggestion of ,dr4 ,gnther1 of the      
,british ,museum4  ,it is at the same   
time fortunate and unfortunate that a   
similar ,fisheries ,exhibition is now   
being held at ,yokohama1 as many        

specimens which have been collected     
specially for their own use would       
otherwise be wanting2 and on the other  
hand1 many are held back for their own  
show4  ,china1 of all foreign countries1
 was the first to send her goods1 which 
arrived at the building on the #cjth of 
,march1 accompanied by native workmen   
who are preparing to erect over a basin 
contiguous to their annex models of the 
summer house and bridge with which the  
willow pattern plate has made us        
familiar2 while on the basin will float 
models of ,chinese junks4  ,of ,british 
colonies1 ,new ,south ,wales will       
contribute a very interesting collection
 placed under the care of the ,curator  
of the ,sydney ,museum2 and from the    
,indian ,empire will come a large       
gathering of specimens in spirits under 
the superintendence of ,dr4 ,francis    
,day4  ,of great scientific interest are
 the exhibits1 to be placed in two      
neighboring sheds1 of the ,native ,guano
 ,company and the ,millowners'          

,association4 ,the former will show all 
the patents used for the purification of
 the rivers from sewage1 and the latter 
will display in action their method of  
rendering innocuous the chemical        
pollutions which factories pour into the
 river4  ,in the large piece of water in
 the northern part of the gardens1 which
 has been deepened on purpose1 apparatus
 in connection with diving will be seen2
 and hard by1 in a shed1 ,messrs4       
,siebe1 ,gorman  ,co4 will show a       
selection of beautiful minute shells    
dredged from the bottom of the          
,mediterranean4  ,in the open basins in 
the gardens will be seen beavers1 seals1
 sea-lions1 waders1 and other aquatic   
birds4  ,from this preliminary walk     
round enough has1 we think1 been seen to
 show that the ,great ,international    
,fisheries ,exhibition will prove of    
interest alike to the ordinary visitor1 
to those anxious for the well-being of  
fishermen1 to fishermen themselves of   
every degree1 and to the scientific     

student of ichthyology in all its       
branches4--,nature4         99       99 
99       99       99     ,,puppet       
,,shows ,,among ,,the ,,greeks4   ,the  
ancients1 especially the ,greeks1 were  
very fond of theatrical representations2
 but1 as ,mr4 ,magnin has remarked in   
his ,origines du ,thtre ,moderne1 public
 representations were very expensive1   
and for that very reason very rare4     
,moreover1 those who were not in a      
condition of freedom were excluded from 
them2 and1 finally1 all cities could not
 have a large theater1 and provide for  
the expenses that it carried with it4   
,it became necessary1 then1 for every   
day needs1 for all conditions and for   
all places1 that there should be        
comedians of an inferior order1 charged 
with the duty of offering continuously  
and inexpensively the emotions of the   
drama to all classes of inhabitants4    
,formerly1 as to-day1 there were seen   
wandering from village to village       
menageries1 puppet shows1 fortune       

tellers1 jugglers1 and performers of    
tricks of all kinds4 ,these             
prestidigitators even obtained at times 
such celebrity that history has         
preserved their names for us--at least  
of two of them1 ,euclides and           
,theodosius1 to whom statues were       
erected by their contemporaries4 ,one of
 these was put up at ,athens in the     
,theater of ,bacchus1 alongside of that 
of the great writer of tragedy1 schylus1
 and the other at the ,theater of the   
,istiaians1 holding in the hand a small 
ball4 ,the grammarian ,athenus1 who     
reports these facts in his ,banquet of  
the ,sages1 profits by the occasion to  
deplore the taste of the ,athenians1 who
 preferred the inventions of mechanics  
to the culture of mind and histrions to 
philosophers4 ,he adds with vexation    
that ,diophites of ,locris passed down  
to posterity simply because he came one 
day to ,thebes wearing around his body  
bladders filled with wine and milk1 and 
so arranged that he could spurt at will 

one of these liquids in apparently      
drawing it from his mouth4 ,what would  
,athenus say if he knew that it was     
through him alone that the name of this 
histrion had come down to us8           
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,the        
,,marvelous ,,statue ,,of ,,cybele4     
,philo1 of ,byzantium1 and ,heron1 of   
,alexandria1 to whom we always have to  
have recourse when we desire accurate   
information as to the mechanic arts of  
antiquity1 both composed treatises on   
puppet shows4 ,that of ,philo is lost1  
but ,heron's treatise has been preserved
 to us1 and has recently been translated
 in part by ,mr4 ,victor ,prou4         
,according to the ,greek engineer1 there
 were several kinds of puppet shows4    
,the oldest and simplest consisted of a 
small stationary case1 isolated on every
 side1 in which the stage was closed by 
doors that opened automatically several 
times to exhibit the different tableaux4
 ,the programme of the representation   
was generally as follows3 ,the first    

tableau showed a head1 painted on the   
back of the stage1 which moved its eyes1
 and lowered and raised them            
alternately4 ,the door having been      
closed1 and then opened again1 there was
 seen1 instead of the head1 a group of  
persons4 ,finally1 the stage opened a   
third time to show a new group1 and this
 finished the representation4 ,there    
were1 then1 only three movements to be  
made1 that of the doors1 that of the    
eyes1 and that of the change of         
background4  ,as such representations   
were often given on the stages of large 
theaters1 a method was devised later on 
of causing the case to start from the   
scenes behind which it was bidden from  
the spectators1 and of moving           
automatically to the front of the stage1
 where it exhibited in succession the   
different tableaux2 after which it      
returned automatically behind the       
scenes4 ,here is one of the scenes      
indicated by ,heron1 entitled the       
,triumph of ,bacchus3  ,the movable case

 shows1 at its upper part1 a platform   
from which arises a cylindrical temple1 
the roof of which1 supported by six     
columns1 is conical and surmounted by a 
figure of ,victory with spread wings and
 holding a crown in her right hand4 ,in 
the center of the temple ,bacchus is    
seen standing1 holding a thyrsus in his 
left hand1 and a cup in his right4 ,at  
his feet lies a panther4 ,in front of   
and behind the god1 on the platform of  
the stage1 are two altars provided with 
combustible material4 ,very near the    
columns1 but external to them1 there are
 bacchantes placed in any posture that  
may be desired4 ,all being thus         
prepared1 says ,heron1 the automatic    
apparatus is set in motion4 ,the theater
 then moves of itself to the spot       
selected1 and there stops4 ,then the    
altar in front of ,jupiter becomes      
lighted1 and1 at the same time1 milk and
 water spurt from his thyrsus1 while his
 cup pours wine over the panther4 ,the  
four faces of the base become encircled 

with crowns1 and1 to the noise of drums 
and cymbals1 the bacchantes dance round 
about the temple4 ,soon1 the noise      
having ceased1 ,victory on the top of   
the temple1 and ,bacchus within it1 face
 about4 ,the altar that was behind the  
god is now in front of him1 and becomes 
lighted in its turn4 ,then occurs       
another outflow from the thyrsus and    
cup1 and another round of the bacchantes
 to the sound of drums and cymbals4 ,the
 dance being finished1 the theater      
returns to its former station4 ,thus    
ends the apotheosis4  ,i shall try to   
briefly indicate the processes which    
permitted of these different operations 
being performed1 and which offer a much 
more general interest than one might at 
first sight be led to believe2 for      
almost all of them had been employed in 
former times for producing the illusions
 to which ancient religions owed their  
power4  ,the automatic movement of the  
case was obtained by means of           
counterpoises and two cords wound about 

horizontal bobbins in such a way as to  
produce by their winding up a forward   
motion in a vertical plane1 and         
subsequently a backward movement to the 
starting place4 ,supposing the motive   
cords properly wound around vertical    
bobbins1 instead of a horizontal one1   
and we have the half revolution of      
,bacchus and ,victory1 as well as the   
complete revolution of the bacchantes4  
,the successive lighting of the two     
altars1 the flow of milk and wine1 and  
the noise of drums and cymbals were     
likewise obtained by the aid of cords   
moved by counterpoises1 and the lengths 
of which were graduated in such a way as
 to open and close orifices1 at the     
proper moment1 by acting through        
traction on sliding valves which kept   
them closed4  ,small pieces of          
combustible material were piled up      
beforehand on the two altars1 the bodies
 of which were of metal1 and in the     
interior of which were hidden small     
lamps that were separated from the      

combustible by a metal plate which was  
drawn aside at the proper moment by a   
small chain4 ,the flame1 on traversing  
the orifice1 thus communicated with the 
combustible4  ,the milk and wine which  
flowed out at two different times       
through the thyrsus and cup of ,bacchus 
came from a double reservoir hidden     
under the roof of the temple1 over the  
orifices4 ,the latter communicated1 each
 of them1 with one of the halves of the 
reservoir through two tubes inserted in 
the columns of the small edifice4 ,these
 tubes were prolonged under the floor of
 the stage1 and extended upward to the  
hands of ,bacchus4 ,a key1 maneuvered by
 cords1 alternately opened and closed   
the orifices which gave passage to the  
two liquids4  ,as for the noise of the  
drums and cymbals1 that resulted from   
the falling of granules of lead1        
contained in an invisible box provided  
with an automatic sliding-valve1 upon an
 inclined tambourine1 whence they       
rebounded against little cymbals in the 

interior of the base of the car4        
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,marvelous  
,,altar 7,according to ,heron74         
,finally1 the crowns and garlands that  
suddenly made their appearance on the   
four faces of the base of the stage were
 hidden there in advance between the two
 walls surrounding the base4 ,the space 
thus made for the crowns was closed     
beneath1 along each face1 by a          
horizontal trap moving on hinges that   
connected it with the inner wall of the 
base1 but which was held temporarily    
stationary by means of a catch4 ,the    
crowns were attached to the top of their
 compartment by cords that would have   
allowed them to fall to the level of the
 pedestal1 had they not been supported  
by the traps4  ,at the desired moment1  
the catch1 which was controlled by a    
special cord1 ceased to hold the trap1  
and the latter1 falling vertically1 gave
 passage to the festoons and crowns that
 small leaden weights then drew along   
with all the quickness necessary4  ,two 

points here are specially worthy of     
attracting our attention1 and these are 
the flow of wine or milk from the statue
 of ,bacchus1 and the spontaneous       
lighting of the altar4 ,these1 in fact1 
were the two illusions that were most   
admired in ancient times1 and there were
 several processes of performing them4  
,father ,kircher possessed in his museum
 an apparatus which he describes in     
,oedipus ,egyptiacus 7t4 ii41 p4 #ccc71 
and which probably came from some       
ancient ,egyptian temple4 7,fig4 #a47   
,it consisted of a hollow hemispherical 
dome1 supported by four columns1 and    
placed over the statue of the goddess of
 many breasts4 ,to two of these columns 
were adapted movable brackets1 at whose 
extremities there were fixed lamps4 ,the
 hemisphere was hermetically closed     
underneath by a metal plate4 ,the small 
altar which supported the statue1 and   
which was filled with milk1 communicated
 with the interior of the statue by a   
tube reaching nearly to the bottom4 ,the

 altar likewise communicated with the   
hollow dome by a tube having a double   
bend4 ,at the moment of the sacrifice   
the two lamps were lighted and the      
brackets turned so that the flames      
should come in contact with and heat the
 bottom of the dome4 ,the air contained 
in the latter1 being dilated1 issued    
through the tube1 ,x ,m1 pressed on the 
milk contained in the altar1 and caused 
it to rise through the straight tube    
into the interior of the statue as high 
as the breasts4 ,a series of small      
conduits1 into which the principal tube 
divided1 carried the liquid to the      
breasts1 whence it spurted out1 to the  
great admiration of the spectators1 who 
cried out at the miracle4 ,the sacrifice
 being ended1 the lamps were put out1   
and the milk ceased to flow4  ,heron1 of
 ,alexandria1 describes in his          
,pneumatics several analogous apparatus4
 ,here is one of them4 7,we translate   
the ,greek text literally47             
,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--,,marvelous   

,,altar 7,according to ,heron74  ,to    
construct an altar in such a way that1  
when a fire is lighted thereon1 the     
statues at the side of it shall make    
libations4 7,fig4 #b47  ,let there be a 
pedestal4 ,a ,b ,gamma ,delta1 on which 
are placed statues1 and an altar1 ,e ,z 
,h1 closed on every side4 ,the pedestal 
should also be hermetically closed1 but 
is communicated with the altar through a
 central tube4 ,it is traversed likewise
 by the tube1 e ,lambda 7in the interior
 of the statue to the right71 not far   
from the bottom which terminates in a   
cup held by the statue1 e4 ,water is    
poured into the pedestal through a hole1
 ,m1 which is afterward corked up4  ,if1
 then1 a fire be lighted on the altar1  
the internal air will be dilated and    
will enter the pedestal and drive out   
the water contained in it4 ,but the     
latter1 having no other exit than the   
tube1 e ,lambda1 will rise into the cup1
 and so the statue will make a libation4
 ,this will last as long as the fire    

does4 ,on extinguishing the fire the    
libation ceases1 and occurs anew as     
often as the fire is relighted4  ,it is 
necessary that the tube through which   
the heat is to introduce itself shall be
 wider in the middle2 and it is         
necessary1 in fact1 that the heat1 or   
rather that the draught that it         
produces1 shall accumulate in an        
inflation in order to have more effect4 
,according to ,father ,kircher 7l4 c471 
an author whom he calls ,bitho reports  
that there was at ,sais a temple of     
,minerva in which there was an altar on 
which1 when a fire was lighted1         
,dyonysos and ,artemis 7,bacchus and    
,diana7 poured milk and wine1 while a   
dragon hissed4  ,it is easy to conceive 
of the modification to be introduced    
into the apparatus above described by   
,heron1 in order to cause the outflow of
 milk from one side and of wine from the
 other4  ,after having indicated it1    
,father ,kircher adds3 ,it is thus that 
,bacchus and ,diana appeared to pour1   

one of them wine1 and the other milk1   
and that the dragon seemed to applaud   
their action by hisses4 ,as the people  
who were present at the spectacle did   
not see what was going on within1 it is 
not astonishing that they believed it   
due to divine intervention4 ,we know1 in
 fact1 that ,osiris or ,bacchus was     
considered as the discoverer of the vine
 and of milk2 that ,iris was the genius 
of the waters of the ,nile2 and that the
 ,serpent1 or good genius1 was the first
 cause of all these things4 ,since1     
moreover1 sacrifices had to be made to  
the gods in order to obtain benefits1   
the flow of milk1 wine1 or water1 as    
well as the hissing of the serpent1 when
 the sacrificial flame was lighted1     
appeared to demonstrate clearly the     
existence of the gods4  ,in another     
analogous apparatus of ,heron's1 it is  
steam that performs the role that we    
have just seen played by dilated air4   
,but the ancients do not appear to have 
perceived the essential difference1 as  

regards motive power1 that exists       
between these two agents2 indeed1 their 
preferences were wholly for air1        
although the effects produced were not  
very great4 ,we might cite several small
 machines of this sort1 but we shall    
confine ourselves to one example that   
has some relation to our subject4 ,this 
also is borrowed from ,heron's          
,pneumatics4 7,fig4 #c47  ,fire being   
lighted on an altar1 figures will appear
 to execute a round dance4 ,the altars  
should be transparent1 and of glass or  
horn4 ,from the fire-place there starts 
a tube which runs to the base of the    
altar1 where it revolves on a pivot1    
while its upper part revolves in a tube 
fixed to the fire-place4 ,to the tube   
there should be adjusted other tubes    
7horizontal7 in communication with it1  
which cross each other at right angles1 
and which are bent in opposite          
directions at their extremities4 ,there 
is likewise fixed to it a disk upon     
which are attached figures which form a 

round4 ,when the fire of the altar is   
lighted1 the air1 becoming heated1 will 
pass into the tube2 but being driven    
from the latter1 it will pass through   
the small bent tubes and 444 cause the  
tube as well as the figures to revolve4 
,father ,kircher1 who had at his        
disposal either many documents that we  
are not acquainted with1 or else a very 
lively imagination1 alleges 7,oedip4 g41
 t4 ii41 p4 #cch7 that ,king ,menes took
 much delight in seeing such figures    
revolve4  ,nor are the examples of holy 
fire-places that kindled spontaneously  
wanting in antiquity4  ,pliny 7,hist4   
,nat41 ii41 #g7 and ,horace 7,serm41    
,sat4 v47 tell us that this phenomenon  
occurred in the temple of ,gnatia1 and  
,solin 7,ch4 ,v47 says that it was      
observed likewise on an altar near      
,agrigentum4 ,athenus 7,deipn4 i41 #ae7 
says that the celebrated                
prestidigitator1 ,cratisthenes1 of      
,phlius1 pupil of another celebrated    
prestidigitator named ,xenophon1 knew   

the art of preparing a fire which       
lighted spontaneously4  ,pausanias tells
 us that in a city of ,lydia1 whose     
inhabitants1 having fallen under the    
yoke of the ,persians1 had embraced the 
religion of the ,magi1 there exists an  
altar upon which there are ashes which1 
in color1 resemble no other4 ,the priest
 puts wood on the altar1 and invokes ,i 
know not what god by harangues taken    
from a book written in a barbarous      
tongue unknown to the ,greeks1 when the 
wood soon lights of itself without fire1
 and the flame from it is very clear4   
,the secret1 or rather one of the       
secrets of the ,magi1 has been revealed 
to us by one of the ,fathers of the     
,church 7,saint ,hippolytus1 it is      
thought71 who has left1 in a work       
entitled ,philosophumena1 which is      
designed to refute the doctrines of the 
pagans1 a chapter on the illusions of   
their priests4 ,according to him1 the   
altars on which this miracle took place 
contained1 instead of ashes1 calcined   

lime and a large quantity of incense    
reduced to powder2 and this would       
explain the unusual color of the ashes  
observed by ,pausanias4 ,the process1   
moreover1 is excellent2 for it is only  
necessary to throw a little water on the
 lime1 with certain precautions1 to     
develop a heat capable of setting on    
fire incense or any other material that 
is more readily combustible1 such as    
sulphur and phosphorus4 ,the same author
 points out still another means1 and    
this consists in hiding firebrands in   
small bells that were afterward covered 
with shavings1 the latter having        
previously been covered with a          
composition made of naphtha and bitumen 
7,greek fire74 ,as may be seen1 a very  
small movement sufficed to bring about  
combustion4--,a4 ,de ,rochas1 in ,la    
,nature4         99       99       99   
99       99     ,,torpedo ,,boats4      
,there are several kinds of torpedoes4  
,the one which is most used in the      
,french navy is called the carried      

torpedo 7torpille porte71 thus named    
because the torpedo boat literally      
carries it right under the sides of the 
enemy's ship4 ,it consists of a         
cartridge of about #bj kilogrammes of   
gun cotton1 placed at the extremity of  
an iron rod1 #ab meters in length1      
projecting in a downward direction from 
the fore part of the boat4 ,the charge  
is fired by an electric spark by means  
of an apparatus placed in the lookout   
compartment4 ,our engraving represents  
an attack on an ironclad by means of one
 of these torpedoes4 ,under cover of    
darkness1 the torpedo boat has been     
enabled to approach without being       
disabled by the projectiles from the    
revolving guns of the man-of-war1 and   
has stopped suddenly and ignited the    
torpedo as soon as the latter came in   
contact with the enemy's hull4  ,the    
water spout produced by the explosion   
sometimes completely covers the torpedo 
boat1 and the latter would be sunk by it
 were not all apertures closed so as to 

make her a true buoy4 ,what appears     
extraordinary is that the explosion does
 not prove as dangerous to the assailant
 as to the adversary4 ,to understand    
this it must be remembered that1        
although the material with which the    
cartridges are filled is of an extreme  
shattering nature1 and makes a breach in
 the most resistant armor plate1 when in
 contact with it1 yet1 at a distance of 
a few meters1 no other effect is felt   
from it than the disturbance caused by  
the water4 ,this is why a space of #ab  
meters1 represented by the length of the
 torpedo spar1 is sufficient to protect 
the torpedo boat4 ,the attack of an     
ironclad1 however1 under the conditions 
that we have just described1 is1        
nevertheless1 a perilous operation1 and 
one that requires men of coolness1      
courage1 and great experience4          
,illustration3 ,,attack ,,by ,a         
,,torpedo ,,boat ,,upon ,,an ,,iron     
,,clad ,,ship ,,of ,,war4  ,there is    
another system which is likewise in use 

in the ,french navy1 and that is the    
,whitehead torpedo4 ,this consists of a 
metallic cylinder1 tapering at each end1
 and containing not only a charge of gun
 cotton1 but a compressed air engine    
which actuates two helices4 ,it is1 in  
fact1 a small submarine vessel1 which   
moves of itself in the direction toward 
which it has been launched1 and at a    
depth that has been regulated beforehand
 by a special apparatus which is a      
secret with the inventor4 ,the torpedo  
is placed in a tube situated in the fore
 part of the torpedo boat1 and whence it
 is driven out by means of compressed   
air4 ,once fired1 it makes its way under
 the surface to the spot where the shock
 of its point is to bring about an      
explosion1 and the torpedo boat is thus 
enabled to operate at a distance and    
avoid the dangers of an immediate       
contact with the enemy4 ,unfortunately  
this advantage is offset by grave       
drawbacks2 for1 in the first place1 each
 of the ,whitehead torpedoes costs about

 ten thousand francs1 without counting  
the expense of obtaining the right to   
use the patent1 and1 in the second      
place1 its action is very uncertain1    
since currents very readily change its  
direction4 ,however this may be1 the    
inventor has realized a considerable sum
 by the sale of his secret to the       
different maritime powers1 most of whom 
have adopted his system4  ,all our ports
 are provided with flotillas and torpedo
 boats1 and with schools in which the   
officers and men charged with this      
service are trained by frequent         
exercises4 ,it was near ,l',orient1 at  
,port ,louis1 that we were permitted to 
be witnesses of these maneuvers1 and    
where we saw the torpedo boats that were
 lying in ambush behind ,rohellan ,isle 
glide between the rocks1 all of which   
appeared familiar to them1 and start out
 seaward at the first signal4 ,it was   
here1 too1 that we were witnesses of the
 sham attack against a pleasure yacht1  
shown in one of our engravings4 ,a      

torpedo boat1 driven at full speed1     
stopped at one meter from the said yacht
 with a precision that denoted an       
oft-repeated study4  ,illustration3     
,,mode ,,of ,,firing ,,torpedoes4       
,before we close1 we must mention some  
very recent experiments that have been  
made with a torpedo analogous to        
,whitehead's1 that is to say1 one that  
runs alone by means of helices actuated 
by compressed air1 but having the great 
advantage that it can be steered at a   
distance from the very place whence it  
has been launched4 ,this extraordinary  
result is obtained by the use of a      
rudder actuated by an electric current  
which is transmitted by a small metallic
 cable wound up in the interior of the  
torpedo1 and paying out behind as the   
torpedo moves forward on its mission4   
,the operator1 stationed at the starting
 point1 is obliged to follow the        
torpedo's course with his eyes in order 
to direct it during its submarine       
voyage4 ,for this reason the torpedo    

carries a vertical mast1 that projects  
above the surface1 and at the top of    
which is placed a lantern1 whose light  
is thrown astern but is invisible from  
the front1 that is1 from the direction  
of the enemy4 ,a trial of this ingenious
 invention was made a few weeks ago on  
the ,bosphorus1 with complete success1  
as it appears4 ,from the shore where the
 torpedo was put into the water1 the    
weapon was steered with sufficient      
accuracy to cause it to pass1 at a      
distance of two kilometers1 between two 
vessels placed in observation at a      
distance apart of ten meters4 ,after    
this1 it was made to turn about so as to
 come back to its starting point4 ,what 
makes this result the more remarkable is
 that the waters of the ,bosphorus are  
disturbed by powerful currents that run 
in different directions1 according to   
the place4--,l',illustration4         99
       99       99       99       99    
,,pictet',s ,,high ,,speed ,,boat4   ,it
 is now nearly a year ago since we      

announced to our readers the researches 
that had been undertaken by the learned 
physicist1 ,raoul ,pictet1 in order to  
demonstrate theoretically and           
practically the forms that are required 
for a fast-sailing vessel1 and since we 
pointed out how great an interest is    
connected with the question1 while at   
the same time promising to revert to the
 subject at some opportune moment4 ,we  
shall now keep our promise by making    
known a work that ,mr4 ,pictet has just 
published in the ,archives ,physiques et
 ,naturelles1 of ,geneva1 in which he   
gives the first results of his labors1  
and which we shall analyze rapidly1     
neglecting in doing so the somewhat dry 
mathematical part of the article4  ,for 
a given tonnage and identical tractive  
stresses1 the greater or less sharpness 
of the fore and aft part of the keel    
allows boats to attain different speeds1
 the sharper lines corresponding to the 
highest speeds1 but1 in practice1       
considerably diminishing the weight of  

freight capable of being carried by the 
boat4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4        
,,pictet',s ,,high ,,speed ,,boat4  ,a4 
,lateral ,view4 ,b4 ,plan4 ,c4 ,section 
of the boiler room4 ,d4 ,section of the 
cabin4  ,mr4 ,pictet proposed the       
problem to himself in a different       
manner1 and as follows3  ,determine by  
analysis1 and verify experimentally1    
what form of keel will allow of the     
quickest and most economical carriage of
 a given weight of merchandise on water4
  ,we know that for a given transverse  
or midship section1 the tractive stress 
necessary for the progression of the    
ship is proportional to the square of   
the velocity2 and the motive power1 as a
 consequence1 to the cube of such       
velocity4  ,illustration3 ,fig4         
#b4--;,diagram of tractive stresses at  
different speeds4  ,the friction of     
water against the polished surfaces of  
the vessel's sides has not as yet been  
directly measured1 but some indirect    
experiments permit us to consider the   

resistances due thereto as small4 ,the  
entire power expended for the progress  
of the vessel is1 then1 utilized solely 
in displacing certain masses of water   
and in giving them a certain amount of  
acceleration4 ,the masses of water set  
in motion depend upon the surface       
submerged1 and their acceleration       
depends upon the speed of the vessel4   
,mr4 ,pictet has studied a form of      
vessel in which the greatest part       
possible of the masses of water set in  
motion shall be given a vertical        
acceleration1 and the smallest part     
possible a horizontal one2 and this is  
the reason why3 ,all those masses of    
water which shall receive a vertical    
acceleration from the keel will tend to 
move downward and produce a vertical    
reaction in an upward direction applied 
to the very surface that gives rise to  
the motion4 ,such reaction will have the
 effect of changing the level of the    
floating body2 of lifting it while      
relieving it of a weight exactly equal  

to the value of the vertical thrust2 and
 of diminishing the midship section1    
and1 consequently1 the motive power4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4--;,diagram of  
variations in tractive stresses and     
tonnage taken as a function of the      
speed4  ,all those masses of water which
 receive a horizontal acceleration from 
the keel run counter1 on the contrary1  
to the propulsive stress1 and it becomes
 of interest1 therefore1 to bring them  
to a minimum4 ,the vertical stress is   
limited by the weight of the boat1 and1 
theoretically1 with an infinite degree  
of speed1 the boat would graze the water
 without being able to enter it4  ,the  
annexed diagram 7,fig4 #a7 shows the    
form that calculation has led ,mr4      
,pictet to4 ,the sides of the boat are  
two planes parallel with its axis1 and  
perfectly vertical4 ,the keel 7properly 
so called7 is formed by the joining of  
the two vertical planes4 ,the surface   
thus formed is a parabola whose apex is 
in front1 the maximum ordinate behind1  

and the concavity directed toward the   
bottom of the water4 ,the stern is a    
vertical plane intersecting at right    
angles the two lateral faces and the    
parabolic curve1 which thus terminates  
in a sharp edge4 ,the prow of the boat  
is connected with the apex of the       
parabola by a curve whose concavity is  
directed upward4  ,illustration3 ,fig4  
#d4--;,diagram of the variations in the 
power as a function of the speed4  ,when
 we trace the curve of the tractive     
stresses in a boat thus constructed1 by 
putting the speeds in abscisses and the 
tractive stresses in ordinates1 we      
obtain a curve 7,fig4 #b7 which shows   
that the same tractive stress applied to
 a boat may give it three different     
speeds1 ,m1 ,m'1 and ,m''1 only two of  
which1 ,m and ,m''1 are stable4         
,experimental verifications of this     
study have been partially realized      
7thanks to the financial aid of a number
 of persons who are interested in the   
question7 through the construction of a 

boat 7,fig4 #a7 by the ,geneva ,society 
for the ,construction of ,physical      
,instruments4 ,the vessel is #bj4be m4  
in length at the water line1 has an     
everywhere equal width of #c4i m41 and a
 length of #af m4 from the stern to the 
apex of the parabola of the keel4 ,the  
bottom of the boat is nearly absolutely 
flat4 ,the keel1 which is #cj           
centimeters in width1 contains the shaft
 of the screw4 ,the boiler1 which is    
designed for running at twelve          
atmospheres1 furnishes steam to a two   
cylinder engine1 which may be run at    
will1 either the two cylinders          
separately1 or as a compound engine4    
,the bronze screw is #a4c m4 in         
diameter1 and has a pitch of #b4e m4    
,the vessel has two rudders1 one in     
front for slight speeds1 and the other  
at the stern4 ,at rest1 the total       
displacement is #eb1cjj kilogrammes4    
,this weight far exceeds what was first 
expected1 by reason of the              
superthickness given the iron plates of 

the vertical sides1 of the supplementary
 cross bracing1 and of the superposition
 of the netting necessary to resist the 
flexion of the whole4 ,on another hand1 
the tractive stress of the screw1 which 
should reach about #d1jjj kilogrammes1  
has never been able to exceed #a1hjj1   
because of the numerous imperfections in
 the engine4 ,it became necessary1      
therefore1 to steady the vessel by      
having her towed by the ,winkelried1    
which was chartered for such a purpose1 
to the ,general ,navigation ,company4   
,it became possible to thus carry on    
observations on speeds up to #bg        
kilometers per hour4  ,fig4 #c shows how
 the tractive stress varies with each   
speed in a theoretic case 7dotted curve7
 in which the stress is proportional to 
the square of the speed1 in ,madame     
,rothschild's boat1 the ,gitana 7curve  
,e71 and in the ,pictet high speed      
vessel 7curve ,b74  ,the ,gitana was    
tried with speeds varying between #j and
 #d kilometers4 ,the corresponding      

tractive stresses have been reduced to  
the same transverse section as in the   
,pictet model in order to render the    
observations comparable4 ,at slight     
speeds1 and up to #ai4e kilometers per  
hour1 the ,gitana1 which is the sharper1
 runs easier and requires a slighter    
tractive stress4 ,at such a speed there 
is an equality2 but1 beyond this1 the   
,pictet boat presents the greater       
advantages1 and1 at a speed of #bg      
kilometers1 requires a stress about half
 less than does the ,gitana4 ,such      
results explain themselves when we      
reflect that at these great speeds the  
,gitana sinks to such a degree that the 
afterside planks are at the level of the
 water1 while the ,pictet model rises   
simultaneously fore and aft1 thus       
considerably diminishing the submerged  
section4  ,with low or moderate speeds  
there is a perceptible equality between 
the theoretic curve and the curve of the
 fast boat2 but1 starting from #af      
kilometers1 the stress diminishes4 ,the 

greater does the speed become1 the more 
considerable is the diminution in       
stress2 and1 starting from a certain    
speed1 the rise of the boat is such as  
to diminish its absolute tractive       
stress--a fact of prime importance      
established by theory and confirmed by  
experiment4  ,the curves in ,fig4 #d    
show the power in horses necessary to   
effect progression at different speeds4 
,the curve1 ,a1 has reference to an     
ordinary boat that preserves its water  
lines constant1 and the curve1 ,b1 to a 
swift boat of the same tonnage4 ,up to  
#af kilometers1 the swift vessel        
presents no advantage2 but beyond that  
speed1 the advantage becomes marked1    
and1 at a speed of #bg kilometers1 the  
power to be expended is no more than    
half that which corresponds to the same 
speed for an ordinary boat4  ,the water 
escapes in a thin and even sheet as soon
 as the tractive stress exceeds #b1jjj  
kilogrammes2 and the intensity and size 
of the eddies from the boat sensibly    

diminish in measure as the speed        
increases4  ,the interesting experiments
 made by ,mr4 ,pictet seem1 then to     
clearly establish the fact that the     
forms deduced by calculation are        
favorable to high speeds1 and will      
permit of realizing1 in the future1     
important saving in the power expended1 
and1 consequently1 in the fuel 7much    
less of which will need to be carried71 
in order to perform a given passage     
within a given length of time4 ,thus is 
explained the great interest that       
attaches to ,mr4 ,pictet's labors1 and  
the desire that we have to soon be able 
to make known the results obtained with 
such great speeds1 not when the boat is 
towed1 but when its propulsion is       
effected through its own helix actuated 
by its own engine1 which1 up to the     
present1 unfortunately1 has through its 
defects been powerless to furnish the   
necessary amount of power for the       
purpose4--,la ,nature4         99       
99       99       99       99           

,,initial ,,stability ,,indicator ,,for 
,,ships4   ,for a vessel with a given   
displacement1 the metacenter and center 
of gravity being known1 it is easy to   
lay off in the form of a diagram its    
stability or power of righting for any  
given angle of heel4 ,such a diagram is 
shown in ,fig4 #c1 in which the absciss 
are the angles of the heel1 and the     
ordinates the various lengths of the    
levers1 at the end of which the whole   
weight of the vessel is acting to right 
itself4 ,the curve may be constructed in
 the following manner3 ,having found by 
calculation the position of the         
transverse metacenter1 ,m1 for a given  
displacement--,figs4 #a and #b--the     
metacentric height1 ,g ,m1 is then      
determined either by calculations1 or   
more correctly by experiment1 by varying
 the position of weights of known       
magnitude1 or by the stability indicator
 itself4 ,suppose1 now1 the vessel to be
 listed over to various angles of       
heel--say #bj deg41 #dj deg41 #fj deg41 

and #hj deg4--the water lines will then 
be ,a ,c1 ,d ,e1 ,f ,k1 and ,h ,j       
respectively1 and the centers of        
buoyancy1 which must be found by        
calculation1 will be ,b#a1 ,b#b1 ,b#c1  
and ,b#d4 ,if lines are drawn from these
 points at right angles to the water    
levels at the respective heels1 the     
righting power of the vessel in each    
position is found by taking the         
perpendicular distances between these   
lines and the center of gravity1 ,g4    
,this method of construction is shown to
 an enlarged scale in ,fig4 #b1 where ,g
 is the center of gravity1 ,b#a ,z#a1   
,b#b ,z#b1 ,b#c ,z#c1 and ,b#d ,z#d the 
lines from centers of buoyancy to water 
levels2 and ,g ,n1 ,g ,o1 and ,g ,p the 
distances showing the righting power at 
the angles of #bj deg41 #dj deg41 and   
#fj deg4 respectively1 and which to any 
convenient scale are set off as the     
ordinates in the stability curve shown  
in ,fig #c4  ,illustration3 ,,stability 
,,indicator ,,for ,,ships4 ,fig4 #a4    

,having obtained the curve1 ,a1 in this 
manner for a given metacentric height1  
we will suppose that on the next voyage1
 with the same displacement1 it is found
 that1 owing to some difference in      
stowage1 the center of gravity is #f in4
 higher than before4 ,the ordinates of  
the curve will then be ,g ,n and ,g     
,o--,fig4#b--;and the stability curve   
will be as at ,c--,fig4 #c--showing that
 at about #dg deg4 all righting power   
ceases4 ,similarly1 if the center of    
gravity is lowered #f in4 on the same   
displacement1 the curve1 ,b1 will be    
found1 and in this manner comparative   
diagrams can be constructed giving at a 
glance the stability of a vessel for any
 given draught of water and metacentric 
height4  ,illustration3 ,,stability     
,,indicator ,,for ,,ships4 ,fig4 #b4    
,illustration3 ,,stability ,,indicator  
,,for ,,ships4 ,fig4 #c4  ,the object of
 ,mr4 ,alexander ,taylor's indicator is 
to measure and show by simple inspection
 the metacentric height under every     

condition of loading1 and therefore to  
make known the stability of the vessel4 
,it consists of a small reservoir1 ,a1  
,fig4 #d1 placed at one side of the     
ship1 in the cabin1 or other convenient 
locality1 communicating by a tube with  
the glass gauge1 ,b1 secured at the     
opposite side1 the whole being half     
filled with glycerine1 which is the     
fluid recommended by ,mr4 ,wm4 ,denny1  
though water or any other liquid will   
answer the purpose4 ,at one side of the 
gauge is the circular scale1 ,c1 capable
 of being revolved round its vertical   
axis1 as well as adjusted up and down1  
so as to bring the zero pointer exactly 
to the top of the fluid when the vessel 
is without list4 ,round the top of the  
scale1 at ,d1 are engraved four         
different draughts1 and under these are 
the metacentric heights4 ,test tanks of 
known capacity are placed at each side  
of the vessel1 but in no way connected  
with the reservoir or gauge4 ,the       
metacentric height is found as follows3 

,the ship being freed from bilge water1 
the roller scale is turned round to     
bring to the front the mark             
corresponding with the mean draught of  
the vessel at the time1 and the zero    
pointer is placed opposite the surface  
of the liquid in the gauge4 ,one of the 
test tanks being filled with a known    
weight of water1 the vessel is caused to
 list1 and in consequence the liquid in 
the tube takes a new position           
corresponding with the degree of heel1  
the disturbance being greater according 
as the vessel has been more or less     
overbalanced4 ,the scale having         
previously been properly graduated1 the 
metacentric height for the draught and  
state of loading can be at once read off
 in inches1 while as a check the water  
can be transferred from the one test    
tank to the other1 and the metacentric  
height read off as before1 but on the   
opposite side of the zero pointer4 ,at  
the same time the angle of heel is shown
 on a second graduated scale1 ,e4       

,having obtained the metacentric height1
 reference to a diagram will at once    
show the whole range of stability2 and  
this being ascertained at each loading1 
the stowage of the cargo can be so      
adjusted as to avoid excessive stiffness
 in the one hand and dangerous          
tenderness on the other4 ,it will thus  
be seen that ,mr4 ,taylor's invention   
promises to be of great practical value 
both in the hands of the ship-builder   
and ship-owner1 who have now an         
instrument placed before them1 by the   
proper use of which all danger from     
unskillful loading can be entirely      
avoided4--,the ,engineer4               
,illustration3 ,,stability ,,indicator  
,,for ,,ships4 ,fig4 #d4         99     
99       99       99       99           
,,scrivanow',s ,,chloride ,,of ,,silver 
,,pile4   ,considerable attention has   
been attracted lately at ,paris among   
those who are interested in electrical  
novelties to a chloride of silver pile  
invented by ,mr4 ,scrivanow4 ,the       

experiments to which it has been        
submitted are1 in some respects1        
sufficiently extraordinary to cause us  
to make them known to our readers1 along
 with the inventor's description of the 
apparatus4  ,mr4 ,scrivanow's intention 
appears to be to apply this pile to the 
lighting of apartments1 and even to the 
running of small motors1 and1 for the   
purpose of actuating sewing machines1 he
 has already constructed a small model  
whose external dimensions are #afj x    
#ajj x #ij millimeters4  ,my invention1 
says the inventor1 is intended as an    
electric pile capable of regeneration4  
,the annexed ,fig4 #a shows a vertical  
arrangement of the apparatus1 and ,fig4 
#b a horizontal one4 ,in the latter1 two
 elements are represented superposed4   
,my pile consists of a prism of retort  
carbon 7a7 covered on every side with   
pure chloride of silver 7b74 ,the carbon
 thus prepared is immersed in a solution
 of hydrate of potassium 7,,kho7 or of  
hydrate of sodium 7,na,h,o71 marking    

#a4cj to #a4de by the ,baum areometer1  
the solvent being water4  ,in the       
vicinity of the carbon is arranged the  
plate to be attacked--a plate of zinc   
7c7 of good quality4 ,the surface of the
 electrodes1 and their distance apart1  
depends upon the effects that it is     
desired to obtain1 and is determined in 
accordance with the well known          
principles of electro-kinetics4  ,the   
chemical reactions that take place in   
this couple are multiple4 ,in contact   
with a sufficiently concentrated        
solution of hydrate of potassium or     
sodium1 the chloride of silver1         
especially if it has been recently      
prepared1 passes partially into the     
state of brown or black oxide1 so that  
the carbon becomes covered1 after       
remaining sufficiently long in the      
exciting liquid1 with a mixture of      
chloride and oxide of silver4 ,when the 
circuit is closed1 the chloride becomes 
reduced to a spongy metallic state and  
adheres to the surface of the carbon4   

,at the same time the zinc passes1 in   
the alkaline solution1 into a state of  
chloride and of soluble combination of  
zinc oxide and of alkali4  ,to avoid all
 loss of silver ,i cover the carbon with
 asbestos paper1 or with cloth of the   
same material1 d4 ,my piles are arranged
 in ebonite vessels1 ,a1 which are flat1
 as in ,fig4 #a1 or round1 as in ,fig4  
#b4  ,in ,fig #a there is seen1 at e1   
gutta-percha separating the zinc from   
the carbon at the base4  ,under such    
conditions1 we obtain a powerful couple 
that possesses an electro-motive power  
of #a4e to #a4h volts1 according to the 
concentration of the exciting liquid4   
,the internal resistance is extremely   
feeble4 ,i have obtained with piles     
arranged like those shown in the figures
 nearly #j4jf ohm1 the measurements     
having been taken from a newly charged  
pile4  ,when the element is used up1    
and1 notably1 when all the chloride of  
silver is reduced1 it is only necessary 
to plunge the carbon with its asbestos  

covering 7after washing it in water7    
into a chloridizing bath1 in order to   
bring back the metallic silver that     
invests the carbon to a state of        
chloride1 and thus restore the pile to  
its primitive energy4 ,after this the   
carbon is washed and put back into the  
exciting liquid4  ,these reductions of  
the chloride of silver during the       
operation of the pile can be reproduced 
ad infinitum1 since they are accompanied
 by no loss of metal4 ,the alkaline     
liquid is sufficient in quantity for two
 successive charges of the couple4  ,the
 chloridizing bath consists of #ajj     
parts of acetic acid1 #e to #f parts1 by
 weight1 of hydrochloric acid1 and about
 #cj parts of water4  ,illustration3    
,,fig4 #a4--,,scrivanow',s ,,chloride   
,,of ,,silver ,,pile4  ,other acids may 
be employed equally as well4 ,a bath    
composed of chlorochromate of potassium 
and nitric or sulphuric acid makes an   
excellent regenerator4  ,to sum up1 ,i  
claim as the distinctive characters of  

my pile3  #a4 ,the use of the potassic  
or sodic alkaline liquid conjointly with
 chloride of silver1 and the oxide of   
the same1 that forms through the        
immersion of the carbon in a            
chloridizing bath4  #b4 ,the use of     
retort or other carbon covered with the 
salt of silver above specified4  #c4    
,the arrangement and construction of my 
pile as ,i have described4  ,in the     
experiments recently tried with ,mr4    
,scrivanow's pile1 a large sized battery
 was made use of1 whose dimensions were 
#cjj x #ade x #abe millimeters1 and     
whose weight was from #e to #f          
kilogrammes4 ,the results were3         
intensity1 #a ampere2 electro-motive    
power1 #be volts1 corresponding to an   
energy of #be volt-amperes1 or about    
#b4e kilogrammeters per second4 ,the    
pile was covered with a copper jacket   
whose upper parts supported two ,swan   
lamps4 ,upon putting on the cover a     
contact was formed with the electrodes1 
and it was possible by means of a       

commutator key with three eccentrics to 
light or extinguish one of the lamps or 
both at once4 ,a single element would   
have sufficed to keep one ,swan lamp of 
feeble resistance lighted for #bj hours4
 ,accepting the data given above and the
 #bj hours' uninterrupted duration of   
the pile's operation the power furnished
 by this large model is equal to #b4e x 
#bj x #c1fjj  #ahj1jjj kilogrammeters4  
,illustration3 ,,fig4                   
#a4--,,scrivanow',s ,,chloride ,,of     
,,silver ,,pile4  ,in our opinion1 ,mr4 
,scrivanow's pile is not adapted for    
industrial use because of the expense of
 the silver and the frequent            
manipulations it requires1 but it has   
the advantage1 however1 of possessing1  
along with its small size and little    
weight1 a disposable energy of from     
#aej1jjj to #bjj1jjj kilogrammeters     
utilizable at the will of the consumer  
and securing to him a certain number of 
applications1 either for lighting or the
 production of power4 ,it appears to us 

to be specially destined to become a    
rival to the bichromate of potash pile  
for actuating electric motors applied to
 the directing of balloons4--,revue     
,industrielle4         99       99      
99       99       99     ,,on ,,the     
,,luminosity ,,of ,,flame4   ,the light 
emitted from burning gases which burn   
with bright flame is known to be a      
secondary phenomenon4 ,it is the solid1 
or even liquid1 constituents separated  
out by the high temperature of          
combustion1 and rendered incandescent1  
that emit the light rays4 ,gases1 on the
 other hand1 which produce no glowing   
solid or liquid particles during        
combustion burn throughout with a weakly
 luminous flame of bluish or other      
color1 according to the kind of gas4    
,now1 it is common to say1 merely1 in   
explanation of this luminosity1 that the
 gas highly heated in combustion is     
self-incandescent4 ,this explanation1   
however1 has not been experimentally    
confirmed4 ,dr ,werner ,siemens was1    

therefore1 led recently to investigate  
whether highly-heated pure gases really 
emit light4  ,the temperature employed  
in such experiments should1 to be       
decisive1 be higher than those produced 
by luminous combustion4 ,the author had 
recourse to the regenerative furnace    
used by his brother1 ,friedrich1 in     
,dresden1 in manufacture of hard glass4 
,this stands in a separate room which at
 night can be made perfectly dark4 ,the 
furnace has1 in the middle of its longer
 sides1 two opposite apertures1 allowing
 free vision through4 ,it can be easily 
heated to the melting temperature of    
steel1 which is between #a1ejj and      
#b1jjj ,c4 ,before the furnace apertures
 were placed a series of smoke blackened
 screens with central openings1 which   
enabled one to look through without     
receiving1 on the eye1 rays from the    
furnace walls4 ,if1 now1 all air        
exchange was prevented in the furnace1  
and all light excluded from the room1 it
 was found that not the least light came

 to the eye from the highly-heated air  
in the furnace4 ,for success of the     
experiment1 it was necessary to avoid   
any combustion in the furnace1 and to   
wait until the furnace-air was as free  
from dust as possible4 ,any flame in the
 furnace 7even when it did not reach    
into the line of sight71 and the least  
quantity of dust in it1 illuminated the 
field of vision4  ,as a result of these 
experiments1 ,dr4 ,siemens considers    
that the view hitherto held1 that       
highly-heated gases are self-luminous1  
is not correct4 ,in the furnace were the
 products of the previous combustion and
 atmospheric air3 consequently oxygen1  
nitrogen1 carbonic acid1 and aqueous    
vapor4 ,if even one of these gases was  
self-luminous1 the field of vision must 
have been always illuminated4 ,the weak 
light given by the flame of burning     
gases that separate out no solid nor    
liquid constituents cannot1 therefore1  
be explained as a phenomenon of glow of 
the gaseous products4  ,it appealed to  

the author probable1 that heated gases  
did not1 either1 emit heat rays2 and he 
set himself to test this idea1          
experimenting1 in company with ,herr    
,frhlich1 in ,dresden4 ,they first      
convinced themselves in this case that  
the light emission of pure heated gases 
sunk to zero1 even when the field of    
vision was not always quite dark1 and it
 was only possible to observe this a    
short time2 but the repeatedly observed 
perfect darkness of the field of vision 
was demonstrative4 ,on the other hand1  
experiments made with sensitive         
thermopiles1 in order to settle the     
question of emission of heat-rays from  
highly-heated gases1 failed4            
,afterward1 however1 ,dr4 ,siemens was  
convinced1 by a quite simple experiment 
of a different kind1 that his           
supposition was erroneous4 ,an ordinary 
lamp1 with circular wick1 and short     
glass cylinder1 was wholly screened with
 a board1 and a thermopile was so placed
 that its axis lay somewhat higher than 

the edge of the board4 ,as the          
room-walls had pretty much a uniform    
temperature1 the deflection of the      
galvanometer was but slight1 when the   
tube-axis of the thermopile was directed
 anywhere outside of the hot-air current
 rising from the flame4 ,when1 however1 
the axis was directed to this current1 a
 deflection occurred1 which was as great
 as that from the luminous flame itself4
 ,that the heat radiation from hot gases
 is but very small in comparison with   
that from equally hot solid bodies1 was 
shown by the large deflection produced  
when a piece of fine wire was held in   
the hot-air current4 ,on the other hand1
 however1 it was far too considerable to
 admit of being attributed to dust      
particles suspended in the air current4 
,it must be conceded to be possible 7the
 author says7 that the light radiation  
of hot gases1 as also the heat          
radiation1 is only exceedingly weak1 and
 therefore may escape observation4 ,it  
is1 therefore1 much to be desired that  

the experiments should be repeated at   
still higher temperatures and with more 
exact instruments1 in order to determine
 the limit of temperature at which      
heated gases undoubtedly become         
self-incandescent4 ,the fact1 however1  
that gases1 at a temperature of more    
than #a1ejj ,c1 are not yet luminous1   
proves that the incandescence of the    
flame is not to be explained as a       
self-incandescence of the products of   
combustion4 ,this is confirmed by the   
circumstance that1 with rapid mixture of
 the burning gases1 the flame becomes   
shorter because the combustion process  
goes on more quickly1 and hotter because
 less cold air has access4 ,further1 the
 flame also becomes shorter and hotter  
if the gases are strongly heated        
previous to combustion4 ,as the rising  
products of combustion still retain for 
a time the temperature of the flame1 the
 reverse must occur if the gases were   
self-luminous4 ,the luminosity of the   
flame1 however1 ceases at a sharp line  

of demarkation1 and evidently coincides 
with completion of the chemical action4 
,the latter1 itself1 therefore1 and not 
the heating of the combustion products1 
which is due to it1 must be the cause of
 the luminosity4 ,if we suppose that the
 gas-molecules are surrounded by an     
ether-envelope1 then1 in chemical       
combination of two or several such      
molecules1 there must occur a changed   
position of the ether-envelopes4 ,the   
motion of ether-particles thus caused   
may be represented by vibrations1 which 
form the starting-point of light and    
heat-waves4  ,in quite a similar manner 
we may also1 according to ,dr4 ,siemens1
 represent the light-phenomenon         
occurring when an electric current is   
sent through gases1 which always takes  
place when the maximum of polarization  
belonging to them is exceeded4 ,as the  
passage of the current through the gas  
seems to be always connected with       
chemical action1 the phenomenon of glow 
may be explained in the same way as in  

flame1 by oscillating transposition of  
the ether envelopes1 by which the       
passage of electricity is effected4 ,in 
that case the light of flame may be     
called electric light by the same light 
as the light of the ozone tube or the   
,geissler tube1 which is mainly to be   
distinguished from the former in that it
 contains a dielectric of an extremely  
small maximum of polarization4 ,this    
correspondence in the causes of         
luminosity of flame1 and of gases       
traversed by electric currents1 is      
supported by the similarity of the      
flame-phenomena in strength and color of
 light4  ,these researches were lately  
described by ,dr4 ,werner ,siemens to   
the ,berlin ,academy4         99        
99       99       99       99     ,a    
,,quick ,,way ,,to ,,ascertain ,,the    
,,focus ,,of ,a ,,lens4   ,it is well   
known that if the size of an object be  
ascertained1 the distance of a lens from
 that object1 and the size of the image 
depicted in a camera by that lens1 a    

very simple calculation will give the   
focus of the lens4 ,in compound lenses  
the matter is complicated by the        
relative foci of its constituents and   
their distance apart2 but these items1  
in an ordinary photographic objective1  
would so slightly affect the result that
 for all practical purposes they may be 
ignored4  ,what we propose to do--what  
we have indeed done--is to make two of  
these terms constant in connection with 
a diagram1 here given1 so that a mere   
inspection may indicate1 with its aid1  
the focus of a lens4 ,all that is       
required in making use of it is to plant
 the camera perfectly upright1 and place
 in front of it1 at exactly fifteen feet
 from the center of the lens1 a two foot
 rule1 also perfectly upright and with  
its center the same height from the     
floor as the lens1 and then1 after      
focusing accurately with as large a     
diaphragm as will give sharpness1 to    
note the size of the image and refer it 
to the diagram4 ,the focus of the lens  

employed will be marked under the line  
corresponding to the size of the image  
of the rule on the ground glass4  ,as   
our object is to minimize time and      
trouble to the utmost1 we may make a    
suggestion or two as to carrying out the
 measuring4 ,it will be obvious that any
 object exactly two feet in length1     
rightly placed1 will answer quite as    
well as a two-foot1 which we selected as
 being about as common a standard of    
length and as likely to be handy for use
 as any4 ,the pattern in a wall paper1 a
 mark in a brick wall1 a studio         
background1 or a couple of drawing pins 
pressed into a door1 so long as two feet
 exactly are indicated1 will answer     
equally well4  ,and1 further1 as to the 
actual mode of measuring the image on   
the ground glass 7we may say that there 
is not the slightest need to take a     
negative71 it will perhaps be found the 
readiest method to turn the glass the   
ground side outward1 when two pencil    
marks may be made with complete accuracy

 to register the length of the image1   
which can then be compared with the     
diagram4 ,whatever plan is adopted1 if  
the distance be measured exactly between
 lens and rule1 the result will give the
 focus with exactitude sufficient for   
any practical purpose4--,br4 ,jour4 of  
,photo4  ,illustration         99       
99       99       99       99     ,,the 
,,history ,,of ,,the ,,pianoforte4      
,footnote3 ,a paper recently read before
 the ,society of ,arts1 ,london4  ,by   
,a4 ,j4 ,,hipkins4   ,as this paper is  
composed from a technical point of view1
 some elucidation of facts1 forming the 
basis of it1 is desirable before we     
proceed to the chronological statement  
of the subject4 ,these facts are the    
strings1 and their strain or tension2   
the sound-board1 which is the resonance 
factor2 and the bridge1 connecting it   
with the strings4 ,the strings1         
sound-board1 and bridge are             
indispensable1 and common to all        
stringed instruments4 ,the special fact 

appertaining to keyboard instruments is 
the mechanical action interposed between
 the player and the instrument itself4  
,the strings1 owing to the slender      
surface they present to the air1 are1   
however powerfully excited1 scarcely    
audible4 ,to make them sufficiently     
audible1 their pulsations have to be    
communicated to a wider elastic surface1
 the sound-board1 which1 by accumulated 
energy and broader contact with the air1
 re-enforces the strings' feeble sound4 
,the properties of a string set in      
periodic vibration are the best known of
 the phenomena appertaining to          
acoustics4 ,the molecules composing the 
string are disturbed in the string's    
vibrating length by the means used to   
excite the sound1 and run off into      
sections1 the comparative length and    
number of which depend partly upon the  
place in the string the excitement      
starts from2 partly upon the force and  
the form of force that is employed2 and 
partly upon the length1 thickness1      

weight1 strain1 and elasticity of the   
string1 with some small allowance for   
gravitation4 ,the vibrating sections are
 of wave-like contour2 the nodes or     
points of apparent rest being really    
knots of the greatest pressure from     
crossing streams of molecules4 ,where   
the pressure slackens1 the sections rise
 into loops1 the curves of which show   
the points of least pressure4 ,now1 if  
the string be struck upon a loop1 less  
energy is communicated to the string1   
and the carrying power of the sound     
proportionately fails4 ,if the string be
 struck upon a node1 greater energy     
ensues1 and the carrying power          
proportionately gains4 ,by this we      
recognize the importance of the place of
 contact1 or striking-place of the      
hammer against the string2 and the      
necessity1 in order to obtain good      
fundamental tone1 which shall carry1 of 
the note being started from a node4  ,if
 the hammer is hard1 and impelled with  
force1 the string breaks into shorter   

sections1 and the discordant upper      
partials of the string1 thus brought    
into prominence1 make the tone harsh4   
,if the hammer is soft1 and the force   
employed is moderated1 the harmonious   
partials of the longer sections strike  
the ear1 and the tone is full and round4
 ,by the frequency of vibration1 that is
 to say1 the number of times a string   
runs through its complete changes one   
way and the other1 say1 for measurement1
 in a second of time1 we determine the  
pitch1 or relative acuteness of the tone
 as distinguished by the ear4  ,we know1
 with less exactness1 that the          
sound-board follows similar laws4 ,the  
formation of nodes is helped by the     
barring of the sound-board1 a ribbing   
crosswise to the grain of the wood1     
which promotes the elasticity1 and has  
been called the soul of stringed musical
 instruments4 ,the sound-board itself is
 made of most carefully chosen pine2 in 
,europe of the ,abies excelsa1 the      
spruce fir1 which1 when well grown1 and 

of light1 even grain1 is the best of all
 woods for resonance4 ,the pulsations of
 the strings are communicated to the    
sound-board by the bridge1 a thick rail 
of close-grained beech1 curved so as to 
determine their vibrating lengths1 and  
attached to the sound-board by dowels4  
,the bridge is doubly pinned1 so as to  
cut off the vibration at the edge of the
 bearing the strings exert upon the     
bridge4 ,the shock of each separate     
pulsation1 in its complex form1 is      
received by the bridge1 and communicated
 to such undamped strings as may1 by    
their lengths1 be sensitive to them2    
thus producing the olian tone commonly  
known as sympathetic1 an eminently      
attractive charm in the tone of a       
pianoforte4  ,we have here strings1     
bridge1 and sound-board1 or belly1 as it
 is technically called1 indispensable   
for the production of the tone1 and     
indivisible in the general effect4 ,the 
proportionate weight of stringing has to
 be met by a proportionate thickness and

 barring of the sound-board1 and a      
proportionate thickness and elevation of
 the bridge4  ,the tension of the       
strings is met by a framing1 which has  
become more rigid as the drawing power  
of the strings has been gradually       
increased4 ,in the present concert      
grands of ,messrs4 ,broadwood1 that     
drawing power may be stated as starting 
from #aej lb4 for each single string in 
the treble1 and gradually increasing to 
about #cjj lb4 for each of the single   
strings in the bass4 ,i will reserve for
 the historical description of my       
subject some notice of the different    
kinds of framing that have been         
introduced4 ,it will suffice1 at this   
stage1 to say that it was at first of   
wood1 and became1 by degrees1 of wood   
and iron2 in the present day the iron   
very much preponderating4 ,it will be at
 once evident that the object of the    
framing is to keep the ends of the      
strings apart4 ,the near ends are wound 
round the wrest-pins1 which are inserted

 in the wooden bed1 called the          
wrest-plank1 the strength and efficiency
 of which are most important for the    
tone and durability of the instrument4  
,it is composed of layers of wainscot   
oak and beech1 the direction of the     
grain being alternately longitudinal and
 lateral4 ,some makers cover the        
wrest-plank with a plate of brass2 in   
,broadwood's grands1 it is a plate of   
iron1 into which1 as well as the wood1  
the wrest-pins are screwed4 ,the tuner's
 business is to regulate the tension1 by
 turning the wrest-pins1 in which he is 
chiefly guided by the beats which become
 audible from differing numbers of      
vibrations4 ,the wrest-plank is bridged1
 and has its bearing like the           
soundboard2 but the wrest-plank has no  
vibrations to transfer1 and should1 as  
far as possible1 offer perfect          
insensibility to them4  ,i will close   
this introductory explanation with two  
remarks1 made by the distinguished      
musician1 mechanician1 and inventor1    

,theobald ,boehm1 of ,munich1 whose     
inventions were not limited to the flute
 which bears his name1 but include the  
initiation of an important change in the
 modern pianoforte1 as made in ,america 
and ,germany4 ,of priority of invention 
he says1 in a letter to an ,english     
friend1 ,if it were desirable to analyze
 all the inventions which have been     
brought forward1 we should find that in 
scarcely any instance were they the     
offspring of the brain of a single      
individual1 but that all progress is    
gradual only2 each worker follows in the
 track of his predecessor1 and          
eventually1 perhaps1 advances a step    
beyond him4 ,and concerning the relative
 value of inventions in musical         
instruments1 it appears1 from an essay  
of his which has been recently          
published1 that he considers improvement
 in acoustical proportions the chief    
foundation of the higher or lower degree
 of perfection in all instruments1 their
 mechanism being but of secondary value4

  ,i will now proceed to recount briefly
 the history of the pianoforte from the 
earliest mention of that name1          
continuing it to our contemporary       
instruments1 as far as they can be said 
to have entered into the historical     
domain4 ,it has been my privilege to    
assist in proving that ,bartolommeo     
,cristofori was1 in the first years of  
the #ahth century1 the real inventor of 
the pianoforte1 but with a wide         
knowledge and experience of how long it 
has taken to make any invention in keyed
 instruments practicable and successful1
 ,i cannot believe that ,cristofori was 
the first to attempt to contrive one4 ,i
 should rather accept his good and      
complete instrument as the sum of his   
own lifelong studies and experiments1   
added to those of generations before    
him1 which have left no record for us as
 yet discovered4  ,the earliest mention 
of the name pianoforte 7piano e forte71 
applied to a musical instrument1 has    
been recently discovered by ,count      

,valdrighi in documents preserved in the
 ,estense ,library1 at ,modena4 ,it is  
dated ,a4,d4 #aeih1 and the reference is
 evidently to an instrument of the      
spinet or cembalo kind2 but how the tone
 was produced there is no statement1 no 
word to base an inference upon4 ,the    
name has not been met with again between
 the ,estense document and ,scipione    
,maffei's well-known description1       
written in #agaa1 of ,cristofori's      
gravecembalo col piano e forte4 ,my view
 of ,cristofori's invention allows me to
 think that the ,estense piano e forte  
may have been a hammer cembalo1 a very  
imperfect one1 of course4 ,but ,i admit 
that the opposite view of forte and     
piano1 contrived by registers of        
spinet-jacks1 is equally tenable4       
,bartolommeo ,cristofori was a ,paduan  
harpsichord maker1 who was invited by   
,prince ,ferdinand dei ,medici to       
,florence1 to take charge of the large  
collection of musical instruments the   
,prince possessed4 ,at ,florence he     

produced the invention of the           
pianoforte1 in which he was assisted and
 encouraged by this high-minded1        
richly-cultivated1 and very musical     
prince4 ,scipione ,maffei tells us that 
in #agji ,cristofori had completed four 
of the new instruments1 three of them   
being of the usual harpsichord form1 and
 one of another form1 which he leaves   
undescribed4 ,it is interesting to      
suppose that ,handel may have tried one 
or more of these four instruments during
 the stay he made at ,florence in #agjh4
 ,but it is not likely that he was at   
all impressed with the potentialities of
 the invention any more than ,john      
,sebastian ,bach was in after years when
 he tried the pianofortes of            
,silbermann4  ,the sketch of            
,cristofori's action in ,maffei's essay1
 from which ,i have had a working model 
accurately made1 shows that in the first
 instruments the action was not         
complete1 and it may not have been      
perfected when ,prince ,ferdinand died  

in #agac4 ,but there are ,cristofori    
grand pianos preserved at ,florence1    
dated respectively #agbj and #agbf1 in  
which an improved construction of action
 is found1 and of this ,i also exhibit a
 model4 ,there is much difference       
between the two4 ,in the second1        
,cristofori had obtained his escapement 
with an undivided key1 reconciling his  
depth of touch1 or keyfall1 with that of
 the contemporary harpsichord1 by       
driving the escapement lever through the
 key4 ,he had contrived means for       
regulating the escapement distance1 and 
had also invented the last essential of 
a good pianoforte action1 the check4 ,i 
will explain what is meant by escapement
 and check4 ,when1 by a key being put   
down1 the hammer is impelled toward the 
strings1 it is necessary for their      
sustained vibration that1 after impact1 
the hammer should rebound or escape2 or 
it would1 as pianoforte makers say1     
block1 damping the strings at the moment
 they should sound4  ,a dulcimer player 

gains his elastic blow by the free      
movement of the wrist4 ,to gain a       
similarly elastic blow mechanically in  
his first action1 ,cristofori cut a     
notch in the butt of his hammer from    
which the escapement lever1 linguetta   
mobile as he called it--hopper1 as we   
call it--being centered at the base1    
moved forward1 when the key was put     
down1 to the extent of its radius1 and  
after the delivery of the blow returned 
to its resting place by the pressure of 
a spring4 ,the first action gave the    
blow with more direct force than the    
second1 which had the notch upon what is
 called the underhammer1 but was        
defective in the absence of any means to
 regulate the distance of the go-off1 or
 escapement from the string4 ,in the    
second action1 a small check before the 
hopper is intended to regulate it1 but  
does so imperfectly4 ,the pianoforte had
 to wait for fifty years for            
satisfactory regulation of the          
escapement4  ,in the first action1 the  

hammer rests in a silken fork1 dropping 
the whole distance of the rise of every 
blow4 ,the check in the second action1  
the paramartello1 is next in importance 
to the escapement4 ,it catches the back 
part of the hammer at different points  
of the radius1 responding to the amount 
of force the player has used upon the   
key4 ,so that in repeated blows1 the    
rise of the hammer is modified1 and the 
notch is nearer to the returning hopper 
in proportionate degree4  ,i have given 
the first place in description to       
,cristofori's actions1 instead of to the
 cembalo or instrument to which they    
were applied1 because piano and forte1  
from touch1 became possible through     
them1 and what else was accomplished by 
,cristofori was due1 primarily1 to the  
dynamic idea4 ,he strengthened his      
harpsichord sound-board against a       
thicker stringing1 renouncing the       
cherished sound-holes4 ,yet the         
sound-box notion clung to him1 for he   
made openings in his sound-board rail   

for air to escape4 ,he ran a            
string-block round the case1 entirely   
independent of the sound-board1 and his 
wrest-plank1 which also became a        
separate structure1 removed from the    
sound-board by the gap for the hammers1 
was now a stout oaken plank which1 to   
gain an upward bearing for the strings1 
he inverted1 driving his wrest-pins     
through in the manner of a harp1 and    
turning them in like fashion to the     
harp4 ,he had two strings to a note1 but
 it did not occur to him to space them  
into pairs of unisons4 ,he retained the 
equidistant harpsichord scale1 and had1 
at first1 under-dampers1 later          
over-dampers1 which fell between the    
unisons thus equally separated4         
,cristofori died in #agca4 ,he had      
pupils1 one of whom made1 in #agcj1 the1
 ,rafael d',urbino1 the favorite        
instrument of the great singer          
,farinelli4 ,the story of inventive     
,italian pianoforte making ends thus    
early1 but to ,italy the invention      

indisputably belongs4  ,the first to    
make pianofortes in ,germany was the    
famous ,freiberg organ-builder and      
clavichord maker1 ,gottfried            
,silbermann4 ,he submitted two          
pianofortes to the judgment of ,john    
,sebastian ,bach in #agbf1 which        
judgment was1 however1 unfavorable2 the 
trebles being found too weak1 and the   
touch too heavy4 ,silbermann1 according 
to the account of ,bach's pupil1        
,agricola1 being much mortified1 put    
them aside1 resolving not to show them  
again unless he could improve them4 ,we 
do not know what these instruments were1
 but it may be inferred that they were  
copies of ,cristofori1 or were made     
after the description of his invention  
by ,maffei1 which had already been      
translated from ,italian into ,german1  
by ,koenig1 the court poet at ,dresden1 
who was a personal friend of            
,silbermann4 ,with the next anecdote1   
which narrates the purchase of all the  
pianofortes ,silbermann had made1 by    

,frederick the ,great1 we are upon surer
 ground4 ,this well accredited          
occurrence took place in #agdf4 ,in the 
following year occurred ,bach's         
celebrated visit to ,potsdam1 when he   
played upon one or more of these        
instruments4 ,burney saw and described  
one in #aggb4 ,i had this one1 which was
 known to have remained in the new      
palace at ,potsdam until the present    
time unaltered1 examined1 and1 by a     
drawing of the action1 found it was     
identical with ,cristofori's4 ,not1     
however1 being satisfied with one       
example1 ,i resolved to go myself to    
,potsdam2 and1 being furnished with     
permission from ,h4,r4,h4 the ,crown    
,princess of ,prussia1 ,i was enabled in
 ,september1 #ahha1 to set the question 
at rest of how many grand pianofortes by
 ,gottfried ,silbermann there were still
 in existence at ,potsdam1 and what they
 were like4 ,at ,berlin there are none1 
but at ,potsdam1 in the music-rooms of  
,frederick the ,great1 which are in the 

town palace1 the new palace1 and ,sans  
,souci--left1 it is understood1 from the
 time of ,frederick's death             
undisturbed--there are three of these   
,silbermann pianofortes4 ,all three are 
with unimportant differences having     
nothing to do with structure1           
,cristofori instruments1 wrest plank1   
sound-board1 string-block1 and action2  
the harpsichord scale of stringing being
 still retained4 ,the work in them is   
undoubtedly good2 the sound-boards have 
given in the trebles1 as is usual with  
old instruments1 from the strain2 but ,i
 should say all three might be          
satisfactorily restored4 ,some other    
pianofortes seem to have been made in   
,north ,germany about this time1 as our 
own poet ,gray bought one in ,hamburg in
 #agee1 in the description of which we  
notice the desire to combine a hammer   
action with the harpsichord which so    
long exercised men's minds4  ,the ,seven
 ,years' ,war put an end to pianoforte  
making on the lines ,silbermann had     

adopted in ,saxony4 ,a fresh start had  
to be made a few years later1 and it    
took place contemporaneously in ,south  
,germany and ,england4 ,the results have
 been so important that the grand       
pianofortes of the ,augsburg ,stein and 
the ,london ,backers may be regarded1   
practically1 as reinventions of the     
instrument4 ,the decade #aggj-hj marks  
the emancipation of the pianoforte from 
the harpsichord1 of which before it had 
only been deemed a variety4             
,compositions appear written expressly  
for it1 and a man of genius1 ,muzio     
,clementi1 who subsequently became the  
head of the pianoforte business now     
conducted by ,messrs4 ,collard1 came    
forward to indicate the special         
character of the instrument1 and found  
an independent technique for it4  ,a few
 years before1 the familiar domestic    
square piano had been invented4 ,i do   
not think clavichords could have been   
altered to square pianos1 as they were  
wanting in sufficient depth of case2 but

 that the suggestion was from the       
clavichord is certain1 the same kind of 
case and key-board being used4 ,german  
authorities attribute the invention to  
an organ builder1 ,friederici of ,gera1 
and give the date about #ageh or #agfj4 
,i have advertised in public papers1 and
 have had personal inquiry made for one 
of ,friederici's ,fort ,biens1 as he is 
said to have called his instrument4 ,i  
have only succeeded in learning this    
much--that ,friederici is considered to 
have been of later date than has been   
asserted in the text-books4 ,until more 
conclusive information can be obtained1 
,i must be permitted to regard a ,london
 maker1 but a ,german by birth1         
,johannes ,zumpe1 as the inventor of the
 instrument4 ,it is certain that he     
introduced that model of square piano   
which speedily became the fashion1 and  
was chosen for general adoption         
everywhere4 ,zumpe began to make his    
instruments about #agfe4 ,his little    
square1 at first of nearly five octaves1

 with the old man's head to raise the   
hammer1 and mopstick damper1 was in     
great vogue1 with but little alteration1
 for forty years2 and that in spite of  
the manifest improvements of ,john      
,broadwood's wrest-plank and ,john      
,geib's grasshopper4 ,after the         
beginning of this century1 the square   
piano became much enlarged and improved 
by ,collard and ,broadwood1 in ,london1 
and by ,petzold1 in ,paris4 ,it was     
overdone in the attempt to gain undue   
power for it1 and1 about twenty years   
ago1 sank in the competition1 with the  
later cottage pianoforte1 which was     
always being improved4  ,to return to   
the grand pianoforte4 ,the origin of the
 ,viennese grand is rightly accredited  
to ,stein1 the organ builder1 of        
,augsburg4 ,i will call it the ,german  
grand1 for ,i find it was as early made 
in ,berlin as ,vienna4 ,according to    
,mozart's correspondence1 ,stein had    
made some grand pianos in #aggg1 with a 
special escapement1 which did not block 

like the pianos he had played upon      
before4 ,when ,i wrote the article      
,pianoforte in ,dr4 ,grove's            
,dictionary1 no ,stein instrument was   
forthcoming1 but the result of the      
inquiries ,i had instituted at that time
 ultimately brought one forward1 which  
has been secured by the curator of the  
,brussels ,museum1 ,m4 ,victor          
,mahillon4 ,this instrument1 with       
,stein's action and two unison scale1 is
 dated #aghj4 ,mozart's grand piano1    
preserved at ,salzburg1 made by         
,walther1 is a nearly contemporary copy 
of ,stein1 and so also are the grands by
 ,huhn1 of ,berlin1 which ,i took notes 
of at ,berlin and ,potsdam2 the latest  
of these is dated #agij4  ,an advance   
shown by these instruments of ,stein and
 ,stein's followers is in the spacing of
 the unisons2 the ,huhn grands having   
two strings to a note in the lower part 
of the scale1 and three in the upper4   
,the ,cristofori ,silbermann inverted   
wrest-plank has reverted to the usual   

form2 the tuning pins and downward      
bearing being the same as in the        
harpsichord4 ,there are no steel arches 
as yet between the wrest-plank and the  
belly-rail in these ,german instruments4
 ,as to ,stein's escapement1 his hopper 
was fixed behind the key2 the axis of   
the hammer rising on a principle which  
,i think is older than ,stein1 but have 
not been able to trace to its source1   
and the position of his hammer is       
reversed4 ,stein's light and facile     
movement with shallow key-fall1         
resembling ,cristofori's in bearing     
little weight1 was gratefully accepted  
by the ,german clavichord players1 and1 
reacting1 became one of the determining 
agents of the piano music and style of  
playing of the ,vienna school4 ,thus    
arose a fluent execution of a rich      
figuration and brilliant passage        
playing1 with but little inclination to 
sonorousness of effect1 lasting from the
 time of ,mozart's immediate followers  
to that of ,henri ,herz2 a period of    

half a century4 ,knee-pedals1 as we     
translate geuouillres1 were probably in 
vogue before ,stein1 and were levers    
pressed with the knees1 to raise the    
dampers1 and leave the pianoforte       
undamped1 a register approved of by     
,carl ,philip ,emmanuel ,bach1 who      
regarded the undamped pianoforte as the 
more agreeable for improvising44 ,he    
appears1 however1 to have known but     
little of the capabilities of the       
instrument1 which seemed to him coarse  
and inexpressive beside his favorite    
clavichord4 ,stein appears to have made 
use of the una corda shift4 ,probably by
 knee-pedals1 subsequently by           
foot-pedals1 the following effects were 
added to the ,stein pianos4  ,the       
harpsichord harp-stop1 which muted one  
string of each note by a piece of       
leather1 became1 by the interposition of
 a piece of cloth between the hammer and
 the strings1 the piano1 harp1 or       
celeste4 ,the more complete sourdine1   
which muted all the strings by contact  

of a long strip of leather1 acted as the
 staccato1 pizzicato1 or pianissimo4    
,the ,germans further displayed that    
ingenuity in fancy stops ,mersenne had  
attributed to them in harpsichords more 
than a hundred and fifty years before1  
by a bassoon pedal1 a card which by a   
rotatory half-cylinder just impinging   
upon the strings produced a reedy twang2
 also by pedals for triangle1 cymbals1  
bells1 and tambourine1 the last drumming
 on the sound-board itself4  ,several of
 these contrivances may be seen in a    
six-pedal grand pianoforte belonging to 
,her ,majesty the ,queen1 at ,windsor   
,castle1 bearing the name as maker of   
,stein's daughter1 ,nannette1 who was a 
friend of ,beethoven4 ,the diagram      
represents the wooden framing of such an
 instrument4  ,we gather from ,burney's 
contributions to ,rees's ,cyclopaedia1  
that after the arrival of ,john         
,christian ,bach in ,london1 ,a4,d4     
#agei1 a few grand pianofortes were     
attempted1 by the second-rate           

harpsichord makers1 but with no         
particular success4 ,if the workshop    
tradition can be relied upon that       
several of ,silbermann's workmen had    
come to ,london about that time1 the    
so-called twelve apostles1 more than    
likely owing to the ,seven ,years' ,war1
 we should have here men acquainted with
 the ,cristofori model1 which           
,silbermann had taken up1 and the early 
grand pianos referred to by ,burney     
would be on that model4 ,i should say   
the new instrument of ,messrs4          
,broadwood's play-bill of #agfg was such
 a grand piano2 but there is small      
chance of ever finding one now1 and if  
an instrument were found1 it would      
hardly retain the original action1 as   
,messrs4 ,broadwood's books of the last 
century show the practice of refinishing
 instruments which had been made with   
the old movement4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#a4  ,burney distinguishes ,americus    
,backers by special mention4 ,he is said
 to have been a ,dutchman4 ,between     

#aggb and #aggf1 ,backers produced the  
well-known ,english action1 which has   
remained the most durable and one of the
 best up to the present day4 ,it refers 
in direct leverage to ,cristofori's     
first action4 ,it is opposite to        
,stein's contemporary invention1 which  
has the hopper fixed4 ,in the ,english  
action1 as in the ,florentine1 the      
hopper rises with the key4 ,to the      
direct leverage of ,cristofori's first  
action1 ,backers combined the check of  
the second1 and then added an important 
invention of his own1 a regulating screw
 and button for the escapement4 ,backers
 died in #aggf4 ,it is unfortunate we   
can refer to no pianoforte made by him4 
,i should regard it as treasure trove if
 one were forthcoming in the same way   
that brought to light the authentic one 
of ,stein's4 ,as1 however1 ,backers'    
intimate friends1 and his assistants in 
carrying out the invention1 were ,john  
,broadwood and ,robert ,stodart1 we     
have1 in their early instruments1 the   

principle and all the leading features  
of the ,backers grand4 ,the increased   
weight of stringing was met by steel    
arches placed at intervals between the  
wrest-plank and the belly-rail1 but the 
belly-rail was still free from the      
thrust of the wooden bracing1 the       
direction of which was confined to the  
sides of the case1 as it had been in the
 harpsichord4  ,stodart appears to have 
preceded ,broadwood in taking up the    
manufacture of the grand piano by four  
or five years4 ,in #aggg he patented an 
alternate pianoforte and harpsichord1   
the drawing of which patent shows the   
,backers action4 ,the pedals he employed
 were to shift the harpsichord register 
and to bring on the octave stop4 ,the   
present pedals were introduced in       
,english and grand pianos by #aghe1 and 
are attributed to ,john ,broadwood1 who 
appears to have given his attention at  
once to the improvement of ,backers'    
instrument4 ,hitherto the grand piano   
had been made with an undivided         

belly-bridge1 the same as the           
harpsichord had been2 the bass strings  
in three unisons1 to the lowest note1   
being of brass4 ,theory would require   
that the notes of different octaves     
should be multiples of each other and   
that the tension should be the same for 
each string4 ,the lowest bass strings1  
which at that time were the note ,f1    
would thus require a vibrating length of
 about twelve feet4 ,as only half this  
length could be afforded1 the difference
 had to be made up in the weight of the 
strings and their tension1 which led1 in
 these early grands1 to many            
inequalities4 ,the three octaves toward 
the treble could1 with care1 be         
adjusted1 the lengths being practically 
the ideal lengths4 ,it was in the bass  
octaves 7pianos were then of five       
octaves7 the inequalities were more     
conspicuous4 ,to make a more perfect    
scale and equalize the tension was the  
merit and achievement of ,john          
,broadwood1 who joined to his own       

practical knowledge and sound intuitions
 the aid of professed men of science4   
,the result was the divided bridge1 the 
bass strings being carried over the     
shorter division1 and the most beautiful
 grand pianoforte in its lines and      
curves that has ever been made was then 
manufactured4 ,in #agia he carried his  
scale up to ,c1 five and a half octaves2
 in #agid down to ,c1 six octaves1      
always with care for the artistic1 form4
 ,the pedals were attached to the front 
legs of the stand on which the          
instrument rested4 ,the right foot-pedal
 acted first as the piano register1     
shifting the impact of each hammer to   
two unisons instead of three2 a wooden  
stop in the right hand key-block        
permitted the action to be shifted yet  
further to the right1 and reducing the  
blow to one string only1 produced the   
pianissimo register or una corda of     
indescribable attractiveness of sound4  
,the cause of this was in the reflected 
vibration through the bridge to the     

untouched strings4 ,the present school  
of pianoforte playing rejects this      
effect altogether1 but ,beethoven valued
 it1 and indicated its use in some of   
his great works4 ,steibert called the   
una corda the celeste1 which is more    
appropriate to it than ,adam's          
application of this name to the         
harp-stop1 by which the latter has gone 
ever since4  ,up to quite the end of the
 last century the dampers were continued
 to the highest note in the treble4     
,they were like harpsichord dampers     
raised by wooden jacks1 with a rail or  
stretcher to regulate their rise1 which 
served also as a back touch to the keys4
 ,i have not discovered the exact year  
when1 or by whom1 the treble dampers    
were first omitted1 thus leaving that   
part of the scale undamped4 ,this bold  
act gave the instrument many sympathetic
 strings free to vibrate from the bridge
 when the rest of the instrument was    
played1 each string1 according to its   
length1 being an aliquot division of a  

lower string4 ,this gave the instrument 
a certain brightness or life throughout1
 an advantage which has secured its     
universal adoption4 ,the expedients of  
an untouched octave string and of       
utilizing those lengths of wire that lie
 beyond the bridges have been brought   
into notice of late years1 but the      
latter was early in the century essayed 
by ,w4 ,f4 ,collard4  ,from difficulties
 of tuning1 owing to friction and other 
causes1 the real gain of these          
expedients is small1 and when we compare
 them with the natural resources we have
 always at command in the normal scale  
of the instrument1 is not worth the     
cost4 ,the inventor of the damper       
register opened a floodgate to such     
aliquot re-enforcement as can be got in 
no other way4 ,each lower note struck of
 the undamped instrument1 by excitement 
from the sound-board carried through the
 bridge1 sets vibrating higher strings1 
which1 by measurement1 are primes to its
 partials2 and each higher string struck

 calls out equivalent partials in the   
lower strings4 ,even partials above the 
primes will excite their equivalents up 
to the twelfth and double octave4 ,what 
a glow of tone-color there is in all    
this harmonic re-enforcement1 and who   
would now say that the pedals should    
never be used8 ,by their proper use1 the
 student's ear is educated to a refined 
sense of distinction of consonance and  
dissonance1 and the intention and beauty
 of ,chopin's pedal work becomes        
revealed4  ,the next decade1 #agij-ahjj1
 brings us to ,french grand             
pianoforte-making1 which was then taken 
up by ,sebastian ,erard4 ,this ingenious
 mechanic and inventor traveled the long
 and dreary road along which nearly all 
who have tried to improve the pianoforte
 have had to journey4 ,he appears1 at   
first1 to have adopted the existing     
model of the ,english instrument in     
resonance1 tension1 and action1 and to  
have subsequently turned his attention  
to the action1 most likely with the idea

 of combining the ,english power of     
gradation with the ,german lightness of 
touch4 ,erard claimed1 in the           
specification to a patent for an action1
 dated #ahjh1 the power of giving       
repeated strokes1 without missing or    
failure1 by very small angular motions  
of the key itself4  ,once fairly        
started1 the notion of repetition became
 the dominant idea with                 
pianoforte-makers1 and to this day1     
although less insisted upon1 engrosses  
time and attention that might be more   
usefully directed4 ,some great players1 
from their point of view of touch1 have 
been downright opposed to repetition    
actions4 ,i will name ,kalkbrenner1     
,chopin1 and1 in our own day1 ,dr4 ,hans
 von ,blow4 ,yet the ,erard's           
repetition1 in the form of ,hertz's     
reduction1 is at present in greater     
favor in ,america and ,germany1 and is  
more extensively used1 than at any      
previous period4  ,the good qualities of
 ,erard's action1 completed in #ahba1   

the germ of which will be found in the  
later ,cristofori1 are not1 however1 due
 to repetition capability1 but to other 
causes1 chiefly1 ,i will say1 to        
counterpoise4 ,the radical defect of    
repetition is that the repeated note can
 never have the tone-value of the first2
 it depends upon the mechanical         
contrivance1 rather than the finder of  
the player1 which is directly           
indispensable to the production of      
satisfactory tone4 ,when the sensibility
 of the player's touch is lost in the   
mechanical action1 the corresponding    
sensibility of the tone suffers2 the    
resonance is not1 somehow or other1     
sympathetically excited4  ,erard        
rediscovered an upward bearing1 which   
had been accomplished by ,cristofori a  
hundred years before1 in #ahjh4 ,a      
down-bearing bridge to the wrest-plank1 
with hammers striking upward1 are       
clearly not in relation2 the tendency of
 the hammer must be1 if there is much   
force used1 to lift the string from its 

bearing1 to the detriment of the tone4  
,erard reversed the direction of the    
bearing of the front bridge1            
substituting for a long1 pinned1 wooden 
bridge1 as many little brass bridges as 
there were notes4 ,the strings passing  
through holes bored through the little  
bridges1 called agraffes1 or studs1     
turned upward toward the wrest-pin4 ,by 
this the string was forced against its  
rest instead of off it4 ,it is obvious  
that the merit of this invention would  
in time make its use general4 ,a variety
 of it was the long brass bridge1       
specially used in the treble on account 
of the pleasant musical-box like tone   
its vibration encouraged4 ,of late years
 another upward bearing has found favor 
in ,america and on the ,continent1 the  
,capo d',astro bar of ,m4 ,bord1 which  
exerts a pressure upon the strings at   
the bearing point4  ,about the year     
#ahbj1 great changes and improvements   
were made in the grand pianoforte both  
externally and in the instrument4 ,the  

harpsichord boxed up front gave way to  
the cylinder front1 invented by ,henry  
,pape1 a clever ,german pianoforte-maker
 who bad settled in ,paris4 ,who put the
 pedals upon the familiar lyre ,i have  
not been able to learn4 ,it would be in 
the ,empire time1 when a classical taste
 was predominant4 ,but the greatest     
change was from a wooden resisting      
structure to one in which iron should   
play an important part4 ,the invention  
belongs to this country1 and is due to a
 tuner named ,william ,allen1 a young   
,scotchman1 who was in ,stodart's       
employ4 ,with the assistance of the     
foreman1 ,thom1 the invention was       
completed1 and a patent was taken out1  
dated the #aeth of ,january1 #ahbj1 in  
which ,thom was a partner4 ,the patent  
was1 however1 at once secured by the    
,stodarts1 their employers4 ,the object 
of the patent was a combination of metal
 tubes with metal plates1 the metallic  
tubes extending from the plates which   
were attached to the string-block to the

 wrest-plank4 ,the metal plates now held
 the hitch-pins1 to which the farther   
ends of the strings were fixed1 and the 
force of the tension was1 in a great    
measure1 thrown upon the tubes4 ,the    
tubes were a mistake2 they were of iron 
over the steel strings1 and brass over  
the brass and spun strings1 the idea    
being that of the compensation of tuning
 when affected by atmospheric change1   
also a mistake4 ,however1 the tubes were
 guaranteed by stout wooden bars        
crossing them at right angles4 ,at once 
a great advance was made in the         
possibility of using heavier strings1   
and the great merit of the invention was
 everywhere recognized4  ,james         
,broadwood was one of the first to see  
the importance of the invention1 if it  
were transformed into a stable          
principle4 ,he had tried iron tension   
bars in past years1 but without success4
 ,it was now due to his firm to         
introduce a fixed stringed plate1       
instead of plates intended to shift1 and

 in a few years to combine this plate   
with four solid tension bars1 for which 
combination he1 in #ahbg1 took out a    
patent1 claiming as the motive for the  
patent the string-plate2 the manner of  
fixing the hitch-pins upon it1 the      
fourth tension bar1 which crossed the   
instrument about the middle of the      
scale1 and the fastening of that bar to 
the wooden brace below1 now abutting    
against the belly-rail1 the attachment  
being effected by a bolt passing through
 a hole cut in the sound-board4  ,this  
construction of grand pianoforte soon   
became generally adopted in ,england and
 ,france4 ,messrs4 ,erard1 who appear to
 have had their own adaptation of       
tension bars1 introduced the harmonic   
bar in #ahch4 ,this1 a short bar of gun 
metal1 was placed upon the wrest-plank  
immediately above the bearings of the   
treble1 and consolidated the plank by   
screws tapped into it of alternate      
pressure and drawing power4 ,in the     
original invention a third screw pressed

 upon the bridge4 ,by this bar a very   
light1 ringing treble tone was gained4  
,this was followed by a long harmonic   
bar extending above the whole length of 
the wrest-plank1 which it defends from  
any tendency to rise1 by downward       
pressure obtained by screws4 ,during    
#ahdj-ej1 as many as five and even six  
tension bars were used in grand         
pianofortes1 to meet the ever increasing
 strain of thicker stringing4 ,the bars 
were strutted against a metal edging to 
the wrest-plank1 while the ends were    
prolonged forward until they abutted    
against its solid mass on the key-board 
side of the tuning-pins4 ,the space     
required for fixing them cramped the    
scale1 while the strings were divided   
into separate batches between them4 ,it 
was also difficult to so adjust each bar
 that it should bear its proportionate  
share of the tension2 an obvious cause  
of inequality4  ,toward the end of this 
period a new direction was taken by ,mr4
 ,henry ,fowler ,broadwood1 by the      

introduction of an iron-framed          
pianoforte1 in which the bars should be 
reduced in number1 and with the bars the
 steel arches1 as they were still       
called1 although they were no longer    
arches but struts4  ,in a grand         
pianoforte1 made in #ahdg1 ,mr4         
,broadwood succeeded in producing an    
instrument of the largest size1         
practically depending upon iron alone4  
,two tension bars sufficed1 neither of  
them breaking into the scale3 the first1
 nearly straight1 being almost parallel 
with the lowest bass string2 the second1
 presenting the new feature of a        
diagonal bar crossed from the bass      
corner to the string-plate1 with its    
thrust at an angle to the strings4      
,there were reasons which induced ,mr4  
,broadwood to somewhat modify and       
improve this framing1 but with the      
retention of its leading feature1 the   
diagonal bar1 which was found to be of  
supreme importance in bearing the       
tension where it is most concentrated4  

,from #aheb1 his concert grands have    
had1 in all1 one bass bar1 one diagonal 
bar1 a middle bar with arch beneath1 and
 the treble cheek bar4 ,the middle bar  
is the only one directly crossing the   
scale1 and breaking it4 ,it is          
strengthened by feathered ribs1 and is  
fastened by screws to the wooden brace  
below4 ,the three bars and diagonal bar1
 which is also feathered1 abut firmly on
 the string plate1 which is fastened    
down to the wooden framing by screws4   
,since #ahfb1 the wooden wrest-plank has
 been covered with a plate of iron1 the 
iron screw-pin plate bent at a right    
angle in front4 ,the wrest-pins are     
screwed into this plate1 and again in   
the wood below4 ,the agraffes1 which    
take the upward bearings of the strings1
 are firmly screwed into this plate4    
,the long harmonic bar of gun metal lies
 immediately above the agraffes1 and    
crossing the wrest-plank in its entire  
width1 serves to keep it1 at the bearing
 line1 in position4 ,this construction  

is the farthest advance of the ,english 
pianoforte4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4      
#b4--,,william ,,allen4  ,almost        
simultaneously with it has arisen a new 
development in ,america1 which1         
beginning with ,conrad ,meyer1 about    
#ahcc1 has been advanced by the         
,chickerings and ,steinways to the well 
known ,american and ,german grand       
pianoforte of the present day4 ,it was  
perfected in ,america about in #ahei1   
and has been taken up since by the      
,germans almost universally1 and with   
very little alteration4 ,two distinct   
principles have been developed and      
combined--the iron framing in a single  
casting1 and the cross or overstringing4
 ,i will deal with the last first1      
because it originated in ,england and   
was the invention of ,theobald ,boehm1  
the famous improver of the flute4 ,in   
,grove's ,dictionary1 ,i have given an  
approximate date to his overstringing as
 #ahce1 but reference to ,boehm's       
correspondence with ,mr4 ,walter        

,broadwood shows me that #ahca was      
really the time1 and that ,boehm        
employed ,gerock and ,wolf1 of #gi      
,cornhill1 ,london1 musical instrument  
makers1 to carry out his experiment4    
,gerock being opposed to an oblique     
direction of the strings and hammers1   
,boehm found a more willing coadjutor in
 ,wolf4 ,as far as ,i can learn1 a      
piccolo1 a cabinet1 and a square piano  
were thus made overstrung4 ,boehm's     
argument was that a diagonal was longer 
within a square than a vertical1 which1 
as he said1 every schoolboy knew4 ,the  
first overstrung grand pianos seen in   
,london were made by ,lichtenthal1 of   
,st4 ,petersburg2 not so much for tone  
as for symmetry of the case2 two        
instruments so made were among the      
curiosities of the ,great ,exhibition of
 #ahea4 ,some years before this1 ,henry 
,pape had made experiments in cross     
stringing1 with the intention to        
economize space4 ,his ideas were adopted
 and continued by the ,london maker1    

,tomkisson1 who acquired ,pape's rights 
for this country4 ,the iron framing in a
 single casting is a distinctly         
,american invention1 but proceeding1    
like the overstringing1 from a ,german  
by birth4 ,the iron casting for a square
 piano of the ,american ,alpheus        
,babcock1 may have suggested ,meyer's   
invention2 it was1 however1 ,conrad     
,meyer1 who1 in ,philadelphia1 and in   
#ahcc1 first made a real iron frame     
square pianoforte4 ,the gradual         
improvement upon ,meyer's invention1    
during the next quarter of a century1   
are first due to the ,chickerings and   
then the ,steinways4 ,the former        
overstrung an iron frame square1 the    
latter overstrung an iron frame grand1  
the culmination of this special make    
since of general ,american and ,german  
adoption4 ,it will be seen that1 in the 
,american make1 the number of tension   
bars has not been reduced1 but a        
diagonal support has1 to a certain      
extent1 been accepted and adopted4 ,the 

sound-board bridges are much further    
apart than obtains with the ,english    
grand1 or with the ,anglo-,french       
,erard4 ,the advocates of the ,american 
principle point out the advantages of a 
more open scale1 and more equal pressure
 on the sound-board4 ,they likewise     
claim1 as a gain1 a greater tension4 ,i 
have no quite accurate information as to
 what the sum of the tension may be of  
an ,american grand piano4 ,one of       
,broadwood's1 twenty years ago1 had a   
strain of sixteen and one-half tons2 the
 strain has somewhat increased since    
then4 ,the remarkable improvement in    
wiredrawing which has been made in      
,birmingham1 ,vienna1 and ,nuremberg1 of
 late years1 has rendered these high    
tensions of far easier attainment than  
they would have been earlier in the     
century4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4         
#c4--;,,broadwood4  ,for me the great   
drawback to one unbroken casting is in  
the vibratory ring inseparable from any 
metal system that has no resting places 

to break the uniform reverberation      
proceeding from metal4 ,we have already 
seen how readily the strings take up    
vibrations which are only pure when1 as 
secondary vibrations1 they arise by     
reversion from the sound-board4 ,if     
vibration arises from imperfectly       
elastic wood1 we hear a dull wooden     
thud2 if it comes from metal1 partials  
of the strings are re-enforced that     
should be left undeveloped1 which give a
 false ring to the tone1 and an after   
ring that blurs legato playing1 and     
nullifies the staccato4 ,i do not pose  
as the obstinate advocate of parallel   
stringing1 although ,i believe that1 so 
far1 it is the most logical and the     
best2 the best1 because the left hand   
division of the instrument is free from 
a preponderance of dissonant high       
partials1 and we hear the light and     
shade1 as well as the cantabile of that 
part1 better than by any overstrung     
scale that ,i have yet met with4 ,i will
 not1 ,i say1 offer a final judgment1   

because there may come a possible       
improvement of the overstrung or double 
diagonal scale1 if that scale is        
persisted in1 and inventive power is    
brought to bear upon it1 as valuable as 
that which has carried the idea thus    
far4  ,illustration3 ,,fig4             
#d4--;,,broadwood4  ,i have not had time
 to refer other than incidentally to the
 square pianoforte1 which has become    
obsolete4 ,i must1 however1 give a      
separate historical sketch of the       
upright pianoforte1 which has risen into
 great favor and importance1 and in its 
development--,i may say its             
invention--belongs to this present #aith
 century4 ,the form has always          
recommended the upright on the score of 
convenience1 but it was long before it  
occurred to any one to make an upright  
key board instrument reasonably4        
,upright harpsichords were made nearly  
four hundred years ago4 ,a very         
interesting #agth century one was sold  
lately in the great ,hamilton           

sale--sold1 ,i grieve to say1 to be     
demolished for its paintings4 ,but all  
vertical harpsichords were horizontal   
ones1 put on end on a frame2 and the    
book-case upright grand pianos1 which1  
from the eighties1 were made right into 
the present century1 were horizontal    
grands similarly elevated4 ,the real    
inventor of the upright piano1 in its   
modern and useful form1 was that        
remarkable ,englishman1 ,john ,isaac    
,hawkins1 the inventor of ever-pointed  
pencils2 a civil engineer1 poet1        
preacher1 and phrenologist4 ,while      
living at ,border ,town1 ,new ,jersey1  
,u4 ,s4 ,a41 ,hawkins invented the      
cottage piano--portable grand1 he called
 it--and his father1 ,isaac ,hawkins1 to
 whom1 in ,grove's ,dictionary1 ,i have 
attributed the invention1 took out1 in  
the year #ahjja1 the ,english patent for
 it4 ,i can fortunately show you one of 
these original pianinos1 which belongs  
to ,messrs4 ,broadwood4 ,it is a wreck1 
but you will discern that the strings   

descend nearly to the floor1 while the  
key-board1 a folding one1 is raised to a
 convenient height between the floor and
 the upper extremities of the strings4  
,hawkins had an iron frame and tension  
rods1 within which the belly was        
entirely suspended2 a system of tuning  
by mechanical screws2 an upper metal    
bridge2 equal length of string          
throughout2 metal supports to the       
action1 in which a later help to the    
repetition was anticipated--the whole   
instrument being independent of the     
case4 ,hawkins tried also a lately      
revived notion of coiled strings in the 
bass1 doing away with tension4 ,lastly1 
he sought for a sostinente1 which has   
been tried for from generation to       
generation1 always to fail1 but which1  
even if it does succeed1 will produce   
another kind of instrument1 not a       
pianoforte1 which owes so much of its   
charm to its unsatiating1 evanescent    
tone4  ,transcribers note #a3 #crd digit
 illegible1 best guess from context4    

,illustration3 ,fig4 #e4--,,meyer4      
,once introduced into ,hawkins' native  
country1 ,england1 the rise of the      
upright piano became rapid4 ,in #ahjg1  
at latest1 the now obsolete high cabinet
 piano was fairly launched4 ,in #ahaa1  
,wornum produced a diagonal4 ,in #ahac1 
a vertical cottage piano4 ,previously1  
essays had been made to place a square  
piano upright on its side1 for which    
,southwell1 an ,irish maker1 took out a 
patent in #agih2 and ,i can fortunately 
show you one of these instruments1      
kindly lent for this paper by ,mr4      
,walter ,gilbey4 ,i have also been      
favored with photographs by ,mr4        
,simpson1 of ,dundee1 of a precisely    
similar upright square4 ,i show his     
drawing of the action--the ,southwell   
sticker action4 ,w4 ,f4 ,collard        
patented another similar experiment in  
#ahaa4 ,at first the sticker action with
 a leather hinge to the hammer-butt was 
the favorite1 and lasted long in        
,england4 ,the ,french1 however1 were   

quick to recognize the greater merit of 
,wornum's principle of the crank action1
 which1 and strangely enough through    
,france1 has become very generally      
adopted in ,england1 as well as ,germany
 and elsewhere4 ,i regret ,i am unable  
to show a model of the original crank   
action1 but ,mr4 ,wornum has favored me 
with an early engraving of his father's 
invention4 ,it was originally intended  
for the high cabinet piano1 and a patent
 was taken out for it in #ahbf4 ,but    
many difficulties arose1 and it was not 
until #ahbi that the first cabinet was  
so finished4 ,wornum then applied it in 
the same year to the small upright--the 
piccolo1 as he called it--the principle 
of which was1 through ,pleyel and ,pape1
 adopted for the piano manufacture in   
,paris4 ,within the last few years we   
have seen the general introduction of   
,bord's little pianino1 called in       
,england1 ungrammatically enough1       
pianette1 in the action of which that   
maker cleverly introduced the spiral    

spring4 ,and1 also1 of those large      
,german overstrung and double overstrung
 upright pianos1 which1 originally      
derived from ,america1 have so far met  
with favor and sale in this country as  
to induce some ,english makers1 at least
 in the principle1 to copy them4        
,illustration3 ,fig4 #f4--,,steinway4   
,i will conclude this historical sketch 
by remarking1 and as a remarkable       
historical fact1 that the ,english firms
 which in the last century introduced   
the pianoforte1 to whose honorable      
exertions we owe a debt of gratitude1   
with the exception of ,stodart1 still   
exist1 and are in the front rank of the 
world's competition4 ,i will name       
,broadwood 7whose flag ,i serve under71 
,collard 7in the last years of the last 
century known as ,longman and           
,clementi71 ,erard 7the ,london branch71
 ,kirkman1 and1 ,i believe1 ,wornum4 ,on
 the ,continent there is the ,paris     
,erard house2 and1 at ,vienna1          
,streicher1 a firm which descends       

directly from ,stein of ,augsburg1 the  
inventor of the ,german pianoforte1 the 
favorite of ,mozart1 and of ,beethoven  
in his virtuoso period1 for he used     
,stein's grands at ,bonn4 ,distinguished
 names have risen in the present        
century1 some of whom have been referred
 to4 ,to those already mentioned1 ,i    
should like to add the names of         
,hopkinson and ,brinsmead in ,england2  
,bechstein and ,bluthner in ,germany2   
all well-known makers4         99       
99       99       99       99     ,,the 
,,poisonous ,,properties ,,of ,,nitrate 
,,of ,,silver1 ,,and ,a ,,recent ,,case 
,,of ,,poisoning ,,with ,,the ,,same4   
,footnote3 ,read before the ,medico     
,legal ,society1 ,april #e1 #ahhc4  ,by 
,,henry ,a4 ,,mott1 ,,jr41 ,ph4,d41 etc4
   ,of the various salts of silver1 the 
nitrate1 both crystallized and in sticks
 7lunar caustic1 ,lapis infernalis71 is 
the only one interesting to the         
toxicologist4  ,this salt is an article 
of commerce1 and is used technically and

 medicinally4  ,its extensive employment
 for marking linen1 in the preparation  
of various hair dyes 7,eau de ,perse1   
d',egypte1 de ,chiene1 d',afrique71 in  
the photographer's laboratory1 etc41    
affords ample opportunity to use the    
same for poisoning purposes4  ,nitrate  
of silver possesses an acrid metallic   
taste and acts as a violent poison4     
,when injected into a vein of an animal1
 even in small quantities1 the symptoms 
produced are dyspnoea1#a choking1 spasms
 of the limbs and then of the trunk1    
signs of vertigo1 consisting of         
inability to stand erect or walk        
steadily1 and1 finally retching and     
vomiting1 and death by asphyxia4 ,these 
symptoms1 which have usually been       
attributed to the coagulating action of 
the salt upon the blood1 have been shown
 not to depend upon that change1 which1 
indeed1 does not occur1 but upon a      
direct paralyzing operation upon the    
cerebro-spinal centers and upon the     
heart2 but the latter action is         

subordinate and secondary1 and the      
former is fatal through asphyxia4       
,footnote #a3 ,nat4 ,dispensatory4 ,alf4
 ,stille  ,john ,m4 ,maisch1 ,phila41   
#ahgi1 p4 #bcb4  ,one-third of a grain  
injected into the jugular vein killed a 
dog in four and one-half hours1 with    
violent tetanic spasms4#a  ,footnote #a3
 ,medical ,jurisprudence4 ,thomas ,s4   
,traill1 #aheg1 p #aag4  ,devergie      
states that acute poisoning with nitrate
 of silver1 administered in the shape of
 pills1 is more frequent than one would 
suppose4 ,yet ,dr4 ,powell#a states that
 it should always be given in pills1 as 
the system bears a dose three times as  
large as when given in solution4 ,the   
usual dose is from one-quarter of a     
grain to one grain three times a day    
when administered as a medicine4 ,in    
cases of epilepsy ,dr4 ,powell          
recommends one grain at first1 to be    
gradually increased to six4 ,clocquet#b 
has given as much as fifteen grains in a
 day1 and ,ricord has given sixteen     

grains of argentum chloratum            
ammoniacale4  ,footnote #a3 ,u4,s4      
,dispensatory1 #ahth ed41 p4 #ajdi4     
,wood  ,bache4  ,footnote #b3 ,handbuch 
der ,giftlehre1 von ,a4 ,w4 ,m4 ,von    
,hasselt4 #ahfb1 p4 #caf4  ,cases of    
poisoning have resulted from sticks of  
lunar caustic getting into the stomach  
in the process of touching the throat   
7,boerhave7#a2 in one case1 according to
 ,albers1 a stick of lunar caustic got  
into the trachea4  ,footnote #a3        
,virchow's ,archiv1 ,bd4 xvii41 s4 #ace4
 #ahei4  ,von ,hasselt therefore urges  
the utmost caution in using lunar       
caustic2 the sticks and holder should   
always be carefully examined before use4
 ,an apprentice#a to an apothecary      
attempted to commit suicide by taking   
nearly one ounce of a solution of       
nitrate of silver without fatal result4 
,it must be remarked1 however1 that the 
strength of the solution was not stated4
  ,footnote #a3 ,handbuch der           
,giftlehre1 von ,a4 ,w4 ,m4 ,von        

,hasselt4 ,zweiter ,theil1 #ahfb4 p4    
#caf4  ,in #ahfa1 a woman1 fifty-one    
years old1 died in three days from the  
effects of taking a six-ounce mixture   
containing fifty grains of nitrate of   
silver given in divided doses4#a ,she   
vomited a brownish yellow fluid before  
death4 ,the stomach and intestines were 
found inflamed4 ,it is stated that      
silver was found in the substance of the
 stomach and liver4  ,footnote #a3      
,treatise on ,poison4 ,taylor1 #ahge1 p4
 #dge4  ,it is evident that the         
poisonous dose1 when taken internally1  
is not so very small1 but still it would
 not be safe to administer much over the
 amounts prescribed by ,ricord1 for in  
the case of the dog mentioned one third 
of a grain injected into the jugular    
vein produced death in four and one-half
 hours4  ,the circumstance that more can
 be taken internally is explained by the
 rapid decomposition to which this      
silver salt is liable in the body by the
 proteine substance and chlorine        

combinations in the stomach1 the        
hydrochloric acid in the gastric juice1 
and salt from food4  ,the first reaction
 produced by taking nitrate of silver   
internally is a combination of this salt
 with the proteinaceous tissues with    
which it comes in contact1 as also a    
precipitation of chloride of silver4    
,according to ,mitscherlich1 the        
combination with the proteine or        
albuminous substance is not a permanent 
one1 but suffers a decomposition by     
various acids1 as dilute acetic and     
lactic acid4  ,the absorption of the    
silver into the system is slow1 as the  
albuminoid and chlorine combinations    
formed in the intestinal canal cannot be
 immediately dissolved again4  ,in the  
tissues the absorbed silver salt is     
decomposed by the tissues1 and the oxide
 and metallic silver separate4  ,partly 
for this reason and partly on account of
 the formation of the solid albuminates1
 etc41 the elimination of the silver    
from the body takes place very slowly4  

,some of the silver1 however1 passed out
 in the fces1 and1 according to         
,lauderer1 ,orfila1 and ,panizza1 some  
can be detected in the urine4           
,bogolowsky#a has also shown that in    
rabbits poisoned with preparations of   
silver1 the 7often albuminous7 urine and
 the contents of the 7very full7 gall   
bladder contained silver4  ,footnote #a3
 ,arch4 f4 ,path4 ,anatomie1 xlvi41 p4  
#dji4 ,gaz4 ,med de ,paris1 #ahfh1 ,no4 
#ci4 ,also ,journ4 de l',anatomie et de 
la ,physiologie1 #ahgc1 p4 #cih4        
,mayencon and ,bergeret have also shown 
that in men and rabbits the silver salt 
administered is quickly distributed in  
the body1 and is but slowly excreted by 
the urine and fces4  ,chronic poisoning 
shows itself in a peculiar coloring of  
the skin 7,argyria ,fuchs71 especially  
in the face1 beginning first on the     
sclerotic4 ,the skin does not always    
take the same color2 it becomes in most 
cases grayish blue1 slaty sometimes1    
though1 a greenish brown or olive color4

  ,von ,hasselt thinks that probably    
chloride of silver is deposited in the  
rete malpighii1 which is blackened by   
the action of light1 or that sulphide of
 silver is formed by direct union of the
 silver with the sulphur of the         
epidermis4 ,that the action of light is 
not absolutely necessary1 ,patterson    
states1 follows from the often          
simultaneous appearance of this coloring
 upon the mucous membrane1 especially   
that of the mouth and upon the gums2 and
 ,dr4 ,frommann ,hermann#a and others   
have shown that a similar coloring is   
also found in the internal parts4       
,footnote #a3 ,leh der ,experiment4     
,tox4 ,dr4 ,hermann1 ,berlin1 #ahgd1 p4 
#baa4  ,versmann found #ad4a grms4 of   
dried liver to contain #j4jji grm4      
chloride of silver1 or #j4jdg per cent4 
of metallic silver4 ,in the kidneys he  
found #j4jjg grm4 chloride of silver1 or
 #j4jfa per cent4 of metallic silver2   
this was in a case of chronic poisoning1
 the percentage will be seen to be very 

small4 ,orfila ,jun4 found silver in the
 liver five months after the poisoning4 
,lionville#a found a deposit of silver  
in the kidneys1 suprarenal gland1 and   
plexus choroideus of a woman who had    
gone through a cure with lunar caustic  
five years before death4  ,footnote #a3 
,gaz4 ,med41 #ahfh4 ,no4 #ci4  ,sydney  
,jones#a states that in the case of an  
old epileptic who had been accustomed to
 take nitrate of silver as a remedy1 the
 choroid plexuses were remarkably dark1 
and from their surface could be scraped 
a brownish black1 soot-like material1   
and a similar substance was found lying 
quite free in the cavity of the fourth  
ventricle1 apparently detached from the 
choroid plexus4  ,footnote #a3 ,trans4  
,path4 ,soc41 xi4 vol4  ,attempts at    
poisoning for suicidal purposes with    
nitrate of silver are in most cases     
prevented from the fact that this salt  
has such a disagreeable metallic taste  
as to be repulsive2 cases therefore of  
poisoning are only liable to occur by   

accident or by the willful              
administration of the poison by another 
person4  ,such a case occurred quite    
recently1 to a very valuable mare       
belonging to ,august ,belmont4  ,i      
received on ,dec4 #f1 #ahhb1 a sealed   
box from ,dr4 ,wm4 ,j4 ,provost1        
containing the stomach1 heart1 kidney1  
portion of liver1 spleen1 and portion of
 rectum of this mare for analysis4  ,dr4
 ,provost reported to me that the animal
 died quite suddenly1 and that there was
 complete paralysis of the hind         
quarters1 including rectum and bladder4 
,the total weight of the stomach and    
contents was #ah lb41 the stomach itself
 weighing #c lb4 and #h oz4  ,portions  
were taken from each organ1 weighed1 and
 put in alcohol for analysis4  ,the     
contents of the stomach were thoroughly 
mixed together and measured1 and a      
weighed portion preserved for analysis4 
,the stomach1 when cut open1 was        
perfectly white on its inner surface1   
and presented a highly corroded         

appearance4  ,the contents of the       
stomach were first submitted to         
qualitative analysis1 and the presence  
of a considerable quantity of nitrate of
 silver was detected4  ,the other organs
 were next examined1 and the presence of
 silver was readily detected1 with the  
exception of the heart6  ,the liver had 
a very dark brown color4 ,a quantitative
 analysis of the contents of the stomach
 gave #ei4h grains of nitrate of silver4
 ,in the liver #cj4e grains of silver1  
calculated as nitrate1 were found       
7average weight1 #aa lb474 ,from the    
analysis made there was reason to       
believe that at least one-half an ounce 
of nitrate of silver was given to the   
animal4 ,some naturally passed out in   
the fces and urine4  ,i was able to     
prepare several globules of metallic    
silver1 as also all the well known      
chemical combinations1 such as sulphide1
 chloride1 oxide1 iodide1 bromide1      
bichromate of silver1 etc4  ,from the   
result of my investigation ,i was led to

 the conclusion that the animal came to 
death by the willful administering of   
nitrate of silver1 probably mixed with  
the food4  ,the paralysis of the hind   
quarters1 mentioned by ,dr4 ,provost1   
accords perfectly with the action of    
this poison1 as it acts on the nerve    
centers1 especially the cerebro-spinal  
centers1 and produces spasms of the     
limbs1 then of the trunk1 and finally   
paralysis4  ,i might also state in this 
connection that1 only two weeks previous
 to my receiving news of the poisoning  
of the mare1 ,i examined for ,mr4       
,belmont the contents of the stomach of 
a colt which died very mysteriously1 and
 found large quantities of corrosive    
sublimate to be present4  ,calomel is   
often given as a medicine1 but not so   
with corrosive sublimate1 which is      
usually employed in the arts as a       
poison4  ,it is to be regretted that up 
to the present moment1 even with the    
best detectives1 the perpetrator of this
 outrage has been at large4 ,surely the 

very limit of the law should be         
exercised against any man who would     
willfully poison an innocent animal for 
revenge upon an individual4 ,cases have 
been reported in ,england where one     
groom would poison the colts under the  
care of another groom1 so that the owner
 would discharge their keeper and       
promote the other groom to his place4   
,a few good examples1 in cases where    
punishment was liberally meted out1     
would probably check such unfeeling     
outrages4         99       99       99  
99       99     ,,tubercle ,,bacilli    
,,in ,,sputa4   ,prof4 ,baumgarten has  
just published in the ,ctbl4 f4 d4 ,med4
 ,wiss41 #be1 #ahhb1 the following easy 
method to detect in the expectorated    
matter of phthisical persons the        
pathogenic tubercle bacilli3            
,phthisical sputa are dried and made    
moist with very much diluted potash lye 
7#a to #b drops of a #cc per cent4      
potash lye in a watch glass of distilled
 water74 ,the tubercle bacilli are then 

easily recognized with a magnifying     
power of #djj to #ejj4 ,by light        
pressure upon the cover glass the       
bacilli are easily pressed out of the   
masses of detritus and secretion4 ,to   
prevent1 however1 the possibility of    
mistaking the tubercle bacilli for other
 septic bacteria1 or vice versa1 the    
following procedure is necessary3 ,after
 the examination just mentioned1 the    
cover glass is lifted up and the little 
fluid sticking to its under side allowed
 to dry1 which is done within one or two
 minutes4 ,now the cover glass is drawn 
two or three times rapidly through a gas
 flame2 one drop of a diluted 7but not  
too light7 common watery aniline        
solution 7splendid for this purpose is  
the watery extract of a common aniline  
ink paper7 is placed upon the glass4    
,when now brought under the microscope1 
all the septic bacteria appear colored  
intensely blue1 while the tubercle      
bacilli are absolutely colorless1 and   
can be seen as clearly as in the pure   

potash lye4 ,we may add1 however1 that  
,klebs considers his own method         
preferable4  ,as the whole procedure    
does not take longer than ten minutes1  
it is to be recommended in general      
practice4 ,the consequences of ,koch's  
important discovery become daily more   
apparent1 and their application more    
practicable4         99       99        
99       99       99  ,concluded from   
,,supplement ,no4 #chd1 page #facb4     
,,malaria4  ,by ,,james ,h4 ,,salisbury1
 ,a4,m41 ,m4,d4  ,,prize ,,essay ,,of   
,,the ,,albany ,,medical ,,college      
,,alumni ,,association1 ,,feb41 #ahhb4  
,,viii4   ,observations in ,washington1 
,d4 ,c41 ,september #e1 #ahgi1 #h3ce    
,a4,m41 ,boston time1 near              
,congressional ,cemetery4  #a4 ,seized  
with sneezing on my way to cemetery4    
,examined nasal excretions and found no 
,palmell4  #b4 ,pool near cemetery4     
,examined a spot one inch in diameter1  
raised in center1 green1 found          
,oedegonium abundant4 ,some desmids1    

,cosmarium binoculatum plenty4 ,one or  
two red ,gemiasmas1 starch1 ,protuberans
 lamella1 ,pollen4  #c4 ,specimen soft  
magma of the pool margin4 ,oedogonium   
abundant1 spores1 yeast plants1 dirt4   
#d4 ,sand scraped4 ,no organized forms  
but pollen1 and mobile spores of some   
cryptogams4  #e4 ,dew on grass4 ,one    
stellate compound plant hair1 one       
,gemiasma verdans1 two pollen4  #f4     
,grass flower dew4 ,some large white    
sporangia filled with spores4  #g4      
,grass blade dew1 not anything of       
account4 ,one pale ,gemiasma1 three blue
 ,gemiasmas1 ,cosmarium1 ,closterium4   
,diatoms1 pollen1 found in greenish     
earth and wet with the dew4 ,remarks3   
,observations made at the pool with     
clinical microscope1 one-quarter inch   
objective4 ,day cloudy1 foggy1 hot4  #h4
 ,green earth in water way from pump    
near cemetery4 ,anabaina plentiful4     
,diatoms1 ,oscillatoriace4 ,polycoccus  
species4 ,pollen1 ,cosmarium1           
,leptothrix1 ,gemiasma1 old sporangia1  

spores many4 ,fungi belonging to fruit4 
,puccinia4 ,anguillula fluviatilis4  #i4
 ,mr4 ,smith's blood4 ,spores1 enlarged 
white corpuscles4 ,two sporangia8       
,gemiasma dark brown1 black4 ,mr4 ,smith
 is superintendent ,congressional       
,cemetery4 ,lived here for seven years4 
,been a great sufferer with ague4 ,says 
the doctors told him that they could do 
no more for him than he could for       
himself4 ,so he used ,ayer's ague cure  
with good effect for six months4 ,then  
he found the best effect from the use of
 the ,holman liver ague pad in his own  
case and that of his children4 ,from his
 account one would infer that1          
notwithstanding the excellence of the   
ague pad1 when he is attacked1 he uses  
blue mass1 followed with purgatives1    
then #bj grains of quinine4 ,also has   
used arsenic1 but it did not agree with 
him4 ,also used ,capsicum with good     
results4 ,had enlarged spleen2 not so   
now4  #b;d specimen of ,mr4 ,smith's    
blood4 ,stelline1 no ,gemiasma4 #c;d    

specimen1 do4 ,one ,gemiasma4 #dth      
specimen4 ,none4 #eth specimen4 ,skin   
scraped showed no plants4 #fth specimen4
 ,urine2 amyloid bodies2 spores2 no     
sporangia4  ,united ,states ,magazine   
store grounds4 ,observation #a4 ,margin 
of ,eastern ,branch ,river4 ,substance  
from decaying part of a water plant4    
,oscillatoriace4 ,diatoms4 ,anguillula4 
,chytridium4 ,dirt4 ,no ,gemiasma4      
,observation #b4 ,moist soil4 ,near by1 
amid much rubbish1 one or two so-called 
,gemiasmas2 white1 clear1 peripheral    
margin4  ,observation #c4 ,green deposit
 on decaying wood4 ,oscillatoriace4     
,protuberans lamella1 ,gemiasma alba4   
,much foreign matter4  ,mr4 ,russell1   
,mrs4 ,r41 ,miss ,r41 residents of      
,magazine ,grounds presented no ague    
plants in their blood4 ,sergeant        
,mc,grath1 ,mrs4 ,m41 ,miss ,m41        
presented three or four sporangias in   
their blood4 ,dr4 ,hodgkins1 some in    
urine4 ,dr4 ,h4's friend with chills1   
not positive as to ague4 ,no plants     

found4  ,observations in ,east          
,greenwich1 ,r4,i41 ,aug4 #af1 #ahgg4   
#a4 ,at early morn ,i examined greenish 
earth1 northwest of the town along the  
margin of a beautiful brook4 ,found the 
,protuberans lamella1 the ,gemiasma alba
 and rubra4 ,observation #b4 ,found the 
same4 ,observation #c4 ,found the same4 
,observation #d4 ,salt marsh below the  
railroad bridge over the river4  ,the   
scrapings of the soil showed beautiful  
yellow and transparent ,protuberans1    
beautiful green sporangias of the       
,gemiasma verdans4  ,observation #e4    
,near the brook named was a good        
specimen of the ,gemiasma plumba4 ,while
 ,i could not find out from the lay     
people ,i asked that any ague was there1
 ,i now understand it is all through    
that locality4  ,observation at         
,wellesley1 ,mass41 ,aug4 #bj1 #ahgg4   
,no incrustation found4 ,examined the   
vegetation found on the margin of the   
,ridge ,hills ,farm pond4 ,among other  
things ,i found an ,anguillula          

fluviatilis4 ,abundance of microspores1 
bacteria4 ,some of the ,protococci4     
,gelatinous masses1 allied to the       
protuberans1 of a light yellow color    
scattered all over with well developed  
spores1 larger than those found in the  
,protuberans4 ,one or two oval sporanges
 with double outlines4 ,this observation
 was repeated1 but the specimens were   
not so rich4 ,another specimen from the 
same locality was shown to be made up of
 mosses by the venation of leaves4      
,mine host with whom ,i lodged had a    
microscopical mount of the ,protococcus 
nivalis in excellent state of           
preservation4 ,the sporangia were very  
red and beautiful1 but they showed no   
double cell wall4  ,in this locality    
ague is unknown2 indeed1 the place is   
one of unusual salubrity4 ,it is        
interesting to note here to show how    
some of the alg are diffused4 ,i found  
here an artificial pond fed by a spring1
 and subject to overflow from another   
pond in spring and winter4 ,a stream of 

living water as large as one's arm      
7adult7 feeds this artificial pond1     
still it was crowded with the           
,clathrocyotis ruginosa of some writers 
and the ,polycoccus of ,reinsch4 ,how it
 got there has not yet been explained4  
,the migration of the ague eastward is a
 matter of great interest2 it is to be  
hoped that the localities may be        
searched carefully for your plants1 as  
,i did in ,new ,haven4  ,in this        
connection ,i desire to say something   
about the presence of the ,gemiasmas in 
the ,croton water4 ,the record ,i have  
given of finding the ,gemiasma verdans  
is not a solitary instance4 ,i did not  
find the gemiasmas in the ,cochituate1  
nor generally in the drinking waters of 
over thirty different municipalities or 
towns ,i have examined during several   
years past4 ,i have no difficulty in    
accounting for the presence of the      
,gemiasmas in the ,croton1 as during the
 last summer ,i made studies of the     
,gemiasma at ,washington ,heights1 near 

#afeth ,st4 and #ajth ,ave41 ,n4,y4     
,plate ,,viii4 is a photograph of a     
drawing of some of the ,gemiasmas       
projected by the sun on the wall and    
sketched by the artist on the wall1     
putting the details in from             
microscopical specimens1 viewed in the  
ordinary way4 ,this should make the     
subject of another observation4  ,i     
visited this locality several times     
during ,august and ,october1 #ahha4 ,i  
found an abundance of the saline        
incrustation of which you have spoken1  
and at the time of my first visit there 
was a little pond hole just east of the 
point named that was in the act of      
drying up4 ,finally it dried completely 
up1 and then the saline and green       
incrustations both were abundant enough4
 ,the only species1 however1 ,i found of
 the ague plants was the ,gemiasma      
verdans4 ,on two occasions of a visit   
with my pupils ,i demonstrated the      
presence of the plants in the nasal     
excretions from my nostrils4 ,i had been

 sneezing somewhat4  ,there is one      
circumstance ,i would like to mention   
here3 that was1 that when1 for          
convenience' sake1 my visits were made  
late in the day1 ,i did not find the    
plants abundant1 still could always get 
enough to demonstrate their presence2   
but when my visits were timed so as to  
come in the early morning1 when the dew 
was on1 there was no difficulty whatever
 in finding multitudes of beautiful and 
well developed plants4  ,to my mind this
 is a conclusive corroboration of your  
own statements in which you speak of the
 plants bursting1 and being dissipated  
by the heat of the summer sun1 and the  
disseminated spores accumulating in     
aggregations so as to form the white    
incrustation in connection with saline  
bodies which you have so often pointed  
out4  ,i also have repeated your        
experiments in relation to the          
collection of the mud1 turf1 sods1 etc41
 and have known them to be carried many 
hundred miles off and identified4 ,i    

have also found the little depressions  
caused by the tread of cattle affording 
a fine nidus for the plants4 ,you have  
only to scrape the minutest point off   
with a needle or tooth pick to find an  
abundance by examination4 ,i have not   
been able to explore many other sites1  
nor do ,i care1 as ,i found all the     
materials ,i sought in the vicinity of  
,new ,york4  ,to this ,i must make one  
exception2 ,i visited the ,palisades    
last summer and examined the localities 
about ,tarrytown4 ,this is an elevated  
location1 but ,i found no ,gemiasmas4   
,this is not equivalent to saying there 
were none there4 ,indeed1 ,i have only  
given you a mere outline of my work in  
this direction1 as ,i have made it a    
practice to examine the soil wherever ,i
 went1 but as most of my observations   
have been conducted on non-malarious    
soils1 and ,i did not find the plants1  
,i have not thought it worth while to   
record all my observations of a negative
 character4  ,i now come to an important

 part of the corroborative observations1
 to wit1 the blood4  ,i have found it as
 you predicted a matter of considerable 
difficulty to find the mature forms of  
the ,gemiasmas in the blood1 but the    
spore forms of the vegetation ,i have no
 difficulty in finding4 ,the spores have
 appeared to me to be larger than the   
spores of other vegetations that grow in
 the blood4 ,they are not capable of    
complete identification unless they are 
cultivated to the full form4 ,they are  
the so-called bacteria of the writers of
 the day4 ,they can be compared with the
 spores of the vegetation found outside 
of the body in the swamps and bogs4     
,you said that the plants are only found
 as a general rule in the blood of old  
cases1 or in the acute1 well marked     
cases4 ,the plants are so few1 you said1
 that it was difficult to encounter them
 sometimes4 ,so also of those who have  
had the ague badly and got well4        
,observation at ,naval ,hospital1       
,n4,y41 ,aug41 #ahgg4 ,examined with    

great care the blood of ,donovan1 who   
had had intermittent fever badly4       
,negative result4  ,the same was the    
result of examining another case of     
typho-malarial 7convalescent72 though in
 this man's blood there were found some 
oval and sometimes round bodies like    
empty ,gemiasmas1 #a_/ajjj inch in      
diameter4 ,but they had no well marked  
double outline4 ,there were no forms    
found in the urine of this patient4 ,in 
another case 7,donovan17 who six months 
previous had had ,panama fever1 and had 
well nigh recovered1 ,i found no spores 
or sporangia4  ,observations made at    
,washington1 ,d4,c41 ,sept41 #ahgi4 ,at 
this time ,i examined with clinical     
microscope the blood of eight to ten    
persons living near the ,congressional  
,cemetery and in the ,arsenal grounds4  
,i was successful in finding the plants 
in the blood of five or more persons who
 were or had been suffering from the    
intermittent fever4  ,in #ahgg1 at the  
,naval ,hospital1 ,chelsea1 ,i          

accidentally came across three well     
marked and well defined ,gemiasmas in   
the blood of a marine whom ,i was       
studying for another disease4 ,i learned
 that he had had intermittent fever not 
long before4  ,another positive case    
came to my notice in connection with    
micrographic work the past summer4 ,the 
artist was a physician residing in one  
of the suburban cities of ,new ,york4 ,i
 had demonstrated to him ,gemiasma      
verdans1 showed how to collect them from
 the soil in my boxes4 ,and he had made 
outline drawings also1 for the purposes 
of more perfectly completing his        
drawings4 ,i gave him some of the       
,gemiasmas between a slide and cover1   
and also some of the earth containing   
the soil4 ,he carried them home4 ,it so 
happened that a brother physician came  
to his house while he was at work upon  
the drawings4 ,my artist showed his     
friend the plants ,i had collected1 then
 the plants he collected himself from   
the earth1 and then he called his       

daughter1 a young lady1 and took a drop 
of blood from her finger4 ,the first    
specimen contained several of the       
,gemiasmas4 ,the demonstration1 coming  
after the previous demonstrations1      
carried a conviction that it otherwise  
would not have had4   ,,ague ,,plants   
,,in ,,the ,,urine4  ,i have found them 
in the urine of persons suffering or    
having suffered from intermittent fever4
  ,when ,i was at the ,naval ,hospital  
in ,brooklyn one of the accomplished    
assistant surgeons1 after ,i had showed 
him some plants in the urine1 said he   
had often encountered them in the urine 
of ague cases1 but did not know their   
significance4 ,i might multiply         
evidence1 but think it unnecessary4 ,i  
am not certain that my testimony will   
convince any one save myself1 but ,i    
know that ,i had rather have my present 
definite1 positive belief based on this 
evidence1 than to be floundering on     
doubts and uncertainties4 ,there is no  
doubt that the profession believe that  

intermittents have a cause2 but this    
belief has a vagueness which cannot be  
represented by drawings or photograph4  
,since ,i have photographed the         
,gemiasma1 and studied their biology1 ,i
 feel like holding on to your dicta     
until upset by something more than      
words4  ,in relation to the belief that 
no ,alg are parasitic1 ,i would state on
 ,feb4 #i1 #ahgh1 ,i examined the spleen
 of a decapitated speckled turtle with  
,professor ,reinsch4 ,we found various  
sized red corpuscles in the blood in    
various stages of formation2 also       
filaments of a green ,alga traversing   
the spleen1 which my associate1 a       
specialist in ,algology1 pronounced one 
of the ,oscillatoriace4 ,these were     
demonstrated in your own observations   
made years ago4 ,they show that ,alg are
 parasitic in the living spleen of      
healthy turtles4  ,this leads to the    
remark that all parasitic growths are   
not nocent4 ,i understand you take the  
same position4 ,prof4 ,reinsch has      

published a work in ,latin1             
,contributiones ad ,algologiam1         
,leipsic1 #ahgd1 in which he gives a    
large number of drawings and            
descriptions of ,alg1 many of them      
entophytic parasites on other animals or
 ,alg4 ,many of these he said were      
innocent guests of their host1 but many 
guest plants were death to their host4  
,this is for the benefit of those who   
say that the ,gemiasmas are innocent    
plants and do no harm4 ,all plants1     
phanerogams or cryptogams1 can be       
divided into nocent or innocent1 etc41  
etc4 ,i am willing to change my position
 on better evidence than yours being    
submitted1 but till then call me an     
indorser of your work as to the cause   
and treatment of ague4  ,respectfully1  
yours1 ------  ,there are quite a number
 of others who have been over my ground1
 but the above must suffice here4       
,illustration3 ,,plate                  
,x4--,,explanation ,,of ,,figures4--#a1 
,spore with thick laminated covering1   

constant colorless contents1 and dark   
nucleus4 ,b1 ,part of the wall of cell  
highly magnified1 #j4jbb millimeter in  
thickness4 #b1 ,smaller spore with      
verruculous covering4 #c1 ,spore with   
punctulated covering4 #d1 ,the same4 #e1
 ,minute spores with blue-greenish      
colored contents1 #j4jjba millimeter in 
diameter4 #f1 ,larger form of #e4 #g1   
,transparent spherical spore1 contents  
distinctly refracting the light1 #j4jbb 
millimeter in diameter4 #h1             
,chroococcoid minute cells1 with        
transparent1 colorless covering1 #j4jjda
 millimeter in diameter4 #i1 ,biciliated
 zoospore4 #aj1 ,plant of the ,gemiasma 
rubra1 thallus on both ends attenuated1 
composed of seven cells of unequal size4
 #aa1 ,another complete plant of        
rectangular shape composed of regularly 
attached cells4 #ab1 ,another complete1 
irregularly shaped and arranged plant4  
#ac1 ,another plant1 one end with       
incrassated and regularly arranged      
cells4 #ad1 ,another elliptical shaped  

plant1 the covering on one end          
attenuated into a long appendix4 #ae1   
,three celled plant4 #af1 ,five celled  
plant4 #aj-af magnified #ddj_/a4  ,i    
wish to conclude this paper by alluding 
to some published investigations into   
the cause of ague1 which are            
interesting1 and which ,i welcome and am
 thankful for1 because all ,i ask is    
investigations--not words without       
investigations4  ,the first the         
,bartlett following3  ,dr4 ,john        
,bartlett is a gentleman of ,chicago1 of
 good standing in the profession4 ,in   
,january1 #ahgd1 he published in the    
,chicago ,medical ,journal a paper on a 
marsh plant from the ,mississippi ague  
bottoms1 supposed to be kindred to the  
,gemiasmas4 ,in a consideration of its  
genetic relations to malarious disease1 
he states that at ,keokuk1 ,iowa1 in    
#ahga1 near the great ague bottoms of   
the ,mississippi1 with ,dr4 ,j4 ,p4     
,safford1 he procured a sod containing  
plants that were as large as rape seeds4

 ,he sent specimens of the plants to    
distinguished botanists1 among them ,m4 
,c4 ,cook1 of ,london1 ,england4        
,nothing came of these efforts4  #b4 ,in
 ,august1 #ahgc1 ,dr4 ,b4 visited       
,riverside1 near ,chicago1 to hunt up   
the ague plants4 ,found none1 and also  
that the ague had existed there from    
#ahga4  #c4 ,lamonot1 a town on the     
,illinois and ,michigan ,canal1 was next
 visited4 ,a noted ague district4 ,no   
plants were found1 and only two cases of
 ague1 one of foreign origin4 ,dr4 ,b4  
here speaks of these plants of ,dr4     
,safford's as causing ague and being    
different from the ,gemiasmas4 ,but he  
gives no evidence that ,safford's plants
 have been detected in the human        
habitat4 ,in justice to myself ,i would 
like to see this evidence before giving 
him the place of precedence4  #d4 ,dr4  
,b41 ,sept4 #a1 #ahgc1 requested ,dr4   
,safford to search for his plants at    
,east ,keokuk4 ,very few plants and no  
ague were found where they both were    

rife in #ahga4  #e4 ,later1 ,sept4 #ae1 
#ahgc1 ague was extremely prevalent at  
,east ,keokuk1 ,iowa1 where two weeks   
before no plants were found2 they       
existed more numerously than in #ahga4  
#f4 ,dr4 ,b4 traced five cases of ague1 
in connection with ,dr4 ,safford's      
plants found in a cesspool of water in a
 cellar #ajj feet distant4 ,it is       
described as a plant to be studied with 
a power of #bjj diameters1 and          
consisting of a body and root4 ,the root
 is a globe with a central cavity lined 
with a white layer1 and outside of these
 a layer of green cells4 ,diameter of   
largest plant1 one-quarter inch4 ,cavity
 of plant filled with molecular liquid4 
,root is above six inches in length1    
,dr4 ,b4 found the white incrustation2  
he secured the spores by exposing slides
 at night over the malarious soil       
resembling the ,gemiasmas4 ,he speaks of
 finding ague plants in the blood1      
one-fifteen-hundredth of an inch in     
diameter1 of ague patients4 ,he found   

them also in his own blood associated   
with the symptoms of remittent fever1   
quinine always diminishing or removing  
the threatening symptoms4 ,professors   
,babcock and ,munroe1 of ,chicago1 call 
the plants either the ,hydrogastrum of  
,rabenhorst1 or the ,botrydium of the   
,micrographic ,dictionary1 the          
crystalline acicular bodies being deemed
 parasitic4 ,dr4 ,b4 deserves great     
credit for his honest and careful work  
and for his valuable paper4 ,such       
efforts are ever worthy of respect4     
,there is no report of the full         
development found in the urine1 sputa1  
and sweat4 ,again1 ,dr4 ,b4 or ,dr4     
,safford did not communicate the disease
 to unprotected persons by exposure4    
,while then ,i feel satisfied that the  
,gemiasmas produce ague1 it is by no    
means proved that no other cryptogam may
 not produce malaria4 ,i observed the   
plants ,dr4 ,b4 described1 but          
eliminated them from my account4 ,i hope
 ,dr4 ,b4 will pursue this subject      

farther1 as the field is very large and 
the observers are few4  ,when my facts  
are upset1 ,i then surrender4   ,,notes 
,,on ,,marsh ,,miasm 7,,limnophysalis   
,,hyalina74 ,,by ,,abr4 ,,fredrik       
,,eklund1 ,m4,d41 ,,stockholm1 ,,sweden1
 ,,physician ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,class 
,,in ,,the ,,swedish ,,royal ,,navy4    
,footnote3 ,translated from the         
,archives de la ,medecine ,navale1 vol4 
xxx41 no4 #g1 ,july1 #ahgh1 by ,a4      
,sibley ,campbell1 ,m4,d41 ,augusta1    
,ga4  ,before giving a succinct account 
of the discovery of paludal miasma and  
of its natural history1 ,i ought in the 
first place to state that ,i have not   
had the opportunity of reading or       
studying the great original treatise of 
,professor ,salisbury4 ,i am acquainted 
with it only through a resume published 
in the ,american ,journal of the        
,medical ,sciences for the year #ahff1  
new series1 vol4 li4 p4 #ea4 ,at the    
beginning of my investigations ,i was   
engaged in a microscopic examination of 

the water and mud of swampy shores and  
of the marshes1 also with a comparison  
of their microphytes with those which   
might exist in the urine of patients    
affected with intermittent fevers4      
,nearly three months passed without my  
being able to find the least agreement1 
the least connection4 ,having lost      
nearly all hope of being able to attain 
the end which ,i had proposed1 ,i took  
some of the slime from the marshes and  
from the masses of kelp and ,conferv    
from the sea shores1 where intermittent 
fevers are endemic1 and placed them in  
saucers under the ordinary glass        
desiccators exposed on a balcony1 open  
for twenty-four hours1 the most of the  
time under the action of the burning    
rays of the sun4 ,with the evaporated   
water deposited within the desiccators1 
,i proceeded to an examination1 drop by 
drop4 ,i at length found that which ,i  
had sought so long1 but always in vain4 
,the parasite of intermittent fever1    
which ,i have termed ,limnophysalis     

hyalina1 and which has been observed    
before me by ,drs4 ,j4 ,lemaire and     
,gratiolet 7,comptes ,rendus            
,hebdomadaires de l',academie des       
,sciences1 ,paris1 #ahfg1 pp4 #cag and  
#cah7 and ,b4 ,cauvet 7,archives de     
,medecine ,navale1 ,november1 #ahgf71 is
 a fungus which is developed directly   
from the mycelium1 each individual of   
which possesses one or several          
filaments1 which are simple or          
dichotomous1 with double outlines1      
extremely fine1 plainly marked1 hyaline1
 and pointed4 ,under favorable          
conditions1 that is1 with moisture1     
heat1 and the presence of vegetable     
matter in decomposition1 the filaments  
of mycelium increase in length4 ,from   
these long filaments springs the fungus4
 ,the sporangia1 or more exactly the    
conidia1 are composed of unilocular     
vesicles1 perfectly colorless and       
transparent1 which generally rise from  
one or both sides of the filaments of   
the mycelium1 beginning as from little  

buds or eyes2 very often several 7two to
 three7 sporangia occur placed one upon 
the other1 at least on one side of the  
mycelium4  ,with a linear magnitude of  
#dhj1 the sporangia have a transverse   
diameter of one to five millimeters1 or 
a little more in the larger specimens4  
,the filaments of mycelium1 under the   
same magnitude1 appear exceedingly thin 
and finer than a hair4 ,the shape of the
 conidia1 though presenting some        
varieties1 is1 notwithstanding1 always  
perfectly characteristic4 ,sometimes    
they resemble in appearance the segments
 of a semicircle more or less great1    
sometimes the wings of butterflies1     
double or single4 ,it is only           
exceptionally that their form is so     
irregular4  ,again1 when young1 they are
 perfectly colorless and transparent2   
sometimes they are of a beautiful violet
 or blue color 7mykianthinin            
mykocyanin74 ,upon this variety of the  
,limnophysalis hyalina depends the      
vomiting of blue matters observed by    

,dr4 ,john ,sullivan1 at ,havana1 in    
patients affected with pernicious       
intermittent fever 7algid and comatose  
form74 ,in the perfectly mature         
sporangia1 the sporidia have a dark     
brown color 7mykophaein74 ,from the     
sporidia1 the ,italian physicians1      
,lanzi and ,perrigi1 in the course of   
their attempts at its cultivation1 have 
seen produced the ,monilia penicinata   
friesii1 which is1 consequently1 the    
second generation of the ,limnophysalis 
hyalina1 in which alternate generation  
takes place1 admitting that their       
observations may be verified4 ,the      
sporangia are never spherical1 but      
always flat4 ,when they are perfectly   
developed1 they are distinctly separated
 from their filament of mycelium by a   
septum--that is to say1 by limiting     
lines plainly marked4 ,it is not rare1  
however1 to see the individual sporangia
 perfectly isolated and disembarrassed  
of their filament of mycelium floating  
in the water4 ,it seems to me very      

probable that these isolated sporangia  
are identical with the hyaline coagula  
so accurately described by ,frerichs1   
who has observed them in the blood of   
patients dying of intermittent fevers4  
,but if two sporangia are observed with 
their bases coherent without            
intermediary filaments of mycelium1 it  
seems to me probable that the           
reproduction has taken place through the
 union1 which happens in the following  
manner3 ,two filaments of mycelium      
become juxtaposed2 after which the      
filaments of mycelium disappear in the  
sporangia newly formed1 which by this   
same metamorphosis are deprived of the  
faculty of reproducing themselves       
through the filaments of myclium of     
which they are deprived4 ,the smallest  
portion of a filament of mycelium       
evidently possesses the faculty of      
producing the new individuals4  ,it is  
unquestionable that the ,limnophysalis  
hyalina enter into the blood either by  
the bronchial mucous membrane1 by the   

surface of the pulmonary vesicles1 or by
 the mucous membrane of the intestinal  
canal1 most often1 no doubt1 by the     
last1 with the ingested water2 this     
introduction is aided by the force of   
suction and pressure1 which facilitates 
their absorption4 ,it develops in the   
glands of ,lieberkuhn1 and multiplies   
itself2 after which the individuals1 as 
soon as they are formed1 are drawn out  
and carried away in the blood of the    
circulation4  ,the ,limnophysalis       
hyalina is1 in short1 a solid body1 of  
an extreme levity1 and endowed with a   
most delicate organization4 ,it is not a
 miasm1 in the common signification of  
the term2 it does not carry with it any 
poison2 it is not vegetable matter in   
decomposition1 but it flourishes by     
preference amid the last4  ,in regard to
 other circumstances relative to the    
presence of this fungus1 there are1     
above all1 two remarkable facts1 namely1
 its property of adhering to surfaces as
 perfectly polished as that of a mirror1

 and its power of resistance against the
 reagents1 if we except the caustic     
alkalies and the concentrated mineral   
acids4 ,this power of resisting the     
ordinary reagents explains in a         
plausible manner why the fungus is not  
destroyed by the digestive process in   
the stomach1 where1 however1 the acid   
reaction of the gastric juice probably  
arrests its development--is that of the 
schistomycetes in general--and keeps it 
in a state of temporary inactivity4     
,this property of adhering to smooth    
surfaces explains perhaps the power of  
the ,eucalyptus globulus in arresting   
the progress of paludal miasm 7874 ,but 
it is evident that other trees1 shrubs1 
and plants of resinous or balsamic      
foliage1 as1 for example1 the ,populus  
balsamifera1 ,cannabis sativa1 ,pinus   
silvestris1 ,pinus abies1 ,juniperus    
communis1 have equally1 with us1 the    
same faculty2 they are favorable also   
for the drying of the soil1 and the more
 completely1 as their roots are         

spreading1 more extended1 and more      
ramified4  ,in order to demonstrate the 
presence of the limnophysalis in the    
blood of patients affected with         
intermittent fever during the febrile   
stage1 properly speaking1 it appeared   
necessary for me to dilute the blood of 
patients with a solution of nitrate of  
potassa1 having at #cg4e;,c4 the same   
specific gravity as the serum of the    
blood4 ,with capillary tubes of glass1 a
 little dilated toward the middle1 of   
the same shape and size as those which  
are used in collecting vaccine lymph1 ,i
 took up a little of the solution of    
nitrate of potassa above indicated4     
,after this ,i introduced the point of  
an ordinary inoculating needle under the
 skin1 especially in the splenic region1
 where ,i ruptured some of the smallest 
blood-vessels of the subcutaneous       
cellular tissue4 ,i collected some of   
the blood which flowed out or was forced
 out by pressure1 in the capillary tubes
 just described1 containing a solution  

of potassa2 after which ,i melted the   
ends with the flame of a candle4 ,with  
all the intermittent fever patients     
whose blood ,i have collected and       
diluted during the febrile stage1       
properly speaking1 ,i have constantly   
succeeded in finding the ,limnophysalis 
hyalina in the blood by microscopic     
examination4  ,it is only necessary for 
me to mention here that it is of the    
highest importance to be able to        
demonstrate the presence of fungus in   
the blood of the circulation and in the 
urine of patients in whom the diagnosis 
is doubtful4 ,the presence of the       
,limnophysalis hyalina in the urine     
indicates that the patient is liable to 
a relapse1 and that his intermittent    
fever is not cured1 which is important  
in a prognostic and therapeutic point of
 view4  ,when the question is to prevent
 the propagation of intermittent fevers1
 it is evident that it should be        
remembered that the ,limnophysalis      
hyalina enters into the blood by the    

mucous membrane of the organs of        
respiration1 of digestion1 and the      
surface of the pulmonary vesicles4 ,we  
have also to consider the soil1 and the 
water that is used for drinking4  ,in   
regard to the soil1 several             
circumstances are very worthy of        
attention4 ,it is desirable1 not only to
 lower as much as possible the level of 
the subterranean water 7grunawassen7 by 
pipes of deep drainage1 the cleansing1  
and if there is reason1 the enlargement 
7,j4 ,ory7 of the capacity of the water 
collectors1 besides covering and keeping
 in perfect repair the principal ditches
 in all the secondary valleys to render 
the lands wholesome1 but also to        
completely drain the ground1 diverting  
the rain water and cultivating the land1
 in the cultivation of which those      
trees1 shrubs1 and plants should be     
selected which thrive the most on marshy
 grounds and on the shores and paludal  
coasts of the sea1 and which have their 
roots most speading and most ramified4  

,some of the ordinary grasses are also  
quite appropriate1 but crops of the     
cereals1 which are obtained after a     
suitable reformation of marshy lands1   
yield a much better return4 ,after the  
soil in the neighborhood of the         
dwellings has been drained and          
cultivated with care1 and in a more     
systematic manner than at present1 the  
bottoms of the cellars should be        
purified as well as the foundations of  
the walls and of the houses4  ,the water
 intended for drinking1 which contains  
the ,limnophysalis hyalina1 should be   
freed from the fungus by a vigorous     
filtration4 ,but1 as it is known1 the   
filtering beds of the basins in the     
water conduits are soon covered with a  
thick coating of conferv1 and the       
,limnophysalis hyalina then extends from
 the deepest portions of the filtering  
beds into the filtered water subjacent4 
,it is for this reason that it is       
absolutely necessary to renew so often  
the filtering beds of the water         

conduits1 and1 at all events1 before    
they have become coated with a thick    
layer of conferv4 ,the disappearance of 
intermittent fevers will testify to the 
utility of these measures4 ,it is for a 
similar reason that wooden barrels are  
so injurious for equipages4 ,when the   
wood has begun to decay by the contact  
of the impure water1 the filaments of   
mycelium of the ,limnophysalis hyalina  
penetrate into the decayed wood1 which  
becomes a fertile soil for the          
intermittent fever fungi4  ,the         
employment for the preparation of mortar
 of water not filtered1 or of foul1     
muddy sand which contains the           
,limnophysalis hyalina1 explains how    
intermittent fevers may proceed from the
 walls of houses4 ,this arises also from
 the pasting of wall-paper with flour   
paste prepared with water which contains
 an abundance of the fungi of           
intermittent fever4  ,the miasm in the  
latter case is therefore endoecic1 or   
more exactly entoichic4 ,with us the    

propagation of intermittent fever has   
been observed in persons occupying rooms
 scoured with unfiltered water          
containing the ,limnophysalis hyalina in
 great quantity4  ,the following        
imperial ordinance was published on the 
#beth of ,march1 #ahgg1 by the chief of 
admiralty of the ,german marine4 ,it has
 for its object the prevention and      
eradication of infectious diseases3  ,in
 those places where infectious diseases1
 according to experience1 are prevalent 
and unusually severe and frequent1 it is
 necessary to abstain as much as        
possible from the employment of water   
taken from without the ship for         
cleansing said vessel1 and also for     
washing out the hold when the water of  
the sea or of a river1 in the judgment  
of the commander of a vessel1 confirmed 
by the statement of the physician1 is   
shown to be surcharged with organic     
matter liable to putrefaction4 ,with    
this end in view1 if you are unable to  
send elsewhere for suitable water1 you  

must make use of good and fresh water1  
but with the greatest economy4 ,in that 
event the purification of the hold must 
be accomplished by mechanical means or  
by disinfectants4  ,as ,i have          
demonstrated by my investigations that  
in the distillation of paludal water1   
and that from the marshy shores of the  
sea1 the ,limnophysalis hyalina1 which  
is impalpable1 is carried away and may  
be detected again after the             
distillation1 it must be insisted that  
the water intended to be used for       
drinking on shipboard shall be carefully
 filtered before and after its          
distillation4  ,the ,klebs-,tommasi and 
,dr4 ,sternberg's report1 as summarized 
in the ,supplement ,no4 #ad1 ,national  
,board of ,health ,bulletin1            
,washington1 ,d4,c41 ,july #ah1 ,i would
 cordially recommend to all students of 
this subject4  ,i welcome these         
observers into the field4 ,nothing but  
good can come from such careful and     
accurate observations into the cause of 

disease4 ,for myself ,i am ready to say 
that it may be that the ,roman gentlemen
 have bit on the cause of the ,roman    
fever1 which is of such a pernicious    
type4 ,i do not see how ,i can judge1 as
 ,i never investigated the ,roman fever2
 still1 while giving them all due       
credit1 and treating them with respect1 
in order to put myself right ,i may say 
that ,i have long ago ceased to regard  
all the bacilli1 micrococci1 and        
bacteria1 etc41 as ultimate forms of    
animal or vegetable life4 ,i look upon  
them as simply the embryos of mature    
forms1 which are capable of propagating 
themselves in this embryonal state4 ,i  
have observed these forms in many       
diseased conditions2 many of them in one
 disease are nothing but the vinegar    
yeast developing1 away from the air1 in 
the blood where the full development of 
the plant is not apt to be found4 ,in   
diphtheria ,i developed the bacteria to 
the full form--the ,mucor malignans4 ,so
 in the study of ague1 for the          

vegetation which seems to me to be      
connected with ague1 ,i look to the     
fully developed sporangias as the true  
plant4  ,again1 ,i think that crucial   
experiments should be made on man for   
his diseases as far as it is possible4  
,rabbits1 on which the experiments were 
made1 for example1 are of a different   
organization and food than man1 and bear
 tests differently4 ,while there are so 
many human beings subject to ague1 it   
seems to me they should be the subjects 
on whom the crucial tests are to be     
made1 as ,i did in my labors4  ,as far  
as ,i can see1 ,dr4 ,sternberg's        
inquiries tend to disprove the ,roman   
experiments1 and as he does not offer   
anything positive as a cause of ague1 ,i
 can only express the hope that he will 
continue his investigations with zeal   
and earnestness1 and that he will       
produce something positive and tangible 
in his labors in so interesting and     
important a field4  ,i would then that  
all would join hands in settling the    

cause of this disease2 and while ,i do  
not expect that all will agree with me1 
still1 ,i shall respect others'         
opinions1 and so long as ,i keep close  
to my facts ,i shall hope my views1     
based on my facts1 will not be treated  
with disrespect4   ,,appendix4          
,gemiasma verdans and ,gemiasma rubra   
collected ,sept4 #aj1 #ahhb1 on         
,washington ,heights1 near ,high        
,bridge4 ,the illustrations show the    
manner in which the mature plants       
discharge their contents4  ,plate       
,,viii4 ,a1 ,b1 and ,c represent very   
large plants of the ,gemiasma verdans4  
,a represents a mature plant4 ,b        
represents the same plant1 discharging  
its spores and spermatia through a small
 opening in the cell walls4 ,the        
discharge is quite rapid but not        
continuous1 being spasmodic1 as if      
caused by intermittent contractions in  
the cell walls4 ,the discharge begins   
suddenly and with considerable force--a 
sort of explosion which projects a      

portion of the contents rapidly and to  
quite a little distance4 ,this goes on  
for a few seconds1 and then the cell is 
at rest for a few seconds1 when the     
contractions and explosions begin again 
and go on as before4 ,under ordinary    
conditions it takes a plant from half an
 hour to an hour to deliver itself4 ,it 
is about two-thirds emptied4 ,c         
represents the mature plant1 entirely   
emptied of its spore contents1 there    
remaining inside only a few actively    
moving spermatia1 which are slowly      
escaping4 ,the spermatia differ from the
 spores and young plants in being       
smaller1 and of possessing the power of 
moving and tumbling about rapidly1 while
 the spores of young plants are larger  
and quiescent4 ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 and ,g       
represent mature plants belonging to the
 ,gemiasma rubra4 ,d represents a ripe  
plant1 filled with spores1 embryonic    
plants1 and spermatia4 ,e represents a  
ripe plant in the act of discharging its
 contents1 it being about half emptied4 

,f represents a ripe plant after its    
spore and embryonic plant contents are  
all discharged1 leaving behind only a   
few actively moving spermatia1 which are
 slowly escaping4 ,g represents the     
emptied plant in a quiescent state4     
,figs4 ,a1 ,b1 ,c represent an unusually
 large variety of the ,gemiasma verdans4
 ,this species is usually about the size
 of the rubra4 ,this large variety was  
found on the upper part of ,new ,york   
,island1 near ,high ,bridge1 in a       
natural depression where the water      
stands most of the year1 except in      
,july1 ,august1 and ,september1 when it 
becomes an area of drying1 cracked mud  
two hundred feet across4 ,as the mud    
dries these plants develop in great     
profusion1 giving an appearance to the  
surface as if covered thickly with brick
 dust4  ,these depressions and swaily   
places1 holding water part of the year1 
and becoming dry during the malarial    
season1 can be easily dried by means of 
covered drains1 and grassed or sodded   

over1 when they will cease to grow2 this
 vegetation and ague in such localities 
will disappear4  ,the malarial          
vegetations begin to develop moderately 
in ,july1 but do not spring forth       
abundantly enough to do much damage till
 about the middle of ,august1 when they 
in ague localities spring into existence
 in vast multitudes1 and continue to    
develop in great profusion till frost   
comes4         99       99       99     
99       99     ,,analysis ,,of ,,the   
,,malaria ,,plant 7,,gemiasma ,,rubra74 
,by ,prof ,paulus ,f4 ,reinsch4         
,author ,alg of ,france1 #ahff2 ,latest 
,observations on ,algology1 #ahfg2      
,chemical ,investigation of the         
,connections of the ,lias and ,jura     
,formations1 #ahei2 ,chemical           
,investigation of the ,viscum ,album1   
#ahfj2 ,contributions to ,algology and  
,fungology1 #ahgd-ge1 vol4 i42 ,new     
,investigation of the ,microscopic      
,structure of ,pit ,coal1 #ahha2        
,micrographic ,photographs of the       

,structure and ,composition of ,pit     
,coal1 #ahhh4  ,dr4 ,cutter writes me   
,september #bh1 #ahhb3 ,my dear         
,professor3 ,by this mail ,i send you a 
specimen of the ,gemiasma rubra of      
,salisbury1 described in #ahfb1 as found
 in bogs1 mud holes1 and marshes of ague
 districts1 in the air suspended at     
night1 in the sputa1 blood1 and urine1  
and on the skin of persons suffering    
with ague4 ,it is regarded as one of the
 ,palmellace4 ,this rubra is found in   
the more malignant and fatal types of   
the disease4 ,i have found it in all the
 habitats described by ,dr4 ,salisbury4 
,both he and myself would like you to   
examine and hear what you have to say   
about it4  ,the substance of clayish    
soil contains1 besides fragments of     
shells of larger diatoms 7,suriella     
synhedra71 shells of ,navicula          
minutissima1 ,pinnularia viridis4       
,spores belonging to various cryptogams4
  #a4 ,spherical transparent spores with
 laminated covering and dark            

nucleus--#j4jbb millimeter in diameter4 
#b4 ,spherical spores with thick        
covering of granulated surface4  #c4    
,spherical spores with punctulated      
surface--#j4jjg millimeter in diameter4 
#d4 ,very minute1 transparent1          
bluish-greenish colored spores1 with    
thin covering and finely granulated     
contents--#j4jjf millimeter in diameter4
  #e4 ,chroococcoid cells with two      
larger nuclei--#j4jjca millimeter in    
diameter4 ,sometimes biciliated minute  
cells are found2 without any doubt they 
are zoospores derived from any algoid or
 fungoid species4  ,i cannot say whether
 there exists any genetic connection    
between these various sorts of spores4  
,it seems to me that probably numbers   
#a-d represent resting states of the    
hyphomycetes4  ,no4 #e represents one   
and two celled states of chroococcus    
species belong to ,chroococcus minutus4 
,the crust of the clayish earth is      
covered with a reddish brown covering of
 about half a millimeter in thickness4  

,this covering proves to be composed1   
under the microscope1 of cellular       
filaments and various shaped bodies of  
various composition4 ,they are made up  
of cells with densely and coarsely      
granulated reddish colored              
contents--shape1 size1 and composition  
are very variable1 as shown in the      
figures4 ,the cellular bodies make up   
the essential organic part of the       
clayish substance1 and1 without any     
doubt1 if anything of the organic       
compounds of the substance is in        
genetical connection with the disease1  
these bodies would have this role4 ,the 
structure and coloration of cell        
contents exhibit the closest alliance to
 the characteristics of the division of 
,chroolepide and of this small division 
of ,chlorophyllaceous ,alg1 nearest to  
,gongrosira--a genus whose five to six  
species are inhabitants of fresh water1 
mostly attached to various minute       
aquatic ,alg and mosses4 ,each cell of  
all the plants of this genus produces a 

large number of mobile cells--zoospores4
  ,fig4 #i represents very probably one 
zoospore developed from these plants as 
figured from #aj to #af4         99     
99       99       99       99           
,,carbon4   ,m4 ,berthelot1 in the      
,journal de ,pharmacie et de ,chimie for
 ,march1 states that from peculiar      
physical relations he is led to suspect 
that the true element carbon is unknown1
 and that diamond and graphite are      
substances of a different order4        
,elementary carbon ought to be gaseous  
at the ordinary temperature1 and the    
various kinds of carbon which occur in  
nature are in reality polymerized       
products of the true element carbon4    
,spectrum analysis is thought to confirm
 this view2 and it is supposed the      
second spectrum seen in a ,geissler tube
 belongs to gaseous carbon4 ,this       
spectrum1 which has been recognized     
along with that of hydrogen in the light
 of the tails of comets1 indicates a    
carbide1 probably acetylene4         99 

99       99       99       99           
,,canned ,,meats4  ,by ,p4 ,,carles4    
,when tinned iron serves for containing 
alimentary matters1 it is essential that
 the tin employed should be free from   
lead4 ,the latter metal is rapidly      
oxidized on the surface and is dissolved
 in this form in the neutral acids of   
vegetables1 meat1 etc4 ,the most exact  
method of demonstrating the presence of 
lead consists in treating the           
alloy--so-called tin--with aqua regia   
containing relatively little nitric     
acid4 ,the whole dissolves2 the excess  
of acid is driven off by evaporation at 
a boiling heat1 and the residue1 diluted
 with water1 is saturated with hydrogen 
sulphide4 ,the iron remains in solution1
 while the mixed lead and tin sulphides 
precipitated are allowed to digest for a
 long time in an alkaline sulphide4 ,the
 tin sulphide only dissolves2 it is     
filtered off and converted into stannic 
acid1 while the lead sulphide is        
transformed into sulphate and weighed as

 such4         99       99       99     
99       99     ,,new ,,bleaching       
,,process1 ,,with ,,regeneration ,,of   
,,the ,,baths ,,used4  ,by ,,mr4        
,,bonneville4   ,to a cold solution     
containing #a per cent4 of bromine1 #a  
per cent4 of caustic soda at #cf ,b4 is 
added1 then the material1 to be bleached
 is first wet and then immersed in this 
bath until completely decolorized4 ,it  
is passed into a newly-acidulated bath1 
rinsed1 and dried4 ,after the bromine   
bath has been used up1 it is regenerated
 by adding #a per cent4 of sulphuric    
acid1 which liberates the bromine4 ,to  
the same bath caustic soda is added1    
which regenerates the hypobromite of    
soda4 ,the hydrofluosilicic acid can be 
used1 instead of the sulphuric acid1    
with greater advantage4 ,a bath used up 
can also be regenerated by means of the 
electric current4         99       99   
99       99       99     ,,detection    
,,of ,,magenta1 ,,archil1 ,,and         
,,cudbear ,,in ,,wine4   ,these colors  

are not suitable for converting white   
wine into red1 but they can be used for 
giving wines a faint red tint1 for      
darkening pale red wines1 and in making 
up a factitious bouquet essence1 which  
is added to red wines4 ,the most        
suitable methods for the detection of   
magenta are those given by ,romei and   
,falieres-,ritter4 ,if a wine colored   
with archil and one colored with cudbear
 are treated treated according to       
,romei's method1 the former gives1 with 
basic lead acetate1 a blue1 and the     
latter a fine violet precipitate4 ,the  
filtrate1 if shaken up with amylic      
alcohol1 gives it in either case a red  
color4 ,a knowledge of this fact is     
important1 or it may be mistaken for    
magenta4 ,the behavior of the amylic    
alcohol1 thus colored red1 with         
hydrochloric acid and ammonia is        
characteristic4 ,if the red color is due
 to magenta1 it is destroyed by both    
these reagents1 while hydrocholoric acid
 does not decolorize the solutions of   

archil and cudbear1 and ammonia turns   
their red color to a purple violet4 ,if 
the wine is examined according to the   
,falieres-,ritter method in presence of 
magenta1 ether1 when shaken up with the 
wine1 previously rendered ammoniacal1   
remains colorless1 while if archil or   
cudbear is present the ether is colored 
red4 ,wartha has made a convenient      
modification in the ,falieres-,ritter   
method by adding ammonia and ether to   
the concentrated wine while still warm4 
,if the red color of the wool is due to 
archil or cudbear1 it is extracted by   
hydrochloric acid1 which is colored red4
 ,ammonia turns the color to a purple   
violet4 ,knig mixed #ej c4c4 wine with  
ammonia in slight excess1 and places in 
the mixture about one-half grm4 clean   
white woolen yarn4 ,the whole is then   
boiled in a flask until all the alcohol 
and the excess of ammonia are driven    
off4 ,the wool taken out of the liquid  
and purified by washing in water and    
wringing is moistened in a test-tube    

with pure potassa lye at #aj per cent4  
,it is carefully heated till the wool is
 completely dissolved1 and the solution1
 when cold1 is mixed first with half its
 volume of pure alcohol1 upon which is  
carefully poured the same volume of     
ether1 and the whole is shaken4 ,the    
stratum of ether decanted off is mixed  
in a test-tube with a drop of acetic    
acid4 ,a red color appears if the       
slightest trace of magenta is present4  
,the shaking must not be too violent1   
lest an emulsion should be formed4 ,if  
the wine is colored with archil1 on     
prolonged heating1 after the addition of
 ammonia1 it is decolorized4 ,if it is  
then let cool and shaken a little1 the  
red color returns4 ,if the wool is taken
 out of the hot liquid after the red    
color has disappeared1 and exposed to   
the air1 it takes a red color4 ,but if  
it is quickly taken out of the liquid   
and at once washed1 there remains merely
 a trace of color in the wool4 ,if these
 precautions are observed1 magenta can  

be distinguished from archil with       
certainty according to ,knig's method4  
,as the coloring-matter of archil is not
 precipitated by baryta and magnesia1   
but changed to a purple1 the baryta     
method1 recommended by ,pasteur1        
,balard1 and ,wurtz1 and the magnesia   
test1 are useless4 ,magenta may in      
course of time be removed by the        
precipitates formed in the wine4 ,it is 
therefore necessary to test not merely  
the clear liquid1 but the sediment1 if  
any4--,dr4 ,b4 ,haas1 in ,budermann's   
,centralblatt4--,analyst4         99    
99       99       99       99           
,,panax ,,victori4   ,panax ,victori is 
a compact and charming plant1 which     
sends up numbers of stems from the      
bottom in place of continually growing  
upward and thus becoming ungainly2 it   
bears a profusion of elegantly curled1  
tasseled1 and variegated foliage1 very  
catching to the eye1 and unlike any of  
its predecessors4 ,the other1 ,p4       
dumosum1 is of similar habit1 the       

foliage being crested and fringed after 
the manner of some of our rare crested  
ferns4--,the ,gardeners' ,chronicle4    
,illustration3 ,,panax ,,victori4       
99       99       99       99       99  
,a ,,note ,,on ,,sap4  ,footnote3 ,read 
at an evening meeting of the            
,pharmaceutical ,society1 ,london1      
,april #d1 #ahhc4  ,by ,professor       
,,attfield1 ,f4,r4,s4   ,beneath a white
 birch tree growing in my garden ,i     
noticed1 yesterday evening1 a very wet  
place on the gravel path1 the water of  
which was obviously being fed by the cut
 extremity of a branch of the birch     
about an inch in diameter and some ten  
feet from the ground4 ,i afterward found
 that exactly fifteen days ago          
circumstances rendered necessary the    
removal of the portion of the branch    
which hung over the path1 #d or #e feet 
being still left on the tree4 ,the water
 or sap was dropping fast from the      
branch1 at the rate of sixteen large    
drops per minute1 each drop twice or    

thrice the size of a minim1 and neither 
catkins nor leaves had yet expanded4 ,i 
decided that some interest would attach 
to a determination both of the rate of  
flow of the fluid and of its chemical   
composition1 especially at such a stage 
of the tree's life4  ,a bottle was at   
once so suspended beneath the wound as  
to catch the whole of the exuding sap4  
,it caught nearly #e fluid ounces       
between eight and nine o'clock4 ,during 
the succeeding eleven hours of the night
 #dd fluid ounces were collected1 an    
average of #d ounces per hour4 ,from    
#h3ae to #i3ae this morning1 very nearly
 #g ounces were obtained4 ,from #i3ae to
 #aj3ae1 with bright sunshine1 #h       
ounces4 ,from #aj3ae until #h3ae this   
evening the hourly record kept by my son
 ,harvey shows that the amount during   
that time has slowly diminished from #h 
to a little below #g ounces per hour4   
,apparently the flow is faster in       
sunshine than in shade1 and by day than 
by night4  ,it would seem1 therefore1   

that this slender tree1 with a stem     
which at the ground is only #g inches in
 diameter1 having a height of #ci feet1 
and before it has any expanded leaves   
from whose united surfaces large amounts
 of water might evaporate1 is able to   
draw from the ground about #d liters1 or
 seven-eighths of a gallon of fluid     
every twenty-four hours4 ,that at all   
events was the amount flowing from this 
open tap in its water system4 ,even the 
topmost branches of the tree had not    
become1 during the fifteen days1        
abnormally flaccid1 so that1 apparently1
 no drainage of fluid from the upper    
portion of the tree had been taking     
place4 ,for a fortnight the tree        
apparently had been drawing1 pumping1   
sucking--,i know not what word to       
use--nearly a gallon of fluid daily from
 the soil in the neigborhood of its     
roots4 ,this soil had only an ordinary  
degree of dampness4 ,it was not wet1    
still less was there any actually fluid 
water to be seen4 ,indeed1 usually all  

the adjacent soil is of a dry kind1 for 
we are on the plateau of a hill #bfe    
feet above the sea1 and the level of the
 local water reservoir into which our   
wells dip is about #hj feet below the   
surface4 ,my gardener tells me that the 
tree has been bleeding at about the same
 rate for fourteen of the fifteen days1 
the first day the branch becoming only  
somewhat damp4 ,during the earlier part 
of that time we had frosts at night1 and
 sunshine1 but with extremely cold      
winds1 during the days4 ,at one time the
 exuding sap gave1 ,i am told by two    
different observers1 icicles a foot     
long4 ,a much warmer1 almost summer1    
temperature has prevailed during the    
past three days1 and no wind4 ,this     
morning the temperature of the sap as it
 escaped was constant at #eb ,f41 while 
that of the surrounding air was varying 
considerably4  ,the collected sap was a 
clear1 bright1 water-like fluid4 ,after 
a pint had stood aside for twelve hours1
 there was the merest trace of a        

sediment at the bottom of the vessel4   
,the microscope showed this to consist  
of parenchymatous cells1 with here and  
there a group of the wheel-like or      
radiating cells which botanists1 ,i     
think1 term sphere-crystals4 ,the sap   
was slightly heavier than water1 in the 
proportion of #a1jje to #a1jjj4 ,it had 
a faintly sweet taste and a very slight 
aromatic odor4  ,chemical analysis      
showed that this sap consisted of #ii   
parts of pure water with #a part of     
dissolved solid matter4 ,eleven-twelfths
 of the latter were sugar4  ,that the   
birch readily yields its sap when the   
wood is wounded is well known4          
,philipps1 quoted by ,sowerby1 says3    
,even afflictive birch1   ,cursed by    
unlettered youth1 distills1   ,a limpid 
current from her wounded bark1          
,profuse of nursing sap4  ,and that     
birch sap contains sugar is known1 the  
peasants of many countries1 especially  
,russia1 being well acquainted with the 
art of making birch wine by fermenting  

its saccharine juice4  ,but ,i find no  
hourly or daily record of the amount of 
sugar-bearing sap which can be drawn    
from the birch1 or from any tree1 before
 it has acquired its great digesting or 
rather developing and transpiring       
apparatus--its leaf system4 ,and ,i do  
not know of any extended chemical       
analysis of sap either of the birch1 or 
other tree4  ,besides sugar1 which is   
present in this sap to the extent of    
#faf grains--nearly an ounce and a      
half--per gallon1 there are present a   
mere trace of mucilage2 no starch2 no   
tannin2 #c grains per gallon of         
ammoniacal salts yielding #aj per cent4 
of nitrogen2 #c grains of albuminoid    
matter yielding #aj per cent4 of        
nitrogen2 a distinct trace of nitrites2 
#g4d grains of nitrates containing #ag  
per cent4 of nitrogen2 no chlorides1 or 
the merest trace2 no sulphates2 no      
sodium salts2 a little of potassium     
salts2 much phosphate and organic salts 
of calcium2 and some similar magnesian  

compounds4 ,these calcareous and        
magnesian substances yield an ash when  
the sap is evaporated to dryness and the
 sugar and other organic matter burnt   
away1 the amount of this residual matter
 being exactly #ej grains per gallon4   
,the sap contained no peroxide of       
hydrogen4 ,it was faintly if at all     
acid4 ,it held in solution a ferment    
capable of converting starch into sugar4
 ,exposed to the air it soon swarmed    
with bacteria1 its sugar being changed  
to alcohol4  ,a teaspoonful or two of1  
say1 apple juice1 and a tablespoonful of
 sugar put into a gallon of such rather 
hard well-water as we have in our chalky
 district1 would very fairly represent  
this specimen of the sap of the silver  
birch4 ,indeed1 in the phraseology of a 
water-analyst1 ,i may say that the sap  
itself has #be degrees of total1        
permanent hardness4  ,how long the tree 
would continue to yield such a flow of  
sap ,i cannot say2 probably until the   
store of sugar it manufactured last     

summer to feed its young buds this      
spring was exhausted4 ,even within      
twenty-four hours the sugar has slightly
 diminished in proportion in the fluid4 
,whether or not this little note throws 
a single ray of light on the much       
debated question of the cause of the    
rise of sap in plants ,i must leave to  
botanists to decide4 ,i cannot hope that
 it does1 for ,julius ,sachs1 than whom 
no one appears to have more carefully   
considered the subject1 says1 at page   
#fgg of the recently published ,english 
translation of his textbook of botany1  
that although the movements of water in 
plants have been copiously investigated 
and discussed for nearly two hundred    
years1 it is nevertheless still         
impossible to give a satisfactory and   
deductive account of the mode of        
operation of these movements in detail4 
,as a chemist and physicist myself1     
knowing something about capillary       
attraction1 exosmose1 endosmose1        
atmospheric pressure1 and gravitation   

generally1 and the movements caused by  
chemical attraction1 ,i am afraid ,i    
must concur in the opinion that we do   
not yet know the real ultimate cause or 
causes of the rise of sap in plants4    
,ashlands1 ,watford1 ,herts4         99 
99       99       99       99     ,,the 
,,crow4  ,footnote3 ,abstract of a      
recent discussion before the            
,connecticut ,state ,board of           
,agriculture4   ,prof4 ,w4 ,a4 ,stearns1
 in a lecture upon the utility of birds 
in agriculture1 stated that the few     
facts we do know regarding the matter   
have been obtained more through the     
direct experience of those who have     
stumbled on the facts they relate than  
those who have made any special study of
 the matter4 ,one great difficulty has  
been that people looked too far and     
studied too deeply for facts which were 
right before them4 ,for instance1 people
 are well acquainted with the fact that 
hawks1 becoming bold1 pounce down upon  
and carry off chickens from the         

hen-yards and eat them4 ,how many are   
acquainted with the fact that in hard   
winters1 when pressed for food1 crows do
 this likewise8 ,but what does this     
signify8 ,simply that the crow regulates
 its food from necessity1 not from      
choice4  ,now1 carry this fact into     
operation in the spring into the        
cornfield4 ,do you suppose that the     
crow1 being hungry1 and dropping into a 
field of corn wherein is abundance to   
satisfy his desires1 stops1 as many     
affirm1 to pick out only those kernels  
which are affected with mildew1 larva1  
or weevil8 ,does he instinctively know  
what corns1 when three or four inches   
beneath the ground1 are thus affected8  
,not a bit of it4 ,to him1 a strictly   
grain-feeding and not an insect-eating  
bird1 the necessity takes the place of  
the choice4 ,he is hungry2 the means of 
satisfying his hunger are at hand4 ,he  
naturally drops down in the first       
cornfield he sees1 calls all his        
neighbors to the feast1 and then roots  

up and swallows all the kernels until he
 can hold no more4 ,there is no doubt   
the crow is a damage to the             
agriculturist4 ,he preys upon the       
cornfield and eats the corn             
indiscriminately1 whether there are any 
insects or not4 ,that has been proved by
 dissection of stomach and crop4  ,if   
corn can be protected by tarring1 so    
that the crows will not eat it1 they    
will prove a benefit by leaving the corn
 and picking up grubs in the field4     
,where corn has been tarred1 ,i have    
never known the crows to touch it4  ,mr4
 ,sedgwick remarked that1 in addition to
 destroying the corn crop1 the crow was 
also very destructive of the eggs of    
other birds4 ,last spring ,i watched a  
pair of crows flying through an orchard1
 and in several instances saw them fly  
into birds' nests1 take out the eggs1   
and then go on around the field4  ,in   
answer to ,mr4 ,hubbard1 who claimed the
 crow would eat animal food in any form1
 and might not be rightly classified as 

a grain-eating bird1 ,prof4 ,stearns    
said the crow was thus classified by    
reason of the structure of its crop     
being similar to that of the finches1   
the blackbird1 the sparrows1 and other  
seed-eating birds4  ,illustration3 ,,the
 ,,american ,,crow4  ,mr4 ,wetherell    
said3 ,crows are greedy devourers of the
 white worm1 which sometimes destroys   
acres of grass4 ,as a grub eater1 the   
crow deserves much praise4 ,the crow is 
the scavenger of the bird family1 eating
 anything and everything1 whether it is 
sweet or carrion4 ,the only quarrel ,i  
have with the crow is because it        
destroys the eggs and young birds4  ,mr4
 ,lockwood described the experience of a
 neighbor who planted corn after tarring
 it4 ,this seemed to prevent the ravages
 of the crows until the second hoeing1  
when the corn was up some eighteen      
inches1 at which time the crows came in 
and pulled nearly an acre clean4        
,crows1 said ,dr4 ,riggs1 have no crop1 
like a great many carnivorous birds4    

,the passage leading from the mouth goes
 directly to the gizzard1 something like
 the duck4 ,the duck has no crop1 yet   
the passage leading from the mouth to   
the gizzard in the duck becomes         
considerably enlarged4 ,in the crow     
there is no enlargement of this passage1
 and everything passes directly into the
 gizzard1 where it is digested4  ,dr4   
,riggs had raised corn and watched the  
operations of the crows4 ,going upon the
 field in less than a minute after the  
crows had left it1 he found they had    
pulled the corn1 hill after hill1       
marching from one hill to the other4    
,not until the corn had become softened 
and had come up would they molest it4   
,in the fall they would come in droves  
on to a field of corn1 where it is in   
stacks1 pick out the corn from the      
husks1 and put it into their gizzards4  
,they raid robbins' nests and swallows' 
nests1 devouring eggs and young birds4  
,yet crows are great scavengers4 ,in the
 spring they get a great many insects   

and moths from the ground1 and do good  
work in picking up those large white    
grubs with red heads that work such     
destruction in some of our mowing       
fields4  ,mr4 ,pratt stated that he had 
used coal tar on his seed corn for five 
or six years1 and had never a spear     
pulled by the crows4 ,dr4 ,riggs never  
had known a crow to touch corn after it 
got to the second tier of leaves4 ,mr4  
,lockwood said crows would sample a     
whole field of corn to find corn not    
tarred4 ,mr4 ,pratt recommended to pour 
boiling water on the corn before        
applying the tar4 ,a large tablespoonful
 of tar will color a pail of water4     
,according to ,dr4 ,riggs1 the hot      
mixture with the corn must be stirred   
continually2 if not1 the life of the    
corn will be killed and germination     
prevented4 ,it may be poured on very    
hot1 if the stirring is kept up and too 
much tar is not used4 ,if the water is  
hot it will dissolve the tar1 and as it 
is poured on it will coat every kernel  

of corn4 ,if the water is allowed to    
stand upon the corn any great length of 
time1 the chit of the corn will be      
damaged4 ,the liquid should be poured   
off and the corn allowed to cool        
immediately after a good stirring4  ,mr4
 ,gold had known of crows pulling corn  
after the second hoeing1 when the       
scare-crows had been removed from the   
field4 ,the corn thus pulled had reached
 pretty good size4 ,this pulling must   
have been done from sheer malice on the 
part of the crows4  ,mr4 ,ayer was      
inclined to befriend the crow4 ,for five
 years he had planted from eight to     
twelve acres of corn each year and had  
not lost twenty hills by crows4 ,he does
 not use tar1 but does not allow himself
 to go out of a newly-planted cornfield 
without first stretching a string around
 it on high poles and also providing a  
wind-mill with a little rattle box on it
 to make a noise4 ,with him this        
practice keeps the crows away4  ,mr4    
,goodwin thought crows were scavengers  

of the forests and did good service in  
destroying the worms1 grubs1 and insects
 that preyed upon our trees4 ,he had    
raised some forty crops of corn1 and    
whenever he had thoroughly twined it at 
the time of planting1 crows did not pull
 it up4 ,in damp spots1 during the wet  
time and after his twine was down1 he   
had known crows to pull up corn that was
 seven or eight inches high4            
,respecting crows as insect eaters1     
,prof4 ,stearns admitted that they did  
devour insects2 he had seen them eat    
insects on pear trees4 ,tame crows at   
his home had been watched while eating  
insects1 yet a crow will eat corn a     
great deal quicker than he will eat     
insects4--,boston ,cultivator4          
99       99       99       99       99  
,,the ,,praying ,,mantis ,,and ,,its    
,,allies4   ,on examining the strange   
forms shown in the accompanying         
engraving1 many persons would suppose   
they were looking at exotic insects4    
,although this is true for many species 

of this group1 which are indigenous to  
warm countries1 and reach at the most   
only the southern temperate zone1 yet   
there are certain of these insects that 
are beginning to be found in ,france1 to
 the south of the ,loire1 and that are  
always too rare1 since1 being           
exclusively feeders on living prey1 they
 prove useful aids to us4  ,these       
insects belong among the orthoptera--an 
order including species whose           
transformations are less complete than  
in other groups1 and whose larval and   
pupal forms are very active1 and closely
 resemble the imago4 ,two pairs of large
 wings characterize the adult state1 the
 first pair of which are somewhat       
thickened to protect the broad1         
net-veined hinder pair1 which fold up   
like a fan upon the abdomen4 ,the hind  
legs are large and adapted for leaping4 
,the raptorial group called ,mantid1    
which forms the subject of this article1
 includes species that maybe easily     
recognized by their large size1 their   

enormous1 spinous fore legs1 which are  
adapted for seizing other insects1 and  
from their devotional attitude when     
watching their prey4  ,these insects    
exhibit in general the phenomenon of    
mimicry1 or adaptation for protection1  
through their color and form1 some being
 green1 like the plants upon which they 
live1 others yellowish or grayish1 and  
others brownish like dead leaves4  ,in  
the best known species1 ,mantis         
religiosa1 the head is triangular1 the  
eyes large1 the prothorax very long1 and
 the body narrowed and lengthened2 the  
anterior feet are armed with hooks and  
spines1 and the shanks are capable of   
being doubled up on the under side of   
the thighs4 ,when at rest it sits upon  
the four posterior legs1 with the head  
and prothorax nearly erect1 and the     
anterior feet folded backward4 ,the     
female insect attains a length of #ed   
millimeters1 and the male only #dj4     
,the color is of a handsome green1      
sometimes yellow1 or of a yellowish red4

 ,the insects are slow in their motions1
 waiting on the branches of trees and   
shrubs for some other insect to pass    
within their reach1 when they seize and 
hold it with the anterior feet1 and tear
 it to pieces4 ,they are very voracious1
 and sometimes prey upon each other4    
,their eggs are deposited in two long   
rows1 protected by a parchment-like     
envelope1 and attached to the stalk of a
 plant4 ,the nymph is as voracious as   
the perfect insect1 from which it       
differs principally in the less         
developed wings4  ,the devotional       
attitude of these insects when watching 
for their prey--their fore legs being   
elevated and joined in a supplicating   
manner--has given them in ,english the  
popular names of soothsayer1 prophet1   
and praying mantis1 in ,french1         
prie-,dieu1 in ,portuguese1 louva-,deos1
 etc4 ,according to ,sparmann1 the      
,nubians and ,hottentots regard mantides
 as tutelary divinities1 and worship    
them as such4 ,a monkish legend tells us

 that ,saint ,francis ,xavier1 having   
perceived a mantis holding its legs     
toward heaven1 ordered it to sing the   
praises of ,god1 when immediately the   
insect struck up one of the most        
exemplary of canticles6 ,pison1 in his  
,natural ,history of the ,east ,indies1 
makes use of the word ,vates 7divine7 to
 designate these insects1 and speaks of 
that superstition1 common to both       
,christians and heathens1 that assigns  
to them the gifts of prophecy and       
divination4 ,the habit that the mantis  
has of first stretching out one fore    
leg1 and then the other1 and of         
preserving such a position for some     
little time1 has also led to the belief 
among the illiterate that it is in the  
act1 in such cases1 of pointing out the 
road to the passer by4  ,illustration3  
,,mantides ,,and ,,empus  ,the old      
naturalist1 ,moufet1 in his ,theatrum   
,insectorum 7,london1 #afcd71 says of   
the praying mantis 7,m4 religiosa7 that 
it is reported so divine that if a child

 asks his way of it1 it will show him   
the right road by stretching out its    
leg1 and that it will rarely or never   
deceive him4  ,this group of insects is 
most abundant in the tropical regions of
 ,africa1 ,south ,america1 and ,india1  
but some species are found in the warmer
 parts of ,north ,america1 ,europe1 and 
,australia4 ,the ,american species is   
the race-horse 7,m4 carolina71 and      
occurs in the ,southern and ,western    
,states4 ,burmeister says that ,m4      
argentina1 of ,buenos ,ayres1 seizes and
 eats small birds4  ,the genera allied  
to ,mantis--,vates1 ,empusa1 ,harpax1   
and ,schizocephala--occur in the        
tropics4 ,the genus ,eremophila inhabits
 the deserts of ,northern ,africa1 where
 it resembles the sand in color4  ,the  
species shown in the engraving 7which we
 borrow from ,la ,nature7 inhabit       
,france4         99       99       99   
99       99     ,,may-,,flies4   ,there 
are usually found in the month of ,june1
 especially near water1 certain insects 

that are called ,ephemera1 and which    
long ago acquired true celebrity1 and   
furnished material for comparison to    
poets and philosophers4 ,indeed1 in the 
adult state they live but one day1 a    
fact that has given them their name4    
,they appear for a few hours1 fluttering
 about in the rays of a sun whose       
setting they are not to see1 as they    
live during the space of a single       
twilight only4 ,these insects have very 
short antenn1 an imperfect mouth        
incapable of taking food1 and delicate1 
gauze like wings1 the posterior ones of 
which are always small1 or even         
rudimentary or wanting4 ,their legs are 
very delicate--the anterior ones very   
long--and their abdomen terminates in   
two or three long articulated filaments4
 ,one character1 which is unique among  
insects1 is peculiar to ,ephemerids2 the
 adults issuing from the pupal envelope 
undergo still another moult in divesting
 themselves of a thin pellicle that     
covers the body1 wings1 and other       

appendages4 ,this is what is called the 
subimago1 and precedes the imago or     
perfect state of the insect4 ,the short 
life of adult ,may-flies is1 with most  
of them1 passed in a continual state of 
agitation4 ,they are seen rising        
vertically in a straight line1 their    
long fore-legs stretched out like       
antenn1 and serving to balance the      
posterior part of the body and the      
filaments of the abdomen during flight4 
,on reaching a certain height they allow
 themselves to descend1 stretching out  
while doing so their long wings and     
tail1 which then serve as a parachute4  
,then a rapid working of these organs   
suddenly changes the direction of the   
motion1 and they begin to ascend again4 
,coupling takes place during these      
aerial dances4 ,soon afterward the      
females approach the surface of the     
water and lay therein their eggs1       
spreading them out the while with the   
caudal filaments1 or else depositing    
them all together in one mass that falls

 to the bottom4  ,these insects seek the
 light1 and are attracted by an         
artificial one1 describing concentric   
circles around it and finally falling   
into it and being burnt up4 ,their      
bodies on falling into the water        
constitute a food which is eagerly      
sought by fishes1 and which is made use 
of by fishermen as a bait4  ,but the    
above is not the only state of          
,ephemerids1 for their entire existence 
really lasts a year4 ,linnus has thus   
summed up the total life of these little
 creatures3 ,the larv swim in water2    
and1 in becoming winged insects1 have   
only the shortest kind of joy1 for they 
often celebrate in a single day their   
wedding1 parturition1 and funeral       
obsequies4 ,the eggs1 in fact1 give     
birth to more or less elongated larv1   
which are always provided with three    
filaments at the end of the abdomen1 and
 which breathe the oxygen dissolved in  
the water by tracheo-branchi along the  
sides of the body4 ,they are            

carnivorous1 and live on small animal   
prey4 ,the most recent authors who have 
studied them are ,mr4 ,eaton1 in        
,england1 and ,mr4 ,vayssiere1 of the   
,faculte des ,sciences1 at ,marseilles4 
,a propos of the larv of ,ephemera or   
,may-flies1 we must speak of one of the 
entomological rarities of ,france1 the  
nature and zoological place of which it 
has taken more than a century to        
demonstrate4 ,geoffroy1 the old         
historian of the insects of the vicinity
 of ,paris1 was the first to find in the
 waters of the ,seine a small animal    
resembling one of the ,daphnids4 ,this  
animal has six short and slender        
thoracic legs1 which terminate in a hook
 and are borne on the under side of the 
cephalic shield4 ,this latter is        
provided above with two slender         
six-jointed antenn1 two very large      
faceted eyes at the side1 and three     
ocelli forming a triangle4 ,the large   
thoraceo-abdominal shield is hollowed   
out behind into two movable valves which

 cover the first five segments of the   
abdomen 7,fig4 #a74 ,the last four      
segments1 of decreasing breadth1 are    
retractile beneath the carapax1 as is   
also the broad plume that terminates    
them1 and which is formed of three      
short1 transparent1 and elegantly       
ciliated bristles4 ,these are the       
locomotive organs of the animal1 whose  
total length1 with the segments of the  
tail expanded1 does not exceed seven to 
eight millimeters4 ,the animal is found 
in running waters1 at a depth of from   
half a meter to a meter and a half4 ,it 
hides under stones of all sizes1 and1 as
 soon as it is touched1 its first care  
is to fix itself by the breast to their 
rough surface1 and then to swim off to a
 more quiet place4 ,it fastens itself so
 firmly to the stone that it is         
necessary to pass a thin knife-blade    
under it in order to detach it4         
,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,larva ,,of 
,,may ,,fly4 7,magnified #ab times47    
,geoffroy1 because of the two large     

eyes1 and without paying attention to   
the ocelli1 named this larva the        
feather-tailed binocle4 ,c4 ,dumeril1 in
 #ahgf1 found it again in pools that    
formed after rains1 and named the       
creature 7which is of a bluish color    
passing to red7 the pisciform binocle4  
,since then1 this larva has been found  
in the ,seine at ,point-du-,jour1       
,bas-,meudon1 and between ,epone and    
,mantes4 ,latreille1 in #ahcb1 decided  
it to be a crustacean1 and named it     
,prosopistoma foliaceum4 ,in ,september1
 #ahfh1 the animal was found at         
,toulouse by ,dr4 ,e4 ,joly in the      
nearly dry ,garonne4 ,finally1 in #ahhj1
 ,mr4 ,vayssiere met with it in         
abundance in the ,rhone1 near ,avignon4 
,the abnormal existence of a six-legged 
crustacean occupied the attention of    
naturalists considerably4 ,in #ahfi1    
,messrs4 ,n4 and ,e4 ,joly demonstrated 
that the famous feather-tailed binocle  
was the larva of an insect4 ,they found 
in its mouth the buccal pieces of the   

,neuroptera1 and1 under the carapax1    
five pairs of branchial tufts attached  
to the segments that are invisible      
outwardly4 ,inside the animal were found
 trache1 the digestic tube of an insect1
 and malpighian canals4 ,finally1 in    
,june1 #ahhj1 ,mr4 ,vayssire was enabled
 to establish the fact definitely that  
the insect belonged among the           
,ephemerids4 ,two of the larvae that he 
raised in water became1 from yellowish1 
gradually brown4 ,then they crawled up a
 stone partially out of water1 the      
carapax gradually split1 and the adults 
readily issued therefrom--the head      
first1 then the legs1 and finally the   
abdomen4 ,at the same time1 the wings1  
which were in three folds in the        
direction of their length1 spread out in
 their definite form 7,fig4 #b74 ,the   
insects finally flew away to alight at a
 distance from the water4 ,the wings of 
the insect1 which are of an iron gray1  
are covered with a down of fine hairs4  
,the posterior ones soon disappear4     

,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,may-,,fly  
7adult magnified #ad times74  ,perhaps  
the subimago in this genus of           
,ephemerids1 as in certain others1 is   
the permanent aerial state of the       
female4--,la ,nature4         99        
99       99       99       99           
,connecticut is rapidly advancing in the
 cultivation of oysters4 ,about #ij1jjj 
acres are now planted1 and thirty       
steamers and many sailing vessels are   
engaged in the trade4         99        
99       99       99       99     ,,the 
,,color ,,of ,,water4   ,it is well     
known that the water of different lakes 
and rivers differs in color4 ,the       
,mediterranean ,sea is indigo blue1 the 
ocean sky blue1 ,lake ,geneva is azure1 
while the ,lake of the ,four ,forest    
,cantons and ,lake ,constance1 in       
,switzerland1 as well as the river      
,rhine1 are chrome green1 and           
,kloenthaler ,lake is grass green4      
,tyndall thought that the blue color of 
water had a similar cause as the blue   

color of the air1 being blue by         
reflected light and red by transmitted  
light4 ,w4 ,spring has recently         
communicated to the ,belgian ,academy   
the results of his investigations upon  
the color of water4 ,he proved that     
perfectly pure water in a tube #aj      
meters long had a distinctly blue color1
 while it ought1 according to ,tyndall1 
to look red4 ,spring also showed that   
water in which carbonate of lime1       
silica1 clay1 and salts were suspended  
in a fine state of division offered a   
resistance to the passage of light that 
was not inconsiderable4 ,since the red  
and violet light of the spectrum are    
much more feeble than the yellow1 the   
former will be completely absorbed1     
while the latter passes through1        
producing1 with the blue of the water   
itself1 different shades of green4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,there is to be held in ,paris this     
year1 from the #ast to the #bb;d of     
,july1 an insect exhibition1 organized  

by the ,central ,society of ,agriculture
 and ,insectology4 ,it will include 7#a7
 useful insects2 7#b7 their products1   
raw1 and in the first transformations2  
7#c7 apparatus and instruments used in  
the preparation of these products2 7#d7 
injurious insects and the various       
processes for destroying them2 7#e7     
everything relating to insectology4     
99       99       99       99       99  
,a catalogue1 containing brief notices  
of many important scientific papers     
heretofore published in the             
,,supplement1 may be had gratis at this 
office4         99       99       99    
99       99     ,,the ,,scientific      
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