,,the ,,system ,,of ,,nature1 ,,volume  
,i 7of ,,ii7   ,by ,paul ,henri ,thiery 
7,baron d',holbach7   ,introduction by  
,robert ,d4 ,richardson1 ,jr4           
,,production ,,notes3 ,first published  
in ,french in #aggj under the pseudonym 
of ,mirabaud4 ,this e-book based on a   
facsimile reprint of an ,english        
translation originally published        
#ahbj-ba4 ,this e-text covers the first 
of the original two volumes4            
,,introduction   ,paul ,henri ,thiery1  
,baron d',holbach 7#agbc-aghi71 was the 
center of the radical wing of the       
philosophes4 ,he was friend1 host1 and  
patron to a wide circle that included   
,diderot1 ,d',alembert1 ,helvetius1 and 
,hume4 ,holbach wrote1 translated1      
edited1 and issued a stream of books and
 pamphlets1 often under other names1    
that has made him the despair of        
bibliographers but has connected his    
name1 by innuendo1 gossip1 and          
association1 with most of what was      
written in defense of atheistic         

materialism in late eighteenth-century  
,france4  ,holbach is best known for    
,the ,system of ,nature 7#aggj7 and     
deservedly1 since it is a clear and     
reasonably systematic exposition of his 
main ideas4 ,his initial position       
determines all the rest of his argument4
 ,there is not1 there can be nothing out
 of that ,nature which includes all     
beings4 ,conceiving of nature as        
strictly limited to matter and motion1  
both of which have always existed1 he   
flatly denies that there is any such    
thing as spirit or a supernatural4      
,mythology began1 ,holbach claims1 when 
men were still in a state of nature and 
at the point when wise1 strong1 and for 
the most part benign men were arising as
 leaders and lawgivers4 ,these leaders  
formed discourses by which they spoke to
 the imaginations of their willing      
auditors1 using the medium of poetry1   
because it seemed best adapted to strike
 the mind4 ,through poetry1 then1 and by
 means of its images1 its fictions1 its 

numbers1 its rhyme1 its harmony444 the  
entire of nature1 as well as all its    
parts1 was personified1 by its beautiful
 allegories4 ,thus mythology is given an
 essentially political origin4 ,these   
early poets are literally legislators of
 mankind4 ,the first institutors of     
nations1 and their immediate successors 
in authority1 only spoke to the people  
by fables1 allegories1 enigmas1 of which
 they reserved to themselves the right  
of giving an explanation4 ,holbach is   
rather condescending about the process1 
but since mythology is a representation 
of nature itself1 he is far more        
tolerant of mythology than he is of the 
next step4 ,natural philosophers and    
poets were transformed by leisure into  
metaphysicians and theologians1 and at  
this point a fatal error was introduced3
 the theologians made a distinction     
between the power of nature and nature  
itself1 separated the two1 made the     
power of nature prior to nature1 and    
called it ,god4 ,thus man was left with 

an abstract and chimerical being on one 
side and a despoiled inert nature1      
destitute of power1 on the other4 ,in   
,holbach's critique the point at which  
theology split off from mythology marks 
the moment of nature's alienation from  
itself and paves the way for man's      
alienation from nature4  ,holbach is    
thus significant for ,romantic interest 
in myth in two ways4 ,first1 he provides
 a clear statement of what can be       
loosely called the antimythic position1 
that rationalist condescension and      
derogation of all myth and all religion 
that was never far from the surface     
during the ,romantic era4 ,holbach was  
and is a reminder that the ,romantic    
affirmation of myth was never easy1     
uncritical1 or unopposed4 ,any new      
endorsement of myth had to be made in   
the teeth of ,holbach and the other     
skeptics4 ,the very vigor of the        
,holbachian critique of myth impelled   
the ,romantics to think more deeply and 
defend more carefully any new claim for 

myth4 ,secondly1 although ,holbach's    
argument generally drove against myth   
and religion both1 he did make an       
important1 indeed a saving distinction  
between mythology and theology4         
,mythology is the more or less harmless 
personification of the power in and of  
nature2 theology concerns itself with   
what for ,holbach was the nonexistent   
power beyond or behind nature4 ,by      
exploiting this distinction it would    
become possible for a ,shelley1 for     
example1 to take a strong               
antitheological--even an                
anti-,christian--position without having
 to abandon myth4  ,holbach was one of  
,william ,godwin's major sources for his
 ideas about political justice1 and     
,shelley1 who discussed ,holbach with   
,godwin1 quotes extensively from ,the   
,system of ,nature in ,queen ,mab4      
,furthermore1 ,volney's ,ruins1 another 
important book for ,shelley1 is directly
 descended from ,the ,system of ,nature4
 ,on the other side1 ,holbach was a     

standing challenge to such writers as   
,coleridge and ,goethe and was reprinted
 and retranslated extensively in        
,america1 where his work was well known 
to the rationalist circle around        
,jefferson and ,barlow4  ,issued in     
#aggj as though by ,jean ,baptiste de   
,mirabaud 7a former perpetual secretary 
to the ,acadmie franaise who had died   
ten years before71 ,la ,systme de la    
nature was translated and reprinted     
frequently4 ,the ,samuel ,wilkinson     
translation we have chosen to reprint   
was the most often reprinted or pirated 
version in ,english4 ,a useful starting 
point for ,holbach's work is ,jerome    
,vercruysse1 ,bibliographie descriptive 
des crits du baron d',holbach 7,paris1  
#aiga74 ,the difficult subject of the   
essentially clandestine evolution of    
biblical criticism as an anti-,christian
 and antimyth critique in the early part
 of the eighteenth century1 before the  
well-documented era of the biblical     
critic ,eichhorn in ,germany1 is        

illuminated in ,ira ,wade1 ,the         
,clandestine ,organization and          
,diffusion of ,philosophic ,ideas in    
,france from #agjj-agej 7,princeton     
,univ4 ,press1 #aich74   ,robert ,d4    
,richardson1 ,jr4  ,university of       
,denver   99 99 99 99 99                
,illustration3 ,parke sculp't ,m4 ,,de  
,,mirabaud     ,,the ,,system ,,of      
,,nature2 ,,or1 ,,the ,,laws ,,of ,,the 
,,moral ,,and ,,physical ,,world4       
,,translated ,,from ,,the ,,original    
,,french ,,of ,m4 ,,de ,,mirabaud       
,,vol4 ,i4     ,,contents  ,preface     
,,part ,i--,laws of ,nature4--,of       
man4--,the faculties of the soul4       
--,doctrine of immortality4--,on        
happiness4   ,,chap4 ,i4 ,nature and her
 laws4  ,,chap4 ,,ii4 ,of motion and its
 origin4  ,,chap4 ,,iii4 ,of matter--of 
its various combinations--of its        
diversified motion--or of the course of 
,nature4  ,,chap4 ,,iv4 ,laws of motion 
common to every being of                
,nature--attraction and repulsion--inert

 force-necessity4  ,,chap4 ,v4 ,order   
and confusion--intelligence--chance4    
,,chap4 ,,vi4 ,moral and physical       
distinctions of man--his origin4        
,,chap4 ,,vii4 ,the soul and the        
spiritual system4  ,,chap4 ,,vii4 ,the  
soul and the spiritual system4  ,,chap4 
,,viii4 ,the intellectual faculties     
derived from the faculty of feeling4    
,,chap4 ,,ix4 ,the diversity of the     
intellectual faculties2 they depend on  
physical causes1 as do their moral      
qualities4--,the natural principles of  
society--morals--politics4  ,,chap4 ,x4 
,the soul does not derive its ideas from
 itself--it has no innate ideas4        
,,chap4 ,,xi4 ,of the system of man's   
free-agency4  ,,chap4 ,,xii4 ,an        
examination of the opinion which        
pretends that the system of fatalism is 
dangerous4  ,,chap4 ,,xiii4 ,of the     
immortality of the soul--of the doctrine
 of a future state--of the fear of      
death4  ,,chap4 ,,xiv4 ,education1      
morals1 and the laws suffice to restrain

 man--of the desire of immortality--of  
suicide4  ,,chap4 ,,xv4 ,of man's true  
interest1 or of the ideas he forms to   
himself of happiness4--,man cannot be   
happy without virtue4  ,,chap4 ,,xvi4   
,the errors of man4--,upon what         
constitutes happiness4--,the true source
 of his evils4--,remedies that may be   
applied4  ,,chap4 ,,xvii4 ,those ideas  
which are true1 or founded upon ,nature1
 are the only remedies for the evil of  
man4--,recapitulation4--,conclusions of 
the ,first ,part4     ,,preface  ,the   
source of man's unhappiness is his      
ignorance of ,nature4 ,the pertinacity  
with which he clings to blind opinions  
imbibed in his infancy1 which interweave
 themselves with his existence1 the     
consequent prejudice that warps his     
mind1 that prevents its expansion1 that 
renders him the slave of fiction1       
appears to doom him to continual error4 
,he resembles a child destitute of      
experience1 full of ideal notions3 a    
dangerous leaven mixes itself with all  

his knowledge3 it is of necessity       
obscure1 it is vacillating and          
false3--,he takes the tone of his ideas 
on the authority of others1 who are     
themselves in error1 or else have an    
interest in deceiving him4 ,to remove   
this ,cimmerian darkness1 these barriers
 to the improvement of his condition2 to
 disentangle him from the clouds of     
error that envelope him2 to guide him   
out of this ,cretan labyrinth1 requires 
the clue of ,ariadne1 with all the love 
she could bestow on ,theseus4 ,it exacts
 more than common exertion2 it needs a  
most determined1 a most undaunted       
courage--it is never effected but by a  
persevering resolution to act1 to think 
for himself2 to examine with rigour and 
impartiality the opinions he has        
adopted4 ,he will find that the most    
noxious weeds have sprung up beside     
beautiful flowers2 entwined themselves  
around their stems1 overshadowed them   
with an exuberance of foliage1 choaked  
the ground1 enfeebled their growth1     

diminished their petals2 dimmed the     
brilliancy of their colours2 that       
deceived by their apparent freshness of 
their verdure1 by the rapidity of their 
exfoliation1 he has given them          
cultivation1 watered them1 nurtured     
them1 when he ought to have plucked out 
their very roots4  ,man seeks to range  
out of his sphere3 notwithstanding the  
reiterated checks his ambitious folly   
experiences1 he still attempts the      
impossible2 strives to carry his        
researches beyond the visible world2 and
 hunts out misery in imaginary regions4 
,he would be a metaphysician before he  
has become a practical philosopher4 ,he 
quits the contemplation of realities to 
meditate on chimeras4 ,he neglects      
experience to feed on conjecture1 to    
indulge in hypothesis4 ,he dares not    
cultivate his reason1 because from his  
earliest days he has been taught to     
consider it criminal4 ,he pretends to   
know his date in the indistinct abodes  
of another life1 before he has          

considered of the means by which he is  
to render himself happy in the world he 
inhabits3 in short1 man disdains the    
study of ,nature1 except it be          
partially3 he pursues phantoms that     
resemble an ignis-fatuus1 which at once 
dazzle1 bewilders1 and affright3 like   
the benighted traveller led astray by   
these deceptive exhalations of a swampy 
soil1 he frequently quits the plain1 the
 simple road of truth1 by pursuing of   
which1 he can alone ever reasonably hope
 to reach the goal of happiness4  ,the  
most important of our duties1 then1 is  
to seek means by which we may destroy   
delusions that can never do more than   
mislead us4 ,the remedies for these     
evils must be sought for in ,nature     
herself2 it is only in the abundance of 
her resources1 that we can rationally   
expect to find antidotes to the         
mischiefs brought upon us by an ill     
directed1 by an overpowering enthusiasm4
 ,it is time these remedies were sought2
 it is time to look the evil boldly in  

the face1 to examine its foundations1 to
 scrutinize its superstructure3 reason1 
with its faithful guide experience1 must
 attack in their entrenchments those    
prejudices1 to which the human race has 
but too long been the victim4 ,for this 
purpose reason must be restored to its  
proper rank1--it must be rescued from   
the evil company with which it is       
associated4 ,it has been too long       
degraded--too long neglected--cowardice 
has rendered it subservient to delirium1
 the slave to falsehood4 ,it must no    
longer be held down by the massive      
claims of ignorant prejudice4  ,truth is
 invariable--it is requisite to man--it 
can never harm him--his very            
necessities1 sooner or later1 make him  
sensible of this2 oblige him to         
acknowledge it4 ,let us then discover it
 to mortals--let us exhibit its         
charms--let us shed it effulgence over  
the darkened road2 it is the only mode  
by which man can become disgusted with  
that disgraceful superstition which     

leads him into error1 and which but too 
often usurps his homage by treacherously
 covering itself with the mask of       
truth--its lustre can wound none but    
those enemies to the human race whose   
power is bottomed solely on the         
ignorance1 on the darkness in which they
 have in almost every claimed contrived 
to involve the mind of man4  ,truth     
speaks not to those perverse            
beings3--her voice can only be heard by 
generous souls accustomed to reflection1
 whose sensibilities make them lament   
the numberless calamities showered on   
the earth by political and religious    
tyranny--whose enlightened minds        
contemplate with horror the immensity1  
the ponderosity of that series of       
misfortunes which error has in all ages 
overwhelmed mankind4  ,to error must be 
attributed those insupportable chains   
which tyrants1 which priests have forged
 for most nations4 ,to error must be    
equally attributed that abject slavery  
into which the people of almost every   

country have fallen4 ,nature designed   
they should pursue their happiness by   
the most perfect freedom4--,to error    
must be attributed those religious      
terrors which1 in almost every climate1 
have either petrified man with fear1 or 
caused him to destroy himself for coarse
 or fanciful beings4 ,to error must be  
attributed those inveterate hatreds1    
those barbarous persecutions1 those     
numerous massacres1 those dreadful      
tragedies1 of which1 under pretext of   
serving the interests of heaven1 the    
earth has been but too frequently made  
the theatre4 ,it is error consecrated by
 religious enthusiasm1 which produces   
that ignorance1 that uncertainty in     
which man ever finds himself with regard
 to his most evident duties1 his        
clearest rights1 the most demonstrable  
truths4 ,in short1 man is almost        
everywhere a poor degraded captive1     
devoid of greatness of soul1 of reason1 
or of virtue1 whom his inhuman gaolers  
have never permitted to see the light of

 day4  ,let us then endeavour to        
disperse those clouds of ignorance1     
those mists of darkness1 which impede   
man on his journey1 which obscure his   
progress1 which prevent his marching    
through life with a firm1 with a steady 
grip4 ,let us try to inspire him with   
courage--with respect for his           
reason--with an inextinguishable love   
for truth--with a remembrance of        
,gallileo--to the end that he may learn 
to know himself--to know his legitimate 
rights--that he may learn to consult his
 experience1 and no longer be the dupe  
of an imagination led astray by         
authority--that he may renounce the     
prejudices of his childhood--that he may
 learn to found his morals on his       
nature1 on his wants1 on the real       
advantage of society--that he may dare  
to love himself--that he may learn to   
pursue his true happiness by promoting  
that of others--in short1 that he may no
 longer occupy himself with reveries    
either useless or dangerous--that he may

 become a virtuous1 a rational being1 in
 which case he cannot fail to become    
happy4  ,if he must have his chimeras1  
let him at least learn to permit others 
to form theirs after their own fashion2 
since nothing can be more immaterial    
than the manner of men's thinking on    
subjects not accessible to reason1      
provided those thoughts be not suffered 
to embody themselves into actions       
injurious to others3 above all1 let him 
be fully persuaded that it is of the    
utmost importance to the inhabitants of 
this world to be ,,just1 ,,kind1 and    
,,peaceable4  ,far from injuring the    
cause of virtue1 an impartial           
examination of the principles of this   
work will shew that its object is to    
restore truth to its proper temple1 to  
build up an altar whose foundations     
shall be consolidated by morality1      
reason1 and justice3 from this sacred   
pane1 virtue guarded by truth1 clothed  
with experience1 shall shed forth her   
radiance on delighted mortals2 whose    

homage flowing consecutively shall open 
to the world a new aera1 by rendering   
general the belief that happiness1 the  
true end of man's existence1 can never  
be attained but ,,by ,,promoting ,,that 
,,of ,,his ,,fellow ,,creature4  ,in    
short1 man should learn to know1 that   
happiness is simply an emanative quality
 formed by reflection2 that each        
individual ought to be the sun of his   
own system1 continually shedding around 
him his genial rays2 that these1        
re-acting1 will keep his own existence  
constantly supplied with the requisite  
heat to enable him to put forth kindly  
fruit4     ,,mirabaud',s ,,system ,,of  
,,nature   ,translated from the         
,original1 ,by ,samuel ,wilkinson4      
,,part ,i4  ,,laws ,,of ,,nature--,,of  
,,man--,,the ,,faculties ,,of ,,the     
,,soul--,,doctrine ,,of                 
,,immortality--,,on ,,happiness4        
,,chap4 ,i4  ,nature and her ,laws4     
,man has always deceived himself when he
 abandoned experience to follow         

imaginary systems4--,he is the work of  
nature4--,he exists in ,nature4--,he is 
submitted to the laws of ,nature4--,he  
cannot deliver himself from             
them3--cannot step beyond them even in  
thought4 ,it is in vain his mind would  
spring forward beyond the visible world3
 direful and imperious necessity ever   
compels his return--being formed by     
,nature1 he is circumscribed by her     
laws2 there exists nothing beyond the   
great whole of which he forms a part1 of
 which he experiences the influence4    
,the beings his fancy pictures as above 
nature1 or distinguished from her1 are  
always chimeras formed after that which 
he has already seen1 but of which it is 
utterly impossible he should ever form  
any finished idea1 either as to the     
place they occupy1 or their manner of   
acting--for him there is not1 there can 
be nothing out of that ,nature which    
includes all beings4  ,therefore1       
instead of seeking out of the world he  
inhabits for beings who can procure him 

a happiness denied to him by ,nature1   
let him study this ,nature1 learn her   
laws1 contemplate her energies1 observe 
the immutable rules by which she        
acts4--,let him apply these discoveries 
to his own felicity1 and submit in      
silence to her precepts1 which nothing  
can alter4--,let him cheerfully consent 
to be ignorant of causes hid from him   
under the most impenetrable veil4--,let 
him yield to the decrees of a universal 
power1 which can never be brought within
 his comprehension1 nor ever emancipate 
him from those laws imposed on him by   
his essence4  ,the distinction which has
 been so often made between the physical
 and the moral being1 is evidently an   
abuse of terms4 ,man is a being purely  
physical3 the moral man is nothing more 
than this physical being considered     
under a certain point of view2 that is  
to say1 with relation to some of his    
modes of action1 arising out of his     
individual organization4 ,but is not    
this organization itself the work of    

,nature8 ,the motion or impulse to      
action1 of which he is susceptible1 is  
that not physical8 ,his visible actions1
 as well as the invisible motion        
interiorly excited by his will or his   
thoughts1 are equally the natural       
effects1 the necessary consequences1 of 
his peculiar construction1 and the      
impulse he receives from those beings by
 whom he is always surrounded4 ,all that
 the human mind has successively        
invented1 with a view to change or      
perfect his being1 to render himself    
happy1 was never more than the necessary
 consequence of man's peculiar essence1 
and that of the beings who act upon him4
 ,the object of all his institutions1   
all his reflections1 all his knowledge1 
is only to procure that happiness toward
 which he is continually impelled by the
 peculiarity of his nature4 ,all that he
 does1 all that he thinks1 all that he  
is1 all that he will be1 is nothing more
 than what ,universal ,nature has made  
him4 ,his ideas1 his actions1 his will1 

are the necessary effects of those      
properties infused into him by ,nature1 
and of those circumstances in which she 
has placed him4 ,in short1 art is       
nothing but ,nature acting with the     
tools she has furnished4  ,nature sends 
man naked and destitute into this world 
which is to be his abode3 he quickly    
learns to cover his nakedness--to       
shelter himself from the inclemencies of
 the weather1 first with artlessly      
constructed huts1 and the skins of the  
beasts of the forest2 by degrees he     
mends their appearance1 renders them    
more convenient3 he establishes         
manufactories to supply his immediate   
wants2 he digs clay1 gold1 and other    
fossils from the bowels of the earth2   
converts them into bricks for his house1
 into vessels for his use1 gradually    
improves their shape1 and augments their
 beauty4 ,to a being exalted above our  
terrestrial globe1 man would not appear 
less subjected to the laws of ,nature   
when naked in the forest painfully      

seeking his sustenance1 than when living
 in civilized society surrounded with   
ease1 or enriched with greater          
experience1 plunged in luxury1 where he 
every day invents a thousand new wants  
and discovers a thousand new modes of   
supplying them4 ,all the steps taken by 
man to regulate his existence1 ought    
only to be considered as a long         
succession of causes and effects1 which 
are nothing more than the development of
 the first impulse given him by nature4 
,the same animal1 by virtue of his      
organization1 passes successively from  
the most simple to the most complicated 
wants2 it is nevertheless the           
consequence of his nature4 ,the         
butterfly whose beauty we admire1 whose 
colours are so rich1 whose appearance is
 so brilliant1 commences as an inanimate
 unattractive egg2 from this1 heat      
produces a worm1 this becomes a         
chrysalis1 then changes into that       
beautiful insect adorned with the most  
vivid tints3 arrived at this stage he   

reproduces1 he generates2 at last       
despoiled of his ornaments1 he is       
obliged to disappear1 having fulfilled  
the task imposed on him by ,nature1     
having performed the circle of          
transformation marked out for beings of 
his order4  ,the same course1 the same  
change takes place in the vegetable     
world4 ,it is by a series of            
combinations originally interwoven with 
the energies of the aloe1 that this     
plant is insensibly regulated1 gradually
 expanded1 and at the end of a number of
 years produces those flowers which     
announce its dissolution4  ,it is       
equally so with man1 who in all his     
motion1 all the changes he undergoes1   
never acts but according to the laws    
peculiar to his organization1 and to the
 matter of which he is composed4  ,the  
physical man1 is he who acts by the     
causes our faculties make us understand4
  ,the moral man1 is he who acts by     
physical causes1 with which our         
prejudices preclude us from becoming    

perfectly acquainted4  ,the wild man is 
a child destitute of experience1        
incapable of proceeding in his          
happiness1 because he has not learnt how
 to oppose resistance to the impulses he
 receives from those beings by whom he  
is surrounded4  ,the civilized man1 is  
he whom experience and sociality have   
enabled to draw from nature the means of
 his own happiness1 because he has      
learned to oppose resistance to those   
impulses he receives from exterior      
beings1 when experience has taught him  
they would be destructive to his        
welfare4  ,the enlightened man is man in
 his maturity1 in his perfection2 who is
 capable of advancing his own felicity1 
because he has learned to examine1 to   
think for himself1 and not to take that 
for truth upon the authority of others1 
which experience has taught him a       
critical disquisition will frequently   
prove erroneous4  ,the happy man is he  
who knows how to enjoy the benefits     
bestowed upon him by nature3 in other   

words1 he who thinks for himself2 who is
 thankful for the good he possesses2 who
 does not envy the welfare of others1   
nor sigh after imaginary benefits always
 beyond his grasp4  ,the unhappy man is 
he who is incapacitated to enjoy the    
benefits of nature2 that is1 he who     
suffers others to think for him2 who    
neglects the absolute good he possesses1
 in a fruitless search after ideal      
benefits2 who vainly sighs after that   
which ever eludes his pursuit4  ,it     
necessarily results1 that man in his    
enquiry ought always to contemplate     
experience1 and natural philosophy3     
,these are what he should consult in his
 religion1--in his morals1--in his      
legislation1--in his political          
government1--in the arts1--in the       
sciences1--in his pleasures1--above all1
 in his misfortunes4 ,experience teaches
 that ,nature acts by simple1 regular1  
and invariable laws4 ,it is by his      
senses1 man is bound to this universal  
,nature2 it is by his perception he must

 penetrate her secrets2 it is from his  
senses he must draw experience of her   
laws4 ,therefore1 whenever he neglects  
to acquire experience or quits its path1
 he stumbles into an abyss2 his         
imagination leads him astray4  ,all the 
errors of man are physical3 he never    
deceives himself but when he neglects to
 return back to nature1 to consult her  
laws1 to call practical knowledge to his
 aid4 ,it is for want of practical      
knowledge he forms such imperfect ideas 
of matter1 of its properties1 of its    
combinations1 of its power1 of its mode 
of action1 and of the energies which    
spring from its essence4 ,wanting this  
experience1 the whole universe1 to him1 
is but one vast scene of error4 ,the    
most ordinary results appear to him the 
most astonishing phenomena2 he wonders  
at every thing1 understands nothing1 and
 yields the guidance of his actions to  
those interested in betraying his       
interests4 ,he is ignorant of ,nature1  
and he has mistaken her laws2 he has not

 contemplated the necessary routine     
which she has marked out for every thing
 she holds4 ,mistaken the laws of       
,nature1 did ,i say8 ,he has mistaken   
himself3 the consequence is1 that all   
his systems1 all his conjectures1 all   
his reasonings1 from which he has       
banished experience1 are nothing more   
than a tissue of errors1 a long chain of
 inconsistencies4  ,error is always     
prejudicial to man3 it is by deceiving  
himself1 the human race is plunged into 
misery4 ,he neglected ,nature2 he did   
not comprehend her laws2 he formed gods 
of the most preposterous and ridiculous 
kinds3 these became the sole objects of 
his hope1 and the creatures of his fear3
 he was unhappy1 he trembled under these
 visionary deities2 under the supposed  
influence of visionary beings created by
 himself2 under the terror inspired by  
blocks of stone2 by logs of wood2 by    
flying fish2 or the frowns of men1      
mortal as himself1 whom his disturbed   
fancy had elevated above that ,nature of

 which alone he is capable of forming   
any idea4 ,his very posterity laughs at 
his folly1 because experience has       
convinced them of the absurdity of his  
groundless fears--of his misplaced      
worship4 ,thus has passed away the      
ancient mythology1 with all the trifling
 and nonsensical attributes attached to 
it by ignorance4  ,not understanding    
that ,nature1 equal in her              
distributions1 entirely destitute of    
malice1 follows only necessary and      
immutable laws1 when she either produces
 beings or destroys them1 when she      
causes those to suffer1 whose           
construction creates sensibility2 when  
she scatters among them good and evil2  
when she subjects them to incessant     
change--he did not perceive it was in   
the breast of ,nature herself1 that it  
was in her exuberance he ought to seek  
to satisfy his deficiencies2 for        
remedies against his pains2 for the     
means of rendering himself happy3 he    
expected to derive these benefits from  

fantastic beings1 whom he supposed to be
 above ,nature2 whom he mistakingly     
imagined to be the authors of his       
pleasures1 and the cause of his         
misfortunes4 ,from hence it appears that
 to his ignorance of ,nature1 man owes  
the creation of those illusive powers2  
under which he has so long trembled with
 fear2 that superstitious worship1 which
 has been the source of all his misery1 
and the evils entailed upon posterity4  
,for want of clearly comprehending his  
own peculiar nature1 his proper course1 
his wants1 and his rights1 man has      
fallen in society1 from ,,freedom into  
,,slavery4 ,he had forgotten the purpose
 of his existence1 or else he believed  
himself obliged to suppress the natural 
desires of his heart1 to sacrifice his  
welfare to the caprice of chiefs1 either
 elected by himself1 or submitted to    
without examination4 ,he was ignorant of
 the true policy of association--of the 
object of government2 he disdained to   
listen to the voice of ,nature1 which   

loudly proclaimed the price of all      
submission to be protection and         
happiness3 the end of all government is 
the benefit of the governed1 not the    
exclusive advantage of the governors4   
,he gave himself up without enquiry to  
men like himself1 whom his prejudices   
induced him to contemplate as beings of 
a superior order1 as ,gods upon earth1  
they profited by his ignorance1 took    
advantage of his prejudices1 corrupted  
him1 rendered him vicious1 enslaved him1
 and made him miserable4 ,thus man1     
intended by ,nature for the full        
enjoyment of liberty1 to patiently      
search out her laws1 to investigate her 
secrets1 to cling to his experience2    
has1 from a neglect of her salutary     
admonitions1 from an inexcusable        
ignorance of his own peculiar essence1  
fallen into servility3 has been wickedly
 governed4  ,having mistaken himself1 he
 has remained ignorant of the           
indispensable affinity that subsists    
between him1 and the beings of his own  

species3 having mistaken his duty to    
himself1 it consequently follows1 he has
 mistaken his duty to others4 ,he made a
 calculation in error of what his       
happiness required2 he did not perceive1
 what he owed to himself1 the excesses  
he ought to avoid1 the desires he ought 
to resist1 the impulses he ought to     
follow1 in order to consolidate his     
felicity1 to promote his comfort1 and to
 further his advantage4 ,in short1 he   
was ignorant of his true interests2     
hence his irregularities1 his excesses1 
his shameful extravagance1 with that    
long train of vices1 to which he has    
abandoned himself1 at the expense of his
 preservation1 at the hazard of his     
permanent prosperity4  ,it is1          
therefore1 ignorance of himself that has
 hindered man from enlightening his     
morals4 ,the corrupt authorities to     
which he had submitted1 felt an interest
 in obstructing the practice of his     
duties1 even when he knew them4 ,time1  
with the influence of ignorance1 aided  

by his corruption1 gave them a strength 
not to be resisted by his enfeebled     
voice4 ,his duties continued            
unperformed1 and he fell into contempt  
both with himself and with others4  ,the
 ignorance of ,man has endured so long1 
he has taken such slow1 such irresolute 
steps to ameliorate his condition1 only 
because he has neglected to study       
,nature1 to scrutinize her laws1 to     
search out her expedients1 to discover  
her properties1 that his sluggishness   
finds its account1 in permitting himself
 to be guided by example1 rather than to
 follow experience1 which demands       
activity2 to be led by routine1 rather  
than by his reason1 which enjoins       
reflection2 to take that for truth upon 
the authority of others1 which would    
require a diligent and patient          
investigation4 ,from hence may be traced
 the hatred man betrays for every thing 
that deviates from those rules to which 
he has been accustomed2 hence his       
stupid1 his scrupulous respect for      

antiquity1 for the most silly1 the most 
absurd and ridiculous institutions of   
his fathers3 hence those fears that     
seize him1 when the most beneficial     
changes are proposed to him1 or the most
 likely attempts are made to better his 
condition4 ,he dreads to examine1       
because he has been taught to hold it   
irreverent of something immediately     
connected with his welfare2 his         
credulity suffers him to believe the    
interested advice1 and spurns at those  
who wish to show him the danger of the  
road he is travelling4  ,this is the    
reason why nations linger on in the most
 shameful lethargy1 suffering under     
abuses handed down from century to      
century1 trembling at the very idea of  
that which alone can repair their       
calamities4  ,it is for want of energy1 
for want of consulting experience1 that 
medicine1 natural philosophy1           
agriculture1 painting1 in fact1 all the 
useful sciences1 have so long remained  
under the fetters of authority1 have    

progressed so little3 those who profess 
these sciences1 prefer treading the     
beaten paths1 however imperfect1 rather 
than strike out new ones1--they prefer  
the phrensy of their imagination1 their 
voluntary conjectures1 to that laboured 
experience which alone can extract her  
secrets from ,nature4  ,man1 in short1  
whether from sloth or from terror1      
having abnegated the evidence of his    
senses1 has been guided in all his      
actions1 in all his enterprizes1 by     
imagination1 by enthusiasm1 by habit1 by
 preconceived opinions1 but above all1  
by the influence of authority1 which    
knew well how to deceive him1 to turn   
his ignorance to esteem1 his sloth to   
advantage4 ,thus imaginary1             
unsubstantial systems1 have supplied the
 place of experience--of mature         
reflection--of reason4 ,man1 petrified  
with his fears1 intoxicated with the    
marvellous1 stupified with sloth1       
surrendered his experience3 guided by   
his credulity1 he was unable to fall    

back upon it2 he became consequently    
inexperienced2 from thence he gave birth
 to the most ridiculous opinions1 or    
else adopted all those vague chimeras1  
all those idle notions offered to him by
 men whose interest it was to continue  
him in that lamentable state of         
ignorance4  ,thus the human race has    
continued so long in a state of infancy1
 because man has been inattentive to    
,nature2 has neglected her ways1 because
 he has disdained experience--because he
 has thrown by his reason--because he   
has been enraptured with the marvellous 
and the supernatural1--because he has   
unnecessarily ,,trembled4 ,these are the
 reasons there is so much trouble in    
conducting him from this state of       
childhood to that of manhood4 ,he has   
had nothing but the most trifling       
hypotheses1 of which he has never dared 
to examine either the principles or the 
proofs1 because he has been accustomed  
to hold them sacred1 to consider them as
 the most perfect truths1 and which he  

is not permitted to doubt1 even for an  
instant4 ,his ignorance made him        
credulous2 his curiosity made him       
swallow the wonderful3 time confirmed   
him in his opinions1 and he passed his  
conjectures from race to race for       
realities2 a tyrannical power maintained
 him in his notions1 because by those   
alone could society be enslaved4 ,it was
 in vain that some faint glimmerings of 
,nature occasionally attempted the      
recall of his reason--that slight       
corruscations of experience sometimes   
threw his darkness into light1 the      
interest of the few was founded on his  
enthusiasm2 their pre-eminence depended 
on his love of the marvellous2 their    
very existence rested on the firmness of
 his ignorance2 they consequently       
suffered no opportunity to escape1 of   
smothering even the transient flame of  
intelligence4 ,the many were thus first 
deceived into credulity1 then forced    
into submission4 ,at length the whole   
science of man became a confused mass of

 darkness1 falsehood1 and               
contradictions1 with here and there a   
feeble ray of truth1 furnished by that  
,nature1 of which he can never entirely 
divest himself2 because1 without his    
perception1 his necessities are         
continually bringing him back to her    
resources4  ,let us then1 if possible1  
raise ourselves above these clouds of   
prepossession6 ,let us quit the heavy   
atmosphere in which we are enucleated2  
let us in a more unsullied medium--in a 
more elastic current1 contemplate the   
opinions of men1 and observe their      
various systems4 ,let us learn to       
distrust a disordered conception2 let us
 take that faithful monitor1 experience1
 for our guide2 let us consult ,nature1 
examine her laws1 dive into her stores2 
let us draw from herself1 our ideas of  
the beings she contains2 let us recover 
our senses1 which interested error has  
taught us to suspect2 let us consult    
that reason1 which1 for the vilest      
purposes has been so infamously         

calumniated1 so cruelly dishonoured2 let
 us examine with attention the visible  
world2 let us try1 if it will not enable
 us to form a supportable judgment of   
the invisible territory of the          
intellectual world3 perhaps it may be   
found there has been no sufficient      
reason for distinguishing them--that it 
is not without motives1 well worthy our 
enquiry1 that two empires have been     
separated1 which are equally the        
inheritance of nature4  ,the universe1  
that vast assemblage of every thing that
 exists1 presents only matter and       
motion3 the whole offers to our         
contemplation1 nothing but an immense1  
an uninterrupted succession of causes   
and effects2 some of these causes are   
known to us1 because they either strike 
immediately on our senses1 or have been 
brought under their cognizance1 by the  
examination of long experience2 others  
are unknown to us1 because they act upon
 us by effects1 frequently very remote  
from their primary cause4 ,an immense   

variety of matter1 combined under an    
infinity of forms1 incessantly          
communicates1 unceasingly receives a    
diversity of impulses4 ,the different   
qualities of this matter1 its           
innumerable combinations1 its various   
methods of action1 which are the        
necessary consequence of these          
associations1 constitute for man what he
 calls the ,,essence of beings3 it is   
from these varied essences that spring  
the orders1 the classes1 or the systems1
 which these beings respectively        
possess1 of which the sum total makes up
 that which is known by the term nature4
  ,nature1 therefore1 in its most       
significant meaning1 is the great whole 
that results from the collection of     
matter1 under its various combinations1 
with that contrariety of motion1 which  
the universe presents to our view4      
,nature1 in a less extended sense1 or   
considered in each individual1 is the   
whole that results from its essence2    
that is to say1 the peculiar qualities1 

the combination1 the impulse1 and the   
various modes of action1 by which it is 
discriminated from other beings4 ,it is 
thus that ,,man is1 as a whole1 or in   
his nature1 the result of a certain     
combination of matter1 endowed with     
peculiar properties1 competent to give1 
capable of receiving1 certain impulses1 
the arrangement of which is called      
organization2 of which the essence is1  
to feel1 to think1 to act1 to move1     
after a manner distinguished from other 
beings1 with which he can be compared4  
,man1 therefore1 ranks in an order1 in a
 system1 in a class by himself1 which   
differs from that of other animals1 in  
whom we do not perceive those properties
 of which he is possessed4 ,the         
different systems of beings1 or if they 
will1 their particular natures1 depend  
on the general system of the great      
whole1 or that ,universal ,nature1 of   
which they form a part2 to which every  
thing that exists is necessarily        
submitted and attached4  ,having        

described the proper definition that    
should be applied to the word ,,nature1 
,i must advise the reader1 once for all1
 that whenever in the course of this    
work the expression occurs1 that ,nature
 produces such or such an effect1 there 
is no intention of personifying that    
nature which is purely an abstract      
being2 it merely indicates that the     
effect spoken of necessarily springs    
from the peculiar properties of those   
beings which compose the mighty         
macrocosm4 ,when1 therefore1 it is said1
 ,nature demands that man should pursue 
his own happiness1 it is to prevent     
circumlocution--to avoid tautology2 it  
is to be understood1 that it is the     
property of a being that feels1 that    
thinks1 that acts1 to labour to its own 
happiness2 in short1 that is called     
natural1 which is conformable to the    
essence of things1 or to the laws1 which
 ,nature prescribes to the beings she   
contains1 in the different orders they  
occupy1 under the various circumstances 

through which they are obliged to pass4 
,thus health is natural to man in a     
certain state2 disease is natural to him
 under other circumstances2 dissolution1
 or if they will1 death1 is a natural   
state for a body1 deprived of some of   
those things1 necessary to maintain the 
existence of the animal1 c4 ,by         
,,essence is to be understood1 that     
which constitutes a being1 such as it   
is2 the whole of the properties or      
qualities by which it acts as it does4  
,thus1 when it is said1 it is the       
essence of a stone to fall1 it is the   
same as saying that its descent is the  
necessary effect of its gravity--of its 
density--of the cohesion of its         
parts--of the elements of which it is   
composed4 ,in short1 the essence of a   
being is its particular1 its individual 
nature4      ,,chap4 ,,ii4  ,of ,motion1
 and its ,origin4   ,motion is an effect
 by which a body either changes1 or has 
a tendency to change1 its position3 that
 is to say1 by which it successively    

corresponds with different parts of     
space1 or changes its relative distance 
to other bodies4 ,it is motion alone    
that establishes the relation between   
our senses and exterior or interior     
beings3 it is only by motion that these 
beings are impressed upon us--that we   
know their existence--that we judge of  
their properties--that we distinguish   
the one from the other--that we         
distribute them into classes4  ,the     
beings1 the substances1 or the various  
bodies of which ,nature is the          
assemblage1 are themselves effects of   
certain combinations or causes which    
become causes in their turn4 ,a ,,cause 
is a being which puts another in motion1
 or which produces some change in it4   
,the ,,effect is the change produced in 
one body1 by the motion or presence of  
another4  ,each being1 by its essence1  
by its peculiar nature1 has the faculty 
of producing1 is capable of receiving1  
has the power of communicating1 a       
variety of motion4 ,thus some beings are

 proper to strike our organs2 these     
organs are competent to receiving the   
impression1 are adequate to undergoing  
changes by their presence4 ,those which 
cannot act on any of our organs1 either 
immediately and by themselves1 or       
immediately by the intervention of other
 bodies1 exist not for us2 since they   
can neither move us1 nor consequently   
furnish us with ideas3 they can neither 
be known to us1 nor of course be judged 
of by us4 ,to know an object1 is to have
 felt it2 to feel it1 it is requisite to
 have been moved by it4 ,to see1 is to  
have been moved1 by something acting on 
the visual organs2 to hear1 is to have  
been struck1 by something on our        
auditory nerves4 ,in short1 in whatever 
mode a body may act upon us1 whatever   
impulse we may receive from it1 we can  
have no other knowledge of it than by   
the change it produces in us4  ,nature1 
as we have already said1 is the         
assemblage of all the beings1           
consequently of all the motion of which 

we have a knowledge1 as well as of many 
others of which we know nothing1 because
 they have not yet become accessible to 
our senses4 ,from the continual action  
and re-action of these beings1 result a 
series of causes and effects2 or a chain
 of motion guided by the constant and   
invariable laws peculiar to each being2 
which are necessary or inherent to its  
particular nature--which make it always 
act or move after a determinate manner4 
,the different principles of this motion
 are unknown to us1 because we are in   
many instances1 if not in all1 ignorant 
of what constitutes the essence of      
beings4 ,the elements of bodies escape  
our senses2 we know them only in the    
mass3 we are neither acquainted with    
their intimate combination1 nor the     
proportion of these combinations2 from  
whence must necessarily result their    
mode of action1 their impulse1 or their 
different effects4  ,our senses bring us
 generally acquainted with two sorts of 
motion in the beings that surround us3  

the one is the motion of the mass1 by   
which an entire body is transferred from
 one place to another4 ,of the motion of
 this genus we are perfectly            
sensible4--,thus1 we see a stone fall1 a
 ball roll1 an arm move1 or change its  
position4 ,the other is an internal or  
concealed motion1 which always depends  
on the peculiar energies of a body3 that
 is to say1 on its essence1 or the      
combination1 the action1 and re-action  
of the minute--of the insensible        
particles of matter1 of which that body 
is composed4 ,this motion we do not see2
 we know it only by the alteration or   
change1 which after some time we        
discover in these bodies or mixtures4   
,of this genus is that concealed motion 
which fermentation produces in the      
particles that compose flour1 which1    
however scattered1 however separated1   
unite1 and form that mass which we call 
,,bread4 ,such also is the imperceptible
 motion by which we see a plant or      
animal enlarge1 strengthen1 undergo     

changes1 and acquire new qualities1     
without our eyes being competent to     
follow its progression1 or to perceive  
the causes which have produced these    
effects4 ,such also is the internal     
motion that takes place in man1 which is
 called his ,,intellectual ,,faculties1 
his ,,thoughts1 his ,,passions1 his     
will4 ,of these we have no other mode of
 judging1 than by their action2 that is1
 by those sensible effects which either 
accompany or follow them4 ,thus1 when we
 see a man run away1 we judge him to be 
interiorly actuated by the passion of   
fear4  ,motion1 whether visible or      
concealed1 is styled ,,acquired1 when it
 is impressed on one body by another2   
either by a cause to which we are a     
stranger1 or by an exterior agent which 
our senses enable us to discover4 ,thus 
we call that acquired motion1 which the 
wind gives to the sails of a ship4 ,that
 motion which is excited in a body1 that
 contains within itself the causes of   
those changes we see it undergo1 is     

called ,,spontaneous4 ,then it is said1 
this body acts or moves by its own      
peculiar energies4 ,of this kind is the 
motion of the man who walks1 who talks1 
who thinks4 ,nevertheless1 if we examine
 the matter a little closer1 we shall be
 convinced1 that1 strictly speaking1    
there is no such thing as spontaneous   
motion in any of the various bodies of  
,nature2 seeing they are perpetually    
acting one upon the other2 that all     
their changes are to be attributed to   
the causes1 either visible or concealed1
 by which they are moved4 ,the will of  
man is secretly moved or determined by  
some exterior cause that produces a     
change in him3 we believe he moves of   
himself1 because we neither see the     
cause that determined him1 the mode in  
which it acted1 nor the organ that it   
put in motion4  ,that is called ,,simple
 ,,motion1 which is excited in a body by
 a single cause4 ,,compound ,,motion1   
that which is produced by two or more   
different causes2 whether these causes  

are equal or unequal1 conspiring        
differently1 acting together or in      
succession1 known or unknown4  ,let the 
motion of beings be of whatsoever nature
 it may1 it is always the necessary     
consequence of their essence1 or of the 
properties which compose them1 and of   
those causes of which they experience   
the action4 ,each being can only move   
and act after a particular manner2 that 
is to say1 conformably to those laws    
which result from its peculiar essence1 
its particular combination1 its         
individual nature3 in short1 from its   
specific energies1 and those of the     
bodies from which it receives an        
impulse4 ,it is this that constitutes   
the invariable laws of motion3 ,i say   
invariable1 because they can never      
change1 without producing confusion in  
the essence of things4 ,it is thus that 
a heavy body must necessarily fall1 if  
it meets with no obstacle sufficient to 
arrest its descent2 that a sensible body
 must naturally seek pleasure1 and avoid

 pain2 that fire must necessarily burn1 
and diffuse light4  ,each being1 then1  
has laws of motion1 that are adapted to 
itself1 and constantly acts or moves    
according to these laws2 at least when  
no superior cause interrupts its action4
 ,thus1 fire ceases to burn combustible 
matter1 as soon as sufficient water is  
thrown into it1 to arrest its progress4 
,thus1 a sensible being ceases to seek  
pleasure1 as soon as he fears that pain 
will be the result4  ,the communication 
of motion1 or the medium of action1 from
 one body to another1 also follows      
certain and necessary laws2 one being   
can only communicate motion to another1 
by the affinity1 by the resemblance1 by 
the conformity1 by the analogy1 or by   
the point of contact1 which it has with 
that other being4 ,fire can only        
propagate when it finds matter analogous
 to itself3 it extinguishes when it     
encounters bodies which it cannot       
embrace2 that is to say1 that do not    
bear towards it a certain degree of     

relation or affinity4  ,every thing in  
the universe is in motion3 the essence  
of matter is to act3 if we consider its 
parts1 attentively1 we shall discover   
there is not a particle that enjoys     
absolute repose4 ,those which appear to 
us to be without motion1 are1 in fact1  
only in relative or apparent rest2 they 
experience such an imperceptible motion1
 and expose it so little on their       
surfaces1 that we cannot perceive the   
changes they undergo4 ,all that appears 
to us to be at rest1 does not1 however1 
remain one instant in the same state4   
,all beings are continually breeding1   
increasing1 decreasing1 or dispersing1  
with more or less dullness or rapidity4 
,the insect called ,,ephemeron1 is      
produced and perishes in the same day2  
of consequence1 it experiences the      
greatest changes of its being very      
rapidly1 in our eyes4 ,those            
combinations which form the most solid  
bodies1 which appear to enjoy the most  
perfect repose1 are nevertheless        

decomposed1 and dissolved in the course 
of time4 ,the hardest stones1 by        
degrees1 give way to the contact of air4
 ,a mass of iron1 which time1 and the   
action of the atmosphere1 has gnawed    
into rust1 must have been in motion1    
from the moment of its formation1 in the
 bowels of the earth1 until the instant 
we behold it in this state of           
dissolution4  ,natural philosophers1 for
 the most part1 seem not to have        
sufficiently reflected on what they call
 the nisus2 that is to say1 the         
incessant efforts one body is making on 
another1 but which1 notwithstanding     
appear1 to our superficial observation1 
to enjoy the most perfect repose4 ,a    
stone of five hundred weight seems to   
rest quiet on the earth1 nevertheless1  
it never ceases for an instant1 to press
 with force upon the earth1 which       
resists or repulses it in its turn4     
,will the assertion be ventured1 that   
the stone and earth do not act8 ,do they
 wish to be undeceived8 ,they have      

nothing to do but interpose their hand  
betwixt the earth and the stone2 it will
 then be discovered1 that               
notwithstanding its seeming repose1 the 
stone has power adequate to bruise it2  
because the hand has not energies       
sufficient1 within itself1 to resist    
effectually both the stone and          
earth4--,action cannot exist in bodies  
without re-action4 ,a body that         
experiences an impulse1 an attraction1  
or a pressure of any kind1 if it        
resists1 clearly demonstrates by such   
resistance that it re-acts2 from whence 
it follows1 there is a concealed force1 
called by these philosophers vis        
inertia1 that displays itself against   
another force2 and this clearly         
demonstrates1 that this inert force is  
capable of both acting and re-acting4   
,in short1 it will be found1 on close   
investigation1 that those powers which  
are called dead1 and those which are    
termed live or moving1 are powers of the
 same kind2 which only display          

themselves after a different manner4    
,permit us to go a greater distance yet4
 ,may we not say1 that in those bodies1 
or masses1 of which their whole become  
evident from appearances to us to be at 
rest1 there is notwithstanding1 a       
continual action1 and counter-action1   
constant efforts1 uninterrupted or      
communicated force1 and continued       
opposition8 ,in short1 a nisus1 by which
 the constituting portions of these     
bodies press one upon another1 mutually 
resisting each other1 acting and        
re-acting incessantly8 that this        
reciprocity of action1 this simultaneous
 re-action1 keeps them united1 causes   
their particles to form a mass1 a body1 
and a combination1 which1 viewed in its 
whole1 has the appearance of complete   
rest1 notwithstanding no one of its     
particles really ceases to be in motion 
for a single instant8 ,these collective 
masses appear to be at rest1 simply by  
the equality of the motion--by the      
responsory impulse of the powers acting 

in them4  ,thus it appears that bodies  
enjoying perfect repose1 really receive1
 whether upon their surface1 or in their
 interior1 a continual communicated     
force1 from those bodies by which they  
are either surrounded or penetrated1    
dilated or contracted1 rarified or      
condensed3 in fact1 from those which    
compose them2 whereby their particles   
are incessantly acting and re-acting1 or
 in continual motion1 the effects of    
which are displayed by extraordinary    
changes4 ,thus heat rarifies and dilates
 metals1 which is evidence deducible    
that a bar of iron1 from the change of  
the atmosphere alone1 must be in        
continual motion2 that there is not a   
single particle in it that can be said  
to enjoy rest even for a single moment4 
,in those hard bodies1 indeed1 the      
particles of which are in actual        
contact1 and which are closely united1  
how is it possible to conceive1 that    
air1 cold1 or heat1 can act upon one of 
these particles1 even exteriorly1       

without the motion being communicated to
 those which are most intimate and      
minute in their union8 ,without motion1 
how should we be able to comprehend the 
manner in which our sense of smelling is
 affected1 by emanations escaping from  
the most solid bodies1 of which all the 
particles appear to be at perfect rest8 
,how could we1 even by the assistance of
 a telescope1 see the most distant      
stars1 if there was not a progressive   
motion of light from these stars to the 
retina of our eye8  ,observation and    
reflection ought to convince us1 that   
every thing in ,nature is in continual  
motion--that there is not a single part1
 however small1 that enjoys repose--that
 ,nature acts in all--that she would    
cease to be ,nature if she did not act4 
,practical knowledge teaches us1 that   
without unceasing motion1 nothing could 
be preserved--nothing could be          
produced--nothing could act in this     
,nature4 ,thus the idea of ,nature      
necessarily includes that of motion4    

,but it will be asked1 and not a little 
triumphantly1 from whence did she derive
 her motion8 ,our reply is1 we know not1
 neither do they--that we never shall1  
that they never will4 ,it is a secret   
hidden from us1 concealed from them1 by 
the most impenetrable veil4 ,we also    
reply1 that it is fair to infer1 unless 
they can logically prove to the         
contrary1 that it is in herself1 since  
she is the great whole1 out of which    
nothing can exist4 ,we say this motion  
is a manner of existence1 that flows1   
necessarily1 out of the nature of       
matter2 that matter moves by its own    
peculiar energies2 that its motion is to
 be attributed to the force which is    
inherent in itself2 that the variety of 
motion1 and the phenomena which result1 
proceed from the diversity of the       
properties--of the qualities--of the    
combinations1 which are originally found
 in the primitive matter1 of which      
,nature is the assemblage4  ,natural    
philosophers1 for the most part1 have   

regarded as inanimate1 or as deprived of
 the faculty of motion1 those bodies    
which are only moved by the intervention
 of some agent or exterior cause2 they  
have considered themselves justified in 
concluding1 that the matter which forms 
these bodies is perfectly inert in its  
nature4 ,they have not forsaken this    
error1 although they must have observed1
 that whenever a body is left to itself1
 or disengaged from those obstructions  
which oppose themselves to its descent1 
it has a tendency to fall or to approach
 the centre of the earth1 by a motion   
uniformly accelerated2 they have rather 
chosen to suppose a visionary exterior  
cause1 of which they themselves had but 
an imperfect idea1 than admit that these
 bodies held their motion from their own
 peculiar nature4  ,these philosophers1 
also1 notwithstanding they saw above    
them an infinite number of globes that  
moved with great rapidity round a common
 centre1 still adhered to their         
favourite opinions2 and never ceased to 

suppose some whimsical causes for these 
movements1 until the immortal ,,newton  
clearly demonstrated that it was the    
effect of the gravitation of these      
celestial bodies towards each other4    
,experimental philosophers1 however1 and
 amongst them the great ,newton himself1
 have held the cause of gravitation as  
inexplicable4 ,notwithstanding the great
 weight of this authority1 it appears   
manifest that it may be deduced from the
 motion of matter1 by which bodies are  
diversely determined4 ,gravitation is   
nothing more than a mode of moving--a   
tendency towards a centre3 to speak     
strictly1 all motion is relative        
gravitation2 since that which falls     
relatively to us1 rises1 with relation  
to other bodies4 ,from this it follows1 
that every motion in our microcosm is   
the effect of gravitation2 seeing that  
there is not in the universe either top 
or bottom1 nor any absolute centre4 ,it 
should appear1 that the weight of bodies
 depends on their configuration1 as well

 external as internal1 which gives them 
that form of action which is called     
gravitation4 ,thus1 for instance1 a     
piece of lead1 spherically formed1 falls
 quickly and direct3 reduce this ball   
into very thin plates1 it will be       
sustained in the air for a much longer  
time3 apply to it the action of fire1   
this lead will rise in the atmosphere3  
here1 then1 the same metal1 variously   
modified1 has very different modes of   
action4  ,a very simple observation     
would have sufficed to make the         
philosophers1 antecedent to ,newton1    
feel the inadequateness of the causes   
they admitted to operate with such      
powerful effect4 ,they had a sufficiency
 to convince themselves1 in the         
collision of two bodies1 which they     
could contemplate1 and in the known laws
 of that motion1 which these always     
communicate by reason of their greater  
or less compactness2 from whence they   
ought to have inferred1 that the density
 of subtle or ethereal matter1 being    

considerably less than that of the      
planets1 it could only communicate to   
them a very feeble motion1 quite        
insufficient to produce that velocity of
 action1 of which they could not        
possibly avoid being the witnesses4  ,if
 ,nature had been viewed uninfluenced by
 prejudice1 they must have been long    
since convinced that matter acts by its 
own peculiar activity2 that it needs no 
exterior communicative force to set it  
in motion4 ,they might have perceived   
that whenever mixed bodies were placed  
in a situation to act on each other1    
motion was instantly excited2 and that  
these mixtures acted with a force       
capable of producing the most surprising
 results4  ,if particles of iron1       
sulphur1 and water be mixed together1   
these bodies thus capacitated to act on 
each other1 are heated by degrees1 and  
ultimately produce a violent combustion4
 ,if flour be wetted with water1 and the
 mixture closed up1 it will be found1   
after some lapse of time1 7by the aid of

 a microscope7 to have produced         
organized beings that enjoy life1 of    
which the water and the flour were      
believed incapable3 it is thus that     
inanimate matter can pass into life1 or 
animate matter1 which is in itself only 
an assemblage of motion4  ,reasoning    
from analogy1 which the philosophers of 
the present day do not hold             
incompatible1 the production of a man1  
independent of the ordinary means1 would
 not be more astonishing than that of an
 insect with flour and water4           
,fermentation and putrid substances1    
evidently produce living animals4 ,we   
have here the principle2 with proper    
materials1 principles can always be     
brought into action4 ,that generation   
which is styled uncertain is only so for
 those who do not reflect1 or who do not
 permit themselves1 attentively1 to     
observe the operations of ,nature4  ,the
 generative of motion1 and its          
developement1 as well as the energy of  
matter1 may be seen everywhere2 more    

particularly in those unitions in which 
fire1 air1 and water1 find themselves   
combined4 ,these elements1 or rather    
these mixed bodies1 are the most        
volatile1 the most fugitive of beings2  
nevertheless in the hands of ,nature1   
they are the essential agents employed  
to produce the most striking phenomena4 
,to these we must ascribe the effects of
 thunder1 the eruption of volcanoes1    
earthquakes1 c4 ,science offers to our  
consideration an agent of astonishing   
force1 in gunpowder1 the instant it     
comes in contact with fire4 ,in short1  
the most terrible effects result from   
the combination of matter1 which is     
generally believed to be dead and inert4
  ,these facts prove1 beyond a doubt1   
that motion is produced1 is augmented1  
is accelerated in matter1 without the   
help of any exterior agent3 therefore it
 is reasonable to conclude that motion  
is the necessary consequence of         
immutable laws1 resulting from the      
essence1 from the properties existing in

 the different elements1 and the various
 combinations of these elements4 ,are we
 not justified1 then1 in concluding1    
from these precedents1 that there may be
 an infinity of other combinations1 with
 which we are unacquainted1 competent to
 produce a great variety of motion in   
matter1 without being under the         
necessity of having recourse1 for the   
explanation1 to agents who are more     
difficult to comprehend than even the   
effects which are attributed to them8   
,had man but paid proper attention to   
what passed under his review1 he would  
not have sought out of ,nature1 a power 
distinguished from herself1 to set her  
in action1 and without which he believes
 she cannot move4 ,if1 indeed1 by       
,nature is meant a heap of dead matter1 
destitute of peculiar qualities purely  
passive1 we must unquestionably seek out
 of this ,nature the principle of her   
motion4 ,but if by ,nature be           
understood1 what it really is1 a whole1 
of which the numerous parts are endowed 

with various properties1 which oblige   
them to act according to these          
properties2 which are in a perpetual    
ternateness of action and reaction2     
which press1 which gravitate towards a  
common center1 whilst others depart from
 and fly off towards the periphery1 or  
circumference2 which attract and repel2 
which by continual approximation and    
constant collision1 produce and         
decompose all the bodies we behold2     
then1 ,i say1 there is no necessity to  
have recourse to supernatural powers1 to
 account for the formation of things1   
and those extraordinary appearances     
which are the result of motion4  ,those 
who admit a cause exterior to matter1   
are obliged to believe that this cause  
produced all the motion by which matter 
is agitated in giving it existence4     
,this belief rests on another1 namely1  
that matter could begin to exist2 an    
hypothesis that1 until this moment1 has 
never been satisfactorily demonstrated4 
,to produce from nothing1 or the        

,,creation1 is a term that cannot give  
us the least idea of the formation of   
the universe2 it presents no sense1 upon
 which the mind can rely4 ,in fact1 the 
human mind is not adequate to conceive a
 moment of non-existence1 or when all   
shall have passed away2 even admitting  
this to be a truth1 it is no truth for  
us1 because by the very nature of our   
organization1 we cannot admit positions 
as facts1 of which no evidence can be   
adduced that has relation to our senses2
 we may1 indeed1 consent to believe it1 
because others say it2 but will any     
rational being be satisfied with such an
 admission8 ,can any moral good spring  
from such blind assurance8 ,is it       
consistent with sound doctrine1 with    
philosophy1 or with reason8 ,do we1 in  
fact1 pay any respect to the            
intellectual powers of another1 when we 
say to him1 ,i will believe this1       
because in all the attempts you have    
ventured1 for the purpose of proving    
what you say1 you have entirely failed2 

and have been at last obliged to        
acknowledge you know nothing about the  
matter8 ,what moral reliance ought we to
 have on such people8 ,hypothesis may   
succeed hypothesis2 system may destroy  
system3 a new set of ideas may overturn 
the ideas of a former day4 ,other       
,gallileos may be condemned to          
death--other ,newtons may arise--we may 
reason--argue--dispute--quarrel--punish 
and destroy3 nay1 we may even           
exterminate those who differ from us in 
opinion2 but when we have done all this1
 we shall be obliged to fall back upon  
our original darkness--to confess1 that 
that which has no relation with our     
senses1 that which cannot manifest      
itself to us by some of the ordinary    
modes by which other things are         
manifested1 has no existence for us--is 
not comprehensible by us--can never     
entirely remove our doubt--can never    
seize on our stedfast belief2 seeing it 
is that of which we cannot form even a  
notion2 in short1 that it is that1 which

 as long as we remain what we are1 must 
be hidden from us by a veil1 which no   
power1 no faculty1 no energy we possess1
 is able to remove4 ,all who are not    
enslaved by prejudice agree to the truth
 of the position1 that nothing can be   
made of nothing4 ,many theologians have 
acknowledged ,nature to be an active    
whole4 ,almost all the ancient          
philosophers were agreed to regard the  
world as eternal4 ,,ocellus ,,lucanus1  
speaking of the universe1 says1 it has  
always been1 and it always will be4     
,,vatable and ,,grotius assure us1 that 
to render the ,hebrew phrase in the     
first chapter of ,,genesis correctly1 we
 must say1 when ,god made heaven and    
earth1 matter was without form4 ,if this
 be true1 and every ,hebraist can judge 
for himself1 then the word which has    
been rendered created1 means only to    
fashion1 form1 arrange4 ,we know that   
the ,greek words create and form1 have  
always indicated the same thing4        
,according to ,,st4 ,,jerome1 creare has

 the same meaning as condere1 to found1 
to build4 ,the ,bible does not anywhere 
say in a clear manner1 that the world   
was made of nothing4 ,,tertullian and   
the father ,,petau both admit1 that this
 is a truth established more by reason  
than by authority4 ,,st4 ,,justin seems 
to have contemplated matter as eternal1 
since he commends ,,plato for having    
said1 that ,god1 in the creation of the 
world1 only gave impulse to matter1 and 
fashioned it4 ,,burnet and ,,pythagoras 
were entirely of this opinion1 and even 
our ,church ,service may be adduced in  
support2 for although it admits by      
implication a beginning1 it expressly   
denies an end3 ,as it was in the        
beginning1 is now1 and ever shall be1   
world without end4 ,it is easy to       
perceive that that which cannot cease to
 exist1 must have always been4  ,motion 
becomes still more obscure1 when        
creation1 or the formation of matter1 is
 attributed to a ,,spiritual being2 that
 is to say1 to a being which has no     

analogy1 no point of contact1 with      
it--to a being which has neither extent 
or parts1 and cannot1 therefore1 be     
susceptible of motion1 as we understand 
the term2 this being only the change of 
one body1 relatively to another body1 in
 which the body moved presents          
successively different parts to         
different points of space4 ,moreover1 as
 all the world are nearly agreed that   
matter can never be totally annihilated1
 or cease to exist2 by what reasoning1  
,i would ask1 do they comprehend--how   
understand--that that which cannot cease
 to be1 could ever have had a beginning8
  ,if1 therefore1 it be asked1 whence   
came matter8 it is very reasonable to   
say it has always existed4 ,if it be    
inquired1 whence proceeds the motion    
that agitates matter8 the same reasoning
 furnishes the answer2 namely1 that as  
motion is coeval with matter1 it must   
have existed from all eternity1 seeing  
that motion is the necessary consequence
 of its existence--of its essence--of   

its primitive properties1 such as its   
extent1 its gravity1 its                
impenetrability1 its figure1 c4 ,by     
virtue of these essential constituent   
properties1 inherent in all matter1 and 
without which it is impossible to form  
an idea of it1 the various matter of    
which the universe is composed must from
 all eternity have pressed against1 each
 other--have gravitated towards a       
center--have clashed--have come in      
contact--have been attracted--have been 
repelled--have been combined--have been 
separated3 in short1 must have acted and
 moved according to the essence and     
energy peculiar to each genus1 and to   
each of its combinations4  ,existence   
supposes properties in the thing that   
exists3 whenever it has properties1 its 
mode of action must necessarily flow    
from those properties which constitute1 
its mode of being4 ,thus1 when a body is
 ponderous1 it must fall2 when it falls1
 it must come in collision with the     
bodies it meets in its descent2 when it 

is dense1 when it is solid1 it must1 by 
reason of this density1 communicate     
motion to the bodies with which it      
clashes2 when it has analogy1 when it   
has affinity with these bodies1 it must 
be attracted1 must be united with them2 
when it has no point of analogy with    
them1 it must be repulsed4  ,from which 
it may be fairly inferred1 that in      
supposing1 as we are under the necessity
 of doing1 the existence of matter1 we  
must suppose it to have some kind of    
properties2 from which its motion1 or   
modes of action1 must necessarily flow4 
,to form the universe1 ,,descartes asked
 but matter and motion3 a diversity of  
matter sufficed for him2 variety of     
motion was the consequence of its       
existence1 of its essence1 of its       
properties3 its different modes of      
action would be the necessary           
consequence of its different modes of   
being4 ,matter without properties would 
be a mere nothing2 therefore1 as soon as
 matter exists1 it must act2 as soon as 

it is various1 it must act variously2 if
 it cannot commence to exist1 it must   
have existed from all eternity2 if it   
has always existed1 it can never cease  
to be3 if it can never cease to be1 it  
can never cease to act by its own       
energy4 ,motion is a manner of being1   
which matter derives from its peculiar  
existence4  ,the existence1 then1 of    
matter is a fact3 the existence of      
motion is another fact4 ,our visual     
organs point out to us matter with      
different essences1 forming a variety of
 combinations1 endowed with various     
properties that discriminate them4      
,indeed1 it is a palpable error to      
believe that matter is a homogeneous    
body1 of which the parts differ from    
each other only by their various        
modifications4 ,among the individuals of
 the same species that come under our   
notice1 no two resemble exactly2 and it 
is therefore evident that the difference
 of situation alone will1 necessarily1  
carry a diversity more or less sensible1

 not only in the modifications1 but also
 in the essence1 in the properties1 in  
the entire system of beings4 ,this truth
 was well understood by the profound and
 subtle ,,leibnitz4  ,if this principle 
be properly digested1 and experience    
seems always to produce evidence of its 
truth1 we must be convinced that the    
matter or primitive elements which enter
 into the composition of bodies1 are not
 of the same nature1 and consequently1  
can neither have the same properties1   
nor the same modifications2 and if so1  
they cannot have the same mode of moving
 and acting4 ,their activity or motion1 
already different1 can be diversified to
 infinity1 augmented or diminished1     
accelerated or retarded1 according to   
the combinations1 the proportions1 the  
pressure1 the density1 the volume of the
 matter1 that enters their composition4 
,the endless variety to be produced1    
will need no further illustration than  
the commonest book of arithmetic        
furnishes us1 where it will be found1   

that to ring all the changes that can be
 produced on twelve bells only1 would   
occupy a space of more than ninety-one  
years4 ,the element of fire is visibly  
more active and more inconstant than    
that of earth4 ,this is more solid and  
ponderous than fire1 air1 or water4     
,according to the quantity of these     
elements1 which enter the composition of
 bodies1 these must act diversely1 and  
their motion must in some measure       
partake the motion peculiar to each of  
their constituent parts4 ,elementary    
fire appears to be in ,nature the       
principle of activity2 it may be        
compared to a fruitful leaven1 that puts
 the mass into fermentation and gives it
 life4 ,earth appears to be the         
principle of solidity in bodies1 from   
its impenetrability1 and by the firm    
coherence of its parts4 ,water is a     
medium1 to facilitate the combination of
 bodies1 into which it enters itself1 as
 a constituent part4 ,air is a fluid    
whose business it seems to be1 to       

furnish the other elements with the     
space requisite to expand1 to exercise  
their motion1 and which is1 moreover1   
found proper to combine with them4      
,these elements1 which our senses never 
discover in a pure state--which are     
continually and reciprocally set in     
motion by each other--which are always  
acting and re-acting1 combining and     
separating1 attracting and              
repelling--are sufficient to explain to 
us the formation of all the beings we   
behold4 ,their motion is uninterruptedly
 and reciprocally produced from each    
other2 they are alternately causes and  
effects4 ,thus1 they form a vast circle 
of generation and destruction--of       
combination and decomposition1 which1 it
 is quite reasonable to suppose1 could  
never have had a beginning1 and which1  
consequently can never have an end4 ,in 
short1 ,nature is but an immense chain  
of causes and effects1 which unceasingly
 flow from each other4 ,the motion of   
particular beings depends on the general

 motion1 which is itself maintained by  
individual motion4 ,this is strengthened
 or weakened1 accelerated or retarded1  
simplified or complicated1 procreated or
 destroyed1 by a variety of combinations
 and circumstances1 which every moment  
change the directions1 the tendency1 the
 modes of existing1 and of acting1 of   
the different beings that receive its   
impulse4  ,if it were true1 as has been 
asserted by some philosophers1 that     
every thing has a tendency to form one  
unique or single mass1 and in that      
unique mass the instant should arrive   
when all was in nisus1 all would        
eternally remain in this state2 to all  
eternity there would be no more than one
 ,being and one effort3 this would be   
eternal and universal death4  ,if we    
desire to go beyond this1 to find the   
principle of action in matter1 to trace 
the origin of things1 it is for ever to 
fall back upon difficulties2 it is      
absolutely to abridge the evidence of   
our senses2 by which only we can        

understand1 by which alone we can judge 
of the causes acting upon them1 or the  
impulse by which they are set in action4
  ,let us1 therefore1 content ourselves 
with saying ,,what is supported by our  
experience1 and by all the evidence we  
are capable of understanding2 against   
the truth of which not a shadow of      
proof1 such as our reason can admit1 has
 ever been adduced--which has been      
maintained by philosophers in every     
age--which theologians themselves have  
not denied1 but which many of them have 
upheld2 namely1 that matter always      
existed2 that it moves by virtue of its 
essence2 that all the phenomena of      
,nature is ascribable to the diversified
 motion of the variety of matter she    
contains2 and which1 like the phoenix1  
is continually regenerating out of its  
own ashes4      ,,chap4 ,,iii4  ,of     
,matter4--,of its various               
,combinations4--,of its diversified     
,motion1 or of the ,course of ,nature4  
,we know nothing of the elements of     

bodies1 but we know some of their       
properties or qualities2 and we         
distinguish their various matter by the 
effect or change produced on our senses2
 that is to say1 by the variety of      
motion their presence excites in us4 ,in
 consequence1 we discover in them1      
extent1 mobility1 divisibility1         
solidity1 gravity1 and inert force4     
,from these general and primitive       
properties flow a number of others1 such
 as density1 figure1 colour1            
ponderosity1 c4 ,thus1 relatively to us1
 matter is all that affects our senses  
in any manner whatever2 the various     
properties we attribute to matter1 by   
which we discriminate its diversity1 are
 founded on the different impressions we
 receive on the changes they produce in 
us4  ,a satisfactory definition of      
matter has not yet been given4 ,man1    
deceived and led astray by his          
prejudices1 formed but vague1           
superficial1 and imperfect notions      
concerning it4 ,he looked upon it as an 

unique being1 gross and passive1        
incapable of either moving by itself1 of
 forming combinations1 or of producing  
any thing by its own energies4 ,instead 
of this unintelligible jargon1 he ought 
to have contemplated it as a genus of   
beings1 of which the individuals1       
although they might possess some common 
properties1 such as extent1             
divisibility1 figure1 c4 should not1    
however1 be all ranked in the same      
class1 nor comprised under the same     
general denomination4  ,an example will 
serve more fully to explain what we have
 asserted1 throw its correctness into   
light1 and facilitate the application4  
,the properties common to all matter1   
are extent1 divisibility1               
impenetrability1 figure1 mobility1 or   
the property of being moved in mass4    
,,fire1 beside these general properties1
 common to all matter1 enjoys also the  
peculiar property of being put into     
activity by a motion that produces on   
our organs of feeling the sensation of  

heat2 and by another1 that communicates 
to our visual organs the sensation of   
light4 ,iron1 in common with matter in  
general1 has extent and figure2 is      
divisible1 and moveable in mass3 if fire
 be combined with it in a certain       
proportion1 the iron acquires two new   
properties2 namely1 those of exciting in
 us similar sensations of heat and      
light1 which were excited by the element
 of fire1 but which the iron had not1   
before its combination with the igneous 
matter4 ,these distinguishing properties
 are inseparable from matter1 and the   
phenomena that result1 may1 in the      
strictest sense of the word1 be said to 
result necessarily4  ,if we contemplate 
a little the paths of ,nature--if1 for a
 time1 we trace the beings in this      
,nature1 under the different states     
through which1 by reason of their       
properties1 they are compelled to pass2 
we shall discover1 that it is to motion1
 and motion only1 that is to be ascribed
 all the changes1 all the combinations1 

all the forms1 in short1 all the various
 modifications of matter4 ,that it is by
 motion every thing that exists is      
produced1 experiences change1 expands1  
and is destroyed4 ,it is motion that    
alters the aspect of beings2 that adds  
to1 or takes away from their properties2
 which obliges each of them1 by a       
consequence of its nature1 after having 
occupied a certain rank or order1 to    
quit it1 to occupy another1 and to      
contribute to the generation1           
maintenance1 and decomposition of other 
beings1 totally different in their bulk1
 rank1 and essence4  ,in what           
experimental philosophers have styled   
the ,,three ,,orders ,,of ,,nature1 that
 is to say1 the mineral1 the vegetable1 
and animal worlds1 they have            
established1 by the aid of motion1 a    
transmigration1 an exchange1 a continual
 circulation in the particles of matter4
 ,nature has occasion in one place1 for 
those particles which1 for a time1 she  
has placed in another4 ,these particles1

 after having1 by particular            
combinations1 constituted beings endued 
with peculiar essences1 with specific   
properties1 with determinate modes of   
action1 dissolve and separate with more 
or less facility2 and combining in a new
 manner1 they form new beings4 ,the     
attentive observer sees this law execute
 itself1 in a manner more or less       
prominent1 through all the beings by    
which he is surrounded4 ,he sees nature 
full of erratic germe1 some of which    
expand themselves1 whilst others wait   
until motion has placed them in their   
proper situation1 in suitable wombs or  
matrices1 in the necessary              
circumstances1 to unfold1 to increase1  
to render them more perceptible by the  
addition of other substances of matter  
analogous to their primitive being4 ,in 
all this we see nothing but the effect  
of motion1 necessarily guided1 modified1
 accelerated or slackened1 strengthened 
or weakened1 by reason of the various   
properties that beings successively     

acquire and lose2 which1 every moment1  
infallibly produces alterations in      
bodies more or less marked4 ,indeed1    
these bodies cannot be1 strictly        
speaking1 the same in any two successive
 moments of their existence2 they must1 
every instant1 either acquire or lose3  
in short1 they are obliged to undergo   
continual variations in their essences1 
in their properties1 in their energies1 
in their masses1 in their qualities1 in 
their mode of existence4  ,animals1     
after they have been expanded in1 and   
brought out of1 the wombs that are      
suitable to the elements of their       
machine1 enlarge1 strengthen1 acquire   
new properties1 new energies1 new       
faculties2 either by deriving           
nourishment from plants analogous to    
their being1 or by devouring other      
animals whose substance is suitable to  
their preservation2 that is to say1 to  
repair the continual deperdition or loss
 of some portion of their own substance1
 that is disengaging itself every       

instant4 ,these same animals are        
nourished1 preserved1 strengthened1 and 
enlarged1 by the aid of air1 water1     
earth1 and fire4 ,deprived of air1 or of
 the fluid that surrounds them1 that    
presses on them1 that penetrates them1  
that gives them their elasticity1 they  
presently cease to live4 ,water1        
combined with this air1 enters into     
their whole mechanism of which it       
facilitates the motion4 ,earth serves   
them for a basis1 by giving solidity to 
their texture3 it is conveyed by air and
 water1 which carry it to those parts of
 the body with which it can combine4    
,fire itself1 disguised and enveloped   
under an infinity of forms1 continually 
received into the animal1 procures him  
heat1 continues him in life1 renders him
 capable of exercising his functions4   
,the aliments1 charged with these       
various principles1 entering into the   
stomach1 re-establish the nervous       
system1 and restore1 by their activity1 
and the elements which compose them1 the

 machine which begins to languish1 to be
 depressed1 by the loss it has          
sustained4 ,forthwith the animal        
experiences a change in his whole       
system2 he has more energy1 more        
activity2 he feels more courage2        
displays more gaiety2 he acts1 he moves1
 he thinks1 after a different manner2   
all his faculties are exercised with    
more ease4 ,this igneous matter1 so     
congenial to generation--so restorative 
in its effect--so necessary to life1 was
 the ,,jupiter of the ancients3 from all
 that has preceded1 it is clear1 that   
what are called the elements1 or        
primitive parts of matter1 variously    
combined1 are1 by the agency of motion1 
continually united to1 and assimilated  
with1 the substance of animals--that    
they visibly modify their being--have an
 evident influence over their actions1  
that is to say1 upon the motion they    
undergo1 whether visible or concealed4  
,the same elements1 which under certain 
circumstances serve to nourish1 to      

strengthen1 to maintain the animal1     
become1 under others1 the principles of 
his weakness1 the instruments of his    
dissolution--of his death3 they work his
 destruction1 whenever they are not in  
that just proportion which renders them 
proper to maintain his existence3 thus1 
when water becomes too abundant in the  
body of the animal1 it enervates him1 it
 relaxes the fibres1 and impedes the    
necessary action of the other elements3 
thus1 fire admitted in excess1 excites  
in him disorderly motion destructive of 
his machine3 thus1 air1 charged with    
principles not analogous to his         
mechanism1 brings upon him dangerous    
diseases and contagion4 ,in fine1 the   
aliments modified after certain modes1  
in the room of nourishing1 destroy the  
animal1 and conduce to his ruin3 the    
animal is preserved no longer than these
 substances are analogous to his system4
 ,they ruin him when they want that just
 equilibrium that renders them suitable 
to maintain his existence4  ,plants that

 serve to nourish and restore animals   
are themselves nourished by earth2 they 
expand on its bosom1 enlarge and        
strengthen at its expense1 continually  
receiving into their texture1 by their  
roots and their pores1 water1 air1 and  
igneous matter3 water visibly reanimates
 them whenever their vegetation or genus
 of life languishes2 it conveys to them 
those analogous principles by which they
 are enabled to reach perfection3 air is
 requisite to their expansion1 and      
furnishes them with water1 earth1 and   
the igneous matter with which it is     
charged4 ,by these means they receive   
more or less of the inflammable matter2 
the different proportions of these      
principles1 their numerous combinations1
 from whence result an infinity of      
properties1 a variety of forms1         
constitute the various families and     
classes into which botanists have       
distributed plants3 it is thus we see   
the cedar and the hyssop develop their  
growth2 the one rises to the clouds1 the

 other creep humbly on the earth4 ,thus1
 by degrees1 from an acorn springs the  
majestic oak1 accumulating1 with time1  
its numerous branches1 and overshadowing
 us with its foliage4 ,thus1 a grain of 
corn1 after having drawn its own        
nourishment from the juices of the      
earth1 serves1 in its turn1 for the     
nourishment of man1 into whose system it
 conveys the elements or principles by  
which it has been itself expanded1      
combined1 and modified in such a manner1
 as to render this vegetable proper to  
assimilate and unite with the human     
frame2 that is to say1 with the fluids  
and solids of which it is composed4     
,the same elements1 the same principles1
 are found in the formation of minerals1
 as well as in their decomposition1     
whether natural or artificial4 ,we find 
that earth1 diversely modified1 wrought1
 and combined1 serves to increase their 
bulk1 and give them more or less density
 and gravity4 ,air and water contribute 
to make their particles cohere2 the     

igneous matter1 or inflammable          
principle1 tinges them with colour1 and 
sometimes plainly indicates its         
presence1 by the brilliant scintillation
 which motion elicits from them4 ,these 
stones and metals1 these bodies1 so     
compact and solid1 are disunited1 are   
destroyed1 by the agency of air1 water1 
and fire2 which the most ordinary       
analysis is sufficient to prove1 as well
 as a multitude of experience1 to which 
our eyes are the daily evidence4        
,animals1 plants1 and minerals1 after a 
lapse of time1 give back to ,nature2    
that is to say1 to the general mass of  
things1 to the universal magazine1 the  
elements1 or principles1 which they have
 borrowed3 ,the earth retakes that      
portion of the body of which it formed  
the basis and the solidity2 the air     
charges itself with these parts1 that   
are1 analogous to it1 and with those    
particles which are light and subtle2   
water carries off that which is suitable
 to liquescency2 fire1 bursting its     

chains1 disengages itself1 and rushes   
into new combinations with other bodies4
  ,the elementary particles of the      
animal1 being thus dissolved1 disunited1
 and dispersed2 assume new activity1 and
 form new combinations3 thus1 they serve
 to nourish1 to preserve1 or destroy new
 beings2 among others1 plants1 which    
arrived at their maturity1 nourish and  
preserve new animals2 these in their    
turn yielding to the same fate as the   
first4  ,such is the constant1 the      
invariable course1 of ,nature2 such is  
the eternal circle of mutation1 which   
all that exists is obliged to describe4 
,it is thus motion generates1 preserves 
for a time1 and successively1 destroys1 
one part of the universe by the other2  
whilst the sum of existence remains     
eternally the same4 ,nature1 by its     
combinations1 produces suns1 which place
 themselves in the centre of so many    
systems3 she forms planets1 which1 by   
their peculiar essence1 gravitate and   
describe their revolutions round these  

suns3 by degrees the motion is changed  
altogether1 and becomes eccentric3      
perhaps the day may arrive when these   
wondrous masses will disperse1 of which 
man1 in the short space of his          
existence1 can only have a faint and    
transient glimpse4  ,it is clear1 then1 
that the continual motion inherent in   
matter1 changes and destroys all beings2
 every instant depriving them of some of
 their properties1 to substitute others3
 it is motion1 which1 in thus changing  
their actual essence1 changes also their
 order1 their direction1 their tendency1
 and the laws which regulate their mode 
of acting and being3 from the stone     
formed in the bowels of the earth1 by   
the intimate combination and close      
coherence of similar and analogous      
particles1 to the sun1 that vast        
reservoir of igneous particles1 which   
sheds torrents of light over the        
firmament2 from the benumbed oyster1 to 
the thoughtful and active man2 we see an
 uninterrupted progression1 a perpetual 

chain of motion and combination2 from   
which is produced1 beings that only     
differ from each other by the variety of
 their elementary matter--by the        
numerous combinations of these elements1
 from whence springs modes of action and
 existence1 diversified to infinity4 ,in
 generation1 in nutrition1 in           
preservation1 we see nothing more than  
matter1 variously combined1 of which    
each has its peculiar motion1 regulated 
by fixed and determinate laws1 which    
oblige them to submit to necessary      
changes4 ,we shall find1 in the         
formation1 in the growth1 in the        
instantaneous life1 of animals1         
vegetables1 and minerals1 nothing but   
matter2 which combining1 accumulating1  
aggregating1 and expanding by degrees1  
forms beings1 who are either feeling1   
living1 vegetating1 or else destitute of
 these faculties2 which1 having existed 
some time under one particular form1 are
 obliged to contribute by their ruin to 
the production of other forms4  ,thus1  

to speak strictly1 nothing in ,nature is
 either born1 or dies1 according to the 
common acceptation of those terms4 ,this
 truth was felt by many of the ancient  
philosophers4 ,,plato says1 that        
according to tradition1 the living were 
born of the dead1 the same as the dead  
did come of the living2 and that this is
 the constant routine of ,nature4 ,he   
adds from himself1 who knows1 if to     
live1 be not to die2 and if to die1 be  
not to live8 ,this was the doctrine of  
,,pythagoras1 a man of great talent and 
no less note4 ,,empedocles asserts1     
there is neither birth nor death1 for   
any mortal2 but only a combination1 and 
a separation of that which was combined1
 and that this is what amongst men they 
call birth1 and death4 ,again he        
remarks1 those are infants1 or          
short-sighted persons1 with very        
contracted understandings1 who imagine  
any thing is born1 which did not exist  
before1 or that any thing can die or    
perish totally4      ,,chap4 ,,iv4      

,laws of ,motion1 common to every ,being
 of ,nature4--,attraction and           
,repulsion4--,inert ,force4--,necessity4
   ,man is never surprised at those     
effects1 of which he thinks he knows the
 cause2 he believes he does know the    
cause1 as soon as he sees them act in an
 uniform and determinate manner1 or when
 the motion excited is simple3 the      
descent of a stone1 that falls by its   
own peculiar weight1 is an object of    
contemplation to the philosopher only2  
to whom the mode by which the most      
immediate causes act1 and the most      
simple motion1 are no less impenetrable 
mysteries than the most complex motion1 
and the manner by which the most        
complicated causes give impulse4 ,the   
uninformed are seldom tempted either to 
examine the effects which are familiar  
to them1 or to recur to first           
principles4 ,they think they see nothing
 in the descent of a stone1 which ought 
to elicit their surprise1 or become the 
object of their research3 it requires a 

,,newton to feel that the descent of    
heavy bodies is a phenomenon1 worthy his
 whole1 his most serious attention2 it  
requires the sagacity of a profound     
experimental philosopher1 to discover   
the laws by which heavy bodies fall1 by 
which they communicate to others their  
peculiar motion4 ,in short1 the mind    
that is most practised in philosophical 
observation1 has frequently the chagrin 
to find1 that the most simple and most  
common effects escape all his           
researches1 and remain inexplicable to  
him4  ,when any extraordinary1 any      
unusual1 effect is produced1 to which   
our eyes have not been accustomed2 or   
when we are ignorant of the energies of 
the cause1 the action of which so       
forcibly strikes our senses1 we are     
tempted to meditate upon it1 and take it
 into our consideration4 ,the ,european1
 accustomed to the use of ,,gunpowder1  
passes it by1 without thinking much of  
its extraordinary energies2 the workman1
 who labours to manufacture it1 finds   

nothing marvellous in its properties1   
because he daily handles the matter that
 forms its composition4 ,the ,american1 
to whom this powder was a stranger1 who 
had never beheld its operation1 looked  
upon it as a divine power1 and its      
energies as supernatural4 ,the          
uninformed1 who are ignorant of the true
 cause of ,,thunder1 contemplate it as  
the instrument of divine vengeance4 ,the
 experimental philosopher considers it  
as the effect of the electric matter1   
which1 nevertheless1 is itself a cause  
which he is very far from perfectly     
understanding4--,it required the keen1  
the penetrating mind of a ,,franklin1 to
 throw light on the nature of this      
subtle fluid--to develop the means by   
which its effects might be rendered     
harmless--to turn to useful purposes1 a 
phenomenon that made the ignorant       
tremble--that filled their minds with   
terror1 their hearts with dismay1 as    
indicating the anger of the gods3       
impressed with this idea1 they          

prostrated themselves1 they sacrificed  
to ,,jupiter1 to deprecate his wrath4   
,be this as it may1 whenever we see a   
cause act1 we look upon its effect as   
natural3 when this cause becomes        
familiar to the sight1 when we are      
accustomed to it1 we think we understand
 it1 and its effects surprise us no     
longer4 ,whenever any unusual effect is 
perceived1 without our discovering the  
cause1 the mind sets to work1 becomes   
uneasy2 this uneasiness increases in    
proportion to its extent3 as soon as it 
is believed to threaten our             
preservation1 we become completely      
agitated2 we seek after the cause with  
an earnestness proportioned to our      
alarm2 our perplexity augments in a     
ratio equivalent to the persuasion we   
are under3 how essentially requisite it 
is1 we should become acquainted with the
 cause that has affected us in so lively
 a manner4 ,as it frequently happens    
that our senses can teach us nothing    
respecting this cause which so deeply   

interests us--which we seek with so much
 ardour1 we have recourse to our        
imagination2 this1 disturbed with alarm1
 enervated by fear1 becomes a           
suspicious1 a fallacious guide3 we      
create chimeras1 fictitious causes1 to  
whom we give the credit1 to whom we     
ascribe the honour of those phenomena by
 which we have been so much alarmed4 ,it
 is to this disposition of the human    
mind that must be attributed1 as will be
 seen in the sequel1 the religious      
errors of man1 who1 despairing of the   
capacity to trace the natural causes of 
those perplexing phenomena to which he  
was the witness1 and sometimes the      
victim1 created in his brain 7heated    
with terror7 imaginary causes1 which    
have become to him a source of the most 
extravagant folly4  ,in ,nature1        
however1 there can be only natural      
causes and effects2 all motion excited  
in this ,nature1 follows constant and   
necessary laws3 the natural operations1 
to the knowledge of which we are        

competent1 of which we are in a capacity
 to judge1 are of themselves sufficient 
to enable us to discover those which    
elude our sight2 we can at least judge  
of them by analogy4 ,if we study ,nature
 with attention1 the modes of action    
which she displays to our senses will   
teach us not to be disconcerted by those
 which she refuses to discover4 ,those  
causes which are the most remote from   
their effects1 unquestionably act by    
intermediate causes2 by the aid of      
these1 we can frequently trace out the  
first4 ,if in the chain of these causes 
we sometimes meet with obstacles that   
oppose themselves to our research1 we   
ought to endeavour by patience and      
diligence to overcome them2 when it so  
happens we cannot surmount the          
difficulties that occur1 we still are   
never justified in concluding the chain 
to be broken1 or that the cause which   
acts is ,,super-,,natural4 ,let us1     
then1 be content with an honest avowal1 
that ,nature contains resources of which

 we are ignorant2 but never let us      
substitute phantoms1 fictions1 or       
imaginary causes1 senseless terms1 for  
those causes which escape our research2 
because1 by such means we only confirm  
ourselves in ignorance1 impede our      
enquiries1 and obstinately remain in    
error4  ,in spite of our ignorance with 
respect to the meanderings of ,nature1  
7for of the essence of being1 of their  
properties1 their elements1 their       
combinations1 their proportions1 we yet 
know the simple and general laws1       
according to which bodies move27 we see 
clearly1 that some of these laws1 common
 to all beings1 never contradict        
themselves2 although1 on some occasions1
 they appear to vary1 we are frequently 
competent to discover that the cause    
becoming complex1 from combination with 
other causes1 either impedes or prevents
 its mode of action being such as in its
 primitive state we had a right to      
expect4 ,we know that active1 igneous   
matter1 applied to gunpowder1 must      

necessarily cause it to explode3        
whenever this effect does not follow the
 combination of the igneous matter with 
the gunpowder--whenever our senses do   
not give us evidence of the fact1 we are
 justified in concluding1 either that   
the powder is damp1 or that it is united
 with some other substance that         
counteracts its explosion4 ,we know that
 all the actions of man have a tendency 
to render him happy3 whenever1          
therefore1 we see him labouring to      
injure or destroy himself1 it is just to
 infer that he is moved by some cause   
opposed to his natural tendency2 that he
 is deceived by some prejudice2 that1   
for want of experience1 he is blind to  
consequences3 that he does not see      
whither his actions will lead him4  ,if 
the motion excited in beings was always 
simple2 if their actions did not blend  
and combine with each other1 it would be
 easy to know1 and we should be assured1
 in the first instance1 of the effect a 
cause would produce4 ,i know that a     

stone1 when descending1 ought to        
describe a perpendicular3 ,i also know1 
that if it encounters any other body    
which changes its course1 it is obliged 
to take an oblique direction1 but if its
 fall be interrupted by several contrary
 powers1 which act upon it alternately1 
,i am no longer competent to determine  
what line it will describe4 ,it may be a
 parabola1 an ellipsis1 spiral1         
circular1 c4 this will depend on the    
impulse1 it receives1 and the powers by 
which it is impelled4  ,the most complex
 motion1 however1 is never more than the
 result of simple motion combined3      
therefore as soon as we know the general
 laws of beings and their action1 we    
have only to decompose1 to analyse them1
 in order to discover those of which    
they are combined2 experience teaches us
 the effects we are to expect4 ,thus it 
is clear1 the simplest motion causes    
that necessary junction of different    
matter1 of which all bodies are         
composed3 that matter1 varied in its    

essence1 in its properties1 in its      
combinations1 has each its several modes
 of action or motion1 peculiar to       
itself2 the whole motion of a body is   
consequently the sum total of each      
particular motion that is combined4     
,amongst the matter we behold1 some is  
constantly disposed to unite1 whilst    
other is incapable of union2 that which 
is suitable to unite1 forms             
combinations1 more or less intimate1    
possessing more or less durability3 that
 is to say1 with more or less capacity  
to preserve their union1 to resist      
dissolution4 ,those bodies which are    
called ,,solids1 receive into their     
composition a great number of           
homogeneous1 similar1 and analogous     
particles1 disposed to unite themselves 
with energies conspiring or tending to  
the same point4 ,the primitive beings1  
or elements of bodies1 have need of     
supports1 of props2 that is to say1 of  
the presence of each other1 for the     
purpose of preserving themselves2 of    

acquiring consistence or solidity3 a    
truth1 which applies with equal         
uniformity to what is called physical1  
as to what is termed moral4  ,it is upon
 this disposition in matter and bodies1 
with relation to each other1 that is    
founded those modes of action which     
natural philosophers designate by the   
terms attraction1 repulsion1 sympathy1  
antipathy1 affinities1 relations2 that  
moralists describe under the names of   
love1 hatred1 friendship1 aversion4     
,man1 like all the beings in nature1    
experiences the impulse of attraction   
and repulsion2 the motion excited in him
 differing from that of other beings1   
only1 because it is more concealed1 and 
frequently so hidden1 that neither the  
causes which excite it1 nor their mode  
of action are known4 ,this system of    
attraction and repulsion is very        
ancient1 although it required a ,,newton
 to develop it4 ,that love1 to which the
 ancients attributed the unfolding1 or  
disentanglement of chaos1 appears to    

have been nothing more than a           
personification of the principle of     
attraction4 ,all their allegories and   
fables upon chaos1 evidently indicate   
nothing more than the accord or union   
that exists between analogous and       
homogeneous substances2 from whence     
resulted the existence of the universe3 
whilst discord or repulsion1 which they 
called ,,sois1 was the cause of         
dissolution1 confusion1 and disorder2   
there can scarcely remain a doubt1 but  
this was the origin of the doctrines of 
the ,,two ,,principles4 ,according to   
,,diogenes ,,laertius1 the philosopher1 
,,empedocles1 asserted1 that there is a 
kind of affection by which the elements 
unite themselves2 and a sort of discord1
 by which they separate or remove       
themselves4  ,however it may be1 it is  
sufficient for us to know that by an    
invariable law1 certain bodies are      
disposed to unite with more or less     
facility2 whilst others cannot combine  
or unite themselves3 water combines     

itself readily with salt1 but will not  
blend with oil4 ,some combinations are  
very strong1 cohering with great force1 
as metals2 others are extremely feeble1 
their cohesion slight and easily        
decomposed1 as in fugitive colours4     
,some bodies1 incapable of uniting by   
themselves1 become susceptible of union 
by the agency of other bodies1 which    
serve for common bonds or ,,mediums4    
,thus1 oil and water1 naturally         
heterogeneous1 combine and make soap1 by
 the intervention of alkaline salt4     
,from matter diversely combined1 in     
proportions varied almost to infinity1  
result all physical and moral bodies2   
the properties and qualities of which   
are essentially different1 with modes of
 action more or less complex3 which are 
either understood with facility1 or     
difficult of comprehension1 according to
 the elements or matter that has entered
 into their composition1 and the various
 modifications this matter has          
undergone4  ,it is thus1 from the       

reciprocity of their attraction1 the    
primitive imperceptible particles of    
matter1 which constitute bodies1 become 
perceptible1 form compound substances1  
aggregate masses2 by the union of       
similar and analogous matter1 whose     
essences fit them to cohere4 ,the same  
bodies are dissolved1 their union       
broken1 whenever they undergo the action
 of matter inimical to their junction4  
,thus by degrees are formed1 plants1    
metals1 animals1 men2 each grows1       
expands1 and increases in its own system
 or order2 sustaining itself in its     
respective existence1 by the continual  
attraction of analogous matter2 to which
 it becomes united1 and by which it is  
preserved and strengthened4 ,thus1      
certain aliments become fit for the     
sustenance of man1 whilst others destroy
 his existence3 some are pleasant to    
him1 strengthen his habit2 others are   
repugnant to him1 weaken his system3 in 
short1 never to separate physical from  
moral laws1 it is thus that men1        

mutually attracted to each other by     
their reciprocal wants1 form those      
unions which we designate by the terms1 
,,marriage1 ,,families1 ,,societies1    
,,friendships1 ,,connexions3 it is thus 
that virtue strengthens and consolidates
 them2 that vice relaxes or totally     
dissolves them4  ,of whatever nature may
 be the combination of beings1 their    
motion has always one direction or      
tendency3 without direction we could not
 have any idea of motion3 this direction
 is regulated by the properties of each 
being2 as soon as they have any given   
properties1 they necessarily act in     
obedience to them3 that is to say1 they 
follow the law invariably determined by 
these same properties2 which1 of        
themselves1 constitute the being such as
 he is found1 and settle his mode of    
action1 which is always the consequence 
of his manner of existence4 ,but what is
 the general direction1 or common       
tendency1 we see in all beings8 ,what is
 the visible and known end of all their 

motion8 ,it is to conserve their actual 
existence--to preserve themselves--to   
strengthen their several bodies--to     
attract that which is favorable to      
them--to repel that which is injurious  
them--to avoid that which can harm      
them--to resist impulsions contrary to  
their manner of existence1 and to their 
natural tendency4  ,to exist1 is to     
experience the motion peculiar to a     
determinate essence3 to conserve this   
existence1 is to give and receive that  
motion from which results its           
maintenance3--it is to attract matter   
suitable to corroborate its being--to   
avoid that by which it may be either    
endangered or enfeebled4 ,thus1 all     
beings of which we have any knowledge1  
have a tendency to conserve themselves1 
each after its peculiar manner3 the     
stone1 by the firm adhesion of its      
particles1 opposes resistance to its    
destruction4 ,organized beings conserve 
themselves by more complicated means1   
but which are1 nevertheless1 calculated 

to maintain their existence against that
 by which it may be injured4 ,man1 both 
in his physical and in his moral        
capacity1 is a living1 feeling1         
thinking1 active being2 who1 every      
instant of his duration1 strives equally
 to avoid that which may be injurious1  
and to procure that which is pleasing to
 him1 or that which is suitable to his  
mode of existence2 all his actions      
tending solely to conserve himself4     
,,st4 ,,augustine admits this tendency  
in all whether organized or not4        
,conservation1 then1 is the common point
 to which all the energies1 all the     
powers1 all the faculties of beings1    
seem continually directed4 ,natural     
philosophers call this direction or     
tendency1 ,,self-,,gravitation3 ,,newton
 calls it ,,inert ,,force3 moralists    
denominate it in man1 ,,self-,,love     
which is nothing more than the tendency 
he has to preserve himself--a desire of 
happiness--a love of his own welfare--a 
wish for pleasure--a promptitude in     

seizing on every thing that appears     
favourable to his conservation--a marked
 aversion to all that either disturbs   
his happiness1 or menaces his           
existence--primitive sentiments1 that   
are common to all beings of the human   
species2 which all their faculties are  
continually striving to satisfy2 which  
all their passions1 their wills1 their  
actions1 have eternally for their object
 and their end4 ,this self-gravitation1 
then1 is clearly a necessary disposition
 in man1 and in all other beings2 which1
 by a variety means1 contribute to the  
preservation of the existence they have 
received1 as long as nothing deranges   
the order of their machine1 or its      
primitive tendency4  ,cause always      
produces effect2 there can be no effect 
without cause4 ,impulse is always       
followed by some motion1 more or less   
sensible2 by some change1 more or less  
remarkable in the body which receives   
it4 ,but motion1 and its various modes  
of displaying itself1 is1 as has been   

already shewn1 determined by the nature1
 the essence1 the properties1 the       
combinations of the beings acting4 ,it  
must1 then1 be concluded that motion1 or
 the modes by which beings act1 arises  
from some cause2 that as this cause is  
not able to move or act1 but in         
conformity with the manner of its being 
or its essential properties1 it must    
equally be concluded1 that all the      
phenomena we perceive are necessary2    
that every being in ,nature1 under the  
circumstances in which it is placed1 and
 with the given properties it possesses1
 cannot act otherwise than it does4     
,necessity is the constant and          
infallible relation of causes with their
 effects4 ,fire consumes1 of necessity1 
combustible matter plated within its    
circuit of action3 man1 by fatality1    
desires either that which really is1 or 
appears to be serviceable to his        
welfare4 ,nature1 in all the            
extraordinary appearances she exhibits1 
necessarily acts after her own peculiar 

essence3 all the beings she contains1   
necessarily act each after its own a    
individual nature3 it is by motion that 
the whole has relation with its parts2  
and these parts with the whole3 it is   
thus that in the general system every   
thing is connected3 it is itself but an 
immense chain of causes and effects1    
which flow without ceasing1 one from the
 other4 ,if we reflect1 we shall be     
obliged to acknowledge that every thing 
we see is necessary2 that it cannot be  
otherwise than it is2 that all the      
beings we behold1 as well as those which
 escape our sight1 act by invariable    
laws4 ,according to these laws1 heavy   
bodies fall--light bodies               
ascend--analogous substances attract    
each other--beings tend to preserve     
themselves--man cherishes himself2 loves
 that which he thinks                   
advantageous--detests that which he has 
an idea may prove unfavourable to       
him4--,in fine1 we are obliged to admit1
 there can be no perfectly independent  

energy--no separated cause--no detached 
action1 in a nature where all the beings
 are in a reciprocity of action--who1   
without interruption1 mutually impel and
 resist each other--who is herself      
nothing more than an eternal circle of  
motion1 given and received according to 
necessary laws2 which under the same    
given incidents1 invariably produce the 
same effect4  ,two examples will serve  
to throw the principle here laid down1  
into light--one shall be taken from     
physics1 the other from morals4  ,in a  
whirlwind of dust1 raised by elemental  
force1 confused as it appears to our    
eyes1 in the most frightful tempest     
excited by contrary winds1 when the     
waves roll high as mountains1 there is  
not a single particle of dust1 or drop  
of water1 that has been placed by       
,,chance1 that has not a cause for      
occupying the place where it is found2  
that does not1 in the most rigorous     
sense of the word1 act after the manner 
in which it ought to act2 that is1      

according to its own peculiar essence1  
and that of the beings from whom it     
receives this communicated force4 ,a    
geometrician exactly knew the different 
energies acting in each case1 with the  
properties of the particles moved1 could
 demonstrate that after the causes      
given1 each particle acted precisely as 
it ought to act1 and that it could not  
have acted otherwise than it did4  ,in  
those terrible convulsions that         
sometimes agitate political societies1  
shake their foundations1 and frequently 
produce the overthrow of an empire2     
there is not a single action1 a single  
word1 a single thought1 a single will1 a
 single passion in the agents1 whether  
they act as destroyers1 or as victims1  
that is not the necessary result of the 
causes operating2 that does not act1 as1
 of necessity1 it must act1 from the    
peculiar essence of the beings who give 
the impulse1 and that of the agents who 
receive it1 according to the situation  
these agents fill in the moral          

whirlwind4 ,this could be evidently     
proved by an understanding capacitated  
to rate all the action and re-action1 of
 the minds and bodies of those who      
contributed to the revolution4  ,in     
fact1 if all be connected in ,nature1 if
 all motion be produced1 the one from   
the other1 notwithstanding their secret 
communications frequently elude our     
sight2 we ought to feel convinced of    
this truth1 that there is no cause1     
however minute1 however remote1 that    
does not sometimes produce the greatest 
and most immediate effects on man4 ,it  
may1 perhaps1 be in the parched plains  
of ,lybia1 that are amassed the first   
elements of a storm or tempest1 which1  
borne by the winds1 approach our        
climate1 render our atmosphere dense1   
and thus operating on the temperament1  
may influence the passions of a man1    
whose circumstances shall have          
capacitated him to influence many       
others1 who shall decide after his will 
the fate of many nations4  ,man1 in     

fact1 finds himself in ,nature1 and     
makes a part of it3 he acts according to
 laws1 which are appropriate to him2 he 
receives in a manner more or less       
distinct1 the action and impulse of the 
beings who surround him2 who themselves 
act after laws that are peculiar to     
their essence4 ,thus he is variously    
modified2 but his actions are always the
 result of his own energy1 and that of  
the beings who act upon him1 and by whom
 he is modified4 ,this is what gives    
such variety to his determinations--what
 generally produces such contradiction  
in his thoughts1 his opinions1 his will1
 his actions2 in short1 in that motion1 
whether concealed or visible1 by which  
he is agitated4 ,we shall have occasion1
 in the sequel1 to place this truth1 at 
present so much contested1 in a clearer 
light3 it will be sufficient for our    
purpose at present to prove1 generally1 
that every thing in ,nature is          
necessary--that nothing to be found in  
it can act otherwise than it does4      

,motion1 alternately communicated and   
received1 establishes the connection or 
relation between the different orders of
 beings3 when they are in the sphere of 
reciprocal action1 attraction           
approximates them2 repulsion dissolves  
and separates them2 the one strengthens 
and preserves them2 the other enfeebles 
and destroys them4 ,once combined1 they 
have a tendency to conserve themselves  
in that mode of existence1 by virtue of 
their inert force2 in this they cannot  
succeed1 because they are exposed to the
 continual influence of all other       
beings1 who perpetually and successively
 act upon them2 their change of form1   
their dissolution1 is requisite to the  
preservation of ,nature herself3 this is
 the sole end we are able to assign     
her--to which we see her tend without   
intermission--which she follows without 
interruption1 by the destruction and    
reproduction of all subordinate beings1 
who are obliged to submit to her        
laws--to concur1 by their mode of       

action1 to the maintenance of her active
 existence1 so essentially requisite to 
the ,,great ,,whole4  ,it is thus each  
being is an individual1 who1 in the     
great family1 performs his necessary    
portion of the general labour--who      
executes the unavoidable task assigned  
to him4 ,all bodies act according to    
laws1 inherent in their peculiar        
essence1 without the capability to      
swerve1 even for a single instant1 from 
those according to which ,nature herself
 acts4 ,this is the central power1 to   
which all other powers1 essences1 and   
energies1 are submitted3 she regulates  
the motions of beings1 by the necessity 
of her own peculiar essence3 she makes  
them concur by various modes to the     
general plan3 this appears to be nothing
 more than the life1 action1 and        
maintenance of the whole1 by the        
continual change of its parts4 ,this    
object she obtains1 in removing them1   
one by the other2 by that which         
establishes1 and by that which destroys1

 the relation subsisting between them2  
by that which gives them1 and that which
 deprives them of1 their forms1         
combinations1 proportions1 and          
qualities1 according to which they act  
for a time1 after a given mode2 these   
are afterwards taken from them1 to make 
them act after a different manner4 ,it  
is thus that ,nature makes them expand  
and change1 grow and decline1 augment   
and diminish1 approximate and remove1   
forms and destroys them1 according as   
she finds it requisite to maintain the  
whole2 towards the conservation which   
this ,nature is herself essentially     
necessitated to have a tendency4  ,this 
irresistible power1 this universal      
necessity1 this general energy1 then1 is
 only a consequence of the nature of    
things2 by virtue of which every thing  
acts1 without intermission1 after       
constant and immutable laws3 these laws 
not varying more for the whole than for 
the beings of which it is composed4     
,nature is an active living whole1 to   

which all its parts necessarily concur2 
of which1 without their own knowledge1  
they maintain the activity1 the life1   
and the existence4 ,nature acts and     
exists necessarily3 all that she        
contains1 necessarily conspires to      
perpetuate her active existence4 ,this  
is the decided opinion of ,,plato1 when 
he says1 matter and necessity are the   
same thing2 this necessity is the mother
 of the world4 ,in point of fact1 we    
cannot go beyond this aphorism1 ,,matter
 ,,acts1 ,,because ,,it ,,exists2 ,,and 
,,exists1 ,,to ,,act4 ,if it be enquired
 how1 or for why1 matter exists8 ,we    
answer1 we know not3 but reasoning by   
analogy1 of what we do not know by that 
which we do1 we should be of opinion it 
exists necessarily1 or because it       
contains within itself a sufficient     
reason for its existence4 ,in supposing 
it to be created or produced by a being 
distinguished from it1 or less known    
than itself1 7which it may be1 for any  
thing we know to the contrary17 we must 

still admit1 that this being is         
necessary1 and includes a sufficient    
reason for his own existence4 ,we have  
not then removed any of the difficulty1 
we have not thrown a clearer light upon 
the subject1 we have not advanced a     
single step2 we have simply laid aside a
 being1 of which we know some few of the
 properties1 but of which we are still  
extremely ignorant1 to have recourse to 
a power1 of which it is utterly         
impossible we can1 as long as we are    
men1 form any distinct idea2 of which1  
notwithstanding it may be a truth1 we   
cannot1 by any means we possess1        
demonstrate the existence4 ,as1         
therefore1 these must be at best but    
speculative points of belief1 which each
 individual1 by reason of its obscurity1
 may contemplate with different optics1 
under various aspects1 they surely ought
 to be left free for each to judge after
 his own fashion3 the ,hindoo can have  
no just cause of enmity against the     
,christian for his faith3 this has no   

moral right to question the ,mussulman  
upon his2 the numerous sects of each of 
the various persuasions spread over the 
face of the earth1 ought to make it a   
creed to look with an eye of complacency
 on the deviation of the others2 and    
rest upon that great moral axiom1 which 
is strictly conformable to ,nature1     
which contains the whole of man's       
happiness--,do not unto another1 that   
which do you not wish another should do 
unto you2 for it is evident1 according  
to their own doctrines1 out of all the  
variety of systems1 one only can be     
right4  ,we shall see in the sequel1 how
 much man's imagination labours to form 
an idea1 of the energies of that ,nature
 he has personified1 and distinguished  
from herself3 in short1 we shall examine
 some of the ridiculous and pernicious  
inventions1 which1 for want of          
understanding ,nature1 have been        
imagined to impede her course1 to       
suspend her eternal laws1 to place      
obstacles to the necessity of things4   

,,chap4 ,v4  ,order and                 
,confusion4--,intelligence4--,chance4   
,the observation of the necessary1      
regular1 and periodical motion in the   
universe1 generated in the mind of man  
the idea of ,,order2 this term1 in its  
original signification1 represents      
nothing more than a mode of considering1
 a facility of perceiving1 together and 
separately1 the different relations of a
 whole2 in which is discovered1 by its  
manner of existing and acting1 a certain
 affinity or conformity with his own4   
,man1 in extending this idea to the     
universe1 carried with him those methods
 of considering things which are        
peculiar to himself3 he has consequently
 supposed there really existed in       
,nature affinities and relations1 which 
he classed under the name of ,,order2   
and others which appeared to him not to 
conform to those1 which he has ranked   
under the term of ,,confusion4  ,it is  
easy to comprehend1 that this idea of   
order and confusion can have no absolute

 existence in ,nature1 where every thing
 is necessary2 where the whole follows  
constant and invariable laws1 which     
oblige each being1 in every moment of   
its duration1 to submit to other laws1  
which flow from its own peculiar mode of
 existence4 ,therefore it is in his     
imagination1 only1 man finds a model of 
that which he terms order or confusion2 
which1 like all his abstract1           
metaphysical ideas1 supposes nothing    
beyond his reach4 ,order1 however1 is   
never more than the faculty of          
conforming himself with the beings by   
whom he is environed1 or with the whole 
of which he forms a part4               
,nevertheless1 if the idea of order be  
applied to ,nature1 it will be found to 
be nothing but a series of action or    
motion1 which he judges to conspire to  
one common end4 ,thus1 in a body that   
moves1 order is the chain of action1 the
 series of motion1 proper to constitute 
it what it is1 and to maintain it in its
 actual state4 ,order1 relatively to the

 whole of ,nature1 is the concatenation 
of causes and effects1 necessary to her 
active existence--to maintaining her    
constantly together2 but1 as it has been
 proved in the chapter preceding1 every 
individual being is obliged to concur to
 this end1 in the different ranks they  
occupy2 from whence it is a necessary   
deduction1 that what is called the      
,,order ,,of ,,nature1 can never be more
 than a certain manner of considering   
the necessity of things1 to which all1  
of which man has any knowledge1 is      
submitted4 ,that which is styled        
,,confusion1 is only a relative term1   
used to designate that series of        
necessary action1 that chain of         
requisite motion1 by which an individual
 being is necessarily changed or        
disturbed in its mode of existence--by  
which it is instantaneously obliged to  
alter its manner of action2 but no one  
of these actions1 no part of this motion
 is capable1 even for a single instant1 
of contradicting or deranging the       

general order of ,nature2 from which all
 beings derive their existence1 their   
properties1 the motion appropriate to   
each4  ,what is termed confusion in a   
being1 is nothing more than its passage 
into a new class1 a new mode of         
existence2 which necessarily carries    
with it a new series of action1 a new   
chain of motion1 different from that of 
which this being found itself           
susceptible in the preceding rank it    
occupied4 ,that which is called order1  
in ,nature1 is a mode of existence1 or a
 disposition of its particles1 strictly 
necessary4 ,in every other assemblage of
 causes and effects1 of worlds1 as well 
as in that which we inhabit1 some sort  
of arrangement1 some kind of order would
 necessarily be established4 ,suppose   
the most incongruous1 the most          
heterogeneous substances were put into  
activity1 and assembled by a            
concatenation of extraordinary          
circumstances2 they would form amongst  
themselves1 a complete order1 a perfect 

arrangement4 ,this is the true notion of
 a property1 which may be defined1 an   
aptitude to constitute a being1 such as 
it is actually found1 such as it is with
 respect to the whole of which it makes 
a part4  ,order1 then1 is nothing but   
necessity1 considered relatively to the 
series of actions1 or the connected     
chain of causes and effects1 that it    
produces in the universe4 ,what is the  
motion in our planetary system2 but a   
series of phenomena1 operated upon      
according to necessary laws1 that       
regulate the bodies of which it is      
composed8 ,in conformity to these laws1 
the sun occupies the centre2 the planets
 gravitate towards it1 and revolve round
 it1 in regulated periods3 the          
satellites of these planets gravitate   
towards those which are in the centre of
 their sphere of action1 and describe   
round them their periodical route4 ,one 
of these planets1 the earth which man   
inhabits1 turns on its own axis2 and by 
the various aspects which its revolution

 obliges it to present to the sun1      
experiences those regular variations    
which are called ,,seasons4 ,by a       
sequence of the sun's action upon       
different parts of this globe1 all its  
productions undergo vicissitudes3       
plants1 animals1 men1 are in a sort of  
morbid drowsiness during ,winter3 in    
,spring1 these beings re-animate1 to    
come as it were out of a long lethargy4 
,in short1 the mode in which the earth  
receives the sun's beams1 has an        
influence on all its productions2 these 
rays1 when darted obliquely1 do not act 
in the same manner as when they fall    
perpendicularly2 their periodical       
absence1 caused by the revolution of    
this sphere on itself1 produces night   
and day4 ,however1 in all this1 man     
never witnesses more than necessary     
effects1 flowing from the nature of     
things1 which1 whilst that remains the  
same1 can never be opposed with         
propriety4 ,these effects are owing to  
gravitation1 attraction1 centrifugal    

power1 c4  ,on the other hand1 this     
order1 which man admires as a           
supernatural effect1 is sometimes       
disturbed1 or changed into what he calls
 confusion3 this confusion is1 however1 
always a necessary consequence of the   
laws of ,nature2 in which it is         
requisite to the support of the whole   
that some of her parts should be        
deranged and thrown out of the ordinary 
course4 ,it is thus1 ,,comets present   
themselves so unexpectedly to man's     
wondering eyes2 their eccentric motion  
disturbs the tranquillity of his        
planetary system2 they excite the terror
 of the misinstructed to whom every     
thing unusual is marvellous4 ,the       
natural philosopher1 himself1           
conjectures that in former ages1 these  
comets have overthrown the surface of   
this mundane ball1 and caused great     
revolutions on the earth4 ,independent  
of this extraordinary confusion1 he is  
exposed to others more familiar to him3 
sometimes1 the seasons appear to have   

usurped each other's place2 to have     
quitted their regular order3 sometimes  
the opposing elements seem to dispute   
among themselves the dominion of the    
world2 the sea bursts its limits2 the   
solid earth is shaken and rent asunder2 
mountains are in a state of             
conflagration2 pestilential diseases    
destroy both men and animals2 sterility 
desolates a country3 then affrighted man
 utters piercing cries1 offers up his   
prayers to recall order2 tremblingly    
raises his hands towards the ,being he  
supposes to be the author of all these  
calamities2 nevertheless1 the whole of  
this afflicting confusion are necessary 
effects1 produced by natural causes2    
which act according to fixed laws1      
determined by their own peculiar        
essence1 and the universal essence of   
,nature3 in which every thing must      
necessarily be changed1 moved1 and      
dissolved2 where that which is called   
,,order1 must sometimes be disturbed and
 altered into a new mode of existence2  

which to his deluded mind1 to his       
imagination1 led astray by ignorance and
 want of reflection1 appears            
,,confusion4  ,there cannot possibly    
exist what is generally termed a        
confusion of ,nature3 man finds order in
 every thing that is conformable to his 
own mode of being2 confusion in every   
thing by which it is opposed3           
nevertheless1 in ,nature1 all is in     
order2 because none of her parts are    
ever able to emancipate themselves from 
those invariable rules which flow from  
their respective essences3 there is not1
 there cannot be confusion in a whole1  
to the maintenance of which what is     
called confusion is absolutely          
requisite2 of which the general course  
can never be discomposed1 although      
individuals may be1 and necessarily are2
 where all the effects produced are the 
consequence of natural causes1 that     
under the circumstances in which they   
are placed1 act only as they infallibly 
are obliged to act4  ,it therefore      

follows1 there can be neither monsters  
nor prodigies2 wonders nor miracles in  
,nature3 those which are designated     
,,monsters1 are certain combinations1   
with which the eyes of man are not      
familiarized2 but which1 therefore1 are 
not less the necessary effects of       
natural causes4 ,those which he terms   
,,prodigies1 ,,wonders1 or              
,,supernatural effects1 are phenomena of
 ,nature1 with whose mode of action he  
is unacquainted2 of which his ignorance 
does not permit him to ascertain the    
principles2 whose causes he cannot      
trace2 but which his impatience1 his    
heated imagination1 aided by a desire to
 explain1 makes him foolishly attribute 
to imaginary causes2 which1 like the    
idea of order1 have no existence but in 
himself2 and which1 that he may conceal 
his own ignorance1 that he may obtain   
more respect with the uninformed1 he    
places beyond ,nature1 out of which his 
experience is every instant demonstrably
 proving that none of these things can  

have existence4  ,as for those effects  
which are called ,,miracles1 that is to 
say1 contrary to the unalterable laws of
 ,nature1 it must be felt such things   
are impossible2 because1 nothing can1   
for an instant1 suspend the necessary   
course of beings1 without the whole of  
,nature was arrested2 without she was   
disturbed in her tendency4 ,there have  
neither been wonders nor miracles in    
,nature2 except for those1 who have not 
sufficiently studied the laws1 who      
consequently do not feel1 that those    
laws can never be contradicted1 even in 
the most minute parts1 without the whole
 being destroyed1 or at least without   
changing her essence1 her mode of       
action2 that it is the height of folly  
to recur to supernatural causes to      
explain the phenomena man beholds1      
before he becomes fully acquainted with 
natural causes--with the powers and     
capabilities which ,nature herself      
contains4  ,order and ,confusion1 then1 
are only relative terms1 by which man   

designates the state in which particular
 beings find themselves4 ,he says1 a    
being is in order1 when all the motion  
it undergoes conspires to favor its     
tendency to its own preservation2 when  
it is conducive to the maintenance of   
its actual existence3 that it is in     
confusion when the causes which move it 
disturb the harmony of its existence1 or
 have a tendency to destroy the         
equilibrium necessary to the            
conservation of its actual state4       
,nevertheless1 confusion1 as we have    
shown1 is nothing but the passage of a  
being into a new order2 the more rapid  
the progress1 the greater the confusion 
for the being that is submitted to it3  
that which conducts man to what is      
called death1 is1 for him1 the greatest 
of all possible confusion4 ,yet this    
death is nothing more than a passage    
into a new mode of existence3 it is the 
eternal1 the invariable1 the            
unconquerable law of ,nature1 to which  
the individuals of his order1 each in   

his turn1 is obliged to submit4  ,the   
human body is said to be in order1 when 
its various component parts act in that 
mode1 from which results the            
conservation of the whole2 from which   
emanates that which is the tendency of  
his actual existence2 in other words1   
when all the impulse he receives1 all   
the motion he communicates1 tends to    
preserve his health1 to render him      
happy1 by promoting the happiness of his
 fellow men4 ,he is said to be in health
 when the fluids and solids of his body 
concur to render him robust1 to keep his
 mind in vigour2 when each lends mutual 
aid towards this end4 ,he is said to be 
in confusion1 or in ill health1 whenever
 this tendency is disturbed2 when any of
 the essential parts of his body cease  
to concur to his preservation1 or to    
fulfil its peculiar functions4 ,this it 
is that happens in a state of sickness1 
in which1 however1 the motion excited in
 the human machine is as necessary1 is  
regulated by laws as certain1 as        

natural1 as invariable1 as that which   
concurs to produce health4 ,sickness    
merely produces in him a new order of   
motion1 a new series of action1 a new   
chain of things4 ,man dies3 to him1 this
 appears the greatest confusion he can  
experience2 his body is no longer what  
it was--its parts no longer concur to   
the same end--his blood has lost its    
circulation--he is deprived of          
feeling--his ideas have vanished--he    
thinks no more--his desires have        
fled--death is the epoch1 the cessation 
of his human existence4--,his frame     
becomes an inanimate mass1 by the       
subtraction of those principles by which
 it was animated2 that is1 which made it
 act after a determinate manner3 its    
tendency has received a new direction2  
its action is changed2 the motion       
excited in its ruins conspires to a new 
end4 ,to that motion1 the harmony of    
which he calls order1 which produced    
life1 sentiment1 thought1 passions1     
health1 succeeds a series of motion of  

another species2 that1 nevertheless1    
follows laws as necessary as the first2 
all the parts of the dead man conspire  
to produce what is called dissolution1  
fermentation1 putrefaction3 these new   
modes of being1 of acting1 are just as  
natural to man1 reduced to this state1  
as sensibility1 thought1 the periodical 
motion of the blood1 c4 were to the     
living man3 his essence having changed1 
his mode of action can no longer be the 
same4 ,to that regulated motion1 to that
 necessary action1 which conspired to   
the production of life1 succeeds that   
determinate motion1 that series of      
action which concurs to produce the     
dissolution of the dead carcass2 the    
dispersion of its parts2 the formation  
of new combinations1 from which result  
new beings2 and which1 as we have before
 seen1 is the immutable order of active 
,nature4  ,how then can it be too often 
repeated1 that relatively to the great  
whole1 all the motion of beings1 all    
their modes of action1 can never be but 

in order1 that is to say1 are always    
conformable to ,nature2 that in all the 
stages through which beings are obliged 
to pass1 they invariably act after a    
mode necessarily subordinate to the     
universal whole8 ,to say more1 each     
individual being always acts in order2  
all its actions1 the whole system of its
 motion1 are the necessary consequence  
of its peculiar mode of existence2      
whether that be momentary or durable4   
,order1 in political society1 is the    
effect of a necessary series of ideas1  
of wills1 of actions1 in those who      
compose it2 whose movements are         
regulated in a manner1 either calculated
 to maintain its indivisibility1 or to  
hasten its dissolution4 ,man            
constituted1 or modified1 in the manner 
we term virtuous1 acts necessarily in   
that mode1 from whence results the      
welfare of his associates3 the man we   
stile wicked1 acts necessarily in that  
mode1 from whence springs the misery of 
his fellows3 his ,nature1 being         

essentially different1 he must          
necessarily act after a different mode3 
his individual order is at variance1 but
 his relative order is complete3 it is  
equally the essence of the one1 to      
promote happiness1 as it is of the other
 to induce misery4  ,thus1 order and    
confusion in individual beings1 is      
nothing more than the manner of man's   
considering the natural and necessary   
effects1 which they produce relatively  
to himself4 ,he fears the wicked man2 he
 says that he will carry confusion into 
society1 because he disturbs its        
tendency and places obstacles to its    
happiness4 ,he avoids a falling stone1  
because it will derange in him the order
 necessary to his conservation4         
,nevertheless1 order and confusion1 are 
always1 as we have shewn1 consequences1 
equally necessary to either the         
transient or durable state of beings4   
,it is in order that fire burns1 because
 it is of its essence to burn2 on the   
other hand1 it is in order1 that an     

intelligent being should remove himself 
from whatever can disturb his mode of   
existence4 ,a being1 whose organization 
renders him sensible1 must in virtue of 
his essence1 fly from every thing that  
can injure his organs1 or that can place
 his existence in danger4  ,man calls   
those beings intelligent1 who are       
organized after his own manner2 in whom 
he sees faculties proper for their      
preservation2 suitable to maintain their
 existence in the order that is         
convenient to them2 that can enable them
 to take the necessary measures towards 
this end1 with a consciousness of the   
motion they undergo4 ,from hence1 it    
will be perceived1 that the faculty     
called intelligence1 consists in a      
possessing capacity to act comformably  
to a known end1 in the being to which it
 is attributed4 ,he looks upon these    
beings as deprived of intelligence1 in  
which he finds no conformity with       
himself2 in whom he discovers neither   
the same construction1 nor the same     

faculties3 of which he knows neither the
 essence1 the end to which they tend1   
the energies by which they act1 nor the 
order that is necessary to them4 ,the   
whole cannot have a distinct name1 or   
end1 because there is nothing out of    
itself1 to which it can have a tendency4
 ,if it be in himself1 that he arranges 
the idea of order1 it is also in        
himself1 that he draws up that of       
intelligence4 ,he refuses to ascribe it 
to those beings1 who do not act after   
his own manner3 he accords it to all    
those whom he supposes to act like      
himself3 the latter he calls intelligent
 agents3 the former blind causes2 that  
is to say1 intelligent agents who act by
 chance3 thus chance is an empty word   
without sense1 but which is always      
opposed to that of intelligence1 without
 attaching any determinate1 or any      
certain idea4  ,man1 in fact1 attributes
 to chance all those effects1 of which  
the connection they have with their     
causes is not seen4 ,thus he uses the   

word chance1 to cover his ignorance of  
those natural causes1 which produce     
visible effects1 by means which he      
cannot form an idea of2 or that act by a
 mode of which he does not perceive the 
order2 or whose system is not followed  
by actions conformable to his own4 ,as  
soon as he sees1 or believes he sees1   
the order of action1 or the manner of   
motion1 he attributes this order to an  
intelligence2 which is nothing more than
 a quality borrowed from himself--from  
his own peculiar mode of action--from   
the manner in which he is himself       
affected4  ,thus an intelligent being is
 one who thinks1 who wills1 and who     
acts1 to compass an end4 ,if so1 he must
 have organs1 an aim conformable to     
those of man3 therefore1 to say ,nature 
is governed by an intelligence1 is to   
affirm that she is governed by a being1 
furnished with organs2 seeing that      
without this organic construction1 he   
can neither have sensations1            
perceptions1 ideas1 thought1 will1 plan1

 nor action which he understands4  ,man 
always makes himself the center of the  
universe3 it is to himself that he      
relates all he beholds4 ,as soon as he  
believes he discovers a mode of action  
that has a conformity with his own1 or  
some phenomenon that interests his      
feelings1 he attributes it to a cause   
that resembles himself--that acts after 
his manner--that has faculties similar  
to those he possesses--whose interests  
are like his own--whose projects are in 
unison with and have the same tendency  
as those he himself indulges3 in short1 
it is from himself1 or the properties   
which actuate him1 that he forms the    
model of this cause4 ,it is thus that   
man beholds1 out of his own species1    
nothing but beings who act differently  
from himself2 yet believes that he      
remarks in ,nature an order similar to  
his own ideas--views conformable to     
those which he himself possesses4 ,he   
imagines that ,nature is governed by a  
cause whose intelligence is conformable 

to his own1 to whom he ascribes the     
honor of the order which he believes he 
witnesses--of those views that fall in  
with those that are peculiar to         
himself--of an aim which quadrates with 
that which is the great end of all his  
own actions4 ,it is true that man1      
feeling his incapability of producing   
the vast1 the multiplied effects of     
which he witnesses the operation1 when  
contemplating the universe1 was under   
the necessity of making a distinction   
between himself and the cause which he  
supposed to be the author of such       
stupendous effects2 he believed he      
removed every difficulty1 by amplifying 
in this cause all those faculties of    
which he was himself in possession2     
adding others of which his own self-love
 made him desirous1 or which he thought 
would render his being more perfect3    
thus1 he gave ,,jupiter wings1 with the 
faculty of assuming any form he might   
deem convenient3 it was thus1 by        
degrees1 he arrived at forming an idea  

of that intelligent cause1 which he has 
placed above ,nature1 to preside over   
action--to give her that motion of which
 he has chosen to believe she was in    
herself incapable4 ,he obstinately      
persists in regarding this ,nature as a 
heap of dead1 inert matter1 without     
form1 which has not within itself the   
power of producing any of those great   
effects1 those regular phenomena1 from  
which emanates what he styles the order 
of the ,universe4 ,,anaxagoras is said  
to have been the first who supposed the 
universe created and governed by an     
intelligence3 ,,aristotle reproaches him
 with having made an automaton of this  
intelligence2 or in other words1 with   
ascribing to it the production of       
things1 only when he was at a loss to   
account for their appearance4 ,from     
whence it may be deduced1 that it is for
 want of being acquainted with the      
powers of ,nature1 or the properties of 
matter1 that man has multiplied beings  
without necessity--that he has supposed 

the universe under the government of an 
intelligent cause1 which he is1 and     
perhaps always will be1 himself the     
model3 in fine1 this cause has been     
personified under such a variety of     
shapes1 sexes1 and names1 that a list of
 the deities he has at various times    
supposed to guide this ,nature1 or to   
whom he has submitted her1 makes a large
 volume that occupies some years of his 
youthful education to understand4 ,he   
only rendered this cause more           
inconceivable1 when he extended in it   
his own faculties too much4 ,he either  
annihilates1 or renders it altogether   
impossible1 when he would attach to it  
incompatible qualities1 which he is     
obliged to do1 to enable him to account 
for the contradictory and disorderly    
effects he beholds in the world4 ,in    
fact1 he sees confusion in the world2   
yet1 notwithstanding his confusion      
contradicts the plan1 the power1 the    
wisdom1 the bounty of this intelligence1
 and the miraculous order which he      

ascribes to it2 he says1 the extreme    
beautiful arrangement of the whole1     
obliges him to suppose it to be the work
 of a sovereign intelligence3 unable1   
however1 to reconcile this seeming      
confusion with the benevolence he       
attaches to this cause1 he had recourse 
to another effort of his imagination2 he
 made a new cause1 to whom he ascribed  
all the evil1 all the misery1 resulting 
from this confusion3 still1 his own     
person served for the model2 to which he
 added those deformities which he had   
learned to hold in disrespect3 in       
multiplying these counter or destroying 
causes1 he peopled ,pandemonium4  ,it   
will no doubt be argued1 that as ,nature
 contains and produces intelligent      
beings1 either she must be herself      
intelligent1 or else she must be        
governed by an intelligent cause4 ,we   
reply1 intelligence is a faculty        
peculiar to organized beings1 that it is
 to say1 to beings constituted and      
combined after a determinate manner2    

from whence results certain modes of    
action1 which are designated under      
various names2 according to the         
different effects which these beings    
produce3 wine has not the properties    
called wit and courage2 nevertheless1 it
 is sometimes seen that it communicates 
those qualities to men1 who are supposed
 to be in themselves entirely devoid of 
them4 ,it cannot be said ,nature is     
intelligent after the manner of any of  
the beings she contains2 but she can    
produce intelligent beings by assembling
 matter suitable to their particular    
organization1 from whose peculiar modes 
of action will result the faculty called
 intelligence2 who shall be capable of  
producing certain effects which are the 
necessary consequence of this property4 
,i therefore repeat1 that to have       
intelligence1 designs and views1 it is  
requisite to have ideas2 to the         
production of ideas1 organs or senses   
are necessary3 this is what is neither  
said of ,nature nor of the causes he has

 supposed to preside over her actions4  
,in short experience warrants the       
assertion1 it does more1 it proves      
beyond a doubt1 that matter1 which is   
regarded as inert and dead1 assumes     
sensible action1 intelligence1 and life1
 when it is combined and organized after
 particular modes4  ,from what has been 
said1 it must rationally be concluded   
that order is never more than the       
necessary or uniform connection of      
causes with their effects2 or that      
series of action which flows from the   
peculiar properties of beings1 so long  
as they remain in a given state2 that   
confusion is nothing more than the      
change of this state2 that in the       
universe1 all is necessarily in order1  
because every thing acts and moves      
according to the various properties of  
the different beings it contains2 that  
in ,nature there cannot be either       
confusion or real evil1 since every     
thing follows the laws of its natural   
existence2 that there is neither chance 

nor any thing fortuitous in this        
,nature1 where no effect is produced    
without a sufficient1 without a         
substantial cause2 where all causes act 
necessarily according to fixed and      
certain laws1 which are themselves      
dependant on the essential properties of
 these causes or beings1 as well as on  
the combination1 which constitutes      
either their transitory or permanent    
state2 that intelligence is a mode of   
acting1 a method of existence natural to
 some particular beings2 that if this   
intelligence should be attributed to    
,nature1 it would then be nothing more  
than the faculty of conserving herself  
in active existence by necessary means4 
,in refusing to ,nature the intelligence
 he himself enjoys--in rejecting the    
intelligent cause which is supposed to  
be the contriver of this ,nature1 or the
 principle of that order he discovers in
 her course1 nothing is given to chance1
 nothing to a blind cause1 nothing to a 
power which is indistinguishable2 but   

every thing he beholds is attributed to 
real1 to known causes2 or to those which
 by analogy are easy of comprehension4  
,all that exists is acknowledged to be a
 consequence of the inherent properties 
of eternal matter1 which by contact1 by 
blending1 by combination1 by change of  
form1 produces order and confusion2 with
 all those varieties which assail his   
sight1 it is himself who is blind1 when 
he imagines blind causes3--man only     
manifested his ignorance of the powers  
of motion1 of the laws of ,nature1 when 
he attributed1 any of its effects to    
chance4 ,he did not shew a more         
enlightened feeling when he ascribed    
them to an intelligence1 the idea of    
which he borrowed from himself1 but     
which is never in conformity with the   
effects which he attributes to its      
intervention--he only imagined words to 
supply the place of things--he made     
,,jupiter1 ,,saturn1 ,,juno1 and a      
thousand others1 operate that which he  
found himself inadequate to perform2 he 

distinguished them from ,nature1 gave   
them an amplification of his own        
properties1 and believed he understood  
them by thus obscuring ideas1 which he  
never dared either define or analyze4   
,,chap4 ,,vi4  ,moral and ,physical     
,distinctions of ,man4--,his ,origin4   
,let us now apply the general laws we   
have scrutinized1 to those beings of    
,nature who interest us the most4 ,let  
us see in what man differs from the     
other beings by which he is surrounded4 
,let us examine if he has not certain   
points in conformity with them1 that    
oblige him1 notwithstanding the         
different properties they respectively  
possess1 to act in certain respects     
according to the universal laws to which
 every thing is submitted4 ,finally1 let
 us enquire if the ideas he has formed  
of himself in meditating on his own     
peculiar mode of existence1 be          
chimerical1 or founded in reason4  ,man 
occupies a place amidst that crowd1 that
 multitude of beings1 of which ,nature  

is the assemblage4 ,his essence1 that is
 to say1 the peculiar manner of         
existence1 by which he is distinguished 
from other beings1 renders him          
susceptible of various modes of action1 
of a variety of motion1 some of which   
are simple and visible1 others concealed
 and complicated4 ,his life itself is   
nothing more than a long series1 a      
succession of necessary and connected   
motion2 which operates perpetual changes
 in his machine2 which has for its      
principle either causes contained within
 himself1 such as blood1 nerves1 fibres1
 flesh1 bones2 in short1 the matter1 as 
well solid as fluid1 of which his body  
is composed--or those exterior causes1  
which1 by acting upon him1 modify him   
diversely2 such as the air with which he
 is encompassed1 the aliments by which  
he is nourished1 and all those objects  
from which he receives any impulse      
whatever1 by the impression they make on
 his senses4  ,man1 like all other      
beings in ,nature1 tends to his own     

destruction--he experiences inert       
force--he gravitates upon himself--he is
 attracted by objects that are contrary 
or repugnant to his existence--he seeks 
after some--he flies1 or endeavours to  
remove himself from others4 ,it is this 
variety of action1 this diversity of    
modification of which the human being is
 susceptible1 that has been designated  
under such different names1 by such     
varied nomenclature4 ,it will be        
necessary1 presently1 to examine these  
closely and go more into detail4        
,however marvellous1 however hidden1    
however secret1 however complicated may 
be the modes of action1 which the human 
frame undergoes1 whether interiorly or  
exteriorly2 whatever may be1 or appear  
to be the impulse he either receives or 
communicates1 examined closely1 it will 
be found that all his motion1 all his   
operations1 all his changes1 all his    
various states1 all his revolutions1 are
 constantly regulated by the same laws1 
which ,nature has prescribed to all the 

beings she brings forth--which she      
developes--which she enriches with      
faculties--of which she increases the   
bulk--which she conserves for a         
season--which she ends by decomposing1  
by destroying3 obliging them to change  
their form4  ,man1 in his origin1 is an 
imperceptible point1 a speck1 of which  
the parts are without form2 of which the
 mobility1 the life1 escapes his senses2
 in short1 in which he does not perceive
 any sign of those qualities1 called    
,,sentiment1 ,,feeling1 ,,thought1      
,,intelligence1 ,,force1 ,,reason1 c4   
,placed in the womb suitable to his     
expansion1 this point unfolds1 extends1 
increases1 by the continual addition of 
matter he attracts1 that is analogous to
 his being1 which consequently          
assimilates itself with him4 ,having    
quitted this womb1 so appropriate to    
conserve his existence1 to unfold his   
qualities1 to strengthen his habits2 so 
competent to give1 for a season1        
consistence to the weak rudiments of his

 frame2 he travels through the stage of 
infancy2 he becomes adult3 his body has 
then acquired a considerable extension  
of bulk1 his motion is marked1 his      
action is visible1 he is sensible in all
 his parts2 he is a living1 an active   
mass2 that is to say1 a combination that
 feels and thinks2 that fulfils the     
functions peculiar to beings of his     
species4 ,but how has he become         
sensible8 ,because he has been by       
degrees nourished1 enlarged1 repaired by
 the continual attraction that takes    
place within himself1 of that kind of   
matter which is pronounced inert1       
insensible1 inanimate2 which is1        
nevertheless1 continually combining     
itself with his machine2 of which it    
forms an active whole1 that is living1  
that feels1 judges1 reasons1 wills1     
deliberates1 chooses1 elects2 that has  
the capability of labouring1 more or    
less efficaciously1 to his own          
individual preservation2 that is to say1
 to the maintenance of the harmony of   

his existence4  ,all the motion and     
changes that man experiences in the     
course of his life1 whether it be from  
exterior objects or from those          
substances contained within himself1 are
 either favorable or prejudicial to his 
existence2 either maintain its order1 or
 throw it into confusion2 are either in 
conformity with1 or repugnant to1 the   
essential tendency of his peculiar mode 
of being4 ,he is compelled by ,nature to
 approve of some1 to disapprove of      
others2 some of necessity render him    
happy1 others contribute to his misery2 
some become the objects of his most     
ardent desire1 others of his determined 
aversion3 some elicit his confidence1   
others make him tremble with fear4  ,in 
all the phenomena man presents1 from the
 moment he quits the womb of his mother1
 to that wherein he becomes the         
inhabitant of the silent tomb1 he       
perceives nothing but a succession of   
necessary causes and effects1 which are 
strictly conformable to those laws that 

are common to all the beings in ,nature4
 ,all his modes of action--all his      
sensations--all his ideas--all his      
passions--every act of his will--every  
impulse which he either gives or        
receives1 are the necessary consequences
 of his own peculiar properties1 and    
those which he finds in the various     
beings by whom he is moved4 ,every thing
 he does--every thing that passes within
 himself--his concealed motion--his     
visible action1 are the effects of inert
 force--of self-gravitation--the        
attractive or repulsive powers contained
 in his machine--of the tendency he has1
 in common with other beings1 to his own
 individual preservation2 in short1 of  
that energy which is the common property
 of every being he beholds4 ,nature1 in 
man1 does nothing more than shew1 in a  
decided manner1 what belongs to the     
peculiar nature by which he is          
distinguished from the beings of a      
different system or order4  ,the source 
of those errors into which man has      

fallen1 when he has contemplated        
himself1 has its rise1 as will presently
 be shown1 in the opinion he has        
entertained1 that he moved by           
himself--that he always acts by his own 
natural energy--that in his actions1 in 
the will that gave him impulse1 he was  
independent of the general laws of      
,nature2 and of those objects which1    
frequently1 without his knowledge1      
always in spite of him1 in obedience to 
these laws1 are continually acting upon 
him4 ,if he had examined himself        
attentively1 he must have acknowledged1 
that none of the motion he underwent was
 spontaneous--he must have discovered1  
that even his birth depended on causes1 
wholly out of the reach of his own      
powers--that1 it was without his own    
consent he entered into the system in   
which he occupies a place--that1 from   
the moment in which he is born1 until   
that in which he dies1 he is continually
 impelled by causes1 which1 in spite of 
himself1 influence his frame1 modify his

 existence1 dispose of his conduct4     
,would not the slightest reflection have
 sufficed to prove to him1 that the     
fluids1 the solids1 of which his body is
 composed1 as well as that concealed    
mechanism1 which he believes to be      
independent of exterior causes1 are1 in 
fact1 perpetually under the influence of
 these causes2 that without them he     
finds himself in a total incapacity to  
act8 ,would he not have seen1 that his  
temperament1 his constitution1 did in no
 wise depend on himself--that his       
passions are the necessary consequence  
of this temperament--that his will is   
influenced1 his actions determined by   
these passions2 consequently by         
opinions1 which he has not given to     
himself1 of which he is not the master8 
,his blood1 more or less heated or      
abundant2 his nerves more or less       
braced1 his fibres more or less relaxed1
 give him dispositions either transitory
 or durable--are not these1 at every    
moment decisive of his ideas2 of his    

thoughts3 of his desires3 of his fears3 
of his motion1 whether visible or       
concealed8 ,the state in which he finds 
himself1 does it not necessarily depend 
on the air which surrounds him diversely
 modified2 on the various properties of 
the aliments which nourish him2 on the  
secret combinations that form themselves
 in his machine1 which either preserve  
its order1 or throw it into confusion8  
,in short1 had man fairly studied       
himself1 every thing must have convinced
 him1 that in every moment of his       
duration1 he was nothing more than a    
passive instrument in the hands of      
necessity4  ,thus it must appear1 that  
where all is connected1 where all the   
causes are linked one to the other1     
where the whole forms but one immense   
chain1 there cannot be any independent1 
any isolated energy2 any detached power4
 ,it follows then1 that ,nature1 always 
in action1 marks out to man each point  
of the line he is bound to describe2    
establishes the route1 by which he must 

travel4 ,it is ,nature that elaborates1 
that combines the elements of which he  
must be composed2--,it is ,nature that  
gives him his being1 his tendency1 his  
peculiar mode of action4 ,it is ,nature 
that develops him1 expands him1         
strengthens him1 increases his          
bulk--preserves him for a season1 during
 which he is obliged to fulfil the task 
imposed on him4 ,it is ,nature1 that in 
his journey through life1 strews on the 
road those objects1 those events2 those 
adventures1 that modify him in a variety
 of ways1 that give him impulses which  
are sometimes agreeable and beneficial1 
at others prejudicial and disagreeable4 
,it is ,nature1 that in giving him      
feeling1 in supplying him with          
sentiment1 has endowed him with capacity
 to choose1 the means to elect those    
objects1 to take those methods that are 
most conducive1 most suitable1 most     
natural1 to his conservation4 ,it is    
,nature1 who when he has run his race1  
when he has finished his career1 when he

 has described the circle marked out for
 him1 conducts him in his turn to his   
destruction2 dissolves the union of his 
elementary particles1 and obliges him to
 undergo the constant1 the universal    
law2 from the operation of which nothing
 is exempted4 ,it is thus1 motion places
 man in the matrix of his mother2 brings
 him forth out of her womb2 sustains him
 for a season2 at length destroys him2  
obliges him to return into the bosom of 
,nature2 who speedily reproduces him1   
scattered under an infinity of forms2 in
 which each of his particles run over   
again1 in the same manner1 the different
 stages1 as necessary as the whole had  
before run over those of his preceding  
existence4  ,the beings of the human    
species1 as well as all other beings1   
are susceptible of two sorts of motion3 
the one1 that of the mass1 by which an  
entire body1 or some of its parts1 are  
visibly transferred from one place to   
another2 the other1 internal and        
concealed1 of some of which man is      

sensible1 while some takes place without
 his knowledge1 and is not even to be   
guessed at1 but by the effect it        
outwardly produces4 ,in a machine so    
extremely complex as man1 formed by the 
combination of such a multiplicity of   
matter1 so diversified in its           
properties1 so different in its         
proportions1 so varied in its modes of  
action1 the motion necessarily becomes  
of the most complicated kind2 its       
dullness1 as well as its rapidity1      
frequently escapes the observation of   
those themselves1 in whom it takes      
place4  ,let us not1 then1 be surprised1
 if1 when man would account to himself  
for his existence1 for his manner of    
acting1 finding so many obstacles to    
encounter1 he invented such strange     
hypotheses to explain the concealed     
spring of his machine--if then this     
motion appeared to him1 to be different 
from that of other bodies1 he conceived 
an idea1 that he moved and acted in a   
manner altogether distinct from the     

other beings in ,nature4 ,he clearly    
perceived that his body1 as well as     
different parts of it1 did act2 but1    
frequently1 he was unable to discover   
what brought them into action3 from     
whence he received the impulse3 he then 
conjectured he contained within himself 
a moving principle distinguished from   
his machine1 which secretly gave an     
impulse to the springs which set this   
machine in motion2 that moved him by its
 own natural energy2 that consequently  
he acted according to laws totally      
distinct from those which regulated the 
motion of other beings3 he was conscious
 of certain internal motion1 which he   
could not help feeling2 but how could he
 conceive1 that this invisible motion   
was so frequently competent to produce  
such striking effects8 ,how could he    
comprehend1 that a fugitive idea1 an    
imperceptible act of thought1 was so    
frequently capacitated to bring his     
whole being into trouble and confusion8 
,he fell into the belief1 that he       

perceived within himself a substance    
distinguished from that self1 endowed   
with a secret force2 in which he        
supposed existed qualities distinctly   
differing from those1 of either the     
visible causes that acted on his organs1
 or those organs themselves4 ,he did not
 sufficiently understand1 that the      
primitive cause which makes a stone     
fall1 or his arm move1 are perhaps as   
difficult of comprehension1 as arduous  
to be explained1 as those internal      
impulses1 of which his thought or his   
will are the effects4 ,thus1 for want of
 meditating ,nature--of considering her 
under her true point of view--of        
remarking the conformity--of noticing   
the simultaneity1 the unity of the      
motion of this fancied motive-power with
 that of his body--of his material      
organs--he conjectured he was not only a
 distinct being1 but that he was set    
apart1 with different energies1 from all
 the other beings in ,nature2 that he   
was of a more simple essence having     

nothing in common with any thing by     
which he was surrounded2 nothing that   
connected him with all that he beheld4  
,it is from thence has successively     
sprung his notions of ,,spirituality1   
,,immateriality1 ,,immortality2 in      
short1 all those vague unmeaning words  
he has invented by degrees1 in order to 
subtilize and designate the attributes  
of the unknown power1 which he believes 
he contains within himself2 which he    
conjectures to be the concealed         
principle of all his visible actions    
when man once imbibes an idea that he   
cannot comprehend1 he meditates upon it 
until he has given it a complete        
personification3 ,thus he saw1 or       
fancied he saw1 the igneous matter      
pervade every thing2 he conjectured that
 it was the only principle of life and  
activity2 he proceeded to embody it2 he 
gave it his own form2 called it         
,,jupiter1 and ended by worshipping this
 image of his own creation1 as the power
 from whom he derived every good he     

experienced1 every evil he sustained4   
,to crown the bold conjectures he       
ventured to make on this internal       
motive-power1 he supposed1 that         
different from all other beings1 even   
from the body that served to envelope   
it1 it was not bound to undergo         
dissolution2 that such was its perfect  
simplicity1 that it could not be        
decomposed1 nor even change its form2 in
 short1 that it was by its essence      
exempted from those revolutions to which
 he saw the body subjected1 as well as  
all the compound beings with which      
,nature is filled4  ,thus man1 in his   
own ideas1 became double2 he looked upon
 himself as a whole1 composed by the    
inconceivable assemblage of two         
different1 two distinct natures1 which  
have no point of analogy between        
themselves3 he distinguished two        
substances in himself2 one evidently    
submitted to the influence of gross     
beings1 composed of coarse inert matter3
 this he called ,,body2--the other1     

which he supposed to be simple1 of a    
purer essence1 was contemplated as      
acting from itself3 giving motion to the
 body1 with which it found itself so    
miraculously united3 this he called     
,,soul1 or ,,spirit2 the functions of   
the one1 he denominated physical1       
corporeal1 material2 the functions of   
the other he styled spiritual1          
intellectual4 ,man1 considered          
relatively to the first1 was termed the 
,,physical ,,man2 viewed with relation  
to the last1 he was designated the      
,,moral ,,man4 ,these distinctions1     
although adopted by the greater number  
of the philosophers of the present day1 
are1 nevertheless1 only founded on      
gratuitous suppositions4 ,man has always
 believed he remedied his ignorance of  
things1 by inventing words to which he  
could never attach any true sense or    
meaning4 ,he imagined he understood     
matter1 its properties1 its faculties1  
its resources1 its different            
combinations1 because he had a          

superficial glimpse of some of its      
qualities3 he has1 however1 in reality1 
done nothing more than obscure the faint
 ideas he has been capacitated to form  
of this matter1 by associating it with a
 substance much less intelligible than  
itself4 ,it is thus1 speculative man1 in
 forming words1 in multiplying beings1  
has only plunged himself into greater   
difficulties than those he endeavoured  
to avoid2 and thereby placed obstacles  
to the progress of his knowledge3       
whenever he has been deficient of facts1
 he has had recourse to conjecture1     
which he quickly changed into fancied   
realities4 ,thus1 his imagination1 no   
longer guided by experience1 hurried on 
by his new ideas1 was lost1 without hope
 of return1 in the labyrinth of an      
ideal1 of an intellectual world1 to     
which he had himself given birth2 it was
 next to impossible to withdraw him from
 this delusion1 to place him in the     
right road1 of which nothing but        
experience can furnish him the clue4    

,nature points out to man1 that in      
himself1 as well as in all those objects
 which act upon him1 there is never more
 than matter endowed with various       
properties1 diversely modified1 that    
acts by reason of these properties3 that
 man is an organized whole1 composed of 
a variety of matter2 that like all the  
other productions of ,nature1 he follows
 general and known laws1 as well as     
those laws or modes of action which are 
peculiar to himself and unknown4  ,thus1
 when it shall be inquired1 what is man8
  ,we say1 he is a material being1      
organized after a peculiar manner2      
conformed to a certain mode of          
thinking--of feeling2 capable of        
modification in certain modes peculiar  
to himself--to his organization--to that
 particular combination of matter which 
is found assembled in him4  ,if1 again1 
it be asked1 what origin we give to     
beings of the human species8  ,we reply1
 that1 like all other beings1 man is a  
production of ,nature1 who resembles    

them in some respects1 and finds himself
 submitted to the same laws2 who differs
 from them in other respects1 and       
follows particular laws1 determined by  
the diversity of his conformation4  ,if1
 then1 it be demanded1 whence came man8 
,we answer1 our experience on this head 
does not capacitate us to resolve the   
question3 but that it cannot interest   
us1 as it suffices for us to know that  
man exists2 that he is so constituted1  
as to be competent to the effects we    
witness4  ,but it will be urged1 has man
 always existed8 ,has the human species 
existed from all eternity2 or is it only
 an instantaneous production of ,nature8
 ,have there been always men like       
ourselves8 ,will there always be such8  
,have there been1 in all times1 males   
and females8 ,was there a first man1    
from whom all others are descended8 ,was
 the animal anterior to the egg1 or did 
the egg precede the animal8 ,is this    
species without beginning8 ,will it also
 be without end8 ,the species itself1 is

 it indestructible1 or does it pass away
 like its individuals8 ,has man always  
been what he now is2 or has he1 before  
he arrived at the state in which we see 
him1 been obliged to pass under an      
infinity of successive developements8   
,can man at last flatter himself with   
having arrived at a fixed being1 or must
 the human species again change8 ,if man
 is the production of ,nature1 it will  
perhaps be asked1 ,is this ,nature      
competent to the production of new      
beings1 to make the old species         
disappear8 ,adopting this supposition1  
it may be inquired1 why ,nature does not
 produce under our own eyes new         
beings--new species8  ,it would appear  
on reviewing these questions1 to be     
perfectly indifferent1 as to the        
stability of the argument we have used1 
which side was taken2 that1 for want of 
experience1 hypothesis must settle a    
curiosity that always endeavours to     
spring forward beyond the boundaries    
prescribed to our mind4 ,this granted1  

the contemplator of ,nature will say1   
that he sees no contradiction1 in       
supposing the human species1 such as it 
is at the present day1 was either       
produced in the course of time1 or from 
all eternity3 he will not perceive any  
advantage that can arise from supposing 
that it has arrived by different stages1
 or successive developements1 to that   
state in which it is actually found4    
,matter is eternal1 it is necessary1 but
 its forms are evanescent and           
contingent4 ,it may be asked of man1 is 
he any thing more than matter combined1 
of which the former varies every        
instant8  ,notwithstanding1 some        
reflections seem to favor the           
supposition1 to render more probable the
 hypothesis1 that man is a production   
formed in the course of time2 who is    
peculiar to the globe he inhabits1 who  
is the result of the peculiar laws by   
which it is directed2 who1 consequently1
 can only date his formation as coeval  
with that of his planet4 ,existence is  

essential to the universe1 or the total 
assemblage of matter essentially varied 
that presents itself to our             
contemplation2 the combinations1 the    
forms1 however1 are not essential4 ,this
 granted1 although the matter of which  
the earth is composed has always        
existed1 this earth may not always have 
had its present form--its actual        
properties2 perhaps it may be a mass    
detached in the course of time from some
 other celestial body2--perhaps it is   
the result of the spots1 or those       
encrustations which astronomers discover
 in the sun's disk1 which have had the  
faculty to diffuse themselves over our  
planetary system2--perhaps the sphere we
 inhabit may be an extinguished or a    
displaced comet1 which heretofore       
occupied some other place in the regions
 of space2--which1 consequently1 was    
then competent to produce beings very   
different from those we now behold      
spread over its surface2 seeing that its
 then position1 its nature1 must have   

rendered its productions different from 
those which at this day it offers to our
 view4  ,whatever may be the supposition
 adopted1 plants1 animals1 men1 can only
 be regarded as productions inherent in 
and natural to our globe1 in the        
position and in the circumstances in    
which it is actually found3 these       
productions it would be reasonable to   
infer would be changed1 if this globe by
 any revolution should happen to shift  
its situation4 ,what appears to         
strengthen this hypothesis1 is1 that on 
our ball itself1 all the productions    
vary1 by reason of its different        
climates3 men1 animals1 vegetables1     
minerals1 are not the same on every part
 of it3 they vary sometimes in a very   
sensible manner1 at very inconsiderable 
distances4 ,the elephant is indigenous  
to1 or native of the torrid zone3 the   
rein deer is peculiar to the frozen     
climates of the ,north2 ,indostan is the
 womb that matures the diamond2 we do   
not find it produced in our own country3

 the pine-apple grows in the common     
atmosphere of ,america2 in our climate  
it is never produced in the open ground1
 never until art has furnished a sun    
analogous to that which it requires--the
 ,european in his own climate finds not 
this delicious fruit4 ,man in different 
climates varies in his colour1 in his   
size1 in his conformation1 in his       
powers1 in his industry1 in his courage1
 and in the faculties of his mind4 ,but1
 what is it that constitutes climate8   
,it is the different position of parts  
of the same globe1 relatively to the    
sun2 positions that suffice to make a   
sensible variety in its productions4    
,there is1 then1 sufficient foundation  
to conjecture that if by any accident   
our globe should become displaced1 all  
its productions would of necessity be   
changed2 seeing that causes being no    
longer the same1 or no longer acting    
after the same manner1 the effects would
 necessarily no longer be what they now 
are1 all productions1 that they may be  

able to conserve themselves1 or maintain
 their actual existence1 have occasion  
to co-order themselves with the whole   
from which they have emanated4 ,without 
this they would no longer be in a       
capacity to subsist3 it is this faculty 
of co-ordering themselves1--this        
relative adaption1 which is called the  
,,order ,,of ,,the ,,universe3 the want 
of it is called ,,confusion4 ,those     
productions which are treated as        
,,monstrous1 are such as are unable to  
co-order themselves with the general or 
particular laws of the beings who       
surround them1 or with the whole in     
which they find themselves placed3 they 
have had the faculty in their formation 
to accommodate themselves to these laws2
 but these very laws are opposed to     
their perfection3 for this reason they  
are unable to subsist4 ,it is thus that 
by a certain analogy of conformation1   
which exists between animals of         
different species1 mules are easily     
produced2 but these mules1 unable to    

co-order themselves with the beings that
 surround them1 are not able to reach   
perfection1 consequently cannot         
propagate their species4 ,man can live  
only in air1 fish only in water3 put the
 man into the water1 the fish into the  
air1 not being able to co-order         
themselves with the fluids which        
surround them1 these animals will       
quickly be destroyed4 ,transport by     
imagination1 a man from our planet into 
,,saturn1 his lungs will presently be   
rent by an atmosphere too rarified for  
his mode of being1 his members will be  
frozen with the intensity of the cold2  
he will perish for want of finding      
elements analogous to his actual        
existence3 transport another into       
,,mercury1 the excess of heat1 beyond   
what his mode of existence can bear1    
will quickly destroy him4  ,thus1 every 
thing seems to authorise the conjecture1
 that the human species is a production 
peculiar to our sphere1 in the position 
in which it is found3 that when this    

position may happen to change1 the human
 species will1 of consequence1 either be
 changed or will be obliged to          
disappear2 seeing that there would not  
then be that with which man could       
co-order himself with the whole1 or     
connect himself with that which can     
enable him to subsist4 ,it is this      
aptitude in man to co-order himself with
 the whole1 that not only furnishes him 
with the idea of order1 but also makes  
him exclaim whatever is1 is right2      
whilst every thing is only that which it
 can be1 as long as the whole is        
necessarily what it is2 whilst it is    
positively neither good nor bad1 as we  
understand those terms3 it is only      
requisite to displace a man1 to make him
 accuse the universe of confusion4      
,these reflections would appear to      
contradict the ideas of those1 who are  
willing to conjecture that the other    
planets1 like our own1 are inhabited by 
beings resembling ourselves4 ,but if the
 ,,laplander differs in so marked a     

manner from the ,,hottentot1 what       
difference ought we not rationally to   
suppose between an inhabitant of our    
planet and one of ,,saturn or of        
,,venus8  ,however it may be1 if we are 
obliged to recur by imagination to the  
origin of things1 to the infancy of the 
human species1 we may say that it is    
probable that man was a necessary       
consequence of the disentangling of our 
globe2 or one of the results of the     
qualities1 of the properties1 of the    
energies1 of which it is susceptible in 
its present position--that he was born  
male and female--that his existence is  
co-ordinate with that of the globe1     
under its present position--that as long
 as this co-ordination shall subsist1   
the human specie will conserve himself1 
will propagate himself1 according to the
 impulse1 after the primitive laws1     
which he has originally received--that  
if this co-ordination should happen to  
cease2 if the earth1 displaced1 should  
cease to receive the same impulse1 the  

same influence1 on the part of those    
causes which actually act upon it1 or   
which give it energy2 that then the     
human species would change1 to make     
place for new beings1 suitable to       
co-order themselves with the state that 
should succeed to that which we now see 
subsist4  ,in thus supposing the changes
 in the position of our globe1 the      
primitive man did1 perhaps1 differ more 
from the actual man1 than the quadruped 
differs from the insect4 ,thus man1 the 
same as every thing else that exists on 
our planet1 as well as in all the       
others1 may be regarded as in a state of
 continual vicissitude3 thus the last   
term of the existence of man is to us as
 unknown and as indistinct as the first3
 there is1 therefore1 no contradiction  
in the belief that the species vary     
incessantly--that to us it is as        
impossible to know what he will become1 
as to know what he has been4  ,with     
respect to those who may ask why ,nature
 does not produce new beings8 we may    

enquire of them in turn1 upon what      
foundation they suppose this fact8 ,what
 it is that authorizes them to believe  
this sterility in ,nature8 ,know they   
if1 in the various combinations which   
she is every instant forming1 ,nature be
 not occupied in producing new beings1  
without the cognizance of these         
observers8 ,who has informed them that  
this ,nature is not actually assembling1
 in her immense elaboratory1 the        
elements suitable to bring to light1    
generations entirely new1 that will have
 nothing in common with those of the    
species at present existing8 ,what      
absurdity then1 or what want of just    
inference would there be1 to imagine    
that the man1 the horse1 the fish1 the  
bird1 will be no more8 ,are these       
animals so indispensably requisite to   
,nature1 that without them she cannot   
continue her eternal course8 ,does not  
all change around us8 ,do we not        
ourselves change8 ,is it not evident    
that the whole universe has not been1 in

 its anterior eternal duration1         
rigorously the same that it now is8 that
 it is impossible1 in its posterior     
eternal duration1 it can be rigidly in  
the same state that it now is for a     
single instant8 ,how1 then1 pretend to  
divine that1 to which the infinite      
succession of destruction1 of           
reproduction1 of combination1 of        
dissolution1 of metamorphosis1 of       
change1 of transposition1 may be able   
eventually to conduct it by their       
consequence8 ,suns encrust themselves1  
and are extinguished2 planets perish and
 disperse themselves in the vast plains 
of air2 other suns are kindled1 and     
illumine their systems2 new planets form
 themselves1 either to make revolutions 
round these suns1 or to describe new    
routes2 and man1 an infinitely small    
portion of the globe1 which is itself   
but an imperceptible point in the       
immensity of space1 vainly believes it  
is for himself this universe is made2   
foolishly imagines he ought to be the   

confident of ,nature2 confidently       
flatters himself he is eternal3 and     
calls himself ,,king ,,of ,,the         
,,universe666  ,o man6 wilt thou never  
conceive1 that thou art but an          
ephemeron8 ,all changes in the great    
macrocosm3 nothing remains the same an  
instant1 in the planet thou inhabitest3 
,nature contains no one constant form1  
yet thou pretendest thy species can     
never disappear2 that thou shalt be     
exempted from the universal law1 that   
wills all shall experience change6      
,alas6 ,in thy actual being1 art not    
thou submitted to continual alterations8
 ,thou1 who in thy folly1 arrogantly    
assumest to thyself the title of ,,king 
,,of ,,nature6 ,thou1 who measurest the 
earth and the heavens6 ,thou1 who in thy
 vanity imaginest1 that the whole was   
made1 because thou art intelligent6     
,there requires but a very slight       
accident1 a single atom to be displaced1
 to make thee perish2 to degrade thee2  
to ravish from thee this intelligence of

 which thou appearest so proud4  ,if all
 the preceding conjectures be refused by
 those opposed to us2 if it be pretended
 that ,nature acts by a certain quantum 
of immutable and general laws2 if it be 
believed that men1 quadrupeds1 fish1    
insects1 plants1 are from all eternity1 
and will remain eternally1 what they now
 are3 if ,i say it be contended1 that   
from all eternity the stars have shone1 
in the immense regions of space1 have   
illuminated the firmament2 if it be     
insisted1 we must no more demand why man
 is such as he appears1 then ask why    
,nature is such as we behold her1 or why
 the world exists8 ,we are no longer    
opposed to such arguments4 ,whatever may
 be the system adopted1 it will perhaps 
reply equally well to the difficulties  
with which our opponents endeavour to   
embarrass the way3 examined closely1 it 
will be perceived they make nothing     
against those truths1 which we have     
gathered from experience4 ,it is not    
given to man to know every thing--it is 

not given him to know his origin--it is 
not given him to penetrate into the     
essence of things1 nor to recur to first
 principles--but it is given him1 to    
have reason1 to have honesty1 to        
ingenuously allow he is ignorant of that
 which he cannot know1 and not to       
substitute unintelligible words1 absurd 
suppositions1 for his uncertainty4      
,thus1 we say to those1 who to solve    
difficulties far above their reach1     
pretend that the human species descended
 from a first man and a first woman1    
created diversely according to different
 creeds2--that we have some ideas of    
,nature1 but that we have none of       
creation2--that the human mind is       
incapable of comprehending the period   
when all was nothing2--that to use words
 we cannot understand1 is only in other 
terms to acknowledge our ignorance of   
the powers of ,nature2--that we are     
unable to fathom the means by which she 
has been capacitated to produce the     
phenomena we behold4  ,let us then      

conclude1 that man has no just1 no solid
 reason to believe himself a privileged 
being in ,nature2 because he is subject 
to the same vicissitudes1 as all her    
other productions4 ,his pretended       
prerogatives have their foundation in   
error1 arising from mistaken opinions   
concerning his existence4 ,let him but  
elevate himself by his thoughts above   
the globe he inhabits1 he will look upon
 his own species with the same eyes he  
does all other beings in ,nature3 ,he   
will then clearly perceive that in the  
same manner that each tree produces its 
fruit1 by reason of its energies1 in    
consequence of its species3 so each man 
acts by reason of his particular energy2
 that he produces fruit1 actions1 works1
 equally necessary3 he will feel that   
the illusion which he anticipates in    
favour of himself1 arises from his      
being1 at one and the same time1 a      
spectator and a part of the universe4   
,he will acknowledge1 that the idea of  
excellence which he attaches to his     

being1 has no other foundation than his 
own peculiar interest2 than the         
predilection he has in favour of        
himself--that the doctrine he has       
broached with such seeming confidence1  
bottoms itself on a very suspicious     
foundation1 namely ,,ignorance and      
,,self-,,love4      ,,chap4 ,,vii4  ,the
 ,soul and the ,spiritual ,system4      
,man1 after having gratuitously supposed
 himself composed of two distinct       
independent substances1 that have no    
common properties1 relatively with each 
other2 has pretended1 as we have seen1  
that that which actuated him interiorly1
 that motion which is invisible1 that   
impulse which is placed within himself1 
is essentially different from those     
which act exteriorly4 ,the first he     
designated1 as we have already said1 by 
the name of a ,,spirit or a ,,soul4 ,if 
however it be asked1 what is a spirit8  
,the moderns will reply1 that the whole 
fruit of their metaphysical researches  
is limited to learning that this        

motive-power1 which they state to be the
 spring of man's action1 is a substance 
of an unknown nature2 so simple1 so     
indivisible1 so deprived of extent1 so  
invisible1 so impossible to be          
discovered by the senses1 that its parts
 cannot be separated1 even by           
abstraction or thought4 ,the question   
then arises1 how can we conceive such a 
substance1 which is only the negation of
 every thing of which we have a         
knowledge8 ,how form to ourselves an    
idea of a substance1 void of extent1 yet
 acting on our senses2 that is to say1  
on those organs which are material1     
which have extent8 ,how can a being     
without extent be moveable2 how put     
matter in action8 ,how can a substance  
devoid of parts1 correspond successively
 with different parts of space8 ,but a  
very cogent question presents itself on 
this occasion3 if this distinct         
substance that is said to form one of   
the component parts of man1 be really   
what it is reported1 and if it be not1  

it is not what it is described2 if it be
 unknown1 if it be not pervious to the  
senses2 if it be invisible1 by what     
means did the metaphysicians themselves 
become acquainted with it8 ,how did they
 form ideas of a substance1 that taking 
their own account of it1 is not1 under  
any of its circumstances1 either        
directly or by analogy1 cognizable to   
the mind of man8 ,if they could         
positively achieve this1 there would no 
longer be any mystery in ,nature3 it    
would be as easy to conceive the time   
when all was nothing1 when all shall    
have passed away1 to account for the    
production of every thing we behold1 as 
to dig in a garden or read a            
lecture4--,doubt would vanish from the  
human species2 there could no longer be 
any difference of opinion1 since all    
must necessarily be of one mind on a    
subject so accessible to every enquirer4
  ,but it will be replied1 the          
materialist himself admits1 the natural 
philosophers of all ages have admitted1 

elements and atoms1 beings simple and   
indivisible1 of which bodies are        
composed3--granted2 they have no more3  
they have also admitted that many of    
these atoms1 many of these elements1 if 
not all1 are unknown to them3           
nevertheless1 these simple beings1 these
 atoms of the materialist1 are not the  
same thing with the spirit1 or the soul 
of the metaphysician4 ,when the natural 
philosopher talks of atoms--when he     
describes them as simple beings1 he     
indicates nothing more than that they   
are homogeneous1 pure1 without mixture3 
but then he allows that they have       
extent1 consequently parts1 are         
separable by thought1 although no other 
natural agent with which he is          
acquainted is capable of dividing them3 
that the simple beings of this genus are
 susceptible of motion--can impart      
action--receive impulse--are            
material--are placed in ,nature--are    
indestructible2--that consequently1 if  
he cannot know them from themselves1 he 

can form some idea of them by analogy3  
thus he has done that intelligibly1     
which the metaphysician would do        
unintelligibly3 the latter1 with a view 
to render man immortal1 finding         
difficulties to his wish1 from seeing   
that the body decayed--that it has      
submitted to the great1 the universal   
law--has1 to solve the difficulty1 to   
remove the impediment1 given him a soul1
 distinct from the body1 which he says  
is exempted from the action of the      
general law3 to account for this1 he has
 called it a spiritual being1 whose     
properties are the negation of all known
 properties1 consequently inconceivable3
 had he1 however1 had recourse to the   
atoms of the former--had he made this   
substance the last possible term of the 
division of matter--it would at least   
have been intelligible2 it would also   
have been immortal1 since1 according to 
the reasonings of all men1 whether      
metaphysicians1 theologians1 or natural 
philosophers1 an atom is an             

indestructible element1 that must exist 
to all eternity4  ,all men are agreed in
 this position1 that motion is the      
successive change of the relations of   
one body with other bodies1 or with the 
different parts of space4 ,if that which
 is called spirit be susceptible of     
communicating or receiving motion--if it
 acts--if it gives play to the organs of
 body--to produce these effects1 it     
necessarily follows that this being     
changes successively its relation1 its  
tendency1 its correspondence1 the       
position of its parts1 either relatively
 to the different points of space1 or to
 the different organs of the body which 
it puts in action3 but to change its    
relation with space1 with the organs to 
which it gives impulse1 it follows of   
necessity that this spirit most have    
extent1 solidity1 consequently distinct 
parts3 whenever a substance possesses   
these qualities1 it is what we call     
,,matter1 it can no longer be regarded  
as a simple pure being1 in the sense    

attached to it by the moderns1 or by    
theologians4  ,thus it will be seen1    
that those who1 to conquer              
insurmountable difficulties1 have       
supposed in man an immaterial substance1
 distinguished from his body1 have not  
thoroughly understood themselves2 indeed
 they have done nothing more than       
imagined a negative quality1 of which   
they cannot have any correct idea3      
matter alone is capable of acting on our
 senses2 without this action nothing    
would be capable of making itself known 
to us4 ,they have not seen that a being 
without extent is neither in a capacity 
to move itself1 nor has the capability  
of communicating motion to the body2    
since such a being1 having no parts1 has
 not the faculty of changing its        
relation1 or its distance1 relatively to
 other bodies1 nor of exciting motion in
 the human body1 which is itself        
material4 ,that which is called our soul
 moves itself with us2 now motion is a  
property of matter--this soul gives     

impulse to the arm2 the arm1 moved by   
it1 makes an impression1 a blow1 that   
follows the general law of motion3 in   
this case1 the force remaining the same1
 if the mass was two-fold1 the blow     
should be double4 ,this soul again      
evinces its materiality in the          
invincible obstacles it encounters on   
the part of the body4 ,if the arm be    
moved by its impulse when nothing       
opposes it1 yet this arm can no longer  
move1 when it is charged with a weight  
beyond its strength4 ,here then is a    
mass of matter that annihilates the     
impulse given by a spiritual cause1     
which spiritual cause having no analogy 
with matter1 ought not to find more     
difficulty in moving the whole world1   
than in moving a single atom1 nor an    
atom1 than the universe4 ,from this1 it 
is fair to conclude1 such a substance is
 a chimera--a being of the imagination4 
,that it required a being differently   
endowed1 differently constituted1 to set
 matter in motion--to create all the    

phenomena we behold3 nevertheless1 it is
 a being the metaphysicians have made   
the contriver1 the ,author of ,nature4  
,as man1 in all his speculations1 takes 
himself for the model1 he no sooner     
imagined a spirit within himself1 than  
giving it extent1 he made it universal2 
then ascribed to it all those causes    
with which his ignorance prevents him   
from becoming acquainted1 thus he       
identified himself with the ,author of  
,nature--then availed himself of the    
supposition to explain the connection of
 the soul with the body3 his            
self-complacency prevented his          
perceiving that he was only enlarging   
the circle of his errors1 by pretending 
to understand that which it is more than
 possible he will never be permitted to 
know2 his self-love prevented him from  
feeling1 that whenever he punished      
another for not thinking as he did1 that
 he committed the greatest injustice1   
unless he was satisfactorily able to    
prove that other wrong1 and himself     

right3 that if he himself was obliged to
 have recourse to hypothesis--to        
gratuitous suppositions1 whereon to     
found his doctrine1 that from the very  
fallibility of his nature1 these might  
be erroneous3 thus ,,gallileo was       
persecuted1 because the metaphysicians1 
the theologians of his day1 chose to    
make others believe what it was evident 
they did not themselves understand4  ,as
 soon as ,i feel an impulse1 or         
experience motion1 ,i am under the      
necessity to acknowledge extent1        
solidity1 density1 impenetrability in   
the substance ,i see move1 or from which
 ,i receive impulse3 thus1 when action  
is attributed to any cause whatever1 ,i 
am obliged to consider it ,,material4 ,i
 may be ignorant of its individual      
nature1 of its mode of action1 or of its
 generic properties2 but ,i cannot      
deceive myself in general properties1   
which are common to all matter3 this    
ignorance will only be increased1 when  
,i shall take that for granted of a     

being1 of which from that moment ,i am  
precluded by what ,i admit from forming 
any idea1 which moreover deprives it    
completely either of the faculty of     
moving itself1 giving an impulse1 or    
acting4 ,thus1 according to the received
 idea of the term1 a spiritual substance
 that moves itself1 that gives motion to
 matter1 and that acts1 implies a       
contradiction1 that necessarily infers a
 total impossibility4  ,the partizans of
 spirituality believe they answer the   
difficulties they have accumulated1 by  
asserting that the soul is entire--is   
whole under each point of its extent4   
,if an absurd answer will solve         
difficulties1 they certainly have done  
it4 ,but let us examine this reply3--it 
will be found that this indivisible part
 which is called soul1 however          
insensible or however minute1 must yet  
remain something3 then an infinity of   
unextended substances1 or the same      
substance having no dimensions1 repeated
 an infinity of times1 would constitute 

a substance that has extent3 this cannot
 be what they mean1 because according to
 this principle1 the human soul would   
then be as infinite as the ,author of   
,nature2 seeing that they have stated   
this to be a being without extent1 who  
is an infinity of times whole in each   
part of the universe4 ,but when there   
shall appear as much solidity in the    
answer as there is a want of it1 it must
 be acknowledged that in whatever manner
 the spirit or the soul finds itself in 
its extent1 when the body moves forward 
the soul does not remain behind2 if so1 
it has a quality in common with the     
body1 peculiar to matter2 since it is   
conveyed from place to place jointly    
with the body4 ,thus1 when even the soul
 should be admitted to be immaterial1   
what conclusion must be drawn8 ,entirely
 submitted to the motion of the body1   
without this body it would remain dead  
and inert4 ,this soul would only be part
 of a two-fold machine1 necessarily     
impelled forward by a concatenation1 or 

connection with the whole4 ,it would    
resemble a bird1 which a child conducts 
at its pleasure1 by the string with     
which it is bound4  ,thus1 it is for    
want of consulting experience1 by not   
attending to reason1 that man has       
darkened his ideas upon the concealed   
principle of his motion4 ,if1           
disentangled from prejudice--if1        
destitute of gratuitous                 
suppositions--if1 throwing aside error1 
he would contemplate his soul1 or the   
moving principle that acts within him1  
he would be convinced that it forms a   
part of its body1 that it cannot be     
distinguished from it1 but by           
abstraction2 that it is only the body   
itself1 considered relatively with some 
of its functions1 or with those         
faculties of which its nature1 or its   
peculiar organization1 renders it       
susceptible3--he will perceive that this
 soul is obliged to undergo the same    
changes as the body2 that it is born    
with it2 that it expands itself with it2

 that like the body1 it passes through a
 state of infancy1 a period of weakness1
 a season of inexperience2 that it      
enlarges itself1 that it strengthens    
itself1 in the same progression2 that   
like the body1 it arrives at an adult   
age or reaches maturity2 that it is     
then1 and not till then1 it obtains the 
faculty of fulfilling certain functions2
 that it is in this stage1 and in no    
other1 that it enjoys reason2 that it   
displays more or less wit1 judgment1 and
 manly activity2 that like the body1 it 
is subject to those vicissitudes which  
exterior causes obliges it to undergo by
 their influence2 that1 conjointly with 
the body1 it suffers1 enjoys1 partakes  
of its pleasures1 shares its pains1 is  
sound when the body is healthy1 and     
diseased when the body is oppressed with
 sickness2 that like the body1 it is    
continually modified by the different   
degrees of density in the atmosphere2 by
 the variety of the seasons1 and by the 
various properties of the aliments      

received into the stomach3 in short1 he 
would be obliged to acknowledge that at 
some periods it manifests visible signs 
of torpor1 stupefaction1 decrepitude1   
and death4  ,in despite of this analogy1
 or rather this continual identity1 of  
the soul with the body1 man has been    
desirous of distinguishing their        
essence2 he has therefore made the soul 
an inconceivable being3 but in order    
that he might form to himself some idea 
of it1 he was1 notwithstanding1 obliged 
to have recourse to material beings1 and
 to their manner of acting4 ,the word   
spirit1 therefore1 presents to the mind 
no other ideas than those of breathing1 
of respiration1 of wind4 ,thus1 when it 
is said the soul is a spirit1 it really 
means nothing more than that its mode of
 action is like that of breathing3 which
 though invisible in itself1 or acting  
without being seen1 nevertheless        
produces very visible effects4 ,but     
breath1 it is acknowledged1 is a        
material cause2 it is allowed to be air 

modified2 it is not1 therefore1 a simple
 or pure substance1 such as the moderns 
designate under the name of ,,spirit4   
,it is rather singular that in the      
,hebrew1 the ,greek1 and the ,latin1 the
 synonymy1 or corresponding term for    
spirit should signify breath4 ,the      
metaphysicians themselves can best say  
why they have adopted such a word1 to   
designate the substance they have       
distinguished from matter3 some of them1
 fearful they should not have distinct  
beings enough1 have gone farther1 and   
compounded man of three substances1     
,,body1 ,,soul1 and ,,intellect4        
,although the word spirit is so very    
ancient among men1 the sense attached to
 it by the moderns is quite new3 the    
idea of spirituality1 as admitted at    
this day1 is a recent production of the 
imagination4 ,neither ,,pythagoras nor  
,,plato1 however heated their brain1    
however decided their taste for the     
marvellous1 appear to have understood by
 spirit an immaterial substance1 or one 

without extent1 devoid of parts2 such as
 that of which the moderns have formed  
the human soul1 the concealed author of 
motion4 ,the ancients1 by the word      
spirit1 were desirous to define matter  
of an extreme subtilty1 of a purer      
quality than that which acted grossly on
 our senses4 ,in consequence1 some have 
regarded the soul as an ethereal        
substance2 others as igneous matter2    
others again have compared it to light4 
,,democritus made it consist in motion1 
consequently gave it a manner of        
existence4 ,,aristoxenes1 who was       
himself a musician1 made it harmony4    
,,aristotle regarded the soul as the    
moving faculty1 upon which depended the 
motion of living bodies4  ,the earliest 
doctors of ,christianity had no other   
idea of the soul1 than that it was      
material4 ,,tertullian1 ,,arnobius1     
,,clement of ,,alexandria1 ,,origen1    
,,saint ,,justin1 ,,irenaeus1 have all  
of them discoursed upon it2 but have    
never spoken of it other than as a      

corporeal substance--as matter4 ,it was 
reserved for their successors at a great
 distance of time1 to make the human    
soul and the soul of the world pure     
spirits2 that is to say1 immaterial     
substances1 of which it is impossible   
they could form any accurate idea3 by   
degrees this incomprehensible doctrine  
of spirituality1 conformable without    
doubt to the views of those who make it 
a principle to annihilate reason1       
prevailed over the others3 ,but it might
 be fairly asked1 if the pretended      
proofs of this doctrine owe themselves  
to a man1 who on a much more            
comprehensible point has been proved in 
error2 if1 on that which time has shewn 
was accessible to man's reason1 the     
great champion in support of this dogma 
was deceived2 are we not bound to       
examine1 with the most rigorous         
investigation1 the reasonings1 the      
evidence1 of one who was the decided1   
the proven child of enthusiasm and      
error8 ,yet ,,descartes1 to whose       

sublime errors the world is indebted for
 the ,newtonian system1 although before 
him the soul had been considered        
spiritual1 was the first who established
 that1 that which thinks ought to be    
distinguished from matter2 from whence  
he concludes rather hastily1 that the   
soul1 or that which thinks in man1 is a 
spirit2 or a simple indivisible         
substance4 ,perhaps it would have been  
more logical1 more consistent with      
reason1 to have said1 since man1 who is 
matter1 who has no idea but of matter1  
enjoys the faculty of thought1 matter   
can think2 that is1 it is susceptible of
 that particular modification called    
thought4  ,however this may be1 this    
doctrine was believed divine1           
supernatural1 because it was            
inconceivable to man4 ,those who dared  
believe even that which was believed    
before2 namely1 that the soul was       
material1 were held as rash             
inconsiderate madmen1 or else treated as
 enemies to the welfare and happiness of

 the human race4 ,when man had once     
renounced experience2 when he had       
abjured his reason2 when he had joined  
the banner of this enthusiastic novelty2
 he did nothing more1 day after day1    
than subtilize the delirium1 the ravings
 of his imagination3 he pleased himself 
by continually sinking deeper into the  
most unfathomable depths of error3 he   
felicitated himself on his discoveries2 
on his pretended knowledge2 in an exact 
ratio as his understanding became       
enveloped in the mists of darkness1     
environed with the clouds of ignorance4 
,thus1 in consequence of man's reasoning
 upon false principles2 of having       
relinquished the evidence of his senses2
 the moving principle within him1 the   
concealed author of motion1 has been    
made a mere chimera1 a mere being of the
 imagination1 because he has divested it
 of all known properties2 because he has
 attached to it nothing but properties  
which1 from the very nature of his      
existence1 he is incapacitated to       

comprehend4  ,the doctrine of           
spirituality1 such as it now exists1    
offers nothing but vague ideas2 or      
rather is the absense of all ideas4     
,what does it present to the mind1 but a
 substance which possesses nothing of   
which our senses enable us to have a    
knowledge8 ,can it be truth that a man  
is able to figure to himself a being not
 material1 having neither extent nor    
parts1 which1 nevertheless1 acts upon   
matter without having any point of      
contact1 any kind of analogy with it2   
and which itself receives the impulse of
 matter by means of material organs1    
which announce to it the presence of    
other beings8 ,is it possible to        
conceive the union of the soul with the 
body2 to comprehend how this material   
body can bind1 enclose1 constrain1      
determine a fugitive being which escapes
 all our senses8 ,is it honest1 is it   
plain dealing1 to solve these           
difficulties1 by saying there is a      
mystery in them2 that they are the      

effects of a power1 more inconceivable  
than the human soul2 than its mode of   
acting1 however concealed from our view8
 ,when to resolve these problems1 man is
 obliged to have recourse to miracles or
 to make the ,divinity interfere1 does  
he not avow his own ignorance8 ,when1   
notwithstanding the ignorance he is thus
 obliged to avow by availing himself of 
the divine agency1 he tells us1 this    
immaterial substance1 this soul1 shall  
experience the action of the element of 
fire1 which he allows to be material2   
when he confidently says this soul shall
 be burnt2 shall suffer in purgatory2   
have we not a right to believe1 that    
either he has a design to deceive us1 or
 else that he does not himself          
understand that which he is so anxious  
we should take upon his word8  ,let us  
not then be surprised at those subtile  
hypotheses1 as ingenious as they are    
unsatisfactory1 to which theological    
prejudice has obliged the most profound 
modern speculators to recur2 when they  

have undertaken to reconcile the        
spirituality of the soul1 with the      
physical action of material beings1 on  
this incorporeal substance2 its         
re-action upon these beings2 its union  
with the body4 ,when the human mind     
permits itself to be guided by authority
 without proof1 to be led forward by    
enthusiasm2 when it renounces the       
evidence of its senses2 what can it do  
more than sink into error8 ,let those   
who doubt this1 read the metaphysical   
romances of ,,leibnitz1 ,,descartes1    
,,malebranche1 ,,cudworth1 and many     
others3 let them coolly examine the     
ingenious1 but fanciful systems entitled
 the pre-established harmony of         
occasional causes2 physical pre-motion1 
c4  ,if man wishes to form to himself   
clear1 perspicuous ideas of his soul1   
let him throw himself back on his       
experience--let him renounce his        
prejudices--let him avoid theological   
conjecture--let him tear the bandages   
which he has been taught to think       

necessary1 but with which he has been   
blind-folded1 only to confound his      
reason4 ,if it be wished to draw man to 
virtue1 let the natural philosopher1 let
 the anatomist1 let the physician1 unite
 their experience2 let them compare     
their observations1 in order to show    
what ought to be thought of a substance1
 so disguised1 so hidden by absurdities1
 as not easily to be known4 ,their      
discoveries may perhaps teach moralists 
the true motive-power that ought to     
influence the actions of                
man--legislators1 the true motives that 
should actuate him1 that should excite  
him to labour to the welfare of         
society--sovereigns1 the means of       
rendering their subjects truly happy2 of
 giving solidity to the power of the    
nations committed to their charge4      
,physical souls have physical wants1 and
 demand physical happiness4 ,these are  
real1 are preferable objects1 to that   
variety of fanciful chimeras1 each in   
its turn giving place to the other1 with

 which the mind of man has been fed     
during so many ages4 ,let us1 then1     
labour to perfect the morality of man2  
let us make it agreeable to him2 let us 
excite in him an ardent thirst for its  
purity3 we shall presently see his      
morals become better1 himself become    
happier2 his soul become calm and       
serene2 his will determined to virtue1  
by the natural1 by the palpable motives 
held out to him4 ,by the diligence1 by  
the care which legislators shall bestow 
on natural philosophy1 they will form   
citizens of sound understandings2 robust
 and well constituted2 who1 finding     
themselves happy1 will be themselves    
accessary to that useful impulse so     
necessary for their soul4 ,when the body
 is suffering1 when nations are unhappy1
 the soul cannot be in a proper state4  
,mens sana in corpore sano1 a sound mind
 in a sound body1 will be always able to
 make a good citizen4  ,the more man    
reflects1 the more he will be convinced 
that the soul1 very far from being      

distinguished from the body1 is only the
 body itself1 considered relatively to  
some of its functions1 or to some of the
 modes of existing or acting1 of which  
it is susceptible whilst it enjoys life4
 ,thus1 the soul is man1 considered     
relatively to the faculty he has of     
feeling1 of thinking1 of acting in a    
mode resulting from his peculiar nature2
 that is to say1 from his properties1   
from his particular organization3 from  
the modifications1 whether durable or   
transitory1 which the beings who act    
upon him cause his machine to undergo4  
,those who have distinguished the soul  
from the body1 appear only to have      
distinguished their brain from          
themselves4 ,indeed1 the brain is the   
common center1 where all the nerves1    
distributed through every part of the   
body1 meet and blend themselves3 it is  
by the aid of this interior organ that  
all those operations are performed which
 are attributed to the soul3 it is the  
impulse1 or the motion1 communicated to 

the nerve1 which modifies the brain3 in 
consequence1 it re-acts1 or gives play  
to the bodily organs2 or rather it acts 
upon itself1 and becomes capable of     
producing within itself a great variety 
of motion1 which has been designated    
intellectual faculties4  ,from this it  
may be seen that some philosophers have 
been desirous to make a spiritual       
substance of the brain4 ,it is evidently
 nothing but ignorance that has given   
birth to and accredited this system1    
which embraces so little1 either of the 
natural or the rational4 ,it is from not
 having studied himself1 that man has   
supposed he was compounded with an      
agent1 essentially different from his   
body3 in examining this body1 he will   
find that it is quite useless to recur  
to hypothesis for the explanation of the
 various phenomena it presents to his   
contemplation2 that hypothesis can do   
nothing more than lead him out of the   
right road to the information after     
which he seeks4 ,what obscures this     

question1 arises from this1 that man    
cannot see himself3 indeed1 for this    
purpose1 that would be requisite which  
is impossible2 namely1 that he could he 
at one and the same moment both within  
and without himself3 he may be compared 
to an ,eolian harp1 that issues sounds  
of itself1 and should demand what it is 
that causes it to give them forth8 ,it  
does not perceive that the sensitive    
quality of its chords causes the air to 
brace them2 that being so braced1 it is 
rendered sonorous by every gust of wind 
with which it happens to come in        
contact4  ,when a theologian1           
obstinately bent on admitting into man  
two substances essentially different1 is
 asked why he multiplies beings without 
necessity8 he will reply1 because       
thought cannot be a property of matter4 
,if1 then1 it be enquired of him1 cannot
 ,god give to matter the faculty of     
thought8 he will answer1 no6 seeing that
 ,god cannot do impossible things6      
,according to his principles1 it is as  

impossible that spirit or thought can   
produce matter1 as it is impossible that
 matter can produce spirit or thought3  
it might1 therefore1 be concluded       
against him1 that the world was not made
 by a spirit1 any more than a spirit was
 made by the world4 ,but in this case1  
does not the theologian1 according to   
his own assertion1 acknowledge himself  
to be the true atheist8 ,does he not1 in
 fact1 circumscribe the attributes of   
the ,deity1 and deny his power1 to suit 
his own purpose8 ,yet these men demand  
implicit belief in doctrines1 which they
 are obliged to maintain by the most    
contradictory assertions4  ,the more    
experience we collect1 the more we shall
 be convinced that the word spirit1 in  
its present received usage1 conveys no  
one sense that is tangible1 either to   
ourselves or to those that invented it2 
consequently cannot be of the least use1
 either in physics or morals4 ,what     
modern metaphysicians believe and       
understand by the word1 is nothing more 

than an occult power1 imagined to       
explain occult qualities and actions1   
but which1 in fact1 explains nothing4   
,savage nations admit of spirits1 to    
account to themselves for those effects1
 which to them appear marvellous1 as    
long as their ignorance knows not the   
cause to which they ought to be         
attributed4 ,in attributing to spirits  
the phenomena of ,nature1 as well as    
those of the human body1 do we1 in fact1
 do any thing more than reason like     
savages8 ,man has filled ,nature with   
spirits1 because he has almost always   
been ignorant of the true causes of     
those effects by which he was           
astonished4 ,not being acquainted with  
the powers of ,nature1 he has supposed  
her to be animated by a great spirit3   
not understanding the energy of the     
human frame1 he has in like manner      
conjectured it to be animated by a minor
 spirit3 from this it would appear1 that
 whenever he wished to indicate the     
unknown cause of a phenomena1 he knew   

not how to explain in a natural manner1 
he had recourse to the word spirit4 ,in 
short1 spirit was a term by which he    
solved all his doubts1 and cleared up   
his ignorance to himself4 ,it was       
according to these principles that when 
the ,,americans first beheld the        
terrible effects of gunpowder1 they     
ascribed the cause to wrathful spirits1 
to their enraged divinities3 it was by  
adopting these principles1 that our     
ancestors believed in a plurality of    
gods1 in ghosts1 in genii1 c4 ,pursuing 
the same track1 we ought to attribute to
 spirits gravitation1 electricity1      
magnetism1 c4 c4 ,it is somewhat        
singular1 that priests have in all ages 
so strenuously upheld those systems     
which time has exploded2 that they have 
appeared to be either the most crafty or
 the most ignorant of men4 ,where are   
now the priests of ,apollo1 of ,juno1 of
 the ,sun1 and a thousand others8 ,yet  
these are the men1 who in all times have
 persecuted those who have been the     

first to give natural explanations of   
the phenomena of ,nature1 as witness    
,,anaxagoras1 ,,aristotle1 ,,gallileo1  
,,descartes1 c4 c4      ,,chap4 ,,viii4 
,the ,intellectual ,faculties derived   
from the ,faculty of ,feeling4   ,to    
convince ourselves that the faculties   
called intellectual1 are only certain   
modes of existence1 or determinate      
manners of acting1 which result from the
 peculiar organization of the body1 we  
have only to analyze them2 we shall then
 see that all the operations which are  
attributed to the soul1 are nothing more
 than certain modifications of the body2
 of which a substance that is without   
extent1 that has no parts1 that is      
immaterial1 is not susceptible4  ,the   
first faculty we behold in the living   
man1 and that from which all his others 
flow1 is feeling3 however inexplicable  
this faculty may appear1 on a first     
view1 if it be examined closely1 it will
 be found to be a consequence of the    
essence1 or a result of the properties  

of organized beings2 the same as        
gravity1 magnetism1 elasticity1         
electricity1 c4 result from the essence 
or nature of some others4 ,we shall also
 find these last phenomena are not less 
inexplicable than that of feeling4      
,nevertheless1 if we wish to define to  
ourselves a clear and precise idea of   
it1 we shall find that feeling is a     
particular manner of being moved--a mode
 of receiving an impulse peculiar to    
certain organs of animated bodies1 which
 is occasioned by the presence of a     
material object that acts upon these    
organs1 and transmit the impulse or     
shock to the brain4  ,man only feels by 
the aid of nerves dispersed through his 
body2 which is itself1 to speak         
correctly1 nothing more than a great    
nerve2 or may be said to resemble a     
large tree1 of which the branches       
experience the action of the root1      
communicated through the trunk4 ,in man 
the nerves unite and lose themselves in 
the brain2 that intestine is the true   

seat of feeling3 like the spider in the 
centre of his web1 it is quickly warned 
of all the changes that happen to the   
body1 even at the extremities to which  
it sends its filaments and branches4    
,experience enables us to ascertain1    
that man ceases to feel in those parts  
of his body of which the communication  
with the brain is intercepted2 he feels 
very little1 or not at all1 whenever    
this organ is itself deranged or        
affected in too lively a manner4 ,a     
proof of this is afforded in the        
transactions of the ,royal ,academy of  
,sciences at ,paris3 they inform us of a
 man who had his scull taken off1 in the
 room of which his brain was recovered  
with skin2 in proportion as a pressure  
was made by the hand on his brain1 the  
man fell into a kind of insensibility1  
which deprived him of all feeling4      
,,bartolin says1 the brain of a man is  
twice as big as that of an ox4 ,this    
observation had been already made by    
,,aristotle4 ,in the dead body of an    

idiot dissected by ,,willis1 the brain  
was found smaller than ordinary3 he says
 the greatest difference he found       
between the parts of the body of this   
idiot1 and those of wiser men1 was1 that
 the plexus of the intercostal nerves1  
which is the mediator between the brain 
and the heart1 was extremely small1     
accompanied by a less number of nerves  
than usual4 ,according to ,,willis1 the 
ape is1 of all animals1 that which has  
the largest brain1 relatively to his    
size3 he is also1 after man1 that which 
has the most intelligence3 this is      
further confirmed1 by the name he bears 
in the soil1 to which he is indigenous1 
which is ourang outang1 or the man      
beast4 ,there is1 therefore1 every      
reason to believe that it is entirely in
 the brain1 that consists the           
difference1 that is found not only      
between man and beasts1 but also between
 the man of wit1 and the fool3 between  
the thinking man1 and he who is         
ignorant2 between the man of sound      

understanding1 and the madman3 a        
multitude of experience1 serves to      
prove1 that those persons who are most  
accustomed to use their intellectual    
faculties1 have their brain more        
extended than others3 the same has been 
remarked of watermen1 that they have    
arms much longer than other men4        
,however this may be1 the sensibility of
 the brain1 and all its parts1 is a     
fact3 if it be asked1 whence comes this 
property8 ,we shall reply1 it is the    
result of an arrangement1 of a          
combination1 peculiar to the animal3 it 
is thus that milk1 bread1 wine1 change  
themselves in the substance of man1 who 
is a sensible being3 this insensible    
matter becomes sensible1 in combining   
itself with a sensible whole4 ,some     
philosophers think that sensibility is a
 universal quality of matter3 in this   
case1 it would be useless to seek from  
whence this property is derived1 as we  
know it by its effects4 ,if this        
hypothesis be admitted1 in like manner  

as two kinds of motion are distinguished
 in ,nature1 the one called live force1 
the other dead1 or inert force1 two     
sorts of sensibility will be            
distinguished1 the one active or alive1 
the other inert or dead4 ,then to       
animalize a substance1 is only to       
destroy the obstacles that prevent its  
being active or sensible4 ,in fact1     
sensibility is either a quality which   
communicates itself like motion1 and    
which is acquired by combination2 or    
this sensibility is a property inherent 
in all matter3 in both1 or either case1 
an unextended being1 without parts1 such
 as the human soul is said to be1 can   
neither be the cause of it nor submitted
 to its operation2 but we may fairly    
conclude1 that all the parts of ,nature 
enjoy the capability to arrive at       
animation2 the obstacle is only in the  
state1 not in the quality4 ,life is the 
perfection of ,nature3 she has no parts 
which do not tend to it--which do not   
attain it by the same means4 ,life in an

 insect1 a dog1 a man1 has no other     
difference1 than that this act is more  
perfect1 relatively to ourselves in     
proportion to the structure of the      
organs3 if1 therefore1 it be asked1 what
 is requisite to animate a body8 we     
reply1 it needs no foreign aid2 it is   
sufficient that the power of ,nature be 
joined to its organization4  ,the       
conformation1 the arrangement1 the      
texture1 the delicacy of the organs1 as 
well exterior as interior1 which compose
 men and animals1 render their parts    
extremely mobile1 or make their machine 
susceptible of being moved with great   
facility4 ,in a body1 which is only a   
heap of fibres1 a mass of nerves1       
contiguous one to the other1 united in a
 common center1 always ready to act2 in 
a whole1 composed of fluids and solids1 
of which the parts are in equilibrium1  
the smallest touching each other1 are   
active in their motion1 communicating   
reciprocally1 alternately and in        
succession1 the impression1             

oscillations1 and shocks they receive2  
in such a composition1 it is not        
surprising that the slightest impulse   
propagates itself with celerity2 that   
the shocks excited in its remotest      
parts1 make themselves quickly felt in  
the brain1 whose delicate texture       
renders it susceptible of being itself  
very easily modified4 ,air1 fire1 water1
 agents the most inconstant1 possessing 
the most rapid motion1 circulate        
continually in the fibres1 incessantly  
penetrate the nerves3 without doubt     
these contribute to that incredible     
celerity with which the brain is        
acquainted with what passes at the      
extremities of the body4                
,notwithstanding the great mobility with
 which man's organization renders him   
susceptible1 although exterior as well  
as interior causes are continually      
acting upon him1 he does not always feel
 in a distinct1 in a decided manner1 the
 impulse given to his senses3 indeed1 he
 does not feel it1 until it has produced

 some change1 or given some shock to his
 brain4 ,thus1 although completely      
environed by air1 he does not feel its  
action1 until it is so modified1 as to  
strike with a sufficient degree of force
 on his organs2 to penetrate his skin1  
through which his brain is warned of its
 presence4 ,thus1 during a profound and 
tranquil sleep1 undisturbed by any      
dream1 man ceases to feel4 ,in short1   
notwithstanding the continued motion    
that agitates his frame1 man does not   
appear to feel1 when this motion acts in
 a convenient order2 he does not        
perceive a state of health1 but he      
discovers a state of grief or sickness2 
because1 in the first1 his brain does   
not receive too lively an impulse1      
whilst in the others1 his nerves are    
contracted1 shocked1 and agitated1 with 
violent1 with disorderly motion3 these  
communicating with his brain1 give      
notice that some cause acts strongly    
upon them--impels them in a manner that 
bears no analogy with their natural     

habit3 this constitutes1 in him1 that   
peculiar mode of existing which he calls
 grief4  ,on the other hand1 it         
sometimes happens that exterior objects 
produce very considerable changes on his
 body1 without his perceiving them at   
the moment4 ,often1 in the heat of      
battle1 the soldier perceives not that  
he is dangerously wounded1 because1 at  
the time1 the rapidity1 the multiplicity
 of impetuous motion that assails his   
brain1 does not permit him to           
distinguish the particular change a part
 of his body has undergone by the wound4
 ,in short1 when a great number of      
causes are simultaneously acting on him 
with too much vivacity1 he sinks under  
their accumulated pressure1--he         
swoons--he loses his senses--he is      
deprived of feeling4  ,in general1      
feeling only obtains1 when the brain can
 distinguish distinctly1 the impressions
 made on the organs with which it has   
communication2 it is the distinct shock1
 the decided modification man undergoes1

 that constitutes conscience4 ,doctor   
,clarke1 says to this effect3           
,conscience is the act of reflecting1 by
 means of which ,i know that ,i think1  
and that my thoughts1 or my actions     
belong to me1 and not to another4 ,from 
this it will appear1 that feeling is a  
mode of being1 a marked change1 produced
 on our brain1 occasioned by the impulse
 communicated to our organs1 whether by 
interior or exterior agents1 by which it
 is modified either in a durable or     
transient manner3 it is not always      
requisite that man's organs should be   
moved by an exterior object1 to enable  
him to feel that he should be conscious 
of the changes effected in him3 he can  
feel them within himself by means of an 
interior impulse2 his brain is then     
modified1 or rather he renews within    
himself the anterior modifications4 ,we 
are not to be astonished that the brain 
should be necessarily warned of the     
shocks1 of the impediments1 of the      
changes that may happen to so           

complicated a machine as the human body1
 in which1 notwithstanding all the parts
 are contiguous to the brain1 and       
concentrate themselves in this brain1   
and are by their essence in a continual 
state of action and re-action4  ,when a 
man experiences the pains of the gout1  
he is conscious of them2 in other words1
 he feels interiorly1 that it has       
produced very marked1 very distinct     
changes in him1 without his perceiving1 
that he has received an impulse from any
 exterior cause2 nevertheless1 if he    
will recur to the true source of these  
changes1 he will find that they have    
been wholly produced by exterior agents3
 they have been the consequence1 either 
of his temperament2 of the organization 
received from his parents2 of the       
aliments with which his frame has been  
nourished2 besides a thousand trivial1  
inappreciable causes1 which congregating
 themselves by degrees produce in him   
the gouty humour2 the effect of which is
 to make him feel in an acute and very  

lively manner4 ,the pain of the gout    
engenders in his brain an idea1 so      
modifies it that it acquires the faculty
 of representing to itself1 of          
reiterating as it were1 this pain when  
even he shall be no longer tormented    
with the gout3 his brain1 by a series of
 motion interiorly excited1 is again    
placed in a state analogous to that in  
which it was when he really experienced 
this pain3 but if he had never felt it1 
he would never have been in a capacity  
to form to himself any just idea of its 
excruciating torments4  ,the visible    
organs of man's body1 by the            
intervention of which his brain is      
modified1 take the name of senses4 ,the 
various modifications which his brain   
receives by the aid of these senses1    
assumes a variety of names4 ,sensation1 
perception1 and idea1 are terms that    
designate nothing more than the changes 
produced in this interior organ1 in     
consequence of impressions made on the  
exterior organs by bodies acting on     

them3 these changes considered by       
themselves1 are called sensations2 they 
adopt the term perception when the brain
 is warned of their presence2 ideas is  
that state of them in which the brain is
 able to ascribe them to the objects by 
which they have been produced4  ,every  
sensation1 then1 is nothing more than   
the shock given to the organs1 every    
perception is this shock propagated to  
the brain2 every idea is the image of   
the object to which the sensation and   
the perception is to be ascribed4 ,from 
whence it will be seen1 that if the     
senses be not moved1 there can neither  
be sensations1 perceptions1 nor ideas3  
this will be proved to those1 who can   
yet permit themselves to doubt so       
demonstrable and striking a truth4  ,it 
is the extreme mobility of which man is 
capable1 owing to his peculiar          
organization1 that distinguishes him    
from other beings that are called       
insensible or inanimate2 the different  
degrees of this mobility1 of which the  

individuals of his species are          
susceptible1 discriminate them from each
 other2 make that incredible variety1   
that infinity of difference which is to 
be found1 as well in their corporeal    
faculties1 as in those which are mental 
or intellectual4 ,from this mobility1   
more or less remarkable in each human   
being1 results wit1 sensibility1        
imagination1 taste1 c43 for the present1
 however1 let us follow the operation of
 the senses2 let us examine in what     
manner they are acted upon1 and are     
modified by exterior objects3--we will  
afterwards scrutinize the re-action of  
the interior organ or brain4  ,the eyes 
are very delicate1 very movable organs1 
by means of which the sensation of light
 or colour is experienced3 these give to
 the brain a distinct perception1 in    
consequence of which1 man forms an idea1
 generated by the action of luminous or 
coloured bodies3 as soon as the eyelids 
are opened1 the retina is affected in a 
peculiar manner2 the fluid1 the fibres1 

the nerves1 of which they are composed1 
are excited by shocks which they        
communicate to the brain2 to which they 
delineate the images of the bodies from 
which they have received the impulse2 by
 this means1 an idea is acquired of the 
colour1 the size1 the form1 the distance
 of these bodies3 it is thus that may be
 explained the mechanism of sight4  ,the
 mobility and the elasticity of which   
the skin is rendered susceptible1 by the
 fibres and nerves which form its       
texture1 accounts for the rapidity with 
which this envelope to the human body is
 affected when applied to any other     
body2 by their agency1 the brain has    
notice of its presence1 of its extent1  
of its roughness1 of its smoothness1 of 
its surface1 of its pressure of its     
ponderosity1 c4 ,qualities from which   
the brain derives distinct perceptions1 
which breed in it a diversity of ideas2 
it is this that constitutes the touch or
 feeling4  ,the delicacy of the membrane
 by which the interior of the nostrils  

is covered1 renders them easily         
susceptible of irritation1 even by the  
invisible and impalpable corpuscles that
 emanate from odorous bodies3 by these  
means sensations are excited1 the brain 
has perceptions1 and generates ideas3 it
 is this that forms the sense of        
smelling4  ,the mouth1 filled with      
nervous1 sensible1 movable1 irritable   
glands1 saturated with juices suitable  
to the dissolution of saline substances1
 is affected in a very lively manner by 
the aliments which pass through it for  
the nourishment of the body2 these      
glands transmit to the brain the        
impressions received3 perceptions are of
 consequence2 ideas follow3 it is from  
this mechanism that results taste4  ,the
 ear1 whose conformation fits it to     
receive the various impulses of air1    
diversely modified1 communicates to the 
brain the shocks or sensations2 these   
breed the perception of sound1 and      
generate the idea of sonorous bodies3 it
 is this that constitutes hearing4      

,such are the only means by which man   
receives sensations1 perceptions1 and   
ideas4 ,these successive modifications  
of his brain are effects produced by    
objects that give impulse to his senses2
 they become themselves causes1         
producing in his soul new modifications1
 which are denominated thought1         
reflection1 memory1 imagination1        
judgment1 will1 action2 the basis1      
however1 of all these is sensation4  ,to
 form a precise notion of thought1 it   
will be requisite to examine1 step by   
step1 what passes in man during the     
presence of any object whatever4        
,suppose for a moment this object to be 
a peach3 this fruit makes1 at the first 
view1 two different impressions on his  
eyes2 that is to say1 it produces two   
modifications1 which are transmitted to 
the brain1 which on this occasion       
experiences two new perceptions1 or has 
two new ideas or modes of existence1    
designated by the terms colour and      
rotundity2 in consequence1 he has an    

idea of a body possessing roundness and 
colour3 if he places his hand on this   
fruit1 the organ of feeling having been 
set in action1 his hand experiences     
three new impressions1 which are called 
softness1 coolness1 weight1 from whence 
result three new perceptions in the     
brain1 he has consequently three new    
ideas3 if he approximates this peach to 
his nose1 the organ of smelling receives
 an impulse1 which1 communicated to the 
brain1 a new perception arises1 by which
 he acquires a new idea1 called odour3  
if he carries this fruit to his mouth1  
the organ of taste becomes affected in a
 very lively manner3 this impulse       
communicated to the brain1 is followed  
by a perception that generates in him   
the idea of flavour4 ,in re-uniting all 
these impressions1 or these various     
modifications of his organs1 which it   
have been consequently transmitted to   
his brain2 that is to say1 in combining 
the different sensations1 perceptions1  
and ideas1 that result from the impulse 

he has received1 he has an idea of a    
whole1 which he designates by the name  
of a peach1 with which he can then      
occupy his thoughts4  ,from this it is  
sufficiently proved that thought has a  
commencement1 a duration1 an end2 or    
rather a generation1 a succession1 a    
dissolution1 like all the other         
modifications of matter2 like them1     
thought is excited1 is determined1 is   
increased1 is divided1 is compounded1 is
 simplified1 c4 ,if1 therefore1 the     
soul1 or the principle that thinks1 be  
indivisible2 how does it happen1 that   
this soul has the faculty of memory1 or 
of forgetfulness2 is capacitated to     
think successively1 to divide1 to       
abstract1 to combine1 to extend its     
ideas1 to retain them1 or to lose them8 
,how can it cease to think8 ,if forms   
appear divisible in matter1 it is only  
in considering them by abstraction1     
after the method1 of geometricians2 but 
this divisibility of form exists not in 
,nature1 in which there is neither a    

point1 an atom1 nor form perfectly      
regular2 it must therefore be concluded1
 that the forms of matter are not less  
indivisible than thought4  ,what has    
been said is sufficient to show the     
generation of sensations1 of            
perceptions1 of ideas1 with their       
association1 or connection in the brain3
 it will be seen that these various     
modifications are nothing more than the 
consequence of successive impulses1     
which the exterior organs transmit to   
the interior organ1 which enjoys the    
faculty of thought1 that is to say1 to  
feel in itself the different            
modifications it has received1 or to    
perceive the various ideas which it has 
generated2 to combine them1 to separate 
them1 to extend them1 to abridge them1  
to compare them1 to renew them1 c4 ,from
 whence it will be seen1 that thought is
 nothing more than the perception of    
certain modifications1 which the brain  
either gives to itself1 or has received 
from exterior objects4  ,indeed1 not    

only the interior organ perceives the   
modifications it receives from without1 
but again it has the faculty of         
modifying itself2 of considering the    
changes which take place in it1 the     
motion by which it is agitated in its   
peculiar operations1 from which it      
imbibes new perceptions and new ideas4  
,it is the exercise of this power to    
fall back upon itself1 that is called   
reflection4  ,from this it will appear1 
that for man to think and to reflect1 is
 to feel1 or perceive within himself the
 impressions1 the sensations1 the ideas1
 which have been furnished to his brain 
by those objects which give impulse to  
his senses1 with the various changes    
which his brain produced on itself in   
consequence4  ,memory is the faculty    
which the brain has of renewing in      
itself the modifications it has         
received1 or rather1 to restore itself  
to a state similar to that in which it  
has been placed by the sensations1 the  
perceptions1 the ideas1 produced by     

exterior objects1 in the exact order it 
received them1 without any new action on
 the part of these objects1 or even when
 these objects are absent2 the brain    
perceives that these modifications      
assimilate with those it formerly       
experienced in the presence of the      
objects to which it relates1 or         
attributes them4 ,memory is faithful1   
when these modifications are precisely  
the same2 it is treacherous1 when they  
differ from those which the organs have 
exteriorly experienced4  ,imagination in
 man is only the faculty which the brain
 has of modifying itself1 or of forming 
to itself new perceptions1 upon the     
model of those which it has anteriorly  
received through the action of exterior 
objects on the senses4 ,the brain1 then1
 does nothing more than combine ideas   
which it has already formed1 which it   
recalls to itself1 from which it forms a
 whole1 or a collection of              
modifications1 which it has not         
received1 which exists no-where but in  

itself1 although the individual ideas1  
or the parts of which this ideal whole  
is composed1 have been previously       
communicated to it1 in consequence of   
the impulse given to the senses by      
exterior objects3 it is thus man forms  
to himself the idea of centaurs1 or a   
being composed of a man and a horse1 of 
hyppogriffs1 or a being composed of a   
horse with wings and a griffin1 besides 
a thousand other objects1 equally       
ridiculous4 ,by memory1 the brain renews
 in itself the sensations1 the          
perceptions1 and the ideas which it has 
received or generated2 represents to    
itself the objects which have actually  
moved its organs4 ,by imagination it    
combines them variously3 forms objects  
in their place which have not moved its 
organs1 although it is perfectly        
acquainted with the elements or ideas of
 which it composes them4 ,it is thus    
that man1 by combining a great number of
 ideas borrowed from himself1 such as   
justice1 wisdom1 goodness1 intelligence1

 c4 by the aid of imagination1 has      
formed various ideal beings1 or         
imaginary wholes1 which he has called   
,,jupiter1 ,,juno1 ,,bramah1 ,,saturn1  
c4  ,judgment is the faculty which the  
brain possesses of comparing with each  
other the modifications it receives1 the
 ideas it engenders1 or which it has the
 power of awakening within itself1 to   
the end that it may discover their      
relations1 or their effects4  ,will is a
 modification of the brain1 by which it 
is disposed to action1 that is to say1  
to give such an impulse to the organs of
 the body1 as can induce to act in a    
manner1 that will procure for itself    
what is requisite to modify it in a mode
 analogous to its own existence1 or to  
enable it to avoid that by which it can 
be injured4 ,to will is to be disposed  
to action4 ,the exterior objects1 or the
 interior ideas1 which give birth to    
this disposition are called motives1    
because they are the springs or         
movements which determine it to act1    

that is to say1 which give play to the  
organs of the body4 ,thus1 voluntary    
actions are the motion of the body1     
determined by the modification of the   
brain4 ,fruit hanging on a tree1 through
 the agency of the visual organs1       
modifies the brain in such a manner as  
to dispose the arm to stretch itself    
forth to cull it2 again1 it modifies it 
in another manner1 by which it excites  
the hand to carry it to the mouth4  ,all
 the modifications which the interior   
organ or the brain receives1 all the    
sensations1 all the perceptions1 all the
 ideas that are generated by the objects
 which give impulse to the senses1 or   
which it renews within itself by its own
 peculiar faculties1 are either         
favourable or prejudicial to man's mode 
of existence1 whether that be transitory
 or habitual3 they dispose the interior 
organ to action1 which it exercises by  
reason of its own peculiar energy3 this 
action is not1 however1 the same in all 
the individuals of the human species1   

depending much on their respective      
temperaments4 ,from hence the ,,passions
 have their birth3 these are more or    
less violent2 they are1 however1 nothing
 more than the motion of the will1      
determined by the objects which give it 
activity2 consequently composed of the  
analogy or of the discordance which is  
found between these objects1 man's      
peculiar mode of existence1 and the     
force of his temperament4 ,from this it 
results1 that the passions are modes of 
existence or modifications of the brain2
 which either attract or repel those    
objects by which man is surrounded2 that
 consequently they are submitted in     
their action to the physical laws of    
attraction and repulsion4  ,the faculty 
of perceiving or of being modified1 as  
well by itself as exterior objects which
 the brain enjoys is sometimes          
designated by the term understanding4   
,to the assemblage of the various       
faculties of which this interior organ  
is susceptible1 is applied the name of  

intelligence4 ,to a determined mode in  
which the brain exercises the faculties 
peculiar to itself1 is given the        
appellation of reason4 ,the dispositions
 or the modifications of the brain1 some
 of them constant1 others transitory1   
which give impulse to the beings of the 
human species1 causing them to act1 are 
styled wit1 wisdom1 goodness1 prudence1 
virtue1 c4  ,in short1 as there will be 
an opportunity presently to prove1 all  
the intellectual faculties--that is to  
say1 all the modes of action attributed 
to the soul1 may be reduced to the      
modifications1 to the qualities1 to the 
modes of existence1 to the changes      
produced by the motion of the brain2    
which is visibly in man the seat of     
feeling1 the principle of all his       
actions4 ,these modifications are to be 
attributed to the objects that strike on
 his senses2 of which the impression is 
transmitted to the brain1 or rather to  
the ideas1 which the perceptions caused 
by the action of these objects on his   

senses have there generated1 and which  
it has the faculty to re-produce4 ,this 
brain moves itself in its turn1 re-acts 
upon itself1 gives play to the organs1  
which concentrate themselves in it1 or  
which are rather nothing more than an   
extension of its own peculiar substance4
 ,it is thus the concealed motion of the
 interior organ1 renders itself sensible
 by outward and visible signs4 ,the     
brain1 affected by a modification which 
is called ,,fear1 diffuses a paleness   
over the countenance1 excites a         
tremulous motion in the limbs called    
trembling4 ,the brain1 affected by a    
sensation of ,,grief1 causes tears to   
flow from the eyes1 even without being  
moved by any exterior object2 an idea   
which it retraces with great strength1  
suffices to give it very little         
modifications1 which visibly have an    
influence on the whole frame4  ,in all  
this1 nothing more is to be perceived   
than the same substance which acts      
diversely on the various parts of the   

body4 ,if it be objected that this      
mechanism does not sufficiently explain 
the principles of the motion or the     
faculties of the soul2 we reply1 that it
 is in the same situation as all the    
other bodies of ,nature1 in which the   
most simple motion1 the most ordinary   
phenomena1 the most common modes of     
action are inexplicable mysteries1 of   
which we shall never be able to fathom  
the first principles4 ,indeed1 how can  
we flatter ourselves we shall ever be   
enabled to compass the true principle of
 that gravity by which a stone falls8   
,are we acquainted with the mechanism   
which produces attraction in some       
substances1 repulsion in others8 ,are we
 in a condition to explain the          
communication of motion from one body to
 another8 ,but it may be fairly         
asked1--,are the difficulties that      
occur1 when attempting to explain the   
manner in which the soul acts1 removed  
by making it a spiritual being1 a       
substance of which we have not1 nor     

cannot form one idea1 which consequently
 must bewilder all the notions we are   
capable of forming to ourselves of this 
being8 ,let us then be contented to know
 that the soul moves itself1 modifies   
itself1 in consequence of material      
causes1 which act upon it which give it 
activity3 from whence the conclusion may
 be said to flow consecutively1 that all
 its operations1 all its faculties1     
prove that it is itself material4       
,,chap4 ,,ix4  ,the ,diversity of the   
,intellectual ,faculties3 they depend on
 ,physical ,causes1 as do their ,moral  
,qualities4--,the ,natural ,principles  
of ,society4--,morals4--,politics4      
,nature is under the necessity of       
diversifying all her works4 ,elementary 
matter1 different in its essence1 must  
necessarily form different beings1      
various in their combinations1 in their 
properties1 in their modes of action1 in
 their manner of existence4 ,there is   
not1 neither can there be1 two beings1  
two combinations1 which are             

mathematically and rigorously the same2 
because the place1 the circumstances1   
the relations2 the proportions1 the     
modifications1 never being exactly      
alike1 the beings that result can never 
bear a perfect resemblance to each      
other3 their modes of action must of    
necessity vary in something1 even when  
we believe we find between them the     
greatest conformity4  ,in consequence of
 this principle1 which every thing we   
see conspires to prove to be a truth1   
there are not two individuals of the    
human species who have precisely the    
same traits--who think exactly in the   
same manner--who view things under the  
same identical point of sight--who have 
decidedly the same ideas2 consequently  
no two of them have uniformly the same  
system of conduct4 ,the visible organs  
of man1 as well as his concealed organs1
 have indeed some analogy1 some common  
points of resemblance1 some general     
conformity2 which makes them appear1    
when viewed in the gross1 to be affected

 in the same manner by certain causes3  
but the difference is infinite in the   
detail4 ,the human soul may be compared 
to those instruments1 of which the      
chords1 already diversified in          
themselves1 by the manner in which they 
have been spun1 are also strung upon    
different notes3 struck by the same     
impulse1 each chord gives forth the     
sound that is peculiar to itself2 that  
is to say1 that which depends on its    
texture1 its tension1 its volume1 on the
 momentary state in which it is placed  
by the circumambient air4 ,it is this   
that produces the diversified spectacle1
 the varied scene1 which the moral world
 offers to our view3 it is from this    
that results the striking contrariety   
that is to be found in the minds1 in the
 faculties1 in the passions1 in the     
energies1 in the taste1 in the          
imagination1 in the ideas1 in the       
opinions of man4 ,this diversity is as  
great as that of his physical powers3   
like them it depends on his temperament1

 which is as much varied as his         
physiognomy4 ,this variety gives birth  
to that continual series of action and  
reaction1 which constitutes the life of 
the moral world3 from this discordance  
results the harmony which at once       
maintains and preserves the human race4 
,the diversity found among the          
individuals of the human species1 causes
 inequalities between man and man3 this 
inequality constitutes the support of   
society4 ,if all men were equal in their
 bodily powers1 in their mental talents1
 they would not have any occasion for   
each other3 it is the variation of his  
faculties1 the inequality which this    
places him in1 with regard to his       
fellows1 that renders morals necessary  
to man3 without these1 he would live by 
himself1 he would remain an isolated    
being4 ,from whence it may be perceived1
 that this inequality of which man so   
often complains without cause--this     
impossibility which each man finds when 
in an isolated state1 when left to      

himself1 when unassociated with his     
fellow men1 to labour efficaciously to  
his own welfare1 to make his own        
security1 to ensure his own             
conservation2 places him in the happy   
situation of associating with his like1 
of depending on his fellow associates1  
of meriting their succour1 of           
propitiating them to his views1 of      
attracting their regard1 of calling in  
their aid to chase away1 by common and  
united efforts1 that which would have   
the power to trouble or derange the     
order of his existence4 ,in consequence 
of man's diversity1 of the inequality   
that results1 the weaker is obliged to  
seek the protection of the stronger2    
this1 in his turn1 recurs to the        
understanding1 to the talents1 to the   
industry of the weaker1 whenever his    
judgment points out he can be useful to 
him3 this natural inequality furnishes  
the reason why nations distinguish those
 citizens who have rendered their       
country eminent services4 ,it is in     

consequence of his exigencies that man  
honors and recompenses those whose      
understanding1 good deeds1 assistance1  
or virtues1 have procured for him real  
or supposed advantages1 pleasures1 or   
agreeable sensations of any sort3 it is 
by this means that genius gains an      
ascendancy over the mind of man1 and    
obliges a whole people to acknowledge   
its powers4 ,thus1 the diversity and    
inequality of the faculties1 as well    
corporeal as mental or intellectual1    
renders man necessary to his fellow man1
 makes him a social being1 and          
incontestibly proves to him the         
necessity of morals4  ,according to this
 diversity of faculties1 the individuals
 of the human species are divided into  
different classes1 each in proportion to
 the effects produced1 or the different 
qualities that may be remarked3 all     
these varieties in man flow from the    
individual properties of his soul1 or   
from the particular modification of his 
brain4 ,it is thus1 that wit1           

imagination1 sensibility1 talents1 c4   
diversify to infinity the differences   
that are to be found in man4 ,it is     
thus1 that some are called good1 others 
wicked2 some are denominated virtuous1  
others vicious2 some are ranked as      
learned1 others as ignorant2 some are   
considered reasonable1 others           
unreasonable1 c4  ,if all the various   
faculties attributed to the soul are    
examined1 it will be found that like    
those of the body they are to be        
ascribed to physical causes1 to which it
 will be very easy to recur4 ,it will be
 found that the powers of the soul are  
the same as those of the body2 that they
 always depend on the organization of   
this body1 on its peculiar properties1  
on the permanent or transitory          
modifications that it undergoes2 in a   
word1 on its temperament4  ,temperament 
is1 in each individual1 the habitual    
state in which he finds the fluids and  
the solids of which his body is         
composed4 ,this temperament varies1 by  

reason of the elements or matter that   
predominate in him1 in consequence of   
the different combinations1 of the      
various modifications1 which this       
matter1 diversified in itself1 undergoes
 in his machine4 ,thus1 in one1 the     
blood is superabundant2 in another1 the 
bile2 in a third1 phlegm1 c4  ,it is    
from ,nature--from his parents--from    
causes1 which from the first moment of  
his existence have unceasingly modified 
him1 that man derives his temperament4  
,it is in his mother's womb that he has 
attracted the matter which1 during his  
whole life1 shall have an influence on  
his intellectual faculties--on his      
energies--on his passions--on his       
conduct4 ,the very nourishment he takes1
 the quality of the air he respires1 the
 climate he inhabits1 the education he  
receives1 the ideas that are presented  
to him1 the opinions he imbibes1 modify 
this temperament4 ,as these             
circumstances can never be rigorously   
the same in every point for any two men1

 it is by no means surprising that such 
an amazing variety1 so great a          
contrariety1 should be found in man2 or 
that there should exist as many         
different temperaments1 as there are    
individuals in the human species4       
,thus1 although man may bear a general  
resemblance1 he differs essentially1 as 
well by the texture of his fibres and   
the disposition of his nerves1 as by the
 nature1 the quality1 the quantity of   
matter that gives them play1 that sets  
his organs in motion4 ,man1 already     
different from his fellow1 by the       
elasticity of his fibres1 the tension of
 his nerves1 becomes still more         
distinguished by a variety of other     
circumstances3 he is more active1 more  
robust1 when he receives nourishing     
aliments1 when he drinks wine1 when he  
takes exercise3 whilst another1 who     
drinks nothing but water1 who takes less
 juicy nourishment1 who languishes in   
idleness1 shall be sluggish and feeble4 
,all these causes have necessarily an   

influence on the mind1 on the passions1 
on the will2 in a word1 on what are     
called the intellectual faculties4      
,thus1 it may be observed1 that a man of
 a sanguine constitution1 is commonly   
lively1 ingenious1 full of imagination1 
passionate1 voluptuous1 enterprising2   
whilst the phlegmatic man is dull1 of a 
heavy understanding1 slow of conception1
 inactive1 difficult to be moved1       
pusillanimous1 without imagination1 or  
possessing it in a less lively degree1  
incapable of taking any strong measures1
 or of willing resolutely4  ,if         
experience was consulted1 in the room of
 prejudice1 the physician would collect 
from morals1 the key to the human heart3
 in curing the body1 he would sometimes 
be assured of curing the mind4 ,man1 in 
making a spiritual substance of his     
soul1 has contented himself with        
administering to it spiritual remedies1 
which either have no influence over his 
temperament1 or do it an injury4 ,the   
doctrine of the spirituality of the soul

 has rendered morals a conjectural      
science1 that does not furnish a        
knowledge of the true motives which     
ought to be put in activity1 in order to
 influence man to his welfare4 ,if1     
calling experience to his assistance1   
man sought out the elements which form  
the basis of his temperament1 or of the 
greater number of the individuals       
composing a nation1 he would then       
discover what would be most proper for  
him1--that which could be most          
convenient to his mode of               
existence--which could most conduce to  
his true interest--what laws would be   
necessary to his happiness--what        
institutions would be most useful for   
him--what regulations would be most     
beneficial4 ,in short1 morals and       
politics would be equally enabled to    
draw from materialism1 advantages which 
the dogma of spirituality can never     
supply1 of which it even precludes the  
idea4 ,man will ever remain a mystery1  
to those who shall obstinately persist  

in viewing him with eyes prepossessed by
 metaphysics2 he will always be an      
enigma to those who shall pertinaciously
 attribute his actions to a principle1  
of which it is impossible to form to    
themselves any distinct idea4 ,when man 
shall be seriously inclined to          
understand himself1 let him sedulously  
endeavour to discover the matter that   
enters into his combination1 which      
constitutes his temperament2 these      
discoveries will furnish him with the   
clue to the nature of his desires1 to   
the quality of his passions1 to the bent
 of his inclinations--will enable him to
 foresee his conduct on given           
occasions--will indicate the remedies   
that may be successfully employed to    
correct the defects of a vicious        
organization1 of a temperament1 as      
injurious to himself as to the society  
of which he is a member4  ,indeed1 it is
 not to be doubted that man's           
temperament is capable of being         
corrected1 of being modified1 of being  

changed1 by causes as physical as the   
matter of which it is constituted4 ,we  
are all in some measure capable of      
forming our own temperament3 a man of a 
sanguine constitution1 by taking less   
juicy nourishment1 by abating its       
quantity1 by abstaining from strong     
liquor1 c4 may achieve the correction of
 the nature1 the quality1 the quantity1 
the tendency1 the motion of the fluids1 
which predominate in his machine4 ,a    
bilious man1 or one who is melancholy1  
may1 by the aid of certain remedies1    
diminish the mass of this bilious fluid2
 he may correct the blemish of his      
humours1 by the assistance of exercise2 
he may dissipate his gloom1 by the      
gaiety which results from increased     
motion4 ,an ,european transplanted into 
,hindostan1 will1 by degrees1 become    
quite a different man in his humours1 in
 his ideas1 in his temperament1 in his  
character4  ,although but few           
experiments have been made with a view  
to learn what constitutes the           

temperament of man1 there are still     
enough if he would but deign to make use
 of them--if he would vouchsafe to apply
 to useful purposes the little          
experience he has gleaned4 ,it would    
appear1 speaking generally1 that the    
igneous principle which chemists        
designate under the name of phlogiston1 
or inflammable matter1 is that which in 
man yields him the most active life1    
furnishes him with the greatest energy1 
affords the greatest mobility to his    
frame1 supplies the greatest spring to  
his organs1 gives the greatest          
elasticity to his fibres1 the greatest  
tension to his nerves1 the greatest     
rapidity to his fluids4 ,from these     
causes1 which are entirely material1    
commonly result the dispositions or     
faculties called sensibility1 wit1      
imagination1 genius1 vivacity1 c4 which 
give the tone to the passions1 to the   
will1 to the moral actions of man4 ,in  
this sense1 it is with great justice we 
apply the expressions1 'warmth of soul1'

 'ardency of imagination1' 'fire of     
genius1' c4  ,it is this fiery element1 
diffused unequally1 distributed in      
various proportions through the beings  
of the human species1 that sets man in  
motion1 gives him activity1 supplies him
 with animal heat1 and which1 if we may 
be allowed the expression1 renders him  
more or less alive4 ,this igneous       
matter1 so active1 so subtle1 dissipates
 itself with great facility1 then       
requires to be reinstated in his system 
by means of aliments that contain it1   
which thereby become proper to restore  
his machine1 to lend new warmth to the  
brain1 to furnish it with the elasticity
 requisite to the performance of those  
functions which are called intellectual4
 ,it is this ardent matter contained in 
wine1 in strong liquor1 that gives to   
the most torpid1 to the dullest1 to the 
most sluggish man1 a vivacity of which1 
without it1 he would be incapable--which
 urges even the coward on to battle4    
,when this fiery element is too abundant

 in man1 whilst he is labouring under   
certain diseases1 it plunges him into   
delirium2 when it is in too weak or in  
too small a quantity1 he swoons1 he     
sinks to the earth4 ,this igneous matter
 diminishes in his old age--it totally  
dissipates at his death4 ,it would not  
be unreasonable to suppose1 that what   
physicians call the nervous fluid1 which
 so promptly gives notice to the brain  
of all that happens to the body1 is     
nothing more than electric matter2 that 
the various proportions of this matter  
diffused through his system1 is the     
cause of that great diversity to be     
discovered in the human being1 and in   
the faculties he possesses4  ,if the    
intellectual faculties of man1 or his   
moral qualities1 be examined according  
to the principles here laid down1 the   
conviction must be complete that they   
are to be attributed to material causes1
 which have an influence more or less   
marked1 either transitory or durable1   
over his peculiar organization4 ,but    

where does he derive this organization1 
except it be from the parents from whom 
he receives the elements of a machine   
necessarily analogous to their own8     
,from whence does he derive the greater 
or less quantity of igneous matter1 or  
vivifying heat1 that decides upon1 that 
gives the tone to his mental qualities8 
,it is from the mother who bore him in  
her womb1 who has communicated to him a 
portion of that fire with which she was 
herself animated1 which circulated      
through her veins with her blood2--it is
 from the aliments that have nourished  
him1--it is from the climate he         
inhabits1--it is from the atmosphere    
that surrounds3 all these causes have an
 influence over his fluids1 over his    
solids1 and decide on his natural       
dispositions4 ,in examining these       
dispositions1 from whence his faculties 
depend1 it will ever be found1 that they
 are corporeal1 that they are material4 
,the most prominent of these            
dispositions in man1 is that physical   

sensibility from which flows all his    
intellectual or moral qualities4 ,to    
feel1 according to what has been said1  
is to receive an impulse1 to be moved1  
to have a consciousness of the changes  
operated on his system4 ,to have        
sensibility is nothing more than to be  
so constituted as to feel promptly1 and 
in a very lively manner1 the impressions
 of those objects which act upon him4 ,a
 sensible soul is only man's brain1     
disposed in a mode to receive the motion
 communicated to it with facility1 to   
re-act with promptness1 by giving an    
instantaneous impulse to the organs4    
,thus the man is called sensible1 whom  
the sight of the distressed1 the        
contemplation of the unhappy1 the       
recital of a melancholy tale1 the       
witnessing of an afflicting catastrophe1
 or the idea of a dreadful spectacle1   
touches in so lively a manner as to     
enable the brain to give play to his    
lachrymal organs1 which cause him to    
shed tears2 a sign by which we recognize

 the effect of great grief1 of extreme  
anguish in the human being4 ,the man in 
whom musical sounds excite a degree of  
pleasure1 or produce very remarkable    
effects1 is said to have a sensible or a
 fine ear4 ,in short1 when it is        
perceived that eloquence--the beauty of 
the arts--the various objects that      
strike his senses1 excite in him very   
lively emotions1 he is said to possess a
 soul full of sensibility4  ,wit1 is a  
consequence of this physical            
sensibility2 indeed1 wit is nothing more
 than the facility which some beings1 of
 the human species possess1 of seizing  
with promptitude1 of developing with    
quickness1 a whole1 with its different  
relations to other objects4 ,genius1 is 
the facility with which some men        
comprehend this whole1 and its various  
relations when they are difficult to be 
known1 but useful to forward great and  
mighty projects4 ,wit may be compared to
 a piercing eye which perceives things  
quickly4 ,genius is an eye that         

comprehends at one view1 all the points 
of an extended horizon3 or what the     
,french term coup d'oeil4 ,true wit is  
that which perceives objects with their 
relations such as they really are4      
,false wit is that which catches at     
relations1 which do not apply to the    
object1 or which arises from some       
blemish in the organization4 ,true wit  
resembles the direction on a hand-post4 
,imagination is the faculty of combining
 with promptitude ideas or images2 it   
consists in the power man possesses of  
re-producing with ease the modifications
 of his brain3 of connecting them1 of   
attaching them to the objects to which  
they are suitable4 ,when imagination    
does this1 it gives pleasure2 its       
fictions are approved1 it embellishes   
,nature1 it is a proof of the soundness 
of the mind1 it aids truth3 when on the 
contrary1 it combines ideas1 not formed 
to associate themselves with each       
other--when it paints nothing but       
disagreeable phantoms1 it disgusts1 its 

fictions are censured1 it distorts      
,nature1 it advocates falsehood1 it is  
the proof of a disordered1 of a deranged
 mind3 thus poetry1 calculated to render
 ,nature more pathetic1 more touching1  
pleases when it creates ideal beings1   
but which move us agreeably3 we1        
therefore1 forgive the illusions it has 
held forth1 on account of the pleasure  
we have reaped from them4 ,the hideous  
chimeras of superstition displease1     
because they are nothing more than the  
productions of a distempered            
imagination1 that can only awaken the   
most afflicting sensations1 fills us    
with the most disagreeable ideas4       
,imagination1 when it wanders1 produces 
fanaticism1 superstitious terrors1      
inconsiderate zeal1 phrenzy1 and the    
most enormous crimes3 when it is well   
regulated1 it gives birth to a strong   
predilection for useful objects1 an     
energetic passion for virtue1 an        
enthusiastic love of our country1 and   
the most ardent friendship3 the man who 

is divested of imagination1 is commonly 
one in whose torpid constitution phlegm 
predominates over the igneous fluid1    
over that sacred fire1 which is the     
great principle of his mobility1 of that
 warmth of sentiment1 which vivifies all
 his intellectual faculties4 ,there must
 be enthusiasm for transcendent virtues 
as well as for atrocious crimes2        
enthusiasm places the soul in a state   
similar to that of drunkenness2 both the
 one and the other excite in man that   
rapidity of motion which is approved1   
when good results1 when its effects are 
beneficial2 but which is censured1 is   
called folly1 delirium1 crime1 fury2    
when it produces nothing but disorder   
and confusion4  ,the mind is out of     
order1 it is incapable of judging       
sanely--the imagination is badly        
regulated1 whenever man's organization  
is not so modified1 as to perform its   
functions with precision4 ,at each      
moment of his existence1 man gathers    
experience2 every sensation he has1     

furnishes a fact that deposits in his   
brain an idea which his memory recalls  
with more or less fidelity3 these facts 
connect themselves1 these ideas are     
associated2 their chain constitutes     
experience2 this lays the foundation of 
science4 ,knowledge is that             
consciousness which arises from         
reiterated experience--from experiments 
made with precision of the sensations1  
of the ideas1 of the effects which an   
object is capable of producing1 either  
in ourselves or in others4 ,all science1
 to be just1 must be founded on truth4  
,truth itself rests on the constant1 the
 faithful relation of our senses4 ,thus1
 truth is that conformity1 that         
perpetual affinity1 which man's senses1 
when well constituted1 when aided by    
experience1 discover to him1 between the
 objects of which he has a knowledge1   
and the qualities with which he clothes 
them4 ,in short1 truth is nothing more  
than the just1 the precise association  
of his ideas4 ,but how can he1 without  

experience1 assure himself of the       
accuracy1 of the justness of this       
association8 ,how1 if he does not       
reiterate this experience1 can he       
compare it8 how prove its truth8 ,if his
 senses are vitiated1 how is it possible
 they can convey to him with precision1 
the sensations1 the facts1 with which   
they store his brain8 ,it is only by    
multiplied1 by diversified1 by repeated 
experience1 that he is enabled to       
rectify the errors of his first         
conceptions4  ,man is in error every    
time his organs1 either originally      
defective in their nature1 or vitiated  
by the durable or transitory            
modifications which they undergo1 render
 him incapable of judging soundly of    
objects4 ,error consists in the false   
association of ideas1 by which qualities
 are attributed to objects which they do
 not possess4 ,man is in error1 when he 
supposes those beings really to have    
existence1 which have no local          
habitation but in his own imagination3  

he is in error1 when he associates the  
idea of happiness with objects capable  
of injuring him1 whether immediately or 
by remote consequences which he cannot  
foresee4  ,but how can he foresee       
effects of which he has not yet any     
knowledge8 ,it is by the aid of         
experience3 by the assistance which this
 experience affords1 it is known that   
analogous1 that like causes1 produce    
analogous1 produce like effects4        
,memory1 by recalling these effects1    
enables him to form a judgment of those 
he may expect1 whether it be from the   
same causes1 or from causes that bear a 
relation to those of which he has       
already experienced the action4 ,from   
this it will appear1 that prudence1     
foresight1 are faculties that are       
ascribable to1 that grow out of         
experience4 ,if he has felt that fire   
excited in his organs painful sensation1
 this experience suffices him to know1  
to foresee1 that fire so applied1 will  
consequently excite the same sensations4

 ,if he has discovered that certain     
actions1 on his part1 stirred up the    
hatred1 elicited the contempt of others1
 this experience sufficiently enables   
him to foresee1 that every time he shall
 act in a similar manner1 he will be    
either hated or despised4  ,the faculty 
man has of gathering experience1 of     
recalling it to himself1 of foreseeing  
effects by which he is enabled to avoid 
whatever may have the power to injure   
him1 to procure that which may be useful
 to the conservation of his existence1  
which may contribute to that which is   
the sole end of all his actions1 whether
 corporeal or mental1--his              
felicity--constitutes that1 which1 in   
one word1 is designated under the name  
of ,reason4 ,sentiment1 imagination1    
temperament1 may be capable of leading  
him astray--may have the power to       
deceive him2 but experience and         
reflection will rectify his errors1     
point out his mistakes1 place him in the
 right road1 teach him what can really  

conduce to1 what can truly conduct him  
to happiness4 ,from this1 it will       
appear1 that reason is man's nature1    
modified by experience1 moulded by      
judgment1 regulated by reflection3 it   
supposes a moderate1 sober temperament2 
a just1 a sound mind2 a well-regulated1 
orderly imagination2 a knowledge of     
truth1 grounded upon tried1 upon        
reiterated experience2 in fact1 prudence
 and foresight3 this will serve to      
prove1 that although nothing is more    
commonly asserted1 although the phrase  
is repeated daily1 nay1 hourly1 that man
 is a reasonable being1 yet there are   
but a very small number of the          
individuals who compose the human       
species1 of whom it can with truth be   
said2 who really enjoy the faculty of   
reason1 or who combine the dispositions1
 the experience1 by which it is         
constituted4 ,it ought not1 then to     
excite surprise1 that the individuals of
 the human race1 who are in a capacity  
to make true experience1 are so few in  

number4 ,man1 when he is born1 brings   
with him into the world organs          
susceptible of receiving impulse1       
amassing ideas1 of collecting           
experience2 but whether it be from the  
vice of his system1 the imperfection of 
his organization1 or from those causes  
by which it is modified1 his experience 
is false1 his ideas are confused1 his   
images are badly associated1 his        
judgment is erroneous1 his brain is     
saturated with vicious1 with wicked     
systems1 which necessarily have an      
influence over his conduct1 which are   
continually disturbing his mind1 and    
confounding his reason4  ,man's senses1 
as it has been shewn1 are the only means
 by which he is enabled to ascertain    
whether his opinions are true or false1 
whether his conduct is useful to himself
 and beneficial to others1 whether it is
 advantageous or disadvantageous4 ,but  
that his senses may be competent to make
 a faithful relation--that they may be  
in a capacity to impress true ideas on  

his brain1 it is requisite they should  
be sound2 that is to say1 in the state  
necessary to maintain his existence2 in 
that order which is suitable to his     
preservation--that condition which is   
calculated to ensure his permanent      
felicity4 ,it is also indispensable that
 his brain itself should be healthy1 or 
in the proper circumstances to enable it
 to fulfil its functions with precision1
 to exercise its faculties with vigour4 
,it is necessary that memory should     
faithfully delineate its anterior       
sensations1 should accurately retrace   
its former ideas2 to the end1 that he   
may be competent to judge1 to foresee   
the effects he may have to hope1 the    
consequences he may have to fear1 from  
those actions to which he may be        
determined by his will4 ,if his organic 
system be vicious1 if his interior or   
exterior organs be defective1 whether by
 their natural conformation or from     
those causes by which they are          
regulated1 he feels but imperfectly--in 

a manner less distinct than is          
requisite2 his ideas are either false or
 suspicious1 he judges badly1 he is in a
 delusion1 in a state of ebriety1 in a  
sort of intoxication that prevents his  
grasping the true relation of things4   
,in short1 if his memory is faulty1 if  
it is treacherous1 his reflection is    
void1 his imagination leads him astray1 
his mind deceives him1 whilst the       
sensibility of his organs1              
simultaneously assailed by a crowd of   
impressions1 shocked by a variety of    
impulsions1 oppose him to prudence1 to  
foresight1 to the exercise of his       
reason4 ,on the other hand1 if the      
conformation of his organs1 as it       
happens with those of a phlegmatic      
temperament1 of a dull habit1 does not  
permit him to move1 except with         
feebleness1 in a sluggish manner1 his   
experience is slow1 frequently          
unprofitable4 ,the tortoise and the     
butterfly are alike incapable of        
preventing their destruction4 ,the      

stupid man1 equally with him who is     
intoxicated1 are in that state which    
renders it impossible for them to arrive
 at or attain the end they have in view4
  ,but what is the end8 ,what is the aim
 of man in the sphere he occupies8 ,it  
is to preserve himself2 to render his   
existence happy4 ,it becomes then of the
 utmost importance1 that he should      
understand the true means which reason  
points out1 which prudence teaches him  
to use1 in order that he may with       
certainty1 that he may constantly arrive
 at the end which he proposes to        
himself4 ,these he will find are his    
natural faculties--his mind--his        
talents--his industry--his actions1     
determined by those passions of which   
his nature renders him susceptible1     
which give more or less activity to his 
will4 ,experience and reason again shew 
him1 that the men with whom he is       
associated are necessary to him1 are    
capable of contributing to his          
happiness1 are in a capacity to         

administer to his pleasures1 are        
competent to assist him by those        
faculties which are peculiar to them2   
experience teaches him the mode he must 
adopt to induce them to concur in his   
designs1 to determine them to will and  
incline them to act in his favour4 ,this
 points out to him the actions they     
approve--those which displease them--the
 conduct which attracts them--that which
 repels them--the judgment by which they
 are swayed--the advantages that        
occur--the prejudicial effects that     
result to him from their various modes  
of existence and from their diverse     
manner of acting4 ,this experience      
furnishes him with the ideas of virtue  
and of vice1 of justice and of          
injustice1 of goodness and of           
wickedness1 of decency and of indecency1
 of probity and of knavery3 ,in short1  
he learns to form a judgment of men--to 
estimate their actions--to distinguish  
the various sentiments excited in them1 
according to the diversity of those     

effects which they make him experience4 
,it is upon the necessary diversity of  
these effects that is founded the       
discrimination between good and         
evil--between virtue and vice2          
distinctions which do not rest1 as some 
thinkers have believed1 on the          
conventions made between men2 still     
less1 as some metaphysicians have       
asserted1 upon the chimerical will of   
supernatural beings3 but upon the solid1
 the invariable1 the eternal relations  
that subsist between beings of the human
 species congregated together1 and      
living in society3 which relations will 
have existence as long as man shall     
remain1 as long as society shall        
continue to exist4  ,thus virtue is     
every thing that is truly beneficial1   
every thing that is constantly useful to
 the individuals of the human race1     
living together in society2 vice every  
thing that is really prejudicial1 every 
thing that is permanently injurious to  
them4 ,the greatest virtues are those   

which procure for man the most durable  
advantages1 from which he derives the   
most solid happiness1 which preserves   
the greatest degree of order in his     
association3 the greatest vices1 are    
those which most disturb his tendency to
 happiness1 which perpetuate error1     
which most interrupt the necessary order
 of society4  ,the virtuous man1 is he  
whose actions tend uniformly to the     
welfare1 constantly to the happiness1 of
 his fellow creatures4 ,the vicious man1
 is he whose conduct tends to the       
misery1 whose propensities form the     
unhappiness of those with whom he lives2
 from whence his own peculiar misery    
most commonly results4  ,every thing    
that procures for a man true and        
permanent happiness is reasonable2 every
 thing that disturbs his individual     
felicity1 or that of the beings         
necessary to his happiness1 is foolish  
and unreasonable4 ,the man who injures  
others1 is wicked2 the man who injures  
himself1 is an imprudent being1 who     

neither has a knowledge of reason1 of   
his own peculiar interests1 nor of      
truth4  ,man's duties are the means     
pointed out to him by experience1 the   
circle which reason describes for him1  
by which he is to arrive at that goal he
 proposes to himself2 these duties are  
the necessary consequence of the        
relations subsisting between mortals1   
who equally desire happiness1 who are   
equally anxious to preserve their       
existence4 ,when it is said these duties
 compel him1 it signifies nothing more  
than that1 without taking these means1  
he could not reach the end proposed to  
him by his nature4 ,thus1 moral         
obligation is the necessity of employing
 the natural means to render the beings 
with whom he lives happy2 to the end    
that he may determine them in turn to   
contribute to his own individual        
happiness3 his obligation toward        
himself1 is the necessity he is under to
 take those means1 without which he     
would be incapable to conserve himself1 

or render his existence solidly and     
permanently happy4 ,morals1 like the    
universe1 is founded upon necessity1 or 
upon the eternal relation of things4    
,happiness is a mode of existence of    
which man naturally wishes the duration1
 or in which he is willing to continue4 
,it is measured by its duration1 by its 
vivacity4 ,the greatest happiness is    
that which has the longest continuance3 
transient happiness1 or that which has  
only a short duration1 is called        
,pleasure2 the more lively it is1 the   
more fugitive1 because man's senses are 
only susceptible of a certain quantum of
 motion4 ,when pleasure exceeds this    
given quantity1 it is changed into      
anguish1 or into that painful mode of   
existence1 of which he ardently desires 
the cessation3 this is the reason why   
pleasure and pain frequently so closely 
approximate each other as scarcely to be
 discriminated4 ,immoderate pleasure is 
the forerunner of regret4 ,it is        
succeeded by ennui1 it is followed by   

weariness1 it ends in disgust3 transient
 happiness frequently converts itself   
into durable misfortune4 ,according to  
these principles it will be seen that   
man1 who in each moment of his duration 
seeks necessarily after happiness1      
ought1 when he is reasonable1 to manage1
 to husband1 to regulate his pleasures2 
to refuse himself to all those of which 
the indulgence would be succeeded by    
regret2 to avoid those which can convert
 themselves into pain2 in order that he 
may procure for himself the most        
permanent felicity4  ,happiness cannot  
be the same for all the beings of the   
human species2 the same pleasures cannot
 equally affect men whose conformation  
is different1 whose modification is     
diverse4 ,this no doubt1 is the true    
reason why the greater number of moral  
philosophers are so little in accord    
upon those objects in which they have   
made man's happiness consist1 as well as
 on the means by which it may be        
obtained4 ,nevertheless1 in general1    

happiness appears to be a state1 whether
 momentary or durable1 in which man     
readily acquiesces1 because he finds it 
conformable to his being4 ,this state   
results from the accord1 springs out of 
the conformity1 which is found between  
himself and those circumstances in which
 he has been placed by ,nature2 or1 if  
it be preferred1 happiness is the       
co-ordination of man1 with the causes   
that give him impulse4  ,the ideas which
 man forms to himself of happiness      
depend not only on his temperament1 on  
his individual conformation1 but also   
upon the habits he has contracted4      
,habit is1 in man1 a mode of            
existence--of thinking--of acting1 which
 his organs1 as well interior as        
exterior1 contract1 by the frequent     
reiteration of the same motion2 from    
whence results the faculty of performing
 these actions with promptitude1 of     
executing them with facility4  ,if      
things be attentively considered1 it    
will be found that almost the whole     

conduct of man--the entire system of his
 actions--his occupations--his          
connexions--his studies--his            
amusements--his manners--his            
customs--his very garments--even his    
aliments1 are the effect of habit4 ,he  
owes equally to habit1 the facility with
 which he exercises his mental faculties
 of thought--of judgment--of wit--of    
reason--of taste1 c4 ,it is to habit he 
owes the greater part of his            
inclinations--of his desires--of his    
opinions--of his prejudices--of the     
ideas1 true or false1 he forms to       
himself of his welfare4 ,in short1 it is
 to habit1 consecrated by time1 that he 
owes those errors into which everything 
strives to precipitate him2 from which  
every thing is calculated to prevent him
 emancipating himself4 ,it is habit that
 attaches him either to virtue or to    
vice3 experience proves this3           
observation teaches incontrovertibly    
that the first crime is always          
accompanied by more pangs of remorse    

than the second2 this again1 by more    
than the third2 so on to those that     
follow4 ,a first action is the          
commencement of a habit2 those which    
succeed confirm it3 by force of         
combatting the obstacles that prevent   
the commission of criminal actions1 man 
arrives at the power of vanquishing them
 with ease2 of conquering them with     
facility4 ,thus he frequently becomes   
wicked from habit4  ,man is so much     
modified by habit1 that it is frequently
 confounded with his nature3 from hence 
results1 as will presently be seen1     
those opinions or those ideas1 which he 
has called innate3 because he has been  
unwilling to recur back to the source   
from whence they sprung3 which has1 as  
it were1 identified itself with his     
brain4 ,however this may be1 he adheres 
with great strength of attachment to all
 those things to which he is habituated2
 his mind experiences a sort of         
violence1 an incommodious revulsion1 a  
troublesome distaste1 when it is        

endeavoured to make him change the      
course of his ideas3 a fatal            
predilection frequently conducts him    
back to the old track in despite of     
reason4  ,it is by a pure mechanism that
 may be explained the phenomena of      
habit1 as well physical as moral2 the   
soul1 notwithstanding its spirituality1 
is modified exactly in the same manner  
as the body4 ,habit1 in man1 causes the 
organs of voice to learn the mode of    
expressing quickly the ideas consigned  
to his brain1 by means of certain       
motion1 which1 during his infancy1 the  
tongue acquires the power of executing  
with facility3 his tongue1 once         
habituated to move itself in a certain  
manner1 finds much trouble1 has great   
pain1 to move itself after another mode2
 the throat yields with difficulty to   
those inflections which are exacted by a
 language different from that to which  
he has1 been accustomed4 ,it is the same
 with regard to his ideas2 his brain1   
his interior organ1 his soul1 inured to 

a given manner of modification1         
accustomed to attach certain ideas to   
certain objects1 long used to form to   
itself a system connected with certain  
opinions1 whether true or false1        
experiences a painful sensation1        
whenever he undertakes to give it a new 
impulse1 or alter the direction of its  
habitual motion4 ,it is nearly as       
difficult to make him change his        
opinions as his language4  ,here1 then1 
without doubt1 is the cause of that     
almost invincible attachment which man  
displays to those customs--those        
prejudices--those institutions of which 
it is in vain that reason1 experience1  
good sense prove to him the inutility1  
or even the danger4 ,habit opposes      
itself to the clearest1 the most evident
 demonstrations2 these can avail nothing
 against those passions1 those vices1   
which time has rooted in him--against   
the most ridiculous systems--against the
 most absurd notions--against the most  
extravagant hypotheses--against the     

strangest customs3 above all1 when he   
has learned to attach to them the ideas 
of utility1 of common interest1 of the  
welfare of society4 ,such is the source 
of that obstinacy1 of that stubbornness1
 which man evinces for his religion1 for
 ancient usages1 for unreasonable       
customs1 for laws so little accordant   
with justice1 for abuses1 which so      
frequently make him suffer1 for         
prejudices of which he sometimes        
acknowledges the absurdity1 yet is      
unwilling to divest himself of them4    
,here is the reason why nations         
contemplate the most useful novelties as
 mischievous innovations--why they      
believe they would be lost1 if they were
 to remedy those evils to which they    
have become habituated2 which they have 
learned to consider as necessary to     
their repose2 which they have been      
taught to consider dangerous to be      
cured4  ,education is only the art of   
making man contract1 in early life1 that
 is to say1 when his organs are         

extremely flexible1 the habits1 the     
opinions1 the modes of existence1       
adopted by the society in which he is   
placed4 ,the first moments of his       
infancy are employed in collecting      
experience2 those who are charged with  
the care of rearing him1 or who are     
entrusted to bring him up1 teach him how
 to apply it3 it is they who develope   
reason in him3 the first impulse they   
give him commonly decides upon his      
condition1 upon his passions1 upon the  
ideas he forms to himself of happiness1 
upon the means he shall employ to       
procure it1 upon his virtues1 and upon  
his vices4 ,under the eyes of his       
masters1 the infant acquires ideas3     
under their tuition he learns to        
associate them1--to think in a certain  
manner1--to judge well or ill4 ,they    
point out to him various objects1 which 
they accustom him either to love or to  
hate1 to desire or to avoid1 to esteem  
or to despise4 ,it is thus opinions are 
transmitted from fathers1 mothers1      

nurses1 and masters1 to man in his      
infantine state4 ,it is thus1 that his  
mind by degrees saturates itself with   
truth1 or fills itself with error2 after
 which he regulates his conduct1 which  
renders him either happy or miserable1  
virtuous or vicious1 estimable or       
hateful4 ,it is thus he becomes either  
contented or discontented with his      
destiny1 according to the objects       
towards which they have directed his    
passions--towards which they have bent  
the energies of his mind2 that is to    
say1 in which they have shewn him his   
interest1 in which they have taught him 
to place his felicity3 in consequence1  
he loves and searches after that which  
they have taught him to revere--that    
which they have made the object of his  
research2 he has those tastes1 those    
inclinations1 those phantasms1 which1   
during the whole course of his life1 he 
is forward to indulge1 which he is eager
 to satisfy1 in proportion to the       
activity they have excited in him1 and  

the capacity with which he has been     
provided by ,nature4  ,politics ought to
 be the art of regulating the passions  
of man--of directing them to the welfare
 of society--of diverting them into a   
genial current of happiness--of making  
them flow gently to the general benefit 
of all3 but too frequently it is nothing
 more than the detestible art of arming 
the passions of the various members of  
society against each other1--of making  
them the engines to accomplish their    
mutual destruction1--of converting them 
into agents which embitter their        
existence1 create jealousies among them1
 and fill with rancorous animosities    
that association from which1 if properly
 managed1 man ought to derive his       
felicity4 ,society is commonly so       
vicious because it is not founded upon  
,nature1 upon experience1 and upon      
general utility2 but on the contrary1   
upon the passions1 upon the caprices1   
and upon the particular interests of    
those by whom it is governed4 ,in short1

 it is for the most part the advantage  
of the few opposed to the prosperity of 
the many4  ,politics1 to be useful1     
should found its principles upon        
,nature2 that is to say1 should conform 
itself to the essence of man1 should    
mould itself to the great end of        
society3 but what is society8 and what  
is its end8 ,it is a whole1 formed by   
the union of a great number of families1
 or by a collection of individuals1     
assembled from a reciprocity of         
interest1 in order that they may satisfy
 with greater facility their reciprocal 
wants--that they may1 with more         
certainty1 procure the advantages they  
desire--that they may obtain mutual     
succours--above all1 that they may gain 
the faculty of enjoying1 in security1   
those benefits with which ,nature and   
industry may furnish them3 it follows1  
of course1 that politics1 which are     
intended to maintain society1 and to    
consolidate the interests of this       
congregation1 ought to enter into its   

views1 to facilitate the means of giving
 them efficiency1 to remove all those   
obstacles that have a tendency to       
counteract the intention with which man 
entered into association4  ,man1 in     
approximating to his fellow man1 to live
 with him in society1 has made1 either  
formally or tacitly1 a covenant2 by     
which he engages to render mutual       
services1 to do nothing that can be     
prejudicial to his neighbour4 ,but as   
the nature of each individual impels him
 each instant to seek after his own     
welfare1 which he has mistaken to       
consist in the gratification of his     
passions1 and the indulgence of his     
transitory caprices1 without any regard 
to the convenience of his fellows2 there
 needed a power to conduct him back to  
his duty1 to oblige him to conform      
himself to his obligations1 and to      
recall him to his engagements1 which the
 hurry of his passions frequently make  
him forget4 ,this power is the law2 it  
is1 or ought to be1 the collection of   

the will of society1 reunited to fix the
 conduct of its members1 to direct their
 action in such a mode1 that it may     
concur to the great end of his          
association--the general good4  ,but as 
society1 more especially when very      
numerous1 is incapable of assembling    
itself1 unless with great difficulty1 as
 it cannot with tumult make known its   
intentions1 it is obliged to choose     
citizens in whom it places a confidence1
 whom it makes the interpreter of its   
will1 whom it constitutes the           
depositaries of the power requisite to  
carry it into execution4 ,such is the   
origin of all government1 which to be   
legitimate can only be founded on the   
free consent of society4 ,those who are 
charged with the care of governing1 call
 themselves sovereigns1 chiefs1         
legislators3 according to the form which
 society has been willing to give to its
 government3 these sovereigns are styled
 monarchs1 magistrates1 representatives1
 c4 ,government only borrows its power  

from society3 being established for no  
other purpose than its welfare1 it is   
evident society can revoke this power   
whenever its interest shall exact it2   
change the form of its government2      
extend or limit the power which it has  
confided to its chiefs1 over whom1 by   
the immutable laws of ,nature1 it always
 conserves a supreme authority3 because 
these laws enjoin1 that the part shall  
always remain subordinate to the whole4 
,thus sovereigns are the ministers of   
society1 its interpreters1 the          
depositaries of a greater or of a less  
portion of its power2 but they are not  
its absolute masters1 neither are they  
the proprietors of nations4 ,by a       
covenant1 either expressed or implied1  
they engage themselves to watch over the
 maintenance1 to occupy themselves with 
the welfare of society2 it is only upon 
these conditions society consents to    
obey them4 ,the price of obedience is   
protection4 ,there is or ought to be a  
reciprocity of interest between the     

governed and the governor3 whenever this
 reciprocity is wanting1 society is in  
that state of confusion of which we     
spoke in the fifth chapter3 it is       
verging on destruction4 ,no society upon
 earth was ever willing or competent to 
confer irrevocably upon its chiefs the  
power1 the right1 of doing it injury4   
,such a concession1 such a compact1     
would be annulled1 would be rendered    
void by ,nature2 because she wills that 
each society1 the same as each          
individual of the human species shall   
tend to its own conservation2 it has not
 therefore the capacity to consent to   
its permanent unhappiness4 ,laws1 in    
order that they may be just1 ought      
invariably to have for their end1 the   
general interest of society2 that is to 
say1 to assure to the greater number of 
citizens those advantages for which man 
originally associated4 ,these advantages
 are liberty1 property1 security4       
,liberty1 to man1 is the faculty of     
doing1 for his own peculiar happiness1  

every thing which does not injure or    
diminish the happiness of his           
associates3 in associating1 each        
individual renounced the exercise of    
that portion of his natural liberty     
which would be able to prejudice or     
injure the liberty of his fellows4 ,the 
exercise of that liberty which is       
injurious to society is called          
licentiousness4  ,property1 to man1 is  
the faculty of enjoying those advantages
 which spring from labour2 those        
benefits which industry or talent has   
procured to each member of society4     
,security1 to man1 is the certitude1 the
 assurance1 that each individual ought  
to have1 of enjoying in his person1 of  
finding for his property the protection 
of the laws1 as long as he shall        
faithfully observe1 as long as he shall 
punctually perform1 his engagements with
 society4  ,justice1 to man1 assures to 
all the members of society1 the         
possession of these advantages1 the     
enjoyment of those rights1 which belong 

to them4 ,from this1 it will appear1    
that without justice1 society is not in 
a condition to procure the happiness of 
any man4 ,justice is also called equity1
 because by the assistance of the laws  
made to command the whole1 she reduces  
all its members to a state of equality2 
that is to say1 she prevents them from  
prevailing one over the other1 by the   
inequality which ,nature or industry may
 have made between their respective     
powers4  ,rights1 to man1 are every     
thing which society1 by equitable laws1 
permits each individual to do for his   
own peculiar felicity4 ,these rights are
 evidently limited by the invariable end
 of all association3 society has1 on its
 part1 rights over all its members1 by  
virtue of the advantages which it       
procures for them2 all its members1 in  
turn1 have a right to claim1 to exact   
from society1 or secure from its        
ministers those advantages for the      
procuring of which they congregated1 in 
favour of which they renounced a portion

 of their natural liberty4 ,a society1  
of which the chiefs1 aided by the laws1 
do not procure any good for its members1
 evidently loses its right over them3   
those chiefs who injure society lose the
 right of commanding4 ,it is not our    
country1 without it secures the welfare 
of its inhabitants2 a society without   
equity contains only enemies2 a society 
oppressed is composed only of tyrants   
and slaves2 slaves are incapable of     
being citizens2 it is liberty1 property1
 and security1 that render our country  
dear to us2 it is the true love of his  
country that forms the citizen4  ,for   
want of having a proper knowledge of    
these truths1 or for want of applying   
them when known1 some nations have      
become unhappy--have contained nothing  
but a vile heap of slaves1 separated    
from each other1 detached from society1 
which neither procures for them any     
good1 nor secures to them any one       
advantage4 ,in consequence of the       
imprudence of some nations1 or of the   

craft1 cunning1 and violence of those to
 whom they have confided the power of   
making laws1 and carrying them into     
execution1 their sovereigns have        
rendered themselves absolute masters of 
society4 ,these1 mistaking the true     
source of their power1 pretended to hold
 it from heaven1 to be accountable for  
their actions to ,god alone1 to owe     
nothing1 not to have any obligation to  
society1 in a word1 to be gods upon     
earth1 to possess the right of governing
 arbitrarily4 ,from thence politics     
became corrupted3 they were only a      
mockery4 ,such nations1 disgraced and   
grown contemptible1 did not dare resist 
the will of their chiefs2 their laws    
were nothing more than the expression of
 the caprice of these chiefs2 public    
welfare was sacrificed to their peculiar
 interests2 the force of society was    
turned against itself2 its members      
withdrew to attach themselves to its    
oppressors1 to its tyrants2 these to    
seduce them1 permitted them to injure it

 with impunity and to profit by its     
misfortunes4 ,thus liberty1 justice1    
security1 and virtue1 were banished from
 many nations2 politics was no longer   
any thing more than the art of availing 
itself of the forces of a people and of 
the treasure of society2 of dividing it 
on the subject of its interest1 in order
 to subjugate it by itself2 at length a 
stupid1 a mechanical habit1 made them   
cherish their oppressors1 and love their
 chains4  ,man when he has nothing to   
fear1 presently becomes wicked2 he who  
believes he has not occasion for his    
fellow1 persuades himself he may follow 
the inclinations of his heart without   
caution or discretion4 ,thus fear is the
 only obstacle society can effectually  
oppose to the passions of its chiefs2   
without it they will quickly become     
corrupt1 and will not scruple to avail  
themselves of the means society has     
placed in their hands1 to make them     
accomplices in their iniquity4 ,to      
prevent these abuses1 it is requisite   

society should set bounds to its        
confidence2 should limit the power which
 it delegates to its chiefs2 should     
reserve to itself a sufficient portion  
of authority to prevent them from       
injuring it2 it must establish prudent  
checks3 it must cautiously divide the   
power it confers1 because re-united1 it 
will by such reunion be infallibly      
oppressed4 ,the slightest reflection1   
the most scanty review1 will make men   
feel that the burthen of governing and  
weight of administration1 is too        
ponderous and overpowering to be borne  
by an individual2 that the scope of his 
jurisdiction1 that the range of his     
surveillance1 and multiplicity of his   
duties must always render him negligent2
 that the extent of his power has ever a
 tendency to render him mischievous4 ,in
 short1 the experience of all ages will 
convince nations that man is continually
 tempted to the abuse of power3 that as 
an abundance of strong liquor           
intoxicates his brain1 so unlimited     

power corrupts his heart2 that therefore
 the sovereign ought to be subject to   
the law1 not the law to the sovereign4  
,government has necessarily an equal    
influence over the philosophy1 as over  
the morals of nations4 ,in the same     
manner that its care produces labour1   
activity1 abundance1 salubrity and      
justice2 its negligence induces         
idleness1 sloth1 discouragement1 penury1
 contagion1 injustice1 vices and crimes4
 ,it depends upon government either to  
foster industry1 mature genius1 give a  
spring to talents1 or stifle them4      
,indeed government1 the disturber of    
dignities1 of riches1 of rewards1 and   
punishments2 the master of those objects
 in which man from his infancy has      
learned to place his felicity1 and      
contemplate as the means of his         
happiness2 acquires a necessary         
influence over his conduct3 it kindles  
his passions2 gives them direction2     
makes him instrumental to whatever      
purpose it pleases2 it modifies him2    

determines his manners2 which in a whole
 people1 as in the individual1 is       
nothing more than the conduct1 the      
general system of wills1 of actions that
 necessarily result from his education1 
government1 laws1 and religious         
opinions--his institutions1 whether     
rational or irrational4 ,in short1      
manners are the habits of a people3     
these are good whenever society draws   
from them true felicity and solid       
happiness2 they are bad1 they are       
detestable in the eye of reason1 when   
the happiness of society does not spring
 from them2 they are unwholesome when   
they have nothing more in their favour  
than the suffrage of time1 and the      
countenance of prejudice which rarely   
consults experience1 which is almost    
ever at variance with good sense3       
notwithstanding they may have the       
sanction of the law1 custom1 religion1  
public opinion1 or example1 they may be 
unworthy and may be disgraceful1        
provided society is in disorder2 that   

crime abounds2 that virtue shrinks      
beneath the basilisk eye of triumphant  
vice2 they may then be said to resemble 
the ,,upas1 whose luxuriant yet         
poisonous foliage1 the produce of a rank
 soil1 becomes more baneful to those who
 are submitted to its vortex1 in        
proportion as it extends its branches4  
,if experience he consulted1 it will be 
found there is no action1 however       
abominable1 that has not received the   
applause1 that has not obtained the     
approbation of some people4 ,parricide1 
the sacrifice of children1 robbery1     
usurpation1 cruelty1 intolerance1 and   
prostitution1 have all in their turn    
been licensed actions2 have been        
advocated2 have been deemed laudable and
 meritorious deeds with some nations of 
the earth4 ,above all1 superstition has 
consecrated the most unreasonable1 the  
most revolting customs4  ,man's passions
 result from and depend on the motion of
 attraction or repulsion1 of which he is
 rendered susceptible by ,nature2 who   

enables him1 by his peculiar essence1 to
 be attracted by those objects which    
appear useful to him1 to be repelled by 
those which he considers prejudicial2 it
 follows that government1 by holding the
 magnet1 can put these passions into    
activity1 has the power either of       
restraining them1 or of giving them a   
favorable or an unfavorable direction4  
,all his passions are constantly limited
 by either loving or hating1 seeking or 
avoiding1 desiring or fearing4 ,these   
passions1 so necessary to the           
conservation of man1 are a consequence  
of his organization2 they display       
themselves with more or less energy1    
according to his temperament2 education 
and habit develope them2 government     
gives them play1 conducts them towards  
those objects1 which it believes itself 
interested in making desirable to its   
subjects4 ,the various names which have 
been given to these passions1 are       
relative to the different objects by    
which they are excited1 such as         

pleasure1 grandeur1 or riches1 which    
produce voluptuousness1 ambition1 vanity
 and avarice4 ,if the source of those   
passions which predominate in nations be
 attentively examined it will be        
commonly found in their governments4 ,it
 is the impulse received from their     
chiefs that renders them sometimes      
warlike1 sometimes superstitious1       
sometimes aspiring after glory1         
sometimes greedy after wealth1 sometimes
 rational1 and sometimes unreasonable2  
if sovereigns1 in order to enlighten and
 render happy their dominions1 were to  
employ only the tenth part of the vast  
expenditures which they lavish1 only a  
tythe of the pains which they employ to 
render them brutish1 to stupify them1 to
 deceive them1 and to afflict them2     
their subjects would presently be as    
wise1 would quickly be as happy1 as they
 are now remarkable for being blind1    
ignorant1 and miserable4  ,let the vain 
project of destroying1 the delusive     
attempt at rooting his passions from the

 heart of man1 he abandoned2 let an     
effort be made to direct them towards   
objects that may be useful to himself1  
beneficial to his associates4 ,let      
education1 let government1 let the laws1
 habituate him to restrain his passions 
within those just bounds that experience
 fixes and reason prescribes4 ,let the  
ambitious have honours1 titles1         
distinctions1 and power1 when they shall
 have usefully served their country2 let
 riches be given to those who covet     
them1 when they shall have rendered     
themselves necessary to their fellow    
citizens2 let commendations1 let        
eulogies1 encourage those who shall be  
actuated by the love of glory4 ,in      
short1 let the passions of man have a   
free1 an uninterrupted course1 whenever 
there shall result from their exercise1 
real1 substantial1 and durable          
advantages to society4 ,let education   
kindle only those1 which are truly      
beneficial to the human species2 let it 
favour those alone which are really     

necessary to the maintenance of society4
 ,the passions of man are dangerous1    
only because every thing conspires to   
give them an evil direction4  ,nature   
does not make man either good or wicked3
 she combines machines more or less     
active1 mobile1 and energetic2 she      
furnishes him with organs and           
temperament1 of which his passions1 more
 or less impetuous1 are the necessary   
consequence2 these passions have always 
his happiness for their object1 his     
welfare for their end3 in consequence   
they are legitimate1 they are natural1  
they can only be called bad or good1    
relatively1 to the influence they have  
on the beings of his species4 ,nature   
gives man legs proper to sustain his    
weight1 and necessary to transport him  
from one place to another2 the care of  
those who rear them strengthens them1   
habituates him to avail himself of him1 
accustoms him to make either a good or a
 bad use of them4 ,the arm which he has 
received from ,nature is neither good   

nor bad2 it is necessary to a great     
number of the actions of life2          
nevertheless1 the use of this arm       
becomes criminal1 if he has contracted  
the habit of using it to rob1 to        
assassinate1 with a view to obtain that 
money which he has been taught from his 
infancy to desire1 and which the society
 in which he lives renders necessary to 
him1 but which his industry will enable 
him to obtain without doing injury to   
his fellow man4  ,the heart of man is a 
soil which ,nature has made equally     
suitable to the production of brambles1 
or of useful grain--of deleterous       
poison1 or of refreshing fruit1 by      
virtue of the seeds which may be sown in
 it--by the cultivation that may be     
bestowed upon it1 ,in his infancy1 those
 objects are pointed out to him which he
 is to estimate or to despise1 to seek  
after or to avoid1 to love or to hate4  
,it is his parents1 his instructors1 who
 render him either virtuous or wicked1  
wise or unreasonable1 studious or       

dissipated1 steady or trifling1 solid or
 vain4 ,their example1 their discourse1 
modify him through his whole life1      
teaching him what are the things he     
ought either to desire or to avoid2 what
 the objects he ought to fear or to     
love3 he desires them1 in consequence2  
and he imposes on himself the task of   
obtaining them1 according to the energy 
of his temperament1 which ever decides  
the force of his passions4 ,it is thus  
that education1 by inspiring him with   
opinions1 by infusing into him ideas1   
whether true or false1 gives him those  
primitive impulsions after which he     
acts1 in a manner either advantageous or
 prejudicial both to himself and to     
others4 ,man1 at his birth1 brings with 
him into the world nothing but the      
necessity of conserving himself1 of     
rendering his existence happy3          
instruction1 example1 the customs of the
 world1 present him with the means1     
either real or imaginary1 of achieving  
it2 habit procures for him the facility 

of employing these means3 he attaches   
himself strongly to those he judges best
 calculated1 most proper to secure to   
him the possession of those objects     
which they have taught him1 which he has
 learned to desire as the preferable    
good attached to his existence4         
,whenever his education--whenever the   
examples which have been afforded       
him--whenever the means with which he   
has been provided1 are approved by      
reason1 are the result of experience1   
every thing concurs to render him       
virtuous2 habit strengthens these       
dispositions in him2 he becomes1 in     
consequence1 a useful member of society2
 to the interests of which1 every thing 
ought to prove to him his own permanent 
well-being1 his own durable felicity1 is
 necessarily allied4 ,if1 on the        
contrary1 his education--his            
institutions--the examples which are set
 before him--the opinions which are     
suggested to him in his infancy1 are of 
a nature to exhibit to his mind virtue  

as useless and repugnant--vice as useful
 and congenial to his own individual    
happiness1 he will become vicious2 he   
will believe himself interested in      
injuring society1 in rendering his      
associates unhappy2 he will be carried  
along by the general current3 he will   
renounce virtue1 which to him will no   
longer be any thing more than a vain    
idol1 without attractions to induce him 
to follow it2 without charms to tempt   
his adoration2 because it will appear to
 exact1 that he should immolate at its  
shrine1 that he should sacrifice at its 
altar all those objects which he has    
been constantly taught to consider the  
most dear to himself2 to contemplate as 
benefits the most desirable4  ,in order 
that man may become virtuous1 it is     
absolutely requisite that he should have
 an interest1 that he should find       
advantages in practising virtue4 ,for   
this end1 it is necessary that education
 should implant in him reasonable ideas2
 that public opinion should lean towards

 virtue1 as the most desirable good2    
that example should point it out as the 
object most worthy esteem2 that         
government should faithfully recompense1
 should regularly reward it2 that honor 
should always accompany its practice2   
that vice should constantly be despised2
 that crime should invariably be        
punished4 ,is virtue in this situation  
amongst men8 does the education of man  
infuse into him just1 faithful ideas of 
happiness--true notions of              
virtue--dispositions really favourable  
to the beings with whom he is to live8  
,the examples spread before him1 are    
they suitable to innocence and manners8 
are they calculated to make him respect 
decency--to cause him to love           
probity--to practice honesty--to value  
good faith--to esteem equity--to revere 
conjugal fidelity--to observe exactitude
 in fulfilling his duties8 ,religion1   
which alone pretends to regulate his    
manners1 does it render him             
sociable--does it make him pacific--does

 it teach him to be humane8 ,the        
arbiters1 the sovereigns of society1 are
 they faithful in recompensing1 punctual
 in rewarding1 those who have best      
served their country8 in punishing those
 who have pillaged1 who have robbed1 who
 have plundered1 who have divided1 who  
have ruined it8 ,justice1 does she hold 
her scales with a firm1 with an even    
hand1 between all the citizens of the   
state8 ,the laws1 do they never support 
the strong against the weak--favor the  
rich against the poor--uphold the happy 
against the miserable8 ,in short1 is it 
an uncommon spectacle to behold crime   
frequently justified1 often applauded1  
sometimes crowned with success1         
insolently triumphing1 arrogantly       
striding over that merit which it       
disdains1 over that virtue which it     
outrages8 ,well then1 in societies thus 
constituted1 virtue can only be heard by
 a very small number of peaceable       
citizens1 a few generous souls1 who know
 how to estimate its value1 who enjoy it

 in secret4 ,for the others1 it is only 
a disgusting object2 they see in it     
nothing but the supposed enemy to their 
happiness1 or the censor of their       
individual conduct4  ,if man1 according 
to his nature1 is necessitated to desire
 his welfare1 he is equally obliged to  
love and cherish the means by which he  
believes it is to be acquired3 it would 
be useless1 it would perhaps be unjust1 
to demand that a man should be virtuous1
 if he could not be so without rendering
 himself miserable4 ,whenever he thinks 
vice renders him happy1 he must         
necessarily love vice2 whenever he sees 
inutility recompensed1 crime            
rewarded--whenever he witnesses either  
or both of them honored1--what interest 
will he find in occupying himself with  
the happiness of his fellow-creatures8  
what advantage will he discover in      
restraining the fury of his passions8   
,whenever his mind is saturated with    
false ideas1 filled with dangerous      
opinions1 it follows1 of course1 that   

his whole conduct will become nothing   
more than a long chain of errors1 a     
tissue of mistakes1 a series of depraved
 actions4  ,we are informed1 that the   
savages1 in order to flatten the heads  
of their children1 squeeze them between 
two boards1 by that means preventing    
them from taking the shape designed for 
them by ,nature4 ,it is pretty nearly   
the same thing with the institutions of 
man2 they commonly conspire to          
counteract ,nature1 to constrain and    
divert1 to extinguish the impulse       
,nature has given him1 to substitute    
others which are the source of all his  
misfortunes4 ,in almost all the         
countries of the earth1 man is bereft of
 truth1 is fed with falsehoods1 and     
amused with marvellous chimeras3 he is  
treated like those children whose       
members are1 by the imprudent care of   
their nurses1 swathed with little       
fillets1 bound up with rollers1 which   
deprive them of the free use of their   
limbs1 obstruct their growth1 prevent   

their activity1 and oppose themselves to
 their health4  ,most of the            
superstitious opinions of man have for  
their object only to display to him his 
supreme felicity in those illusions for 
which they kindle his passions3 but as  
the phantoms which are presented to his 
imagination are incapable of being      
considered in the same light by all who 
contemplate them1 he is perpetually in  
dispute concerning these objects2 he    
hates his fellow1 he persecutes his     
neighbour1 his neighbour in turn        
persecutes him1 and he believes that in 
doing this he is doing well3 that in    
committing the greatest crimes to       
sustain his opinions he is acting right4
 ,it is thus superstition infatuates man
 from his infancy1 fills him with       
vanity1 and enslaves him with           
fanaticism3 if he has a heated          
imagination1 it drives him on to fury2  
if he has activity1 it makes him a      
madman1 who is frequently as cruel      
himself1 as he is dangerous to his      

fellow-creatures1 as he is incommodious 
to others3 if1 on the contrary1 he be   
phlegmatic1 and of a slothful habit1 he 
becomes melancholy and useless to       
society4  ,public opinion every instant 
offers to man's contemplation false     
ideas of honor1 and wrong notions of    
glory3 it attaches his esteem not only  
to frivolous advantages1 but also to    
prejudicial interests and injurious     
actions2 which example authorizes1 which
 prejudice consecrates1 which habit     
precludes him from viewing with the     
disgust and horror which they merit4    
,indeed1 habit familiarizes his mind    
with the most absurd ideas1 the most    
unreasonable customs1 the most blameable
 actions2 with prejudices the most      
contrary to his own interests1 and      
detrimental to the society in which he  
lives4 ,he finds nothing strange1       
nothing singular1 nothing despicable1   
nothing ridiculous1 except those        
opinions and objects to which he is     
himself unaccustomed4 ,there are        

countries in which the most laudable    
actions appear very blameable and       
ridiculous--where the foulest and most  
diabolical actions pass for very honest 
and perfectly rational conduct4 ,in some
 nations they kill the old men2 in some 
the children strangle their fathers4    
,the ,phoenicians and ,carthaginians    
immolated their children to their gods4 
,europeans approve duels2 he who refuses
 to cut the throat of another1 or to    
blow out the brains of his neighbour1 is
 contemplated by them as dishonoured4   
,the ,spaniards and ,portuguese think it
 meritorious to burn an heretic4 ,in    
some countries women prostitute         
themselves without dishonour2 in others 
it is the height of hospitality for a   
man to present his wife to the embraces 
of the stranger3 the refusal to accept  
this1 excites his scorn and calls forth 
his resentment4  ,authority commonly    
believes itself interested in           
maintaining the received opinions3 those
 prejudices and errors which it         

considers requisite to the maintenance  
of its power and the consolidation of   
its interests1 are sustained by force1  
which is never rational4 ,princes       
themselves1 filled with deceptive images
 of happiness1 mistaken notions of      
power1 erroneous opinions of grandeur1  
and false ideas of glory1 are surrounded
 with flattering courtiers1 who are     
interested in keeping up the delusion of
 their masters3 these contemptible men  
have acquired ideas of virtue1 only that
 they may outrage it3 by degrees they   
corrupt the people1 these become        
depraved1 lend themselves to their      
debaucheries1 pander to the vices of the
 great1 then make a merit of imitating  
them in their irregularities4 ,a court  
is too frequently the true focus of the 
corruption of a people4  ,this is the   
true source of moral evil4 ,it is thus  
that every thing conspires to render man
 vicious1 and give a fatal impulse to   
his soul3 from whence results the       
general confusion of society1 which     

becomes unhappy1 from the misery of     
almost every one of its members4 ,the   
strongest motive-powers are put in      
action to inspire man with a passion for
 futile objects which are indifferent to
 him2 which make him become dangerous to
 his fellow man1 by the means which he  
is compelled to employ1 in order to     
obtain them4 ,those who have the charge 
of guiding his steps1 either impostors  
themselves1 or the dupes to their own   
prejudices1 forbid him to hearken to    
reason2 they make truth appear dangerous
 to him2 they exhibit error as requisite
 to his welfare1 not only in this world1
 but in the next4 ,in short1 habit      
strongly attaches him to his irrational 
opinions1 to his perilous inclinations1 
and to his blind passion for objects    
either useless or dangerous4 ,here1     
then1 is the reason why for the most    
part man finds himself necessarily      
determined to evil2 the reason why the  
passions1 inherent in his ,nature and   
necessary to his conservation1 become   

the instruments of his destruction1 and 
the bane of that society1 which properly
 conducted1 they ought to preserve2 the 
reason why society becomes a state of   
warfare2 why it does nothing but        
assemble enemies1 who are envious of    
each other1 and are always rivals for   
the prize4 ,if some virtuous beings are 
to be found in these societies1 they    
must be sought for in the very small    
number of those1 who born with a        
phlegmatic temperament have moderate    
passions1 who therefore1 either do not  
desire at all1 or desire very feebly1   
those objects with which their          
associates are continually inebriated4  
,man's nature1 diversely cultivated1    
decides upon his faculties1 as well     
corporeal as intellectual2 upon his     
qualities1 as well moral as physical4   
,the man who is of a sanguine1 robust   
constitution1 must necessarily have     
strong passions2 he who is of a bilious1
 melancholy habit1 will as necessarily  
have fantastical and gloomy passions2   

the man of a gay turn1 of a sprightly   
imagination1 will have cheerful         
passions2 while the man in whom phlegm  
abounds1 will have those which are      
gentle1 or which have a very slight     
degree of violence4 ,it appears to be   
upon the equilibrium of the humours1    
that depends the state of the man who is
 called virtuous2 his temperament seems 
to be the result of a combination1 in   
which the elements or principles are    
balanced with such precision that no one
 passion predominates over another1 or  
carries into his machine more disorder  
than its neighbour4  ,habit1 as we have 
seen1 is man's nature modified3 this    
latter furnishes the matter2 education1 
domestic example1 national manners1 give
 it the form3 these1 acting on his      
temperament1 make him either reasonable1
 or irrational--enlightened1 or         
stupid--a fanatic1 or a hero--an        
enthusiast for the public good1 or an   
unbridled criminal--a wise man1 smitten 
with the advantages of virtue1 or a     

libertine1 plunged into every kind of   
vice4 ,all the varieties of the moral   
man1 depend on the diversity of his     
ideas2 which are themselves arranged and
 combined in his brain by the           
intervention of his senses4 ,his        
temperament is the produce of physical  
substances1 his habits are the effect of
 physical modifications2 the opinions1  
whether good or bad1 injurious or       
beneficial1 true or false1 which form   
themselves in his mind1 are never more  
than the effect of those physical       
impulsions which the brain receives by  
the medium of the senses4      ,,chap4  
,x4  ,the ,soul does not derive its     
ideas from itself--,it has no innate    
,ideas4   ,what has preceded suffices to
 prove1 that the interior organ of man1 
which is called his soul1 is purely     
material4 ,he will be enabled to        
convince himself of this truth1 by the  
manner in which he acquires his         
ideas1--from those impressions which    
material objects successively make on   

his organs1 which are themselves        
acknowledged to be material4 ,it has    
been seen1 that the faculties which are 
called intellectual1 are to be ascribed 
to that of feeling2 the different       
qualities of those faculties which are  
called moral1 have been explained after 
the necessary laws of a very simple     
mechanism3 it now remains1 to reply to  
those who still obstinately persist in  
making the soul a substance             
distinguished from the body1 or who     
insist on giving it an essence totally  
distinct4 ,they seem to found their     
distinction upon this1 that this        
interior organ has the faculty of       
drawing its ideas from within itself2   
they will have it1 that man1 at his     
birth1 brings with him ideas into the   
world1 which1 according to this         
wonderful notion1 they have called      
innate4 ,the ,jews have a similar       
doctrine which they borrowed from the   
,chaldeans3 their rabbins taught1 that  
each soul1 before it was united to the  

seed that must form an infant in the    
womb of a woman1 is confided to the care
 of an angel1 which causes him to behold
 heaven1 earth1 and hell3 this1 they    
pretend1 is done by the assistance of a 
lamp1 which extinguishes itself as soon 
as the infant comes into the world4     
,some ancient philosophers have held1   
that the soul originally contains the   
principles of several notions or        
doctrines3 the ,stoics designated this  
by the term ,,prolepsis1 anticipated    
opinions2 the ,greek mathematicians1    
,,koinas ,,ennoias1 universal ideas4    
,they have believed that the soul1 by a 
special privilege1 in a nature where    
every thing is connected1 enjoyed the   
faculty of moving itself without        
receiving any impulse2 of creating to   
itself ideas1 of thinking on a subject1 
without being determined to such action1
 by any exterior object2 which by moving
 its organs should furnish it with an   
image of the subject of its thoughts4   
,in consequence of these gratuitous     

suppositions1 of these extraordinary    
pretensions1 which it is only requisite 
to expose1 in order to confute some very
 able speculators1 who were prepossessed
 by their superstitious prejudices2 have
 ventured the length to assert1 that    
without model1 without prototype to act 
on the senses1 the soul is competent to 
delineate to itself1 the whole universe 
with all the beings it contains4        
,,descartes and his disciples have      
assured us1 that the body went          
absolutely for nothing1 in the          
sensations1 in the perceptions1 in the  
ideas of the soul2 that it can feel1    
that it can perceive1 that it can       
understand1 that it can taste1 that it  
can touch1 even when there should exist 
nothing that is corporeal or material   
exterior to ourselves4 ,but what shall  
be said of a ,,berkeley1 who has        
endeavoured1 who has laboured to prove  
to man1 that every thing in this world  
is nothing more than a chimerical       
illusion2 that the universe exists      

nowhere but in himself2 that it has no  
identity but in his imagination2 who has
 rendered the existence of all things   
problematical by the aid of sophisms1   
insolvable even to those who maintain   
the doctrine of the spirituality of the 
soul4  ,extravagant as this doctrine of 
the ,,bishop ,,of ,,cloyne may appear1  
it cannot well be more so than that of  
,,malebranche1 the champion of innate   
ideas2 who makes the divinity the common
 bond between the soul and the body3 or 
than that of those metaphysicians1 who  
maintain that the soul is a substance   
heterogeneous to the body2 who by       
ascribing to this soul the thoughts of  
man1 have in fact rendered the body     
superfluous4 ,they have not perceived   
they were liable to one solid objection1
 which is1 that if the ideas of man are 
innate1 if he derives them from a       
superior being1 independent of exterior 
causes1 if he sees every thing in ,god2 
how comes it that so many false ideas   
are afloat1 that so many errors prevail1

 with which the human mind is saturated8
 ,from whence comes these opinions1     
which according to the theologians are  
so displeasing to ,god8 ,might it not be
 a question to the ,malebranchists1 was 
it in the ,divinity that ,,spinoza      
beheld his system8  ,nevertheless1 to   
justify such monstrous opinions1 they   
assert that ideas are only the objects  
of thought4 ,but according to the last  
analysis1 these ideas can only reach man
 from exterior objects1 which in giving 
impulse to his senses modify his brain2 
or from the material beings contained   
within the interior of his machine1 who 
make some parts of his body experience  
those sensations which he perceives1    
which furnish him with ideas1 which he  
relates1 faithfully or otherwise1 to the
 cause that moves him4 ,each idea is an 
effect1 but however difficult it may be 
to recur to the cause1 can we possibly  
suppose it is not ascribable to a cause8
 ,if we can only form ideas of material 
substances1 how can we suppose the cause

 of our ideas can possibly be           
immaterial8 ,to pretend that man without
 the aid of exterior objects1 without   
the intervention of his senses1 is      
competent to form ideas of the universe1
 is to assert1 that a blind man is in a 
capacity to form a true idea of a       
picture1 that represents some fact of   
which he has never heard any one speak4 
,it is very easy to perceive the source 
of those errors1 into which men1        
otherwise extremely profound and very   
enlightened have fallen1 when they have 
been desirous to speak of the soul3 to  
describe its operations4 ,obliged either
 by their own prejudices1 or by the fear
 of combatting the opinions of some     
imperious theologian1 they have become  
the advocates of the principle1 that the
 soul was a pure spirit3 an immaterial  
substance2 of an essence directly       
different from that of the body2 from   
every thing we behold3 this granted1    
they have been incompetent to conceive  
how material objects could operate1 in  

what manner gross and corporeal organs  
were enabled to act on a substance1 that
 had no kind of analogy with them2 how  
they were in a capacity to modify it by 
conveying its ideas2 in the             
impossibility of explaining this        
phenomenon1 at the same time perceiving 
that the soul had ideas1 they concluded 
that it must draw them from itself1 and 
not from those beings1 which according  
to their own hypothesis1 were incapable 
of acting on it1 or rather1 of which    
they could not conceive the manner of   
action2 they therefore imagined that all
 the modifications1 all the actions of  
this soul1 sprung from its own peculiar 
energy1 were imprinted on it from its   
first formation1 by the ,author of      
,nature3 that these did not in any      
manner depend upon the beings of which  
we have a knowledge1 or which act upon  
it1 by the gross means of our senses4   
,there are1 however1 some phenomena1    
which1 considered superficially1 appear 
to support the opinion of these         

philosophers2 to announce a faculty in  
the human soul of producing ideas within
 itself1 without any exterior aid2 these
 are dreams1 in which the interior organ
 of man1 deprived of objects that move  
it visibly1 does not1 however1 cease to 
have ideas--to be set in activity--to be
 modified in a manner that is           
sufficiently sensible--to have an       
influence upon his body4 ,but if a      
little reflection be called in1 the     
solution to this difficulty will be     
found3 it will be perceived that1 even  
during sleep1 his brain is supplied with
 a multitude of ideas1 with which the   
eye or time before has stocked it2 these
 ideas were communicated to it by       
exterior or corporeal objects1 by which 
they have been modified3 it will be     
found that these modifications renew    
themselves1 not by any spontaneous1 not 
by any voluntary motion on its part1 but
 by a chain of involuntary movements    
which take place in his machine1 which  
determine1 which excite those that give 

play to the brain2 these modifications  
renew themselves with more or less      
fidelity1 with a greater or lesser      
degree of conformity to those which it  
has anteriorly experienced4 ,sometimes  
in dreaming1 he has memory1 then he     
retraces to himself the objects which   
have struck him faithfully2--at other   
times1 these modifications renew        
themselves without order1 and without   
connection1 very differently from those1
 which real objects have before excited 
in his interior organ4 ,if in a dream he
 believes he sees a friend1 his brain   
renews in itself the modifications or   
the ideas which this friend had formerly
 excited--in the same order that they   
arranged themselves when his eyes really
 beheld him--this is nothing more than  
an effect of memory4 ,if in his dream he
 fancies he sees a monster which has no 
model in nature1 his brain is then      
modified in the same manner that it was 
by the particular1 by the detached      
ideas1 with which it then does nothing  

more than compose an ideal whole2 by    
assembling1 and associating1 in a       
ridiculous manner1 the scattered ideas  
that were consigned to its keeping2 it  
is then1 that in dreaming he has        
imagination4  ,those dreams that are    
troublesome1 extravagant1 whimsical1 or 
unconnected1 are commonly the effect of 
some confusion in his machine2 such as  
painful indigestion--an overheated      
blood--a prejudicial fermentation1      
c4--these material causes excite in his 
body a disorderly motion1 which         
precludes the brain from being modified 
in the same manner it was on the day    
before2 in consequence of this irregular
 motion the brain is disturbed1 it only 
represents to itself confused ideas that
 want connection4 ,when in a dream1 he  
believes he sees a ,sphinx1 a being     
supposed by the poets to have a head and
 face like a woman1 a body like a dog1  
wings like a bird1 and claws like a     
lion1 who put forth riddles and killed  
those who could not expound them2       

either1 he has seen the representation  
of one when he was awake1 or else the   
disorderly motion of the brain is such  
that it causes it to combine ideas1 to  
connect parts1 from which there results 
a whole without model1 of which the     
parts were not formed to be united4 ,it 
is thus1 that his brain combines the    
head of a woman1 of which it already has
 the idea1 with the body of a lioness1  
of which it also has the image4 ,in this
 his head acts in the same manner1 as   
when by any defect in the interior      
organ1 his disordered imagination paints
 to him some objects1 notwithstanding he
 is awake4 ,he frequently dreams1       
without being asleep3 his dreams never  
produce any thing so strange but that   
they have some resemblance1 with the    
objects which have anteriorly acted on  
his senses2 which have already          
communicated ideas to his brain4 ,the   
watchful theologians have composed1 at  
their leisure1 in their waking hours1   
those phantoms1 of which they avail     

themselves1 to terrify or frighten man2 
they have done nothing more than        
assemble the scattered traits which they
 have found in the most terrible beings 
of their own species2 by exaggerating   
the powers1 by enlarging the rights     
claimed by tyrants1 they have formed    
ideal beings1 before whom man trembles1 
and is afraid4  ,thus1 it is seen1 that 
dreams1 far from proving that the soul  
acts by its own peculiar energy1 that it
 draws its ideas from its own recesses2 
prove1 on the contrary1 that in sleep it
 is intirely passive1 that it does not  
even renew its modifications1 but       
according to the involuntary confusion1 
which physical causes produce in the    
body1 of which every thing tends to shew
 the identity1 the consubstantiality    
with the soul4 ,what appears to have led
 those into a mistake1 who maintained   
that the soul drew its ideas from       
itself1 is this1 they have contemplated 
these ideas1 as if they were real       
beings1 when1 in point of fact1 they are

 nothing more than the modifications    
produced in the brain of man1 by objects
 to which this brain is a stranger2 they
 are these objects1 who are the true    
models1 who are the real archetypes to  
which it is necessary to recur3 here is 
the source of all their errors4  ,in the
 individual who dreams1 the soul does   
not act more from itself1 than it does  
in the man who is drunk1 that is to say1
 who is modified by some spirituous     
liquor3 or than it does in the sick man1
 when he is delirious1 that is to say1  
when he is modified by those physical   
causes which disturb his machine1 which 
obstruct it in the performance of its   
functions2 or than it1 does in him1     
whose brain is disordered3 dreams1 like 
these various states1 announce nothing  
more than a physical confusion in the   
human machine1 under the influence of   
which the brain ceases to act1 after a  
precise and regular manner3 this        
disorder may be traced to physical      
causes1 such as the aliments--the       

humours--the combinations--the          
fermentations1 which are but little     
analogous to the salutary state of man2 
from hence it will appear1 that his     
brain is necessarily confused1 whenever 
his body is agitated in an extraordinary
 manner4  ,do not let him1 therefore1   
believe that his soul acts by itself1 or
 without a cause1 in any one moment of  
his existence2 it is1 conjointly with   
the body1 submitted to the impulse of   
beings1 who act on him necessarily1     
according to their various properties4  
,wine taken in too great a quantity1    
necessarily disturbs his ideas1 causes  
confusion in his corporeal functions1   
occasions disorder in his mental        
faculties4  ,if there really existed a  
being in ,nature1 with the capability of
 moving itself by its own peculiar      
energies1 that is to say1 able to       
produce motion1 independent of all other
 causes1 such a being would have the    
power of arresting itself1 or of        
suspending the motion of the universe2  

which is nothing more than an immense   
chain of causes linked one to another1  
acting and re-acting by necessary       
immutable laws1 and which cannot be     
changed1 which are incapable of being   
suspended1 unless the essences of every 
thing in it were changed1 without the   
properties of every thing were          
annihilated4 ,in the general system of  
the world1 nothing more can be perceived
 than a long series of motion1 received 
and communicated in succession1 by      
beings capacitated to give impulse to   
each other3 it is thus1 that each body  
is moved by the collision of some other 
body4 ,the invisible motion of some soul
 is to be attributed to causes concealed
 within himself2 he believes that it is 
moved by itself1 because he does not see
 the springs which put it in motion1 or 
because he conceives those powers are   
incapable of producing the effects he so
 much admires3 but1 does he more clearly
 conceive1 how a spark in exploding     
gunpowder1 is capable of producing the  

terrible effects he witnesses8 ,the     
source of his errors arise from this1   
that he regards his body as gross and   
inert1 whilst this body is a sensible   
machine1 which has necessarily an       
instantaneous conscience the moment it  
receives an impression2 which is        
conscious of its own existence by the   
recollection of impressions successively
 experienced2 memory by resuscitating an
 impression anteriorly received1 by     
detaining it1 or by causing an          
impression which it receives to remain1 
whilst it associates it with another1   
then with a third1 gives all the        
mechanism of reasoning4  ,an idea1 which
 is only an imperceptible modification  
of the brain1 gives play to the organ of
 speech1 which displays itself by the   
motion it excites in the tongue3 this1  
in its turn1 breeds ideas1 thoughts1 and
 passions1 in those beings who are      
provided with organs susceptible of     
receiving analagous motion2 in          
consequence of which1 the wills of a    

great number of men are influenced1 who1
 combining their efforts1 produce a     
revolution in a state1 or even have an  
influence over the entire globe4 ,it is 
thus1 that an ,,alexander decided the   
fate of ,asia1 it is thus1 that a       
,,mahomet changed the face of the earth2
 it is thus1 that imperceptible causes  
produce the most terrible1 the most     
extended effects1 by a series of        
necessary motion imprinted on the brain 
of man4  ,the difficulty of             
comprehending the effects produced on   
the soul of man1 has made him attribute 
to it those incomprehensible qualities  
which have been examined4 ,by the aid of
 imagination1 by the power of thought1  
this soul appears to quit his body1 to  
carry itself with the greatest ease1 to 
transport itself with the utmost        
facility towards the most distant       
objects2 to run over1 to approximate in 
the twinkling of an eye1 all the points 
of the universe3 he has therefore       
believed1 that a being who is           

susceptible of such rapid motion1 must  
be of a nature very distinguished from  
all others2 he has persuaded himself    
that this soul in reality does travel1  
that it actually springs over the       
immense space necessary to meet these   
various objects2 he did not perceive1   
that to do it in an instant1 it had only
 to run over itself to approximate the  
ideas consigned to its keeping1 by means
 of the senses4  ,indeed1 it is never by
 any other means than by his senses1    
that beings become known to man1 or     
furnish him with ideas2 it is only in   
consequence of the impulse given to his 
body1 that his brain is modified1 or    
that his soul thinks1 wills1 and acts4  
,if1 as ,,aristotle asserted more than  
two thousand years ago1--nothing enters 
the mind of man but through the medium  
of his senses1--it follows as a         
consequence1 that every thing that      
issues from it must find some sensible  
object to which it can attach its ideas1
 whether immediately1 as a man1 a tree1 

a bird1 c4 or in the last analysis or   
decomposition1 such as pleasure1        
happiness1 vice1 virtue1 c4 ,this       
principle1 so true1 so luminous1 so     
important in its consequence1 has been  
set forth in all its lustre1 by a great 
number of philosophers2 among the rest1 
by the great ,,locke4 ,whenever1        
therefore1 a word or its idea does not  
connect itself with some sensible object
 to which it can be related1 this word  
or this idea is unmeaning1 and void of  
sense2 it were better for man that the  
idea was banished from his mind1 struck 
out of his language3 this principle is  
only the converse of the axiom of       
,,aristotle1--if the direct be evident1 
the inverse must be so likewise4 ,how   
has it happened1 that the profound      
,,locke1 who1 to the great mortification
 of the metaphysicians1 has placed this 
principle of ,,aristotle in the clearest
 point of view8 how is it1 that all     
those who1 like him1 have recognized the
 absurdity of the system of innate      

ideas1 have not drawn the immediate1 the
 necessary consequences8 ,how has it    
come to pass1 that they have not had    
sufficient courage to apply so clear a  
principle to all those fanciful chimeras
 with which the human mind has for such 
a length of time been so vainly         
occupied8 did they not perceive that    
their principle sapped the very         
foundations of those metaphysical       
speculations1 which never occupy man but
 with those objects of which1 as they   
are inaccessible to his senses1 he      
consequently can never form to himself  
any accurate idea8 ,but prejudice1 when 
it is generally held sacred1 prevents   
him from seeing the most simple         
application of the most self-evident    
principles4 ,in metaphysical researches1
 the greatest men are frequently nothing
 more than children1 who are incapable  
of either foreseeing or deducing the    
consequence of their own data4  ,,locke1
 as well as all those who have adopted  
his system1 which is so                 

demonstrable1--or to the axiom of       
,,aristotle1 which is so clear1 ought to
 have concluded from it that all those  
wonderful things with which             
metaphysicians have amused themselves1  
are mere chimeras2 mere wanderings of   
the imagination2 that an immaterial     
spirit or substance1 without extent1    
without parts1 is1 in fact1 nothing more
 than an absence of ideas2 in short1    
they ought to have felt that the        
ineffable intelligence which they have  
supposed to preside at the helm of the  
world1 is after all nothing more than a 
being of their own imagination1 on which
 man has never been in accord1 whom he  
has pictured under all the variety of   
forms1 to which he has at different     
periods1 in different climes1 ascribed  
every kind of attribute1 good or bad2   
but of which it is impossible his senses
 can ever prove either the existence or 
the qualities4  ,for the same reason1   
moral philosophers ought to have        
concluded1 that what is called moral    

sentiment1 moral instinct1 that is1     
innate ideas of virtue1 anterior to all 
experience of the good or bad effects   
resulting from its practice1 are mere   
chimerical notions1 which1 like a great 
many others1 have for their guarantee   
and base only metaphysical speculation4 
,before man can judge1 he must feel2    
before he can distinguish good from     
evil1 he must compare4 ,morals1 is a    
science of facts3 to found them1        
therefore1 on an hypothesis inaccessible
 to his senses1 of which he has no means
 of proving the reality1 is to render   
them uncertain2 it is to cast the log of
 discord into his lap1 to cause him     
unceasingly to dispute upon that which  
he can never understand4 ,to assert that
 the ideas of morals are innate1 or the 
effect of instinct1 is to pretend that  
man knows how to read before he has     
learned the letters of the alphabet2    
that he is acquainted with the laws of  
society before they are either made or  
promulgated4  ,to undeceive him1 with   

respect to innate ideas or              
modifications1 imprinted on his soul1 at
 the moment of his birth1 it is simply  
requisite to recur to their source2 he  
will then see that those with which he  
is familiar1 which have1 as it were1    
identified themselves with his          
existence1 have all come to him through 
the medium of some of his senses2 that  
they are sometimes engraven on his brain
 with great difficulty1--that they have 
never been permanent1--that they have   
perpetually varied in him3 he will see  
that these pretended inherent ideas of  
his soul1 are the effect of education1  
of example1 above all1 of habit1 which  
by reiterated motion has taught his     
brain to associate his ideas either in a
 confused or a perspicuous manner2 to   
familiarize itself with systems either  
rational or absurd4 ,in short1 he takes 
those for innate ideas of which he has  
forgotten the origin2 he no longer      
recals to himself1 either the precise   
epoch1 or the successive circumstances  

when these ideas were first consigned to
 his brain3 arrived at a certain age he 
believes he has always had the same     
notions2 his memory1 crowded with       
experience1 loaded with a multitude of  
facts1 is no longer able to distinguish 
the particular circumstances which have 
contributed to give his brain its       
present modifications2 its instantaneous
 mode of thinking2 its actual opinions4 
,for example1 not one of his race1      
perhaps1 recollects the first time the  
word ,god struck his ears--the first    
ideas that it formed in him--the first  
thoughts that it produced in him2       
nevertheless1 it is certain that from   
thence he has searched for some being   
with whom to connect the idea which he  
has either formed to himself1 or which  
has been suggested to him3 accustomed to
 hear ,god continually spoken of1 he    
has1 when in other respects1 the most   
enlightened1 regarded this idea as if it
 were infused into him by ,nature2      
whilst it is visibly to be attributed to

 those delineations of it1 which his    
parents or his instructors have made to 
him2 which he has1 in consequence1      
modified according to his own particular
 organization1 and the circumstances in 
which he has been placed2 it is thus1   
that each individual forms to himself a 
,god1 of which he is himself the model1 
or which he modifies after his own      
fashion4  ,his ideas of morals1 although
 more real than those of metaphysics1   
are not however innate3 the moral       
sentiments he forms on the will1 or the 
judgment he passes on the actions of    
man1 are founded on experience2 which   
alone can enable him to discriminate    
those which are either useful or        
prejudicial1 virtuous or vicious1 honest
 or dishonest1 worthy his esteem1 or    
deserving his censure4 ,his moral       
sentiments are the fruit of a multitude 
of experience that is frequently very   
long and very complicated4 ,he gathers  
it with time2 it is more or less        
faithful1 by reason of his particular   

organization and the causes by which he 
is modified2 he ultimately applies this 
experience with greater or less         
facility2 to this is to be attributed   
his habit of judging4 ,the celerity with
 which he applies his experience when he
 judges of the moral actions of his     
fellow man1 is what has been termed     
moral instinct4  ,that which in natural 
philosophy is called instinct1 is only  
the effect of some want of the body1 the
 consequence of some attraction or some 
repulsion in man or animals4 ,the child 
that is newly born1 sucks for the first 
time2 the nipple of the breast is put   
into his mouth3 by the natural analogy1 
that is found between the conglomerate  
glands1 filled with nerves2 which line  
his mouth1 and the milk which flows from
 the bosom of the nurse1 through the    
medium of the nipple1 causes the child  
to press it with his mouth1 in order to 
express the fluid appropriate to nourish
 his tender age2 from all this the      
infant gathers experience2 by degrees   

the idea of a nipple1 of milk1 of       
pleasure1 associate themselves in his   
brain3 every time he sees the nipple1 he
 seizes it1 promptly conveys it to his  
mouth1 and applies it to the use for    
which it is designed4  ,what has been   
said1 will enable us to judge of those  
prompt and sudden sentiments1 which have
 been designated the force of blood4    
,those sentiments of love1 which fathers
 and mothers have for their             
children--those feelings of affection1  
which children1 with good inclinations1 
bear towards their parents1 are by no   
means innate sentiments2 they are       
nothing more1 than the effect of        
experience1 of reflection1 of habit1 in 
souls of sensibility4 ,these sentiments 
do not even exist in a great number of  
human beings4 ,we but too often witness 
tyrannical parents1 occupied with making
 enemies of their children1 who appear  
to have been formed1 only to be the     
victims of their irrational caprices or 
their unreasonable desires4  ,from the  

instant in which man commences1 until   
that in which he ceases to exist1 he    
feels--he is moved either agreeably or  
unpleasantly--he collects facts--he     
gathers experience2 these produce ideas 
in his brain1 that are either cheerful  
or gloomy4 ,not one individual has all  
this experience present to his memory at
 the same time1 it does not ever        
represent to him the whole clew at once3
 it is1 however1 this experience that   
mechanically directs him1 without his   
knowledge1 in all his actions2 it was to
 designate the rapidity with1 which he  
applied this experience1 of which he so 
frequently loses the connection--of     
which he is so often at a loss to render
 himself an account1 that he imagined   
the word instinct3 it appears to be the 
effect of magic1 the operation of a     
supernatural power1 to the greater      
number of individuals3 it is a word     
devoid of sense to many others2 but to  
the philosopher it is the effect of a   
very lively feeling to him it consists  

in the faculty of combining1 promptly1 a
 multitude of experience--of arranging  
with facility--of comparing with        
quickness1 a long and numerous train of 
extremely complicated ideas4 ,it is want
 that causes the inexplicable instinct  
we behold in animals which have been    
denied souls without reason1 whilst they
 are susceptible of an infinity of      
actions that prove they                 
think--judge--have memory--are capable  
of experience--can combine ideas--can   
apply them with more or less facility to
 satisfy the wants engendered by their  
particular organization2 in short1 that 
prove they have passions that are       
capable of being modified4 ,nothing but 
the height of folly can refuse          
intellectual faculties to animals2 they 
feel1 choose1 deliberate1 express love1 
show hatred2 in many instances their    
senses are much keener than those of    
man4 ,fish will return periodically to  
the spot where it is the custom to throw
 them bread4  ,it is well known the     

embarrassments which animals have thrown
 in the way of the partizans of the     
doctrine of spirituality2 they have been
 fearful1 if they allowed them to have a
 spiritual soul1 of elevating them to   
the condition of human creatures2 on the
 other hand1 in not allowing them to    
have a soul1 they have furnished their  
adversaries with authority to deny it in
 like manner to man1 who thus finds     
himself debased to the condition of the 
animal4 ,metaphysicians have never known
 how to extricate themselves from this  
difficulty4 ,,descartes fancied he      
solved it by saying that beasts have no 
souls1 but are mere machines4 ,nothing  
can be nearer the surface1 than the     
absurdity of this principle4 ,whoever   
contemplates ,nature without prejudice1 
will readily acknowledge that there is  
no other difference between the man and 
the beast1 than that which is to be     
attributed to the diversity of his      
organization4  ,in some beings of the   
human species1 who appear to be endowed 

with a greater sensibility of organs    
than others1 may be seen an instinct1 by
 the assistance of which they very      
promptly judge of the concealed         
dispositions of their fellows1 simply by
 inspecting the lineaments of their     
face4 ,those who are denominated        
physiognomists1 are only men of very    
acute feelings2 who have gathered an    
experience of which others1 whether from
 the coarseness of their organs1 from   
the little attention they have paid1 or 
from some defect in their senses1 are   
totally incapable3 these last do not    
believe in the science of physiognomy1  
which appears to them perfectly ideal4  
,nevertheless1 it is certain1 that the  
action of this soul1 which has been made
 spiritual1 makes impressions that are  
extremely marked upon the exterior of   
the body2 these impressions1 continually
 reiterated1 their image remains3 thus  
the habitual passions of man paint      
themselves on his countenance2 by which 
the attentive observer1 who is endowed  

with acute feeling1 is enabled to judge 
with great rapidity of his mode of      
existence1 and even to foresee his      
actions1 his inclinations1 his desires1 
his predominant passions1 c4 ,although  
the science of physiognomy appears      
chimerical to a great number of persons1
 yet there are few who have not a clear 
idea of a tender regard--of a cruel     
eye--of an austere aspect--of a false1  
dissimulating look--of an open          
countenance1 c4 ,keen practised optics  
acquire without doubt the faculty of    
penetrating the concealed motion of the 
soul1 by the visible traces it leaves   
upon features that it has continually   
modified4 ,above all1 the eyes of man   
very quickly undergo changes according  
to the motion which is excited in him3  
these delicate organs are visibly       
altered by the smallest shock           
communicated to his brain4 ,serene eyes 
announce a tranquil soul2 wild eyes     
indicate a restless mind2 fiery eyes    
pourtray a choleric1 sanguine           

temperament2 fickle or inconstant eyes  
give room to suspect a soul either      
alarmed or dissimulating4 ,it is the    
study of this variety of shades that    
renders man practised and acute3 upon   
the spot he combines a multitude of     
acquired experience1 in order to form   
his judgment of the person he beholds4  
,his judgment1 thus rapidly formed1     
partakes in nothing of the supernatural1
 in nothing of the wonderful3 such a man
 is only distinguished by the fineness  
of his organs1 and by the celerity with 
which his brain performs its functions4 
,it is the same with some beings of the 
human species1 in whom may be discovered
 an extraordinary sagacity1 which1 to   
the uninformed1 appears miraculous4 ,the
 most skilful practitioners in medicine1
 are1 no doubt1 men endowed with very   
acute feelings1 similar to that of the  
physiognomists1 by the assistance of    
which they judge with great facility of 
diseases1 and very promptly draw their  
prognostics4 ,indeed1 we see men who are

 capable of appreciating in the         
twinkling of an eye a multitude of      
circumstances1 who have sometimes the   
faculty of foreseeing the most distant  
events2 yet1 this species of prophetic  
talent has nothing in it of the         
supernatural2 it indicates nothing more 
than great experience1 with an extremely
 delicate organization1 from which they 
derive the faculty of judging with      
extreme faculty of causes1 of foreseeing
 their very remote effects4 ,this       
faculty1 however1 is also found in      
animals1 who foresee much better than   
man1 the variations of the atmosphere   
with the various changes of the weather4
 ,birds have long been the prophets1 and
 even the guides of several nations who 
pretend to be extremely enlightened4    
,it is1 then1 to their organization1    
exercised after a particular manner1    
that must be attributed those wonderous 
faculties which distinguish some beings1
 that astonish others4 ,to have         
instinct1 only signifies to judge       

quickly1 without requiring to make a    
long1 reasoning on the subject4 ,man's  
ideas upon vice and upon virtue1 are by 
no means innate2 they are1 like all     
others1 acquired3 the judgment he forms1
 is founded upon experience1 whether    
true or false1--this depends upon his   
conformation1 and upon the habits that  
have modified him4 ,the infant has no   
ideas either of the ,divinity or of     
virtue2 it is from those who instruct   
him that he receives these ideas2 he    
makes more or less use of them1         
according to his natural organization1  
or as his dispositions have been more or
 less exercised4 ,nature gives man legs1
 the nurse teaches him their use1 his   
agility depends upon their natural      
conformation1 and the manner in which he
 exercises them4  ,what is called taste1
 in the fine arts1 is to be attributed1 
in the same manner1 only to the         
acuteness of man's organs1 practised by 
the habit of seeing1 of comparing1 of   
judging certain objects2 from whence    

results1 to some of his species1 the    
faculty of judging with great rapidity1 
in the twinkling of an eye1 the whole   
with its various relations4 ,it is by   
the force of seeing1 of feeling1 of     
experiencing objects1 that he attains to
 a knowledge of them2 it is in          
consequence of reiterating this         
experience1 that he acquires the power1 
that he gains the habit of judging with 
celerity4 ,but this experience is by no 
means innate1 he did not possess it     
before he was born2 he is neither able  
to think1 to judge1 nor to have ideas1  
before he has feeling2 he is neither in 
a capacity to love1 nor to hate2 to     
approve1 nor to blame1 before he has    
been moved1 either agreeably or         
disagreeably4 ,nevertheless1 this is    
precisely what must be supposed by those
 who are desirous to make man admit of  
innate ideas1 of opinions2 infused by   
,nature1 whether in morals1 metaphysics1
 or any other science4 ,that his mind   
should have the faculty of thought1 that

 it should occupy itself with an object1
 it is requisite it should be acquainted
 with its qualities2 that it may have a 
knowledge of these qualities1 it is     
necessary some of his senses should have
 been struck by them3 those objects1    
therefore1 of which he does not know any
 of the qualities1 are nullities2 or at 
least they do not exist for him4  ,it   
will be asserted1 perhaps1 that the     
universal consent of man1 upon certain  
propositions1 such as the whole is      
greater than its part1 upon all         
geometrical demonstrations1 appear to   
warrant the supposition of certain      
primary notions that are innate1 not    
acquired4 ,it may be replied1 that these
 notions are always acquired2 that they 
are the fruit of an experience more or  
less prompt2 that it is requisite to    
have compared the whole with its part1  
before conviction can ensue1 that the   
whole is the greater of the two4 ,man   
when he is born1 does not bring with him
 the idea that two and two make four2   

but he is1 nevertheless1 speedily       
convinced of its truth4 ,before forming 
any judgment whatever1 it is absolutely 
necessary to have compared facts4  ,it  
is evident1 that those who have         
gratuitously supposed innate ideas1 or  
notions inherent in man1 have confounded
 his organization1 or his natural       
dispositions1 with the habit by which he
 is modified2 with the greater or less  
aptitude he has of making experience1   
and of applying it in his judgment4 ,a  
man who has taste in painting1 has1     
without doubt1 brought with him into the
 world eyes more acute1 more penetrating
 than another2 but these eyes would by  
no means enable him to judge with       
promptitude1 if he had never had        
occasion to exercise them2 much less1 in
 some respects1 can those dispositions  
which are called natural1 be regarded as
 innate4 ,man is not1 at twenty years of
 age1 the same as he was when he came   
into the world2 the physical causes that
 are continually acting upon him1       

necessarily have an influence upon his  
organization1 and so modify it1 that his
 natural dispositions themselves are not
 at one period what they are at another4
 ,la ,motte ,le ,vayer says1 ,we think  
quite otherwise of things at one time   
than at another2 when young than when   
old--when hungry than when our appetite 
is satisfied--in the night than in the  
day--when peevish than when cheerful4   
,thus1 varying every hour1 by a thousand
 other circumstances1 which keep us in a
 state of perpetual inconstancy and     
instability4 ,every day may be seen     
children1 who1 to a certain age--display
 a great deal of ingenuity1 a strong    
aptitude for the sciences1 who finish by
 falling into stupidity4 ,others may be 
observed1 who1 during their infancy1    
have shown dispositions but little      
favourable to improvement1 yet develope 
themselves in the end1 and astonish us  
by an exhibition of those qualities of  
which we hardly thought them            
susceptible3 there arrives a moment in  

which the mind takes a spring1 makes use
 of a multitude of experience which it  
has amassed1 without its having been    
perceived2 and1 if ,i may be allowed the
 expression1 without their own          
knowledge4  ,thus1 it cannot be too     
often repeated1 all the ideas1 all the  
notions1 all the modes of existence1 and
 all the thoughts of man1 are acquired4 
,his mind cannot act1 cannot exercise   
itself1 but upon that of which it has   
knowledge2 it can understand either well
 or ill1 only those things which it has 
previously felt4 ,such of his ideas that
 do not suppose some exterior material  
object for their model1 or one to which 
he is able to relate them1 which are    
therefore called abstract ideas1 are    
only modes in which his interior organ  
considers its own peculiar              
modifications1 of which it chooses some 
without respect to others4 ,the words   
which he uses to designate these ideas1 
such as bounty1 beauty1 order1          
intelligence1 virtue1 c4 do not offer   

any one sense1 if he does not relate    
them to1 or if he does not explain them 
by1 those objects which his senses have 
shewn him to be susceptible of those    
qualities1 or of those modes of         
existence1 of that manner of acting1    
which is known to him4 ,what is it that 
points out to him the vague idea of     
beauty1 if he does not attach it to some
 object that has struck his senses in a 
peculiar manner1 to which1 in           
consequence1 he attributes this quality8
 ,what is it that represents the word   
intelligence1 if he does not connect it 
with a certain mode of being and of     
acting8 ,does the word order signify any
 thing1 if he does not relate it to a   
series of actions1 to a chain of motion1
 by which he is affected in a certain   
manner8 ,is not the word virtue void of 
sense1 if he does not apply it to those 
dispositions of his fellows which       
produce known effects1 different from   
those which result from contrary        
inclinations8 ,what do the words pain   

and pleasure offer to his mind in the   
moment when his organs neither suffer   
nor enjoy1 if it be not the modes in    
which he has been affected1 of which his
 brain conserves the remembrance1 of    
those impressions1 which experience has 
shewn him to be either useful or        
prejudicial8 ,but when he bears the     
words spirituality1 immateriality1      
incorporeality1 c4 pronounced1 neither  
his senses nor his memory afford him any
 assistance2 they do not furnish him    
with any means by which he can form an  
idea of their qualities1 or of the      
objects to which he ought to apply them2
 in that which is not matter he can only
 see vacuum and emptiness1 which as long
 as he remains what he is1 cannot1 to   
his mind1 be susceptible of any one     
quality4  ,all the errors1 all the      
disputes of men1 have their foundation  
in this1 that they have renounced       
experience1 have surrendered the        
evidence of their senses1 to give       
themselves up to the guidance of notions

 which they have believed infused or    
innate2 although in reality they are no 
more than the effect of a distempered   
imagination1 of prejudices1 in which    
they have been instructed from their    
infancy1 with which habit has           
familiarized them1 which authority has  
obliged them to conserve4 ,languages are
 filled with abstract words1 to which   
are attached confused and vague ideas2  
of which1 when they come to be examined1
 no model can be found in ,nature2 no   
object to which they can be related4    
,when man gives himself the trouble to  
analyze things1 he is quite surprised to
 find1 that those words which are       
continually in the mouths of men1 never 
present any fixed or determinate idea3  
he hears them unceasingly speaking of   
spirits--of the soul and its            
faculties--of duration--of space--of    
immensity--of infinity--of              
perfection--of virtue--of reason--of    
sentiment--of instinct--of taste1 c4    
without his being able to tell          

precisely1 what they themselves         
understand by these words4              
,nevertheless1 they do not appear to    
have been invented1 but for the purpose 
of representing the images of things2 or
 to paint1 by the assistance of the     
senses1 those known objects on which the
 mind is able to meditate1 which it is  
competent to appreciate1 to compare1 and
 to judge4  ,for man to think of that   
which has not acted on any of his       
senses1 is to think on words2 it is for 
his senses to dream2 it is to seek in   
his own imagination for objects to which
 he can attach his wandering ideas3 to  
assign qualities to these objects is1   
unquestionably1 to redouble his         
extravagance1 to set no limits to his   
folly4 ,if a word be destined to        
represent to him an object that has not 
the capacity to act on any one of his   
organs2 of which1 it is impossible for  
him to prove either the existence or the
 qualities2 his imagination1 by dint of 
racking itself1 will nevertheless1 in   

some measure1 supply him with the ideas 
he wants2 he composes some kind of a    
picture1 with the images or colours he  
is always obliged to borrow1 from the   
objects of which he has a knowledge3    
thus the ,divinity has been represented 
by some under the character of a        
venerable old man2 by others1 under that
 of a puissant monarch2 by others1 as an
 exasperated1 irritated being1 c4 ,it is
 evident1 however1 that man1 with some  
of his qualities1 has served for the    
model of these pictures3 but if he be   
informed of objects that are represented
 as pure spirits--that have neither body
 nor extent--that are not contained in  
space--that are beyond nature1--here    
then he is plunged into emptiness2 his  
mind no longer has any ideas--it no     
longer knows upon what it meditates4    
,this1 as will be seen in the sequel1 no
 doubt1 is the source of those unformed 
notions which some men have formed of   
the ,divinity2 they themselves          
frequently annihilate him1 by assembling

 incompatible and contradictory         
attributes4 ,in giving him morals--in   
composing him of known qualities1--they 
make him a man2--in assigning him the   
negative attributes of every thing they 
know1 they render him inaccessible to   
their senses--they destroy all          
antecedent ideas--they make him a mere  
nothing4 ,from this it will appear1 that
 those sublime sciences which are called
 ,theology1 ,psychology1 ,metaphysics1  
have been mere sciences of words3 morals
 and politics1 with which they very     
frequently mix1 have1 in consequence1   
become inexplicable enigmas1 which there
 is nothing short of the study of       
,nature can enable us to expound4  ,man 
has occasion for truth2 it consists in a
 knowledge of the true relations he has 
with those beings competent to have an  
influence on his welfare2 these         
relations are to be known only by       
experience3 without experience there can
 be no reason2 without reason man is    
only a blind creature1 who conducts     

himself by chance4 ,but1 how is he to   
acquire experience upon ideal objects1  
which his senses neither enable him to  
know nor to examine8 ,how is he to      
assure himself of the existence1 how    
ascertain the qualities of beings he is 
not able to feel8 ,how can he judge     
whether there objects be favorable or   
prejudicial to him8 ,how is he to know1 
without the evidence of his senses1 what
 he ought to love1 what he should hate1 
what to seek after1 what to shun1 what  
to do1 what to leave undone8 ,it is1    
however1 upon this knowledge that his   
condition in this world rests2 it is    
upon this knowledge that morals is      
founded4 ,from whence it may be seen1   
that1 by causing him to blend vague     
metaphysical notions with morals1 or the
 science of the certain and invariable  
relations which subsist between mankind2
 or by weakly establishing them upon    
chimerical ideas1 which have no         
existence but in his imagination2 these 
morals1 upon which the welfare of       

society so much depends1 are rendered   
uncertain1 are made arbitrary1 are      
abandoned to the caprices of fancy1 are 
not fixed upon any solid basis4  ,beings
 essentially different by their natural 
organization1 by the modifications they 
experience1 by the habits they contract1
 by the opinions they acquire1 must of  
necessity think differently4 ,his       
temperament1 as we have seen1 decides   
the mental qualities of man3 this       
temperament itself is diversely modified
 in him3 from whence it consecutively   
follows1 his imagination cannot possibly
 be the same2 neither can it create to  
him the same images4 ,each individual is
 a connected whole1 of which all the    
parts have a necessary correspondence4  
,different eyes must see differently1   
must give extremely varied ideas of the 
objects they contemplate1 even when     
these objects are real4 ,what1 then1    
must be the diversity of these ideas1 if
 the objects meditated upon do not act  
upon the senses8 ,mankind have pretty   

nearly the same ideas1 in the gross1 of 
those substances that act upon his      
organs with vivacity2 he is sufficiently
 in unison upon some qualities which he 
contemplates very nearly in the same    
manner2 ,i say1 very nearly1 because the
 intelligence1 the notion1 the          
conviction of any one proposition1      
however simple1 however evident1 however
 clear it may be supposed1 is not1 nor  
cannot be1 strictly the same1 in any two
 men4 ,indeed1 one man not being another
 man1 the first cannot1 for example1    
have rigorously and mathematically the  
same notion of unity as the second2     
seeing that an identical effect cannot  
be the result of two different causes4  
,thus1 when men are in accord in their  
ideas1 in their modes of thinking1 in   
their judgment1 in their passions1 in   
their desires1 in1 their tastes1 their  
consent does not arise from their seeing
 or feeling the same objects precisely  
in the same manner1 but pretty nearly2  
language is not1 nor cannot be1         

sufficiently copious to designate the   
vast variety of shades1 the multiplicity
 of imperceptible differences1 which is 
to be found in their modes of seeing and
 thinking4 ,each man1 then1 has1 to say 
thus1 a language which is peculiar to   
himself alone1 and this language is     
incommunicable to others4 ,what harmony1
 what unison1 then1 can possibly exist  
between them1 when they discourse with  
each other1 upon objects only known to  
their imagination8 ,can this imagination
 in one individual ever be the same as  
in another8 ,how can they possibly      
understand each other1 when they assign 
to those objects qualities that can only
 be attributed to the particular manner 
in which their brain is affected4  ,for 
one man to exact from another that he   
shall think like himself1 is to insist  
that he shall be organized precisely in 
the same manner--that he shall have been
 modified exactly the same in every     
moment of his existence3 that he shall  
have received the same temperament1 the 

same nourishment1 the same education3 in
 a word1 that he shall require that     
other to be himself4 ,wherefore is it   
not exacted that all men shall have the 
same features8 ,is man more the master  
of his opinions8 ,are not his opinions  
the necessary consequence of his        
,nature1 and of those peculiar          
circumstances which1 from his infancy1  
have necessarily had an influence upon  
his mode of thinking1 and his manner of 
acting8 ,if man be a connected whole1   
whenever a single feature differs from  
his own1 ought he not to conclude that  
it is not possible his brain can either 
think1 associate ideas1 imagine1 or     
dream precisely in the same manner with 
that other4  ,the diversity in the      
temperament of man1 is the natural1 the 
necessary source of the diversity of his
 passions1 of his taste1 of his ideas of
 happiness1 of his opinions of every    
kind4 ,thus1 this same diversity will be
 the fatal source of his disputes1 of   
his hatreds1 of his injustice1 every    

time he shall reason upon unknown       
objects1 but to which he shall attach   
the greatest importance4 ,he will never 
understand either himself or others1 in 
speaking of a spiritual soul1 or of     
immaterial substances distinguished from
 ,nature2 he will1 from that moment1    
cease to speak the same language1 and he
 will never attach the same ideas to the
 same words4 ,what1 then1 shall be1 the 
common standard that shall decide which 
is the man that thinks with the greatest
 justice8 ,what the scale by which to   
measure who has the best regulated      
imagination8 ,what balance shall be     
found sufficiently exact to determine   
whose knowledge is most certain1 when he
 agitates subjects1 which experience    
cannot enable him to examine1 that      
escape all his senses1 that have no     
model1 that are above reason8 ,each     
individual1 each legislator1 each       
speculator1 each nation1 has ever formed
 to himself different ideas of these    
things2 each believes1 that his own     

peculiar reveries ought to be preferred 
to those of his neighbours2 which always
 appear to him an absurd1 ridiculous1   
and false as his own can possibly have  
appeared to his fellow2 each clings to  
his own opinion1 because each retains   
his own peculiar mode of existence2 each
 believes his happiness depends upon his
 attachment to his prejudices1 which he 
never adopts but because he believes    
them beneficial to his welfare4 ,propose
 to a man to change his religion for    
yours1 he will believe you a madman2 you
 will only excite his indignation1      
elicit his contempt2 he will propose to 
you1 in his turn1 to adopt his own      
peculiar opinions2 after much reasoning1
 you will treat each other as absurd    
beings1 ridiculously opiniated1         
pertinaciously stubborn3 and he will    
display the least folly1 who shall first
 yield4 ,but if the adversaries become  
heated in the dispute1 which always     
happens1 when they suppose the matter   
important1 or when they would defend the

 cause of their own self-love2 from     
thence their passions sharpen1 they grow
 angry1 quarrels are provoked1 they hate
 each other1 and end by reciprocal      
injury4 ,it is thus1 that for opinions1 
which no man can demonstrate1 we see the
 ,brahmin despised2 the ,mahommedan     
hated2 the ,pagan held in contempt2 that
 they oppress and disdain each with the 
most rancorous animosity3 the ,christian
 burns the ,jew at what is called an    
auto-de-fe1 because he clings to the    
faith of his fathers3 the ,roman        
,catholic condemns the ,protestant to   
the flames1 and makes a conscience of   
massacring him in cold blood3 this      
re-acts in his turn2 sometimes the      
various sects of ,christians league     
together against the incredulous ,turk1 
and for a moment suspend their own      
bloody disputes that they may chastise  
the enemies to the true faith3 then1    
having glutted their revenge1 return    
with redoubled fury1 to wreak over again
 their infuriated vengeance on each     

other4  ,if the imaginations of men were
 the same1 the chimeras which they bring
 forth would be every where the same2   
there would be no disputes among them on
 this subject1 if they all dreamt in the
 same manner2 great numbers of human    
beings would be spared1 if man occupied 
his mind with objects capable of being  
known1 of which the existence was       
proved1 of which he was competent to    
discover the true qualities1 by sure1 by
 reiterated experience4 ,systems of     
,philosophy are not subject to dispute  
but when their principles are not       
sufficiently proved2 by degrees         
experience1 in pointing out the truth   
and detecting their errors1 terminates  
these quarrels4 ,there is no variance   
among geometricians upon the principles 
of their science2 it is only raised1    
when their suppositions are false1 or   
their objects too much complicated4     
,theologians find so much difficulty in 
agreeing among themselves1 simply1      
because1 in their contests1 they divide 

without ceasing1 not known and examined 
propositions1 but prejudices with which 
they have been imbued in their youth--in
 the schools--by each other's books1 c4 
,they are perpetually reasoning1 not    
upon real objects1 of which the         
existence is demonstrated1 but upon     
imaginary systems of which they have    
never examined the reality2 they found  
these disputes1 not upon averred        
experience1 or constant facts1 but upon 
gratuitious suppositions1 which each    
endeavours to convince the other are    
without solidity4 ,finding these ideas  
of long standing1 that few people1      
refuse to admit them1 they take them for
 incontestible truths1 that ought to be 
received merely upon being announced2   
whenever they attach great importance to
 them1 they irritate themselves against 
the temerity of those who have the      
audacity to doubt1 or even to examine   
them4  ,if prejudice had been laid      
aside1 it would perhaps have been       
discovered that many of those objects1  

which have given birth to the most      
shocking1 the most sanguinary disputes  
among men1 were mere phantoms2 which a  
little examination would have shown to  
be unworthy their notice3 the priests of
 ,apollo would have been harmless1 if   
man had examined for himself1 without   
prejudice1 the tenets they held forth3  
he would have found1 that he was        
fighting1 that he was cutting his       
neighbour's throat1 for words void of   
sense2 or1 at the least1 he would have  
learned to doubt his right to act in the
 manner he did2 he would have renounced 
that dogmatical1 that imperious tone he 
assumed1 by which he would oblige his   
fellow to unite with him in opinion4    
,the most trifling reflection would have
 shewn him the necessity of this        
diversity in his notions1 of this       
contrariety in his imagination1 which   
depends upon his ,natural conformation  
diversely modified3 which necessarily   
has an influence over his thoughts1 over
 his will1 and over his actions4 ,in    

short1 if he had consulted morals1 if he
 had fallen back upon reason1 every     
thing would have conspired to prove to  
him1 that beings who call themselves    
rational1 were made to think variously2 
on that account were designed to live   
peaceable with each other1 to love each 
other1 to lend each other mutual        
succours whatever may be their opinions 
upon subjects1 either impossible to be  
known1 or to be contemplated under the  
same point of view3 every thing would   
have joined in evidence to convince him 
of the unreasonable tyranny1 of the     
unjust violence1 of the useless cruelty 
of those men of blood1 who persecute1   
who destroy mankind1 in order that they 
may mould him to their own peculiar     
opinions2 every thing would have        
conducted mortals to mildness1 to       
indulgence1 to toleration2 virtues1     
unquestionably of more real importance1 
much more necessary to the welfare of   
society1 than the marvellous            
speculations by which it is divided1 by 

which it is frequently hurried on to    
sacrifice to a maniacal fury1 the       
pretended enemies to these revered      
flights of the imagination4  ,from this 
it must be evident1 of what importance  
it is to morals to examine the ideas1 to
 which it has been agreed to attach so  
much worth2 to which man is continually 
sacrificing his own peculiar happiness2 
to which he is immolating the           
tranquillity of nations1 at the         
irrational command of fanatical cruel   
guides4 ,let him fall back on his       
experience2 let him return to ,nature2  
let him occupy himself with reason2 let 
him consult those objects that are real1
 which are useful to his permanent      
felicity2 let him study ,nature's laws2 
let him study himself2 let him consult  
the bonds which unite him to his fellow 
mortals2 let him examine the fictitious 
bonds that enchain him to the most      
baneful prejudices4 ,if his imagination 
must always feed itself with illusions1 
if he remains steadfast in his own      

opinions1 if his prejudices are dear to 
him1 let him at least permit others to  
ramble in their own manner1 or seek     
after truth as best suits their         
inclination2 but let him always         
recollect1 that all the opinions--all   
the ideas--all the systems--all the     
wills--all the actions of man1 are the  
necessary consequence of his nature1 of 
his temperament1 of his organization1   
and of those causes1 either transitory  
or constant1 which modify hint3 in      
short1 that man is not more a free agent
 to think than to act3 a truth that will
 be again proved in the following       
chapter4      ,,chap4 ,,xi  ,of the     
,system of ,man's free agency4   ,those 
who have pretended that the soul is     
distinguished from the body1 is         
immaterial1 draws its ideas from its own
 peculiar source1 acts by its own       
energies without the aid of any exterior
 object2 by a consequence of their own  
system1 have enfranchised it from those 
physical laws1 according to which all   

beings of which we have a knowledge are 
obliged to act4 ,they have believed that
 the foul is mistress of its own        
conduct1 is able to regulate its own    
peculiar operations2 has the faculty to 
determine its will by its own natural   
energy2 in a word1 they have pretended  
man is a free agent4  ,it has been      
already sufficiently proved1 that the   
soul is nothing more than the body1     
considered relatively to some of its    
functions1 more concealed than others3  
it has been shewn1 that this soul1 even 
when it shall be supposed immaterial1 is
 continually modified conjointly with   
the body2 is submitted to all its       
motion2 that without this it would      
remain inert and dead3 that1            
consequently1 it is subjected to the    
influence of those material1 to the     
operation those physical causes1 which  
give impulse to the body2 of which the  
mode of existence1 whether habitual or  
transitory1 depends upon the material   
elements by which it is surrounded2 that

 form its texture2 that constitute its  
temperament2 that enter into it by the  
means of the aliments2 that penetrate it
 by their subtility2 the faculties which
 are called intellectual1 and those     
qualities which are styled moral1 have  
been explained in a manner purely       
physical2 entirely natural3 in the last 
place1 it has been demonstrated1 that   
all the ideas1 all the systems1 all the 
affections1 all the opinions1 whether   
true or false1 which man forms to       
himself1 are to be attributed to his    
physical powers2 are to be ascribed to  
his material senses4 ,thus man is a     
being purely physical2 in whatever      
manner he is considered1 he is connected
 to universal ,nature3 submitted to the 
necessary1 to the immutable laws that   
she imposes on all the beings she       
contains1 according to their peculiar   
essences2 conformable to the respective 
properties with which1 without          
consulting them1 she endows each        
particular species4 ,man's life is a    

line that ,nature commands him to       
describe upon the surface of the earth3 
without his ever being able to swerve   
from it even for an instant4 ,he is born
 without his own consent2 his           
organizations does in no wise depend    
upon himself2 his ideas come to him     
involuntarily2 his habits are in the    
power of those who cause him to contract
 them2 he is unceasingly modified by    
causes1 whether visible or concealed1   
over which he has no controul2 give the 
hue to his way of thinking1 and         
determine his manner of acting4 ,he is  
good or bad--happy or miserable--wise or
 foolish--reasonable or irrational1     
without his will going for anything in  
these various states4 ,nevertheless1 in 
despite of the shackles by which he is  
bound1 it is pretended he is a free     
agent1 or that independent of the causes
 by which he is moved1 he determines his
 own will2 regulates his own condition4 
,however slender the foundation of this 
opinion1 of which every thing ought to  

point out to him the error2 it is       
current at this day for an incontestible
 truth1 and believed enlightened2 it is 
the basis or religion1 which has been   
incapable of imagining how man could    
either merit reward or deserve          
punishment if he was not a free agent4  
,society has been believed interested in
 this system1 because an idea has gone  
abroad1 that if all the actions of man  
were to be contemplated as necessary1   
the right of punishing those who injure 
their associates would no longer exist4 
,at length human vanity accommodated    
itself to an hypothesis which1          
unquestionable1 appears to distinguish  
man from all other physical beings1 by  
assigning to him the special privilege  
of a total independence of all other    
causes2 but of which a very little      
reflection would have shewn him the     
absurdity or even the impossibility4    
,as a part1 subordinate to the great    
whole1 man is obliged to experience its 
influence4 ,to be a free agent it were  

needful that each individual was of     
greater strength than the entire of     
,nature2 or1 that he was out of this    
,nature3 who1 always in action herself1 
obliges all the beings she embraces1 to 
act1 and to concur to her general       
motion2 or1 as it has been said         
elsewhere1 to conserve her active       
existence1 by the motion that all beings
 produce in consequence of their        
particular energies1 which result from  
their being submitted to fixed1 eternal1
 and immutable laws4 ,in order that man 
might be a free agent1 it were needful  
that all beings should lose their       
essences2 it is equally necessary that  
he himself should no longer enjoy       
physical sensibility2 that he should    
neither know good nor evil2 pleasure nor
 pain2 but if this was the case1 from   
that moment he would no longer be in a  
state to conserve himself1 or render his
 existence happy2 all beings would      
become indifferent to him2 he would no  
longer have any choice2 he would cease  

to know what he ought to love2 what it  
was right he should fear2 he would not  
have any acquaintance with that which he
 should seek after2 or with that which  
it is requisite he should avoid4 ,in    
short1 man would be an unnatural being2 
totally incapable of acting in the      
manner we behold4 ,it is the actual     
essence of man to tend to his           
well-being2 to be desirous to conserve  
his existence2 if all the motion of his 
machine springs as a necessary          
consequence from this primitive impulse2
 if pain warns him of that which he     
ought to avoid2 if pleasure announces to
 him that which he should desire2 if it 
is in his essence to love that which    
either excites delight1 or1 that from   
which he expects agreeable sensations2  
to hate that which makes him either fear
 contrary impressions2 or1 that which   
afflicts him with uneasiness2 it must   
necessarily be1 that he will be         
attracted by that which he deems        
advantageous2 that his will shall be    

determined by those objects which he    
judges useful2 that he will be repelled 
by those beings which he believes       
prejudicial1 either to his habitual1 or 
to his transitory mode of existence2 by 
that which he considers disadvantageous4
 ,it is only by the aid of experience1  
that man acquires the faculty of        
understanding what he ought to love2 of 
knowing what he ought to fear4 ,are his 
organs sound8 his experience will be    
true3 are they unsound8 it will be      
false3 in the first instance he will    
have reason1 prudence1 foresight2 he    
will frequently foresee very remote     
effects2 he will know1 that what he     
sometimes contemplates as a good1 may   
possibly become an evil1 by its         
necessary or probable consequences3 that
 what must be to him a transient evil1  
may by its result procure him a solid   
and durable good4 ,it is thus experience
 enables him to foresee that the        
amputation of a limb will cause him     
painful sensation1 he consequently is   

obliged to fear this operation1 and he  
endeavours to avoid the pain2 but if    
experience has also shewn him1 that the 
transitory pain this amputation will    
cause him may be the means of saving his
 life2 the preservation1 of his         
existence being of necessity dear to    
him1 he is obliged to submit himself to 
the momentary pain with a view to       
procuring a permanent good1 by which it 
will be overbalanced4  ,the will1 as we 
have elsewhere said1 is a modification  
of the brain1 by which it is disposed to
 action or prepared to give play to the 
organs4 ,this will is necessarily       
determined by the qualities1 good or    
bad1 agreeable or painful1 of the object
 or the motive that acts upon his       
senses2 or of which the idea remains    
with him1 and is resuscitated by his    
memory4 ,in consequence1 he acts        
necessarily2 his action is the result of
 the impulse he receives either from the
 motive1 from the object1 or from the   
idea1 which has modified his brain1 or  

disposed his will4 ,when he does not act
 according to this impulse1 it is       
because there comes some new cause1 some
 new motive1 some new idea1 which       
modifies his brain in a different       
manner1 gives him a new impulse1        
determines his will in another way2 by  
which the action of the former impulse  
is suspended3 thus1 the sight of an     
agreeable object1 or its idea1          
determines his will to set him in action
 to procure it2 but if a new object or a
 new idea more powerfully attracts him1 
it gives a new direction to his will1   
annihilates the effect of the former1   
and prevents the action by which it was 
to be procured4 ,this is the mode in    
which reflection1 experience1 reason1   
necessarily arrests or suspends the     
action of man's will2 without this1 he  
would1 of necessity1 have followed the  
anterior impulse which carried him      
towards a then desirable object4 ,in all
 this he always acts according to       
necessary laws1 from which he has no    

means of emancipating himself4  ,if1    
when tormented with violent thirst1 he  
figures to himself an idea1 or really   
perceives a fountain1 whose limpid      
streams might cool his feverish habit1  
is he sufficient master of himself to   
desire or not to desire the object      
competent to satisfy so lively a want8  
,it will no doubt be conceded1 that it  
is impossible he should not be desirous 
to satisfy it2 but it will be said1--,if
 at this moment it is announced to him1 
the water he so ardently desires is     
poisoned1 he will1 notwithstanding his  
vehement thirst1 abstain from drinking  
it2 and it has1 therefore1 been falsely 
concluded that he is a free agent4 ,the 
fact1 however1 is1 that the motive in   
either case is exactly the same3 his own
 conservation4 ,the same necessity that 
determined him to drink1 before he knew 
the water was deleterious1 upon this new
 discovery1 equally determines him not  
to drink2 the desire of conserving      
himself1 either annihilates or suspends 

the former impulse2 the second motive   
becomes stronger than the preceding2    
that is1 the fear of death1 or the      
desire of preserving himself1           
necessarily prevails over the painful   
sensation caused by his eagerness to    
drink4 ,but1 7it will be said7 if the   
thirst is very parching1 an             
inconsiderate man1 without regarding the
 danger1 will risque swallowing the     
water4 ,nothing is gained by this       
remark3 in this case1 the anterior      
impulse only regains the ascendency2 he 
is persuaded1 that life may possibly be 
longer preserved1 or that he shall      
derive a greater good by drinking the   
poisoned water1 than by enduring the    
torment1 which1 to his mind1 threatens  
instant dissolution3 thus1 the first    
becomes the strongest1 and necessarily  
urges him on to action4 ,nevertheless1  
in either case1 whether he partakes of  
the water1 or whether he does not1 the  
two actions will be equally necessary2  
they will be the effect of that motive  

which finds itself most puissant2 which 
consequently acts in a most coercive    
manner upon his will4  ,this example    
will serve to explain the whole         
phaenomena of the human will4 ,this     
will1 or rather the brain1 finds itself 
in the same situation as a bowl1 which  
although it has received an impulse that
 drives it forward in a straight line1  
is deranged in its course1 whenever a   
force1 superior to the first1 obliges it
 to change its direction4 ,the man who  
drinks the poisoned water1 appears a    
madman2 but the actions of fools are as 
necessary as those of the most prudent  
individuals4 ,the motives that determine
 the voluptuary1 that actuate the       
debauchee to risk their health1 are as  
powerful1 their actions are as          
necessary1 as those which decide the    
wise man to manage his4 ,but1 it will be
 insisted1 the debauchee may be         
prevailed on to change his conduct2 this
 does not imply that he is a free agent2
 but1 that motives may be found         

sufficiently powerful to annihilate the 
effect of those that previously acted   
upon him2 then these new motives        
determine his will to the new mode of   
conduct he may adopt1 as necessarily as 
the former did to the old mode4  ,man is
 said to deliberate when the action of  
the will is suspended2 this happens when
 two opposite motives act alternately   
upon him4 ,to deliberate1 is to hate and
 to love in succession2 it is to be     
alternately attracted and repelled2 it  
is to be moved sometimes by one motive1 
sometimes by another4 ,man only         
deliberates when he does not distinctly 
understand the quality of the objects   
from which he receives impulse1 or when 
experience has not sufficiently apprised
 him of the effects1 more or less       
remote1 which his actions will produce4 
,he would take the air1 but the weather 
is uncertain2 he deliberates in         
consequence2 he weighs the various      
motives that urge his will to go out or 
to stay at home2 he is at length        

determined by that motive which is most 
probable2 this removes his indecision1  
which necessarily settles his will      
either to remain within or to go abroad3
 this motive is always either the       
immediate or ultimate advantage he finds
 or thinks he finds in the action to    
which he is persuaded4  ,man's will     
frequently fluctuates between two       
objects1 of which either the presence or
 the ideas move him alternately3 he     
waits until he has contemplated the     
objects or the ideas they have left in  
his brain2 which solicit him to         
different actions2 he then compares     
these objects or ideas3 but even in the 
time of deliberation1 during the        
comparison1 pending these alternatives  
of love and hatred1 which succeed each  
other sometimes with the utmost         
rapidity1 he is not a free agent for a  
single instant2 the good or the evil    
which he believes he finds successively 
in the objects1 are the necessary       
motives of these momentary wills2 of the

 rapid motion of desire or fear that he 
experiences as long as his uncertainty  
continues4 ,from this it will be        
obvious1 that deliberation is necessary2
 that uncertainty is necessary2 that    
whatever part he takes1 in consequence  
of this deliberation1 it will always    
necessarily be that which he has judged1
 whether well or ill1 is most probable  
to turn to his advantage4  ,when the    
soul is assailed by two motives that act
 alternately upon it1 or modify it      
successively1 it deliberates2 the brain 
is in a sort of equilibrium1 accompanied
 with perpetual oscillations1 sometimes 
towards one object1 sometimes towards   
the other1 until the most forcible      
carries the point1 and thereby          
extricates it1 from this state of       
suspense1 in which consists the         
indecision of his will4 ,but when the   
brain is simultaneously assailed by     
causes equally strong1 that move it in  
opposite directions2 agreeable to the   
general law of all bodies1 when they are

 struck equally by contrary powers1 it  
stops1 it is in nisu2 it is neither     
capable to will nor to act2 it waits    
until one of the two causes has obtained
 sufficient force to overpower the      
other1 to determine its will1 to attract
 it in such a manner that it may prevail
 over the efforts of the other cause4   
,this mechanism1 so simple1 so natural1 
suffices to demonstrate1 why uncertainty
 is painful2 why suspense is always a   
violent state for man4 ,the brain1 an   
organ so delicate1 so mobile1           
experiences such rapid modifications1   
that it is fatigued2 or when it is urged
 in contrary directions1 by causes      
equally powerful1 it suffers a kind of  
compression1 that prevents the activity 
which is suitable to the preservation of
 the whole1 which is necessary to       
procure what is advantageous to its     
existence4 ,this mechanism will also    
explain the irregularity1 the           
indecision1 the inconstancy of man2 and 
account for that conduct1 which         

frequently appears an inexplicable      
mystery1 which indeed it is1 under the  
received systems4 ,in consulting        
experience1 it will be found that the   
soul is submitted to precisely the same 
physical laws as the material body4 ,if 
the will of each individual1 during a   
given time1 was only moved by a single  
cause or passion1 nothing would be more 
easy than to foresee his actions2 but   
his heart is frequently assailed by     
contrary powers1 by adverse motives1    
which either act on him simultaneously  
or in succession2 then his brain1       
attracted in opposite directions1 is    
either fatigued1 or else tormented by a 
state of compression1 which deprives it 
of activity4 ,sometimes it is in a state
 of incommodious inaction2 sometimes it 
is the sport of the alternate shocks it 
undergoes4 ,such1 no doubt1 is the state
 in which man finds himself1 when a     
lively passion solicits him to the      
commission of crime1 whilst fear points 
out to him the danger by which it is    

attended3 such1 also1 is the condition  
of him whom remorse1 by the continued   
labour of his distracted soul1 prevents 
from enjoying the objects he has        
criminally obtained4  ,if the powers or 
causes1 whether exterior or interior1   
acting on the mind of man1 tend towards 
opposite points1 his soul1 is well as   
all other bodies1 will take a mean      
direction between the two2 in           
consequence of the violence with which  
his soul is urged1 his condition becomes
 sometimes so painful that his existence
 is troublesome3 he has no longer a     
tendency to his own peculiar            
conservation2 he seeks after death1 as a
 sanctuary against himself--as the only 
remedy to his despair3 it is thus we    
behold men1 miserable and discontented1 
voluntarily destroy themselves1 whenever
 life becomes insupportable4 ,man is    
competent to cherish his existence1 no  
longer than life holds out charms to    
him2 when he is wrought upon by painful 
sensations1 or drawn by contrary        

impulsions1 his natural tendency is     
deranged1 he is under the necessity to  
follow a new route2 this conducts him to
 his end1 which it even displays to him 
as the most desirable good4 ,in this    
manner may be explained1 the conduct of 
those melancholy beings1 whose vicious  
temperaments1 whose tortured            
consciences1 whose chagrin1 whose ennui1
 sometimes determine them to renounce   
life4  ,the various powers1 frequently  
very complicated1 that act either       
successively or simultaneously upon the 
brain of man1 which modify him so       
diversely in the different periods of   
his existence1 are the true causes of   
that obscurity in morals1 of that       
difficulty which is found1 when it is   
desired to unravel the concealed springs
 of his enigmatical conduct4 ,the heart 
of man is a labyrinth1 only because it  
very rarely happens that we possess the 
necessary gift of judging it2 from      
whence it will appear1 that his         
circumstances1 his indecision1 his      

conduct1 whether ridiculous1 or         
unexpected1 are the necessary           
consequences of the changes operated in 
him2 are nothing but the effect of      
motives that successively determine his 
will2 which are dependent on the        
frequent variations experienced by his  
machine4 ,according to these variations1
 the same motives have not1 always1 the 
same influence over his will1 the same  
objects no longer enjoy the faculty of  
pleasing him2 his temperament has       
changed1 either for the moment1 or for  
ever4 ,it follows as a consequence1 that
 his taste1 his desires1 his passions1  
will change2 there can be no kind of    
uniformity in his conduct1 nor any      
certitude in the effects to be expected4
  ,choice by no means proves the        
free-agency of man2 he only deliberates 
when he does not yet know which to      
choose of the many objects that move    
him1 he is then in an embarrassment1    
which does not terminate1 until his will
 as decided by the greater advantage he 

believes be shall find in the object he 
chooses1 or the action he undertakes4   
,from whence it may be seen that choice 
is necessary1 because he would not      
determine for an object1 or for an      
action1 if he did not believe that he   
should find in it some direct advantage4
 ,that man should have free-agency1 it  
were needful that he should be able to  
will or choose without motive2 or1 that 
he could prevent motives coercing his   
will4 ,action always being the effect of
 his will once determined1 as his will  
cannot be determined but by a motive1   
which is not in his own power1 it       
follows that he is never the master of  
the determination of his own peculiar   
will2 that consequently he never acts as
 a free agent4 ,it has been believed    
that man was a free agent1 because he   
had a will with the power of choosing2  
but attention has not been paid to the  
fact1 that even his will is moved by    
causes independent of himself1 is owing 
to that which is inherent in his own    

organization1 or which belongs to the   
nature of the beings acting on him4     
,indeed1 man passes a great portion of  
his life without even willing4 ,his will
 attends the motive by which it is      
determined4 ,if he was to render an     
exact account of every thing he does in 
the course of each day1 from rising in  
the morning to lying down at night1 he  
would find1 that not one of his actions 
have been in the least voluntary2 that  
they have been mechanical1 habitual1    
determined by causes he was not able to 
foresee1 to which he was either obliged 
to1 yield1 or with which he was allured 
to acquiesce2 he would discover1 that   
all the motives of his labours1 of his  
amusements1 of his discourses1 of his   
thoughts1 have been necessary2 that they
 have evidently either seduced him or   
drawn him along4 ,is he the master of   
willing1 not to withdraw his hand from  
the fire when he fears it will be burnt8
 ,or has he the power to take away from 
fire the property which makes him fear  

it8 ,is he the master of not choosing a 
dish of meat which he knows to be       
agreeable1 or analogous to his palate2  
of not preferring it to that which he   
knows to be disagreeable or dangerous8  
,it is always according to his          
sensations1 to his own peculiar         
experience1 or to his suppositions1 that
 he judges of things either well or ill2
 but whatever way be his judgment1 it   
depends necessarily on his mode of      
feeling1 whether habitual or accidental1
 and the qualities he finds in the      
causes that move him1 which exist in    
despite of himself4  ,all the causes    
which by his will is actuated1 must act 
upon him in a manner sufficiently       
marked1 to give him some sensation1 some
 perception1 some idea1 whether complete
 or incomplete1 true or false2 as soon  
as his will is determined1 he must have 
felt1 either strongly or feebly2 if this
 was not the case he would have         
determined without motive3 thus1 to     
speak correctly1 there are no causes    

which are truly indifferent to the will3
 however faint the impulse he receives1 
whether on the part of the objects      
themselves1 or on the part of their     
images or ideas1 as soon as his will    
acts1 the impulse has been competent to 
determine him4 ,in consequence of a     
slight1 of a feeble impulse1 the will is
 weak1 it is this weakness of the will  
that is called indifference4 ,his brain 
with difficulty perceives the sensation1
 it has received2 it consequently acts  
with less vigour1 either to obtain or   
remove the object or the idea that has  
modified it4 ,if the impulse is         
powerful1 the will is strong1 it makes  
him act vigorously1 to obtain or to     
remove the object which appears to him  
either very agreeable or very           
incommodious4  ,it has been believed man
 was a free agent1 because it has been  
imagined that his soul could at will    
recall ideas1 which sometimes suffice to
 check his most unruly desires4 ,thus1  
the idea of a remote evil frequently    

prevents him from enjoying a present and
 actual good3 thus1 remembrance1 which  
is an almost insensible1 a slight       
modification of his brain1 annihilates1 
at each instant1 the real objects that  
act upon his will4 ,but he is not master
 of recalling to himself his ideas at   
pleasure2 their association is          
independent of him2 they are arranged in
 his brain1 in despite of him1 without  
his own knowledge1 where they have made 
an impression more or less profound2 his
 memory itself depends upon his         
organization2 its fidelity depends upon 
the habitual or momentary state in which
 he finds himself2 when his will is     
vigorously determined to some object or 
idea that excites a very lively passion 
in him1 those objects or ideas that     
would be able to arrest his action no   
longer present themselves to his mind2  
in those moments his eyes are shut to   
the dangers that menace him1 of which   
the idea ought to make him forbear2 he  
marches forward headlong towards the    

object by whose image he is hurried on2 
reflection cannot operate upon him in   
any way2 he sees nothing but the object 
of his desires2 the salutary ideas which
 might be able to arrest his progress   
disappear1 or else display themselves   
either too faintly or too late to       
prevent his acting4 ,such is the case   
with all those who1 blinded by some     
strong passion1 are not in a condition  
to recal to themselves those motives1 of
 which the idea alone1 in cooler        
moments1 would be sufficient to deter   
them from proceeding2 the disorder in   
which they are1 prevents their judging  
soundly2 render them incapable of       
foreseeing the consequence of their     
actions2 precludes them from applying to
 their experience2 from making use of   
their reason2 natural operations1 which 
suppose a justness in the manner of     
associating their ideas2 but to which   
their brain is then not more competent1 
in consequence of the momentary delirium
 it suffers1 than their hand is to write

 whilst they are taking violent         
exercise4  ,man's mode of thinking is   
necessarily determined by his manner of 
being2 it must1 therefore1 depend on his
 natural organization1 and the          
modification his system receives        
independently of his will4 ,from this we
 are obliged to conclude1 that his      
thoughts1 his reflections1 his manner of
 viewing things1 of feeling1 of judging1
 of combining ideas1 is neither         
voluntary nor free4 ,in a word1 that his
 soul is neither mistress of the motion 
excited in it1 nor of representing to   
itself1 when wanted1 those images or    
ideas that are capable of               
counterbalancing the impulse it         
receives4 ,this is the reason why man1  
when in a passion1 ceases to reason2 at 
that moment reason is as impossible to  
be heard1 as it is during an extacy1 or 
in a fit of drunkenness4 ,the wicked are
 never more than men who are either     
drunk or mad3 if they reason1 it is not 
until tranquillity is re-established in 

their machine2 then1 and not till then1 
the tardy ideas that present themselves 
to their mind1 enable them to see the   
consequence of their actions1 and give  
birth to ideas1 that bring on them that 
trouble1 which is designated shame1     
regret1 remorse4  ,the errors of        
philosophers on the free-agency of man1 
have arisen from their regarding his    
will as the primum mobile1 the original 
motive of his actions2 for want of      
recurring back1 they have not perceived 
the multiplied1 the complicated causes1 
which1 independently of him1 give motion
 to the will itself1 or which dispose   
and modify his brain1 whilst he himself 
is purely passive in the motion he      
receives4 ,is he the master of desiring 
or not desiring an object that appears  
desirable to him8 ,without doubt it will
 be answered1 ,no3 but he is the master 
of resisting his desire1 if he reflects 
on the consequences4 ,but1 ,i ask1 is he
 capable of reflecting on these         
consequences when his soul is hurried   

along by a very lively passion1 which   
entirely depends upon his natural       
organization1 and the causes by which he
 is modified8 ,is it in his power to add
 to these consequences all the weight   
necessary to counterbalance his desire8 
,is he the master of preventing the     
qualities which render an object        
desirable from residing in it8 ,i shall 
be told1 he ought to have learned to    
resist his passions2 to contract a habit
 of putting a curb on his desires4 ,i   
agree to it without any difficulty3 but 
in reply1 ,i again ask1 ,is his nature  
susceptible of this modification8 ,does 
his boiling blood1 his unruly           
imagination1 the igneous fluid that     
circulates in his veins1 permit him to  
make1 enable him to apply true          
experience in the moment when it is     
wanted8 ,and1 even when his temperament 
has capacitated him1 has his education1 
the examples set before him1 the ideas  
with which he has been inspired in early
 life1 been suitable to make him        

contract this habit of repressing his   
desires8 ,have not all these things     
rather contributed to induce him to seek
 with avidity1 to make him actually     
desire those objects which you say he   
ought to resist4  ,the ambitious man    
cries out1--,you will have me resist my 
passion1 but have they not unceasingly  
repeated to me1 that rank1 honours1     
power1 are the most desirable advantages
 in life8 ,have ,i not seen my          
fellow-citizens envy them--the nobles of
 my country sacrifice every thing to    
obtain them8 ,in the society in which ,i
 live1 am ,i not obliged to feel1 that  
if ,i am deprived of these advantages1  
,i must expect to languish in contempt1 
to cringe under the rod of oppression8  
,the miser says1--,you forbid me to love
 money1 to seek after the means of      
acquiring it3 alas6 does not every thing
 tell me1 that in this world money is   
the greatest blessing2 that it is amply 
sufficient to render me happy8 ,in the  
country ,i inhabit1 do ,i not see all my

 fellow-citizens covetous of riches8 but
 do ,i not also witness that they are   
little scrupulous in the means of       
obtaining wealth8 ,as soon as they are  
enriched by the means which you censure1
 are they not cherished1 considered1 and
 respected8 ,by what authority1 then1 do
 you object to my amassing treasure8    
what right have you to prevent my using 
means1 which although you call them     
sordid and criminal1 ,i see approved by 
the sovereign8 ,will you have me        
renounce my happiness8  ,the voluptuary 
argues1--,you pretend that ,i should    
resist my desires2 but was ,i the maker 
of my own temperament1 which unceasingly
 invites me to pleasure8 ,you call my   
pleasures disgraceful2 but in the       
country in which ,i live1 do ,i not     
witness the most dissipated men enjoying
 the most distinguished rank8 ,do ,i not
 behold1 that no one is ashamed of      
adultery but the husband it has         
outraged8 do not ,i see men making      
trophies of their debaucheries1 boasting

 of their libertinism1 rewarded1 with   
applause8  ,the choleric man            
vociferates1--,you advise me to put a   
curb on my passions2 to resist the      
desire of avenging myself3 but can ,i   
conquer my nature8 ,can ,i alter the    
received opinions of the world8 ,shall  
,i not be for ever disgraced1 infallibly
 dishonoured in society1 if ,i do not   
wash out1 in the blood of my            
fellow-creature1 the injuries ,i have   
received8  ,the zealous enthusiast      
exclaims1--,you recommend to me         
mildness1 you advise me to be tolerant1 
to be indulgent to the opinions of my   
fellow-men2 but is not my temperament   
violent8 ,do ,i not ardently love my    
,god8 ,do they not assure me that zeal  
is pleasing to him2 that sanguinary     
inhuman persecutors have been his       
friends8 ,that those who do not think as
 ,i do are his enemies8 ,i wish to      
render myself acceptable in his sight1  
,i therefore adopt the means you        
reprobate4  ,in short1 the actions of   

man are never free2 they are always the 
necessary consequence of his            
temperament1 of the received ideas1 of  
the notions1 either true or false1 which
 he has formed to himself of happiness3 
of his opinions1 strengthened by        
example1 forfeited by education1        
consolidated by daily experience4 ,so   
many crimes are witnessed on the earth1 
only because every thing conspires to   
render man vicious1 to make him         
criminal2 very frequently1 the          
superstitions he has adopted1 his       
government1 his education1 the examples 
set before him1 irresistibly drive him  
on to evil3 under these circumstances   
morality preaches virtue to him in vain4
 ,in those societies where vice is      
esteemed1 where crime is crowned1 where 
venality is constantly recompenced1     
where the most dreadful disorders are   
punished1 only in those who are too weak
 to enjoy the privilege of committing   
them with impunity2 the practice of     
virtue is considered nothing more than a

 painful sacrifice of fancied happiness4
 ,such societies chastise1 in the lower 
orders1 those excesses which they       
respect in the higher ranks2 and        
frequently have the injustice to condemn
 those in penalty of death1 whom public 
prejudices1 maintained by constant      
example1 have rendered criminal4  ,man1 
then1 is not a free agent in any one    
instant of his life2 he is necessarily  
guided in each step by those advantages1
 whether real or fictitious1 that he    
attaches to the objects by which his    
passions are roused3 these passions     
themselves are necessary in a being who1
 unceasingly tends towards his own      
happiness2 their energy is necessary1   
since that depends on his temperament2  
his temperament is necessary1 because it
 depends on the physical elements which 
enter into his composition2 the         
modification of this temperament is     
necessary1 as it is the infallible      
result1 the inevitable consequence of   
the impulse he receives from the        

incessant action of moral and physical  
beings4  ,in despite of these proofs of 
the want of free-agency in man1 so clear
 to unprejudiced minds1 it will1        
perhaps1 be insisted upon with no small 
feeling of triumph1 that if it be       
proposed to any one to move or not to   
move his hand1 an action in the number  
of those called indifferent1 he         
evidently appears to be the master of   
choosing2 from which it is concluded1   
evidence has been offered of his        
free-agency4 ,the reply is1 this example
 is perfectly simple2 man in performing 
some action which he is resolved on     
doing1 does not by any means prove his  
free-agency3 the very desire of         
displaying this quality1 excited by the 
dispute1 becomes a necessary motive     
which decides his will either for the   
one or the other of these actions3 what 
deludes him in this instance1 or that   
which persuades him he is a free agent  
at this moment1 is1 that he does not    
discern the true motive which sets him  

in action2 which is neither more nor    
less than the desire of convincing his  
opponent3 if in the heat of the dispute 
he insists and asks1 ,am ,i not the     
master of throwing myself out of the    
window8 ,i shall answer him1 no2 that   
whilst he preserves his reason1 there is
 not even a probability that the desire 
of proving his free-agency1 will become 
a motive sufficiently powerful1 to make 
him sacrifice his life to the attempt2  
if1 notwithstanding this1 to prove he is
 a free agent1 he should actually       
precipitate himself from the window1 it 
would not be a sufficient warrantry to  
conclude he acted freely1 but rather    
that it was the violence of his         
temperament which spurred him on to this
 folly4 ,madness is a state that depends
 upon the heat of the blood1 not upon   
the will4 ,a fanatic or a hero1 braves  
death as necessarily as a more          
phlegmatic man or a coward flies from   
it4 ,there is1 in point of fact1 no     
difference between the man who is cast  

out of the window by another1 and the   
man who throws himself out of it1 except
 that the impulse in the first instance 
comes immediately from without1 whilst  
that which determines the fall in the   
second case1 springs from within his own
 peculiar machine1 having its more      
remote cause also exterior4 ,when       
,mutius ,scaevola held his hand in the  
fire1 he was as much acting under the   
influence of necessity1 caused by       
interior motives1 that urged him to this
 strange action1 as if his arm had been 
held by strong men2 pride1 despair1 the 
desire of braving his enemy1 a wish to  
astonish him1 an anxiety to intimidate  
him1 c4 were the invisible chains that  
held his hand bound to the fire4 ,the   
love of glory1 enthusiasm for their     
country1 in like manner1 caused ,codrus 
and ,decius to devote themselves for    
their fellow citizens4 ,the ,indian     
,calanus and the philosopher ,peregrinus
 were equally obliged to burn           
themselves1 by the desire of exciting   

the astonishment of the ,grecian        
assembly4  ,it is said that free-agency 
is the absence of those obstacles       
competent to oppose themselves to the   
actions of man1 or to the exercise of   
his faculties3 it is pretended that he  
is a free agent1 whenever1 making use of
 these faculties1 he produces the effect
 he has proposed to himself4 ,in reply  
to this reasoning1 it is sufficient to  
consider that it in no wise depends upon
 himself to place or remove the         
obstacles that either determine or      
resist him2 the motive that causes his  
action is no more in his own power than 
the obstacle that impedes him1 whether  
this obstacle or motive be within his   
own machine or exterior of his person3  
he is not master of the thought         
presented to his mind which determines  
his will2 this thought is excited by    
some cause independent of himself4  ,to 
be undeceived on the system of his      
free-agency1 man has simply to recur to 
the motive by which his will is         

determined1 he will always find this    
motive is out of his own controul4 ,it  
is said1 that in consequence of an idea 
to which the mind gives birth1 man acts 
freely if he encounters no obstacle4    
,but the question is1 what gives birth  
to this idea in his brain8 has he the   
power either to prevent it from         
presenting itself1 or from renewing     
itself in his brain8 ,does not this idea
 depend either upon objects that strike 
him exteriorly and in despite of        
himself1 or upon causes that without his
 knowledge act within himself and modify
 his brain8 ,can he prevent his eyes1   
cast without design upon any object     
whatever1 from giving him an idea of    
this object1 from moving his brain8 ,he 
is not more master of the obstacles2    
they are the necessary effects of either
 interior or exterior causes1 which     
always act according to their given     
properties4 ,a man insults a coward1 who
 is necessarily irritated against his   
insulter1 but his will cannot vanquish  

the obstacle that cowardice places to   
the object of his desire1 which is1 to  
resent the insult2 because his natural  
conformation1 which does not depend upon
 himself1 prevents his having courage4  
,in this case the coward is insulted in 
despite of himself1 and against his will
 is obliged patiently to brook the      
insult he has received4  ,the partizans 
of the system of free-agency appear ever
 to have confounded constraint with     
necessity4 ,man believes he acts as a   
free agent1 every time he does not see  
any thing that places obstacles to his  
actions2 he does not perceive that the  
motive which causes him to will is      
always necessary1 is ever independent of
 himself4 ,a prisoner loaded with chains
 is compelled to remain in prison1 but  
he is not a free agent1 he is not able  
to resist the desire to emancipate      
himself2 his chains prevent him from    
acting1 but they do not prevent him from
 willing2 he would save himself if they 
would loose his fetters1 but he would   

not save himself as a free agent1 fear  
or the idea of punishment would be      
sufficient motives for his action4  ,man
 may therefore cease to be restrained1  
without1 for that reason1 becoming a    
free agent3 in whatever manner he acts1 
he will act necessarily2 according to   
motives by which he shall be determined4
 ,he may be compared to a heavy body1   
that finds itself arrested in its       
descent by any obstacle whatever3 take  
away this obstacle1 it will gravitate or
 continue to fall2 but who shall say    
this dense body is free to fall or not8 
,is not its descent the necessary effect
 of its own specific gravity8 ,the      
virtuous ,socrates submitted to the laws
 of his country1 although they were     
unjust2 notwithstanding the doors of his
 gaol were left open to him he would not
 save himself2 but in this he did not   
act as a free agent2 the invisible      
chains of opinion1 the secret love of   
decorum1 the inward respect for the     
laws1 even when they were iniquitous1   

the fear of tarnishing his glory1 kept  
him in his prison3 they were motives    
sufficiently powerful1 with this        
enthusiast for virtue1 to induce him to 
wait death with tranquillity2 it was not
 in his power to save himself1 because  
he could find no potential motive to    
bring him to depart1 even for an        
instant1 from those principles to which 
his mind was accustomed4  ,man1 says he1
 frequently acts against his            
inclination1 from whence he has falsely 
concluded he is a free agent2 when he   
appears to act contrary to his          
inclination1 he is determined to it by  
some motive sufficiently efficacious to 
vanquish this inclination4 ,a sick man1 
with a view to his cure1 arrives at     
conquering his repugnance to the most   
disgusting remedies3 the fear of pain1  
the dread of death1 then become         
necessary and intelligent motives2      
consequently1 this sick man cannot be   
said1 with truth1 by any means1 to act  
freely4  ,when it is said1 that man is  

not a free agent1 it is not pretended to
 compare him to a body moved by a simple
 impulsive cause3 he contains within    
himself causes inherent to his          
existence2 he is moved by an interior   
organ1 which has its own peculiar laws2 
which is itself necessarily determined1 
in consequence of ideas formed from     
perceptions1 resulting from sensations1 
which it receives from exterior objects4
 ,as the mechanism of these sensations1 
of these perceptions1 and the manner    
they engrave ideas on the brain of man1 
are not known to him1 because he is     
unable to unravel all these motions2    
because he cannot perceive the chain of 
operations in his soul1 or the          
motive-principle that acts within him1  
he supposes himself a free agent2 which1
 literally translated1 signifies that he
 moves himself by himself2 that he      
determines himself without cause2 when  
he rather ought to say1 he is ignorant  
how or for why he acts in the manner he 
does4 ,it is true the soul enjoys an    

activity peculiar to itself1 but it is  
equally certain that this activity would
 never be displayed if some motive or   
some cause did not put it in a condition
 to exercise itself1 at least it will   
not be pretended that the soul is able  
either to love or to hate without being 
moved1 without knowing the objects1     
without having some idea of their       
qualities4 ,gunpowder has unquestionably
 a particular activity1 but this        
activity will never display itself1     
unless fire be applied to it2 this1     
however1 immediately sets in motion4    
,it is the great complication of motion 
in man1 it is the variety of his action1
 it is the multiplicity of causes that  
move him1 whether simultaneously or in  
continual succession1 that persuades him
 he is a free agent3 if all his motions 
were simple1 if the causes that move him
 did not confound themselves with each  
other1 if they were distinct1 if his    
machine was less complicated1 he would  
perceive that all his actions were      

necessary1 because he would be enabled  
to recur instantly to the cause that    
made him act4 ,a man who should be      
always obliged to go towards the west   
would always go on that side1 but he    
would feel extremely well1 that in so   
going he was not a free agent3 if he had
 another sense1 as his actions or his   
motion augmented by a sixth would be    
still more varied1 much more            
complicated1 he would believe himself   
still more a free agent than he does    
with his five senses4  ,it is1 then1 for
 want of recurring to the causes that   
move him1 for want of being able to     
analyse1 from not being competent to    
decompose the complicated motion of his 
machine1 that man believes himself a    
free agent2 it is only upon his own     
ignorance that he founds the profound   
yet deceitful notion he has of his      
free-agency1 that he builds those       
opinions which he brings forward as a   
striking proof of his pretended freedom 
of action4 ,if1 for a short time1 each  

man was willing to examine his own      
peculiar actions1 to search out their   
true motives1 to discover their         
concatenation1 he would remain convinced
 that the sentiment he has of his       
natural free-agency is a chimera that   
must speedily be destroyed by           
experience4  ,nevertheless1 it must be  
acknowledged that the multiplicity1 the 
diversity of the causes which           
continually act upon man1 frequently    
without even his knowledge1 render it   
impossible1 or at least extremely       
difficult1 for him to recur to the true 
principles of his own peculiar actions1 
much less the actions of others2 they   
frequently depend upon causes so        
fugitive1 so remote from their effects1 
and which1 superficially examined1      
appear to have so little analogy1 so    
slender a relation with them1 that it   
requires singular sagacity to bring them
 into light4 ,this is what renders the  
study of the moral man a task of such   
difficulty2 this is the reason why his  

heart is an abyss1 of which it is       
frequently impossible for him to fathom 
the depth4 ,he is1 then1 obliged to     
content himself with a knowledge of the 
general and necessary laws by which the 
human heart is regulated2 for the       
individuals of his own species these    
laws are pretty nearly the same1 they   
vary only in consequence of the         
organization that is peculiar to each1  
and of the modification it undergoes2   
this1 however1 is not1 cannot be        
rigorously the same in any two4 ,it     
suffices to know that by his essence man
 tends to conserve himself1 to render   
his existence happy3 this granted1      
whatever may be his actions1 if he      
recurs back to this first principle1 to 
this general1 this necessary tendency of
 his will1 he never can be deceived with
 regard to his motives4 ,man1 without   
doubt1 for want of cultivating reason1  
being destitute of experience1          
frequently deceives himself upon the    
means of arriving at this end2 sometimes

 the means he employs are unpleasant to 
his fellows1 because they are           
prejudicial to their interests2 or else 
those of which he avails himself appear 
irrational1 because they remove him from
 the end to which he would approximate3 
but whatever may be these means1 they   
have always necessarily and invariably  
for object1 either an existing or       
imaginary happiness2 are directed to    
preserve himself in a state analogous to
 his mode of existence1 to his manner of
 feeling1 to his way of thinking2       
whether durable or transitory4 ,it is   
from having mistaken this truth1 that   
the greater number of moral philosophers
 have made rather the romance1 than the 
history of the human heart2 they have   
attributed the actions of man to        
fictitious causes2 at least they have   
not sought out the necessary motives of 
his conduct4 ,politicians and           
legislators have been in the same state 
of ignorance2 or else impostors have    
found it much shorter to employ         

imaginary motive-powers1 than those     
which really have existence3 they have  
rather chosen to make man wander out of 
his way1 to make him tremble under      
incommodious phantoms1 than guide him to
 virtue by the direct road to happiness2
 notwithstanding the conformity of the  
latter with the natural desires of his  
heart4 ,so true it is1 that error can   
never possibly be useful1 to the human  
species4  ,however this may be1 man     
either sees or believes he sees1 much   
more distinctly1 the necessary relation 
of effects with their causes in natural 
philosophy than in the human heart2 at  
least he sees in the former sensible    
causes constantly produce sensible      
effects1 ever the same1 when the        
circumstances are alike4 ,after this1 he
 hesitates not to look upon physical    
effects as necessary1 whilst he refuses 
to acknowledge necessity in the acts of 
the human will2 these he has1 without   
any just foundation1 attributed to a    
motive-power that acts independently by 

its own peculiar energy1 that is capable
 of modifying itself without the        
concurrence of exterior causes1 and     
which is distinguished from all material
 or physical beings4 ,agriculture is    
founded upon the assurance afforded by  
experience1 that the earth1 cultivated  
and sown in a certain manner1 when it   
has otherwise the requisite qualities1  
will furnish grain1 fruit1 and flowers1 
either necessary for subsistence or     
pleasing to the senses4 ,if things were 
considered without prejudice1 it would  
be perceived1 that in morals education  
is nothing more than the agriculture of 
the mind2 that like the earth1 by reason
 of its natural disposition1 of the     
culture bestowed upon it1 of the seeds  
with which it is sown1 of the seasons1  
more or less favorable1 that conduct it 
to maturity1 we may be assured that the 
soul will produce either virtue or vice2
 moral fruit that will be either        
salubrious for man or baneful to        
society4 ,morals is the science of the  

relations that subsist between the      
minds1 the wills1 and the actions of    
men2 in the same manner that geometry is
 the science of the relations that are  
found between bodies4 ,morals would be a
 chimera1 it would have no certain      
principles1 if it was not founded upon  
the knowledge of the motives which must 
necessarily have an influence upon the  
human will1 and which must necessarily  
determine the actions of human beings4  
,if in the moral as well as in the      
physical world1 a cause of which the    
action is not interrupted be necessarily
 followed by a given effect1 it flows   
consecutively that a reasonable         
education1 grafted upon truth1 founded  
upon wise laws1--that honest principles 
instilled during youth1 virtuous        
examples continually held forth1 esteem 
attached solely to merit1 recompense    
awarded to none but good actions1       
contempt regularly visiting vice1 shame 
following falsehood as its shadow1      
rigorous chastisements applied without  

distinction to crime1 are causes that   
would necessarily act on the will of    
man2 that would determine the greater   
number of his species to exhibit virtue1
 to love it for its own sake1 to seek   
after it as the most desirable good1 as 
the surest road to the happiness he so  
ardently desires4 ,but if1 on the       
contrary1 superstition1 politics1       
example1 public opinion1 all labour to  
countenance wickedness1 to train man    
viciously2 if1 instead of fanning his   
virtues1 they stifle good principles2   
if1 instead of directing his studies to 
his advantage1 they render his education
 either useless or unprofitable2 if this
 education itself1 instead of grounding 
him in virtue1 only inoculates him with 
vice2 if1 instead of inculcating reason1
 it imbues him with prejudice2 if1      
instead of making him enamoured of      
truth1 it furnishes him with false      
notions2 if1 instead of storing his mind
 with just ideas drawn from experience1 
it fills him with dangerous opinions2   

if1 instead of fostering mildness and   
forbearance1 it kindles in his breast   
only those passions which are           
incommodious to himself and hurtful to  
others2 it must be of necessity1 that   
the will of the greater number shall    
determine them to evil2 shall render    
them unworthy1 make them baneful to     
society4 ,many authors have acknowledged
 the importance of a good education1    
that youth was the season to feed the   
human heart with wholesome diet2 but    
they have not felt1 that a good         
education is incompatible1 nay1         
impossible1 with the superstition of    
man1 since this commences with giving   
his mind a false bias3 that it is       
equally inconsistent with arbitrary     
government1 because this always dreads  
lest he should become enlightened1 and  
is ever sedulous to render him servile1 
mean1 contemptible1 and cringing2 that  
it is incongruous with laws that are not
 founded in equity1 that are frequently 
bottomed on injustice2 that it cannot   

obtain with those received customs that 
are opposed to good sense2 that it      
cannot exist whilst public opinion is   
unfavourable to virtue2 above all1 that 
it is absurd to expect it from incapable
 instructors1 from masters with weak    
minds1 who have only the ability to     
infuse into their scholars those false  
ideas with which they are themselves    
infected4 ,here1 without doubt1 is the  
real source from whence springs that    
universal corruption1 that              
wide-spreading depravity1 of which      
moralists1 with great justice1 so loudly
 complain2 without1 however1 pointing   
out those causes of the evil1 which are 
true as they are necessary3 instead of  
this1 they search for it in human       
nature1 say it is corrupt1 blame man for
 loving himself1 and for seeking after  
his own happiness1 insist that he must  
have supernatural assistance1 some      
marvellous interference1 to enable him  
to become good3 this is a very          
prejudicial doctrine for him1 it is     

directly subversive of his true         
happiness2 by teaching him to hold      
himself in contempt1 it tends           
necessarily to discourage him2 it either
 makes him sluggish1 or drives him to   
despair whilst waiting for this grace3  
is it not easy to be perceived1 that he 
would always have it if he was well     
educated2 if he was honestly governed8  
,there cannot well exist a wilder or a  
stranger system of morals1 than that of 
the theologians who attribute all moral 
evil to an original sin1 and all moral  
good to the pardon of it4 ,it ought not 
to excite surprise if such a system is  
of no efficacy2 what can reasonably be  
the result of such an hypothesis8 ,yet1 
notwithstanding the supposed1 the       
boasted free-agency of man1 it is       
insisted that nothing less than the     
,author of ,nature himself is necessary 
to destroy the wicked desires of his    
heart3 but1 alas6 no power whatever is  
found sufficiently efficacious to resist
 those unhappy propensities1 which1     

under the fatal constitution of things1 
the most vigorous motives1 as before    
observed1 are continually infusing into 
the will of man2 no agency seems        
competent to turn the course of that    
unhappy direction these are perpetually 
giving to the stream of his natural     
passions4 ,he is1 indeed1 incessantly   
exhorted to resist these passions1 to   
stifle them1 and to root them out of his
 heart2 but is it not evident they are  
necessary to his welfare8 ,can it not be
 perceived they are inherent in his     
nature8 ,does not experience prove them 
to be useful to his conservation1 since 
they have for object1 only to avoid that
 which may be injurious to him2 to      
procure that which may be advantageous  
to his mode of existence8 ,in short1 is 
it not easy to be seen1 that these      
passions1 well directed1 that is to say1
 carried towards objects that are truly 
useful1 that are really interesting to  
himself1 which embrace the happiness of 
others1 would necessarily contribute to 

the substantial1 to the permanent       
well-being of society8 ,theologians     
themselves have felt1 they have         
acknowledged the necessity of the       
passions3 many of the fathers of the    
church have broached this doctrine2     
among the rest ,father ,senault has     
written a book expressly on the subject3
 the passions of man are like fire1 at  
once necessary to the wants of life1    
suitable to ameliorate the condition of 
humanity1 and equally capable of        
producing the most terrible ravages1 the
 most frightful devastation4  ,every    
thing becomes an impulse to the will2 a 
single word frequently suffices to      
modify a man for the whole course of his
 life1 to decide for ever his           
propensities2 an infant who has burned  
his finger by having approached it too  
near the flame of a lighted taper1 is   
warned from thence1 that he ought to    
abstain from indulging a similar        
temptation2 a man1 once punished and    
despised for having committed a         

dishonest action1 is not often tempted  
to continue so unfavourable a course4   
,under whatever point of man is         
considered1 he never acts but after the 
impulse given to his will1 whether it be
 by the will of others1 or by more      
perceptible physical causes4 ,the       
particular organization decides the     
nature of the impulse2 souls act upon   
souls that are analogous2 inflamed1     
fiery imaginations1 act with facility   
upon strong passions2 upon imaginations 
easy to be inflamed1 the surprising     
progress of enthusiasm2 the hereditary  
propagation of superstition2 the        
transmission of religious errors from   
race to race1 the excessive ardour with 
which man seizes on the marvellous1 are 
effects as necessary as those which     
result from the action and re-action of 
bodies4  ,in despite of the gratuitous  
ideas which man has formed to himself on
 his pretended free-agency2 in defiance 
of the illusions of this suppose        
intimate sense1 which1 contrary to his  

experience1 persuades him that he is    
master of his will1--all his            
institutions are really founded upon    
necessity3 on this1 as on a variety of  
other occasions1 practice throws aside  
speculation4 ,indeed1 if it was not     
believed that certain motives embraced  
the power requisite to determine the    
will of man1 to arrest the progress of  
his passions1 to direct them towards an 
end1 to modify him2 of what use would be
 the faculty of speech8 ,what benefit   
could arise from education itself8 ,what
 does education achieve1 save give the  
first impulse to the human will1 make   
man contract habits1 oblige him to      
persist in them1 furnish him with       
motives1 whether true or false1 to act  
after a given manner8 ,when the father  
either menaces his son with punishment1 
or promises him a reward1 is he not     
convinced these things will act upon his
 will8 ,what does legislation attempt1  
except it be to present to the citizens 
of a state those motives which are      

supposed necessary to determine them to 
perform some actions that are considered
 worthy2 to abstain from committing     
others that are looked upon as unworthy8
 ,what is the object of morals1 if it be
 not to shew man that his interest      
exacts he should suppress the momentary 
ebullition of his passions1 with a view 
to promote a more certain happiness1 a  
more lasting well-being1 than can       
possibly result from the gratification  
of his transitory desires8 ,does not the
 religion of all countries suppose the  
human race1 together with the entire of 
,nature1 submitted to the irresistible  
will of a necessary being1 who regulates
 their condition after the eternal laws 
of immutable wisdom8 ,is not ,god the   
absolute master of their destiny8 ,is it
 not this divine being who chooses and  
rejects8 ,the anathemas fulminated by   
religion1 the promises it holds forth1  
are they not founded upon the idea of   
the effects they will necessarily       
produce upon mankind8 ,is not man       

brought into existence without his own  
knowledge8 ,is he not obliged to play a 
part against his will8 ,does not either 
his happiness or his misery depend on   
the part he plays8  ,all religion has   
been evidently founded upon ,fatalism4  
,among the ,greeks they supposed men    
were punished for their necessary       
faults1 as may be seen in ,orestes1 in  
,oedipus1 c4 who only committed crimes  
predicted by the oracles4 ,it is rather 
singular that the theological defenders 
of the doctrine of free-agency1 which   
they endeavour to oppose to that of     
predestination1--which according to them
 is irreconcileable with ,christianity1 
inasmuch as it is a false and dangerous 
system1--should not have been aware that
 the doctrines of the fall of angels1   
original sin1 the small number of the   
elect1 the system of grace1 c4 were most
 incontestibly supporting1 by the most  
cogent arguments1 a true system of      
fatalism4  ,education1 then1 is only    
necessity shewn to children3 legislation

 is necessity shewn to the members of   
the body politic3 morals is the         
necessity of the relations subsisting   
between men1 shewn to reasonable beings3
 in short1 man grants necessity in every
 thing for which he believes he has     
certain1 unerring experience3 that of   
which he does not comprehend the        
necessary connection of causes with     
their effects he styles probability3 he 
would not act as he does1 if he was not 
convinced1 or1 at least1 if he did not  
presume he was1 that certain effects    
will necessarily follow his actions4    
,the moralist preaches reason1 because  
he believes it necessary to man3 the    
philosopher writes1 because he believes 
truth must1 sooner or later1 prevail    
over falsehood3 tyrants and fanatical   
priests necessarily hate truth1 despise 
reason1 because they believe them       
prejudicial to their interests3 the     
sovereign1 who strives to terrify crime 
by the severity of his laws1 but who    
nevertheless1 from motives of state     

policy sometimes renders it useful and  
even necessary to his purposes1 presumes
 the motives he employs will be         
sufficient to keep his subjects within  
bounds4 ,all reckon equally upon the    
power or upon the necessity of the      
motives they make use of2 each          
individual flatters himself1 either with
 or without reason1 that these motives  
will have an influence on the conduct of
 mankind4 ,the education of man is      
commonly so defective1 so inefficacious1
 so little calculated to promote the end
 he has in view1 because it is regulated
 by prejudice3 even when this education 
is good1 it is but too often speedily   
counteracted1 by almost every thing that
 takes place in society4 ,legislation   
and politics are very frequently        
iniquitous1 and serve no better purpose 
than to kindle passions in the bosom of 
man1 which once set afloat1 they are no 
longer competent to restrain4 ,the great
 art of the moralist should be1 to point
 out to man1 to convince those who are  

entrusted with the sacred office of     
regulating his will1 that their         
interests are identified2 that their    
reciprocal happiness depends upon the   
harmony of their passions2 that the     
safety1 the power1 the duration of      
empires1 necessarily depend on the good 
sense diffused among the individual     
members2 on the truth of the notions    
inculcated in the mind of the citizens1 
on the moral goodness that is sown in   
their hearts1 on the virtues that are   
cultivated in their breasts2 religion   
should not be admissible1 unless it     
truly fortified1 unless it really       
strengthened these motives4 ,but in the 
miserable state into which error has    
plunged a considerable portion of the   
human species1 man1 for the most part1  
is seduced to be wicked3 he injures his 
fellow-creature as a matter of          
conscience1 because the strongest       
motives are held out to him to be       
persecuting2 because his institutions   
invite him to the commission of evil1   

under the lure of promoting his own     
immediate happiness4 ,in most countries 
superstition renders him a useless      
being1 makes him an abject slave1 causes
 him to tremble under its terrors1 or   
else turns him into a furious fanatic1  
who is at once cruel1 intolerant1 and   
inhuman3 in a great number of states    
arbitrary power crushes him1 obliges him
 to become a cringing sycophant1 renders
 him completely vicious3 in those       
despotic states the law rarely visits   
crime with punishment1 except in those  
who are too feeble to oppose its course8
 or when it has become incapable of     
restraining the violent excesses to     
which a bad government gives birth4 ,in 
short1 rational education is neglected2 
a prudent culture of the human mind is  
despised2 it depends1 but too           
frequently1 upon bigotted1 superstitious
 priests1 who are interested in         
deceiving man1 and who are sometimes    
impostors2 or else upon parents or      
masters without understanding1 who are  

devoid of morals1 who impress on the    
ductile mind of their scholars those    
vices with which they are themselves    
tormented2 who transmit to them the     
false opinions1 which they believe they 
have an interest in making them adopt4  
,all this proves the necessity of       
falling back to man's original errors1  
and recurring to the primitive source of
 his wanderings1 if it be seriously     
intended to furnish him with suitable   
remedies for such enormous maladies3 it 
is useless to dream of correcting his   
mistakes1 of curing him of his          
depravity1 until the true causes that   
move his will are unravelled2 until more
 real1 more beneficial1 more certain    
motives are substituted for those which 
are found so inefficacious2 which prove 
so dangerous both to society and to     
himself4 ,it is for those who guide the 
human will1 who regulate the condition  
of nations1 who hold the real happiness 
of man in their grasp1 to seek after    
these motives1--with which reason will  

readily furnish them--which experience  
will enable them to apply with success3 
even a good book1 by touching the heart 
of a great prince1 may become a very    
powerful cause that shall necessarily   
have an influence over the conduct of a 
whole people1 and decide upon the       
felicity of a portion of the human race4
  ,from all that has been advanced in   
this chapter1 it results1 that in no one
 moment of his existence man is a free  
agent3 he is not the architect of his   
own conformation2 this he holds from    
,nature1 he has no controul over his own
 ideas1 or over the modification of his 
brain2 these are due to causes1 that1 in
 despite of him1 very frequently without
 his own knowledge1 unceasingly act upon
 him2 he is not the master of not loving
 that which he finds amiable2 of not    
coveting that which appears to him      
desirable2 he is not capable of refusing
 to deliberate1 when he is uncertain of 
the effects certain objects will produce
 upon him2 he cannot avoid choosing that

 which he believes will be most         
advantageous to him3 in the moment when 
his will is determined by his choice1 he
 is not competent to act otherwise than 
he does3 in what instance1 then1 is he  
the master of his own actions8 ,in what 
moment is he a free agent8  ,that which 
a man is about to do is always a        
consequence of that which he has        
been--of that which he is--of that which
 he has done up to the moment of the    
action3 his total and actual existence1 
considered under all its possible       
circumstances1 contains the sum of all  
the motives to the action he is about to
 commit2 this is a principle1 the truth 
of which no thinking1 being will be able
 to refuse accrediting3 his life is a   
series of necessary moments2 his        
conduct1 whether good or bad1 virtuous  
or vicious1 useful or prejudicial1      
either to himself or to others1 is a    
concatenation of action1 a chain of     
causes and effects1 as necessary as all 
the moments of his existence4 ,to live1 

is to exist in a necessary mode during  
the points of its duration1 which       
succeed each other necessarily3 to will1
 is to acquiesce or not in remaining    
such as he is3 to be free1 is to yield  
to the necessary motives that he carries
 within himself4  ,if he understood the 
play of his organs1 if he was able to   
recal to himself all the impulsions they
 have received1 all the modifications   
they have undergone1 all the effects    
they have produced1 he would perceive1  
that all his actions are submitted to   
that fatality which regulates his own   
particular system1 as it does the entire
 system of the universe3 no one effect  
in him1 any more than in ,nature1       
produce itself by chance2 this1 as has  
been before proved1 is a word void of   
sense4 ,all that passes in him1 all that
 is done by him1 as well as all that    
happens in ,nature1 or that is          
attributed to her1 is derived from      
necessary laws1 which produce necessary 
effects2 from whence necessarily flow   

others4  ,fatality is the eternal1 the  
immutable1 the necessary order          
established in ,nature1 or the          
indispensible connection of causes that 
act with the effects they operate4      
,conforming to this order1 heavy bodies 
fall1 light bodies rise2 that which is  
analogous in matter1 reciprocally       
attracts2 that which is heterogeneous1  
mutually repels2 man congregates himself
 in society1 modifies each his fellow1  
becomes either virtuous or wicked2      
either contributes to his mutual        
happiness1 or reciprocates his misery2  
either loves his neighbour1 or hates his
 companion necessarily2 according to the
 manner in which the one acts upon the  
other4 ,from whence it may be seen1 that
 the same necessity which regulates the 
physical1 also regulates the moral      
world3 in which every thing is in       
consequence submitted to fatality4 ,man1
 in running over1 frequently without his
 own knowledge1 often in despite of     
himself1 the route which ,nature has    

marked out for him1 resembles a swimmer 
who is obliged to follow the current    
that carries him along2 he believes     
himself a free agent1 because he        
sometimes consents1 sometimes does not  
consent1 to glide with the stream2      
which1 notwithstanding1 always hurries  
him forward2 he believes himself the    
master of his condition1 because he is  
obliged to use his arms under the fear  
of sinking4  ,the false ideas he has    
formed to himself upon free-agency1 are 
in general thus founded3 there are      
certain events which he judges          
necessary2 either because he sees they  
are effects that are constantly1 are    
invariably linked to certain causes1    
which nothing seems to prevent2 or      
because he believes he has discovered   
the chain of causes and effects that is 
put in play to produce those events3    
whilst he contemplates as contingent1   
other events1 of whose causes he is     
ignorant2 the concatenation of which he 
does not perceive2 with whose mode of   

acting he is unacquainted3 but in       
,nature1 where every thing is connected 
by one common bond1 there exists no     
effect without a cause4 ,in the moral as
 well as in the physical world1 every   
thing that happens is a necessary       
consequence of causes1 either visible or
 concealed2 which are1 of necessity1    
obliged to act after their peculiar     
essences4 ,in man1 free-agency is       
nothing more than necessity contained   
within himself4      ,,chap4 ,,xii4  ,an
 examination of the ,opinion which      
pretends that the ,system of ,fatalism  
is dangerous4   ,for a being whose      
essence obliges him to have a constant  
tendency to his own conservation1 to    
continually seek to render himself      
happy1 experience is indispensible3     
without it he cannot discover truth1    
which is nothing more1 as has been      
already said1 than a knowledge of the   
constant relations which subsist between
 man1 and those objects that act upon   
him2 according to his experience he     

denominates those that contribute to his
 permanent welfare useful and salutary2 
those that procure him pleasure1 more or
 less durable1 he calls agreeable4      
,truth itself becomes the object of his 
desires1 only when he believes it is    
useful2 he dreads it1 whenever he       
presumes it will injure him4 ,but has   
truth the power to injure him8 ,is it   
possible that evil can result to man    
from a correct understanding of the     
relations he has with other beings8 ,can
 it be true1 that he can be harmed by   
becoming acquainted with those things1  
of which1 for his own happiness1 he is  
interested in having a knowledge8 ,no3  
unquestionably not4 ,it is upon its     
utility that truth founds its worth2    
upon this that it builds its rights2    
sometimes it may be disagreeable to     
individuals--it may even appear contrary
 to their interests--but it will ever be
 beneficial to them in the end2 it will 
always be useful to the whole human     
species2 it will eternally benefit the  

great bulk of mankind2 whose interests  
must for ever remain distinct from those
 of men1 who1 duped by their own        
peculiar passions1 believe their        
advantage consists in plunging others   
into error4  ,utility1 then1 is the     
touchstone of his systems1 the test of  
his opinions1 the criterion of the      
actions of man2 it is the standard of   
the esteem1 the measure of the love he  
owes to truth itself3 the most useful   
truths are the most estimable3 those    
truths which are most interesting for   
his species1 he styles eminent2 those of
 which the utility limits itself to the 
amusement of some individuals who have  
not correspondent ideas1 similar modes  
of feeling1 wants analogous to his own1 
he either disdains1 or else calls them  
barren4  ,it is according to this       
standard1 that the principles laid down 
in this work1 ought to be judged4 ,those
 who are acquainted with the immense    
chain of mischief produced on the earth 
by erroneous systems of superstition1   

will acknowledge the importance of      
opposing to them systems more accordant 
with truth1 schemes drawn from ,nature1 
sciences founded on experience4 ,those  
who are1 or believe they are1 interested
 in maintaining the established errors1 
will contemplate1 with horror1 the      
truths here presented to them3 in short1
 those infatuated mortals1 who do not   
feel1 or who only feel very faintly1 the
 enormous load of misery brought upon   
mankind by metaphysical speculation2 the
 heavy yoke of slavery under which      
prejudice makes him groan1 will regard  
all our principles as useless2 or1 at   
most1 as sterile truths1 calculated to  
amuse the idle hours of a few           
speculators4  ,no astonishment1         
therefore1 need be excited at the       
various judgments formed by man3 his    
interests never being the same1 any more
 than his notions of utility1 he        
condemns or disdains every thing that   
does not accord with his own peculiar   
ideas4 ,this granted1 let us examine1 if

 in the eyes of the disinterested man1  
who is not entangled by prejudice--who  
is sensible to the happiness of his     
species--who delights in truth--the     
doctrine of fatalism be useful or       
dangerous8 ,let us see if it is a barren
 speculation1 that his not any influence
 upon the felicity of the human race8   
,at has been already shewn1 that it will
 furnish morals with efficacious        
arguments1 with real motives to         
determine the will1 supply politics with
 the true lever to raise the proper     
activity in the mind of man4 ,it will   
also be seen that it serves to explain  
in a simple manner the mechanism of     
man's actions2 to develope in an easy   
way the arcana of the most striking     
phenomena of the human heart3 on the    
other hand1 if his ideas are only the   
result of unfruitful speculations1 they 
cannot interest the happiness of the    
human species4 ,whether he believes     
himself a free agent1 or whether he     
acknowledges the necessity of things1 he

 always equally follows the desires     
imprinted on his soul2 which are to     
preserve his existence and render       
himself happy4 ,a rational education1   
honest habits1 wise systems1 equitable  
laws1 rewards uprightly distributed1    
punishments justly inflicted1 will      
conduct man to happiness by making him  
virtuous2 while thorny speculations1    
filled with difficulties1 can at most   
only have an influence over persons     
unaccustomed to think4  ,after these    
reflections1 it will be very easy to    
remove the difficulties that are        
unceasingly opposed to the system of    
fatalism1 which so many persons1 blinded
 by their superstitious prejudices1 are 
desirous to have considered as          
dangerous--as deserving of              
punishment--as calculated to disturb    
public tranquility--as tending to       
unchain the passions--to undermine the  
opinions man ought to have2 and to      
confound his ideas of vice and of       
virtue4  ,the opposers of necessity1    

say1 that if all the actions of man are 
necessary1 no right whatever exists to  
punish bad ones1 or even to he angry    
with those who commit them3 that nothing
 ought to be imputed to them2 that the  
laws would be unjust if they should     
decree punishment for necessary actions2
 in short1 that under this system man   
could neither have merit nor demerit4   
,in reply1 it may be argued1 that1 to   
impute an action to any one1 is to      
attribute that action to him2 to        
acknowledge him for the author3 thus1   
when even an action was supposed to be  
the effect of an agent1 and that agent  
necessity1 the imputation would lie3 the
 merit or demerit1 that is ascribed to  
an action are ideas originating in the  
effects1 whether favourable or          
pernicious1 that result to those who    
experience its operation2 when1         
therefore1 it should be conceded1 that  
the agent was necessity1 it is not less 
certain1 that the action would be either
 good or bad2 estimable or contemptible1

 to those who must feel its influence2  
in short that it would be capable of    
either eliciting their love1 or exciting
 their anger4 ,love and anger are modes 
of existence1 suitable to modify1 beings
 of the human species3 when1 therefore1 
man irritates himself against his       
fellow1 he intends to excite his fear1  
or even to punish him1 in order to deter
 him from committing that which is      
displeasing to him4 ,moreover his anger 
is necessary2 it is the result of his   
,nature2 the consequence of his         
temperament4 ,the painful sensation     
produced by a stone that falls on the   
arm1 does not displease the less1       
because it comes from a cause deprived  
of will2 which acts by the necessity of 
its ,nature4 ,in contemplating man as   
acting necessarily1 it is impossible to 
avoid distinguishing that mode of action
 or being which is agreeable1 which     
elicits approbation1 from that which is 
afflicting1 which irritates1 which      
,nature obliges him to blame and to     

prevent4 ,from this it will be seen1    
that the system of fatalism1 does not in
 any manner change the actual state of  
things1 and is by no means calculated to
 confound man's ideas of virtue and     
vice4  ,man's ,nature always revolts    
against that which opposes it3 there are
 men so choleric1 that they infuriate   
themselves even against insensible and  
inanimate objects2 reflection on their  
own impotence to modify these objects   
ought to conduct them back to reason4   
,parents are frequently very much to be 
blamed for correcting their children    
with anger3 they should be contemplated 
as beings who are not yet modified2 or  
who have1 perhaps1 been very badly      
modified by themselves3 nothing is more 
common in life1 than to see men punish  
faults of which they are themselves the 
cause4  ,laws are made with a view to   
maintain society2 to uphold its         
existence2 to prevent man associated1   
from injuring his neighbour2 they are   
therefore competent to punish those who 

disturb its harmony1 or those who commit
 actions that are injurious to their    
fellows2 whether these associates may be
 the agents of necessity1 or whether    
they are free agents1 it suffices to    
know they are susceptible of            
modification1 and are therefore         
submitted to the operation of the law4  
,penal laws are1 or ought to be1 those  
motives which experience has shewn      
capable of restraining the inordinate   
passions of man1 or of annihilating the 
impulse these passions give to his will2
 from whatever necessary cause man may  
derive these passions1 the legislator   
proposes to arrest their effect1 when he
 takes suitable means1 when he adopts   
proper methods1 he is certain of        
success4 ,the ,judge1 in decreeing to   
crime1 gibbets1 tortures1 or any other  
chastisement whatever1 does nothing more
 than is done by the architect1 who in  
building a house1 places gutters to     
carry off the rain1 and prevent it from 
sapping the foundation4  ,whatever may  

be the cause that obliges man to act1   
society possesses the right to crush the
 effects1 as much as the man whose land 
would be ruined by a river1 has to      
restrain its waters by a bank3 or even1 
if he is able1 to turn its course4 ,it  
is by virtue of this right that society 
has the power to intimidate1 the faculty
 to punish1 with a view to its own      
conservation1 those who may be tempted  
to injure it2 or those who commit       
actions which are acknowledged really to
 interrupt its repose2 to be inimical to
 its security2 repugnant to its         
happiness4  ,it will1 perhaps1 be       
argued1 that society does not1 usually1 
punish those faults in which the will   
has no share2 that1 in fact1 it punishes
 the will alone2 that this it is which  
decides the nature of the crime1 and the
 degree of its atrocity2 that if this   
will be not free1 it ought not to be    
punished4 ,i reply1 that society is an  
assemblage of sensible beings1          
susceptible of reason1 who desire their 

own welfare2 who fear evil1 and seek    
after good4 ,these dispositions enable  
their will to be so modified or         
determined1 that they are capable of    
holding such a conduct as will conduce  
to the end they have in view4           
,education1 the laws1 public opinion1   
example1 habit1 fear1 are the causes    
that must modify associated man1        
influence his will1 regulate his        
passions1 restrain the actions of him   
who is capable of injuring the end of   
his association1 and thereby make him   
concur to the general happiness4 ,these 
causes are of a nature to make          
impressions on every man1 whose         
organization1 whose essence1 whose      
sanity1 places him in a capacity to     
contract the habits1 to imbibe the modes
 of thinking1 to adopt the manner of    
acting1 with which society is willing to
 inspire him4 ,all the individuals of   
the human species are susceptible of    
fear1 from whence it flows as a natural 
consequence1 that the fear of           

punishment1 or the privation of the     
happiness he desires1 are motives that  
must necessarily more or less influence 
his will1 and regulate his actions4 ,if 
the man is to be found who is so badly  
constituted as to resist1 whose         
organization is so vicious as to be     
insensible to those motives which       
operate upon all his fellows1 he is not 
fit to live in society2 he would        
contradict the very end of his          
association3 he would be its enemy2 he  
would place obstacles to its natural    
tendency2 his rebellious disposition1   
his unsociable will1 not being          
susceptible of that modification which  
is convenient to his own true interests 
and to the interests of his             
fellow-citizens2 these would unite      
themselves against such an enemy2 and   
the law which is1 or ought to be the    
expression of the general will1 would   
visit with condign punishment that      
refractory individual upon whom the     
motives presented to him by society1 had

 not the effect which it had been       
induced to expect3 in consequence1 such 
an unsociable man would be chastised2 he
 would be rendered miserable1 and       
according to the nature of his crime he 
would be excluded from society as a     
being but little calculated to concur in
 its views4  ,if society has the right  
to conserve itself1 it has also the     
right to take the means3 these means are
 the laws which present or ought to     
present to the will of man those motives
 which are most suitable to deter him   
from committing injurious actions4 ,if  
these motives fail of the proper effect1
 if they are unable to influence him1   
society1 for its own peculiar good1 is  
obliged to wrest from him the power of  
doing it further injury4 ,from whatever 
source his actions may arise1 therefore1
 whether they are the result of         
free-agency1 or whether they are the    
offspring of necessity1 society coerces 
him if1 after having furnished him with 
motives1 sufficiently powerful to act   

upon reasonable beings1 it perceives    
that these motives have not been        
competent to vanquish his depraved      
nature4 ,it punishes him with justice1  
when the actions from which it dissuades
 him are truly injurious to society2 it 
has an unquestionable right to punish1  
when it only commands those things that 
are conformable to the end proposed by  
man in his association2 or defends the  
commission of those acts1 which are     
contrary to this end2 which are hostile 
to the nature of beings associated for  
their reciprocal advantage4 ,but1 on the
 other hand1 the law has not acquired   
the right to punish him3 if it has      
failed to present to him the motives    
necessary to have an influence over his 
will1 it has not the right to coerce him
 if the negligence of society has       
deprived him of the means of subsisting2
 of exercising his talents2 of exerting 
his industry2 of labouring for its      
welfare4 ,it is unjust1 when it punishes
 those to whom it has1 neither given an 

education1 nor honest principles2 whom  
it has not enabled to contract habits   
necessary to the maintenance of society3
 it is unjust when it punishes them for 
faults which the wants of their nature1 
or the constitution of society has      
rendered necessary to them3 it is       
unjust1 it is irrational1 whenever it   
chastises them for having followed those
 propensities1 which example1 which     
public opinion1 which the institutions1 
which society itself conspires to give  
them4 ,in short1 the law is defective   
when it does not proportion the         
punishment to the real evil which       
society has sustained4 ,the last degree 
of injustice1 the acme of folly is1 when
 society is so blinded as to inflict    
punishment on those citizens who have   
served it usefully4  ,the penal laws1 in
 exhibiting terrifying objects to man1  
who must be supposed susceptible of     
fear1 presents him with motives         
calculated to have an influence over his
 will4 ,the idea of pain1 the privation 

of liberty1 the fear of death1 are1 to a
 being well constituted1 in the full    
enjoyment of his faculties1 very        
puissant obstacles1 that strongly oppose
 themselves to the impulse of his unruly
 desires3 when these do not coerce his  
will1 when they fail to arrest his      
progress1 he is an irrational being2 a  
madman2 a being badly organized2 against
 whom society has the right to guarantee
 itself2 against whom it has a right to 
take measures for its own security4     
,madness is1 without doubt1 an          
involuntary1 a necessary state2         
nevertheless1 no one feels it unjust to 
deprive the insane of their liberty1    
although their actions can only be      
imputed to the derangement of their     
brain4 ,the wicked are men whose brain  
is either constantly or transitorily    
disturbed2 still they must be punished  
by reason of the evil they commit2 they 
must always be placed in the            
impossibility of injuring society3 if no
 hope remains of bringing them back to a

 reasonable conduct--if every prospect  
of recalling them to their duty has     
vanished--if they cannot be made to     
adopt a mode of action conformable to   
the great end of association--they must 
be for ever excluded its benefits4  ,it 
will not be requisite to examine here1  
how far the punishments which society   
inflicts upon those who offend against  
it1 may be reasonably carried4 ,reason  
should seem to indicate that the law    
ought to shew to the necessary crimes of
 man1 all the indulgence that is        
compatible with the conservation of     
society4 ,the system of fatalism1 as we 
have seen1 does not leave crime         
unpunished2 but it is1 at least1        
calculated to moderate the barbarity    
with which a number of nations punish   
the victims to their anger4 ,this       
cruelty becomes still more absurd1 when 
experience has shewn its inutility3 the 
habit of witnessing ferocious           
punishments familiarizes criminals with 
the idea4 ,if it be true that society   

possesses the right of taking away the  
life of its members--if it be really a  
fact1 that the death of a criminal1     
thenceforth useless1 can be advantageous
 for society1 which it will be necessary
 to examine1 humanity1 at least1 exacts 
that this death should not be           
accompanied with useless tortures2 with 
which laws1 perhaps in this instance too
 rigorous1 frequently seem to delight in
 overwhelming their victim4 ,this       
cruelty seems to defeat its own end1 it 
only serves to make the culprit1 who is 
immolated to the public vengeance1      
suffer without any advantage to society2
 it moves the compassion of the         
spectator1 interests him in favor of the
 miserable offender who groans under its
 weight2 it impresses nothing upon the  
wicked1 but the sight of those cruelties
 destined for himself2 which but too    
frequently renders him more ferocious1  
more cruel1 more the enemy of his       
associates3 if the example of death was 
less frequent1 even without being       

accompanied with tortures1 it would be  
more efficacious4 ,if experience was    
consulted1 it would be found that the   
greater number of criminals only look   
upon death as a bad quarter of an hour4 
,it is an unquestionable fact1 that a   
thief seeing one of his comrades1       
display a want of firmness under the    
punishment1 said to him3 ,is not this   
what ,i have often told you1 that in our
 business1 we have one evil more than   
the rest of mankind8 ,robberies are     
daily committed1 even at the foot of the
 scaffolds where criminals are punished4
 ,in those nations1 where the penalty of
 death is so lightly inflicted1 has     
sufficient attention been paid to the   
fact1 that society is yearly deprived of
 a great number of individuals who would
 be able to render it very useful       
service1 if made to work1 and thus      
indemnify the community for the injuries
 they have committed8 ,the facility with
 which the lives of men are taken away1 
proves the incapacity of counsellors2 is

 an evidence of the negligence of       
legislators3 they find it a much shorter
 road1 that it gives them less trouble  
to destroy the citizens than to seek    
after the means to render them better4  
,what shall be said for the unjust      
cruelty of some nations1 in which the   
law1 that ought to have for its object  
the advantage of the whole1 appears to  
be made only for the security of the    
most powerful8 ,how shall we account for
 the inhumanity of those societies1 in  
which punishments the most              
disproportionate to the crime1          
unmercifully take away the lives of men1
 whom the most urgent necessity1 the    
dreadful alternative of famishing in a  
land of plenty1 has obliged to become   
criminal8 ,it is thus that in a great   
number of civilized nations1 the life of
 the citizen is placed in the same      
scales with money2 that the unhappy     
wretch who is perishing from hunger1 who
 is writhing under the most abject      
misery1 is put to death for having taken

 a pitiful portion of the superfluity of
 another whom he beholds rolling in     
abundance6 ,it is this that1 in many    
otherwise very enlightened societies1 is
 called justice1 or making the          
punishment commensurate with the crime4 
,let the man of humanity1 whose tender  
feelings are alive to the welfare of his
 species--let the moralist1 who preaches
 virtue1 who holds out forbearance to   
man--let the philosopher1 who dives into
 the secrets of ,nature--let the        
theologian himself say1 if this dreadful
 iniquity1 this heinous sin1 does not   
become yet more crying1 when the laws   
decree the most cruel tortures for      
crimes to which the most irrational     
customs gave birth--which bad           
institutions engender--which evil       
examples multiply8 ,is not this         
something like building a sorry1        
inconvenient hovel1 and then punishing  
the inhabitant1 because he does not find
 all the conveniences of the most       
complete mansion1 of the most finished  

structure8 ,man1 as at cannot be too    
frequently repeated1 is so prone to     
evil1 only because every thing appears  
to urge him on to the commission of it1 
by too frequently shewing him vice      
triumphant3 his education is void in a  
great number of states1 perhaps         
defective in nearly all2 in many places 
he receives from society no other       
principles1 save those of an            
unintelligible superstition2 which make 
but a feeble barrier against those      
propensities that are excited by        
dissolute manners2 which are encouraged 
by corrupt examples3 in vain the law    
cries out to him3 abstain from the goods
 of thy neighbour2 his wants1 more      
powerful1 loudly declare to him that he 
must live3 unaccustomed to reason1      
having never been submitted to a        
wholesome discipline1 he conceives he   
must do it at the expence of a society  
who has done nothing for him3 who       
condemns him to groan in misery1 to     
languish in indigence3 frequently       

deprived of the common necessaries      
requisite to support his existence1     
which his essence1 of which he is not   
the master1 compels him to conserve4 ,he
 compensates himself by theft1 he       
revenges himself by assassination1 he   
becomes a plunderer by profession1 a    
murderer by trade2 he plunges into      
crime1 and seeks at the risque of his   
life1 to satisfy those wants1 whether   
real or imaginary1 to which every thing 
around him conspires to give birth4     
,deprived of education1 he has not been 
taught to restrain the fury of his      
temperament--to guide his passions with 
discretion--to curb his inclinations4   
,without ideas of decency1 destitute of 
the true principles of honour1 he       
engages in criminal pursuits that injure
 his country3 which at the same time has
 been to him nothing more than a        
step-mother4 ,in the paroxysm of his    
rage1 in the exacerbation of his mind1  
he loses sight of his neighbour's       
rights1 he overlooks the gibbet1 he     

forgets the torture2 his unruly desires 
have become too potent--they have       
completely absorbed his mind2 by a      
criminal indulgence they have given an  
inveteracy to his habits which preclude 
him from changing them2 laziness has    
made him torpid3 remorse has gnawed his 
peace2 despair has rendered him blind2  
he rushes on to death2 and society is   
compelled to punish him rigorously1 for 
those fatal1 those necessary            
dispositions1 which it has perhaps      
itself engendered in his heart by evil  
example3 or which at least1 it has not  
taken the pains seasonably to root out2 
which it has neglected to oppose by     
suitable motives--by those calculated to
 give him honest principles--to excite  
him to industrious habits1 to imbue him 
with virtuous inclinations4 ,thus1      
society frequently punishes those       
propensities of which it is itself the  
author1 or which its negligence has     
suffered to spring up in the mind of    
man3 it acts like those unjust fathers1 

who chastise their children for vices   
which they have themselves made them    
contract4  ,however unjust1 however     
unreasonable this conduct may be1 or    
appear to be1 it is not the less        
necessary3 society1 such as it is1      
whatever may be its corruption1 whatever
 vices may pervade its institutions1    
like every thing else in ,nature1 is    
willing to subsist2 tends to conserve   
itself3 in consequence1 it is obliged to
 punish those excesses which its own    
vicious constitution has produced3 in   
despite of its peculiar prejudices1     
notwithstanding its vices1 it feels     
cogently that its own immediate security
 demands that it should destroy the     
conspiracies of those who make war      
against its tranquillity3 if these1     
hurried on by the foul current of their 
necessary propensities1 disturb its     
repose--if1 borne on the stream of their
 ill-directed desires1 they injure its  
interests1 this following the natural   
law1 which obliges it to labour to its  

own peculiar conservation1 removes them 
out of its road2 punishes them with more
 or less rigor1 according to the objects
 to which it attaches the greatest      
importance1 or which it supposes best   
suited to further its own peculiar      
welfare3 without doubt1 it deceives     
itself frequently1 both upon these      
objects and the means2 but it deceives  
itself necessarily1 for want of the     
knowledge calculated to enlighten it1   
with regard to its true interests2 for  
want of those1 who regulate its         
movements possessing proper             
vigilance--suitable talents--the        
requisite virtue4 ,from this it will    
appear1 that the injustice of a society 
badly constituted1 and blinded by its   
prejudices1 is as necessary1 as the     
crimes of those by whom it is hostilely 
attacked--by whose vices it is          
distracted4 ,the body politic1 when in a
 state of insanity1 cannot act more     
consistently with reason1 than one of   
its members whose brain is disturbed by 

madness4  ,it will still be said that   
these maxims1 by submitting every thing 
to necessity1 must confound1 or even    
destroy the notions man forms of justice
 and injustice2 of good and evil2 of    
merit and demerit3 ,i deny it4 ,although
 man1 in every thing he does1 acts      
necessarily1 his actions are good1 they 
are just1 they are meritorious1 every   
time they tend to the real utility of   
his fellows2 of the society of which he 
makes a part3 they are1 of necessity1   
distinguished from those which are      
really prejudicial to the welfare of his
 associates4 ,society is just1 it is    
good1 it is worthy our reverence1 when  
it procures for all its members1 their  
physical wants1 when it affords them    
protection1 when it secures their       
liberty1 when it puts them in possession
 of their natural rights4 ,it is ill    
this that consists all the happiness of 
which the social compact is susceptible3
 society is unjust1 it is bad1 it is    
unworthy our esteem1 when it is partial 

to a few1 when it is cruel to the       
greater number3 it is then that it      
multiplies its enemies1 obliges them to 
revenge themselves by criminal actions  
which it is under the necessity to      
punish4 ,it is not upon the caprices of 
political society that depend the true  
notions of justice and injustice--the   
right ideas of moral good and evil--a   
just appreciation of merit and demerit2 
it is upon utility1 upon the necessity  
of things1 which always forces man to   
feel that there exists a mode of acting 
on which he implicitly relies1 which he 
is obliged to venerate1 which he cannot 
help approving either in his fellows1 in
 himself1 or in society3 whilst there is
 another mode to which he cannot lend   
his confidence1 which his nature makes  
him to hate1 which his feelings compel  
him to condemn4 ,it is upon his own     
peculiar essence that man founds his    
ideas of pleasure and of pain--of right 
and of wrong--of vice and of virtue3 the
 only difference between these is1 that 

pleasure and pain make them             
instantaneously felt in his brain2 he   
becomes conscious of their existence    
upon the spot2 in the place of which1   
the advantages that accrue to him from  
justice1 the benefit that he derives    
from virtue1 frequently do not display  
themselves but after a long train of    
reflections--after multiplied experience
 and complicated attention2 which many1 
either from a defect in their           
conformation1 or from the peculiarity of
 the circumstances under which they are 
placed1 are prevented from making1 or at
 least from making correctly4  ,by a    
necessary consequence of this truism1   
the system of fatalism1 although it has 
frequently been so accused1 does not    
tend to encourage man in crime1 to make 
remorse vanish from his mind4 ,his      
propensities are to be ascribed to his  
nature2 the use he makes of his passions
 depends upon his habits1 upon his      
opinions1 upon the ideas he has received
 in his education2 upon the examples    

held forth by the society in which he   
lives4 ,these things are what           
necessarily decide his conduct4 ,thus1  
when his temperament renders him        
susceptible of strong passions1 he is   
violent in his desires1 whatever may be 
his speculations4  ,remorse is the      
painful sentiment excited in him by     
grief1 caused either by the immediate or
 probable future effect of his indulged 
passions3 if these effects were always  
useful to him1 he would not experience  
remorse2 but1 as soon as he is assured  
that his actions render him hateful1    
that his passions make him contemptible2
 or1 as soon as he fears he shall be    
punished in some mode or other1 he      
becomes restless1 discontented with     
himself--he reproaches himself with his 
own conduct--he feels ashamed--he fears 
the judgement of those beings whose     
affection he has learned to esteem--in  
whose good-will he finds his own comfort
 deeply interested4 ,his experience     
proves to him that the wicked man is    

odious to all those upon whom his       
actions have any influence3 if these    
actions are concealed at the moment of  
commission1 he knows it very rarely     
happens they remain so for ever4 ,the   
smallest reflection convinces him that  
there is no wicked man who is not       
ashamed of his own conduct--who is truly
 contented with himself--who does not   
envy the condition of the good man--who 
is not obliged to acknowledge that he   
has paid very dearly for those          
advantages he is never able to enjoy1   
without experiencing the most           
troublesome sensations1 without making  
the most bitter reproaches against      
himself2 then he feels ashamed1 despises
 himself1 hates himself1 his conscience 
becomes alarmed1 remorse follows in it  
train4 ,to be convinced of the truth of 
this principle it is only requisite to  
cast our eyes on the extreme precautions
 that tyrants and villains1 who are     
otherwise sufficiently powerful not to  
dread the punishment of man1 take to    

prevent exposure2--to what lengths they 
push their cruelties against some1 to   
what meannesses they stoop to others of 
those who are able to hold them up to   
public scorn4 ,have they not1 then1 a   
consciousness of their own iniquities8  
,do they not know that they are hateful 
and contemptible8 ,have they not        
remorse8 ,is their condition happy8     
,persons well brought up acquire these  
sentiments in their education2 which are
 either strengthened or enfeebled by    
public opinion1 by habit1 or by the     
examples set before them4 ,in a depraved
 society1 remorse either does not exist1
 or presently disappears2 because1 in   
all his actions1 it is ever the judgment
 of his fellow-man that man is obliged  
necessarily to regard4 ,he never feels  
either shame or remorse for actions he  
sees approved1 that are practised by the
 world4 ,under corrupt governments1     
venal souls1 avaricious being1 mercenary
 individuals1 do not blush either at    
meanness1 robbery1 or rapine1 when it is

 authorized by example2 in licentious   
nations1 no one blushes at adultery     
except the husband1 at whose expence it 
is committed2 in superstitious          
countries1 man does not blush to        
assassinate his fellow for his opinions4
 ,it will be obvious1 therefore1 that   
his remorse1 as well as the ideas1      
whether right or wrong1 which man has of
 decency1 virtue1 justice1 c4 are the   
necessary consequence of his            
temperament1 modified by the society in 
which he lives3 assassins and thieves1  
when they live only among themselves1   
have neither shame nor remorse4  ,thus1 
,i repeat1 all the actions of man are   
necessary those which are always useful1
 which constantly contribute to the     
real1 tend to the permanent happiness of
 his species1 are called virtues1 and   
are necessarily pleasing to all who     
experience their influence2 at least1 if
 their passions or false opinions do not
 oblige them to judge in that manner    
which is but little accordant with the  

nature of things3 each man acts1 each   
individual judges1 necessarily1         
according to his own peculiar mode of   
existence--after the ideas1 whether true
 or false1 which he has formed with     
regard to his happiness4 ,there are     
necessary actions which man is obliged  
to approve2 there are others1 that1 in  
despite of himself1 he is compelled to  
censure2 of which the idea generates    
shame when his reflection permits him to
 contemplate them under the same point  
of view that they are regarded by his   
associates4 ,the virtuous man and the   
wicked man act from motives equally     
necessary3 they differ simply in their  
organization--in the ideas they form to 
themselves of happiness3 we love the one
 necessarily--we detest the other from  
the same necessity4 ,the law of his     
nature1 which wills that a sensible     
being shall constantly labour to        
preserve himself1 has not left to man   
the power to choose1 or the free-agency 
to prefer pain to pleasure--vice to     

utility--crime to virtue4 ,it is1 then1 
the essence of man himself that obliges 
him to discriminate those actions which 
are advantageous to him1 form those     
which are prejudicial to his interest1  
from those which are baneful to his     
felicity4  ,this distinction subsists   
even in the most corrupt societies1 in  
which the ideas of virtue1 although     
completely effaced from their conduct1  
remain the same in their mind4 ,let us  
suppose a matt1 who had decidedly       
determined for villainy1 who should say 
to himself--,it is folly to be virtuous 
in a society that is depraved1 in a     
community that is debauched4 ,let us    
suppose also1 that he has sufficient    
address1 the unlooked-for good fortune  
to escape censure or punishment1 during 
a long series of years2 ,i say1 that in 
despite of all these circumstances1     
apparently so advantageous for himself1 
such a man has neither been happy nor   
contented with his own conduct1 ,he has 
been in continual agonies--ever at war  

with his own actions--in a state of     
constant agitation4 ,how much pain1 how 
much anxiety1 has he not endured in this
 perpetual conflict with himself8 ,how  
many precautions1 what excessive labour1
 what endless solicitude1 has he not    
been compelled to employ in this        
continued struggle2 how many            
embarrassments1 how many cares1 has he  
not experienced in this eternal         
wrestling with his associates1 whose    
penetration he dreads1 whose scorn he   
fears will follow a true knowledge of   
his pursuits4 ,demand of him what he    
thinks of himself1 he will shrink from  
the question4 ,approach the bedside of  
this villain at the moment he is dying2 
ask him if he would be willing to       
recommence1 at the same price1 a life of
 similar agitation8 ,if he is ingenuous1
 he will avow that he has tasted neither
 repose nor happiness2 that each crime  
filled him with inquietude--that        
reflection prevented him from           
sleeping--that the world has been to him

 only one continued scene of alarm--an  
uninterrupted concatenation of          
terror--an everlasting1 anxiety of      
mind2--that to live peaceably upon bread
 and water1 appears to him to be a much 
happier1 a more easy condition1 than to 
possess riches1 credit1 reputation1     
honours1 on the same terms that he has  
himself acquired them4 ,if this villain1
 notwithstanding all his success1 finds 
his condition so deplorable1 what must  
be thought of the feelings of those who 
have neither the same resources nor the 
same advantages to succeed in their     
criminal projects4  ,thus1 the system of
 necessity is a truth not only founded  
upon certain experience1 but1 again1 it 
establishes morals upon an immoveable   
basis4 ,far from sapping the foundations
 of virtue1 it points out its necessity2
 it clearly shows the invariable        
sentiments it must excite--sentiments so
 necessary1 so strong1 so congenial to  
his existence1 that all the prejudices  
of man--all the vices of his            

institutions--all the effect of evil    
example1 have never been able entirely  
to eradicate them from his mind4 ,when  
he mistakes the advantages of virtue1 it
 ought to be ascribed to the errors that
 are infused into him--to the           
irrationality of his institutions3 all  
his wanderings are the fatal            
consequences of error1--the necessary   
result of prejudices which have         
identified themselves with his          
existence4 ,let it not1 therefore1 any  
longer be imputed to his nature that he 
has become wicked1 but to those baneful 
opinions which he has imbibed with his  
mother's milk1--that have rendered him  
ambitious1 avaricious1 envious1 haughty1
 arrogant1 debauched1 intolerant1       
obstinate1 prejudiced1 incommodious to  
his fellows1 mischievous to himself4 ,it
 is education that carries into his     
system the germ of those vices which    
necessarily torment him during the whole
 course of his life4  ,fatalism is      
reproached with discouraging man--with  

damping the ardour of his soul--with    
plunging him into apathy--with          
destroying the bonds that should connect
 him with society4 ,its opponents say1  
,if every thing is necessary1 we must   
let things go on1 and not be disturbed  
by any thing4 ,but does it depend on man
 to be sensible or not8 ,is he master of
 feeling or not feeling pain8 ,if       
,nature has endowed him with a humane1  
with a tender soul1 is it possible he   
should not interest himself in a very   
lively manner1 in the welfare of beings 
whom he knows are necessary to his own  
peculiar happiness8 ,his feelings are   
necessary3 they depend on his own       
peculiar nature1 cultivated by          
education4 ,his imagination1 prompt to  
concern itself with the felicity of his 
race1 causes his heart to be oppressed  
at the sight of those evils his         
fellow-creature is obliged to           
endure1--makes his soul tremble in the  
contemplation of the misery arising from
 the despotism that crushes him--from   

the superstition that leads him         
astray--from the passions that distract 
him in a state of warfare against his   
neighbour4 ,although he knows that death
 is the fatal1 the necessary period to  
the form of all beings1 his soul is not 
affected in a less lively manner at the 
loss of a beloved wife1--at the demise  
of a child calculated to console his old
 age1--at the final separation from an  
esteemed friend who had become dear to  
his heart4 ,although he is not ignorant 
that it is the essence of fire to burn1 
he does not believe he is dispensed from
 using his utmost efforts to arrest the 
progress of a conflagration4 ,although  
he is intimately convinced that the     
evils to which he is a witness1 are the 
necessary consequence of primitive      
errors with which his fellow-citizens   
are imbued1 he feels he ought to display
 truth to them1 if ,nature has given him
 the necessary courage2 under the       
conviction1 that if they listen to it1  
it will1 by degrees1 become a certain   

remedy for their sufferings1 that it    
will produce those necessary effects    
which it is of its essence to operate4  
,if the speculations of man modify his  
conduct1 if they change his temperament1
 he ought not to doubt that the system  
of necessity would have the most        
advantageous influence over him2 not    
only is it suitable to calm the greater 
part of his inquietude1 but it will also
 contribute to inspire him with a useful
 submission1 a rational resignation1 to 
the decrees of a destiny with which his 
too great sensibility frequently causes 
him to be overwhelmed4 ,this happy      
apathy1 without doubt1 would be1        
desirable to those whose souls1 too     
tender to brook the inequalities of     
life1 frequently render them the        
deplorable sport of their fate2 or whose
 organs1 too weak to make resistance to 
the buffettings of fortune1 incessantly 
expose them to be dashed in pieces under
 the rude blows of adversity4  ,but1 of 
all the important advantages the human  

race would be enabled to derive from the
 doctrine of fatalism1 if man was to    
apply it to his conduct1 none would be  
of greater magnitude1 none of more happy
 consequence1 none that would more      
efficaciously corroborate his happiness1
 than that general indulgence1 that     
universal toleration1 that must         
necessarily spring from the opinion1    
that all is necessary4 ,in consequence1 
of the adoption of this principle1 the  
fatalist1 if he had a sensible soul1    
would commisserate the prejudices of his
 fellow-man--would lament over his      
wanderings--would seek to undeceive     
him--would try by gentleness to lead him
 into the right path1 without ever      
irritating himself against his weakness1
 without ever insulting his misery4     
,indeed1 what right have we to hate or  
despise man for his opinions8 ,his      
ignorance1 his prejudices1 his          
imbecility1 his vices1 his passions1 his
 weakness1 are they not the inevitable  
consequence of vicious institutions8 ,is

 he not sufficiently punished by the    
multitude of evils that afflict him on  
every side8 ,those despots who crush him
 with an iron sceptre1 are they not     
continual victims to their own peculiar 
restlessness--mancipated to their       
perpetual diffidence--eternal slaves to 
their suspicions8 ,is there one wicked  
individual who enjoys a pure1 an        
unmixed1 a real happiness8 ,do not      
nations unceasingly suffer from their   
follies8 ,are they not the incessant    
dupes to their prejudices8 ,is not the  
ignorance of chiefs1 the ill-will they  
bear to reason1 the hatred they have for
 truth1 punished by the imbecility of   
their citizens1 by the ruin of the      
states they govern8 ,in short1 the      
fatalist would grieve to witness        
necessity each moment exercising its    
severe decrees upon mortals who are     
ignorant of its power1 or who feel its  
castigation1 without being willing to   
acknowledge the hand from whence it     
proceeds2 he will perceive that         

ignorance is necessary1 that credulity  
is the necessary result of              
ignorance--that slavery and bondage are 
necessary consequences of ignorant      
credulity--that corruption of manners   
springs necessarily from slavery--that  
the miseries of society1 the unhappiness
 of its members1 are the necessary      
offspring of this corruption4 ,the      
fatalist1 in consequence1 of these      
ideas1 will neither be a gloomy         
misanthrope1 nor a dangerous citizen2 he
 will pardon in his brethren those      
wanderings1 he will forgive them those  
errors--which their vitiated nature1 by 
a thousand causes1 has rendered         
necessary--he will offer them           
consolation--he will endeavour to       
inspire them with courage--he will be   
sedulous to undeceive them in their idle
 notions1 in their chimerical ideas2 but
 he will never display against them     
bitterness of soul--he will never show  
them that rancorous animosity which is  
more suitable1 to make them revolt from 

his doctrines1 than to attract them to  
reason2--he will not disturb the repose 
of society--he will not raise the people
 to insurrection against the sovereign  
authority2 on the contrary1 he will feel
 that the miserable blindness of the    
great1 and the wretched perverseness1   
the fatal obstinacy of so many          
conductors of the people1 are the       
necessary consequence of that flattery  
that is administered to them in their   
infancy--that feeds their hopes with    
allusive falsehoods--of the depraved    
malice of those who surround them--who  
wickedly corrupt them1 that they may    
profit by their folly--that they may    
take advantage of their weakness3 in    
short1 that these things are the        
inevitable effect of that profound      
ignorance of their true interest1 in    
which every thing strives to keep them4 
,the fatalist has no right to be vain of
 his peculiar talents2 no privilege to  
be proud of his virtues2 he knows that  
these qualities are only the consequence

 of his natural organization1 modified  
by circumstances that have in no wise   
depended upon himself4 ,he will neither 
have hatred nor feel contempt for those 
whom ,nature and circumstances have not 
favoured in a similar manner4 ,it is the
 fatalist who ought to be humble1 who   
should be modest from principle3 is he  
not obliged to acknowledge1 that he     
possesses nothing that he has not       
previously received8  ,in fact1 will not
 every thing conduct to indulgence the  
fatalist whom experience has convinced  
of the necessity of things8 ,will he not
 see with pain1 that it is the essence  
of a society badly constituted1 unwisely
 governed1 enslaved to prejudice1       
attached to unreasonable customs1       
submitted to irrational laws1 degraded  
under despotism1 corrupted by luxury1   
inebriated by false opinions1 to be     
filled with trifling members2 to be     
composed of vicious citizens2 to be made
 up of cringing slaves1 who are proud of
 their chains2 of ambitious men1 without

 idea of true glory2 of misers and      
prodigals2 of fanatics and libertines6  
,convinced of the necessary connection  
of things1 he will not be surprised to  
see that the supineness of their chiefs 
carries discouragement into their       
country1 or that the influence of their 
governors stirs up bloody wars by which 
it is depopulated1 and causes useless   
expenditures that impoverish it2 that   
all these excesses united1 is the reason
 why so many nations contain only men   
wanting happiness1 without understanding
 to attain it2 who are devoid of morals1
 destitute of virtue4 ,in all this he   
will contemplate nothing more than the  
necessary action and re-action of       
physics upon morals1 of morals upon     
physics4 ,in short1 all who acknowledge 
fatality1 will remain persuaded that a  
nation badly governed is a soil very    
fruitful in venomous reptiles--very     
abundant in poisonous plants2 that these
 have such a plentiful growth as to     
crowd each other and choak themselves4  

,it is in a country cultivated by the   
hands of a ,lycurgus1 that he will      
witness the production of intrepid      
citizens1 of noble-minded individuals1  
of disinterested men1 who are strangers 
to irregular pleasures4 ,in a country   
cultivated by a ,tiberius1 he will find 
nothing but villains with depraved      
hearts1 men with mean contemptible      
souls1 despicable informers1 execrable  
traitors4 ,it is the soil1 it is the    
circumstances in which man finds himself
 placed1 that renders him either a      
useful object or a prejudicial being3   
the wise man avoids the one1 as he would
 those dangerous reptiles whose nature  
it is to sting and communicate their    
deadly venom2 he attaches himself to the
 other1 esteems him1 loves him1 as he   
does those delicious fruits with whose  
rich maturity his palate is pleasantly  
gratified1 with whose cooling juices he 
finds himself agreeably refreshed3 he   
sees the wicked without anger--he       
cherishes the good with pleasure--he    

delights in the bountiful3 he knows full
 well that the tree which is languishing
 without culture in the arid1 sandy     
desert1 that is stunted for want of     
attention1 leafless for want of         
moisture1 that has grown crooked from   
neglect1 become barren from want of     
loam1 whose tender bark is gnawed by    
rapacious beasts of prey1 pierced by    
innumerable insects1 would perhaps have 
expanded far and wide its verdant boughs
 from a straight and stately stem1 have 
brought forth delectable fruit1 have    
afforded from its luxuriant foliage     
under its lambent leaves an umbrageous  
refreshing retreat from the scorching   
rays of a meridian sun1 have offered    
beneath its swelling branches1 under its
 matted tufts a shelter from the        
pitiless storm1 it its seed had been    
fortunately sown in a more fertile soil1
 placed in a more congenial climate1 had
 experienced the fostering cares of a   
skilful cultivator4  ,let it not then be
 said1 that it is degrading man reduce  

his functions to a pure mechanism2 that 
it is shamefully to undervalue him1     
scandalously to abuse him1 to compare   
him to a tree2 to an abject vegetation4 
,the philosopher devoid of prejudice    
does not understand this language1      
invented by those who are ignorant of   
what constitutes the true dignity of    
man4 ,a tree is an object which1 in its 
station1 joins the useful with the      
agreeable2 it merits our approbation    
when it produces sweet and pleasant     
fruit2 when it affords a favourable     
shade4 ,all machines are precious1 when 
they are truly useful1 when they        
faithfully perform the functions for    
which they are designed4 ,yes1 ,i speak 
it with courage1 reiterate it with      
pleasure1 the honest man1 when he has   
talents1 when he possesses virtue1 is1  
for the beings of his species1 a tree   
that furnishes them with delicious      
fruit1 that affords them refreshing     
shelter3 the honest man is a machine of 
which the springs are adapted to fulfil 

its functions in a manner that must     
gratify the expectation of all his      
fellows4 ,no1 ,i should not blush1 ,i   
should not feel degraded1 to be a       
machine of this sort2 and my heart would
 leap with joy1 if ,i could foresee that
 the fruit of my reflections would one  
day be useful to my race1 consoling to  
my fellow-man4  ,is not ,nature herself 
a vast machine1 of which the human      
species is but a very feeble spring8 ,i 
see nothing contemptible either in her  
or her productions2 all the beings who  
come out of her hands are good1 are     
noble1 are sublime1 whenever they       
co-operate to the production of another1
 to the maintenance of harmony in the   
sphere where they must act4 ,of whatever
 nature the soul may be1 whether it is  
made mortal1 or whether it be supposed  
immortal2 whether it is regarded as a   
spirit1 or whether it be looked upon as 
a portion of the body2 it will be found 
noble1 it will be estimated great1 it   
will be ranked good1 it will be         

considered sublime1 in a ,socrates1 in  
an ,aristides1 in a ,cato3 it will be   
thought abject1 it will be viewed as    
despicable1 it will be called corrupt1  
in a ,claudius1 in a ,sejanus1 in a     
,nero3 its energies will be admired1 we 
shall be delighted with its manner1     
fascinated with its efforts1 in a       
,shakespeare1 in a ,corneille1 in a     
,newton1 in a ,montesquieu3 its baseness
 will be lamented1 when we behold mean1 
contemptible men1 who flatter tyranny1  
or who servilely cringe at the foot of  
superstition4  ,all that has been said  
in the course of this work1 proves      
clearly that every thing is necessary2  
that every thing is always in order1    
relatively to ,nature2 where all beings 
do nothing more than follow the laws    
that are imposed on their respective    
classes4 ,it is part of her plan1 that  
certain portions of the earth shall     
bring forth delicious fruits1 shall     
blossom beauteous flowers2 whilst others
 shall only furnish brambles1 shall     

yield nothing but noxious vegetables3   
she has been willing that some societies
 should produce wise men1 great heroes2 
that others should only give birth to   
abject souls1 contemptible men1 without 
energy1 destitute of virtue4 ,passions1 
winds1 tempests1 hurricanes1 volcanoes1 
wars1 plagues1 famines1 diseases1 death1
 are as necessary to her eternal march  
as the beneficent heat of the sun1 the  
serenity of the atmosphere1 the gentle  
showers of spring1 plentiful years1     
peace1 health1 harmony1 life3 vice and  
virtue1 darkness and light1 and science 
are equally necessary2 the one are not  
benefits1 the other are not evils1      
except for those beings whose happiness 
they influence by either favouring or   
deranging their peculiar mode of        
existence4 ,the whole cannot be         
miserable1 but it may contain unhappy   
individuals4  ,nature1 then1 distributes
 with the same hand that which is called
 order1 and that which is called        
disorder2 that which is called pleasure1

 and that which is called pain3 in      
short1 she diffuses by the necessity of 
her existence1 good and evil in the     
world we inhabit4 ,let not man1         
therefore1 either arraign her bounty1 or
 tax her with malice2 let him not       
imagine that his feeble cries1 his weak 
supplications1 can never arrest her     
colossal power1 always acting after     
immutable laws2 let him submit silently 
to his condition2 and when he suffers1  
let him not seek a remedy by recurring  
to chimeras that his own distempered    
imagination has created2 let him draw   
from the stores of ,nature herself1 the 
remedies which she offers for the evil  
she brings upon him3 if she sends him   
diseases1 let him search in her bosom   
for those salutary productions to which 
she has given birth1 which will cure    
them3 if she gives him errors1 she also 
furnishes him with experience to        
counteract them2 in truth1 she supplies 
him with an antidote suitable to destroy
 their fatal effects4 ,if she permits   

man to groan under the pressure of his  
vices1 beneath the load of his follies1 
she also shews him in virtue1 a sure    
remedy for his infirmities3 if the evils
 that some societies experience are     
necessary1 when they shall have become  
too incommodious they will be           
irresistibly obliged to search for those
 remedies which ,nature will always     
point out to them4 ,if this ,nature has 
rendered existence insupportable1 to    
some unfortunate beings1 whom she       
appears to have selected for her        
victims1 still death1 is a door that    
will surely be opened to them--that will
 deliver them from their misfortunes1   
although in their puny1 imbecile1       
wayward judgment1 they may be deemed    
impossible of cure4  ,let not man1 then1
 accuse ,nature with being inexorable to
 him1 since there does not exist in her 
whole circle an evil for which she has  
not furnished the remedy1 to those who  
have the courage to seek it1 who have   
the fortitude to apply it4 ,nature      

follows general and necessary laws in   
all her operations2 physical calamity   
and moral evil are not to be ascribed to
 her want of kindness1 but to the       
necessity of things4 ,physical calamity 
is the derangement produced in man's    
organs by physical causes which he sees 
act3 moral evil is the derangement      
produced in him by physical causes of   
which the action is to him a secret4    
,these causes always terminate by       
producing sensible effects1 which are   
capable of striking his senses2 neither 
the thoughts nor the will of man ever   
shew themselves1 but by the marked      
effects they produce either in himself  
or upon those beings whom ,nature has   
rendered susceptible of feeling their   
impulse4 ,he suffers1 because it is of  
the essence of some beings to derange   
the economy of his machine2 he enjoys1  
because the properties of some beings   
are analogous to his own mode of        
existence2 he is born1 because it is of 
the nature of some matter to combine    

itself under a determinate form2 he     
lives1 he acts1 he thinks1 because it is
 of the essence of certain combinations 
to maintain themselves in existence by  
given means for a season2 at length he  
dies1 because a necessary law prescribes
 that all the combinations which are    
formed1 shall either be destroyed or    
dissolve themselves4 ,from all this it  
results1 that ,nature is impartial to   
all its productions2 she submits man1   
like all other beings1 to those eternal 
laws from which she has not even        
exempted herself2 if she was to suspend 
these laws1 even for an instant1 from   
that moment disorder would reign in her1
 system2 her harmony would be disturbed4
  ,those who wish to study ,nature1 must
 take experience for their guide2 this1 
and this only1 can enable them to dive  
into her secrets1 to unravel by degrees1
 the frequently imperceptible woof of   
those slender causes1 of which she      
avails herself to operate the greatest  
phenomena3 by the aid of experience1 man

 often discovers in her properties1     
perceives modes of action entirely      
unknown to the ages which have preceded 
him2 those effects which his            
grandfathers contemplated as marvellous1
 which they regarded as supernatural    
efforts1 looked upon as miracles1 have  
become familiar to him in the present   
day1 and are at this moment contemplated
 as simple and natural consequences1 of 
which he comprehends the mechanism--of  
which he understands the cause--of which
 he can unfold the manner of action4    
,man1 in fathoming ,nature1 has arrived 
at discovering the true causes of       
earthquakes2 of the periodical motion of
 the sea2 of subterraneous              
conflagrations2 of meteors2 of the      
electrical fluid1 the whole of which    
were considered by his ancestors1 and   
are still so by the ignorant1 by the    
uninformed1 as indubitable signs of     
heaven's wrath4 ,his posterity1 in      
following up1 in rectifying the         
experience already made1 will perhaps go

 further1 and discover those causes     
which are totally veiled from present   
eyes4 ,the united efforts of the human  
species will one day perhaps penetrate  
even into the sanctuary of ,nature1 and 
throw into light many of those mysteries
 which up to the present time she seems 
to have refused to all his researches4  
,in contemplating man under his true    
aspect2 in quitting authority to follow 
experience2 in laying aside error to    
consult reason2 in submitting every     
thing to physical laws1 from which his  
imagination has vainly exerted its      
utmost power to withdraw them2 it will  
be found that the phenomena of the moral
 world follow exactly the same general  
rules as those of the physical2 that the
 greater part of those astonishing      
effects1 which ignorance1 aided by his  
prejudices1 make him consider as        
inexplicable1 and regard as wonderful1  
are natural consequences flowing from   
simple causes4 ,he will find that the   
eruption of a volcano and the birth of a

 ,tamerlane are to ,nature the same     
thing2 in recurring to the primitive    
causes of those striking events which he
 beholds with consternation1 which he   
contemplates with fearful alarm1 in     
falling back to the sources of those    
terrible revolutions1 those frightful   
convulsions1 those dreadful explosions  
that distract mankind1 lay waste the    
fairest works of ,nature1 ravage        
nations1 and tear up society by the     
roots2 he will find the wills that      
compassed the most surprising changes1  
that operated the most extensive        
alterations in the state of things1 that
 brought about the most unlooked-for    
events1 were moved by physical causes1  
whose exility made him treat them as    
contemptible2 whose want of consequence 
in his own purblind eyes led him to     
believe them utterly incapable to give  
birth to the phenomena whose magnitude  
strikes him with such awe1 whose        
stupendous range fills him with such    
amazement4  ,if man was to judge of     

causes by their effects1 there would be 
no small causes in the universe4 ,in a  
,nature where every thing is connected1 
where every thing acts and re-acts1     
moves and changes1 composes and         
decomposes1 forms and destroys1 there is
 not an atom which does not play an     
important part--that does not occupy a  
necessary station2 there is not an      
imperceptible particle1 however minute1 
which1 placed in convenient             
circumstances1 does not operate the most
 prodigious effects4 ,if man was in a   
capacity to follow the eternal chain1 to
 pursue the concatenated links1 that    
connect with their causes all the       
effects he witnesses1 without losing    
sight of any one of its rings1--if he   
could unravel the ends of those         
insensible threads that give impulse to 
the thoughts1 decision to the will1     
direction to the passions of those men  
who are called mighty1 according to     
their actions1 he would find1 they are  
true atoms which ,nature employs to move

 the moral world2 that it is the        
unexpected but necessary function of    
these indiscernible particles of matter1
 it is their aggregation1 their         
combination1 their proportion1 their    
fermentation1 which modifying the       
individual by degrees1 in despite of    
himself1 frequently without his own     
knowledge1 make him think1 will1 and    
act1 in a determinate1 but necessary    
mode4 ,if1 then1 the will and the       
actions of this individual have an      
influence over a great number of other  
men1 here is the moral world in a state 
of the greatest combustion1 and those   
consequences ensue which man            
contemplates with fearful wonder4 ,too  
much acrimony in the bile of a          
fanatic--blood too much inflamed in the 
heart of a conqueror--a painful         
indigestion in the stomach of a         
monarch--a whim that passes in the mind 
of a woman--are sometimes causes        
sufficient to bring on war--to send     
millions of men to the slaughter--to    

root out an entire people--to overthrow 
walls--to reduce cities into ashes--to  
plunge nations into slavery--to put a   
whole people into mourning--to breed    
famine in a land--to engender           
pestilence--to propagate calamity--to   
extend misery--to spread desolation far 
and wide upon the surface of our globe1 
through a long series of ages4  ,the    
dominant passion of an individual of the
 human species1 when it disposes of the 
passions of many others1 arrives at     
combining their will1 at uniting their  
efforts1 and thus decides the condition 
of man4 ,it is after this manner that an
 ambitious1 crafty1 and voluptuous      
,arab1 gave to his countrymen an impulse
 of which the effect was the subjugation
 and desolation of vast countries in    
,asia1 in ,africa1 and in ,europe2 whose
 consequences were sufficiently         
potential to erect a new1 extensive1 but
 slavish empire2 to give a novel system 
of religion to millions of human beings2
 to overturn the altars of their former 

gods2 in short1 to alter the opinions1  
to change the customs of a considerable 
portion of the population of the earth4 
,but in examining the primitive sources 
of this strange revolution1 what were   
the concealed causes that had an        
influence over this man--that excited   
his peculiar passions1 and modified his 
temperament8 ,what was the matter from  
the combination of which resulted a     
crafty1 ambitious1 enthusiastic1 and    
eloquent man2 in short1 a personage     
competent to impose on his              
fellow-creatures--capable of making them
 concur in his most extravagant views4  
,they were1 undoubtedly1 the insensible 
particles of his blood2 the             
imperceptible texture of his fibres2 the
 salts1 more or less acrid1 that        
stimulated his nerves2 the proportion of
 igneous fluid that circulated in his   
system4 ,from whence came these         
elements8 ,it was from the womb of his  
mother2 from the aliments which         
nourished him2 from the climate in which

 he had his birth2 from the ideas he    
received2 from the air which he         
respired2 without reckoning a thousand  
inappreciable1 a thousand transitory    
causes1 that in the instance given had  
modified1 had determined the passions of
 this importent being1 who had thereby  
acquired the capacity to change the face
 of this mundane sphere4  ,to causes so 
weak in their principles1 if in the     
origin the slightest obstacle had been  
opposed1 these wonderful events1 which  
have astounded man1 would never have    
been produced4 ,the fit of an ague1 the 
consequence of bile a little too much   
inflamed1 had sufficed1 perhaps1 to have
 rendered abortive all the vast         
projects1 of the legislator of the      
,mussulmen4 ,spare diet1 a glass of     
water1 a sanguinary evacuation1 would   
sometimes have been sufficient to have  
saved kingdoms4  ,it will be seen1 then1
 that the condition of the human        
species1 as well as that of each of its 
individuals1 every instant depends on   

insensible causes1 to which             
circumstances1 frequently fugitive1 give
 birth2 that opportunity developes1 that
 convenience puts in action3 man        
attributes their effects to chance1     
whilst these causes operate necessarily1
 act according to fixed rules3 he has   
frequently neither the sagacity nor the 
honesty to recur to their true          
principles2 he regards such feeble      
motives with contempt1 because he has   
been taught to consider them as         
incapable of producing such stupendous  
events4 ,they are1 however1 these       
motives1 weak as they may appear to be1 
these springs1 so pitiful in his eyes1  
is which according to her necessary     
laws1 suffice in the hands of ,nature to
 move the universe4 ,the conquests of a 
,gengis-,khan have nothing in them that 
is more strange to the eye of a         
philosopher than the explosion of a     
mine1 caused in its principle by a      
feeble spark1 which commences with      
setting fire to a single grain of       

powder2 this presently communicates     
itself to many millions of other        
contiguous grains1 of which the united  
force1 the multiplied powers1 terminate 
by blowing up mountains1 overthrowing   
fortifications1 or converting populous1 
well-built cities1 into heaps of ruins4 
,thus1 imperceptible causes1 concealed  
in the bosom of ,nature1 until the      
moment their action is displayed1       
frequently decide the fate of man4 ,the 
happiness or the wretchedness1 the      
prosperity or the misery of each        
individual1 as well as that of whole    
nations1 are attached to powers which it
 is impossible for him to foresee1 which
 he cannot appreciate1 of which he is   
incapable to arrest the action4 ,perhaps
 at this moment atoms are amassing1     
insensible particles are combining1 of  
which the assemblage shall form a       
sovereign1 who will be either the       
scourge or the saviour of a mighty      
empire4 ,man cannot answer for his own  
destiny one single instant2 he has no   

cognizance of what is passing within    
himself2 he is ignorant of the causes   
which act in the interior of his        
machine2 he knows nothing of the        
circumstances that will give them       
activity3 he is unacquainted with what  
may develope their energy2 it is1       
nevertheless1 on these causes1          
impossible to be unravelled by him1 that
 depends his condition in life4         
,frequently1 an unforeseen rencontre    
gives birth to a passion in his soul1 of
 which the consequences shall1          
necessarily1 have an influence over his 
felicity4 ,it is thus that the most     
virtuous man1 by a whimsical combination
 of unlooked-for circumstances1 may     
become in an instant the most criminal  
of his species4  ,this truth1 without   
doubt1 will be found frightful--this    
fact will unquestionably appear         
terrible3 but at bottom1 what has it    
more revolting than that which teaches  
him that an infinity of accidents1 as   
irremediable as they are unforeseen1 may

 every instant wrest from him that life 
to which he is so strongly attached8    
,fatalism reconciles the good man easily
 to death3 it makes him contemplate it  
as a certain means of withdrawing       
himself from wickedness2 this system    
shews death1 even to the happy man      
himself1 as a medium between him and    
those misfortunes which frequently      
terminate by poisoning his happiness2   
that end with embittering the most      
fortunate existence4  ,let man1 then1   
submit to necessity3 in despite of      
himself it will always hurry him        
forward3 let him resign himself to      
,nature1 let him accept the good with   
which she presents him3 let him oppose  
to the necessary evil which she makes   
him experience1 those necessary remedies
 which she consents to afford him2 let  
him not disturb his mind with useless   
inquietude2 let him enjoy with          
moderation1 because he will find that   
pain is the necessary companion of      
excess3 let him follow the paths of     

virtue1 because every thing will prove  
to him1 even in this world of           
perverseness1 that it is absolutely     
necessary to render him estimable in the
 eyes of others1 to make him contented  
with himself4  ,feeble1 vain mortal1    
thou pretendest to be a free agent4     
,alas6 dost thou not see all the threads
 which enchain thee8 ,dost thou not     
perceive that they are atoms which form 
thee2 that they are atoms which move    
thee2 that they are circumstances       
independent of thyself1 that modify thy 
being2 that they are circumstances over 
which thou hast not any controul1 that  
rule thy destiny8 ,in the puissant      
,nature that environs thee1 shalt thou  
pretend to be the only being who is able
 to resist her power8 ,dost thou really 
believe that thy weak prayers will      
induce her to stop in her eternal march2
 that thy sickly desires can oblige her 
to change her everlasting course8       
,,chap4 ,,xiii4  ,of the ,immortality of
 the ,soul2--of the ,doctrine of a      

future ,state2--of the ,fear of ,death4 
,the reflections presented to the reader
 in this work1 tend to shew what ought  
to be thought of the human soul1 as well
 as of its operations and faculties3    
every thing proves1 in the most         
convincing manner1 that it acts1 that it
 moves according to laws similar to     
those prescribed to the other beings of 
,nature2 that it cannot be distinguished
 from the body2 that it is born with it2
 that it grows up with it2 that it is   
modified in the same progression2 in    
short1 every thing ought to make man    
conclude that it perishes with it4 ,this
 soul1 as well as the body1 passes      
through a state of weakness and infancy2
 it is in this stage of its existence1  
that it is assailed by a multitude of   
modifications2 that it is stored with an
 infinity of ideas1 which it receives   
from exterior objects through the medium
 of the organs2 that it amasses facts1  
that it collects experience1 whether    
true or false1 that it forms to itself a

 system of conduct1 according to which  
it thinks1 in conformity with which it  
acts1 from whence results either its    
happiness or its misery1 its reason or  
its delirium1 its virtues or its vices2 
arrived with the body at its full       
powers1 having in conjunction with it   
reached maturity1 it does not cease for 
a single instant to partake in common of
 its sensations1 whether these are      
agreeable or disagreeable2 it           
participates in all its pleasures2 it   
shares in all its pains2 in consequence 
it conjointly approves or disapproves   
its state2 like it1 it is either sound  
or diseased2 active or languishing2     
awake or asleep4 ,in old age man        
extinguishes entirely1 his fibres become
 rigid1 his nerves loose their          
elasticity1 his senses are obtunded1 his
 sight grows dim1 his ears lose their   
quickness1 his ideas become unconnected1
 his memory fails1 his imagination      
cools3 what then becomes of his soul8   
,alas6 it sinks down with the body2 it  

gets benumbed as this loses its feeling2
 becomes sluggish as this decays in     
activity2 like it1 when enfeebled by    
years it fulfils its functions with     
pain2 this substance1 which is deemed   
spiritual1 which is considered          
immaterial1 which it is endeavoured to  
distinguish from matter1 undergoes the  
same revolutions1 experiences the same  
vicissitudes1 submits to the same       
modifications1 as does the body itself4 
,in despite of this proof of the        
materiality of the soul1 of its identity
 with the body1 so convincing to the    
unprejudiced1 some thinkers have        
supposed1 that although the latter is   
perishable1 the former does not perish3 
that this portion of man enjoys the     
especial privilege of immortality2 that 
it is exempt from dissolution3 free from
 those changes of form all the beings in
 ,nature undergo3 in consequence of     
this1 man has persuaded himself1 that   
this privileged soul does not die3 its  
immortality1 above all1 appears         

indubitable to those who suppose it     
spiritual3 after having made it a simple
 being1 without extent1 devoid of parts1
 totally different from any thing of    
which he has a knowledge1 he pretended  
that it was not subjected to the laws of
 decomposition common to all beings1 of 
which experience shews him the continual
 operation4  ,man1 feeling within       
himself a concealed force1 that         
insensibly produced action1 that        
imperceptibly gave direction to the     
motion of his machine1 believed that the
 entire of ,nature1 of whose energies he
 is ignorant1 with whose modes of acting
 he is unacquainted1 owed its motion to 
an agent analogous to his own soul2 who 
acted upon the great macrocosm1 in the  
same manner that this soul acted upon   
his body4 ,man1 having supposed himself 
double1 made ,nature double also3 he    
distinguished her from her own peculiar 
energy2 he separated her from her mover1
 which by degrees he made spiritual4    
,thus ,nature1 distinguished from       

herself1 was regarded as the soul of the
 world2 and the soul of man was         
considered as opinions emanating from   
this universal soul4 ,this notion upon  
the origin of the soul is of very remote
 antiquity4 ,it was that of the         
,egyptians1 of the ,chaldeans1 of the   
,hebrews1 of the greater number of the  
wise men of the east4 ,it should appear 
that ,moses believed with the ,egyptians
 the divine emanation of souls3         
according to him1 ,god formed man of the
 dust of the ground1 and breathed into  
his nostrils the breath of life2 and man
 became a living soul3 nevertheless1 the
 ,catholic1 at this day1 rejects this   
system of divine emanation1 seeing that 
it supposes the ,divinity divisible3    
which would have1 been inconvenient to  
the ,romish idea of purgatory1 or to the
 system of everlasting punishment4      
,although ,moses1 in the above          
quotation1 seems to indicate that the   
soul was a portion of the ,divinity1 it 
does not appear that the doctrine of the

 immortality of the soul was established
 in any one of the books attributed to  
him4 ,it was during the ,babylonish     
captivity1 that the ,jews learned the   
doctrine of future rewards and          
punishments1 taught by ,zoroaster to the
 ,persians1 but which the ,hebrew       
legislator did not understand1 or1 at   
least1 he left his people ignorant on   
the subject4 ,it was in those schools1  
that ,pherecydes1 ,pythagoras1 and      
,plato1 drew up a doctrine so flattering
 to the vanity of human nature--so      
gratifying to the imagination of        
mortals4 ,man thus believed himself a   
portion of the ,divinity2 immortal1 like
 the ,godhead1 in one part of himself3  
nevertheless1 subsequent religions have 
renounced these advantages1 which they  
judged incompatible with the other parts
 of their systems2 they held forth that 
the ,sovereign of ,nature1 or her       
contriver was not the soul of man1 but1 
that1 in virtue of his omnipotence1 he  
created human souls1 in proportion as he

 produced the bodies which they must    
animate2 and they taught1 that these    
souls once produced1 by an effect of the
 same omnipotence1 enjoyed immortality4 
,however it may be with these variations
 upon the origin of souls1 those who    
supposed them emanating from the        
,divinity1 believed that after the death
 of the body1 which served them for an  
envelope1 they returned1 by refunding to
 their first source4 ,those who1 without
 adopting the opinion of divine         
emanation1 admired the spirituality1    
believed the immortality of the soul1   
were under the necessity to suppose a   
region1 to find out an abode for these  
souls1 which their imagination painted  
to them1 each according to his fears1   
his hopes1 his desires1 and his         
prejudices4  ,nothing is more popular   
than the doctrine of the immortality of 
the soul2 nothing is more universally   
diffused than the expectation of another
 life4 ,nature having inspired man with 
the most ardent love for his existence1 

the desire of preserving himself for    
ever was a necessary consequence2 this  
desire was presently converted into     
certainty3 from that desire of existing 
eternally which ,nature has implanted in
 him1 he made an argument1 to prove that
 man would never cease to exist4 ,abady 
says1 our soul has no useless desires1  
it naturally desires an eternal life2   
and by a very strange logic1 he         
concludes that this desire could not    
fail to be fulfilled4 ,cicero1 before   
,abady1 had declared the immortality of 
the soul to be an innate idea in man2   
yet1 strange to tell1 in another part of
 his works he considers ,pherecydes as  
the inventor of the doctrine4 ,however  
this may be1 man1 thus disposed1        
listened with avidity to those who      
announced to him systems so conformable 
to his wishes4 ,nevertheless1 he ought  
not to regard as supernatural the desire
 of existing1 which always was1 and     
always will be1 of the essence man2 it  
ought not to excite surprise1 if he     

received with eagerness an hypothesis   
that flattered his hopes1 by promising  
that his desire would one day be        
gratified2 but let him beware how he    
concludes that this desire itself is an 
indubitable proof of the reality of this
 future life1 with which at present he  
seems to be so much occupied4 ,the      
passion for existence is in man only a  
natural consequence of the tendency of a
 sensible being1 whose essence it is to 
be willing to conserve himself3 in the  
human being it follows the energy of his
 soul--keeps pace with the force of his 
imagination--always ready to realize    
that which he strongly desires4 ,he     
desires the life of the body1           
nevertheless this desire is frustrated2 
wherefore should not the desire for the 
life of the soul be frustrated like the 
other8 ,the partizans of the doctrine of
 the immortality of the soul reason     
thus3 ,all men desire to live for ever1 
therefore they will live for ever4      
,suppose the argument retorted on them2 

would it be believed8 ,if it was        
asserted1 ,all men naturally desire to  
be rich2 therefore all men will one day 
be rich1 how many partizans would this  
doctrine find8  ,the most simple        
reflection upon the nature of his soul1 
ought to convince man that the idea of  
its immortality is only an illusion of  
the brain4 ,indeed what is his soul1    
save the principle of sensibility8 ,what
 is it1 to think1 to enjoy1 to suffer2  
is it not to feel8 ,what is life1 except
 it be the assemblage of modifications1 
the congregation of motion1 peculiar to 
an organized being8 ,thus1 as soon as   
the body ceases to live1 its sensibility
 can no longer exercise itself2 when its
 sensibility is no more1 it can no      
longer have ideas1 nor in consequence   
thoughts4 ,ideas1 as we have proved1 can
 only reach man through his senses2 now1
 how will they have it1 that once       
deprived of his senses1 he is yet       
capable of receiving sensations1 of     
having perceptions1 of forming ideas8   

,as they have made the soul of man a    
being separated from the animated body1 
wherefore have they not made life a     
being distinguished from the living     
body8 ,life in a body is the totality of
 this motion2 feeling and thought make a
 part of this motion3 thus it is        
reasonable to suppose1 that in the dead 
man these motions will cease1 like all  
the others4  ,indeed1 by what reasoning 
will it be proved1 that this soul1 which
 cannot feel1 think1 will1 or act1 but  
by aid of man's organs1 can suffer pain1
 be susceptible of pleasure1 or even    
have a consciousness of its own         
existence1 when the organs which should 
warn it of their presence are decomposed
 or destroyed8 ,is it not evident1 that 
the soul depends on the arrangement of  
the various parts of the body2 on the   
order with which these parts conspire to
 perform their functions2 on the        
combined motion of the whole8 ,thus the 
organic structure once destroyed1 can it
 be reasonably doubted the soul will be 

destroyed also8 ,is it not seen1 that   
during the whole course of human life   
this soul is stimulated1 changed1       
deranged1 disturbed1 by all the changes 
man's organs experience8 ,and yet it    
will be insisted1 that this soul acts1  
thinks1 subsists1 when these same organs
 have entirely disappeared6  ,an        
organized being may be compared to a    
clock1 which once broken1 is no longer  
suitable to the use for which it was    
designed4 ,to say1 that the soul shall  
feel1 shall think1 shall enjoy1 shall   
suffer after the death of the body2 is  
to pretend that a clock1 shivered into a
 thousand pieces1 will continue to      
strike the hour2 shall yet have the     
faculty of marking the progress of time4
 ,those who say1 that the soul of man is
 able to subsist1 notwithstanding the   
destruction of the body1 evidently      
support the position1 that the          
modification of a body will be enabled  
to conserve itself after the subject is 
destroyed3 this on any other occasion   

would be considered as completely       
absurd4  ,it will be said that the      
conservation of the soul after the death
 of the body1 is an effect of the       
,divine ,omnipotence3 but this is       
supporting an absurdity by a gratuitous 
hypothesis4 ,it surely is not meant by  
,divine ,omnipotence1 of whatever nature
 it may be supposed1 that a thing shall 
exist and not exist at the same time3   
unless this be granted1 it will be      
rather difficult to prove1 that a soul  
shall feel and think without the        
intermediates necessary to thought4     
,let them then1 at least1 forbear       
asserting1 that reason is not wounded by
 the doctrine of the immortality of the 
soul2 or by the expectation of a future 
life4 ,these notions1 formed to flatter 
man1 to disturb the imagination of the  
uninformed1 who do not reason1 cannot   
appear either convincing or probable to 
enlightened minds4 ,reason1 exempted    
from the illusions of prejudice1 is1    
without doubt1 wounded by the           

supposition of a soul1 that feels1 that 
thinks1 that is afflicted1 that         
rejoices1 that has ideas1 without having
 organs2 that is to say1 destitute of   
the only known medium1 wanting all the  
natural means1 by which1 according to   
what we can understand1 it is possible  
for it to feel sensations1 have         
perceptions1 or form ideas4 ,if it be   
replied1 other means are able to exist1 
which are supernatural or unknown1 it   
may be answered1 that these means of    
transmitting ideas to the soul1         
separated from the body1 are not better 
known to1 or more within the reach of1  
those who suppose it1 that they are of  
other men4 ,it is1 at least1 very       
certain1 it cannot admit even of a      
controversy1 that all those who reject  
the system of innate ideas1 cannot1     
without contradicting their own         
principles1 admit the doctrine of the   
immortality of the soul4  ,in defiance  
of the consolation that so many persons 
pretend to find in the notion of an     

eternal existence2 in despite of that   
firm persuasion which such numbers of   
men assure us they have1 that their     
souls will survive their bodies1 they   
seem so very much alarmed at the        
dissolution of this body1 that they do  
not contemplate their end1 which they   
ought to desire as the period of so many
 miseries1 but with the greatest        
inquietude2 so true it is1 that the     
real1 the present1 even accompanied with
 pain1 has much more influence over     
mankind1 than the most beautiful        
chimeras of the future2 which he never  
views but through the clouds of         
uncertainty4 ,indeed the most religious 
men1 notwithstanding the conviction they
 express of a blessed eternity1 do not  
find these flattering hopes sufficiently
 consoling to repress their fears2 to   
prevent their trembling1 when they think
 on the necessary dissolution of their  
bodies4 ,death was always1 for mortals1 
the most frightful point of view2 they  
regard it as a strange phenomenon1      

contrary to the order of things1 opposed
 to ,nature2 in a word1 as an effect of 
the celestial vengeance1 as the wages of
 sin4 ,although every thing proves to   
man that death is inevitable1 he is     
never able to familiarize himself with  
its idea2 he never thinks on it without 
shuddering2 the assurance of possessing 
an immortal soul but feebly indemnifies 
him for the grief he feels in the       
deprivation of his perishable body4 ,two
 causes contribute to strengthen his    
fears1 to nourish his alarm2 the one is1
 that this death1 commonly accompanied  
with pain1 wrests from him an existence 
that pleases him--with which he is      
acquainted--to which he is accustomed2  
the other is the uncertainty of the     
state that must succeed his actual      
existence4  ,the illustrious ,bacon has 
said1 that men fear death for the same  
reason that children dread being alone  
in darkness4 ,man naturally challenges  
every thing with which he is            
unacquainted2 he is desirous to see     

clearly to the end1 that he may         
guarantee himself against those objects 
which may menace his safety2 that he may
 also be enabled to procure for himself 
those which may be useful to him2 the   
man who exists cannot form to himself   
any idea of non-existence2 as this      
circumstance disturbs him1 for want of  
experience1 his imagination sets to     
work2 this points out to him1 either    
well or ill1 this uncertain state3      
accustomed to think1 to feel1 to be     
stimulated into activity1 to enjoy      
society1 he contemplates as the greatest
 misfortune1 a dissolution that will    
strip him of these objects1 that will   
deprive him of those sensations which   
his present nature has rendered         
necessary to him2 he views with dismay a
 situation that will prevent his being  
warned of his own existence--that shall 
bereave him of his pleasures--to plunge 
him into nothing4 ,in supposing it even 
exempt from pain1 he always looks upon  
this nothing as an afflicting           

solitude--as an heap of profound        
darkness2 he sees himself in a state of 
general desolation2 destitute of all    
assistance2 and he feels keenly all the 
rigour of this frightful situation4 ,but
 does not a profound sleep help to give 
him a true idea of this nothing8 ,does  
not that deprive him of every thing8    
,does it not appear to annihilate the   
universe to him1 and him to the         
universe8 ,is death any thing more than 
a profound1 a permanent steep8 ,it is   
for want of being able to form an idea  
of death that man dreads it2 if he could
 figure to himself a true image of this 
state of annihilation1 he would from    
thence cease to fear it2 but he is not  
able to conceive a state in which there 
is no feeling2 he therefore believes1   
that when he shall no longer exist1 he  
will have the same feelings1 the same   
consciousness of things1 which1 during  
his existence1 appear so sad to his     
mind2 which his fancy paints in such    
gloomy colours4 ,imagination pictures to

 him his funeral pomp--the grave they   
are digging for him--the lamentations   
that will accompany him to his last     
abode-the epicedium that surviving      
friendship may dictate2 he persuades    
himself that these melancholy objects   
will affect him as painfully even after 
his decease1 as they do in his present  
condition1 in which he is in full       
possession of his senses4  ,mortal1 led 
astray by fear6 after thy death thine   
eyes will see no more2 thine ears will  
hear no longer2 in the depth of thy     
grave thou wilt no more be witness to   
this scene1 which thine imagination1 at 
present1 represents to thee under such  
dismal colours2 thou wilt no longer take
 part in what shall be done in the      
world2 thou wilt no more be occupied    
with what may befal thine inanimate     
remains1 than thou wast able to be the  
day previous to that which ranked thee  
among the beings of thy species4 ,to die
 is to cease to think2 to lack feeling2 
no longer to enjoy2 to find a period to 

suffering2 thine ideas will perish with 
thee2 thy sorrows will not follow thee  
to the silent tomb4 ,think of death1 not
 to feed thy fears--not to nourish thy  
melancholy--but to accustom thyself to  
look upon it with a peaceable eye2 to   
cheer thee up against those false       
terrors with which the enemies to thy   
repose labour to inspire thee6 ,the     
fears of death are vain illusions1 that 
must disappear as soon as we learn to   
contemplate this necessary event under  
its true point of view4 ,a great man has
 defined philosophy to be a meditation  
on death2 he is not desirous by that to 
have it understood that man ought to    
occupy himself sorrowfully with his end1
 with a view to nourish his fears2 on   
the contrary1 he wishes to invite him to
 familiarize himself with an object that
 ,nature has rendered necessary to him2 
to accustom himself to expect it with a 
serene countenance4 ,if life is a       
benefit1 if it be necessary to love it1 
it is no less necessary to quit it2     

reason ought to teach him a calm        
resignation to the decrees of fate3 his 
welfare exacts that he should contract  
the habit of contemplating with         
placidity1 of viewing without alarm1 an 
event that his essence has rendered     
inevitable3 his interest demands that he
 should not brood gloomily over his     
misfortune2 that he should not1 by      
continual dread1 embitter his life2 the 
charms of which he must inevitably      
destroy1 if he can never view its       
termination but with trepidation4       
,reason and his interest then1 concur to
 assure him against those vague terrors 
with which his imagination inspires him1
 in this respect4 ,if he was to call    
them to his assistance1 they would      
reconcile him to an object that only    
startles him1 because he has no         
knowledge of it2 because it is only     
shewn to him with those hideous         
accompaniments with which it is clothed 
by superstition4 ,let him then1         
endeavour to despoil death of these vain

 illusions1 and he will perceive that it
 is only the sleep of life2 that this   
sleep will not be disturbed with        
disagreeable dreams2 that an unpleasant 
awakening is never likely to follow it4 
,to die is to sleep2 it is to enter into
 that state of insensibility in which he
 was previous to his birth2 before he   
had senses2 before he was conscious of  
his actual existence4 ,laws1 as         
necessary as those which gave him birth1
 will make him return into the bosom of 
,nature1 from whence he was drawn1 in   
order to reproduce him afterwards under 
some new form1 which it would be useless
 for him to know3 without consulting    
him1 ,nature places him for a season in 
the order of organized beings2 without  
his consent1 she will oblige him to quit
 it1 to occupy some other order4  ,let  
him not complain then1 that ,nature is  
callous2 she only makes him undergo a   
law from which she does not exempt any  
one being she contains4 ,man complains  
of the short duration of life--of the   

rapidity with which time flies away2 yet
 the greater number of men do not know  
how to employ either time or life4 ,if  
all are born and perish--if every thing 
is changed and destroyed--if the birth  
of a being is never more than the first 
step towards its end2 how is it possible
 to expect that man1 whose machine is so
 frail1 of which the parts are so       
complicated1 the whole of which         
possesses such extreme mobility1 should 
be exempted from the common law2 which  
decrees1 that even the solid earth he   
inhabits shall experience change--shall 
undergo alteration--perhaps be          
destroyed6 ,feeble1 frail mortal6 ,thou 
pretendest to exist for ever2 whit thou1
 then1 that for thee alone eternal      
,nature shall change her undeviating    
course8 ,dost thou not behold in those  
eccentric comets with which thine eyes  
are sometimes astonished1 that the      
planets themselves are subject to death8
 ,live then in peace for the season that
 ,nature permits thee2 if thy mind be   

enlightened by reason thou wilt die     
without terror6  ,notwithstanding the   
simplicity of these reflections2 nothing
 is more rare than the sight of men     
truly fortified against the fears of    
death3 the wise man himself turns pale  
at its approach2 he has occasion to     
collect the whole force of his mind1 to 
expect it with serenity4 ,it cannot     
then1 furnish matter for surprise1 if   
the idea of death is so revolting to the
 generality of mortals2 it terrifies the
 young--it redoubles the chagrin of the 
middle-aged--it even augments the sorrow
 of the old1 who are worn down with     
infirmity3 indeed the aged1 although    
enfeebled by time1 dread it much more   
than the young1 who are in the full     
vigour of life2 the man of many lustres 
is more accustomed to live years as they
 roll over his head1 confirm his        
attachment to existence2 nevertheless1  
long unwearied exertions weaken the     
powers of his mind2 labour1 sickness1   
and pain1 waste his animal strength2 he 

has less energy2 his volition becomes   
faint1 superstitious terrors easily     
appal him2 at length disease consumes   
him2 sometimes with excruciating        
tortures3 the unhappy wretch1 thus      
plunged into misfortune1 has1           
notwithstanding1 scarcely ever dared to 
contemplate death2 which he ought to    
consider as the period to all his       
anguish4  ,if the source of this        
pusillanimity be sought1 it will be     
found in his nature1 which attaches him 
to life2 in that deficiency of energy in
 his soul1 which hardly any thing tends 
to corroborate1 but which every thing   
strives to enfeeble3 which superstition1
 instead of strengthening1 contributes  
to bruise4 ,almost all human            
institutions1 nearly all the opinions of
 man1 conspire to augment his fears2 to 
render his ideas of death more terrible2
 to make them more revolting to his     
feelings4 ,indeed1 superstition pleases 
itself with exhibiting death under the  
most frightful traits3 it represents it 

to man under the most disgusting        
colours2 as a dreadful moment1 which not
 only puts an end to his pleasures1 but 
gives him up without defence to the     
strange rigour of a pitiless decree1    
which nothing can soften4 ,according to 
this superstition1 the most virtuous man
 has reason to tremble for the severity 
of his fate2 is never certain of being  
happy2 the most dreadful torments1      
endless punishments1 await the victim to
 involuntary weakness2 to the necessary 
faults of a short-lived existence2 his  
infirmities1 his momentary offences1 the
 propensities that have been planted in 
his heart1 the errors of his mind1 the  
opinions he has imbibed1 even in the    
society in which he was born without his
 own consent1 the ideas he has formed1  
the passions he has indulged above all1 
his not being able to comprehend all the
 extravagant dogmas offered to his      
acceptance1 are to be implacably avenged
 with the most severe and never-ending  
penalties4 ,ixion is for ever fastened  

to his wheel2 ,sisyphus must to all     
eternity roll his stone without ever    
being able to reach the apex of his     
mountain2 the vulture must perpetually  
prey on the liver of the unfortunate    
,prometheus3 those who dare to think for
 themselves--those who have refused to  
listen to their enthusiastic            
guides--those who have not reverenced   
the oracles--those who have had the     
audacity to consult their reason--those 
who have boldly ventured to detect      
impostors--those who have doubted the   
divine mission of the                   
,phythonissa--those who believe that    
,jupiter violated decency in his visit  
to ,danae--those who look upon ,apollo  
as no better than a strolling           
musician--those who think that ,mahomet 
was an arch knave--are to smart         
everlastingly in flaming oceans of      
burning sulpher2 are to float to all    
eternity in the most excruciating       
agonies on seas of liquid brimstone1    
wailing and gnashing their teeth3 what  

wonder1 then1 if man dreads to be cast  
into these hideous gulfs2 if his mind   
loathes the horrific picture2 if he     
wishes to defer for a season these      
dreadful punishments2 if he clings to an
 existence1 painful as it may be1 rather
 than encounter such revolting          
cruelties4  ,such1 then1 are the        
afflicting objects with which           
superstition occupies its unhappy1 its  
credulous disciples2 such are the fears 
which the tyrant of human thoughts      
points out to them as salutary4 ,in     
defiance ,of the exility of the effect  
which these notions produce oil the     
greater number1 even of those who say   
they are1 or who believe themselves     
persuaded1 they are held forth as the   
most powerful rampart that can be       
opposed to the irregularities of man4   
,nevertheless1 as will be seen          
presently1 it will be found that these  
systems1 or rather these chimeras1 so   
terrible to behold1 operate little or   
nothing on the larger portion of        

mankind1 who dream of them but seldom1  
never in the moment that passion1       
interest1 pleasure1 or example1 hurries 
them along4 ,if these fears act1 it is  
commonly on those1 who have but little  
occasion to abstain from evil2 they make
 honest hearts tremble1 but fail of     
effect on the perverse4 ,they torment   
sensible souls1 but leave those that are
 hardened in repose2 they disturb       
tractable1 gentle minds1 but cause no   
trouble to rebellious spirits3 thus they
 alarm none but those who are already   
sufficiently alarmed2 they coerce only  
those who are already restrained4       
,these notions1 then1 impress nothing on
 the wicked2 when by accident they do   
act on them1 it is only to redouble the 
wickedness of their natural             
character--to justify them in their own 
eyes--to furnish them with pretexts to  
exercise it without fear--to follow it  
without scruple4 ,indeed1 the experience
 of a great number of ages has shewn to 
what excess of wickedness1 to what      

lengths1 the passions of man have       
carried him1 when they have been        
authorized by the priesthood--when they 
have been unchained by superstition--or1
 at least1 when he has been enabled to  
cover himself with its mantle4 ,man has 
never been more ambitious1 never more   
covetous1 never more crafty1 never more 
cruel1 never more seditious1 than when  
he has persuaded himself that           
superstition permitted or commanded him 
to be so3 thus1 superstition did nothing
 more than lend an invincible force to  
his natural passions1 which under its   
sacred auspices he could exercise with  
impunity1 indulge without remorse2 still
 more1 the greatest villains1 in giving 
free vent to the detestable propensities
 of their natural wickedness1 have under
 its influence believed1 that1 by       
displaying an over-heated zeal1 they    
merited well of heaven2 that they       
exempted themselves by new crimes1 from 
that chastisement which they thought    
their anterior conduct had richly       

merited4  ,these1 then1 are the effects 
which what are called the salutary      
notions of superstition1 produce on     
mortals4 ,these reflections will furnish
 an answer to those who say that1 ,if   
heaven was promised equally to the      
wicked as to the righteous1 there would 
be found none incredulous of another    
life4 ,we reply1 that1 in point of fact1
 superstition does accord heaven to the 
wicked1 since it frequently places in   
this happy abode the most useless1 the  
most depraved of men4 ,is not ,mahomet  
himself enthroned in the empyrean by    
this superstition8 ,if the calendar of  
the ,romish saints was examined1 would  
it be found to contain none but         
righteous1 none but good men8 ,does not 
,mahometanism cut off from all chance of
 future existence1 consequently from all
 hope of reaching heaven1 the female    
part of mankind8 ,have the ,jews exalted
 no one to the celestial regions1 save  
the virtuous8 ,when the ,jew is         
condemned to the devouring flames1 do   

not the men who thus torture an unhappy 
wretch1 whose only crime is adherence to
 the religion of his forefathers1 expect
 to be rewarded for the deed with       
everlasting happiness8 ,are they not    
promised eternal salvation for their    
orthodoxy8 ,was ,constantine1 was ,st4  
,cyril1 was ,st4 ,athanasius1 was ,st4  
,dominic1 worthy beatification8 ,were   
,jupiter1 ,thor1 ,mercury1 ,woden1 and a
 thousand others1 deserving of celestial
 diadems8 ,is erring1 feeble man1 with  
all his imbecilities1 competent to form 
a judgment of the heavenly deserts of   
his fellows8 ,can be1 with his dim      
optics1 with his limited vision1 fathom 
the human heart8 ,can he sound its      
depths1 trace its meanderings1 dive into
 its recesses1 with sufficient          
precision1 to determine who amongst his 
race is or is not possessed of the      
requisite merit to enjoy a blessed      
eternity8 ,thus wicked men are held up  
as models by superstition1 which as we  
shall see1 sharpens the passions of     

evil-disposed men1 by legitimating those
 crimes1 at which1 without this         
sanction1 they would shudder2 which they
 would fear to commit2 or for which1 at 
least1 they would feel shame2 for which 
they would experience remorse4 ,in      
short1 the ministers of superstition    
furnish to the most profligate men the  
power of indulging their inflamed       
passions1 and then hold forth to them   
means of diverting from their own heads 
the thunderbolt that should strike their
 crimes1 by spreading before them fresh 
incentives to intolerant persecution1   
with the promise of a never-fading      
happiness4  ,with respect to the        
incredulous1 without doubt1 there may be
 amongst them wicked men1 as well as    
amongst the most credulous2 but         
incredulity no more supposes wickedness1
 than credulity supposes righteousness4 
,on the contrary1 the man who thinks1   
who meditates1 knows far better the true
 motives to goodness1 than he who       
suffers himself to be blindly guided by 

uncertain motives1 or by the interest of
 others4 ,sensible men have the greatest
 advantage in examining opinions1 which 
it is pretended must have an influence  
over their eternal happiness3 if these  
are found false1 if they appear         
injurious to their present life1 they   
will not therefore conclude1 that they  
have not another life either to fear or 
to hope2 that they are permitted to     
deliver themselves up with impunity to  
vice1 which would do an injury to       
themselves1 that would draw upon them   
the contempt of their neighbour1 which  
would subject them to the anger of      
society3 the man who does not expect    
another life1 is only more interested in
 prolonging his existence in this2 in   
rendering himself dear to his fellows1  
by cultivating virtue2 by performing all
 his duties with more strictness1 in the
 only life of which he has any          
knowledge3 he has made a great stride   
towards felicity1 in disengaging himself
 from those terrors which afflict       

others1 which frequently prevent their  
acting4 ,such a man has nothing to fear1
 but every thing to hope2 if1 contrary  
to what he is able to judge1 there      
should be an hereafter existence1 will  
not his actions have been so regulated  
by virtue1 will he not have so comported
 himself in his present existence1 as to
 stand a fair chance of enjoying in     
their fullest extent those felicities   
prepared for his species8               
,superstition1 in fact1 takes a pride in
 rendering man slothful1 in moulding him
 to credulity1 in making him            
pusillanimous4 ,it is its principle to  
afflict him without intermission2 to    
redouble in him the horrors of death3   
ever ingenious in tormenting him1 it has
 extended his inquietudes beyond even   
his own existence2 its ministers1 the   
more securely to dispose of him in this 
world1 invented1 in future regions1 a   
variety of rewards and punishments1     
reserving to themselves the privilege of
 awarding these heavenly recompences to 

those who yielded most implicitly to    
their arbitrary laws2 of decreeing      
punishment to those refractory beings   
who rebelled against their power3 thus1 
according to them1 ,tantalus for        
divulging their secrets1 must eternally 
fear1 engulphed in burning sulphur1 the 
stone ready to fall on his devoted head2
 whilst ,romulus was beatified and      
worshipped as a god under the name of   
,quirinus4 ,the same system of          
superstition caused the philosopher     
,callisthenes to be put to death1 for   
opposing the worship of ,alexander2 and 
elevated the monk ,athanasius to be a   
saint in heaven4 ,far from holding forth
 consolation to mortals1 far from       
cultivating man's reason1 far from      
teaching him to yield under the hands of
 necessity1 superstition1 in a great    
many countries1 strives to render death 
still more bitter to him2 to make its   
yoke sit heavy2 to fill up its retinue  
with a multitude of hideous phantoms2 to
 paint it in the most frightful colours2

 to render its approach terrible3 by    
this means it has crowded the world with
 enthusiasts1 whom it seduces by vague  
promises2 with contemptible slaves1 whom
 it coerces with the fear of imaginary  
evils3 it has at length persuaded man1  
that his actual existence is only a     
journey1 by which he will arrive at a   
more important life3 this doctrine1     
whether it be rational or irrational1   
prevents him from occupying himself with
 his true happiness2 from even dreaming 
of ameliorating his institutions1 of    
improving his laws1 of advancing the    
progress of science1 of perfectioning   
his morals4 ,vain and gloomy ideas have 
absorbed his attention3 he consents to  
groan under fanatical tyranny--to writhe
 under political inflictions--to live in
 error--to languish in misfortune--in   
the hope1 when he shall be no more1 of  
being one day happier2 in the firm      
confidence1 that after he has           
disappeared1 his calamities1 his        
patience1 will conduct him to a         

never-ending felicity3 he has believed  
himself submitted to cruel priests1 who 
are willing to make him purchase his    
future welfare at the expence of every  
thing most dear to his peace1 most      
valuable to his existence here below3   
they have pictured heaven as irritated  
against him1 as disposed to appease     
itself by punishing him eternally1 for  
any efforts he should make to withdraw  
himself from1 their power4 ,it is thus  
the doctrine of a future life has been  
made fatal to the human species3 it     
plunged whole nations into sloth1 made  
them languid1 filled them with          
indifference to their present welfare1  
or else precipitated them1 into the most
 furious enthusiasm1 which hurried them 
on to such lengths that they tore each  
other in pieces in order to merit the   
promised heaven4  ,it will be asked1    
perhaps1 by what road has man been      
conducted to form to himself these      
gratuitous ideas of another world8 ,i   
reply1 that it is a truth man has no    

idea of a future life1 they are the     
ideas of the past and the present that  
furnish his imagination with the        
materials of which he constructs the    
edifice of the regions of futurity4     
,hobbes says1 ,we believe that1 that    
which is will always be1 and that the   
same causes will have the same effects4 
,man in his actual state1 has two modes 
of feeling1 one that he approves1       
another that he disapproves3 thus1      
persuaded that these two modes of       
feeling must accompany him1 even beyond 
his present existence1 he placed in the 
regions of eternity two distinguished   
abodes1 one destined to felicity1 the   
other to misery3 the one must contain   
those who obey the calls of             
superstition1 who believe in its dogmas2
 the other is a prison1 destined to     
avenge the cause of heaven1 on all those
 who shall not faithfully believe the   
doctrines promulgated by the ministers  
of a vast variety of superstitions4 ,has
 sufficient attention been paid to the  

fact that results as a necessary        
consequence from this reasoning2 which  
on examination will be found to have    
rendered the first place entirely       
useless1 seeing1 that by the number and 
contradiction of these various systems1 
let man believe which ever he may1 let  
him follow it in the most faithful      
manner1 still he must be ranked as an   
infidel1 as a rebel to the ,divinity1   
because he cannot believe in all2 and   
those from which he dissents1 by a      
consequence of their own creed1 condemn 
him to the prison-house8  ,such is the  
origin of the ideas upon a future life1 
so diffused among mankind4 ,every where 
may be seen an ,elysium and a ,tartarus2
 a ,paradise and a ,hell2 in a word1 two
 distinguished abodes1 constructed      
according to the imagination of the     
enthusiasts who have invented them1 who 
have accommodated them to their own     
peculiar prejudices1 to the hopes1 to   
the fears1 of the people who believe in 
them4 ,the ,indian figures the first of 

these abodes as one of in-action1 of    
permanent repose1 because1 being the    
inhabitant of a hot climate1 he has     
learned to contemplate rest as the      
extreme of felicity3 the ,mussulman     
promises himself corporeal pleasures1   
similar to those that actually          
constitute the object of his research in
 this life3 each figures to himself1    
that on which he has learned to set the 
greatest value4  ,of whatever nature    
these pleasures may be1 man apprehended 
that a body was needful1 in order that  
his soul might be enabled to enjoy the  
pleasures1 or to experience the pains in
 reserve for him3 from hence the        
doctrine of the resurrection2 but as he 
beheld this body putrify1 as he saw it  
dissolve1 as he witnessed its           
decomposition1 after death1 he was at a 
loss how to form anew what he conceived 
so necessary to his system he therefore 
had recourse to the ,divine             
,omnipotence1 by whose interposition he 
now believes it will be effected4 ,this 

opinion1 so incomprehensible1 is said to
 have originated in ,persia1 among the  
,magi1 and finds a great number of      
adherents1 who have never given it a    
serious examination3 but the doctrine of
 the resurrection appears perfectly     
useless to all those1 who believe in the
 existence of a soul that feels1 thinks1
 suffers1 and enjoys1 after a separation
 from the body3 indeed1 there are       
already sects who begin to maintain1    
that the body is not necessary2 that    
therefore it will not be resurrected4   
,like ,berkeley1 they conceive that the 
soul has need neither of body nor any   
exterior being1 either to experience    
sensations1 or to have ideas3 the       
,malebranchists1 in particular1 must    
suppose that the rejected souls will see
 every thing in the ,divinity2 will feel
 themselves burn1 without having        
occasion for bodies for that purpose4   
,others1 incapable of elevating         
themselves to these sublime notions1    
believed1 that under divers forms1 man  

animated successively different animals 
of various species2 that he never ceased
 to be an inhabitant of the earth2 such 
was the opinion of those who adopted the
 doctrine of ,metempsychosis4  ,as for  
the miserable abode of souls1 the       
imagination of fanatics1 who were       
desirous of governing the people1 strove
 to assemble the most frightful images1 
to render it still more terrible3 fire  
is of all beings that which produces in 
man the most pungent sensation2 not     
finding any thing more cruel1 the       
enemies to the several dogmas were to be
 everlastingly punished with this       
torturing element3 fire1 therefore1 was 
the point at which their imagination was
 obliged to stop4 ,the ministers of the 
various systems agreed pretty generally1
 that fire would one day avenge their   
offended divinities3 thus they painted  
the victims to the anger of the gods1 or
 rather those who questioned their own  
creeds1 as confined in fiery dungeons1  
as perpetually rolling in a vortex of   

bituminous flames1 as plunged in        
unfathomable gulphs of liquid sulphur1  
making the infernal caverns resound with
 their useless groanings1 with their    
unavailing gnashing of teeth4  ,but it  
will1 perhaps1 be enquired1 how could   
man reconcile himself to the belief of  
an existence accompanied with eternal   
torments2 above all1 as many according  
to their own superstitions had reason to
 fear it for themselves8 ,many causes   
have concurred to make him adopt so     
revolting an opinion3 in the first      
place1 very few thinking men have ever  
believed such an absurdity1 when they   
have deigned to make use of their       
reason2 or1 when they have accredited   
it1 this notion was always              
counterbalanced by the idea of the      
goodness1 by a reliance on the mercy1   
which they attributed to their          
respective divinities3 in the second    
place1 those who were blinded by their  
fears1 never rendered to themselves any 
account of these strange doctrines1     

which they either received with awe from
 their legislators1 or which were       
transmitted to them by their fathers3 in
 the third place1 each sees the object  
of his terrors only at a favourable     
distance3 moreover1 superstition        
promises him the means of escaping the  
tortures he believes he has merited4 ,at
 length1 like those sick people whom we 
see cling with fondness1 even to the    
most painful life1 man preferred the    
idea of an unhappy1 though unknown      
existence1 to that of non-existence1    
which he looked upon as the most        
frightful evil that could befal him2    
either because he could form no idea of 
it1 or because his imagination painted  
to him this non-existence this nothing1 
as the confused assemblage of all evils4
 ,a known evil1 of whatever magnitude1  
alarmed him less 7above all1 when there 
remained the hope of being able to avoid
 it71 than an evil of which he knew     
nothing1 upon which1 consequently1 his  
imagination was painfully employed1 but 

to which he knew not how to oppose a    
remedy4  ,it will be seen1 then1 that   
superstition1 far from consoling man    
upon the necessity of death1 only       
redoubles his terrors1 by the evils with
 which it pretends his decease will be  
followed2 these terrors are so strong1  
that the miserable wretches who believe 
strictly in these formidable doctrines1 
pass their days in affliction1 bathed in
 the most bitter tears4 ,what shall be  
said of an opinion so destructive to    
society1 yet adopted by so many nations1
 which announces to them1 that a severe 
fate may at each instant take them      
unprovided2 that at each moment they are
 liable to pass under the most rigorous 
judgment8 ,what idea can be better      
suited to terrify man--what more likely 
to discourage him--what more calculated 
to damp the desire of ameliorating his  
condition--than the afflicting prospect 
of a world always on the brink of       
dissolution2 of a ,divinity seated upon 
the ruins of ,nature1 ready to pass     

judgment on the human species8 ,such    
are1 nevertheless1 the fatal opinions   
with which the mind of nations has been 
fed for thousands of years3 they are so 
dangerous1 that if by a happy want of   
just inference1 he did not derogate in  
his conduct from these afflicting ideas1
 he would fall into the most abject     
stupidity4 ,how could man occupy himself
 with a perishable world1 ready every   
moment to crumble into atoms8 ,how dream
 of rendering himself happy on earth1   
when it is only the porch to an eternal 
kingdom8 ,is it then1 surprising1 that  
the superstitions to which similar      
doctrines serve for a basis1 have       
prescribed to their disciples a total   
detachment from things below--an entire 
renunciation of the most innocent       
pleasures2 have given birth to a        
sluggishness1 to a pusillanimity1 to an 
abjection of soul1 to an insociability1 
that renders him useless to himself1    
dangerous to others8 ,if necessity did  
not oblige man to depart in his practice

 from these irrational systems--if his  
wants did not bring him back to reason1 
in despite of these superstitious       
doctrines--the whole world would        
presently become a vast desert1         
inhabited by some few isolated savages1 
who would not even have courage to      
multiply themselves4 ,what are these1   
but notions which he must necessarily   
put aside1 in order that human          
association may subsist8  ,nevertheless1
 the doctrine of a future life1         
accompanied with rewards and            
punishments1 has been regarded for a    
great number of ages as the most        
powerful1 or even as the only motive    
capable of coercing the passions of man2
 as the sole means that can oblige him  
to be virtuous3 by degrees1 this        
doctrine has become the basis of almost 
all religions and political systems1 so 
much so1 that at this day it is said1   
this prejudice cannot be attacked       
without absolutely rending asunder the  
bonds of society4 ,the founders of      

superstition have made use of it to     
attach their credulous disciples2       
legislators have looked upon it as the  
curb best calculated to keep mankind    
under discipline2 religion considers it 
necessary to his happiness2 many        
philosophers themselves have believed   
with sincerity1 that this doctrine was  
requisite to terrify man1 was the only  
means to divert him from crime3         
notwithstanding1 when the doctrine of   
the immortality of the soul first came  
out of the school of ,plato2 when it    
first diffused itself among the ,greeks1
 it caused the greatest ravages2 it     
determined a multitude of men1 who were 
discontented with their condition1 to   
terminate their existence3 ,ptolemy     
,philadelphus1 king of ,egypt1 seeing   
the effect this doctrine1 which at the  
present day is looked upon as so        
salutary1 produced on the brains of his 
subjects1 prohibited the teaching of it 
under the penalty of death4  ,it must1  
indeed1 be allowed that this doctrine   

has been of the greatest utility to     
those who have given superstitions to   
nations1 who at the same time made      
themselves its ministers2 it was the    
foundation of their power1 the source of
 their wealth1 the permanent cause of   
that blindness1 the solid basis of those
 terrors1 which it was their interest to
 nourish in the human race4 ,it was by  
this doctrine the priest became first   
the rival1 then the master of kings3 it 
is by this dogma that nations are filled
 with enthusiasts inebriated with       
superstition1 always more disposed to   
listen to its menaces1 than to the      
counsels of reasons1 to the orders of   
the sovereign1 to the cries of ,nature1 
or to the laws of society4 ,politics    
itself was enslaved to the caprice of   
the priest2 the temporal monarch was    
obliged to bend under the yoke of the   
monarch of superstition2 the one only   
disposed of this perishable world1 the  
other extended his power into the world 
to come2 much more important for man    

than the earth1 on which he is only a   
pilgrim1 a mere passenger4 ,thus the    
doctrine of another life placed the     
government itself in a state of         
dependance upon the priest2 the monarch 
was nothing more than his first subject2
 he was never obeyed1 but when the two  
were in accord4 ,nature in vain cried   
out to man1 to be careful of his present
 happiness2 the priest ordered him to be
 unhappy1 in the expectation of future  
felicity2 reason in vain exhorted him to
 be peaceable2 the priest breathed forth
 fanaticism1 fulminated fury1 obliged   
him to disturb the public tranquillity1 
every time there was a question of the  
supposed interests of the invisible     
monarch of another life1 and the real   
interests of his ministers in this4     
,such is the fruit that politics has    
gathered from the doctrine of a future  
life2 the regions of the world to come  
have enabled the priesthood to conquer  
the present world4 ,the expectation of  
celestial happiness1 and the dread of   

future tortures1 only served to prevent 
man from seeking after the means to     
render himself happy here below4 ,thus  
error1 under whatever aspect it is      
considered1 will never be more than a   
source of evil for mankind4 ,the        
doctrine of another life1 in presenting 
to mortals an ideal happiness1 will     
render them enthusiasts2 in overwhelming
 them with fears1 it will make useless  
beings2 generate cowards2 form          
atrabilarious or furious men2 who will  
lose sight of their present abode1 to   
occupy themselves with the pictured     
regions of a world to come1 with those  
dreadful evils which they must fear     
after their death4  ,if it be insisted  
that the doctrine of future rewards and 
punishments is the most powerful curb to
 restrain the passions of man1 we shall 
reply by calling in daily experience4   
,if we only cast our eyes around1 if for
 a moment we examine what passes in     
review before us1 we shall see this     
assertion contradicted2 we shall find   

that these marvellous speculations do   
not in any manner diminish the number of
 the wicked1 because they are incapable 
of changing the temperament of man1 of  
annihilating those passions which the   
vices of society engender in his heart4 
,in those nations who appear the most   
thoroughly convinced of this future     
punishment1 may be seen assassins1      
thieves1 crafty knaves1 oppressors1     
adulterers1 voluptuaries2 all these     
pretend they are firmly persuaded of the
 reality of an hereafter2 yet in the    
whirlwind of dissipation1 in the vortex 
of pleasure1 in the fury of their       
passions1 they no longer behold this    
formidable future existence1 which in   
those moments has no kind of influence  
over their earthly conduct4  ,in short1 
in many of those countries where the    
doctrine of another life is so firmly   
established1 that each individual       
irritates himself against whoever may   
have the temerity to combat the opinion1
 or even to doubt it1 we see that it is 

utterly incapable of impressing any     
thing on rulers who are unjust1 who are 
negligent of the welfare of their       
people1 who are1 debauched1 on          
courtezans who are lewd in their habits1
 on covetous misers1 on flinty          
extortioners who fatten on the substance
 of a nation1 on women without modesty1 
on a vast multitude of drunken1         
intemperate1 vicious men1 on great      
numbers even amongst those priests1     
whose function it is to preach this     
future state1 who are paid to announce  
the vengeance of heaven1 against vices  
which they themselves encourage by their
 example4 ,if it be enquired of them1   
how they dare to give themselves up to  
such scandalous actions1 which they     
ought to know are certain to draw upon  
them eternal punishment8 ,they will     
reply1 that the madness of their        
passions1 the force of their habits1 the
 contagion of example1 or even the power
 of circumstances1 have hurried them    
along2 have made them forget the        

dreadful consequences in which their    
conduct is likely to involve them2      
besides1 they will say1 that the        
treasures of the divine mercy are       
infinite2 that repentance suffices to   
efface the foulest transgressions2 to   
cleanse the blackest guilt2 to blot out 
the most enormous crimes3 in this       
multitude of wretched beings1 who each  
after his own manner desolates society  
with his criminal pursuits1 you will    
find only a small number who are        
sufficiently intimidated by the fears of
 the miserable hereafter1 to resist     
their evil propensities4 ,what did ,i   
say8 ,these propensities are in         
themselves too weak to carry them       
forward without the aid of the doctrine 
of another life2 without this1 the law  
and the fear of censure would have been 
motives sufficient to prevent them from 
rendering themselves criminal4  ,it is  
indeed1 fearful1 timorous souls1 upon   
whom the terrors of another life make a 
profound impression2 human beings of    

this sort come into the world with      
moderate passions1 are of a weakly      
organization1 possess a cool            
imagination2 it is not therefore        
surprising1 that in such men1 who are   
already restrained by their nature1 the 
fear of future punishment               
counterbalances the weak efforts of     
their feeble passions2 but it is by no  
means the same with those determined    
sinners1 with those hardened criminals1 
with those men who are habitually       
vicious1 whose unseemly excesses nothing
 can arrest1 who in their violence shut 
their eyes to the fear of the laws of   
this world1 despising still more those  
of the other4 ,nevertheless1 how many   
persons say they are1 and even believe  
themselves1 restrained by the fears of  
the life to come8 ,but1 either they     
deceive us1 or they impose upon         
themselves1 by attributing to these     
fears1 that which is only the effect of 
motives much nearer at hand2 such as the
 feebleness of their machine1 the       

mildness of their temperament1 the      
slender energy of their souls1 their    
natural timidity1 the ideas imbibed in  
their education1 the fear of            
consequences immediately resulting from 
criminal actions1 the physical evils    
attendant on unbridled irregularities3  
these are the true motives that restrain
 them2 not the notions of a future life3
 which men1 who say they are most firmly
 persuaded of its existence1 forget     
whenever a powerful interest solicits   
them to sin4 ,if for a time man would   
pay attention to what passes before his 
eyes1 he would perceive that he ascribes
 to the fear of the gods that which is  
in reality only the effect of peculiar  
weakness1 of pusillanimity1 of the small
 interest found to commit evil3 these   
men would not act otherwise than they   
do1 if they had not this fear before    
them2 if1 therefore he reflected1 he    
would feel that it is always necessity  
that makes men act as they do4  ,man    
cannot be restrained1 when he does not  

find within himself motives sufficiently
 powerful to conduct him back to reason4
 ,there is nothing1 either in this world
 or in the other1 that can render him   
virtuous1 when an untoward              
organization--a mind badly cultivated--a
 violent imagination--inveterate        
habits--fatal examples--powerful        
interests--invite him from every quarter
 to the commission of crime4 ,no        
speculations are capable of restraining 
the man who braves public opinion1 who  
despises the law1 who is careless of its
 censure1 who turns a deaf ear to the   
cries of conscience1 whose power in this
 world places him out of the reach of   
punishment2 in the violence of his      
transports1 he will fear still less a   
distant futurity1 of which the idea     
always recedes before that which he     
believes necessary to his immediate     
interests1 consistent with his present  
happiness4 ,all lively passions blind   
man to every thing that is not its      
immediate object2 the terrors of a      

future life1 of which his passions      
always possess the secret to diminish to
 him the probability1 can effect nothing
 upon the wicked man1 who does not fear 
even the much nearer punishment of the  
law2 who sets at nought the assured     
hatred of those by whom he is           
surrounded4 ,man1 when he delivers      
himself up to crime1 sees nothing       
certain except the supposed advantage   
which attends it2 the rest always appear
 to him either false or problematical4  
,if man would but open his eyes1 even   
for a moment1 he would clearly perceive1
 that to effect any thing upon hearts   
hardened by crime1 he must not reckon   
upon the chastisement of an avenging    
,divinity1 which the self-love natural  
to man always shews him as pacified in  
the long run4 ,he who has arrived at    
persuading himself he cannot be happy   
without crime1 will always readily      
deliver himself up to it1               
notwithstanding the menaces of religion4
 ,whoever is sufficiently blind not to  

read his infamy in his own heart1 to see
 his own vileness in the countenances of
 his associates1 his own condemnation in
 the anger of his fellow-men1 his own   
unworthiness in the indignation of the  
judges established to punish the        
offences he may commit3 such a man1 ,i  
say1 will never feel the impression his 
crimes shall make on the features of a  
judge1 that is either hidden from his   
view1 or that he only contemplates at a 
distance4 ,the tyrant who with dry eyes 
can hear the cries of the distressed1   
who with callous heart can behold the   
tears of a whole people1 of whose misery
 he is the cause1 will not see the angry
 countenance of a more powerful master3 
like another ,menippus1 he may indeed   
destroy himself from desperation1 to    
avoid reiterated reproach2 which only   
proves1 that when a haughty1 arrogant   
despot pretends to be accountable for   
his actions to the ,divinity alone1 it  
is because he fears his nation more than
 he does his ,god4  ,on the other hand1 

does not superstition itself1 does not  
even religion1 annihilate the effects of
 those fears which it announces as      
salutary8 ,does it not furnish its      
disciples with the means of extricating 
themselves from the punishments with    
which it has so frequently menaced them8
 ,does it not tell them1 that a steril  
repentance will1 even at the moment of  
death1 disarm the celestial wrath2 that 
it will purify the filthy souls of      
sinners8 ,do not even the priests1 in   
some superstitions1 arrogate to         
themselves the right of remitting to the
 dying the punishment due to the crimes 
committed during the course of a        
disorderly life8 ,in short1 do not the  
most perverse men1 encouraged in        
iniquity1 countenanced in debauchery1   
upheld in crime1 reckon1 even to the    
last moment1 either upon the assistance 
of superstition1 or upon the aid of     
religion1 that promises them the        
infallible means of reconciling         
themselves to the ,divinity1 whom they  

have irritated2 of avoiding the rigorous
 punishments pronounced against their   
enormities8  ,in consequence of these   
notions1 so favourable to the wicked1 so
 suitable to tranquillize their fears1  
we see that the hope of an easy         
expiation1 far from correcting man1     
engages him to persist1 until death1 in 
the most crying disorders4 ,indeed1 in  
despite of the numberless advantages    
which he is assured flows from the      
doctrine of a life to come1 in defiance 
of its pretended efficacy to repress the
 passions of men1 do not the priests    
themselves1 although so interested in   
the maintenance of this system1 every   
day complain of its insufficiency8 ,they
 acknowledge1 that mortals1 who from    
their infancy they have imbued with     
these ideas1 are not less hurried       
forward by their evil propensities--less
 sunk in the vortex of dissipation--less
 the slaves to their pleasures--less    
captivated by bad habits--less driven   
along by the torrent of the world--less 

seduced by their present interest--which
 make them forget equally the recompense
 and the chastisement of a future       
existence4 ,in a word1 the interpreters 
of superstition1 the ministers of       
religion themselves1 allow that their   
disciples1 for the greater part1 conduct
 themselves in this world as if they had
 nothing either to hope or fear in      
another4  ,in short1 let it be supposed 
for a moment1 that the doctrine of      
eternal punishments was of some utility2
 that it really restrained a small      
number of individuals2 what are these   
feeble advantages compared to the       
numberless evils that flow from it8     
,against one timid man whom this idea   
restrains1 there are thousands upon whom
 it operates nothing2 there are         
thousands whom it makes irrational2 whom
 it renders savage persecutors2 whom it 
converts into fanatics2 there are       
thousands whose mind it disturbs2 whom  
it diverts from their duties towards    
society2 there are an infinity whom it  

grievously afflicts1 whom it troubles   
without producing any real good for     
their associates4  ,notwithstanding so  
many are inclined to consider those who 
do not fall in with this doctrine as the
 enemies of society2 it will be found on
 examination that the wisest the most   
enlightened men of antiquity1 as well as
 many of the moderns1 have believed not 
only that the soul is material and      
perishes with the body1 but also that   
they have attacked without subterfuge   
the opinion of future everlasting       
punishments2 it will also be found that 
many of the systems1 set up to establish
 the immortality of the soul1 are in    
themselves the best evidence that can be
 adduced of the futility of this        
doctrine2 if for a moment we only follow
 up the natural the just inferences that
 are to be drawn from them4 ,this       
sentiment was far from being1 as some   
have supposed1 peculiar to the          
,epicureans1 it has been adopted by     
philosophers of all sects1 by           

,pythagoreans1 by ,stoics1 by           
,peripatetics1 by ,academics2 in short  
by the most godly the most virtuous men 
of ,greece and of ,rome4  ,pythagoras1  
according to ,ovid1 speaks strongly to  
the fact4 ,timaeus of ,locris1 who was a
 ,pythagorean1 admits that the doctrine 
of future punishments was fabulous1     
solely destined for the imbecility of   
the uninformed2 but little calculated   
for those who cultivate their reason4   
,aristotle expressly says1 that man has 
neither good to hope nor evil to fear   
after death4  ,zeno1 according to       
,cicero1 supposed the soul to be an     
igneous substance1 from whence he       
concluded it destroyed itself4  ,cicero1
 the philosophical orator1 who was of   
the sect of ,academics1 although he is  
not on all occasions1 in accord with    
himself1 treats openly as fables the    
torments of ,hell2 and looks upon death 
as the end of every thing for man4      
,seneca1 the philosopher1 is filled with
 passages which contemplate death as a  

state of total annihilation1            
particularly in speaking of it to his   
brother3 and nothing can be more        
decisive of his holding this opinion1   
than what he writes to ,marcia1 to      
console him4  ,seneca1 the tragedian1   
explains himself in the same manner as  
the philosopher4  ,the ,platonists1 who 
made the soul immortal1 could not have  
an idea of future punishments1 because  
the soul according to them was a portion
 of the divinity which after the        
dissolution of the body it returned to  
rejoin4  ,epictetus has the same idea4  
,in a passage reported by ,arrian1 he   
says1 but where are you going8 ,it      
cannot be to a place of suffering3 you  
will only return to the place from      
whence you came2 you are about to be    
again peaceably associated with the     
elements from which you are derived4    
,that which in your composition1 is of  
the nature of fire1 will return to the  
element of fire2 that which is of the   
nature of earth1 will rejoin itself to  

the earth2 that which is air1 will      
re-unite itself with air2 that which is 
water1 will resolve itself into water2  
there is no ,hell1 no ,acheron1 no      
,cocytus1 no ,phlegethon4  ,in another  
place he says1 the hour of death        
approaches2 but do not aggravate your   
evil1 nor render things worse than they 
are3 represent them to yourself under   
their true point of view4 ,the time is  
come when the materials of which you are
 composed1 go to resolve themselves into
 the elements from whence they were     
originally borrowed4 ,what is there that
 is terrible or grievous in that8 ,is   
there any thing in the world that       
perishes totally8  ,the sage and pious  
,antoninus says1 he who fears death1    
either fears to be deprived of all      
feeling1 or dreads to experience        
different sensations4 ,if you lose all  
feeling1 you will no longer be subject  
either to pain or to misery4 ,if you are
 provided with other senses of a        
different nature1 you will become a     

creature of a different species4 ,this  
great emperor further says1 that we must
 expect death with tranquillity1 seeing1
 that it is only a dissolution of the   
elements of which each animal is        
composed4  ,to the evidence of so many  
great men of ,pagan antiquity1 may be   
joined1 that of the author of           
,ecclesiastes1 who speaks of death1 and 
of the condition of the human soul1 like
 an epicurean2 he says1 for that which  
befalleth the sons of men1 befalleth    
beasts2 even one thing befalleth them3  
as the one dieth1 so dieth the other2   
yea1 they have all one breath3 so that a
 man hath no pre-eminence above a beast2
 for all is vanity4 ,all go unto one    
place2 all are of the dust1 and all turn
 to dust again4 ,and further1 wherefore 
,i perceive that there is nothing better
 than that a man should rejoice in his  
own works2 for that is his portion3 for 
who shall bring him to see what shall be
 after him4  ,in short1 how can the     
utility or the necessity of this        

doctrine be reconciled with the fact1   
that the great legislator of the ,jews2 
who is supposed to have been inspired by
 the ,divinity1 should have remained    
silent on a subject1 that is said to be 
of so much importance8 ,in the third    
chapter of ,genesis it1 is said1 ,in the
 sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread1
 till thou return unto the ground2 for  
out of it wast thou taken3 for dust thou
 art1 and unto dust shalt thou return4  
,,chap4 ,,xiv4  ,education1 ,morals1 and
 the ,laws suffice to restrain          
,man4--,of the desire of                
,immortality4--,of ,suicide4   ,it is   
not then in an ideal world1 existing no 
where perhaps1 but in the imagination of
 man1 that he must seek to collect      
motives calculated to make him act      
properly in this2 it is in the visible  
world that will be found incitements to 
divert him from crime2 to rouse him to  
virtue4 ,it is in ,nature1--in          
experience1--in truth1 that he must     
search out remedies for the evils of his

 species2 for motives suitable to infuse
 into the human heart1 propensities     
truely useful to society2 calculated to 
promote its advantage2 to conduce to the
 end for which it was designed4  ,if    
attention has been paid to what has been
 said ,in the course of this work1 it   
will be seen that above all it is       
education that will best furnish the    
true means of rectifying the errors1 of 
recalling the wanderings of mankind4 ,it
 is this that should scatter the ,seeds 
in his heart2 cultivate the tender      
shoots2 make a profitable use of his    
dispositions2 turn to account those     
faculties1 which depend on his          
organization3 which should cherish the  
fire of his imagination1 kindle it for  
useful objects2 damp it1 or extinguish  
it for others2 in short1 it is this     
which should make sensible souls        
contract habits which are advantageous  
for society and beneficial to the       
individual4 ,brought up in this manner1 
man would not have occasion for         

celestial punishments1 to teach him the 
value of virtue2 he would not need to   
behold burning gulphs of brimstone under
 his feet1 to induce him to feel horror 
for crime2 ,nature without these fables1
 would teach much better what he owes to
 himself2 the law would point out what  
he owes to the body politic1 of which he
 is a member4 ,it is thus1 that         
education grounded upon utility1 would  
form valuable citizens to the state2 the
 depositaries of power would distinguish
 those whom education should have thus  
formed1 by reason of the advantages     
which they would procure for their      
country2 they would punish those who    
should be found injurious to it2 it     
would make the citizens see1 that the   
promises of reward which education held 
forth1 the punishments denounced by     
morals1 are by no means vain2 that in a 
state well constituted1 virtue is the   
true1 the only road to happiness2       
talents the way to gain respect2 that   
inutility conducts to misfortune3 that  

crime leads to contempt4  ,a just1      
enlightened1 virtuous1 and vigilant     
government1 who should honestly propose 
the public good1 would have no occasion 
either for fables or for falsehoods1 to 
govern reasonable subjects2 it would    
blush to make use of imposture1 to      
deceive its citizens2 who1 instructed in
 their duties1 would find their interest
 in submitting to equitable laws2 who   
would be capable of feeling the benefit 
these have the power of conferring on   
them2 it would feel1 that habit is      
sufficient to inspire them with horror1 
even for those concealed crimes that    
escape the eyes of society2 it would    
understand that the visible punishments 
of this world impose much more on the   
generality of men1 than those of an     
uncertain and distant futurity3 in      
short1 it would ascertain that the      
sensible benefits within the compass of 
the sovereign power to distribute1 touch
 the imagination of mortals more keenly1
 than those vague recompences which are 

held forth to them in a future          
existence3 above all1 it would discover 
that those on whom these distant        
advantages do operate1 would be still   
more attached to virtue by receiving    
their reward both here and hereafter4   
,man is almost every where so wicked1 so
 corrupt1 so rebellious to reason1 only 
because he is not governed according to 
his ,nature1 nor properly instructed in 
her necessary laws3 he is almost in     
every climate fed with superstitious    
chimeras2 submitted to masters who      
neglect his instruction or who seek to  
deceive him4 ,on the face of this globe1
 may be frequently witnessed unjust     
sovereigns1 who1 enervated by luxury1   
corrupted by flattery1 depraved by      
licentiousness1 made wicked by impunity1
 devoid of talents1 without morals1     
destitute of virtue1 are incapable of   
exerting any energy for the benefit of  
the states they govern2 they are        
consequently but little occupied with   
the welfare of their people2 indifferent

 to their duties2 of which indeed they  
are often ignorant4 ,such governors     
suffer their whole attention to be      
absorbed by frivolous amusement2        
stimulated by the desire of continually 
finding means to feed their insatiable  
ambition they engage in useless         
depopulating wars2 and never occupy     
their mind with those objects which are 
the most important to the happiness of  
their nation3 yet these weak men feel   
interested in maintaining the received  
prejudices1 and visit with severity     
those who consider the means of curing  
them3 in short themselves deprived of   
that understanding1 which teaches man   
that it is his interest to be kind1     
just1 and virtuous2 they ordinarily     
reward only those crimes which their    
imbecility makes them imagine as useful 
to them2 they generally punish those    
virtues which are opposed to their own  
imprudent passions1 but which reason    
would point out as truly beneficial to  
their interests4 ,under such masters is 

it surprising that society should be    
ravaged2 that weak beings should be     
willing to imitate them2 that perverse  
men should emulate each other in        
oppressing its members2 in sacrificing  
its dearest interests2 in despoiling its
 happiness8 ,the state of society in    
such countries1 is a state of hostility 
of the sovereign against the whole1 of  
each of its members the one against the 
other4 ,man is wicked1 not because he is
 born so1 but because he is rendered so2
 the great1 the powerful1 crush with    
impunity the indigent and the unhappy2  
these1 at the risk of their lives seek  
to retaliate1 to render back the evil   
they have received3 they attack either  
openly or in secret a country1 who to   
them is a step-mother1 who gives all to 
some of her children1 and deprives the  
others of every thing3 they punish it   
for its partiality1 and clearly shew    
that the motives borrowed from a life   
hereafter are impotent against the fury 
of those passions to which a corrupt    

administration has given birth2 that the
 terror of the punishments in this world
 are too feeble against necessity2      
against criminal habits2 against        
dangerous organization uncorrected by   
education4  ,in many countries the      
morals of the people are neglected2 the 
government is occupied only with        
rendering them timid2 with making them  
miserable4 ,man is almost every where a 
slave2 it must then follow of necessity1
 that he is base1 interested1           
dissimulating1 without honour1 in a word
 that he has the vices of the state of  
which he is a citizen4 ,almost every    
where he is deceived2 encouraged in     
ignorance2 prevented from cultivating   
his reason2 of course he must be stupid1
 irrational1 and wicked almost every    
where he sees vice applauded1 and crime 
honoured2 thence he concludes vice to be
 a good2 virtue1 only a useless         
sacrifice of himself3 almost every where
 he is miserable1 therefore he injures  
his fellow-men in a fruitless attempt to

 relieve his own anguish3 it is in vain 
to shew him heaven in order to restrain 
him2 his views presently descend again  
to earth2 he is willing to be happy at  
any price2 therefore1 the laws which    
have neither provided for his           
instruction1 for his morals1 nor his    
happiness1 menace him uselessly2 he     
plunges on in his pursuits1 and these   
ultimately punish him1 for the unjust   
negligence of his legislators4 ,if      
politics more enlightened1 did seriously
 occupy itself with the instruction1    
with the welfare of the people2 if laws 
were more equitable2 if each society1   
less partial1 bestowed on its members   
the care1 the education1 and the        
assistance which they have a right to   
expect2 if governments less covetous1   
and more vigilant1 were sedulous to     
render their subjects more happy1 there 
would not be seen such numbers of       
malefactors1 of robbers1 of murderers1  
who every where infest society2 they    
would not be obliged to destroy life1 in

 order to punish wickedness2 which is   
commonly ascribable to the vices of     
their own institutions3 it would be     
unnecessary to seek in another life for 
fanciful chimeras1 which always prove   
abortive against the infuriate passions2
 against the real wants of man4 ,in     
short1 if the people were instructed1   
they would be more happy2 politics would
 no longer be reduced to the exigency of
 deceiving them1 in order to restrain   
them2 nor to destroy so many            
unfortunates1 for having procured       
necessaries1 at the expence of their    
hard-hearted fellow-citizens4  ,when it 
shall be desired to enlighten man1 let  
him always have truth laid before him4  
,instead of kindling his imagination by 
the idea of those punishments that a    
future state has in reserve for him1 let
 him be solaced--let him be succoured2  
or1 at least1 let him be permitted to   
enjoy the fruit of his labour--let not  
his substance be ravished from him by   
cruel imposts--let him not be           

discouraged from work1 by finding all   
his labour inadequate to support his    
existence2 let him not be driven into   
that idleness1 that will surely lead him
 on to crime3 let him consider his      
present existence1 without carrying his 
views to that which may attend him after
 his death2 let his industry be         
excited--let his talents be             
rewarded--let him be rendered active1   
laborious1 beneficent1 and virtuous1 in 
the world he inhabits2 let it be shewn  
to him1 that his actions are capable of 
having an influence over his fellow-men4
 ,let him not be menaced with the       
tortures of a future existence when he  
shall be no more2 let him behold society
 armed against those who disturb its    
repose2 let him see the consequence of  
the hatred of his associates2 let him   
learn to feel the value of their        
affection2 let him be taught to esteem  
himself2 let him understand1 that to    
obtain it1 he must have virtue2 above   
all1 that the virtuous man in society   

has nothing to fear1 but every thing to 
hope4  ,if it be desired to form honest1
 courageous1 industrious citizens1 who  
may be useful to their country1 let them
 beware of inspiring man from his       
infancy with an ill-founded dread of    
death2 of amusing his imagination with  
marvellous fables2 of occupying his mind
 with his destiny in a future life1     
quite useless to be known1 which has    
nothing in common with his real         
felicity4 ,let them speak of immortality
 to intrepid1 noble souls2 let them shew
 it as the price of their labours to    
energetic minds1 who are solely occupied
 with virtue2 who springing forward     
beyond the boundaries of their actual   
existence--who1 little satisfied with   
eliciting the admiration1 with gaining  
the love of their contemporaries1 are   
will also to wrest the homage1 to secure
 the affection of future races4 ,indeed1
 this is an immortality to which genius1
 talents1 above all virtue1 has a just  
right to pretend2 do not therefore let  

them censure--do not let them endeavour 
to stifle so noble a passion in man2    
which is founded upon his nature2 which 
is so calculated to render him happy2   
from which society gather the most      
advantageous fruits4  ,the idea of being
 buried in total oblivion1 of having    
nothing in common after his death with  
the beings of his species2 of losing all
 possibility of again having any        
influence over them1 is a thought       
extremely painful to man2 it is above   
all afflicting to those who possess an  
ardent imagination4 ,the desire of      
immortality1 or of living in the memory 
of his fellow men1 was always the       
passion of great souls2 it was the      
motive to the actions of all those who  
have played a great part on the earth4  
,heroes whether virtuous or criminal1   
philosophers as well as conquerors1 men 
of genius and men of talents1 those     
sublime personages who have done honor  
to their species1 as well as those      
illustrious villains who have debased   

and ravaged it1 have had an eye to      
posterity in all their enterprises2 have
 flattered themselves with the hope of  
acting upon the souls of men1 even when 
they themselves should no longer exist4 
,if man in general does not carry his   
views so far1 he is at least sensible to
 the idea of seeing himself regenerated 
in his children2 whom he knows are      
destined to survive him2 to transmit his
 name2 to preserve his memory2 to       
represent him in society2 it is for them
 that he rebuilds his cottage2 it is for
 them that he plants the tree which his 
eyes will never behold in its vigour2 it
 is that they may be happy that he      
labours4 ,the sorrow which embitters the
 life of those rich men1 frequently so  
useless to the world1 when they have    
lost the hope of continuing their race1 
has its source in the fear of being     
entirely forgotten3 they feel that the  
useless man dies entirely4 ,the idea    
that his name will be in the mouths of  
men1 the thought that it will be        

pronounced with tenderness1 that it will
 be recollected with kindness1 that it  
will excite in their hearts favourable  
sentiments1 is an illusion that is      
useful2 is a vision suitable to flatter 
even those who know that nothing will   
result from it4 ,man pleases himself    
with dreaming that he shall have power1 
that he shall pass for something in the 
universe1 even after the term of his    
human existence2 he partakes by         
imagination in the projects1 in the     
actions1 in the discussions of future   
ages1 and would be extremely unhappy if 
he believed himself entirely excluded   
from their society4 ,the laws in all    
countries have entered into these views2
 they have so far been willing to       
console their citizens for the necessity
 of dying1 by giving them the means of  
exercising their will1 even for a long  
time after their death3 this            
condescension goes to that length1 that 
the dead frequently regulate the        
condition of the living during a long   

series of years4  ,every thing serves to
 prove the desire in man of surviving   
himself4 ,pyramids1 mausoleums1         
monuments1 epitaphs1 all shew that he is
 willing to prolong his existence even  
beyond his decease4 ,he1 is not         
insensible to the judgment of posterity2
 it is for him the philosopher writes2  
it is to astonish him that the monarch  
erects sumptuous edifices1 gorgeous     
palaces2 it is his praises1 it is his   
commendations1 that the great man       
already hears echo in his ears2 it is to
 him that the virtuous citizen appeals  
from unjust laws2 from prejudiced       
contemporaries--happy chimera6 generous 
illusion6 mild vision6 its power is so  
consoling1 so bland1 that it realizes   
itself to ardent imaginations2 it is    
calculated to give birth1 to sustain1 to
 nurture1 to mature enthusiasm of       
genius1 constancy of courage1 grandeur  
of soul1 transcendency of talent2 its   
force is so gentle1 its influence so    
pleasing1 that it is sometimes able to  

repress the vices1 to restrain the      
excesses of the most powerful men2 who  
are1 as experience has shewn1 frequently
 very much disquieted for the judgment  
of their posterity2 from a conviction   
that this will sooner or later avenge   
the living of the foul injustice which  
they may be inclined to make them       
suffer4  ,no man1 therefore1 can consent
 to be entirely effaced from the        
remembrance of his fellows2 some men    
have not the temerity to place          
themselves above the judgment of the    
future human species1 to degrade        
themselves in his eyes4 ,where is the   
being who is insensible to the pleasure 
of exciting the tears of those who shall
 survive him2 of again acting upon their
 souls2 of once more occupying their    
thoughts2 of exercising upon them his   
power even from the bottom of his grave8
 ,let then eternal silence be imposed   
upon those superstitious beings1 upon   
those melancholy men1 upon those furious
 bigots1 who censure a sentiment from   

which society derives so many real      
advantages2 let not mankind listen to   
those passionless philosophers who are  
willing to smother this great1 this     
noble spring of his soul2 let him not be
 seduced by the sarcasms of those       
voluptuaries1 who pretend to despise an 
immortality1 towards which they lack the
 power to set forward2 the desire of    
pleasing posterity1 of rendering his    
name agreeable to generations yet to    
come1 is a respectable1 a laudable      
motive1 when it causes him to undertake 
those things1 of which the utility may  
be felt1 of which the advantages may    
have an influence not only over his     
contemporaries1 but also over nations   
who have not yet an existence4 ,let him 
not treat as irrational1 the enthusiasm 
of those beneficent beings1 of those    
mighty geniuses1 of those stupendous    
talents1 whose keen1 whose penetrating  
regards1 have foreseen him even in their
 day2 who have occupied themselves for  
him2 for his welfare2 for his happiness2

 who have desired his suffrage2 who have
 written for him2 who have enriched him 
by their discoveries2 who have cured him
 of some of his errors4 ,let him render 
them the homage which they have expected
 at his hands2 let him1 at least1       
reverence their memory for the benefits 
he has derived from them2 let him treat 
their mouldering remains with respect1  
for the pleasure he receives from their 
labours2 let him pay to their ashes a   
tribute of grateful recollection1 for   
the happiness they have been sedulous to
 procure for him4 ,let him sprinkle with
 his tears1 let him hallow with his     
remembrance1 let him consecrate with his
 finest sensibilities1 the urns of      
,socrates1 of ,phocion2 of ,archimedes2 
of ,anaxarchus2 let him wash out the    
stain that their punishment has made on 
the human species2 let him expiate by   
his regret the ,athenian ingratitude1   
the savage barbarity of ,nicocreon2 let 
him learn by their example to dread     
superstitious fanaticism2 to hold       

political intolerance in abhorrence2 let
 him fear to harrass merit2 let him be  
cautious how he insults virtue1 in      
persecuting those who may happen to     
differ from him in his prejudices4  ,let
 him strew flowers over the tombs of an 
,homer--of a ,tasso--of a               
,shakespeare--of a ,milton--of a        
,goldsmith2 let him revere the immortal 
shades of those happy geniuses1 whose   
songs yet vibrate on his ears2 whose    
harmonious lays excite in his soul the  
most tender sentiments2 let him bless   
the memory of all those benefactors to  
the people1 who were the delight of the 
human race2 let him adore the virtues   
,of a ,titus--of a ,trajan--of an       
,antoninus--of a ,julian3 let him merit 
in his sphere1 the eulogies of future   
ages2 let him always remember1 that to  
carry with him to the grave the regret  
of his fellow man1 he must display      
talents2 evince integrity2 practice     
virtue4 ,the funeral ceremonies of the  
most powerful monarchs1 have rarely been

 wetted with the tears of the people1   
they have commonly drained them while   
living4 ,the names of tyrants excite the
 horror of those who bear them          
pronounced4 ,tremble then cruel kings6  
ye who plunge your subjects into misery2
 who bathe them with bitter tears--who  
ravage nations--who deluge the land with
 the vital stream--who change the       
fruitful earth into a barren cemetery2  
tremble for the sanguinary traits under 
which the future historian will paint   
you1 to generations yet unborn3 neither 
your splendid monuments--your imposing  
victories--your innumerable armies1 nor 
your sycophant courtiers1 can prevent   
posterity from avenging their           
grandfathers2 from insulting your odious
 manes2 from treating your execrable    
memories with scorn2 from showering     
their contempt on your transcendant     
crimes4  ,not only man sees his         
dissolution with pain1 but again1 he    
wishes his death may be an interesting  
event for others4 ,but1 as we have      

already said1 he must have talents--he  
must have beneficence--he must have     
virtue1 in order1 that those who        
surround him1 may interest themselves in
 his condition2 that those who survive  
him1 may give regret to his ashes4 ,is  
it1 then1 surprising if the greater     
number of men1 occupied entirely with   
themselves1 completely absorbed by their
 own vanity1 devoted to their own       
puerile objects1 for ever busied with   
the care of gratifying their vile       
passions1 at the expence1 perhaps1 of   
their family happiness1 unheedful of the
 wants of a wife1 unmindful of the      
necessity of their children1 careless of
 the calls of friendship1 regardless of 
their duty to society1 do not by their  
death excite the sensibilities of their 
survivors2 or that they should be       
presently forgotten8 ,there is an       
infinity of monarchs of which history   
does not tell us any thing1 save that   
they have lived4 ,in despite of the     
inutility in which men for the most part

 pass their existence1 maugre the little
 care they bestow1 to render themselves 
dear to the beings who environ them2    
notwithstanding the numerous actions    
they commit to displease their          
associates2 the self love of each       
individual1 persuades him1 that his     
death must be an interesting occurrence3
 few men but think themselves an        
,euryalus in friendship1 all expect to  
find a ,nisus1 thus man's over-weening  
philauty shews him to say thus the order
 of things are overturned at his        
decease4 ,o mortal6 feeble and vain6    
,dost thou not know the ,sesostris's1   
the ,alexanders1 the ,caesars are dead8 
,yet the course of the universe is not  
arrested2 the demise of those famous    
conquerors1 afflicting to some few      
favoured slaves1 was a subject of       
delight for the whole human race4 ,dost 
thou then foolishly believe that thy    
talents ought to interest thy species1  
that they are of sufficient extent to   
put it into mourning at thy decease8    

,alas6 ,the ,corneilles1 the ,lockes1   
the ,newtons1 the ,boyles1 the ,harveys1
 the ,montesquieus1 the ,sheridans are  
no more6 ,regretted by a small number of
 friends1 who have presently consoled   
themselves by their necessary           
avocations1 their death was indifferent 
to the greater number of their fellow   
citizens4 ,darest thou then flatter     
thyself1 that thy reputation1 thy       
titles1 thy riches1 thy sumptuous       
repasts1 thy diversified pleasures1 will
 make thy funeral a melancholy event6   
,it will be spoken of by some few for   
two days1 and do not be at all          
surprised3 learn that there have died in
 former ages1 in ,babylon1 in ,sardis1  
in ,carthage1 in ,athens1 in ,rome1     
millions of citizens more illustrious1  
more powerful1 more opulent1 more       
voluptuous1 than thou art2 of whom1     
however1 no one has taken care to       
transmit to thee even the names4 ,be    
then virtuous1 ,o man6 in whatever      
station thy destiny assigns thee1 and   

thou shalt be happy in thy life time2 do
 thou good and thou shalt be cherished2 
acquire talents and thou shalt be       
respected2 posterity shall admire thee1 
if those talents1 by becoming beneficial
 to their interests1 shall bring them   
acquainted with the name under which    
they formerly designated thy annihilated
 being4 ,but the universe will not be   
disturbed by thy loss2 and when thou    
comest to die1 whilst thy wife1 thy     
children1 thy friends1 fondly leaning   
over thy sickly couch1 shall be occupied
 with the melancholy task of closing    
thine eyes1 thy nearest neighbour shall 
perhaps be exulting with joy6  ,let not 
then man occupy himself with his        
condition that may be to come1 but let  
him sedulously endeavour to make himself
 useful1 to those with whom he lives2   
let him for his own peculiar happiness  
render himself dutiful to his           
parents--faithful to his wife--attentive
 to his children--kind to his           
relations---true to his friends--lenient

 to his servants2 let him strive to     
become estimable in the eyes of his     
fellow citizens2 let him faithfully     
serve a country which assures to him his
 welfare2 let the desire of pleasing    
posterity1 of meriting its applause1    
excite him to those labours that shall  
elicit their eulogies3 let a legitimate 
self-love1 when he shall be worthy of   
it1 make him taste in advance those     
commendations which he is willing to    
deserve2 let him learn to love          
himself--to esteem himself2 but never   
let him consent that concealed vices1   
that sacred crimes1 shall degrade him in
 his own eyes2 shall oblige him to be   
ashamed of his own conduct4  ,thus      
disposed1 let him contemplate his own   
decease with the same indifference1 that
 it will be looked upon by the greater  
number of his fellows2 let him expect   
death with constancy2 wait for it with  
calm resignation2 let him learn to shake
 off those vain terrors with which      
superstition1 would overwhelm him2 let  

him leave to the enthusiast his vague   
hopes2 to the fanatic his mad-brained   
speculations2 to the bigot those fears  
with which he ministers to his own      
melancholy2 but let his heart1 fortified
 by reason1 corroborated by a love of   
virtue1 no longer dread a dissolution   
that will destroy all feeling4          
,whatever may be the attachment man has 
to life1 whatever may be his fear of    
death1 it is every day witnessed1 that  
habit1 that opinion1 that prejudice1 are
 motives sufficiently powerful to       
annihilate these passions in his breast2
 to make him brave danger2 to cause him 
to hazard his existence4 ,ambition1     
pride1 jealousy1 love1 vanity1 avarice1 
the desire of glory1 that deference of  
opinion which is decorated with the     
sounding title of a point of honour1    
have the efficacy to make him shut his  
eyes to danger2 to laugh at peril2 to   
push him on to death3 vexation1 anxiety 
of mind1 disgrace1 want of success1     
softens to him its hard features2 makes 

him regard it as a door that will afford
 him shelter from the injustice of      
mankind3 indigence1 trouble1 adversity1 
familiarizes him with this death1 so    
terrible to the happy4 ,the poor man1   
condemned to labour1 inured to          
privations1 deprived of the comforts of 
life1 views its approach with           
indifference3 the unfortunate1 when he  
is unhappy1 when he is without resource1
 embraces it in despair2 the wretched   
accelerates its march as soon as he sees
 that happiness is no longer within his 
grasp4  ,man in different ages1 in      
different countries1 has formed opinions
 extremely various upon the conduct of  
those1 who have had the temerity to put 
an end to their own existence4 ,his     
ideas upon this subject1 as upon all    
others1 have taken their tone from his  
religion1 have been governed by his     
superstitious systems1 have been        
modified by his political institutions4 
,the ,greeks1 the ,romans1 and other    
nations1 which every thing conspired to 

make intrepid1 to render courageous1 to 
lead to magnanimity1 regarded as heroes1
 contemplated as ,gods1 those who       
voluntarily cut the thread of life4 ,in 
,hindoostan1 the ,brahmin yet knows how 
to inspire even women with sufficient   
fortitude to burn themselves upon the   
dead bodies of their husbands4 ,the     
,japanese1 upon the most trifling       
occasion1 takes no kind of difficulty in
 plunging a dagger into his bosom4      
,among the people of our own country1   
religion renders man less prodigal of   
life2 it teaches that it is offensive to
 the ,deity that he should destroy      
himself4 ,some moralists1 abstracting   
the height of religious ideas1 have held
 that it is never permitted to man to   
break the conditions of the covenant    
that he has made with society4 ,others  
have looked upon suicide as cowardice2  
they have thought that it was weakness1 
that it displayed pusillanimity1 to     
suffer1 himself to be overwhelmed with  
the shafts of his destiny2 and have held

 that there would be much more courage1 
more elevation of soul1 in supporting   
his afflictions1 in resisting the blows 
of fate4  ,if nature be consulted upon  
this point1 it will be found that all   
the actions of man1 that feeble         
plaything in the hands of necessity1 are
 indispensable2 that they depend on     
causes which move him in despite of     
himself--that without his knowledge1    
make him accomplish at each moment of   
his existence some one of its decrees4  
,if the same power that obliges all     
intelligent beings to cherish their     
existence1 renders that of man so       
painful1 so cruel1 that he finds it     
insupportable he quits his species2     
order is destroyed for him1 he          
accomplishes a decree of ,nature1 that  
wills he shall no longer exist4 ,this   
,nature has laboured during thousands of
 years1 to form in the bowels of the    
earth the iron that must number his     
days4  ,if the relation of man with     
,nature be examined1 it will be found   

that his engagement was neither         
voluntary on his part1 nor reciprocal on
 the part of ,nature4 ,the volition of  
his will had no share in his birth2 it  
is commonly against his will that he is 
obliged to finish life2 his actions are1
 as we have proved1 only the necessary  
effects of unknown causes which         
determine his will4 ,he is1 in the hands
 of ,nature1 that which a sword is in   
his own hands2 he can fall upon it      
without its being able to accuse him    
with breaking his engagements2 or of    
stamping with ingratitude the hand that 
holds it3 man can only love his         
existence on condition of being happy2  
as soon as the entire of nature refuses 
him this happiness2 as soon as all that 
surrounds him becomes incommodious to   
him1 as soon as his melancholy ideas    
offer nothing but afflicting pictures to
 his imagination2 he already exists no  
longer2 he is suspended in the void2 he 
quits a rank which no longer suits him2 
in which he finds no one interest2 which

 offers him no protection2 which        
overwhelms him with calamity2 in which  
he can no more be useful either to      
himself or to others4  ,if the covenant 
which unites man to society be          
considered1 it will be obvious that     
every contract is conditional1 must be  
reciprocal2 that is to say1 supposes    
mutual advantages between the           
contracting parties4 ,the citizen cannot
 be bound to his country1 to his        
associates1 but by the bonds of         
happiness4 ,are these bonds cut asunder8
 ,he is restored to liberty4 ,society1  
or those who represent it1 do they use  
him with harshness1 do they treat him   
with injustice1 do they render his      
existence painful8 ,does disgrace hold  
him out to the finger of scorn2 does    
indigence menace him in an obdurate     
world8 ,perfidious friends1 do they     
forsake him in adversity8 ,an unfaithful
 wife1 does she outrage his heart8      
,rebellious1 ungrateful children1 do    
they afflict his old age8 ,has he placed

 his happiness exclusively on some      
object which it is impossible for him to
 procure8 ,chagrin1 remorse1 melancholy1
 and despair1 have they disfigured to   
him the spectacle of the universe8 ,in  
short1 for whatever cause it may be3 if 
he is not able to support his evils1 he 
quits a world1 which from henceforth1 is
 for him only a frightful desert he     
removes himself for ever from a country 
he thinks no longer willing to reckon   
him amongst the number of her           
children--he quits a house that to his  
mind is ready to bury him under its     
ruins--he renounces a society1 to the   
happiness of which he can no longer     
contribute2 which his own peculiar      
felicity alone can render dear to him3  
and could the man be blamed1 who1       
finding himself useless2 who being      
without resources1 in the town where    
destiny gave him birth1 should quit it  
in chagrin1 to plunge himself in        
solitude8 ,death appears to the wretched
 the only remedy for despair2 it is then

 the sword seems the only friend1 the   
only comfort that is left to the        
unhappy3 as long as hope remains the    
tenant of his bosom--as long as his     
evils appear to him at all              
supportable--as long as he flatters     
himself with seeing them brought to a   
termination--as long as he finds some   
comfort in existence1 however slender1  
he will not consent to deprive himself  
of life3 but when nothing any longer    
sustains in him the love of this        
existence1 then to live1 is to him the  
greatest of evils2 to die1 the only mode
 by which he can avoid the excess of    
despair4 ,this has been the opinion of  
many great men3 ,seneca1 the moralist1  
whom ,lactantius calls the divine       
,pagan1 who has been praised equally by 
,st4 ,austin and ,st4 ,augustine1       
endeavours by every kind of argument to 
make death a matter of indifference to  
man4 ,cato has always been commended1   
because he would not survive the cause  
of liberty2 for that he would not live a

 slave4 ,curtius1 who rode voluntarily  
into the gap1 to save his country1 has  
always been held forth as a model of    
heroic virtue4 ,is it not evident1 that 
those martyrs who have delivered        
themselves up to punishment1 have       
preferred quitting the world to living  
in it contrary to their own ideals of   
happiness8 ,when ,samson wished to be   
revenged on the ,philistines1 did he not
 consent to die with them as the only   
means8 ,if our country is attacked1 do  
we not voluntarily sacrifice our lives  
in its defence8  ,that society who has  
not the ability1 or who is not willing  
to procure man any one benefit1 loses   
all its rights over him2 ,nature1 when  
it has rendered his existence completely
 miserable1 has in fact1 ordered him to 
quit it3 in dying he does no more than  
fulfil one of her decrees1 as he did    
when he first drew his breath4 ,to him  
who is fearless of death1 there is no   
evil without a remedy2 for him who      
refuses to die1 there yet exists        

benefits which attach him to the world2 
in this case let him rally his          
powers--let him oppose courage to a     
destiny that oppresses him--let him call
 forth those resources with which       
,nature yet furnishes him2 she cannot   
have totally abandoned him1 while she   
yet leaves him the sensation of         
pleasure2 the hopes of seeing a period  
to his pains4  ,man regulates his       
judgment on his fellows1 only by his own
 peculiar mode of feeling2 he deems as  
folly1 he calls delirium all those      
violent actions which he believes but   
little commensurate with their causes2  
or which appear to him calculated to    
deprive him of that happiness1 towards  
which he supposes a being in the        
enjoyment of his senses1 cannot cease to
 have a tendency3 he treats his         
associate as a weak creature1 when he   
sees him affected with that which       
touches him but lightly2 or when he is  
incapable of supporting those evils1    
which his self-love flatters him1 he    

would himself be able to endure with    
more fortitude4 ,he accuses with madness
 whoever deprives himself of life1 for  
objects that he thinks unworthy so dear 
a sacrifice2 he taxes him with phrenzy1 
because he has himself learned to regard
 this life as the greatest blessing4 ,it
 is thus that he always erects himself  
into a judge of the happiness of        
others--of their mode of seeing--of     
their manner of feeling3 a miser who    
destroys himself after the loss of his  
treasure1 appears a fool in the eyes of 
him who is less attached to riches2 he  
does not feel1 that without money1 life 
to this miser is only a continued       
torture2 that nothing in the world is   
capable of diverting him from his       
painful sensations3 he will proudly tell
 you1 that in his place he had not done 
so much2 but to be exactly in the place 
of another man1 it is needful to have   
his organization--his temperament--his  
passions--his ideas2 it is in fact      
needful to be that other2 to be placed  

exactly in the same circumstances2 to be
 moved by the same causes2 and in this  
case all men1 like the miser1 would     
sacrifice their life1 after being       
deprived of the only source of their    
happiness4  ,he who deprives himself of 
his existence1 does not adopt this      
extremity1 so repugnant to his natural  
tendency2 but when nothing in this world
 has the faculty of rejoicing him2 when 
no means are left of diverting his      
affliction2 when reason no longer acts2 
his misfortune whatever it may be1 for  
him is real2 his organization1 be it    
strong1 or be it weak1 is his own1 not  
that of another3 a man who is sick only 
in imagination1 really suffers          
considerably2 even troublesome dreams   
place him in a very uncomfortable       
situation4 ,thus when a man kills       
himself1 it ought to be concluded1 that 
life1 in the room of being a benefit1   
had become a very great evil to him2    
that existence had lost all its charms  
in his eyes2 that the entire of nature  

was to him destitute of attraction2 that
 it no longer contained any thing that  
could seduce him2 that after the        
comparison which his disturbed          
imagination had made of existence with  
non-existence1 the latter appeared to   
him preferable to the first4  ,many will
 consider these maxims as dangerous2    
they certainly account why the unhappy  
cut the thread of life1 in a manner not 
corresponding with the received         
prejudices2 but1 nevertheless1 it is a  
temperament soured by chagrin1 a bilious
 constitution1 a melancholy habit1 a    
defect in the organization1 a           
derangement in the mind2 it is in fact  
necessity and not reasonable            
speculations1 that breed in man the     
design of destroying himself4 ,nothing  
invites him to this step so long as     
reason remains with him2 or whilst he   
yet possesses hope1 that sovereign balm 
for every evil3 as for the unfortunate1 
who cannot lose sight of his            
sorrows--who cannot forget his          

pains--who has his evils always present 
to his mind2 he is obliged to take      
counsel from these alone3 besides1 what 
assistance1 what advantage can society  
promise to himself1 from a miserable    
wretch reduced to despair2 from a       
misanthrope overwhelmed with grief2 from
 a wretch tormented with remorse1 who   
has no longer any motive to render      
himself useful to others--who has       
abandoned himself--who finds no more    
interest in preserving his life8        
,frequently1 those who destroy          
themselves are such1 that had they      
lived1 the offended laws must have      
ultimately been obliged to remove them  
from a society which they disgraced2    
from a country which they had injured4  
,as life is commonly the greatest       
blessing for man1 it is to be presumed  
that he who deprives himself of it1 is  
compelled to it by an invincible force4 
,it is the excess of misery1 the height 
of despair1 the derangement of his      
brain1 caused by melancholy1 that urges 

man on to destroy himself4 ,agitated by 
contrary impulsions1 he is1 as we have  
before said1 obliged to follow a middle 
course that conducts him to his death2  
if man be not a free-agent1 in any one  
instant of his life1 he is again much   
less so in the act by which it is       
terminated4  ,it will be seen then1 that
 he who kills himself1 does not1 as it  
is pretended1 commit an outrage on      
nature4 ,he follows an impulse which has
 deprived him of reason2 adopts the only
 means left him to quit his anguish2 he 
goes out of a door which she leaves open
 to him2 he cannot offend in            
accomplishing a law of necessity3 the   
iron hand of this having broken the     
spring that renders life desirable to   
him2 which urged him to                 
self-conservation1 shews him he ought to
 quit a rank or system where he finds   
himself too miserable to have the desire
 of remaining4 ,his country or his      
family have no right to complain of a   
member1 whom it has no means of         

rendering happy2 from whom consequently 
they have nothing more to hope3 to be   
useful to either1 it is necessary he    
should cherish his own peculiar         
existence2 that he should have an       
interest in conserving himself--that he 
should love the bonds by which he is    
united to others--that he should be     
capable of occupying himself with their 
felicity--that he should have a sound   
mind4 ,that the suicide should repent of
 his precipitancy1 he should outlive    
himself1 he should carry with him into  
his future residence1 his organs1 his   
senses1 his memory1 his ideas1 his      
actual mode of existing1 his determinate
 manner of thinking4  ,in short1 nothing
 is more useful for society1 than to    
inspire man with a contempt for death2  
to banish from his mind the false ideas 
he has of its consequences4 ,the fear of
 death can never do more than make      
cowards2 the fear of its consequences   
will make nothing but fanatics or       
melancholy beings1 who are useless to   

themselves1 unprofitable to others4     
,death is a resource that ought not by  
any means to be taken away from         
oppressed virtue2 which the injustice of
 man frequently reduces to despair4 ,if 
man feared death less1 he would neither 
be a slave nor superstitious2 truth     
would find defenders more zealous2 the  
rights of mankind would be more hardily 
sustained2 virtue would be intrepidly   
upheld3 error would be more powerfully  
opposed2 tyranny would be banished from 
nations3 cowardice nourishes it1 fear   
perpetuates it4 ,in fact1 man can       
neither be contented nor happy whilst   
his opinions shall oblige him to        
tremble4      ,,chap4 ,,xv4  ,of ,man's 
true ,interest1 or of the ,ideas he     
forms to himself of ,happiness4--,man   
cannot be happy without ,virtue4        
,utility1 as has been before observed1  
ought to be the only standard of the    
judgment of man4 ,to be useful1 is to   
contribute to the happiness of his      
fellow creatures2 to be prejudicial1 is 

to further their misery4 ,this granted1 
let us examine if the principles we have
 hitherto established be prejudicial or 
advantageous1 useful or useless1 to the 
human race4 ,if man unceasingly seeks   
after his happiness1 he can only approve
 of that which procures for him his     
object1 or furnishes him the means by   
which it is to be obtained4  ,what has  
been already said will serve in fixing  
our ideas upon what constitutes this    
happiness3 it has been already shewn    
that it is only continued pleasure3 but 
in order that an object may please1 it  
is necessary that the impressions it    
makes1 the perceptions it gives1 the    
ideas which it leaves1 in short1 that   
the motion it excites in man should be  
analogous to his organization2          
conformable to his temperament2         
assimilated to his individual           
nature3--modified as it is by habit1    
determined as it is by an infinity of   
circumstances1 it is necessary that the 
action of the object by which he is     

moved1 or of which the idea remains with
 him1 far from enfeebling him1 far from 
annihilating his feelings1 should tend  
to strengthen him2 it is necessary1 that
 without fatiguing his mind1 exhausting 
his faculties1 or deranging his organs1 
this object should impart to his machine
 that degree of activity for which it   
continually has occasion4 ,what is the  
object that unites all these qualities8 
,where is the man whose organs are      
susceptible of continual agitation      
without being fatigued2 without         
experiencing a painful sensation2       
without sinking8 ,man is always willing 
to be warned of his existence in the    
most lively manner1 as long as he can be
 so without pain4 ,what do ,i say8 ,he  
consents frequently to suffer1 rather   
than not feel4 ,he accustoms himself to 
a thousand things which at first must   
have affected him in a disagreeable     
manner2 but which frequently end either 
by converting themselves into wants1 or 
by no longer affecting him any way3 of  

this truth tobacco1 coffee1 and above   
all brandy furnish examples3 this is the
 reason he runs to see tragedies2 that  
he witnesses the execution of criminals4
 ,in short1 the desire of feeling1 of   
being powerfully moved1 appears to be   
the principle of curiosity2 of that     
avidity with which man seizes on the    
marvellous2 of that earnestness with    
which he clings to the supernatural2 of 
the disposition he evinces for the      
incomprehensible4 ,where1 indeed1 can he
 always find objects in nature capable  
of continually supplying the stimulus   
requisite to keep him in activity1 that 
shall be ever proportioned to the state 
of his own organization2 which his      
extreme mobility renders subject to     
perpetual variation8 ,the most lively   
pleasures are always the least durable1 
seeing they are those which exhaust him 
most4  ,that man should be              
uninterruptedly happy1 it would be      
requisite that his powers were infinite2
 it would require that to his mobility  

he joined a vigor1 attached a solidity1 
which nothing could change2 or else it  
is necessary that the objects from which
 he receives impulse1 should either     
acquire or lose properties1 according to
 the different states through which his 
machine is successively obliged to pass2
 it would need that the essences of     
beings should be changed in the same    
proportion as his dispositions2 should  
be submitted to the continual influence 
of a thousand causes1 which modify him  
without his knowledge1 and in despite of
 himself4 ,if1 at each moment1 his      
machine undergoes changes more or less  
marked1 which are ascribable to the     
different degrees of elasticity1 of     
density1 of serenity of the atmosphere2 
to the portion of igneous fluid         
circulating through his blood2 to the   
harmony of his organs2 to the order that
 exists between the various parts of his
 body2 if1 at every period of his       
existence1 his nerves have not the same 
tensions1 his fibres the same           

elasticity1 his mind the same activity1 
his imagination the same ardour1 c4 it  
is evident that the same causes in      
preserving to him only the same         
qualities1 cannot always affect him in  
the same manner4 ,here is the reason why
 those objects that please him in one   
season displease him in another3 these  
objects have not themselves sensibly    
changed2 but his organs1 his            
dispositions1 his ideas1 his mode of    
seeing1 his manner of feeling1 have     
changed3--such is the source of man's   
inconstancy4  ,if the same objects are  
not constantly in that state competent  
to form the happiness of the same       
individual1 it is easy to perceive that 
they are yet less in a capacity to      
please all men2 or that the same        
happiness cannot be suitable to all4    
,beings already various by their        
temperament1 unlike in their faculties1 
diversified in their organization1      
different in their imagination1         
dissimilar in their ideas1 of distinct  

opinions1 of contrary habits1 which an  
infinity of circumstances1 whether      
physical or moral1 have variously       
modified1 must necessarily form very    
different notions of happiness4 ,those  
of a ,,miser cannot be the same as those
 of a ,,prodigal2 those of a            
,,voluptuary1 the same as those of one  
who is ,,phlegmatic2 those of an        
intemperate1 the same as those of a     
rational man1 who husbands his health4  
,the happiness of each1 is in           
consequence composed of his natural     
organization1 and of those              
circumstances1 of those habits1 of those
 ideas1 whether true or false1 that have
 modified him3 this organization and    
these circumstances1 never being the    
same in any two men1 it follows1 that   
what is the object of one man's views1  
must be indifferent1 or even displeasing
 to another2 thus1 as we have before    
said1 no one can be capable of judging  
of that which may contribute to the     
felicity of his fellow man4  ,interest  

is the object to which each individual  
according to his temperament and his own
 peculiar ideas1 attaches his welfare2  
from which it will be perceived that    
this interest is never more than that   
which each contemplates as necessary to 
his happiness4 ,it must1 therefore1 be  
concluded1 that no man is totally       
without interest4 ,that of the miser to 
amass wealth2 that of the prodigal to   
dissipate it3 the interest of the       
ambitious is to obtain power2 that of   
the modest philosopher to enjoy         
tranquillity2 the interest of the       
debauchee is to give himself up1 without
 reserve1 to all sorts of pleasure2 that
 of the prudent man1 to abstain from    
those which may injure him3 the interest
 of the wicked is to gratify his        
passions at any price3 that of the      
virtuous to merit by his conduct the    
love1 to elicit by his actions the      
approbation of others2 to do nothing    
that can degrade himself in his own     
eyes4  ,thus1 when it is said that      

,interest is the only motive of human   
actions2 it is meant to indicate that   
each man labours after his own manner1  
to his own peculiar happiness2 that he  
places it in some object either visible 
or concealed2 either real or imaginary2 
that the whole system of his conduct is 
directed to its attainment4 ,this       
granted1 no man can be called           
disinterested2 this appellation is only 
applied to those of whose motives we are
 ignorant2 or whose interest we approve4
 ,thus the man who finds a greater      
pleasure in assisting his friends in    
misfortune than preserving in his       
coffers useless treasure1 is called     
generous1 faithful1 and disinterested2  
in like manner all men are denominated  
disinterested1 who feel their glory far 
more precious than their fortune4 ,in   
short1 all men are designated           
disinterested who place their happiness 
in making sacrifices which man considers
 costly1 because he does not attach the 
same value to the object for which the  

sacrifice is made4  ,man frequently     
judges very erroneously of the interest 
of others1 either because the motives   
that animate them are too complicated   
for him to unravel2 or because to be    
enabled to judge of them fairly1 it is  
needful to have the same eyes1 the same 
organs the same passions1 the same      
opinions3 nevertheless1 obliged to form 
his judgment of the actions of mankind1 
by their effect on himself1 he approves 
the interest that actuates them whenever
 the result is advantageous for his     
species3 thus1 he admires valour1       
generosity1 the love of liberty1 great  
talents1 virtue1 c4 he then only        
approves of the objects in which the    
beings he applauds have placed their    
happiness2 he approves these            
dispositions even when he is not in a   
capacity to feel their effects2 but in  
this judgment he is not himself         
disinterested2 experience1 reflection1  
habit1 reason1 have given him a taste   
for morals1 and he finds as much        

pleasure in being witness to a great and
 generous action1 as the man of virtu   
finds in the sight of a fine picture of 
which he is not the proprietor4 ,he who 
has formed to himself a habit of        
practising virtue1 is a man who has     
unceasingly before his eyes the interest
 that he has in meriting the affection1 
in deserving the esteem1 in securing the
 assistance of others1 as well as to    
love and esteem himself3 impressed with 
these ideas which have become habitual  
to him1 he abstains even from concealed 
crimes1 since these would degrade him in
 his own eyes3 he resembles a man who   
having from his infancy contracted the  
habit of cleanliness1 would be painfully
 affected at seeing himself dirty1 even 
when no one should witness it4 ,the     
honest man is he to whom truth has shewn
 his interest or his happiness in a mode
 of acting that others are obliged to   
love1 are under the necessity to approve
 for their own peculiar interest4       
,these principles1 duly developed1 are  

the true basis of morals2 nothing is    
more chimerical than those which are    
founded upon imaginary motives placed   
out of nature2 or upon innate           
sentiments2 which some speculators have 
regarded as anterior to man's           
experience2 as wholly independant of    
those advantages which result to him    
from its use3 it is the essence of man  
to love himself2 to tend to his own     
conservation2 to seek to render his     
existence happy3 thus interest1 or the  
desire of happiness1 is the only real   
motive of all his actions2 this interest
 depends upon his natural organization1 
rests itself upon his wants1 is bottomed
 upon his acquired ideas1 springs from  
the habits he has contracted3 he is     
without doubt in error1 when either a   
vitiated organization or false opinions 
shew him his welfare in objects either  
useless or injurious to himself1 as well
 as to others2 he marches steadily in   
the paths of virtue when true ideas have
 made him rest his happiness on a       

conduct useful to his species2 in that  
which is approved by others2 which      
renders him an interesting object to his
 associates4 ,morals would be a vain    
science if it did not incontestibly     
prove to man that his interest consists 
in being virtuous4 ,obligation of       
whatever kind1 can only be founded upon 
the probability or the certitude of     
either obtaining a good or avoiding an  
evil4  ,indeed1 in no one instant of his
 duration1 can a sensible1 an           
intelligent being1 either lose sight of 
his own preservation or forget his own  
welfare2 he owes happiness to himself2  
but experience quickly proves to him1   
that bereaved of assistance1 quite      
alone1 left entirely to himself1 he     
cannot procure all those objects which  
are requisite to his felicity3 he lives 
with sensible1 with intelligent beings1 
occupied like himself with their own    
peculiar happiness2 but capable of      
assisting him1 in obtaining those       
objects he most desires2 he discovers   

that these beings will not be favorable 
to his views1 but when they find their  
interest involved2 from which he        
concludes1 that his own happiness       
demands1 that his own wants render it   
necessary he should conduct himself at  
all times in a manner suitable to       
conciliate the attachment1 to obtain the
 approbation1 to elicit the esteem1 to  
secure the assistance of those beings   
who are most capacitated to further his 
designs4 ,he perceives1 that it is man  
who is most necessary to the welfare of 
man3 that to induce him to join in his  
interests1 he ought to make him find    
real advantages in recording his        
projects3 but to procure real advantages
 to the beings of the human species1 is 
to have virtue2 the reasonable man1     
therefore1 is obliged to feel that it is
 his interest to be virtuous4 ,virtue is
 only the art of rendering himself      
happy1 by the felicity of others4 ,the  
virtuous man is he who communicates     
happiness to those beings who are       

capable of rendering his own condition  
happy2 who are necessary to his         
conservation2 who have the ability to   
procure him a felicitous existence4     
,such1 then1 is the true foundation of  
all morals2 merit and virtue are founded
 upon the nature of man2 have their     
dependance upon his wants4 ,it is virtue
 alone that can render him truly happy3 
without virtue society can neither be   
useful nor indeed subsist2 it can only  
have real utility when it assembles     
beings animated with the desire of      
pleasing each other1 and disposed to    
labour to their reciprocal advantage3   
there exists no comfort in those        
families whose members are not in the   
happy disposition to lend each other    
mutual succours2 who have not a         
reciprocity of feeling that stimulates  
them to assist one another2 that induces
 them to cling to each other1 to support
 the sorrows of life2 to unite their    
efforts1 to put away those evils to     
which nature has subjected them2 the    

conjugal bonds1 are sweet only in       
proportion as they identify the interest
 of two beings1 united by the want of   
legitimate pleasure2 from whence results
 the maintenance of political society1  
and the means of furnishing it with     
citizens4 ,friendship has charms only   
when it more particularly associates two
 virtuous beings2 that is to say1       
animated with the sincere desire of     
conspiring to their reciprocal          
happiness4 ,in short1 it is only by     
displaying virtue1 that man can merit   
the benevolence1 can win the confidence1
 can gain the esteem1 of all those with 
whom he has relation2 in a word1 no man 
can be independently happy4  ,indeed1   
the happiness of each human individual  
depends on those sentiments to which he 
gives birth1 on those feelings which he 
nourishes in the beings amongst whom his
 destiny has placed him2 grandeur may   
dazzle them2 power may wrest from them  
an involuntary homage2 force may compel 
an unwilling obedience2 opulence may    

seduce mean1 may attract venal souls2   
but it is humanity1 it is benevolence1  
it is compassion1 it is equity1 that    
unassisted by these1 can without efforts
 obtain for him1 from those by whom he  
is surrounded1 those delicious          
sentiments of attachments1 those        
soothing feelings of tenderness1 those  
sweet ideas of esteem1 of which all     
reasonable men feel the necessity4 ,to  
be virtuous then1 is to place his       
interest in that which accords with the 
interest of others2 it is to enjoy those
 benefits1 to partake of that pleasure  
which he himself diffuses over his      
fellows4 ,he whom1 his nature1 his      
education1 his reflections1 his habits1 
have rendered susceptible of these      
dispositions1 and to whom his           
circumstances have given him the faculty
 of gratifying them1 becomes an         
interesting object to all those who     
approach him3 he enjoys every instant1  
he reads with satisfaction the          
contentment1 he contemplates with       

pleasure the joy which he has diffused  
over all countenances3 his wife1 his    
children1 his friends1 his servants     
greet him with gay1 serene faces1       
indicative of that content1 harbingers  
of that peace1 which he recognizes for  
his own work3 every thing that environs 
him is ready to partake his pleasures2  
to share his pains2 cherished1          
respected1 looked up to by others1 every
 thing conducts him to agreeable        
reflections2 he knows the rights he has 
acquired over their hearts2 he applauds 
himself for being the source of a       
felicity that captivates all the world2 
his own condition1 his sentiments of    
self-love1 become an hundred times more 
delicious when he sees them participated
 by all those with whom his destiny has 
connected him4 ,the habit of virtue     
creates for him no wants but those which
 virtue itself suffices to satisfy2 it  
is thus that virtue is always its own   
peculiar reward1 that it remunerates    
itself with all the advantages which it 

incessantly procures for others4  ,it   
will be said1 and perhaps even proved1  
that under the present constitution of  
things1 virtue far from procuring the   
welfare of those who practice it        
frequently plunges man into misfortune2 
often places continual obstacles to his 
felicity2 that almost every where it is 
without recompence4 ,what do ,i say8 ,a 
thousand examples could be adduced as   
evidence1 that in almost every country  
it is hated1 persecuted1 obliged to     
lament the ingratitude of human nature4 
,i reply with avowing1 that by a        
necessary consequence of the errors of  
his race1 virtue rarely conducts man to 
those objects in which the uninformed   
make their happiness consist4 ,the      
greater number of societies1 too        
frequently ruled by those whose         
ignorance makes them abuse their        
power1--whose prejudices render them    
enemies of virtue1--who flattered by    
sycophants1 secure in the impunity their
 actions enjoy1 commonly lavish their   

esteem1 bestow their kindness1 on none  
but the most unworthy objects2 reward   
only the most frivolous1 recompence none
 but the most prejudicial qualities2 and
 hardly ever accord that justice to     
merit which is unquestionably its due4  
,but the truly honest man1 is neither   
ambitious of renumeration1 nor sedulous 
of the suffrages of a society thus badly
 constituted3 contented with domestic   
happiness1 he seeks not to augment      
relations1 which would do no more than  
increase his danger2 he knows that a    
vitiated community is a whirlwind1 with 
which an honest man cannot co-order     
himself3 he therefore steps aside2 quits
 the beaten path1 by continuing in which
 he would infallibly be crushed4 ,he    
does all the good of which he is capable
 in his sphere2 he leaves the road free 
to the wicked1 who are willing to wade  
through its mire2 he laments the heavy  
strokes they inflict on themselves2 he  
applauds mediocrity that affords him    
security3 he pities those nations made  

miserable by their errors1--rendered    
unhappy by those passions which are the 
fatal but necessary consequence2 he sees
 they contain nothing but wretched      
citizens1 who far from cultivating their
 true interest1 far from labouring to   
their mutual felicity1 far from feeling 
the real value of virtue1 unconscious   
how dear it ought to be to them1 do     
nothing but either openly attack1 or    
secretly injure it2 in short1 who       
detests a quality which would restrain  
their disorderly propensities4  ,in     
saying that virtue is its own peculiar  
reward1 it is simply meant to announce1 
that in a society whose views were      
guided by truth1 trained by experience1 
conducted by reason1 each individual    
would be acquainted with his real       
interests2 would understand the true end
 of association2 would have sound       
motives to perform his duties2 find real
 advantages in fulfilling them2 in fact1
 it would be convinced1 that to render  
himself solidly happy1 he should occupy 

his actions with the welfare of his     
fellows2 by their utility merit their   
esteem1 elicit their kindness1 and      
secure their assistance4 ,in a          
well-constituted society1 the           
government1 the laws1 education1        
example1 would all conspire to prove to 
the citizen1 that the nation of which he
 forms a part1 is a whole that cannot be
 happy1 that cannot subsist without     
virtue2 experience would1 at each step1 
convince him that the welfare of its    
parts can only result from that of the  
whole body corporate2 justice would make
 him feel1 that no society1 can be      
advantageous to its members1 where the  
volition of wills in those who act1 is  
not so conformable to the interests of  
the whole1 as to produce an advantageous
 re-action4  ,but1 alas6 by the         
confusion which the errors of man have  
carried into his ideas3 virtue          
disgraced1 banished1 and persecuted1    
finds not one of those advantages it has
 a right to expect3 man is indeed shewn 

those rewards for it in a future life1  
of which he is almost always deprived in
 his actual existence4 ,it is thought   
necessary to deceive1 considered proper 
to seduce1 right to intimidate him1 in  
order to induce him to follow that      
virtue which every thing renders        
incommodious to him2 he is fed with     
distant hopes1 in order to solicit him  
to practice virtue1 while contemplation 
of the world makes it hateful to him2 he
 is alarmed by remote terrors1 to deter 
him from committing evil1 which his     
associates paint as amiable2 which all  
conspires to render necessary4 ,it is   
thus that politics1 thus that           
superstition1 by the formation of       
chimeras1 by the creation of fictitious 
interests pretend to supply those true1 
those real motives which nature         
furnishes1--which experience would point
 out1--which an enlightened government  
should hold forth1--which the law ought 
to enforce1--which instruction should   
sanction1--which example should         

encourage1-which rational opinions would
 render pleasant4 ,man1 blinded by his  
passions1 not less dangerous than       
necessary1 led away by precedent1       
authorised by custom1 enslaved by habit1
 pays no attention to these uncertain   
promises1 is regardless of the menaces  
held out2 the actual interests of his   
immediate pleasures1 the force of his   
passions1 the inveteracy of his habits1 
always rise superior to the distant     
interests pointed out in his future     
welfare1 or the remote evils with which 
he is threatened2 which always appear   
doubtful1 whenever he compares them with
 present advantages4  ,thus             
superstition1 far from making man       
virtuous by principle1 does nothing more
 than impose upon him a yoke as severe  
as it is useless2 it is borne by none   
but enthusiasts1 or by the              
pusillanimous2 who1 without becoming    
better1 tremblingly champ the feeble bit
 put into their mouth2 who are either   
rendered unhappy by their opinions1 or  

dangerous by their tenets2 indeed1      
experience1 that faithful monitor1      
incontestibly proves1 that superstition 
is a dyke inadequate to resist the      
torrent of corruption1 to which so many 
accumulated causes give an irresistible 
force3 nay more1 does not this          
superstition itself augment the public  
disorder1 by the dangerous passions     
which it lets loose1 by the conduct     
which it sanctions1 by the actions which
 it consecrates8 ,virtue1 in almost     
every climate1 is confined to some few  
rational souls1 who have sufficient     
strength of mind to resist the stream of
 prejudice2 who are contented by        
remunerating themselves with the        
benefits they difuse over society3 whose
 temperate dispositions are gratified   
with the suffrages of a small number of 
virtuous approvers2 in short1 who are   
detached from those frivolous advantages
 which the injustice of society but too 
commonly accords only to baseness1 which
 it rarely bestows1 except to intrigue1 

with which in general it rewards nothing
 but crime4  ,in despite of the         
injustice that reigns in the world1     
there are1 however1 some virtuous men in
 the bosom even of the most degenerate  
nations2 notwithstanding the general    
depravity1 there are some benevolent    
beings1 still enamoured of virtue2 who  
are fully acquainted with its true      
value2 who are sufficiently enlightened 
to know that it exacts homage even from 
its enemies2 who to use the language of 
,,ecclesiastes1 rejoice in their own    
works2 who are1 at least1 happy in      
possessing contented minds1 who are     
satisfied with concealed pleasures1     
those internal recompences of which no  
earthly power is competent to deprive   
them4 ,the honest man acquires a right  
to the esteem1 has a just claim to the  
veneration1 wins the confidence1 gains  
the love1 even of those whose conduct is
 exposed by a contrast with his own4 ,in
 short1 vice is obliged to cede to      
virtue2 of which it blushingly1 though  

unwillingly1 acknowledges the           
superiority4 ,independent of this       
ascendancy so gentle1 of this           
superiority so grand1 of this           
pre-eminence so infallible1 when even   
the whole universe should be unjust to  
him1 when even every tongue should cover
 him with venom1 when even every arm    
should menace him with hostility1 there 
yet remains to the honest man the       
sublime advantage of loving his own     
conduct2 the ineffable pleasure of      
esteeming himself2 the unalloyed        
gratification of diving with            
satisfaction into the recesses of his   
own heart2 the tranquil delight of      
contemplating his own actions with that 
delicious complacency that others ought 
to do1 if they were not hood-winked1 ,no
 power is adequate to ravish from him   
the merited esteem of himself2 no       
authority is sufficiently potent to give
 it to him when he deserves it not2 the 
mightiest monarch cannot lend stability 
to this esteem1 when it is not well     

founded2 it is then a ridiculous        
sentiment3 it ought to be considered1 it
 really is vanity and vexation of       
spirit1 it is not wisdom1 but folly in  
the extreme2 it ought to be censured    
when it displays itself in a mode that  
is mortifying to its neighbour1 in a    
manner that is troublesome to others2 it
 is then called ,,arrogance2 it is      
called ,,vanity2 but when it cannot be  
condemned1 when it is known for         
legitimate when it is discovered to have
 a solid foundation1 when it bottoms    
itself upon talents1 when it rises upon 
great actions that are useful to the    
community1 when it erects its edifice   
upon virtue2 even though society should 
not set these merits at their just      
price1 it is ,,noble ,,pride1           
,,elevation ,,of ,,mind1 and ,,grandeur 
,,of ,,soul4  ,of what consequence then1
 is it to listen to those superstitious 
beings1 those enemies to man's          
happiness1 who have been desirous of    
destroying it1 even in the inmost       

recesses of his heart2 who have         
prescribed to him hatred of his         
follower2 who have filled him with      
contempt for himself2 who pretend to    
wrest from the honest man that          
self-respect which is frequently the    
only reward that remains to virtue1 in a
 perverse world4 ,to annihilate in him  
this sentiment1 so full in justice1 this
 love of himself1 is to break the most  
powerful spring1 to weaken the most     
efficacious stimulus1 that urges him to 
act right2 that spurs him on to do good 
to his fellow mortals4 ,what motive1    
indeed1 except it be this1 remains for  
him in the greater part of human        
societies8 ,is not virtue discouraged8  
,is not honesty contemned8 ,is not      
audacious crime encouraged8 ,is not     
subtle intrigue eulogized8 ,is not      
cunning vice rewarded8 ,is not love of  
the public weal taxed as folly2         
exactitude in fulfilling duties looked  
upon as a bubble8 ,is not compassion    
laughed to scorn8 ,,are ,,not ,,traitors

 ,,distinguished ,,by ,,public ,,honors8
 ,is not negligence of morals           
applauded1--sensibility                 
derided1--tenderness scoffed1--conjugal 
fidelity jeered1--sincerity             
despised1--enviolable friendship treated
 with ridicule3 while seduction1        
adultery1 hard-heartedness1 punic faith1
 avarice1 and fraud1 stalk forth        
unabashed1 decked in gorgeous array1    
lauded by the world8 ,man must have     
motives for action3 he neither acts well
 nor ill1 but with a view to his own    
happiness3 that which he judges will    
conduce to this consummation so devoutly
 to be wished1 he thinks his interest2  
he does nothing gratuitously2 when      
reward for useful actions is withheld   
from him1 he is reduced either to become
 as abandoned as others1 or else to     
remunerate himself with his own         
applause4  ,this granted2 the honest man
 can never be completely unhappy2 he can
 never be entirely deprived of the      
recompence which is his due2 virtue is  

competent to repay him for all the      
benefits he may bestow on others2 can   
amply make up to him all the happiness  
denied him by public opinion2 but       
nothing can compensate to him the want  
of virtue4 ,it does not follow that the 
honest man will be exempted from        
afflictions3 like1 the wicked1 he is    
subject to physical evils2 he may pine  
in indigence2 he may be deprived of     
friendship2 he may be worn down with    
disease2 he may frequently be the       
subject of calumny2 he may be the victim
 to injustice2 he may be treated with   
ingratitude2 he may be exposed to       
hatred2 but in the midst of all his     
misfortunes1 in the very bosom of his   
sorrows1 in the extremity of his        
vexation1 he finds support in himself2  
he is contented with his own conduct2 he
 respects himself2 he feels his own     
dignity2 he knows the equity of his     
rights2 he consoles himself with the    
confidence inspired by the justness of  
his cause2 he cheers himself amidst the 

most sullen circumstances4 ,these       
supports are not calculated for the     
wicked2 they avail him nothing3 equally 
liable with the honest man to           
infirmities1 equally submitted to the   
caprices of his destiny1 equally the    
sport of a fluctuating world1 he finds  
the recesses of his own heart filled    
with dreadful alarms2 diseased with     
care2 cankered with solitude2 corroded  
with regret2 gnawed by remorse2 he dies 
within himself2 his conscience sustains 
him not but loads him with reproach2 his
 mind1 overwhelmed1 sinks beneath its   
own turpitude2 his reflection is the    
bitter dregs of hemlock2 maddening      
anguish holds him to the mirror that    
shews him his own deformity2 that       
recalls unhallowed deeds2 gloomy        
thoughts rush on his too faithful       
memory2 despondence benumbs him2 his    
body1 simultaneously assailed on all    
sides1 bends under the storm of--his own
 unruly passions2 at last despair       
grapples him to her filthy bosom1 he    

flies from himself4 ,the honest man is  
not an insensible ,stoic2 virtue does   
not procure impassibility2 honesty gives
 no exemption from misfortune1 but it   
enables him to bear cheerly up against  
it2 to cast off despair1 to keep his own
 company3 if he is infirm1 if he is worn
 with disease1 he has less to complain  
of than the vicious being who is        
oppressed with sickness1 who is         
enfeebled by years2 if he is indigent1  
he is less unhappy in his poverty2 if he
 is in disgrace1 he can endure it with  
fortitude1 he is not overwhelmed by its 
pressure1 like the wretched slave to    
crime4  ,thus the happiness of each     
individual depends on the cultivation of
 his temperament2 nature makes both the 
happy and the unhappy2 it is culture    
that gives value to the soil nature has 
formed2 it is instruction that makes the
 fruit it produces palatable2 ,it is    
reflection that makes it useful4 ,for   
man to be happily born1 is to have      
received from nature a sound body1      

organs that act with precision--a just  
mind1 a heart whose passions are        
analogous1 whose desires are conformable
 to the circumstances in which his      
destiny has placed him3 nature1 then1   
has done every thing for him1 when she  
has joined to these faculties the       
quantum of vigour1 the portion of       
energy1 sufficient to enable him to     
obtain those ,proper things1 which his  
station1 his mode of thinking1 his      
temperament1 have rendered desirable4   
,nature has made him a fatal present1   
when she has filled his sanguinary      
vessels with an over-heated fluid2 when 
she has given him an imagination too    
active2 when she has infused into him   
desires too impetuous2 when he has a    
hankering after objects either          
impossible or improper to be obtained   
under his circumstances2 or which at    
least he cannot procure without those   
incredible efforts1 that either place   
his own welfare in danger or disturb the
 repose of society4 ,the most happy man1

 is commonly he who possesses a peaceful
 soul2 who only desires those things    
which he can procure by labour1 suitable
 to maintain his activity2 which he can 
obtain without causing those shocks1    
that are either too violent for society1
 or troublesome to his associates4 ,a   
philosopher whose wants are easily      
satisfied1 who is a stranger1 to        
ambition1 who is contented with the     
limited circle of a small number of     
friends1 is1 without doubt a being much 
more happily constituted than an        
ambitious conqueror1 whose greedy       
imagination is reduced to despair by    
having only one world to ravage4 ,he who
 is happily born1 or whom nature has    
rendered susceptible of being           
conveniently modified1 is not a being   
injurious to society3 it is generally   
disturbed by men who are unhappily born1
 whose organization renders them        
turbulent2 who are discontented with    
their destiny2 who are inebriated with  
their own licentious passions2 who are  

infatuated with their own vile schemes2 
who are smitten with difficult          
enterprises2 who set the world in       
combustion1 to gather imaginary benefits
 in order to attain which they must     
inflict he heaviest curses on mankind1  
but in which they make their own        
happiness consist4 ,an ,,alexander      
requires the destruction of empires1    
nations to be deluged with blood1 cities
 to be laid in ashes1 its inhabitants to
 be exterminated1 to content that       
passion for glory1 of which he has      
formed to himself a false idea2 but     
which his too ardent imagination1 his   
too vehement mind anxiously thirsts     
after3 for a ,,diogenes there needs only
 a tub with the liberty of appearing    
whimsical2 a ,,socrates wants nothing   
but the pleasure of forming disciples to
 virtue4  ,man by his organization is a 
being to whom motion is always          
necessary2 he must therefore always     
desire it3 this is the reason why too   
much facility ,in procuring the objects 

of his search1 renders them quickly     
insipid4 ,to feel happiness1 it is      
necessary to make efforts to obtain it2 
to find charms in its enjoyment1 it is  
necessary that the desire should be     
whetted by obstacles2 he is presently   
disgusted with those benefits which have
 cost him but little pains4 ,the        
expectation of happiness1 the labour    
requisite to procure it1 the varied     
prospects it holds forth1 the multiplied
 pictures which his imagination forms to
 him1 supply his brain with that motion 
for which it has occasion2 this gives   
impulse to his organs1 puts his whole   
machine into activity1 exercises his    
faculties1 sets all his springs in play1
 in a word1 puts him into that agreeable
 activity1 for the want of which the    
enjoyment of happiness itself cannot    
compensate him4 ,action is the true     
element of the human mind2 as soon as it
 ceases to act1 it falls into disgust1  
sinks into lassitude4 ,his soul has the 
same occasion for ideas1 his stomach has

 for aliment4  ,thus the impulse given  
him by desire1 is itself a great        
benefit2 it is to the mind what exercise
 is to the body2 without it he would not
 derive any pleasure in the aliments    
presented to him2 it is thirst that     
renders the pleasure of drinking so     
agreeable2 life is a perpetual circle of
 regenerated desires and wants          
satisfied3 repose is only a pleasure to 
him who labours2 it is a source of      
weariness1 the cause of sorrow1 the     
spring of vice to him who has nothing to
 do4 ,to enjoy without interruption is  
not to enjoy any thing3 the man who has 
nothing to desire is certainly more     
unhappy than he who suffers4  ,these    
reflections1 grounded upon experience1  
drawn from the fountain of truth1 ought 
to prove to man1 that good as well as   
evil depends on the essence of things4  
,happiness to be felt cannot be         
continued4 ,labour is necessary1 to make
 intervals between his pleasures2 his   
body has occasion for exercise1 to      

co-order him with the beings who        
surround him2 his heart must have       
desires2 trouble alone can give him the 
right relish of his welfare2 it is this 
which puts in the shadows1 this which   
furnishes the true perspective to the   
picture of human life4 ,by an           
irrevocable law of his destiny1 man is  
obliged to be discontented with his     
present condition2 to make efforts to   
change it2 to reciprocally envy that    
felicity which no individual enjoys     
perfectly4 ,thus the poor man envies the
 opulence of his richer neighbour1      
although this is frequently more unhappy
 than his needy maligner2 thus the rich 
man views with pain the advantages of a 
poverty1 which he sees active1 healthy1 
and frequently jocund1 even in the bosom
 of penury4  ,if man was perfectly      
contented1 there would no longer be any 
activity in the world2 it is necessary  
that he should desire2 it is requisite  
that he should act2 it is incumbent he  
should labour1 in order that he may be  

happy3 such is the course of nature of  
which the life consists in action4      
,human societies can only subsist1 by   
the continual exchange of those things  
in which man places his happiness4 ,the 
poor man is obliged to desire1 he is    
necessitated to labour1 that he may     
procure what he knows is requisite to   
the preservation of his existence2 the  
primary wants given to him by nature1   
are to nourish himself1 clothe himself1 
lodge himself1 and propagate his        
species2 has he satisfied these8 ,he is 
quickly obliged to create others        
entirely new2 or rather1 his imagination
 only refines upon the first2 he seeks  
to diversify them2 he is willing to give
 them fresh zest2 arrived at opulence1  
when he has run over the whole circle of
 wants1 when he has completely exhausted
 their combinations1 he falls into      
disgust4 ,dispensed from labour1 his    
body amasses humours2 destitute of      
desires1 his heart feels a languor2     
deprived of activity1 he is obliged to  

participate his riches1 with beings more
 active1 more laborious than himself3   
these1 following their own peculiar     
interests1 take upon themselves the task
 of labouring for his advantage2 of     
procuring for him means to satisfy his  
want2 of ministering to his caprices1 in
 order to remove the languor that       
oppresses him4 ,it is thus the great1   
the rich excite the energies1 give play 
to the activity1 rouse the faculties1   
spur on the industry of the indigent2   
these labour to their own peculiar      
welfare by working for others3 thus the 
desire of ameliorating his condition1   
renders man necessary to his fellow man2
 thus wants1 always regenerating1 never 
satisfied1 are the principles of        
life1--the soul of activity1--the source
 of health1--the basis of society4 ,if  
each individual was competent to the    
supply of his own exigencies1 there     
would be no occasion for him to         
congregate in society2 but it is his    
wants1 his desires1 his whims1 that     

place him in a state of dependence on   
others3 these are the causes that each  
individual1 in order to further his own 
peculiar interest1 is obliged to be     
useful to those1 who have the capability
 of procuring for him the objects which 
he himself has not4 ,a nation is nothing
 more than the union of a great number  
of individuals1 connected with each     
other by the reciprocity of their wants2
 by their mutual desire of pleasure4    
,the most happy man is he who has the   
fewest wants1 and who has the most      
numerous means of satisfying them4 ,the 
man who would be truly rich1 has no need
 to increase his fortune1 it suffices he
 should diminish his wants4  ,in the    
individuals of the human species1 as    
well as in political society1 the       
progression of wants1 is a thing        
absolutely necessary2 it is founded upon
 the essence of man1 it is requisite    
that the natural wants once satisfied1  
should be replaced by those which he    
calls ,imaginary1 or wants of the       

,fancy3 these become as necessary to his
 happiness as the first4 ,custom1 which 
permits the native ,american to go quite
 naked1 obliges the more civilized      
inhabitant of ,europe to clothe himself2
 the poor man contents himself with very
 simple attire1 which equally serve him 
for winter and for summer1 for autumn   
and for spring2 the rich man desires to 
have garments suitable to each mutation 
of these seasons2 he would experience   
pain if he had not the convenience of   
changing his raiment with every         
variation of his climate2 he would be   
wretched if he was obliged to wear the  
same habiliments in the heat of summer1 
which he uses in the winter2 in short1  
he would be unhappy if the expence and  
variety of his costume did not display  
to the surrounding multitude his        
opulence1 mark his rank1 announce his   
superiority4 ,it is thus habit          
multiplies1 the wants of the wealthy2 it
 is thus that vanity itself becomes a   
want which sets a thousand hands in1    

motion1 a thousand heads to work1 who   
are all eager to gratify its cravings2  
in short1 this very vanity procures for 
the necessitous man1 the means of       
subsisting at the expense of his opulent
 neighbours ,he who is accustomed to    
pomp1 who is used to ostentatious       
splendour1 whose habits are luxurious1  
whenever he is deprived of these        
insignia of opulence1 to which he has   
attached the idea of happiness1 finds   
himself just as unhappy as the needy    
wretch who has not wherewith to cover   
his nakedness4 ,the civilized nations of
 the present day were in their origin   
savages composed of erratic             
tribes1--mere wanderers who were        
occupied with war2 employed in1 the     
chace2 painfully obliged to seek        
precarious subsistence by hunting in    
those woods which the industry of their 
successors has cleared2 which their     
labour has covered with yellow waving   
ears of nutritious corn2 in time they   
have become stationary3 they first      

applied themselves to ,agriculture1     
afterwards to commerce3 by degrees they 
have refined on their primitive wants1  
extended their sphere of action1 given  
birth to a thousand new wants1 imagined 
a thousand new means to satisfy them2   
this is the natural course1 the         
necessary progression1 the regular march
 of active beings1 who cannot live      
without feeling2 who to be happy1 must  
of necessity diversify their sensations4
 ,in proportion as man's wants multiply 
the means to satisfy them becomes more  
difficult1 he is obliged to depend on a 
greater number of his fellow creatures2 
his interest obliges him to rouse their 
activity2 to engage them to concur with 
his views2 consequently he is obliged to
 procure for them those objects by which
 they can be excited2 he is under the   
necessity of contenting their desires1  
which increase like his own1 by the very
 food that satisfies them4 ,the savage  
needs only put forth his hand to gather 
the fruit that offers itself            

spontaneously to his reach3 this he     
finds sufficient for his nourishment4   
,the opulent citizen of a flourishing   
society is obliged to set innumerable   
hands to work to produce the sumptuous  
repast2 the four quarters of the globe  
are ransacked to procure the far-fetched
 viands become necessary to revive his  
languid appetite2 the merchant1 the     
sailor1 the mechanic1 leave nothing     
unattempted to flatter his inordinate   
vanity4 ,from this it will appear1 that 
in the same proportion the wants of man 
are multiplied1 he is obliged to augment
 the means to satisfy them4 ,riches are 
nothing more than the measure of a      
convention1 by the assistance of which  
man is enabled to make a great number of
 his fellows concur in the gratification
 of his desires2 by which he is         
capacitated to invite them1 for their   
own peculiar interests1 to contribute to
 his pleasures4 ,what1 in fact1 does the
 rich man do1 except announce to the    
needy1 that he can furnish him with the 

means of subsistence if he consents to  
lend himself to his will8 ,what does the
 man in power1 except shew to others1   
that he is in a state to supply the     
requisites to render them happy8        
,sovereigns1 nobles1 men of wealth1     
appear to be happy1 only because they   
possess the ability1 are masters of the 
motives sufficient to determine a great 
number of individuals to occupy         
themselves with their respective        
felicity4  ,the more things are         
considered the more man will be         
convinced that his false opinion are the
 true source of his misery2 the clearer 
it will appear to him that happiness is 
so rare1 only because he attaches it to 
objects either indifferent or useless to
 his welfare2 which1 when enjoyed1      
convert themselves into real evils2     
which afflict him2 which become the     
cause of his misfortune4  ,riches are   
indifferent in themselves1 it is only by
 their application1 by the purposes they
 compass1 that they either become       

objects of utility to man1 or are       
rendered prejudicial to his welfare4    
,money1 useless to the savage who       
understands not its value1 is amassed by
 the miser1 for fear it should be       
employed uselessly2 lest it should be   
squandered by the prodigal2 or          
dissipated by the voluptuary2 who make  
no other use of it than to purchase     
infirmities2 to buy regret4  ,pleasures 
are nothing for the man who is incapable
 of feeling them2 they become real evils
 when they are too freely indulged1 when
 they are destructive to his            
health1--when they derange the economy  
of his machine1--when they entail       
diseases on himself and on his          
posterity1--when they make him neglect  
his duties1--when they render him       
despicable in the eyes of others4       
,power is nothing in itself1 it is      
useless to man if he does not avail     
himself of it to promote his own        
peculiar felicity1 by augmenting the    
happiness of his species2 it becomes    

fatal to him as soon as he abuses it2 it
 becomes odious whenever he employs it  
to render others miserable2 it is always
 the cause of his own misery whenever he
 stretches it beyond the due bounds     
prescribed by nature4  ,for want of     
being enlightened on his true interest1 
the man who enjoys all the means of     
rendering himself completely happy1     
scarcely ever discovers the secret of   
making those means truly subservient to 
his own peculiar felicity3 the art of   
enjoying1 is that which of all others is
 least understood2 man should learn this
 art before he begins to desire2 the    
earth is covered with individuals who   
only occupy themselves with the care of 
procuring the means without ever being  
acquainted with the end4 ,all the world 
desire fortune1 solicit power1 seek     
after pleasure1 yet very few1 indeed1   
are those whom objects render truly     
happy4  ,it is quite natural in man1 it 
is extremely reasonable1 it is          
absolutely necessary1 to desire those   

things which can contribute to augment  
the sum of his felicity4 ,pleasure1     
riches1 power1 are objects worthy his   
ambition1 deserving his most strenuous  
efforts1 when he has learned how to     
employ them2 when he has acquired the   
faculty of making them render his       
existence really more agreeable4 ,it is 
impossible to censure him who desires   
them1 to despise him who commands them1 
but when to obtain them he employs      
odious means2 or when after he has      
obtained them he makes a pernicious use 
of them1 injurious to himself1          
prejudicial to others2 let him wish for 
power1 let him seek after grandeur1 let 
him be ambitious of reputation1 when he 
can shew just pretensions to them2 when 
he can obtain them1 without making the  
purchase at the expence of his own      
repose1 or that of the beings with whom 
he lives3 let him desire riches1 when he
 knows how to make a use of them that is
 truly advantageous for himself1 really 
beneficial for others2 but never let him

 employ those means to procure them of  
which he may be ashamed2 with which he  
may be obliged to reproach himself2     
which may draw upon him the hatred of   
his associates2 or which may render him 
obnoxious to the castigation of society3
 let him always recollect1 that his     
solid happiness should rest its         
foundations upon its own esteem1--upon  
the advantages he procures for others2  
above all1 never let him for a moment   
forget1 that of all the objects to which
 his ambition may point1 the most       
impracticable for a being who lives in  
society1 is that of attempting to render
 himself exclusively happy4      ,,chap4
 ,,xvi  ,the ,errors of ,man1--upon what
 constitutes ,happiness4--the true      
,source of his ,evil4--,remedies that   
may be applied4   ,reason by no means   
forbids man from forming capacious      
desires2 ambition is a passion useful to
 his species when it has for1 its object
 the happiness of his race4 ,great      
minds1 elevated souls1 are desirous of  

acting on an extended sphere2 geniuses  
who are powerful1 beings who are        
enlightened1 men who are beneficent1    
distribute very widely their benign     
influence2 they must necessarily1 in    
order to promote their own peculiar     
felicity1 render great numbers happy4   
,so many princes fail to enjoy true     
happiness only1 because their feeble1   
narrow souls1 are obliged to act in a   
sphere too extensive for their energies3
 it is thus that by the supineness1 the 
indolence1 the incapacity of their      
chiefs1 nations frequently pine in      
misery2 are often submitted to masters1 
whose exility of mind is as little      
calculated to promote their own         
immediate happiness1 as it is to further
 that of their miserable subjects4 ,on  
the other hand1 souls too vehement1 too 
much inflamed1 too active1 are          
themselves tormented by the narrow      
sphere that confines them2 their ardour 
misplaced1 becomes the scourge of the   
human race4 ,alexander was a monarch who

 was equally injurious to the earth1    
equally discontented with his condition1
 as the indolent despot whom he         
dethroned4 ,the souls of neither were by
 any means commensurate with their      
sphere of action4  ,the happiness of man
 will never be more than the result of  
the harmony that subsists between his   
desires and his circumstances4 ,the     
sovereign power to him who knows not how
 to apply it to the advantage of his    
citizens1 is as nothing2 it cannot even 
conduce to his own peculiar happiness4  
,if it renders him miserable1 it is a   
real evil2 if it produces the misfortune
 of a portion of the human race1 it is a
 detestable abuse4 ,the most powerful   
princes are ordinarily such strangers to
 happiness1 their subjects are commonly 
so unfortunate1 only because the first  
possess all the means of rendering      
themselves happy without ever giving    
them activity2 or because the only      
knowledge they have of them1 is their   
abuse4 ,a wise man seated on a throne1  

would be the most happy of mortals4 ,a  
monarch is a man for whom his power1 let
 it be of whatever extent1 cannot       
procure other organs1 other modes of    
feeling1 than the meanest of his        
subjects2 if he has an advantage over   
them1 it is by the grandeur1 the        
variety1 the multiplicity of the objects
 with which he can occupy himself2 which
 by giving perpetual activity to his    
mind1 can prevent it from decay2 from   
falling into sloth4 ,if his soul is     
virtuous1 if his mind is expansive1 his 
ambition finds continual food in the    
contemplation of the power he possesses1
 to unite by gentleness1 to consolidate 
by kindness1 the will of his subjects   
with his own2 to interest them in his   
own conservation1 to merit their        
affections1--to draw forth the respect  
of strangers1--to render luminous the   
page of history--to elicit the eulogies 
of all nations--to clothe the           
orphan1--to dry the widow's tears4 ,such
 are the conquests that reason proposes 

to all those whose destiny it is to     
govern the fate of empires2 they are    
sufficiently grand to satisfy the most  
ardent imagination1 of a sublimity to   
gratify the most capacious ambition3 for
 a monarch they are paramount           
duties4--,,kings are the most happy of  
men1 only because they have the power of
 making others happy2 because they      
possess the means of multiplying the    
causes of legitimate content with       
themselves4  ,the advantages of the     
sovereign power are participated by all 
those who contribute to the government  
of states4 ,thus grandeur1 rank1        
reputation1 are desirable1 are          
legitimate objects for all who are      
acquainted with the means of rendering  
them subservient to their own peculiar  
felicity2 they are useless1 they are    
illegitimate to those ordinary men who  
have neither the energy nor the capacity
 to employ them in a mode advantageous  
to themselves2 they are detestable      
whenever to obtain them man compromises 

his own happiness1 when he implicates   
the welfare of society3 this society    
itself is in an error every time it     
respects men who only employ to its     
destruction1 a power1 the exercise of   
which it ought never to approve but when
 it reaps from it substantial benefits4 
,riches1 useless to the miser1 who is no
 more than their miserable gaoler2      
prejudicial to the debauchee1 for whom  
they only procure infirmities2 injurious
 to the voluptuary1 to whom they only   
bring disgust--whom they oppress with   
satiety2 can in the hands of the honest 
man produce unnumbered means of         
augmenting the sum of his happiness2 but
 before man covets wealth it is proper  
he should know how to employ it2 money  
is only a token1 a representative of    
happiness2 to enjoy it is so to use it  
as to make others happy3 this is the    
great secret1 this is the talisman1 this
 is the reality4 ,money1 according to   
the compact of man1 procures for him all
 those benefits he can desire2 there is 

only one1 which it will not procure1    
that is1 the knowledge how to apply it  
properly4 ,for man to have money1       
without the true secret how to enjoy it1
 is to possess the key of a commodious  
palace to which he is interdicted       
entrance2 to lavish it1 prodigally1 is  
to throw the key into the river2 to make
 a bad use of it1 is only to make it the
 means of wounding himself4 ,give the   
most ample treasures to the enlightened 
man1 he will not be overwhelmed with    
them2 if he has a capacious mind1 if he 
has a noble soul1 he will only extend   
more widely his benevolence2 he will    
deserve the affection of a greater      
number of his fellow men2 he will       
attract the love1 he will secure the    
homage1 of all those who surround him2  
he will restrain himself in his         
pleasures1 in order that he may be      
enabled truly to enjoy them2 he will    
know that money cannot re-establish a   
soul worn out with enjoyment2 cannot    
give fresh elasticity to organs         

enfeebled by excess2 cannot give fresh  
tension to nerves grown flaccid by      
abuse2 cannot invigorate a body         
enervated by debauchery2 cannot         
corroborate a machine1 from thenceforth 
become incapable of sustaining him1     
except by the necessity of privations2  
he will know that the licentiousness of 
the voluptuary stifles pleasure in its  
source2 that all the treasure in the    
world cannot renew his senses4  ,from   
this1 it will be obvious1 that nothing  
is more frivolous than the declamations 
of a gloomy philosophy against the      
desire of power2 nothing more absurd    
than the rant of superstition against   
the pursuit of grandeur2 nothing more   
inconsistent than homilies against the  
acquisition of riches2 nothing more     
unreasonable than dogmas that forbid the
 enjoyment of pleasure4 ,these objects  
are desirable for man1 whenever his     
situation allows him to make pretensions
 to them2 they are useful to society1   
conducive to public happiness1 whenever 

he has acquired the knowledge of making 
them turn to his own real advantage2    
reason cannot censure him1 virtue cannot
 despise him1 when in order to obtain   
them1 he never travels out of the road  
of truth2 when in their acquisition1 he 
wounds no one's interest2 when he       
pursues only legitimate means3 his      
associates will applaud him2 his        
contemporaries will esteem him3 he will 
respect himself1 when he only employs   
their agency to secure his own          
happiness1 and that of his fellows4     
,pleasure is a benefit1 it is of the    
essence of man to love1 it is even      
rational when it renders his existence  
really valuable to himself--when it does
 not injure him in his own esteem2 when 
its consequences are not grievous to    
others4 ,riches are the symbols of the  
great majority of the benefits of this  
life2 they become a reality in the hands
 of the man who has the clew to their   
just application4 ,power is the most    
sterling of all benefits1 when he who is

 its depositary has received from nature
 a soul sufficiently noble1 a mind      
sufficiently elevated1 a heart          
sufficiently benevolent1 faculties      
sufficiently energetic1 above all1 when 
he has derived from education a true    
regard for virtue1 that sacred love for 
truth which enables him to extend his   
happy influence over whole nations2     
which by this means he places in1 a     
state of legitimate dependence on his   
will2 man only acquires the right of    
commanding men1 when he renders them    
happy4  ,the right of man over his      
fellow man can only be founded either   
upon the actual happiness he secures to 
him1 or that which he gives him reason  
to hope he will procure for him2 without
 this1 the power he exercises would be  
violence1 usurpation1 manifest tyranny2 
it is only upon the faculty of rendering
 him happy1 that legitimate authority   
builds its structure2 without this it is
 the baseless fabric of a vision4 ,no   
man derives from nature the right of    

commanding another2 but it is           
voluntarily accorded to those1 from whom
 he expects his welfare4 ,government is 
the right of commanding1 conferred on   
the sovereign only for the advantage of 
those who are governed4 ,sovereigns are 
the defenders of the persons1 the       
guardians of the property1 the          
protectors of the liberty of their      
subjects3 this is the price of their    
obedience2 it is only on this condition 
these consent to obey2 government would 
not be better than a robbery whenever it
 availed itself of the powers confided  
to it1 to render society unhappy4 ,the  
empire of religion is founded on the    
opinion man entertains of its having    
power to render nations happy2          
government and religion are reasonable  
institutions2 but only so1 inasmuch as  
they equally contribute to the felicity 
of man3 it would be folly in him to     
submit himself to a yoke from which     
there resulted nothing but evil4 ,it    
would be folly to expect that man should

 bind himself to misery2 it would be    
rank injustice to oblige him to renounce
 his rights without some corresponding  
advantage6  ,the authority which a      
father exercises over his family is only
 founded on the advantages which he is  
supposed to procure for it4 ,rank1 in   
political society1 has only for its     
basis the real or imaginary utility of  
some citizens for which the others are  
willing to distinguish them--agree to   
respect them--consent to obey them4 ,the
 rich acquire rights over the indigent1 
the wealthy claim the homage of the     
needy1 only by virtue of the welfare    
they are conditioned to procure them4   
,genius1 talents1 science1 arts1 have   
rights over man1 only in consequence of 
their utility2 of the delight they      
confer2 of the advantages they procure  
for society4 ,in a word1 it is          
happiness1 it is the expectation of     
happiness1 it is its image that man     
cherishes--that he esteems--that he     
unceasingly adores4 ,monarchs1 the rich1

 the great1 may easily impose on him1   
may dazzle him1 may intimidate him1 but 
they will never be able to obtain the   
voluntary submission of his heart1 which
 alone can confer upon them legitimate  
rights1 without they make him experience
 real benefits--without they display    
virtue4 ,utility is nothing more than   
true happiness2 to be useful is to be   
virtuous2 to be virtuous is to make     
others happy4  ,the happiness which man 
derives from them is the invariable1 the
 necessary standard of his sentiments1  
for the beings of his species2 for the  
objects he desires2 for the opinions he 
embrases2 for those actions on which he 
decides4 ,he is the dupe of his         
prejudices every time he ceases to avail
 himself of this standard to regulate   
his judgment4 ,he will never run the    
risk of deceiving himself1 when he shall
 examine strictly what is the real      
utility resulting to his species from   
the religion1 from the superstition1    
from the laws1 from the institutions1   

from the inventions1 from the various   
actions of all mankind4  ,a superficial 
view may sometimes seduce him2 but      
experience1 aided by reflection1 will   
reconduct him to reason1 which is       
incapable of deceiving him4 ,this       
teaches him that pleasure is a momentary
 happiness1 which frequently becomes an 
evil2 that evil is a fleeting trouble   
that frequently becomes a good3 it makes
 him understand the true nature of      
objects1 enables him to foresee the     
effects he may expect2 it makes him     
distinguish those desires to which his  
welfare permits him to lend himself1    
from those to whose seduction he ought  
to make resistance4 ,in short1 it will  
always convince him that the true       
interest of intelligent beings1 who love
 happiness1 who desire to render their  
own existence felicitous1 demands that  
they should root out all those phantoms1
 abolish all those chimerical ideas1    
destroy all those prejudices1 which by  
traducing virtue1 obstruct their        

felicity in this world4  ,if he consults
 experience1 he will perceive that it is
 in illusions1 in false opinions1       
rendered sacred by time1 that he ought  
to search out the source of that        
multitude of evils which almost every   
where overwhelms mankind4 ,from         
ignorance of natural causes1 man has    
created imaginary causes2 not knowing to
 what cause to attribute thunder1 he    
ascribed it to an imaginary being whom  
he called ,,jupiter2 imposture availing 
itself of this disposition1 rendered    
these causes terrible to him2 these     
fatal ideas haunted him without         
rendering him better2 made him tremble  
without either benefit to himself or to 
others2 filled his mind with chimeras   
that opposed themselves to the progress 
of his reason2 that prevented him from  
really seeking after his happiness4 ,his
 vain fears rendered him the slave of   
those who deceived him1 under pretence  
of consulting his welfare2 he committed 
evil1 because they persuaded him his    

gods demanded sacrifices2 he lived in   
misfortune1 because they made him       
believe these gods condemned him to be  
miserable2 the slave of beings1 to which
 his own imagination had given birth1 he
 never dared to disentangle himself from
 his chains2 the artful ministers of    
these divinities gave him to understand 
that stupidity1 the renunciation of     
reason1 sloth of mind1 abjection of     
soul1 were the sure means of obtaining  
eternal felicity4  ,prejudices1 not less
 dangerous1 have blinded man upon the   
true nature of government4 ,nations in  
general are ignorant of the true        
foundations of authority2 they dare not 
demand happiness from those kings who   
are charged with the care of procuring  
it for them3 some have believed their   
sovereigns were gods disguised1 who     
received with their birth the right of  
commanding the rest of mankind2 that    
they could at their pleasure dispose of 
the felicity of the people2 that they   
were not accountable for the misery they

 engendered4 ,by a necessary consequence
 of these erroneous opinions1 politics  
have almost every where degenerated into
 the fatal art of sacrificing the       
interests of the many1 either to the    
caprice of an individual1 or to some few
 privileged irrational beings4 ,in      
despite of the evils which assailed     
them1 nations fell down in adoration    
before the idols they themselves had    
made3 foolishly respected the           
instruments of their misery2 had a      
stupid veneration for those who         
possessed the sovereign power of        
injuring them2 obeyed their unjust will2
 lavished their blood2 exhausted their  
treasure2 sacrificed their lives1 to    
glut the ambition1 to feed the cupidity 
to minister to the regenerated          
phantasms1 to gratify the never-ending  
caprices of these men2 they bend the    
knee to established opinion1 bowed to   
rank1 yielded to title1 to opulence1 to 
pageantry1 to ostentation3 at length    
victims to their prejudices1 they in    

vain expected their welfare at the hands
 of men who were themselves unhappy from
 their own vices2 whose neglect of      
virtue1 had rendered them incapable of  
enjoying true felicity2 who are but     
little disposed to occupy themselves    
with their prosperity3 under such chiefs
 their physical and moral happiness were
 equally neglected or even annihilated4 
,the same blindness may be perceived in 
the science of morals4 ,superstition1   
which never had any thing but ignorance 
for its basis1 which never had more than
 a disordered imagination for its guide1
 did not found ethics upon man's nature2
 upon his relations with his fellows2   
upon those duties which necessarily flow
 from these relations2 it preferred1 as 
more in unison with itself1 founding    
them upon imaginary relations which it  
pretended subsisted between him and     
those invisible powers it had so        
gratuitously imagined2 that were        
delivered by oracles which their priests
 had the address to make him believe    

spoke the will of the ,divinity3 thus1  
,,trophonius1 from his cave made        
affrightened mortals tremble2 shook the 
stoutest nerves2 made them turn pale    
with fear2 his miserable1 deluded       
supplicants1 who were obliged to        
sacrifice to him1 anointed their bodies 
with oil1 bathed in certain rivers1 and 
after they had offered their cake of    
honey and received their destiny1 became
 so dejected1 so wretchedly forlorn1    
that to this day their descendants1 when
 they behold a malencholy man1 exclaim1 
,he has consulted the oracle of         
,trophonius4 ,it was these invisible    
gods1 which superstition always paints  
as furious tyrants1 who were declared   
the arbiters of man's destiny2 the      
models of his conduct3 when he was      
willing to imitate them1 when he was    
willing to conform himself to the       
lessons of their interpreters1 he became
 wicked1 was an unsociable creature1 an 
useless being or else a turbulent       
maniac--a zealous fanatic4 ,it was these

 alone who profited by superstition1 who
 advantaged themselves by the darkness  
in which they contrived to involve the  
human mind2 nations were ignorant of    
nature2 they knew nothing of reason2    
they understood not truth2 they had only
 a gloomy superstition1 without one     
certain idea of either morals or virtue4
 ,when man committed evil against his   
fellow creature1 he believed he had     
offended these gods2 but he also        
believed himself forgiven1 as soon as he
 had prostrated himself before them2 as 
soon as he had by costly presents gained
 over the priest to his interest4 ,thus 
superstition1 far from giving a sure1   
far from affording a natural1 far from  
introducing a known basis to morals1    
only rested it on an unsteady           
foundation2 made it consist in ideal    
duties impossible to be accurately      
understood4 ,what did ,i say8 ,it first 
corrupted him1 and his expiations       
finished by ruining him4 ,thus when     
superstition was desirous to combat the 

unruly passions of man it attempted it  
in vain2 always enthusiastic1 ever      
deprived of experience1 it knew nothing 
of the true remedies3 those which it    
applied were disgusting1 only suitable  
to make the sick revolt against them2 it
 made them pass for divine1 because they
 were not made of man2 they were        
inefficacious1 because chimeras could   
effectuate nothing against those        
substantive passions to which motives   
more real1 impulsions more powerful1    
concurred to give birth1 which every    
thing conspired1 to flourish in his     
heart4 ,the voice of superstition or of 
the gods1 could not make itself heard   
amidst the tumult of society--where all 
was in confusion--where the priest cried
 out to man1 that he could not render   
himself happy without injuring his      
fellow creatures1 who happened to differ
 from him in opinion3 these vain        
clamours only made virtue hateful to    
him1 because they always represented it 
as the enemy to his happiness2 as the   

bane of human pleasures3 he consequently
 failed in the observation of his       
duties1 because real motives were never 
held forth to induce him to make the    
requisite sacrifice2 the present        
prevailed over the future2 the visible  
over the invisible2 the known over the  
unknown3 man became wicked because every
 thing informed him he must be so1 in   
order to obtain the happiness after     
which he sighed4  ,thus the sum of human
 misery was never diminished2 on the    
contrary1 it was accumulating either by 
his superstition1 by his government1 by 
his education1 by his opinions or by the
 institutions he adopted under the idea 
of rendering his condition more         
pleasant3 it not unfrequently happened  
that the whole of these acted upon him  
simultaneously2 he was then completely  
wretched4 ,it cannot be too often       
repeated1 it is in error that man will  
find the true spring of those evils with
 which the human race is afflicted2 it  
is not nature that renders him          

miserable2 it is not nature that makes  
him unhappy2 it is not an irritated     
,divinity who is desirous he should live
 in tears2 it is not hereditary         
depravation that has caused him to be   
wicked2 it is to error1 to long         
cherished1 consecrated error1 to error  
identified with his very existence1 that
 these deplorable effects are to be     
ascribed4  ,the sovereign good1 so much 
sought after by some philosophers1      
announced with so much emphasis by      
others1 may be considered as a chimera1 
like unto that marvellous panacea which 
some adepts have been willing to pass   
upon mankind for an universal remedy4   
,all men are diseased2 the moment of    
their birth delivers them over to the   
contagion of error2 but individuals are 
variously affected by it by a           
consequence of their natural            
organization2 of their peculiar         
circumstances4 ,if there is a sovereign 
remedy1 which can be indiscriminately   
applied to the diseases of man1 there is

 without doubt only ,,one1 this catholic
 balsam is ,,truth1 ,which he must draw 
from nature4  ,at the afflicting sight  
of those errors which blind the greater 
number of mortals--of those delusions   
which man is doomed to suck in with his 
mother's milk2 viewing with painful     
sensations those irregular desires1     
those disgusting propensities1 by which 
he is perpetually agitated2 seeing the  
terrible effect of those licentious     
passions which torment him2 of those    
lasting inquietudes which gnaw his      
repose2 of those stupendous evils1 as   
well physical as moral1 which assail him
 on every side3 the contemplator of     
humanity would be tempted to believe    
that happiness was not made for this    
world2 that any effort to cure those    
minds which every thing unites to       
poison1 would be a vain enterprize2 that
 it was an ,augean stable1 requiring the
 strength of another ,hercules4 ,when he
 considers those numerous superstitions 
by which man is kept in a continual     

state of alarm--that divide him from his
 fellow--that render him vindictive1    
persecuting1 and irrational2 when he    
beholds the many despotic governments   
that oppress him2 when he examines those
 multitudinous1 unintelligible1         
contradictory laws that torture him2 the
 manifold injustice under which he      
groans2 when he turns his mind to the   
barbarous ignorance in which he is      
steeped1 almost over the whole surface  
of the earth2 when he witnesses those   
enormous crimes that debase society2    
when he unmasks those rooted vices that 
render it so hateful to almost every    
individual2 he has great difficulty to  
prevent his mind from embracing the idea
 that misfortune is the only appendage  
of the human species2 that this world is
 made solely to assemble the unhappy2   
that human felicity is a chimera1 or at 
least a point so fugitive1 that it is   
impossible it can be fixed4  ,thus      
superstitious mortals1 atrabilious men1 
beings nourished in melancholy1         

unceasingly see either nature or its    
author exasperated against the human    
race2 they suppose that man is the      
constant object of heaven's wrath2 that 
he irritates it even by his desires3    
that he renders himself criminal by     
seeking a felicity which is not made for
 him3 struck with beholding that those  
objects which he covets in the most     
lively manner1 are never competent to   
content his heart1 they have decried    
them as abominations1 as things         
prejudicial to his interest1 as odious  
to his gods2 they prescribe him         
abstinence from all search after them2  
that he should entirely shun them2 they 
have endeavoured to put to the rout all 
his passions1 without any distinction   
even of those which are the most useful 
to himself1 the most beneficial to those
 beings with whom he lives3 they have   
been willing that man should render     
himself insensible2 should become his   
own enemy2 that he should separate      
himself from his fellow creatures2 that 

he should renounce all pleasure2 that he
 should refuse happiness2 in short1 that
 he should cease to be a man1 that he   
should become unnatural4 ,mortals6 have 
they said1 ye were born to be unhappy2  
the author of your existence has        
destined ye for misfortune2 enter then  
into his views1 and render yourselves   
miserable4 ,combat those rebellious     
desires which have felicity for their   
object2 renounce those pleasures which  
it is your essence to love2 attach      
yourselves to nothing in this world2 by 
a society that only serves to inflame   
your imagination1 to make you sigh after
 benefits you ought not to enjoy2 break 
up the spring of your souls2 repress    
that activity that seeks to put a period
 to your sufferings2 suffer1 afflict    
yourselves1 groan1 be wretched2 such is 
for you the true road to happiness4     
,blind physicians6 who have mistaken for
 a disease the natural state of man6    
they have not seen that his desires were
 necessary2 that his passions were      

essential to him2 that to defend him    
from loving legitimate pleasures2 to    
interdict him from desiring them1 is to 
deprive him of that activity which is   
the vital principle of society2 that to 
tell him to hate1 to desire him to      
despise himself1 is to take from him the
 most substantive motive1 that can      
conduct him to virtue4 ,it is thus1 by  
its supernatural remedies1 by its       
wretched panacea1 superstition1 far from
 curing those evils which render man    
decrepid1 which bend him almost to the  
earth1 has only increased them2 made    
them more desperate2 in the room of     
calming his passions1 it gives them     
inveteracy2 makes them more dangerous2  
renders them more venomous2 turns that  
into a curse which nature has given him 
for his preservation2 to be the means of
 his own happiness4 ,it is not by       
extinguishing the passions of man that  
he is to be rendered happier2 it is by  
turning them into proper channels1 by   
directing them towards useful objects1  

which by being truly advantageous to    
himself1 must of necessity be beneficial
 to others4  ,in despite of the errors  
which blind the human race1 in despite  
of the extravagance of man's            
superstition1 maugre the imbecility of  
his political institutions1             
notwithstanding the complaints1 in      
defiance of the murmurs he is           
continually breathing forth against his 
destiny1 there are yet happy individuals
 on the earth4 ,man has sometimes the   
felicity to behold sovereigns animated  
by the noble passion to render nations  
flourishing2 full of the laudable       
ambition to make their people happy2 now
 and then he encounters an ,,antoninus1 
a ,,trajan1 a ,,julian1 an ,,alfred1 a  
,,washington2 he meets with elevated    
minds who place their glory in          
encouraging merit--who rest their       
happiness in succouring indigence--who  
think it honourable to lend a helping   
hand to oppressed virtue3 he sees genius
 occupied with the desire of meriting   

the eulogies of posterity2 of eliciting 
the admiration of his fellow-citizens by
 serving them usefully1 satisfied with  
enjoying that happiness he procures for 
others4  ,let it not be believed that   
the man of poverty himself is excluded  
from happiness3 mediocrity and indigence
 frequently procure for him advantages  
that opulence and grandeur are obliged  
to acknowledge2 which title and wealth  
are constrained to envy3 the soul of the
 needy man1 always in action1 never     
ceases to form desires which his        
activity places within his reach2 whilst
 the rich1 the powerful1 are frequently 
in the afflicting embarrassment1 of     
either not knowing what to wish for1 or 
else of desiring those objects which    
their listlessness renders it impossible
 for them to obtain4 ,the poor man's    
body1 habituated to labour1 knows the   
sweets of repose2 this repose of the    
body1 is the most troublesome fatigue to
 him who is wearied with his idleness2  
exercise1 and frugality1 procure for the

 one vigour1 health1 and contentment2   
the intemperance and sloth of the other1
 furnish him only with disgust--load him
 with infirmities4 ,indigence sets all  
the springs of the soul to work2 it is  
the mother of industry2 from its bosom  
arises genius2 it is the parent of      
talents1 the hot-bed of that merit to   
which opulence is obliged to pay        
tribute2 to which grandeur bows its     
homage4 ,in short the blows of fate find
 in the poor man a flexible reed1 who   
bends without breaking1 whilst the      
storms of adversity tear the rich man   
like the sturdy oak in the forest1 up by
 the very roots4  ,thus ,nature is not a
 step-mother to the greater number of   
her children4 ,he whom fortune has      
placed in an obscure station is ignorant
 of that ambition which devours the     
courtier2 knows nothing of the          
inquietude which deprives the intriguer 
of his rest2 is a stranger to the       
remorse1 an alien to the disgust1 is    
unconscious of the weariness of the man1

 who1 enriched with the spoils of a     
nation1 does not know how to turn them  
to his profit4 ,the more the body       
labours1 the more the imagination       
reposes itself2 it is the diversity of  
the objects man runs over that kindles  
it2 it is the satiety of those objects  
that causes him disgust2 the imagination
 of the indigent is circumscribed by    
necessity3 he receives but few ideas3 he
 is acquainted with but few objects3 in 
consequence1 he has but little to       
desire2 he contents himself with that   
little3 whilst the entire of nature with
 difficulty suffices to satisfy the     
insatiable desires1 to gratify the      
imaginary wants of the man1 plunged in  
luxury1 who has run over and exhausted  
all common objects4 ,those1 whom        
prejudice contemplates2 as the most     
unhappy of men1 frequently enjoy        
advantages more real1 happiness much    
greater1 than those who oppress         
them--who despise them--but who are     
nevertheless often reduced to the misery

 of envying them4 ,limited desires are a
 real benefit3 the man of meaner        
condition1 in his humble fortune1       
desires only bread3 he obtains it by the
 sweat of his brow2 he would eat it with
 pleasure if injustice did not sometimes
 render it bitter to him4 ,by the       
delirium of some governments1 those who 
roll in abundance1 without for that     
reason being more happy1 dispute with   
the cultivator even the fruits which the
 earth yields to the labour of his      
hands4 ,princes sometimes sacrifice     
their true happiness1 as well as that of
 their states1 to these passions--to    
those caprices which discourage the     
people2 which plunge their provinces in 
misery3 which make millions unhappy1    
without any advantage to themselves4    
,tyrants oblige the subjects to curse   
their existence2 to abandon labour2 take
 from them the courage of propagating a 
progeny who would be as unhappy as their
 fathers3 the excess of oppression      
sometimes obliges them to revolt2 makes 

them avenge themselves by wicked        
outrages of the injustice it has heaped 
on their devoted heads3 injustice1 by   
reducing indigence to despair1 obliges  
it to seek in crime1 resources1 against 
its misery4 ,an unjust government1      
produces discouragement in the soul3 its
 vexations depopulate a country2 under  
its influence1 the earth remains without
 culture2 from thence is bred frightful 
famine1 which gives birth to contagion  
and plague4 ,the misery of a people     
produce revolutions2 soured by          
misfortunes1 their minds get into a     
state of fermentation2 the overthrow of 
an empire1 is the necessary effect4 ,it 
is thus that physics and morals are     
always connected1 or rather are the same
 thing4  ,if the bad morals of chiefs do
 not always produce such marked effects1
 at least they generate slothfulness1 of
 which their effect is to fill society  
with mendicants2 to crowd it with       
malefactors2 whose vicious course       
neither superstition nor the terror of  

the laws can arrest2 which nothing can  
induce to remain the unhappy spectators 
of a welfare they are not permitted to  
participate4 ,they seek a fleeting      
happiness at the expence even of their  
lives1 when injustice has shut up to    
them the road of labour1 those paths of 
industry which would have rendered them 
both useful and honest4  ,let it not    
then be said that no government can     
render all its subjects happy2 without  
doubt it cannot flatter itself with     
contenting the capricious humours of    
some idle citizens who are obliged to   
rack their imagination1 to appease the  
disgust arising from lassitude3 but it  
can1 and it ought to occupy itself with 
ministering to the real wants of the    
multitude1 with giving a useful activity
 to the whole body politic4 ,a society  
enjoys all the happiness of which it is 
susceptible whenever the greater number 
of its members are wholesomely fed1     
decently cloathed1 comfortably          
lodged--in short when they can without  

an excess of toil beyond their strength1
 procure wherewith to satisfy those     
wants which nature has made necessary to
 their existence4 ,their mind rests     
contented as soon as they are convinced 
no power can ravish from them the fruits
 of their industry2 that they labour for
 themselves2 that the sweat of their    
brow is for the immediate comfort of    
their own families4 ,by a consequence of
 human folly in some regions1 whole     
nations are obliged to toil incessantly1
 to waste their strength1 to sweat under
 their burdens to undulate the air with 
their sighs1 to drench the earth with   
their tears1 in order to maintain the   
luxury1 to gratify the whims1 to support
 the corruption of a small number of    
irrational beings2 of some few useless  
men to whom happiness has become        
impossible1 because their bewildered    
imaginations no longer know any bounds4 
,it is thus that superstitious1 thus    
that political errors have changed the  
fair face of nature into a valley of    

tears4  ,for want of consulting reason1 
for want of knowing the value of virtue1
 for want of being instructed in their  
true interest1 for want of being        
acquainted with what constitutes solid  
happiness1 in what consists real        
felicity1 the prince and the people1 the
 rich and the poor1 the great and the   
little1 are unquestionably1 frequently  
very far removed from content2          
nevertheless if an impartial eye be     
glanced over the human race1 it will be 
found to comprise a greater number of   
benefits than of evils4 ,no man is      
entirely happy1 but he is so in detail2 
those who make the most bitter          
complaints of the rigour of their fate1 
are however1 held in existence by       
threads frequently imperceptible2 are   
prevented from the desire of quitting it
 by circumstances of which they are not 
aware4 ,in short1 habit lightens to man 
the burden of his troubles2 grief       
suspended becomes true enjoyment2 every 
want is a pleasure in the moment when it

 is satisfied2 freedom from chagrin1 the
 absence of disease1 is a happy state   
which he enjoys secretly1 without even  
perceiving it2 hope1 which rarely       
abandons him entirely1 helps him to     
support the most cruel disasters4 ,the  
,,prisoner laughs in his irons4 ,the    
wearied ,,villager returns singing to   
his cottage4 ,in short1 the man who     
calls himself the most unfortunate1     
never sees death approach without       
dismay1 at least1 if despair has not    
totally disfigured nature in his eyes4  
,as long as man desires the continuation
 of his being1 he has no right to call  
himself completely unhappy2 whilst hope 
sustains him1 he still enjoys a great   
benefit4 ,if man was more just1 in      
rendering to himself an account of his  
pleasures1 in estimating his pains1 he  
would acknowledge that the sum of the   
first exceeds by much the amount of the 
last2 he would perceive that he keeps a 
very exact ledger of the evil1 but a    
very unfaithful journal of the good3    

indeed he would avow1 that there are but
 few days entirely unhappy during the   
whole course of his existence4 ,his     
periodical wants procure for him the    
pleasure of satisfying them2 his soul is
 perpetually moved by a thousand        
objects1 of which1 the variety1 the     
multiplicity1 the novelty1 rejoices him1
 suspends his sorrows1 diverts his      
chagrin4 ,his physical evils1 are they  
violent8 ,they are not of long duration2
 they conduct him quickly to his end3   
the sorrows of his mind1 when too       
powerful1 conduct him to it equally4 ,at
 the same time nature refuses him every 
happiness1 she opens to him a door by   
which he quits life2 does he refuse to  
enter it8 ,it is that he yet finds      
pleasure in existence4 ,are nations     
reduced to despair8 ,are they completely
 miserable8 ,they have recourse to arms2
 at the risque of perishing1 they make  
the most violent efforts to terminate   
there sufferings4  ,thus because he sees
 so many of his fellows cling to life1  

man ought to conclude they are not so   
unhappy as he thinks4 ,then let him not 
exaggerate the evils of the human race1 
but let him impose silence on that      
gloomy humour that persuades him these  
evils are without remedy2 let him only  
diminish by degrees the number of his   
errors1 his calamities will vanish in   
the same proportion2 he is not to       
conclude himself infelicitous because   
his heart never ceases to form new      
desires1 which he finds it difficult1   
sometimes impossible to gratify4 ,since 
his body daily requires nourishment1 let
 him infer that it is sound1 that it    
fulfils its functions4 ,as long as he   
has desires1 the proper deduction ought 
to be1 that his mind is kept in the     
necessary activity2 he should gather    
from all this that passions are         
essential to him1 that they constitute  
the happiness of a being who feels2 are 
indispensable to a man who thinks2 are  
requisite to furnish him with ideas2    
that they are a vital principle with a  

creature who must necessarily love that 
which procures him comfort1 who must    
equally desire that which promises him a
 mode of existence analogous to his     
natural energies4 ,as long as he exists1
 as long as the spring of his soul      
maintains its elasticity1 this soul     
desires2 as long as it desires1 he      
experiences the activity which is       
necessary to him2 as long as he acts1 so
 long he lives4 ,human life may be      
compared to a river1 of which the waters
 succeed each other1 drive each other   
forward1 and flow on without            
interruption2 these waters1 obliged to  
roll over an unequal bed1 encounter at  
intervals those obstacles which prevent 
their stagnation2 they never cease to   
undulate2 sometimes they recoil1 then   
again rush forward1 thus continuing to  
run with more or less velocity1 until   
they are restored to the ocean of       
nature4      ,,chap4 ,,xvii4  ,those    
,ideas which are true1 or founded upon  
,nature1 are the only ,remedies for the 

,evils of                               
,man4--,recapitulation4--,conclusion of 
the first ,part4   ,whenever man ceases 
to take experience for his guide1 he    
falls into error4 ,his errors become yet
 more dangerous1 assume a more          
determined inveteracy1 when they are    
clothed with the sanction of            
superstition2 it is then that he hardly 
ever consents to return into the paths  
of truth2 he believes himself deeply    
interested in no longer seeing clearly  
that which lies before him2 he fancies  
he has an essential advantage in no     
longer understanding himself2 he        
supposes his happiness exacts that he   
should shut his eyes to truth4 ,if the  
majority of moral philosophers have     
mistaken the human heart--if they have  
deceived themselves upon its            
diseases--if they have miscalculated the
 remedies that are suitable--if the     
remedies they have administered have    
been inefficacious or even dangerous--it
 is because they have abandoned         

nature--because they have resisted      
experience--because they have not had   
sufficient steadiness to consult their  
reason--because they have renounced the 
evidence of their senses--because they  
have only followed the caprices of an   
imagination either dazzled by enthusiasm
 or disturbed by fear2 because they have
 preferred the illusions it has held    
forth to the realities of nature1 who   
never deceives4  ,it is for want of     
having felt that an intelligent being   
cannot for an instant lose sight of his 
own peculiar conservation--of his       
particular interests1 either real or    
fictitious--of his own welfare1 whether 
permanent or transitory2 in short1 of   
his happiness1 either true or false4 ,it
 is for want of having considered that  
desires are natural1 that passions are  
essential1 that both the one and the    
other are motions necessary to the soul 
of man1--that the physicians of the1    
human mind have supposed supernatural   
causes for his wanderings2 have only    

applied to his evils topical remedies1  
either useless or dangerous4 ,indeed1 in
 desiring him to stifle his desires1 to 
combat his propensities1 to annihilate  
his passions1 they have done no more    
than give him sterile precepts1 at once 
vague and impracticable2 these vain     
lessons have influenced no one2 they    
have at most restrained some few mortals
 whom a quiet imagination but feebly    
solicited to evil2 the terrors with     
which they have accompanied them have   
disturbed the tranquillity of those     
persons who were moderate by their      
nature1 without ever arresting the      
ungovernable temperament of those who   
were inebriated by their passions1 or   
hurried along2 by the torrent of habit4 
,in short1 the promises of superstition1
 as well as the menaces it holds forth1 
have only formed fanatics1 given birth  
to enthusiasts1 who are either dangerous
 or useless to society1 without ever    
making man truly virtuous2 that is to   
say1 useful to his fellow creatures4    

,these1 empirics guided by a blind      
routine have1 not seen that man as long 
as he exists1 is obliged to feel1 to    
desire1 to have passions1 to satisfy    
them in proportion to the energy which  
his organization has given him2 they    
have not perceived that education       
planted these desires in his heart--that
 habit rooted them--that his government1
 frequently vicious1 corroborated their 
growth--that public opinion stamped them
 with its approbation--that--experience 
render them necessary--that to tell men 
thus constituted to destroy their       
passions1 was either to plunge them into
 despair or else to order them remedies 
too revolting for their temperament4 ,in
 the actual state of opulent societies1 
to say to a man who knows by experience 
that riches procure every pleasure1 that
 he must not desire them2 that he must  
not make any efforts to obtain them2    
that he ought to detach himself from    
them3 is to persuade him to render      
himself miserable4 ,to tell an ambitious

 man not to desire grandeur1 not to     
covet power1 which every thing conspires
 to point out to him as the height of   
felicity1 is to order him to overturn at
 one blow the habitual system of his    
ideas2 it is to speak1 to a deaf man4   
,to tell a lover of an impetuous        
temperament to stifle his passions for  
the object that enchants him1 is to make
 him understand1 that he ought to       
renounce his happiness4 ,to oppose      
superstition to such substantive1 such  
puissant interests is to combat         
realities by chimerical speculations4   
,indeed1 if things were examined without
 prepossession1 it would be found that  
the greater part of the precepts        
inculcated by superstition1 which       
fanatical dogmas hold forth1 which1     
supernatural mortals give to man1 are as
 ridiculous as they are impossible to be
 put into practice4 ,to interdict       
passion to man1 is to desire of him not 
to be a human creature2 to counsel an   
individual of a violent imagination to  

moderate his desires1 is to advise him  
to change his temperament--is to request
 his blood to flow more sluggishly4 ,to 
tell a man to renounce his habits1 is to
 be willing that a citizen1 accustomed  
to clothe himself1 should consent to    
walk quite naked2 it would avail as     
much1 to desire him to change the       
lineament of his face1 to destroy his   
configuration1 to extinguish his        
imagination1 to alter the course of his 
fluids1 as to command him not to have   
passions which excite an activity       
analogous with his natural energy2 or to
 lay aside those which confirmed habit  
has made him contract2 which his        
circumstances1 by a long succession of  
causes and effects1 have converted into 
wants4 ,such are1 however1 the so much  
boasted remedies which the greater      
number of moral philosophers apply to   
human depravity4 ,is it1 then surprising
 they do not produce the desired effect1
 or that they only reduce man to a state
 of despair by the effervescence that   

results from the continual conflict     
which they excite between the passions  
of his heart and these fanciful         
doctrines2 between his vices and his    
virtues2 between his habits and those   
chimerical fears with which superstition
 is at all times ready to overwhelm him8
 ,the vices of society1 aided by the    
objects of which it avails itself to    
what the desires of man1 the pleasures1 
the riches1 the grandeur which his      
government holds forth to him as so many
 seductive magnets1 the advantage which 
education1 the benefits which example1  
the interests which public opinion      
render dear to him1 attract him on one  
side2 whilst a gloomy morality1 founded 
upon superstitious illusions1 vainly    
solicit him on the other2 thus1         
superstition plunges him into misery2   
holds a violent struggle with his heart1
 without scarcely ever gaining the      
victory2 when by accident it does       
prevail against so many united forces1  
it renders him unhappy2 it completely   

destroys the spring of his soul4        
,passions are the true counterpoise to  
passions2 then let him not seek to      
destroy them2 but let him endeavour to  
direct them2 let him balance those which
 are prejudicial1 by those which are    
useful to society4 ,reason1 the fruit of
 experience1 is only the art of choosing
 those passions to which for his own    
peculiar happiness he ought to listen4  
,education is the true art of           
disseminating the proper method of      
cultivating advantageous passions in the
 heart of man4 ,legislation is the art  
of restraining dangerous passions2 of   
exciting those which may be conducive to
 the public welfare4 ,superstition is   
only the miserable art of planting the  
unproductive labour--of nourishing in   
the soul of man those chimeras1 those   
illusions1 those impostures1 those      
incertitudes from whence spring passions
 fatal to himself as well as to others3 
it is only by bearing up with fortitude 
against these that he can securely place

 himself on the road to happiness4 ,true
 religion is the art of advocating      
truth--of renouncing error--of          
contemplating reality--of drawing wisdom
 from experience--of cultivating man's  
nature to his own felicity1 by teaching 
him to contribute to that of his        
associates2 in short it is reason1      
education1 and legislation1 united to   
further the great end of human          
existence1 by causing the passions of   
man to flow in a current genial to his  
own happiness4  ,reason and morals      
cannot effect any thing on mankind if   
they do not point out to each individual
 that his true interest is attached to a
 conduct that is either useful to others
 or beneficial to himself2 this conduct 
to be useful must conciliate for him the
 benevolence1 gain for him the favor of 
these beings who are necessary to his   
happiness3 it is then for the interest  
of mankind1 for the happiness of the    
human race1 it is for the esteem of     
himself1 for the love of his fellows1   

for the advantages which ensue1 that    
education in early life should kindle   
the imagination of the citizen2 this is 
the true means of obtaining those happy 
results with which habit should         
familiarize him2 which public opinion   
should render dear to his heart2 for    
which example ought continually to rouse
 his faculties2 after which he should be
 taught to search with unceasing        
attention4 ,government by the aid of    
recompences1 ought to encourage him to  
follow this plan2 by visiting crime with
 punishment it ought to deter those who 
are willing to interrupt it4 ,thus the  
hope of a true welfare1 the fear of real
 evil1 will be passions suitable to     
countervail those which by their        
impetuosity would injure society2 these 
last will at least become very rare1 if 
instead of feeding man's mind with      
unintelligible speculations1 in lieu of 
vibrating on his ears words void of     
sense1 he is only spoken to of          
realities1 only shewn those interests   

which are in unison with truth4  ,man is
 frequently so wicked1 only1 because he 
almost always feels himself interested  
in being so2 let him be more            
enlightened1 more familiarized with     
truth1 more accustomed to virtue1 he    
will be made more happy2 he will        
necessarily become better4 ,an equitable
 government1 a vigilant administration1 
will presently fill the state with      
honest citizens2 it will hold forth to  
them present reasons for benevolence2   
real advantages in truth2 palpable      
motives to be virtuous2 it will instruct
 them in their duties2 it will foster   
them with its cares2 it will allure them
 by the assurance of their own peculiar 
happiness2 its promises faithfully      
fulfilled--its menaces regularly        
executed1 will unquestionably have much 
more weight than those of a gloomy      
superstition1 which never exhibits to   
their view other than illusory benefits1
 fallacious punishments1 which the man  
hardened in wickedness will doubt every 

time he finds an interest in questioning
 them3 present motives will tell more   
home to his heart than those which are  
distant and at best uncertain4 ,the     
vicious and the wicked are so common    
upon the earth1 so pertinacious in their
 evil courses1 so attached to their     
irregularities1 only because there are  
but few governments that make man feel  
the advantage of being just1 the        
pleasure of being honest1 the happiness 
of being benevolent on the contrary1    
there is hardly any place where the most
 powerful interests do not solicit him  
to crime1 by favouring the propensities 
of a vicious organization2 by           
countenancing those appetencies which   
nothing has attempted to rectify or lead
 towards virtue4 ,a savage1 who in his  
horde knows not the value of money1     
certainly would not commit a crime1 if  
when transplanted into civilized        
society1 he should presently learn to   
desire it1 should make efforts to obtain
 it1 and if he could without danger     

finish by stealing it2 above all1 if he 
had not been taught to respect the      
property of the beings who environ him4 
,the savages and the child are precisely
 in the same state2 it is the negligence
 of society1 of those entrusted with    
their education1 that renders both the  
one and the other wicked4 ,the son of a 
noble1 from his infancy learns to desire
 power1 at a riper age he becomes       
ambitious2 if he has the address to     
insinuate himself into favor1 he perhaps
 becomes wicked1 because in some        
societies he has been taught to know he 
may be so with impunity when he can     
command the ear of his sovereign4 ,it is
 not therefore nature that makes man    
wicked1 they are his institutions which 
determine him to vice4 ,the infant      
brought up amongst robbers1 can         
generally become nothing but a          
malefactor2 if he had been reared with  
honest people1 the chance is he would   
have been a virtuous man4  ,if the      
source be traced of that profound       

ignorance in which man is with respect  
to his morals1 to the motives that can  
give volition to his will1 it will be   
found in those false ideas which the    
greater number of speculators have      
formed to themselves1 of human nature4  
,the science of morals has become an    
enigma which it is impossible to        
unrevel2 because man has made himself   
double2 has distinguished his soul from 
his body2 supposed it of a nature       
different from all known beings1 with   
modes of action1 with properties        
distinct from all other bodies1 because 
he has emancipated this soul from       
physical laws1 in order to submit it to 
capricious laws emanating from men who  
have pretended they are derived from    
imaginary regions1 placed at very remote
 distances3 metaphysicians seized upon  
these gratuitous suppositions1 and by   
dint of subtilizing them1 have rendered 
them completely unintelligible4 ,these  
moralists have not perceived that motion
 is essential to the soul as well as to 

the living body2 that both the one and  
the other are never moved but by        
material1 by physical objects2 that the 
want of each regenerate themselves      
unceasingly2 that the wants of the soul1
 as well as those of the body are purely
 physical2 that the most intimate1 the  
most constant connection subsists       
between the soul and the body2 or rather
 they have been unwilling to allow that 
they ate only the same thing considered 
under different points of view4         
,obstinate in their supernatural1       
unintelligible opinions1 they have      
refused to open their eyes1 which would 
have convinced them that the body in    
suffering rendered the soul miserable2  
that the soul afflicted undermined the  
body and brought it to decay2 that both 
the pleasures and agonies of the mind   
have an influence over the body1 either 
plunge it into sloth or give it         
activity3 they have rather chosen to    
believe1 that the soul draws its        
thoughts1 whether pleasant or gloomy1   

from its own peculiar sources1 while the
 fact is1 that it derives its ideas only
 from material objects that strike on   
the physical organs2 that it is neither 
determined to gaiety nor led on to      
sorrow1 but by the actual state1 whether
 permanent or transitory1 in which the  
fluids and solids of the body are found4
 ,in short1 they have been loath to     
acknowledge that the soul1 purely       
passive1 undergoes the same changes     
which the body experiences2 is only     
moved by its intervention2 acts only by 
its assistance1 receives its sensations1
 its perceptions1 forms its ideas1      
derives either its happiness or its     
misery from physical objects1 through   
the medium of the organs of which the   
body is composed2 frequently without its
 own cognizance1 often in despite of    
itself4  ,by a consequence of these     
opinions1 connected with marvellous     
systems1 or systems invented to justify 
them1 they have supposed the human soul 
to be a free agent2 that is to say1 that

 it has the faculty of moving itself2   
that it enjoys the privilege of acting  
independent of the impulse received from
 exterior objects1 through the organs of
 the body2 that regardless of these     
impulsions it can even resist them1 and 
follow its own directions by its own    
energies2 that it is not only different 
in its nature from all other beings1 but
 has a separate mode of action2 in other
 words1 that it is an insolated point   
which is1 not submitted to that         
uninterrupted chain of motion which     
bodies communicate to each other in a   
nature1 whose parts are always in       
action4 ,smitten with their sublime     
notions1 these speculators were not     
aware that in thus distinguishing the   
soul from the body and from all known   
beings1 they rendered it an             
impossibility to form any true ideas of 
it1 either to themselves or to others3  
they were unwilling to perceive the     
perfect analogy which is found between  
the manner of the soul's action and that

 by which the body is afflicted2 they   
shut their eyes to the necessary and    
continual correspondence which is found 
between the soul and the body2 they     
perhaps did not perceive that like the  
body it is subjected to the motion of   
attraction and repulsion2 has an        
aptitude to be attracted1 a disposition 
to repel1 which is ascribable to        
qualities inherent in those physical    
subsistances1 which give play to the    
organs of the body2 that the volition of
 its will1 the activity of its passions1
 the continual regeneration of its      
desires1 are never more than            
consequences of that activity which is  
produced in the body by material objects
 which are not under its controul2 that 
these objects render it either happy or 
miserable1 active or languishing1       
contented or discontented1 in despite of
 itself1--in defiance of all the efforts
 it is capable of making to render it   
otherwise2 they have rather chosen to   
seek in the heavens for unknown powers  

to set it in motion2 they have held     
forth to man distant1 imaginary         
interests3 under the pretext of         
procuring for him future happiness1 he  
has been prevented from labouring to his
 present felicity1 which has been       
studiously withheld from his knowledge3 
his regards have been fixed upon the    
heavens1 that he might lose sight of the
 earth3 truth has been concealed from   
him2 and it has been pretended he would 
be rendered happy by dint of terrors1   
always at an immense distance2 by means 
of shadows1 with whose substances he    
could never come in contact2 of chimeras
 formed by his own bewildered           
imagination1 which changed nearly as    
often as the governments to which he was
 submitted4 ,in short1 hoodwinked by his
 fears1 blinded by his own credulity1 he
 was only guided through the flexuous   
paths of life1 by men blind as himself1 
where both the one and the other were   
frequently lost in the maze4            
,,conclusion4   ,from every thing which 

has been hitherto said1 it evidently    
results that all the errors of mankind1 
of whatever nature they may be1 arise   
from man's having renounced reason1     
quitted experience1 and refused the     
evidence of his senses that he might be 
guided by imagination1 frequently       
deceitful2 by authority1 always         
suspicious4 ,man will ever mistake his  
true happiness as long as he neglects to
 study nature1 to investigate her laws1 
to seek in her alone the remedies for   
those evils which are the consequence of
 his errors3 he will be an enigma to    
himself1 as long as he shall believe    
himself double2 that he is moved by an  
inconceivable spiritual power1 of the   
laws and nature of which he is ignorant2
 his intellectual1 as well as his moral 
faculties1 will remain unintelligible to
 him if he does not contemplate them    
with the same eyes as he does his       
corporeal qualities2 if he does not view
 them as submitted in every thing to the
 same impulse1 as governed by the same  

regulations4 ,the system of his         
pretended free agency is without        
support2 experience contradicts it every
 instant1 and proves that he never      
ceases to be under the influence of     
necessity in all his actions2 this      
truth1 far from being dangerous to man1 
far from being destructive of his       
morals1 furnishes him with their true   
basis by making him feel the necessity  
of those relations which subsists       
between sensible beings united in       
society3 who have congregated with a    
view of uniting their common efforts for
 their reciprocal felicity4 ,from the   
necessity of these relations1 spring the
 necessity of his duties2 these point   
out to him the sentiments of love1 which
 he should accord to virtuous conduct2  
that aversion he should have for what is
 vicious2 the horror he should feel for 
every thing criminal4 ,from hence the   
true foundation of ,moral ,obligation   
will be obvious1 which is only the      
necessity of talking means to obtain the

 end man proposes to himself by uniting 
in society2 in which each individual for
 his own peculiar interest1 his own     
particular happiness1 his own personal  
security1 is obliged to display         
dispositions requisite to conciliate the
 affections of his associates2 to hold a
 conduct suitable to the preservation of
 the community2 to contribute by his    
actions to the happiness of the whole4  
,in a word1 it is upon the necessary    
action and re-action of the human will  
upon the necessary attraction and       
repulsion of man's soul1 that all his   
morals are bottomed3 it is the unison of
 his will1 the concert of his actions1  
that maintains society2 it is rendered  
miserable by his discordance2 it is     
dissolved by his want of union4  ,from  
what has been said1 it may be concluded 
that the names under which man has      
designated the concealed causes acting  
in nature1 and their various effects1   
are never more than necessity considered
 under different points of view1 with   

the original cause of which--the great  
cause of causes--he must ever remain    
ignorant4 ,it will be found that what he
 calls order1 is a necessary consequence
 of causes and effects1 of which he     
sees1 or believes he sees1 the entire   
connection1 the complete routine1 which 
pleases him as a whole1 when he finds it
 conformable to his existence4 ,in like 
manner it will be seen that what he     
calls confusion1 is a consequence of    
like necessary causes and effects1 of   
which he loses the concatenation1 which 
he therefore thinks unfavourable to     
himself1 or but little suitable to his  
being4 ,that he has designated by the   
names of--  ,intelligence1 those        
necessary causes that necessarily       
operate the chain of events which he    
comprises under the term order3         
,divinity1 those necessary but invisible
 causes which give play to nature1 in   
which every thing acts according to     
immutable and necessary laws3  ,destiny 
or fatality1 the necessary connection of

 those unknown causes and1 effects which
 he beholds in the world3  ,chance1     
those effects which he is not able to   
foresee1 or of which he is ignorant of  
the necessary connection1 with their    
causes3  ,intellectual and moral        
faculties1 those effects and those      
modifications necessary to an organized 
being1 whom he has supposed to be moved 
by an inconceivable agent2 who he has   
believed distinguished from his body1 of
 a nature totally different from it1 and
 which he has designated by the word    
,,soul4 ,in consequence1 he has believed
 this agent immortal2 not dissoluble    
like the body4 ,it has been shewn that  
the marvellous doctrine of another life1
 is founded upon gratuitous             
suppositions1 contradicted by           
reflections1 unsupported by experience1 
that may or may not be1 without man's   
knowing any thing on the subject4 ,it   
has been proved1 that the hypothesis is 
not only useless to man's morals1 but   
again1 that it is calculated to palsy   

his exertions2 to divert him from       
actively pursuing the true road to his  
own happiness2 to fill him with romantic
 caprices2 to inebriate him with        
opinions prejudicial to his             
tranquillity2 in short1 to lull to      
slumber the vigilance of legislators2 by
 dispensing them from giving to         
education1 to the institutions1 to the  
laws of society1 all that attention1    
which it is the duty and for his        
interest they should bestow4 ,it must   
have been felt1 that politics has       
unaccountably rested itself upon wrong  
opinions2 upon ideas little capable of  
satisfying those passions1 which every  
thing conspires to kindle in the heart  
of man2 who ceases to view the future1  
while the present seduces and hurries   
him along4 ,it has been shewn1 that     
contempt of death is an advantageous    
sentiment1 calculated to inspire man's  
mind with courage2 to render him        
intrepid2 to induce him to undertake    
that which may be truly useful to       

society2 in short1 from what has        
preceded1 it will be obvious1 what is   
competent to conduct man to happiness1  
and also what are the obstacles that    
error opposes to his felicity4  ,let us 
not then1 be accused of demolishing     
prejudice1 without edifying the mind2   
with combating error without            
substituting truth2 with underrating the
 power of the great cause of causes2    
with sapping at one and the same time   
the foundations of superstition and of  
sound morals4 ,the last is necessary to 
man2 it is founded upon his nature2 its 
duties are certain1 they must last as   
long as the human race remains2 it      
imposes obligations on him1 because1    
without it1 neither individuals nor     
society could be able to subsist1 either
 obtain or enjoy those advantages which 
nature obliges them to desire4  ,listen 
then1 ,o man6 to those morals which are 
established upon1 experience2 which are 
grounded upon the necessity of things2  
do not lend thine ear to those          

superstitions founded upon reveries2    
rested upon imposture2 built upon the   
capricious whims of a disordered        
imagination4 ,follow the lessons of     
those humane1 those gentle morals1 which
 conduct man to virtue1 by the voice of 
happiness3 turn a deaf ear to the       
inefficacious cries of superstition1    
which renders man really unhappy2 which 
can never make him reverence ,,virtue2  
which renders truth hateful2 which      
paints veracity in hideous colours2 in  
short1 let him see if ,,reason1 without 
the assistance of a rival1 who prohibits
 its use1 will not more surely conduct  
him towards that great end1 which is the
 object of his research1 which is the   
natural tendency of all his views4      
,indeed1 what benefit has the human race
 hitherto drawn from those sublime1     
those supernatural notions with which   
superstition has fed mortals during so  
many ages8 ,all those phantoms          
conjured--up by ignorance--brooded by   
imagination2 all those hypothesis1      

subtile as they are irrational2 from    
which experience is banished1 all those 
words devoid of meaning with which      
languages are crowded2 all those        
fantastical hopes2 those panic terrors  
which have been brought to operate on   
the will of man2 what have they done8   
,has any or the whole of them rendered  
him better1 more enlightened to his     
duties1 more faithful in their          
performance8 ,have those marvellous     
systems1 or those sophistical           
inventions1 by which they have been     
supported1 carried conviction to his    
mind1 reason into his conduct1 virtue   
into his heart8 ,have they led him to   
the least acquaintance with the great   
,cause of ,causes8 ,alas6 it is a       
lamentable fact1 that cannot be too     
often exposed1 that all these things    
have done nothing more than plunge the  
human understanding into that darkness  
from which it is difficult to be        
withdrawn2 sown in man's heart the most 
dangerous errors2 of which it is        

scarcely possible to divest him2 given  
birth to those fatal passions1 in which 
may be found the true source of those   
evils1 with which his species is        
afflicted3 but have never enlightened   
his mind with truth1 nor led him to that
 right healthy worship1 which man best  
pays by a rational enjoyment of the     
faculties with which he is gifted4      
,cease then1 ,o mortal6 to let thyself  
he disturbed with chimeras1 to let thy  
mind be troubled with phantoms which    
thine own imagination has created1 or to
 which arch imposture has given birth4  
,renounce thy vague hopes1 disengage    
thyself from thine overwhelming fears1  
follow without inquietude the necessary 
routine which nature has marked out for 
thee2 strew the road with flowers if thy
 destiny permits2 remove1 if thou art   
able1 the thorns scattered over it4 ,do 
not attempt to plunge thy views into an 
impenetrable futurity2 its obscurity    
ought to be sufficient to prove to thee1
 that it is either useless or dangerous 

to fathom4 ,think of making thyself     
happy in that existence which is known  
to thee3 if thou wouldst preserve       
thyself1 be temperate1 be moderate1 be  
reasonable3 if thou seekest to render   
thy existence durable1 be not prodigal  
of pleasure2 abstain from every thing   
that can be hurtful to thyself1         
injurious to others3 be truly           
intelligent2 that is to say1 learn to   
esteem thyself1 to preserve thy being1  
to fulfil that end which at each moment 
thou proposest to thyself4 ,be virtuous1
 to the end that thou mayest render     
thyself solidly happy1 that thou mayest 
enjoy the affections1 secure the esteem1
 partake of the assistance of those by  
whom thou art surrounded2 of those      
beings whom nature has made necessary to
 thine own peculiar felicity4 ,even when
 they should be unjust1 render thyself  
worthy of their applause1 of thine own  
love1 and thou shalt live content1 thy  
serenity shall not be disturbed1 the end
 of thy career shall not slander thy    

life2 which will be exempted from       
remorse3 death will be to thee the door 
to a new existence1 a new order1 in     
which thou wilt be submitted1 as thou   
art at present1 to the eternal laws of  
nature1 which ordains1 that to ,,live   
,,happy ,,here ,,below1 ,,thou ,,must   
,,make ,,others ,,happy4 ,suffer thyself
 then1 to be drawn gently along thy     
journey1 until thou shalt sleep         
peaceable on that bosom which has given 
thee birth3 if contrary to thine        
expectation1 there should be another    
life of eternal felicity1 thou canst not
 fail being a partaker4  ,for thou1     
wicked unfortunate6 who art found in    
continual contradiction with thyself2   
thou whose disorderly machine can       
neither accord with thine own peculiar  
nature1 nor with that of thine          
associates1 whatever may be thy crimes1 
whatever may be thy fears of punishment 
in another life1 thou art at least      
already cruelly punished in this8 ,do   
not thy follies1 thy shameful habits1   

thy debaucheries1 damage thine health8  
,dost thou not linger out life in       
disgust1 fatigued with thine own        
excesses8 ,does not listlessness punish 
thee for thy satiated passions8 ,has not
 thy vigour1 thy gaiety1 thy content1   
already yielded to feebleness1 crouched 
under infirmities1 given place to       
regret8 ,do not thy vices every day dig 
thy grave8 ,every time thou hast stained
 thyself with crime1 hast thou dared    
without horror to return into thyself1  
to examine thine own conscience8 ,hast  
thou not found remorse1 error1 shame1   
established in thine heart8 ,hast thou  
not dreaded the scrutiny of thy fellow  
man8 ,hast thou not trembled when alone2
 unceasingly feared1 that truth1 so     
terrible for thee1 should unveil thy    
dark transgressions1 throw into light   
thine enormous iniquities8 ,do not then 
any longer fear to part with thine      
existence1 it will at least put an end  
to those richly merited torments thou   
hast inflicted on thyself2 ,death1 in   

delivering the earth from an            
incommodious burthen1 will also deliver 
thee from thy most cruel enemy1 thyself4
   ,,end ,,of ,,part ,i4