,transcriber's ,comment ,in the original text1 the author sought1 by the use of different sorts of type1 444 to introduced a considerable amount of detail without breaking the main current of the narrative1 or making it too long4 ,in the text below1 paragraphs in the smallest type have been indented4 ,,outlines ,,of ,,universal ,,history ,designed as a ,text-book and for ,private ,reading ,by ,george ,park ,fisher1 ,d4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,professor in ,yale ,university ,inscribed by the author as a token of love and thankfulness to his daughter ,c4 ,r4 ,f4 ,,preface4 ,in writing this work ,i have endeavored to provide a text-book suited to more advanced pupils4 ,my idea of such a work was1 that it should present the essential facts of history in due order1 and in conformity to the best and latest researches2 that it should point out clearly the connection of events and of successive eras with one another2 that through the interest awakened by the natural1 unforced view gained of this unity of history1 and by such illustrative incidents as the brevity of the narrative would allow to be wrought into it1 the dryness of a mere summary should be1 as far as possible1 relieved2 and that1 finally1 being a book intended for pupils and readers of all classes1 it should be free from sectarian partiality1 and should limit itself to well-established judgments and conclusions on all matters subject to party contention4 ,respecting one of the points just referred to1 ,i can say that1 in composing this work1 ,i have myself been more than ever impressed with the unity of history1 and affected by this great and deeply moving drama that is still advancing into a future that is hidden from view4 ,i can not but hope that this feeling1 spontaneous and vivid in my own mind1 may communicate itself to the reader in his progress through these pages4 ,the most interesting object in the study of history is1 to quote ,dr4 ,arnold's words1 that which most nearly touches the inner life of civilized man1 namely1 the vicissitudes of institutions1 social1 political1 and religious4 ,but1 as the same scholar adds1 a knowledge of the external is needed before we arrive at that which is within4 ,we want to get a sort of frame for our picture4444,and thus we want to know clearly the geographical boundaries of different countries1 and their external revolutions4 ,this leads us in the first instance to geography and military history1 even if our ultimate object lies beyond4 ,something more is aimed at in the present work than the construction of this frame1 without which1 to be sure1 a student wanders about vaguely1 like an ignorant man in an ill-arranged museum4 ,by the use of different sorts of type1 it has been practicable to introduce a considerable amount of detail without breaking the main current of the narrative1 or making it too long4 ,by means of these additional passages1 and by appending lists of books at the close of the several periods1 the attempt has been made to aid younger students in carrying forward the study of history beyond the usual requirements of the class-room4 ,i make no apology for the sketches presented of the history of science1 literature1 art1 and of moral and material decline or improvement4 ,professor ,seeley1 in his interesting book on ,the ,expansion of ,england1 is disposed to confine history to the civil community1 and to the part of human well-being which depends on that4 ,that a man in ,england1 he tells us1 makes a scientific discovery or paints a picture1 is not in itself an event in the history of ,england4 ,but1 of course1 as this able writer himself remarks1 history may assume a larger or a narrower function2 and ,i am persuaded that to shut up history within so narrow bounds1 is not expedient in a work designed in part to stimulate readers to wide and continued studies4 ,one who has long been engaged in historical study and teaching1 if he undertakes to prepare such a work as the present1 has occasion to traverse certain periods where previous investigations have made him feel more or less at home4 ,elsewhere at least his course must be to collate authorities1 follow such as he deems best entitled to credit1 and1 on points of uncertainty1 satisfy himself by recurrence to the original sources of evidence4 ,among the numerous works from which ,i have derived assistance1 the largest debt is due1 especially in the ancient and medival periods1 to ,weber's ,lehrbuch der ,weltgeschichte1 which 7in its nineteenth edition1 #ahhc7 contains #bcbh large octavo pages of well-digested matter4 ,duruy's ,histoire du ,moyen ,age 7eleventh edition1 #ahhb71 and also his ,histoire des ,temps ,modernes 7ninth edition71 have yielded to me important aid4 ,from the writings of ,mr4 ,e4 ,a4 ,freeman ,i have constantly derived instruction4 ,in particular1 ,i have made use of his ,general ,sketch of ,european ,history 7which is published in this country1 under the title1 ,outlines of ,history71 and of his lucid1 compact1 and thorough ,history of ,european ,geography4 ,the other writings1 however1 of this able and learned historian1 have been very helpful4 ,mr4 ,tillinghast's edition of ,ploetz's ,epitome ,i have found to be a highly valuable storehouse of historical facts1 and have frequently consulted it with advantage4 ,the superior accuracy of ,george's ,genealogical ,tables is the reason why ,i have freely availed myself of the aid afforded by them4 ,professor 7now ,president7 ,c4 ,k4 ,adams's excellent ,manual of ,historical ,literature1 to which reference is repeatedly made in the following pages1 has been of service in preparing the lists of works to be read or consulted4 ,those lists1 it hardly need be said1 aim at nothing like a complete bibliography4 ,no doubt to each of them other valuable works might easily be added4 ,as a rule1 no mention is made of more technical or abstruse writings1 collections of documents1 and so forth4 ,the titles of but few historical novels are given4 ,useful as the best of these are1 works of this class are often inaccurate and misleading2 so that a living master in historical authorship has said even of ,walter ,scott1 who is so strong when he stands on ,scottish soil1 that in his ,ivanhoe there is a mistake in every line4 ,with regard1 however1 to historical fiction1 including poems1 as well as novels and tales1 the student will find in ,mr4 ,justin ,winsor's very learned and elaborate monograph 7forming a distinct section of the catalogue of the ,boston ,public ,library71 the most full information up to the date of its publication4 ,most of the historical maps1 to illustrate the text of the present work1 have been engraved from drawings after ,spruner1 ,putzger1 ,freeman1 etc4 ,of the ancient maps1 several have been adopted 7in a revised form7 from a ,general ,atlas4 ,that the maps contain more places than are referred to in the text1 is not a disadvantage4 ,i wish to express my obligation to a number of friends who have kindly lent me aid in the revisal of particular portions of the proof-sheets of this volume4 ,my special thanks are due1 on account of this service1 to ,professor ,francis ,brown of the ,union ,theological ,school2 to ,professors ,w4 ,d4 ,whitney1 ,tracy ,peck1 ,t4 ,d4 ,seymour1 ,w4 ,h4 ,brewer1 and ,t4 ,r4 ,lounsbury1 of ,yale ,college2 to ,mr4 ,a4 ,van ,name1 librarian of ,yale ,college2 and to ,mr4 ,w4 ,l4 ,kingsley1 to whose historical knowledge and unfailing kindness ,i have1 on previous occasions1 been indebted for like assistance4 ,to other friends besides those just named1 ,i am indebted for information on points made familiar to them by their special studies4 ,g4 ,p4 ,f4 ,,preface ,,to ,,revised ,,edition4 ,the characteristics of this work are stated in the ,preface to the ,first ,edition1 which may be read on page v and the next following pages of the present volume4 ,the work has been subjected to a careful revision4 ,the aim has been to make whatever amendments are called for by historical investigations in the interval since it was published4 ,besides corrections1 brief statements have been woven here and there into the text4 ,the revision has embraced the bibliography connected with the successive periods or chapters4 ,titles of books which are no longer of service have been erased4 ,titles of select recent publications1 as well as of meritorious writings of a remoter past1 have been inserted4 ,in preparing this edition for the press ,i have not been without the advantage of aid from friends versed in historical studies4 ,professor ,henry ,e4 ,bourne1 of ,western ,reserve ,university1 besides particular annotations1 has prolonged the history so far as to include in its compass1 in ,chapter ,,vii1 the last decade of the nineteenth century and events as recent as the close of the ,south ,african ,war and the accession of ,president ,roosevelt4 ,professor ,charles ,c4 ,torrey1 ,ph4,d41 of ,yale ,university1 has placed in my hands notes of his own on ,oriental ,history1 a portion of history with which1 as well as with the ,semitic languages1 he is conversant4 ,it will not be for lack of painstaking if any part of the new edition fails1 within the limits of its plan1 to correspond to the present state of historical knowledge4 ,g4 ,p4 ,f4 ,yale ,university1 ,january1 #aijd4 ,,contents4 ,,introduction ,,part ,i4 ,,ancient ,,history4 ,from the ,beginning of ,authentic ,history to the ,migrations of the ,teutonic ,tribes 7,a4,d4 #cge7 ,,division ,i4 ,,oriental ,,history4 ,,introduction ,,section ,i4 ,,china ,,and ,,india4 ,,chapter ,i4--,,china ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,india ,,section ,,ii4 ,,the ,,earliest ,,group ,,of ,,nations4 ,,chapter ,i4--,,egypt ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,assyria ,,and ,,babylon ,,chapter ,,iii4--,,the ,,phoenicians ,,and ,,carthaginians ,,chapter ,,iv4--,,the ,,hebrews ,,chapter ,v4--,,the ,,persians ,,division ,,ii4 ,,europe4 ,,introduction ,,section ,i4 ,,grecian ,,history4 ,,introduction ,,period ,i4 ,,greece ,,prior ,,to ,,the ,,persian ,,wars4 ,,chapter ,i4--,,the ,,prehistoric ,,age ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,states ,,period ,,ii4 ,,the ,,flourishing ,,era ,,of ,,greece4 ,,chapter ,i4--,,the ,,persian ,,wars ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,the ,,ascendency ,,of ,,athens ,,chapter ,,iii4--,,the ,,peloponnesian ,,war ,,chapter ,,iv4--,,relations ,,with ,,persia3 ,,the ,,spartan ,,and ,,theban ,,hegemony ,,period ,,iii4 ,,the ,,macedonian ,,era4 ,,chapter ,i4--,,philip ,,and ,,alexander ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,the ,,successors ,,of ,,alexander ,,section ,,ii4 ,,roman ,,history4 ,,introduction ,,period ,i4 ,,rome ,,under ,,the ,,kings ,,and ,,the ,,patricians 7#gec-cjd ,b4,c474 ,,chapter ,i4--,,rome ,,under ,,the ,,kings 7#gec-eji ,b4,c47 ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,rome ,,under ,,the ,,patricians 7#eji-cjd ,b4,c47 ,,period ,,ii4 ,,to ,,the ,,union ,,of ,,italy 7#cjd-bfd ,b4,c474 ,,chapter ,i4--,,conquest ,,of ,,the ,,latins ,,and ,,italians 7#cjd-bhb ,b4,c47 ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,war ,,with ,,pyrrhus ,,and ,,union ,,with ,,italy 7#bhb-bfd ,b4,c47 ,,period ,,iii4 ,,the ,,punic ,,wars4 ,to the ,conquest of ,carthage and of the ,greek ,states 7#bfd-adf ,b4,c47 ,,chapter ,i4--,,the ,,first ,,and ,,second ,,punic ,,wars 7#bfd-bjb ,b4,c47 ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,conquest ,,of ,,macedonia3 ,,the ,,third ,,punic ,,war3 ,,the ,,destruction ,,of ,,corinth 7#bjb-adf ,b4,c47 ,,period ,,iv4 ,,the ,,era ,,of ,,revolution ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,civil ,,wars 7#adf-cl ,b4,c474 ,,chapter ,i4--,,the ,,gracchi3 ,,the ,,first ,,mithridatic ,,war3 ,,marius ,,and ,,sulla 7#adf-gh ,b4,c47 ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,pompeius ,,and ,,the ,,east3 ,,to ,,the ,,death ,,of ,,crassus 7#gh-ec ,b4,c47 ,,chapter ,,iii4--,,pompeius ,,and ,,caesar3 ,,the ,,second ,,triumvirate4 ,,period ,v4 ,,the ,,imperial ,,monarchy4 ,to the ,migrations of the ,teutonic ,tribes 7#cge ,a4,d47 ,,chapter ,i4--,,the ,,reign ,,of ,,augustus ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,the ,,emperors ,,of ,,the ,,augustan ,,house ,,chapter ,,iii4--,,the ,,flavians ,,and ,,the ,,antonines ,,chapter ,,iv4--,,the ,,emperors ,,made ,,by ,,the ,,soldiers3 ,,the ,,absolute ,,monarchy3 ,,the ,,triumph ,,of ,,christianity ,,part ,,ii4 ,,mediaeval ,,history4 ,from the ,migrations of the ,teutonic ,tribes to the ,fall of ,constantinople 7,a4,d4 #cge-adec74 ,,introduction ,,period ,i4 ,,to ,,the ,,carlovingian ,,line ,,of ,,frank ,,rulers 7,a4,d4 #cge-gea74 ,,chapter ,i4--,,causes ,,of ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,the ,,western ,,empire3 ,,the ,,teutonic ,,confederacies ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,the ,,teutonic ,,migrations ,,and ,,kingdoms ,,chapter ,,iii4--,,the ,,eastern ,,empire ,,chapter ,,iv4--,,mohammedanism ,,and ,,the ,,arabic ,,conquests ,,period ,,ii4 ,,from ,,the ,,carlovingian ,,line ,,of ,,frank ,,kings ,,to ,,the ,,romano-,,germanic ,,empire 7,a4,d4 #gea-ifb74 ,,chapter ,i4--,,the ,,carlovingian ,,empire ,,to ,,the ,,death ,,of ,,charlemagne 7,a4,d4 #had7 ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,dissolution ,,of ,,charlemagne',s ,,empire3 ,,rise ,,of ,,the ,,kingdoms ,,of ,,france1 ,,germany1 ,,and ,,italy ,,chapter ,,iii4--,,invasions ,,of ,,the ,,northmen ,,and ,,others3 ,,the ,,feudal ,,system ,,period ,,iii4 ,,from ,,the ,,establishment ,,of ,,the ,,romano-,,germanic ,,empire ,,to ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,crusades 7,a4,d4 #ifb-abgj74 ,,chapter ,i4--,,the ,,church ,,and ,,the ,,empire3 ,,predominance ,,of ,,the ,,empire3 ,,to ,,the ,,crusades 7,a4,d4 #ajif7 ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,the ,,church ,,and ,,the ,,empire3 ,,predominance ,,of ,,the ,,church3 ,,to ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,crusades 7,a4,d4 #abgj7 ,,chapter ,,iii4--,,england ,,and ,,france3 ,,the ,,first ,,period ,,of ,,their ,,rivalship 7,a4,d4 #ajff-abag7 ,,chapter ,,iv4--,,rise ,,of ,,the ,,burgher ,,class3 ,,society ,,in ,,the ,,era ,,of ,,the ,,crusades ,,period ,,iv4 ,,from ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,crusades ,,to ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,constantinople 7,a4,d4 #abgj-adec73 ,,the ,,decline ,,of ,,ecclesiastical ,,authority3 ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,national ,,spirit ,,and ,,of ,,monarchy4 ,,introduction ,,chapter ,i4--,,england ,,and ,,france3 ,,second ,,period ,,of ,,rivalship3 ,,the ,,hundred ,,years' ,,war 7,a4,d4 #acci-adec7 ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,germany3 ,,italy3 ,,spain3 ,,the ,,scandinavian ,,countries3 ,,poland ,,and ,,russia3 ,,hungary3 ,,ottoman ,,turks3 ,,the ,,greek ,,empire ,,chapter ,,iii4--,,the ,,countries ,,of ,,eastern ,,asia ,,part ,,iii4 ,,modern ,,history4 ,from the ,fall of ,constantinople 7#adec7 to the ,present ,time ,,introduction ,,period ,i4 ,,from ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,constantinople ,,to ,,the ,,reformation 7#adec-aeag74 ,,introduction ,,chapter ,i4--,,france3 ,,england3 ,,spain3 ,,germany3 ,,italy3 ,,the ,,ottoman ,,turks3 ,,russia3 ,,the ,,invasions ,,of ,,italy ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,invention ,,and ,,discovery3 ,,the ,,renaissance ,,period ,,ii4 ,,the ,,era ,,of ,,the ,,reformation 7#aeag-afdh74 ,,introduction ,,chapter ,i4--,,the ,,reformation ,,in ,,germany3 ,,to ,,the ,,treaty ,,of ,,nuremberg 7#aeag-aecb7 ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,the ,,reformation ,,in ,,teutonic ,,countries3 ,,switzerland1 ,,denmark1 ,,sweden1 ,,england ,,chapter ,,iii4--,,the ,,reformation ,,in ,,germany1 ,,from ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,nuremberg ,,to ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,augsburg 7#aecb-aeee7 ,,chapter ,,iv4--,,calvinism ,,in ,,geneva3 ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,catholic ,,counter-,,reformation ,,chapter ,v4--,,philip ,,ii41 ,,and ,,the ,,revolt ,,of ,,the ,,netherlands ,,chapter ,,vi4--,,the ,,civil ,,wars ,,in ,,france1 ,,to ,,the ,,death ,,of ,,henry ,,iv4 7#afaj7 ,,chapter ,,vii4--,,the ,,thirty-,,years' ,,war1 ,,to ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,westphalia 7#afah-afdh7 ,,chapter ,,viii4--,,second ,,stage ,,of ,,the ,,reformation ,,in ,,england3 ,,to ,,the ,,death ,,of ,,elizabeth 7#aedg-afjc7 ,,chapter ,,ix4--,,the ,,english ,,revolution ,,and ,,the ,,commonwealth 7#afjc-afeh7 ,,chapter ,x4--,,colonization ,,in ,,america3 ,,asiatic ,,nations3 ,,culture ,,and ,,literature 7#aeag-afdh7 ,,period ,,iii4 ,,from ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,westphalia ,,to ,,the ,,french ,,revolution 7#afdh-aghi74 ,,introduction ,,chapter ,i4--,,the ,,preponderance ,,of ,,france3 ,,first ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,reign ,,of ,,louis ,,xiv4 7,,to ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,ryswick1 #afig73 ,,the ,,restoration ,,of ,,the ,,stuarts3 ,,the ,,english ,,revolution ,,of #afhh ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,war ,,of ,,the ,,spanish ,,succession 7,,to ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,utrecht1 #agac73 ,,decline ,,of ,,the ,,power ,,of ,,france3 ,,power ,,and ,,maritime ,,supremacy ,,of ,,england ,,chapter ,,iii4--,,the ,,great ,,northern ,,war3 ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,sweden3 ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,power ,,of ,,russia ,,chapter ,,iv4--,,war ,,of ,,the ,,austrian ,,succession3 ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,power ,,of ,,prussia3 ,,the ,,destruction ,,of ,,poland ,,chapter ,v4--,,contest ,,of ,,england ,,and ,,france ,,in ,,america3 ,,war ,,of ,,american ,,independence3 ,,the ,,constitution ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,chapter ,,vi4--,,literature1 ,,science1 ,,and ,,religion ,,period ,,iv4 ,,the ,,era ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,revolution 7#aghi-ahae74 ,,introduction ,,chapter ,i4--,,from ,,the ,,assembling ,,of ,,the ,,states-,,general ,,to ,,the ,,execution ,,of ,,louis ,,xvi4 7#aghi-agic7 ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,from ,,the ,,execution ,,of ,,louis ,,xvi4 ,,to ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,robespierre 7,,jan4 #ba1 #agic-;,,july #bg1 #agid7 ,,chapter ,,iii4--,,from ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,robespierre ,,to ,,the ,,empire ,,of ,,napoleon 7#agid-ahjd7 ,,chapter ,,iv4--,,from ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,empire ,,to ,,the ,,russian ,,campaign 7#ahjd-ahab7 ,,chapter ,v4--,,from ,,the ,,russian ,,campaign 7#ahab7 ,,to ,,the ,,congress ,,of ,,vienna 7#ahad-ae7 ,,chapter ,,vi4--,,american ,,history ,,in ,,this ,,period 7#aghi-ahae7 ,,chapter ,,vii4--,,literature1 ,,art1 ,,and ,,science 7#aghi-ahae7 ,,period ,v4 ,,from ,,the ,,congress ,,of ,,vienna 7#ahae7 ,,to ,,the ,,present ,,time4 ,,introduction ,,chapter ,i4--,,europe1 ,,from ,,the ,,congress ,,of ,,vienna 7#ahae7 ,,to ,,the ,,french ,,revolution ,,of #ahcj ,,chapter ,,ii4--,,europe1 ,,from ,,the ,,revolution ,,of #ahcj ,,to ,,the ,,revolutionary ,,epoch ,,of #ahdh ,,chapter ,,iii4--,,europe1 ,,from ,,the ,,revolutions ,,of #ahdh ,,to ,,the ,,austro-,,prussian ,,war 7#ahff7 ,,chapter ,,iv4--,,europe1 ,,from ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,austro-,,prussian ,,war ,,to ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,franco-,,german ,,war 7#ahff-ahga7 ,,chapter ,v4--,,europe1 ,,from ,,the ,,third ,,french ,,republic1 ,,and ,,the ,,union ,,of ,,italy 7#ahga7 ,,chapter ,,vi4--,,the ,,united ,,states ,,since #ahae3 ,,the ,,south ,,american ,,states3 ,,eastern ,,asia ,,chapter ,,vii4--,,the ,,last ,,decade ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century ,,chapter ,,viii4--,,discovery ,,and ,,invention3 ,,science ,,and ,,literature3 ,,progress ,,of ,,humane ,,sentiment3 ,,progress ,,towards ,,the ,,unity ,,of ,,mankind ,,list ,,of ,,maps4 ,,the ,,world ,,as ,,known ,,to ,,the ,,ancients ,,physical ,,features ,,of ,,asia ,,ancient ,,egypt ,,ancient ,,palestine ,,physical ,,features ,,of ,,europe ,,ancient ,,greece ,,and ,,the ,,aegean ,,islands ,,greek ,,and ,,phoenician ,,colonies ,,empire ,,of ,,alexander ,,the ,,great ,,kingdoms ,,of ,,the ,,successors ,,of ,,alexander ,,ancient ,,italy 7,,northern ,,part7 ,,ancient ,,italy 7,,southern ,,part7 ,,ancient ,,roman ,,empire ,,the ,,new ,,nations ,,after ,,the ,,great ,,migrations 7,,about ,a4,d4 #ejj7 ,,empire ,,of ,,the ,,saracens 7,,about ,a4,d4 #gej7 ,,empire ,,of ,,charlemagne ,,empire ,,of ,,charlemagne ,a4,d4 #hdc ,,empire ,,of ,,charlemagne ,a4,d4 #hhg ,,central ,,europe ,,about ,a4,d4 #ihj ,,mediterranean ,,lands ,,at ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,the ,,crusades ,,france ,,and ,,england1 ,a4,d4 #aaed-aahi ,,central ,,europe1 ,a4,d4 #acfj ,,central ,,europe1 ,a4,d4 #affj ,,italy ,,about ,,the ,,middle ,,of ,,ihe ,,sixteenth ,,century ,,europe ,,at ,,the ,,time ,,of ,,napoleon',s ,,greatest ,,power 7,,about ,a4,d4 #ahaj7 ,,central ,,europe ,,in #ahae ,,europe ,,after #ahgh ,,austro-,,hungary ,,since #ahgh ,,france ,,since #ahga ,,german ,,empire ,,since #ahga ,,turkish ,,empire1 ,,greece1 ,,etc41 ,,since #ahgh ,,territorial ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,asia ,,at ,,the ,,present ,,time ,,universal ,,history4 ,,introduction4 ,,definition ,,of ,,history4--,the subject of history is man4 ,history has for its object to record his doings and experiences4 ,it may then be concisely defined as a narrative of past events in which men have been concerned4 ,to describe the earth1 the abode of man1 to delineate the different kingdoms of nature1 and to inquire into the origin of them1 or to explain the physical or mental constitution of human beings1 is no part of the office of history4 ,all this belongs to the departments of natural and intellectual science4 ,but history1 as we now understand the term1 is more than a bare record of what men have done and suffered4 ,it aims to point out the connection of events with one another4 ,it seeks to explain the causes and the consequences of things that occur4 ,it would trace the steps that mark the progress of the race1 and of the different portions of it1 through extended periods4 ,it brings to light the thread which unites each particular stage in the career of a people1 or of mankind as a whole1 with what went before1 and with what came after4 ,,nations4--,history has been called the biography of a society4 ,biography has to do with the career of an individual4 ,history is concerned with the successive actions and fortunes of a community2 in its broadest extent1 with the experiences of the human family4 ,it is only when men are connected by the social bond1 and remain so united for a greater or less period1 that there is room for history4 ,it is1 therefore1 with nations1 in their internal progress and in their mutual relations1 that history especially deals4 ,of mere clans1 or loosely organized tribes1 it can have little to say4 ,history can go no farther than to explore their genealogy1 and state what were their journeyings and habits4 ,the nation is a form of society that rests on the same basis--a basis at once natural and part of a divine system--as the family4 ,by a nation is meant a people dwelling in a definite territory1 living under the same government1 and bound together by such ties as a common language1 a common religion1 the same institutions and customs4 ,the elements that enter into that national spirit which is the bond of unity1 are multiple4 ,they vary to a degree in different peoples4 ,as individuals are not alike1 and as the history of any particular community is modified and molded by these individual differences1 so the course of the history of mankind is shaped by the peculiar characteristics of the various nations1 and by their interaction upon one another4 ,in like manner1 groups of nations1 each characterized by distinctive traits derived from affinities of race or of religion1 or from other sources1 act on each other1 and thus help to determine the course of the historic stream4 ,,scope ,,of ,,history4--,the rise and progress of culture and civilization in their various constituents is the theme of history4 ,it does not limit its attention to a particular fraction of a people1 to the exclusion of the rest4 ,governments and rulers1 and the public doings of states1--such as foreign wars1 and the struggles of rival dynasties1--naturally form a prominent topic in historical writings4 ,but this is only one department in the records of the past4 ,more and more history interests itself in the character of society at large1 and in the phases through which it has passed4 ,how men lived from day to day1 what their occupations were1 their comforts and discomforts1 their ideas1 sentiments1 and modes of intercourse1 their state as regards art1 letters1 invention1 religious enlightenment1--these are points on which history1 as at present studied and written1 undertakes to shed light4 ,,points ,,of ,,view4--,an eminent ,german philosopher of our day1 ,hermann ,lotze1 intimates that there are five phases of human development1 and hence five points of view from which the course of history is to be surveyed4 ,these are the intellectual 7embracing the progress of truth and knowledge71 the industrial1 the aesthetic 7including art in all its higher ramifications71 the religious1 and the political4 ,an able ,english scholar1 ,goldwin ,smith1 resolves the elements of human progress1 and thus the most general topics of history1 into three1 the moral1 the intellectual1 and the productive2 or1 virtue1 knowledge1 and industry4 ,but these three elements1 he adds1 though distinct1 are not separate1 but closely connected with each other4 ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,history4--,that there is1 in some sense1 a reign of law in the succession of human events1 is a conviction warranted by observed facts1 as well as inspired by religion4 ,events do not spring into being1 disjoined from antecedents leading to them4 ,even turning-points in history1 which seem1 at the first glance1 abrupt1 are found to be dependent on previous conditions4 ,they are perceived to be the natural issue of the times that have gone before4 ,preceding events have foreshadowed them4 ,there are laws of historical progress which have their root in the characteristics of human nature4 ,ends are wrought out1 which bear on them evident marks of design4 ,history1 as a whole1 is the carrying out of a plan3 444 through the ages one increasing purpose runs4 ,augustine long ago argued1 that he who has not left even the entrails of the smallest and most insignificant animal1 or the feather of a bird1 or the little flower of a plant1 or the leaf of a tree1 without a harmony1 and1 as it were1 a mutual peace among all its parts1--that ,god can never be believed to have left the kingdoms of men1 their dominations and servitudes1 outside of the laws of his providence4 ,to discern the plan of history1 and the causes or laws through which it is accomplished1 as far as our limited capacity will allow1 is the object of what is called the philosophy of history4 ,,freedom ,,and ,,law4--,it must not be forgotten1 however1 that man is a free agent4 ,history1 although it is not an aimless process1 is1 nevertheless1 not subject to the forces and laws which govern in the realm of matter4 ,physical analogies are not a literal image of what takes place in the sphere of intelligence and freedom4 ,moral evil1 wherever it is a factor in history1 has its origin in the will of man4 ,in respect to it1 the agency of ,god is permissive and overruling4 ,through his providence1 order is made to emerge1 a worthy goal is at last reached1 despite the elements of disorder introduced by human perversity4 ,nor is progress continuous and unbroken4 ,it is often1 as one has said1 a spiral rather than a straight line4 ,it is not an unceasing advance3 there are backward movements1 or what appear to be such4 ,of particular nations it is frequently evident1 that1 intellectually and morally1 as well as in power and thrift1 they have sunk below a level once attained4 ,of the inscrutable blending of human freedom with a pre-ordained design1 ,,guizot says3 ,man advances in the execution of a plan which he has not conceived1 and of which he is not even aware4 ,he is the free and intelligent artificer of a work which is not his own4 ,conceive a great machine1 the design of which is centered in a single mind1 though its various parts are intrusted to different workmen1 separated from1 and strangers to1 each other4 ,no one of them understands the work as a whole1 nor the general result which he concurs in producing2 but every one executes with intelligence and freedom1 by rational and voluntary acts1 the particular task assigned to him4 7,lectures on the ,history of ,civilization1 ,lect4 xi47 ,,personal ,,power4--,the progress of society has been inseparably connected with the agency of eminent persons4 ,signal changes1 whether wholesome or mischievous1 are linked to the names of individuals who have specially contributed to bring them to pass4 ,the achievements of heroes stand out in as bold relief in authentic history as in the obscure era of myth and fable4 ,fruitful inventions1 after the earlier steps in civilization are taken1 are traceable to particular authors1 exalted by their genius above the common level4 ,so it is with the literary works which have exerted the deepest and most lasting influence4 ,nations have their pilots in war and in peace4 ,epochs in the progress of the fine arts are ushered in by individuals of surpassing mental power4 ,reforms and revolutions1 which alter the direction of the historic stream1 emanate from individuals in whose minds they are conceived1 and by whose energy they are effected4 ,the force thus exerted by the leaders in history is not accounted for by reference to general laws4 ,great men are not puppets moved by the spirit of the time4 ,to be sure1 there must be a preparation for them1 and a groundwork of sympathy among their contemporaries3 otherwise their activity would call forth no response4 ,independently of the age that gives them birth1 their power would lose its distinctive form and hue3 they would be incapable of influence4 ,cromwell would not have been ,cromwell had he been born in any other period of ,english history4 ,nor could he have played his part1 being what he was1 had not the religious and political struggles of ,england for generations framed a theater adapted to his talents and character4 ,michael ,angelo could not have arisen in a half-civilized tribe4 ,his creative power would have found no field in a society rude1 and blind to the attractions of art4 ,nevertheless1 his power was creative4 ,cromwell and ,michael ,angelo1 and such as they1 are not the passive organs1 the mere outcome1 of the communities in which they appear4 ,without the original thought and personal energy of leaders1 momentous changes in the life of nations could never have taken place4 ,a great man may be obliged to wait long for the answering sympathy which is required to give effect to his thoughts and purposes4 ,such a mind is said to be in advance of the age4 ,another generation may have to appear before the harvest springs from the seed that he has sown4 ,moreover1 it is not true that great men1 efficient leaders1 come forward whenever there is an exigency calling for them1 or an urgent need4 ,rather is it true that terrible disasters sometimes occur1 at critical points in history1 just for the lack of leaders fit for the emergency4 ,,the ,,meaning ,,of ,,history4--,a thoughtful student can hardly fail to propose to himself the question1 ,what is the meaning of history8 ,why is this long drama with all that is noble and joyous in it1 and with its abysses of sin and misery1 enacted at all8 ,it is only a partial answer that one can hope to give to this grave inquiry1 for the designs of ,providence can not be fully fathomed4 ,but1 among the ends in view1 the moral training of mankind stands forth with a marked prominence4 ,the deliverance of the race from moral evil and error1 and the building-up of a purified society1 enriched with all the good that belongs to the ideal of humanity1 and exalted by fellowship with ,god1 is not only an end worthy in itself1 but it is the end towards which the onward movement of history is seen to be directed4 ,hence1 a central place in the course of history belongs to the life and work of ,jesus ,christ4 ,no more satisfactory solution of this problem of the significance of history has ever been offered than that brought forward by the ,apostle ,paul in ,acts xvii4 #bg1 where he says that the nations of men were assigned to their places on the earth1 and their duration as well as boundaries determined1 that they should seek the ,lord1 if haply they might feel after him1 and find him4 ,,works ,,on ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,history4-7,professor ,c4 ,k4 ,,adams',s ,manual of ,historical ,literature 7#ahhb7 is an excellent guide in historical reading4 ,briefer lists of works in ,methods of ,teaching and ,studying ,history1 edited by ,g4 ,stanley ,hall47 ,books on the ,philosophy of ,history3 ,r4 ,,flint1 ,the ,philosophy of ,history1 vol4 i41--,writers on the subject in ,france and ,germany4 ,vol4 ii4 will treat of ,england and ,italy4 ,the work is a critical review of the literature on the subject4 ,schlegel1 ,the ,philosophy of ,history2 ,shedd's ,lectures on the ,philosophy of ,history2 ,bunsen's ,god in ,history 7#c vols41 #ahgj72 ,,lotze1 ,mikrokosmus1 vol4 iii1 book vii42 ,montesquieu's ,spirit of the ,laws2 ,buckle1 ,history of ,civilization in ,england 7#b vols474 ,this work is based on the denial of free-will1 and the doctrine that physical influences1--climate1 soil1 food1 etc41--are the main causes of intellectual progress4 ,draper's ,history of the ,intellectual ,development of ,europe7#b vols41 #b;d edition1 #ahgf7 is in the same vein4 ,opposed to this philosophy are ,,goldwin ,,smith',s ,lectures on the ,study of ,history2 ,c4 ,kingsley1 in his ,miscellanies1 ,the ,limits of ,exact ,science as applied to ,history2 ,froude1 in ,short ,studies1 vol4 i41 ,the ,science of ,history2 ,lotze1 as above2 also1 ,flint1 and ,droysen1 ,grundriss der ,historik4 ,hegel's ,philosophy of ,history has profound observations1 but connected with an a priori theory4 ,,historical ,,writing4--,the beginning of historical writing was in the form of lists of kings1 or bare records of battles1 or the simple registration of other occurrences of remarkable interest4 ,the ,egyptians1 ,babylonians1 ,assyrians1 ,chinese1 and other nations1 furnish examples of this rudimental type of historical writing4 ,more continuous annals followed2 but these are meager in contents1 and make no attempt to find links of connection between events4 ,the ancient ,hebrew historians are on a much higher plane1 and1 apart from their religious value1 far surpass all other ,asiatic histories4 ,it was in ,greece1 the fountain-head of science1 that history1 as an art1 first appeared4 ,herodotus1 born early in the fifth century ,b4,c41 first undertook to satisfy curiosity respecting the past by a more elaborate and entertaining narrative4 ,he begins his work thus3 ,these are the researches of ,herodotus of ,halicarnassus1 which he publishes1 in the hope of thereby preserving from decay the remembrance of what men have done1 and of preventing the great and marvelous actions of the ,greeks and the barbarians from losing their due meed of glory1 and withal to put on record what were the grounds of their hostility4 ,in ,herodotus1 history1 owing to the inquiry made into the causes of events1 begins to rise above the level of a mere chronicle1 its primitive type4 ,thucydides1 who died about #djj ,b4,c41 followed4 ,he is far more accurate in his investigations1 having a deep insight into the origin of the events which he relates1 and is a model of candor4 ,he1 too1 writes to minister to the inquisitive spirit of his countrymen1 and of the generations that were to follow4 ,he began to write his history of the war between the ,athenians and the ,peloponnesians while it was still going on1 in the belief1 he says1 that it would turn out great1 and worthier of being recorded than any that had preceded it4 ,the attention of historical writers was still confined to a particular country1 or to insulated groups of events4 ,before there could spring up the idea of universal history1 it was necessary that there should be a broader view of mankind as a whole4 ,the ancient ,stoics had a glimpse of the race as a family1 and of the nations as forming one complex unity4 ,the conquests and extended dominion of ,rome first suggested the idea of universal history4 ,polybius1 a ,greek in the second century ,b4,c41 had watched the progress of ,rome1 in its career of conquest1 until the affairs of ,italy and ,africa1 as he says1 joined with those of ,asia and ,greece1 and all moved together towards one fixed and single point4 ,he tells us that particular histories can not give us a knowledge of the whole1 more than the survey of the divided members of a body once endowed with life and beauty can yield a just conception of all the comeliness and vigor which it has received from ,nature4 ,to ,polybius belongs the distinction of being the first to undertake a universal history4 ,christianity1 with its doctrine of the unity of mankind1 and with all the moral and religious teaching characteristic of the gospel1 contributed effectively to the widening of the view of the office and scope of history4 ,it is only in quite recent times that history has directed its attention predominantly to social progress1 and to its causes and conditions4 ,history1 in its etymological sense 7from the ,greek1 historia71 meant the ascertaining of facts by inquiry2 then1 the results of this inquiry1 the knowledge thus obtained4 ,the work of ,herodotus was history in the strictest sense3 he acquired his information by travel and personal interrogation4 ,the ,german philosopher1 ,hegel1 has divided histories into three classes3 #a4 ,original histories2 i4e41 works written by contemporaries of the events described1 who share in the spirit of the times1 and may have personally taken part in the transactions4 ,such are the works of ,herodotus1 ,thucydides1 ,xenophon's ,anabasis1 ,clarendon's ,history of the ,great ,rebellion in ,england1 ,caesar's ,commentaries4 #b4 ,reflective histories1 where the author writes at a later point of time1 on the basis of materials which he gathers up1 but is not himself a partaker in the spirit of the age of which he treats4 #c4 ,philosophical histories1 which set forth the rational development of history in its inmost idea4 ,another classification is the following3 #a4 ,genealogies1 like the records of ,manetho1 the ,egyptian priest4 #b4 ,the chronicle1 following the chronological order1 and telling the story in a simple1 popular way4 #c4 ,the pragmatic form of writing1 which aims to explain by reference to the past some particular characteristic or phase of the present1 and uses history to point a special moral lesson4 #d4 ,the form of history which traces the rise and progress of ideas1 tendencies1 or ruling forces1--such as the idea of civil equality in early ,rome or in modern ,france1 the religious ideas of ,mohammedanism1 the idea of representative government1 the idea of ,german unity1 etc4 ,a broad line of distinction has been drawn between the old or artistic type of history1 and the new or sociological type which belongs to the present century4 ,the ancient historians represented the former type4 ,they prized literary form4 ,they aimed to interweave moral and political reflections4 ,polybius often interrupts his narrative to introduce remarks of this sort4 ,but they were not1 as a rule1 diligent and accurate in their researches4 ,and1 above all1 they had no just conception of society as a whole1 and of the complex forces out of which the visible scene springs4 ,the ,greeks were the masters in this first or artistic form of history4 ,the ,french ,revolution was one stimulus to a profounder and more comprehensive method of studying history4 ,the methods and investigations of natural science have had a decided influence in the same direction4 ,,the ,,sources ,,of ,,history4--,history must depend for credence on credible evidence4 ,in order to justify belief1 one must either himself have seen or heard the facts related1 or have the testimony1 direct or indirect1 of witnesses or of well-informed contemporaries4 ,the sources of historic knowledge are mainly comprised in oral tradition1 or in some form of written records4 ,tradition is exposed to the infirmities of memory1 and to the unconscious invention and distortion which grow out of imagination and feeling4 ,ordinarily1 bare tradition1 not verified by corroborative proofs1 can not be trusted later than the second generation from the circumstances narrated4 ,it ceases to be reliable when it has been transmitted through more than two hands4 ,in the case of a great and startling event1 like a destructive convulsion of nature or a protracted war1 the authentic story1 though unwritten1 of the central facts1 at least1 is of much longer duration4 ,there may be visible monuments that serve to perpetuate the recollection of the occurrences which they commemorate4 ,institutions may exist--popular festivals and the like--which keep alive the memory of past events1 and1 in certain circumstances1 are sufficient to verify them to generations far removed in time4 ,events of a stirring character1 when they are embodied in songs of an early date1 may be transmitted orally1 though in a poetic dress4 ,songs and legends1 it may be added1 even when they do not suffice to verify the incidents to which they refer1 are valuable as disclosing the sentiments and habits of the times when they originated1 or were cherished4 ,the central fact1 the nucleus of the tradition1 may be historical when all the details belonging with it have been effaced1 or have been superseded by other details1 the product of imagination4 ,the historical student is to distinguish between traditionary tales which are untrustworthy throughout1 and traditions which have their roots in fact4 ,apart from oral tradition1 the sources of historical knowledge are the following3-- #a4 ,contemporary registers1 chronicles1 and other documents1 either now1 or known to have been originally1 in a manuscript form4 #b4 ,inscriptions on monuments and coins4 ,such1 for example1 are the inscriptions on the monuments of ,egypt and on the buried ruins of ,nineveh and ,babylon4 ,such are the ancient epitaphs1 heathen and ,christian1 in the ,roman catacombs4 ,the study of ancient inscriptions of various sorts has thrown much light of late upon ,grecian and ,roman antiquity4 #c4 ,the entire literature of a people1 in which its intellectual1 moral1 and social condition1 at any particular era1 is mirrored4 #d4 ,material structures of every kind1 as altars1 tombs1 private dwellings1--as those uncovered at ,pompeii1--public edifices1 civil and religious1 paintings1 weapons1 household utensils4 ,these all tell a story relative to the knowledge and taste1 the occupations and domestic habits1 and the religion1 of a past generation or of an extinct people4 #e ,language is a memorial of the past1 of the more value since it is not the product of deliberate contrivance4 ,comparative philology1 following languages back to their earlier stages and to the parent stocks1 unveils the condition of society at remote epochs4 ,it not only describes the origin of nations1 but teaches something respecting their primitive state4 #f4 ,histories written at former periods1 but subsequently to the events described in them1 are a secondary but valuable source of historical knowledge4 ,this is especially true when their authors had access to traditions that were nearer their fountain1 or to literary monuments which have perished4 ,,historical ,,criticism4--,historical scholars are much more exacting as regards evidence than was formerly the case4 ,the criticism of what purports to be proof is more searching4 ,at the same time1 what is called historical divination can not be altogether excluded4 ,learned and sagacious scholars have conjectured the existence of facts1 where a gap in recorded history--the logic of events--seemed to presuppose them2 and later discoveries have verified the guess4 ,this is analogous to the success of ,leverrier and ,adams in inferring the existence of an unknown planet1 which the telescope afterwards discovered4 ,an example of historical divination on a large scale is furnished by the theories of the great ,german historian1 ,niebuhr1 in respect to early ,roman history4 ,he propounded opinions1 however1 which in many particulars fail to obtain general assent at present4 ,,credibility ,,of ,,history4--,at the opposite pole from credulity is an unwarrantable historical skepticism4 ,the story is told of ,sir ,walter ,raleigh1 that when he was a prisoner in the ,tower1 and was engaged in writing his ,history of the ,world1 he heard the sounds of a fracas in the prison-yard4 ,on inquiry of those who were concerned in it1 and were on the spot1 he found so many contradictions in their statements that he could not get at the truth4 ,whereupon1 it occurred to him as a vain thing to undertake to describe what had occurred on the vast theater of the world1 when he could not ascertain the truth about an event occurring within a bow-shot4 ,the anecdote simply illustrates1 however1 the difficulty of getting at the exact truth respecting details1--a difficulty constantly exemplified in courts of justice4 ,the fact of the conflict in the court of the ,tower1 the general cause1 the parties engaged1 the consequences1--as1 for example1 what punishment was inflicted1--were undisputed4 ,the great facts which influence the course of history1 it is not difficult to ascertain4 ,moreover1 as against an extravagant skepticism1 it may be said that history provides us with a vast amount of authentic information which contemporaries1 and even individual actors1 were not possessed of4 ,this is through the bringing to light of documents from a great variety of sources1 many of which were secret1 or not open to the view of all the leaders in the transactions to which they refer4 ,the private correspondence of the ,protestant leaders1--,luther1 ,melanchthon1 ,cranmer1 etc41--the letters of ,erasmus1 the official reports of the ,venetian ambassadors1 the letters of ,william the ,silent and of ,philip ,,ii41 put us in possession of much information1 which at the time was a secret to most of the prominent participants in the events of the sixteenth century4 ,the correspondence of ,washington1 ,hamilton1 ,jefferson1 ,john ,adams1 ,wolcott1 ,pickering1 etc41 introduces us into the secret counsels of the ,american political leaders of that day4 ,numerous facts conveyed from one to another under the seal of privacy1 and not known to the others1 are thus revealed to us4 ,on the nature and value of tradition1 a very valuable discussion is that of ,,ewald1 ,history of ,israel1 vol4 i4 pp4 #ac-ch2 ,sir ,g4 ,c4 ,,lewis1 ,essays on the ,credibility of ,early ,roman ,history1 in which ,niebuhr's conclusions are criticised2 ,a4 ,bisset1 ,essays on ,historical ,truth4 ,on the sources of history1 ,art4 by ,,gairdner in ,the ,contemporary ,review1 vol4 xxxviii4 ,,history ,,and ,,geography4--,political ,geography1 which describes the earth as inhabited1 and as parceled out among nations1 has a close relation to history4 ,without a distinct idea of the position of places and the boundaries of countries1 historical narrations are enveloped in a sort of haze4 ,france1 for example1 is a name with very different meanings at different dates in the past4 ,unless the varying uses of the word ,burgundy are understood1 important parts of ,european history are left in confusion4 ,,physical ,,geography4--,even more helpful is ,physical ,geography1 which surveys the earth in its three great divisions1--land1 sea1 and air1--without reference to lines of political demarkation4 ,the configuration of the different portions of the globe1 with the varieties of climate1 the relations of mountain and plain1 of land and water1 have strongly affected the character of nations and the currents of history4 ,in regions extremely hot or extremely cold man can not thrive1 or build up a rich and enduring civilization4 ,the occupations of a people are largely dependent on its situation1--whether it be maritime or away from the sea1--and on peculiarities of soil and temperature4 ,the character of the ,nile valley1 and its periodical inundation1 is a striking illustration of the possible extent of geographical influences4 ,the peninsular and mountainous character of ,greece went far to shape the form of ,greek political society4 ,the high plateau which forms the greater portion of ,spain1 with the fertile belts of valley on the ,atlantic and ,mediterranean border1 have helped to determine the employments and the character of the ,spanish people4 ,had the physical characteristics of the ,spanish peninsula been essentially different1 the success of ,wellington in expelling the ,french1 with the forces at his disposal1 would not have been possible4 ,were there a chain of mountains along our ,atlantic coast as near as are the ,andes to the ,pacific1 what different results would have arisen from the ,english settlements in ,north ,america6 ,the ,alpine barrier in the north of ,italy was indispensable to the building-up and maintenance of the dominion of ancient ,rome4 ,of the great basin or plain between the ,alps and the ,apennines1 open to the sea only on the east1 through which flows one great river1 fed by streams from the mountains on either side1 ,dr4 ,arnold says3 ,who can wonder that this large and richly watered plain should be filled with flourishing cities1 or that it should have been contended for so often by successful invaders8 ,while the agency of climate1 soil1 and other physical circumstances may easily be exaggerated1 that agency must be duly considered in accounting for historical phenomena4 ,the best historical ,atlas is the copious ,german work of ,,von ,,spruner4 ,,freeman',s ,historical ,geography of ,europe is a work of great value4 ,,drovsen',s ,allg4 ,hist4 ,atlas4 ,smaller atlases are those of ,,putzger1 ,rhode1 ,appleton's ,hist4 ,atlas1 the ,international1 and the ,collegiate4 ,smaller still1 ,keith ,johnston's ,crown ,atlases and ,half-,crown ,atlases4 ,on ,medival ,history1 ,labberton's ,atlas2 also1 ,koeppen3 in ,ancient ,geography1 ,,smith',s work1 ,,kiepert',s1 ,long's4 ,on ,physical ,geography1 ,,guyot',s text-books2 ,vaughan's ,connection between ,history and ,physical ,geography1 in ,contemp4 ,review1 vol4 v42 ,hall's ,methods of ,studying ,history1 etc41 p4 #bja seq41 ,encycl4 ,brit41 ,art4 ,geography4 ,,chronology4--,an exact method of establishing dates was slowly reached4 ,the invention of eras was indispensable to this end4 ,the earliest definite time for the dating of events was established at ,babylon1--the era of ,nabonassar1 #gdg ,b4,c4 ,the ,greeks1 from about #cjj ,b4,c41 dated events from the first recorded victory at the ,olympic games1 #ggf ,b4,c4 ,these games occurred every fourth year4 ,each ,olympiad was thus a period of four years4 ,the ,romans1 though not until some centuries after the founding of ,rome1 dated from that event2 i4e41 from #gec ,b4,c4 ,the ,mohammedan era begins at the ,hegira1 or flight of ,mohammed from ,mecca1 #fbb ,a4,d4 ,the method of dating from the birth of ,jesus was introduced by ,dionysius ,exiguus1 a ,roman abbot1 about the middle of the sixth century4 ,this epoch was placed by him about four years too late4 ,this requires us to fix the date of the birth of ,christ at #d ,b4,c4 ,the day was the simplest and earliest division of time4 ,the week has been in use for this purpose in the ,east from time immemorial4 ,it was not introduced among the ,romans until after the spread of ,christianity in the ,empire4 ,the month was the earlier unit for periods of greater length4 ,to make the lunar and the solar years correspond1 and to determine the exact length of the solar year1 was a work of difficulty1 and was only gradually effected4 ,julius ,csar reformed the calendar in #df ,b4,c41 the date of the ,julian era4 ,this made the year eleven minutes too long4 ,pope ,gregory ,,xiii4 corrected the reckoning1 in #aehb1 by ordering ,oct4 #eth to be called the #aeth1 and instituted the ,gregorian calendar4 ,the change1 or the ,new ,style1 was subsequently adopted by ,great ,britain 7in #ageb71 and by the other ,protestant nations4 ,the difference for the present century between the ,old and the ,new ,style is twelve days3 during the last century it was eleven4 ,the ,julian civil year began with ,jan4 #a4 ,it was not until the eighteenth century that this became the uniform date for the commencement of the legal year among the ,latin ,christian nations4 ,on the general subjects of chronology3 ,encycl4 ,britt41 ,arts4 ,chronology and ,calendar4 ,manuals of ,reference3 ,,rosse',s ,index of ,dates 7#aheh72 ,haydn's ,dictionary of ,dates 7,vincent's edition1 #ahff72 ,,blair',s ,chronological ,tables2 ,woodward and ,cates1 ,encycl4 of ,chronology 7#ahgb74 ,,ethnology4 ,ethnology is a new science4 ,its function is to ascertain the origin and filiation1 the customs and institutions1 of the various nations and tribes which make up1 or have made up in the past1 the human race4 ,in tracing their relationship to one another1 or their genealogy1 the sources of information are mainly three1--physical characteristics1 language1 and written memorials of every sort4 ,ethnology is a branch of ,anthropology1 as this is a subdivision of ,zology1 and this1 again1 of ,biology4 ,ethnography differs from ,ethnology in dealing more with details of description1 and less with rational exposition4 ,,races ,,of ,,mankind4--,authorities differ widely from one another in their classification of races4 ,prichard made seven1 which were reduced by ,cuvier to three2 viz41 ,caucasian1 ,mongolian1 ,ethiopic4 ,blumenbach made five1 and ,pickering eleven4 ,it is the ,caucasian variety which has been chiefly distinguished in history1 and active in the building-up of civilization4 ,none of the numerous schemes of division1 from a zological point of view1 however1 are satisfactory4 ,huxley has proposed a fourfold classification3 #a4 ,the ,australoid1 represented by the ,australians and the indigenous tribes of ,southern ,india4 #b4 ,the ,negroid4 #c4 ,the ,mongoloid4 #d4 ,the ,xanthochroi1 or fair whites1 among whom are comprised most of the inhabitants of ,northern ,europe4 ,to these are added a fifth variety1 the ,melanochroi1 to which belong a part of the ,celts1 the ,spaniards1 ,greeks1 ,arabs1 etc4 ,of the various methods of race-division1 ,a4 van ,humboldt says3 ,we fail to recognize any typical sharpness of definition1 or any general or well-established principle1 in the division of these groups4 ,the extremes of form and color are certainly separated1 but without regard to the races which can not be included in any of these classes4 7,cosmos1 i4 #cfe47 ,for example1 black skin1 woolly hair1 and a negro-like cast of countenance1 are not necessarily connected together4 ,,monogenism4--,zologists1 from the point of view of their own science1 now more generally favor the monogenist doctrine1 which traces mankind to a single pair1 than the polygenist1 which assumed different centers of origin4 ,the present tendencies of natural science1 especially since ,darwin1 are favorable to the monogenist view4 ,the opinion of modern ,zologists1 whose study of the species and breeds of animals makes them the best judges1 is against this view of the several origins of man1 for two principal reasons4 ,first1 ,that all tribes of men1 from the blackest to the whitest1 the most savage to the most cultured1 have such general likeness in the structure of their bodies and the working of their minds1 as is easiest and best accounted for by their being descended from a common ancestry1 however distant4 ,second1 ,that all the human races1 notwithstanding their form and color1 appear capable of freely intermarrying1 and forming crossed races of every combination1 such as the millions of mulattoes and mestizoes sprung in the ,new ,world from the mixture of ,europeans1 ,africans1 and native ,americans2 this again points to a common ancestry of all the races of man4 ,we may accept the theory of the unity of mankind as best agreeing with ordinary experience and scientific research4 7,tylor's ,anthropology1 etc41 pp4 #e1 #f47 ,,evidence ,,of ,,language4--,languages1 through marked affinities1 are grouped together into several great families1 i4 ,the ,aryan1 or ,indo-,european1 of which the oldest known branch is the ,sanskrit1 the language in which the ancient books of the ,hindus1 the ,vedas1 were written4 ,with the ,sanskrit belong the ,iranian or ,persian1 the ,greek1 the ,latin or ,italic1 the ,celtic1 the ,germanic or ,teutonic 7under which are included the ,scandinavian tongues71 the ,slavonian or ,slavo-,lettic4 #b4 ,the ,semitic1 embracing the communities described in ,genesis as the descendants of ,shem4 ,under this head are embraced1 first1 the ,assyrian and ,babylonian2 secondly1 the ,hebrew and ,phoenician1 with the ,syrian or ,aramaic2 and thirdly1 the ,arabic4 ,the ,phoenician was spread among numerous colonies1 of which ,carthage was the chief4 ,the ,arabic followed the course of ,mohammedan conquest4 ,it is the language of the northern border of ,africa1 and has strongly affected various other languages1--the ,persian1 ,turkish1 etc4 #c4 ,the ,turanian or ,scythian4 ,this is an extensive family of languages4 ,the ,finno-,hungarian1 which includes two cultivated peoples1 the ,fins and ,hungarians2 the ,samoyed1 stretching from the ,north ,sea far eastward to the boundary between ,russia and ,china2 and the ,turkish or ,tartar1 spreading from ,european ,turkey over a great part of ,central ,asia1 are connected together by family ties4 ,they spring from one parent stock4 ,whether the ,mongolian and the ,tungusic--the last is the language of the ,manchus--are also thus affiliated1 is a point not absolutely settled4 ,besides these three great divisions1 there are other languages1 as the ,chinese1 and the monosyllabic tongues of south-eastern ,asia1 which possibly are connected lineally with it2 the ,japanese2 the ,malay-,polynesian1 a well-developed family2 the ,hamitic 7of which the ,egyptian or ,coptic is the principal member72 the ,dravidian or ,south ,indian2 the ,south ,african2 the ,central ,african2 the ,american ,indian languages1 etc4 ,on language and the divisions of language1 ,w4 ,d4 ,,whitney1 ,language1 and the ,study of ,language 7#ahfg71 ,oriental and ,linguistic ,studies 7two series1 #ahgb-gd71 ,life and ,growth of ,language 7#ahge72 ,art4 ,philology1 in ,encycl4 ,brit41 vol4 xviii42 ,max ,mller's ,lectures on the ,science of ,language 7two series71 and other writings by the same author4 ,,ethnology ,,and ,,history4--,history is generally written from the political point of view4 ,it is the history of nations considered separately and in relation to one another4 ,there are1 also1 histories of culture4 ,history1 from a cultural point of view1 without paying regard to national boundaries1 seeks to unfold the rise and progress of arts and industry1 of inventions1 of customs1 manners1 and institutions4 ,it is the history of culture and civilization4 ,history1 from the ethnological point of view1 would describe the migrations and experiences of the different races of men1 and the formation of the various nationalities by these races1 through conquest and intermixture4 ,following the divisions of linguistic science1 we should have1 first1 the ,egyptian race and their history4 ,then we should have the ,semitic race1 in the three eras of their pre-eminence1 and in their various branches4 ,then would come the ,aryan1 or ,indo-,european family1 whose power1 except when interrupted and partially broken by the ,mohammedan conquests1 has continued to dominate in history since the rise of the ancient ,persian ,empire4 ,there have been three periods of ,semitic ascendency1--the era of the ,assyrian and ,babylonian empires2 that of the ,phoenician cities and of ,carthage 7a ,tyrian settlement71 with their colonies2 and that of the ,arabic-,mohammedan ,conquests4 ,this last epoch falls within the ,christian era4 ,in this course of ,semitic history would be embraced the narrative of the ,israelites1 and of their dispersion in ancient and in modern times4 ,the ,indo-,european1 or ,aryan family1 follows next in order4 ,in recording its history1 we should consider1 first1 its oldest representative of which we have knowledge1--the ,indian race1 with its literature1 its social organization1 and its religions1 ,brahmanism and ,buddhism4 ,then come the ,persians1 with their religion founded by ,zoroaster1 and the ,armenians4 ,with the fall of the ,ancient ,persian ,empire1 the center of power was transferred from ,asia to ,europe1 where it has since continued1 though still in the hands of the same ,aryan race4 ,the history of the ,greeks and of the ,romans succeeds2 then the history of the three races1--the ,celtic1 ,teutonic1 and ,slavonian1--as they present themselves at the threshold of authentic history4 ,the forming of the several nationalities of ,europe would have to be traced3 the ,slavonian1 including ,russia and ,poland2 the ,teutonic1 comprising ,england1 ,holland1 ,germany1 and the ,scandinavian peoples 7viz41 ,denmark1 ,sweden1 ,norway1 and ,iceland72 the ,romanic or ,italic nations 7viz41 ,portugal1 ,spain1 ,provence1 ,italy1 ,wallachia1 the ,grisons of ,switzerland71 which are the nations the basis of whose languages is the rustic or people's ,latin of the middle ages4 ,such1 in brief outline1 is the method which history1 from the point of view of race affinities1 as these are indicated by language1 would adopt4 ,,unity ,,of ,,descent4--,whether mankind are all descended from one pair--the ,monogenist view1 or spring from more than one center of origin--the ,polygenist view1 is a question which philological science can not answer4 ,the facts of language are reconcilable with either doctrine4 ,while cautious philologists are slow in admitting distinct affinities between the generic families of speech1--as the ,semitic and ,indo-,european1--which would be indicative of a common origin1 they agree in the judgment1 that1 on account of the mutability of language1 especially when unwritten1 and while in its earlier stages1 no conclusion adverse to the monogenist doctrine can be drawn from the diversities of speech now existing1 or that are known to have existed at any past time4 ,as far as science is concerned1 the decision of the question must be left to zology4 ,the tendencies of natural science at present1 as we have said above1 are strongly toward the monogenist view4 ,the variety of physical characteristics not only affords no warrant for assuming diversity of species among men2 they do not even imply diversity of parentage at the beginning4 ,nothing1 says ,max ,mller1 necessitates the admission of different independent beginnings for the material elements the vocabulary of the ,turanian1 ,semitic1 and ,aryan branches of speech4 ,the same thing ,mller affirms of the formal elements the grammatical structure of these groups of languages4 ,we can perfectly understand how1 either through individual influences or by the wear and tear of speech in its continuous working1 the different systems of grammar of ,asia and ,europe may have been produced4 7,lectures on ,language1 #ast series1 p4 #cdj47 ,the same conclusions are reached by ,professor ,w4 ,d4 ,whitney1 who1 while disclaiming for linguistic science the power to prove that the human race in the beginning formed one society1 says1 that it is even far more demonstrable that it can never prove the variety of human races and origins4 7,life and ,growth of ,language1 p4 #bfi47 ,we know that nations can learn and unlearn a language4 ,the ,irish1 adopting the language of their ,english conquerors1 is one of many examples of the same sort in history4 ,what effects upon language took place1 prior to recorded history1 from the mingling of tribes and peoples1 it is impossible to ascertain4 ,the consequences to language1 of mixture among different forms of speech1 were like those which must have been produced upon the physical man from the mingling of diverse physical types in remote ages4 ,science1 if it has no decided verdict to render1 does not stand in conflict with the monogenist doctrine1 which has generally been understood to be the teaching of the ,scriptures4 ,,mythology4 ,the polytheistic religions are in themselves a highly interesting part of the history of mankind4 ,in the multiform character that belongs to them we find reflected the peculiar traits of the several peoples among whom they have arisen4 ,the history of religion stands in a close connection with the development of the fine arts1--architecture and sculpture1 painting1 music1 and also poetry4 ,the earliest rhythmical utterance was in hymns to the gods4 ,to worship1 all the arts are largely indebted for their birth and growth4 ,this1 however1 is only one of the ways in which religion is interwoven with the rise and progress of civilization4 ,by mythology2 we mean the collective beliefs of any tribe or nation respecting deities or semi-divine personages4 ,recent studies in language1 or the science of comparative philology1 have thrown light on the origin of mythology1 and upon the affinities of different polytheistic religions with one another4 ,among various nations belonging to the same family 7as1 for example1 the peoples of the ,aryan race71 names of gods1 and1 to some extent1 qualities and deeds attributed to them1 have been identified4 ,myths are found to have traveled in different guises from land to land4 ,at the same time1 these discoveries have given rise to much unverified theory and conjecture4 ,too much stress has been laid1 by certain writers1 on mistakes in language as a source of mythology4 ,in the primitive stage of language1 all nouns had a gender1 either male or female2 and verbs1 even auxiliary verbs1 it is alleged1 expressed activity of some sort4 ,on the basis of these facts it has been inferred1 that1 at a later day1 figurative expressions1 descriptive of natural changes1 were taken as literal2 as if one should interpret the saying1 the sun follows the dawn1 as meaning that one person pursues another4 ,by this kind of misunderstanding1 it has been thought1 a throng of mythological tales arose4 ,by some it is held that the names of animals1 which had been given to ancestors1 were interpreted literally by their savage descendants1 or that traditions of having come from a certain mountain or river caused these natural objects to be mistakenly regarded as actual progenitors4 ,these suggestions are of very limited value in solving the problem of the origin of the ethnic religions4 ,much1 however1 has been learned from observing the rites and beliefs of existing savage nations4 ,not a few religious notions and ceremonies1 once in vogue among cultivated heathen peoples1 may be plausibly considered a survival from a more remote and barbarous condition of society4 ,that mythology is the product of a mere exaggeration of actual events1 or is an allegorical picture1 either of the operations of nature or of human traits1 is an untenable and obsolete view4 ,we shall not err in defining the main sources of the religions to be1 first1 the sense of dependence1 and the yearning for the fellowship and favor of powers not ourselves1 by which the lot of men is felt to be determined2 secondly1 the effort to explain the world of nature above and beneath1 and the occurrences of life2 and thirdly1 the personifying instinct which belongs to the childhood of nations as of individuals4 ,this tendency leads to the attributing of conscious life to things inanimate4 ,a like tendency may impel the savage and the child to ascribe mind to the lower animals4 ,the fact that language1 in its earlier stage1 was charged with personal life and activity1 is itself the work of the personifying instinct4 ,when nature is thus personified1 where there is no sense of its unity and no capacity to rise in faith to a living ,god above nature1 the result is a multitude of divinities of higher and lower rank4 ,myths respecting them are the spontaneous invention of unreflecting and uncritical1 but imaginative1 peoples4 ,thus they serve to indicate the range of ideas1 and the moral spirit of those who originate and give credence to them4 ,this is not the place to consider the question1 ,what was the primitive religion of man8 ,the earliest deities that history brings to our notice were not fetiches1 but heavenly beings of lofty attributes4 ,whether the religions of savage tribes1 in common with their low grade of intelligence1 are1 or are not1 the result of degeneracy1 is a question which secular history affords no means of deciding with confidence1 ,it may be added1 that1 in historic eras1 the mythopoeic fancy is not inactive4 ,stories of marvelous adventure clustered about the old ,celtic ,king ,arthur of ,england and the knights of the ,round-,table1 and fill up the chronicles relating to ,charlemagne4 ,wherever there is a person who kindles popular enthusiasm1 myths accumulate4 ,this is eminently true in an atmosphere like that which prevailed in the mediaeval period1 when imagination and emotion were dominant4 ,,prehistoric ,,times4 ,,prehistoric ,,relics4--,within the last half century1 in various countries of ,europe1 and in other countries1 also1 which have been1 earlier or later1 seats of civilization1 there have been found numerous relics of uncivilized races1 which1 at periods far remote1 must have inhabited the same ground4 ,many of these antiquities are met with in connection with remains of fossil elephants1 hyenas1 bears1 etc41--with animals which no longer live in the regions referred to1 and some of which have become wholly extinct4 ,dwelling-places of these far-distant peoples--such as caves and rock-shelters1 and the remains of the lake-habitations that were built on piles1 in ,switzerland and elsewhere--sepulchers1 camps1 and forts1 and an immense number of implements and ornaments of stone and metal1 have been examined4 ,the most ancient of these monuments carry us as far back as the era called by geologists the ,quaternary or ,drift period4 ,,the ,,three ,,stages4--,but there are marked distinctions in the relative age of the various relics referred to4 ,they indicate different degrees of knowledge and skill2 and this proof of a succession of peoples1 or of stages of development1 is confirmed by geological evidence4 ,the prehistoric time is divided into the ,stone ,age1 the ,age of ,bronze1 and the ,age of ,iron1 according as the implements in use were of one or another of these materials4 ,but the ,stone ,age includes an earlier and a later sub-division4 ,in the first and most ancient section1 the weapons and utensils1 mostly of flint1 were very rude in their manufacture4 ,this was the ,paleolithic ,age1 where there are no signs of habitations constructed by the hand1 or of domesticated plants and animals4 ,men lived in caves1 and their vestments were the skins of beasts4 ,yet1 among their implements are found fragments of bone1 horn1 ivory1 and stone1 on which are carved in outline1 often with much skill1 representations of the reindeer1 the bear1 the ox1 and of other animals4 ,in the ,neolithic period1 there was a decided advance4 ,implements are better made and polished4 ,there were domestic animals and cultivated plants4 ,the lake-dwellings in ,switzerland were well contrived for shelter and defense4 ,every hut had its hearth4 ,it is probable that most of them were furnished with a loom for weaving4 ,fragments of pottery are found1 and flax was grown and made into cord1 nettings1 etc4 ,stalls were constructed near the huts for the ox1 the goat1 the horse1 sheep1 and pigs4 ,the lake-dwellers cultivated wheat and barley4 ,the ,bronze ,age1 when implements were made of copper or of a mixture of copper and tin1 exhibits proof of decided improvement in various directions2 and the ,age of ,iron1 a still more marked advance4 ,in the ,swiss remains referred to are distinct traces of a transition from the ,stone ,age to the ,age of ,bronze1 and then to the ,age of ,iron4 ,the kitchen-middens1 or shell-mounds1 of ,denmark belong exclusively to the ,neolithic period4 ,where the transition was made from the ,stone ,age to the ,age of ,bronze1 it apparently occurred in some cases by degrees1 and peacefully2 but sometimes by the incoming of an invading people more advanced4 ,it should be observed that the lines of division between these periods are not sharply drawn3 implements of stone continued to be used after the ,bronze and even the ,iron periods had been introduced4 ,nor were these several ages in one region contemporaneous with like conditions in every other4 ,moreover1 it is not possible to find in all countries once civilized proofs of a passage through these successive eras4 ,in ,egypt1 the evidences of a ,stone ,age are scanty4 ,the most ancient human remains show that man in his physical characteristics was on a level with man at present4 ,dr4 ,daniel ,wilson1 speaking of the age of the ,flint-folk1 says3 ,it is of no slight importance to perceive that the interval which has wrought such revolutions in the earth involving great geological changes and mutations of climate as are recorded in the mammaliferous drift1 shows man the same reasoning1 tentative1 and inventive mechanician1 as clearly distinguished then from the highest orders of contemporary life of the ,elephantine or ,cave periods1 as he is now from the most intelligent of the brute creation4444 ,the oldest art-traces of the paleotechnic men of central ,france not only surpass those of many savage races1 but they indicate an intellectual aptitude in no degree inferior to the average ,frenchman of the nineteenth century4 7,prehistoric ,man1 pp4 #cc1 #cd47 ,literature4--,wilson1 ,prehistoric ,man1 etc4 7#b vols41 #ahgf72 ,joly1 ,man before the ,metals 7#ahhc72 ,keary1 ,the ,dawn of ,history4 ,the writings of ,e4 ,b4 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture 7#b vols471 ,anthropology1 ,early ,history of ,mankind2 his ,art4 ,anthropology1 ,encycl4 ,britt42 ,lubbock's ,prehistoric ,times1 and his ,origin of ,civilization2 ,argyll1 ,the ,unity of ,nature 7#ahhd72 ,j4 ,geikie1 ,prehistoric ,europe 7#ahha72 ,lyell1 ,the ,antiquity of ,man2 ,w4 ,e4 ,hearn1 ,the ,aryan ,household2 ,l4 ,h4 ,morgan1 ,ancient ,society4 ,,the ,,antiquity ,,of ,,man4--,science does not furnish us with the means of fixing the date of the first human inhabitants of the earth4 ,but its various departments of investigation concur in pronouncing the interval between the creation of man and the present to be far longer than the traditional opinion has assumed4 ,for the growth of language and its manifold ramifications2 for the development of the different races of mankind1 physically considered2 for the geological changes since the beginning of the ,stone ,age in the regions where its relics are uncovered2 for the rise of the most ancient civilization in ,egypt as well as in ,babylon and ,china1--it is thought that periods of very long duration are indispensable4 ,as to the date of the ,neolithic man1 or of the last section of the ,stone ,age1 ,professor ,j4 ,geikie writes3 ,any term of years ,i might suggest would be a mere guess2 but ,i have written to little purpose1 however1 if the phenomena described in the preceding chapters have failed to leave the impression upon the reader1 that the advent of ,neolithic man in ,europe must date back far beyond fifty or seventy centuries4 7,prehistoric ,europe1 p4 #eeh47 ,the chronology gathered from ,genesis has been supposed to place the date of man's creation at a point far less remote4 ,usher's calculation1 attached to the authorized ,english ,version of the ,bible1 sets this date at #djjd ,b4,c4 ,the discussion of these questions of ,scriptural chronology belongs to theology and biblical criticism4 ,it may be observed here1 however1 that of the three forms in which ,genesis is handed down to us1--the ,hebrew text1 the ,samaritan ,pentateuch1 and the ,septuagint1 or ancient ,greek translation1--no two agree in the numbers on which the estimate is founded4 ,hence ,hales and ,jackson1 following the larger numbers in the genealogies of the ,septuagint1 place the date of the creation at a point about fourteen hundred years prior to that fixed upon by ,usher4 ,,ancient ,,and ,,modern ,,history4 ,the periods of history are not divided from one another by merely chronological limits1 according to intervals of time of a definite duration4 ,such a classification may be of use to the memory1 but it is arbitrary in its character4 ,the landmarks of history are properly placed at the turning-points where new eras take their start1 whether the intervals between them are longer or shorter4 ,of these natural divisions1 the most general and the most marked is that between ancient and modern history4 ,ancient history not only precedes modern in time3 it is distinguished from the latter as relating to a by-gone state of things4 ,modern history1 on the contrary1 deals with an order of things now existing4 ,between the two there is this line of demarkation4 ,history 7with the exception of ,china and ,india1 which require distinct consideration1 as standing apart7 begins with ,egypt1 and flows down in a continuous stream1 until1 in the fourth century ,a4,d41 the ,roman ,empire1 into which the ancient civilized peoples were incorporated1 was broken up4 ,then the new nations1 especially the tribes of the ,germanic race1 took power into their hands2 ,christianity was established among them2 out of the chaos of elements there emerged the ,european nations1 with their offshoots1--the peoples at present on the stage of action4 ,ancient history had its center in the ,mediterranean4 ,it embraced the peoples who dwelt on the shores of that sea1 in the three continents1 and the nations that were brought into relations with them4 ,the ,roman ,empire1 the final outcome of ancient history1 was the monarchy of the ,mediterranean4 ,with the breaking-up of the ,empire1 new races1 new centers of power1 a universal religion in the room of national religions1 and a new type of culture and civilization1 were introduced4 ,invaluable legacies were handed over from the past1 surviving the wreck of ancient civilization4 ,there is1 however1 a unity in history3 the transition from the ancient to the modern era was gradual4 ,,mediaeval ,,and ,,later ,,modern ,,history4 ,since the fall of the ,roman ,empire1 there has occurred no revolution to be compared with the circumstances and results of that event4 ,an old world passed away1 and a new world began to be4 ,yet the student1 as he travels hitherward1 arrives at another epoch of extraordinary change1--a period of ferment1 when modern society in ,europe takes on a form widely different from the character that had belonged to it previously4 ,the long interval between ancient history and modern 7in this more restricted sense of thes term7 is styled the ,middle ,ages4 ,its termination may be found in the fifteenth century1 and a convenient date to mark the boundary-line is the capture of ,constantinople by the ,turks 7#adec74 ,history thus divides itself into three parts3-- ,part ,i4 ,ancient ,history1 to the migrations of the ,germanic ,tribes 7#cge ,a4,d74 ,part ,,ii4 ,medival ,history1 from ,a4,d4 #cge to the ,fall of ,constantinople 7#adec74 ,,part ,,iii4 ,modern ,history1 from #adec until the present4 ,works on ,general ,history4--,ranke1 ,universal ,history2 ,ploetz1 ,epitome of ,ancient1 ,medival1 and ,modern ,history 7,boston1 #ahhd72 ,weber1 ,weitgeschichte 7#b vols472 ,assmann1 ,handbuch d4 allgemeinen ,geschichte 7#e vols41 #ahec-ahfb72 by the same1 ,abriss d4 allgem4 ,gesch4 7in #c parts72 ,oncken1 ,allgem4 ,geschichte in ,einzeidarstellungen 7a series of full monographs of high merit74 ,copious works on ,universal ,history1 in ,german1 by ,weber1 ,schlosser1 ,becker1 ,leo4 ,laurent1 tudes sur l',histoire de l',humanit 7this is an extended series of historical dissertations71--,the ,orient and ,greece 7#b vols472 ,rome 7#a vol472 ,christianity 7#a vol471 etc4 ,prvost-,paradol1 ,essai sur l',histoire ,universelle 7#b vols43 a suggestive critical survey of the course of history1 with the omission of details74 ,s4 ,willard1 ,synopsis of ,history4 ,,part ,i4 ,,ancient ,,history4 ,,from ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,authentic ,,history ,,to ,,the ,,migrations ,,of ,,the ,,teutonic ,,tribes 7,a4,d4 #cge74 ,,divisions ,,of ,,ancient ,,history4--,ancient history separates itself into two main divisions4 ,in the first the ,oriental nations form the subject2 in the second1 which follows in the order of time1 the ,european peoples1 especially ,greece and ,rome1 have the central place4 ,the first division terminates1 and the second begins1 with the rise of ,grecian power and the great conflict of ,greece with the ,persian ,empire1 #dib ,b4,c4 ,,sections ,,of ,,oriental ,,history4--,but ,oriental history divides itself into two distinct sections4 ,the first embraces ,china and ,india1 nations apart1 and disconnected from the ,mediterranean and adjacent peoples4 ,china and ,india have a certain bond of connection with one another through the spread in ,china of the ,buddhistic religion4 ,the second section includes the great empires which preceded1 and paved the way for1 ,european history2 viz41 ,egypt1 ,babylonia and ,assyria1 and ,persia4 ,in this section1 along the course of the historic stream1 other nations which exercised a powerful influence1 attract special attention1 especially the ,phoenicians and the ,hebrews4 ,all these ,oriental peoples are so connected together that they stand in history as the ,earliest ,group of ,nations4 ,the historic narrative must be so shaped as to describe them in part singly1 but1 at the same time1 in their mutual relations4 ,ancient history1 from an ethnographical point of view1 would embrace two general divisions1--,eastern peoples and ,western peoples4 ,the first would comprise ,egyptians 7,hamitic72 ,jews1 ,babylonians1 ,assyrians1 ,phoenicians1 ,lydians 7,semitic72 ,hindus1 ,bactrians1 ,medes1 ,persians 7,aryan72 ,parthians1 ,chinese1 ,japanese4 ,the second would include ,celts1 ,britons1 ,greeks1 ,romans1 ,teutons 7,aryan74 7,ploetz1 ,universal ,history1 p4 #a47 ,from a geographical point of view1 ancient history would fall into three general divisions3 ,i4 ,asia1 including 7#a7 ,india1 7#b7 ,china 7with ,japan71 7#c7 ,babylonia and ,assyria1 7#d7 ,phoenicia1 7#e7 ,palestine1 7#f7 ,media and ,persia4 ,,ii4 ,africa1 including 7#a7 ,egypt1 7#b7 ,carthage4 ,,iii4 ,europe including 7#a7 ,greece1 with its states and colonies2 7#b7 ,italy4 ,,division ,i4 ,,oriental ,,history4 ,,physical ,,geography4--,europe and ,asia together form one vast continent1 yet have a partial boundary between them in the ,ural ,mountains and ,river1 and in the deep bed of the ,caspian and ,black seas4 ,asia1 which extends from the ,ural ,mountains to the ,pacific1 and from the ,arctic ,sea to the ,indian ,ocean1 embraces an immense plateau1 stretching from the ,black ,sea to ,corea4 ,this plateau spreads like a fan as it advances eastward4 ,it is traversed by chains of mountains1 and bordered also by lofty mountains1 of which the ,himalayas is the principal range4 ,from this girdle of mountains descend slopes which lead down into the lowlands4 ,the great plateau is broken into two by the ,hindu-,kush range4 ,the eastern division1 the extensive plateau of ,central ,asia1 is bordered on the north by the barren plains of ,siberia4 ,in the lowlands on the east and south are included the fertile plains of ,central ,china and of ,hindustan4 ,the plateau of eastern ,asia has been the natural abode of nomad tribes1 ,tartars and ,mongols1 whose invading hosts have poured through the passes of the mountains into the inviting territories below4 ,the plateau of western ,asia1 stretching westward from the ,indus1 is not so high as that of the east4 ,it begins with the lofty tablelands of ,iran1 and extends1 ordinarily at a less elevation1 to the extremity of the continent4 ,on the south lie the plains of ,mesopotamia4 ,arabia is a low plateau of vast extent1 connected by the plateau and mountains of ,syria with the mountain region of ,asia ,minor4 ,as might be expected1 civilization sprang up in the alluvial valleys of the ,tigris and ,euphrates1 the ,indus and the ,ganges1 and on the soil watered by the great rivers of ,china1 the ,hoang-,ho and the ,yang-tse-,kiang4 ,egypt was looked on by the ,ancients as a part of ,asia4 ,its language was distinct from the languages of the ,african nations4 ,the seat of its power and thrift was the valley of the ,nile4 ,the conflicts of the nations settled in the lowlands with the mountainous peoples1 eager for spoil and conquest1 are a characteristic feature of ,oriental ,history4 ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,asiatic ,,nations4--,generalizations covering so wide a field are1 of necessity1 inexact4 ,as a rule1 in the oriental mind1 the intuitive powers eclipse the severely rational and logical4 ,civilization--as1 for example1 in ,egypt and ,china--attains to a certain grade1 and is there petrified4 ,immobility belongs to the ,eastern nations4 ,revolutions bring a change of masters1 but leave character and customs unchanged4 ,the sense of individuality has been less vivid1 and freedom less understood or valued4 ,governments have taken the despotic form4 ,law has had its seat in the ruler's sovereign will4 ,the ruler has been regarded as clothed with divine authority4 ,before him the subject prostrates himself with groveling servility4 ,,religion ,,in ,,asia4--,asia is the cradle of the principal religions of the world4 ,here monotheism appears1 as in the faith of the ,hebrews1 and in the ,mohammedan revival of it in a less pure form4 ,here have flourished polytheistic systems1 each with its throng of divinities4 ,in the east1 pantheism1 dropping out of the conception of the ,deity the element of personality1 has found a cherished home4 ,,priesthoods4--,connected with the controlling influence of religion have arisen the priesthoods1--sometimes ruling as an aristocratic caste or class1 sometimes dividing power with the reigning despot1 to whom sacred attributes are ascribed4 ,,literature ,,and ,,art4--,the ,oriental nature has been mirrored in the literature and art of the ,east4 ,its products lack the measure1 the grace and symmetry1 and the human interest1 which characterize the creations of the ,european mind4 ,in the mechanical arts1 invention and discovery push on progress to a certain point1 then languish and die out4 ,,section ,i4 ,,china ,,and ,,india4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,china4 ,china proper comprises less than half of the present ,chinese ,empire4 ,it was called the land of ,sinae or ,seres by the ancients1 and in the middle ages bore the name of ,cathay4 ,in the north of ,china are the broad alluvial plains1 and in the north-eastern portion of the empire1 an immense delta4 ,the rest of the country is hilly and mountainous4 ,the nucleus of the ,chinese nation is thought to have been a band of immigrants1 who are supposed by some to have started from the region south-east of the ,caspian ,sea1 and to have crossed the head waters of the ,oxus4 ,they followed the course of the ,hoang-,ho1 or ,yellow ,river1 having entered the country of their adoption from the north-west2 and they planted themselves in the present province of ,shan-se4 ,although nomads1 they had some knowledge of astronomy1 brought from their earlier homes2 and they quickly made for themselves settled abodes4 ,the native tribes by degrees were extirpated or driven out4 ,the new-comers cultivated grain4 ,they raised flax1 out of which they wove garments4 ,,legendary ,,era1 ,,to ,,the ,,chow ,,dynasty 7#aabc ,b4,c474--,the early annals of the ,chinese1 like those of other nations1 are made up of myth and fable4 ,the annalists placed the date of the creation at a point more than two millions of years prior to ,confucius4 ,the intervening period they sought to fill up with lines of dynasties4 ,preceding the ,chow dynasty1 the chroniclers give ten epochs4 ,prior to the eighth of these1 there are no traces of authentic history4 ,to ,yew-,chaou ,she 7the ,nest-having7 is given the credit of teaching the people to make huts of the boughs of trees4 ,fire was discovered by ,suy-jin-,she 7the ,fire-producer71 his successor4 ,another ruler 7,fuh-he71 whose date is fixed at #bheb ,b4,c41 discovered iron4 ,he also divided the people into classes4 ,his successor invented the plow4 ,these tales1 perhaps1 retain vague reminiscences of the methods in which useful inventions originated1 or of the order in which they appeared4 ,with ,yaou 7#bcef ,b4,c47 we reach the period where the narratives which were compiled many centuries later by ,confucius1 begin their story4 ,in the mass of fable1 there is a larger infusion of historical fact1 which1 however1 it is well-nigh hopeless to separate from the fiction that is mingled with it4 ,in that golden age1 few laws were required4 ,we are told that the house-door could safely be left open4 ,yaou extended the empire3 he established fairs and marts over the land4 ,during the reign of ,shun1 who followed him1 a tremendous inundation is said to have occurred2 and ,yu1 called the ,great1 was energetic in draining off the waters4 ,he ascended the throne in #bbje ,b4,c4 ,his degenerate successors provoked a revolt and the introduction of a new dynasty1 called the ,shang dynasty1 whose first ,emperor1 ,tang 7#agfj ,b4,c471 had a wise and beneficent reign4 ,tyranny and disaster followed under the later kings of this house2 until finally ,woo-,wang1 the first sovereign of the ,chow dynasty1 acceded to the throne 7#aabc ,b4,c474 ,,the ,,chow ,,dynasty 7#aabc-bee ,b4,c474--,the traditions now become decidedly more trustworthy1 although still largely mixed with fable4 ,woo-,wang was brave and upright4 ,under him a momentous change in government took place4 ,by him the kingdom was divided into seventy-two feudal states4 ,internal divisions and struggles resulted from this new political system4 ,the ,tartars availed themselves of the weakened condition of the nation1 to make predatory incursions4 ,in this period of disorder and danger1 ,confucius1 the great teacher of ,china1 was born 7#eea ,b4,c474 ,his father was a district magistrate1 and died when the son was only three years old4 ,he was trained and taught by his mother4 ,when she died1 he gave up all employments to mourn for her1 during three years4 ,his only occupation during this period was study4 ,a grave and learned youth1 he at length resolved to become an instructor of his countrymen in the ancient writings1 to which he was devoted4 ,he was regular in all his ways1 and never ate or drank to excess4 ,he gathered about him scholars2 his fame increased2 and1 in #ejj ,b4,c41 he was made magistrate of ,chung-tu by the sovereign1 ,duke ,ting1 an office which he justly and discreetly administered for three years4 ,sometimes persecuted1 he compared himself to a dog driven from his home4 ,i have the fidelity of that animal1 and ,i am treated like it4 ,but what matters the ingratitude of men8 ,they can not hinder me from doing all the good that has been appointed me4 ,if my precepts are disregarded1 ,i have the consolation of knowing in my own breast that ,i have faithfully performed my duty4 ,both by his literary works and by the lessons taught to his disciples1 he laid the foundation of a most powerful and lasting influence over his countrymen4 ,he died in #dgh ,b4,c41 at the age of seventy-three4 ,laou-tsze1 another famous thinker1 was a few years older than ,confucius4 ,three precious things1 he said1 ,i prize1 and hold fast1--humility1 compassion1 and economy4 ,mencius1 a celebrated teacher and reformer1 who followed in the path of ,confucius1 after a long life died in #bhi ,b4,c4 ,one of his doctrines was1 that the nature of man is good1 and that evil is owing to education and circumstances4 ,one of his maxims was1 that the people can be led aright1 but can not be taught the reasons for the guidance to which they are subjected4 ,,dynasty ,,of ,,tsin 7#bee-bjf ,b4,c474--,reverting to the course of ,chinese history1 the next grand epoch is the enthronement of the ,tsin dynasty1 in the person of the ruler of one of the provinces1 which1 in the intestine strife among the feudal princes1 gained the victory4 ,this was in #bee ,b4,c4 ,in this line belongs the famous ,emperor ,che ,hwang-te1 who1 in #bdf ,b4,c41 at the age of thirteen years1 succeeded to the crown4 ,his palace in his capital1 the modern ,se-gan ,foo1 the edifices which he built elsewhere1 the roads and canals constructed by him1 excited wonder4 ,he routed and drove out the ,tartar invaders1 and put down the rebellion of the feudal princes4 ,he enlarged the kingdom nearly to the limits of modern ,china proper4 ,for the protection of the northern frontier he began the ,great ,wall1 which he did not live to finish4 ,it was finished #bjd ,b4,c41 ten years after it was begun4 ,when finished1 it was not less than fifteen hundred miles in length4 ,it would reach from ,philadelphia to ,topeka1 or from ,portugal to ,naples4 ,the innovations and maxims of government of ,che ,hwang-te were offensive to the scholars and the conservative class1 who pointed the people to the heroes of the feudal days and to the glories of the past4 ,for this reason1 the monarch commanded that all books having reference to the history of the empire should be destroyed4 ,he would efface the recollection of the old times4 ,he would not allow his system to be undermined by tradition4 ,the decree was obeyed1 although hidden copies of many of the ancient writings were undoubtedly preserved4 ,numerous scholars were buried alive4 ,his death1 in #baj ,b4,c41 was followed by disturbances1 growing out of the disaffection of the higher classes4 ,in the civil war that ensued1 his dynasty was subverted4 ,the throne was next held by ,,the ,,han ,,rulers 7#bjf ,b4,c4-#bbl ,a4,d474--,their sway1 which lasted for four hundred years1 covers a brilliant period in the ,chinese annals4 ,during the reign of ,ming-te1 #fe ,a4,d41 a deputation was sent to ,india1 to obtain the sacred writings and authorized teachers of the ,buddhistic religion1 which had begun to spread among the ,chinese4 ,the power of the feudal lords was reduced4 ,northern ,corea was conquered1 and the bounds of the empire extended on the west as far as ,russian ,turkestan1 ,in this period1 there was a marked revival of learning and authorship4 ,then lived a famous public officer1 ,yang ,chn1 who1 when asked to take a bribe1 and assured that no one would know it1 answered1 ,how so8 ,heaven would know1 ,earth would know1 you would know1 and ,i should know4 ,under this dynasty1 a custom of burying slaves with the dead was abolished4 ,,beginning ,,in #bba ,a4,d41 there followed the era of the three kingdoms4 ,it was an age of martial prowess1 civil war1 and bloodshed4 ,this long period of division was interrupted in #bfe ,a4,d4 by a re-union of the greater part of the empire for a brief period4 ,but discord soon sprang up2 and it was not until #eij ,a4,d4 that unity and order were restored by ,yang-,kian1 who founded the dynasty1 named from his local dominion1 ,suy4 ,,religion ,,in ,,china4--,the ancient religion of ,china was polytheistic4 ,the supreme divinity was called ,tien or ,shang-ti4 ,tien signifies ,heaven4 ,was ,heaven1 or ,shang-ti--or the ,lord--the visible heaven1 the expanse above1 clothed with the attribute of personality8 ,this has been1 and still is1 the prevailing opinion of missionaries and scholars4 ,dr4 ,legge1 however1 holds that ,tien is the lord of the heavens1 a power above the visible firmament2 and thus finds monotheism as the basis of the ,chinese religious creed4 ,the prevailing religions of ,china are three1--,buddhism 7which in its original form was brought in from ,india in the first century of the ,christian era71 ,confucianism1 and ,taouism4 ,it may be observed1 that1 in all these systems1 there is but a vague sense of personality as inhering in the heavenly powers1 in comparison with the creeds in vogue among heathen nations generally4 ,another fact to be noted is1 that1 in ,chinese worship1 the veneration for ancestors1 a feeling inbred in the ,chinese mind1 is a very prominent and pervading element4 ,confucius did not profess to reveal things supernatural4 ,his teaching is made up of moral and political maxims4 ,he builds on the past1 and always inculcates reverence for the fathers and for what has been4 ,there is much wise counsel to parents and to rulers4 ,his morality reaches its acme in the ,golden ,rule1 which he gives1 however1 only in its negative relation3 ,do not unto others what you would not that others should do unto you4 ,laou-tsze is a more speculative and mystical thinker4 ,in his moral aphorisms1 he approaches the theory of the ancient ,stoics4 ,,teh--i4e41 virtue--is lauded4 ,teh proceeds from ,,tao4 ,to explain what the ,chinese sage means by ,tao1--a word that signifies the way1--is a puzzle for commentators and inquirers4 ,from ,tao all things originate3 they conform to ,tao1 and to ,tao they return4 ,there are noble maxims in ,laou-tsze1--precepts enjoining compassion1 and condemning the requital of evil with evil4 ,taouism is a type of religion which traces itself to the teaching of ,laou-tsze4 ,that teaching became mixed with wild speculations4 ,then certain ,buddhistic rites and tenets were added to it4 ,the result1 finally1 was a compound of knavery and superstition4 ,taouism is at once mystical and rationalistic in its tone4 ,,literature ,,in ,,china4--,the ,chinese language was crystallized1 in the written form1 in the monosyllabic stage of its development4 ,beginning in hieroglyphs1 literal pictures of objects1 and having no alphabet1 it has so multiplied its characters and combinations of characters as to put great hindrances in the way of the acquisition of it4 ,the utter absence of inflection may have crippled the development of poetry and of the drama1 for which the ,chinese have a natural taste4 ,in these departments1 ,chinese productions do not rise above mediocrity4 ,for this1 however1 the lack of imagination and of creative power is largely accountable4 ,it is in the province of pure prose--as in historical narrations1 topographical writings1 such as geographies1 and in the making of encyclopedias--that the ,chinese have excelled4 ,but the yoke of tradition has everywhere weighed heavily4 ,in one sense1 the ,chinese have been a literary people4 ,the system of competitive examinations for public offices has diffused through the nation a certain degree of book-learning2 yet the masses have been kept in a state of ignorance4 ,at the foundation of all learning are the nine classics1 which consist of five works1 edited or written by ,confucius1 of which the ,shoo ,king1 or ,book of ,history1 stands at the head1 together with the four books written by his disciples and the disciples of ,mencius4 ,great as have been the services of ,confucius1 his own slavish reverence for the past1 so stamped upon his writings1 has had the effect to cramp the development of the ,chinese mind1 and to fasten upon it the fetters of tradition4 ,,government ,,and ,,civilization4--,the government of ,china is a patriarchal despotism4 ,as father of his people1 the king has absolute authority4 ,the power of life and death is in his hand4 ,yet the right of revolution was taught by ,confucius and ,mencius1 and the ,chinese have not been slow to exercise it4 ,the powers of the emperor are limited by ceremonial regulations1 and by a body of precedents which are held sacred4 ,he administers rule with the help of a privy council4 ,officers of every rank in the employ of the government constitute the aristocratic class of ,mandarins1 who are divided into different ranks4 ,,invention4--,printing by wooden blocks was known in ,china as early as the sixth century ,a4,d4 ,printing did not come into general use until the thirteenth century4 ,the use of movable types1 although devised1 it is said1 many centuries earlier1 did not come into vogue until the seventeenth century4 ,gunpowder was used as early as #bej ,a4,d41 in the making of fire-crackers2 but it was certainly as late as the middle of the twelfth century that it was first employed in war4 ,the ,chinese were early acquainted with the polarity of the loadstone1 and used the compass in journeys by land long before that instrument was known in ,europe4 ,in various branches of manufactures1--as silk1 porcelain1 carved work in ivory1 wood1 and horn1--the ,chinese1 at least until a recent period1 have been pre-eminent4 ,in the mechanical arts their progress has been slow4 ,their crude implements of husbandry are in contrast with their exhibitions of skill in other directions4 ,although imitation long ago supplanted the activity of inventive talent1 to ,china belongs the distinction of being a civilized land before the ,christian nations of ,europe had emerged into being4 ,,literature4--,the ,middle ,kingdom1 by ,s4 ,,wells ,,williams 7#b vols472 ,encycl4 ,brit41 ,art4 ,china by ,professor ,douglas2 ,arts4 ,confucius and ,mencius by ,dr4 ,legge2 ,legge1 ,the ,religions of ,china2 ,richthofen1 ,china7#c vols472 ,giles1 ,historic ,china1 and ,other ,sketches 7#ahhb72 ,legge1 ,the ,chinese ,classics2 ,,boulger1 ,history of ,china 7#ahha-hd72 ,thornton1 ,history of ,china4 ,,japan4--,the authentic history of ,japan belongs mainly in the modern period1 since the tenth century ,a4,d4 ,the most ancient religion of ,japan1 designated by a term which means the way of the gods1 included a variety of objects of worship1--gods1 deified men1 the mikados1 or chief rulers1 regarded as the sons of heaven1 animals1 plants1 etc4 ,unquestioning obedience to the mikado was the primary religious duty4 ,it was a state-religion4 ,buddhism1 brought into the country in #eeb ,a4,d41 spread1 and became prevalent4 ,the ,japanese are a mixed race4 ,kito and the adjacent provinces are said to have been occupied by the conquerors4 ,prior to #ffj ,b4,c4 we have no trustworthy history of the island4 ,this is the date assigned by the ,japanese to their hero1 ,jimmu ,tenno1 the first mikado1 the founder of an unbroken line4 ,for several centuries1 however1 the history is open to question4 ,the tenth mikado1 ,sujin1 is noted as a reformer1 and promoter of civilization4 ,an uncrowned princess1 ,jingu-,kogo 7#bja-bfi ,a4,d471 is famous for her military prowess4 ,she suppressed a rebellion1 and subdued ,corea4 ,ojin1 a celebrated warrior1 is still worshiped as a god of war4 ,the introduction of ,chinese literature and civilization at this period1 makes a turning-point in ,japanese history4 ,,literature4--,j4 ,j4 ,,rein1 ,japan3 ,travels and ,researches1 vol4 ,i4 7#ahha72 ,e4 ,j4 ,reed1 ,japan 7#b vols41 #ahhj72 ,siebold1 ,nippon 7#e vols4 #daj1 and plates72 ,kampfer1 ,history of ,japan 7#b vols4 fol41 #agbh72 ,encycl4 ,brit41 ,art4 ,japan4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,india4 ,india is the central one of the three great peninsulas of ,southern ,asia4 ,on the north is the mountainous region of the ,himalayas1 below which are the vast and fertile river plains1 watered by the ,indus1 the ,ganges1 and other streams4 ,on the south1 separated from the ,ganges by the ,vindhy range1 is the hilly and mountainous tract called the ,deccan4 ,,the ,,aryan ,,invaders4--,the history of ,india opens with glimpses of a struggle on the borders of the great rivers1--first of the ,indus and then of the ,ganges1--between an invading race1 the ,sanskrit-speaking ,aryans from the north-west1 and the dusky aborigines4 ,these rude native tribes have left few relics but their tombs4 ,before they tenanted the soil1 there dwelt upon it still earlier inhabitants1 whose implements were of stone or bronze4 ,the incoming people referred to above were of that ,indo-,european stock to which we belong4 ,from their home1 perhaps in central ,asia1 they moved in various directions4 ,a part built up the ,persian kingdom2 another portion migrated farther1 and were the progenitors of the ,greek nation2 and a third founded ,rome4 ,the ,indian ,aryans migrated southward from the headwaters of the ,oxus at some time prior1 doubtless1 to #bjjj ,b4,c4 ,our knowledge of them is derived from their ancient sacred books1 the ,vedas2 of these the oldest1 the ,rig-,veda1 contains ten hundred and seventeen lyrics1 chiefly addressed to the gods4 ,its contents were composed while the ,aryans dwelt upon the ,indus1 and while they were on their way to the neighborhood of the ,ganges4 ,the ,rig-,veda1 therefore1 exhibits this people in their earliest stage of religious and social development4 ,they were herdsmen1 but with a martial spirit1 which enabled them by degrees to drive out the native tribes1 and compel them to take refuge in the mountains on the north1 or on the great southern plateau4 ,among them women were held in respect1 and marriage was sacred4 ,there are beautiful hymns written by ladies and queens4 ,no such cruel custom as the burning of widows existed3 it was of far later origin4 ,they were acquainted with the metals4 ,among them were blacksmiths1 coppersmiths1 goldsmiths1 carpenters1 and other artisans4 ,they fought from chariots1 but had not come to employ elephants in war4 ,they were settled in villages and in towns4 ,mention is made of ships1 or river-boats1 as in use among them4 ,they ate beef1 and drank a sort of fermented beer made from the soma plant4 ,,the ,,vedic ,,religion4--,the early religion of the ,indian ,aryans was quite different from the system that grew up later among them4 ,we do not find in it the dreamy pantheism that appears afterwards4 ,it is cheerful in its tone1 quite in contrast with the gloomy asceticism which is stamped on it in after times4 ,the head of each family is priest in his own household4 ,it is only the great tribal sacrifice which is offered by priests set apart for the service4 ,the worship is polytheistic1 but not without tendencies to monotheism4 ,the principal divinities are the powers of nature4 ,the deities 7deva7 were the heavenly or the shining ones4 ,it was the beautiful phenomenon of light which first and most powerfully swayed the ,aryan mind4 ,the chief gods were the ,father-heaven2 ,indra1 the god of thunder and of rain1 from whom the refreshing showers descended2 ,varuna1 the encompassing sky2 and ,agni1 the god of fire4 ,among these ,indra1 from his beneficence1 more and more attracted worship4 ,soma1 too1 was worshiped2 soma being originally the intoxicating juice of a plant4 ,brihaspati1 the lord of prayer1 personifying the omnipresent power of prayer1 was adored4 ,thirty-three gods in all were invoked4 ,the bodies of the dead were consumed on the funeral-pile4 ,the soul survived the body1 but the later doctrine of transmigration was unknown4 ,all the attributes of sovereign power and majesty were collected in ,varuna4 ,no one can fathom him1 but he sees and knows all4 ,he is the upholder of order2 just1 yet the dispenser of grace1 and merciful to the penitent4 ,worship is made up of oblations and prayers4 ,it must be sincere4 ,the gods will not tolerate deceit4 ,they require faith4 ,of the last things and the last times the ,rig-,veda hardly speaks4 ,the ,vedic hymns have much to say of the origin of things1 but little1 except in the last book1 of the final issues4 ,there are four ,vedas1--the ,rig-,veda1 which has the body of hymns2 the ,yajur-,veda1 in which the prescribed formulas to be used in acts of sacrifice are collected2 the ,sama-,veda1 containing the chants2 and the ,atharva-,veda1 a collection of hymns1 in part of a later date4 ,besides1 each ,veda contains1 as a second part1 one or more ,brhmanas1 or prose treatises on the ceremonial system4 ,in addition1 there are theological works supplementary1 and of later origin1--the intermediate ,aranyakas1 and the ,upanishads1 which are of a speculative cast4 ,not only is nature--mountains1 rivers1 trees1 etc4--personified in the ,vedas3 the animals--as the cow1 the horse1 the dog1 even the apparatus of worship1 the war-chariot1 the plow1 and the furrow--are addressed in prayer4 ,the sacrificial fire is deified in ,agni1 the sacrificial drink in ,soma4 ,indra has for his body-guards the ,maruts1 gods of the storm and lightning4 ,he is a warlike god1 standing in his chariot1 but also a beneficent giver of all good gifts4 ,varuna is the god of the vast luminous heavens1 in their serene majesty4 ,indra1 on the other hand1 represents the atmosphere in its active and militant energy4 ,the number of the gods is variously given4 ,in passages1 they are said to be many thousands4 ,,rites4--,there is no hierarchy among the gods4 ,but there is a tendency to confuse the attributes of the different divinities4 ,occasionally1 for the time being1 one eclipses all the rest1 and is addressed as if all others were forgotten4 ,there is sometimes a tendency to regard them as all one1 under different names4 ,but this tendency develops itself later4 ,offerings consisted of rice1 cakes1 soma1 etc4 ,victims also were sacrificed1 the horse especially2 also the goat1 the buffalo1 and other animals4 ,sacrifice purchases the gifts and favor of the gods4 ,it is an expression of gratitude and dependence4 ,it has1 moreover1 a deep1 mysterious energy of an almost magical character4 ,,the ,,aryans ,,on ,,the ,,ganges4--,later1 but earlier than #ajjj ,b4,c41 we find that the ,aryan invaders have moved onward in their career of conquest1 and have planted themselves on the plains of the ,ganges4 ,a marvelous transformation has taken place in their social constitution1 their religion1 and in their general spirit4 ,the caste system has sprung up1 of which there are few traces in the ,rig-,veda4 ,in the first or lowest of these distinct classes are the ,sudras1 or despised serfs1 who are the subjugated aborigines2 the second1 or next higher1 class is composed of the tillers of the soil1 who are of a lower rank than the third1 the warrior caste4 ,these1 in turn1 fall below the ,brahmans1 or priests1 who1 as rites of worship grew more complicated1 and superstition increased1 gained1 though not without a struggle1 a complete ascendency4 ,this marks the beginning of the sacerdotal era4 ,the tendency of the farmer caste was to decrease1 until1 in modern times1 in various provinces they are hardly found4 ,the supremacy of the ,brahmans was largely owing to their eminence as the great literary caste4 ,they arose out of the families by whom the hymns had been composed1 and who managed the tribal sacrifices4 ,they alone understood the language of the hymns and the ritual4 ,brahman1 in the earliest ,veda1 signifies a worshiper4 ,,brahminical ,,pantheism4--,the polytheism of the earlier type of religion was converted into pantheism4 ,brahma1 the supreme being1 is impersonal1 the eternal source of all things1 from which all finite beings--gods1 nature1 and men--emanate4 ,it is by emanation1--an outflow analogous to that of a stream from its fountain1 in distinction from creation1 implying will and self-consciousness1--that all derived existences emerge into being4 ,with this doctrine was connected the belief in the transmigration of souls4 ,all animated beings1 including plants as well as animals1 partake of the universal life which has its origin and seat in ,brahma4 ,alienation from ,brahma1 finite1 individual being1 is evil4 ,to work the way back to ,brahma is the great aim and hope4 ,absorption in ,brahma1 return to the primeval essence1 is the supreme good4 ,the sufferings of the present are the penalty of sins committed in a pre-existent state4 ,if they are not purged away1 the soul is condemned to be embodied again and again1--it may be1 in some repulsive animal4 ,this process of metempsychosis might be repeated far into the indefinite future4 ,with the doctrine of ,brahma and of transmigration was connected the feeling that all life is sacred4 ,the ,brahman spared even trees and plants from destruction4 ,pollution or defilement might be contracted in a great variety of ways4 ,there grew out of these ideas of sin1 rigorous penances1 most painful forms of self-torment4 ,it was only by practices of this sort that there was hope of avoiding the retribution so much dreaded4 ,,the ,,brahminical ,,codes4--,the principal of these codes is the ,laws of ,manu4 ,manu was imagined to be the first human being1 conceived of as a sage4 ,this code is a digest compiled by the priests at a date unknown1 but comprising in it materials of a very high antiquity4 ,hence1 while exhibiting ,brahmanism in its maturer form1 it affords glimpses of society at a much earlier date4 ,a second code was compiled not earlier than the second century ,a4,d4 ,these codes present ,hindu law under three heads3 7#a7 domestic and civil rights and duties1 7#b7 the administration of justice1 7#c7 purification and penance4 ,in truth1 the codes prescribe regulations for every department of life4 ,the obligations of kings1 of ,brahmans1 and of every other class1 are defined in detail4 ,one motive that is kept in view is to set forth and fortify the special privileges of the ,brahminical order4 ,,the ,,philosophy ,,of ,,the ,,brahmins4--,in process of time1 commentaries on the ,vedas were multiplied4 ,discord arose in the interpretation of the sacred books4 ,out of this debate and confusion there emerged1 in the seventh and sixth centuries ,b4,c41 several philosophical systems4 ,these aimed to give peace to the soul by emancipating it from the bondage of matter1 and by imparting a sense of independence of the body and of the external world4 ,these old philosophies are preserved in the ,upanishads1 or ,instructions4 ,the main idea in these diverse systems--the ,sankhya1 the ,vedanta1 etc4--is1 that the soul's notion of itself as separate from the supreme1 impersonal being1 is the fallen state4 ,this duality must be overcome4 ,conscious of its identity with the ,supreme1 the soul enters into yoga1 or the state of unison with the ,infinite4 ,he who is thus taken away from the illusions of sense1 or the yogin1 is free from the power of things perishable4 ,death brings a complete absorption into the source of all being4 ,it is the bliss of personal extinction4 ,this sort of philosophy attached great value to contemplation and self-renunciation4 ,it led to a light esteem of ritual practices and ceremonies4 ,,buddhism4 ,the ,brahminical system has not ceased to maintain its supremacy in ,india since the time when it was presented to view in the law-codes4 ,but it has not escaped alteration and attack4 ,new movements1 religious and political1 have appeared to modify its character4 ,of these1 ,buddhism is by far the most memorable4 ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,buddha4--,of the life of ,buddha we have only legendary information1 where it is impossible to separate fact from romance4 ,the date of his death was between #dhb and #dgb ,b4,c4 ,he was then old4 ,he belonged to the family of ,gautamas1 who were said to be of the royal line of the kyas1 a clan having its seat about a hundred and thirty-seven miles north of ,benares4 ,the story is1 that1 brought up in luxury1 and destined to reign1 he was so struck with the miseries of mankind1 that1 at the age of twenty-nine1 he left his parents1 his young wife1 and an only son1 and retired to a solitary life to meditate upon the cause of human suffering4 ,from ,brahminical teachers he could obtain no solution of the problem4 ,but after seven years of meditation and struggle1 during which sore temptations to return to a life of sense and of ease were successfully resisted1 he attained to truth and to peace4 ,for forty-four years after this he is said to have promulgated his doctrine1 gathering about him disciples1 whom he charged with the duty of spreading it abroad4 ,,the ,,buddhistic ,,doctrine4--,buddhism was not a distinct revolt against the reigning system of religion4 ,buddha left theology to the ,brahmans4 ,indra1 ,agni1 and the other divinities1 and the services rendered to them1 he left untouched4 ,being an anchorite1 he was not required to concern himself with the rites and observances in which others took part4 ,his aim was practical4 ,his doctrine1 though resting on a theoretical basis1 was propounded simply as a way of salvation from the burdens that oppressed the souls of men4 ,nor did he undertake a warfare against caste4 ,the blessing of deliverance from the woes of life he opened to all without distinction4 ,this was the limit of his opposition to caste4 ,,the ,,road ,,to ,,nirvana4--,buddha taught1 7#a7 that existence is always attended with misery2 7#b7 that all modes of misery result from passion1 or desire unsatisfied2 7#c7 that desire must be quenched2 7#d7 that there are four steps in doing this1 and thus of arriving at ,,nirvana1 which is the state in which self is lost and absorbed1 and vanishes from being4 ,these four ways are 7#a7 the awakening to a perception of the nature and cause of evil1 as thus defined2 7#b7 the consequent quenching of impure and revengeful feelings2 7#c7 the stifling of all other evil desires1 also riddance from ignorance1 doubt1 heresy1 unkindliness1 and vexation2 7#d7 the entrance into ,nirvana1 sooner or later1 after death4 ,the great boon which ,buddha held out was escape from the horrors of transmigration4 ,he attributed to the soul no substantial existence4 ,it is the ,karma1 or another being1 the successor of one who dies1 the result and effect of all that he was1 who re-appears in case of transmigration4 ,buddhism involved atheism1 and the denial of personal immortality1 or1 where this last tenet was not explicitly denied1 uncertainty and indifference respecting it4 ,on the foundation of ,buddha's teaching1 there grew up a vast system of monasticism1 with ascetic usages not less burdensome than the yoke of caste4 ,the attractive feature of ,buddhism was its moral precepts4 ,these were chiefly an inculcation of chastity1 patience1 and compassion2 the unresisting endurance of all ills2 sympathy and efficient help for all men4 ,,deification ,,of ,,buddha4--,by the pupils of ,buddha he was glorified4 ,he was placed among the ,brahminical gods1 by whom he was served4 ,a multitude of cloisters were erected in his honor1 in which his relics were believed to be preserved4 ,on the basis of the simpler doctrine and precepts of the founder1 there accumulated a mass of superstitious beliefs and observances4 ,,the ,,spread ,,of ,,buddhism4--,after the death of ,buddha1 it is said that his disciples1 to the number of five hundred1 assembled1 and divided his teaching into three branches1--his own words1 his rules of discipline1 and his system of doctrine4 ,during the next two centuries ,buddhism spread over northern ,india4 ,one of the most conspicuous agents in its diffusion was ,asoka1 the king of ,behar1 who was converted to the ,buddhistic faith1 and published its tenets throughout ,india4 ,his edicts1 in which they were set forth1 were engraved on rocks and pillars and in caves4 ,he organized missionary efforts among the aborigines1 using only peaceful means1 and combining the healing of disease1 and other forms of philanthropy1 with preaching4 ,he carried the ,buddhistic faith as far as ,ceylon4 ,it spread over ,burmah 7#dej ,a4,d474 ,siam was converted 7#fch ,a4,d471 and ,java between the fifth and seventh centuries of our era4 ,through ,central ,asia the ,buddhistic missionaries passed into ,china in the second century ,b4,c41 and ,buddhism became an established system there as early as #fe ,a4,d4 ,at present1 this religion numbers among its professed adherents more than a third of the human race4 ,,the ,,brahminical ,,re-,,action4--,in ,india ,buddhism did not supplant the old religion4 ,the ,brahmans modified their system4 ,they made their theology more plain to the popular apprehension4 ,they took up ,buddhistic speculations into their system4 ,but they rendered their ceremonial practices more complex and more burdensome4 ,their ascetic rule grew to be more exacting and oppressive4 ,in diffusing and making popular their system1 customs1 like the burning of widows1 were introduced1 which were not known in previous times4 ,the divinities1 ,brahma1 the author of all things1 ,vishnu the preserver1 and ,siva the destroyer1 were brought into a relation to one another1 as a sort of triad4 ,successive incarnations of ,vishnu became an article of the creed1 ,krishna being one of his incarnate names4 ,for centuries ,brahmanism and ,buddhism existed together4 ,gradually ,buddhism decayed1 and melted into the older system2 helping to modify its character1 and thus to give rise to modern ,hinduism4 ,for ten centuries ,buddhism1 with multitudinous adherents abroad1 has had no existence in the land of its birth4 ,,the ,,greek-,,roman ,,period4--,in #cbg ,b4,c41 ,alexander the ,great advanced in his victorious career as far as ,india1 entered the ,punjab1 which was then divided among petty kingdoms1 and defeated one of the kings1 ,porus1 who disputed the passage of the river ,jhelum4 ,the heat of the climate and the reluctance of his troops caused the ,macedonian invader to turn back from his original design of penetrating to the ,ganges4 ,near the confluence of the five rivers he built a town1 ,alexandria4 ,he founded1 also1 other towns1 established alliances1 and left garrisons4 ,on the death of ,alexander 7#cbc ,b4,c47 and the division of his empire1 ,bactria and ,india fell to the lot of ,seleucus ,nicator1 the founder of the ,syrian monarchy4 ,about this time a new kingdom grew up in the valley of the ,ganges1 under the auspices of ,chandra ,gupti1 a native4 ,after various conflicts1 ,seleucus ceded the ,greek settlements in the ,punjab to this prince1 to whom he gave his daughter in marriage4 ,the successors of ,seleucus sent ,grco-,bactrian expeditions into ,india4 ,thus ,greek science and ,greek art exerted a perceptible influence in ,hindustan4 ,during the first six centuries of the ,christian era1 ,scythian hordes poured down into northern ,india4 ,they were stoutly resisted1 but effected settlements1 and made conquests4 ,the events as well as the dates of the long struggle are obscure4 ,the non-,aryan races of ,india1 both on the north and on the south of the ,ganges1 many of whom received the ,buddhistic faith1 were not without a marked influence--the precise lines of which it is difficult to trace--upon the history and life of ,india during the period of ,greek and ,scythic occupation and warfare4 ,the ,dravidian people in southern ,india1 made up of non-,aryans1 number at present forty-six millions4 ,,literature4--,mill's ,history of ,india 7,wilson's edition1 #i vols472 ,,monier ,,williams1 ,indian ,wisdom2 ,max ,mller's ,history of ,sanskrit ,literature2 ,,earth',s ,the ,religions of ,india1 #ahhb2 ,encycl4 ,brit41 ,arts4 ,india1 ,brahmanism1 ,buddhism4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,,the ,,earliest ,,group ,,of ,,nations4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,egypt4 ,,the ,,land ,,and ,,the ,,people4--,when the curtain that hides the far distant past is lifted1 we find in the valley of the ,nile a people of a dark color1 tinged with red1 and a peculiar physiognomy1 who had long existed there4 ,of their beginnings1 there is no record4 ,it is not likely that they came down the river from the south1 as some have thought2 more probably they were of ,asiatic origin4 ,their language1 though it certainly shows affinities with the ,semitic tongues in its grammar1 is utterly dissimilar in its vocabulary3 its modern descendant is the ,coptic1 no longer a spoken dialect4 ,the ,egyptians were of the ,caucasian variety1 but not white like the ,lybians on the west4 ,on the east were tribes of a yellowish complexion and various lineage1 belonging to the numerous people whom the ,egyptians designated as ,amu4 ,on the south1 in what was called ,ethiopia1 was a negro people2 and1 also beyond them and eastward1 a dusky race1 of totally different origin1 a branch of the widely diffused ,cushites4 ,,the ,,nile3 ,,divisions ,,of ,,the ,,country4--,egypt 7styled by its ancient inhabitants1 from the color of the soil deposited by the ,nile1 ,kem or the ,black ,land1 and by the ,hebrews called ,mizraim7 is the creation of the great river4 ,egypt1 says ,herodotus1 is the gift of the ,nile2 and this is not only true1 as the historian meant it1 physically1 because it is the ,nile that rescued the land from the arid waste by which it is bordered2 but the course of ,egyptian history--the occupations1 habits1 and religion of the people--was largely determined by the characteristics of the river4 ,the sources of the ,nile have had in all ages the fascination of mystery1 and have been a fruitful theme for conjecture4 ,it was reserved for modern explorers to ascertain that it takes its rise in equatorial ,africa1 in the two great lakes1 the ,albert and ,victoria ,nyanzas4 ,from that region1 fed by few tributaries1 it flows to the ,mediterranean1 a distance of two thousand miles1 but breaks1 as it nears the sea1 into two main and several minor arms4 ,these spread fruitfulness over the broad plain called1 from its shape1 the ,delta4 ,above the ,delta the fringe of productive land has a width of only a few miles on either side of the stream4 ,its fertility is due to the yearly inundation which1 as the effect of the rainfall of ,abyssinia1 begins early in ,july1 and terminates in ,november1 when the river1 having slowly risen in the interval to an average height of twenty-three or twenty-four feet1 reaches in its gradual descent the ordinary level4 ,this narrow belt of territory1 annually enriched with a layer of fertile mud1 is in striking contrast with the barren regions1 parched by the sun1 on either side1 with the long chain of ,arabian mountains that adjoin it on the east1 and with the low hills of the ,lybian desert on the west4 ,by dikes1 canals1 and reservoirs1 the beneficent river from the most ancient times has been made to irrigate the land above1 where are the towns and dwellings of the people1 and thus to extend and keep up its unrivaled fertility4 ,the country of old was divided into two parts1--,upper ,egypt1 as it is now called1 with ,thebes for its principal city1 extending from the first cataract1 near ,syene1 to the ,memphian district2 and ,lower ,egypt1 embracing the rest of the country on the north1 including the ,delta4 ,the two divisions were marked by differences of dialect and of customs4 ,the country was further divided into nomes1 or districts1 about forty in all1 but varying in number at different times4 ,they were parted from one another by boundary stones4 ,each had its own civil organization1 a capital1 and a center of worship4 ,,early ,,culture4--,at a far remote day1 there existed in ,lower ,egypt an advanced type of culture4 ,sepulchers1 with their inscriptions and sculptures1 were made of so solid material that they have remained to testify to this fact4 ,when the pyramids were built1 mechanical skill was highly developed1 ,egyptian art had reached a point beyond which it scarcely advanced1 and the administration of government had attained substantially to the form in which it continued to exist4 ,the use of writing1 the division of the year1 the beginnings of the sciences and of literature1 are found in this earliest period4 ,egyptian culture1 as far as we can determine1 was not borrowed4 ,it was a native product4 ,the earliest period was the period of most growth4 ,the prevailing tendency was to crystallize all arts and customs into definite1 established forms1 and to subject every thing to fixed rules4 ,the desire to preserve what had been gained overmastered the impulses to progress3 individuality and enterprise were blighted by an excessive spirit of conservatism4 ,moreover1 the culture of the ,egyptians never disengaged itself from its connection with every-day practical needs1 or the material spirit that lay at its root4 ,they did not1 like the ,greeks1 soar into the atmosphere of theoretical science and speculation4 ,they did not break loose from the fetters of tradition4 ,,the ,,hieroglyphics4--,we owe our knowledge of ancient ,egypt chiefly to hieroglyphical writing4 ,the hieroglyphs1 except those denoting numbers1 were pictures of objects4 ,the writing is of three kinds4 ,the first1 the hieroglyphical1 is composed of literal pictures1 as a circle1 ,o1 for the sun1 a curved line for the moon1 a pointed oval for the mouth4 ,the second sort of characters1 the hieratic1 and the third1 the demotic1 are curtailed pictures1 which can thus be written more rapidly4 ,they are seldom seen on the monuments1 but are the writing generally found on the papyrus rolls or manuscripts4 ,they are written from right to left4 ,the hieroglyphs proper may be written either way1 or in a perpendicular line4 ,in the demotic1 or people's writing1 the characters are somewhat more curtailed1 or abridged1 than in the hieratic1 or priestly1 style4 ,there were four methods of using the hieroglyphics in historical times4 ,first1 there were the primary1 representational characters1 the literal pictures4 ,secondly1 the characters were used figuratively1 as symbols4 ,thus a circle1 ,o1 meant not only the sun1 but also day2 the crescent denoted not only the moon1 but also a month2 a pen and inkstand signified writing1 etc4 ,so one object was substituted for another analogous to it1--as the picture of a boot in a trap1 which stood for deceit4 ,a conventional emblem1 too1 might represent the object4 ,thus1 the hawk denoted the sun1 two water-plants meant ,upper and ,lower ,egypt4 ,thirdly1 hieroglyphics were used as determinatives4 ,that is1 an object would be denoted by letters 7in a way that we shall soon explain71 and a picture be added to determine1 or make clear1 what was meant4 ,after proper names1 they designated the sex2 after the names of other classes1 as animals1 they specified the particular genus4 ,fourthly1 the bulk of the hieroglyphs are phonetic4 ,they stand for sounds4 ,the picture stood for the initial sound of the name of the object depicted4 ,thus the picture of an eagle1 akhm1 represented ,a4 ,unfortunately1 numerous objects were employed for a like purpose1 to indicate the same sound4 ,hence the number of characters was multiplied4 ,the whole number of signs used in writing is not less than nine hundred or a thousand4 ,the discovery of the ,rosetta ,stone--a large black slab of stone--with an identical inscription in hieroglyphics1 in demotic and in ,greek1 furnished to ,champollion 7#ahaj7 and to ,young the clew to the deciphering of the ,egyptian writing1 and thus the key to the sense of the monumental inscriptions4 ,the ,egyptian manuscripts were made of the pith of the byblus plant1 cut into strips4 ,these were laid side by side horizontally1 with another layer of strips across them2 the two layers being united by paste1 and subjected to a heavy pressure4 ,the ,egyptians wrote with a reed1 using black and red ink4 ,,sources ,,of ,,knowledge ,,of ,,egyptian ,,history4--,these are 7#a7 the inscriptions on the monuments4 ,these1 it must be remembered1 are commonly in praise of the departed1 and of their achievements4 7#b7 ,the list of kings in the ,turin papyrus1 a very important ,egyptian manuscript1 discovered by ,champollion4 7#c7 ,manetho4 ,an ,egyptian priest1 he wrote1 about #bej ,b4,c41 a history4 ,only his lists of dynasties are preserved as given in an ,armenian version of ,eusebius1 a writer of the fourth century1 and in ,george ,syncellus1 a writer of the eighth century1 who professed to embody the statements of ,eusebius and of another author1 ,julius ,africanus1 probably of the second century1 who had also quoted the lists of ,manetho4 ,manetho is of great importance2 but we do not know accurately what his original text was1 it being so differently reported4 ,his details frequently clash with the monuments4 ,moreover1 the method adopted by him in making his lists is1 in essential points1 subject to doubt4 7#d7 ,the ,greek historians4 ,herodotus had visited ,egypt 7between #dfj and #dej ,b4,c471 and conferred with ,egyptian priests4 ,diodorus1 also1 in the time of ,julius ,caesar1 had visited ,egypt4 ,he is largely a copyist of ,herodotus4 7#e7 ,the ,old ,testament4 ,here we have many instructive references to ,egypt4 ,but1 until ,rehoboam1 the kings of ,egypt have in the ,scriptures the general name of ,pharaoh4 ,hence it is not always easy to identify them with corresponding kings on the ,egyptian lists4 ,,chronology4--,the date of the beginning of the first dynasty of ,egyptian rulers is a controverted point2 there are advocates of a longer and of a shorter chronology4 ,the data are not sufficient to settle accurately the questions in dispute4 ,some judicious scholars put the beginning of the first dynasty as early as #ejjj ,b4,c42 others have wished to bring it down even lower than #cjjj ,b4,c4 ,egyptian history1 prior to the ,persian conquest 7#ebe ,b4,c471 divides itself into three sections1--the ,old ,empire1 having its seat at ,memphis2 the ,middle ,empire1 following upon a period of strife and division1 and embracing the rule of foreign invaders1 the ,hyksos2 and the ,new ,empire1 the era of conquest1 by foreign power1 and of downfall4 ,the expedition of ,shishak1 king of ,egypt1 against ,rehoboam1 is ascertained1 from both ,egyptian and ,hebrew sources1 to have been not earlier than #iga ,b4,c41 and within twenty-five years of that date4 ,the nineteenth ,egyptian dynasty began about the year #acej ,b4,c4 ,the ,middle ,empire is thought by some to have commenced as early as #bbjj ,b4,c42 by others as late as #agbj ,b4,c4 ,when we go backward into the ,old ,empire1 the sources of uncertainty are multiplied4 ,the main difficulty is to determine whether the lists of dynasties are consecutive throughout1 or in part contemporary4 ,one class of scholars place the date of the first historic king1 ,menes1 two or three thousand years earlier than the point assigned by the other class6 ,the date of ,menes given by ,bckh is #egjb ,b4,c42 by ,lenormant1 #ejjd ,b4,c42 by ,brugsch1 #ddee ,b4,c42 by ,lepsius1 #cheb ,b4,c42 by ,bunsen1 #cfbc or #cjei ,b4,c42 ,e4 ,meyer makes #cahj ,b4,c4 the lowest possible date for ,menes2 #cbcc ,b4,c4 is the date assigned by ,duncker4 ,on the contrary1 ,r4 ,s4 ,poole gives #bgag ,b4,c42 ,wilkinson1 #bfia ,b4,c42 and ,g4 ,rawlinson1 between #bdej and #bbej ,b4,c4 ,there are no means of fully determining the controversy1 as ,rawlinson has shown 7,history of ,ancient ,egypt1 vol4 ii41 p4 #ai74 ,it appears to be well ascertained that ,egyptian civilization was in being at least as far back as about #djjj ,b4,c4 ,,the ,,political ,,system4--,the bulk of the people were farmers and shepherds1 indisposed to war4 ,the land was owned in large estates by the nobles1 who were possessed of multitudes of serfs and of cattle4 ,they had in their service1 also1 artisans1 oarsmen1 and traffickers4 ,the centers of industry were the numerous cities4 ,here the nobles had their mansions1 and the gods their temples with retinues of priests4 ,but the ,nomes had each its particular jurisdiction4 ,the traces of two original communities are preserved in the mythological legends and in the titles of the kings4 ,the oldest inscriptions discover to us a systematic organization of the state4 ,the king is supreme3 under him are the rulers of the two halves of the kingdom4 ,he creates the army1 and appoints its generals4 ,the whole strength of the kingdom is given to him for the erection of the temples which he raises to the gods1 or of the stupendous pyramid which is to form his sepulcher4 ,the nobility make up his court2 from them he selects his chief officers of state1--his secretary1 his treasurer1 his inspector of quarries1 etc4 ,the princes and princesses are educated in connection with the children of the highest nobles4 ,a body-guard protects the monarch3 he shows himself to the people only in stately processions4 ,all who approach him prostrate themselves at his feet4 ,he is the descendant of the gods4 ,the ,pharaohs are even looked upon as gods incarnate4 ,they are clothed with all power on earth4 ,when they die1 they go to the gods2 and rites of worship are instituted for them4 ,that there was a well-ordered and efficient civil administration admits of no doubt4 ,whether there existed a thrifty middle class or not we can not decide4 ,the tendency was for the child to follow the vocation of the parent1 but there were no rigid barriers of caste4 ,not until the ,new ,empire1 was there an attempt to build up such a wall even about the priesthood4 ,,the ,,religion4--,with the ,egyptians1 religion was a matter of supreme and absorbing interest4 ,there was a popular religion2 and there arose early1 in connection with it1 an esoteric or secret doctrine relative to the gods and to the legends respecting them1--a lore that pertained especially to the priesthood4 ,moreover1 while the religious system1 from the earliest date1 is polytheistic1 we have proof that the educated class1 sooner or later1 put a monotheistic interpretation upon it1 and believed in one supreme deity1 of whom all the particular gods were so many forms and manifestations1 or that one being under different names4 ,whether this more elevated faith preceded the reigning system1 or was a later offspring of it1 is a matter of dispute4 ,for a long period the two co-existed1 and without collision4 ,the great divinities of ,egypt are pre-eminently gods of light4 ,they are associated with the ,,sun4 ,with the agency of that luminary1 with his rising and setting1 they stand in a close relation4 ,all ,egypt worships the sun under the names of ,ra and ,horus4 ,horus is the adversary of ,seth 7called ,typhon by the ,greeks71 the god of darkness1 and is born anew every morning to attack and conquer him4 ,in honor of ,ra1 the lofty obelisks1 or symbols of the sun's rays1 are erected1 each of which has its own name and priests4 ,with the sun-gods are joined the goddesses of the heavens1--,nut1 ,hather1 ,isis1 and others4 ,but ,osiris became the most famous sun-god4 ,his worship was originally at ,abydos and ,busiris4 ,at length his cult spread over the whole land4 ,in the legend1 he is murdered by ,seth2 but ,horus is his avenger4 ,horus conquers the power of darkness4 ,henceforward ,osiris reigns in the kingdom of the ,west1 the home of the dead4 ,he is the sun in the realm of the shades4 ,he receives the dead1 is their protector1 and the judge whose final award is blessedness or perpetual misery4 ,the departed1 if their lives have not been wicked1 become one with him4 ,they are each of them called by his name4 ,to ,osiris1 all sepulchral inscriptions are addressed4 ,his career1 with the victory of the power of darkness over him1 and his glorious revival in the regions of the ,west1 typifies human life and destiny4 ,the principal god at ,memphis is ,ptah1 the primal divinity1 the former of heaven and earth2 yet1 perhaps1 a god of light1 since he is styled by the ,greeks1 ,hephaestus4 ,at ,thebes1 ,ammon was revered as the king of the gods3 he shared in the properties of the sun4 ,thoth is the chief moon-god1 who presides over the reckoning of time4 ,he is the god of letters and of the arts1 the author of sacred books4 ,the ,nile is worshiped under the name of ,hapi1 being figured as a man with pendent breasts1 an emblem of the fertility of the river4 ,the gods were often connected in triads1 there being in each a father1 a mother1 and a son4 ,to bring to them the right offerings1 and to repeat the right formulas1 was a matter of momentous concern4 ,homage was directed to the material objects with which the activity of the god was thought to be connected1 and in which he was believed to be present4 ,all nature was full of deities4 ,there were sacred trees1 stones1 utensils4 ,above all1 animals1 in their mysterious life1 were identified with the divinities4 ,worship was offered to the crocodile1 the cat1 the bull1 etc4 ,in the temples these creatures were carefully tended and obsequiously served4 ,,embalming4--,believing that the soul survives death1 the ,egyptians linked its weal with the preservation of the body1 from which they could not conceive its destiny to be wholly dissevered4 ,thus arose the universal practice of embalming1 and of presenting1 at intervals1 offerings of food and drink to the departed4 ,the tomb contains a room for sacred services to the dead4 ,the most ancient structures are sepulchers4 ,they were the germ of the pyramid1 in which rested the sarcophagus of the king4 ,,religion ,,and ,,morality4--,the leading gods were held to be the makers of the world and of men1 the givers of good1 the rulers and disposers of all things4 ,morality was not separated from religion4 ,the gods punished unrighteousness and inhumanity4 ,in the age of the pyramid-builders1 family life was not wanting in purity2 the wife and mother was held in respect3 monogamy prevailed4 ,ma-t was the goddess of truth3 in the myth of ,osiris1 it is in her hall that the dead are judged4 ,,the ,,priests4--,the priests are the guardians of religious rites4 ,they are acquainted with the origin and import of them4 ,their knowledge is communicated only to select believers4 ,it was a body of traditions1 guarded as a mysterious treasure4 ,but the priests1 certainly until a late period1 do not control the king4 ,the civil authority is uppermost4 ,,literature ,,and ,,science4--,the most important ,egyptian book that has come down to us is the ,book of the ,dead4 ,it relates1 in a mystical strain1 the adventures of the soul after death1 and explains how1 by reciting the names and titles of numberless gods1 and by means of other theological knowledge1 the soul can make its way to the hall of ,osiris4 ,it is a monument of the pedantic and punctilious formalism of the ,egyptian ritual4 ,most of the papyri that have been preserved are of a religious character4 ,there are songs not void of beauty4 ,the moral writings are of a decidedly higher grade4 ,works of fiction are constructed with considerable skill1 and are sometimes not wanting in humor4 ,some of the hymns are not destitute of merit4 ,it can not be doubted that there were important mathematical writings4 ,astronomical observations were very early made4 ,in medicine1 we have writings which prove that considerable proficiency was attained in this department4 ,but here1 as in other branches1 the spirit was empirical rather than scientific in the higher sense2 and the result was to petrify knowledge in an unalterable form4 ,at length rules of medical treatment1 with specific remedies1 were definitely settled1 from which it was a crime against the state to deviate4 ,,the ,,old ,,empire 7to about #bajj ,b4,c474--,senoferu1 who belongs to the third dynasty1 is the first king who has left behind him a monumental inscription4 ,a rock-tablet in the peninsula of ,sinai gives him the title of conqueror4 ,by some1 the pyramid of ,meydoun1 built in three distinct stages to a height of #abe feet1 is ascribed to him1 and is believed to be his sepulcher4 ,at ,saccarah is a pyramid of like form1 #bjj feet in height4 ,khufu1 the ,cheops of ,herodotus1 was the builder of the ,great ,pyramid of ,ghizeh1 the largest and loftiest building on earth4 ,its original perpendicular height was not less than #dhj feet1 the length of its side #gfd feet1 and the area covered by it more than thirteen acres4 ,near it are the small pyramids1 which were the sepulchers of his wives and other relatives4 ,the statues of ,khafra remain1 and the wooden mummy-case of ,menkaura1 with the myth of ,osiris recorded on it4 ,these were the builders of the two other most celebrated pyramids1 the second and the third4 ,with the long reign of ,unas closes the first era in ,egyptian history4 ,his unfinished pyramid1 built of huge blocks of limestone1 indicates that he died too soon to complete it4 ,from this date1 back to the epoch of ,senoferu1 are included nearly three centuries4 ,in this period of prevalent peace1 art had the opportunity to develop4 ,the spirit of progress in this department had not yet been cramped by the hieratic canon1 the fixed rules set for artistic labor4 ,there is evidence of considerable knowledge in anatomy and medicine4 ,the myth of ,osiris expanded1 and his worship spread4 ,with the sixth dynasty a new epoch begins4 ,the most powerful monarch in this series is ,pepi4 ,he levied armies1 conquered the negroes of ,nubia1 and waged war against the nomads of the eastern desert4 ,the interval from the sixth to the tenth dynasty was marked by usurpations and insurrections4 ,the district governors sought to make themselves independent4 ,monarchs rose and fell4 ,syrian invaders appear to have seized the occasion to attack the country4 ,heliopolis1 with ,tum for its sun-god1 is the center of the new symbolical lore of the priesthood4 ,power is transferred to ,thebes1 and ,ammon becomes the embodiment of the monotheistic conception1 the supreme deity4 ,the ,theban ruling-house gradually extended its supremacy over the land4 ,the kings of the twelfth dynasty have left their inscriptions everywhere1 and of several of them gigantic portrait-statues remain4 ,amenemhat ,i4 and his successors are prosperous sovereigns4 ,they carry on a lively intercourse of trade with the small states of ,syria1 reaching possibly to ,babylon4 ,under the twelfth dynasty1 the valley of the upper ,nile was conquered4 ,usurtasen ,,iii41 in after times1 was revered as the subduer of the ,nubian land4 ,by monarchs of this epoch1 vast structures1 like the temple of ,ammon at ,thebes and the temple of the ,sun at ,heliopolis1 were erected4 ,amenemhat ,,iii4 built the immense artificial reservoir1 ,lake ,moeris1 to receive and dispense the waters of the ,nile4 ,under the twelfth dynasty is the blossoming period of literature4 ,the carving of hieroglyphics and the execution of the details of art reach their perfection4 ,it is the culminating point of ,egyptian culture4 ,,the ,,middle ,,empire 7,,from ,,about #bajj ,,to #afjj ,b4,c474--,the season of prosperity under the twelfth dynasty was followed by anarchy and the downfall of the ,theban rule4 ,according to ,manetho1 it was under a king named ,timaos that a horde of invaders--the ,hyksos1 or shepherds--came in from the north1 devastated the country1 and made themselves its rulers4 ,they were probably of ,semitic descent1 but nothing more is known as to their origin4 ,in connection with them1 ,semitic1 and in particular ,canaanite1 elements penetrated into ,egypt1 and left their traces in its language4 ,the residence of their kings was ,tanis1 on the eastern ,delta1 a splendid city1 which they still more adorned4 ,they conquered ,memphis1 but their power was not permanently established in ,lower ,egypt4 ,the duration of their control was a number of centuries1--how many can only be conjectured4 ,it is believed by some scholars that either ,apepi1 or ,nub1 kings of the ,hyksos line1 was the sovereign who made ,joseph his prime minister1 and invited his family to settle in the land of ,goshen4 ,the elevation of a foreigner and a ,semite to an exalted office is thought to be less improbable in connection with a ,semitic dynasty4 ,the ,new ,empire 7from #afjj to #ebe ,b4,c474--,the expulsion of the ,hyksos was effected by ,aahmes ,i41 first king of the eighteenth dynasty4 ,it was accomplished1 however1 not all at once1 but gradually4 ,from this event ,egypt enters on a new stage in its career4 ,it becomes a military1 an aggressive1 and a conquering state4 ,notwithstanding the enormous sacrifice of life that must have been involved in the erection of pyramids and in other public works1 the ,egyptians had not been a cruel people3 compared with most ,semitic peoples1 they had been disposed to peace4 ,but now a martial spirit is evoked4 ,a military class arises4 ,wars for plunder and conquest ensue4 ,the use of horses in battle is a new and significant fact4 ,the character of the people changes for the worse4 ,the priestly class become more compact and domineering4 ,temples are the principal edifices1 in the room of massive sepulchers4 ,under ,thothmes ,i4 and his successors1 especially ,thothmes ,,iii41 wars were successfully waged against the ,syrians1 and against the ,ethiopians on the south4 ,the palaces and temples of ,thebes1 including the gigantic structures at ,karnak and ,luxor1 are witnesses to the grandeur of these monarchs4 ,the ,egyptian arms were carried through ,syria1 and as far even as ,nineveh4 ,during the reigns of ,amenophis ,,iii4 and ,amenophis ,,iv41 that is1 in the latter half of the fifteenth century ,b4,c41 the ,amarna ,letters 7see p4 #dd7 were written4 ,under the ,ramessides1 the conquests of ,egypt reached their farthest limit4 ,,ramses ,,ii4--,ramses ,,ii41 or ,ramses the ,great 7#acdj-abgc ,b4,c471--who was called by the ,greeks ,sesostris1 a name with which they linked many fabulous narratives1--is the most brilliant personage in ,egyptian history4 ,he is the first of the renowned conquerors1 the forerunner of the ,alexanders and ,napoleons4 ,his monuments are scattered over all ,egypt4 ,in his childhood he was associated on the throne with his father1 himself a magnificent monarch1 ,seti ,i4 ,in the seventh year of the sole reign of the son he had to encounter a formidable confederacy under the lead of the ,syrian ,hittites--the ,khita--in the north-east1 a powerful nation4 ,how he saved himself by his personal valor1 on the field of ,kadesh1 is celebrated in the ,egyptian ,iliad1 the heroic poem of ,pentaur4 ,a subsequent treaty with this people is one of the most precious memorials of his reign4 ,,the ,,hittites4--,recent explorations have shown that the ,hittites of ,scripture were families1 or smaller communities1 in ,palestine1 of a people whose proper seat was in northern ,syria1 especially the country lying along the ,orontes2 their territory being bounded on the east by the ,euphrates1 and extending westward into the ,taurus ,mountains4 ,in one place they are spoken of as distant 7,judg4 i4 #bf74 ,the ,khita of the ,egyptians1 called ,khatti by the ,assyrians1 were a civilized and powerful nation1 whose sway was so extended that their outposts were at times on the western coast of ,asia ,minor4 ,they were a non-,semitic people4 ,the great victory of ,ramses 7#acbj ,b4,c47 was with difficulty won4 ,the ,hittites were also rivals of the ,assyrians from an early period4 ,at length ,sargon captured their capital1 ,carchemish 7#gag ,b4,c471 and broke down their power4 ,numerous ,hittite inscriptions have been discovered1 written in a hieroglyphic script which has not yet 7#aijc7 been deciphered4 ,subsequently we find ,ramses in ,galilee1 as it was called later3 we find him storming the city of ,askalon in ,philistia1 and in various military expeditions1 in which he brought home with him multitudes of captives4 ,the mighty temples which he built at ,abydos1 ,thebes1 and ,memphis1 and the gorgeous palace1 the ,house of ,ramses1 south of ,karnak1 were in keeping with other displays of his energy and magnificence4 ,,the ,,bondage ,,of ,,the ,,israelites4--,ramses ,,ii4 has been generally believed to be the ,pharaoh of the oppression1 under whom the ,hebrews suffered2 and his son ,menephthah1 to be the ,pharaoh under whom the exodus took place4 ,recent discoveries have rendered these conclusions very doubtful1 however4 ,it is also quite uncertain how long the ,egyptian bondage lasted4 ,according to the ,hebrew ,old ,testament1 its duration was #dcj years2 according to the ,septuagint1 or ,greek version1 half that period 7as implied in ,gal4 iii4 #ag74 ,to ,,the ,,persian ,,conquest4--,from about #aejj to #acjj ,b4,c41 ,egypt was the foremost nation in culture1 arts1 and military prowess4 ,under the later kings bearing the name of ,ramses1 the empire began to decay4 ,the ,ethiopians in the south revolted1 and set up an independent kingdom1 ,meroe1 of which ,napata was the capital4 ,shishak 7#ifa-idj ,b4,c47 aspired to restore the ,egyptian rule in the ,east4 ,he marched into ,juda1 and captured and plundered ,jerusalem4 ,he made ,rehoboam1 king of ,judah1 a tributary1 and strengthened ,jeroboam1 the ally of ,egypt4 ,he even led his forces across the valley of the ,jordan4 ,at length 7#gcj ,b4,c47 the ,ethiopians gained the upper hand in ,egypt4 ,their three kings form the twenty-fifth dynasty4 ,as the power of ,egypt was on the wane1 the power of ,assyria was more and more in the ascendant4 ,shabak joined hands with ,hoshea1 king of ,israel1 but was defeated by the ,assyrians1 under ,sargon ,,ii41 in a pitched battle at ,raphia1 in which the superiority of the ,asiatic kingdom was evinced4 ,later 7#gja ,b4,c47 ,sennacherib defeated an ,egyptian army1 sent for the relief of ,ekron1 and made ,hezekiah a tributary4 ,tirhakah1 the ally of ,hezekiah1 continued the struggle4 ,his army was saved from overthrow by the disaster which happened to ,sennacherib's host in the neighboring camp on the eve of battle4 ,twenty years later1 he was vanquished by an invading army under the son and successor of ,sennacherib1 ,esarhaddon4 ,the rule of the ,ethiopian dynasty was subverted4 ,the ,assyrians intrusted the government to twenty governors1 of whom the most were natives4 ,of these governors1 one1 then king of ,sais1 ,psammeticus ,i4 7#ffc-faf ,b4,c471 in alliance with ,gyges1 king of ,lydia1 and with the aid of ,carians1 ,phoenicians1 and ,lycians1 cast off the ,assyrian yoke1 and became sole ruler of ,egypt4 ,this epoch is marked by the introduction of numerous foreigners into the country1 and by the exertion of a powerful and lasting ,greek influence4 ,neku ,,ii4--the ,necho of ,scripture--7#faj-eid ,b4,c471 the son of ,psammeticus ,i41 defeated ,josiah1 king of ,judah1 at ,megiddo 7#fjh ,b4,c472 and ,josiah fell in the battle4 ,but1 advancing to ,carchemish by the ,euphrates1 ,neku1 in turn1 was vanquished by ,nebuchadnezzar1 king of ,babylon1 which had now become the formidable power4 ,the defeat of ,neku ended ,egyptian rule in the ,east4 ,apries 7#ehh ,b4,c471 the ,hophra of ,scripture1 was dethroned by a revolt of his own soldiers1 in a war with the ,greeks of ,cyrene1 and was succeeded by ,aahmes1 or ,amasis 7#egj-ebf71 under whose auspices foreigners1 and especially ,greeks1 acquired an augmented influence4 ,egypt had escaped from permanent subjection to ,assyria or ,babylon2 but a new empire1 the ,persian ,empire of ,cyrus1 was advancing on the path to universal dominion4 ,cyrus was too busy with other undertakings to attack ,egypt2 but ,cambyses1 his successor1 led an army into that country2 and1 having defeated ,psammeticus ,,iii41 at the battle of ,pelusium1 he made it a ,persian province 7#ebe ,b4,c474 ,,literature4--,see the list on p4 #af4 #a4 ,works on ,oriental ,history as a whole3 ,,duncker',s ,history of ,antiquity4 ,it includes1 also1 ,greece4 ,lenormant and ,chevalier1 ,manual of the ,ancient ,history of the ,east 7#b vols472 ,g4 ,rawlinson1 ,the ,five ,great ,monarchies 7#c vols471 ,the ,sixth ,great ,monarchy 7,parthia71 ,the ,seventh ,great ,monarchy 7the ,sassanid71 ,the ,origin of ,nations 7#a vol471 ,manual of ,ancient ,history 7#a vol471 ,egypt and ,babylon 7#a vol474 ,,lenormant1 ,the ,beginnings of ,history 7#a vol472 ,p4 ,smith1 ,the ,ancient ,history of the ,east 7#a vol471 ,history of the ,world 7,ancient ,history1 #c vols472 ,maspero1 ,history of the ,ancient ,orient 7#c vols472 ,doublier1 ,gesch4 des ,alterthums 7from the cultural point of view1 #a vol472 ,e4 ,meyer1 ,gesch4 des ,alterthums4 #b4 ,works on the ,history of ,egypt4 ,,brugsch-,,bey1 ,history of ,egypt under the ,pharaohs 7#b vols472 ,g4 ,rawlinson1 ,history of ,ancient ,egypt 7#b vols4721 ,aperu de l',histoire d',egypte 7#ahfd71 and numerous other writings2 ,,wilkinson1 ,manners and ,customs of ,egypt 7#c vols472 ,,erman1 ,egypt2 ,petrie1 ,history of ,egypt2 ,erman1 ,egyptian ,life 7#ahid72 ,birch1 ,records of the ,past 7translations of ,egyptian and ,assyrian ,monuments1 #aa vols471 ,egypt from the ,earliest ,times2 ,perrot and ,chipiez1 ,history of ,art in ,ancient ,egypt 7#ahhc72 ,,fergusson',s ,history of ,architecture2 the great illustrative works of the ,french savans under ,napoleon ,i42 the great illustrated works of ,rossellini1 and the works of ,lepsius2 the novels of ,ebers1 ,the ,sisters2 ,uarda2 ,the ,egyptian ,princess4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,assyria ,,and ,,babylon4 ,,the ,,geography4--,assyria and ,babylonia were geographically connected4 ,they were inhabited by the same race1 and1 for the greater part of their history1 were under one government4 ,babylonia comprised the lower basin of the ,euphrates and ,tigris1 while ,assyria included the hilly region along the upper and middle ,tigris2 the boundary being where the two rivers1 in their long progress from their sources in the mountains of ,armenia1 at length approach one another at a place about three hundred and fifty miles from their outlet in the ,persian ,gulf4 ,both streams1 in particular the ,euphrates1 annually flooded the adjacent territory1 and by canals and dams were made to add to its productiveness4 ,the shores of the ,euphrates1 after its descent from the plateau to the plains1 were fertile beyond measure4 ,here the date-palm1 whose juice as well as fruit were so highly prized1 flourished4 ,even now wheat grows wild near the river's mouth4 ,,the ,,early ,,inhabitants4--,the oldest inhabitants of this region of whom we have any knowledge were the ,sumerians1 whose territory included both ,sumer 7,shinar71 or southern ,babylonia1 and ,akkad1 or northern ,babylonia4 ,on the east were the ,elamites1 with ,susa for their capital2 to the north of these were the warlike ,kassites4 ,the ,sumerians1 who preceded the ,semites in the occupancy of ,babylonia1 were of an unknown stock4 ,they were the founders of ,babylonian culture4 ,even by them the soil was skillfully cultivated with the help of dikes and canals4 ,they were the inventors of the cuneiform writing4 ,the cuneiform characters were originally pictures2 but these were resolved into wedge-shaped characters of uniform appearance1 the significance of which was determined by their position and local relation to one another4 ,it is not known how long the ,sumerian period lasted1 nor even when it closed2 the chronology of the earliest ,semitic period is also very uncertain4 ,the south-,babylonian kings ,urukagina1 of ,shirpurla 7,lagash71 and ,enshagkushana1 of a district which included ,nippur1 are dated by most ,assyriologists as early as #djjj ,b4,c41 or even earlier4 ,whether they were ,sumerians1 or ,semites1 is not certain2 their inscriptions do not settle the question4 ,it was probably not far from this time1 however1 that the one race supplanted the other4 ,a ,semitic people--coming either directly from the ancestral home1 ,arabia1 or from a previous settlement in ,mesopotamia1 north-west of ,babylonia--invaded the land and conquered the ,sumerians4 ,they planted themselves first in northern ,babylonia1 and then gradually extended their power over the districts on the south4 ,the conquerors adopted the civilization of the conquered4 ,the earliest ,semitic kings all used the ,sumerian dialect in their inscriptions4 ,it was only by slow degrees that the native language was superseded by that of the new rulers4 ,later1--before the time of ,hammurabi2 see below1--these ,semites carried their settlements northward1 and became the founders of ,assyria4 ,,sources ,,of ,,knowledge4--,berosus1 a ,babylonian priest1 wrote a history of his country as early as #bej ,b4,c4 ,he was a trustworthy writer1 as far as his means of knowledge went2 but it is only fragments of his work that we possess1 and these in inaccurate quotations1 partly at second hand4 ,greek writers1 as ,ctesias1 drew from ,persian sources2 and their narratives up to the later times of the ,persian rule can not be relied on4 ,the great source of knowledge is the rapidly increasing store of records in the cuneiform character4 ,a vast number of inscriptions on stone and clay1 representing nearly every department of literature1 have been unearthed1 and the material which they afford has already given us an extensive knowledge of ,babylonian and ,assyrian history4 ,the site of ,nineveh has been extensively excavated1 and we have1 therefore1 especially full information as to the history and literature of ,assyria4 ,babylonian monuments in considerable number have more recently come to light4 ,aside from ,nineveh and ,babylon1 especially important excavations have been undertaken at ,nifpur1 ,lagash 7,telloh7--thus far the chief source of ,sumerian material--and ,susa4 ,i4 ,,the ,,old ,,kingdom ,,of ,,babylon4 ,,early ,,history4--,the history of ancient ,babylonia is still very obscure1 and the chronology only tentative4 ,we see at first a number of independent cities1 each ruled by a petty king1 who was also a priest4 ,then appear groups of cities1 one of which exercised sway over a more or less extended district4 ,the center of power was now in ,erech1 now in ,ur1 or ,babylon1 or some other city1 whose king ruled supreme over numerous vassal kings4 ,among the first important names known to us are those of ,sargon ,i4 7#chjj ,b4,c471 king of ,agade1 a great conqueror and builder1 and his son1 ,naram-sin4 ,another great builder was ,gudea1 king of ,shirpurla4 ,most conspicuous of all is ,hammurabi 7#bbej ,b4,c471 king of ,babylon1 who is probably the ,amraphel of ,gen4 xiv4 ,his kingdom included not only the whole of ,babylonia proper1 but also ,assyria1 and probably even the ,west ,land as far as the ,mediterranean4 ,the records show him to have been a truly great ruler1 both in war and in peace4 ,he is known to us chiefly from a collection of his ,letters to certain officials of his kingdom1 and from his elaborate ,code of civil laws1 found at ,susa in #ahii1 and first published in #aijb2 perhaps the most important single monument of early civilization which has thus far come to light4 ,the laws1 written in the ,babylonian 7,semitic7 language1 and engraved on a stele of hard black stone1 were about two hundred and eighty in number1 and bear an interesting general resemblance to the old ,hebrew laws1 especially those preserved in ,exodus xxi4 and xxii4 ,in the time of the kings ,kadashman-bel and ,burnaburiash ,,ii4 7about #adjj ,b4,c47 falls the ,amarna ,correspondence 7see p4 #dj74 ,at ,tell el-,amarna1 in upper ,egypt1 were unearthed1 in #ahhg1 more than three hundred clay tablets containing diplomatic dispatches1 written in the cuneiform character1 and nearly all in the ,babylonian language4 ,they were addressed to the ,egyptian king1 or to his ministers1 and had been sent from various officials and royal personages in ,babylonia1 ,assyria1 ,palestine 7including a number of letters from ,abdi-khiba of ,jerusalem71 and other districts4 ,they furnish a large amount of important information as to conditions in western ,asia at that early period4 ,an important ,kassite dynasty occupied the throne of ,babylon from the eighteenth century to the twelfth century ,b4,c4 ,under these ,kassite rulers1 the kingdom at length declined1 while the neighboring ,assyrian state had increased in power4 ,later still1 apparently not earlier than the ninth century ,b4,c41 the ,chaldoeans 7of ,semitic stock87 pushed north-westward into ,babylonia from their district about the mouth of the ,euphrates1 and eventually made themselves masters of the land4 ,,religion ,,and ,,science4--,if the events connected with old ,babylon are less known1 more is ascertained respecting its civilization4 ,the groundwork1 as was stated1 was laid by the earlier conquered people4 ,the religion of the ,babylonians rested on the basis of the old ,sumerian worship4 ,there was homage to demons1 powerful for good or for evil1 who were brought together into groups1 and were figured now as human beings1 now as lions or other wild animals1 or as dragons and that sort of monsters4 ,of the great gods1 ,anu1 the god of the sky1 was the father and king of all4 ,sin1 the moon-god1 a ,sumerian divinity1 at the outset had the highest rank4 ,bel1 or ,baal1 however1 a ,semitic divinity1 was the god of the earth1 and particularly of mankind4 ,ea was the god of the deep1 and of the underworld4 ,the early development of astrology and its great influence in old ,babylon were closely connected with the supposed association of the luminaries above with the gods4 ,the stars were thought to indicate at the birth of a child what his fortunes would be1 and to afford the means of foretelling other remarkable events4 ,ishtar1 a goddess of war and of love1 was worshiped also under the name ,beltis1 the ,greek ,mylitta4 ,this deity embodied the generative principle1 the spring of fertility1 whose beneficent agency was seen in the abundant harvest4 ,she was clothed with sensual attributes1 and propitiated with unchaste rites4 ,it was in the worship of this divinity that the coarse and licentious side of the ,semitic nature expressed itself4 ,at the same time1 there was an opposite ascetic side in the service of this deity4 ,her priests were eunuchs3 they ministered at her altar in woman's attire4 ,on the relation of the human soul to the gods1 and its condition after death1 there was little speculation4 ,in general1 the ,babylonians were more interested in religion and worship1 than the ,assyrians4 ,the former erected temples2 the latter1 palaces4 ,the attainments of the early ,babylonians in mathematics and astronomy were far beyond those of the ,egyptians4 ,they divided the year into twelve months1 and arrived at the signs of the ecliptic or zodiac4 ,the week they fixed at seven days by the course of the moon4 ,they divided the day into twelve hours1 and the hour into sixty minutes4 ,they invented weights and measures1 the knowledge of which went from them to the other ,asiatic nations4 ,architecture1 as regards taste1 was in a rude state4 ,in pottery1 they showed much skill and ingenuity1 and invented the potter's wheel4 ,in the engraving of gems1 and in the manufacture of delicate fabrics1--linen1 muslin1 and silk1--they were expert4 ,trade and commerce1 favored by the position of ,babylon1 began to flourish4 ,as regards literature1 the libraries of ,nineveh and ,babylon1 at a later day1 contained many books translated from the early ,sumerian language4 ,among them are the ,gilgamesh legends1 in which is contained a story of the flood that resembles in essential features the account in ,genesis4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,assyrian ,,empire4 ,,growth ,,of ,,its ,,power4--,assyria was even greater1 as a conquering power1 than ,babylon4 ,in the legends current among the ,greeks1 the building-up of the monarchy1 and of ,nineveh its capital1 as well as of ,babylon1 is referred to the legendary heroes1 ,ninus and his queen ,semiramis4 ,the name of ,ninus is not recorded on the monuments1 and is1 perhaps1 a kind of mythical personification of ,assyrian conquests and grandeur2 and the name of ,semiramis does not appear until the ninth century ,b4,c4 ,she may have been a princess or even queen4 ,assyrian independence began before #bcjj ,b4,c4 ,between #aejj and #adjj ,b4,c41 ,assyria was a weak state4 ,it gained a brief mastery over ,babylon through a conquest by ,tukulti-,ninib 7#acjj ,b4,c474 ,tiglath-,pileser ,i4 7#aajj ,b4,c47 spread his conquests to the ,mediterranean and the ,caspian on the west1 and south to the ,persian ,gulf4 ,but these early acquisitions of ,assyria were transient4 ,there ensued a long interval1 until the middle of the tenth century1 when the monarchy was mostly confined within its own proper borders4 ,a new series of strong and aggressive princes arose4 ,the conflicts of ,damascus and of the nations of ,palestine with one another left room for the growth of the ,assyrian might and for the spread of ,assyrian dominion4 ,asshur-nasir-pal 7formerly called ,sardanapalus ,i47 levied tribute upon ,tyre1 and the other rich cities of the ,syrian coast1 and founded the ,assyrian rule in ,cilicia4 ,about the middle of the eighth century1 the kingdom of ,israel1 having renounced its vassalage to ,assyria1 in league with ,rezin of ,damascus1 the ruler of ,syria1 made war upon the kingdom of ,judah4 ,ahaz1 the ,judaean king1 against the protest of the prophet ,isaiah1 invoked the aid of the ,assyrian monarch1 ,tiglath-,pileser ,,ii4 ,the call was answered4 ,the league was overthrown by him in a great battle fought near the ,euphrates1 and numerous captives1 according to the ,assyrian practice1 were carried away from ,samaria and ,damascus4 ,we are told that ,ahaz1 seeing the offerings made by ,tiglath-,pileser at ,damascus1 commanded his priests at ,jerusalem1 despite the remonstrance of ,isaiah1 to make offerings to the ,assyrian gods4 ,judah1 as the result of these events1 became tributary to ,assyria4 ,all ,syria1 together with ,babylonia1 which was then made up of several states1 western ,iran1 and ,armenia1 were subdued by this ,assyrian conqueror4 ,he formally assumed the title of ,king of ,babylon4 ,shalmaneser ,,iv4 7#gbg-gbb ,b4,c471 bent on completing the subjugation of ,syria1 subdued anew the revolted cities1 and conquered1 as it would seem1 the island of ,cyprus4 ,tyre alone1 that is1 the insular city of that name1 withstood a siege of five years4 ,hoshea1 the king of ,israel 7#gcc-gbb ,b4,c471 in order to throw off the ,assyrian yoke1 sent an embassy to ,shabak1 the king of ,egypt1 to procure his assistance4 ,hearing of this1 ,shalmaneser attacked ,israel4 ,after a siege of three years1 ,samaria1 the capital1 fell into the hands of ,sargon1 who had succeeded him1 the kingdom of ,israel was subverted1 and a great part of the people dragged off into captivity4 ,in #gbj ,b4,c41 ,sargon encountered ,shabak1 in the great battle of ,raphia1 in southern ,palestine1 whom he defeated1 and put to flight4 ,he received tribute from ,egypt1 conquered a part of ,arabia1 and received the homage of the king of ,meroe1 who made a journey from ,ethiopia to bow before him4 ,the reign of ,sennacherib 7#gje-fha ,b4,c47 was an eventful one1 both for ,assyria and for the neighboring countries4 ,hezekiah1 king of ,judah1 hoped with the aid of ,egypt to achieve his independence4 ,sennacherib was obliged to raise the siege of ,jerusalem1 after ,hezekiah had vainly sought to propitiate him with large offerings of silver and gold2 but the ,assyrian was prevented from engaging in battle with ,tirhaka of ,egypt by a great calamity that befell his army4 ,against ,babylon1 which frequently revolted1 he was more successful4 ,berodach-baladan1 as he is called in ,scripture 7#b ,kings1 chap4 #bj71 who at an earlier day had sent an embassy from ,babylon to ,hezekiah1 was overcome1 and a new ruler enthroned in his place4 ,esarhaddon 7#fha-ffh ,b4,c47 not only restored the ,assyrian sway over ,syria1 ,phoenicia1 ,cyprus1 ,judah1 and a part of ,arabia1 countries that lost no opportunity to shake off the cruel and hateful rule of ,nineveh1 but also conquered ,egypt1 and parceled it out among twenty governors4 ,by ,esarhaddon1 or by his successor1 ,manasseh1 king of ,judah1 was conquered1 and carried off as a captive1 but afterwards restored to his throne4 ,assyria was now at the summit of its power4 ,asshur-bani-pal ,v4 7#ffh-fbf ,b4,c471 called ,sardanapalus1 although he lost ,egypt1 confirmed the ,assyrian power in the other subject states1 and received tribute from ,lydia1 on the western border of ,asia ,minor4 ,under him1 ,assyrian art made its farthest advance4 ,he was the builder of magnificent palaces4 ,it is his library1 dug up from the grave in which it had been buried for two and a half decades of centuries1 that has yielded a vast amount of welcome information concerning ,assyrian and ,babylonian history far back into the ,sumerian period4 ,,religion ,,and ,,art4--,it has been stated that the ,assyrian culture was transplanted from ,babylon4 ,the religion was substantially the same1 except that ,asshur1 the tutelary deity of the country1 was made supreme4 ,the ,assyrians from the start were devoted to war1 pillage1 and conquest4 ,their unsparing cruelty and brutal treatment of their enemies are abundantly witnessed by their own monuments4 ,they lacked the productive power in literature and art which belonged to the ,babylonians4 ,although they might have built their edifices of stone1 they generally made use of brick4 ,their sculptures in relief were much better than the full figures4 ,they laid color upon their works in sculpture4 ,but their art was merely a pictorial record of events4 ,the sense of beauty and creative power were wanting4 ,the more religious character of the ,babylonians created a difference in the architecture of the two peoples4 ,in gem-cutting both were singularly expert4 ,the ,assyrians gave less attention to the burial of the dead4 ,they showed an aptitude for trade2 and ,nineveh1 in the eighth and seventh centuries1 was a busy mart4 ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,assyria4--,the first important blow at the ,assyrian imperial rule was struck by the ,medes4 ,after nearly a century of resistance1 they had been subdued 7#gaj ,b4,c471 and were subject to ,assyria for a century after4 ,in #fdj ,b4,c41 they rose in revolt1 under ,phraortes1 one of their native chiefs1 who fell in battle4 ,the struggle was continued by his son1 ,cyaxares4 ,his plans were interrupted1 however1 by ,,the ,,irruption ,,of ,,the ,,scythians 7#fbc ,b4,c474--,more than a century before1 these wandering ,asiatic tribes had begun to make predatory incursions into ,asia ,minor4 ,when ,cyaxares was before ,nineveh1 they came down in greater force1 and a horde of them1 moving southward from the river ,halys1 invaded ,syria4 ,jerusalem and the stronger cities held out against them1 but the open country was devastated4 ,they were met by ,psammeticus ,i41 king of ,egypt1 and bribed to turn back4 ,they entered ,babylonia2 but ,nabopolassar1 the viceroy of ,asshur-bani-pal 7,sardanapalus71 successfully defended the city of ,babylon against their attacks4 ,by ,cyaxares1 either these or another horde were defeated2 but it was not until #fje ,b4,c4 that the region south of the ,black ,sea was cleared of them4 ,the kingdom of ,lydia had now come to play an important part in the affairs of western ,asia4 ,our first knowledge of the peoples of ,asia ,minor is from the ,homeric poems 7about #ijj ,b4,c474 ,the ,chalybeans were in ,pontus2 west of them1 the ,amazonians and ,paphlagonians2 west of these1 the ,mysians2 on the ,hellespont1 small tribes related to the ,trojans2 on the gean1 the ,dardanians and the ,trojans 7on the north71 the ,carians and the ,lycians 7on the south72 on the north-east of these last1 the ,phrygians4 ,a large portion of the early inhabitants of ,asia ,minor were ,semitic1 and closely related to the ,syrians4 ,semitic divinities were worshiped2 a goddess1 ,mylitta1 under other names1 was adored in ,pontus1 at ,ephesus1 in ,phrygia1 and in ,lydia4 ,the ,lydians were of the ,semitic race4 ,cybele1 the female divinity whom they served1 was the same deity whose altars were at ,babylon1 ,nineveh1 and ,tyre4 ,the rulers of the dynasty of the ,mermnad1 ,gyges and his successors1 spread the ,lydian dominion until it extended to the ,hellespont1 and included ,mysia and ,phrygia4 ,alyattes was able to extirpate the ,cimmerian hordes from the ,sea of ,azoff1 who had overrun the western part of ,asia ,minor1 and to make the ,halys his eastern boundary4 ,gyges had been slain in the contest with those fierce barbarians1 called in the ,old ,testament ,gomer4 ,at first he had sought help from the ,assyrians1 but he broke away from this dependence4 ,liberated from the troubles of the ,scythian irruption1 ,cyaxares formed an alliance with ,nabopolassar1 the viceroy in ,babylon1 who had revolted1 and gained his independence4 ,the ,median ruler had subdued ,armenia1 and established his control as far as the ,halys1 making a treaty with ,lydia4 ,now ensued the desperate conflict on which hung the fate of the ,assyrian ,empire4 ,nineveh was taken 7#fjf ,b4,c47 by the ,medes under ,cyaxares1 and the ,babylonians under ,nebuchadnezzar1 the son of ,nabopolassar4 ,the ,grecian story of ,sardanapalus burning himself on a lofty bier1 is a myth4 ,assyria was divided by the ,tigris between the ,medes and ,babylonians4 ,,the ,,three ,,powers3 ,,egypt4--,on the fall of ,nineveh1 there were three principal powers left on the stage of action1 which were bound together by treaty1 ,lydia1 ,media1 and ,babylon4 ,egypt proved itself unable to cope with ,babylonian power4 ,necho1 during the siege of ,nineveh1 had attacked ,syria1 and defeated the ,jews on the plain of ,esdraelon1 where king ,josiah was slain4 ,he dethroned ,jehoahaz1 ,josiah's son1 and enthroned ,jehoiakim in his stead4 ,but when1 in #fje ,b4,c41 he confronted ,nebuchadnezzar at ,carchemish1 and was defeated1 he was compelled to give up ,syria1 and to retire within the boundaries of ,egypt4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,new ,,babylonian ,,empire4 ,,triumps ,,of ,,nebuchadnezzar4--,syria was now at the mercy of ,nebuchadnezzar4 ,he captured ,jerusalem 7#eig ,b4,c471 despoiled the temple and palace1 and led away ,jehoiakim as a captive4 ,he placed on the throne of ,judah ,jehoiakim's uncle1 ,zedekiah4 ,but this king1 having arranged an alliance between ,egypt and the ,phoenician cities1 revolted 7#eij ,b4,c471 refusing to pay his tribute4 ,again ,nebuchadnezzar laid siege to ,jerusalem1 but raised the siege1 in order to drive home ,apries ,,ii4 7,hophra71 the ,egyptian ally of ,zedekiah4 ,the city was taken1 the king's sons were killed in his presence1 his own eyes were put out2 and1 after the temple and palace had been burned and the city sacked1 he1 with all the families of the upper class who had not escaped to the desert1 was carried away to ,babylon 7#ehf ,b4,c474 ,tyre 7the old city7 in like manner was taken by assault 7#ehe ,b4,c474 ,by ,nebuchadnezzar1 ,babylon was enlarged1 and adorned on a scale of unequaled splendor4 ,the new palace1 with its hanging gardens1 the bridge over the ,euphrates1 the ,median wall connecting the ,euphrates and the ,tigris on his northern boundary1 and magnificent waterworks1 are famous structures which belong to this reign4 ,wealth and luxury abounded4 ,but vigor of administration fell away under his successors2 and ,babylon1 after a dominion short when compared with the long sway of ,nineveh1 was conquered by ,cyrus1 the ,medo-,persian king1 in #ech ,b4,c4 ,the last king was ,nabonetus4 ,,the ,,city ,,of ,,babylon4--,babylon was a city of the highest antiquity4 ,the name 7,bab-ili1 ,gate of ,god7 is ,semitic4 ,the city is mentioned in the earliest cuneiform records1 and from the time of ,hammurabi was the chief city of the land4 ,destroyed by ,sennacherib 7#fij ,b4,c471 it was rebuilt by ,esarhaddon1 but not fully restored and adorned until the reigns of ,nabopolassar and ,nebuchadnezzar4 ,babylon surpassed all ancient cities in size and magnificence4 ,its walls were forty miles in circumference4 ,this extent of wall probably included ,borsippa1 or ,babylon the ,second1 on the right bank of the river4 ,babylon proper was mainly on the left4 ,within the walls were inclosed gardens1 orchards1 and fields3 the space was only filled in part by buildings2 but the whole area was laid out with straight streets intersecting one another at right angles1 like the streets of ,philadelphia4 ,the wall was pierced by a hundred gates1 probably twenty-five in each face4 ,the ,euphrates1 lined with quays on both sides1 and spanned with drawbridges1 ran through the town1 dividing it into two nearly equal parts4 ,the city was protected without by a deep and wide moat4 ,the wall was at least seventy or eighty feet in height1 and of vast and unusual thickness4 ,on the summit were two hundred and fifty towers1 placed along the outer and inner edges1 opposite to one another1 but so far apart1 according to ,herodotus1 that there was room for a four-horse chariot to pass between4 ,the temple of ,bel was in a square inclosure1 about a quarter of a mile both in length and breadth4 ,the tower of the temple was ascended on the outside by an inclined plane carried around the four sides4 ,an exaggerated statement of ,strabo makes its height six hundred and six feet4 ,possibly1 this represents the length of the inclined plane4 ,in the shrine on the top were a golden table and a couch2 according to ,diodorus1 before the ,persian conquest there were colossal golden images of three divinities1 with two golden lions1 and two enormous serpents of silver4 ,it is thought that ,herodotus may have described the splendid temple of ,nebo 7now ,birs ,nimrd71 and have mistaken it1 by reason of its enormous ruins1 for the temple of ,bel1 which it rivaled in magnificence4 ,the great palace is represented to have been larger than the temple of ,bel1 the outermost of its three inclosing walls being three miles in circumference4 ,its exterior was of baked brick4 ,the ,hanging ,gardens was a structure built on a square1 consisting of stages or stories1 one above another1 each supported by arches1 and covered on the top1 at the height of at least seventy-five feet1 with a great mass of earth in which grew flowers and shrubs1 and even large trees4 ,the ascent to the top was by steps4 ,on the way up were stately and elegant apartments4 ,the smaller palace was on the other side of the river4 ,,literature4--,works on ,oriental ,history mentioned on p4 #db4 ,tiele1 ,babylonisch-assyrische ,geschichte 7#ahhh72 ,kaulen1 ,assyrien und ,babylonien 7#eth ed41 #ahii72 ,rogers1 ,history of ,babylonia and ,assyria 7#aija72 ,goodspeed1 ,history of the ,babylonians and ,assyrians 7#aijb72 ,king1 ,articles ,assyria and ,babylonia in the ,encyclopedia ,biblica2 ,sayce1 ,babylonians and ,assyrians3 ,life and ,customs 7#ahii72 ,schrader1 ,the ,cuneiform ,inscriptions and the ,old ,testament2 ,jastrow1 ,religion of ,babylonia and ,assyria 7#ahih72 ,perrot ,chipiez1 ,histoire de l'art dans l'antiquit1 vol4 ii41 ,chalde et ,assyrie4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,phoenicians ,,and ,,carthaginians4 ,,phoenicia4--,a narrow strip of territory separates the mountains of ,syria and ,palestine from the ,mediterranean4 ,of this belt the northern part1 west of ,lebanon1 about one hundred and fifty miles long1 varies in width from five to fourteen miles4 ,in some places the cliffs approach close to the sea4 ,this belt of land was occupied by the first of the great maritime and commercial peoples of antiquity1 the ,phoenicians4 ,their language was ,semitic1 closely akin to ,hebrew4 ,,commerce ,,and ,,prosperity ,,of ,,the ,,phoenicians4--,the most important of the ,phoenician cities were ,sidon--which was the first of them to rise to distinction and power--and ,tyre1 which became more famous as a mart1 and comprised1 besides the town on the coast1 ,new ,tyre1 the city built on the neighboring rocky island4 ,in ,new ,tyre was the sanctuary of the tutelary god1 ,melkart4 ,the spirit of trade stimulated ingenuity4 ,the ,phoenicians were noted for their glass1 their purple dyes1 their improved alphabet1 and knowledge of the art of writing4 ,in mining and in casting metals1 in the manufacture of cloth1 in architecture1 and in other arts1 they were not less proficient4 ,from their situation they naturally became a seafaring race4 ,not only did they transport their cargoes of merchandise to the islands and shores of the ,mediterranean1 conveying thither not merely the fruits of their own industry and skill1 but also the productions of the ,east3 they ventured to steer their vessels beyond the ,strait of ,gibraltar2 and1 if they did not procure amber directly from the ,north ,sea1 they brought tin either directly from ,cornwall or from the ,scilly ,islands4 ,through the hands of ,phoenician merchants passed the gold and pearls of the ,east1 the purple of ,tyre1 slaves1 ivory1 lions' and panthers' skins from the interior of ,africa1 frankincense from ,arabia1 the linen of ,egypt1 the pottery and fine wares of ,greece1 the copper of ,cyprus1 the silver of ,spain1 tin from ,england1 and iron from ,elba4 ,these products were carried wherever a market could be found for them4 ,at the instigation of ,necho1 king of ,egypt 7#faj-eid ,b4,c471 they are said to have made a three years' voyage round the southern cape of ,africa4 ,,colonies3 ,,opulence4-,the ,phoenicians were the first great colonizing nation of antiquity4 ,it was the fashion of ,assyrians and other conquerors to transport to their own lands multitudes of people1 whom they carried away as captives from their homes4 ,the ,phoenicians--in this particular the forerunners of the ,greeks and of the ,dutch and the ,english--planted trading settlements in ,cyprus and ,crete1 on the islands of the gean ,sea1 in southern ,spain1 and in ,north ,africa4 ,cadiz1 one of the oldest towns in ,europe1 was founded by these enterprising traders 7about #aajj ,b4,c474 ,tarshish was another of their ,spanish settlements4 ,ships of ,tarshish1 like the modern ,east ,indiamen1 came to signify vessels capable of making long voyages4 ,the coast of modern ,andalusia and ,granada belonged to the ,phoenicians4 ,through caravans their intercourse was not less lively with the states on the ,euphrates1 with ,nineveh and ,babylon1 as well as with ,egypt4 ,tyre was a link between the ,east and the ,west4 ,,hiram3 ,,settlement ,,of ,,carthage4--,the ,tyrian power attained to its height under ,king ,hiram ,i41 the contemporary and ally of ,solomon4 ,two ,greek historians make his reign to extend from #ifi to #icf ,b4,c4 ,the alliance with ,solomon extended the traffic of ,tyre1 and increased its wealth4 ,hiram connected old and ,new ,tyre by a bridge4 ,the ,tyrians adorned their city with stately palaces and temples1 and built strong fortifications4 ,engrossed in manufactures and commerce1 and delighting in the affluence thus engendered1 the ,phoenicians were not ambitious of conquest4 ,although conquerors upon the sea1 they were not a martial people3 like commercial states generally1 they preferred peace4 ,of the people of ,laish 7,dan71 it is said in the ,book of ,judges 7xviii4 #g71 ,they dwelt careless1 after the manner of the ,zidonians1 quiet and secure4 ,this pacific temper was coupled with a fervent attachment to their own land and to their countrymen wherever they went4 ,but they lacked the political instinct4 ,they did not appreciate liberty1 and their love of traffic and of gain often made them prefer to pay tribute rather than to fight4 ,their colonies were factories1 but were not centers of further conquest1 or germs of political communities4 ,when1 the family of ,hiram was exterminated 7about #hej ,b4,c47 by the high-priest of the goddess ,astarte1 who seized on power1 civil strife and disorder ensued4 ,pygmalion1 the great-grandson of the high-priest1 as it is related by a ,grecian authority1 slew his uncle1 who was to marry ,pygmalion's sister1 ,elissa4 ,on account of this internal conflict1 and from dread of the ,assyrian power1 a large number of the old families emigrated to ,north ,africa1 and founded ,carthage 7about #had ,b4,c474 ,the ,phoenician cities were confederated together under hereditary kings1 whose power was limited by the lay and priestly aristocracy4 ,the common people1 many of whom were skilled artisans1 made themselves felt in some degree in public affairs4 ,the mercantile class were influential4 ,thus there was developed a germinant municipal feeling and organization4 ,the strong city1 ,tyre1 is mentioned in ,joshua xix4 #bi4 ,in ,isaiah xxiii41 ,tyre is described as the crowning city1 whose merchants are princes1 whose traffickers are the honourable of the earth4 ,he stretched out his hand over the sea1 he shook the kingdoms4 ,the fate of ,babylon is pointed at by the ,prophet1 to show what ,tyre had to expect from ,assyria4 ,later1 before the conquest by ,nebuchadnezzar1 ,ezekiel thus speaks of ,tyre 7chap1 xxvii473 ,they have taken cedars from ,lebanon to make masts for thee4 ,of the oaks of ,bashan have they made thine oars4 ,tarshish was thy merchant4 ,,religion ,,and ,,letters4--,a very prominent feature of the religion of the ,phaenicians is the local character of their divinities4 ,the word baal7lord or god7 was not used in ,phaenicia as the proper name of any one god4 ,but such names as ,baal-sidon1 ,lord of ,sidon1 ,baal-libanon1 ,god of ,lebanon1 etc41 are common4 ,astarte was the most common name for the local female divinities4 ,the gods were often thought of as dwelling in stones1 trees1 and other objects2 the worship of stone-pillars and sacred poles 7ashera2 translated grove in the ,english ,bible7 was especially common in ,phaenicia4 ,on the other hand1 a god of heaven and a goddess of heaven were worshiped4 ,in the religion of the ,phaenicians1 the more elevated ingredients of the ,semitic heathenism are in the background4 ,the sensual features of it are more prominent1 and savage elements are introduced4 ,it was more adapted to foster than to check lust and cruelty4 ,to ,astarte1 maidens sacrifice their chastity4 ,there was the same double ritual1 made up of gross sensuality on the one hand1 and of ascetic practices by the priesthood on the other1 that belonged to the service of ,mylitta at ,babylon4 ,human sacrifice by fire was another horrible feature4 ,children1 especially1 were offered to ,el 7god2 possibly also called ,melek 7,moloch71 the king1 as among the ,hebrews74 ,to appease him at ,tyre and ,carthage1 girls and boys1 sometimes in large numbers1 and of the highest families1 were cast into the flames2 while the wailing of their relatives1 if it was not stifled by themselves at the supposed demand of piety1 was drowned by the sound of musical instruments4 ,as late as #caj ,b4,c41 when ,agathocles was besieging ,carthage1 and had reduced the city to the direst straits1 we are told that the people laid two hundred boys of their noblest families upon the arms of the brazen image of the god1 whence they were allowed to fall into the fire beneath4 ,on similar occasions1 even the head of the state sometimes offered himself as a sacrifice4 ,hamilcar1 the ,carthaginian1 son of ,hanno1 in ,sicily1 when the tide of battle was turning against him1 threw himself into the fire 7#dhj ,b4,c474 ,juba1 king of ,numidia1 prepared to do the same after the battle of ,thapsus4 ,large and costly temples were built1 generally in the ,egyptian style4 ,such were the temples of ,melkart at ,tyre and ,cadiz1 of ,eshmun at ,sidon1 and of the ,lady of ,byblos at that city4 ,nature--as dying in the autumn1 and again reviving in the spring--is figured as the god ,adonisz1 who is honored first by a protracted season of mourning1 and then by a joyous festival4 ,the ,phoenicians were not a literary people4 ,their alphabet 7invented by them87 was the old ,semitic alphabet4 ,every character represented a sound4 ,from the ,phaenicians it spread1 and became the mother of most of the graphic systems now existing4 ,cadmus1 however1 by whom it was said to be carried to the ,greeks1 is a fabulous person4 ,the alleged history of ,sanchuniathon1 which was published in ,greek by ,philo of ,byblus1 in the second century ,a4,d41 is now generally believed to be the work of ,philo himself4 ,,historical ,,events4--,in the struggles against the ,mesopotamian empires1 the ,phaenicians defended themselves with valor and perseverance4 ,when ,sargon 7#gbb-gje ,b4,c47 had subjugated their cities on the mainland1 insular ,tyre for five years repelled his assaults1 although the conduits bringing fresh water from the shore were cut off1 and the besieged were obliged to content themselves with the scanty supply to be gained from wells dug with great labor4 ,soon the ,tyrian fleets regained their mastery on the sea4 ,when ,nebuchadnezzar captured old ,tyre1 and a multitude of its inhabitants shared the lot of the ,jews1 and were dragged off by the conqueror to the ,euphrates1 the island city withstood his attack for thirteen years1 and did not yield until it extorted from him a treaty4 ,but the power of resistance was weakened by the repeated invasions and domination of ,nineveh and ,babylon4 ,tyre submitted to ,persia after the downfall of the ,babylonian monarchy1 and added her fleet to the ,persian forces2 although to the ,phoenician towns was left a degree of freedom and their local government4 ,sidon1 ,tyre1 and ,arados had a council of their own1 which met with their respective kings and senators at ,tripolis1 for the regulation of matters of common interest4 ,manufactures and commerce continued to flourish4 ,under the ,persian supremacy1 ,sidon once more became the chief city4 ,in the middle of the fourth century ,b4,c41 it revolted against the tyranny of the foreign governors4 ,the ,persian king1 ,ochus1 ordered that the noblest citizens should be put to death2 whereupon the inhabitants set the city on fire1 and destroyed themselves and their treasures in the flames4 ,tyre remained1 but ventured to resist ,alexander the ,great1 after his conquest of the ,persians1 and by him was captured and partly demolished 7#ccb ,b4,c474 ,after the death of ,alexander1 the ,phoenicians fell under the sway of the ,seleucid at ,antioch1 and1 for a time1 of the ,egyptian ,ptolemies4 ,both ,tyre and ,sidon were rebuilt1 and flourished anew4 ,it is probably to the third century ,b4,c4 that we should assign the native ,sidonian dynasty which included the ,kings ,eshmunazar ,i41 ,sedek-yaton1 ,tabnit1 ,bodashtart1 and ,eshmunazar ,,ii41 whose names are known to us from inscriptions4 ,in the time of the last-named king1 the cities ,dor and ,joppa1 with the plain of ,sharon1 belonged to ,sidon4 ,,carthaginian ,,history4--,the most prominent of all the ,phoenician settlements was ,carthage4 ,it had remarkable advantages of situation4 ,its harbor was sufficient for the anchorage of the largest vessels1 and it had a fertile territory around it4 ,these circumstances1 in conjunction with the energy of its inhabitants1 placed it at the head of the ,phoenician colonies4 ,in ,carthage1 there was no middle class4 ,there were the rich landholders and merchants1 and the common people4 ,the government was practically an oligarchy4 ,there were two kings or judges 7,shofetes71 with little power1 and a council or senate2 possibly a second council also4 ,but the senate and magistrates were subordinate to an aristocratic body1 the hundred judges4 ,the bulk of the citizens had little more than a nominal influence in public affairs4 ,,ascendency ,,of ,,carthage4-,when the ,greeks 7about #fjj ,b4,c47 spread their colonies1 the rivals of the ,phoenician settlements1 in the west of the ,mediterranean1 ,carthage was moved to deviate from the policy of the parent cities1 and to make herself the champion1 protector1 and mistress of the ,phoenician dependencies in all that region4 ,thus she became the head of a ,north-,african empire1 which asserted its supremacy against its ,greek adversaries in ,sicily and ,spain1 as well as in ,lybia4 ,when ,tyre was subjugated by ,persia1 ,carthage was strengthened by the immigration of many of the best ,tyrian families4 ,as the ,tyrian strength waned1 the ,carthaginian power increased4 ,syracuse1 in ,sicily1 became the first ,greek naval power1 and the foremost antagonist of the ,carthaginian dominion4 ,in #dhj ,b4,c41 ,carthage made war upon the ,greek cities in ,sicily4 ,the contest was renewed from time to time4 ,in the conflicts between #dci-dji ,b4,c41 she confirmed her sway over the western half of the island4 ,in later conflicts 7#cag-bge ,b4,c471 in which ,agathocles1 tyrant of ,syracuse1 was a noted leader of the ,greeks1 and1 after his death1 ,pyrrhus1 king of ,epirus1 was their ally1 ,carthage alternately lost and regained her ,sicilian cities4 ,but the result of the war was to establish her maritime ascendency4 ,,literature4--,works mentioned on pp4 #af1 #db3 ,pietschmann1 ,geschichte der ,phnizier 7#ahhi72 ,rawlinson1 ,history of ,phoenicia 7#ahhi72 ,e4 ,meycr1 ,art4 ,phoenicia in the ,encycl4 ,bibl42 ,perrot ,chipiez1 ,history of ,art in ,phoenicia and ,cyprus1 #b vols42 ,renan1 ,mission de ,phenicie 7#ahgd72 ,meltzer1 ,geschichte der ,karthager2 ,f4 ,w4 ,newman's ,defense of ,carthage4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,hebrews4 ,,peculiarity ,,of ,,the ,,hebrews4--,while the rest of the nations worshiped gods many and lords many1 whom they confounded with the motions of the heavenly bodies1 or with other aspects of nature1 there was one people which attained to a faith in one ,god1 the ,creator and ,preserver of the universe1 who is exalted above nature1 and whom it was deemed impious to represent by any material image4 ,more than is true of any other people1 religion was consciously the one end and aim of their being4 ,to bring the true religion to its perfection1 and to give it a world-wide diffusion and sway1 was felt by them to be their heaven-appointed mission4 ,the peculiarity of their faith made them stand alone1 and rendered them exclusive1 and intolerant of the surrounding idolatries4 ,the mountainous character of their land1 separated by ,lebanon from ,phoenicia1 and by the desert from the nations on the ,east and ,south1 was well adapted to the work which they had to fulfill in the course of history4 ,,the ,,patriarchal ,,age4--,the ,israelites traced their descent from ,abraham1 who1 to escape the infection of idolatry1 left his home1 which was in ,ur on the lower ,euphrates1 and came into the land of ,canaan1 where he led a wandering life1 but became the father of a group of nations4 ,according to the popular narrative1 ,isaac1 his son by ,sarah1 was recognized as the next chief of the family2 while ,ishmael1 ,abraham's son by ,hagar1 became the progenitor of the ,arabians4 ,of the two sons of ,isaac1 ,esau1 who was a huntsman1 married a daughter of the native people3 from him sprung the ,edomites4 ,jacob kept up the occupation of a herdsman4 ,of his twelve sons1 ,joseph was an object of jealousy to the other eleven1 by whom he was sold to a caravan of merchants on their way to ,egypt4 ,there1 through his skill in interpreting dreams1 he rose to high dignities and honors in the court of ,pharaoh2 and1 by his agency1 the entire family were allowed to settle oh the pasture-lands of ,goshen in northern ,egypt 7p4 #dj74 ,here in the neighborhood of ,heliopolis1 for several centuries1 they fed their flocks4 ,from ,israel1 the name given to ,jacob1 they were commonly called ,israelites4 ,the name ,hebrews was apparently derived from a word signifying across the river 7,euphrates72 but the original application is quite uncertain4 ,,the ,,exodus 7see p4 #da74--,the time came when the ,israelites were no longer well treated4 ,a new ,egyptian dynasty was on the throne4 ,their numbers were an occasion of apprehension4 ,an ,egyptian princess saved ,moses from being a victim of a barbarous edict issued against them4 ,he grew to manhood in ,pharaoh's court1 but became the champion of his people4 ,compelled to flee1 he received in the lonely region of ,mount ,sinai that sublime disclosure of the only living ,god which qualified him to be the leader and deliverer of his brethren4 ,a strong east wind1 parting the ,red ,sea1 opened a passage for the ,israelites1 whom a succession of calamities1 inflicted upon their oppressors by the ,almighty1 had driven ,pharaoh 7,menephthah87 to permit to depart in a body2 but the returning waves ingulfed the pursuing ,egyptian army4 ,the sea covered them3 they sank as lead in the mighty waters4 ,for a long period ,moses led the people about in the wilderness4 ,they were trained by this experience to habits of order and military discipline4 ,at ,horeb1 the ,decalogue1 the kernel1 so to speak1 of the ,hebrew codes1 the foundation of the religious and social life of the people1 was given them under circumstances fitted to awaken the deepest awe4 ,they placed themselves under ,jehovah as the ,ruler and ,protector of the nation in a special sense4 ,the worship of other divinities1 every form of idolatry1 was to be a treasonable offense4 ,the laws of ,jehovah were to be kept in the ,ark of the ,covenant1 in the ,tabernacle1 which was the sanctuary1 and was transported from place to place4 ,the priesthood was devolved on ,aaron and his successors1 at the side of whom were their assistants1 the ,levites4 ,the civil authority in each tribe was placed in the hands of the patriarchal chief and the elders1 the right of approval or of veto being left to the whole tribe gathered in an assembly4 ,the heads of the tribes1 with seventy representative elders1 together with ,aaron and ,moses1 formed a supreme council or standing committee4 ,on particular occasions a congregation of all the tribes might be summoned4 ,the ritual was made up of sacrifices and solemn festivals4 ,the ,sabbath was the great weekly commemoration1 a day of rest for the slave as well as for the master1 for the toiling beast as well as for man4 ,every seventh year and every fiftieth year were sabbaths1 when great inequalities of condition1 which might spring up in the intervals1 respecting the possession of land1 servitude consequent on debts1 etc41 were removed4 ,hebrew ,laws4--,the ,israelites1 in virtue of their covenant with ,jehovah1 were to be a holy people1 a nation of priests4 ,they were thus to maintain fraternal equality4 ,there was to be no enslaving of one another1 save that which was voluntary and for a limited time4 ,only prisoners not of their race1 or purchased foreigners1 could be held as slaves4 ,every fiftieth year1 land was to revert to its original possessor4 ,in the sabbatical years the land was not to be tilled4 ,what then grew wild might be gathered by all4 ,there were careful provisions for the benefit of the poor4 ,,heads ,,of ,,tribes4--,the progenitors of the tribes1 the sons of ,jacob1 as given in ,exodus1 were ,reuben1 ,simeon1 ,levi1 ,judah1 ,issachar1 ,zebulon1 ,dan1 ,naphtali1 ,gad1 ,asher1 ,joseph1 and ,benjamin4 ,,the ,,hebrew ,,religion--,such1 in brief1 were the beginnings of a religion as unique as it was elevated in its character1--a religion which stood from the outset in mortal antagonism to the ,egyptian worship of sun-gods1 and to the star-worship1 the service of ,baal1 and of sensual or savage divinities joined with him1--to that service which was diffused through the ,semitic nations of western ,asia4 ,a people was constituted to be the guardian of this light1 kindled in the midst of the surrounding darkness1 to carry it down to later ages1 and to make it finally1 in its perfected form1 the heritage of mankind4 ,,the ,,prophets4--,moses was not only a military leader and a legislator3 he stands at the head of the prophets1 the class of men who at different times1 especially in seasons of national peril and temptation1 along the whole course of ,israelitish history1 were raised up to declare the will of ,jehovah1 to utter the lessons proper to the hour1 to warn evil-doers1 and to comfort the desponding4 ,,conquest ,,of ,,canaan3 ,,the ,,era ,,of ,,the ,,judges4--,moses himself did not enter the promised land1 where the patriarchs were buried1 and which the ,israelites were to conquer4 ,according to ,deut4 vii4 #b1 a war of extermination was commanded4 ,the reason given for the command was that the people must avoid the contagion of idolatry1 that it was the fit reward of the nation which they were bidden to dispossess4 ,the word ,canaanite was used especially to designate the inhabitants of the coast region of ,palestine4 ,it was applied1 however1 to all the tribes1 who were under thirty-one kings or chiefs1 in the time of ,joshua1 ,there were six principal tribes1--the ,hittites1 ,hivites1 ,amorites1 ,jebusites1 ,perizzites1 and ,girgashites4 ,these1 with the exception of the ,hittites1 and possibly the ,amtorites1 were ,semitic in their language4 ,the ,canaanites had houses and vineyards4 ,from them the ,israelites learned agriculture4 ,they were in possession of fortified towns1 treasures of brass1 iron1 gold1 and foreign merchandise ,their religious rites were brutal and debasing1--human sacrifice1 licentious orgies1 the worship of a host of divinities4 ,on the death of ,moses1 ,joshua succeeded to the post of a leader4 ,he defeated the ,amontes and other tribes on the east of the ,jordan4 ,after the first victories of ,joshua1 each tribe carried on for itself the struggle with ,canaanites1 victory over them being often followed by indiscriminate slaughter4 ,it is plain1 however1 especially from the account in the first chapter of the ,book of ,judges1 that there was a process of assimilation as well as one of conquest4 ,the actual settlement was effected by peaceful as well as by warlike methods4 ,resistance was stubborn1 and the progress of occupation slow4 ,it was not until ,david's time1 centuries after the invasion1 that ,jebus1 the site of ,jerusalem1 was captured4 ,this delay was due largely to a lack of union1 not to a lack of valor4 ,the strength of the ,israelites was in their infantry4 ,hence they preferred to fight upon the hills1 rather than to cope with horsemen and chariots on the plains below4 ,,the ,,period ,,of ,,the ,,judges4--,the era of the ,judges extends from about #acjj ,b4,c4 over at least two centuries4 ,powerful tribes--as ,moabites1 ,midianites1 ,ammonites1 ,philistines--were unsubdued4 ,the land was desolated by constant war4 ,it was one sure sign of the prevailing disorder and anarchy1 that the highways were unoccupied1 and the travelers walked through byways 7,judg4 v4 #f74 ,not unfrequently the people forgot ,jehovah1 and fell into idolatrous practices4 ,in this period of degeneracy and confusion1 men full of sacred enthusiasm and of heroic courage arose to smite the enemies of ,israel1 and to restore the observance of the law4 ,of these heroic leaders1 ,deborah1 ,gideon1 ,jepththa1 and ,samson were the most famous4 ,there remains the song of ,deborah on the defeat and death of ,sisera 7,judg4 v474 ,the ,philistines1 on the western coast1 captured the sacred ark1--an act that spread dismay among the ,israelites4 ,then they pushed on their conquests as far as the ,jordan1 took away from the ,israelites their weapons1 and grievously oppressed them4 ,the ,ammonites threatened the tribes on the east of the ,jordan with a like fate4 ,at this juncture1 an effective leader and reformer appeared1 in the person of ,samuel1 who had been consecrated from his youth up to the service of the sanctuary1 and whose devotion to the law was mingled with an ardent patriotism4 ,he roused the courage of the people1 and recalled them to the service of ,jehovah4 ,in the schools of the prophets he taught the young the law1 trained them in music and song1 and thus prepared a class of inspiring teachers and guides to co-operate with the priesthood in upholding the cause of religion4 ,,the ,,monarchy3 ,,samuel ,,and ,,saul4--,in the distracted condition of the country1 the people demanded a king1 to unite them1 and lead them to victory1 and to administer justice4 ,they felt that their lack of compact organization and defined leadership placed them at a disadvantage in comparison with the tribes about4 ,this demand ,samuel resisted1 as springing out of a distrust of ,jehovah1 and as involving a rejection of ,him4 ,he depicted the burdens which regal government would bring upon them4 ,later history verified his prediction4 ,a strong1 centralized authority was not in harmony with the family and tribal government which was the peculiarity of their system4 ,it brought in1 by the side of the prophetic order1 another authority less sacred in its claims to respect4 ,collisions between the two must inevitably result4 ,but1 whatever might be the ideal political system1 the exigency was such that ,samuel yielded to the persistent call of the people4 ,he himself chose and anointed for the office a tall1 brave1 and experienced soldier1 ,saul4 ,successful in combat1 the king soon fell into a conflict with the prophet1 by failing to comply with the divine law1 and by sparing1 contrary to the injunction laid upon him1 prisoners and cattle that he had captured4 ,thereupon ,samuel secretly anointed ,david1 a young shepherd of the tribe of ,judah2 thus designating him for the throne4 ,the envy of ,saul at the achievements of ,david1 and at his growing popularity1 coupled with secret suspicion of what higher honors might be in store for the valiant youth1 embittered the king against him4 ,david was befriended and shielded by ,jonathan1 ,saul's son1 who might naturally be looked upon as his suitable successor4 ,the memorials of the friendship of these two youths1 in the annals of that troublous time1 are like a star in the darkest night4 ,david was obliged to take refuge among the ,philistines1 where he led a band of free lances1 whom the ,philistines did not trust as auxiliaries1 but who were inured by their daring combats for the struggles that came afterwards4 ,saul and ,jonathan were slain1 ,saul by his own hand4 ,for six years ,david was king in ,hebron1 over the tribes of ,judah and ,benjamin4 ,the other tribes were ruled by ,saul's son1 ,ishbaal 7',ishbosheth'74 ,at length ,david was recognized as king by all the tribes4 ,saul's family were exterminated4 ,,chronology4--,there is much difficulty in settling the chronology in the early centuries of the regal period of ,hebrew history4 ,apart from the questions which arise in comparing the biblical data1 the information derived from ,egyptian and especially from ,assyrian sources has to be taken into account4 ,hence the dates given below must be regarded as open to revision as our knowledge increases4 ,assyriologists find that ,shalmaneser ,,ii4 received tribute from ,ahab1 ,king of ,israel1 #hed ,b4,c41 and from ,jehu1 #hdb ,b4,c42 that ,tiglath-,pileser ,,iii 7#gde-gbg ,b4,c47 received tribute from ,menahem in #gch ,b4,c4 and that ,samaria fell in #gbb ,b4,c4 ,assyriology1 on the basis of its data1 as at present ascertained1 would make out a chronology something like the following3 ,era of the judges1 #acjj-ajbj2 ,saul1 #ajbj-ajjj2 ,david1 #ajjj-ifj2 ,solomon1 #ifj-icj2 ,reho-boam1 #icj-iad 7,jeroboam ,i41 #icj-iaj72 ,jehoshaphat1 #hgj-hej 7,ahab1 #hge-hec72 ,azanah 7or ,uzziah71 #ggi-gdj 7,jehu1 #hdb-hae72 7,jeroboam ,,ii41 #ghc-gdc72 7,menahem1 #gdd-gch74 ,,david ,,and ,,solomon4--,david's reign 7about #ajjj-igj ,b4,c47 is the period of ,israel's greatest power4 ,he extended his sway as far as the ,red ,sea and the ,euphrates2 he overcame ,damascus1 and broke down the power of the ,philistines2 he subdued the ,moabites1 ,ammonites1 and ,edomites2 he conquered the ,jebusites1 and made ,jerusalem his capital and the center of national worship4 ,a poet himself1 he enriched the religious service1 which he organized1 by lyrics--some of them composed by himself--of unrivaled devotional depth and poetic beauty4 ,he organized his military force as well1 and established an orderly civil administration4 ,his favorite son1 ,absalom1 led away by ambition1 availed himself of disaffection among the people to head a revolt against his father1 but perished in the attempt4 ,david left his crown to ,solomon at the close of a checkered life1 marked by great victories1 and by flagrant misdeeds done under the pressure of temptation4 ,,characters ,,of ,,solomon',s ,,reign4--,solomon's reign 7about #igj-icc ,b4,c47 was the era of luxury and splendor4 ,he sought to emulate the other great monarchs of the time4 ,with the help of ,hiram1 king of ,tyre1 who furnished materials and artisans1 he erected a magnificent temple on ,mount ,moriah in ,jerusalem4 ,he built costly palaces4 ,he brought horses from ,egypt1 and organized a standing army1 with its cavalry and chariots4 ,he established a harem1 bringing into it women from the heathen countries1 whom he allowed in their idolatrous rites4 ,he was even seduced to take part in them himself4 ,renowned for his knowledge and for his wisdom--which was admired by the ,queen of ,saba 7,sheba71 who came to visit him from the ,arabian coast--famous as the author of wise aphorisms1 he nevertheless entailed disasters on his country4 ,he established a sort of ,oriental despotism1 which exhausted its resources1 provoked discontent1 and tended to undermine morality as well as religion4 ,,the ,,divided ,,kingdom4--,the bad effect of ,solomon's magnificence soon appeared4 ,before his death a revolt was made under the lead of ,jeroboam1 which was put down4 ,of ,rehoboam1 the successor of ,solomon1 the ten tribes north of ,judah required pledges that their burdens should be lightened4 ,in the room of the heads and elders of the tribes1 the late king's officers had come in to oppress them with their hard exactions4 ,the haughty young king spurned the demand for redress4 ,the tribes cast off his rule1 and made ,jeroboam ,i4 their king 7about #icc ,b4,c474 ,the temple was left in the hands of ,judah and ,benjamin4 ,the division of the kingdom into two1 insured the downfall of both4 ,the rising power of the ,mesopotamian ,empire could not be met without union4 ,on the other hand1 the concentration of worship at ,jerusalem1 under the auspices of the two southern tribes1 may have averted dangers that would have arisen from the wider diffusion1 and consequent exposure to corruption1 of the religious system4 ,the development and promotion of the true religion--the one great historical part appointed for the ,hebrews--may have been performed not less effectively1 on the whole1 for the separation4 ,,heathen ,,rites4--,from this time the energetic and prolonged contest of the prophets with idolatry is a conspicuous feature1 especially in the history of ,israel1 the northern kingdom4 ,jeroboam set up golden calves at ,dan and ,bethel1 ancient seats of the worship of ,jehovah4 ,wars with ,judah and ,damascus weakened the strength of ,israel4 ,the ,egyptian king1 ,shishak1 captured ,jerusalem1 and bore away the treasures collected by ,solomon 7p4 #da74 ,under ,jehoshaphat 7about #hgc-hdi ,b4,c47 the heathen altars were demolished and prosperity returned4 ,,struggle ,,with ,,idolatry3 ,,elihah ,,and ,,elisha4--,the contemporary of ,jehoshaphat in the northern kingdom was ,ahab 7about #hgf-hed ,b4,c474 ,he expended his power and wealth in the building up of ,baal-worship1 at the instigation of the ,tyrian princess1 ,jezebel1 whom he had married4 ,at ,samaria1 his capital1 he raised a temple to ,baal1 where four hundred and fifty of his priests ministered4 ,the priests of ,jehovah who withstood these measures were driven out of the land1 or into hiding-places4 ,the austere and intrepid prophet ,elijah found refuge in ,mount ,carmel4 ,the people1 on the occasion of a famine1 which he declared to be a divine judgment1 rose in their wrath1 and slew the priests of ,baal4 ,in a war--the third of a series--which ,ahab waged against ,syria1 he still fought in his chariot1 after he had received a mortal wound1 until he fell dead4 ,he had previously thrown the prophet ,micaiah into prison for predicting this result4 ,by the marriage of ,athalia1 a daughter of ,ahab and ,jezebel1 with ,jehoshaphat's son1 ,baal-worship was introduced into ,jerusalem4 ,joram succeeded ,ahab4 ,the prophet ,elisha1 who followed in the steps of ,elijah1 anointed ,jehu captain of the host of ,joram4 ,he undertook1 with fierce and unsparing energy1 to destroy ,baal-worship1 and to extirpate the house of ,ahab1 root and branch4 ,the two kings of ,israel and of ,judah he slew with his own hand4 ,the priests and servants of ,baal were put to the sword4 ,these conflicts reduced the strength of ,israel1 which fell a prey to ,syria1 until its power was revived by ,jeroboam ,,ii4 7#ghc-gdc ,b4,c474 ,the death of ,athalia brought on the expulsion of the ,phoenician idolatry from ,jerusalem4 ,the southern kingdom suffered from internal strife1 and from wars with ,israel1 until ,uzziah 7#ggi-gdj ,b4,c47 restored its military strength1 and caused agriculture and trade once more to flourish4 ,,the ,,assyrian ,,captivity4--,the two kingdoms1 in the ninth and eighth centuries1 instead of standing together against the threatening might of ,assyria1 sought heathen alliances1 and wasted their strength in mutual contention4 ,against these hopeless alliances1 and against the idolatry and the formalism which debased the people1 the prophets contended with intense earnestness and unflinching courage4 ,amos1 called from feeding his flocks1 inveighed against frivolity and vice1 misgovernment and fraud1 in ,israel4 ,hosea warned ,menahem 7#gdc-gcg ,b4,c47 against invoking the help of ,assyria against ,damascus1 but in vain4 ,he was terribly punished by what he suffered from the ,assyrians2 but ,jotham 7#gdj-gcf ,b4,c47 and ,ahaz 7#gcf-gbh ,b4,c471 the ,judaean kings1 successively followed his example4 ,tiglath-,pileser made ,judaea tributary4 ,the ,assyrian rites were brought into the temple of ,jehovah4 ,the service of ,canaanitish deities was introduced4 ,the one incorruptible witness for the cause of ,jehovah was the fearless and eloquent prophet1 ,isaiah4 ,hosea1 king of ,israel1 by his alliance with ,egypt against ,sargon1 so incensed this most warlike of the ,assyrian monarchs1 that1 when he had subdued the ,phoenician cities1 he laid siege to ,samaria2 and1 having captured it at the end of a siege of three years1 he led away the king and the larger part of his subjects as captives1 to the ,euphrates and the ,tigris1 and replaced them by subjects of his own 7#gbb ,b4,c474 ,the later ,samaritans were the descendants of this mixed population4 ,the ,babylonian ,captivity4--,when ,sargon1 the object of general dread1 died1 ,hezekiah1 king of ,judah 7#gbg-fii ,b4,c471 flattered himself that it was safe to disregard the warnings of ,isaiah1 and1 in the hope of throwing off the ,assyrian yoke1 made a treaty of alliance with the king of ,egypt1 and fortified ,jerusalem4 ,he abolished1 however1 the heathen worship in the high places4 ,sennacherib1 ,sargon's successor1 was compelled to raise the siege 7p4 #df74 ,manasseh 7#fih-fdc ,b4,c471 in defiance of the prophets1 fostered the idolatrous and sensual worship1 against which they never ceased to lift their voices4 ,josiah 7#fdj-fji ,b4,c47 was a reformer4 ,as a tributary of ,babylon1 he sought to prevent ,necho1 king of ,egypt1 from crossing his territory1 but was vanquished and slain at ,megiddo1 on the plain of ,esdraelon4 ,nebuchadnezzar's victory over ,necho1 at ,carchemish1 enabled the ,babylonian king to tread in the footsteps of the ,assyrian conquerors4 ,the revolt of ,zedekiah1 which the prophet ,jeremiah was unable to prevent1 and his alliance with ,egypt1 led to the ,babylonian captivity of the ,jews4 ,in this period of national ruin1 the prophetic spirit found a voice through ,jeremiah and ,ezekiel4 ,it was during the era of ,assyrian and ,babylonian invasion that the predictions of a ,,messiah1 a great ,deliverer and righteous ,ruler who was to come1 assumed a more definite expression4 ,the spiritual character of ,isaiah's teaching has given him the name of the evangelical prophet4 ,cyrus1 the conqueror of ,babylon1 opened the way 7#ech ,b4,c47 for the return of the exiles4 ,a small part first came back under ,zerubbabel1 head of the tribe of ,judah1 who was made ,persian governor4 ,they began to rebuild the temple1 which was finished in #eaf ,b4,c4 ,later 7#deh ,b4,c47 ,ezra the scribe and ,nehemiah led home a larger body4 ,the newly returned ,jews were fired with a zeal for the observance of the ,mosaic ritual1--a zeal which had been sharpened in the persecutions and sorrows of exile4 ,the era of the hagiocracy1 of the supreme influence of the priesthood and the rigid adherence to the law1 with an inflexible hostility to heathen customs1 ensued4 ,the spirit of which prophecy had been the stimulant1 and partially the fruit1 declined4 ,the political independence of the land was gone for ever4 ,the day of freedom under the ,maccabees1 after the insurrection 7#afh ,b4,c47 led by that family against the ,syrian successors of ,alexander1 was short4 ,but ,israel had been thrown into the stream of nations4 ,its religious influence was to expand as its political strength dwindled4 ,its subjugation and all its terrible misfortunes were to serve as a means of spreading the leavening influence of its monotheistic faith4 ,in the year #fc ,b4,c41 ,pompeius made the ,jews tributary to the ,romans4 ,in the year #dj ,b4,c41 ,herod began to reign as a dependent king under ,rome4 ,hebrew ,literature4--,the literature of the ,hebrews is essentially religious in its whole motive and spirit4 ,this is true even of their historical writings4 ,the marks of the one defining characteristic of their national life--faith in ,jehovah and in his sovereign and righteous control--are everywhere seen4 ,hebrew poetry is mainly lyrical4 ,relics of old songs are scattered through the historical books4 ,in the ,psalms1 an anthology of sacred lyrics1 the spirit of ,hebrew poesy attains to its highest flight4 ,examples of didactic poetry are the ,book of ,job1 and books like the ,proverbs1 composed mainly of pithy sayings or gnomes4 ,nowhere1 save in the ,psalms1 does the spirit of the ,hebrew religion and the genius of the people find an expression so grand and moving as in the ,prophets1 of whom ,isaiah is the chief4 ,,art4--,in art the ,hebrews did not excel4 ,the plastic arts were generally developed in connection with religion4 ,but the religion of the ,hebrews excluded all visible representations of deity4 ,nor were they proficients in science4 ,israel was the vessel in which the water of life was inclosed1 in which it was kept cool and pure1 that it might thereafter refresh the world4 ,the ,,historical ,,books of the ,old ,testament comprise1 first1 the ,pentateuch1 which describes the origin of the ,hebrew people1 the exodus from ,egypt1 and the ,sinaitic legislation4 ,questions pertaining to the date and authorship of these five books1 and of the materials at the basis of them1 are still debated among historical critics4 ,it may be regarded as certain1 however1 that materials belonging to nearly every period of ,hebrew literature1 from the earliest times1 are here combined4 ,the early part of ,genesis is designed to explain the genealogy of the ,hebrews1 and to show how1 step by step1 they were sundered from other peoples4 ,the narratives in the first ten chapters--as the story of the creation1 the flood1 etc4--so strikingly resemble legends of other ,semitic nations1 especially the ,babyloniansand ,phoenicians1 as to make it plain that all these groups of accounts are historically connected with one another4 ,but the ,genesis narratives are distinguished by their freedom from the polytheistic ingredients which disfigure the corresponding narratives elsewhere4 ,they are on the elevated plane of that pure theism which is the kernel of the ,hebrew faith4 ,this whole subject is elucidated by ,lenormant1 in ,the ,beginnings of ,history 7#ahhb74 ,the ,book of ,joshua relates the history of the conquest of ,canaan2 ,judges1 the tale of the heroic age of ,israel prior to the monarchy2 the ,books of ,samuel and of ,kings1 of the monarchy in its glory and its decline2 the ,books of ,chronicles treat of parts of the same era1 more from the point of view of the priesthood2 ,ruth is an idyl of the narrative type2 ,ezra1 ,nehemiah1 and ,esther have to do with the return of the ,jews from exile1 and the events next following4 ,the ,,poetic ,,writings include the ,psalter1 by many authors2 the ,proverbs of ,solomon and others2 ,ecclesiastes1 which gives the sombre reflections of one who had tasted to the full the pleasures and honors of life2 the ,canticles1 or ,song of ,solomon1 which depicts a young woman's love in its constancy1 and victory over temptation4 ,the ,,prophets are divided into four classes3 i4 ,those of the early period from the twelfth to the ninth century1 including ,samuel1 ,elijah1 ,eliska1 etc1 who have left no prophetical writings4 #b4 ,the prophets of the ,assyrian age 7#hjj-gjj ,b4,c471 where belong ,amos1 ,hosea1 ,isaiah1 ,micah1 and ,nahum4 #c4 ,the prophets of the ,babylonian age1 ,zephaniah1 ,jeremiah1 ,habakkuk1 ,ezekiel4 ,here some scholars would place a part of ,isaiah4 #d4 ,the post-exilian prophets1 ,haggai1 ,zachariah1 ,malackt1 ,jonah41 ,daniel1 ,joel1 ,obadiah1 and considerable portions of ,isaiah and ,jeremiah4 ,the ,,apocryphal ,,books belong between the closing of the ,old-,testament canon and the ,new ,testament4 ,they are instructive as to that intermediate period4 ,the first ,book of ,maccabees is specially important for its historical matter2 the ,books of ,wisdom and the ,son of ,sirach for their moral reflections and precepts4 ,,works ,,relating ,,to ,,hebrew ,,history4--,,ewald1 ,history of the ,israelitish ,people 7,eng4 trans41 #e vols472 ,milman1 ,history of the ,jews 7#c vols472 ,stade1 ,geschichte des ,volkes ,israel 7#b vols41 #ahhi72 ,renan1 ,history of the ,people of ,israel 7,eng4 trans41 #ahif72 ,wellhausen4 ,israelitische und judische ,geschichte 7#c;d ed41 #ahig72 ,kent1 ,history of the ,hebrew ,people 7#ahih72 ,guthe1 ,geschichte des ,volkes ,israel 7#ahii72 the ,art4 ,israel by ,wellhausen1 in the ,encycl4 ,brit41 and the one by ,guthe in the ,encycl4 ,bibl4 ,the historical works of ,jewish scholars1 ,herzfeld1 ,jost1 ,zunz1 ,graetz1 ,,derenbourg1 etc41 are valuable4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,persians4 ,in the western part of the plateau of ,iran1 which extends from the ,suleiman ,mountains to the plains of ,mesopotamia1 were the ,medes4 ,on the southern border of the same plateau1 along the ,persian ,gulf1 were the ,persians4 ,both were offshoots of the ,aryan family1 and had migrated westward from the region of the upper ,oxus1 from ,bactria1 the original seat of their religion4 ,,religion4--,the ancient religion of the ,iranians1 including the ,medes and ,persians1 was reduced to a system by the ,bactrian sage1 ,zoroaster 7or ,zarathustra71 who1 in the absence of authentic knowledge respecting him1 may be conjecturally placed at about #ajjj ,b4,c4 ,the ,zendavesta1 the sacred book of the ,parsees1 the adherents of this religion1 is composed of parts belonging to very different dates4 ,it is the fragment of a more extensive literature no longer extant4 ,the ,bactrian religion differed from that of their ,sanskrit-speaking kindred on the ,indus1 in being a form of dualism4 ,it grew out of a belief in good demons or spirits1 and in evil spirits1 making up two hosts perpetually in conflict with each other4 ,at the head of the host of good spirits1 in the ,zoroastrian creed1 was ,ormuzd1 the creator1 and the god of light2 at the head of the evil host1 was ,ahriman1 the god of darkness4 ,the one made the world good1 the other laid in it all that is evil4 ,the one is disposed to bless man1 the other to do him harm4 ,the conflict of virtue and vice in man is a contest for control on the part of these antagonistic powers4 ,in order to keep off the spirits of evil1 one must avoid what is morally or ceremonially unclean4 ,he who lived pure1 went up at death to the spirits of light4 ,the evil soul departed to consort with evil spirits in the region of darkness4 ,mithra1 the sun-god in the ,zoroastrian system1 is the equal1 though the creature1 of ,ormuzd4 ,mithra is the conqueror of darkness1 and so the enemy of falsehood4 ,the ,medes and ,persians were fire-worshipers4 ,to the good spirits1 they ascribed life1 the fruitful earth1 the refreshing waters1 fountains and rivers1 the tilled ground1 pastures and trees1 the lustrous metals1 also truth and the pure deed4 ,to the evil spirits belonged darkness1 disease1 death1 the desert1 cold1 filth1 sin1 and falsehood4 ,the animals were divided between the two realms4 ,all that live in holes1 all that hurt the trees and the crops1 rats and mice1 reptiles of all sorts1 turtles1 lizards1 vermin1 and noxious insects1 were hateful creatures of ,ahriman4 ,to kill any of these was a merit4 ,the dog was held sacred2 as was also the cock1 who announces the break of day4 ,in the system of worship1 sacrifices were less prominent than in ,india4 ,prayers1 and the iteration of prayers1 were of great moment4 ,,the ,,magi4--,the ,zoroastrian religion was not the same at all times and in every place4 ,the primitive ,iranian emigrants were monotheistic in their tendencies4 ,in their western abodes1 they came into contact with worshipers of the elements1--fire1 air1 earth1 and water4 ,it is thought by many scholars1 that the ,magian system1 with its more defined dualism and sacerdotal sway1 was ingrafted on the native religion of the ,iranians through the influence of tribes with whom they mingled in ,media4 ,the ,magi1 according to one account1 were charged by ,darius with corrupting the ,zoroastrian faith and worship4 ,whatever may have been their origin1 they became the leaders in worship1 and privy-counselors to the sovereign4 ,they were likewise astrologers1 and interpreters of dreams4 ,they were not so distinct a class as the priests in ,india4 ,a hereditary order1 they might still bring new members into their ranks4 ,from the ,medes1 they were introduced among the ,persians4 ,,persian ,,religious ,,customs4--,peculiar customs existed among the ,medes in disposing of the dead4 ,they were not to be cast into the fire or the water1 or buried in the earth1 for this would bring pollution to what was sacred2 but their bodies were to be exposed in the high rocks1 where the beasts and birds could devour them4 ,sacrifices were offered on hill-tops4 ,salutations of homage were made to the rising sun4 ,on some occasions1 boys were buried alive1 as an offering to the divinities4 ,in early times1 there were no images of the gods4 ,as far as they were introduced in later times1 it was through the influence of surrounding nations4 ,in the supremacy and the final victory1 which1 in the later form of ,zoroastrianism1 were accorded to ,ormuzd1 there was again an approach to monotheism4 ,hostility to deception of all sorts1 and thus to stealing1 was a ,persian trait4 ,herodotus says that the ,persians taught their children to ride1 to shoot the bow1 and to speak the truth4 ,to prize the pursuits of agriculture and horticulture1 was a part of their religion4 ,they allowed a plurality of wives1 and concubines with them2 but there was one wife to whom precedence belonged4 ,voluntary celibacy in man or woman was counted a flagrant sin4 ,,history4--,the first authentic notice that we have of the ,,medes shows them under ,assyrian power4 ,this is in the time of ,shalmaneser ,,ii41 #hdj ,b4,c4 ,their rise is coincident with the fall of ,assyria4 ,phraortes 7#fdg-fbe ,b4,c47 began the ,median struggle for independence2 although the name of ,deioces is given by ,herodotus as a previous king1 and the builder of ,ecbatana the capital4 ,it was reserved for ,cyaxares 7#fbe-ehe ,b4,c471 having delivered his land from the ,scythian marauders 7p4 #dg71 to complete1 in conjunction with the ,babylonian king1 ,nabopolassar1 the work of breaking down the ,assyrian empire 7p4 #dh74 ,he brought under his rule the ,bactrians1 and the ,persians about ,pasargad and ,persepolis1 and made the ,halys1 dividing ,asia ,minor1 the limit of his kingdom4 ,his effeminate son1 ,astyages1 lost what his father had won4 ,the ,persian branch of the ,iranians gained the supremacy4 ,cyrus1 the leader of the ,persian revolt1 by whom ,astyages was defeated1 is described as related to him2 but this story1 as well as the account of his being rescued from death and brought up among shepherds1 is probably a fiction4 ,,cyrus4--,in the sixth century ,b4,c41 this famous ruler and conqueror became the founder of an empire which comprised nearly all the civilized nations of ,asia4 ,during his reign of thirty years 7#eei-ecj ,b4,c471 he annexed to his kingdom the two principal states1 ,,lydia and ,,babylon4 ,the king of ,lydia was ,croesus1 whose story1 embellished with romantic details1 was long familiar as a signal example of the mutations of fortune4 ,doomed to be burned after the capture of ,sardis1 his capital1 he was heard1 just when the fire was to be kindled1 to say something about ,solon4 ,in answer to the inquiry of ,cyrus1 whose curiosity was excited1 he related how that ,grecian sage1 after beholding his treasures1 had refused to call him the most fortunate of men1 on the ground that no man can be called happy before his death1 because none can tell what disasters may befall him4 ,cyrus1 according to the narrative1 touched by the tale1 delivered ,croesus from death1 and thereafter bestowed on him honor and confidence4 ,there is another form of the tradition1 which is deemed by some more probable4 ,croesus is said to have stood on a pyre1 intending to offer himself in the flames1 to propitiate the god ,sandon1 that his people might be saved from destruction2 but he was prevented1 it is said1 by unfavorable auguries4 ,the subjection of the ,greek colonies on the ,asia-,minor coast followed upon the subjugation of ,lydia4 ,from these colonies1 the ,phocoeans went forth1 and founded ,elea in ,lower ,italy1 and ,massilia 7,marseilles7 in ,gaul4 ,the ,asian ,greek cities were each allowed its own municipal rulers1 but paid tribute to the ,persian master4 ,the conquest of ,babylon 7#ech ,b4,c471 as it opened the way for the return to ,jerusalem of the ,jewish exiles1 enabled ,cyrus to establish a friendly people in ,judaea1 as a help in fortifying his sway in ,syria1 and in opening a path to ,egypt4 ,but in #ebi he lost his life in a war which he was waging against the ,massagetae1 a tribe on the ,caspian1 allied in blood to the ,scythians4 ,there was a tradition that the barbarian queen1 ,tomyris1 enraged that ,cyrus had overcome her son by deceit1 dipped the slain king's head in a skin-bag of blood1 exclaiming1 ,drink thy fill of blood1 of which thou couldst not have enough in thy lifetime6 ,,cambyses4--,the successor of ,cyrus1 a man not less warlike than he1 but more violent in his passions1 reigned but seven years 7#ebi-ebb ,b4,c474 ,his most conspicuous achievement was the conquest of ,,egypt4 ,one ground or pretext of his hostility1 according to the tale of ,herodotus1 was the fact that ,amasis1 the predecessor of ,psammeticus ,,iii41 not daring to refuse the demand of his daughter as a wife1 to be second in rank to the ,persian queen1 had fraudulently sent1 either to ,cambyses1 or1 before his time1 to ,cyrus1 ,nitetis1 the daughter of the king who preceded him1 ,apries4 ,defeated at ,pelusium1 and compelled to yield up ,memphis after a siege1 it is said that ,psammeticus1 the ,psammenitus of ,herodotus1 the unfortunate successor of the powerful ,pharaohs1 was obliged to look on the spectacle of his daughters in the garb of working-women1 bearing water1 and to see his sons1 with the principal young nobles1 ordered to execution4 ,but this tale lacks confirmation4 ,his cruelties were probably of a later date1 and were provoked by the chagrin he felt1 and the satisfaction manifested by the people1 at the failure of great expeditions which he sent southward for the conquest of ,meroe1 and westward against the ,oasis of ,ammon4 ,his armies perished in the ,lybian deserts4 ,even the story of his stabbing the sacred steer 7,apis71 after these events1 although it may be true1 is not sanctioned by the ,egyptian inscriptions4 ,his attack upon ,ammon probably arose1 in part at least1 from a desire to possess himself of whatever lay between ,egypt and the ,carthaginian territory4 ,but the ,phoenician sailors who manned his fleet refused to sail against their brethren in ,carthage4 ,cambyses assumed the title and character of an ,egyptian sovereign4 ,the story of his madness is an invention of the ,egyptian priests4 ,,darius 7#eba-dhe ,b4,c474--,for a short time1 a pretender1 a ,magian1 who called himself ,smerdis1 and professed to be the brother of ,cambyses1 usurped the throne4 ,cambyses is said to have put an end to his own life4 ,after a reign of seven months1 during which he kept himself for the most part hidden from view1 ,smerdis was destroyed by a rising of the leading ,persian families4 ,darius1 the son of ,hystaspes1 of the royal race of the ,achaemenidae1 succeeded4 ,he married ,atossa1 the daughter of ,cyrus4 ,the countries which composed an ,oriental empire were so loosely held together that the death of a despot or the change of a dynasty was very likely to call forth a general insurrection4 ,darius showed his military prowess in conquering anew various countries1 including ,babylon1 which had revolted4 ,he made ,arabia tributary1 and spread the bounds of his vast empire as far as ,india and in ,north ,africa4 ,a mighty expedition which he organized against the ,scythians on the ,lower ,danube failed of the results that were hoped from it4 ,the barbarians wasted their own fields1 filled up their wells1 drove off their cattle1 and fled as the army of ,darius advanced4 ,he returned1 however1 with the bulk of his army intact1 although with a loss of prestige1 and enrolled the ,scyths beyond the sea among the subjects of his empire4 ,his armies conquered the tribes of ,thrace1 so that he pushed his boundaries to the frontiers of ,macedonia4 ,the rebellion of the ,greek cities on the ,asia-,minor coast he suppressed1 and harshly avenged4 ,of his further conflicts with the ,greeks on the mainland1 more is to be said hereafter4 ,he had built ,persepolis1 but his principal seat of government appears to have been ,susa4 ,he did a great work in organizing his imperial system4 ,the division into satrapies--large districts1 each under a satrap1 or viceroy--was a part of this work4 ,he thus introduced a more efficient and methodical administration into his empire1--an empire four times as large as the empire of ,assyria1 which it had swallowed up4 ,,government4--,persia proper corresponded nearly to the modern province of ,farsistan or ,fars4 ,the ,persian ,empire stretched from east to west for a distance of about three thousand miles1 and was from five hundred to fifteen hundred miles in width4 ,it was more than half as large as modern ,europe4 ,it comprised not less than two millions of square miles4 ,its population under ,darius may have been seventy or eighty millions4 ,he brought in uniformity of administration4 ,in each satrapy1 besides the satrap himself1 who was a despot within his own dominion1 there was at first a commander of the troops1 and a secretary1 whose business it was to make reports to the ,,great ,,king4 ,these three officers were really watchmen over one another4 ,it was through spies 7eyes and ears7 of the king that he was kept informed of what was taking place in every part of the empire4 ,at length it was found necessary to give the satraps the command of the troops1 which took away one important check upon their power4 ,there was a regular system of taxation1 but to this were added extraordinary and oppressive levies4 ,darius introduced a uniform coinage4 ,the name of the coin1 daric1 is probably not derived from his name1 however4 ,notwithstanding the government by satraps1 local laws and usages were left1 to a large extent1 undisturbed4 ,great roads1 and postal communication for the exclusive use of the government1 connected the capital with the distant provinces4 ,in this point the ,persians set an example which was followed by the ,romans4 ,from ,susa to ,sardis1 a distance of about seventeen hundred ,english miles1 stretched a road1 along which1 at proper intervals1 were caravansaries1 and over which the fleet couriers of the king rode in six or seven days4 ,the king was an absolute lord and master1 who disposed of the lives and property of his subjects without restraint4 ,to him the most servile homage was paid4 ,he lived mostly in seclusion in his palace4 ,on great occasions he sat at banquet with his nobles4 ,his throne was made of gold1 silver1 and ivory4 ,all who approached him kissed the earth4 ,his ordinary dress was probably of the richest silk4 ,he took his meals mostly by himself4 ,his fare was made up of the choicest delicacies4 ,his seraglio1 guarded by eunuchs1 contained a multitude of inmates1 brought together by his arbitrary command1 over whom1 in a certain way1 the queen-mother presided4 ,his chief diversions were playing at dice within doors1 and hunting without4 ,paradises1 or parks1 walled in1 planted with trees and shrubbery1 and furnished with refreshing fountains and streams1 were his hunting-ground4 ,such inclosures were the delight of all ,persians4 ,in war he was attended with various officers in close attendance on his person1--the stool-bearer1 the bow-bearer1 etc4 ,in peace1 there was another set1 among whom was the parasol-bearer1--for to be sheltered by the parasol was an exclusive privilege of the king1--the fan-bearer1 etc4 ,there were certain privileged families1--six besides the royal clan of the ,achmenid1 the chiefs of all of which were his counselors1 and from whom he was bound to choose his legitimate wives4 ,when the monarch traveled1 even on military expeditions1 he was accompanied by the whole varied apparatus of luxury which ministered to his pleasures in the court1--costly furniture1 a vast retinue of attendants1 of inmates of the harem1 etc4 ,,army ,,and ,,navy4--,the arms of the footman were a sword1 a spear1 and a bow4 ,persian bowmen were skillful4 ,persian cavalry1 both heavy and light1 were their most effective arm4 ,the military leaders depended on the celerity of their horsemen and the weight of their numbers4 ,it is doubtful whether they employed military engines4 ,they were not wholly ignorant of strategy4 ,their troops were marshaled by nations1 each in its own costume1 the commander of the whole being in the center of the line of battle4 ,the body-guard of the king was the ,immortals1 a body of ten thousand picked footmen1 the number being always kept intact4 ,the enemies of the ,persians1 except in the case of rebels1 were not treated with inhumanity4 ,in this regard the ,persians are in marked contrast with the ,semitic ferocity of the ,assyrians4 ,their navies were drawn from the subject-peoples4 ,the trireme1 with its projecting prow shod with iron1 and its crew of two hundred men1 was the principal1 but not the only vessel used in sea-fights4 ,,literature ,,and ,,art4--,a ,persian youth was ordinarily taught to read1 but there was little intellectual culture4 ,boys were trained in athletic exercises4 ,it was a discipline in hardy and temperate habits4 ,etiquette1 in all ranks of the people1 was highly esteemed4 ,the ,persians1 as a nation1 were bright-minded1 and not deficient in fancy and imagination4 ,but they contributed little to science4 ,their religious ideas were an heirloom from remote ancestors4 ,the celebrated ,persian poet1 ,firdous1 lived in the tenth century of our era4 ,his great poem1 the ,shahnameh1 or ,book of ,kings1 is a storehouse of ancient traditions4 ,it is probable that the ancient poetry of the ,persians1 like this production1 was of moderate merit4 ,of the ,persian architecture and sculpture1 we derive our knowledge from the massive ruins of ,persepolis1 which was burned by ,alexander the ,great1 and from the remains of other cities4 ,they had learned from ,assyria and ,babylon1 but they display no high degree of artistic talent4 ,they were not an intellectual people3 they were soldiers and rulers4 ,,literature--,works mentioned on pp #af1 #db2 ,encycl4 ,brit41 ,art4 ,persia2 ,vaux1 ,persia from the ,monuments 7#ahgf72 ,nldeke1 ,aufsdtze zur persischen ,geschichte 7#ahhg72 ,justi1 ,geschichte trans 7#aijj72 ,markham1 ,general ,sketch of the ,history of ,persia 7#ahgd74 ,,retrospect4 ,in ,eastern ,asia the ,chinese nation was built up1 the principal achievement of the ,mongolian race4 ,its influence was restricted to neighboring peoples of kindred blood4 ,its civilization1 having once attained to a certain stage of progress1 remained for the most part stationary4 ,china1 in its isolation1 exerted no power upon the general course of history4 ,not until a late age1 when the civilization of the ,caucasian race should be developed1 was the culture of ,china to produce1 in the mingling of the ,european and ,asiatic peoples1 its full fruits1 even for ,china herself4 ,india--although the home of a ,caucasian immigrant people1 a people of the ,aryan family too--was cut off by special causes from playing an effective part1 either actively or passively1 in the general historic movement4 ,egypt1 from #aejj to #acjj ,b4,c41 was the leading community of the ancient world4 ,but civilization in ,egypt1 at an early date1 crystallized in an unchanging form4 ,the aim was to preserve unaltered what the past had brought out4 ,the bandaged mummy1 the result of the effort to preserve even the material body of man for all future time1 is a type of the leaden conservatism which pervaded ,egyptian life4 ,the pre-eminence of ,egypt was lost by the rise of the ,semitic states to increasing power4 ,semitic arms and culture were in the ascendant for six centuries 7#acjj to #gjj ,b4,c474 ,babylonia shares with ,egypt the distinction of being one of the two chief fountains of culture4 ,from ,babylonia1 astronomy1 writing1 and other useful arts were disseminated among the other ,semitic peoples4 ,it was a strong state even before #bjjj ,b4,c4 ,babylon was a hive of industry1 and was active in trade1 a link of intercourse between the ,east and the ,west4 ,but this function of an intermediate was discharged still more effectively by the ,phoenicians1 the first great commercial and naval power of antiquity4 ,tyre reached the acme of its prosperity under ,hiram1 the contemporary of ,solomon1 about #ajjj ,b4,c4 ,meantime1 among the ,hebrew people1 the foundations of the true religion had been laid1--that religion of monotheism which in future ages was to leaven the nations4 ,contemporaneously1 the ,assyrian ,monarchy was rising to importance on the banks of the ,tigris4 ,the appearance1 in the first half of the ninth century ,b4,c41 of a power advancing from the heart of ,asia towards the ,west1 is an event of immeasurable importance in the history of the world4 ,the ,israelites were divided4 ,about the middle of the eighth century ,b4,c41 both of their kingdoms lost their independence4 ,assyria was vigorous in war1 but had no deep foundation of national life4 ,its religion was not rooted in the soil1 like that of ,egypt1 nor based on the observation of the sky and stars1 like that of ,babylon4 ,its gods were gods of war1 manifesting themselves in the prowess of ruling princes4 ,the main instrument in effecting the downfall of ,assyria was the ,medo-,persian power4 ,through the ,medes and ,persians1 the ,aryan race comes forward into conspicuity and control4 ,one branch of the ,iranians of ,bactria1 entering ,india1 through the agency of climate and other physical influences converted their religion into a mystical and speculative pantheism1 and their social organization into a caste-system under the rule of a priesthood4 ,the ,medes and ,persians1 under other circumstances1 in contact with tribes about them1 turned their religion into a dualism1 yet with a monotheistic drift that was not wholly extinguished4 ,the conquest of ,babylon by ,cyrus annihilated ,semitic power4 ,the fall of ,lydia1 the conquest of ,egypt by ,cambyses1 and the victories of ,darius1 brought the world into subjection to ,persian rule4 ,the dates of some of the most important historical events in this ,section are as follow ,menes1 the first historic king of ,egypt4444444 about #djjj ,b4,c4 ,accession of ,ramses ,,ii4 to the ,egyptian throne444444 #acdj ,b4,c4 ,rise of the ,babylonian kingdom4444444444444444 about #djjj ,b4,c4 ,reign of ,hiram at ,tyre1 and of ,solomon44444444 about #iej ,b4,c4 ,assyrian captivity3 downfall of ,israel444444444444444 #gbb ,b4,c4 ,fall of ,nineveh44444444444444444444444444444444 444444 #fjf ,b4,c4 ,babylonian captivity3 downfall of ,judah44444444444444 #ehf ,b4,c4 ,reign of ,cyrus begins44444444444444444444444444444444 #eei ,b4,c4 ,fall of ,lydia3 capture of ,sardis444444444444444444444 #edf ,b4,c4 ,fall of ,babylon44444444444444444444444444444444 444444 #ech ,b4,c4 ,reign of ,darius begins4444444444444444444444444444444 #eba ,b4,c4 ,,beginnings ,,of ,,civilization4--,in the history of ,western ,asia we discern the beginnings of civilization and of the true religion4 ,in the room of useless and destructive tribal warfare1 great numbers are banded together under despotic rule4 ,,cities were built1 where property and life could be protected1 and within whose massive walls of vast circumference the useful arts and the rudiments of science could spring up4 ,trade and commerce1 by land and sea1 naturally followed4 ,thus nations came to know one another4 ,aggressive war and subjugation had a part in the same result4 ,the power of the peoples of western ,asia1 the guardians of infant civilization1 availed to keep back the hordes of barbarians on the north1 or1 as in the case of the great ,scythian invasion 7p4 #dg71 to drive them back to their own abodes4 ,,defects ,,of ,,asiatic ,,civilization4--,but the civilization of the ,asiatic empires had radical and fatal defects4 ,the development of human nature was in some one direction1 to the exclusion of other forms of human activity4 ,as to knowledge1 it was confined within a limit beyond which progress was slow4 ,the geometry of ,egypt and the astronomy of ,babylon remained where the necessity of the pyramid-builders and the superstition of the astrologers had carried them4 ,even the art of war was in a rudimental stage4 ,in battle1 huge multitudes were precipitated upon one another4 ,there are some evidences of strategy1 when we reach the campaigns of ,cyrus4 ,but war was full of barbarities1--the destruction of cities1 the expatriation of masses of people1 the pitiless treatment of captives4 ,architecture exhibits magnitude without elegance4 ,temples1 palaces1 and tombs are monuments of labor rather than creations of art4 ,they impress oftener by their size than by their beauty4 ,statuary is inert and massive1 and appears inseparable from the buildings to which it is attached4 ,literature1 with the exception of the ,hebrew1 is hardly less monotonous than art4 ,the religion of the ,semitic nations1 the ,hebrews excepted1 so far from containing in it a purifying element1 tended to degrade its votaries by feeding the flame of sensual and revengeful passion4 ,what but debasement could come from the worship of ,astarte and the ,phoenician ,el8 ,the great empires did not assimilate the nations which they comprised4 ,they were bound1 but not in the least fused1 together4 ,persia went farther than any other empire in creating a uniform administration1 but even the ,persian ,empire remained a conglomerate of distinct peoples4 ,,oriental ,,government4--,the government of the ,oriental nations was a despotism4 ,it was not a government of laws1 but the will of the one master was omnipotent4 ,the counterpart of tyranny in the ruler was cringing1 abject servility in the subject4 ,humanity could not thrive1 man could not grow to his full stature1 under such a system4 ,it was on the soil of ,europe and among the ,greeks that a better type of manhood and a true idea of liberty were to spring up4 ,,division ,,ii4 ,,europe4 ,,physical ,,geography4--,the ,alps1 continued on the west by the ,pyrenees and the ,cantabrian mountains1 and carried eastward to the ,black ,sea by the ,balkan range1 form an irregular line1 that separates the three peninsulas of ,spain1 ,italy1 and ,greece from the great plain of central ,europe4 ,on the north of this plain1 there is a corresponding system of peninsulas and islands1 where the ,baltic answers in a measure to the ,mediterranean4 ,this midland sea1 which at once unites and separates the three continents1 is connected with the ,atlantic by the narrow ,strait of ,gibraltar1 and on the east is continued in the ,aegean ,sea1 or the ,archipelago1 which leads into the ,hellespont1 or the ,strait of the ,dardanelles1 thence onward into the ,propontis1 or ,sea of ,marmora1 and through the ,bosphorus into the ,black ,sea1 and the ,sea of ,azoff beyond4 ,from the ,red ,sea and the ,indian ,ocean the ,mediterranean is parted by a space which is now traversed by a canal4 ,the irregularity of the coast-line is one of the characteristic features of the ,european continent4 ,especially are the northern shores of the ,mediterranean indented by arms of the sea2 and this1 along with the numerous islands1 marks out the whole region as remarkably adapted to maritime life and commercial intercourse4 ,,its ,,inhabitants4--,europe was early inhabited by branches of the ,aryan race4 ,the cradle or primitive seat of the ,aryan family --from which its two main divisions1 the ,european and the ,asiatic1 went forth--is not known4 ,it is a matter of theory and debate4 ,we find the ,graeco-,latin peoples on the south1 the more central nations of ,celtic speech1 the more northern ,teutons1 and in the north-east the ,slavonians4 ,but how all these ,aryan branches are mutually related1 and of the order and path of their prehistoric migrations1 little is definitely known4 ,the ,celts were evidently preceded by non-,aryan inhabitants1 of whom the ,basques in ,spain and ,france are a relic4 ,the ,celtiberians in ,spain1 as the name implies1 were a mixture of the ,celts with the native non-,aryan ,iberians4 ,the ,greeks and the ,italians had a common ancestry1 as we know by their languages2 but of that common ancestry neither ,greeks nor ,latins in the historic period retained any recollection2 nor can we safely affirm1 that1 of that earlier stock1 they alone were the offspring4 ,all the known ,indo-,european languages1 writes ,professor ,whitney1 are descended from a single dialect1 which must have been spoken at some time in the past by a single limited community1 by the spread and emigration of which--not1 certainly1 without incorporating also bodies of other races than that to which itself belonged by origin--it has reached its present wide distribution4 ,of course1 it would be a matter of the highest interest to determine the place and period of this important community1 were there any means of doing so2 but that is not the case1 at least at present4 ,the condition of these languages is reconcilable with any possible theory as to the original site of the family4 ,one point is established1 that 'the separation of the five ,european branches must have been later than their common separation from the two ,asiatic branches1' the ,iranians and ,indians4 7,whitney's ,the ,life and ,growth of ,language1 pp4 #aia1 #aic47 ,,section ,i4 ,,grecian ,,history4 ,,the ,,land4--,greeks is not a name which the people who bore it applied to themselves4 ,it was a name given them by their kinsfolk1 the ,romans4 ,they called themselves ,hellenes1 and their land they called ,hellas4 ,hellas1 or ,greece proper1 included the southern portion of the peninsula of which it is a part1 the portion bounded on the north by ,olympus and the ,cambunian ,mountains1 and extending south to the ,mediterranean4 ,its shores were washed on the east by the ,aegean1 on the west by the ,adriatic1 or ,ionian ,gulf4 ,the length of ,hellas was about two hundred and fifty ,english miles3 its greatest width1 measured on the northern frontier1 or from ,attica on a line westward1 was about a hundred and eighty miles4 ,it is somewhat smaller than ,portugal4 ,along its coast are many deep bays4 ,long and narrow promontories run out into the sea4 ,thus a great length is given to the sea-coast1 which abounds in commodious harbors4 ,the tideless waters are safe for navigators4 ,scattered within easy distance of the shore are numerous islands of great fertility and beauty4 ,so high and rugged are the mountains that communication between different places is commonly easier by water than by land4 ,a branch of the ,alps at the forty-second parallel of latitude turns to the south-east1 and descends to ,toenarum1 the southern promontory4 ,on either side1 lateral branches are sent off1 at short intervals1 to the east and the west4 ,from these in turn1 branches1 especially on the east1 are thrown out in the same direction as the main ridge2 that is1 from north to south4 ,little room is left for plains of much extent4 ,thessaly1 with its single river1 the ,peneus1 was such a plain4 ,there were no navigable rivers4 ,most of the streams were nothing more than winter-torrents1 whose beds were nearly or quite dry in the summer4 ,they often groped their way to the sea through underground channels1 either beneath lakes or in passages which the streams themselves bored through limestone4 ,the physical features of the country fitted it for the development of small states1 distinct from one another1 yet1 owing especially to the relations of the land to the sea1 full of life and movement4 ,,the ,,grecian ,,states4--,the territory of ,greece included 7#a7 ,northern ,greece1 comprising all north of the ,malian 7,zeitoum7 and ,ambracian 7,arta7 gulfs2 7#b7 ,central ,greece1 extending thence to the ,gulf of ,corinth2 7#c7 the peninsula of ,peloponnesus 7,morea7 to the south of the isthmus4 ,the country was occupied1 in the flourishing days of ,greece1 by not less than seventeen states4 ,northern ,greece contained two principal countries1 ,thessaly and ,epirus1 separated from one another by the ,pindus4 ,thessaly was the largest and most fertile of the ,grecian states4 ,the ,peneus1 into which poured the mountain streams1 passed to the sea through a narrow gorge1 the famous ,vale of ,tempe4 ,in the mountainous region of ,epirus were numerous streams flowing through the valleys4 ,within it was the ancient ,dodona1 the seat of the oracle4 ,magnesia1 east of ,thessaly1 on the coast1 comprised within it the two ranges of ,ossa and ,pelion4 ,central ,greece contained eleven states4 ,malis had on its eastern edge the pass of ,thermopylae4 ,in ,phocis1 on the southern slope of ,mount ,parnassus1 was ,delphi4 ,boeotia was distinguished for the number and size of its cities1 the chief of which was ,thebes4 ,attica projected from ,boeotia to the south-east1 its length being seventy miles1 and its greatest width thirty miles4 ,its area was only about seven hundred and twenty square miles4 ,it was thus only a little more than half as large as the ,state of ,rhode ,island1 which has an area of thirteen hundred and six square miles4 ,its only important town was ,athens4 ,its rivers1 the ,ilissus and the two ,cephissusses1 were nothing more than torrent courses4 ,in ,southern ,greece were eleven countries4 ,the territory of ,corinth embraced most of the isthmus1 and a large tract in ,peloponnesus4 ,it had but one considerable city1 ,corinth1 which had two ports1--one on the ,corinthian ,gulf1 ,lechoeum1 and the other on the ,saronic ,gulf1 ,cenchreae4 ,arcadia1 the central mountain country1 has been called the ,switzerland of ,peloponnesus4 ,it comprised numerous important towns1 as ,mantinea1 ,orchomenus1 and1 in later times1 ,megalopolis4 ,in the south-east was ,laconia1 with an area of about nineteen hundred square miles4 ,it consisted mainly of the valley of the ,eurotas1 which lay between the lofty mountain ranges of ,parnon and ,taygetus4 ,hollow ,lacedaemon was a phrase descriptive of its situation4 ,sparta1 the capital1 was on the ,eurotas1 twenty miles from the sea4 ,it had no other important city4 ,argolis1 projecting into the sea1 eastward of ,arcadia1 had within it the ancient towns of ,mycenae and ,argos4 ,,the ,,islands4--,it must be remembered that the waters between ,europe and ,asia were not a separating barrier1 but a close bond of connection4 ,there is scarcely a single point where1 in clear weather1 a mariner would feel himself left in a solitude between sky and water2 the eye reaches from island to island1 and easy voyages of a day lead from bay to bay4 ,greek towns1 including very ancient places1 were scattered along the western coast of ,asia ,minor1 between the mountains and the shore4 ,the ,aegean was studded with ,greek islands4 ,these1 together with the islands in the ,ionian ,sea1 on the west1 formed a part of ,greek territory4 ,the principal island near ,greece was ,euboea1 stretching for a hundred miles along the east coast of ,attica1 ,boeotia1 and ,locris4 ,on the opposite side of the peninsula1 west of ,epirus1 was the smaller but yet large island of ,corcyra 7,corfu74 ,on the west1 besides1 were ,ithaca1 ,cephallenia1 and ,zacynthus 7,zante72 on the south1 the ,oenussae ,islands and ,cythera2 on the east1 ,aegina1 ,salamis1 etc4 ,from the south-eastern shores of ,euboea and ,attica1 the ,cyclades and ,sporades extended in a continuous series1 like a set of stepping-stones1 across the ,aegean ,sea to ,asia ,minor4 ,from ,corcyra and the ,acroceraunian promontory1 one could descry1 in clear weather1 the ,italian coast4 ,these were all littoral islands4 ,besides these1 there were other islands in the northern and central ,aegean1 such as ,lemnos1 ,samothrace1 ,delos1 ,naxos1 etc42 and in the southern ,aegean1 ,crete1 an island mountainous but fertile1 a hundred and fifty miles in length from east to west1 and about fifteen in breadth1 and containing more than two thousand square miles4 ,the ,greek race was still more widely diffused through the settlements in and about the western ,mediterranean4 ,,the ,,bond ,,of ,,race4--,the ,greeks1 or ,hellenes1 were not so much a nation as a united race4 ,politically divided1 they were conscious of a fraternal bond that connected them1 wherever they might be found1 and parted them from the rest of mankind4 ,their sense of brotherhood is implied in the fabulous belief in a common ancestor named ,hellen4 ,together with a fellowship in blood1 there was a community in language1 notwithstanding minor differences in dialect4 ,moreover1 there was a common religion4 ,they worshiped the same gods4 ,they had the same ritual1 and cherished in common the same beliefs respecting things supernatural4 ,in connection with these ties of blood1 of language1 and of religion1 they celebrated together great national festivals1 like the ,olympic games1 in which ,greeks from all parts of the world might take part1 and into which they entered with a peculiar enthusiasm4 ,as the ,jews1 following the impulses of a holier faith1 went up to ,jerusalem to celebrate as one family their sacred rites2 so the ,greeks repaired to hallowed shrines of ,zeus or ,apollo1 assembling from afar on the plain of ,olympia and at the foot of ,parnassus4 ,,divisions ,,of ,,greek ,,history4 ,greek history embraces three general periods4 ,the first is the formative period1 and extends to the ,persian wars1 #ejj ,b4,c4 ,the second period covers the flourishing era of ,greece1 from #ejj ,b4,c4 to #cei ,b4,c4 ,the third is the ,macedonian period1 when the freedom of ,greece was lost1--the era of ,philip and ,alexander1 and of ,alexander's successors4 ,,period ,i4 is divided into 7#a7 the mythical or prehistoric age1 extending to #ggf ,b4,c42 7#b7 the age of the formation of the principal states4 ,,period ,,ii4 includes 7#a7 the ,persian wars1 #ejb-dgi ,b4,c42 7#b7 the period of ,athenian supremacy1 #dgh-dca ,b4,c42 7#c7 the ,peloponnesian war1 #dca-djd ,b4,c41 with the ,spartan1 followed by the ,theban ascendency1 #djd-cfb ,b4,c4 ,,period ,,iii4 includes 7#a7 the reigns of ,philip and ,alexander1 #cei-cbc ,b4,c42 7#b7 the kingdoms into which the empire of ,alexander was divided4 ,,period ,i4 ,,greece ,,prior ,,to ,,the ,,persian ,,wars4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,prehistoric ,,age4 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,greeks--,before the ,hellenes parted from their ,aryan ancestry1 they had words for father1 mother1 brother1 son1 and daughter1 as well as for certain connections by marriage4 ,they lived in houses1 pastured flocks and herds1 possessed dogs and horses4 ,they had for weapons1 the sword and the bow4 ,they knew how to work gold1 silver1 and copper2 they could count up to a hundred2 they reckoned time by the lunar month2 they spoke of the sky as the 'heaven-father4' ,the differences between the ,greek and the ,latin languages prove1 also1 that the ,greeks and ,italians1 after their common progenitors broke off from the primitive ,aryan stock1 had long dwelt apart4 ,the ,greeks1 when they first become known to us in historical times1 consist of two great branches1 the ,dorians and ,ionians1 together with a less distinct branch1 the ,aeolians1 which differs less1 perhaps1 from the parent ,hellenes than do the two divisions just named4 ,it is a probable opinion of scholars1 that the halting-place of the ,hellenes1 whence1 in successive waves1 they passed over into ,greece1 was ,phrygia1 in the north-west of ,asia ,minor4 ,preceding the ,greeks both in northern ,greece and in ,peloponnesus1 and spread over the coasts and islands of the ,archipelago1 was a people of whom they had an indistinct knowledge1 whom they called ,pelasgians4 ,they were husbandmen or herdsmen4 ,their national sanctuary was at ,dodona1 in ,epirus4 ,the ,cyclopean ruins1 composed of huge polygonal blocks of stone1 which they left behind in various places1 are the remnant of their walls and fortifications4 ,the ,greeks looked back on these ,pelasgian predecessors as different from themselves4 ,yet no reminiscences existed of any hostility towards them4 ,it is plausibly conjectured that this prehistoric people were emigrants from the region of ,phrygia at a more ancient date1 and that the ,hellenes1 a more energetic and gifted branch of the same stock1 followed them1 and1 without force or conflict1 became the founders and leaders of a new historic movement1 in which the ,pelasgians disappeared from view4 ,in this second migration1 the ancestors of the ,ionians went down from ,phrygia to the coast of ,asia ,minor1 and began the career which made them a maritime and commercial people4 ,the ,dorians crossed over to the highlands of northern ,greece1 where they became hardy mountaineers1 not addicted to the sea4 ,the one tribe were to be eventually the founders of ,athens2 the other1 of ,sparta4 ,besides these two main tribes1 the ,aeolians occupied ,thessaly1 ,boeotia1 ,aetolia1 and other districts4 ,to them the ,achaeans1 who were supreme in ,peloponnesus in the days of ,homer1 were allied4 ,,foreign ,,influences4--,besides ,phrygia1 the legends of the ,greeks bear traces of a foreign influence from ,phoenicia and ,egypt4 ,the ,phoenicians were unquestionably early connected with the ,greeks1 first by commercial visits to ,greek ports1 to which they brought foreign merchandise4 ,the story of ,cadmus1 who is said to have founded ,thebes1 and to have brought in the ,phoenician alphabet1 is fabulous4 ,but it is probable1 that1 as early as the close of the ninth century ,b4,c41 the alphabet was introduced by ,phoenicians1 and diffused over ,greece4 ,another legend is that of ,cecrops1 conceived of later as an ,egyptian1 who is said to have built a citadel at ,athens1 and to have imported the seeds of civilization and religion4 ,danaus1 another emigrant from ,egypt1 coming with his fifty daughters1 is said to have built the citadel of ,argos4 ,in the later times1 the ,greeks were fond of tracing their knowledge of the arts to ,egyptian sources4 ,it is remarkable that the agents by whom germs of civilization were said to have been imported from abroad1 though foreign1 are nevertheless depicted as thoroughly ,greek in their character4 ,whatever the ,greeks may have owed to ,egypt1 it is probable was mainly derived from ,ionians who had previously planted themselves in that country4 ,,the ,,dorian ,,emigration4--,it was in the prehistoric time that the ,dorians left their homes in northern ,greece1 and migrated into ,peloponnesus1 where they proved themselves stronger than the ,ionians and the ,achaeans dwelling there4 ,they left the ,achaeans on the south coast of the ,corinthian ,gulf1 in the district called ,achaia4 ,nor did they conquer ,arcadia4 ,but of most of ,peloponnesus they became masters4 ,this is the portion of historic truth contained in the myth of the ,return of the ,heraclidae1 the descendants of ,hercules1 to the old kingdom of their ancestor4 ,,migrations ,,to ,,asia ,,minor4--,the ,dorian conquest is said to have been the cause of three distinct migrations to ,asia ,minor4 ,the ,achaeans1 with their ,aeolic kinsmen on the north1 established themselves on the north-west coast of ,asia ,minor1 ,lesbos and ,cyme being their strongholds1 and by degrees got control in ,mysia and the ,troad4 ,ionic emigrants from ,attica joined their brethren on the same coast4 ,the ,dorians settled on the south-west coast2 they also settled ,cos and ,rhodes1 and at length subdued ,crete4 ,the ,dorian conquest of ,peloponnesus1 and the migrations just spoken of1 were slow in their progress1 and possibly stretched over centuries4 ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,greeks4--,originality is a distinguishing trait of the ,greeks4 ,whatever they borrowed from others they made their own1 and reproduced in a form peculiar to themselves4 ,they were never servile copyists4 ,all the products of the ,greek mind1 whether in government1 art1 literature1 or in whatever province of human activity1 wear a peculiar stamp4 ,when we leave ,asiatic ground1 and come into contact with the ,greeks1 we find ourselves in another atmosphere4 ,a spirit of humanity1 in the broad sense of the term1 pervades their life4 ,a regard for reason1 a sense of order1 a disposition to keep every thing within measure1 is a marked characteristic4 ,their sense of form--including a perception of beauty1 and of harmony and proportion--made them in politics and letters the leaders of mankind4 ,do nothing in excess1 was their favorite maxim4 ,they hated every thing that was out of proportion4 ,their language1 without a rival in flexibility and symmetry and in perfection of sound1 is itself1 though a spontaneous creation1 a work of art4 ,the whole language resembles the body of an artistically trained athlete1 in which every muscle1 every sinew1 is developed into full play1 where there is no trace of tumidity or of inert matter1 and all is power and life4 ,the great variety of the spiritual gifts of this people1 the severest formulas of science1 the loftiest flights of imagination1 the keenest play of wit and humor1 were capable of precise and effective expression in this language as in ductile play4 ,the use of the language1 so lucid and so nice in its discriminations1 was itself an education for the young who grew up to hear it and to speak it4 ,in a genial yet invigorating climate1 in a land where breezes from the mountain and the sea were mingled1 the versatile ,greeks produced by physical training that vigor and grace of body which they so much admired2 and they developed the civil polity1 the artistic discernment1 and the complex social life1 which made them the principal source of modern culture4 ,their moral traits are not so admirable4 ,as a race they were less truthful1 and less marked for their courage and loyalty1 than some other peoples below them in intellect4 ,,religion4--,in the early days1 when ,greece was open to foreign influences1 the simple religion of the ,aryan fathers was enlarged by new elements from abroad4 ,the ,tyrian deity1 ,melkart1 appears at ,corinth as ,melicertes4 ,astarte becomes ,aphrodite 7,venus71 who springs from the sea4 ,the myth of ,dionysus and the worship of ,demeter 7,ceres7 may be of foreign origin4 ,poseidon 7,neptune71 the god of the sea1 and ,apollo1 the god of light and of healing1 whose worship carried in it cheer and comfort1 though they were brought into ,greece1 were previously known to the lonians4 ,by ,homer and ,hesiod1 the great poets of the prehistoric age1 the gods in these successive dynasties1 their offices and mutual relations1 were depicted4 ,in ,hesiod they stand in a connected scheme or theogony4 #a4 ,there are the twelve great gods and goddesses of ,olympus1 who were named by the ,greeks1--,zeus1 ,poseidon1 ,apollo1 ,ars1 ,hphaestos1 ,herms1 ,hr1 ,athn1 ,artemis1 ,aphrodite1 ,hestia1 ,dmtr4 #b4 ,numerous other divinities1 not included among the ,olympic1 but some not less important than the twelve4 ,such are ,hads1 ,hlos1 ,dionysus1 the ,charites1 the ,muses1 the ,nereids1 the ,nymphs1 etc4 #c4 ,deities who perform special service to the greater gods1--,iris1 ,hbe1 the ,horae21 etc4 #d4 ,deities whose personality is less distinct1--,at1 ,eris1 ,thanatos1 ,hypnos1 etc4 #e4 ,monsters1 progeny of the gods1--the ,harpies1 the ,gorgons1 ,pegasus1 ,chimaera1 ,cerberus1 ,scylla and ,charybdis1 the ,centaurs1 the ,sphinx4 ,below the gods are the demigods or heroes4 ,,legends ,,of ,,heroes4--,the space which precedes the beginning of authentic records1 the ,greeks filled up with mythical tales1 in which gods and heroes are the central figures4 ,the heroes are partly of divine parentage4 ,they are in near intercourse with the deities4 ,their deeds are superhuman1 and embody those ideals of character and of achievement which the early ,greeks cherished4 ,the production of a lively imagination1 before the dawn of the critical faculty or the growth of reflection1 these tales may yet include a nucleus of historical incident or vague reminiscences of historical relations and changes4 ,to attempt to extract these from the fictitious form in which they are embodied1 is for the most part hopeless4 ,the exploits of ,heracles 7,hercules7 have a prominent place in the legends4 ,this hero of ,argos submitted to serve a cruel tyrant1 but1 by prodigious labors 7twelve in number71 delivered men from dangerous beasts1--the ,lernaean hydra1 the ,nemean lion1 etc41--and performed other miraculous services4 ,theseus1 the national hero of ,attica1 cleared the roads of savage robbers1 and delivered his country from bondage4 ,minos1 the mythical legislator of ,crete1 cleared the sea of pirates1 and founded a maritime state4 ,of the legendary stories1 three of the most famous are ,the ,seven against ,thebes ,the ,argonautic ,expedition1 and ,the ,trojan ,war4 ,i4 ,laius1 king of ,thebes1 was told by an oracle that he should be killed by his son4 ,he exposed him1 therefore1 as soon as he was born1 on ,mount ,cithaeron4 ,saved by a herdsman1 ,oedipus was brought up by ,polybus1 king of ,corinth1 as his own son4 ,warned by the oracle that he should kill his father1 and marry his mother1 the son forsook ,corinth1 and made his abode at ,thebes4 ,meeting ,laius in a narrow pass1 and provoked by his attendants1 he slew them and him4 ,at ,thebes there was a female monster1 the ,sphinx1 who propounded a riddle1 and each day devoured a man until it should be solved4 ,oedipus won the prize which the ,queen ,jocaste had offered2 namely1 the crown and her own hand to whomsoever should free the city4 ,when his two sons and daughters had grown up1 a pestilence broke out2 and the oracle demanded that the murderer of ,laius should be banished4 ,oedipus1 in spite of the warnings of the blind priest1 ,tiresias1 finds out the truth4 ,he puts out his eyes1 and is driven into exile by his sons1 whom he curses4 ,under the guidance of his daughter ,antigone1 he finds a resting-place at ,colonus1 a suburb of ,athens1 in a grove of the ,eumenides1 whose function it was to avenge such crimes as his4 ,he received expiation at the hands of ,theseus1 and died in a calm and peaceful way4 ,this legend was the basis of some of the finest of the ,greek dramas1 ,oedipus ,tyrannus1 and the ,oedipus at ,colonus of ,sophocles1 and ,the ,seven against ,thebes of ,aeschylus4 ,the curse of ,oedipus still rested on his sons4 ,the story of ,antigone1 defying the tyrant ,creon1 and burying her slain brother1 ,polynices1 is the foundation of the drama of ,sophocles1 bearing her name4 ,finally1 the ,epigoni1 descendants of the ,seven who had fought ,thebes1 captured and destroyed that city4 #b4 ,argonauts were described as a band of heroes1 who1 through perilous and unknown seas1 sailed from ,iolcos in ,thessaly1 in the ship ,argo1 to ,colchis1 whence they brought away the golden fleece which had been stolen1 and which they found nailed to an oak1 and guarded by a sleepless dragon4 ,jason1 the leader1 was accompanied on his return by the enchantress1 ,medea1 who had aided him4 ,she1 in order to delay their pursuers1 killed her brother ,absyrtus1 and threw his body1 piece by piece1 into the sea4 ,her subsequent story involves various other tragic events4 #c4 ,the most noted of the legends is the story of the ,trojan war4 ,the deeds of the heroes of this war are the subject of the ,iliad4 ,paris1 son of ,priam1 king of ,ilios 7,troy71 in ,asia ,minor1 carried off ,helen1 the wife of ,menelaus1 king of ,sparta4 ,to recover her1 the ,greeks united in an expedition against ,troy1 which they took after a siege of ten years4 ,agamemnon1 ,achilles1 ,odysseus 7,ulysses71 ,ajax son of ,telamon1 and ,ajax son of ,oileus1 ,diomedes1 and ,nestor were among the chiefs on the ,greek side4 ,troy had its allies4 ,the ,odyssey relates to the long journey of ,odysseus on his return to ,ithaca1 his home4 ,that there was an ancient city1 ,troy1 is certain4 ,a conflict between the ,greeks and a kindred people there1 is probable4 ,not unlikely1 there was a military expedition of ,grecian tribes4 ,every thing beyond this is either plainly myth1 or incapable of verification4 ,,unions ,,of ,,tribes4--,during the period when the ,greek population was dispersing itself in the districts which its different fractions occupied in the historic ages1 there arose unions among tribes near one another1 for religious purposes4 ,they preceded treaties and alliances of the ordinary kind4 ,such tribes agreed to celebrate1 in common1 certain solemn festivals4 ,deputies of these tribes met at stated intervals to look after the temple and the lands pertaining to it4 ,out of these unions1 there grew stipulations relative to the mode of conducting war and other matters of common interest4 ,treaties of peace and of mutual defense might follow4 ,thus arose combinations of states1 in which one state1 the strongest1 would have the hegemony1 or lead4 ,this became an established characteristic of ,greek political life4 ,it was a system of federal unions under the headship of the most powerful member of the confederacy4 ,when such a union was formed1 it established a common worship or festival4 ,,the ,,delphic ,,amphictyony4--,in the north of ,greece1 there was formed1 in early times1 a great religious union4 ,it was composed of twelve tribes banded together for the worship of ,apollo at ,delphi1 and to guard his temple4 ,it was called the ,delphic ,amphictyony1 or ,league of ,neighbors4 ,the members of this body agreed not to destroy one another's towns in war1 and not to cut off running water from a town which they were besieging4 ,,the ,,delphic ,,oracle4--,the sanctuary at ,delphi1 where the ,amphictyonic ,council met1 became the most famous temple in ,greece4 ,here the oracle of ,apollo gave answers to those who came to consult that divinity4 ,the priests who managed the temple kept themselves well informed in regard to occurrences in distant places4 ,their answers were often discreet and wholesome1 but not unfrequently obscure and ambiguous1 and thus misleading4 ,in early times their moral influence in the nation promoted justice and fraternal feeling4 ,in later times they lost their reputation for honesty and impartiality4 ,in civil wars the priests were sometimes bribed to support one of the contending parties4 ,,the ,,homeric ,,poems4--,within the last century1 there has been much discussion about the authorship of the two poems1 the ,iliad and the ,odyssey4 ,the place where they were composed1 whether among the ,ionians in ,greece proper or in ,asia ,minor1 is still a matter of debate4 ,it was probably ,asia ,minor4 ,seven places contended for the honor of having given birth to the blind bard4 ,but nothing is known of ,homer's birthplace or history4 ,it is doubtful whether the art of writing was much1 if at all1 in use among the ,greeks at the time of the composition of the ,iliad and ,odyssey4 ,we know that the custom existed of repeating poems orally by minstrels or rhapsodists at popular festivals4 ,this may have been the mode in which for a time the ,homeric poems were preserved and transmitted4 ,the ,odyssey has more unity than the ,iliad1 and seems to be of a somewhat later date4 ,the nucleus of the ,iliad is thought by some scholars to be embedded in the group of poems which1 it is supposed1 constitute the work at present2 but there is no evidence making it possible to identify any portion as the work of ,homer4 ,whatever may be the truth on these questions1 the ,iliad and ,odyssey present an invaluable picture of ,greek life in the period when they were composed1 which was probably as early as #ijj ,b4,c4 ,,social ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,homeric ,,age4--7#a7 ,government4 ,in the ,homeric portraiture of ,greek life1 there are towns2 but the tribe is predominant over the town4 ,the tribe is ruled by a king1 who is not like an ,eastern despot1 but has about him a council of chiefs1 and is bound by the themistes1 the traditional customs4 ,there is1 besides1 the agora1 or popular assembly1 where debates take place among the chiefs1 and to which their decisions1 or rather the decision of the king1 on whom it devolves finally to determine every thing1 are communicated4 ,public speaking1 it is seen1 is practiced in the infancy of ,greek society4 7#b7 ,customs4 ,people live in hill-villages1 surrounded by walls4 ,life is patriarchal1 and1 as regards the domestic circle1 humane4 ,polygamy1 the plague of ,oriental society1 does not exist4 ,women are held in high regard4 ,slavery is everywhere established4 ,side by side with piracy and constant war1 and the supreme honor given to military prowess1 there is a fine and bountiful hospitality which is held to be a religious duty4 ,in the ,homeric poems1 there is often exhibited a noble refinement of thought and sentiment1 and a gentle courtesy4 7#c7 ,arts and ,industry4 ,in war1 the chariot is the engine3 cavalry are unknown4 ,the useful arts are in a rudimental stage4 ,spinning and weaving are the constant occupation of women4 ,all garments are made at home3 noble women join with their slaves in washing them in the river4 ,the condition of the common freeman who took one temporary job after another1 was miserable4 ,of the condition of those who pursued special occupations1--as the carpenter1 the leather-dresser1 the fisherman1 etc41--we have no adequate information4 ,the principal metals were in use1 and the art of forging them4 ,there was no coined money3 payment was made in oxen4 ,but there is hereditary individual property in land1 cultivated vineyards1 temples of the gods1 and splendid palaces of the chiefs4 7#d7 ,geographical ,knowledge4 ,in ,homer1 there is a knowledge of ,greece1 of the neighboring islands1 and western ,asia ,minor4 ,references to other lands are vague4 ,the earth is a sort of flat oval1 with the ,river ,oceanus flowing round it4 ,hesiod is better informed about places3 he knows something of the ,nile and of the ,scythians1 and of some places as far west as ,syracuse4 ,,religion ,,in ,,the ,,homeric ,,age4--,the ,homeric poems give us a full idea of the early religious ideas and practices1 7,i7 ,the ,nature of the ,gods4--,the gods in ,homer are human beings with greatly magnified powers4 ,their dwelling is in the sky above us3 their special abode is ,mount ,olympus4 ,they experience hunger1 but feed on ambrosia and nectar4 ,they travel with miraculous speed4 ,their prime blessing is exemption from mortality4 ,among themselves they are often discordant and deceitful4 7#b7 ,relation of the ,gods to ,men4 ,they are the rulers and guides of nations4 ,though they act often from mere caprice or favoritism1 their sway is1 on the whole1 promotive of justice4 ,zeus is supreme3 none can contend with him successfully4 ,the gods hold communication with men4 ,they also make known their will and intentions by signs and portents1--such as thunder and lightning1 or the sudden passing of a great bird of prey4 ,they teach men through dreams4 7#c7 ,service of the ,gods4 ,sacrifice and supplication are the chief forms of devotion4 ,there is no dominant hierarchy4 ,the temple has its priest1 but the father is priest in his own household4 7#d7 ,morals and ,religion4 ,morality is interwoven with religion4 ,above all1 oaths are sacred1 and oath-breakers abhorred by gods as well as by men4 ,in the conduct of the divinities1 there are found abundant examples of unbridled anger and savage retaliation4 ,yet gentle sentiments1 counsels to forbearance and mercy1 are not wanting4 ,the wrath of the gods is most provoked by lawless self-assertion and insolence4 7#e7 ,propitiation3 the ,dead4 ,the sense of sin leads to the appeasing of the deities by offerings1 attended with prayer4 ,the offerings are gifts to the god1 tokens of the honor due to him4 ,the dead live as flitting shadows in ,hades4 ,achilles is made to say that he would rather be a miserable laborer on earth than to reign over all the dead in the abodes below4 ,,greek ,,literature4--,the chief types1 both of poetry and of prose1 originated with the ,greeks4 ,their writings are the fountainhead of the literature of ,europe4 ,they prized simplicity3 they always had an intense disrelish for obscurity and bombast4 ,the earliest poetry of the ,greeks consisted of hymns to the gods4 ,it was lyrical1 an outpouring of personal feeling4 ,the lyrical type was followed by the epic1 where heroic deeds1 or other events of thrilling interest1 are the theme of song1 and the personal emotion of the bard is out of sight through his absorption in the subject4 ,description flows on1 the narrator himself being in the background4 ,this epic poetry culminates in the ,iliad and ,odyssey 7#ijj-gjj ,b4,c474 ,their verse is the hexameter4 ,these poems move on in a swift current1 yet without abruptness or monotony4 ,they are marked by a simplicity and a nobleness1 a refinement and a pathos1 which have charmed all subsequent ages4 ,homer1 far more than any other author1 was the educator of the ,greeks4 ,there was a class called ,homeridae1 in ,chios2 but whether they were themselves poets1 or reciters of ,homer1 or what else may have been their peculiar work1 is not ascertained4 ,there was1 however1 a class of ,cyclic poets1 who took up the legends of ,troy1 and carried out farther the ,homeric tales4 ,hesiod was the founder of a more didactic sort of poetry4 ,he is about a century later than the ,iliad4 ,besides the ,theogony1 which treats of the origin of the gods and of nature1 his ,works and ,days relates to the works which a farmer has to do1 and the lucky or unlucky days for doing them4 ,it contains doctrines and precepts relative to agriculture1 navigation1 civil and family life4 ,hesiod was the first of a ,boeotian school of poets4 ,he lacks the poetic genius of ,homer1 and the vivacity and cheerfulness which pervade the ,iliad and the ,odyssey4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,principal ,,states4 ,,aristocratic ,,government4--,the early kings were obeyed as much for their personal qualities1 such as valor and strength of body1 as for their hereditary title4 ,by degrees the noble families about the king took control1 and the kingship thus gave way to the rule of an aristocracy4 ,the priestly office1 which required special knowledge1 remained in particular families1 as the ,eumolpidaee at ,athens1--families to whom was ascribed the gift of the seer1 and to whom were known the ,eleusinian mysteries4 ,the nobles were landholders1 with dependent farmers who paid rent4 ,the nobles held sway over tillers of the soil1 artisans and seamen1 who constituted the people 7the demos71 and who had no share in political power4 ,this state of things continued until the lower class gained more property and more knowledge2 and the example of the colonial settlements1 where there was greater equality1 re-acted on the parent state4 ,the struggle of the lower ranks for freedom was of long continuance4 ,in all ,greek cities1 there were ,metoeci1 or resident foreigners without political rights1 and also slaves from abroad4 ,free-born ,greeks busied themselves with occupations connected with the fine arts1 or with trade and commerce on an extended scale4 ,they commonly eschewed all other employments1 and especially menial labor4 ,,the ,,constitution ,,of ,,the ,,lycurgus4--,according to the legend1 disorders in ,sparta following the ,dorian conquest1 and strife between the victors and the conquered1 moved ,lycurgus1 a man of regal descent1 to retire to ,crete1 where the old ,dorian customs were still observed4 ,on his return he gave to the citizens a constitution1 which was held in reverence by the generations after him4 ,to him1 also1 laws and customs which were really of later date1 came to be ascribed4 ,the ,spartan population consisted 7#a7 of the ,spartiat1 who had full rights1 and those of less means1--both comprising the ,dorian conquerors4 ,they were divided into three ,phyl1 or tribes1 each composed of ten divisions 7,ob72 7#b7 the ,perici1 ,achaeans who paid tribute on the land which they held1 were bound to military service1 but had no political rights2 7#c7 the ,helots1 serfs of the ,state1 who were divided among the ,spartiat by lot1 and cultivated their lands1 paying to them a certain fraction of the harvest4 ,the form of government established by ,lycurgus was an aristocratic republic4 ,the ,council of ,elders1 twenty-eight in number1 chosen for life by the ,phyl1 were presided over by two hereditary kings1 who had little power in time of peace1 but unlimited command of the forces in war4 ,the popular assembly1 composed of all ,spartiat of thirty years of age or upwards1 could only decide questions without debate4 ,five ,ephors1 chosen yearly by the ,phyl1 acquired more and more authority4 ,lycurgus is said to have divided the land into nine thousand equal lots for the families of the ,spartiat1 and thirty thousand for the ,periceci4 ,to keep down the helots required constant vigilance1 and often occasioned measures of extreme cruelty4 ,the ,crypteia was an organized guard of young ,spartans1 whose business it was to prevent insurrection4 ,,laws ,,and ,,customs4--,the ,spartan state was thus aristocratic and military4 ,it took into its own hands the education of the young4 ,weak and deformed children were left to perish in a ravine of ,taygetus1 or thrust down among the ,periceci4 ,healthy children at the age of seven were taken from their homes1 to be reared under the supervision of the ,state4 ,they had some literary instruction1 but their chief training was in gymnastics4 ,they were exercised in hunting and in drills2 took their meals together in the syssitia 7the public mess71 where the fare was rough and scanty2 slept in dormitories together2 and by every means were disciplined for a soldier's life4 ,the ,spartan men likewise fed at public tables1 and slept in barracks1 only making occasional visits to their own houses4 ,no money was in circulation except iron3 no one was permitted to possess gold or silver4 ,girls were separately drilled in gymnastic exercises and made to be as hardy as boys4 ,marriage was regulated by the ,state4 ,there was more purity1 and women had a higher standing1 in ,sparta than in other parts of ,greece4 ,the strength of the ,spartan army was in the hoplites1 or heavy-armed infantry4 ,in battle1 messmates stood together4 ,cowardice was treated with the utmost contempt4 ,the rigorous subordination of the young to their elders was maintained in war as in peace4 ,the legend held1 that after this constitution of ,lycurgus had been approved by the ,delphian oracle1 he made the citizens swear to observe it until he should return from a projected journey4 ,he then went to ,crete1 and stayed there until his death4 ,,hegemony ,,of ,,sparta4--,having thus organized the body politic1 ,sparta took the steps which gave it the hegemony in ,peloponnesus and over all ,greece4 ,first1 it conquered the neighboring state of ,messenia in two great wars1 the first ending about #gbe ,b4,c41 and the second about #fej ,b4,c4 ,in the first of these wars1 the ,messenians submitted to become tributary to ,sparta1 after their citadel1 ,ithome1 had been captured1 and their defeated hero1 ,aristodemus1 had slain himself4 ,many of the vanquished ,messenians escaped from their country to ,arcadia and ,argolis4 ,some of them fled farther1 and founded ,rhegium in ,lower ,italy4 ,in the second war1 the ,messenians revolted against the tyrannical rule of ,sparta1 and at first1 under ,aristomenes1 were successful1 but were afterwards defeated by the ,spartans1 who were inspirited for the conflict by the war-songs of the ,athenian poet1 ,tyrtaeus4 ,aristomenes fled to ,rhodes4 ,most of his people were made helots4 ,the ,arcadians1 after long resistance1 succumbed1 and came under the ,spartan hegemony 7about #fjj ,b4,c474 ,argos1 too1 was obliged to renounce its claim to this position in favor of its ,spartan antagonist1 after its defeat by ,cleomenes1 the ,lacedaemonian king1 at ,thyrea 7#edi ,b4,c474 ,the ,argive ,league was dissolved1 and ,sparta gained the right to command in every war that should be waged in common by the ,peloponnesian states1 the right1 also1 to determine the contingent of troops which each should furnish1 and to preside in the council of the confederacy4 ,she now began to spread her power beyond ,peloponnesus1 entered into negotiations with ,lydia 7#eee ,b4,c471 and actually sent an expedition to the coast of ,asia 7#ebe ,b4,c474 ,moreover as early as #eaj ,b4,c41 by interfering in the affairs of the states north of the ,corinthian isthmus1 and with ,attica in particular1 she sowed among the ,athenians the seeds of a lasting enmity4 ,,government ,,in ,,athens3 ,,draco4--,according to the legend1 ,codrus1 who died about #ajfh ,b4,c41 was the last of the ,athenian kings4 ,the ,eupatrids1 the noble families1 abolished monarchy1 and substituted for the king an ,archon1 chosen for life by them out of the family of ,codrus4 ,the ,eupatrids stood in a sort of patriarchal relation to the common people4 ,the inhabitants were divided into four tribes4 ,these were subdivided1 first into ,brotherhoods and ,clans1 and secondly1 into classes based on consanguinity1 and classes arranged for taxation1 military service1 etc4 ,the entire community comprised the ,nobles1--in whose hands the political power was lodged1--the ,farmers1 and the ,artisans4 ,the farmers and the artisans might gather in the ,agora1 and express assent to public measures1 or dissent4 ,in process of time the archons came to be chosen not from the family of ,codrus exclusively1 but from the ,eupatrids generally4 ,from #fhb ,b4,c4 they were nine in number1 and they served but for one year4 ,the administration of justice was in the hands of the nobles1 who were not restrained by a body of written laws4 ,the archon ,draco1 about #fba ,b4,c41 in order to check this evil1 framed a code which seemed harsh1 though milder than the laws previously enforced4 ,later it was said of his laws that they were written in blood4 ,this legislation was a concession to which the nobles were driven by an uprising4 ,their hard treatment of debtors1 many of whom were deprived of their liberty1 had stirred up a serious conflict between the people and their masters4 ,a rebellion1 led by ,cylon1 one of the ,eupatrids1 was put down1 and punished by means involving treachery and sacrilege4 ,the insurgents were slain clinging to the altars of the gods1 where they had taken refuge4 ,not long after it became necessary to introduce other reforms at the advice of ,solon1 one of the seven wise men of ,greece4 ,he had acquired popularity by recovering ,salamis from the ,megarians1 and in a sacred war against towns which had robbed the temple of ,apollo at ,delphi4 ,,legislation ,,of ,,solon--,the design of ,solon was to substitute a better system for the tyrannical oligarchy1 but1 at the same time1 to keep power mainly in the hands of the upper class4 ,he divided the people into four classes1 according to the amount of their income4 ,to the richest of these the archonship1 and admission into the ,areopagus1 were confined4 ,a new council was established1 which had the right to initiate legislation1 composed of one hundred from each of the four old tribes1 and annually elected by the body of the citizens4 ,the ,ecclesia1 or assembly of the whole people1 having the right to choose the archons and councilors1 was revived4 ,courts of ,appeal1 with jury trials1 were instituted4 ,the old council of the ,areopagus was clothed with high judicial and executive powers4 ,there were laws to relieve a portion of the debtors from their burdens1 and to abolish servitude for debt4 ,every father was required to teach his son a handicraft4 ,,parties ,,in ,,athens4--,the legislation of ,solon was a measure of compromise4 ,it satisfied neither party4 ,after journeys abroad1 he passed his old age in ,athens1 and was a spectator of the rising contests between the discordant factions1 which his constitution was only able for a time to curb4 ,there were three parties1--a re-actionary party under ,lycurgus1 a progressive party led by ,pisistratus1 and a moderate or middle party under ,megacles4 ,,the ,,tyrants4--,at this time1 in almost all of the ,grecian states1 monarchy had given place to aristocracy4 ,the reign of an oligarchy1 the unbridled sway of a few1 was commonly the next step4 ,against this the people in different states1--the demos1--rose in revolt4 ,the popular leader1 or demagogue1 was some conspicuous and wealthy noble1 who thus acquired supreme authority4 ,in this way1 in the seventh and sixth centuries1 most of the states were ruled by tyrants1--a term signifying absolute rulers1 whether their administration was unjust and cruel1 or fair and mild4 ,they endeavored to fortify their rule by collecting poets1 artists1 and musicians about them1 for their own pleasure and for the diversion of the populace4 ,occasionally they gave the people employment in the erection of costly buildings4 ,they formed alliances with one another and with foreign kings4 ,not unfrequently they practiced violence and extortion4 ,the oligarchies sought to dethrone them4 ,their overthrow often had for its result the introduction of popular sovereignty4 ,among the most noted tyrants were ,periander of ,corinth 7#fbe-ehe ,b4,c471 ,pittacus in ,lesbos 7#ehi-egi ,b4,c471 and ,polycrates in ,samos 7#ece-ebb ,b4,c474 ,the ,,pisistratids4--,the government of ,athens1 framed by ,solon1 was in effect a timocracy1 or rule of the rich4 ,at the head of the popular party stood ,pisistratus1 a rich nobleman of high descent4 ,he succeeded1 by means of his armed guard1 in making himself master of the citadel4 ,twice driven out of the city1 he at length returned 7#ech ,b4,c471 and gained permanent control by force of arms4 ,he managed his government with shrewdness and energy4 ,industry and trade flourished4 ,he decorated ,athens with buildings and statues4 ,religious festivals he caused to be celebrated with splendor4 ,he ruled under the legal forms by having archons chosen to suit him4 ,he died #ebg ,b4,c4 ,hippias1 his son1 governed with mildness until his younger brother and colleague in power1 ,hipparchus1 was slain by the two friends1 ,harmodius and ,aristogiton4 ,then he gave the rein to revengeful passion1 and laid upon the people burdensome taxes4 ,hippias was driven out of the city by the ,alcmaeonidae and other exiled nobles1 assisted by the ,spartan king1 ,cleomenes 7#eaj ,b4,c474 ,he fled to ,asia ,minor in order to secure ,persian help4 ,,the ,,athenian ,,democracy4--,clisthenes1 a brilliant man1 the head of the ,alcmaeonid family1 connected himself with the popular party1 and introduced such changes in the constitution as to render him the founder of the ,athenian ,democracy4 ,the power of the archons was reduced4 ,all of the free inhabitants of ,attica were admitted to citizenship4 ,new tribes1 ten in number1 each comprising ten denes1 or hamlets1 with their adjacent districts1 superseded the old tribes4 ,a council of five hundred1 fifty from each tribe1 supplanted ,solon's council of four hundred4 ,the courts of law were newly organized4 ,the ,ostracism was introduced2 that is1 the prerogative of the popular assembly to decree by secret ballot1 without trial1 the banishment of a person who should be deemed to be dangerous to the public weal4 ,certain officers were designated by lot4 ,ten ,strategi1 one from each tribe1 by turns1 took the place of the archon polemarchus in command of the army4 ,,effect ,,of ,,democracy4--,under this system of free government1 the energy of the ,athenian people was developed with amazing rapidity4 ,the spirit of patriotism1 of zeal for the honor and welfare of ,athens1 rose to a high pitch4 ,the power and resources of the city increased in a proportionate degree4 ,culture kept pace with prosperity4 ,,lyrical ,,poetry4--,in the eighth century1 when monarchy was declining1 and the tendency to democracy began to manifest itself1 a new style of poetry1 different from the epic1 arose4 ,the narrative poems of minstrels were heard at the great religious festivals4 ,but there was a craving for the expression of individual feeling4 ,hence1 lyrical poetry re-appeared1 not in the shape of religious songs1 as in the old time1 but in a form to touch all the chords of sentiment4 ,two new types of verse appeared1--the ,elegiac and the ,iambic4 ,at first the elegy was probably a lament for the dead4 ,it was accompanied by the soft music of the ,lydian flute4 ,the instruments which the ,greeks had used were string-instruments4 ,the early ,greek elegies related to a variety of themes1--as war1 love1 preceptive wisdom4 ,the iambic meter was first used in satire4 ,its earliest master of distinction was ,arckilochus of ,paros 7#fgj ,b4,c474 ,it was employed1 however1 in fables1 and elsewhere when pointed or intense expression was craved4 ,the earliest of the ,greek elegists1 ,callinus and ,tyrtaus1 composed war-songs4 ,mimnermus1 ,solon1 ,theognis1 ,simonides of ,ceos1 are among the most famous elegists4 ,music developed in connection with lyric poetry4 ,the ,greeks at first used the four-stringed lyre4 ,terpander made an epoch 7#ffj ,b4,c47 by adding three strings4 ,olympus and ,thaletas made further improvements4 ,greek lyric poetry flourished1 especially from #fgj to #ddj ,b4,c4 ,the ,aeolian lyrists of ,lesbos founded a school of their own4 ,the two great representatives are ,alcaus1 who sang of war and of love1 and ,sappho1 who sang of love4 ,probably no poet ever surpassed ,sappho as an interpreter of passion in exquisitely subtle harmonies of form and sound4 ,anacreon1 an ,ionian1 resembled in his style the ,aeolian lyrists4 ,he was most often referred to by the ancients as the poet of sensuous feeling of every sort4 ,the ,dorian lyric poetry was mostly choral and historic in its topics4 ,greek lyric poetry reaches the climax in ,simonides and ,pindar4 ,the latter was a ,boeotian1 but of ,dorian descent4 ,simonides was tender and polished2 ,pindar1 fervid and sublime ,the extant works of ,pindar are the ,epinicia1 or odes of victory4 ,,historical ,,writing4--,this age witnesses the beginnings of historical writing4 ,but the logographers1 as they were called1 only wrote prose epics4 ,they told the story of the foundation of families and cities1 reconciling as best they could the myths1 so far as they clashed with one another4 ,,philosophy3 ,,the ,,ionian ,,school4--,the ,greeks were the first to investigate rationally the causes of things1 and to try to comprehend the world as a complete system4 ,the earliest phase of this movement was on the side of physics1 or natural philosophy4 ,homer and ,hesiod had accounted for the operations of nature by referring them to the direct personal action of different divinities4 ,the earliest philosophers brought in the conception of some kind of matter as the foundation and source of all things4 ,the ,ionian ,school led the way in this direction4 ,thales of ,miletus 7about #fjj ,b4,c47 made this primary substance to be water4 ,anaximander 7#faa-8 ,b4,c47 made all things spring out of a primitive stuff1 without definite qualities1 and without bounds4 ,he taught that the earth is round1 invented the sun-dial1 engraved a map on a brass tablet1 and made some astronomical calculations4 ,anaximenes 7first half1 #fth ,c47 derived all things from air1 which he made to be eternal and infinite4 ,,the ,,eleatic ,,school4--,the ,eleatic ,school conceived of the world as one in substance1 and held that the natural phenomena which we behold1 in all their variety and change1 are unreal4 ,xenophanes 7who flourished from #egb to #dgh ,b4,c47 asserted this4 ,parmenides 7#ejd-dfj ,b4,c47 taught that succession1 change1 the manifold forms of things1 are only relative2 that is1 are only our way of regarding the one universal essence4 ,zeno sought to vindicate this theory logically by disproving the possibility of motion4 ,,other ,,philosophers4--,another set of philosophers attempted definitely to explain the appearances of things1 the changing phenomena1 which had been called unreal4 ,heraclitus made the world to be nothing but these3 ,there is no substratum of things3 there is only an endless flux1 a cycle4 ,all things begin and end in fire1 the symbol of what is real4 ,empedocles ascribed all things to fire1 air1 earth1 and water1 which are wrought into different bodies by love and hate2 or1 as we should say1 attraction and repulsion4 ,democritus was the founder of the ,atomists1 who made all things spring out of the motions and combinations of primitive atoms4 ,anaxagoras brought in intelligence1 or reason1 as giving the start to the development of matter1--this principle doing nothing more1 however1 and being inherent in matter itself4 ,,pythagoras4--,a different spirit in philosophy belonged to ,pythagoras 7#ehj-ejj ,b4,c471 who was born in ,samos1 traveled extensively1 and settled in ,croton1 in southern ,italy4 ,his theory was1 that the inner substance of all things is number4 ,discipline of character was a prime object4 ,pythagoras was sparing in his diet1 promoted an earnest culture1 in which music was prominent1 and gave rise to a mystical school1 in which moral reform and religious fueling were connected with an ascetic method of living4 ,,colonies4--,it was during the era of the oligarchies and tyrannies that the colonizing spirit was most active among the ,greeks4 ,most of the colonies were established between #hjj and #eej ,b4,c4 ,their names alone would make a very long catalogue4 ,they were of two classes3 first1 independent communities1 connected1 however1 with the parent city by close ties of friendship2 and secondly1 kleruchies1 which were of the nature of garrisons1 where the settlers retained their former rights as citizens1 and the mother city its full authority over them4 ,in ,sicily1 on the eastern side1 were the ,ionian communities1--,naxos1 ,catana1 etc4 ,syracuse 7founded by ,corinth #gcd ,b4,c471 ,gela1 and ,agrigentum1 which were among the chief ,dorian settlements1 lay on the south-eastern and south-western coasts4 ,the oldest ,greek town in ,italy was ,cumae 7not far from ,naples71 said to have been founded in #ajej ,b4,c4 ,tarentum 7,dorian71 ,sybaris1 and ,croton 7,aeolic7 were settled in the latter part of the eighth century4 ,locri 7,aeolic7 and ,rhegium 7,ionic7 were on the south4 ,the south-western portion of ,italy was termed ,magna ,graecia4 ,massilia 7,marseilles7 was founded by the ,phocaean ,ionians 7about #fjj ,b4,c474 ,in the western ,mediterranean the ,greeks were hindered from making their settlements as numerous as they would have done1 by the fact that ,carthage and her colonies stood in the way4 ,cyrene1 on the coast of ,africa1 was a ,dorian colony 7#fcj ,b4,c471 planted from ,thera1 an earlier ,spartan settlement4 ,cyrene founded ,barca4 ,corcyra was colonized by ,corinth 7about #gjj ,b4,c474 ,along the coast of ,epirus were other ,corinthian and ,corcyrasan settlements4 ,chalcis planted towns in the peninsula of ,chalcidice1 and from thence to ,selymbria 7or ,byzantium71 which was founded by ,megara 7#feg ,b4,c474 ,the northern shores of the gean and the ,propontis1 and the whole coast of the ,euxine were strewn with ,greek settlements4 ,the ,greek towns1 especially ,miletus1 on the western coast of ,asia ,minor1 themselves sent out colonies1--as ,cyzicus and ,sinope1 south of the ,propontis and the ,euxine4 ,the foregoing statements give only a general idea of the wide extent of ,greek colonization4 ,an exhaustive statement of the ,greek colonies is given in ,rawlinson's ,manual of ,ancient ,history1 p4 #adh seq4 ,see also ,abbott1 ,a ,history of ,greece1 ,i4 #ccc seq4 ,,period ,,ii4 ,,the ,,flourishing ,,era ,,of ,,greece4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,persian ,,wars4 ,,the ,,ionian ,,revolt4--,hardly were the ,greeks in possession of liberty when they were compelled to measure their strength with the mighty ,persian ,empire4 ,the cities of ,asia ,minor groaned under the tyranny of their ,persian rulers1 and sighed for freedom4 ,at length1 under propitious circumstances1 ,miletus rose in revolt under the lead of ,aristagoras4 ,alone of the ,grecian cities1 ,athens1 and ,eretria on the island of ,euboea1 sent help4 ,the insurrection was extinguished in blood3 its leaders perished4 ,miletus was destroyed by the enemy #die ,b4,c42 and the ,ionian towns were again brought under the ,persian yoke1 which was made heavier than before4 ,the ,persian monarch1 ,darius1 swore vengeance upon those who had aided the rebellion4 ,,the ,,battle ,,of ,,marathon4--,mardonius1 the son-in-law of ,darius1 moved with a fleet and an army along the gean coast4 ,a storm shattered the fleet upon the rocky promontory of ,athos1 and the land force was partly destroyed by the ,thracians4 ,mardonius retreated homeward4 ,the heralds who came to demand1 according to the ,persian custom1 water and earth of ,athens and ,sparta1 were put to death4 ,enraged at these events1 ,darius sent a stronger fleet under ,datis and ,artaphernes4 ,they forced ,naxos and the other ,cyclades to submission1 captured and destroyed ,eretria1 and sent off its inhabitants as slaves to the interior of ,asia4 ,guided on their path of destruction by the ,athenian refugee1 ,hippias1 the ,persians landed on the coast of ,attica1 and encamped on the shore adjacent to the plain of ,marathon4 ,the ,athenians sent ,philippides1 one of the swiftest of couriers1 to ,sparta for assistance1 who reached that city1 a hundred and thirty-five or a hundred and forty miles distant1 the next day after he started4 ,he brought back for answer that the ,spartans were deterred by religious scruples from marching to war before the full moon1 which would be ten days later4 ,there was a ,greek1 as well as a ,judaic1 ,pharisaism4 ,left to themselves1 the ,athenians were fortunate in having for their leader ,miltiades1 an able and experienced soldier1 who had been with the ,persians in the ,scythian campaign4 ,at the head of the ,athenian infantry1 ten thousand in number1 whose hearts were cheered before the onset by the arrival of a re-inforcement of one thousand men1 comprising the whole fighting population of the little town of ,plata1 ,miltiades attacked the ,persian army1 ten times as large as his own4 ,the ,athenians ran down the gentle slope at ,marathon1 shouting their war-cry1 or pan1 and1 after a fierce conflict1 drove the ,persians back to their ships1 capturing their camp with all its treasures 7,sept4 #ab1 #dij ,b4,c474 ,this brilliant victory was not the end of danger4 ,the ,greek watchmen saw a treacherous signal1 a glistening shield1 on ,mount ,pentelicus1 put there to signify to the ,persians that ,athens was open to their attack4 ,in that direction1 round ,cape ,sunium1 the ,persian fleet sailed4 ,but ,miltiades1 by a rapid march of twenty-three miles1 reached the city in season to prevent the landing4 ,datis and ,artaphernes sailed away4 ,the traitor1 ,hippias1 died on the return voyage4 ,the patriotic exultation of the ,athenians was well warranted4 ,never did they look back upon that victory without a thrill of joyful pride4 ,it proved what a united free people were capable of achieving4 ,more than that1 ,,marathon was one of the decisive battles which form turning-points in the world's history4 ,it was a mortal conflict between the ,east and the ,west1 between ,asia and ,europe1--the coarse despotism under which individual energy is stifled1 and the dawning liberty which was to furnish the atmosphere required for the full development and culture of the human mind4 ,,aristides ,,and ,,themistocles4--,miltiades subsequently failed in an attempt against ,paros1 one of the gean islands which had submitted to the ,persians1 and which he sought to conquer4 ,accused of making false promises to the people1 he was fined fifty talents1 but died before the sum could be collected 7#dhi ,b4,c474 ,his son ,cimon paid the fine4 ,the two leading men in ,athens at that time were ,aristides and ,themistocles4 ,the former1 from his uprightness1 was styled the just4 ,themistocles was a man of genius1 of an ambitious spirit1 whom the laurels of ,miltiades robbed of sleep4 ,devoted to ,athens1 he was not scrupulous in regard to the means of advancing her prosperity and glory4 ,duplicity and intrigue were weapons in the use of which he was not less willing than expert4 ,he aspired to make ,athens a great naval and maritime power4 ,aristides believed that the strength of the country lay in the landholders and in the land forces4 ,in the attainment of public ends1 he would not deviate from a straightforward course4 ,themistocles was by far the more captivating of the two men2 and1 in #dhd ,b4,c41 ,aristides was ostracised4 ,themistocles was thus left free to build up a powerful fleet4 ,,the ,,war ,,with ,,xerxes3 ,,thermopyl4--,darius died while he was preparing another grand expedition against ,greece4 ,he left his successor1 ,xerxes 7#dhe ,b4,c471 to complete and carry out the plan4 ,this proud monarch drew together from his immense dominions an army which tradition1 as given in ,herodotus1 made to number one million seven hundred thousand men and a fleet of twelve hundred large vessels4 ,he had for a counselor1 ,demaratus1 a fugitive king of ,sparta4 ,the vast array of troops was assembled near ,sardes1 and thence marched to the ,hellespont4 ,seven days were spent by this mighty gathering of nations in passing over the two bridges of boats4 ,they marched through ,thrace1 ,macedonia1 and ,thessaly1 the ,persian fleet proceeding along the coast4 ,botia and several smaller states yielded without resistance4 ,the most of the other ,greek states1 inspired by ,themistocles1 joined hands for defense under the hegemony of ,sparta4 ,in ,july1 #dhj1 the ,persian army arrived at the narrow pass of ,thermopyl4 ,there the ,lacedemonian king1 ,leonidas1 with his three hundred ,spartans and some thousands of allies1 had taken his stand1 to stem the vast current that was pouring down to overwhelm ,greece4 ,to the ,persian command to give up their weapons1 the laconic reply was given by ,leonidas1 ,come and get them4 ,for several days the band of ,spartans defended the pass1 beating back the ,persians1 thousands of whom were slain1 and repulsing1 even1 the ten thousand immortals1 who constituted the royal guard4 ,at length a treacherous ,greek showed the enemy a by-path1 which enabled them to fall on the rear of the gallant troops1 every one of whom fell1 bravely fighting1 with his weapon in his hand4 ,a lion made of iron was afterwards placed on the spot where the heroes had died1 obedient to the commands of ,sparta4 ,the ,persians pushed forward to ,athens1 and burned the city4 ,all citizens capable of bearing arms were on board the fleet3 the women1 children1 and movable property had been conveyed to ,salamis1 gina1 and ,trzcne4 ,,salamis4--,the ,greek fleet1 under the ,spartan ,eurybiades1 had come from victory at ,artemisium into the ,gulf of ,salamis4 ,by means of a device of ,themistocles1 the ,spartans were prevented from withdrawing their forces to the ,corinthian isthmus1 where they had built a wall for their own protection2 and a sea-fight was brought on1 of which the ,athenians in ,salamis1 and ,xerxes himself from a hill on the mainland1 were anxious spectators 7,sept4 #bg1 #dhj74 ,once more the cause of civilization was staked on the issue of a conflict4 ,the ,greeks were completely victorious1 and their land was saved4 ,xerxes hastily marched towards home1 thousands of his army perishing on the way from hunger1 cold1 and fatigue4 ,the ,spartiat gave to ,eurybiades the prize of valor1 to ,themistocles an olive crown for his wisdom and sagacity4 ,,plat,a3 ,,mycale3 ,,eurymedon4--,xerxes left three hundred thousand men behind in ,thessaly1 under the command of ,mardonius4 ,in the spring1 incensed at the proud rejection of his overtures1 he marched to ,athens1 whose people again took refuge in ,salamis4 ,in the great battle of ,plata 7#dgi ,b4,c471 the ,greeks1 led by the ,spartan ,pausanias1 inflicted on him such a defeat that only forty thousand ,persians escaped to the ,hellespont4 ,on the same day at ,mycale1 the ,persian fleet was vanquished in a sharp encounter where a ,spartan commanded1 but where the ,athenians were the most efficient combatants4 ,sestos1 ,lemnos1 ,imbros1 and ,byzantium were taken by the ,greeks2 and a double victory of ,cimon1 the son of ,miltiades1 at the ,pamphylian river1 ,eurymedon1 over both the land and naval forces of the ,persians1 brought the war to an end 7#dfg ,b4,c474 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,ascendency ,,of ,,athens4 ,,pausanias ,,and ,,themistocles4--,both of the generals by whom the ,persians had been overcome1 fell under the displeasure of the states to which they belonged4 ,pausanias was so far misled by ambition as to engage in a negotiation with the ,persians for the elevation of himself1 by their aid1 to supreme power in ,greece4 ,his plots were discovered1 and he was compelled by his countrymen to starve to death in a temple to which he had fled for refuge4 ,themistocles caused ,athens to be surrounded by a wall1 and built long walls from the city to the ,pirus4 ,this provoked the hatred of the ,spartans1 so jealous were they of the power of ,athens4 ,in conjunction with his ,athenian enemies1 they contrived to procure his banishment for ten years 7#dga ,b4,c474 ,themistocles fled to ,persia1 where he was treated with honor and favor4 ,artaxerxes ,i4 gave him a princely domain in ,asia ,minor where he died 7#deh ,b4,c474 ,grave as his faults were1 ,themistocles was the founder of the historical greatness of ,athens4 ,,confederacy ,,of ,,delos4--,it was through the influence of ,aristides that the confederacy of ,delos was formed1 in which the ,grecian islands and seaports combined with ,athens1 and under her leadership1 for the further prosecution of the war4 ,by this means1 the ,athenians1 already so efficient on the sea1 were enabled still more to strengthen their fleet1 and gradually to bring the gean islands and smaller maritime states under their sway4 ,cimon rendered great service as a naval commander4 ,he drove the ,persians out of ,thrace altogether1 and he conquered ,scyros4 ,he wrested the ,chersonese from the ,persians1 and freed the ,greek cities on the coast4 ,in the single battle on the ,eurymedon1 he sunk or captured two hundred galleys 7#dfg ,b4,c474 ,,to ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,pericles4--,under the leadership of such men1 the ,athenian ,republic became more and more powerful4 gina1 a rich and prosperous island1 was conquered1 and planted with ,athenian colonists4 ,megara became a dependency of ,athens4 ,sparta1 partly in consequence of a struggle with ,argos1 a state friendly to the ,persians1 and still more on account of an earthquake which laid the most of the city in ruins 7#dfe ,b4,c471 was so crippled as not to be able to check the progress of the rival community4 ,she was even obliged to invoke ,athenian help against the revolting ,messenians and helots2 but after the troops of ,athens had joined them1 the ,spartans1 jealous and afraid of what they might do1 sent them back4 ,this indignity led to the banishment of ,cimon1 who had favored the sending of the force1 and to the granting of aid to the ,spartans4 ,the ,spartans now did their best to reduce the strength and dominion of ,athens by raising ,thebes to the hegemony over the ,boeotian cities4 ,everywhere1 in all the conflicts1 ,sparta was the champion of the aristocratic form of government2 ,athens1 of the democratic4 ,the ,athenians were defeated at ,tanagra 7#deg ,b4,c474 ,this induced them to recall ,cimon1 a great general and a worthy citizen4 ,two months after her victory1 ,sparta was defeated by ,myronides2 and the ,athenians became masters of ,phocis1 ,locris1 and ,boeotia4 ,cimon brought about a truce between ,athens and ,sparta4 ,he left his country on a high pinnacle of power and dominion4 ,nearly all the allies in the confederacy of ,delos had fallen into the position of tributaries1 whose heavy contributions were carried no longer to the sanctuary at ,delos1 but to the temple of ,athena on the ,acropolis1 and who had no power to decide on questions of peace and war4 ,the nobles1 however1 who were driven into exile in all conquered places1 were the mortal enemies of ,athens4 ,at ,coronea 7#ddg ,b4,c471 the ,boeotian refugees and aristocrats were so strong that the ,athenians experienced a disastrous defeat4 ,the peril of the situation moved ,pericles to secure1 by astute management1 a peace with ,sparta1 the terms of which were that each of the two cities was to maintain its hegemony within its own circle1 and the several states were to attach themselves at their option to either confederacy4 ,in market and harbor1 there was to be a free intercourse of trade 7#dde ,b4,c474 ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,pericles4--,pericles belonged to one of the principal ,athenian families1 but was democratic in his politics1 and made himself a popular leader4 ,by his influence the ,areopagus was stripped of high prerogatives that had belonged to it4 ,he caused it to be enacted1 that every citizen1 when engaged in the public service1 even in attending the popular assembly1 should receive a stipend4 ,for fifteen years1 as the first citizen of ,athens1 with none of the trappings of power1 he virtually ruled the commonwealth4 ,one of his works was the building the third of the long walls which protected the ,pirus and the neighboring ports on the land side1 and connected them with ,athens4 ,his patriotism was as sincere as his talents were versatile and brilliant4 ,he was at once a soldier1 an orator1 a statesman of consummate ability1 and a man imbued with the best appreciation of letters and of art4 ,in his hospitable house1 where ,aspasia from ,miletus1 a beautiful and cultured woman1 was his companion1 men of genius found a welcome4 ,under him1 ,athens became the metropolis of literature1 philosophy1 and art for the whole ,hellenic race1 and1 considering the influence of ,athens1 it might almost be said for mankind in all ages4 ,magnificent buildings--of which the ,parthenon1 the temple of ,athena that crowned the ,acropolis1 whose ruins are the model of architectural perfection1 was one--gave to the city an unrivaled beauty4 ,sculpture vied with architecture in this work of adornment4 ,phidias1 who wrought the frieze of the ,parthenon1 counted among his wonderful creations the colossal sitting statue of ,zeus at ,olympia4 ,it was the blossoming season of the ,greek intellect1 as regards literature and the fine arts4 ,the drama reached its perfection in the masterly tragedies of ,aeschylus1 ,sophocles1 and ,euripides1 and in the comedies of ,aristophanes4 ,the ,athenian community1 through its political eminence1 its intellectual character1 so original and diversified1 its culture1--such that almost every citizen was qualified for civil office1--has no parallel in history4 ,it is the elevation1 not of a select class of the citizens1 but of the whole society1 which gives to ,athens its unique distinction4 ,public spirit and enterprise1 which made her navy dominant in the ,aegean and over the sea-coast of ,asia ,minor1 went hand in hand with delight in eloquence and in the creations of genius4 ,there was not1 however1 as some have affirmed1 in the prevalent absorption in the affairs of state1 a neglect of the labors of agriculture and of mechanical industry4 ,,the ,,acropolis--,it was customary for a ,greek town to be built about an acropolis1--an eminence by which it was commanded1 and on which stood the citadel4 ,on the acropolis at ,athens were the buildings and statues in which the glory of ,athenian art was impressively displayed4 ,there were three edifices which excelled all the rest in splendor4 ,on the south side of the elevated area was the ,parthenon1 built of ,pentelic marble1 two hundred and twenty-eight feet in length1 and of faultless proportions4 ,on the northern edge was the ,erechtheum1 an ,ionic temple of extraordinary beauty4 ,the ,propylcea1 approached by sixty marble steps1 was a noble gateway3 it stood on the western end of the acropolis1 which it magnificently adorned4 ,,athens--,no other description of ,athens1 in the age of ,pericles1 equals his own in the ,funeral ,oration 7#dca ,b4,c471 as given by ,thucydides1 for those who had fallen in the war4 ,it shows how an ,athenian looked upon his city4 ,it is true that we are called a democracy2 for the administration is in the hands of the many1 and not of the few4 ,but while the law secures equal justice to all alike in their private disputes1 the claim of excellence is also recognized2 and when a citizen is in any way distinguished1 he is preferred to the public service1 not as a matter of privilege1 but as the reward of merit4 ,neither is poverty a bar2 but a man may benefit his country1 whatever be the obscurity of his condition4 ,there is no exclusiveness in our public life2 and in our private intercourse we are not suspicious of one another1 nor angry with our neighbor if he does what he likes3 we do not put on sour looks at him1 which1 though harmless1 are not pleasant4 ,while we are thus unconstrained in our private intercourse1 a spirit of reverence pervades our public acts3 we are prevented from doing wrong by respect for authority and the laws1 having an especial regard to those which are ordained for the protection of the injured1 as well as to those unwritten laws which bring upon the transgressor of them the reprobation of the general sentiment4 ,and we have not forgotten to provide for our weary spirits many relaxations from toil4 ,we have regular games and sacrifices throughout the year4 ,at home the style of our life is refined1 and the delight which we daily feel in all these things helps to banish melancholy4 ,because of the greatness of our city1 the fruits of the whole earth flow in upon us2 so that we enjoy the goods of other countries as freely as of our own4 ,then1 again1 our military training is in many respects superior to that of our adversaries4 ,our city is thrown open to the world2 and we never expel a foreigner1 or prevent him from seeing or learning any thing of which the secret1 if revealed to an enemy1 might profit him4 ,we rely not upon management or trickery1 but upon our own hearts and hands4 ,and in the matter of education1 whereas they from early youth are always undergoing laborious exercises which are to make them brave1 we live at ease1 and yet are equally ready to face the perils which they face4 ,and here is the proof1--the ,lacedaemonians come into ,attica1 not by themselves1 but with their whole confederacy following2 we go alone into a neighbor's country2 and1 although our opponents are fighting for their homes1 and we are on a foreign soil1 we have seldom any difficulty in overcoming them4 ,our enemies have never yet felt our united strength4 ,the care of a navy divides our attention1 and on land we are obliged to send our own citizens everywhere4 ,but they1 if they meet and defeat a part of our army1 are as proud as if they had routed us all2 and1 when defeated1 they pretend to have been vanquished by us all4 ,if1 then1 we prefer to meet danger with a light heart1 but without laborious training1 and with a courage which is gained by habit1 and not enforced by law1 are we not greatly the gainers8 since we do not anticipate the pain1 although1 when the hour comes1 we can be as brave as those who never allow themselves to rest4 ,and thus1 too1 our city is equally admirable in peace and war2 for we are lovers of the beautiful1 yet simple in our tastes1 and we cultivate the mind without loss of manliness4 ,wealth we employ1 not for talk and ostentation1 but when there is real use for it4 ,to avow poverty with us is no disgrace3 the true disgrace is in doing nothing to avoid it4 ,an ,athenian citizen does not neglect the ,state because he takes care of his own household1 and even those of us who are engaged in business have a very fair idea of politics4 ,we alone regard a man who takes no interest in public affairs1 not as harmless1 but as a useless character2 and1 if few of us are originators1 we are all sound judges of policy4 ,the great impediment to action is1 in our opinion1 not discussion1 but the want of that knowledge which is gained by discussion preparatory to action4 ,for we have a peculiar power of thinking before we act1 and of acting too2 whereas other men are courageous from ignorance1 but hesitate upon reflection4 ,and they are surely to be esteemed the bravest spirits who1 having the clearest sense both of the pains and pleasures of life1 do not on that account shrink from danger4 ,in doing good1 again1 we are unlike others3 we make our friends by conferring1 not by receiving1 favors4 ,now1 he who confers a favor is the firmer friend1 because he would fain by kindness keep alive the memory of an obligation2 but the recipient is colder in his feelings1 because he knows that in requiting another's generosity he will not be winning gratitude1 but only paying a debt4 ,we alone do good to our neighbors1 not upon a calculation of interest1 but in the confidence of freedom1 and in a frank and fearless spirit4 ,to sum up1 ,i say that ,athens is the school of ,hellas1 and that the individual ,athenian in his own person seems to have the power of adapting himself to the most varied forms of action with the utmost versatility and grace4 ,this is no passing and idle word1 but truth and fact2 and the assertion is verified by the position to which these qualities have raised the ,state4 ,for in the hour of trial ,athens alone among her contemporaries is superior to the report of her4 ,no enemy who comes against her is indignant at the reverses which he sustains at the hands of such a city3 no subject complains that his masters are unworthy of him4 ,and we shall assuredly not be without witnesses2 there are mighty monuments of our power1 which will make us the wonder of this and of succeeding ages4 ,we shall not need the praises of ,homer or of any other panegyrist1 whose poetry may please for the moment1 although his representation of the facts will not bear the light of day2 for we have compelled every land and every sea to open a path for our valor1 and have everywhere planted eternal memorials of our friendship and of our enmity4 ,such is the city for whose sake these men nobly fought and died3 they could not bear the thought that she might be taken from them1 and every one of us who survive should gladly toil on her behalf4 ,,religion4--,we find in ,sophocles a much purer tone of moral and religious feeling than in ,homer4 ,greek thought upon divine things is expanded and purified1 7i7 ,higher ,conception of the ,gods4 ,the gods are still conceived of as in bodily form4 ,their images abide in their temples4 ,take them away1 and the god leaves his abode4 ,the divinities need not be present1 as in ,homer1 in order to exert their power4 ,the monotheistic tendency is manifest4 ,the gods are referred to as if a single agency were in the writer's mind4 ,the regal sway of ,zeus is emphasized4 ,he is less subject to ,fate4 7#b7 ,divine ,government4 ,the gods1 especially ,zeus1 are the fountain of law4 ,the righteousness of the divine government is especially evinced in the punishment of evil-doers4 ,transgressors generally1 and not those of the worst class alone1 as in ,homer1 are punished in ,hades4 ,pride and insolence call down the vengeance of the gods4 ,unsleeping justice pursues the criminal4 ,the theory of ,nemesis1 which pursues the prosperous1 if they are proud1 to their hurt and ruin1 is held4 7#c7 ,number of the ,gods4 ,the number of divinities is multiplied as time advances4 ,the worship of the heroes1 children of the gods or goddesses1 grows in importance4 7#d7 ,revelation4 ,there was direct revelation1 it was believed1 by prophecy1 uttered now in an ecstatic1 and now in a tranquil1 mood4 ,oracles acquired a new and vast importance4 7#e7 ,rites4 ,visible objects of devotion were multiplied2 religious ceremonies ramified in all directions2 sacred processions1 festivals1 amusements involving religious observances1 abounded4 7#f7 ,morality4 ,moral excellence centered in moderation and self-government1 through which the individual keeps both his own nature as to its parts1 and himself in relation to others1 within due limits4 ,this spirit includes temperance and justice4 ,the stern spirit of law prevails3 the requital of injuries is approved4 ,yet feelings of compassion find a beautiful expression4 ,at ,athens1 there was public provision for orphans and for the help of the poor4 7#g7 ,domestic ,life3 ,patriotism4 ,the wife lived in retirement1 and in submission to her husband4 ,when he entertained friends at his table1 she was absent2 yet domestic affection was evidently strong4 ,every other duty merged in patriotism4 ,the ,greek placed a great gulf between himself and the barbarian4 ,he was conscious of higher intellectual gifts1 superior culture1 better customs4 7#h7 ,sin4 ,the ,future ,life4 ,there was a deeper sense of sin than in the ,homeric era4 ,there was a pathetic consciousness of the trouble and sorrow that beset human life4 ,hades was regarded as a scene of trial and judgment1 and of rewards as well as sufferings4 ,the soul was not so closely identified with the body4 ,death was an object of gloomy anticipation4 ,pericles1 in his funeral oration for the fallen patriots1 is silent as to a future life4 ,in the tragic poets1 it is only the select few whose lot is blessed4 ,as concerns the mass of the people1 it is probable that the ,homeric notions respecting the state of the dead still prevailed4 ,generally speaking1 we are not warranted in ascribing the more elevated views of religion entertained by the best minds to the mass of the people4 ,,the ,,tragic ,,drama4--,the songs which were sung in the worship of ,dionysus 7dithyrambs7 were accompanied with dance and pantomime4 ,the custom followed of mingling speeches and dramatic action with these lyrics4 ,the change is ascribed to ,thespis 7about #ecf ,b4,c471 a little later than ,solon4 ,thespis is said to have brought in the stage for the performers4 ,the ,greek theaters were large1 open to the sky1 and sometimes on sites which commanded fine views4 ,there was the amphitheater1 with graded seats for spectators1 and the stage1 together with the orchestra where the choir in song or musical recitation reflected the sympathies and views of the spectators of the play4 ,at first there was only one actor1 and1 of course1 a monologue4 ,aeschylus is said to have brought in a second actor1 and ,sophocles a third4 ,these1 with ,euripides1 were the three great dramatists of ,greece4 ,the choral song1 which had been the chief thing1 was made secondary to the dialogue4 ,aeschylus1 at the age of forty-five1 fought in the battle of ,salamis2 ,sophocles1 then fifteen years old1 took part in the festival in honor of the victory2 and ,euripides was born1 it was supposed1 on the very day of the battle4 ,these three brought the tragic drama to perfection4 ,of the productions of ,aeschylus 7#ebe-def ,b4,c471 seven remain4 ,they are inspired with the heroic and elevated mood which was engendered by the great struggle against the ,persians4 ,of the numerous plays of ,sophocles 7#die-djf ,b4,c471 the number of those extant is also seven4 ,they so combine vigor and force with refinement of thought and style that they are surpassed1 if indeed they are equaled1 by the literary products of no age or country4 ,in ,euripides 7#dhj-djf ,b4,c471 while there is an insight into the workings of the heart1 and the antique nobleness of sentiment1 there is less simplicity1 and there is manifest the less earnest and believing tone of the later day4 ,in the dramas1 the unities of time1 place1 and action are observed4 ,the acts together seldom stretch over a single day4 ,,comedy--,comedy1 in which ,aristophanes 7#deb-chh ,b4,c471 a great poet as well as a great wit1 was the principal author1 dealt largely in satire4 ,conspicuous men1 and those active in public affairs1 were represented on the stage in satirical pieces1 so that they were at once identified4 ,the spirit of the old comedy was patriotic1 although it might be unjust1 as in the case of ,socrates1 who was a target for the wit of ,aristophanes4 ,the middle comedy was nothing really distinct from the new comedy4 ,the new comedy1 in which ,menander 7#cdb-bij ,b4,c47 was an eminent author1 ceased to present actual persons1 and dealt with imaginary characters alone4 ,among the ,greeks in ,lower ,italy and ,sicily1 mimes were much in vogue4 ,,greek ,,art3 ,,architecture--,the ,greeks more and more broke away in a free and joyous spirit from the stiff and conventional styles of ,egyptian and ,oriental art4 ,in the room of the somber1 massive edifices of ,egypt1 they combined symmetry and beauty with grandeur in the temples which they erected4 ,the temples were originally colored within and without4 ,three styles were developed1--the ,doric1 the ,ionic1 and the ,corinthian4 ,in the ,doric1 the column and entablature have the most solid and simple form4 ,the column has no other base than the common platform on which the pillars rest1 and the capital that surmounts it is a plain slab4 ,in the ,ionic style1 the column has a distinct base1 is more tall and slender1 and its capital has two volutes1 or spiral moldings4 ,the capital of the ,corinthian column is peculiar1 representing flower calices and leaves1 pointing upwards1 and curving like natural plants4 ,the acanthus1 on account of its graceful form1 was generally copied4 ,the most ancient ,doric temples1 of a date prior to the ,persian war1 of which the ruined temple of ,neptune at ,paestum is one1 are1 in comparison with later edifices1 of a severe and massive style4 ,in the period extending from the ,persian war to the ,macedonian rule1 the stern simplicity of the ,doric is modified by the softer and more graceful character of the ,ionic4 ,the temple of ,theseus at ,athens is an example4 ,the ,parthenon was the most beautiful specimen of the ,doric1 which has appropriated the grace of the ,ionic column without losing its own distinctive character4 ,in the later period1 after freedom was lost1 there was much more ornamentation4 ,it was then that the more decorated ,corinthian style flourished4 ,,sculpture4--,before the ,persian wars1 in the earliest sculpture the restraint of ,egyptian and ,oriental styles is perceptible in the sculptors1 of whom ,daedalus is the mythical representative4 ,the oldest statues were of wood1 which was subsequently covered with gold and ivory1 or painted4 ,the lofty style of ,phidias 7#dhh-dcb ,b4,c471 and of ,polycletus of ,argos1 became prevalent in the flourishing period of ,greek liberty4 ,myron1 to whom we owe the ,discobolus 7,disk-,thrower71 belongs to the school of ,aegina4 ,statues were now made in brass and marble4 ,they were everywhere to be seen4 ,the pediments and friezes of the temples were covered with exquisitely wrought sculptures4 ,the most beautiful sculptures that have come down from antiquity are the marbles of the ,parthenon4 ,the ,greeks appreciated to the full the beauty of nature4 ,they gave to their gods ideal human forms1 in which were blended every attribute of majesty and grace which are conceived to belong to perfected humanity4 ,sculpture in ,greece1 as elsewhere1 was ally to religion2 but whilst the religion of the ,egyptians was a religion of the tomb1 and their ideal world a gloomy spot peopled by sleeping lions1 dreamy sphinxes1 or weird unearthly monsters1 the mythology of the ,greeks1 rightly understood1 is an exquisite poem1 the joint creation of the master-minds of infant ,greece2 and their art is a translation of that poem into visible forms of beauty4 ,in the third period1 which may be made to terminate with the death of ,alexander the ,great 7#cbc ,b4,c471 there were masters in sculpture1 among whom ,praxiteles and ,scopas are at the head4 ,more and more1 as we come down to the ,roman period1 while extraordinary technical perfection is still manifested1 the loftier qualities of art tend to disappear4 ,,painting4--,in ,greece1 painting first ceased to be subordinate to architecture1 and became independent4 ,in early days1 there was skill in the ornamentation of vases and in mural painting4 ,yet1 with much spirit and feeling1 there was a conventional treatment4 ,the earliest artist of whom we know much is ,polygnotus 7about #dbj ,b4,c471 whose groups of profile figures were described as remarkable for their life-like character and fine coloring4 ,apollodorus of ,athens was distinguished1 but ,zeuxis of ,heraclea is said to have been the first to paint movable pictures4 ,he is famed for his marvelous power of imitation3 the birds pecked at a bunch of grapes which he painted4 ,but even he was outdone by ,parrhasius4 ,zeuxis1 however1 had far higher qualities than those of a literal copyist4 ,the most successful of the ,greek painters was ,apelles4 ,among his masterpieces was a painting of ,venus rising from the waves1 and a portrait of ,alexander the ,great4 ,we have not in painting1 as in sculpture1 a store of monuments of ,greek art2 but the skill of the ,greeks in painting fell behind their unequaled genius in molding the human form in bronze and marble4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,peloponnesian ,,war4 ,i4 ,,to ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,nicias 7#dba ,b4,c474 ,,to ,,the ,,death ,,of ,,pericles4--,wonderful as was the growth of ,athens under ,pericles1 it is obvious that she stood exposed to two principal sources of danger4 ,her allies and dependants1 the stay of that naval power in which her strength lay1 were discontented with her spirit of domination and of extortion4 ,the ,peloponnesian ,alliance1 which was led by ,sparta1 the bulwark of the aristocratic interest1 comprised1 with the ,dorian1 most of the ,aeolian states1--as ,boeotia1 ,phocis1 ,locris1 etc4 ,its military strength lay mainly in its heavy-armed infantry4 ,thus ,sparta had the advantage of strong allies4 ,the motive at the bottom of this alliance was what ,thucydides tells was the real cause of the ,peloponnesian war1--the jealousy which the growth of ,athens excited in other states4 ,this feeling really involved a conviction of the need of maintaining in ,greece that which in modern times is called a balance of power4 ,when ,greece was no longer one1 as in the best days of the wars with ,persia1 but was divided into two opposite camps1 watchful and jealous of one another1 an occasion of conflict could not fail to arise4 ,it was complained that ,athens gave help to ,corcyra in a war with ,corinth1 its mother city1 made war upon ,potidaea in ,macedonia1 a ,corinthian colony1 and also shut out ,megara from the harbors of ,attica4 ,the demands made by ,sparta1 which included the granting of independence to ,aegina1 were rejected4 ,attica was ravaged by ,spartan troops1 and the coast of ,peloponnesus by the ,athenian fleet 7#dca ,b4,c474 ,this desolating warfare was kept up until a frightful pestilence broke out at ,athens1--a plague having its origin in ,egypt1 and passing thence over ,asia and the ,greek islands4 ,two of the sons of ,pericles died1 and an accumulation of public burdens and private sorrows brought on his own death 7,sept41 #dbi74 ,,the ,,pestilence4--,the horrors of the pestilence are thus described in a celebrated passage of the best of the ,greek historians1 ,thucydides3 ,the crowding of the people out of the country into the city aggravated the misery1 and the newly arrived suffered most4 ,for1 haying no houses of their own1 but inhabiting1 in the height of summer1 stifling huts1 the mortality among them was dreadful1 and they perished in wild disorder4 ,the dead lay as they had died1 one upon another2 while others1 hardly alive1 wallowed in the streets1 and crawled about every fountain1 craving for water4 ,the temples in which they lodged were full of the corpses of those who died in them2 for the violence of the calamity was such that men1 not knowing where to turn1 grew reckless of all law1 human and divine4 ,the customs which had hitherto been observed at funerals were universally violated1 and they buried their dead1 each one as best he could4 ,many1 having no proper appliances1 because the deaths in their household had been so frequent1 made no scruple of using the burial-place of others4 ,when one man had raised a funeral-pile1 others would come1 and1 throwing on their dead first1 set fire to it2 or1 when some other corpse was already burning1 before they could be stopped1 would throw their own dead upon it1 and depart4 ,there were other and worse forms of lawlessness which the plague introduced at ,athens4 ,men who had hitherto concealed their indulgence in pleasure1 now grew bolder4 ,for1 seeing the sudden change1--how the rich died in a moment1 and those who had nothing1 immediately inherited their property1--they reflected that life and riches were alike transitory1 and they resolved to enjoy themselves while they could1 and to think only of pleasure4 ,who would be willing to sacrifice himself to the law of honor when he knew not whether he would ever live to be held in honor8 ,the pleasure of the moment1 and any sort of thing which conduced to it1 took the place both of honor and of expediency3 no fear of ,god or law of man deterred a criminal4 ,those who saw all perishing alike1 thought that the worship or neglect of the gods made no difference4 ,for offenses against human law1 no punishment was to be feared3 no one would live long enough to be called to account4 ,already a far heavier sentence had been passed1 and was hanging over a man's head3 before that fell1 why should he not take a little pleasure8 ,,to ,,the ,,truce ,,with ,,sparta4--,the loss of ,pericles1 coupled with the terrible calamities which had befallen ,athens1 let loose the winds of party passion4 ,new leaders of the democracy1 of whom ,cleon was the most noted1 who lacked the refinement and self-restraint of ,pericles1 took his place4 ,the ,athenians were not able to save ,plataea1 to which they owed so much1 from destruction at the hands of the ,spartans and ,boeotians 7#dbg ,b4,c472 but ,lesbos they recovered1 and captured ,mytilene1 the bulk of whose citizens1 against the will of ,cleon1 they spared4 ,to the cruelties of war1 which the revengeful temper of the ,spartans promoted1 there was added another plague at ,athens1 besides an earthquake1 and tremendous rain-storms1 alternating with drought4 ,demosthenes1 a brave and enterprising ,athenian general1 took possession of ,pylos in ,messenia4 ,the ,spartans1 under ,brasidas1 were on the island of ,sphacteria opposite2 and their retreat was cut off by the fleet under ,nicias1 who was the leader of the more aristocratic faction at ,athens4 ,cleon1 made strategus in the room of ,nicias1 took ,sphacteria by storm1 contrary to general expectation1 and brought home nearly three hundred ,spartan prisoners4 ,athens had other successes2 but when her forces had been defeated by the ,boeotians at ,delium1 and ,brasidas had captured ,amphipolis1 and when in a battle there 7#dbb ,b4,c47 ,brasidas was victorious over ,cleon1 who fell during the flight1 the aristocratic party1 which was desirous of peace1 gained the upper hand4 ,nicias concluded a truce with ,sparta for fifty years4 ,each party was to restore its conquests and prisoners4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,alcibiades4 ,,the ,,sicilian ,,expedition4--,from this time1 ,alcibiades1 a relative of ,pericles1 but lacking his sobriety and disinterested spirit1 plays an active part4 ,beautiful in person1 rich1 a graceful and effective orator1 but restless and ambitious1 he quickly acquired great influence4 ,three years after the peace of ,nicias1 he persuaded ,athens to join a league of disaffected ,peloponnesian allies of ,sparta2 but in the battle of ,mantinea 7#dah ,b4,c47 the ,spartans regained their supremacy4 ,it was at the suggestion of ,alcibiades that the ,athenians undertook the great ,sicilian ,expedition1 which resulted in the worst disasters they ever suffered4 ,this expedition was aimed at the ,dorian city of ,syracuse1 and the hope was that all ,sicily might be conquered4 ,it consisted of about forty thousand men1 besides the sailors4 ,the commanders were ,alcibiades1 ,nicias1 and ,lamachus4 ,alcibiades was recalled to answer a charge of sacrilege4 ,at ,thurii he managed to escape and went over to the side of ,sparta4 ,gylippus went with a small ,spartan fleet to aid ,syracuse4 ,the ,athenians were repulsed in their attack on the city4 ,although re-inforced by land and naval forces under a gallant and worthy general1 ,demosthenes1 they fought under great disadvantages1 so that their fleet was destroyed in the ,syracusan harbor4 ,their retreating forces on land were cut to pieces or captured4 ,nicias and ,demosthenes died either at the hands of the executioner or by a self-inflicted death4 ,,naval ,,contests4--,no such calamity had ever overtaken a ,grecian army4 ,the news of it brought anguish into almost every family in ,athens4 ,the ,spartans had fortified the village of ,decelea in ,attica1 and sought on the sea1 with ,persian help1 to annihilate the ,athenian navy4 ,the allies of ,athens1 ,chios1 ,miletus1 etc41 revolted4 ,the oligarchs at ,athens overthrew the democratic constitution1 and placed the ,government in the hands of a ,council of ,four ,hundred4 ,the popular assembly was limited to five thousand members1 and was never called together4 ,the object was to make peace with ,sparta4 ,but the army before ,samos1 of which ,thrasybulus1 a patriotic man1 was the leader1 refused to accept this change of government4 ,alcibiades1 who had left the ,spartans out of anger on account of their treatment of him1 was recalled1 and assumed command4 ,the oligarchical rule was overturned in four months after its establishment1 and the democracy restored1--the assembly being still limited1 however1 to five thousand citizens4 ,three brilliant naval victories1 the last at ,cyzicus 7#daj ,b4,c471 were won over the ,spartans by ,alcibiades who came back to ,athens in triumph 7#djh ,b4,c474 ,lysander was the commander of the ,spartan fleet on the coast of ,asia ,minor1 and 7#djg ,b4,c47 gained a victory over the ,athenian ships during a temporary absence of ,alcibiades4 ,alcibiades was not relected general4 ,he now withdrew1 and1 three years later1 died4 ,the new ,spartan admiral1 ,callicratidas1 surrounded the ,athenian fleet under ,conon at ,mitylene4 ,by very strenuous exertions of the ,athenians1 a new fleet was dispatched to the help of ,conon2 and in the battle of ,arginus 7#djf ,b4,c471 the ,peloponnesians were completely vanquished4 ,the public spirit of ,athens and the resources of a free people were never more impressively shown than in the prodigious efforts made by the ,athenians to rise from the effect of the crushing disaster which befell the ,sicilian expedition on which their hopes were centered4 ,but these exertions only availed to furnish to coming generations an example of the heroic energy and love of country which are possible under free government4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,athens4 ,lysander once more took command of the ,spartan fleet4 ,shrewd in diplomacy1 as well as skillful in battle1 he strengthened his naval force by the aid of ,cyrus the ,younger1 the ,persian governor in ,asia ,minor4 ,watching his opportunity1 he attacked the ,athenians at gospotami1 opposite ,lampsacus1 when soldiers and sailors were off their guard 7#dje ,b4,c474 ,three thousand of them1 who had not been slain in the assault1 were slaughtered after they had been taken captive4 ,conon escaped to ,cyprus with only eight ships4 ,one fast-sailing trireme carried the news of the overwhelming defeat to ,athens4 ,lysander followed up his success cautiously1 but with energy4 ,islands and seaports surrendered to him1 and in them he established the aristocratic rule4 ,the ,athenians were shut in by land and by sea4 ,a treacherous aristocratic faction within the walls was working in the interest of the ,spartans4 ,famine conspired with other agencies to destroy the multitude of homeless and destitute people who had crowded into the city4 ,starvation compelled a surrender to the ,spartan general4 ,the long walls and fortifications were demolished by the ruthless conqueror1 the work of destruction being carried on to the sound of the flute4 ,all but twelve vessels were given up to the captors4 ,the democratic system was subverted1 and thirty men--the ,thirty ,tyrants--of the oligarchical party were established in power1 with ,critias1 a depraved and passionate1 though able1 man1 at their head 7#djd-djc ,b4,c474 ,they put a ,spartan garrison in the citadel1 and sought to confirm their authority by murdering or banishing all whom they suspected of opposition4 ,thrasybulus1 a patriot1 collected the democratic fugitives at ,phyle1 defeated the ,thirty1 and seized the ,piraeus4 ,critias was slain4 ,ten oligarchs of a more moderate temper were installed in power4 ,in co-operation with the ,spartan king1 ,pausanias1 the two parties at ,athens were reconciled4 ,an amnesty was proclaimed1 and democracy in a moderate form was restored1 with a revision of the laws1 under the archonship of ,euclides 7#djc ,b4,c474 ,it was shortly after this change that the trial and death of ,socrates occurred1 the wisest and most virtuous man of ancient times 7#cii ,b4,c474 ,,philosophy3 ,,socrates4--,at the head of the ,greek philosophers is the illustrious name of ,socrates4 ,he was the son of ,sophroniscus1 a sculptor1 and was born #dfi ,b4,c41 just as ,pericles was assuming the leadership at ,athens4 ,socrates was the founder of moral philosophy4 ,he was original1 being indebted for his ideas to no previous school4 ,he was as sound in body as in mind4 ,his appearance was unique4 ,his forehead was massive1 but his flat nose gave to his countenance an aspect quite at variance with the ,greek ideal of beauty4 ,he looked1 it was said1 like a satyr4 ,he taught1 in opposition to the ,sophists1 a class of men 7including ,gorgias1 ,protagoras1 and others7 who instructed young men in logic and grammar1 taking fees1--which was contrary to the custom of the ,greek philosophers1--and cultivating intellectual keenness and dexterity1 often at the expense of depth and sincerity4 ,their work as thinkers was negative1 being confined mainly to pointing out fallacies in existing systems1 but providing nothing positive in the room of them4 ,socrates had been called by the oracle at ,delphi the wisest of men4 ,he could only account for this by the fact1 that1 in contrast with others1 he did not erroneously deem himself to be knowing4 ,know thyself was his maxim4 ,his daily occupation was to converse with different classes1 especially young men1 on subjects of highest moment to the individual and to the state4 ,by a method of quiet cross-examination1 the ,socratic irony1 he made them aware of their lack of clear ideas and tenable1 consistent opinions1 and endeavored to guide them aright4 ,the soul and its moral improvement was his principal subject4 ,he asserted ,theism and the spiritual nature and obligations of religion1 without calling in question the existence of the various divinities4 ,he taught the doctrine of a universal ,providence4 ,absolute loyalty to conscience1 the preference of virtue to any possible advantage without it1 he solemnly inculcated4 ,he believed1 perhaps not without a mingling of doubt1 in the immortality of the soul4 ,taking no part in public affairs1 he devoted his time to this kind of familiar instruction1--to teaching by dialogue1 in compliance with what he believed to be an inward call of ,god4 ,an impulse within him1 which he called a divine voice1 checked him when he was about to take a wrong step4 ,he was charged with corrupting the youth by his teaching1 and with heresy in religion4 ,his rebukes of the shallow and the self-seeking had stung them1 and had made him many enemies4 ,such men as ,alcibiades and ,critias1 who had been among his hearers1 but for whose misconduct he was really not in the least responsible1 added to his unpopularity4 ,the ,apology1 as given by ,plato1 contains the substance of his most impressive defense before his judges4 ,he took no pains to placate them or his accusers1 or to escape after he was convicted4 ,conversing with his disciples in the same genial1 tranquil tone which he had always maintained1 he drank the cup of hemlock1 and expired 7,may1 #cii ,b4,c474 ,an account of his teaching and of his method of life is given by his loving scholar1 ,xenophon1 in the ,memorabilia4 ,the dialogues of ,plato1 in which ,socrates is the principal interlocutor1 mingle with the master's doctrine the pupil's own thoughts and speculations4 ,,plato4--,plato 7#dbg-cdg ,b4,c471 the foremost of the disciples of ,socrates1 founded the philosophical school known as the ,academy from the place where his pupils were wont to meet him4 ,one of his prominent tenets was the doctrine of ideas which he regarded as spiritual realities1 intermediate between ,god and the world1 of which all visible things are the manifestation4 ,they are the shadow1 so to speak1 of which ideas are the substance4 ,he defined virtue in man to be resemblance to ,god according to the measure of our ability4 ,in the ,republic1 he sets forth his political views1 and sketches the ideal state4 ,more speculative than ,socrates1 ,plato1 from the wide range of his discussions1 from their poetic spirit as well as their depth of thought1 not less than their beauty of style1 is one of the most inspiring and instructive of all authors4 ,no other heathen writer presents so many points of affinity with ,christian teaching4 ,,aristotle4--,aristotle 7#chd-cbb ,b4,c47 studied under ,plato1 but elaborated a system of his own1 which was on some points dissonant from that of his instructor4 ,his investigations extended over the field of material nature1 as well as over the field of mind and morals4 ,with less of poetry and of lofty sentiment than ,plato1 he has never been excelled in intellectual clearness and grasp4 ,he was possessed of a wonderful power to observe facts1 and an equally wonderful talent for systemizing them1 and reasoning upon them4 ,he is the founder of the science of ,logic4 ,his treatises on ,rhetoric and on ,ethics have been hardly less important in their influence4 ,his ,politics is a masterly discussion of political science1 based on a diligent examination of the various systems of government4 ,in truth1 in all departments of research he exhibits the same capacity for scientific observation and discussion4 ,in religion he was a theist2 but he is less spiritual in his vein of thought1 and more reserved in his utterances on this theme1 than ,plato4 ,the names of these two philosophers have been very frequently coupled4 ,their influence1 like their fame1 is imperishable4 ,,later ,,schools3 ,,the ,,cynics4--,the impulse given by ,socrates gave rise to still other schools of philosophers4 ,aristippus of ,cyrene 7about #chj ,b4,c47 founded a sect which held that happiness is the chief end1 the goal of rational effort4 ,antisthenes1 who was born #dbb ,b4,c41 and especially ,diogenes1 went to the opposite extreme1 and founded the school of ,cynics1 who looked with disdain1 not only on luxuries1 but on the ordinary comforts of life1 and inured themselves to do without them4 ,their manners were often as savage as their mode of living4 ,,historical ,,writings4--,the three principal historical writers were ,herodotus 7c4 #dhd-j4dbe ,b4,c471 the charming but uncritical chronicler of what he heard and saw1 by whom the interference of the gods in human affairs is devoutly credited2 ,thucydides1 who himself took part in the ,peloponnesian war1 the history of which he wrote with a candor1 a profound perception of character1 an insight into the causes of events1 a skill in arrangement1 and a condensation and eloquence of style1 which are truly admirable2 and ,xenophon1 an author characterized by naturalness1 simplicity1 and a religious spirit4 ,,greek ,,life4--,it will be convenient to bring together here some features of ,greek life1 7#a7 ,public ,buildings and ,dwellings4 ,the ,greeks almost always preferred to live in cities4 ,these grew up about an ,acropolis1 which was a fort on a hill1 generally a steep crag4 ,this was a place of refuge1 and the site of the oldest temple4 ,it became often1 therefore1 a sacred place from which private dwellings were excluded4 ,at the nearest harbor1 there would be a seaport town4 ,the ,piraeus was more than four miles from ,athens1--a mile farther than the nearest shore1 but was chosen as being an excellent harbor4 ,sparta1 alone1 had no citadel1--the access from the plain being easily defended1--and no walls4 ,the attractive buildings in a ,greek town were the public edifices4 ,private houses1 as to the exterior1 were very plain1 with flat roofs1 with few stories1 and low4 ,towards the street the house looked like a dead wall with a strong door in it1 ,it was built round an open court3 in the case of the best houses1 round two courts1--one bordered by apartments for the men1 the other with the rooms for women4 ,bedrooms and sitting-rooms were small1 admitting but little light4 ,fresco-painting on the walls and ceilings came to be common4 ,the furniture of the house was plain and simple1 but graceful and elegant in form4 ,the poorer classes slept on skins2 the richer1 on woolen mattresses laid on girths4 ,the ,greeks lived so much in the open air that they took less pains with their dwellings4 ,the public buildings were costly and substantially built4 7#b7 ,meals1 ,gymnastics1 etc4 ,the ,greeks rose early4 ,there are no notices of a morning bath4 ,the first meal was light4 ,it was succeeded1 as was the custom at ,rome1 by calls on friends4 ,business might follow until noon1 the hour of the djeuner1 or breakfast1 which1 in the case of the rich1 was a substantial meal4 ,later in the day1 males went to the practice of gymnastics1 which were followed1 in later times1 by a warm bath4 ,towards sunset came the principal meal of the day4 ,conversation and music1 or the attending of a feast with friends1 took up the evening2 if there was a festal company1 often the whole night4 ,at the dinner-table1 the ,greeks reclined on couches4 ,ladies1 if allowed to be present1 and children1 were required to sit4 ,spoons1 sometimes knives1 but never forks1 were used4 7#c7 ,costume3 ,use of ,wine4 ,the dress of the ,greeks1 both of men and women1 was simple and graceful4 ,the men were generally bareheaded in the streets4 ,in bad weather they wore close-fitting caps1 and1 in traveling1 broad-brimmed hats4 ,in ,athens and ,sparta they always carried walking-sticks4 ,the use of wine was universal4 ,it was always mixed with water4 7#d7 ,slaves4 ,slaves were regarded as chattels4 ,no one objected to slavery as wrong4 ,slaves were better treated at ,athens than elsewhere1 but even at ,athens they were tortured when their testimony was required4 ,they were let out1 sometimes by thousands1 to work in pestiferous mines4 7#e7 ,women and ,children4 ,in ,athens1 the wife had seldom learned any thing but to spin and to cook4 ,she lived in seclusion in her dwelling1 and was not present with her husband at social entertainments1 either at home or elsewhere4 ,she had few if any legal rights1 although at ,athens she might bring a suit against her husband for ill-treatment4 ,concubinage was not condemned by public opinion4 ,there was no law against exposing infants whom the parents did not wish to bring up1--that is1 leaving them where they would perish4 ,when found and brought up1 they were the slaves of the person finding them4 ,this cruelty was frequent in the case of daughters1 or of offspring weak or deformed4 ,there were toys and games for children4 ,archytas1 a philosopher1 was said to have invented the child's rattle4 ,dolls1 hoops1 balls1 etc41 were common playthings4 ,boys and girls played hide and seek1 blind man's buff1 hunt the slipper1 etc4 ,older people played ball1 and gambled with dice4 7#f7 ,education4 ,the education of boys was careful2 that of girls was neglected4 ,the boy went to or from school under the care of a slave1 called pedagogue1 or leader4 ,teachers were of different social grades1 from the low class which taught small children1 to the professors of rhetoric and philosophy4 ,it is needless to say how much stress was laid on gymnastic and aesthetic training4 ,boys read ,homer and other authors at an early age1 committing much of them to memory4 ,they were taught to play on the harp or the flute1 and to sing4 ,lyric poems they learned by heart4 ,music held a very high place in the esteem of the ,greeks for its general influence on the mind4 ,running1 wrestling1 throwing the dart1 etc41 the games practiced at the public contests1 were early taught4 ,boys at sixteen or eighteen came of age1 and were enrolled as citizens4 7#g7 ,musical ,instruments3 the ,dance4 ,instrumental music was common among the ,greeks at games and meals1 and in battle4 ,they used no bows on the stringed instruments1 but either the fingers or the plectrum1--a stick of wood1 ivory1 or metal4 ,there were three sorts of stringed instruments1 the lyre1 the cithara 7or zithern71 and the harp4 ,the wind-instruments were the pipe1 the clarionet1 and the trumpet4 ,besides these1 there were clanging instruments which were used chiefly in religious ceremonies3 such were castanets1 the cymbal1 and the tambourine4 ,dancing was originally connected with religious worship4 ,mimetic dances were a favorite diversion at feasts4 ,there were warlike dances by men in armor1 who went through the movements of attack and defense4 ,in mimetic dances the hands and arms played a part4 ,there were peaceful dances or choral dances1 marked by rhythmic grace4 ,sometimes these were slow and measured1 and sometimes more lively4 ,specially brisk were the dances at the festivals of ,dionysus 7,bacchus74 ,symbolic dances of a religious character1 these ,bacchic dances were the germ of the drama4 ,recitations were first introduced between hymns that attended the choric dances4 ,then1 later1 followed the dialogue4 7#h7 ,weddings and ,funerals4 ,marriage was attended by a religious ceremonial4 ,there was a solemn sacrifice and a wedding-feast4 ,the bride was conveyed to her husband's house1 accompanied on the way with music and song4 ,when a person died1 his body was laid out for one day1 during which the relatives and hired mourners uttered laments round the bier4 ,burial was at the dawn of day4 ,in later times1 a coin was put into the mouth of the corpse1 with which to pay his passage to the world below4 ,there was a funeral procession1 and at the tomb a solemn farewell was addressed to the deceased by name4 ,there was then a funeral-feast4 ,mourning garments were worn for a short period4 ,the dead were buried in the suburbs of the cities1 generally on both sides of a highway4 ,in the tomb many little presents1 as trinkets and vases1 were deposited4 7#i7 ,courts of ,law4 ,at law men pleaded their own causes1 but might take advice or have their speeches composed for them by others4 ,in some cases1 friends were allowed to speak in behalf of a litigant4 ,men like ,demosthenes received large fees for services of this kind4 ,there being no public prosecutor1 informers were more numerous4 ,they became odious under the name of sycophants1 which is supposed to have been first applied to those who informed against breakers of an old law forbidding the exportation of figs from ,athens4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,relations ,,with ,,persia4--,,the ,,spartan ,,and ,,theban ,,hegemony4 ,,the ,,retreat ,,of ,,the ,,ten ,,thousand4--,the ,anabasis1 the principal work of ,xenophon1 describes the retreat from the ,tigris to the coast of ,asia ,minor1 of a body of ten thousand mercenary ,greek troops1--a retreat effected under his own masterly leadership4 ,the ,persian ,empire1 now in a process of decay1 was torn with civil strife4 ,xerxes and his eldest son had been murdered 7#dfe ,b4,c474 ,the story of several reigns which follow is full of tales of treason and fratricide4 ,on the death of ,darius ,,ii4 7,darius ,nothus7 7#dbc-djd ,b4,c471 the younger ,cyrus undertook to dethrone his brother ,artaxerxes ,,ii41 and for that purpose organized1 in ,asia ,minor1 a military expedition1 made up largely of hired ,greek troops4 ,at ,cunaxa1 not far from ,babylon1 ,cyrus fell in the combat with his brother4 ,the ,persians enticed the ,greek generals to come into their camp1 and slew them4 ,xenophon1 an ,athenian volunteer who had accompanied the army1 conducted the retreat of his countrymen1 with whom he encountered incredible hardships in the slow and toilsome journey through ,armenia to ,trapezus 7,trebizond71 and thence to ,byzantium4 ,the story of this march1 through snow1 over rugged mountains1 and across rapid currents1 is told in the ,anabasis4 ,a very striking passage is the description of the joy of the ,greeks when from a hilltop they first descried the ,black ,sea4 ,the soldiers shouted1 ,the sea6 the sea6 and embraced one another and their officers4 ,,the ,,corinthian ,,war ,,and ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,antalcidas4--,tissaphernes1 the antagonist and successor of the younger ,cyrus1 was ,persian governor in ,asia ,minor1 and set out to bring under the yoke the ,ionic cities which had espoused the cause of ,cyrus4 ,sparta came to their aid1 and ,king ,agesilaus defeated the ,persians near the ,pactolus 7#cie ,b4,c474 ,the ,persians stirred up an enemy nearer home1 by the use of gold1 and the ,boeotians1 ,corinthians1 and ,argives1 jealous of ,sparta1 and resentful at the tyranny of her governors 7harmosts71 and joined by ,athens1 took up arms against the ,lacedaemonians4 ,lysander fell in battle with the allies 7#cie ,b4,c474 ,the course of the war in which ,conon1 the ,athenian commander1 destroyed the ,spartan fleet at ,cnidus1 made it necessary to recall ,agesilaus4 ,his victory at ,coronea 7#cid ,b4,c47 did not avail to turn the tide in favor of ,sparta4 ,conon rebuilt the long walls at ,athens with the assistance of ,persian money4 ,the issue of the conflict was the ,peace of ,antalcidas with ,persia 7#chg ,b4,c474 ,the ,grecian cities of ,asia ,minor were given up to the ,persians1 as were the islands of ,clazomenae and ,cyprus4 ,with the exception of ,lemnos1 ,imbros1 and ,scyros1 which the ,athenians were to control1 all of the other states and islands were to be free and independent4 ,this was a great concession to ,persia4 ,greek union was broken up3 each state was left to take care of itself as it best could4 ,antalcidas cared little for his country3 his treaty was the natural result of ,spartan aggressiveness and selfishness4 ,,contest ,,of ,,thebes ,,and ,,sparta4--,the ,spartans had fallen away from the old rules of life ascribed to ,lycurgus4 ,they were possessed by a greed for gold4 ,there were extremes of wealth and poverty among them4 ,after the treaty of ,antalcidas1 they still lorded it over other states1 and were bent on governing in ,peloponnesus4 ,at length they were involved in a contest with ,thebes4 ,this was caused by the seizure of the ,cadmeia1 the ,theban citadel1 by the ,spartan ,phoebidas acting in conjunction with an aristocratic party in ,thebes 7#chc ,b4,c474 ,the ,theban democrats1 who1 under ,pelopidas1 made ,athens their place of rendezvous1 liberated ,thebes1 and expelled the ,spartans from the ,cadmeia4 ,hostile attempts of ,sparta against ,athens induced the ,athenians to form a new confederacy 7or symmachy7 composed of seventy communities 7#cgh ,b4,c472 and1 after they had gained repeated successes on the sea1 the two states concluded peace4 ,athens had become alarmed at the increased power of ,thebes1 and was ready to go over to the side of ,sparta1 her old enemy4 ,it was a feeling in favor of a balance of power like that which had prompted ,sparta at the close of the ,peloponnesian war1 to refuse to consent to the destruction of ,athens1 which ,thebes and ,corinth had desired4 ,cleombrotus1 king of ,sparta1 again invaded ,boeotia4 ,the principal ,boeotian leader was ,epaminondas1 one of the noblest patriots in all ,grecian history1--in his disinterested spirit and self-government resembling ,washington4 ,the ,spartan king was defeated by him in the great battle of ,leuctra 7#cga ,b4,c471 and was there slain4 ,at this time the rage of party knew no bounds4 ,the wholesale massacre of political antagonists in a city was no uncommon occurrence4 ,,theban ,,hegemony4--,the victory of ,leuctra gave the hegemony to ,thebes4 ,three times the ,boeotians invaded the ,spartan territory4 ,they founded ,megalopolis in ,arcadia1 to strengthen the ,arcadians against their ,lacedmonian assailants 7#cgj ,b4,c474 ,they also revived the ,messenian power1 recalled the ,messenians who had long been in exile1 and founded the city of ,messene4 ,in the battle of ,mantinea 7#cfb ,b4,c471 ,epaminondas1 though victorious against the ,spartans and their allies1 was slain4 ,peace followed among the ,grecian states1 ,sparta alone refusing to be a party to it4 ,in the course of this intestine war1 the ,thebans had broken up the new maritime sway gained by them4 ,,period ,,iii4 ,,the ,,macedonian ,,era4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,philip ,,and ,,alexander4 ,,the ,,macedonians4--,the ,greeks1 exhausted by long-continued war with one another1 were just in a condition to fall under the dominion of ,macedonia1 the kingdom on the north which had been ambitious to extend its power4 ,the ,macedonians were a mixed race1 partly ,greek and partly ,illyrian4 ,although they were not acknowledged to be ,greeks1 their kings claimed to be of ,greek descent1 and were allowed to take part in the ,olympian games4 ,at first an inland community1 living in the country1 rough and uncultivated1 made up mostly of farmers and hunters1 they had been growing more civilized by the efforts of their kings to introduce ,greek customs4 ,archelaus 7#dac-cii ,b4,c47 had even attracted ,greek artists and poets to his court4 ,at the same time they were exerting themselves to extend their power to the sea4 ,the people were hardy and brave4 ,when ,epaminondas died1 ,philip 7#cei-ccf ,b4,c47 was on the ,macedonian throne4 ,he had lived three years at ,thebes1 and had learned much from ,epaminondas1 the best strategist and tactician of his day4 ,the decline of public spirit in ,greece had led the states to rely very much on mercenary troops1 whose trade was war4 ,philip had a well-drilled standing army4 ,every thing was favorable to the gratification of his wish to make himself master of ,greece4 ,first he aimed to get possession of ,greek cities in ,chalcidice1 of which ,olynthus was the chief4 ,the ,athenians had towns in that region1 besides ,amphipolis1 which was formerly theirs4 ,philip contrived to make the ,olynthians his allies2 and then1 crossing the river ,strymon1 he conquered the western part of ,thrace1 where there were rich gold mines4 ,there1 for purposes of defense1 he founded the city of ,philippi4 ,,the ,,sacred ,,war4--,a pretext for interfering in the affairs of ,greece1 ,philip found in the ,sacred ,war in behalf of the temple of ,delphi1 which had been forced to loan money to the ,phocians during a war waged by them against ,thebes1 to throw off the ,theban supremacy4 ,athens and ,sparta joined the ,phocians4 ,the ,thessalian nobles sided with ,philip4 ,he gained the victory in his character of champion of the ,amphictyonic ,council1 and took his place in that body1 in the room of the ,phocians 7#cdf ,b4,c474 ,but this was not accomplished until he had made peace with the ,athenians1 so that there was no ,athenian force at the pass of ,thermopylae to resist his progress4 ,,demosthenes4--,the ,athenians had placed themselves at the head of an ,aegean ,league1 and1 had they managed with more spirit and prudence1 they might have checked ,philip4 ,there was one man1 worthy of the best days of ,greece1 who penetrated the designs of ,philip1 and exerted his great powers to stimulate his countrymen to a timely resistance4 ,this was ,demosthenes 7#che-cbb ,b4,c474 ,he was the prince of the school of orators who had sprung up in these troublous times4 ,overcoming natural obstacles1 he had trained himself with such assiduity that a place at the head of all orators1 ancient and modern1 is generally conceded to him4 ,he was a great statesman1 moved by a patriotic spirit3 his speeches were for the welfare and salvation of the state4 ,in #ceh ,b4,c41 a war broke out between ,athens and its maritime allies1 in which ,athens was unsuccessful4 ,it was on the conquest of ,thessaly by ,philip1 that ,demosthenes made against him the first of that series of famous speeches known as ,philippics 7#cea ,b4,c474 ,in vain he urged the ,athenians to rescue ,olynthus4 ,the inefficiency of the aid rendered1 enabled ,philip to conquer and destroy that city1 and to sell its inhabitants as slaves 7#cdh ,b4,c474 ,thirty cities he destroyed1 and annexed all ,chalcidice to ,macedon4 ,a ,macedonian party was formed at ,athens1 the foremost leader of which was ,aeschines1 not a good citizen1 but an orator only second in rank to ,demosthenes4 ,they contended that it was futile to resist the advance of the ,macedonian power4 ,demosthenes went at the head of an embassy to the ,peloponnesian states which had taken sides with ,philip1 but his efforts to dissuade them from this suicidal policy were unavailing4 ,what he wanted was a union of all ,greeks against the common enemy1 who was bent on robbing them of their liberty4 ,he gathered1 at length1 a strong party about him at ,athens4 ,the overtures of peace from ,philip1 who was prosecuting his conquests in ,thrace1 were rejected4 ,athenian forces obliged the king to give up the siege of ,byzantium 7#cda ,b4,c474 ,the consequent enlarged influence of ,demosthenes was used by him to secure an increase of the fund for carrying on the war4 ,but ,philip had his paid supporters in all the ,greek states4 ,aeschines at ,athens proved an efficient helper4 ,a deputy at the ,amphictyonic ,council1 in #cch ,b4,c41 he contrived to bring about another holy war against ,amphissa in ,locris1 the end being to give ,philip the command4 ,philip seized ,elatea1 in the east of ,phocis1 which commanded the entrance to ,boeotia and ,attica4 ,dismay spread through ,greece4 ,demosthenes roused the ,athenian assembly1 where all were silent through fear1 to confront ,philip boldly1 and himself went to ,thebes1 which he induced to form an alliance with ,athens4 ,but the allies were defeated at the fatal battle of ,chaeronea 7,august1 #cch ,b4,c471 where ,alexander1 ,philip's youthful son1 decided the fortune of the day by vanquishing the ,theban sacred band4 ,philip treated the ,thebans with great severity4 ,he placed a garrison in the ,cadmeia4 ,to ,athens he granted favorable terms4 ,marching into ,peloponnesus1 he took from ,sparta a large part of its territory1 and apportioned it to the ,messenians1 ,argives1 and ,arcadians4 ,at a national assembly at ,corinth1 from which the ,spartans were absent1 ,philip caused himself to be created leader of the ,grecian forces against ,persia1 with the powers of a dictator4 ,each of the ,greek states was to retain its autonomy2 and a congress1 to meet at ,corinth1 was to settle differences among them4 ,two years after the battle of ,chaeronea1 at the marriage festival of his daughter with the king of ,epirus1 ,philip was assassinated by means of a conspiracy1 in which his queen is thought to have been a partner4 ,,alexander ,,the ,,great4--,alexander was twenty years old when his father died4 ,his bodily health and vigor qualified him for combats and toils which few soldiers in his army could endure4 ,his energy1 rapidity1 and military skill lift him to a level with ,hannibal and the foremost commanders of any age4 ,he was not without a generous appreciation of art and literature4 ,the great philosopher1 ,aristotle1 was one of his tutors4 ,for the eminent authors and artists of ,greece he cherished a warm admiration4 ,but his temper was passionate and imperious4 ,homer was his delight1 and in ,homer he took ,agamemnon for his model2 but the direst act of cruelty done by ,achilles--that of dragging ,hector after his chariot--he exceeded when he dragged ,batis1 a general who had opposed him1 at the tail of his chariot through the streets of ,gaza4 ,especially when his passions were inflamed by strong drink1--as at banquets1 occasions where ,macedonian princes before him had been wont to drink to excess1--he was capable of savage deeds4 ,,alexander ,,in ,,greece3 ,,his ,,army4--,at a congress in ,corinth1 ,alexander was recognized as the leader and general of ,greece4 ,in the spring of #cce ,b4,c41 he made a campaign against the barbarous peoples north of ,macedonia1--the ,thracians1 the ,getae1 and the ,illyrians4 ,a false report of his death led to an uprising of the ,greeks4 ,quickly returning1 he took vengeance on the ,thebans by razing their city to the ground1 sparing only the temples and ,pindar's house1 and by selling its thirty thousand inhabitants into slavery4 ,athens prayed for pardon1 which was granted1 even the demand for the surrender of ,demosthenes and other leaders being revoked4 ,all resistance in ,greece was over4 ,alexander's hands were free to complete his preparations for the task of conquering the ,persian ,empire4 ,his army was strong through its valor and discipline rather than its numbers4 ,the ,macedonian phalanx was the most effective force which had hitherto been used in war4 ,it was made up of foot soldiers drawn up in ranks1 three feet apart1 with spears twenty-one feet in length1 held fifteen feet from the point4 ,the length of the spears and the projection of so many in front of the first rank1 gave to the phalanx a great advantage1 although such a body of troops could be turned around with difficulty4 ,alexander began his battles with other troops1 and used the phalanx for the decisive charge4 ,only native ,macedonians served in the phalanx4 ,this was the case1 also1 with the ,guard1 a body of infantry1 and with two divisions of cavalry1 one clad in heavy armor1 and one in light4 ,with these troops were ,greek and barbarian soldiers1 infantry and cavalry1 and a division for hurling stones1 which was used not only in sieges1 but also in battles4 ,there was a band of young ,macedonian soldiers called pages1 also a body-guard selected from these by promotion2 and out of this the king chose his generals4 ,the army consisted of not more than forty thousand men1 but it was so organized as to be completely under the control of ,alexander2 and he was a military genius of the first order4 ,,the ,,campaign ,,of ,,alexander3 ,,to ,,the ,,battle ,,of ,,issus4--,in the spring of #ccd ,b4,c41 ,alexander crossed the ,hellespont at ,abydos4 ,at ,ilium 7,troy7 he performed various rites in honor of the heroes of the ,trojan war1 his romantic sympathy with whom was the principal tie between him and the ,greeks4 ,a ,persian army disputed the passage of the ,granicus4 ,he was the first to enter the river1 and in the battle displayed the utmost personal valor4 ,his decisive victory caused nearly the whole of ,asia ,minor to submit to him4 ,halicarnassus1 and the few other towns that held out1 were taken by storm4 ,at ,tarsus he was cured by his physician1 ,philip1 of a dangerous fever1 brought on by a bath in the chilly waters of the river ,cydnus4 ,darius ,,iii41 the king of ,persia1 with a large army1 approaching from the ,euphrates1 encountered him in a valley near ,issus1 in ,cilicia4 ,there 7#ccc ,b4,c47 was fought the memorable battle which settled the fate of the ,persian ,empire4 ,the host of ,darius was defeated with great slaughter2 and his camp1 with his treasures and his family1 fell into the hands of the victor4 ,,to ,,the ,,battle ,,of ,,arbela4--,after the victory of ,issus1 ,syria and ,phoenicia submitted1 except ,tyre1 which was captured after a siege of seven months4 ,two thousand of the inhabitants were hung on the walls1 and thirty thousand were sold into slavery4 ,gaza resisted1 and there ,alexander was severely wounded4 ,after it was taken1 he entered ,egypt1 and founded the city of ,,alexandria1 in its consequences one of the most memorable acts of his life4 ,he marched through ,lybia to the temple of ,jupiter ,ammon 7#cca ,b4,c474 ,having thus subdued the lands on the west1 he passed through ,palestine and ,syria by way of ,damascus1 crossed the ,euphrates and the ,tigris1 and met the ,persian army in the plains of ,gaugamela1 near ,arbela1--an army more than twenty times as large as his own 7,october1 #cca ,b4,c474 ,after a hotly contested battle1 the ,persians were routed1 and their empire destroyed4 ,,to ,,the ,,invasion ,,of ,,india4--,babylon and ,susa with all their treasures1 and1 afterwards1 ,persepolis and ,pasargadae1 fell into the conqueror's hands4 ,he set fire to ,persepolis1 and sold its male inhabitants into slavery4 ,he pursued ,darius into ,media1 ,hyrcania1 and ,parthia1 where the flying king was murdered by ,bessus1 one of his own nobles1 that he might not give himself up to ,alexander4 ,he then marched east and south through ,persia and the modern ,afghanistan4 ,he tarried at ,prophthasia 7,furrah7 for two months4 ,here it was that he charged ,philotas1 one of his best officers1 with a conspiracy against his life1 and put him to death2 and after this he ordered the murder of ,parmenio1 his best general1 who had been a companion in arms of ,king ,philip4 ,founding cities in different places as he advanced1 he crossed the ,oxus1 marched through ,sogdiana1 and crossed the ,jaxartes 7,sir-,daria74 ,while at ,samarcand1 in a drunken revel1 he slew ,clitus1 the friend who had saved his life in the battle of the ,granicus4 ,in a fit of remorse he went without food or drink for three days4 ,in ,bactra1 the capital of ,bactria1 he married ,roxana1 a princess of the country4 ,by this time his head was turned by his unexampled victories1 conquests and power4 ,he began to demand of his followers the cringing adulation that was paid to ,oriental monarchs1 and when it was denied was ready to inflict summary vengeance4 ,,to ,,the ,,death ,,of ,,alexander4--,crossing the eastern ,caucasus 7the ,hindu-,kush71 ,alexander moved down the right bank of the ,indus1 subduing the tribes whom he met in his path4 ,on the further side of the ,hydaspes1 he met the ,indian prince ,porus1 whom he defeated and captured1 and converted into an ally4 ,he continued his marches and his line of victories as far as the river ,hyphasis4 ,here the ,macedonian troops would go no farther4 ,alexander turned back 7#cbg ,b4,c471 and with his army and fleet moved down the ,hydaspes to the ,indus1 and down the ,indus to the sea4 ,nearchus1 his admiral1 sailed along the shore to the west1 while ,alexander conducted the rest of the army amid infinite hardships through the desert1 and finally met him on the coast4 ,in the beginning of the year #cbe1 he reached ,susa4 ,here he plainly manifested his purpose of combining ,macedonia and ,greece with the ,east in one great empire4 ,he adopted the ,persian costume and ceremonial1 and married both the daughter of ,darius ,,iii4 and the sister of ,artaxerxes ,,iii4 ,he prevailed on eighty of his ,macedonian officers and ten thousand ,macedonian soldiers to take ,persian wives4 ,for himself he exacted the homage paid to a divinity4 ,these measures1 looking to the amalgamation of ,macedon and ,greece with the ,east on terms of equality1 were most offensive to the old comrades and subjects of ,alexander4 ,he was obliged to quell a mutiny1 which he accomplished with consummate address and courage 7,july1 #cbd ,b4,c474 ,in the marshes about ,babylon1 a place which he intended to make his capital1 he contracted a fever1 which was aggravated by daily revels1 and which terminated his life 7#cbc ,b4,c471 after a reign of twelve years and eight months4 ,,influence ,,of ,,alexander4--,the ,persian ,empire1 when it was attacked by ,alexander1 was a gigantic body without much vitality4 ,yet to overcome it1 there was requisite not only the wonderful military talents of the conqueror1 but the vigilance and painstaking which equally characterized him4 ,he has been called an adventurer4 ,to fight and to conquer1 and to spread his dominion wherever there were countries to subdue1 seems to have been his absorbing purpose4 ,the most substantial result of his exploits1 which read more like fable than authentic history1 was to spread ,hellenism1--to diffuse at least a tincture of ,greek civilization1 together with some acquaintance with the ,greek language1 over the lands of the ,east4 ,this was a most important work in its bearing on the subsequent history of antiquity1 and more remotely on the history of all subsequent times4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,successors ,,of ,,alexander4 ,,divisions ,,of ,,the ,,empire4--,alexander left no legitimate children4 ,the child of ,roxana1 ,alexander the ,younger1 was born after his father's death4 ,the empire naturally fell to his principal generals1 of whom ,perdiccas1 having command of the great army of ,asia1 had the chief power4 ,he was obliged to content his military colleagues1 which he did by giving to them provinces4 ,the principal regents1 or guardians1 were soon reduced to three1--,antipater and ,craterus in ,europe1 and ,perdiccas4 ,the government was carried on in the name of ,roxana's son1 and of ,arrhidaeus1 the half-brother of ,alexander4 ,but ,perdiccas soon found that each general was disposed to be in fact a king in his own dominion4 ,he formed the plan of seizing the empire for himself4 ,this combined the satraps against him4 ,perdiccas was supported by his friend ,eumenes1 but had against him ,antipater and ,craterus1 the other regents1 and the powerful governors1 ,ptolemy ,lagi in ,egypt1 and ,antigonus in ,phrygia1 ,lycia1 and ,pamphilia 7#cbb ,b4,c474 ,there followed a series of wars lasting for twenty-two years1 involving numerous changes of sovereignty1 and fresh partitions of territory4 ,the rebellious satraps triumphed over the royalists1 whose aim was to keep the empire intact for the family of ,alexander4 ,the ambition of ,antigonus to make himself the sole ruler1 led to a league against him 7#cae ,b4,c474 ,in a treaty of peace1 ,cassander1 the son of ,antipater1 was to retain the government of ,macedonia4 ,by him ,roxana and the young ,alexander were put to death4 ,in a second war against ,antigonus1 in which1 as before1 he was supported by his son1 ,demetrius ,poliorcetes1 they were completely defeated in the battle of ,ipsus1 in ,phrygia 7#cja ,b4,c474 ,antigonus was slain3 ,demetrius fled to ,greece4 ,the result of this protracted contest was1 that the ,macedonian empire was broken into three principal states1--,macedonia under the ,antigonidae1 the descendants of ,antigonus2 ,egypt under the ,ptolemies2 ,syria under the ,seleucidae4 ,besides these1 there were the smaller kingdoms of ,pergamon and of ,bithynia4 ,other states broke off from the ,syrian realm of the ,seleucidae4 ,i4 ,,the ,,kingdom ,,of ,,the ,,ptolemies4 ,,ptolemy ,,lagi 7#cbc-bhe ,b4,c474--,when ,alexander transferred the seat of power in ,egypt from ,memphis to ,alexandria1 he accomplished results which he could not at all foresee4 ,the ,greek element became predominant in ,egyptian affairs4 ,a great stimulus was given to commerce and to foreign intercourse4 ,the ,egyptians themselves entered zealously into industrial pursuits4 ,ptolemy ,lagi 7,soter71 the first of the new sovereigns1 was wise enough to guard his own territory1 and even to establish his rule in ,palestine1 ,phoenicia1 and ,coele-,syria1 but to avoid extensive schemes of conquest4 ,cyrenaica1 on the west of ,egypt1 and the intermediate ,lybian tribes1 he subdued4 ,ptolemy was an absolute monarch1 but he retained prominent features in the old ,egyptian administrative system1 gave offices to ,egyptians1 and protected their religion4 ,the most important civil stations and all military offices were reserved for ,graeco-,macedonians3 ,alexandria was a ,greek city4 ,from the beginning he fostered learning and science4 ,he set to work to collect a great library in a building connected with his palace4 ,he founded the ,museum1 which was a college of professors4 ,it attracted a great body of students1 and became the university of the eastern world4 ,under the patronage of ,ptolemy1 mathematicians1 poets1 and critics of high repute flourished4 ,among the structures raised by him were the lighthouse of vast height on the island of ,pharos1 which was connected with the shore by a mole1 or causeway1 a mile in length2 the ,soma1 or mausoleum1 containing the body of ,alexander2 the ,temple of ,serapis1 completed by his son2 and the ,hippodrome4 ,,ptolemy ,,philadelphia4--,ptolemy ,,ii41 surnamed ,philadelphus 7#bhe-bdg ,b4,c471 with less talent for war than his father1 did much to encourage commerce1 and was especially active in his patronage of learning4 ,in this last province he did a greater work than his father4 ,he greatly enlarged the library4 ,he drew learned men to his court from all directions4 ,in his time the ,hebrew scriptures were translated into ,greek1 in the version called the ,septuagint4 ,under his auspices ,manetho composed his ,history of ,egypt4 ,,ptolemy ,,euergetes4--,ptolemy ,,iii4 7#bdg-bbb ,b4,c471 surnamed ,euergetes 7the benefactor71 was the most enterprising and aggressive of this line of monarchs4 ,most of his conquests were not permanent1 but some of them were4 ,he was a patron of art and of literature4 ,he raised ,egypt to the highest pitch of prosperity that she ever enjoyed4 ,the first three ,ptolemies whose reigns had covered a century1 were followed by a series of incompetent and depraved kings1 nine in number4 ,ptolemy ,,iv4 7,philopator7 7#bbb-bje ,b4,c47 was a weak and dissolute prince4 ,in war with ,antiochus ,,iii4 7the ,great7 of ,syria1 he saved his kingdom2 but his own subjects were rebellious and disaffected4 ,ptolemy ,,vi4 7,philometor7 7#aha-adh ,b4,c47 was a boy at his accession4 ,his guardians engaged in war with ,syria1 which would have conquered ,egypt but for the interposition of the ,romans in his behalf 7#agj ,b4,c474 ,,ii4 ,,macedon ,,and ,,greece4 ,when ,alexander was in the far ,east1 the ,spartan king1 ,agis ,,iii4 7#ccj ,b4,c471 headed a revolt against ,antipater2 but ,agis was vanquished and slain4 ,the death of ,alexander kindled the hope of regaining liberty among patriotic ,greeks4 ,athens1 under ,demosthenes and ,hyperides1 led the way4 ,a large confederacy was formed4 ,leosthenes1 the ,greek commander1 defeated ,antipater1 and shut him up within the walls of ,lamia 7in ,thessaly74 ,but the ,greeks were finally beaten at ,crannon4 ,favorable terms were granted to their cities1 except ,athens and ,aetolia4 ,twenty-one thousand citizens were deported from ,athens to ,thrace1 ,italy1 and other places4 ,the nine thousand richest citizens1 with ,phocion at their head1 the anti-democratic party1 had all power left in their hands4 ,demosthenes1 ,hyperides1 and other democratic leaders1 were proscribed4 ,demosthenes took refuge in the temple of ,neptune1 on the little island of ,calaurea4 ,finding himself pursued by ,archias1 the officer of ,antipater1 he took poison1 which he had kept by him in a quill1 and died4 ,thus closed the life of an intrepid statesman who had served the cause of liberty and of his country through the direst perils and trials with unfaltering constancy4 ,the democracy again acquired power temporarily1 and ,phocion was condemned to death4 ,cassander1 excluded from the ,macedonian throne by his father1 ,antipater1 supplanted ,polysperchon1 the regent 7#caf ,b4,c474 ,he placed ,demetrius of ,phaleron in power at ,athens over a democracy with restricted prerogatives4 ,he was driven out by ,demetrius ,poliorcetes1 who was helped by ,athens to possess himself of ,macedonia and of the most of ,greece1 but was compelled 7#bhg ,b4,c47 to give up his throne1 which1 however1 was gained by his son1 ,antigonus ,gonatas 7#bgg ,b4,c474 ,,the ,,achaean ,,league4--,in #bgi ,b4,c41 there occurred an irruption of the ,gauls into ,greece1 one of those vast waves of migration which from time to time sweep over the world4 ,the ,macedonian king1 ,ptolemy ,ceraunus1 was defeated by them in a great battle1 captured1 and put to death4 ,it was two years before these marauders were driven out1 and ,macedonia acquired a settled government4 ,this episode in history favored the growth of two leagues--the ,achaean ,league and the ,aetolian ,league4 ,in these leagues the several cities gave up to the central council much more power than ,greek cities had been in the habit of granting in former unions4 ,the ,achaean ,league was at first made up of ten ,achaean cities4 ,about #bdj ,b4,c4 ,aratus of ,sicyon1 who had brought ,sicyon into the league1 delivered ,corinth from the ,macedonians4 ,to free ,greek cities from subjection to them1 was long a great object of the league4 ,peloponnesus1 except ,sparta1 with ,athens and ,aegina1 joined it4 ,,the ,,aetolian ,,league3 ,,war ,,of ,,the ,,leagues4--,the rough ,aetolians north of the ,corinthian ,gulf1 semi-barbarous in their mode of life1 formed another league1 and got command of ,phocis1 ,locris1 and ,boeotia4 ,a praiseworthy attempt at reform was made in ,sparta by the king1 ,agis ,,iv4 7#bdj ,b4,c471 who was opposed by the rich1 and put to death4 ,cleomenes1 his successor1 who had the same spirit as ,agis1 engaged in conflict with the ,achaean ,league1 which then called in ,macedonian help 7#bbc ,b4,c474 ,it had to give up to ,macedon the ,corinthian citadel4 ,sparta was overthrown4 ,soon a war between the two leagues broke out1 when the ,achaeans again called on the ,macedonians for aid4 ,these conflicts were followed by the interference of the ,romans4 ,,the ,,evil ,,of ,,faction4--,the bane of ,greece1 from the beginning to the end of its history1 was the suicidal spirit of disunion4 ,her power was splintered at many crises1 when1 if united1 it might have saved the land from foreign tyranny4 ,her resources were drained1 generation after generation1 by needless local contests4 ,she owed her downfall to the desolating influence of faction4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,syrian ,,kingdom4 ,seleucus ,i4 7,nicator7 7#cab-bhj ,b4,c47 was the founder of the ,syrian kingdom4 ,from ,babylon he extended his dominion to the ,black ,sea1 to the ,jaxartes1 and even to the ,ganges1 so far as to make the ,indian prince1 ,sandracottus1 acknowledge him as suzerain4 ,from ,babylon he removed his capital to ,antioch on the ,orontes1 which he founded1--a city destined to be the rival of ,alexandria among the cities of the ,east4 ,the effect of this removal1 however1 was to loosen his hold upon the ,eastern provinces of his empire4 ,seleucia1 on the west bank of the ,tigris1 he likewise founded1 which became a great commercial city1 but was outstripped later by the ,parthian city opposite1 ,ctesiphon4 ,the provinces beyond the ,euphrates he committed to his son1 ,antiochus4 ,with him 7,antiochus ,i47 begins the decline of the empire through the influence of ,oriental luxury and vice4 ,under him ,syria lost the eastern part of ,asia ,minor through the invading ,gauls1 who converted northern ,phrygia into ,galatia1 while north-western ,lydia became the kingdom of ,pergamon4 ,antiochus ,,ii4 7#bfa-bdf ,b4,c47 could not hold the provinces in subjection4 ,the ,parthian and ,bactrian kingdoms began under his reign4 ,antiochus ,,iii4 7the ,great7 7#bbc-ahgf4j47 checked the ,parthians and ,bactrians1 and expelled the ,egyptians from ,asia1 but prepared for the downfall of the ,syrian ,empire by provoking the hostility of the ,romans4 ,,bactria1 ,,parthia1 ,,pergamon1 ,,galatia4--,bactria1 after it broke off from ,syria1 was under ,greek princes until1 having been weakened by the ,parthians1 it was conquered by the ,scythians 7#acd ,b4,c474 ,the ,parthians issued1 as marauders1 from the north border of ,iran 7#bef ,b4,c471 under the ,arsacidae4 ,they gradually acquired civilization from contact with ,greek culture1 especially after they established the trading-city of ,ctesiphon4 ,about #bjj ,b4,c4 the rulers of ,pontus made the ,greek city of ,sinope their residence1 and attained to a high degree of strength under ,mithridates ,,vi4 7the ,great74 ,pergamon became a flourishing state under the ,greek rule of ,attalus ,i4 7#bda ,b4,c474 ,it was famed for its wealth and its trade4 ,eumenes ,,ii4 7#aig-aei ,b4,c47 founded the library at ,pergamon4 ,for him parchment was improved1 if not invented1 the ,egyptians having forbidden the exportation of papyrus4 ,galatia was so named from the swarm of ,gallic invaders 7about #bgi ,b4,c471 who1 after incursions in the ,east1 which were continued for forty years1 settled there1 and by degrees yielded to the influences of ,greek culture4 ,,palestine3 ,,the ,,maccabees3 ,,the ,,idumaean ,,princes4--,palestine fared comparatively well in the times when the ,ptolemies had control4 ,not so after it fell under the permanent sway of ,syria4 ,the ,jews were surrounded and invaded by ,gentilism4 ,on three sides1 there were ,greek cities4 ,the perils to which their religion was exposed by the heathen without1 and by a lukewarm party within1 made earnest ,jews1 the bulk of the people1 more inflexible in their adherence to their law and customs4 ,the party of the ,pharisees grew out of the intensity of the loyal and patriotic feeling which was engendered in the periods following the exile4 ,the synagogues1 centers of worship and of instruction scattered over the land1 acted as a bulwark against the intrusion of heathen doctrine and heathen practices4 ,the resistance to these dreaded evils came to a head when the ,syrian ruler1 ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 embittered by his failures in conflict with ,egypt1 resolved to break down religious barriers among his subjects1 and1 for this end1 to exterminate ,jewish worship4 ,in #afh ,b4,c4 he set up an altar to ,jupiter in the temple at ,jerusalem1 and even compelled ,jewish priests to immolate swine4 ,then the revolt broke out in which the family of ,maccabees were the heroic leaders4 ,judas ,maccabees recovered the temple1 but fell in battle 7#afj4 ,b4,c474 ,under his brother ,simon1 victory was achieved1 and the independence of the nation secured4 ,the chief power remained in the hands of this family1 the ,asmonaean princes1 until their degeneracy paved the way for ,roman intervention under ,pompeius4 ,his adviser was the ,idumeaean1 ,antipater1 a ,jewish proselyte1 whose son ,herod was made king 7#ci ,b4,c474 ,,philosophy3 ,,the ,,stoics ,,and ,,the ,,epicureans4--,in the ,greek world the progress of investigation and reflection tended to produce disbelief in the old mythological system4 ,social confusion and degeneracy tended to undermine all religious faith4 ,pyrrho 7about #ccj ,b4,c47 brought forward the skeptical doctrine1 that the highest wisdom is to doubt every thing4 ,euhemrus 7#cae ,b4,c47 interpreted the whole mythology as an exaggeration1 by imagination and invention1 of historical events which form its slender nucleus4 ,with the loss of liberty and the downfall of the ,greek states1 philosophy became1 so to speak1 more cosmopolitan4 ,it no longer exalted1 in the same narrow spirit1 the ,greek above the barbarian4 ,it looked at mankind more as one community4 ,this was a feature of the first of the two principal sects1 the ,stoics1 of whom ,zeno 7about #ccj ,b4,c471 and ,chrysippus 7#bhj-bjg ,b4,c47 were the founders4 ,they taught that virtue is the only good2 that is consists in living according to nature2 that reason should be dominant1 and tranquillity of spirit be maintained by the complete subjugation of feeling4 ,the emotions are to be kept down by the force of and iron will4 ,this is the ,stoic apathy4 ,the world is wisely ordered3 whatever is1 is right2 yet the cause of all things is not personal4 ,mankind form on great community1 one city4 ,the ,epicureans1 the second of the prominent sects1--so called from ,epicurus1 their founder 7#cdb-cgj ,b4,c471--made pleasure the chief good1 which is to be secured by prudence1 or such a regulation of our desires as will yield1 on the whole1 the largest fruit of happiness4 ,they believed that the gods exist1 but denied ,providence4 ,,culture4--,in the ,greek cities which were founded by the ,macedonians1 the political life and independence which ,greece had enjoued did not exist4 ,the ,hellenistic literature and culture1 as it is called1 which followed1 lacked the spontaneous energy and original spirit of the old time4 ,the civilization was that of people not exclusively ,greek in blood4 ,alexandria was its chief seat4 ,poetry languished4 ,it was prose--and prose in the form of learned inquiries1 criticism1 and science--that flourished4 ,the path was the same as that marked out by ,aristotle4 ,theocritus1 born in ,syracuse1 or ,cos1 under ,ptolemy ,i4 7about #cbj ,b4,c471 had distinction as a pastoral or bucolic poet4 ,euclid1 under ,ptolemy ,soter1 systemized geometry4 ,archimedes1 who died in #bab ,b4,c41 is said to have invented the screw1 and was skillful in mechanics4 ,eratosthenes founded descriptive astronomy and scientific chronology4 ,the ,alexandrian age busied itself with literary or scientific research1 and with setting in order what the ,greek mind had done in its creative time4 ,after ,greece became subject to ,rome 7#adf ,b4,c47 the ,graeco ,roman period in ,greek literature begins4 ,the ,greek historian ,polybius stands on the border between the ,alexandrian age and this next era4 ,he was born about #baj ,b4,c41 and died about #abh ,b4,c4 ,,literature4--,works mentioned on p4 #af3 ,histories of ,greece by ,,grote 7#ab vols47 7democratic in his sympathies71 ,e4 ,,curtius 7#e vols471 ,,thirlwall 7#h vols471 ,w4 ,smith 7#a vol471 ,g4 ,w4 ,cox4 ,busolt1 ,griechische ,geschichte2 ,fyffe1 ,history of ,greece 7primer72 ,duncker1 ,history of ,greece separately published2 ,abbott 7#b vols472 ,holm 7#d vols472 ,bury2 ,oman4 ,on special periods3 ,the writings of the ancient authors1--,herodotus 7,rawlinson's translation1 #d vols471 ,xenophon1 ,,thucydides 7,jowett's translation1 #b vols471 ,polybius1 ,plutarch's ,lives4 ,schfer1 ,demosthenes und seine ,zeit 7#c vols472 ,,droysen1 ,geschichte des ,hellenismus 7#c vols472 ,e4 ,a4 ,,freeman1 ,history of ,federal ,government 7vol4 i472 ,,finlay1 ,history of ,greece from the ,conquest of the ,romans 7#g vols472 ,g4 ,w4 ,cox1 ,history of ,greece from the ,earliest ,period to the ,end of the ,persian ,war 7#b vols471 and ,lives of ,greek ,statesmen 7#a vol472 ,freeman1 ,history of ,sicily 7#d vols474 ,on special topics3 ,,boeckh1 ,the ,public ,economy of ,athens2 ,coulanges1 ,the ,ancient ,city1 etc43 ,gll1 ,kulturbilder aus ,hellas und ,rom 7#c vols472 ,guhl and ,koner1 ,the ,life of the ,greeks and ,romans1 etc42 ,green1 ,greece and ,greek ,antiquities 7primer72 ,j4 ,p4 ,mahaffy1 ,social ,life in ,greece1 also ,rambles in ,greece1 ,old ,greek ,education1 and ,history of ,greek ,literature 7#b vols472 ,becker1 ,charicles 7a story illustrative of ,greek life72 ,f4 ,a4 ,paley1 ,greek ,wit 7#b vols472 ,church1 ,stories from ,homer2 ,black1 ,the ,wise ,men of ,greece2 ,neares1 ,greek ,anthology in ,ancient ,classics for ,english ,readers1 ,chief ,ancient ,philosophies ,stoicism1 etc4 7#a vol41 #ahhj72 ,mller and ,donaldson1 ,history of the ,literature of ,ancient ,greece 7#c vols472 ,mure1 ,a ,critical ,history of the ,language and ,literature of ,ancient ,greece 7#e vols472 ,jebb1 ,attic ,orators 7#b vols472 ,symonds1 ,the ,greek ,poets 7#b vols472 ,g4 ,f4 ,schmann1 ,the ,antiquities of ,greece2 ,gladstone1 ,studies on the ,homeric ,age and ,homer2 ,lbke1 ,outlines of the ,history of ,art2 ,,fergusson1 ,history of ,architecture2 ,d',anvers1 ,elementary ,history of ,art2 ,botsford1 ,development of the ,athenian ,constitution2 ,w4 ,w4 ,fowler1 ,the ,city-,state of the ,greeks and ,romans2 ,gilbert1 ,constitutional ,antiquities of ,sparta and ,athens2 ,greenidge1 ,handbook of ,greek ,constitutional ,history2 ,h4 ,n4 ,fowler1 ,history of ,greek ,literature2 ,marshall1 ,short ,history of ,greek ,philosophy2 ,gardner1 ,handbook of ,greek ,sculpture2 ,tarbell1 ,history of ,greek ,art2 ,tozer1 ,primer of ,classical ,geography2 ,kiepert1 ,atlas ,antiquus2 ,cunningham1 ,western ,civilization 7vol4 #a72 ,smith 7,wayte ,marindin71 ,dictionary of ,greek and ,roman ,antiquities 7#b vols41 #ahij72 ,seyffert 7,nettleship and ,sandys71 ,dictionary of ,classical ,antiquities4 ,,macedonian ,,royal ,,houses ,a4--,house of ,alexander the ,great4 7#a7 ,,amyntas ,,ii4 --7#d7 ,,philip1 m4 #a1 ,olympias2 --,,alexander ,,the ,,great1 m4 #a1 ,roxana2 --7#g7 ,,alexander4 #b1 ,concubines4 --,hercules4 #b1 ,cleopatra2 #c1 ,concubines4 --7#f7 ,,philip ,,arrhidaeus1 m4 ,eurydic4 --,thessalonica1 m4 ,cassander4 --,cynan m4 ,amyntas4 --7#b7 ,,alexander ,,ii4 --7#c7 ,,perdiccas ,,iii4 --,amyntas1 m4 ,cynan --,eurydic1 m4 ,philip ,arrhidaeus4 ,b4--,house of ,antipater4 ,,antipater4 --7#h7 ,,cassander1 m4 ,thessalonica4 --7#i7 ,,philip ,,ii4 --7#aj7 ,,antipater ,,ii4 --7#aa7 ,,alexander4 --,philip4 --,eurydic1 m4 ,ptolemy ,lagi1 --,phila1 m4 #a1 ,craterus2 #b1 ,demetrius ,poliorcetes4 --,nicaea1 m4 ,perdiccas4 ,c4--,house of ,antigonus4 ,antigonus ,i4 --7#ab7 ,,demetrius ,i 7,poliorcetes71 m4 ,phila1 daughter of ,antipater4 --7#ac7 ,antigonus ,,ii 7,gonatas71 m4 ,phila1 daughter of ,seleucus ,nicator4 --7#ad7 ,demetrius ,,ii1 m4 #a1 ,stratonice2 --7#af7 ,,philip ,,iii4 --7#ag7 ,,perseus1 m4 ,laodic1 daughter of ,seleucus ,philopator4 --,demetrius --,apama4 #b1 ,phthia4 --,craterus4 --,alexander --,demetrius the ,handsome4 --,antigonus ,,iii 7,doson71 m4 ,phthia1 widow of ,demetrius ,,ii --,echecrates1 --,antigonus4 --,stratonice1 m4 #a1 ,seleucus ,nicator2 #b1 ,antiochus ,theus4 --,phila4 --,philip4 ,from ,rawlinson's ,manual of ,ancient ,history4 ,,section ,,ii4 ,,roman ,,history4 ,,introduction4 ,,place ,,of ,,rome ,,in ,,history4--,rome is the bridge which unites1 while it separates1 the ancient and the modern world4 ,the history of ,rome is the narrative of the building up of a single ,city1 whose dominion gradually spread until it comprised all the countries about the ,mediterranean1 or what were then the civilized nations4 ,in this great empire was gathered up the sum total that remained of the religions1 laws1 customs1 languages1 letters1 arts1 and sciences of all the nations of antiquity which had successively held sway or predominance4 ,under the system of ,roman government and ,roman law they were combined in one ordered community4 ,it was out of the wreck of the ancient ,roman ,empire that the modern ,european nations were formed4 ,their likeness to one another1 their bond of fellowship1 is due to the heritage of laws1 customs1 letters1 religion1 which they have received in common from ,rome4 ,,the ,,inhabitants ,,of ,,ancient ,,italy4--,until a late period in ,roman history1 the ,apennines1 and not the ,alps1 were the northern boundary of ,italy4 ,the most of the region between the ,alpine range and the ,apennines1 on both sides of the ,po1 was inhabited by ,gauls1 akin to the ,celts of the same name north of the ,alps4 ,on the west of ,gallia were the ,ligurians1 a rough people of unknown extraction4 ,people thought to be of the same race as the ,ligurians dwelt in ,sardinia and in ,corsica1 and in a part of ,sicily4 ,on the east of ,gallia were the ,venetians1 whose lineage is not ascertained4 ,the ,apennines branch off from the ,alps in a southeasterly direction until they near the ,adriatic1 when they turn to the south1 and descend to the extreme point of the peninsula1 thus forming the backbone of ,italy4 ,on the west1 in the central portion of the peninsula1 is the hilly district called by the ancients1 ,etruria 7now ,tuscany71 and the plains of ,latium and ,campania4 ,what is now termed ,campania1 the district about ,rome1 is a part of ancient ,latium4 ,the ,etrurians differed widely1 both in appearance and in language1 from the ,romans4 ,they were not improbably ,aryans1 but nothing more is known of their descent4 ,in the east1 in what is now ,calabria1 and in ,apulia1 there was another people1 the ,iapygians1 whose origin is not certain1 but who were not so far removed from the ,greeks as from the ,latins4 ,the southern and south-eastern portions of the peninsula were the seat of the ,greek settlements1 and the country was early designated ,great ,greece4 ,leaving out the ,etrurians1 ,iapygians1 and ,greeks1 ,italy1 south of ,gallia1 was inhabited by nations allied to one another1 and more remotely akin to the ,greeks4 ,these ,italian nations were divided into an eastern and a western stock4 ,the western stock1 the ,latins1 whose home was in ,latium1 were much nearer of kin to the ,greeks than were the eastern4 ,the eastern stock comprised the ,umbrians and the ,oscans4 ,it included the ,sabines1 ,samnites1 and ,lucanians4 ,we are certain1 that1 from the common cradle of peoples and languages1 there issued a stock which embraced in common the ancestors of the ,greeks and the ,italians2 that from this1 at a subsequent period1 the ,italians branched off2 and that these divided again into the western and eastern stocks1 while1 at a still later date1 the eastern became subdivided into ,umbrians and ,oscans4 7,mommsen's ,history of ,rome1 vol4 i41 p4 #cf47 ,,italy ,,and ,,greece4--,in two important points1 ,italy is geographically distinguished from ,greece4 ,the sea-coast of ,italy is more uniform1 not being broken by bays and harbors2 and it is not cut up1 like ,greece1 by chains of mountains1 into small cantons4 ,the ,romans had not the same inducement to become a sea-faring people2 there were fewer cities2 there was an opportunity for closer and more extended leagues4 ,it is remarkable that the outlets of ,greece were towards the east2 those of ,italy towards the west4 ,the two nations were thus averted from one another3 they were1 so to speak1 back to back4 ,,the ,,greeks ,,and ,,romans4--,the ,greeks and ,romans1 although sprung from a common ancestry1 and preserving common features in their language1 and to some extent in their religion1 were very diverse in their natural traits4 ,the ,greeks had more genius3 the ,romans more stability4 ,in art and letters the ,romans had little originality4 ,in these provinces they were copyists of the ,greeks3 they lacked ideality4 ,they had1 also1 far less delicacy of perception1 flexibility1 and native refinement of manners4 ,but they had more sobriety of character and more endurance4 ,they were a disciplined people2 and in their capacity for discipline lay the secret of their supremacy in arms and of their ability to give law to the world4 ,if they produced a much less number of great men than the ,greeks1 there was more widely diffused among ,roman citizens a conscious dignity and strength4 ,the ,roman was naturally grave3 the fault of the ,greek was levity4 ,versatility belonged to the ,greek3 virility to the ,roman4 ,above all1 the sense of right and of justice was stronger among the ,romans4 ,they had1 in an eminent degree1 the political instinct1 the capacity for governing1 and for building up a political system on a firm basis4 ,this trait was connected with their innate reverence for authority1 and their habit of obedience4 ,the noblest product of the ,latin mind is the ,roman law1 which is the foundation of almost all modern codes4 ,with all their discernment of justice and love of order1 the ,romans1 however1 were too often hard and cruel4 ,their history is stained here and there with acts of unexampled atrocity4 ,in private life1 too1 when the rigor of self-control gave way1 they sunk into extremes of vulgar sensuality4 ,if1 compared with the ,greeks1 they stood morally at a greater height1 they might fall to a lower depth4 ,,the ,,roman ,,religion4--,the difference between the ,greek and ,roman mind was manifest in the sphere of religion4 ,before their separation from one another they had brought from the common hearthstone elements of worship which both retained4 ,jupiter1 like ,zeus1 was the old ,aryan god of the shining sky4 ,but the ,greek conception1 even of the chief deity1 differed from the ,roman4 ,when the ,romans came into intercourse with the ,greeks1 they identified the ,greek divinities with their own1 and more and more appropriated the tales of the ,greek mythology1 linking them to their own deities4 ,of the early worship peculiar to the ,romans1 we know but little4 ,but certain traits always belonged to the ,roman religion4 ,their mood was too prosaic to invent a theogony1 to originate stories of the births1 loves1 and romantic adventures of the gods1 such as the ,greek fancy devised4 ,the ,roman myths were heroic1 not religious3 they related to the deeds of valiant men4 ,their deities were1 in the first place1 much more abstract1 less vividly conceived1 less endowed with distinct personal characteristics4 ,and1 secondly1 their service to the gods was more punctilious and methodical4 ,it was regulated1 down to the minuti1 by fixed rules4 ,worship was according to law1 was something due to the gods1 and was discharged1 like any other debt1 exactly1 and at the proper time4 ,the ,roman took advantage of technicalities in dealing with his gods3 he was legal to the core4 ,the word religion had the same root as obligation4 ,it denoted the bondage or service owed by man to the gods in return for their protection and favor2 and hence the anxiety1 or scrupulous watchfulness against the omission of what is required to avert the displeasure of the powers above4 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,romans4--,the ,romans attributed their origin to the mythical neas1 who fled1 with a band of fugitives1 from the flames of ,troy1 and whose son1 ,ascanius1 or ,iulus1 settled in ,alba ,longa1 in ,latium4 ,what is known of the foundation of ,rome is1 that it was a settlement of ,latin farmers and traders on the group of hills1 seven in number1 near the border of ,latium1 on the ,tiber4 ,it was the head of navigation for small vessels1 and ,rome was at first1 it would seem1 the trading-village for the exchange of the products of the farming-district in which it was placed4 ,such an outpost would be useful to guard ,latium against the ,etrurians across the river4 ,of the three townships1 or clans1 which united to form ,rome1--the ,ramnes1 the ,tities1 and the ,luceres1--the first and third were ,latin4 ,the second1 which was ,sabine1 blended with the ,roman element1 as the language proves4 ,the clans1 or tribes1 in ,latium together formed a league1 the central meeting-place of which was at first ,alba ,longa4 ,there is some reason to think that the ,sabines were from ,cures near ,rome4 ,certain it is that ,rome1 even at the outset1 derived its strength from a combination of tribes4 ,,period ,i4 ,,rome ,,under ,,the ,,kings ,,and ,,the ,,patricians4 7#gec-cjd ,b4,c47 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,rome ,,under ,,the ,,kings 7#gec-eji ,b4,c474 ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,legends4--,there is no doubt that the ,romans lived for a time under the rule of kings4 ,these were not like the ,greek kings1 hereditary rulers1 nor were they chosen from a single family4 ,but the stories told in later times respecting the kings1 their names and doings1 are quite unworthy of credit4 ,they rest upon no contemporary evidence or sure tradition4 ,to say nothing of the miraculous elements that enter into the narratives1 they are laden with other improbabilities1 which prove them to be the fruit of imagination4 ,they contain impossibilities in chronology4 ,they ascribe laws1 institutions1 and religion1 which were of slow growth1 to particular individuals1 apportioning to each his own part in an artificial way4 ,many of the stories are borrowed from the ,greeks1 and were originally told by them about other matters4 ,in short1 the ,roman legends1 including dates1 such as are recorded in this chapter1 are fabrications to fill up a void in regard to which there was no authentic information1 and to account for beliefs and customs the origin of which no one knew4 ,they are of service1 however1 in helping us to ascertain the character of the ,roman constitution1 and something about its growth1 in the prehistoric age4 ,,the ,,legendary ,,tales4--,romulus and ,remus1 so the legend runs1 were sons of the god ,mars by ,rhea ,silvia1 a priestess of ,vesta1 whose father1 ,numitor1 had been slain by his wicked brother1 ,amulius1 who thereby made himself king of ,alba ,longa4 ,the twins1 by his command1 were put into a basket1 and thrown into the ,tiber4 ,the cradle was caught by the roots of a fig-tree3 a she-wolf came out1 and suckled them1 and ,faustulus1 a shepherd1 brought them up as his own children4 ,romulus grew up1 and slew the usurper1 ,amulius4 ,the two brothers founded a city on the banks of the ,tiber where they had been rescued 7#gec ,b4,c474 ,in a quarrel1 the elder killed the younger1 and called the city after himself1 ,roma4 ,romulus1 to increase the number of the people1 founded an asylum on the ,capitoline ,hill1 which gave welcome to robbers and fugitives of all kinds4 ,there was a lack of women2 but1 by a cunning trick1 the ,romans seized on a large number of ,sabine women1 who had been decoyed to ,rome1 with their fathers and brothers1 to see the games4 ,the angry ,sabines invaded ,rome4 ,tarpeia1 the daughter of the ,roman captain1 left open for them a gate into the ,capitoline citadel1 and so they won the ,capitol4 ,in the war that followed1 by the intervention of the ,sabine women1 the ,romans and ,sabines agreed to live peaceably together as citizens of one town1 under ,romulus and the ,sabine1 ,tatius4 ,after the death of ,tatius1 ,romulus reigned alone1 and framed laws for the two peoples4 ,during a thunder-storm he was translated to the skies1 and worshiped as the god ,quirinus 7#gaf ,b4,c474 ,after a year ,numa ,pompilius1 a ,sabine1 was elected king 7#gae-fgc ,b4,c474 ,he stood in close intercourse with the gods1 was full of wisdom and of the spirit of peace4 ,he framed the religious system1 with its various offices and rites4 ,the gates of the temple of ,janus1 closed only in peace1 were shut during his mild reign4 ,he died of old age1 without illness or pain4 ,the peaceful king was followed by the warlike king1 ,tullus ,hostilius 7#fgc-fda ,b4,c474 ,war breaks out with ,alba4 ,the two armies face each other1 and the contest is decided by the single combat of the three ,horatii1 champions of the ,romans1 and the three ,curiatii1 champions of ,alba4 ,one ,roman1 the victor and sole survivor1 is led to ,rome in triumph4 ,thus ,alba became subject to ,rome4 ,afterwards ,alba was destroyed1 but the ,albans became ,roman citizens4 ,the fourth king1 ,ancus ,marcius 7#fda-faf ,b4,c471 loved peace1 but could not avoid war4 ,he fought against four ,latin towns1 brought their inhabitants to ,rome1 and planted them on the ,aventine hill4 ,he fortified the hill ,janiculum1 on the right bank of the ,tiber1 and connected it by a wooden bridge with the town4 ,the next king was by birth an ,etruscan4 ,lucumo and his wife1 ,tanaquil1 emigrated to ,rome4 ,lucumo took the name of ,lucius ,tarquinius1 was stout1 valiant1 and wise1 a counselor of ,ancus1 and chosen after him1 instead of one of the sons of ,ancus1 whose guardian he was4 ,tarquinius ,priscus 7#faf-egh ,b4,c47--for so he was called--waged successful wars with the ,sabines1 ,latins1 and ,etruscans4 ,the ,etruscans owned him for their king1 and sent a crown of gold1 a scepter1 an ivory chair1 an embroidered tunic1 a purple toga1 and twelve axes in as many bundles of rods4 ,he made a reform of the laws4 ,he built the temple of ,jupiter1 or the ,capitol1 laid out the forum for a market-place1 made a great sewer to drain the lower valleys of the city1 leveled a race-course between the ,aventine and ,palatine hills1 and introduced games like those of the ,etruscans4 ,tarquinius was killed by the sons of ,ancus2 and ,servius ,tullius 7#egh-ecd ,b4,c471 the son of ,ocrisia1 a slave-woman1 and of a god1 was made king through the devices of ,tanaquil4 ,he united the seven hills1 and built the wall of ,rome4 ,he remodeled the constitution by the census and the division of the centuries4 ,under him ,rome joined the ,latin league4 ,he was murdered by his flagitious son-in-law1 ,tarquinius ,superbus 7#ecd-eaj ,b4,c47--,tarquin the ,proud4 ,he ruled as a despot1 surrounding himself with a bodyguard1 and1 upon false accusation1 inflicting death on citizens whose property he coveted4 ,by a treacherous scheme1 he got possession of the town of ,gabii4 ,he waged war against the ,volscians1 a powerful people on the south of ,latium4 ,he adorned ,rome with many buildings1 and lived in pomp and extravagance1 while the people were impoverished and helpless4 ,the inspired ,sibyl of ,cumae offered him1 through a messenger1 nine books of prophecies4 ,the price required excited his scorn1 whereupon the woman who brought them destroyed three4 ,she came back with the remaining six1 which she offered at the same price4 ,on being refused in the same manner1 she destroyed another three4 ,this led ,tarquin to pay the price when she appeared the third time with the books that were left4 ,they were carefully preserved to the end1 that in times of danger the will of the gods might be learned4 ,another story told of the haughty king was1 that1 when he had grown old1 and was frightened by dreams and omens1 he sent his two sons to consult the oracle at ,delphi4 ,with them went his sister's son1 ,junius1 who was called ,brutus on account of his supposed silliness1 which was really feigned to deceive the tyrant4 ,the offering which he brought to the ,delphian god was a simple staff4 ,his cousins1 who laughed at him1 did not know that it was stuffed with gold4 ,the god1 in answer to a question1 said that he would reign at ,rome who should first kiss his mother4 ,brutus divined the sense of the oracle1 pretended to stumble1 and kissed the mother earth4 ,the cruel outrage of ,sextus ,tarquinius1 the king's son1 of which ,lucretia1 the wife of their cousin1 was the pure and innocent victim1 caused the expulsion of the house of ,tarquin1 and the abolishing of regal government4 ,her father and husband1 with ,brutus and the noble ,publius ,valerius ,poplicola1 to whom she related the deed of shame wrought by ,sextus1 swore1 at her request1 to avenge her wrong4 ,she herself plunged a dagger into her heart1 and expired4 ,brutus roused the people1 and drove out the ,tarquins4 ,two consuls were appointed in the room of the king1 who should rule for one year4 ,brutus was one4 ,when it was ascertained that his own sons had taken part in a conspiracy of the higher class to restore ,tarquinius1 the stern ,roman gave orders to the lictors to scourge them1 and to cut off their heads with the ax4 ,now the senate and people decreed that the whole race of ,tarquinius should be banished for ever4 ,tarquinius went among the ,etruscans1 and secured the aid of the people of ,tarquinii1 and of ,veii4 ,in a battle1 ,aruns1 the son of ,tarquinius1 and ,brutus1 both mounted1 ran upon one another1 and were slain4 ,each army marched to its home4 ,tarquinius then obtained the help of ,porsena1 king of the ,etruscans1 with a strong army4 ,they took ,janiculum2 but ,horatius ,cocles1 with two companions1 posted himself at the entrance of the bridge1 and kept the place1 ,horatius remaining until the bridge had been torn away behind him4 ,he then1 with his armor on1 leaped into the river1 and swam back to the shore4 ,the town was hard pressed by the enemy and by famine4 ,mucius ,scaevola went into ,porsena's camp1 resolved to kill him4 ,but he slew another whom he mistook for the king4 ,when threatened with death1 he thrust his right hand into the fire1 to show that he had no fear4 ,porsena1 admiring his courage1 gave him his freedom2 and1 on being informed that three hundred young ,romans were sworn to undertake the same deed which ,mucius had come to perform1 ,porsena made peace without requiring the restoration of ,tarquinius4 ,tarquinius1 not despairing1 persuaded the ,tusculans and other ,latins to begin war against ,rome4 ,the ,romans appointed a dictator to meet the exigency1 ,marcus ,valerius4 ,in a battle near ,lake ,regillus1 when the ,romans began to give way1 the dictator invoked ,castor and ,pollux1 vowing to dedicate a temple to them in case he was victorious4 ,two young men on white chargers appeared at the head of the ,roman troops1 and led them to victory4 ,tarquinius now gave up his effort1 and went to ,cumae to the tyrant ,aristodemus1 where he lived until his death4 ,,truth ,,in ,,the ,,legends4--,there are certain facts which are embedded in the legends4 ,alba was at one time the head of the ,latin confederacy4 ,the ,sabines invaded ,latium1 settled on some of the hills of ,rome1 allied themselves with the ,romans1 and the two peoples were resolved into one federal state4 ,this last change was a very important step4 ,the tradition of a doubling of the senate and of two kings1 ,romulus and ,taiius1 although not in literal form historical1 is believed to be a reminiscence of this union4 ,it is thought that the earliest royalty was priestly in its character1 and that this was superseded by a military kingship4 ,it is probable that the ,etruscans who had made much progress in civilization1 in the arts and in manufactures1 gained the upper hand in ,latium4 ,the insignia of the ,roman kings were ,etruscan4 ,the ,etruscan kings were driven out4 ,there were advances in civilization under them1 the division of the people into classes took place1 and at that period structures like the ,servian wall were built4 ,,patricians ,,and ,,plebeians4--,the ,romans from the beginning were divided into the upper class1 the ,patricians1 and the common people1 or ,plebeians1 who were free1 but1 like the perioeci and metoeci in ,greece1 had no political rights4 ,the plebeians1 as they included the conquered class1 were not all poor4 ,a part of them1 who were under the special protection of citizens1 their ,patrons1 were called ,clients4 ,the patricians were the descendants of the first settlers and proprietors4 ,under the old constitution1 ascribed in the legends to ,romulus1 the patricians alone formed the military force1 and were styled the ,populus4 ,they were divided into curiae 7districts or wards71 at first ten in number1 and1 after the union of the ,romans with the ,tities and ,luceres1 thirty4 ,each curia was divided into ten families1 or gentes4 ,the assembly of the citizens was called the ,comitia ,curiata4 ,the ,comitia chose the ,king4 ,the ,senate was a council of elders representing in some way the gentes4 ,the clan1 or gens1 was always of great consequence among the ,romans4 ,its name was a part of the proper name of every citizen4 ,the particular or individual names in vogue were not numerous4 ,the name of the gens was placed between the personal name1 or the praenomen1 and the designation of the special family 7included in the gens74 ,thus in the case of ,caius ,julius ,caesar1 ,julius was the designation of the gens1 ,caesar1 of the family1 while ,caius was the personal name4 ,,the ,,early ,,constitution4--,the ,servian constitution made all land-owners1 whether patrician or plebeian1 subject to taxation1 and obliged to do military service4 ,the cavalry--the ,equites1 or knights1--was made up1 by adding to the six patrician companies already existing1 double the number from both classes4 ,the infantry were organized without reference to rank1 but were graded according to their property4 ,the whole people were divided thus into five classes1 and1 when assembled1 formed the ,comitia ,centuriata1--as being made up of the companies called centuries1 or hundreds4 ,at first this body was only consulted by the king in regard to offensive wars4 ,gradually it drew away more and more power from the ,comitia ,curiata1 which consisted solely of patricians4 ,those who had no land were now distinguished from the land-owning plebeians4 ,for the purposes of conscription1 the city was divided into four ,tribes1 or wards4 ,every four years a census was to be taken4 ,,magistrates4--,when the kingship was abolished1 and under the system that followed1 the two ,consuls were to be patricians4 ,they exercised regal power during their term of office4 ,they appointed the senators and the two ,quaestors1 who came to have charge of the treasury1 under consular supervision4 ,the consuls were attended by twelve ,lictors1 who carried the fasces--bundles of rods fastened around an ax1--which symbolized the power of the magistrate to flog or to behead offenders4 ,the ,comitia ,centuriata acquired the right to elect the consuls1 to hear appeals in capital cases from their verdicts1 and to accept or reject bills laid before it4 ,this was a great gain for the plebeians4 ,yet the patricians were strong enough in this assembly to control its action4 ,on occasions of extraordinary peril1 a ,dictator might be selected by one of the consuls1 who was to have absolute authority for the time4 ,the ,senate commonly had an important part1 however1 in the selection of this officer4 ,there was a ,master of ,horse to command the knights under him4 ,he was appointed by the dictator4 ,,religion4--,worship in families was conducted by the head of the household1 the paterfamilias1 who offered the regular sacrifices4 ,but1 as regards the whole people1 worship was under the direction of the pontiffs1 with the chief pontiff1 the ,pontifex ,maximus1 at their head1 and in the hands of the priests4 ,these were all officers of the state1 elected to their places1 and entirely subordinate to the civil magistrates4 ,the pontiffs were not so much priests as they were guardians and interpreters of divine law4 ,they were masters of sacred lore4 ,they looked out that the numberless and complex rules in respect to religious observances should be strictly complied with4 ,at the same time they had enough knowledge of astronomy to enable them to fix the days suitable for the transaction of business1 public or private4 ,they had the control of the calendar4 ,the ,augurs consulted the will of the gods as disclosed in omens4 ,the augur1 his eyes raised to the sky1 with his staff marked off the heavens into four quarters1 and then watched for the passage of birds1 from which he took the auspices4 ,in early times1 there was an implicit faith in these supposed indications of the will of the divinities2 but this credulity passed away1 and the auguries became a political instrument for helping forward the schemes of some person or party4 ,besides the college of pontiffs and the college of augurs1 there was the college of ,fetiales1 who were the guardians of the public faith in relation to other peoples1 and performed the rites attending the declaration of war or the conclusion of peace4 ,the ,soothsayers 7haruspices7 were of ,etruscan origin4 ,they ascertained the will of the gods by inspecting the entrails of the slaughtered victims4 ,the ,flamens were the priests having charge of the worship of particular divinities4 ,the ,vestals were virgin priestesses of ,vesta1 who ministered in her temple1 and kept the sacred fire from being extinguished4 ,the chief gods worshiped by the ,romans were ,jupiter1 god of the sky2 his wife1 ,juno1 the goddess of maternity2 ,minerva1 the goddess of wisdom2 ,apollo1 the god of augury and the arts2 ,diana1 the goddess of the chase and archery2 ,mars1 the god of war2 ,bellona1 the goddess of war2 ,vesta1 patron of the ,roman state and of the national hearthstone2 ,ceres1 the goddess of agriculture2 ,saturnus1 the patron of husbandry2 ,hercules1 the ,greek god1 early naturalized in ,italy as the god of gain and of mercantile contracts2 ,mercury1 the god of trade2 ,neptune god of the sea4 ,venus was an old ,roman goddess1 who presided over gardens1 but gradually was identified with the ,grecian ,aphrodite4 ,lares and ,penates were household divinities1 guardians of the family4 ,the ,romans assigned a spirit to almost every thing4 ,each individual had his own protecting genius4 ,janus was the god of beginnings1 ,terminus was the god of the boundary1 ,silvanus of the forest1 ,vertumnus of the circling year4 ,the farmer1 in each part of his labor1--in harrowing1 plowing1 sowing1 etc41--invoked a spirit4 ,so marriage1 birth1 and every natural event had each a sacred life of its own4 ,not less than forty-three distinct divinities are spoken of by name as having to do with the actions of a child4 ,thus the number of divinities was countless4 ,gods were great or small1 according to the department of nature or of life where they severally were present and active4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,rome ,,under ,,the ,,patricians 7#eji-cjd ,b4,c474 ,,rivalry ,,of ,,classes4--,the abolishing of royalty left ,rome as a house divided against itself4 ,the power granted to the ,comitia ,centuriata did not suffice to produce contentment4 ,the patricians still decided every thing1 and used their strength in an oppressive way4 ,besides the standing contest between the patricians and plebeians1 there was great suffering on the side of the poorer class of plebeians4 ,many were obliged to incur debts2 and their creditors enforced the rigorous law against them1 loading them with chains1 and driving their families from their homes4 ,a great and constant grievance was the taking by the patricians of the public lands which had been obtained by conquest1 for a moderate rent1 which might not be paid at all4 ,if they granted a share in this privilege to some rich plebeian houses1 this afforded no help to the mass of the people1 who were more and more deprived of the opportunity to till the smaller holdings in consequence of the employment of slaves4 ,yet the plebeians had to bear the burden of military service4 ,at length they rose in a body1 probably in returning from some victory1 and encamped on a hill1 the ,sacred ,mount1 three miles from ,rome1 where they threatened to stay1 and found another town4 ,this bold movement led to an agreement4 ,it was stipulated that they should elect magistrates from their own class1 to be called ,tribunes of the ,people1 who should have the right to interpose an absolute veto upon any legal or administrative measure4 ,this right each consul already had in relation to his colleague4 ,to secure the commons in this new right1 the tribunes were declared to be inviolable4 ,whoever used violence against them was to be an outlaw4 ,the power of the tribunes at first was merely protective4 ,but their power grew until it became controlling4 ,one point where their authority was apt to be exerted was in the conscription1 or military enrollment4 ,this1 if it were undertaken in an unfair way1 they could stop altogether1 and thus compel a change4 ,,the ,,plebeian ,,assembly4--,not far from this time1 there was instituted a new assembly1 the ,comitia of ,tribes1 or ,comitia ,tributa4 ,there was a new division of the people into tribes or wards1--first twenty1 then twenty-one1 and1 later1 thirty-five4 ,in this comitia1 the plebeians were at the outset1 if not always1 the exclusive voters4 ,the patricians had their assembly1 the ,comitia ,curiata4 ,the ,comitia of the ,tribes1 which was then controlled by the plebeians1 chose the tribunes4 ,by degrees1 both the other assemblies lost their importance4 ,the plebeian body more and more extended its prerogatives4 ,besides the tribunes1 the ,aediles1 two in number1 who were assistants of the tribunes1 and superintended the business of the markets1 were chosen by the ,comitia ,tributa4 ,,the ,,law ,,of ,,cassius4--,the anxiety of the plebeians to be rid of the restrictions upon the holding and enjoyment of land1 led to the proposal of a law for their relief by the consul ,spurius ,cassius 7#dhf ,b4,c474 ,of the terms of the law1 we have no precise knowledge4 ,we only know1 that1 when he retired from office1 he was condemned and put to death by the ruling class4 ,,war ,,with ,,the ,,aequians ,,and ,,the ,,volscians4--,about this time ,rome concluded a league with the ,latins1 and soon after with another people1 the ,hernicans1 who lived farther eastward1 between the1 ,aequians and ,volscians4 ,it was a defensive alliance1 in which ,rome had the leading place4 ,then follow the wars with the ,aequians and ,volscians1 where the traditional accounts are mingled with many fictitious occurrences4 ,there are two stories of special note1--the story of ,coriolanus1 and the story of ,cincinnatus4 ,it is related that a brave patrician1 ,caius ,marcius ,coriolanus1 at a time when grain was scarce1 and was procured with difficulty from ,etruria and ,sicily for the relief of the famishing1 proposed that it should be withheld from the plebeians unless they would give up the tribunate4 ,the anger of this class1 and the contempt which he showed for it1 caused him to be banished4 ,thereupon he went to the ,volscians1 and led an army against ,rome1--an army too strong to be resisted4 ,one deputation after another went out of the city to placate him1 but in vain4 ,at length ,veturia1 his mother1 and ,volumnia1 his wife1 at the head of a company of matrons1 went to his camp1 and entreated him4 ,their prayer he could not deny1 but exclaimed1 ,o my mother6 ,rome thou hast saved1 but thou hast lost thy son4 ,he died among the ,volscians 7#dia ,b4,c474 ,the tale1 certainly in most of its parts1 is fictitious4 ,for example1 he is said to have been called ,coriolanus1 from having previously conquered ,corioli2 but such designations were not given among the ,romans until centuries later4 ,the story of ,cincinnatus in essential particulars is probably true4 ,at a time when the ,romans were hard pressed by the quians1 the messengers of the ,senate waited on ,lucius ,quinctius ,cincinnatus1 formerly a senator and a consul of renown in peace and war1 and asked him to become dictator4 ,they found him plowing in his field4 ,he accepted the post1 by his prudence and vigor delivered the state1 and on the sixteenth day laid down his office1 and went back to his farm4 ,the time required by the hero for his task was doubtless much longer than the legend allows4 ,there is an authentic tradition of a war with the ,etruscans1 who had retained certain towns on the ,roman side of the ,tiber4 ,the ,romans established a fort on the ,cremera1 not far from ,veii1 which was one of them4 ,in the course of this struggle1 it is said that all the ,fabii1--a distinguished ,roman family1--except one boy1 were perfidiously slain4 ,this is an exaggerated tale4 ,a truce was concluded with ,veii-in #dgd ,b4,c4 for forty years1 which left ,rome free to fight her enemies on the east and south4 ,,the ,,decemvirs4--,the internal conflict of the patricians against the commons in ,rome went on4 ,in #dga ,b4,c4 the ,publilian ,law was passed to establish fully the right of the plebeians alone to elect their tribunes1 or to exclude the upper class from their comitia4 ,the claims of the plebeians1 who formed the greater part of the fighting men1 rose4 ,they demanded first1 however1 that they should have the same private rights as the patricians1 and that the laws should be made more efficient for their protection by being reduced to a code4 ,this was the object of the ,terentilian ,law1 proposed in #dfb4 ,the result was a great dispute4 ,some concessions failed to satisfy the plebeians4 ,finally it was agreed that ten men1 ,decemvirs1 should be chosen indiscriminately from both classes to frame a code1 they1 meantime1 to supersede the consuls and tribunes in the exercise of the government 7#dea ,b4,c474 ,they were to equalize the laws1 and to write them down4 ,the story of the mission to ,athens for the study of the laws of ,solon1 is not worthy of credit4 ,there is no doubt1 however1 that many obstacles were put in the way of the project by the conservative patricians1 and that one of their order1 ,appius ,claudius1 took a prominent part1 probably on the side of the people4 ,,virginius4--,here comes in the story of ,virginia4 ,it is related that ,appius ,claudius was an ambitious and bad man1 who1 being one of the decemvirs1 wished to hold on to power4 ,he conceived a base passion for the daughter of ,virginius1 a brave plebeian centurion1 and claimed her on the pretense that she was the daughter of one of his slaves4 ,standing at his judgment-seat1 ,virginius1 seeing that he could do nothing to save his child from the clutch of the villainous judge1 plunged his dagger in her heart4 ,this was the signal for another revolt of the people1 which extorted the consent of the upper class to the sacred laws and the restoration of the tribuneship4 ,it is a plausible theory that ,appius ,claudius favored the plebeian claims1 and that the tale told above is a later invention to his discredit4 ,,political ,,equality4--,the laws of the twelve tables lay at the basis of all subsequent legislation in ,rome1 and were always held in reverence4 ,the plebeians soon gained further advantages4 ,in #ddi ,b4,c41 it was ordained1 under the consuls ,horatius and ,valerius1 that the plebeian assembly of tribes should be a sovereign assembly1 whose enactments should be binding on the whole ,roman people4 ,in #dde ,b4,c41 the law of ,canuleius legalized marriage between the plebeians and patricians4 ,this was an important step towards the closer union of the two classes4 ,the executive power was still in the hands of the patricians4 ,but in #ddd a new office1 that of military tribunes with consular power1 to be chosen from the plebeians1 was established4 ,by way of offset to this great concession1 a new patrician office1 that of ,censor1 was created4 ,the function of the two censors1 who were to be chosen by the ,comitia ,centuriata1 was to take the census at short intervals1 to make out the tax-lists1 to appoint senators and knights1 to manage the collection of taxes1 to superintend public buildings1 and1 finally1 to exercise an indefinite supervision over public manners and morals4 ,these were very great powers4 ,we find that considerable time elapsed before the plebeians actually realized the advantage which they had legally won in this compromise4 ,about the year #djj1 they succeeded in electing several military tribunes4 ,as early as #daj ,b4,c4 three out of the four treasurers1 or paymasters 7qustors71 were plebeians4 ,about forty years after 7#cfg ,b4,c471 they obtained1 by the ,licinian ,laws1 the political equality for which they had so long contended4 ,,war ,,with ,,the ,,etruscans4--,but before this result should be reached1 other events of much consequence were to occur4 ,the ,etruscans1 who were not only proficients in the arts1 but were also active in trade and commerce1 had been defeated at sea by the ,greeks1 in #dgd ,b4,c4 ,but on the north they had a more formidable foe in the ,gauls1 by whom their power was weakened4 ,the ,romans took advantage of the situation to lay siege to ,veii1 which1 after ten years1 was captured by their general1 ,marcus ,furius ,camillus4 ,the capture of other towns followed4 ,it was told of ,camillus that ,falerii surrendered to him of its own accord1 for his magnanimity in sending back a treacherous schoolmaster who had taken out to his camp the sons of the chief citizens4 ,camillas tied his hands behind him1 and ordered the boys to flog him back into the city4 ,camillus was sent into exile1 it was related1 on a charge of injustice in dividing the booty obtained at ,veii4 ,,invasion ,,of ,,the ,,gauls4--,but the ,romans joined with the ,etruscans in the attempt to drive back a dreaded enemy of both1 the ,gauls4 ,in the battle of the ,allia1 a brook eleven miles north of ,rome1 on the #ahth of ,july1 #cij ,b4,c41 the ,roman army was routed by them1 and ,rome left without the means of defense4 ,all the people fled1 except a few brave men1 who shut themselves up in the ,capitol1 and1 according to the tradition1 some aged patricians1 who1 in their robes of state1 waited for the enemy4 ,the ,gauls1 under ,brennus1 rushed in1 and plundered and burned the city4 ,in later times the story was told1 that1 when the ,gauls were climbing up to the ,capitol secretly by night1 the cackling of the geese awoke ,marcus ,manlius1 and so the enemy was repulsed4 ,there was another story1 that1 when the ,romans were paying the ransom required by ,brennus1 and complained of false weight1 the insolent ,gaul threw his sword into the scale1 exclaiming1 ,woe to the conquered6 and that just then ,camillus appeared1 and drove the ,gauls out of the city4 ,this is certain1 that the ,gauls retired of their own free will from their occupation of the city4 ,the destruction of the temples involved the loss of early chronicles1 which would have given us better information as to the times preceding4 ,the city was rebuilt without much delay4 ,,the ,,licinian ,,laws4--,the agitation for political reform soon commenced again4 ,the ,licinian ,laws1 which make an epoch in the controversy of parties1 were proposed in #cgf1 but were not passed until #cfg4 ,besides provisions for the relief of debtors and for limiting the number of acres of public lands to be held by an individual1 it was enacted that the military tribuneship should be given up1 and that at least one of the two consuls must be chosen from the plebeians4 ,a new patrician office1 the praetorship1 was founded1 the holders of which were to govern in the absence of the consuls4 ,the patricians did not at once cease from the effort to keep the reins in their hands4 ,several times they broke the law1 and put in two patrician consuls4 ,they yielded at last1 however2 and1 as early as the year #cjj1 all ,roman offices were open to all ,roman citizens4 ,the patrician order became a social1 not a legal1 distinction4 ,a new sort of nobility1 made up of both patricians and plebeians1 whose families had longest held public offices1 gradually arose4 ,these were the optimates4 ,the ,senate became the principal executive body4 ,it was recruited by the censors1 principally from those who had held high stations and were upwards of thirty years old4 ,one censor was required to be a plebeian4 ,the condition of the people was improved by other enactments1 one of which 7in #cbf or #cac7 secured to the debtor his personal freedom in case he should transfer his property to the creditor4 ,at about this time1 there was a change in the constitution of the army4 ,the sort of arms assigned was no longer to depend on property qualifications4 ,there were to be three lines in battle1--the first two to carry a short spear 7pilum71 and the third the long lance 7hasta74 ,,infulence ,,of ,,party ,,conflicts4--,the long contest of parties in ,rome was an invaluable political education4 ,it was attended with little bloodshed4 ,it involved discussion on questions of justice and right1 and on the best civil constitution4 ,it was not unlike party conflicts in ,english history4 ,it trained the ,romans in a habit of judicious compromise1 of perseverance in asserting just claims1 and of yielding to just demands4 ,,period ,,ii4 ,,to ,,the ,,union ,,of ,,italy4 7#cjd-bfd ,b4,c47 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,conquest ,,of ,,the ,,latins ,,and ,,italians 7#cjd-bhb ,b4,c474 ,,wars ,,with ,,the ,,gauls4--,the increased vigor produced by the adjustment of the conflict of classes manifested itself in a series of minor wars4 ,the ,romans were now able to face the ,gauls1 who had permanently planted themselves in ,northern ,italy4 ,against them they waged four wars in succession1 the last of which ended in a signal victory for the ,roman side 7#cfg-cdi74 ,wars with the ,etruscan cities brought the whole of ,southern ,etruria under ,roman rule 7#ceh-cea74 ,,first ,,samnite ,,war4--,the neighbor that was the hardest for the ,romans to conquer was the nation of ,samnites1 who lived among the ,apennines of ,central ,italy1 east of ,latium4 ,the conflict with this tough tribe lasted1 with intermissions1 for fifty years4 ,the immediate occasion of the struggle was the appeal of ,capua--a ,greek city in ,campania in which ,samnites had before settled--for help against their kinsmen in the mountains 7#cdc74 ,this prayer the ,romans granted when ,capua had placed itself under their sway4 ,in the first battle1 the ,romans under ,valerius ,corvus won the day4 ,a second ,roman army was rescued from imminent danger by the heroism of the elder ,decius ,mus1 and a ,roman victory followed4 ,after a third victory at ,suessula1 the ,romans1 on account of the threatening attitude of their ,latin confederates1 made peace4 ,the ,samnites1 too1 were involved in a war with ,tarentum1 a ,greek city on the eastern coast4 ,,war ,,with ,,the ,,latins4--,the ,latins were not disposed to recognize ,rome any longer as the head of the league4 ,they demanded perfect equality and an equal share of the ,roman public offices 7#cdj74 ,in a battle near ,vesuvius1 the plebeian consul1 ,decius ,mus1 having devoted himself to death for his country1 rode into the thickest ranks of the enemy1 and perished1 having secured victory for the ,roman army4 ,before the battle1 the patrician consul1 ,titus ,manlius1 punished his son with death for presuming to undertake1 without orders1 a military exploit1 in which1 however1 he had succeeded4 ,after a second victory of ,manlius at ,trifanum1 the ,latins were subdued 7#cdj71 the league was broken up1 and most of the cities were made subject to ,rome1 acquiring citizenship without the right of suffrage2 but they were forbidden to trade or to intermarry with one another4 ,some became ,roman colonies4 ,several had to cede lands1 which were apportioned among ,roman citizens4 ,the beaks 7rostra7 of the old ships of ,antium ornamented the ,roman forum4 ,colonies of ,roman citizens were settled in the district of the ,volscii and in ,campania4 ,this was an example of the ,roman method of separating vanquished places from one another1 and of inclosing as in a net conquered territories4 ,,second ,,samnite ,,war4--,the establishment by the ,romans of the military colony of ,fregellae1 in connection with other encroachments1 brought on the second ,samnite war1 which lasted for twenty-two years4 ,the prize of the contest was really the dominion over ,italy4 ,a great misfortune befell the ,roman arms in #cba4 ,the incautious consuls1 ,veturinus and ,postumius1 allowed themselves to be surrounded in the ,caudine ,pass1 where they were compelled to capitulate1 swear to a treaty of peace1 and give up six hundred ,roman knights as hostages4 ,the whole ,roman army was compelled to pass under the yoke4 ,the ,roman ,senate refused to sanction the treaty1 and gave up the consuls1 at their own request1 in fetters to the ,samnites4 ,the ,samnites refused to receive them1 spared the hostages1 and began the war anew4 ,the ,roman consuls1 ,papirius ,cursor and ,fabius ,maximus1 gained a victory at ,capua1 drove the ,samnites out of ,campania1 and reconquered ,fregellae4 ,a great military road1 the ,appian ,way1 the remains of which may still be seen1 was built from ,rome to ,capua 7#cab74 ,the ,etruscan cities joined in the war against ,rome4 ,all ,etruria was in arms to overcome the advancing power of the ,romans4 ,the coalition was broken by the great defeat of the ,etrurians at the ,vadimonian ,lake1 in #caj4 ,the ,samnites had their numerous allies2 but the obstinate valor of the ,romans1 who were discouraged by no reverses1 triumphed4 ,the capture of ,bovianum1 the capital of the ,samnite league 7#cje71 ended the war4 ,the ,samnites sued for peace4 ,the old treaties were renewed4 ,in the course of this protracted struggle1 various ,roman colonies were established1 and military roads were constructed4 ,,third ,,samnite ,,war4--,peace was not of long continuance4 ,the ,samnites once more armed themselves for a desperate conflict1 having on their side the ,etruscans1 the ,umbrians1 and the ,gauls 7#cjj74 ,the ,italian peoples1 which had been at war with one another1 joined hands in this contest against the common enemy4 ,a decisive battle was fought at ,sentinum1--where ,decius ,mus the younger1 following his father's example1 devoted himself to death1--resulting in the defeat of the ,samnites1 and of their allies 7#bie74 ,soon after1 the ,samnite general1 ,pontius1 fell into the hands of the ,romans4 ,the ,samnites kept up the contest for several years4 ,but in #bij they found that they could hold out no longer4 ,the ,romans secured themselves by fortresses and by colonies1 the most important of which was that of ,venusia1 at the boundary of ,samnium1 ,apulia1 and ,lucania1 where they placed twenty thousand colonists4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,war ,,with ,,pyrrhus ,,and ,,union ,,of ,,italy 7#bhb-bfd ,b4,c474 ,,tarentum ,,and ,,pyrrhus4--,the ,samnites were overcome4 ,the ,greeks and ,romans were now to come into closer intercourse with one another1--an intercourse destined to be so momentous in its effect on each of the two kindred races1 and1 through their joint influence1 on the whole subsequent course of ,european history4 ,alexander the ,great had died too soon to permit him to engage in any plan of conquest in the ,west4 ,in the wars of his successors the ,romans had stood aloof4 ,now they were brought into conflict with a ,greek monarch1 ,pyrrhus1 king of ,epirus1 who was a relative of ,alexander1 and had married into the royal family of ,egypt4 ,he was a man of fascinating person and address1 a brilliant and famous soldier1 but adventurous1 and lacking the coolness and prudence requisite to carry out his project of building up an ,hellenic ,empire in the western ,mediterranean4 ,in the war against the ,samnite coalition1 the ,lucanians had rendered decisive support to the ,romans4 ,this was one reason why ,tarentum1 the rich and prosperous ,dorian city on the ,tarentine ,gulf1 had been a spectator of the contest in which it had abundant occasion to feel a deep interest4 ,rome had given up to the ,lucanians the non-,dorian ,greek cities in that region4 ,but when they sought to subdue ,thurii1 and the ,thurines besought the help of ,rome1 offering to submit themselves to her1 the ,romans warned the ,lucanians to desist4 ,this led to another combination against ,rome1 in which they took part4 ,a ,roman army was destroyed by the ,senonian ,gauls4 ,in consequence of this1 the ,romans slaughtered1 or drove out of ,umbria1 this people1 and1 gaining other decisive victories1 put their garrisons into ,locri1 ,crotona1 and ,thurii4 ,the ,romans were already masters of ,central ,italy4 ,only the ,greek cities on the south remained for them to conquer4 ,it was high time for ,tarentum to bestir itself4 ,it was from the side of ,tarentum that the immediate provocation came4 ,the ,tarentines were listening to a play in the theater as ten ,roman ships came into the harbor4 ,under a sudden impulse of wrath1 a mob attacked them1 and destroyed five of them4 ,even then the ,romans were in no haste to engage in hostilities4 ,the ,tarentines themselves were divided as to the policy best to be pursued4 ,but the war-party had the more voices4 ,an embassy was dispatched to solicit the help of ,pyrrhus4 ,at ,tarentum an embassy from ,rome was treated with contempt4 ,pyrrhus came over with a large army4 ,he obliged the ,tarentines themselves to arm1 and to join his forces4 ,,events ,,of ,,the ,,war4--,the ,romans were fully alive to the peril1 and prepared to meet it4 ,even the proletarians1 who were not liable to military service1 were enrolled4 ,the first great battle took place at ,heraclea1 near the little river ,siris 7#bhj ,b4,c474 ,then the ,roman cohort and the ,macedonian phalanx met for the first time4 ,it was a collision of trained mercenary troops with the citizen soldiery of ,rome4 ,it was a struggle between the ,greek and the ,roman for the ascendency4 ,the confusion caused by the elephants of ,pyrrhus1 an encounter with which was something new and strange to the ,romans1 turned the tide in his favor4 ,a few more such victories1 said ,pyrrhus1 and ,i am ruined4 ,he desired peace1 and sent ,cineas as a messenger to the ,senate4 ,but ,appius ,claudius1 who had been consul and censor1 and was now old and blind1 begged them not to make peace as long as there was an enemy in ,italy4 ,cineas reported that he found the ,senate an assembly of kings4 ,in the next year1 the two armies1 each with its allies numbering seventy thousand men1 met at ,asculum 7#bgi74 ,after a bloody conflict1 ,pyrrhus remained in possession of the field1 but with an enormous loss of men4 ,the ,syracusans in ,sicily1 who had been hard pressed by the ,carthaginians1 now called upon him to aid them4 ,he was not reluctant to leave ,italy4 ,the ,romans captured all the cities on the south coast1 except ,tarentum and ,rhegium4 ,after two years' absence1 ,pyrrhus returned to ,italy4 ,his fleet1 on the passage from ,sicily1 was defeated by the ,carthaginians4 ,at ,beneventum1 he was completely vanquished by the ,romans1 who captured thirteen hundred prisoners and four elephants4 ,pyrrhus returned to ,epirus2 and1 after his death 7#bgb71 ,milon1 who commanded the garrison left by him in ,tarentum1 surrendered the city and fortress4 ,the ,tarentines agreed to deliver up their ships and arms1 and to demolish their walls4 ,one after another of the resisting tribes yielded to the ,romans1 ceding portions of their territory1 and receiving ,roman colonies4 ,in #bff1 the ,roman sway was established over the whole peninsula proper1 from the ,rubicon and the ,macra to the southern extremity of ,calabria4 ,,citizenship4--,in order to understand ,roman history1 it is necessary to have a clear idea of the ,roman system in respect to citizenship4 ,all burgesses of ,rome enjoyed the same rights4 ,these were both ,public and ,private4 ,the private rights of a ,roman citizen were 7#a7 the power of legal marriage with the families of all other citizens2 7#b7 the power of making legal purchases and sales1 and of holding property2 and 7#c7 the right to bequeath and inherit property4 ,the public rights were1 7#a7 the power of voting wherever a citizen was permitted to vote2 7#b7 the power of being elected to all offices4 ,,conquered ,,towns4--,the ,roman dominion in ,italy was a dominion of a city over cities4 ,with regard to conquered towns1 there were1 7i7 ,municipal cities 7municipia7 the inhabitants of which1 when they visited ,rome1 could exercise all the rights of citizens4 7#b7 ,municipal cities which had the private1 but not the public1 rights of citizenship4 ,some of them chose their own municipal officers1 and some did not4 7#c7 ,latin ,colonies1 as they were called4 ,lands ceded by conquered places were divided among poor ,roman citizens1 who constituted the ruling class in the communities to which they were transplanted4 ,in the ,latin colonies1 the citizens had given up their public rights as citizens4 7#d7 ,towns of a lower class1 called ,praefectures4 ,in these1 the principal magistrate was the ,prefect1 who was appointed by the ,praetor 7,praeter ,urbanus7 at ,rome4 ,,the ,,allies 7,socii74--,these were a more favored class of cities4 ,they had their relation to ,rome defined by treaty4 ,generally they appointed their own magistrates1 but were bound1 as were all subject cities1 to furnish auxiliary troops for ,rome4 ,,the ,,latin ,,franchise4--,this was the privilege which was first given to the cities of ,latium and then to inhabitants of other places4 ,it was the power1 on complying with certain conditions1 of gaining full citizenship1 and thus of taking part in elections at ,rome4 ,,roman ,,colonies4--,the ,roman ,colony 7which is not to be confounded with the ,latin ,colony referred to above7 was a small body of ,roman citizens1 transplanted1 with their families1 to a spot selected by the government4 ,they formed a military station4 ,to them lands taken from the native inhabitants were given4 ,they constituted the ruling class in the community where they were established4 ,their government was modeled after the government at ,rome4 ,they retained their rights as ,roman burgesses1 which they could exercise whenever they were in that city4 ,by means of these colonies1 planted in places wisely chosen1 ,italy was kept in subjection4 ,the colonies were connected together by roads4 ,the ,appian ,way1 from ,rome to ,capua1 was built in the midst of the conflict with ,samnium4 ,it was made of large1 square stones1 laid on a platform of sand and mortar4 ,in later times the ,roman ,empire was traversed in all directions by similar roads4 ,,period ,,iii4 ,,the ,,punic ,,wars3 ,,to ,,the ,,conquest ,,of ,,carthage ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,greek ,,states4 7#bfd-adf ,b4,c47 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,first ,,and ,,second ,,punic ,,wabs 7#bfd-bjb ,b4,c474 ,,the ,,first ,,punic ,,war4--,by dint of obstinacy1 and hard fighting through long centuries1 the ,romans had united under them all ,italy1 or all of what was then known as ,italy4 ,it was natural that they should look abroad4 ,the rival power in the ,west was the great commercial city of ,carthage4 ,the jealousy between ,rome and ,carthage had slumbered so long as they were threatened by the invasion of ,pyrrhus1 which was dangerous to both4 ,sicily1 from its situation1 could hardly fail to furnish the occasion of a conflict4 ,the ,mamertines1 a set of ,campanian pirates1 had captured ,messana4 ,they were attacked by ,hiero ,,ii41 king of ,syracuse4 ,a part of them besought help of the ,romans1 and a part applied to the ,carthaginians4 ,the gravity of the question1 whether ,rome should enter on an untried path1 the end of which no man could foresee1 caused hesitation4 ,the assemblies voted to grant the request4 ,the ,romans had begun as early as #caa to create a fleet4 ,the ships which they now used1 however1 were mostly furnished by their ,south ,italian allies4 ,they crossed the channel1 and drove out the ,carthaginian garrison from ,messana4 ,the ,carthaginians declared war 7#bfd74 ,hiero was gained over to the side of the ,romans2 and after a bloody conflict1 with heavy losses to both armies1 the city of ,agrigentum was captured by the ,romans4 ,the ,romans were novices on the sea1 where the ,carthaginians were supreme4 ,successful on the land1 the former were beaten in naval encounters4 ,one of the most characteristic proofs of the energy of the ,romans is their creation of a fleet1 at this epoch1 to match that of their sea-faring enemies4 ,using1 it is said1 for a model1 a ,carthaginian vessel wrecked on the shore of ,italy1 they constructed quinqueremes1 vessels with five banks of oars1 furnished with bridges to drop on the decks of the hostile ships1--thus giving to a sea-fight a resemblance to a combat on land4 ,at first1 as might be expected1 the ,romans were defeated2 but in #bfj1 under the consul ,caius ,duilius1 they won their first naval victory at ,mylae1 west of ,messana4 ,the ,roman ,senate decided to invade ,africa4 ,a fleet of three hundred and thirty vessels sailed under the command of the consul ,m4 ,atilius ,regulus1 which was met by a ,carthaginian fleet at ,ecnomus1 on the south coast of ,sicily4 ,the ,carthaginians were completely vanquished4 ,the ,romans landed at ,clupea1 to the east of ,carthage1 and ravaged the adjacent district4 ,there ,regulus remained with half the army1 fifteen thousand men4 ,the ,carthaginians sued for peace2 but when he required them to surrender all their ships of war except one1 and to come into a dependent relation to ,rome1 they spurned the proposal4 ,re-enforcing themselves with mercenaries from ,greece under the command of the ,spartan1 ,xanthippus1 they overpowered and captured ,regulus in a battle at ,tunis 7#bee74 ,a ,roman fleet1 sent to ,clupea for the rescue of the troops1 on the return voyage lost three-fourths of its ships in a storm4 ,the ,carthaginians1 under ,hasdrubal1 resumed hostilities in ,sicily4 ,he was defeated by the consul ,caecilius ,metellus1 at ,panormus1 who included among his captures one hundred elephants 7#bea74 ,the story of the embassy of ,regulus to ,rome with the ,carthaginian offer of peace1 of his advising the ,senate not to accept it1 of his voluntary return according to a promise1 and of his cruel death at the hands of his captors1 is probably an invention of a later time4 ,the hopes of the ,romans1 in consequence of their success at ,panormus1 revived2 but two years later1 under ,appius ,claudius at ,drepanum1 they were defeated on sea and on land4 ,once more their naval force was prostrated4 ,warfare was now carried forward on land1 where1 in the south of ,sicily1 the ,carthaginian leader1 ,hamilcar ,barca1 maintained himself against ,roman attacks for six years1 and sent out privateers to harass the coasts of ,italy4 ,finally1 at ,rome1 there was an outburst of patriotic enthusiasm4 ,rich men gave liberally1 and treasures of the temples were devoted to the building of a new fleet4 ,this fleet1 under command of ,c4 ,lutatius ,catulus1 gained a decisive victory over the ,carthaginian ,hanno1 at the ,aegatian ,islands1 opposite ,lilybaeum 7#bda74 ,the ,carthaginians were forced to conclude peace1 and to make large concessions4 ,they gave up all claim to ,italy and to the neighboring small islands4 ,they were to pay an indemnity1 equal to four million dollars1 in ten years4 ,the western part of ,sicily was now constituted a province1 the first of the ,roman provinces4 ,,conquest ,,of ,,cisalpine ,,gual4--,the ,carthaginians were for some time busy at home in putting down a revolt of mercenary troops1 whose wages they refused to pay in full4 ,the ,romans snatched the occasion to extort a cession of the island of ,sardinia 7#bch71 which they subsequently united with ,corsica in one province4 ,they entered1 about ten years later 7#bbi-bbh71 upon an important and successful war against the ,illyrian pirates1 whose depredations on the coasts of the ,adriatic and ,ionian seas were very daring and destructive4 ,the ,greek cities which the pirates held were surrendered4 ,the sway of the ,romans in the ,adriatic was secured1 and their supremacy in ,corcyra1 ,epidamnus1 and other important places4 ,the next contest was a terrific one with the ,cisalpine ,gauls1 who were stirred up by the founding of ,roman military colonies on the ,adriatic1 and by other proceedings of ,rome4 ,they called in the help of transalpine ,gauls1 and entered ,etruria1 on their way to ,rome1 with an army of seventy thousand men4 ,they met the ,roman armies near ,telamon1 south of the mouth of the ,umbro1 but were routed1 with a loss of forty thousand men slain1 and ten thousand men prisoners 7#bbe74 ,the ,romans marched northward1 crossed the ,po1 and subdued the most powerful of the ,gallic tribes1 the ,insubrians 7#bbc74 ,other victories in the following year reduced the whole of upper ,italy1 with ,mediolanum 7,milan7 the capital of the ,insubrians1 under ,roman rule4 ,fortresses were founded as usual1 and the great ,flaminian and ,aemilian roads connected that region with the capital4 ,later1 ,cisalpine ,gaul became a ,roman province4 ,,carthaginians ,,in ,,spain4--,meantime ,carthage endeavored in ,southern ,spain to make up for its losses4 ,the old tribes1 the ,celtiberians and ,lusitanians in the central and western districts1 and the ,cantabrians and ,basques in the north1 brave as they were1 were too much divided by tribal feuds to make an effectual resistance4 ,the national party at ,carthage1 which wished for war1 had able leaders in ,hamilcar and his three sons4 ,by the military skill of ,hamilcar1 and of ,hasdrubal his son-in-law1 the ,carthaginians built up a flourishing dominion on the south and east coasts4 ,the ,romans watched the growth of the ,carthaginian power there with discontent1 and compelled ,hasdrubal to declare in a treaty that the ,ebro should be the limit of ,carthaginian conquests 7#bbf74 ,at the same time ,rome made a protective alliance with ,saguntum1 a rich and powerful trading-city on the south of that river4 ,hasdrubal was murdered in #bba2 and the son of ,hamilcar ,barca1 ,hannibal1 who was then only twenty-eight years old1 was chosen by the army to be their general4 ,he laid hold of a pretext for beginning an attack upon ,saguntum1 which he took after a stout resistance1 prolonged for eight months 7#bai74 ,the demand of a ,roman embassy at ,carthage--that ,hannibal should be delivered up--being refused1 ,rome declared war4 ,when the ,carthaginian ,council hesitated at the proposal of the ,roman embassy1 their spokesman1 ,quintus ,fabius1 said that he carried in his bosom peace or war3 they might chose either4 ,they answered1 ,we take what you give us2 whereupon the ,roman opened his toga1 saying1 ,i give you war6 ,the ,carthaginians shouted1 ,so let it be6 ,,the ,,second ,,punic ,,war4--,when the treaty of ,catulus was made 7#bda71 all patriots at ,carthage felt that it was only a truce4 ,they must have seen that ,rome would never be satisfied with any thing short of the abject submission of so detested and dangerous a rival4 ,there was a peace party1 an oligarchy1 at ,carthage2 and it was their selfishness which ultimately brought ruin upon the state4 ,but the party which saw that the only safety was in aggressive action found a military leader in ,hannibal1--a leader not surpassed1 and perhaps not equaled1 by any other general of ancient or modern times4 ,he combined skill with daring1 and had such a command over men1 that under the heaviest reverses his influence was not broken4 ,if he was cruel1 it is doubtful whether he went beyond the practices sanctioned by the international law of the time and by ,roman example4 ,when a boy nine years old1 at his father's request he had sworn upon the altar never to be the friend of the ,roman people4 ,that father he saw fall in battle at his side4 ,the oath he kept1 for ,rome never had a more unyielding or a more powerful enemy4 ,,hannibal ,,in ,,italy4--,in the summer of #bah1 ,hannibal crossed the ,ebro1 conquered the peoples between the ,ebro and the ,pyrenees1 and1 leaving his brother ,hasdrubal in ,spain1 pushed into ,gaul with an army of fifty thousand foot1 twelve thousand horse1 and thirty-seven elephants4 ,he crossed the swift ,rhone in the face of the ,gauls who disputed the passage1 and then made his memorable march over the ,alps1 probably by the way now known as the ,little ,st4 ,bernard pass4 ,through ice and snow1 climbing over crags and circling abysses1 amid perpetual conflicts with the rough mountaineers who rolled stones down on the toiling soldiers1 the army made its terrible journey into ,northern ,italy4 ,fifteen days were occupied in the passage4 ,half the troops1 with all the draught-animals and beasts of burden1 perished on the way4 ,the ,cisalpine ,gauls welcomed ,hannibal as a deliverer4 ,no sooner had the valiant consul1 ,cornelius ,scipio1 been defeated in a cavalry battle on the ,ticinus1 a northern branch of the ,po 7#bah71 and1 severely wounded1 retreated to ,placentia1 and his rash colleague1 ,sempronius1 been defeated with great loss in a second battle on the ,trebia1 than the ,gauls joined ,hannibal1 and reinforced him with sixty thousand troops inured to war4 ,hannibal1 by marching through the swampy district of the ,arno1 where he himself lost an eye1 flanked the defensive position of the ,romans4 ,the consul ,flaminius was decoyed into a narrow pass2 and1 in the battle of ,lake ,trasumenus 7#bag71 his army of thirty thousand men was slaughtered or made prisoners4 ,the consul himself was killed4 ,all ,etruria was lost4 ,the way seemed open to ,rome2 but1 supported by the ,latins and ,italians1 the ,romans did not quail1 or lower their mien of stern defiance4 ,they appointed a leading patrician1 ,quintus ,fabius ,maximus1 dictator4 ,hannibal1 not being able to surprise and capture the fortress of ,spoletium1 preferred to march towards the sea-coast1 and thence south into ,apulia4 ,his purpose was to open communication with ,carthage1 and to gain over to his support the eastern tribes of ,italy4 ,fabius1 the ,delayer 7,cunctator71 as he was called1 followed and watched his enemy1 inflicting what injuries he could1 but avoiding a pitched battle4 ,the ,roman populace were impatient of the cautious1 but wise and effective1 policy of ,fabius4 ,in the following year 7#baf7 the consulship was given to ,l4 ,aemilius ,paulus--who was chosen by the upper class1 the ,optimates--and ,c4 ,terentius ,varro1 who was elected by the popular party for the purpose of taking the offensive4 ,varro precipitated a battle at ,cannae1 in ,apulia1 where the ,romans suffered the most terrible defeat they had ever experienced4 ,at the lowest computation1 they lost forty thousand foot and three thousand horse1 with the consul ,aemilius ,paulus1 and eighty men of senatorial rank4 ,no such calamity since the capture of ,rome by the ,gauls had ever occurred4 ,the ,roman ,senate did not lose heart4 ,they limited the time of mourning for the dead to thirty days4 ,they refused to admit to the city the ambassadors of ,hannibal1 who came for the exchange of prisoners4 ,with lofty resolve they ordered a levy of all who could bear arms1 including boys and even slaves4 ,they put into their hands weapons from the temples1 spoils of former victories4 ,they thanked ,varro that he had not despaired of the ,republic4 ,some of the ,italian allies went over to ,hannibal4 ,but all the ,latin cities and all the ,roman colonies remained loyal4 ,the allies of ,rome did not fall away as did the allies of ,athens after the ,syracusan disaster4 ,it has been thought1 that1 if ,hannibal had followed up the victory at ,cannae by marching at once on the capital1 the ,roman power might have been overthrown4 ,what might then have been the subsequent course of ,european history8 ,even the ,roman school-boys1 according to ,juvenal1 discussed the question whether he did not make a mistake in not attacking ,rome4 ,but it is quite doubtful whether he could have taken the city1 or1 even if he had taken it1 whether his success would then have been complete4 ,he took the wiser step of getting into his hands ,capua1 the second city in ,italy4 ,he may have hoped to seize a ,campanian port1 where he could disembark reinforcements which his great victories had wrung from the opposition at home4 ,hannibal judged it best to go into winter-quarters at ,capua1 where his army was in a measure enervated by pleasure and vice4 ,carthage made an alliance with ,philip ,v4 of ,macedonia1 and with ,hiero of ,syracuse4 ,but fortune turned in favor of the ,romans4 ,at ,nola1 ,hannibal was repulsed by ,marcellus 7#bae72 and1 since he could obtain no substantial help from home1 he was obliged to act on the defensive4 ,marcellus crossed into ,sicily1 and1 after a siege of three years1 captured ,syracuse1 which had been aided in its defense by the philosopher ,archimedes4 ,capua1 in #baa1 surrendered to the ,romans1 and was visited with a fearful chastisement4 ,hannibal's ,italian allies forsook him1 and his only reliance was on his brother in ,spain4 ,for a long time1 the two brothers1 ,publius and ,cnaeus ,scipio1 maintained there the ,roman cause successfully2 but they were defeated and slain 7#bab74 ,,scipio3 ,,zama4--,publius ,cornelius ,scipio1 son of one and nephew of the other ,scipio just named1 a young man twenty-five years old1 and a popular favorite1 took the command1 and gained important successes2 but he could not keep ,hasdrubal from going to his brother's assistance in ,italy4 ,the ,romans1 however1 were able to prevent a junction of his force with that of ,hannibal2 and ,hasdrubal was vanquished and slain by them in the battle of ,sena ,gallica1 near the little river ,metaurus 7#bjg74 ,scipio expelled the ,carthaginians from ,spain1 and1 having returned to ,rome1 was made consul 7#bje74 ,his plan was to invade ,africa4 ,he landed on the coast1 and was joined by ,masinissa1 the king of ,numidia1 who had been driven from his throne by ,syphax1 the ally of ,carthage4 ,the defeat of the ,carthaginians1 and the danger of ,carthage itself1 led to the recall of ,hannibal1 who was defeated1 in #bjb1 by ,scipio in the decisive battle of ,zama4 ,carthage made peace1 giving up all her ,spanish possessions and islands in the ,mediterranean1 handing over the kingdom of ,syphax to ,masinissa1 and agreeing to pay a yearly tribute equal to two hundred and fifty thousand dollars1 for fifty years1 to destroy all their ships of war but ten1 and to make no war without the consent of the ,romans 7#bja74 ,scipio ,africanus1 as he was termed1 came back in triumph to ,rome4 ,the complete subjugation of ,upper ,italy followed 7#bjj-aia74 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,conquest ,,of ,,macedonia3 ,,the ,,third ,,punic ,,war3 ,,the ,,destruction ,,of ,,corinth 7#bjb-adf ,b4,c474 ,,philip ,v43 ,,antiochus ,,iii4--,the ,romans were now dominant in the ,west4 ,they were strong on the sea1 as on the land4 ,within fifty years ,rome likewise became the dominant power in the ,east4 ,philip ,v4 of ,macedon had made an alliance with ,hannibal1 but had furnished him no valuable aid4 ,the ,senate maintained that a body of ,macedonian mercenaries had fought against the ,romans at ,zama4 ,rhodes and ,athens1 together with ,king ,attalus of ,pergamon1 sought for help against ,philip4 ,the ,romans were joined by the tolians1 and afterwards by the ,achaians4 ,in #aig1 the consul ,t4 ,quintius ,flamininus defeated him at the battle of ,cynoscephal in ,thessaly1 and imposed upon him such conditions of peace as left him powerless against the interests of ,rome4 ,at the ,isthmian games1 amid great rejoicing1 ,flamininus declared the ,greek states independent4 ,when they found that their freedom was more nominal than real1 and involved a virtual subjection to ,rome1 the tolians took up arms1 and obtained the support of ,antiochus ,,iii41 king of ,syria4 ,another grievance laid at the door of this king was the reception by him of ,hannibal1 a fugitive from ,carthage1 whose advice1 however1 as to the conduct of the war1 ,antiochus had not the wisdom to follow4 ,in #aij he was vanquished by a ,roman army at ,magnesia1 under ,l4 ,cornelius ,scipio1 with whom was present1 as an adviser1 ,scipio ,africanus4 ,he was forced to give up all his ,asiatic possessions as far as the ,taurus mountains4 ,the territory thus obtained1 the ,romans divided among their allies1 ,pergamon and ,rhodes4 ,about seven years later 7#ahc71 ,hannibal1 who had taken refuge at the court of ,prusias1 king of ,bithynia1 finding that he was to be betrayed1 took poison and died4 ,the ingratitude of his country1 or of the ruling party in it1 did not move him to relax his exertions against ,rome4 ,he continued until his death to be her most formidable antagonist1 exerting in exile an effective influence in the ,east to create combinations against her4 ,,perseus4--,philip ,v4 laid a plan to avenge himself on the ,romans1 and regain his lost ,macedonian territory4 ,perseus1 his son1 followed in the same path1 having slain his brother ,demetrius1 who was a friend of ,rome4 ,the war broke out in #aga4 ,for several campaigns the management of the ,roman generals was ill-judged2 but at last ,l4 milius ,paulus1 son of the consul who fell at ,cann1 routed the ,macedonians at the battle of ,pydna4 ,immense spoils were brought to ,rome by the conqueror4 ,perseus himself1 who had sat on the throne of ,alexander1 adorned the consul's triumphal procession through the streets of ,rome4 ,the cantons of ,greece1 where there was nothing but continual strife and endless confusion1 were subjected to ,roman influence4 ,one thousand ,achaians of distinction1 among them the historian ,polybius1 were carried to ,italy1 and kept under surveillance for many years4 ,the imperious spirit of ,rome1 and the deference accorded to her1 is illustrated in the interview of ,c4 ,popilius ,lnas1 who delivered to ,antiochus ,,iv4 of ,syria a letter of the ,senate1 directing him to retire from before ,alexandria4 ,when that monarch replied that he would confer with his counselors on the matter1 the haughty ,roman drew a circle round him on the ground1 and bade him decide before he should cross that line4 ,antiochus said that he would do as the ,senate ordered4 ,,the ,,third ,,punic ,,war4--,the treaty with ,carthage had bound that city hand and foot4 ,against the encroachments of ,masinissa1 the ,carthaginians could do nothing2 but at length they were driven to take up arms to repel them4 ,this act the ,romans pronounced a breach of the treaty 7#adi74 ,that stern old ,roman1 who in his youth had served against ,hannibal1 ,m4 ,porcius ,cato1 had been unceasing in his exhortation to destroy ,carthage4 ,he was in the habit of ending his speeches with the saying1 ,but ,i am of opinion that ,carthage should be destroyed4 ,the ,roman armies landed at ,utica4 ,their hard demands1 which included the surrender of war-ships and weapons1 were complied with4 ,but when the ,carthaginians were required to abandon their city1 and to make a new settlement ten miles distant1 they rose in a fury of patriotic wrath4 ,the women cut off their hair to make bowstrings4 ,day and night the people worked1 in forging weapons and in building a new fleet in the inner harbor4 ,the ,romans were repulsed2 but ,p4 ,scipio milianus1 the adopted son of the first ,scipio ,africanus1 shut in the city by land and by sea1 and1 in #adf1 captured and destroyed it4 ,its defenders fought from street to street1 and from house to house4 ,only a tenth part of the inhabitants were left alive4 ,these were sold into slavery4 ,carthage was set on fire1 and almost entirely consumed4 ,the fire burned for seventeen days4 ,the remains of the ,carthaginian wall1 when excavated in recent times1 were found to be covered with a layer of ashes from four to five feet deep1 filled with half-charred pieces of wood1 fragments of iron1 and projectiles4 ,scipio would have preserved the city1 but the ,senate was inexorable4 ,with the historian ,polybius at his side1 the ,roman commander1 as he looked down on the horrors of the conflagration1 sorrowfully repeated the lines of ,homer1-- ,the day shall come when sacred ,troy shall be leveled with the plain1 ,and ,priam and the people of that good warrior slain4 ,assyria1 he is said to have exclaimed1 had fallen1 and ,persia and ,macedon4 ,carthage was burning3 ,rome's day might come next4 ,carthage was converted into a ,roman province under the name of ,africa4 ,,destruction ,,of ,,corinth4--,the atrocious crime of the destruction of ,carthage was more than matched by the contemporaneous destruction of ,corinth4 ,another rising in ,macedonia resulted1 in #adf1 in the conversion of that ancient kingdom into a ,roman province4 ,the return to ,greece of three hundred ,achaian exiles who had been detained in ,italy for sixteen years1 strengthened the anti-,roman party in ,greece1 and helped to bring on war with the ,achaian league4 ,in #adf1 after the battle of ,leucopetra1 ,corinth was occupied by the consul ,l4 ,mummius4 ,the men were put to the sword2 the women and children were sold at auction into slavery2 all treasures1 all pictures1 and other works of art1 were carried off to ,rome1 and the city was consigned to the flames4 ,the other ,greek cities were mildly treated1 but placed under the governor of ,macedonia1 and obliged to pay tribute to ,rome4 ,at a later date ,greece became a ,roman province under the name of ,achaia4 ,,the ,,provinces4--,at this epoch1 there were eight provinces1--,sicily 7#bda71 ,sardinia 7#bch7 and ,corsica1 two provinces in ,spain 7#bje71 ,cisalpine ,gaul1 ,illyricum 7#afh71 ,africa 7#adf71 ,macedonia 7#adf71 and ,achaia4 ,the first four were governed by ,prtors4 ,later1 however1 the judicial functions of the praetors kept them in ,rome4 ,at the end of the year1 the prtor1 on laying down his office at home1 went as proprtor to rule a province4 ,but where there was war or other grave disturbances1 the province was assigned to a consul in office1 or to a proconsul1 who was either the consul of the preceding year1 or an ex-consul1 or an ex-prtor who was appointed proconsul4 ,the provinces were generally organized by the conquering general and a senatorial commission4 ,some cities retained their municipal government4 ,these were the free cities4 ,the taxes were farmed out to collectors called publicans1 who were commonly of the equestrian order4 ,the last military dictator was appointed in #baf4 ,in times of great danger1 dictatorial power was given to a consul4 ,,literature ,,and ,,philosophy4--,the intercourse of the ,romans with the ,greeks opened to the former a new world of art1 literature1 and philosophy1 and a knowledge of other habits and modes of life4 ,there were those who regarded the ,greek authors and artists with sympathy1 and showed an intelligent enthusiasm for the products of ,greek genius4 ,under the patronage of the ,scipios1 ,roman poets wrote in imitation of ,greek models4 ,such were ,plautus 7who died in #ahd71 and the less original1 but more refined1 ,terence 7#ahe-aei71 who had been the slave of a senator4 ,ennius 7#bci-afi71 a ,calabrian ,greek1 wrote epics1 and also tragedies and comedies4 ,him the later ,romans regarded as the father of their literature4 ,the beginnings of historical writing--which go beyond mere chronicles and family histories--appear1 as in the lost work on ,roman history by ,m4 ,portias ,cato 7,cato the ,censor1 #bcd-adi74 ,the great historian of this period1 however1 was the ,greek ,polybius4 ,the ,greek philosophy was introduced1 in spite of the vigorous opposition of such austere conservatives as ,cato4 ,panaetius 7#ahe-aab71 the ,stoic from ,rhodes1 had a cordial reception at ,rome4 ,the ,stoic teaching was adapted to the ,roman mind4 ,the ,platonic philosophy was brought in by ,carneades4 ,this was frequently more acceptable to orators and statesmen4 ,along with the ,stoic1 the ,epicurean school found adherents4 ,cato--who1 although a historian and an orator1 was1 in theory and practice1 a rigid man1 with the simple ways of the old time--procured the banishment of ,carneades1 together with ,critolaus the ,peripatetic1 and the ,stoic ,diogenes4 ,the schools of oratory he caused to be shut up4 ,he did what he could to prevent the introduction of the healing art1 as it was practiced by the ,greeks4 ,he preferred the old-fashioned domestic remedies4 ,,the ,,state ,,of ,,morals4--,if the opposition of the ,conservatives to ,greek letters and philosophy was unreasonable1 as it certainly proved futile1 there was abundant ground for alarm and regret at the changes that were going on in morals and in ways of living4 ,the conquest of ,greece and of the ,east brought an amazing increase of wealth4 ,rome plundered the countries which she conquered4 ,the optimates1 the leading families1 who held the chief offices in the state and in the army1 grew very rich from the booty which they gained4 ,they left their small dwellings for stately palaces1 which they decorated with works of art1 gained by the pillage of nations4 ,they built villas in the country1 with extensive grounds and beautiful gardens4 ,even women1 released from the former strict subordination of the wife to her husband1 indulged lavishly in finery1 and plunged into gaieties inconsistent with the household virtues4 ,the optimates1 in order to enrich themselves further1 often resorted to extortion of various sorts4 ,in order to curry favor with the people1 and thereby to get their votes1 they stooped to flattery1 and to demagogical arts which the earlier ,romans would have despised4 ,they provided games1 at great expense1 for the entertainment of the populace4 ,in the room of the invigorating and of the intellectual contests1 which had been in vogue among the ,greeks1 the ,romans acquired an increasing relish for bloody gladiatorial fights of men with wild beasts1 and of men against one another4 ,slaves multiplied to an enormous extent3 as cheap as a ,sardinian was a proverb4 ,the race of plain farmers dwindled away4 ,the trade in slaves became a flourishing branch of business4 ,field-hands toiled in fetters1 and were often branded to prevent escape4 ,if slaves ran away1 and were caught1 they might be crucified4 ,if a householder were killed by a slave1 all the slaves in his house might be put to death4 ,as at ,athens1 the testimony of slaves was given under torture4 ,hatred to the master on the part of the slave was a thing of course4 ,as many enemies as slaves1 was a common saying4 ,,numantian ,,war4--,the intolerable oppression of the provinces occasionally provoked resistance4 ,it was in ,spain that the ,romans found it most difficult to quell the spirit of freedom4 ,the ,lusitanians in the territory now called ,portugal1 under a gallant chieftain1 ,viriathus1 maintained for nine years a war in which they were mostly successful1 and were finally worsted only in consequence of the perfidious assassination of their leader 7#adi-adj74 ,the ,celtiberians1 whose principal city1 ,numantia1 was on the upper ,douro1 kept up their resistance with equal valor for ten years 7#adc-acc74 ,on one occasion a ,roman army of twenty thousand men was saved from destruction by engagements which the ,senate1 as after the surrender at the ,caudine ,forks1 repudiated4 ,in #acc1 after a siege of eighteen months1 ,numantia was taken by ,scipio ,africanus milianus4 ,it was hunger that compelled the surrender2 and the noblest inhabitants set fire to the town1 and slew themselves1 to avoid falling into the hands of the enemy4 ,,pergamon4--,more subservience the ,romans found in the ,east4 ,in the same year that the desperate resistance of the ,numantians was overcome1 ,attalus ,,iii41 king of ,pergamon1 an ally of ,rome1 whose sovereignty extended over the greater part of ,asia ,minor1 left his kingdom and all his treasures1 by will1 to the ,roman people4 ,there was a feeble struggle on the part of the expectant heir1 but the ,romans formed the larger part of the kingdom into a province4 ,phrygia ,major they detached1 and gave to ,mithridates ,,iv41 king of ,pontus1 who had helped them in this last brief contest4 ,,period ,,iv4 ,,the ,,era ,,of ,,revolution ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,civil ,,wars4 7#adf-ca ,b4,c47 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,gracchi3 ,,the ,,first ,,mithridatic ,,war3 ,,marius ,,and ,,sulla 7#adf-gh ,b4,c474 ,,condition ,,of ,,rome4--,we come now to an era of internal strife4 ,the ,romans were to turn their arms against one another3 ,yet it is remarkable that the march of foreign conquest still went on4 ,it was by conquests abroad that the foremost leaders in the civil wars rose to the position which enabled them to get control in the government at home4 ,the power of the ,senate had been more and more exalted4 ,foreign affairs were mainly at its disposal4 ,the increase in the number of voters in the comitia1 and their motley character1 made it more easy for the aristocracy to manage them4 ,elections were carried by the influence of largesses and by the exhibition of games4 ,practically the chief officers were limited to a clique1 composed of rich families of both patrician and plebeian origin1 which was diminishing in number1 while the numbers of the lower class were rapidly growing larger4 ,the gulf between the poor and the rich was constantly widening4 ,the last ,italian colony was sent out in #agg ,b4,c41 and the lands of ,italy were all taken up4 ,slaves furnished labor at the cost of their bare subsistence4 ,it was hard for a poor man to gain a living4 ,had the ,licinian ,laws 7p4 #acg7 been carried out1 the situation would have been different4 ,the public lands were occupied by the members of some forty or fifty aristocratic families1 and by a certain number of wealthy ,italians4 ,a great proletariate--a needy and disaffected lower class--was growing up1 which boded no good to the state4 ,,tiberius ,,gracchus4--,this condition of things moved ,tiberius ,gracchus1 the son of ,cornelia1 who was the daughter of the great ,scipio ,africanus1 to bring forward his ,agrarian ,laws4 ,the effect of them would have been to limit the amount of the public domain which any one man could hold1 and to divide portions of it among poor citizens4 ,in spite of the bitter opposition of the nobility1 these laws were passed 7#acc74 ,but ,gracchus had been obliged to persuade the people to turn a tribune1 who resisted their passage1 out of office1 which was an unconstitutional act4 ,in order to carry out the laws1 he would have to be re-elected tribune4 ,but the optimates1 led by the consul ,scipio ,nasica1 had been still more infuriated by other proposals of ,gracchus4 ,they raised a mob1 and slew him1 with three hundred of his followers4 ,this gave the democratic leaders a temporary advantage2 but violent measures on their own side turned the current again the other way1 and proceedings under the laws were quashed4 ,,caius ,,gracchus4--,the laws of ,caius ,gracchus1 the brother of ,tiberius1 were of a more sweeping character4 ,he caused measures to be passed1 and colonies to be sent out1 by decrees of the people1 without any action of the ,senate4 ,he renewed the agrarian law4 ,he caused a law to be passed for selling corn for less than the cost1 to all citizens who should apply for it4 ,he also caused it to be ordained1 that juries should be taken from the knights1 the equites1 instead of the ,senate4 ,these were composed of rich men4 ,the tendency of the law would be to make the equestrian order distinct1 and thus to divide the aristocracy4 ,the proposal 7#abb71 which was not passed1 to extend the franchise to the ,latins1 and perhaps to the ,italians1 cost him his popularity1 although the measure was just4 ,the ,senate gave its support to a rival tribune1 ,m4 ,livius ,drusus1 who outbid ,gracchus in the contest for popular favor4 ,in #aba ,gracchus was not made tribune4 ,in the disorder that followed1 he1 with several hundred of his followers1 was killed by the optimates4 ,before long most of his enactments were reversed4 ,the law for the cheap sale of corn1 the most unwise of his measures1 continued4 ,,the ,,jugurthine ,,war4--,an interval of tranquility followed4 ,but the corruption of the ruling class was illustrated in connection with the ,jugurthine war4 ,jugurtha1 the adopted son of the king of ,numidia1 the ally of ,rome1 wishing the whole kingdom for himself1 killed one of the sons of the late king1 and made war upon the other1 who applied to the ,romans for help4 ,the commission sent out by the ,senate was bribed by ,jugurtha4 ,not until he took the city of ,cirta1 and put to death the remaining brother1 with all his army1 was he summoned to ,rome4 ,there1 too1 his money availed to secure him impunity1 although he caused a ,numidian prince to be murdered in ,rome itself4 ,when the ,romans finally entered on the war with ,jugurtha1 he bribed the generals1 so that little was effected4 ,the indignation of the people was raised to such a pitch that they would not leave the direction of the war in the hands of ,quintus ,metellus1 whom the ,senate had sent out1 and who defeated ,jugurtha 7#ajh71 but insisted on giving the chief command to one of his subordinate officers1 ,caius ,marius 7#ajg71 the son of a peasant1 wild and rough in his manners1 but of extraordinary talents as a soldier4 ,he brought the war to an end4 ,jugurtha was delivered up by the prince with whom he had taken refuge to ,l4 ,cornelius ,sulla1 one of the generals under ,marius1 and in #aje1 with his two sons1 marched in chains before the triumphal car of ,marius through the streets of ,rome4 ,marius was now the leader of the popular party1 and the most influential man in ,rome4 ,,the ,,cimbri ,,and ,,teutones4--,the power of ,marius was augmented by his victories over the ,cimbri and the ,teutones4 ,these were hordes of barbarians who appeared in the ,alpine regions1 the ,cimbri being either ,celts1 or1 like the ,teutones1 ,germans4 ,the ,cimbri crossed the ,alps in #aac1 and defeated a ,roman consul4 ,they turned westward towards the ,rhine1 traversed ,gaul in different directions1 defeating through a series of years the ,roman armies that were sent against them4 ,these defeats the democratic leaders ascribed1 not without reason1 to the corrupt management of the aristocratic party4 ,in #ajc the ,cimbri and the ,teutones arranged for a combined attack on ,italy4 ,marius was made consul2 and in order to meet this threatened invasion1 which justly excited the greatest anxiety1 he was chosen to this office five times in succession 7#ajd-ajj74 ,having repulsed the attack of the barbarians on his camp1 he defeated them in two great battles1 the first at ,aquce ,sextice 7,aix in ,provence7 in #ajb1 and the second at ,vercellce1 in ,upper ,italy1 in #aja4 ,these successes1 which really saved ,rome1 made ,marius for the time the idol of the popular party4 ,,the ,,army4--,at about this time a great change took place in the constitution of the army4 ,the occupation of a soldier had become a trade4 ,besides the levy of citizens1 there was established a recruiting system1 which drew into the ranks the idle and lazy1 and a system of re-inforcements1 by which cavalry and light-armed troops were taken from subject and vassal states4 ,thus there arose a military class1 distinct1 as it had not been of old1 from the civil orders1 and ready to act separately when its own interest or the ambition of favorite leaders might prompt4 ,,saturninus4--,marius lacked the judgment and the firmness required by a statesman1 especially in troublous times4 ,when ,saturninus and ,glaucia brought forward a series of measures of a radical character in behalf of the democratic cause1 and the consul ,metellus1 who opposed them1 was obliged to go into voluntary exile1 ,marius1 growing ashamed of the factious and violent proceedings of the popular party1 was partially won over to the support of the ,senate4 ,when ,c4 ,memmius1 candidate for consul1 was killed with bludgeons by the mob of ,saturninus and ,glaucia1 and there was fighting in the forum and the streets1 he helped to put down these reckless innovators 7#ii74 ,but his want of hearty cooperation with either party made him hated by both4 ,metellus was recalled from banishment4 ,marius went to ,asia1 and visited the court of ,mithridates4 ,,the ,,murder ,,of ,,drusus4--,nearly ten years of comparative quiet ensued4 ,the long continued complaints of the ,italians found at last a voice in the measures of ,m4 ,livius ,drusus1 a tribune1 who1 in #ia1 proposed that they should have the right of citizenship4 ,two other propositions1 one referring to the relations of the ,equites and the ,senate1 and the other for a new division of lands1 had been accepted by the people1 but were by the ,senate declared null4 ,before ,drusus could bring forward the law respecting ,italian citizenship1 he was assassinated4 ,neither ,senate nor people was favorable to this righteous measure4 ,,the ,,italian ,,or ,,social ,,war 7#ij-hh ,b4,c474--,the murder of ,drusus was the signal for an insurrection of the ,italian communities4 ,they organized for themselves a federal republic4 ,the peril occasioned by this great revolt reconciled for the moment the contending parties at ,rome4 ,in the ,north1 where ,marius fought1 the ,romans were generally successful3 in the ,south1 the allies were at first superior2 but in #hi1 in spite of ,sulla's bold forays1 they were worsted4 ,but it was by policy1 more than by arms1 that the ,romans subdued this dangerous revolt4 ,they promised full citizenship to those who had not taken part in the war1 and to those who would at once cease to take part in it 7#ij74 ,finally1 when it was plain that ,rome was too strong to be overcome1 the conflict was ended by granting to the allies all that they had ever claimed 7#hi74 ,rome had now made ,,all ,,italy 7south of ,cisalpine ,gaul71 except the ,samnites and ,lucanians1 ,,equal ,,with ,,herself4 ,but ,italy had been ravaged by desolating war3 the number of small proprietors was more than ever diminished1 and the army and the generals were becoming the predominant force in the affairs of the state4 ,,war ,,with ,,mithridates4--,mithridates1 king of ,pontus1 in the north-east of ,asia ,minor1 was as ardent an enemy of the ,romans as ,hannibal had been4 ,with the help of his son-in-law ,tigranes1 king of ,armenia1 he had subdued the neighboring kings in alliance with ,rome4 ,the ,asiatic states1 who were ruled by the ,romans1 were impatient of the oppression under which they groaned4 ,when checked by the ,romans1 ,mithridates had paused for a while1 and then had resumed again his enterprise of conquest4 ,in #hh the ,grecian cities of ,asia joined him2 and1 in obedience to his brutal order1 all the ,italians within their walls1 not lelss than eighty thousand in number1 but possibly almost double that number1 were put to death in one day4 ,the whole dominion of the ,romans in the ,east was in jeopardy4 ,,marius ,,and ,,sulla4--,sulla was elected consul in #hh1 and was on the point of departing for ,asia4 ,he was a soldier of marked talents1 a representative of the aristocratic party1 and was more cool and consistent in his public conduct than ,marius4 ,marius desired the command against ,mithridates for himself4 ,p4 ,sulpicius1 one of his adherents1 brought forward a revolutionary law for incorporating the ,italians and freedmen among the thirty-five tribes4 ,the populace1 under the guidance of the leaders of the ,marian faction1 voted to take away the command from ,sulla1 and to give it to ,marius4 ,sulla refused to submit1 and marched his army to ,rome4 ,it was impossible to resist him4 ,sulpicius was killed in his flight4 ,marius escaped from ,italy1 and1 intending to go to ,africa1 was landed at ,minturnae4 ,to escape pursuit1 he had to stand up to the chin in a marsh4 ,he was put in prison1 and a ,gaulish slave was sent to kill him4 ,but when he saw the flashing eyes of the old general1 and heard him cry1 ,fellow1 darest thou kill ,caius ,marius8 he dropped his sword1 and ran4 ,marius crossed to ,africa4 ,messengers who were sent to warn him to go away1 found him sitting among the ruins of ,carthage4 ,,the ,,marians ,,in ,,rome4--,sulla restored the authority of the ,senate4 ,during ,sulla's absence1 ,cinna1 the consul of the popular party1 sought to revive the laws of ,sulpicius by violent means 7#hg74 ,driven out of the city1 he came back with an army which he had gathered in ,campania1 and with old ,marius1 who had returned from ,africa4 ,he now took vengeance on the leaders of the ,optimates4 ,for five days the gates were closed1 and every noble who was specially obnoxious1 and had not escaped1 was killed by ,marius1 who marched through the streets at the head of a body of soldiers4 ,in #hf ,marius and ,cinna were made consuls4 ,sulla was declared to be deposed4 ,marius1 who was now more than seventy years old1 died 7#hf74 ,the fever of revenge1 and the apprehension of what might follow on ,sulla's return1 drove sleep from his eyelids4 ,a brave soldier1 he was incompetent to play the part of a statesman4 ,he went to his grave with the curse of all parties resting upon him4 ,,return ,,of ,,sulla4--,sulla refused to do any thing against his adversaries at home1 or for the help of the fugitive nobles who appealed to him1 until the cause of the country was secure abroad4 ,he captured ,athens in #hf1 defeated ,archelaus1 the general of ,mithridates1 in a great battle at ,chaeronea2 and1 by this and subsequent victories1 he forced ,mithridates to conclude peace1 who agreed to evacuate the ,roman province of ,asia1 to restore all his conquests1 surrender eighty ships of war1 and pay three thousand talents 7#hd74 ,sulla's hands were now free4 ,in #hc he landed at ,brundisium4 ,he was joined by ,cneius ,pompeius1 then twenty-three years old1 with a troop of volunteers4 ,sulla did not wish to fight the ,italians4 ,he issued a proclamation1 therefore1 giving them the assurance that their rights would not be impaired4 ,this pledge had the desired effect4 ,the army of the ,consuls largely outnumbered his own4 ,sulla lingered in ,south ,italy to make good his position there4 ,the ,samnites joined the ,marians1 and moved upon ,rome with the intent to destroy it4 ,they were defeated before they could enter the city4 ,the ,marians in ,spain were defeated afterwards1 as were the same party in ,sicily and ,africa by ,pompeius4 ,,cruelty ,,of ,,sulla4--,the cruelty of ,sulla1 after his victory1 was more direful than ,rome had ever witnessed4 ,it appeared to spring from no heat of passion1 but was cold and shameless4 ,after a few days1 there was a massacre of four thousand prisoners in the ,circus4 ,their shrieks and groans were heard in the neighboring ,temple of ,bellona1 where ,sulla was in consultation with the ,senate4 ,many thousands--not far from three thousand in ,rome alone--were proscribed and murdered1 and the property of all on these lists of the condemned was confiscated4 ,,the ,,laws ,,of ,,sulla4--,in his character as ,dictator1 ,sulla remade the constitution1 striking out the popular elements to a great extent1 and concentrating authority in the ,senate4 ,the ,tribunes were stripped of most of their power4 ,the ,senate alone could propose laws4 ,in the ,senate1 the places in the juries were given back 7p4 #aed74 ,besides these and other like changes1 the right of suffrage was bestowed on ten thousand emancipated slaves2 while ,italians and others1 who had been on the ,marian side1 were deprived of it4 ,in the year #hj ,b4,c41 ,sulla caused himself to be elected ,consul4 ,the next year he retired from office to his country estate1 and gave himself up to amusements and sensual pleasure4 ,a part of his time--for he was not without a taste for literature--he devoted to the writing of his memoirs1 which1 however1 have not come down to us4 ,he died in #gh4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,pompeius ,,and ,,the ,,east3 ,,to ,,the ,,death ,,of ,,crassus 7#gh-ec ,b4,c474 ,,war ,,with ,,sertorius4--,not many years after ,sulla's death1 his reforms were annulled4 ,this was largely through the agency of ,cneius ,pompeius1 who had supported ,sulla1 but was not a uniform or consistent adherent of the aristocratic party4 ,he did not belong to an old family1 but had so distinguished himself that ,sulla gave him a triumph4 ,later he rose to still higher distinction by his conduct of the war against ,sertorius in ,spain1 a brave and able man of the ,marian party1 who was supported there for a long time by a union of ,spaniards and ,romans4 ,not until jealousy arose among his officers1 and ,sertorius was assassinated1 was the formidable rebellion put down 7#gb74 ,,the ,,gladiatorial ,,war4--,pompeius had the opportunity still further to distinguish himself on his way back from ,spain4 ,a gladiator1 ,spartacus1 started a revolt among his companions4 ,he called about him slaves and outlaws until with an army of one hundred thousand men he defeated the ,roman generals1 and threatened ,rome itself4 ,for two years they ravaged ,italy at their will4 ,they were vanquished by ,marcus ,crassus in #ga1 in two battles1 in the last of which ,spartacus fell4 ,the remnant of them1 a body of five thousand men1 who had nearly reached the ,alps1 were annihilated by ,pompeius4 ,,pompeius3 ,,crassus3 ,,cicero4--,crassus was a man of great wealth and of much shrewdness4 ,pompeius was bland and dignified in his ways1 a valiant1 though sometimes over-cautious1 general4 ,these two men1 in #gj ,b4,c41 became consuls4 ,they had resolved to throw themselves for support on the middle class at ,rome4 ,pompeius1 sustained by his colleague1 secured the abrogation of some of the essential changes made by ,sulla4 ,the ,tribunes received back their powers1 and the independence of the ,assembly of the ,tribes was restored4 ,the absolute power of the ,senate over the law-courts was taken away4 ,these measures were carried in spite of the resistance of that body4 ,pompeius was aided by the great advocate1 ,marcus ,tullius ,cicero4 ,he was born at ,arpinum in #ajf ,b4,c41 of an equestrian family4 ,he had been a diligent student of law and politics1 and also of the ,greek philosophy1 and aspired to distinction in civil life4 ,he studied rhetoric under ,molo1 first at ,rome and then at ,rhodes1 during a period of absence from ,italy1 which continued about two years4 ,on his return 7in #gg ,b4,c471 he resumed legal practice4 ,cicero was a man of extraordinary and various talents1 and a patriot1 sincerely attached to the republican constitution4 ,he was humane and sensitive1 and much more a man of peace than his eminent contemporaries4 ,his foibles1 the chief of which was the love of praise1 were on the surface2 and1 if he lacked some of the robust qualities of the great ,roman leaders of that day1 he was likewise free from some of their sins4 ,the captivating oratory of ,cicero found a field for its exercise in the impeachment of ,verres1 whose rapacity1 as ,roman governor of ,sicily1 had fairly desolated that wealthy province4 ,cicero showed such vigor in the prosecution that ,verres was driven into exile4 ,this event weakened the senatorial oligarchy1 and helped ,pompeius in his contest with it4 ,,war ,,with ,,the ,,pirates4--,in #fi ,b4,c41 ,pompeius retired from office2 but1 two years later1 he assumed command in the war against the pirates4 ,these had taken possession of creeks and valleys in ,western ,cilicia and ,pamphylia1 and had numerous fleets4 ,not confining their depredations to the sea1 they plundered the coasts of ,italy1 and stopped the grain-ships on which ,rome depended for food4 ,pompeius undertook to exterminate this piratical community4 ,by the ,gabinian ,law1 he was clothed with more power than had ever been committed to an individual4 ,he was to have absolute command over the ,mediterranean and its coasts for fifty miles inland4 ,he used this unlimited authority for war purposes alone1 and1 in three months1 completely accomplished the work assigned him4 ,he captured three thousand vessels1 and put to death ten thousand men4 ,twenty thousand captives he settled in the interior of ,cilicia4 ,,pompeius ,,in ,,the ,,east4--,the success of ,pompeius was the prelude to a wider extension of his power and his popularity4 ,after the return of ,sulla from the ,east1 another ,mithridatic ,war 7#hc-ha71 the second in the series1 had ended in the same terms of peace that had been agreed upon before 7p4 #aeg74 ,in #gd the contest began anew against ,mithridates1 and ,tigranes of ,armenia1 his son-in-law4 ,for a number of years ,lucullus1 the ,roman commander1 was successful2 but finally ,mithridates regained what he had lost1 and kept up his aggressive course4 ,in #ff ,b4,c41 on a motion that was supported by ,cicero1 but opposed by the aristocratic party in the ,senate1 ,pompeius was made commander in the ,east for an indefinite term4 ,so extensive powers had never before been committed to a ,roman4 ,he drove ,mithridates out of ,pontus into ,armenia4 ,tigranes laid his crown at the feet of the ,roman general1 and was permitted to retain ,armenia4 ,mithridates fled beyond the ,caucasus1 and1 in #fc ,b4,c41 committed suicide4 ,pompeius overthrew the ,syrian kingdom of the ,seleucidae4 ,he entered ,judaea1 captured ,jerusalem from ,aristobulus the reigning prince1 and placed his brother ,hyrcanus on the throne1 who became tributary to ,rome4 ,pompeius with his officers entered the sanctuary of the temple1 and was surprised to find there neither image nor statue4 ,he established in the ,roman territories in ,asia the two provinces1 ,pontus and ,syria1 and re-organized the province of ,cilicia4 ,several kingdoms he allowed to remain under ,roman protection4 ,after this unexampled exercise of power and responsibility as the disposer of kingdoms1 he slowly returned to ,italy1 dismissed his army at ,brundisium1 and entered the capital as a private citizen1 where1 in #fa ,b4,c41 he enjoyed a magnificent triumph that lasted for two days4 ,,the ,,roman ,,triumph4--,the most coveted reward of a victorious general was a triumph4 ,it was granted by a vote of the ,senate and according to certain rules1 some of which1 however1 were often relaxed4 ,the general must have held the office of dictator1 consul1 or praetor2 at least five thousand of the enemy must have been slain in a single battle2 the war must have been against public foes1 etc4 ,the general1 with his army1 remained without the city until the triumph had been decreed by the ,senate1 which also assembled without the walls to deliberate on the question4 ,the pageant itself1 in later times1 was of the most splendid character4 ,it consisted of a procession which entered the ,triumphal ,gate1 and passed through the ,via ,sacra1 up the ,capitoline ,hill to the ,temple of ,jupiter1 where sacrifices were offered4 ,in front were the ,senate1 headed by the magistrates4 ,then came a body of trumpeters1 who immediately preceded the long trains of carriages and frames which displayed the spoils of conquest1 including statues1 pictures1 gorgeous apparel1 gold and silver1 and whatever else had been borne away from the conquered people4 ,pictures of the country traversed or conquered1 and models of cities and forts1 were exhibited4 ,behind the spoils came flute-players1 and these were followed by elephants and other strange animals4 ,next were the arms and insignia of the hostile leaders2 and after them marched the leaders themselves and their kindred1 and all the captives of less rank1 in fetters4 ,the crowns and other tributes voluntarily given to the general by ,roman allies next appeared1 and then the central figure of the procession1 the imperator himself1 standing in a chariot drawn by four horses1 clad in a robe embroidered with gold1 and a flowered tunic1 in his right hand a bough of laurel and in his left a scepter1 with a wreath of laurel on his brow1 and a slave standing behind1 and holding a crown over his head4 ,behind him in the procession were his family1 then the mounted equites and the whole body of the infantry1 their spears adorned with laurels1 making the air ring with their shouts and songs4 ,meantime the temples were open1 and incense was burned to the gods2 buildings were decorated with festal garlands2 the population1 in holiday dress1 thronged the steps of the public buildings and stages erected to command a view1 and in every place where a sight of the pageant could be obtained4 ,as the procession climbed the ,capitoline ,hill1 some of the captives of rank were taken into the adjoining ,mamertine prison1 and barbarously put to death4 ,in the lower chamber of that ancient dungeon1 which the traveler still visits1 ,jugurtha and many other conquered enemies perished4 ,after the sacrifices had been offered1 the imperator sat down to a public feast with his friends in the temple1 and was then escorted home by a crowd of citizens4 ,the ovation was a lesser triumph4 ,the general entered the city on foot1 and the ceremonies were of a much inferior cast4 ,,conspiracy ,,of ,,catiline4--,meanwhile at ,rome1 the state had been endangered by the combination of democrats and anarchists in the conspiracy of ,catiline4 ,the well-contrived plot of this audacious and profligate man was detected and crushed by the vigilance and energy of the consul ,cicero1 whose four speeches on the subject1 two to the ,senate and two to the people1 are among the most celebrated of all his orations4 ,catiline was forced to fly from ,rome2 and several of his prominent accomplices were put to death by the advice of ,cato 7the younger71 the leader of the ,senatorial party1 and by the vote of the ,senate4 ,this was done without asking for the verdict of the people1 and for this reason was not warranted by the law2 but it was declared to be needful for the salvation of the state4 ,the next year ,catiline was killed in battle1 and his force dispersed by the army of the ,senate4 ,a turn of party feeling afterwards exiled ,cicero for departing from the law in the execution of the conspirators4 ,,julius ,,caesar4--,another person strong enough to be the rival of ,pompeius was now on the stage of action4 ,this was ,caius ,julius ,caesar1 who proved himself to be1 on the whole1 the foremost man of the ancient ,roman world4 ,caesar's talents were versatile1 but in nothing was he weak or superficial4 ,he was great as a general1 a statesman1 an orator1 and an author4 ,with as much power of personal command over men as ,hannibal had possessed1 he was likewise an agreeable companion of men of letters and in general society4 ,every thing he did he appeared to do with ease4 ,by his family connections he was naturally designated as the leader of the popular1 ,marian party4 ,he was the nephew of ,marius and the son-in-law of ,cinna4 ,sulla had spared his life1 although he had courageously refused to obey the dictator's command to put away his wife2 but he had been obliged to quit ,rome4 ,at the funeral of ,julia1 the widow of ,marius1 he had been bold enough to exhibit the bust of that hero1--an act that involved risk1 but pleased the multitude4 ,he was suspected of being privy to ,catiline's plot1 and in the ,senate spoke against the execution of his confederates4 ,in #fe he was elected ,aedile1 but his profuse expenditures in providing games plunged him heavily in debt2 so that it was only by advances made to him by ,crassus that he was able1 after being praetor1 to go to ,spain 7in #fa71 where1 as propraetor1 he first acquired military distinction4 ,prior to his sojourn in ,spain1 by his bold political conduct1 in opposition to the ,senate1 and on the democratic side1 he had made himself a favorite of the people4 ,,the ,,first ,,triumvirate4--,pompeius was distrusted and feared by the ,senate2 but1 on seeing that he took no measures to seize on power at ,rome1 they proceeded to thwart his wishes1 and denied the expected allotments of land to his troops4 ,the circumstances led to the formation of the first ,triumvirate1 which was an informal alliance between ,pompeius1 ,caesar1 and ,crassus1 against the ,senatorial oligarchy1 and for the protection and furtherance of their own interests4 ,caesar became consul in #ei ,b4,c4 ,he gave his daughter ,julia in marriage to ,pompeius4 ,gaul1 both ,cisalpine1 and ,transalpine 7,gallia ,narbonensis71 was given to ,caesar to govern for five years4 ,cato was sent off to take possession of the kingdom of ,cyprus4 ,cicero1 who was midway between the two parties1 was exiled on motion of the radical tribune1 ,clodius4 ,but the independent and violent proceedings of this demagogue led ,pompeius to co-operate more with the ,senate4 ,cicero was recalled 7#eg ,b4,c474 ,a jealousy1 fomented by the ,senate1 sprang up between ,pompeius and ,crassus4 ,by ,caesar's efforts1 a better understanding was brought about between the triumvirs1 and it was agreed that his own proconsulship should be prolonged for a second term of five years4 ,pompeius received the ,spains1 and ,crassus1 who was avaricious1 was made proconsul of ,syria1 and commander of the armies in the ,oriental provinces4 ,in an expedition against the ,parthians in #ec1 he perished4 ,,caesar ,,in ,,gaul4--,the campaigns of ,caesar in ,gaul covered a period of eight years4 ,an admirable narrative of them is presented by himself in his ,commentaries4 ,,the ,,gauls4--,the ,gauls were ,celts4 ,the ,celts were spread over the most of ,gaul1 over ,britain and the north of ,italy4 ,in ,gaul1 there were three general divisions of people1 each subdivided into tribes4 ,these were the ,belgae1 the ,galli1 and the ,aquitani1 the last of whom1 however1 were not ,celts1 but1 like the ,iberians in ,spain1 belonged to a pre-,celtic race4 ,the ,helvetii and ,vindelici were in ,switzerland4 ,the ,celts of ,gaul had attained to a considerable degree of civilization4 ,their gods were the various objects of nature personified4 ,their divinities are described by ,caesar as corresponding in their functions to the gods of ,rome4 ,their priests were the ,druids1 a close corporation1 but not hereditary4 ,they not only conducted worship3 they were the lawgivers1 judges1 and physicians of the people4 ,they possessed a mysterious doctrine1 which they taught to the initiated4 ,they held a great yearly assembly for the trial of causes4 ,the ,bards stood in connection with the ,druidical order4 ,in worship1 human sacrifices were offered in large numbers1 the victims being prisoners1 slaves1 criminals1 etc4 ,there were temples1 but thick groves were the favorite seats of worship4 ,caesar says that the ,gauls were strongly addicted to religious observances4 ,in their character they are described as brave and impetuous in an onset1 but as lacking persistency4 ,the ,celts in ,britain were less civilized than their kinsfolk across the channel4 ,but in their customs and religious beliefs and usages1 they were similar to them4 ,they probably came over from ,gaul4 ,,conquest ,,of ,,gaul4--,the first victory of ,caesar was in conflict with the ,helvetii1 who had invaded ,gaul1 and whom he drove back to their homes in the ,alps4 ,the ,gallic tribes applied to him for help against the ,germans1 who had been led over the ,rhine by ,ariovistus1 chief of the ,suevi4 ,him ,caesar forced to return to the other side of the river4 ,the ,gallic tribes1 fearing the power of ,caesar1 stirred up the ,belgae1 the most warlike of all the ,gauls4 ,these ,csesar subdued1 and also1 with less difficulty1 conquered the other nations of ,gaul4 ,twice1 in conflict with the ,germans1 he crossed the ,rhine near ,bonn and ,andernach 7#ee and #ec ,b4,c474 ,twice1 also 7#ee and #ed ,b4,c471 he landed in ,britain4 ,on the second expedition he crossed the ,thames4 ,in #eb there was a general insurrection of the ,gauls under ,vercingetorix1 a brave chieftain1 to conquer whom required all of ,caesar's strength and skill4 ,the result of eight years of hard and successful warfare was the subjugation of all ,gaul from the ,rhine to the ,pyrenees4 ,the ,celts were subdued1 and steps taken which resulted in their civilization4 ,a barrier was placed in the way of the advance of the ,germans1 which availed for this end during several centuries4 ,by his successes in ,gaul1 ,csesar acquired a fame as a general1 which partly eclipsed the glory previously gained by ,pompeius in the ,east4 ,he became1 also1 the leader of veteran legions who were devoted to his interests4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,pompeius ,,and ,,caesar3 ,,the ,,second ,,triumvirate4 ,,the ,,civil ,,war4--,the rupture between ,pompeius and ,caesar brought on another civil war1 and subverted the ,roman republic4 ,they were virtually regents4 ,the triumvirs had arranged with one another for the partition of power4 ,the death of ,crassus took away a link of connection which had united the two survivors4 ,the death of ,julia1 the beautiful daughter of ,caesar1 in #ed ,b4,c41 had previously dissolved another tie4 ,pompeius contrived to remain in ,rome1 and to govern ,spain by legates4 ,each of the two rivals had his active and valiant partisans in the city4 ,the spoils of ,gaul were sent to be expended in the erection of costly buildings1 and in providing entertainments for the populace4 ,to ,pompey1 in turn1 ,rome owed the construction of the first stone theater1 which was dedicated with unprecedented show and splendor4 ,bloody conflicts between armed bands of adherents of the two leaders were of daily occurrence4 ,clodius1 an adherent of ,caesar and a reckless partisan1 was slain by ,milo1 in a conflict on the ,appian ,way4 ,the ,senate and the republicans1 of whom ,cato was the chief1 in order to curb the populace1 and out of enmity to ,caesar1 allied themselves with ,pompeius4 ,it was determined to prevent him from standing as a candidate for the consulship1 unless he should lay down his command1 and come to ,rome4 ,he offered to resign his military power if ,pompeius would do the same4 ,this was refused4 ,finally he was directed to give up his command in ,gaul before the expiration of the time which had been set for the termination of it4 ,this order1 if carried into effect1 would have reduced him to the rank of a private citizen1 and have left him at the mercy of his enemies4 ,the tribunes1 including his devoted supporter1 ,marcus ,antonius1 in vain interposed the veto1 and fled from the city4 ,caesar determined to disobey the order of the ,senate4 ,his legions--two had been withdrawn on the false pretext of needing them for the ,parthian war--clung to him1 with the exception of one able officer1 ,t4 ,labienus4 ,caesar acted with great promptitude4 ,he crossed the ,rubicon1 the boundary of the ,gallic ,cisalpine province1 before ,pompeius--who had declared1 that with a stamp of his foot he could call up armed men from the ground--had made adequate preparations to meet him4 ,the strength of ,pompeius was mainly in the ,east1 the scene of his former glory2 and he was1 perhaps1 not unwilling to retire to that region1 taking with him the throng of aristocratic leaders1 who fled precipitately on learning of the approach of ,caesar4 ,pompeius sailed from ,brundisium to ,epirus4 ,cicero1 who had ardently desired an accommodation between the rivals1 was in an agony of doubt as to what course it was right and best for him to take1 since he saw reason to dread the triumph of either side4 ,reluctantly he decided to cast in his lot with the ,senate and its newly gained champion4 ,,pharsalus3 ,,thapsus3 ,,munda4--,caesar gained the advantage of securing the state treasure which ,pompeius had unaccountably left behind him1 and was able to establish his power in ,italy4 ,before pursuing ,pompeius1 he marched through ,gaul into ,spain 7#di ,b4,c471 conquered the ,pompeian forces at ,ilerda1 and secured his hold upon that country4 ,he then crossed the ,adriatic1 ,he encountered ,pompeius1 who could not manage his imprudent officers1 on the plain of ,pharsalus 7#dh ,b4,c471 where the senatorial army was completely overthrown4 ,pompeius sailed for ,egypt2 but1 just as he was landing1 he was treacherously assassinated4 ,his head was sent to ,caesar1 who wept at the spectacle1 and punished the murderers4 ,caesar gained friends everywhere by the exercise of a judicious clemency1 which accorded with his natural disposition4 ,he next went to ,egypt4 ,there he was met by ,cleopatra1 whose dazzling beauty captivated him4 ,she reigned in conjunction with her younger brother1 who1 according to the ,egyptian usage1 was nominally her husband4 ,the ,egyptians were roused against ,caesar1 and1 on one occasion1 he saved his life by swimming2 but he finally defeated and destroyed the ,egyptian army4 ,at ,zela1 in ,pontus1 he met and vanquished ,pharnaces1 the revolted son of ,mithridates1 and sent the laconic message1 ,veni1 vidi1 vici 7,i came1 ,i saw1 ,i conquered74 ,early in #df he landed in ,africa1 and1 at ,thapsus1 annihilated the republican forces in that region4 ,a most powerful combination was made against him in ,spain1 including some of his old officers and legionaries1 and the two sons of ,pompeius4 ,but in the hard-fought battle at ,munda 7,march1 #de ,b4,c471 when ,caesar was himself in great personal danger1 he was1 as usual1 triumphant4 ,,caesar ,,as ,a ,,civilian4--,marvelous as the career of ,caesar as a general was1 his merit as a civilian outstrips even his distinction as a soldier4 ,he saw that the world could no longer be governed by the ,roman rabble1 and that monarchy was the only alternative4 ,he ruled under the forms of the old constitution1 taking the post of dictator and censor for life1 and absorbing in himself the other principal republican offices4 ,the whole tendency of his measures1 which were mostly of a very wholesome character1 was not only to remedy abuses of administration1 but to found a system of orderly administration in which ,rome should be not the sole mistress1 but simply the capital1 of the world-wide community which had been subjected to her authority4 ,,the ,,government ,,of ,,caesar4--,caesar made the ,senate an advisory body4 ,he increased the number of senators1 bringing in provincials as well as ,roman citizens4 ,he gave full citizenship to all the ,transpadane ,gauls1 and to numerous communities in ,transalpine ,gaul1 in ,spain1 and elsewhere4 ,he established a wide-spread colonization1 thus planting his veterans in different places abroad1 and lessening the number of proletarians in ,italy4 ,he rebuilt ,carthage and ,corinth4 ,he re-organized the army1 and the civil administration in the provinces4 ,in the space of five years1 while he was busy in important wars1 he originated numerous governmental measures of the utmost value4 ,,the ,,motives ,,of ,,caesar4--,the designs of ,caesar and of his party are to be distinguished from what they actually accomplished4 ,caesar was not impelled by a desire to improve the government of the provinces1 in taking up arms against the ,senate4 ,nor did he owe his success to the support of provincials2 although1 in common with the rest of the democratic party at ,rome1 he was glad to have them for allies4 ,the custom had grown up of virtually giving to eminent generals1 absolute power for extended intervals4 ,this was done1 for example1 in the case of ,marius1 on the occasion of the invasion of the ,cimbrians and ,teutones4 ,in such exigencies1 it was found necessary to create what was equivalent to a military dictatorship4 ,the idea of military rule became familiar4 ,the revolution made by ,caesar was achieved by military organization1 and was a measure of personal self-defense on his part4 ,being raised to the supreme power1 he sought to rule according to the wise and liberal ideas which were suggested by the actual condition of the world1 and the undesirableness of a continued domination of a single city1 with such a populace as that of ,rome4 ,before he could carry out his large schemes1 he was cut down4 ,,assassination ,,of ,,caesar4--,caesar was tired of staying in ,rome1 and was proposing to undertake an expedition against the ,parthians4 ,neither his clemency nor the necessity and the merits of the government sustained by him1 availed to shield him against the machinations of enemies4 ,the aristocratic party detested his policy4 ,he was suspected of aiming at the title1 as well as the power1 of a king4 ,a conspiracy made up of numerous senators who secretly hated him1 of other individuals influenced by personal spite1 and of republican visionaries like ,cassius and ,junius ,brutus1 who gloried in what they considered tyrannicide1 assaulted him on the ides of ,march 7,march #ae1 #dd ,b4,c47 in the hall of ,pompeius1 whither he had come to a session of the ,senate4 ,he received twenty-three wounds1 one of which1 at least1 was fatal1 and fell1 uttering1 a tradition said1 a word of gentle reproach to ,brutus1 one who had been counted a special friend4 ,cicero had acquiesced in the new government1 and eulogized ,caesar and his administration4 ,but even he expressed his satisfaction at the event which left the republic without a master4 ,an amnesty to those who slew ,caesar was advocated by him1 and decreed by the ,senate4 ,,the ,,second ,,triumvirate4--,the ,senate gave to the leading conspirators provinces2 to ,decimus ,brutus1 ,cisalpine ,gaul4 ,but at ,rome there was quickly a re-action of popular wrath against the enemies of ,csesar1 which was skillfully fomented by ,marcus ,antonius in the address which he made to the people over his dead body1 pierced with so many wounds4 ,the people voted to give ,cisalpine ,gaul to ,antonius1 and he set out to take it from ,decimus ,brutus by force of arms4 ,cicero delivered a famous series of harangues against ,antonius1 called the ,philippics4 ,antonius1 being defeated1 fled to ,lepidus1 the governor of ,transalpine ,gaul4 ,octavius1 the grand-nephew and adopted son of ,caesar1 a youth of eighteen1 now became prominent1 and at first was supported by the ,senate in the hope of balancing the power of ,antonius4 ,but in ,october1 #dc1 ,octavianus 7as he was henceforward called71 ,antonius1 and ,lepidus together formed a second triumvirate1 which became legal1 by the ratification of the people1 for the period of five years4 ,a proscription for the destruction of the enemies of the three contracting parties was a part of this alliance4 ,a great number were put to death1 among them ,cicero1 a sacrifice to the vengeance of ,antonius4 ,war against the republicans was the necessary consequence4 ,at ,philippi in ,thrace1 in the year #db1 ,antonius and ,octavianus defeated ,brutus and ,cassius1 both of whom committed suicide4 ,porcia1 the wife of ,brutus1 and the daughter of ,cato1 on hearing of her husband's death1 put an end to her own life4 ,many other adherents of the republic followed the example of their leaders4 ,the victors divided the world between themselves1 ,antonius taking the east1 ,octavianus the west1 while to the weak and avaricious ,lepidus1 ,africa was assigned2 but he was soon deprived of his share by ,octavianus4 ,,civil ,,war3 ,,actium4--,antonius was enamoured of ,cleopatra1 and1 following her to ,egypt1 gave himself up to luxury and sensual gratification4 ,civil war between ,octavianus and the followers of ,antonius in ,italy 7#dj1 #da ,b4,c47 was followed by the marriage of ,octavia1 the sister of ,octavianus1 to ,antonius4 ,but after a succession of disputes between the two regents1 there was a final breach4 ,antonius 7#ce7 went so far as to give ,roman territories to the sons of ,cleopatra1 and to send to ,octavia papers of divorce4 ,the ,senate1 at the instigation of ,octavianus1 deprived his unworthy colleague of all his powers4 ,war was declared against ,cleopatra4 ,east and ,west were arrayed in arms against one another4 ,the conflict was determined by the naval victory of ,octavianusat ,actium 7,sept4 #b1 #ca ,b4,c474 ,before the battle was decided1 ,cleopatra fled1 and was followed by ,antonius4 ,when the latter approached ,alexandria1 ,antonius1 deceived by the false report that ,cleopatra had destroyed herself1 threw himself upon his sword and died4 ,cleopatra1 finding herself unable to fascinate the conqueror1 but believing that he meant that she should adorn his public triumph at ,rome1 poisoned herself 7#cj74 ,egypt was made into a ,roman province4 ,the month ,sextilis1 on which ,octavianusreturned to ,rome1 received in honor of him the name of ,august1 from ,augustus1 the venerated or illustrious1 the name given him in #bg ,b4,c4 by the ,roman people and ,senate4 ,he celebrated three triumphs2 and1 for the third time since the city was founded1 the ,temple of ,janus was closed4 ,,period ,v4 ,,the ,,imperial ,,monarchy3 ,,to ,,the ,,migrations ,,of ,,the ,,teutonic ,,tribes 7#cge ,a4,d474 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,reign ,,of ,,augustus4 ,,augustus ,,as ,a ,,ruler4--,the long-continued1 sanguinary civil wars made peace welcome4 ,augustus knew how to conceal his love of power under a mild exterior1 and to organize the monarchy with a nominal adherence to republican forms4 ,the controlling magistracies1 except the censorship1 were transferred to him4 ,as ,imperator1 he had unlimited command over the military forces1 and was at the head of a standing army of three hundred and forty thousand men4 ,to him it belonged to decide on peace and war4 ,the ,senate became the real legislative body1 issuing senatus-consulta4 ,there was also a sort of cabinet council chosen by him from its members4 ,the authority of the ,tribunes belonged to him1 and thus the popular assemblies became more and more a nullity4 ,the ,senate was made up of his creatures2 the people were won by bread and games2 the army was fettered to him by means of booty and gifts4 ,while the forms of a free state remained1 all the functions of authority were exercised by the ruler4 ,,state ,,of ,,the ,,empire4--7#a7 ,its ,extent4 ,the ,roman ,empire extended from the ,atlantic to the ,euphrates1 a distance of more than three thousand miles1 and from the ,danube and the ,english ,channel--later1 from the friths of ,scotland--to the cataracts of the ,nile and the ,african desert4 ,its population was somewhere from eighty millions to one hundred and twenty millions4 ,it was composed of the ,east and the ,west1 a distinction that was not simply geographical1 but included deeper characteristic differences4 7#b7 ,the ,provinces4 ,the provinces were divided 7#bg ,b4,c47 into the proconsular1 ruled by the ,senate1 and the imperial1 ruled by the legates of ,augustus4 ,his authority1 however1 was everywhere supreme4 ,over all the empire extended the system of ,roman law1 the rights and immunities of which belonged to ,roman citizens everywhere4 7#c7 ,the ,two ,languages4 ,it was a ,romano-,hellenic monarchy4 ,local dialects remained2 but the ,greek language was the language of commerce1 and of polite intercourse in all places4 ,the ,greek tongue and ,hellenic culture were the common property of the nations4 ,the ,latin was prevalent west of the ,adriatic4 ,it was adopted in ,africa1 ,spain1 ,gaul1 and in other provinces4 ,it was the language of courts and of the camp4 7#d7 ,journeys and ,trade4 ,the ,roman territory was covered with a net-work of magnificent roads4 ,journeys for purposes of trade and from motives of curiosity were common4 ,religious pilgrimages to famous shrines were frequent4 ,the safety and peace which followed upon the civil wars stimulated traffic and intercourse between the different regions united under the imperial government4 ,,literature4--,the ,augustan period was the golden age of ,roman literature4 ,literary works were topics of conversation in social circles4 ,libraries were collected by the rich4 ,the shops of booksellers were places of resort for cultivated people4 ,there were active and liberal patrons of poets and of other men of letters4 ,such patrons were ,maecenas1 ,horace's friend1 and ,augustus himself4 ,then favors were repaid by praises and flattery1 as we see in the verses of ,horace1 ,virgil1 and especially of ,ovid4 ,the lectures of grammarians and rhetoricians1 of philosophers and physicians1 were largely attended4 ,literary societies were formed4 ,periodicals and bulletins were published1 in which the proceedings of the ,senate and of the courts were recorded4 ,the business of scribes--copyists of manuscripts--engaged a vast number of persons4 ,,writings ,,of ,,cicero4--,cicero 7#ajf-dc71 in his philosophic writings1 reproduces the thoughts and speculations of the ,greek sages1 in the manner of a cultivated and appreciative student4 ,his speeches and his epistles1 especially those to his friend1 ,atticus1 lift the veil1 as it were1 and afford us most interesting glimpses of the civil and social life of the ,romans of that day4 ,,the ,,poets4--,one of the most original of the ,latin poets is ,lucretius 7#ie-ea ,b4,c471 whose poem ,on the ,nature of ,things is an effort to dispel superstitious fear by inculcating the ,epicurean doctrine that the world is self-made through the movement and concussion of atoms1 and that the gods leave it to care for itself4 ,a contemporary of ,lucretius1 and a poet of equal merit1 but in an altogether different vein1 is ,catullus4 ,he is chiefly noted for his lyrics4 ,virgil 7#gj-ai ,b4,c471 in the ,aeneid1 has produced a genuine ,roman epic1 although his dependence on ,homer is obvious throughout1 and in the ,bucolics1 and in particular in the ,georgics1 where he shows most originality1 has made himself immortal as a pastoral poet4 ,horace 7#fe-h ,b4,c471 like most of the ,roman authors1 in many of his poems is inspired by his ,greek models1 but1 in his ,satires and ,poetic ,epistles1 expresses the character of his own genius4 ,his ,odes1 for their beauty and melody and the variety of their topics1 rank among the best of all productions of their kind4 ,ovid 7#dc ,b4,c4-,a4,d4 #ah71 in his chief work1 the ,metamorphoses1 handled the mythical tales of the ,greeks1 and1 in his poems on ,love1 likewise introduced many ,grecian tales4 ,he was much influenced by the ,alexandrian poets4 ,,the ,,historians4--,in historical composition1 most of the ,roman authors had ,greek patterns before their eyes4 ,nevertheless1 ,livy 7#ei ,b4,c4-,a4,d4 #ag71 thirty-five of the one hundred and forty-two books of whose ,annals have been preserved1 and ,sallust1 to whom we are indebted for narratives of the conspiracy of ,cataline and of the ,jugurthine war1 are far from being servile copyists4 ,the simple and lucid but graceful style of the ,commentaries of ,caesar makes this work an example of the purest ,latin prose4 ,,law ,,writers4--,in one department1 that of jurisprudence1 the ,romans were eminently original4 ,the writings of the great jurists were simple and severe1 and free from the rhetorical traits which ,roman authors in other departments borrowed from the ,greeks4 ,,other ,,authors4--,among other eminent authors of this period are the great ,roman antiquary ,varro 7#aaf-bg ,b4,c472 the elegiac poets1 ,tibullus and ,propertius2 ,phaedrus1 the ,roman ,aesop2 the historian1 ,cornelius ,nepos2 and the ,greek historical writers of that day1 ,diodore of ,sicily and ,dionysius of ,halicarnassus2 also ,strabo1 the ,greek geographer 7#fd ,b4,c4-,a4,d4 #bd74 ,,the ,,introduction ,,of ,,christianity4 ,,the ,,jews ,,and ,,their ,,dispersion4--,there were three ancient peoples1 each of which fulfilled an office of its own in history4 ,the ,greeks were the intellectual people1 the ,romans were founders in law and politics3 from the ,hebrews the true religion was to spring4 ,at the epoch of the birth of ,jesus1 the ,hebrews1 like the ,greeks and ,romans1 were scattered abroad1 and mingled with all other nations4 ,wherever they went they carried their pure monotheism1 and built their synagogues for instruction in the law and for common worship4 ,in the region of ,babylon1 a multitude of ,jews had remained after the captivity4 ,two out of the five sections of ,alexandria were occupied by them4 ,at ,antioch in ,syria1 the other great meeting-place of peoples of diverse origin and religion1 they were very numerous4 ,in the cities of ,asia ,minor1 of ,greece and ,macedonia1 in ,illyricum and in ,rome1 they were planted in large numbers4 ,jewish merchants went wherever there was room for profitable trade4 ,generally regarded with aversion on account of their religious exclusiveness1 they nevertheless made so many proselytes that the ,roman philosopher1 ,seneca1 said of them1 ,the conquered have given laws to the conquerors4 ,prophecy had inspired the ,jews with an abiding and fervent expectation of the ultimate conquest of heathenism1 and prevalence of their faith4 ,if the hope of a temporal ,messiah to free them from the ,roman yoke1 and to lead them to an external victory and dominion1 burned in the hearts of most1 there were some of a more spiritual mind and of deeper aspirations1 who looked for ,one who should minister to the soul1 and bring in a reign of holiness and peace4 ,,preparation ,,for ,,christianity ,,among ,,the ,,heathen4--,in the heathen world1 there was not wanting a preparation for such a ,deliverer4 ,the union of all the nations in the ,roman ,empire had lessened the mutual antipathy of peoples1 melted down barriers of feeling as well as of intercourse1 and weakened the pride of race4 ,an indistinct sense of a common humanity had entered the breasts of men4 ,writers1 like ,cicero1 talked of a great community1 a single society of gods and men4 ,the ,stoic philosophy had made this idea familiar4 ,mankind1 it was said1 formed one city4 ,along with this conception1 precepts were uttered in favor of forbearance and fraternal kindness between man and man4 ,in religion1 there was a drift towards monotheism4 ,the old mythological religion was decaying1 and traditional beliefs as to divine things were dissolving4 ,many minds were yearning for something to fill the void1--for a more substantial ground of rest and of hope4 ,they longed for a goal on which their aspirations might center1 and to which their exertions might tend4 ,the burden of sin and of suffering that rested on the common mass excited at least a vague yearning for deliverance4 ,the ,roman ,empire1 with all its treasures and its glory1 failed to satisfy the hearts of men4 ,the dreams of philosophy could not be realized on the basis of ancient society1 where the state was every thing1 and where no higher1 more comprehensive and more enduring kingdom could spring into being4 ,,christ ,,and ,,the ,,apostles4--,four years before the date assigned for the beginning of the ,christian era1 ,jesus was born4 ,herod1 a tyrannical king1 servile in his attitude toward the ,romans1 and subject to them1 was then ruling over the ,jews in ,palestine4 ,but1 when ,jesus began his public ministry1 the kingship had been abolished1 and ,judaea was governed by the procurator1 ,pontius ,pilate 7,a4,d4 #bf74 ,jesus announced himself as the ,messiah1 the founder of a kingdom not of this world2 the members of which were to be brethren1 having ,god for their ,father4 ,he taught in a tone of authority1 yet with a sweet reasonableness2 and his wonderful teaching was accompanied with marvelous works of power and mercy1 as he went about doing good4 ,he attached to himself twelve disciples1 among whom ,peter1 and the two brothers ,james and ,john1 were the men of most mark4 ,these had listened to the preaching of ,john1 the prophet of the wilderness1 by whom ,jesus had been recognized as the ,christ who was to come4 ,the ministry of the ,christ produced a wide-spread excitement1 and a deep impression upon humble and truth-loving souls4 ,but his rebuke of the ruling class1 the ,pharisees1 for their formalism1 pretended sanctity1 self-seeking1 and enslavement to tradition1 excited in them rancorous enmity4 ,his disappointment of the popular desire for a political ,messiah chilled the enthusiasm of the multitude1 many of whom had heard him gladly4 ,after about three years1 he was betrayed by one of his followers1 ,judas ,iscariot2 was accused of heterodoxy and blasphemy before the ,jewish ,sanhedrim2 the consent of ,pilate to his death was extorted by a charge of treason based on the title of king1 which he had not refused2 and he was crucified between two malefactors4 ,not many days elapsed before his disciples rallied from their despondency1 and boldly and unitedly declared1 before magistrates and people1 that he had manifested himself to them in bodily form1 in a series of interviews at definite places and times4 ,they proclaimed his continued though invisible reign1 his perpetual presence with them1 and his future advent in power4 ,in his name1 and on the ground of his death1 they preached the forgiveness of sins to all who should believe in him1 and enter on a life of ,christian obedience4 ,in the year #cc or #cd1 the death of ,stephen1 the first martyr1 at the hands of a ,jewish mob1 for a time dispersed the church at ,jerusalem1 and was one step towards the admission of the ,gentiles to the privileges of the new faith4 ,but the chief agent in effecting this result1 and in thus giving to ,christianity its universal character and mission1 was the ,apostle ,paul1 a converted ,pharisee4 ,antioch in ,syria became the cradle of the ,gentile branch of the church1 and of the missions to the heathen1 in which ,paul was the leader2 while ,peter was efficient in spreading the gospel among the ,jews in ,palestine and beyond its borders4 ,by ,paul numerous churches were founded in the course of three extended missionary journeys1 which led him beyond ,asia into ,macedonia1 ,greece1 and ,illyricum4 ,by him the gospel was preached from ,jerusalem to ,rome1 where he died as a martyr under ,nero in #fg or #fh4 ,not far from the same time1 according to a credible tradition1 ,peter1 also1 was put to death at ,rome4 ,the preachers of the ,christian faith pursued their work with a fearless and untiring spirit1 and met the malignant persecution of the ,jews and the fanatical assaults of the heathen with patient endurance and with prayer for the pardon and enlightenment of their persecutors4 ,,the ,,victory ,,of ,,the ,,germans4--,augustus avoided war when he could4 ,his aim was to defend the frontiers of the empire rather than to extend them4 ,the ,parthians were prevailed on to return of their own accord the standards and prisoners taken from the army of ,crassus4 ,but in ,germany1 ,drusus1 the brave step-son of ,augustus1 made four campaigns on the east of the ,rhine1 as far as the ,weser and the ,elbe4 ,on his way back from the ,elbe1 a fall from his horse terminated his life 7#i ,b4,c474 ,his brother1 ,tiberius1 managed to establish the ,roman power over a part of the ,germanic tribes on the right bank of the river 7#d ,b4,c47 ,long before 7#bg ,b4,c47 the western shore of the river had been formed into two provinces1 ,upper and ,lower ,germany4 ,an incapable and incautious general1 ,quintilius ,varus1 excited the freedom-loving ,germans to revolt under the brave chief of the ,cherusci1 ,arminius 7or ,hermann74 ,three ,roman legions were annihilated in the ,teutoburg forest1 ,varus taking his own life4 ,the civil and military chiefs who were taken captive1 the ,germans slew as a sacrifice to their gods4 ,the rest of the prisoners were made slaves4 ,many a ,roman from an equestrian or a senatorial house grew old in the service of a ,german farmer1 as a servant in the house1 or in tending cattle without4 ,there in the forest of ,teutoburg the ,germans practically won their independence4 ,on hearing the bad news1 ,augustus1 for several days1 could only exclaim1 ,varus6 give me back my legions6 ,after the death of ,augustus1 in his seventy-sixth year1 the noble son of ,drusus1 ,germanicus1 conducted three expeditions against ,arminius 7,a4,d4 #ad-af71 obtained a victory over him1 and took his wife prisoner1 who died in captivity2 but the ,romans permanently held only the left bank of the ,rhine4 ,,roman ,,life4--,various particulars characteristic of ,roman ways have been1 or will be1 incidentally referred to4 ,a few special statements may be given in this place4 ,the ,romans1 like the ,greeks1 built a town round a height 7or capitol7 where was a stronghold 7arx71 a place of refuge4 ,here temples were erected4 ,the forum1 or market-place1 was near by1 where the courts sat1 and where the people came together to transact business4 ,the dwellings were on the sides of the hill1 or on the plain beneath4 ,the streets were narrow4 ,the exterior of the houses was plain4 ,they were of brick1 generally covered with stucco1 and whitewashed4 ,glass was too costly to be much used3 hence the openings in the walls were few4 ,when the space became valuable1 as in ,rome1 the houses were built high4 ,the chief room in the house was the atrium1 which1 in earlier times1 was not only the common room but also the bedroom of the family4 ,in the primitive dwellings it had been the only room4 ,a passage led from it through a door-way into the street4 ,in front and on both sides were apartments1 and in the rear a walled court1 or garden4 ,large houses had several inclosed courts4 ,rich men and nobles built magnificent palaces4 ,the walls of ,roman dwellings within were decorated with fresco-paintings1 some of which at ,pompeii are left in all their freshness4 ,round the dinner-table were couches1 on which those who partook of the meal reclined4 ,in other rooms chairs were plentifully supplied4 ,lamps were very numerous and of beautiful design1 but the wick was so small that they gave but little light4 ,there was little furniture in the atrium4 ,statues stood round the walls of this room1 if the house were one of the better sort1 and in open presses on the walls were the images or masks of the distinguished ancestors of the family4 ,at a funeral of a member of the household they were worn in the procession by persons representing the deceased progenitors4 ,,dress4--,the principal material of a ,roman's dress was woolen cloth4 ,the main article of wearing apparel for a man was the toga1 thrown over the shoulders1 and brought in folds round the waist in a way to leave the right arm free4 ,under it was a tunic4 ,at the age of about seventeen1 the boy publicly laid aside the toga with a purple hem1 and put on the white toga1 the token of citizenship4 ,women wore a long tunic girded about the waist1 with a tunic and a close-fitting vest beneath4 ,except on a journey or in an open theater1 as a protection from the sun1 neither men nor women wore any covering on the head4 ,women1 when they walked abroad1 wore veils which did not cover the face4 ,the color and form of the shoes varied with the rank of the individual1 and were significant of it4 ,in the house1 sandals were used4 ,,order ,,of ,,occupations4--,the interval from sunrise to sunset was divided into twelve hours4 ,the seventh hour of the day began at noon4 ,at the third hour1 there was usually a light meal1 which was followed by business1 or visits of friendship4 ,the wealthy ,roman was followed about the city by a throng of clients1 who called on him with their morning greeting before he rose1 and received their gift of food or money4 ,at noon came the prandium1 or more substantial breakfast4 ,this was followed by a short sleep1 in the case of those who were at leisure to take it4 ,then came games and physical exercise of various sorts4 ,a favorite recreation1 both for young and old1 was ball-games4 ,exercise was succeeded by the bath1 for which the ,romans from the later times of the republic had a remarkable fondness4 ,in private houses the bathing conveniences were luxurious4 ,the emperors built magnificent bath-houses1 which included gymnasia1 and sometimes libraries4 ,what is now called the ,turkish bath was very much in vogue4 ,dinner1 or the cena1 the principal meal1 was about midway between noon and sunset4 ,the fork was not used at the table1 but only in carving2 but spoons1 and sometimes1 it would appear1 knives1 were used by the host and his guests4 ,the food was so carved that it was usually taken with the fingers4 ,at the table1 the toga was exchanged for a lighter garment1 and sandals were laid aside4 ,the beverage was wine mixed with water4 ,at banquets of the rich1 after the dessert of fruit and cakes had been taken1 there was1 in later times1 the convivium1 or social drinking-bout4 ,under the empire1 this became often a scene of indecent revelry4 ,the ,roman dinner-table was not so likely as a ,greek repast to be enlivened by flashes of intellect and of wit1 or by music furnished by the guests4 ,musicians were more commonly hired performers1 as were also the dancers4 ,the ,romans enjoyed games of chance4 ,playing with dice1 and gambling along with it1 became common4 ,,marriage ,,and ,,the ,,household4--,there were two kinds of marriage4 ,by one the wife passed entirely out of the hands 7manus7 of the father into the hands of the husband1 or under his control4 ,there was frequently a religious rite 7confarreatio72 but1 when this did not take place1 the other customary ceremonies were essentially the same4 ,at the betrothal the prospective bride was frequently presented with a ring1 and with some more valuable gift1 by the man whom she was to marry4 ,in the household1 notwithstanding the supreme authority of the husband1 the wife had an honored position and an active influence4 ,the children were1 in law1 the property of the father4 ,their lives were at his disposal4 ,the mother had charge of their early training4 ,the father took the principal charge of the young boy1 taught him athletic exercises1 and took him to the forum with him4 ,schools began to exist in the early period4 ,boys and girls studied together4 ,the pedagogue was the servant who accompanied the child to school1 and conducted him home4 ,greek was studied4 ,the law of the ,twelve ,tables was committed to memory4 ,virgil and ,horace became school-books1 along with ,cicero and earlier writers4 ,in the later republican period1 ,greeks took the business of teaching largely into their hands4 ,there were flourishing schools of rhetoric managed both by ,greek and by ,latin teachers4 ,young ,romans who could afford to do so went to ,athens and other cities in the ,east for their university training4 ,,slaves4--,town-slaves were found in the richer families in great numbers 7p4 #aeb74 ,they were not only employed in menial occupations3 they were clerks1 copyists1 sculptors1 architects1 etc41 as well as actors and singers4 ,the work of the farm-slaves was harder4 ,they were shut up in the night in large barracks1 made partly under ground1 into which was admitted but little light or air4 ,they often worked in chains4 ,in town and country both1 the unlimited power of the master led to great severity and cruelty in the treatment of slaves4 ,women as well as men were often guilty of brutal harshness4 ,females as well as males were the sufferers4 ,the town-slave1 however1 might be favored by his master3 he might be allowed to save money of his own1 and might1 perhaps1 buy his freedom1 or receive it as a gift4 ,during the holidays of the ,saturnalia1 slaves were allowed unusual privileges and pleasures4 ,the freedmen could become citizens1 and were then eligible to any office4 ,,magistrates4--,a ,roman who sought office went round soliciting votes4 ,this was called ambitio 7from ambire1 to go round71 whence is derived the ,english word ambition4 ,he presented himself in public places in a toga specially whitened1 and was hence called a candidate 7from candida1 meaning white74 ,he sought to get support by providing shows and games4 ,the voting was by ballot4 ,magistrates had their seats of honor1 which were made in a particular shape4 ,in the different forms used in the trial of causes1 there was one general practice1--the magistrate laid down the law1 and referred the judgment as to the facts in the case to an umpire1 either an individual or a special court4 ,,the ,,julian ,,imperial ,,house4 ,c4 ,,julius ,c,,sar1 m4 ,aurelia4 --,c4 ,,julius ,c,,sar4 --,julia1 m4 ,m4 ,atius ,balbus4 --,atia1 m4 ,c4 ,octavius4 --,c4 ,octavius 7adopted as son by the will of ,julius7 became ,c4 ,,julius ,c,,sar ,,octavianus ,,augustus1 m4 #b1 ,scribonia2 --,julia m4 #b1 ,m4 ,vipsanius ,agrippa4 --,agrippina1 m4 ,germanicus4 --,,caius 7,caligula71 m4 ,csonia1 --,julia ,drusilla4 --,agrippina1 m4 ,cn4 ,domitius4 --,l4 ,,domitius ,,nero1 m4 ,poppa ,sabina4 --,claudia ,augusta4 --,julia1 m4 milius ,paulus4 --milia ,lepida1 m4 #a1 ,,claudius2 #b1 ,junius ,silanus4 --,junia ,calvina1 m4 ,,vitellius4 #c1 ,livia4 --,,tiberius 7adopted as son by ,augustus74 ,,the ,,claudian ,,imperial ,,house4 ,,tiberius ,,claudius ,,nero4 m4 ,livia ,drusilla 7afterwards wife of ,,augustus74 --,,tiberius ,,claudius ,,nero4 --,drusus ,claudius ,nero1 m4 ,antonia1 daughter of the ,triumvir and niece of ,augustus4 --,germanicus1 m4 ,agrippina4 --,,ti4 ,,claudius ,,drusus1 m4 #e1 ,valeria ,messalina4 --,octavia1 m4 ,,nero4 --,britannicus4 --,by adoption1 ,,nero4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,emperors ,,of ,,the ,,augustan ,,house4 ,,tiberius4--,during the long reign of the prudent ,augustus1 there was peace within the borders of the empire4 ,he said of himself1 that he found ,rome of brick1 and left it of marble4 ,this change may be taken as a symbol of the growth of material prosperity in the ,roman dominions4 ,but in his private relations1 the emperor was less fortunate4 ,his daughter ,julia1 a woman of brilliant talents1 disgraced him by her immorality1 and he was obliged to banish her4 ,her two elder sons died when they were young4 ,the empire devolved on his adopted step-son ,tiberius 7#ad-cg71 who endeavored to continue the same conservative policy4 ,tiberius was at first alarmed by mutinies among the troops in ,pannonia and on the ,rhine4 ,the army of the ,rhine urged ,germanicus1 the emperor's adopted son and probable successor1 to lead it to ,rome1 promising to place him on the throne1 but ,germanicus succeeded in quieting the disturbance4 ,as there were during this reign no great wars1 ,tiberius was able to devote himself more exclusively to the civil administration4 ,he transferred from the popular assembly to the ,senate the right of choosing the magistrates1 emphasizing in this way the dual system that ,augustus had created4 ,the rights of the ,senate he appeared scrupulously to respect4 ,for the more effective government of the city of ,rome he established there a permanent prefecture and brought together in a camp before the ,viminal gate the nine prtorian cohorts4 ,unhappily this ,prtorian ,guard1 which might serve to overawe the city mobs1 might also interfere in the affairs of government4 ,indeed1 a little later it had to be counted with in the choice of emperors4 ,the notorious ,sejanus was prefect during a large part of this reign1 and acquired so completely the confidence of ,tiberius that he began to plot his overthrow4 ,he had already caused ,drusus1 the son of ,tiberius1 to be poisoned in order to remove one obstacle4 ,finally the emperor discovered his plots and caused him to be arrested and put to death 7#ca74 ,for several years ,tiberius had been living in retirement on the island of ,capre4 ,there his enemies represented him as given over to debauchery1 while the lives of ,roman citizens were never safe from his suspicions or from the accusations of the delators1 men who presented formal charges of crime1 there being no public prosecutors4 ,earlier in his reign ,tiberius had shown a serious purpose to improve the administration of justice1 but with the lapse of years he became distrustful and cruel4 ,he had1 moreover1 changed the law of treason so that to write or speak slightingly of the emperor was interpreted as conspiracy to bring the commonwealth into contempt and was punished with death4 ,although he was justly hated by the ,roman nobles1 in the provinces he was respected because he sought to protect them against extortion and to foster their general interests4 ,he died in the year #cg at the age of seventy-eight4 ,,caligula4--,there was no law for the regulation of the succession4 ,but the ,senate1 the prtorians1 and the people united in calling to the throne ,caius1 the son of ,germanicus 7#cg-da74 ,this ruler1 called ,caligula1 at first mild and generous in his doings1 soon rushed into such excesses of savage cruelty and monstrous vice that he was thought to be half-deranged4 ,he was fond of seeing with his own eyes the infliction of tortures4 ,his wild extravagance in the matter of public games and in building drained the resources of the empire4 ,after four years1 this madman was cut down by two of his guards whom he had grievously insulted4 ,,claudius4--,claudius1 the uncle and successor of ,caligula1 and the son of ,drusus and ,antonia1 was not bad1 but weak4 ,he was a student and a recluse in his habits4 ,his favorites and nearest connections were unprincipled4 ,the depravity of his wife1 ,messalina1 was such that he did right in sanctioning her death4 ,the immoral and ambitious ,agrippina1 whom he next married1 had an influence less malign4 ,but she was unfaithful to her husband2 and this fact1 together with the fear she felt that ,nero1 her son by her first marriage1 would be excluded from the throne1 impelled her to the crime of taking the life of ,claudius by poison4 ,,nero4--,nero reigned from #ed to #fh4 ,he was the grandson of ,germanicus1 and had been the pupil of the philosopher ,seneca1 and of ,burrus1 an excellent man1 the captain of the ,prtorian ,guard4 ,the first five years of ,nero's reign were honorably distinguished from the portion of it that followed4 ,when a warrant for the execution of a criminal was brought to him1 he regretted that he had ever learned to write4 ,his first great crime was the poisoning of ,britannicus1 the son of ,claudius4 ,nero became enamored of a fierce and ambitious woman1 ,poppa ,sabina4 ,on the basis of false charges1 he took the life of his wife1 ,octavia1 the daughter of ,claudius 7,a4,d4 #fb74 ,his criminal mother1 ,agrippina1 after various previous attempts made by him to destroy her1 was dispatched by his command 7,a4,d4 #ei74 ,his unbridled cruelty and jealousy moved him to order ,seneca1 one of the men to whom he owed most1 to commit suicide4 ,he came forward as a musician1 and nothing delighted him so much as the applause rendered to his musical performances4 ,he recited his own poems1 and was stung with jealousy when he found himself outdone by ,lucan4 ,his eagerness to figure as a charioteer prompted him1 early in his reign1 to construct a circus in his own grounds on the ,vatican1 where he could exhibit his skill as a coachman to a throng of delighted spectators4 ,at length he appeared1 lyre in hand1 on the stage before the populace4 ,senators of high descent1 and matrons of noble family1 were induced by his example and commands to come forward in public as dancers and play-actors4 ,the public treasure he squandered in expensive shows1 and in the lavish distribution of presents in connection with them4 ,,the ,,christians4--,nero has the undesirable distinction of being the first of the emperors to persecute the ,christians4 ,in ,a4,d4 #fd a great fire broke out at ,rome1 which laid a third of the city in ashes4 ,he was suspected of having kindled it2 and1 in order to divert suspicion from himself1 he charged the crime upon the ,christians1 who were obnoxious1 ,tacitus tells us1 on account of their hatred of the human race4 ,their withdrawal from customary amusements and festivals1 which involved immorality or heathen rites1 naturally gave rise to this accusation of cynical misanthropy4 ,a great number were put to death1 and in their deaths they were made subjects of sport2 for they were covered with the hides of wild beasts1 and worried to death by dogs1 or nailed to crosses1 or set fire to1 and1 when day declined1 were burned to serve for nocturnal lights4 ,at length a feeling of compassion arose among the people for the victims of this wanton ferocity4 ,prior to this time1 while the ,christians were confounded with the ,jews as one of their sects1 they had been more protected than persecuted by the ,roman authorities4 ,now that they were recognized as a distinct body1--the adherents of a new religion not identified with any particular nation1 but seeking to spread itself everywhere1--they fell under the condemnation of ,roman law1 and were exposed to the hostility of magistrates1 as well as to the wrath of the fanatical populace4 ,nero was a great builder4 ,the ground which had been burnt over in the fire he laid out in regular streets1 leaving open spaces1 and limiting the height of the houses4 ,but a large area he reserved for his ,golden ,house1 which1 with its lakes and shady groves1 stretched over the ground on which the ,coliseum afterwards stood1 and as far as the ,esquiline4 ,,the ,,city ,,of ,,rome4--,ancient ,rome was mostly built on the left bank of the ,tiber4 ,it spread from the ,palatine1 the seat of the original settlement1 over six other hills2 so that it became the city of seven hills4 ,all of them appeared higher than they do now4 ,of these hills the ,capitoline was the citadel and the seat of the gods4 ,in earlier days1 from a part of the summit1 the ,tarpeian ,rock1 criminals were hurled4 ,in time the hill became covered with public edifices1 of which the grandest was the ,temple of ,capitoline ,jupiter4 ,on the ,palatine were eventually constructed the vast palaces of the emperors1 the ruins of which have been uncovered in recent times4 ,the walls of ,servius ,tullius encompassed the seven hills4 ,the walls constructed by ,aurelian 7#bgj-bge ,a4,d471 ,probus1 and ,honorius 7#djb ,a4,d471 inclosed an area twelve miles in circumference4 ,the streets were most of them narrow2 and1 to economize space1 the houses were built very high4 ,one of the finest1 as well as most ancient1 thoroughfares was the ,via ,sacra1 which ran past the ,coliseum1 or the ,flavian amphitheater1 and under the ,triumphal ,arch of ,titus1 erected after the capture of ,jerusalem1 along the east of the ,forum to the ,capitol4 ,there was a particular street in ,rome where shoemakers and booksellers were congregated4 ,the central part of the city was thronged1 and noisy with cries of teamsters and of venders of all sorts of wares4 ,the fora--one of which1 the ,roman ,forum1 between the ,capitoline and the ,palatine1 was the great center of ,roman life--were open places paved1 and surrounded with noble buildings1--temples1 and basilicas1 or halls of justice4 ,the fora were either places for the transaction of public business1 or they served the purpose of modern market-places4 ,among the public buildings of note were the vast colonnades1 places of resort both for business and for recreation4 ,the sewers1 and especially the aqueducts1 were structures of a stupendous character4 ,among the most imposing edifices in ancient ,rome were the baths4 ,those built by ,diocletian had room for three thousand bathers at once4 ,in these establishments the beauty of the gardens and fountains without was on a level with the elegance of the interior furnishings1 and with the attraction of the libraries1 paintings1 and sculptures1 which added intellectual pleasure to the physical comfort for which1 mainly1 these gigantic buildings were constructed4 ,besides the ,temple of ,jupiter ,capitolinus1 there were many other temples1 some of which were but little inferior to that majestic edifice4 ,the triumphal arches--as that of ,titus1 already mentioned1 which was built of ,pentelic marble--and the commemorative columns--as the ,column of ,trajan1 which stood in the forum that bears his name--were among the architectural wonders of the ancient capital of the world4 ,the plain1 named of old the ,campus ,martius1 on the north-west side of the city1 and bordering on the ,tiber1 contained1 among the buildings and pleasure-grounds by which it was covered1 the ,pantheon1 and the magnificent mausoleum of ,augustus4 ,on the south-west of the ,coelian ,hill1 the ,appian ,way turns to the south-east1 and passes out of the ,appian ,gate4 ,it is skirted for miles with sepulchral monuments of ancient ,romans1 of which the circular tomb of ,metella ,ccilia is one of the most interesting4 ,there are varying estimates of the population of ancient ,rome4 ,probably the number of free inhabitants1 in the early centuries of the empire1 was not far from a million2 and the slaves were probably almost as many4 ,,death ,,of ,,nero3 ,,galba4--,growing jealous of the legates who commanded armies on the frontiers1 ,nero determined to destroy them4 ,they consequently revolted2 and war between the troops of two of them issued in the death of ,vindex1 the general in ,gaul4 ,but ,galba was deputed to carry on the contest2 and ,nero1 being forsaken even by his creature1 ,tigellinus1 and the prtorians1 at last gained courage to call on a slave to dispatch him1 and died 7,a4,d4 #fh7 at the age of thirty4 ,the principal events out of ,italy1 during his reign1 were the revolt of the ,britons under the brave queen ,boadicea 7,a4,d4 #fa71 and the suppression of it by ,suetonius ,paulinus2 the war with the ,parthians and ,armenians1 extending slightly the frontier of the empire2 and the beginning of the ,jewish war4 ,despite the corruption at ,rome1 her disciplined soldiers still maintained their superiority on the borders4 ,,otho3 ,,vitellius4--,with the death of ,nero1 the ,augustan family came to an end4 ,galba began the series of military emperors4 ,a ,roman of the old type1 simple1 severe1 and parsimonious1 he pleased nobody4 ,the prtorians killed him1 and elevated ,otho1 a profligate noble1 to the throne2 but he was obliged to contend with a rival aspirant1 ,vitellius1 commander of the ,german legions1 who defeated him1 and became emperor ,a4,d4 #fi4 ,vitellius was not only vicious1 like his predecessor1 but was cowardly and inefficient4 ,the ,syrian and ,egyptian legions refused to obey so worthless a ruler1 and proclaimed their commander1 ,flavius ,vespasian1 as emperor4 ,as ,vespasian's general1 ,antonius1 approached ,rome1 ,vitellius renounced the throne1 and declared his readiness to retire to private life4 ,his adherents withstood him2 and1 in the struggle that followed between the two parties in the city1 the ,capitoline ,temple was burned4 ,the ,flavian army took ,rome1 and ,vitellius was put to an ignominious death 7,a4,d4 #fi74 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,flavians ,,and ,,the ,,antonines4 ,,vespasian3 ,,the ,,jewish ,,war4--,vespasian1 the first in the list of good emperors1 restored discipline in the army and among the prtorians1 instituted a reform in the finances1 and erected the immense amphitheater now called the ,coliseum1 for the gladiatorial games4 ,by his general1 ,cerealis1 he put down the revolt in ,germany and ,eastern ,gaul1 and thus saved several provinces to the empire4 ,civilis1 the leader of the rebellion1 had aimed to establish an independent ,german principality on the west of the ,rhine4 ,vespasian had begun the war with the ,jews while ,nero reigned 7,a4,d4 #ff74 ,the ,romans had to face a most energetic resistance4 ,among the captives taken by them in ,galilee was the ,jewish historian1 ,josephus4 ,at the end of ,a4,d4 #fg1 all ,galilee was subdued4 ,the fanatical1 or popular1 party1 the ,zealots1 got the upper hand at ,jerusalem4 ,the city was torn with the strife of violent factions4 ,in ,a4,d4 #gj commenced the memorable siege by ,titus1 the son of ,vespasian1 the details of which are given by ,josephus4 ,the fall of the city was attended with the conflagration of the temple4 ,although the estimate given by ,josephus of the number that perished during the siege1 which he places at eleven hundred thousand1 is exaggerated1 it is true that the destruction of life was immense4 ,the inhabitants of the city who were not killed were sold as slaves4 ,in ,britain a most competent officer--,agricola1 the father-in-law of ,tacitus--was made governor in ,a4,d4 #gh4 ,he conquered the country as far north as the ,tyne and the ,solway1 and built a line of forts across the isthmus between ,england and ,scotland4 ,,titus 7,a4,d4 #gi-ha74--,vespasian's firm and beneficent reign was followed by the accession of ,titus1 who had been previously associated by his father with himself in the imperial office4 ,titus was mild in temper1 but voluptuous in his tastes1 and prodigal in expenditures4 ,one of the marked events of his short reign was the destruction of the cities of ,pompeii and ,herculaneum by a great eruption of ,vesuvius 7,a4,d4 #gi74 ,the uncovering of the streets and buildings of ,pompeii in recent times has added much to our knowledge of ancient arts and customs4 ,a terrible fire and destructive pestilence at ,rome were regarded as sent by the gods1 not on account of the sins of the emperor1 but of the nation4 ,,domitian 7,a4,d4 #ha-if74--;,domitian1 the younger brother of ,titus1 succeeded him4 ,by nature autocratic1 he refused to share the government with the senate1 as ,augustus had planned4 ,in order the more completely to control this body he assumed the censorship for life4 ,in the latter part of his reign ,domitian1 like ,tiberius1 was gloomy and suspicious1 and committed many acts of tyranny4 ,he was killed by the freedmen of his own palace 7,a4,d4 #if74 ,his war with the ,dacians on the ,danube had been concluded by the dubious stipulation to pay them an annual tribute as a reward for abstaining from predatory incursions into ,moesia 7,a4,d4 #ij74 ,for the first time1 ,rome purchased peace of her enemies4 ,domitian was guilty of persecuting the ,christians1 among whom1 it is now known1 was included at least one member of his own family1 his niece1 ,flavia ,domatilla1 who was also allied to him by marriage4 ,the epistle of ,clement of ,rome1 the oldest extant ,christian writing after the ,apostles1 refers to the barbarities inflicted upon ,christian disciples by this tyrant4 ,,nerva 7,a4,d4 #if-ih74--,the ,senate now took the initiative1 and placed on the throne one of their own number1 ,nerva1 an old man of mild and virtuous character4 ,the administration was in every point in contrast with the preceding4 ,but the best thing ,nerva did was to provide for the curbing of the prtorians by appointing1 with the concurrence of the ,senate1 a most competent man to be his colleague and successor4 ,,trajan 7,a4,d4 #ih-aag74--,trajan was a native of ,spain1 and had been brought up in the camp4 ,he belongs among the very best of the ,roman emperors4 ,he upheld the ancient laws and institutions of the state4 ,he provided for the impartial administration of justice4 ,he restored freedom of speech in the ,senate4 ,he founded schools1 and establishments for the care of orphans1 facilitated commerce by building new roads1 bridges1 and havens1 and adorned ,rome with a public library1 and with a new and magnificent forum1 or market-place1 where ,trajan's ,column was placed by ,senate and people as a monument of his victories and services4 ,he relished the society of literary men like the historian ,tacitus4 ,he was an intimate friend of ,pliny 7the younger71 whose correspondence while he was governor of ,bithynia throws much light upon the emperor's character and policy4 ,trajan's own manner of life was simple1 and free from luxury4 ,to the people he furnished lavishly the diversions which they coveted4 ,he made an aggressive war against the ,dacians on the ,danube1 and constituted a new province of ,dacia4 ,he carried his arms into the ,parthian territory2 and three new provinces--,armenia1 ,mesopotamia1 and ,assyria--were the fruit of his campaign in the ,east4 ,in a letter to ,pliny1 he defined the policy to be pursued towards ,christians1 who had become very numerous in the region where ,pliny governed4 ,the effect of the emperor's rescript was to place ,christianity among the religions under the ban of the law4 ,this decision was long in force1 and guided the policy of future emperors towards the new faith4 ,,hadrian 7,a4,d4 #aag-ach74--,trajan was succeeded by ,hadrian1 a lover of peace1--a cultivated man1 with extraordinary taste in the fine arts1 and their generous patron4 ,he was diligent and full of vigor in the transaction of public business4 ,although genial and affable1 his temper was not so even as that of ,trajan2 and he was guilty of occasional acts of cruelty4 ,he spent the larger portion of his reign in traveling through his dominions1 personally attending to the wants and condition of his subjects4 ,he constructed great works in different portions of the empire3 in ,rome1 his ,mausoleum 7now the ,castle of ,st4 ,angelo71 and his grand temple of ,rome and ,venus4 ,he began the wall connecting the ,scottish friths4 ,a fresh revolt broke out among the ,jews 7,a4,d4 #aca71 under a fanatic named ,bar-,cocaba1 which was suppressed in #ace4 ,jerusalem was razed to the ground2 and the ,jewish rites were forbidden within the new city of lia ,capitolina1 which the emperor founded on its site4 ,this gave a finishing blow to the ,jewish and ,judaizing types of ,christianity within the limits of the ,church4 ,,antoninus ,,pius 7,a4,d4 #ach-afa74--;,antoninus ,pius was the adopted son and successor of ,hadrian4 ,he was one of the noblest of princes1 a man of almost blameless life4 ,his reign was an era of peace1 the golden age in the imperial history4 ,he fostered learning1 was generous without being prodigal1 was firm yet patient and indulgent1 and watched over the interests of his subjects with the care of a father4 ,it is a sign of the happiness of his reign that it does not afford startling occurrences to the narrator4 ,,marcus ,,aurelius 7,a4,d4 #afa-ahj74--;,hardly less eminent for his virtues was the next in the succession of sovereigns1 ,marcus ,aurelius 7#afa-ahj74 ,a sage upon the throne1 he combined a love of learning with the moral vigor and energy of the old ,roman character1 and with the self-government and serenity of the ,stoic school1 of the tenets of which he was a noble exemplar as well as a deeply interesting expounder4 ,a philosopher was now on the throne2 and his reign gives some countenance to the doctrine of ,plato1 that the world could be well governed only when philosophers should be kings1 or kings philosophers4 ,he endured with patience the grievous faults of his wife ,faustina1 and of his brother by adoption1 and co-regent1 ,lucius ,verus4 ,he protected the eastern frontier against ,parthia4 ,in the war with the ,marcomanni1 he drove the ,german tribes back over the ,danube1 and gained a signal victory over the ,quadi in their own land4 ,his great object was to strike terror into the barbarian enemies of the empire on the north1 and prevent future incursions4 ,although victorious in many of his battles1 he failed to accomplish this result4 ,the danger from barbarian invasion increased with the lapse of time4 ,before his work was finished1 ,marcus ,aurelius died at ,vindobona 7,vienna71 in ,march1 #ahj4 ,during his reign1 there was persecution of ,christians4 ,especially the churches of ,lyons and ,vienne have left a record of their sufferings4 ,the virtuous emperors1 who were strenuous in their exertions to maintain the old laws and customs1 were apt to be more severe in their treatment of ,christians1 whom they ignorantly regarded as a mischievous sect1 than were those emperors who were men of looser principles4 ,,state ,,of ,,morals4--,the ,roman ,empire1 in the declining days of heathenism1 presented the spectacle of a flourishing civilization in contrast with extreme moral degeneracy4 ,rich and populous cities2 stately palaces2 beautiful works of art--as vases1 statues1 carved altars--on every hand2 bridges and aqueducts1 and noble highways1 binding land to land2 institutions of education in the provincial cities as well as in ,rome2 a thriving trade and commerce2 a rapid spread of the ,roman language1 of the ,roman legal system1 and ,roman culture and manners over the subject countries1--these are among the signs and fruits of civilization4 ,but with all this outward prosperity and elegance1 there was a growing sensuality1 a decay of manly feeling1 a disregard of the sanctity of the marriage tie1 an insatiable hunger for wealth and for the pleasures of sense4 ,one of the most corrupting features in the social condition was slavery4 ,every ,roman of moderate means aspired to own at least a few slaves4 ,some owned from ten to twenty thousand1 mostly field-hands4 ,many householders possessed as many as five hundred4 ,horace gives it as a sign of the simplicity of his life as a bachelor1 that he is waited on at table by only three slaves4 ,slave-holding among the ,romans brought in temptations to all sorts of brutality and vice4 ,it brought a poisonous atmosphere into every household4 ,nothing more clearly illustrates the moral degradation of this period than the character of the sports in which people of all ranks delighted4 ,the most attractive theatrical performances came to be comedies1 from the ,greek and ,latin plays of the same order1 where scenes were introduced from the licentious stories of the ,greek mythology4 ,but the ,pantomime1 which was often of an unchaste and even obscene character1 gradually usurped the place of every other exhibition on the stage4 ,the chief amusements of the people of all classes were the ,circus and the ,arena4 ,in the ,circus1 before hundreds of thousands of spectators1 nobles of ancient lineage competed in the chariot race4 ,gladiatorial games1 which had first taken place at funerals1 and in honor of deceased friends1 acquired an almost incredible popularity4 ,at the games instituted by ,augustus1 ten thousand men joined in these bloody combats4 ,in the festivals under the auspices of ,trajan1 in ,a4,d4 #ajf1 eleven thousand tame and wild animals were slain4 ,not satisfied with seeing pairs of men engage in mortal conflict1 the ,romans were eager to witness bloodshed on a larger scale4 ,the emperors provided actual battles between hundreds and1 in some cases1 thousands of men1 which were beheld by countless spectators4 ,on an artificial lake in ,csar's garden1 ,augustus gave a sea-fight in which three thousand soldiers were engaged4 ,the effect of these brutal spectacles of agony and death was inevitably to harden the heart4 ,,literature4--,if the sanguinary fights in the arena excited little or no condemnation1 the prevalence of various other sorts of immorality1 at variance with the practice of better days1 could not fail to call out different forms of censure4 ,one of these forms of protest was through the satirical poets4 ,of these caustic writers1 ,persius 7#cd-fb7 is obscure and of a moderate degree of merit4 ,juvenal 7about #ee-ace71 on the contrary1 is spirited and full of force4 ,martial 7#dc-aja71 a ,spaniard by birth1 was the author of numerous short poems of a pithy and pointed character1 called epigrammata4 ,all these poets1 if we make proper discount for the exaggeration of satire1 are very instructive as to the manners and morals of their time4 ,lucian 7#abj-bjj71 who wrote in ,greek1 the best known of whose works are his ,dialogues1 touched with his broad humor a great many of the superstitions and follies of the day4 ,the popular teachers in the imperial time were the rhetoricians1 analogous to the ,greek ,sophists1--teachers of rhetoric and eloquence1--one of whom1 ,quintilian 7who was born about #dj1 and died about #aah71 was the first to receive from the public treasury a regular salary1 and had among his pupils the younger ,pliny and the two grand-nephews of ,domitian4 ,the influence of the mania for rhetoric was more and more to impart an artificial character to literature and art4 ,the epic poems of such writers as ,lucan and ,statitis are to a large extent imitations2 although ,lucan's principal poem1 ,pharsalia1 gives evidence of poetic talent4 ,where there was so little productive genius1 it was natural that grammarians and commentators should abound4 ,there was one great writer1 the historian ,tacitus 7about #ed-aag71 who towers above his contemporaries1 and in vigor and conciseness has seldom been equaled4 ,the elder ,pliny 7#bc-gi71 whose curiosity to witness the eruption of ,vesuvius in #gi cost him his life1 was a famous observer and author in natural history4 ,his nephew1 the younger ,pliny1 the friend of ,trajan1 has left to us ten books of ,epistles1 which present an agreeable picture of the life and thoughts of a cultivated ,roman gentleman4 ,the philosopher ,seneca1 with the exception of ,marcus ,aurelius1 the most eminent expositor of the ,roman ,stoic school1 was a voluminous author4 ,no ancient heathen writer has uttered so many thoughts and precepts which bear a resemblance to teachings of the ,new ,testament4 ,the study that nourished most in this period is ,jurisprudence4 ,it is the classic era of the jurists4 ,persons versed in the law were preferred by the emperors for high offices4 ,men who would have been statesmen under the ,republic1 found a solace and delight in legal studies4 ,among the most learned jurists of this era1 were ,caius ,papinian1 and ,ulpian4 ,of the ,greek writers1 one of the most important is ,plutarch 7about #ej-abj71 whose ,lives1 and ,essays 7or ,moralia71 are among the most delightful and instructive of all the works of antiquity4 ,one of the noblest philosophical writers of that or of any other period is the ,stoic ,epictetus 7#ej-;c4#abj74 ,the two most popular systems of philosophy in the closing days of the ,republic and the early period of the ,empire1 were the ,stoic and the ,epicurean4 ,the severity of the ,stoic doctrine was somewhat softened by its ,roman teachers2 but the rigorous self-control1 the superiority to misfortune1 and the contempt of death1 which it recommended1 found favor with noble ,romans in dark days4 ,cato and other champions of the falling ,republic were disciples of this school4 ,later1 ,new ,platonism1 of a mystical and contemplative type1 secured many adherents4 ,,skepticism4--,long before the fall of the ,republic1 faith in the old mythology had begun to decline4 ,this change followed upon an intimate contact of the ,romans with the ,greek religion4 ,it was hastened by the familiarity acquired by the ,romans with so great a variety of heathen systems4 ,the decay of morality was attended with a spread of skepticism as regards the supernatural world altogether4 ,in the course of the debate in the ,roman ,senate on the punishment of the confederates of ,catiline1 ,julius ,caesar opposed their execution1 on the ground that death puts an end to consciousness1 and thus to all suffering4 ,it does not appear that in that body1 where ,cicero and ,cato were present1 any one disputed this tenet4 ,cicero in his philosophical essays advocates the doctrine of immortality by arguments1 mostly gathered from ,greek sources1--arguments some of which are of more and some of less weight4 ,his correspondence1 on the contrary1 even in times of bereavement1 affords no proof that this consoling truth had any practical hold upon his convictions4 ,,superstition4--,the spread of skepticism was attended1 as time went on1 with a re-action to the other extreme of superstition4 ,magic and sorcery came into vogue4 ,there was an eagerness to become acquainted with ,oriental religious rites1 and to pay homage to deities worshiped in the ,east with mysterious ceremonies4 ,another tendency strongly manifest was towards what is called syncretism1 or a mingling of different religious systems4 ,it was hoped that the truth might be found by combining beliefs drawn from many different quarters4 ,this eclectic drift was signally manifest in religion as well as in philosophy4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,emperors ,,made ,,by ,,the ,,soldiers3 ,,the ,,absolute ,,monarchy4 ,,commodus4--,rome had enjoyed good government for eighty-four years4 ,this was owing to the fact that her sovereigns had been nominated to their office1 instead of inheriting it4 ,none of the emperors during this interval had male children4 ,marcus ,aurelius made the mistake of associating with him in power his son ,commodus1 who was eighteen years old when his father died1 and reigned alone from #ahj to #aib4 ,he began his despicable career as sole ruler by buying peace of the ,marcomanni and the ,quadi4 ,he turned out to be a detestable tyrant1 who was likewise guilty of the worst personal vices4 ,he was strangled in his bedroom by one of his concubines1 ,marcia1 with the assistance of others1 all of whom he was intending to kill4 ,at this time the army1 where there had been more energy and virtue than in any other class1 began to decline in discipline4 ,society was growing more and more corrupt4 ,it proves the inherent strength of the organization of the ,roman ,empire1 that1 amid all the causes of disintegration and decay1 it lasted for two centuries longer4 ,i4 ,,emperors ,,made ,,by ,,the ,,soldiers4 ,we now enter upon a period of military license4 ,the emperors are appointed by the soldiers4 ,the rulers1 when the soldiers fall out with them1 are slain4 ,in the course of ninety-two years1 from #aib to #bhd1 twenty-five emperors1 with an average reign of less than four years for each1 sat on the throne4 ,only two reigns exceeded ten years4 ,ten emperors perished by violence at the hands of the soldiers4 ,a real advantage in this way of making emperors1 was1 that supreme power might thus devolve on able generals2 but another1 and a fatal result1 was the demoralizing of the armies1 by whose favor the rulers of the state were set up and pulled down4 ,,to ,,alexander ,,severus 7,a4,d4 #bbb74--,the assassins of ,commodus1 with the assent of the praetorians1 made a worthy senator1 ,pertinax1 emperor2 but his honesty and frugality1 and his disposition to maintain discipline among the soldiers1 caused them to murder him three months after his accession 7#aic74 ,it is said that they then sold the imperial office at auction to a rich senator1 but the leaders of the armies in different regions refused their consent4 ,of these1 ,septimius ,severus 7#aic-baa7 made his way to the throne1 and put down his rivals4 ,the empire became a military despotism4 ,a garrison of forty thousand troops1 the prefect of whom was in power second only to the sovereign1 took the place of the old prtorians4 ,severus was a good general4 ,in a war against the ,parthians1 he captured ,ctesiphon1 their capital4 ,caracalla1 his son 7#baa-bag71 was a base tyrant4 ,he was murdered by the prtorian prefect1 ,macrinus1 who reigned for a short time 7#bag-bah71 but perished in consequence of his attempts to reform the discipline of the army4 ,heliogabalus 7#bah-bbb7 was not more cruel than others had been1 but his gross and shameless debauchery was without a precedent4 ,,power ,,of ,,the ,,provinces3 ,,discord4--,in the reign of ,caracalla is placed the ,edict which gave the rights of citizenship to all the free inhabitants of the ,roman ,empire4 ,the provinces had been steadily rising in power and influence4 ,at ,rome1 among officials of the highest grade1 as well as in the higher professions1 there was a throng of provincials4 ,the provinces were disposed to nominate emperors of their own4 ,it was hard for the central authority to keep under control the frontier armies4 ,to add to these sources of division1 there was a growing jealousy between the ,east and ,west1 owing to a difference in language1 ideas1 and interests4 ,persia was soon to threaten the empire on the ,east1 and ,gothic barbarians to invade its territories4 ,,alexander ,,severus3 ,,persia4--,alexander ,severus 7#bbb-bce7 was a man of pure morals1 and sincerely disposed to remedy abuses and to govern well4 ,but the evils were too great for the moderate degree of vigor with which he was endowed4 ,the overthrow of the ,parthian kingdom1 in #bbf1 created1 in the ,new ,persian ,monarchy1 a formidable enemy to ,rome4 ,alexander did little more than check the advance of ,persia4 ,in a war against the ,germans1 he was slain by his own soldiers4 ,,to ,,decius 7,a4,d4 #bdi74--,the fierce and brutal ,maximin1 who had excited the soldiers of ,alexander ,severus to mutiny1 reigned from #bce to #bch4 ,the ,senate roused itself to resist his advance into ,italy2 and he1 and his son with him1 were killed in his tent by his soldiers4 ,gordian 7#bch-bdd7 at least held the frontier against the attacks of the ,persians4 ,philip1 an ,arabian1 probably a ,roman colonist1 after reigning from #bdd to #bdi1 was supplanted by ,decius1 whom his rebellious ,moesian and ,pannonian soldiers raised to power4 ,,decius ,,to ,,claudius 7,a4,d4 #bej-bfh74--,the short reign of ,decius was marked by the first general persecution of the ,christian ,church4 ,during his reign1 the ,goths 7,a4,d4 #bej7 invaded the empire4 ,they traversed ,dacia1 and crossed the ,danube4 ,they ravaged ,moesia1 and even made their way into ,thrace4 ,decius was defeated by them in ,moesia1 and slain4 ,the peril of the empire continually increased4 ,the ,german tribes on the north1 the ,goths on the ,lower ,danube and the ,euxine1 and ,persia in the east1 arrayed themselves in hostility4 ,the reigns of ,valerian 7#bec-bfj7 and of his associate and successor1 ,gallienus 7#bfj-bfh71 were marked by continuous disaster4 ,numerous independent rulers--the thirty tyrants--established themselves1 generally for a very short time1 in different regions4 ,in the ,east1 one kingdom1 the capital of which was ,palmyra1 and which had for a ruler ,zenobia1 the widow of its founder1 lasted for ten years 7#bfd-bgc74 ,the ,goths occupied ,dacia1 and from the ,cimmerian ,bosphorus sent out their predatory expeditions in all directions1 plundering cities1 including ,athens and ,corinth1 and carrying off immense booty to their homes south of the ,danube4 ,the ,persians conquered ,armenia1 took ,valerian prisoner1 advanced into ,syria1 and burned ,antioch4 ,,to ,,diocletian 7,a4,d4 #bhd74--;,it would seem as if the ,roman empire was on the verge of dissolution4 ,but a series of vigorous emperors--among them ,claudius 7#bfh-bgj7 and ,aurelian 7#bgj-bge7--quelled rebellion within its borders1 and re-established its boundaries2 although ,aurelian gave up to the ,goths ,dacia1 which had been of no benefit to the empire4 ,probus 7#bgf-bhb7 was a prudent as well as valiant ruler4 ,carus 7#bhb-bhc7 invaded ,persia1 captured ,seleucia and ,ctesiphon1 and might1 perhaps1 have completed the conquest of the country1 but for his death4 ,numerianus 7#bhc-bhd7 was the last in the succession of rulers during this period of military control1 of which the corruption of the army was the worst result4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,absolute ,,monarchy 7,,to ,a4,d4 #cge74 ,,diocletian4--,once more the gigantic and weakened frame of the ,roman ,empire was invigorated by a change in the character of the chief rulers and in the method of government4 ,diocletian 7#bhd-cje71 one of a number of energetic emperors who were of ,illyrian birth1 first stripped the imperial office of its limitations1 and converted it into an absolute monarchy4 ,this new system was carried to its completion by ,constantine4 ,diocletian took from the ,senate what political jurisdiction was left to it4 ,he abolished the difference between the treasury of the state and the private coffers of the prince4 ,the precedence of ,rome was taken away by making other great cities to be seats of government4 ,there were to be two emperors under the title of ,augustus1 with two ,caesars under them2 and thus the empire was divided1 for administrative purposes1 into four parts4 ,maximian1 the second ,augustus1 was to rule over ,italy1 ,africa1 and the islands1 with ,milan for his residence4 ,constantius ,chlorus had the western provinces1 --,spain1 ,gaul1 and ,britain4 ,at ,nicomedia1 ,diocletian1 a man of imposing presence and of great talents as a statesman1 exercised rule for twenty years with efficiency and success4 ,the new system1 if it involved the peril of strife among the regents1 led to a more vigilant and efficient government in the different provinces1 and provided for a peaceful succession to the throne4 ,but the government came to resemble1 in the omnipotence of the emperor1 in the obsequious homage paid to him1 and in the cringing manners of the court1 an ,oriental despotism4 ,the old heathen religion was considered by conservative ,romans to be an essential part of the imperial system1 and indispensable to the unity of the empire4 ,it was this view1 in connection with other influences1 which moved ,diocletian1 near the close of his reign1 in #cjc1 to set on foot a systematic persecution of the ,christian ,church1 by a series of extremely severe and well-contrived measures1 through which it was designed to extirpate the new religion4 ,the last great persecution1 in the reign of ,decius1 cruel though it had been1 did not approach in severity this final effort to exterminate the disciples of the ,christian faith1 who had now become very numerous4 ,terrible sufferings were inflicted1 but without avail4 ,in #cje ,diocletian1 partly on account of a serious illness1 formally abdicated1 and obliged ,maximian to do the same4 ,civil wars followed1 until ,constantine1 the son of ,constantius1 gained the supremacy1 first as joint ruler with ,licinius1 who governed in the ,east1 and then1 after a bloody struggle which began in ,a4,d4 #cad1 as sole master of the empire 7,a4,d4 #cbc74 ,,constantine 7,a4,d4 #cjf-ccg74--,the career of ,constantine was stained by acts of cruelty towards members of his own family4 ,in the closing period of his life1 he was less just and humane than in earlier days4 ,the change which had taken place in the imperial system was signally manifest in his removal of the seat of government to ,,constantinople1 which was built up by him1 and named in his honor4 ,placed between ,europe and ,asia1 on a tongue of land where it was protected from assault1 it was admirably suited for a metropolis4 ,but the change of capital involved dangers for the western portions of the empire1 exposed as they were to the assaults of the barbarians4 ,the changes in the government begun by ,diocletian were completed by ,constantine4 ,the empire was divided1 for purposes of government1 into four prefectures1 each of which was subdivided into dioceses4 ,constantine established1 likewise1 different classes of nobles1 the type of modern systems of nobility4 ,he organized the army afresh1 under the ,master of the ,horse and ,master of the ,foot1 each1 however1 commanding1 in action1 both infantry and cavalry1 and each having under him dukes and counts4 ,in short1 the system of central and despotic administration1 with subordinate rulers1 which ,diocletian began1 was perfected by ,constantine4 ,diocletian1 in order to fortify the imperial power against the army1 had shared his power with a cabinet of emperors1 which his genius enabled him to control4 ,to prevent the breaking up of the empire through the system of viceroys thus created to preserve it1 ,constantine separated the civil authority from the military as regards the subordinate rulers1 while both functions were united in himself4 ,he still further exalted his throne by giving it even more of an ,oriental character1 by creating a multitude of officials1 who were satellites of the sovereign1 and by becoming the secular head and guardian of the ,christian ,church4 ,the arrangements of his court1 with its grades of officials1 from the chamberlain downwards1 were after the ,oriental pattern4 ,,the ,,downfall ,,of ,,heathenism4 ,,progress ,,of ,,christianity4--,the failure of the grand attempt of ,diocletian to exterminate ,christianity was an indication of its coming triumph4 ,its progress had been gradual yet rapid1 and1 in its earlier stages especially1 obscure4 ,of the labors of most of the apostles we know little4 ,on the approach of the ,jewish war 7p4 #ahj71 the ,apostle ,john1 and other ,christians with him1 had repaired to ,asia ,minor4 ,there1 at ,ephesus1 this apostle lived until the reign of ,trajan1 and from that center exerted a wide influence1 the traces of which are marked and various4 ,the cities were the principal scenes of early missionary work4 ,they were the strategic points4 ,in them it was easier for ,christian preachers to gain a hearing1 and in them they were exempt from the hindrance created by strange dialects4 ,wherever ,christians went1 even for purposes of trade or mechanical industry1 they carried the seeds of the new doctrine4 ,even with regard to the churches of ,alexandria and ,carthage1 which became so flourishing1 and in the case of the church at ,rome itself1 we can not say how they were first planted4 ,the exultant terms in which the ecclesiastical writers at the end1 and even as early as the middle1 of the second century speak of the increasing number of the converts1 proves that the ,christian cause was fast gaining ground4 ,its adherents were sometimes of the higher class1 but mostly from the ranks of the poor4 ,,persecutions4--,persecution from the side of the heathen began among the populace4 ,always when fire1 tempest1 or plague occurred1 they were ascribed to the wrath of the heathen gods at the desertion of their altars1 and the cry was for ,christian blood4 ,but ,christianity1 from the time of ,trajan1 was an illegal religion4 ,magistrates might at any time require ,christians to do homage to the emperor's bust1 or to burn incense to the old divinities4 ,to make a proselyte of a ,roman citizen1 or to meet in private companies for worship1 was unlawful4 ,the persecutions by public authority have been said to be ten2 but this number is too small if all of them are reckoned1 and too large if only those of wide extent are included4 ,the constancy with which even young women and children sometimes endured the torture1 excited wonder in the beholders4 ,among the more noted martyrs are ,ignatius1 bishop of ,antioch 7#aaf72 ,polycarp1 bishop of ,smyrna1 who had been a pupil of the ,apostle ,john1 and was put to death in #aee2 and ,cyprian1 the aged bishop of ,carthage1 one of the leading ecclesiastics of the time1 who suffered under ,valerian in #beh4 ,,the ,,church ,,under ,,constantine4--,the accession of ,constantine made ,christianity the predominant religion in the ,roman ,empire4 ,his conversion was gradual4 ,more and more he came to rely for support in his conflicts with his rivals upon the ,god of the ,christians4 ,the sign of the cross1 which he said that he beheld in the sky1 and which led him to make the cross his standard1 may have been an optical illusion occasioned partly by his own mental state at the moment1 when1 after prayer1 he was standing at noon-day in the door of his tent4 ,he remained1 like many others in that day1 not without relics of the old beliefs1 as is seen from inscriptions on his coins1 and other evidences4 ,his own baptism he deferred until he was near his end1 on account of the prevalent idea that all previous guilt is effaced in the baptismal water4 ,the edict of unrestricted toleration was issued from ,milan in #cab4 ,constantine did not proscribe heathenism4 ,he forbade immoral rites1 and rites connected with magic and sorcery4 ,but1 with this exception1 heathen worshipers were not molested4 ,but the emperor gave his zealous personal countenance to the ,christian cause1 and marks of his favor to its adherents4 ,by the privileges and immunities which he granted to the ,church and its ministers1 he did more than he would have been likely to effect by the use of severity against its adversaries4 ,,organization ,,of ,,the ,,church4--,the early ,christian societies were little republics1 at first under the supervision of the apostles4 ,their organization shaped itself partly after the model of the synagogue1 and partly from the pattern of the civil communities and the voluntary associations about them4 ,in the apostolic age a body of elders or bishops and a body of deacons in each church guided its affairs1 while the members took an active part in the choice of their officers1 and in the general direction of ecclesiastical proceedings4 ,in the second century1 when we get a distinct view of the churches after the obscure interval that follows the age of the apostles1 we find that over the elders is a bishop1 whose office grows in importance as the churches become larger1 as the need of more compact organization is felt1 and as the clergy become more and more distinct from the laity4 ,the bishop of the city church acquires jurisdiction over the adjacent country churches4 ,the bishop in the capital of each province comes to exercise a certain superintendence within the province4 ,this is the metropolitan system4 ,more and more the bishops of the great cities1 especially ,rome1 ,alexandria1 and ,antioch1 exercise a parallel supervision in larger divisions of the empire4 ,this is the patriarchal system4 ,as early as the closing part of the second century1 the catholic or universal church presents itself before us1 conceived of as a unity which is made such by the hierarchy of bishops1 and by connection with the apostolic sees1--the churches founded by the apostles in person4 ,as the apostles were thought of as having a head in ,peter1 the bishops of ,rome1 who were looked on as his successors1 had accorded to them a precedence over other bishops4 ,the grandeur of ,rome1 the strength of the church there1 its services to other churches in the empire1 especially in the ,west1 together with many other considerations additional to its alleged historic relation to ,peter and to ,paul1 gave to the ,roman ,see1 as time went on1 a growing and acknowledged pre-eminence4 ,the custom of holding synods helped to build up the unity of the ,church1 and to give power and dignity to its officials4 ,,sects3 ,,theology4--,the ,church from the beginning had to contend with opposing sects4 ,there was a desire to amalgamate the ,christian doctrine with other systems4 ,on the ,jewish side1 the ,ebionites clung to the ,old ,testament ritual observances1 a part of them being bitterly hostile to the ,apostle ,paul1 and another part1 the ,nazareans1 not sharing this fanatical feeling1 but still adhering to the ,jewish ceremonies4 ,on the other hand1 the ,gnostics introduced a dualism1 and ascribed to the ,demiurge--a second deity1 either subordinate to the supreme ,god1 or antagonistic to him--the origination of this world and of the ,old ,testament religion4 ,they made a compound of ,christianity1 ,judaism1 and heathen religion and speculation1 each ,gnostic sect giving to one or the other of these ingredients the preponderance in the strange and often fantastic medley4 ,the controversy with heathenism was prosecuted with the pen4 ,of the numerous defenses of ,christianity1 now addressed to heathen rulers and now to its opponents in private stations1 the most remarkable work in the first three centuries was the writing of ,origen--who was the most eminent of the teachers of theology at ,alexandria--in reply to ,celsus4 ,origen1 after scholarly labors so vast as to earn for him the title of the ,adamantine1 died in #bed1 in consequence of his sufferings in the ,diocletian persecution4 ,two defenses of the ,christian faith1 composed about the middle of the second century by ,justin ,martyr1 are specially instructive as to the state of ,christian opinion and the customs of the ,church4 ,the first great center of theological activity was ,alexandria1 where philosophy was studied in a liberal spirit4 ,in the ,east1 the questions relative to the divinity of ,jesus and the relation of the divine to the human nature1 engrossed attention4 ,in the ,west1 it was the practical aspects of theology1 the doctrine of sin and of the deliverance of the will by grace1 which were chiefly discussed4 ,the ,arian controversy grew out of the assertion by ,arius1 a presbyter of ,alexandria1 that ,jesus was the first-made of all beings1 the instrument of the creation of all other beings1 but himself a creature4 ,the leader of the orthodox opposition to this opinion was the famous ,alexandrian archdeacon1 afterwards bishop1 ,athanasius4 ,this debate it was which led to the assembling1 under the auspices of ,constantine1 of the ,council of ,nicaea 7,a4,d4 #cbe71 the first of a series of ,general ,councils1 for the adjudication of doctrinal disputes1 that were held in this and the following centuries4 ,the ,arian doctrine was condemned at ,nicaea1 and1 after a long contest in the period subsequent1 was finally determined to be heretical4 ,in the ,west1 the main controversy was that raised by ,pelagius1 respecting the power of the will1 the native character of men1 and the agency of ,god in their conversion4 ,in this debate1 ,augustine 7#ced-dcj71 the most eminent theologian of the ,west1 bishop of ,hippo in ,north ,africa1 was the renowned champion of the doctrine of grace against what he considered an exaggerated assertion of free-will4 ,pelagianism was condemned in the ,west1 and nominally in the ,east where views intermediate between the ,pelagians and ,augustinians commonly prevailed4 ,the most eminent scholar contemporary with ,augustine was ,jerome1 who died in #dbj1 the author of the ,latin version of the ,scriptures1 called the ,vulgate4 ,preceding ,augustine in ,north ,africa1 early in the third century1 was ,tertullian1 a vigorous and fervid writer1 who first made ,latin the vehicle of theological discussion2 and1 a little later1 ,cyprian1 whose works relate chiefly to church unity and hierarchical government1 of which he was a devoted champion4 ,late in the second century1 ,irenaeus1 bishop of ,lyons in ,gaul1 one of the most eminent ecclesiastics of that day1 composed an elaborate work against the ,gnostic heresies4 ,irenaeus had known ,polycarp1 a disciple of ,john the apostle4 ,,christian ,,life4--,passing within the sphere of ,christian life1 there can be no doubt that ,christianity exerted a power1 of which there had been no experience before1 in reforming the character and conduct of those even who had been addicted to crime and vice4 ,the fraternal feeling of ,christians for one another impressed the heathen about them as something new and singularly attractive4 ,it expressed itself in unstinted charity for those in poverty1 and in helpfulness for all sorts of distress4 ,the church was a home for the weary and friendless4 ,in the strong reaction against the sensuality of a dissolute society1 ascetic tendencies appeared1 which1 in process of time1 issued in monasticism4 ,anthony of ,thebes1 born about #bej1 was one of the earliest and most celebrated of the ,anchorites1 who chose a hermit life1 and abjured all the luxuries of life and most of the comforts which belong to social existence4 ,to the ,anchorites succeeded the ,caenobites1 societies of monks who dwelt in a common habitation under fixed rules2 and these were naturally followed by confederacies of such communities under one organization4 ,the monastic vows were poverty1 or the renunciation of property2 celibacy1 or abstinence from marriage2 and obedience to the conventual superior4 ,sometimes in the early centuries great evils and abuses sprang up in connection with monastic life4 ,for example1 monks might become fanatical and violent4 ,but they furnished numerous examples of sincere piety1 and of unselfish and intrepid self-sacrifice for the welfare of others4 ,,changes ,,in ,,worship4--,as the ,church grew in numbers and wealth1 costly edifices were constructed for worship4 ,the services within them became more elaborate4 ,at length art was called in to adorn the ,christian sanctuaries4 ,sculpture and painting were enlisted in the work of providing aids to devotion4 ,relics of saints and martyrs were cherished as sacred possessions4 ,religious observances were multiplied2 and the ,church1 under the ,christian emperors1 with its array of clergy and of imposing ceremonies1 assumed much of the stateliness and visible splendor that had belonged to the heathen system which it had supplanted4 ,,last ,,days ,,of ,,heathenism4--,when ,christianity had become powerful1 its disciples forgot the precepts of their ,master1 and sometimes persecuted the heathen4 ,christian mobs demolished the old temples4 ,the great temple of ,serapis in ,alexandria was destroyed1 and the statue of the god was broken in pieces4 ,theodosius ,i4 7#cgi-cie7 made the celebration of heathen rites a capital offense1 and confiscated the property by which heathen worship had been supported4 ,arians1 too1 he persecuted1 but with less harshness4 ,the ,eastern emperor1 ,justinian1 suppressed the school of ,new ,platonic philosophers at ,athens1 and banished the teachers 7#ebi74 ,heathenism lingered in remote districts1 and was hence called paganism1 or the religion of rustics4 ,the last adherents of the ancient religion inhabited in the seventh century remote valleys of the ,italian islands4 ,the oracles were for ever dumb4 ,the old divinities were never more to be invoked4 ,but it was not by force that heathenism was extirpated4 ,if it had not lost its vitality1 it would have survived the penal laws against it4 ,it perished by the expulsive energy of a better faith4 ,,causes ,,of ,,the ,,triumph ,,of ,,christianity4--,the causes of the spread and triumph of ,christianity lie ultimately in the need which men feel of religion1 especially in times of dread and distress1 and in the intrinsic excellence which was felt to belong to ,christianity4 ,in the first and second centuries the dreary feeling engendered by the hollow skepticism that prevailed was favorable to the ,christian cause4 ,there was a void to be filled1 and the gospel came to fill it4 ,in the third century1 when the progress of ,christianity was specially rapid1 there was a perceptible revival of religious feeling among the heathen2 and this1 too1 operated to the advantage of the gospel4 ,at least it must have done so in numerous instances4 ,in that century the terrible plagues which desolated the empire1 with the sufferings that sprung from wild anarchy and misgovernment1 made the church a welcome asylum for the afflicted4 ,in the first place1 ,christianity was a religion4 ,it was neither a merely speculative nor a merely moral system4 ,it took hold of the supernatural4 ,secondly1 it presented to a corrupt society a moral ideal of spotless perfection4 ,thirdly1 it offered1 in the doctrine of the cross1 a welcome solace1--consolation in life1 with a sense of reconciliation1 and the hope of everlasting good4 ,other causes1 such as ,gibbon enumerates1 were operative4 ,but these are themselves mostly effects or aspects of the gospel2 or they were auxiliary1 not principal1 causes4 ,,christianity ,,and ,,liberty4--,the founders of ,christianity had no thought of becoming the authors of a political revolution4 ,they had a very different purpose in view4 ,to overthrow the existing order of society would have been equally unwise and impracticable4 ,what was needed was a new spirit of justice and of love4 ,the virtues that were called for then were the passive virtues1--gentleness1 forbearance1 the calm endurance of ills of which there was no present remedy4 ,the ,christian spirit1 therefore1 did not evoke in the disciples of the new faith sentiments of liberty akin to those which had belonged to ,greek and ,roman heroes4 ,indirectly1 however1 ,christianity brought into human society the germs of liberty4 ,in the first place1 while it enjoined absolute submission to rulers1 it made an exception whenever their commands should require disobedience to ,god's law4 ,this position involved the denial to the state of that absolute supremacy accorded to it by the ancients4 ,the allegiance to the state became a qualified allegiance4 ,secondly1 there arose within the state another community1 which took into its hands1 to a large extent1 the regulation of social life4 ,the boundaries of the two authorities might be indistinct1 but there was a real division of control between them4 ,it is true that tyranny might arise within the ,christian organization itself3 still1 its very existence planted on the earth a principle of liberty1 which was destined ultimately to work out the destruction of all tyranny1 whether civil or religious4 ,for the first time the rulers of the ,roman world were faced by an opposition1 meek yet too inflexible for all their power to overcome4 ,this is the first stage in the history of modern liberty4 ,the heroic and invincible ,athanasius as ,milton styles him1 boldly confronted ,constantine and his successors1 and chose to spend twenty years of his life in voluntary or enforced exile rather than bow to their tyrannical decrees4 ,ambrose1 the great archbishop of ,milan1 compelled the ,emperor ,theodosius--who1 in a fit of anger had ordered a massacre at ,thessalonica--to do penance before he could be admitted to the communion4 ,such occurrences indicate that the days of imperial omnipotence1 even over unarmed subjects1 were past4 ,,successors ,,of ,,constantine4--,constantine left his empire to his three unworthy sons4 ,constantine1 the eldest1 had the ,western provinces for his share4 ,he endeavored to wrest ,italy from his brother ,constans1 but was slain at ,aquileia 7#cdj74 ,this event left ,constans the master of the entire ,west4 ,he took up his abode in ,gaul1 where he was slain by ,magnentius1 the leader of a mutinous body of soldiers 7#cej74 ,constantius was at ,edessa1 engaged in war against the ,persians4 ,he marched westward1 and routed ,magnentius at ,mursia1 in ,pannonia4 ,this rival fled to ,gaul1 and was there attacked and destroyed4 ,gallus1 the cousin of ,constantius1 was put to death for the murder of one of the emperor's officers 7#ced74 ,julian1 the brother of ,gallus1 was the sole remaining survivor of the family from which the emperor sprung4 ,constantius1 under whom the whole empire was now for a few years 7#ceg-cfa7 united1 made a triumphal visit to ,rome4 ,he was the defender of the ,arians1 but he found it impossible to coerce the ,roman ,christians into the adoption of his opinion4 ,the orthodox bishop whom he had banished1 was restored4 ,constantius was succeeded by his cousin ,julian 7#cfa-cfc71 commonly called the ,apostate4 ,fascinated by the heathen philosophy1 and a secret convert to the old religion1 he ,,the ,,imperial ,,house ,,of ,,constantine4 ,,constantius ,,chlorus1 m4 #a1 ,helena2 --,,constantine ,i 7the ,great7 m4 #a1 ,minervina2 #b1 ,fausta --,,constantine ,,ii4 --,,constantius ,,ii4 --,constantia1 m4 ,,gratian4 --,,constans4 --,,constantia1 m4 #a1 ,hannibalianus2 #b1 ,,gallus4 --,,helena1 m4 ,,julian4 #b1 ,theodora4 --,constantius1 m4 #a1 ,galla2 #b1 ,basilina4 --,,gallus m4 ,constantia1 widow of ,hannibalianus4 --,,julian m4 ,helena1 daughter of ,constantine ,i4 --,constantia1 m4 ,,licinius4 proved that its vitality was gone1 by his ineffectual exertions to rescue it1 and restore its predominance4 ,he was not without merits as a ruler4 ,he looked out for the impartial administration of justice3 he revived discipline and a military spirit in the army1 and sought to infuse a better spirit into the civil administration4 ,while he avoided cruel persecution1 he directed all his personal efforts to the weakening of the ,christian cause4 ,julian led an expedition against the ,persians4 ,he sailed down the ,euphrates to ,circesium1 and thence proceeded into the interior of ,persia4 ,he repulsed the enemy1 but was slain while engaged in the pursuit4 ,the soldiers on the field of battle chose one of his officers1 ,jovian 7#cfc-cfd71 who was a ,christian1 to be his successor4 ,he conducted the retreat of the army4 ,his reign lasted for only seven months4 ,he showed no intolerance either towards ,pagans or ,arians1 but he gave back to ,christianity its former position4 ,the army next chose ,valentinian ,i4 7#cfd-cge71 the son of a ,pannonian warrior1 who associated with him1 as emperor in the ,east1 his brother ,valens 7#cfd-cgh74 ,valens ruled from ,constantinople4 ,valentinian fixed his court at ,milan1 and sometimes at ,treves4 ,he was an unlettered soldier1 but strict and energetic in the government of the state1 as well as of the army4 ,his time was mostly spent in conflict with the barbarians on the northern frontiers4 ,he carried forward this contest with vigor on the ,rhine and on the ,danube4 ,he trained up his son ,gratian to be his successor4 ,the great event of the reign of ,valens was the irruption of the ,huns into ,europe1 and the consequent invasion of the ,goths1 by whom ,valens was defeated and slain in #cgh4 ,several emperors followed1 until1 on the death of ,theodosius ,i41 7the ,great7 7#cie71 the ,roman ,empire was divided4 ,in #dgf1 after successive invasions of barbarians had disorganized the western part of the ,empire1 the line of phantom emperors at ,rome came to an end4 ,the fourth century1 in which these invasions--which overthrew the ,western ,empire1 and transferred power to new races--occurred1 forms the era of transition from ancient to mediaeval history4 ,,literature4--,the general works on ,ancient ,history 7p4 #af74 ,on ,roman ,history as a whole3 ,,merivale',s ,general ,history of ,rome 7from #gec ,b4,c4 to ,a4,d4 #dgf3 #a vol472 ,,duruy1 ,history of ,rome1 etc4 7#h vols41 #daj72 ,wgner1 ,rom1 etc4 7#c vols472 ,allen1 ,a ,short ,story of the ,roman ,people2 ,,freeman1 ,outlines of ,roman ,history4 ,on the ,roman ,republic3 ,,mommsen1 ,the ,history of ,rome 7#d vols472 ,,liddell1 ,a ,history of ,rome1 etc4 7#a vol472 ,,ihne1 ,the ,history of ,rome 7,eng4 trans41 #c vols472 ,michelet1 ,history of the ,roman ,republic 7#a vol41 #abmo72 ,schwegler1 ,rmishce ,geschichte 7#d vols72 ,how and ,leigh1 ,a ,history of ,rome2 ,shuckburgh1 ,a ,history of ,rome4 ,on the ,roman ,empire3 ,,merivale1 ,history of the ,romans under the ,empire 7#g vols 72 ,seeley1 ,roman ,imperialism three ,lectures2 ,,mommsen1 ,the ,provinces 7#eth volume of his ,history1 #ahhe72 ,bury1 ,students' ,roman ,empire2 ,bury1 ,later ,roman ,empire 7#b vols474 ,on special periods3 ,,ihne1 ,early ,rome 7#a vol472 ,t4 ,arnold1 ,history of ,rome 7#c vols2 reaches into the second ,punic war72 ,long1 ,the ,decline of the ,roman ,republic 7#e vols472 ,r4 ,b4 ,smith1 ,rome and ,carthage2 ,,merivale1 ,the ,roman ,triumvirates2 ,t ,arnold1 ,history of the ,later ,roman ,commonwealth 7#b vols472 ,,gibbon1 ,history of the ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire 7,smith's edition72 ,,finlay1 ,a ,history of ,greece from the ,conquest of the ,romans to the ,present ,time 7#g vols472 ,dill1 ,roman ,society 7#eth century74 ,trollope1 ,life of ,cicero 7#b vols472 ,,forsyth1 ,life of ,cicero 7#b vols472 ,middleton's ,life of ,cicero2 ,froude1 ,life of ,caesar 7#a vol472 ,boissier1 ,ciceron et ses ,amis 7#a vol41 #abmo74 ,treatises3 ,taylor1 ,const1 and ,polit4 ,history of ,rome2 ,,kuhn1 ,verfassung d4 ,rmischen ,stdte2 ,,guhl ,,and ,k,,ner1 ,life of the ,greeks and ,romans2 ,marquardt1 ,handbuch d4 ,rmischen ,alterthmer 7#g vols472 ,,becker1 ,gallus 7an archaeological novel72 ,abbott1 ,roman ,political ,institutions2 ,greenidge1 ,roman ,public ,life2 ,preston and ,dodge1 ,private ,life of the ,romans2 ,madvig1 ,verfassung und ,verwaltung des ,rm ,staates 7#b vols472 ,lanciani 7,ancient ,rome1 and others72 ,burn1 ,rome and the ,campagna2 ,,ziegler1 ,das alte ,rom2 ,smith and ,wace's ,dictionary of ,christian ,biography2 ,smith and ,cheatham's ,dictionary of ,christian ,antiquities2 ,,friedl,,nder1 ,sittengeschichte ,roms 7#b vols472 ,histories of ,roman ,literature by ,simcox4 ,cruttwell1 ,,schmitz1 ,teuffel4 ,mac-,kail1 ,fowler4 ,on ,early ,christianity3 ,the ,lives of ,jesus1 by ,,neander1 ,,weiss1 ,farrar1 ,edersheim1 ,andrews4 ,neander's ,planting and ,training of the ,church4 ,works on the ,life of ,st4 ,paul1 by ,,conybeare ,,and ,,howson1 by ,lewins1 by ,farrar4 ,fisher's ,the ,beginnings of ,christianity2 ,pressens1 ,early ,days of ,christianity4 ,church ,histories of ,,neander1 ,,gieseler1 ,,schaff1 ,robertson1 ,,hase1 ,kurtz1 ,,alzog4 ,,uhlhorn1 ,christian ,charity in the ,ancient ,church2 ,ramsay1 ,the ,church and the ,roman ,empire1 before #agj ,a4,d4 ,reber1 ,history of ,ancient ,art2 ,wickoff1 ,roman ,art2 see ,dictionaries1 p4 #abb4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,medi,,val ,,history4 ,,introduction4 ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4--,the middle ages include the long interval between the first general irruption of the ,teutonic nations towards the close of the fourth century1 to the middle of the fifteenth century1 when the modern era1 with a distinctive character of its own1 began4 ,two striking features are observed in the medival era4 ,first1 there was a mingling of the conquering ,germanic nations with the peoples previously making up the ,roman ,empire1 and a consequent effect produced upon both4 ,the ,teutonic tribes modified essentially the old society4 ,on the other hand1 there was a reaction of ,roman civilization upon them4 ,the conquered became the teachers and civilizers of the conquerors4 ,secondly1 the ,christian ,church1 which outlived the wreck of the empire1 and was almost the sole remaining bond of social unity1 not only educated the new nations1 but regulated and guided them1 to a large extent1 in secular as well as religious affairs4 ,thus out of chaos1 ,christendom arose1 a single homogeneous society of peoples4 ,it was in the middle ages that the pontifical authority reached its full stature4 ,the ,holy ,see exercised the lofty function of arbiter among contending nations1 and of leadership in great public movements1 like the ,crusades4 ,civil authority and ecclesiastical authority1 emperors and popes1 were engaged in a long conflict for predominance4 ,thus there are three elements which form the essential factors in ,medival ,history1-the ,barbarian element1 the ,roman element1 with its law and civil polity1 and with what was left of ancient arts and culture1 and the ,christian1 or ,ecclesiastical1 element4 ,as we approach the close of the medival era1 a signal change occurs4 ,the nations begin to acquire a more defined individuality2 the superintendence of the church in civil affairs is more and more renounced or relinquished2 there dawns a new era of invention and discovery1 of culture and reform4 ,,period ,i4 ,,from ,,the ,,migrations ,,of ,,the ,,teutonic ,,tribes ,,to ,,the ,,carlovingian ,,line ,,of ,,frank ,,rulers4 7,a4,d4 #cge-gea47 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,causes ,,of ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,the ,,western ,,empire3 ,,the ,,teutonic ,,confederacies4 ,,gradual ,,overthrow ,,of ,,the ,,empire4--,when we speak of the destruction of the ,roman ,empire by the barbarians1 we must not imagine that it was sudden1 as by an earthquake4 ,it was gradual4 ,had the empire not been undermined from within1 it would not have been overthrown from without4 ,the ,roman armies were recruited by bringing numerous barbarians into the ranks4 ,at length whole tribes were suffered to form permanent settlements within the boundaries of the empire4 ,a king with his entire tribe would engage to do military service in exchange for lands4 ,more and more both the wealth and the weakness of ,rome were exposed to the gaze of the ,germanic nations4 ,their cupidity was aroused as their power increased4 ,meantime the barbarians were learning from their employers the art of war1 and were gaining soldierly discipline4 ,their brave warriors rose to places of command4 ,they made and unmade the rulers1 and finally became rulers themselves4 ,another important circumstance is1 that most of the ,germanic tribes were converts to ,christianity before they made their attacks and subverted the throne of the ,csars4 ,in fine1 there was a long preparation for the great onset of the barbarian peoples in the fifth century4 ,,causes ,,of ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,the ,,empire4--,but the success of the barbarian invasions presupposes an internal decay in the empire4 ,it was one symptom of a conscious decline1 that the conquering spirit was chilled1 and the policy was adopted of fixing the limits of the ,roman dominion at the ,rhine and the ,danube4 ,rome now stood on the defensive4 ,the great service of the imperial government1 for which it was most valued1 was to protect the frontiers4 ,this partly accounts for the consternation of ,augustus1 when1 in the forests of ,germany1 the legions of ,varus were destroyed 7p4 #agb74 ,the essential fact is1 that ,rome became unable to keep up the strength of its armies4 ,first1 there were lacking the men to fill up the legions4 ,the civil wars had reduced the population in ,italy and in other countries4 ,the efforts of ,augustus to encourage marriage by bounties proved of little avail4 ,secondly1 the class of independent ,italian yeomen1 which had made up the bone and sinew of the ,roman armies1 passed away4 ,slavery supplanted free labor4 ,thirdly1 in the third century terrible plagues swept over the empire4 ,in #aff a frightful pestilence broke out1 from which1 according to ,niebuhr1 the ancient world never recovered4 ,it was only the first in a series of like appalling visitations4 ,fourthly1 the death of liberty carried after it a loss of the virtue1 the virile energy1 by which ,rome had won her supremacy4 ,fifthly1 the new imperial system1 after ,diocletian1 effective as it was for maintaining an orderly administration1 drained the resources of the people4 ,the municipal government in each town was put into the hands of curiales1 or the owners of a certain number of acres4 ,they were made responsible for the taxes1 which were levied in a gross amount upon the town4 ,the fiscus1 or financial administration of the empire1 was so managed that the civil offices became an intolerable burden to those who held them4 ,yet it was a burden from which there was no escape4 ,one result was1 that1 while slaves were often made coloni1--that is1 tillers or tenants1 sharing with the owner the profits of tillage1--and thus had their condition improved1 many freeholders sank to the same grade1 which was a kind of serfdom4 ,when to the exhausting taxation by government1 there were added the disposition of large proprietors to despoil the poorer class of landholders1 and from time to time the predatory incursions of barbarians1 the small supply of ,roman legionaries is easily accounted for4 ,,three ,,races ,,of ,,barbarians4--,while the empire1 as regards the power of self-defense1 was sinking1 the barbarians were not only profiting by the military skill and experience of the ,romans1 but were forming military unions among their several tribes4 ,in the ,east1 there was one civilized kingdom1 ,persia1 the successor of the ,parthian kingdom1 but not powerful enough to be a rival1--certainly not in an aggressive contest4 ,but northward and northeast of the ,roman boundaries1 there stretched a vague and unexplored waste of barbarism1 a vast1 dimly-known chaos of numberless barbarous tongues and savage races4 ,a commotion among these numerous tribes1 the uncounted multitudes spreading far into the plain of ,central ,asia1 had begun as early as the days of ,julius ,caesar4 ,they were made up of three races1--the ,teutons1 or ,germanic peoples2 eastward of them1 the ,slavonians2 and1 farther beyond1 the ,asiatic ,scythians4 ,the ,slavonians1 an ,aryan branch1 like the ,teutons1 had their abodes in the space between ,germany and the ,volga4 ,they were a pastoral and an agricultural race1 of whose religion little is known4 ,their incursions and settlements belong to the sixth and seventh centuries1 and to the history of the ,eastern ,empire4 ,,teutonic ,,confederacies4--,of the confederacies of ,german tribes1 the ,goths are first to be mentioned4 ,in the third century they had spread over the immense territory between the ,baltic and the ,black seas4 ,they were divided into the ,west ,goths 7,visigoths7 and ,east ,goths 7,ostrogoths74 ,their force was augmented by the junction of kindred tribes4 ,to the east of them1 towards the ,don1 was a tribe of mixed race1 the ,alani4 ,in the third century the ,goths had made their terrible inroads into ,msia and ,thrace1 and the brave emperor ,decius had perished in the combat with them4 ,they had pushed their marauding excursions as far as the coasts of ,greece and ,ionia4 ,in the middle of the fourth century they were united1 with their allied tribes1 under the sovereignty of the ,east ,gothic chieftain1 ,hermanric4 ,a second league of ,germanic peoples was the ,alemanni1 which included the formidable tribes called by ,csar the ,suevi1 and who1 after various incursions1 had established themselves on the ,upper ,rhine1 in what is now ,baden1 ,wrtemberg1 and north-east in ,switzerland1 and in the region southward to the summits of the ,alps4 ,their invasion of ,italy in #bee1 when they poured through the passes of the ,rhetian ,alps1 and penetrated as far as ,ravenna1 was repelled by ,aurelian1 afterwards emperor4 ,a third confederacy was that of the ,franks 7or ,freemen7 on the ,lower ,rhine and the ,weser4 ,in ,north ,germany1 between the ,elbe and the ,rhine1 were the ,saxons4 ,the ,burgundians1 between the ,saxons and the ,alemanni1 made their way to the same river near ,worms4 ,east of the ,franks and ,saxons1 were the valiant ,lombards1 who made their way southwards to the center of ,europe1 and finally to the ,danube4 ,the ,frisians were situated on the shore of the ,north ,sea and in the adjacent islands4 ,north of the ,saxons were the ,danes and other peoples of ,scandinavia1--,teutons all1 but a separate branch of the ,teutonic household4 ,to bold and warlike tribes1 now banded together1 such as were the ,franks and the ,alemanni1 the ,rhine1 with its line of ,roman cities and fortresses1 could form no permanent barrier4 ,when they crossed it1 they might be driven back2 but this was only to renew their expeditions at the first favorable moment4 ,the prey which they saw near by1 and of which they dreamed in the distance1 was too enticing4 ,no more could the ,danube fence off the thronging nations2 all of whom had heard1 and some of whom had beheld1 the wealth and luxury of the civilized lands4 ,beginning at the ,euxine1 and moving westward along the line of the ,danube and the ,rhine1 we find1 at the end of the fourth century1 that the six most prominent names of ,teutonic tribes are the ,goths1 ,vandals1 ,burgundians1 ,franks1 ,saxons1 and ,lombards4 ,over the vast plains to the south and west of the ,caspian are spread the ,huns1 who belong to one branch of the ,scythian or ,turanian group of nations4 ,,habits ,,of ,,the ,,germans4--,we have notices of the ,germans from ,julius ,caesar1 the most full description of them in the ,germania of ,tacitus4 ,they were tall and robust1 and seemed to the ,romans1 who were of smaller stature1 as giants4 ,tacitus speaks of their fiercely blue eyes4 ,they lived in huts made of wood1 and containing the cattle as well as the family4 ,they tilled the soil1 but their favorite employments were war and the chase4 ,capable of cruelty1 they were still of a kindly temper1 and fond of feasts and social gatherings1 where they were apt to indulge in excessive drinking and in gambling4 ,they were brave1 and not without a delicate sense of honor4 ,family ties were sacred4 ,the women were chaste1 and were companions of their husbands1 although subject to them4 ,most of the people were freemen1 who were land-owners1 and carried arms4 ,the nobles were those of higher birth1 but with no special privileges4 ,the freemen owned slaves1 who were either criminals or persons who had lost their freedom in gaming or prisoners of war4 ,there were also freedmen or leti1 who held land of a superior4 ,many freedmen lived apart1 but many were gathered in villages4 ,the land about a village was originally held in common4 ,each village had a chief1 and each collection of villages1 or hundred1 possessed a chief of high rank2 and there was a king1 or head of the tribe4 ,all these chieftains were elected by the freemen at assemblies periodically held4 ,when the duke or general was chosen1 he was raised on a shield on the shoulders of the men4 ,the judges in the trial of causes sat1 with assessors or jurymen around them1 in the open air4 ,but private injuries were avenged by the individual or by his family4 ,one marked characteristic of the ,germans was the habit of devoting themselves to the service of a military leader4 ,they paid to him personal allegiance1 and followed him in war4 ,the ,germans were1 above all1 distinguished by a strong sense of personal independence4 ,if their mode of living resembled outwardly that of other savage races1 yet in their free political life1 and in the noble promise of their language even in its rudiments1 the comparison does not hold4 ,in their faithfulness1 courage1 and personal purity1 they are emphatically contrasted with the generality of barbarous peoples4 ,,religion ,,of ,,the ,,germans4--,we know more of the ,scandinavian religion through the ,eddas1 the ,iliad of the ,northmen1 than of the religion of the ,germans2 but the two religions were closely allied4 ,among the chief gods worshiped by the ,germans were ,woden1 called ,odin in the ,north1 the highest divinity1 the god of the air and of the sky1 the giver of fruits and delighting in battle2 ,donar 7,thor71 the god of thunder and of the weather1 armed with a hammer or thunderbolt2 ,thiu 7,tyr71 a god of war1 answering to ,mars2 ,fro 7,freyr71 god of love2 and ,frauwa 7,freya71 his sister4 ,particular days were set apart for their worship4 ,their names appear in the names of the days of the week1--,tuesday1 ,wednesday1 ,thursday1 and ,friday4 ,sunday is the day of the sun1 and ,monday the day of the moon4 ,saturday alone is a name of ,latin origin4 ,among the minor beings in the ,german mythology were fairies1 elves1 giants1 and dwarfs4 ,there were festivals to the gods4 ,their images were preserved in groves4 ,lofty trees were held sacred to divinities4 ,the oak and the red ash were consecrated to ,donar4 ,sacrifices1 and among them human sacrifices1 were offered to the gods4 ,their will was ascertained by means of the lot1 the neighing of wild horses1 and the flight of birds4 ,priests were not without influence1 but were not a professional class1 and were never dominant4 ,valiant warriors at death were admitted into ,walhalla 7the hall of the slain71 where they sat at banquet with the gods4 ,,the ,,theodosian ,,imperial ,,house ,,theodosius --,,theodosius ,i 7the ,great71 m41 #a1 ,flaccilla2 #b1 ,galla sister of ,valentinian ,,ii --,grantianus --,pulcheria --,,arcadius m4 ,eudoxia --,,theodosius ,,ii m4 ,eudocia --,eudoxia m4 ,,valentinian ,,iii --,flaccilla --,pulcheria m4 ,,marcian --,three other daughters --,,honorius m4 ,maria1 daughter of ,stilicho --,placidia m4 #a1 ,adolphus2 #b1 ,,constantius --,,valentinian ,,iii1 m4 ,eudoxia4 --,eudoxia1 m4 #a1 ,palladius1 son of ,,maximus2 #b1 ,huneric1 son of ,,genseric4 --,ideric --,placidia m4 ,,olybrius --,honoria --,honorius --,serena1 m4 ,stilicho --,maria --,thermantia ,from ,rawlinson's ,manual of ,ancient ,history4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,teutonic ,,migrations ,,and ,,kingdoms4 ,,the ,,goths3 ,,theodosius ,i4--,towards the close of the fourth century1 when ,valens 7#cfd-cgh7 was reigning in the ,east1 the ,huns moved from their settlements north of the ,caspian1 defeated the ,alans1 a powerful nation1 and1 compelling them to enter their service1 invaded the empire of the ,ostrogoths1 then ruled by ,hermanric4 ,the ,huns belonged to one branch of the ,scythian race4 ,they had migrated in vast numbers from ,central ,asia4 ,repulsive in form and visage1 with short1 thick bodies1 and small1 fierce eyes1 living mostly on horseback or in their wagons1 these terrible warriors1 with their slings and bone-pointed arrows1 struck terror into the nations whom they approached4 ,the ,gothic ,empire fell4 ,the ,ostrogoths submitted1 and ,hermanric died1 it is thought by his own hand4 ,the ,visigoths crowded down to the ,danube1 and implored ,valens to give them an asylum upon ,roman territory4 ,they had previously been converted to ,christianity1 mainly by the labors of ,ulphilas1 who had framed for them an alphabet1 and translated nearly the whole ,bible into their tongue4 ,fragments of this ,moeso-,gothic version are the oldest written monument in the ,teutonic languages4 ,christianity was taught to them by ,ulphilas in the ,arian type2 and this circumstance was very important1 since it was the occasion of the spread of ,arianism among many other ,teutonic peoples4 ,valens granted their request to cross the ,danube1 and1 under ,fritigern and ,alavivus1 to settle in ,moesia 7#cgf74 ,by the connivance of the officers of ,valens1 they were allowed to retain their arms4 ,the avarice of corrupt imperial governors provoked them to revolt2 and1 in the battle of ,adrianople1 ,valens was defeated4 ,the house into which the wounded emperor was carried was set on fire1 and he perished4 ,gratian1 who1 since the death of ,valentinian ,i4 7#cge71 had been the ruler of the ,west1 summoned the valiant ,theodosius from his estate in ,spain1 to which he had been banished1 to sustain the tottering empire4 ,gratian made him regent in the ,east4 ,his father had cleared ,britain of the ,picts and ,scots1 and restored it to the empire4 ,under him the son had learned to be a soldier4 ,he had been driven into retirement by court intrigues4 ,he now accomplished1 as well as it could be done1 the mighty task laid upon him4 ,he checked the progress of the ,goths1 divided them1 incorporated some of them in the army1 and dispersed the rest in ,thrace1 ,moesia1 and ,asia ,minor 7#chb74 ,four years later forty-thousand ,ostrogoths were received into the imperial service4 ,once ,rome had conquered the barbarians1 and planted its colonies among them2 now1 after they had proved their power1 and gained boldness by victory1 it received them within its own borders4 ,the indolence and vice of ,gratian produced a revolution in the ,west4 ,maximus was proclaimed imperator by the legions of ,britain1 and ,gratian was put to death by his cavalry 7#chc74 ,after sanguinary conflicts1 ,theodosius obtained1 also1 supreme power in the ,west4 ,he gave to orthodoxy1 in the strife with ,arianism1 the supremacy in the ,east2 and1 under his auspices1 the ,general ,council of ,constantinople re-affirmed the ,nicene doctrine of the ,trinity 7#cha74 ,in the ancient church he had a glory second only to that of ,constantine4 ,with the exception of his harsh and inquisitorial laws for the forcible suppression of ,arianism and paganism1 his legislation was generally wise and beneficent4 ,,arcadius3 ,,honorius4--,theodosius left the government of the ,east to his son ,arcadius1 then eighteen years of age1 and that of the ,west to a younger son1 ,honorius4 ,the empire of the ,east continued ten hundred and fifty-eight years after this division2 that of the ,west1 only eighty-one years4 ,the ,eastern ,empire was defended by the barriers of the ,danube and the ,balkan mountains1 by the strength of ,constantinople1 together with the care taken to protect it1 and by the general tendency of the barbarian invasions westward4 ,rome1 in the course of a half-century1 was the object of four terrible attacks1--that of ,alaric and the ,visigoths2 of ,radagaisus with the ,suevi1 ,vandals1 and ,alans2 of ,genseric with the ,vandals2 of ,attila with the ,huns4 ,,alaric ,,in ,,italy4--,the ,visigoths made ,alaric--the head of their most illustrious family1 the ,balti--their leader4 ,honorius was controlled by the influence of ,stilicho1 a brave soldier1 by birth a ,vandal2 ,arcadius was ruled by a ,goth1 ,rufinus1 a cunning and faithless diplomatist4 ,alaric and his followers were enraged at the withholding of the pay which was due to them yearly from ,arcadius4 ,rufinus1 in order to keep up his sway1 and out of hostility to ,stilicho1 arranged that they should invade ,eastern ,illyricum1 a province on which each of the emperors had claims1 and which he feared that ,stilicho would seize4 ,they ravaged ,thrace and ,macedonia1 passed through the undefended strait of ,thermopylae1 spared ,athens1 but devastated the rest of ,greece4 ,the only protector of the empire now was ,stilicho1 to whom ,theodosius had committed the care of his two sons1 and whose power was exercised in the ,west4 ,he caused the perfidious ,rufinus to be put to death by ,gainas1 one of the ,gothic allies of ,arcadius4 ,the place of the minister was taken by ,eutropius1 an ,armenian who had been a slave4 ,stilicho fought the ,goths in two campaigns1 but1 perhaps from policy1 suffered them to escape by the ,strait of ,naupactus 7,lepanto74 ,to prevent further ravages1 ,arcadius had no alternative but to appoint ,alaric master-general or duke of ,illyricum4 ,this obliged ,stilicho to retire4 ,raised upon the shield1 and thus made king by his followers1 ,alaric led them to the conquest of ,italy4 ,honorius fled for refuge from ,milan to the impregnable fortress of ,ravenna4 ,stilicho came to his relief1 and defeated the ,visigoths at ,pollentia 7#djb74 ,but ,honorius copied the example of ,arcadius1 made ,alaric a general1 and gave him the commission to conquer ,illyricum for the ,western ,empire4 ,after his defeat1 he was moving against ,rome with his cavalry1 when his retreat was purchased by a pension4 ,it was when ,honorius was celebrating his triumph at ,rome that a monk named ,telemachus leaped into the arena to separate the gladiators4 ,he was stoned to death by the spectators1 but the result of his self-devotion was an edict putting a final stop to the gladiatorial shows4 ,the emperor now fixed his residence1 which had been at ,milan1 at ,ravenna1 a city that was covered on the land side by a wide and impassable morass1 over which was an artificial causeway1 easily destroyed in case it could not be defended4 ,it had served him as an asylum during the invasion of ,alaric4 ,,radagaisus4--,the empire was not long left in peace4 ,alaric was a ,christian1 and partially civilized4 ,radagaisus was a ,goth1 but a heathen and a barbarian4 ,the ,suevi under his command1 took their course southward from the neighborhood of the ,baltic1 and1 drawing after them the ,burgundians1 ,vandals1 and ,alans1--tribes which began to be alarmed by the hordes of ,huns that were gathering behind them1--advanced to the pillage of the empire4 ,leaving the bulk of their companions on the borders of the ,rhine1 two hundred thousand of them crossed the ,alps1 and made their way as far as ,florence4 ,stilicho once more saved ,rome and the empire by forcing them back into the ,apennines1 where most of them perished from famine4 ,radagaisus surrendered1 and was beheaded4 ,the news of this disaster moved the host which had been left behind1 joined by the remainder of the army of ,radagaisus1 to make an attack upon ,gaul4 ,despite the resistance of the ,ripuarian ,franks1 to whom ,rome had committed the defense of the ,rhine1 they crossed that river on the last day of the year #djf4 ,for two years ,gaul was a prey to their ravages1 until the ,suevi1 the ,alans1 and the ,vandals1 sought for fresh booty on the south of the ,pyrenees 7#dji74 ,in ,gaul they destroyed the cities1 ravaged the fields1 and drove before them in a promiscuous crowd1 the bishop1 the senator1 and the virgin1 laden with the spoils of their houses and altars4 ,brief as was this period of devastation1 it marks the severance of ,gaul from the empire4 ,,alaric ,,again ,,in ,,italy4--,stilicho had kept up friendly relations with ,alaric1 and had retained in ,italy thirty thousand barbarians in the pay of the empire4 ,the brave general became an object of suspicion to ,honorius1 who caused him to be assassinated1 and the wives and children of the barbarian troops to be massacred4 ,the men fled to ,alaric4 ,he came back with them to avenge them4 ,he appeared under the walls of ,rome4 ,it was more than six hundred years since a foreign enemy had been there1 and ,hannibal had advanced so far1 only to retreat4 ,when the envoys of the ,senate represented to ,alaric how numerous was the population1 he answered1 ,the thicker the hay1 the easier it is mowed4 ,but he consented to accept an enormous ransom1 and retired to winter quarters in ,tuscany4 ,the court at ,ravenna refused to assign lands to the ,visigoths for a permanent settlement in ,northern ,italy4 ,alaric demanded the post of master-general of the ,western armies4 ,once more he advanced to ,rome1 seized the ,port of ,ostia1 and compelled the ,senate to appoint ,attalus1 the prefect of the city1 emperor4 ,he besieged ,ravenna without effect1 quarreled with ,attalus1 and deposed him1 and for the third time marched upon ,rome4 ,slaves within the city opened the ,salarian gate to their countrymen1 and on the #bdth of ,august1 #daj1 the sack of the city began4 ,to add to the horrors of the scene1 a terrific thunderstorm was raging4 ,for three days ,rome was given up to pillage4 ,only the ,christian temples were respected1 which were crowded by those who sought within them an asylum4 ,rome had been the center of ,paganism4 ,the scattering and destruction of its patrician families was the ruin of the old religion4 ,alaric did not long survive his victory4 ,he died at ,consentia in ,bruttium4 ,he was buried under the little river ,basentius1 which was turned out of its course while the sepulcher was constructing1 and then restored to its former channel4 ,the slaves employed in the work were put to death1 that the place of his burial might remain a secret 7#daj74 ,,athaulf3 ,,wallia4--,athaulf 7called ,adolphus71 the brother and successor of ,alaric1 was an admirer of the empire4 ,he enlisted in the service of ,honorius1 and married his sister1 ,placidia1 who was in the hands of the ,goths1 either as a captive or as a hostage4 ,he put down usurpers in the south of ,gaul who had set themselves up as emperors1 and entered ,spain1 in order to drive out the barbarians from that country4 ,but he was assassinated 7#dae74 ,his successor1 ,wallia1 carried forward his plans1 in the name of ,honorius1 against the ,alans1 the ,suevi1 and the ,vandals4 ,he partly exterminated the ,alans1 chased the ,suevi into the mountains on the north-west1 and the ,vandals into the district called after them1 ,andalusia4 ,,three ,,barbarian ,,kingdoms4--,the kingdom of the ,suevi thus established 7#dai71 under the kings reigning from #dch to #dee conquered ,lusitania1 and would have subdued all ,spain had they not been checked by the ,visigoths4 ,as a reward for their services1 the latter received from ,honorius1 ,aquitaine in ,gaul1 as far as the ,loire and the ,rhone1 with ,toulouse for their capital4 ,they conquered the ,suevi in #def1 and in #ehe subjugated them2 in #ejg the ,franks had driven them out of ,gaul4 ,early in the fifth century the ,burgundian kingdom grew up in ,south-eastern ,gaul4 ,at the end of that century the ,rhone was a ,burgundian river4 ,lyons and ,vienne were ,burgundian cities4 ,thus in the first twenty years of the fifth century there arose three barbarian kingdoms4 ,of these1 that of the ,suevi soon vanished 7#ehe71 being absorbed by the ,visigoths2 that of the ,burgundians continued until #ecd2 while that of the ,visigoths in ,spain lasted until the conquest by the ,arabs in #gaa4 ,,conquest ,,of ,,africa ,,by ,,the ,,vandals4--,honorius died in #dbc4 ,he had shown himself a zealous defender of the ,church against heresy1 and was the author of edicts for the suppression of heathenism1 and for the destruction of heathen temples and idols4 ,but he had proved himself inefficient in the defense of the empire4 ,his nephew ,valentinian ,,iii41 the son of ,placidia and of the general ,constantius1 whom she had married in #dag1 succeeded him2 but he was only six years old1 and for twenty-five years the government was carried on in his name by his unworthy mother4 ,she had two able generals1 ,atius and ,boniface1 whose discord was fatal in its effects4 ,at the same time in the ,east1 the government was managed by ,pulcheria for her brother1 ,theodosius ,,ii41 who had succeeded ,arcadias in #djh4 ,atius1 who was a ,hun1 by insidious arts persuaded ,placidia to recall ,boniface1 who was governor of ,africa1 at the same time that he advised ,boniface to disobey the order which he represented as a sentence of death4 ,boniface sent to ,gonderic1 king of the ,vandals in ,spain1--who1 after the retreat of the ,visigoths1 were strong in that country1--an offer of an alliance4 ,genseric1 the ,vandal leader1 the brother and successor of ,gonderic1 landed in ,africa in #dbi with fifty thousand men4 ,too late the treachery of ,atius was explained to ,boniface4 ,genseric1 with his allies1 tribes of nomad ,moors1 defeated him in a bloody battle1 and besieged ,hippo for fourteen months4 ,augustine1 the bishop of ,hippo1 animated the courage of its defenders until his death in #dcj1 in the seventy-sixth year of his age4 ,boniface was again defeated1 and ,hippo was taken4 ,the ,vandals pushed on their conquest1 but eight years passed before ,carthage was reduced 7#dci74 ,valentinian had recognized by treaty the kingdom of the ,vandals4 ,genseric was characterized by genius and energy as well as by cruelty and avarice4 ,he built up a navy1 and made himself master of ,sicily1 ,corsica1 ,sardinia1 and the ,balearic ,isles4 ,he was able to defy ,constantinople1 on account of his control of the ,mediterranean4 ,at the same time he entered into relations with the barbarians in the north1 in order that ,atius1 who endeavored to bring in some degree of order and obedience in the empire1 might be checked and restrained on all sides4 ,the ,vandals were ,arians1 and made full use of the difference in faith as a motive for plundering and maltreating the orthodox ,christians in ,africa1 whom their arms had subdued4 ,,attila3 ,,chalons4--,the enemy whom ,genseric invoked to make a diversion in his favor against the combined rulers of the ,east and of the ,west1 was ,attila4 ,for a half-century the ,huns had halted1 in their migration1 in the center of ,europe1 and held under their sway the ,ostrogoths1 the ,gepids1 the ,marcomanni1 and other tribes4 ,the empire of ,attila extended from the ,baltic to the north of the ,danube1 and as far east as the ,volga4 ,his name inspired terror wherever it was heard4 ,he was styled the scourge of ,god4 ,the sword of ,mars--the point of an ancient sword which1 it was said1 was discovered by supernatural means1 and was presented to him--was deemed the symbol of his right to the dominion of the world4 ,yet1 notwithstanding his fierce visage and haughty mien1 he was an indulgent ruler of his own people1 and not without pity and other generous traits4 ,such was the dread of him that it was said that no blade of grass grew on the path which his armies had traversed4 ,first1 he attacked ,theodosius ,,ii4 in the ,east1 to force him to recall the troops which he had sent against ,genseric4 ,he crossed the ,danube1 destroyed seventy cities1 and forced the ,eastern emperor not only to pay a tribute heavier than he had paid before1 but also to cede to the ,huns the right bank of the river4 ,theodosius failed in a treacherous attempt to assassinate him through ,attila's ambassador1 ,edecon1 whom he had bribed4 ,attila discovered the plot1 but pardoned with disdain the ambassadors of the emperor who went to him in his wooden palace in ,pannonia4 ,he contented himself with reproaching ,theodosius with conspiring1 like a perfidious slave1 against the life of his master4 ,regarding ,constantinople as impregnable1 he turned to the ,west4 ,he demanded of the ,western emperor the half of his states2 and1 moving to the ,rhine with six hundred thousand barbarians1 he crossed that river and the ,moselle1 advanced on his devastating path into the heart of ,gaul1 crossed the ,seine1 and laid siege to ,orleans4 ,everywhere the inhabitants fled before him4 ,the courage of the people in ,orleans was sustained by their bishop1 who at length1 as the city was just falling into the hands of the assailants1 saw a cloud of dust1 and cried1 ,it is the help of ,god4 ,it was ,atius1 who1 on the death of ,boniface1 had thought it prudent to fly to the ,huns1 had come back to ,italy at the head of sixty thousand men1 obtained forgiveness of ,placidia1 and been made master-general of her forces4 ,he had united to the ,roman troops the barbarians who had occupied ,gaul1 the ,visigoths under ,theodoric1 the ,saxons1 the ,burgundians1 the ,ripuarian and the ,salian ,franks4 ,on the ,catalaunian fields1 a vast plain near ,chalons1 whither ,attila now retreated to find room for the effective use of his cavalry1 the two multitudinous armies1 each composed of a motley collection of nations1 met4 ,it was1 like the conflict at ,marathon1 one of the decisive battles of history4 ,it was to determine whether the ,aryan or the ,scythian was to be supreme in ,europe4 ,the battle-field was strewn1 it was said1 with the bodies of a hundred and sixty thousand men1--an exaggeration indicating that the carnage was too great to be estimated4 ,attila was worsted4 ,he encircled his camp with a rampart of wagons2 and in the morning the victors saw him standing on the top of a mound composed of the trappings of horsemen1 which was to serve as his funeral-pile1 with torch-bearers at hand ready to light it in case of defeat4 ,atius was weakened by the withdrawal of the ,visigoths3 the allies did not venture to attack the lion standing thus at bay1 but suffered him to return to ,germany 7#dea74 ,,attila ,,in ,,italy4--,the next year ,attila invaded ,upper ,italy4 ,he destroyed ,aquileia1 the inhabitants of which fled to the lagoons of the ,adriatic1 where their descendants founded ,venice4 ,padua1 ,verona1 and other cities were reduced to ashes4 ,at ,milan he saw a painting which represented the emperor on his throne1 and the chiefs of the ,huns prostrate before him4 ,he ordered a picture to be painted in which the king of the ,huns sat on the throne1 and the emperor was at his feet4 ,the ,italians were without the means of defense4 ,leo ,i4 7,leo the ,great71 bishop of ,rome1 at the risk of his life accompanied the emperor's ambassadors to ,attila's camp4 ,their persuasions1 with rich gifts and the promise of a tribute1 availed4 ,the army of ,attila was weakened by sickness1 and ,atius was approaching4 ,the king of the ,huns decided to retire to his forests4 ,the apparition of the two apostles1 ,peter and ,paul1 threatening the barbarian with instant death if he did not comply with the prayer of their successor1 is the subject of one of the paintings of ,raphael4 ,some months after he left ,italy ,attila died at the royal village near the ,danube1 probably from the bursting of an artery during the night 7#dec74 ,the nations which he had subjugated regained their freedom4 ,the chiefs of the ,huns contended for the crown in conflicts which dissipated their strength4 ,the expeditions of ,attila were like a violent tempest1-- destructive for the moment1 the traces of which soon disappear4 ,about the name of ,attila1 there gathered cycles of traditions1 ,gallo-,roman or ,italian1 ,east ,german or ,gothic1 ,west ,german and ,scandinavian1 and ,hungarian4 ,such traditions in ,germany formed1 later1 the germ of the national epic1 the ,nibelungen-lied4 ,they testify to the powerful impression which the hero of the ,huns made on the memory and imagination of the different nations4 ,,genseric4--,attila did not see ,rome2 but ,genseric1 his ally1 visited it with fire and sword 7#dee74 ,the emperor was ,petronius ,maximus1 a senator1 who had slain ,valentinian ,,iii4 as the penalty for a mortal offense4 ,the weakness of ,maximus as a ruler caused him to be destroyed by the populace4 ,eudoxia1 the widow of ,valentinian1 whom ,maximus had compelled to marry the author of her husband's death1 had secretly implored the aid of the king of the ,vandals4 ,once more ,leo showed his fearless spirit by going into the camp of the ,vandal king1 and interceding for ,rome4 ,he only succeeded1 however1 in mitigating to a limited extent the horrors that attended the pillage of the city by the fierce and greedy soldiers1 the ,vandals and ,moors1 who followed ,genseric1 ,for fourteen days 7,june #ae-bi1 #dee7 ,rome was given up to carnage and robbery4 ,the conqueror carried off every thing of value that was capable of being transported4 ,eudoxia was rudely stripped of her jewels1 and with her two daughters1 descendants of the great ,theodosius1 was conveyed away with the conqueror to ,carthage4 ,for twenty years longer ,genseric ruled over the ,mediterranean in spite of the hostility of both empires4 ,an expedition sent against him at the instigation of ,ricimer1 the ,sueve1 by the ,eastern emperor ,leo1 was ill commanded by ,basiliscus1 and failed4 ,but after the ,vandal king died 7#dgg71 his kingdom was torn by civil and religious disorders1 and by the revolts of the ,moors1 and1 fifty-seven years after the death of its founder1 was conquered by the general of the ,eastern ,empire4 ,,fall ,,of ,,rome3 ,,odoacer4--,after the death of ,maximus1 ,avitus was appointed emperor by the king of the ,visigoths in ,gaul4 ,the barbarians hesitated to assume the purple themselves1 but they determined on whom it should be bestowed4 ,of the emperors that succeeded1 ,majorian 7#deg-dfa7--who was raised to the throne by ,ricimer1 military leader of the ,german mercenaries in the ,roman army--presents an instance of a worthy character in a corrupt time4 ,at last another leader of mercenaries 7,orestes1 a ,pannonian7 made his son emperor1--a boy six years old1 called ,romulus ,augustulus 7#dge74 ,odoacer1 who commanded the ,heruli1 ,rugii1 and other federated tribes1--mercenaries to whom ,orestes refused to grant a third part of the lands of ,italy1--made himself ruler of that country4 ,the ,senate of ,rome1 in pursuance of his wishes1 in an address to the ,eastern emperor ,zeno1 declared that an emperor in the ,west was no longer necessary1 and asked him to make ,odoacer patrician1 and prefect of the diocese of ,italy4 ,it was in this character--not as king1 but in nominal subordination to ,zeno1 the head of the united ,roman ,empire--that ,odoacer governed 7#dgf74 ,for more than a half-century people had been accustomed to see the barbarians exercise supreme control1 so that the extinguishment of the ,western ,empire was an event less marked in their eyes than it seemed to the view of subsequent ages4 ,,ostrogothic ,,kingdom ,,of ,,theodoric4--,when ,odoacer had reigned twelve years1 ,theodoric1 king of the ,ostrogoths in ,moesia1--who in his youth had lived at the court of ,constantinople1 had defended the ,eastern emperor1 but had been provoked to hostility to him1--was authorized by ,zeno to move upon ,italy4 ,a host consisting of two hundred thousand fighting-men1 together with their families and goods1 followed the ,gothic leader4 ,defeated at ,verona 7#dhi71 ,odoacer was forced to make a treaty for a division of power1 and to surrender ,ravenna1 where he had taken refuge2 but very soon1 in the tumult of a banquet1 he was slain by ,theodoric's own hand1 either from fear of a rival1 or because he suspected that ,odoacer was plotting against him4 ,from this time the long reign of ,theodoric was one of justice and of peace4 ,more by negotiation than by war1 he extended his dominion so that it embraced ,illyricum1 ,pannonia1 ,noricum1 and ,rhoetia1 and1 in the ,west1 ,southeastern ,gaul 7,provence74 ,the ,bavarians paid him tribute2 the ,alemanni invoked his assistance against the ,franks1 against whom he afforded succor to the ,goths of ,aquitaine4 ,in his administration he showed reverence for the old imperial system1 and for its laws and institutions4 ,he fostered agriculture1 manufactures1 and trade4 ,although he could not write1 he encouraged learning2 and a learned ,roman1 ,cassiodorus1 he appointed to high offices4 ,he permitted the ,goths alone to bear arms4 ,he caused to be compiled from the ,roman law a collection of statutes for the ,goths and for his new subjects1 and established mixed tribunals for causes in which both were parties4 ,cassiodorus ascribes to ,theodoric the words1 ,let other kings seek to procure booty1 or the downfall of conquered cities3 our purpose is1 with ,god's help1 so to conquer that our subjects shall lament that they have too late come under our rule4 ,he did what he could to promote peace among other barbarian nations4 ,the prosperity of ,italy1 and the increase of its population1 were a proof of the good government which it enjoyed4 ,an ,arian1 he respected the ,catholics1 confirmed the immunities enjoyed by the churches1 and generally allowed the ,romans to elect their own bishop4 ,he also protected the ,jews4 ,the persecution of the ,arians in the ,east 7#ebd7 by ,justin ,i41 awakened in his mind the belief that a conspiracy was forming against him4 ,he accused ,boethius of being a partner in it1 and adjudged him to death 7#ebd74 ,while in prison at ,pavia1 this cultivated man1 whom ,theodoric had highly esteemed1 composed a work on the ,consolations of ,philosophy1 which has made his name immortal in literature4 ,the course of ,theodoric at this time drew upon him the severe displeasure of his orthodox subjects4 ,soon after his death 7#ebf7 his ashes were taken out of the tomb1 and scattered to the winds4 ,hence nothing remains of his sepulcher at ,ravenna but his empty mausoleum4 ,before the close of the century1 as we shall see1 another ,german tribe1 the ,lombards1 founded a powerful state in ,italy1 which continued for more than two hundred years 7#efh-ggd74 ,,the ,,franks3 ,,clovis4--,when ,clovis 7#dha-eaa71 a warlike and ambitious chief of the ,merovingian family of princes1 became king of the ,franks1 they numbered but a few thousand warriors4 ,the remnant of the ,roman dominion on the ,seine and the ,loire he annexed1 after having put to death ,syagrius1 the ,roman governor1 who was delivered up to him by the ,visigoths4 ,he made ,soissons1 and then ,paris1 the seat of his authority4 ,a ,salian ,frank himself1 he joined to himself the ,ripuarian ,franks on the ,lower ,rhine1 and made war on the ,alemanni1 who were planted on both sides of the river4 ,before a battle 7formerly thought to have been at ,tolbiac71 he vowed1 that1 if the victory were given him1 he would worship the ,god of the ,christians1 of whom his wife ,clotilde was one4 ,clotilde was the niece of the ,burgundian king1 who was an ,arian2 but she was orthodox4 ,the victory was won4 ,clovis1 with three thousand of his nobles1 was baptized by ,remigius 7,st4 ,remi71 ,archbishop of ,rheims4 ,hearing a sermon on the crucifixion1 ,clovis exclaimed1 that1 if he and his faithful ,franks had been there1 vengeance would have been taken on the ,jews4 ,he was a barbarian still1 and the new faith imposed little restraint on his ambition and cruelty4 ,but his conversion was an event of the highest importance4 ,the ,gallic church and clergy lent him their devoted support4 ,the ,franks were destined to become the dominant barbarian people4 ,it was now settled that power was to be in the hands of ,catholic--as distinguished from heretical ,arian--,christianity4 ,clovis forced ,gundobald1 the ,burgundian king1 to become tributary1 and to embrace the ,catholic faith4 ,he extended his kingdom to the ,rhone on the east1 and on the south 7#ejg-eaa71 confined the ,visigoths in ,gaul to the strip of territory called ,septimania1 which they held for three centuries longer4 ,brittany alone remained independent under its king4 ,clovis was hailed as the most ,christian king and the second ,constantine1 and was made patrician and consul by the ,eastern emperor ,anastasius1 in which titles1 with their insignia1 he rejoiced4 ,in the closing part of his life he took care to destroy other ,frank chieftains who might possibly undertake to dispute or divide with him his sovereignty4 ,,distribution ,,of ,,tribes4--,if we look at the map at the close of the fifth century1 we find that all the western dominions of ,rome are subject to ,teutonic kings4 ,the ,franks1 still retaining ,western and ,central ,germany1 rule in ,northern ,gaul1 and are soon to extend their sway to the ,pyrenees1 and to conquer ,burgundy4 ,the ,west ,goths are the masters in ,spain1 and still hold ,aquitaine1 the most of which1 however1 is soon to be lost to the ,franks4 ,italy and the lands north of the ,alps and the ,adriatic form the ,east ,gothic kingdom of ,theodoric4 ,africa is governed by the ,arian ,vandals4 ,to the north of the ,franks1 the tribes of ,germany1 which were never subject to ,rome1 have already begun their conquests in ,britain4 ,with the exception of ,britain1 which is falling under the power of the ,saxons1 and ,africa1 these countries are still nominally parts of the ,roman ,empire1 of which ,constantinople is the capital4 ,in the east1 the boundaries of the empire1 notwithstanding the aggressions and insults which it has suffered1 are but little altered4 ,,the ,,merovingians4--,the dominion of ,clovis was partitioned among his four sons 7#eaa74 ,theodoric1 the eldest1 in ,rheims1 ruled the ,eastern ,franks1 in what soon after this time began to be called ,austrasia1 on both banks of the ,rhine4 ,neustria1 or the rest of the kingdom north of the ,loire1 was governed in parts by the other three4 ,theodoric gained by conquest the land of the ,thuringians1 whose king1 ,hermanfrid1 he treacherously destroyed4 ,a part of this land was given to the ,saxons4 ,the history of the ,franks for half a century lacks unity4 ,the several rulers rarely acted in concert4 ,they made expeditions against the ,burgundians1 the ,visigoths1 and the ,ostrogoths4 ,twice they attacked the ,burgundians4 ,the last time1 in #ecd1 they conquered them1 deprived them of their national kings1 and forced them to become ,catholic4 ,in #eca they made war on the ,visigoths to avenge the wrongs inflicted on ,clotilde1 a princess of their family who suffered indignities at the hands of the ,arian king ,amalaric4 ,they crossed the ,pyrenees1 and brought away ,clotilde4 ,a second division of the kingdom was made in #efa among the grandsons of ,clovis1 and consummated in #efg4 ,austrasia1 having ,rheims for its capital1 had a population chiefly ,german4 ,neustria1 where the ,gallo-,roman manners were adopted1 had ,soissons for its capital2 and ,burgundy had its capital at ,orleans4 ,the population in both these last dominions was more predominantly ,romano-,celtic1 or ,romance4 ,family contests1 and wars full of horrors1--in which the tragic feud of two women1 ,brunhilde of ,austrasia1 a daughter of ,athanagild1 king of the ,visigoths1 and ,fredegunde of ,neustria1 played a prominent part1--ensued4 ,in #fac ,clotaire ,,ii4 of ,neustria united the entire kingdom4 ,brunhilde was captured1 and put to death in a barbarous manner4 ,the son of ,clotaire1 ,dagobert1 was a worthless king4 ,the ,frank sovereigns of the royal line are inefficient1 and the virtual sovereignty is in the hands of the ,mayors of the ,palace1 the officers whose function it was to superintend the royal household1 and who afterwards were leaders of the feudal retainers4 ,the family of the ,pipins1 who were of pure ,german extraction1 acquired the hereditary right to this office1 first in ,austrasia and later in ,neustria4 ,the descendants of ,pipin of ,heristal1 as dukes of the ,franks1 had regal power1 while the title of king was left to the ,merovingian princes4 ,the race of ,pipin was afterwards called ,carolingians1 or ,karlings4 ,the preponderance of power at first had been with ,neustria1 but it shifted to the ruder and more energetic ,austrasians4 ,the battle of ,testry1 in which ,pipin of ,heristal at their head overcame the ,neustrians1 determined the supremacy of ,germany over ,france 7#fhg74 ,his son and successor1 ,charles ,martel 7#gae-gda71 made himself sole ,duke of the ,franks2 and ,pipin the ,short 7#gda-gfh71 the son of ,charles ,martel1 became king1 supplanting the ,merovingian line 7#geb74 ,,saxon ,,conquest ,,of ,,england4--,in the fourth century1 when the power of ,rome was declining1 the ,picts and ,scots from the ,north began to make incursions into the ,roman province of ,britain4 ,at the same time ,teutonic tribes from the mouths of the ,weser and the ,elbe1 began to land as marauders upon the coast4 ,honorius withdrew the ,roman troops from the island in #daa2 and it was conquered by these invading tribes1 especially the ,angles1 ,saxons1 and ,jutes4 ,they became one people1 called ,anglo-,saxons1 ,angles or ,english4 ,they were fierce barbarians1 who drove the ,celts whom they did not kill or enslave--and whom they called ,welsh1 or strangers--into ,wales and ,cornwall4 ,they formed kingdoms1 the first of which1 ,kent1 was the result of the coming of ,hengist and ,horsa1 whom ,vortigern1 the native prince1 had invited to help him against the ,picts 7#ddi74 ,there were seven of these ,saxon kingdoms 7the ,heptarchy71 not all of which were at any one time regular communities4 ,they were almost constantly at war with one another and with the natives4 ,they had a king elected from the royal family4 ,freemen were either ,earls or ,churls1 the gentle or the simple4 ,the churl was attached to some one lord whom he followed in war4 ,the thanes were those who devoted themselves to the service of the king or some other great man4 ,the thanes of the king became gentlemen and nobles4 ,there were thralls1 or slaves1 either prisoners in war1 or made slaves for debt or for crime4 ,connected with the king was a sort of ,parliament1 called the ,witenagemt1 or ,meeting of the ,wise1 composed originally of all freemen1 and then of the great men1 the ,ealdormen1 the king's thanes4 ,after the ,saxons were converted1 the bishops and abbots belonged to it4 ,in minor affairs1 the mark1 or township1 governed itself4 ,,conversion ,,of ,,the ,,saxons--,the seven kingdoms1 in the ninth century 7#hbh71 were united under ,egbert1 who became king of ,wessex in #hjb4 ,he was called the king of ,england4 ,towards the ,celtic ,christians the heathen ,saxons were hostile4 ,the conversion of the ,saxons was due to the labors of ,augustine and forty monks1 whom ,gregory the ,great 7,gregory ,i47 sent to the island as missionaries in #eig4 ,their first conversions were in ,kent1 whose king1 ,ethelbert1 had married ,bertha1 the daughter of a ,frankish king4 ,augustine1 who had great success1 became the first archbishop of ,canterbury1 and he consecrated a bishop of ,london4 ,during the seventh century the other ,saxon kingdoms were gradually converted4 ,york became a seat of a second archbishopric4 ,while ,britain had been cut off from close relations with the continent1 the ,celtic ,church there had failed to keep pace with the changes of rite and polity which had taken place among ,christians beyond the channel4 ,the consequence was a strife on these points between the converted ,saxons1 who were devoted to the holy see1 and the ,culdees or ,old ,british ,christians4 ,,conversion ,,of ,,the ,,irish4--,about the middle of the fifth century the gospel had been planted in ,ireland1 mainly by the labors of ,patrick1 who had been carried to that country from ,scotland by pirates when he was a boy1 and had returned to it as a missionary4 ,the cloisters1 and the schools connected with them1 which he founded1 flourished1 became nurseries of study as well as of piety1 and sent out missionaries to other countries of ,western ,europe4 ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,teutonic ,,kingdoms4--,the ,teutonic tribe was made up of freemen and of their dependents4 ,the rights of freemen1 such as the right to vote1 continued2 but these were modified as differences of rank and wealth arose4 ,their leaders in peace and war were the duke 7dux71 the count 7comes1 or graf71 and the herzog 7duke of higher grade7 over larger provinces4 ,the companions of the king and the local chiefs grew into a nobility4 ,once or twice in the year there was a gathering of the freemen in assemblies1 to decree war or to sanction laws4 ,land was partly held in common1 partly by individuals either as tenants of the community1 or as individual owners4 ,the soil was shared in proportions by the conquerors and the conquered4 ,,the ,,church4--,the ,germanic tribes were generally more or less acquainted with the ,romans1 and were ,christians by profession4 ,they were subject to the influences of religion1 of law1 and of language1 in the countries where they settled4 ,power passed from the ,empire to the ,church4 ,the ,church was strong in its moral force4 ,its bishops commanded the respect of the barbarians4 ,they were moral and social leaders4 ,in the period of darkness and of tempest1 the voices of the ,christian clergy were heard in accents of fearless rebuke and of tender consolation4 ,in the cities of ,italy and ,gaul1 the bishops1 at the call of the people1 informally took the first place in civil affairs4 ,remarkable men arose in the ,church1 who were conspicuous as ambassadors and peace-makers1 as intercessors for the suffering1 and courageous protectors of the injured4 ,such a man was ,leo the ,great4 ,the barbarians were awed by the kingdom of righteousness1 which1 without exerting force1 opposed to force and passion an undaunted front4 ,there was often a conflict between their love of power and passionate impatience of control1 and their reverence for the priest and for the gospel4 ,they could not avoid feeling in some measure the softening and restraining influence of ,christian teaching1 and learning the lessons of the cross4 ,socially1 the ,church1 as such1 was always on the side of peace1 on the side of industry1 on the side of purity1 on the side of liberty for the slave1 and protection for the oppressed4 ,the monasteries were the only keepers of literary tradition3 they were1 still more1 great agricultural colonies1 clearing the wastes1 and setting the example of improvement4 ,they were the only seats of human labor which could hope to be spared in those lands of perpetual war4 ,nevertheless1 the religious condition of the ,west1 the condition of the ,church and of the clergy1 could not fail to be powerfully affected for the worse by the influx of barbarism1 and the corrupting influence of the barbarian rulers4 ,a great deterioration in the ,church and in its ministry ensued after the first generation following the ,germanic conquests passed away4 ,this demoralization was more among the secular clergy than the monastic4 ,the ,history of the ,franks1 by ,gregory of ,tours 7#edj-eid71 is an instructive memorial of the times4 ,he was himself an intrepid prelate1 who did not quail before ,chilperic ,i4 and ,fredegunde1 but braved their wrath4 ,chilperic proposed to establish by his authority a new view of the ,trinity of his own devising1 but was resisted by ,gregory1 who told him that no one but a lunatic would embrace such an opinion4 ,a still more crude reform of the alphabet1 which the ,frankish king contrived1 and proposed to put in force by having existing books rewritten1 ,gregory effectually resisted4 ,,roman ,,law4--,the barbarians were profoundly impressed by the system of ,roman law4 ,this they recognized as the rule for the ,roman population in the different countries4 ,more and more they incorporated its exact provisions into their own codes4 ,among the ,west ,goths in ,spain the two elements were ultimately fused into one body of laws 7#fdb-gja74 ,under the ,franks1 the ,roman municipal system was not extinguished2 the ,teutonic count or bishop standing in the room of the ,roman president or consular1 and a more popular body taking the place of the restricted municipality4 ,the ,roman civil polity1 with its definite enactments for every relation in life and every exigency1 was always at hand1 and exercised an increasing control4 ,,state ,,of ,,learning4--,the ,latin language--the rustic ,latin of the lower classes--was spoken by the conquered peoples4 ,latin was the language of the ,church and of the ,law4 ,the consequence was1 that the two languages1 the tongue of the conquerors and of the ,roman subjects1 existed side by side in an unconscious struggle with one another4 ,in the west and south of ,europe1 the victory was on the side of the ,latin4 ,the languages of these countries1 the ,latin nations1 grew out of the rustic dialects spoken in ,roman times4 ,in these nations the result of the mixture of the races was the final predominance of the ,latin element in the civilization4 ,in ,gaul1 the ,franks yielded to ,latin influences3 ,france was the product4 ,with the fall of the empire1 classical culture died out4 ,the cathedral and cloister schools preserved the records of literature4 ,the study of language1 and the mental discrimination and refinement which spring from it and from literary discipline1 passed away4 ,centuries of comparative illiteracy--dark centuries--followed4 ,yet the monks were often active in their own rude style of composition2 and among them were not only good men1 but men of eminent natural abilities1 who were unconsciously paving the way for a better time4 ,,saxon ,,england4--,in ,england1 by the ,saxon conquest1 a purely ,teutonic kingdom was built up4 ,the ,saxons were heathen1 who had never felt the civilizing influence of ,rome4 ,the traces of the earlier state of things in the province which had long been sundered from the empire1 they swept away in the progress of their conquest4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,eastern ,,empire4 ,,religious ,,disputes4--,while the ,west was beginning to recover from the shock of the barbarian invasions1 society in the ,eastern ,empire was growing more enervated and corrupt4 ,for a considerable period the ,byzantine government was managed by the influence of women4 ,thus ,theodosius ,,ii41 the successor of ,arcadius 7#djh-dej71 was governed during his whole reign by his sister ,pulcheria4 ,in the ,east1 there was an intense interest felt in the abstruse questions of metaphysical theology4 ,the ,greek mind was speculative2 and eager and often acrimonious debate on such questions as were raised by ,nestorius respecting the two natures of the ,saviour1 was heard even in the shops and markets4 ,the court meddled actively in these heated controversies1 and was swayed to one party or the other by the theologians whom1 for the time1 it took into its favor4 ,the emperors assumed the high prerogative of personally deciding in doctrinal disputes1 and of dictating opinions to the clergy1 who gradually lost their independence1 and became abjectly subservient to the imperial will4 ,,the ,,hippodrome4--,the rage for doctrinal dispute in the sixth century was only exceeded by the passions kindled in connection with the circus1 or hippodrome1 at ,constantinople4 ,in old ,rome the competitors in the chariot-races were organized1 the drivers wore their respective badges1--red1 white1 blue1 or green1--and emperors of the baser sort1 like ,caligula and ,caracalla1 visited the stables1 and were enrolled on the lists of the rival factions4 ,but in ,constantinople the factions of the blue and the green1 not content with the contest of the race-course1 were violent political parties in which courtiers and the emperor himself took sides4 ,the animosity of the blues and the greens broke out in frequent bloody conflicts in the streets4 ,their respective adherents spread into the provinces4 ,on one occasion1 under ,justinian1 they raised a sedition called ,nika 7from the watchword used by the combatants71 which well-nigh subverted the throne4 ,in this period the body-guard of the emperor played a part resembling that of the old praetorians at ,rome4 ,,justinian4--,a new dynasty began with ,justin ,i41 who succeeded ,anastasius in #eah4 ,a peasant from ,dardania 7,bulgaria71 who to the end of life was obliged to sign his name by means of an engraved tablet1 but1 from being prefect of the ,guard1 became emperor1 ,justin was still not without merit as a ruler4 ,he educated his nephew1 ,justinian ,i4 7#ebg-efe71 and made him his successor4 ,justinian married ,theodora1 who had been a comedian and a courtesan1 and was famous for her beauty4 ,she was the daughter of ,acacius1 who had had the care of the wild beasts maintained by one of the factions of the circus4 ,she joined the blues1 and it was her brave spirit that prevented ,justinian from taking flight when he was in imminent danger from the revolt of the ,nika4 ,the most important proceedings and decisions in affairs of state were determined by her will4 ,outwardly correct in her life1 and zealous for orthodoxy1 her vigor of mind and cleverness were not without service to the government2 but her vindictive passions had full indulgence4 ,justinian's reign was the most brilliant period in the ,byzantine history after the time of ,constantine4 ,under his despotic rule the last vestiges of republican administration were obliterated4 ,his love of pomp and of extravagant expenditure1 in connection with his costly wars1 subjected the people to a crushing weight of taxation4 ,,war ,,with ,,persia4--,the brilliant achievements in war during ,justinian's reign were owing to the skill and valor of his generals1 especially of the hero ,belisarius4 ,after a hundred years of amity with ,persia1 war with that kingdom broke out once more under ,anastasius and ,justin4 ,belisarius saved the ,asiatic provinces1 and defended the empire on the east against ,cobad1 and against his successor1 ,chosroes ,i4 7#eca-egi71 who was1 perhaps1 the greatest of the ,persian kings of the ,sassanid dynasty4 ,the endless peace made with him in #ecc lasted but seven years4 ,chosroes captured ,antioch in #edj4 ,the worst consequences of this success were again averted by ,belisarius1 who was recalled from ,italy in all haste4 ,in the treaty of #efb1 ,justinian ingloriously agreed to pay for the honor of being the protector of the ,christians in ,persia the annual tribute of thirty thousand pieces of gold4 ,,conquest ,,of ,,africa--,from a military point of view the conquests of ,justinian in ,africa1 in ,italy1 and in ,spain1 were the signal events of his reign4 ,victory proved fatal to the barbarian conquerors in those countries4 ,they were weakened by the southern climate1 by sensual indulgence1 and by strife among themselves4 ,justinian was ready to profit by this diminished capacity of resistance4 ,gelimer1 king of the ,vandals1 had put to death ,hilderic1 a kinsman of ,theodosius ,i4 ,the emperor made this an occasion of attacking the ,vandal kingdom1 which was distracted by religious differences and contention4 ,belisarius sailed to ,africa with a fleet of six hundred vessels1 manned with twenty thousand sailors and fifteen thousand troops4 ,three months after landing he gained a decisive victory1 and took possession of ,africa1 ,sardinia1 and the ,balearic ,isles 7#ecd74 ,he carried ,gelimer as a captive to ,constantinople1 and presented him to ,justinian and ,theodora1 seated side by side in the hippodrome to receive the triumphal procession in honor of the victor4 ,the captive ruler could only exclaim1 ,vanity1 vanity6 ,all is vanity6 ,,conquest ,,of ,,italy4--,professedly to avenge the wrongs of ,amalasontha1 the ambitious and intriguing daughter of ,theodoric1 who had been killed as a consequence of the disaffection of the ,goths1 ,belisarius was sent to ,italy4 ,sicily was conquered 7#ece71 and ,naples and ,rome were taken 7#ecf74 ,vitiges1 the new king of the ,goths1 united the forces of the nation2 but he was driven to shut himself up in ,ravenna1 and ,ravenna surrendered 7#edj74 ,the ,goths had offered the sovereignty of the country to ,belisarius4 ,the jealousy of ,justinian1 and war with ,persia1 led to the recall of ,belisarius before he could complete the work of conquest4 ,the ,goths under ,totila1 a nephew of the late king1 regained the greater part of ,italy4 ,belisarius 7#edd-edi7 was sent for the second time to conquer that country4 ,he gained important successes1 and recaptured ,rome2 but he was feebly supported by the suspicious and envious ruler at ,constantinople1 and was at length called home4 ,narses1 a eunuch1 insignificant in person1 but as crafty as he was brave1 was commissioned to accomplish what ,belisarius had not been allowed to effect4 ,he entered ,italy at the head of an army1 made up mostly of ,huns1 ,heruli1 and other barbarians1 and defeated ,totila1 who died of his wounds 7#eeb74 ,the ,ostrogothic kingdom fell4 ,the ,gothic warriors who survived had leave to quit the country with their property1 they having taken an oath never to return4 ,the ,ostrogoths1 as a nation1 vanish from history4 ,the ,,exarchate1 or vice-royalty of the ,eastern ,empire1 was established1 with its seat at ,ravenna4 ,in ,spain1 ,justinian obtained ,corduba1 ,assidona1 ,segontia 7#eed71 in reward of the assistance which he had rendered to ,athanagild against a competitor for the throne4 ,constantinople was saved by ,belisarius from a threatened attack of the ,bulgarians1 who had crossed the ,danube on the ice 7#eei74 ,this great general1 whose form and stature and benign manners attracted the admiration of the people1 as his noble but poorly requited services gave him a right to the gratitude of the sovereign1 was accused1 in #efc1 of conspiracy against the life of ,justinian4 ,his property was confiscated1 but his innocence was finally declared4 ,the story that he was deprived of his eyes1 and compelled to beg his bread1 is not credited4 ,he died in #efe4 ,a few months later ,justinian himself died at the age of eighty-three4 ,he has been aptly compared1 as to his personal character and the character of his reign1 to ,louis ,,xiv4 of ,france4 ,among the many structures which he reared was the temple of ,st4 ,sophia at ,constantinople1 and countless fortresses for the defense of the capital1 of the ,danube1 and of other parts of the exposed frontier4 ,,the ,,civil ,,law4--,justinian's principal distinction in history grows out of his relation to legislation1 and to the study of the law4 ,he caused a famous lawyer1 ,tribonian1 with the aid of a body of jurists1 to make those collections of ancient law which are still in force in many countries4 ,the ,code included the imperial constitutions and edicts in twelve books 7#ebg1 #ebh74 ,this was followed 7#ecc7 by the ,institutes1 embracing the principles of ,roman jurisprudence1 which was to be studied in the schools of ,constantinople1 ,berytus1 and ,rome2 and the ,digest1 or ,pandects1 comprising the most valuable passages from the writings of the old jurists1 that were deemed of authority4 ,in this last work three million lines were reduced to a hundred and fifty thousand4 ,finally a fourth work1 ,the ,novels1 embraced the laws of ,justinian after the publication of the code 7#ecd-efe74 ,these works1 taken together1 form the ,civil ,law1--the ,corpus ,juris ,civilis4 ,they are the legacy of ,rome to later times4 ,humane principles are incorporated into the civil law1 but1 likewise1 the despotic system of imperialism4 ,,the ,,lombards ,,in ,,italy4--,in the great ,wandering of the ,nations1 the ,german tribe of ,lombards1 or ,langobards1 had made their way into ,pannonia4 ,to the east of them1 in ,dacia1 there had arisen the kingdom of the ,gepidae1 a people akin to the ,goths4 ,in that region1 also1 were the ,turanian ,avars1 with whom the ,lombards allied themselves1 and overthrew the kingdom of the ,gepid4 ,after the conquest of ,italy1 ,narses had established there the ,byzantine system of rule and of grinding taxation4 ,discontent was the natural result4 ,the enemies of ,narses at ,constantinople persuaded ,justin ,,ii4 and his queen ,sophia1 who had great influence over him1 that prudence demanded the recall of the able1 but avaricious and obnoxious1 governor4 ,the queen was reported to have said1 that he should leave to men the exercise of arms1 and return to his proper station among the women of the palace1 where a distaff should be placed in the eunuch's hand4 ,i will spin her such a thread1 ,narses is said to have replied1 as she shall not unravel her life long4 ,he forthwith invited the ,lombards into ,italy1 an invitation which they were not both to accept4 ,alboin was their leader1 who had married the beautiful ,rosamond1 daughter of the ,gepid king whom he had slain4 ,narses repented of his rash proceeding1 but he died before he could organize a resistance to the invaders4 ,these founded the great ,lombard kingdom in the north of ,italy1 and the smaller ,lombard states of ,spoleto and ,beneventum4 ,ravenna1--the residence of the ,exarchs1--,rome1 ,naples1 and the island city of ,venice1 were centers of districts still remaining subject to the ,greek emperor1 as were also the southern points of the two peninsulas of ,southern ,italy1 and1 for the time1 the three main islands4 ,alboin was killed in #egd at the instigation of ,rosamond1 to whom1 it was said1 at a revel he had sent wine to drink in the skull of ,cunimund1 her father4 ,the ,lombards were not like the ,goths4 ,they formed no treaties1 but seized on whatever lands they wanted1 reserving to themselves all political rights4 ,the new-comers were ,arian in religion1 and partly heathen4 ,there was little intermixture by marriage between the two classes of inhabitants4 ,lombard and ,roman was each governed by his own system of law4 ,later1 especially under the kings ,liutprand1 ,rachis1 and ,aistulf 7#gdi-gef71 this antagonism was much lessened1 and the ,roman law gained a preponderating influence in the ,lombard codes4 ,gradually the power of the independent ,lombard duchies increased4 ,the strength of the ,lombard kingdom was thus reduced4 ,the ,lombards more and more learned the arts of civilized life from the ,romans1 and shared in the trading and industrial pursuits of the cities4 ,their gradual conversion to ,catholic ,christianity brought the two peoples still nearer together4 ,it was within half a century of the ,lombard conquest that ,gregory ,i4 7,gregory the ,great7 held the papal office 7#eij-fjd74 ,,after ,,justinian4--,during the century and a half that followed the death of ,justinian1 the history of the ,byzantine court and empire is an almost unbroken tale of crime and degeneracy4 ,the cruelty of such emperors as ,phocas 7#fjb-faj7 and ,justinian ,,ii4 surpasses the brutality of ,nero and ,domitian4 ,the reign of ,heraclius is the only refreshing passage in this dreary and repulsive record4 ,he led his armies in person in a series of campaigns against ,chosroes ,,ii41 the ,persian king4 ,at the very time when ,constantinople was besieged in vain by a host of ,persians and ,avars1 he conducted his forces into the heart of the ,persian ,empire2 and in a great battle near ,nineveh in #fbg1 he won a decisive victory4 ,with the reign of ,heraclius1 the transient prosperity of the ,greek ,empire comes to an end4 ,it was exhausted1 even by its victories4 ,overwhelmed with taxation1 it was ruined in its trade and industry4 ,despotism in the rulers1 sensuality and baseness in rulers and subjects1 undermined public and private virtue4 ,in addition to other enemies on every side1 it was attacked by the ,arabians2 and ,heraclius lived to see the loss of ,syria and of ,egypt1 and the capture of ,alexandria1 by these new assailants4 ,,controversy ,,on ,,image ,,worship4--,the period of theological debate1 when at its height in the fourth and fifth centuries1 whatever extravagances of doctrinal zeal attended it1 dealt with themes of grave importance2 and controversy was often waged by men of high ability and moral worth4 ,after that time1 there succeeded to the tempest an intellectual stagnation1 under the blighting breath of despotism1 coupled with the effect of a lassitude1 the natural sequel of the long-continued disputation4 ,but1 in the eighth and ninth centuries1 a new controversy took place1 which convulsed the ,eastern ,empire1 and extended to the ,west4 ,the matter in dispute was the use of images in worship4 ,pictorial representations had been gradually introduced in the earlier centuries1 but had been opposed1 especially in ,egypt and in the ,african ,church4 ,after the time of ,constantine1 they came by degrees into universal use4 ,this formed a ground of reproach on the part of the ,mohammedans4 ,the warfare upon images was begun by ,leo ,,iii41 the ,isaurian 7#gag-gda71 a rough soldier with no appreciation of art1 who issued an edict against them4 ,the party of image-breakers1 or iconoclasts1 had numerous adherents2 and the opposite party of image-worshipers1 who had a powerful support from the monks in the convents1 were ardent and inflexible in withstanding the imperial measures4 ,neither the remonstrances of ,john of ,damascus1 the last of the ,greek ,fathers1 nor of the ,roman bishop1 made an impression on ,leo4 ,the agitation spread far and wide4 ,subsequent emperors followed in his path4 ,at length1 however1 the ,empress ,irene 7#ghj-hjb7 restored image-worship2 and1 in #hdb1 the ,empress ,theodora finally confirmed this act4 ,in the controversy1 religious motives were active1 but they were mingled on both sides with political considerations4 ,the alienation of feeling on the part of the ,roman bishops was one cause of the separation of ,italy from the ,greek ,empire4 ,,literature ,,and ,,culture4--,while there was a prevalence of illiteracy in the ,west1 there continued in the ,eastern ,empire an interest in letters1 and a respect for classical literature4 ,devoted ,greek monks taught the ,gospel to the ,bulgarians and to the ,slavonian tribes on its borders4 ,cyril and ,methodius1 faithful missionaries1 gave the ,bible to the ,moravians in their own tongue4 ,in the seventh century1 ,john of ,damascus compiled from the ,greek ,fathers a celebrated treatise on theology4 ,but the period of original thought in theology1 as elsewhere1 had passed by4 ,this work of the ,damascene was made up chiefly of excerpts from the ,fathers before him4 ,in earlier days the church in the ,east had been served by erudite theologians of great talents and of great excellence1 such as ,basil the ,great 7#cbh-cgi71 ,gregory of ,nyssa1 ,gregory of ,nazianzum 7#cbf-cij72 all of whom were liberal-minded men1 strenuous defenders of orthodox doctrine1 and yet not unfriendly to philosophical study4 ,of even wider fame was ,john ,chrysostom 7#cdg-djg71 a preacher of captivating eloquence and of an earnest ,christian spirit1 whose censure of the vices of the ,byzantine court provoked the wrath of the ,empress ,eudoxia1 and twice drove him into banishment4 ,in the declining days of the empire1 literary effort was mainly confined to compilations and comments4 ,eusebius1 in the fourth century1 had written a ,history of the ,church1 and a ,chronicle1 or ,general ,history2 and1 a century later 7about #dcb71 ,zosimus composed a ,history in a spirit of antipathy to ,christianity and of sympathy with the old religion4 ,to ,procopius 7who died about #efe7 we owe an interesting history of the times of ,justinian4 ,after the seventh century1 all traces of life and spirit vanish from the pages of the ,byzantine historians4 ,in mathematics and astronomy1 in architecture and mechanics1 the ,byzantine ,greeks were the teachers of the ,arabians and of the new peoples of the ,west4 ,the ,byzantine style of architecture was of a distinct type1 and was widely diffused4 ,,the ,,slavonic ,,tribes4--,in the sixth century the ,slavonian tribes come into view4 ,the ,avars stirred up such a commotion among those tribes as the ,huns had created among the ,germans4 ,the ,slaves were driven to the northwest1 where later they came into relations with ,germany2 and to the southwest1 where1 as conquerors and as learners1 they stood1 in some degree1 in relation to the ,eastern ,empire1 in the same position as that of the ,germans in reference to the ,western4 ,north and ,east of the ,adriatic arose ,slavonian ,states1 as ,servia1 ,croatia1 ,carinthia4 ,istria and ,dalmatia1 except the cities on the coast1 became ,slavonic4 ,the ,slaves displaced the old ,illyrian race4 ,in the seventh and eighth centuries1 ,macedonia and ,greece were largely occupied by ,slavonians4 ,the ,bulgarians were a ,turanian people1 who mixed with the ,slavonians1 and adopted their language4 ,in #hie the ,magyars1 a ,turanian people1 crowded into ,dacia and ,pannonia2 and thus the ,bulgarians were confined to the lands south of the ,danube4 ,the ,magyars formed the kingdom of ,hungary4 ,the ,slavonian ,russians were cut off from the ,southern tribes of the same race4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,mohammedanism ,,and ,,the ,,arabic ,,conquests4 ,,condition ,,of ,,arabia4--,in the sixth century the influence of the ,greek and of the ,persian ,empires1 especially of the ,persian1 was prevalent in ,arabia4 ,it was then inhabited mostly by tribes either distinct or loosely bound together1 and contained no independent state of any considerable importance4 ,the ,arabs of that day had all the virtues and vices of the half-savage state1 its revenge and its rapacity1 its hospitality and its bounty4 ,in the ,hejaz district--situated between fertile and more civilized ,yemen1 or ,arabia ,felix1 in the south-west of the peninsula and the ,sinaitic region1--and in ,nejd to the east of ,hejaz1 which were the two districts in which ,islam and the ,arabian ,empire took their rise1 dwelt tribes whose common sanctuary was the ,kaaba at ,mecca1 in the wall of which was the quadrangular black stone kissed by all devotees1 and supposed to have been received from the angel ,gabriel4 ,the religion of the ,arabs was polytheism in many different forms1 in which idol-worship was prominent2 but all agreed in acknowledging one supreme ,god1 ,allah1 in whose name solemn oaths were taken4 ,once in the year the tribes gathered in ,mecca for their devotions2 and a great fair in the vicinity1 attended by a poetical contest1 made the city prosperous4 ,the town was made up of separate ,septs1 or patriarchal families1 each under its own head1 of which septs the ,omayyads were of principal importance1 and had charge of the ,kaaba4 ,mohammed belonged to the ,hashimites1 another and poorer branch of the leading tribe of ,koreish4 ,the ,koreishites1 by their trading-journeys to ,syria1 had acquired more culture then others1 whether ,bedouins1 or residents of ,medina4 ,at the time when ,mohammed was born1 which was probably in #egb1 the religion of the ,arabs had sunk into idolatry or indifference4 ,there were three hundred and sixty images in the ,kaaba4 ,but there were some who were called hanifs1 who were serious and earnest1 and turned away from idolatrous worship4 ,besides the ,sabian religion of the ,persian sun-worshipers1 the leading tenets and rites of ,christianity and of ,judaism1 both in the degenerate types which they assumed on the ,syrian borders1 were not unfamiliar to ,arabs dwelling in the caravan routes on the borders of the ,red ,sea4 ,,career ,,of ,,mohammed4--,mohammed was early left an orphan under the care of his uncle ,abu ,talib4 ,in his youth he tended sheep1 and gathered wild berries in the desert4 ,in his twenty-fifth year he became the commercial agent of a wealthy widow1 ,khadija1 made journeys for her into ,palestine and ,syria1--where he may have received religious knowledge and impressions from ,christian monks and ,jewish rabbis1--and1 after a time1 married her4 ,he is described as having a commanding presence1 with piercing eyes1 fluent in speech1 and with pleasing ways4 ,eventually he came into close contact with the hanifs4 ,he followed the custom of retiring for meditation and prayer to the lonely and desolate ,mount ,hira4 ,a vivid sense of the being of one ,almighty ,god and of his own responsibility to ,god1 entered into his soul4 ,a tendency to hysteria in the ,east a disease of men as well as of women--and to epilepsy helps to account for extraordinary states of body and mind of which he was the subject4 ,at first he ascribed his strange ecstasies1 or hallucinations1 to evil spirits1 especially on the occasion when an angel directed him to begin the work of prophesying4 ,but he was persuaded by ,khadija that their source was from above4 ,he became convinced that he was a prophet inspired with a holy truth and charged with a sacred commission4 ,his wife was his first convert4 ,his faith he called ,islam1 which signifies resignation to the divine will4 ,his cousin ,ali1 his friend ,abubekr1 and a few others1 believed in him4 ,there is no doubt that the materials of ,mohammed's creed were drawn from ,jewish and ,christian sources3 ,abraham was the hanif1 whose pure monotheism he claimed to re-assert2 but the animating spirit was from within4 ,the sum of his doctrine was1 that there is only one ,god1 and that ,mohammed is the apostle of ,god4 ,,after ,,the ,,hegira4--,the ,koreishites1 the rulers and the elders1 persecuted him4 ,they flung out the reproach1 that his adherents were from the poor or from the rank of slaves4 ,this provoked him to denounce them1 and to threaten them with the ,divine judgment and with perdition4 ,he lost his uncle in #fai3 his wife had died before4 ,he had found sympathy with his claims from pious men from ,medina4 ,they offered him an asylum4 ,thither he went in #fbb1 the date of his ,hijira1 or flight from ,mecca1 from which the ,mohammedan calendar is reckoned4 ,at ,medina he won influence3 he was frequently resorted to as an adviser1 and as a judge to settle disputes4 ,his activity in this direction was beneficent4 ,his injunctions respecting the rights of property1 and the protection due to women1 were1 in the main1 discreet and wholesome4 ,naturally and speedily he became a political leader as well as a religious reformer4 ,this new course on which he entered made a breach between him and the ,jews1 whom he had hoped to conciliate4 ,he drew off from fellowship with them1 made ,friday the principal day of public worship1 and ,mecca its principal seat4 ,for the ,jewish fast he substituted the month of ,ramadan4 ,his plan was to cement together the ,arab tribes1 superseding the old tie of blood by the new bond of fellowship in adherence to him4 ,the project of a holy war to conquer and to crush the idolaters1 and to establish his own authority1 was the means to this end4 ,mecca was the first object of assault4 ,he attacked and plundered a ,meccan caravan in #fbc4 ,the next year he defeated the ,koreishites in the battle of ,bedr4 ,in the battle of ,ohod 7#fbe7 his followers were worsted4 ,other conflicts ensued1 with attacks on the ,jews in the intervals1 until1 in #fcj1 he entered ,mecca at the head of ten thousand men1 and destroyed all the idols4 ,this event secured the adhesion of the ,arabian tribes1 together with the chiefs of ,yemen and of the other more civilized districts4 ,hearing that the ,emperor ,heraclius was proposing to attack him1 he went forth to meet him1 but found that the rumor was false4 ,he was preparing a new expedition against the ,greeks when he died1 in #fcb4 ,,character ,,of ,,mohammed4--,from the time of the flight of ,mohammed to ,medina1 the prophet turned more and more into the politician4 ,under the circumstances1 this was1 perhaps1 an almost inevitable change4 ,but one consequence was the bringing out of his natural vindictiveness1 and the transformation of the enthusiast into the fanatic4 ,beginning as the prophet of ,arabia1 he came to think that he was the prophet of the whole world4 ,there was a call to a wider warfare against idolatry4 ,a crusade1 partly political and partly religious1 involved a mixture of craft and cruelty which exhibit his character in a new light4 ,yet it is probable that he always sincerely felt that his work in general was one to which he was called of ,god4 ,even the prosaic regulations and orders of the day1 which are placed in the ,koran1 if not the reproduction1 in cataleptic visions1 of his previous thoughts1 may have been regarded by him as having a divine sanction4 ,the extent of possible self-deception in so extraordinary a combination of qualities1 it is not easy to define4 ,his conduct was1 for the most part1 on a level with his precepts4 ,there was one exception2 he allowed not more than four wives to a disciple3 he himself1 at one time1 had eleven4 ,while ,khadija lived he was wedded to her alone4 ,,the ,,koran4--,the ,koran is regarded as the word of ,god by a hundred millions of disciples4 ,it is very unequal in style4 ,in parts it is vigorous1 and here and there imaginative1 but generally its tone is prosaic4 ,its narrative portions are chiefly about scriptural persons1 especially those of the ,old ,testament4 ,mohammed's acquaintance with these must have been indirect1 from rabbinical and apocryphal sources4 ,adam1 ,noah1 ,abraham1 ,moses1 and ,christ are acknowledged as prophets4 ,the deity of ,christ and the doctrine of the ,trinity are repudiated4 ,the miracles of ,jesus are acknowledged4 ,mohammed does not claim for himself miraculous power4 ,predestination is taught1 but this became a conspicuous tenet of ,moslems after the death of the founder4 ,the immortality of the soul is admitted1 the pains of hell are threatened to the wicked and to infidels2 and a sensual paradise is promised to the faithful1 although it is declared that higher spiritual joys are the lot of the most favored4 ,the faith of ,mohammed was1 in substance1 ,judaism1 the religion of the ,old ,testament2 power being set before holiness1 however1 in the conception of ,god1 and the supernatural mission of ,mohammed substituted for the future ,messianic reign of righteousness and peace1 and coupled with the emphatic proclamation of the last judgment4 ,the law in the ,koran is a civil as well as a moral code4 ,notwithstanding his countenance of sensuality by his own practice1 as well as by his legalizing of polygamy1 and his notion of paradise1 ,mohammed elevated the condition of woman among the ,arabs4 ,before there was unbridled profligacy3 now there was a regulated polygamy4 ,severe prohibitions are uttered against thieving1 usury1 fraud1 false witness2 and alms-giving is emphatically enjoined4 ,strong drink and gambling were prohibited4 ,the gem of the ,koran is ,the ,lord's ,prayer of the ,moslems3 ,in the name of ,god1 the compassionate ,compassioner1 the ,sovereign of the day of judgment4 ,thee do we worship1 and of ,thee do we beg assistance4 ,direct us in the right way2 in the way of those to whom ,thou hast been gracious1 in whom there is no wrath1 and who go not astray4 ,,the ,,arabic ,,conquests3 ,,syria1 ,,persia1 ,,egypt4--,mohammed made no provision for the succession4 ,the ,caliphs1 or successors1 combined in themselves civil1 military and religious authority4 ,they united the functions of emperor and pope4 ,ali1 the husband of ,fatima1 ,mohammed's favorite daughter1 had hoped to succeed him4 ,but1 by the older companions of the prophet1 ,abubekr1 ,mohammed's father-in-law was appointed4 ,the ,shiites were supporters of ,ali1 while the ,sunnites1 who adhered to the traditions of the elders1 were against him4 ,these two parties have continued until the present day2 the ,persians being ,shiites1 and the ,turks1 ,sunnites4 ,mohammed1 before he died1 was inflamed with the spirit of conquest4 ,full of the fire of fanaticism1 mingled with a thirst for dominion and plunder1 the ,arabians rapidly extended their sway4 ,these warriors1 to their credit be it said1 if terrible in attack1 were mild in victory4 ,their two principal adversaries were the ,eastern ,empire and ,persia4 ,mohammedanism snatched from the empire those provinces in which the ,greek civilization had not taken deep root1 and it made its way into ,europe4 ,it conquered ,persia1 and became the principal religion of those ,asiatic nations with which history mainly has to do4 ,mohammed had made a difference in his injunctions between heathen1 apostates1 and schismatics1 all of whom were to embrace ,islam or to perish1 and ,jews and ,christians1 to both of whom was given the choice of the ,koran1 tribute1 or death4 ,they must buy the right to exercise their religion1 if they refused to say that ,allah is ,god1 and ,mohammed is ,his prophet4 ,omar 7#fcd-fdd71 the next caliph after ,abubekr1 and a leader distinguished alike for his military energy and his simplicity of manners and life1 first brought all ,arabia1 which was impelled as much by a craving for booty as by religious zeal1 into a cordial union under his banner4 ,then he carried the war beyond the ,arabian borders4 ,palestine and ,syria were wrested from the ,greek ,empire2 the old cities of ,jerusalem1 ,antioch1 and ,damascus fell into the hands of the impetuous ,saracens4 ,a mosque was erected on the site of ,solomon's ,temple4 ,the ,persian ,empire was invaded1 and1 after a series of sanguinary battles1 especially the battle of ,cadesia 7#fcf71 followed by the battle of ,nehavend 7#fda71 was destroyed4 ,ctesiphon1 with all its riches1 was captured1 and ,persepolis was sacked4 ,the last king of the line of ,sassanids1 ,yezdegerd ,,iii41 having lived for many years as a fugitive1 perished by the hand of an assassin 7#feb74 ,meantime ,egypt had submitted to the irresistible invaders under ,amr1 who was aided by the ,christian sect of the ,copts1 out of hostility to the ,greek ,orthodox ,church4 ,after a siege of fourteen months1 ,alexandria was taken2 but it is probably not true that the library was burned by ,omar's order4 ,in the disorders of the times1 the great collections of books had probably1 for the most part1 been dispersed and destroyed4 ,six friends of ,mohammed1 selected by ,omar1 chose ,othman 7#fdd-fef7 for his successor1 who stirred up enmity by his pride and avarice4 ,under him the ,christian ,berbers in ,africa were won over to the faith of ,islam1 and paved the way for its further advance4 ,,the ,,omayyads3 ,,conquest ,,of ,,africa ,,and ,,spain4--,othman was assassinated by three fanatics1 and ,ali was then raised to the caliphate2 but ,muawiyah1 representing the family of the ,omayyads1 made himself the head of an opposing party1 and1 after the assassination of ,ali1 became sole caliph 7#ffa74 ,he removed the seat of the caliphate to ,damascus4 ,he carried the ,arabian conquests as far as the ,indus and ,bokhara4 ,he created a fleet on the ,mediterranean1 under an ,admiral1 that is1 a commander on the sea4 ,in seven successive years he menaced ,constantinople with his navy4 ,at a later time1 in #gag1 under the caliph ,soliman1 another great attempt was made on the capital of the ,greek ,empire4 ,with an army of a hundred and twenty thousand men1 he traversed ,asia ,minor and the ,hellespont1 and was supported in his attack by a fleet of eighteen hundred sail4 ,but the energetic defense1 which was aided by the use of the ,greek fire1--an artificial compound which exploded and burned with an unquenchable flame1--caused the grand expedition to fail2 and the ,eastern ,empire had another long lease of life4 ,the successors of ,muawiyah accomplished the subjugation of ,africa4 ,they were invited by the native inhabitants1 who groaned under the burdens of taxation laid on them by the ,greek emperors4 ,about ,a4,d4 #gjj the ,arab governor1 ,musa1 completed the conquest of the ,african dominion of the ,greeks as far as the ,atlantic4 ,the amalgamation of the ,berbers with the other inhabitants of that region1 and with the ,arabs1 resulted in the race called ,moors4 ,at this time the ,spanish ,visigothic kingdom1 which had become ,catholic 7#ehf-fja71 was much enfeebled1 and a prey to discord4 ,under ,tarik--from whom ,gibraltar1 or the mountain of ,tarik near which he landed1 is named--the ,arabs crossed into ,spain1 and for the first time found themselves face to face with the barbarians of the ,north4 ,in the great battle of ,xeres de la ,frontera1 near the ,guadalquivir1 in #gaa1 which lasted for three days1 the fate of the ,visigothic kingdom was decided4 ,eight years were occupied in conquering ,spain4 ,in #gbj the ,saracens occupied ,septimania north of the ,pyrenees1 a dependency of the ,gothic kingdom4 ,gaul now lay open before them4 ,the ,mohammedan power threatened to encircle ,christendom1 and to destroy the ,church and ,christianity itself4 ,in the plains between ,tours and ,poitiers1 the ,saracens were met by the ,austrasian ,franks under ,charles ,martel 7#gcb74 ,the impetuous charges of the ,saracen cavalry were met and beaten back by the infantry of the ,franks1 which confronted them like an iron wall4 ,the ,mohammedan defeat saved ,christian ,europe from being trampled under foot by the ,mussulman2 it saved the ,christian people of the ,aryan nations from being subjugated by the ,semitic disciples of the ,koran4 ,at the same time that ,spain was overrun1 the ,turkish lands on the east of the ,caspian were subdued4 ,the old antipathy between the ,iranians and ,turanians1 the ,schiite ,persians and the ,sunnite ,turks1 was afterwards carried into ,europe by the ,ottoman ,moslems4 ,,the ,,abbassides3 ,,bagdad4--,misgovernment embittered the faithful against the rule of the ,omayyads in ,damascus1 although ,syria had become a source of higher culture for the ,arabians3 there they became acquainted with ,greek learning4 ,the adherents of ,ali found vigorous champions in the ,abbassides1 who1 as ,hashimites1 laid claim to the caliphate4 ,one of them1 ,abul ,abbas1 was made caliph by the soldiers in #gej4 ,the fierce cruelty of his party against the ,omayyads led to the murder of all of them except ,abderrahman1 who fled to ,africa1 and1 in #gee1 founded an independent caliphate at ,cordova4 ,the ,abbassides attached themselves to the ,sunnite creed4 ,under ,almansor1 the brother and successor of ,abbas1 ,bagdad1 a city founded by ,almansor 7#ged-gge7 on the banks of the ,tigris1 was made the seat of the caliphate1 and so continued until the great ,mongolian invasion in #abeh4 ,bagdad was built on the west bank of the ,tigris1 but1 by means of bridges1 stretched over to the other shore4 ,it was protected by strong1 double walls4 ,it was not only the proud capital of the caliphate3 it was1 besides1 the great market for the trade of the ,east1 the meeting-place of many nations1 where caravans from ,china and ,thibet1 from ,india1 and from ,ferghana in the modern ,turkestan1 met throngs of merchants from ,armenia and ,constantinople1 from ,egypt and ,arabia4 ,there trading-fleets gathered which carried the products of the ,north and ,west down the great rivers to the ,persian ,gulf and the ,indian ,ocean4 ,bagdad was to the caliphs what ,byzantium was to ,constantine1 or ,alexandria to the ,ptolemies4 ,it became the grandest city in the world4 ,canals to the number of six hundred ran through it1 and a hundred and five bridges bound its two parts together4 ,it was furnished with many thousand mosques and as many baths4 ,the palace of the caliphs comprised in itself all the splendor which ,asiatic taste and extravagance could collect and combine in one edifice4 ,,the ,,eastern ,,caliphate4--,deprived of the western extremity of their empire1 the ,abbassides still ruled over ,asia and ,africa4 ,in their luxurious and splendid court1 the caliphs1 served by a vast retinue of officers with the ,vizier at their head1 copied the magnificence of the ancient ,persians4 ,the most famous of the caliphs of ,bagdad is ,harun-al-,rashid1 or ,aaron the ,just 7#ghf-hji74 ,his name is familiar even to children as the wonderful hero of the ,arabian ,nights4 ,his reign1 like that of ,solomon in ancient ,juda1 was considered in after times the golden age of the caliph dominion4 ,as in the case of ,charlemagne1 poetry and romance invested his character and reign with all that can give glory and honor to a king and a sage4 ,brilliant pictures were drawn of the boundless wealth and luxury of his court1 and of his admirable piety and wisdom4 ,about him there was assembled a host of jurists1 linguists1 and poets4 ,three hundred scholars traveled at his expense through different lands4 ,righteous judgments were ascribed to him1 and oracular sayings4 ,he was made the ideal ruler of ,oriental fancy4 ,his real character fell much below the later popular conception4 ,he behaved like an ,eastern despot towards all his kindred who stood in his way4 ,the ,persian family of ,barmecides he exterminated1 when his passionate attachment to one of them turned to hatred on account of an obscure affair connected with the harem4 ,stories told by ,western chroniclers of his relations with ,charlemagne require to be sifted4 ,the ,greek emperor ,nicephorus1 who had rashly defied him1 he addressed as the ,roman dog4 ,nine times ,harun invaded the ,greek ,empire1 left its provinces wasted as by a hurricane1 and extorted from it a tribute which he obliged the emperors1 who repented of their daring1 to pay in coin stamped with his image4 ,his best distinction is in the liberal patronage which he1 no doubt1 extended to learning4 ,in this he was imitated by his son ,al ,mamun 7#hac-hcc71 who founded numerous schools1 and expended vast sums in behalf of science and letters4 ,the caliphate was weakened by the introduction of the ,turks1 somewhat as the ,roman ,empire fared from its relations with the ,germans4 ,motasem 7#hcc-hdb71 the eighth of the ,abbassides1 brought in a ,turkish guard of forty thousand slaves1 purchased in ,tartary4 ,these soldiers1 instead of remaining servants1 became lawless masters1 and disposed of the throne as the prtorians at ,rome had done4 ,the palace of the caliphs was filled with violence4 ,revolution and anarchy1 kept up during two centuries1 broke the caliphate into fragments4 ,conspiracies and insurrections were the order of the day4 ,africa had detached itself in the time of ,harun-al-,rashid4 ,in ,asia various independent dynasties arose1 formed mostly by ,turkish governors of provinces4 ,,the ,,turkish ,,emirs4--,in the eleventh century1 the ,seljukian ,turks despoiled the ,arabs of their sovereignty in the ,east4 ,the caliph at ,bagdad gave up all his temporal power to ,togrul ,bey 7#ajeh71 and retained simply the spiritual headship over orthodox ,mussulmans4 ,to the ,turk who bore the title ,emir al ,omra1 was given the military command4 ,he was what the ,mayor of the ,palace had been among the ,franks4 ,in #ajgb his son1 ,malek ,shah1 made ,ispahan his capital1 and governed ,asia from ,china to the vicinity of ,constantinople4 ,,the ,,fatimite ,,caliphate4--,in the ninth and tenth centuries the ,aglabites 7#hjj-iji71 whose capital was ,cairoan 7in ,tunis71 were dominant in the ,western ,mediterranean1 established themselves1 in their marauding expeditions1 in ,corsica1 ,sardinia1 and ,sicily1 and several times attacked ,italy4 ,in #iji they1 with the ,edrisites1 adherents of ,ali1 in ,fez1 formed1 under a ,fatimite chief1 ,moez1 with ,egypt1 the ,african ,caliphate1 the seat of which was at ,cairo 7#ifh74 ,the ,fatimite caliphs extended their power over ,syria4 ,the most famous of the caliphs of ,cairo was ,hakem 7#iif-ajbj71 a monster of cruelty1 who claimed to be the incarnation of ,deity4 ,these caliphs claimed to be the descendants of ,ali and of ,fatima4 ,their dynasty was extinguished by ,saladin in #aaga4 ,,the ,,caliphs ,,of ,,cordova4--,in ,spain the caliphs of ,cordova allowed to the ,christians freedom of worship and their own laws and judges4 ,the mingling of the conquerors with the conquered gave rise to a mixed ,mozarabic population4 ,the ,franks conquered the country as far as the ,ebro 7#hab74 ,under ,mohammed ,i4 7#heb71 the ,saracen governors of the provinces sought to make themselves independent2 but the most brilliant period of the caliphate of ,cordova followed1 under ,abderrahman ,,iii4 7#iab-ifa74 ,in the eleventh century there was anarchy1 produced by the ,african guard of the caliphs1 which played a part like that of the ,turkish guard at ,bagdad1 and by reason of the rebellion of the governors4 ,in #ajca the last descendant of the ,omayyads was deposed1 and in #ajfj the very title of caliph vanished4 ,the caliphate gave place to numerous petty ,moslem kingdoms4 ,the ,african ,mussulmans came to their help1 and thus gave the name of ,moors to the ,spanish ,mohammedans4 ,their language and culture1 however1 remained ,arabic4 ,the ,arabian conquests had moved like a deluge to the ,indus1 to the borders of ,asia ,minor1 and to the ,pyrenees4 ,in ,syria they were not generally resisted by the people4 ,egypt1 for the same reason1 was an easy conquest4 ,it took the ,moslems sixty years to conquer ,africa4 ,in three years nearly all ,spain was theirs2 and it was not until seven hundred years after this time that they were utterly driven out of that country4 ,,the ,,moslem ,,government--,the ,moslem civilization rested on the ,koran4 ,grammar1 lexicography1 theology1 and law stood connected at first with the study and understanding of the ,sacred ,book4 ,the ,caliph was the fountain of authority4 ,there was a fixed system of taxation1 the poll-tax and land-tax being imposed only on non-,moslem subjects4 ,all ,moslems received a yearly pension1 a definite sum determined by their rank4 ,the empire was divided into provinces1 each governed by a ,prefect1 who was a petty sovereign1 subject only to the ,caliph4 ,the ,generals were appointed by the caliph1 by the prefects1 or by the ,vizier1 who was the prime minister4 ,the ,judges 7cadis7 were appointed by the same officers4 ,there was a court of appeal over which the caliph presided4 ,there were inspectors of the markets1 who were also censors of morals4 ,the ,imam had for his function to recite the public prayers in the mosque4 ,the leader of the yearly pilgrimage to ,mecca was an officer of the highest dignity4 ,,theology3 ,,law3 ,,literature4--,the ,mohammedans entered into discussions of theology1 which gave rise to differences1 and to schools and sects4 ,the nature of the ,deity1 predestination1 the future life1 were subjects of profound and subtle inquiry4 ,more than once1 pantheistic doctrine was broached by speculative minds1 such as ,avicenna and ,averrhoes4 ,in ,persia1 ,sfism1 a form of mysticism1 made great progress4 ,it extolled the unselfish love of ,god1 and a contemplative and ascetic life4 ,law was studied2 and on the basis of the ,koran1 and of reasonings upon it1 systems of jurisprudence were created4 ,science and ,literature kept pace with legal studies4 ,poetry flourished through the whole period of the ,eastern caliphate4 ,there were1 also1 ,persian poets who hold an important place in the history of literature1 of whom ,firdousi 7about #idj to #ajbj7 and ,saadi 7who died in #abia7 are the most eminent4 ,under the ,abbassides in ,syria1 through ,christian scholars and by translations1 the ,arabians became acquainted with the ,greek authors4 ,they cultivated geography4 ,the ,moslems were students of astronomy1 and carried the study of mathematics1 which they learned from the ,greeks and ,hindus1 very far4 ,but they apparently felt no interest in the poets1 orators1 and historians of antiquity4 ,in the study of ,aristotle1 and in metaphysical philosophy1 they were proficients4 ,medicine1 also1 they cultivated with success4 ,they delved in ,alchemy in the search for the transmutation of metals4 ,,commerce ,,and ,,the ,,arts4--,the ,moslems engaged actively in commerce4 ,they acquired much skill in various branches of mechanical art4 ,the weapons of ,damascus and of ,toledo1 the silks of ,granada1 the saddles of ,cordova1 the muslins1 silks1 and carpets of the ,moslem dominions in the ,east1 were highly prized in ,christian countries4 ,they manufactured paper4 ,forbidden to represent the human form in painting and sculpture1 their distinction in the fine arts is confined to architecture4 ,peculiar to them is the ,arabesque ornamentation found in their edifices3 the idea of the arch was borrowed from the ,byzantine style4 ,one of their most famous monuments is the mosque at ,cordova4 ,the ruins of the ,alhambra1 in ,spain1 a palace and a fortress1 illustrate the richness and elegance of the ,saracenic style of building4 ,,the ,,arabian ,,mind4--,neither in architecture1 nor in any other department1 were the ,arabs in a marked degree original4 ,they invented nothing4 ,they were quick to learn1 and to assimilate what they learned4 ,they were apt interpreters and critics1 but they produced no works marked by creative genius4 ,many of the scholars at the court of the caliphs were ,christians and ,jews4 ,yet ,bagdad1 ,samarcand1 ,cairo1 ,grenada1 ,cordova1 were centers of intellectual activity and of learning when the nations of ,western ,europe had not escaped from the barbarism resulting from the ,teutonic invasions4 ,,literature4--,lives of ,mohammed by ,,muir1 ,,sprenger 7,german71 ,irving3 ,encycl4 ,brit41 ,art4 ,mohammedanism2 ,kuenen1 ,national ,religions and ,universal ,religions2 ,nldeke1 ,gesch4 d4 ,quorans 7#ahfj72 ,muir1 ,the ,corn 7#ahgh72 ,r4 ,b4 ,smith1 ,mohammed and ,mohammedanism 7#ahge72 ,stobart1 ,islam and its ,founder2 ,ockley1 ,history of the ,saracens 7sixth edition1 #aheg72 ,,freeman1 ,history and ,conquests of the ,saracens 7#ahgj74 ,,the ,,carlovingian ,,house ,,pipin of ,heristal1 d4 #gad4 --,charles ,martel1 d4 #gda4 --,,pipin the ,short1 king #geb-gfh4 --,,charlemange1 #gfh-had 7emperor #hjj74 --,pipin1 ,king of ,italy1 d4 #haj4 --,,bernard1 d4 #hah4 --,charles1 ,king of ,franconia4 --,,louis the ,pious1 #had-hdj4 ,,lotharingia --,,lothar ,i1 #hdc-hee4 --,,louis ,,ii1 #hee-hge --,hermingarde1 m4 ,,boso ,i1 ,king of ,provence1 #hgi-hhg --,,louis1 #hhg-ije 7emperor #ija7 m4 ,eadgifu1 daughter of ,edward the ,elder --,lothar ,,ii1 d4 #hfi4 --,charles1 d4 #hfc ,,germany --,,louis the ,german1 #hdc-hgf4 --,,carloman1 d4 #hhj4 --,,arnulf1 ,king of ,germany1 #hhg-hii 7emperor #hif74 --,,louis the ,child1 #ijj-iaa4 --,,louis the ,younger4 d #hhj4 --,,charles the ,fat 7emperor #hha-hhg71 d4 #hhh4 ,,france --,,charles the ,bald1 #hdc-hgg 7emperor #hge74 --,,louis ,,ii1 #hgg-hgi4 --,,louis ,,iii1 #hgi-hhb --,carloman1 #hgi-hhd --,,charles the ,simple1 m4 ,eadgifu1 daughter of ,edward the ,elder --,,louis ,,iv 7,d',outremer71 #icf-ied4 --,matilda1 m4 ,,conrad the ,peaceful4 --,,rudolph ,,iii1 #iic-ajcb --,,lothar1 #ied-ihf4 --,,louis ,v1 #ihf-ihg4 --,charles1 ,duke of ,lower ,lorraine1 d4 #iid4 --,carloman1 #gfh-gga4 ,,rival ,,kings ,,of ,,france ,,not ,,of ,,the ,,carlovingian ,,line4 ,robert the ,strong1 d4 #hff4 --,,eudes1 king #hhg-hic4 --,,robert1 king #ibb-ibc4 --,emma1 m4 ,,rudolph of ,burgundy2 king #ibc-ibf4 --,hugh the ,great 7father of ,hugh ,capet74 ,,period ,,ii4 ,,from ,,the ,,carlovingian ,,line ,,of ,,frank ,,kings ,,to ,,the ,,romano-,,germanic ,,empire4 7,a4,d4 #gea-ifb47 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,carlovingian ,,empire ,,to ,,the ,,death ,,of ,,charlemagne 7,a4,d4 #had74 ,,pipin ,,the ,,short4--,the great event of the eighth century was the organization and spread of the dominion of the ,franks1 and the transfer to them of the ,roman ,empire of the ,west4 ,three ,frank princes--,charles ,martel1 ,pipin the ,short1 and ,charlemagne1 or ,karl the ,great--were the main instruments in bringing in this new epoch in ,european history4 ,they followed a similar course1 as regards the wars which they undertook1 and their general policy4 ,charles ,martel1 the conqueror of the ,saracens at ,poitiers1 rendered great services to the ,church2 but he provoked the lasting displeasure of the ecclesiastics by his seizures of church property4 ,he rewarded his soldiers with archbishoprics4 ,pipin1 however1 was earnestly supported by the clergy4 ,he had the confidence and favor of the ,franks1 and in #gea1 with the concurrence of ,pope ,zacharias1 deposed ,childeric ,,iii41 and assumed the title of king4 ,the long hair of ,childeric1 the badge of the ,frank kings1 was shorn1 and he was placed in a monastery4 ,in #geb ,pipin was anointed and crowned at ,soissons by ,boniface1 the bishop of ,mentz1 who exerted himself to restore order and discipline in the ,frank ,church1 which had fallen into disorder in the times of ,charles ,martel4 ,,pipin ,,in ,,italy4--,the controversy with the ,greeks about the use of images had alienated the popes from the ,eastern ,empire4 ,the encroachments of the ,lombards threatened ,rome itself1 and were a constant menace to the independence of its bishops4 ,pope ,stephen ,,iii4 resorted to ,pipin for help against these aggressive neighbors2 and1 in #ged1 ,stephen solemnly repeated1 in the cathedral of ,st4 ,denis1 the ceremony of his coronation4 ,the ,carlovingian usurpation was thus hallowed in the eyes of the people by the sanction of the ,church4 ,the alliance between the ,papacy and the ,franks1 so essential to both1 was cemented4 ,pipin crossed the ,alps in #ged1 and humbled ,aistulf1 the ,lombard king2 but1 as ,aistulf still kept up his hostility to the ,pope1 ,pipin once more led his forces into ,italy1 and compelled him to become tributary to the ,frank kingdom1 and to cede to him the territory which he had won from the ,greek ,empire1--the exarchate of ,ravenna and the ,pentapolis1 or the lands and cities between the ,apennines and the ,adriatic1 from ,ferrara to ,ancona4 ,this territory the ,frank king formally presented to ,st4 ,peter4 ,thus there was founded the temporal kingdom of the popes in ,italy4 ,pipin was called ,patricius of ,rome1 which made him its virtual sovereign1 although the office and title implied the continued supremacy of the ,eastern ,empire4 ,he united under him all the conquests which had been made by ,clovis and his successors4 ,his sway extended over ,aquitaine and as far as the ,pyrenees4 ,it was the rule of the ,teutonic ,north over the more ,latin ,south1 which had no liking for the ,frank sovereignty4 ,,charlemagne3 ,,the ,,saxons ,,and ,,saracens4--,pipin died in #gfh4 ,by the death of his younger son1 ,carloman1 his older son1 ,charles1 in #gga became the sole king of the ,franks4 ,charlemagne is more properly designated ,karl the ,great1 for he was a ,german in blood and speech1 and in all his ways4 ,he stands in the foremost rank of conquerors and rulers4 ,his prodigious energy and activity as a warrior may be judged by the number of his campaigns1 in which he was uniformly successful4 ,the eastern frontier of his dominions was threatened by the ,saxons1 the ,danes1 the ,slaves1 the ,bavarians1 the ,avars4 ,he made eighteen expeditions against the ,saxons1 three against the ,danes1 one against the ,bavarians1 four against the ,slaves1 four against the ,avars4 ,adding to these his campaigns against the ,saracens1 ,lombards1 and other peoples1 the number of his military expeditions is not less than fifty-three4 ,in all but two of his marches against the ,saxons1 however1 he accomplished his purpose without a battle4 ,that he was ambitious of conquest and of fame1 is evident4 ,that he had the rough ways of his ,german ancestors1 and was unsparing in war1 is equally certain4 ,yet he was not less eminent in wisdom than in vigor2 and his reign1 on the whole1 was righteous as well as glorious4 ,the two most formidable enemies of ,charlemagne were the ,saxons and the ,saracens4 ,the ,saxon war was checkered by grave disasters1 and pursued with undismayed and unrelenting determination1 in which he spared neither himself nor others4 ,it lasted continuously--with its stubborn and ever-recurring resistance1 its cruel devastations1 its winter campaigns1 its merciless acts of vengeance--as the effort which called forth all ,charles's energy for thirty-two years 7#ggb-hjd74 ,the ,saxons were heathen4 ,the conquest of them was the more difficult because it involved the forced introduction of ,christianity in the room of their old religion4 ,more than once1 when they seemed to be subdued1 they broke out in passionate and united revolt4 ,their fiercest leader in insurrection was ,witikind4 ,a last and terrible uprising1 in consequence of the slaughter of forty-five hundred ,saxons on the ,aller as a punishment for breach of treaty1 was put down in #ghe1 when ,witikind submitted1 and consented to receive ,christian baptism4 ,during the progress of the ,saxon war1 at the call of the ,arab governor of ,saragossa for aid against the caliph ,abderrahman1 ,charles marched into ,spain1 and conquered ,saragossa and the whole land as far as the ,ebro4 ,on his return1 in the valley of ,ronceveaux1 the ,frank rear guard was surprised and destroyed by the ,basques4 ,there fell the ,frank hero ,roland1 whose gallant deeds were a favorite subject of medival romances4 ,the duchy of ,bavaria was abolished after a second revolt of its duke1 ,tassilo 7#ghh74 ,one of the most brilliant of ,charlemagne's wars was that against the ,hunnic ,avars 7#gia74 ,their land between the ,ems and ,raab he annexed to his empire4 ,bavarian colonists were planted in it4 ,enormous treasures which they had gathered1 in their incursions1 from all ,europe1 were captured1 with their ,ring1 or palace-camp4 ,the ,slavonic tribes were kept in awe4 ,brittany was subjugated in #haa4 ,in the closing years of ,charles's reign1 the ,danes became more and more aggressive and formidable4 ,he visited the northern coasts1 made ,boulogne and ,ghent his harbors and arsenals1 and built fleets for defense against the audacious invaders4 ,,charlemagne ,,in ,,italy4--,some of the most memorable incidents in ,charlemagne's career are connected with ,italy4 ,while he was busy in the ,saxon war1 he had been summoned to protect ,pope ,hadrian ,i4 7#ggb-gie7 from the attack of the ,lombards4 ,to please his mother1 ,charles had married1 but he had afterwards divorced1 the daughter of the ,lombard king ,desiderius4 ,she was the first in the series of ,charlemagne's wives1 who1 it is said1 were nine in number4 ,by the divorce he incurred the resentment of ,desiderius1 who required the ,pope to anoint the sons of ,carloman as kings of the ,franks4 ,in #ggb ,charlemagne crossed the ,alps by the ,mont ,cenis and the ,st4 ,bernard1 captured ,pavia1 and shut up ,desiderius in a ,frank monastery4 ,the king of the ,franks became king of the ,lombards1 and lord of all ,italy1 except the ,venetian ,islands and the southern extremity of ,calabria1 which remained subject to the ,greeks4 ,the ,german king and the ,pope were now1 in point of fact1 dominant in the ,west4 ,a woman1 ,irene1 who had put out the eyes of her son that she herself might reign1 sat on the throne at ,constantinople4 ,this was a fair pretext for throwing off the ,byzantine rule1 which afforded no protection to ,italians4 ,once more ,charles visited ,italy1 to restore to the papal chair ,leo ,,iii41 who had been expelled by an adverse party1 and1 at ,charles's camp at ,paderborn1 had implored his assistance4 ,on ,christmas ,day in the year #hjj1 during the celebration of mass in the old ,basilica of ,st4 ,peter1 ,leo ,,iii4 advanced to ,charlemagne1 and placed a crown on his head1 saluting him1 amid the acclamations of the people1 as ,roman emperor4 ,,meaning ,,of ,,charles',s ,,coronation4--,the coronation of ,charlemagne made him the successor of ,augustus and of ,constantine4 ,it was not imagined that the empire had ever ceased to be4 ,the ,byzantine emperors had been acknowledged in form as the rulers of the ,west3 not even now was it conceived that the empire was divided4 ,in the imagination and feeling of men1 the creation of the ,caesars remained an indivisible unity4 ,the new emperor in the ,west could therefore only be regarded as a rival and usurper by the ,byzantine rulers2 but ,charlemagne professed a friendly feeling1 and addressed them as his brothers1--as if they and he were exercising a joint sovereignty4 ,in point of fact1 there had come to be a new center of wide-spread dominion in ,western ,europe4 ,the diversity in beliefs and rites between ,roman ,christianity and that of the ,greeks had been growing4 ,the popes and ,charlemagne were united by mutual sympathy and common interests4 ,the assumption by him of the imperial title at their instance1 and by the call of the ,roman people1 was the natural issue of all the circumstances4 ,,charles',s ,,system ,,of ,,government4--,charlemagne showed himself a statesman bent on organization and social improvement4 ,there was a system of local officers4 ,the border districts of the kingdom were made into ,marks1 under ,margraves or ,marquesses1 for defense against the outlying tribes4 ,one of them1 to the east of ,bavaria1 was afterwards called ,austria4 ,dukes governed provinces1 some of which afterwards became kingdoms4 ,their power the emperor tried to reduce4 ,the empire was divided into districts1 in each of which a ,count 7,graf7 ruled1 with inferior officers1 either territorial or in cities4 ,bishops had large domains1 and great privileges and immunities4 ,the officers held their places at the king's pleasure3 they became possessed of landed estates1 and the tendency was1 for the offices to become hereditary4 ,the old ,german word ,graf is of uncertain derivation1 but means the same as count 7from the ,latin comes74 ,mark is a word found in all the ,teutonic languages4 ,from the signification of boundary1 it came to be applied1 like its synonym march1 to a frontier district4 ,a margrave 7,mark-,graf7 was a mark-count1 or an officer ruling for the king in such a district4 ,a viscount 7vicecomes7 was an officer subordinate to a count4 ,pfalz1 meaning originally palace 7from the ,latin palatium71 was the term for any one of the king's estates4 ,the palsgrave 7,pfalz-,graf7 was first his representative in charge of one of these domains4 ,the stallgrave 7,stall-,graf7 corresponded to the constable 7comes stabuli7 in ,english and ,french4 ,it signifies the officer in charge of the king's stables1 the groom4 ,he had a military command4 ,a later designation of the same office is marshal 7from two old ,german words1 one of which means a horse1 as seen in our word mare1 having the same etymology1 and the other means a servant74 ,imperial deputies1 or missi1 lay and ecclesiastical together1 visited all parts of the kingdom to examine and report as to their condition1 to hold courts1 and to redress wrongs4 ,there were appeals from them to the imperial tribunal1 over which the ,palsgrave presided4 ,twice in the year great ,assemblies were held of the chiefs and people1 to give advice as to the framing of laws4 ,the enactments of these assemblies are collected in the ,capitularies of the ,frank kings4 ,in the ,church1 ,charlemagne tried to secure order1 which had sadly fallen away1 and had given place to confusion and worldliness4 ,he himself exercised high ecclesiastical prerogatives1 especially after he became emperor4 ,,learning ,,and ,,culture4--,one of the chief distinctions of ,charlemagne is the encouragement which he gave to learning4 ,in his own palace at ,aachen 7,aix71 he collected scholars from different quarters4 ,of these the most eminent is ,alcuin1 from the school of ,york in ,england4 ,he was familiar with many of the ,latin writers1 and while at the head of the school in the palace1 and later1 when abbot of ,st4 ,martin in ,tours1 exerted a strong influence in promoting study4 ,charlemagne himself spoke ,latin with facility1 but not until late in life did he try to learn to write4 ,it was his custom to be read to while he sat at meals4 ,augustine's ,city of ,god was one of the books of which he was fond4 ,in the great sees and monasteries1 schools were founded1 the benefits of which were very soon felt4 ,,charles',s ,,personal ,,traits4--,charlemagne was seven feet in height1 and of noble presence4 ,his eyes were large and animated1 and his voice clear1 but not so strong as his frame would have led one to expect4 ,his bearing was manly and dignified4 ,he was exceedingly fond of riding1 hunting1 and of swimming4 ,eginhard1 his friend and biographer1 says of him1 ,in all his undertakings and enterprises1 there was nothing he shrank from because of the toil1 and nothing that he feared because of the danger4 ,he died1 at the age of seventy1 on ,jan4 #bh1 #had4 ,he had built at ,aix la ,chapelle a stately church1 the columns and marbles of which were brought from ,ravenna and ,rome4 ,beneath its floor1 under the dome1 was his tomb4 ,there he was placed in a sitting posture1 in his royal robes1 with the crown on his head1 and his horn1 sword1 and book of the ,gospels on his knee4 ,in this posture his majestic figure was found when his tomb was opened by ,otto ,,iii41 near the end of the tenth century4 ,the marble chair in which the dead monarch sat is still in the cathedral at ,aix3 the other relics are at ,vienna4 ,the splendor of ,charlemagne's reign made it a favorite theme of romance among the poets of ,italy3 a mass of poetic legends gathered about it4 ,,extent ,,of ,,the ,,empire4--,charlemagne's empire comprised all ,gaul1 and ,spain to the ,ebro1 all that was then ,germany1 and the greater part of ,italy4 ,slavonic nations along the ,elbe were his allies4 ,pannonia1 ,dacia1 ,istria1 ,liburnia1 ,dalmatia1--except the sea-coast towns1 which were held by the ,greeks1--were subject to him4 ,he had numerous other allies and friends4 ,even ,harunal-,rashid1 the famous ,caliph of ,bagdad1 held him in high honor4 ,among the most valued presents which were said to have come from the ,caliph were an elephant1 and a curious water-clock1 which was so made1 that1 at the end of the hours1 twelve horsemen came out of twelve windows1 and closed up twelve other windows4 ,this gift filled the inmates of the palace at ,aix with wonder4 ,,condition ,,of ,,the ,,people4--,the number of free ,franks diminished under ,charlemagne4 ,they were thinned out in the wars1 or sunk into vassalage4 ,the warnings and rebukes in the ,capitularies1 or body of laws1 show that the upper clergy were often sensual and greedy of gain4 ,the bishops would often lead in person their contingent of troops1 until they were forbidden to do so by law4 ,nine-tenths of the population of ,gaul were slaves4 ,charlemagne made ,alcuin the present of an estate on which there were twenty thousand slaves4 ,especially in times of scarcity1 as in #hje and #hjf1 their lot was a miserable one4 ,at such times1 they fled in crowds to the monasteries4 ,the social state was that of feudalism in all but the development of that independence in the greater lords1 which was delayed by the strength of ,karl1 but fostered1 at the same time1 by his wars and his policy towards the higher clergy4 ,,conversion ,,of ,,germany3 ,,boniface4--,the most active missionaries in the seventh and eighth centuries were1 from the ,british islands4 ,at first they were from ,ireland and ,scotland4 ,columban1 who died in #fae1 and his pupil ,gallus1 labored1 not without success1 among the ,alemanni4 ,gallus established himself as a hermit near ,lake ,constance4 ,he founded the ,abbey of ,st4 ,gall4 ,the ,saxon missionaries from ,england were still more effective4 ,the most eminent of these was ,winfrid1 who received from ,rome the name of ,bonifacius 7#fhj-gee74 ,he converted the ,hessians1 and founded monasteries1 among them the great monastery of ,fulda4 ,there his disciple1 ,sturm1 through a long series of years1 directed the energies of four thousand monks1 by whose unsparing labors the wilderness was gradually reclaimed1 and brought into a state of cultivation4 ,boniface had proved the impotence of the heathen gods by felling with the axe an aged oak at ,geismar1 which was held sacred by their worshipers4 ,among the ,thuringians1 ,bavarians1 and other tribes1 he extirpated paganism by peaceful means4 ,he organized the ,german ,church under the guidance of the popes1 and1 in #gdc1 was made archbishop of ,meniz1 and primate4 ,but his ,christian ardor moved him to carry the gospel in person to the savage ,frisians1 by whom he was slain4 ,he thus crowned his long career with martyrdom4 ,,conversion ,,of ,,the ,,scandinavians4--,the apostle of the ,scandinavians was ,ansgar 7#hja-hfe74 ,the archbishopric of ,hamburg was founded for him by ,louis the ,pious1 with the papal consent2 but1 as ,hamburg was soon plundered by pirates1 he became bishop of ,bremen 7#hdi74 ,in that region he preached with success4 ,two visits he made to ,sweden1 the first with little permanent result2 but1 at the second visit 7#hee71 the new faith was tolerated1 and took root4 ,the triumph of the religion of the cross1 which ,ansgar had planted in ,denmark1 was secured there when ,canute became king of ,england4 ,the first ,christian king in ,sweden was ,olaf ,schooskonig 7#ajjh74 ,in ,norway1 ,christianity was much resisted2 but when ,olaf the ,thick1 who was a devoted adherent of the ,christian faith1 had perished in battle 7#ajcc71 his people1 who held him in honor1 fell in with the church arrangements which he had ordained2 and he became ,st4 ,olaf1 the patron saint of ,norway4 ,,the ,,benedictines4--,benedict1 born at ,nursia1 in ,umbria1 in #dhj1 the founder of the monastery of ,monte ,cassino1 north-west of ,naples1 was the most influential agent in organizing monasticism in ,western ,europe4 ,he was too wise to adopt the extreme asceticism that had often prevailed in the ,east1 and his judicious regulations combined manual labor with study and devotion4 ,they not only came to be the law for the multitude of monasteries of his own order1 but also served as the general pattern1 on the basis of which numerous other orders in later times were constituted4 ,his societies of monks were at first made up of laics1 but afterwards of priests4 ,the three vows of the monk were chastity1 including abstinence from marriage2 poverty1 or the renunciation of personal possessions2 and obedience to superiors4 ,the ,benedictine cloisters long continued to be asylums for the distressed1 schools of education for the clergy1 and teachers of agriculture and the useful arts to the people in the regions where they were planted4 ,their abbots rose to great dignity and influence1 and stood on a level with the highest ecclesiastics4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,dissolution ,,op ,,charlemagne',s ,,empire3 ,,rise ,,of ,,the ,,kingdoms ,,of ,,france1 ,,germany1 ,,and ,,italy4 ,,divisions ,,in ,,the ,,empire4--,the influence of ,charlemagne was permanent2 not so his empire4 ,it had one religion and one government1 but it was discordant in language and in laws4 ,the ,gallo-,romans and the ,italians spoke the ,romance language1 with variations of dialect4 ,the ,germans used the ,teutonic tongue4 ,charlemagne left to the ,lombards1 to the ,saxons1 and to other peoples1 their own special laws4 ,the great bond of unity had been the force of his own character and the vigor of his administration4 ,his death was1 therefore1 the signal for confusion and division4 ,the tendency to dismemberment was aided by the ambition of the princes of the imperial family4 ,the ,austrasian ,franks1 to whom ,charlemagne belonged1 craved unity4 ,the ,gallo-,romans in the ,west1 the ,teutons in the ,east1 aspired after independence4 ,louis the ,pious 7#had-hdj71 ,charlemagne's youngest son1--who1 in consequence of the death of his elder brothers1 was the sole successor of his father1--lacked the energy requisite for so difficult a place4 ,he was better adapted to a cloister than to a throne4 ,he had been crowned at ,aix before his father's death2 but he consented to be crowned anew by ,pope ,stephen ,,iv4 at ,rheims1 in #haf4 ,his troubles began with a premature division of his states between his sons1 ,lothar1 ,pipin1 and ,louis4 ,his nephew1 ,bernhard1 who was to reign in ,italy in subordination to his uncle1 rebelled1 but was captured and killed 7#hah74 ,in order to provide for his son ,charles the ,bald1 whose mother ,judith he had married for his second wife1 he made a new division in #hbi4 ,the elder sons at once revolted against their father1 and ,judith and her son were shut up in a cloister 7#hcj74 ,louis the son repented1 the ,saxons and ,east ,franks supported the emperor1 and he was restored4 ,in #hcc he took away ,aquitaine from ,pipin1 and gave it to ,charles4 ,the rebellious sons again rose up against him4 ,in company with ,pope ,gregory ,,iv41 who joined them1 they took their father prisoner on the plains of ,alsace1 his troops having deserted him4 ,the place was long known as the ,field of ,lies4 ,he was compelled by the bishops to confess his sins in the cathedral at ,soissons1 reading the list aloud4 ,once more ,louis was released1 and forgave his sons2 but partition after partition of territory1 with continued discord1 followed until his death4 ,the quarrels of his surviving sons1 ,lothar1 ,louis the ,german1 and ,charles the ,bald1 brought on1 in #hda1 the great battle of ,fontenailles4 ,the contest was occasioned by the ambition of ,lothar1 the eldest1 who claimed for himself the whole imperial inheritance4 ,there was great carnage1 and ,lothar was defeated4 ,the bishops present saw in the result a verdict of ,god in favor of his two adversaries4 ,the result was the ,treaty of ,verdun for the division of the empire4 ,,terms ,,of ,,the ,,treaty ,,of ,,verdun4--,louis the ,german took the ,eastern and ,german ,franks1 and ,charles the ,bald the ,western and ,latinized ,franks4 ,lothar1 who retained the imperial title1 received the middle portion of the ,frank territory1 including ,italy and a long1 narrow strip of territory between the dominions of his brothers1 and extending to the ,north ,sea4 ,this land took later the name of ,lotharingia1 or ,lorraine4 ,it always had the character of a border-land4 ,while ,louis's share comprised only ,german-speaking peoples1 ,charles's kingdom was made up almost exclusively of ,gallo-,roman inhabitants2 while under ,lothar the two races were mingled4 ,this division marks the birth of the ,german and ,french nations as such4 ,the ,german-speaking peoples in the ,east1 who were affiliated in language1 customs1 and spirit1 more and more grew together into a nation4 ,in like manner1 the subjects of the ,western kingdom more and more were resolved into a ,franco-,roman nationality4 ,lothar ruled at ,aix-la-,chapelle1 and was styled emperor2 but each of the other kingdoms was independent1 and the empire of ,charlemagne was dissolved4 ,only for a short time1 under ,charles the ,fat 7#hha-hhg71 nearly the whole monarchy of ,charlemagne was united under one scepter4 ,when he was deposed it was again broken in pieces2 and four distinct kingdoms emerged1--those of the ,eastern and ,western ,franks1 the forerunners of ,germany and ,france1 and the kingdoms of ,italy and of ,burgundy1 in ,south-eastern ,gaul1 which were sometimes united and sometimes separate4 ,lotharingia was attached now to the ,eastern and now to the ,western ,frank kingdom4 ,in theory there was not a severance1 but a sharing1 of the common possession which had been the object of contention4 ,,eastern ,,carlovingians4--,charles the ,fat was a weak and sluggish prince4 ,he offered no effectual resistance to the destructive ravages of the ,normans1 or ,scandinavian ,northmen4 ,he was deposed in #hhg1 and died in the following year on an island in the ,lake of ,constance4 ,his successor1 the grandson of ,louis the ,german1 ,arnulf1 duke of ,carinthia1 became king of the ,germans1 7#hhg-hii7 and emperor2 and1 after his short reign1 the line of ,louis died out in ,louis the ,child1 the weak son of ,arnulf 7#ijj-iaa74 ,the house of ,charlemagne survived only among the ,western ,franks4 ,during the reign of ,louis the ,child1 ,hatto 7,i471 archbishop of ,mentz and primate of ,germany1 was regent and guardian of the king4 ,he was a bold defender of the unity of the empire4 ,he was charged1 truly or falsely1 with taking the life of ,adalbert1 a ,frank nobleman whom he had enticed into his castle4 ,there was a popular tradition that the devil seized ,hatto's corpse1 and threw it into the crater of ,mount tna4 ,the mistake is often made of connecting the popular legend of the ,mouse-tower at ,bingen on the ,rhine1 with him4 ,it was told of a later ,hatto 7,hatto ,,ii471 who was likewise archbishop of ,mentz 7#ifh74 ,he was charged with shutting up the poor in a barn1 in a time of famine1 and of burning them there4 ,as the story runs1 he called them rats who ate the corn4 ,numberless mice swam to the tower which he had built in the midst of the stream1 and devoured him4 ,southey has put the tale into a ballad1--,god's ,judgment on a ,wicked ,bishop4 ,,kingdom ,,of ,,france4--,in #hda ,rouen fell into the hands of the ,normans1 and ,paris lay open to their attacks4 ,in #hfa ,charles the ,bald invested a brave soldier1 ,robert the ,strong1 whose descent is not known1 with the county of ,paris1 that he might resist the invaders4 ,he held the country between the ,seine and the ,loire1 under the name of the ,duchy of ,france4 ,the other ,francia1 east of the ,rhine1 continued to be an important part of ,germany1 the district called ,franconia4 ,robert was the greatgrandfather of ,hugh ,capet1 the founder of the kingdom of ,france4 ,under the imbecile ,charles the ,fat1 the audacious ,northmen 7#hhe-hhf7 laid siege to ,paris4 ,it was ,odo1 or ,eudes1 count of ,paris1 who led the citizens in their heroic and successful resistance4 ,him the nobles of ,france chose to be their king4 ,his family were called ,dukes of the ,french4 ,their duchy--,western or ,latin ,francia--was the strongest state north of the ,loire4 ,the feudal lords were growing mightier1 and the imperial or royal power was becoming weaker4 ,after ,odo of ,paris was elected to the ,western kingdom1 there followed a period of about a hundred years during which there was a king sometimes from his house and sometimes from the family of the ,carlovingians4 ,the latter still spoke ,german1 and1 when they had the power1 reigned at ,laon in the northeastern corner of the kingdom4 ,odo ruled from #hhh until #hih4 ,he had to leave the southern part of ,france independent4 ,during the last five years of his life he was obliged to contend with ,charles the ,simple 7#hic-ibi71 who was elected king by the ,carlovingian party of the north4 ,the most noted of the ,carlovingian kings at ,laon was ,louis from beyond seas 7#icf-ied71 ,charles's son1 who had been carried to ,england for safety4 ,his reign was a constant struggle with ,hugh the ,great1 duke of the ,french1 the nephew of ,king ,odo4 ,hugh would not accept the crown himself4 ,on the death of ,louis ,v4 7#ihf-ihg71 the direct line of ,charlemagne became extinct4 ,the only ,carlovingian heir was his uncle1 ,charles1 duke of ,lorraine4 ,his claim the barons would not recognize1 but elected ,hugh ,capet1 duke of ,france1 to be king1 who1 on the #ast 7or the #c;d7 of ,july1 #ihg1 was solemnly crowned in the cathedral of ,noyon1 by the archbishop of ,rheims4 ,just at this juncture1 when the contest was between the dukes of the ,french and ,charles of ,lorraine1 the ,carlovingian claimant to the sovereignty1 the adhesion and support of ,duke ,richard of ,normandy 7#idc-iif7 was of decisive effect4 ,the ,normans had been on the side of ,laon2 now they turned the scale in favor of the elevation of the ,duke of ,france4 ,the ,german party at ,laon could not withstand the combined power of ,rouen and ,paris4 ,thus with ,hugh ,capet1 the founder of the ,capetian line1 the kingdom of ,france began1 having ,paris for its capital2 and the name of ,france came gradually to be applied to the greater part of ,gaul4 ,but when ,hugh ,capet became king1 the great feudal states were almost independent of the royal control4 ,eight were above the rest in power and extent4 ,the counts of ,flanders1 ,champagne1 and ,vermandois1 and the dukes of ,normandy1 ,brittany1 ,burgundy1 and ,aquitaine1 regarded themselves as the new king's peers or equals4 ,lorraine1 ,arles1 and ,franche ,comt--parts of modern ,france--held of the emperor1 and were1 in fact1 ,german4 ,hugh ,capet's dukedom was divided by the ,seine4 ,he was lay abbot of ,st4 ,denis1 the most important church in ,france4 ,,the ,,german ,,kingdom4--,with the death of ,louis the ,child 7#iaa7 the ,german branch of the ,carlovingian line was extinguished4 ,the ,germans had to choose a king from another family4 ,germany1 like ,france1 was now composed of great fiefs4 ,but there were two parties1 differing from one another in their character and manners4 ,the one consisted of the older ,alemannic and ,austrasian unions1 where the traces of ,roman influence continued1 where the large cities were situated1 and the principal sees4 ,here were formed the duchies of ,swabia and ,bavaria1 and ,franconia 7,austrasian ,france74 ,to the other1 consisting chiefly of the duchy of ,saxony1 were attached ,thuringia and a part of ,frisia4 ,in ,france the royal power1 at the start1 was so weak1 that1 not being dreaded1 it was suffered to grow4 ,in ,germany the royal power was so strong that there was a constant effort to reduce it4 ,hence in ,france the result was centralization2 in ,germany the tendency was to division4 ,in ,france the long continuance of the family of ,hugh ,capet made the monarchy hereditary4 ,in ,germany the frequent changes of dynasty helped to make it elective4 ,,conrad ,i4--,when ,louis died1 ,conrad of ,franconia 7#iaa-iah7 was chosen king by the clerical and secular nobles of the five duchies1 in which the counts elevated themselves to the rank of dukes1--,franconia1 ,saxony1 ,lorraine1 ,swabia1 and ,bavaria4 ,germany thus became an elective kingdom2 but since1 as a rule1 the sovereignty was continued in one family1 the electoral principle was qualified by an hereditary element4 ,conrad began the struggle against the great feudatories1 which went on through the ,middle ,ages4 ,the dukes always chafed under the rule of a king2 yet1 for the glory of the nation and for their own safety against attacks from abroad1 they were anxious to preserve it from extinction4 ,the ,hungarians1 to whom ,louis the ,child had consented to pay tribute1 renewed their incursions4 ,they marched in force as far as ,bremen4 ,conrad had wished to reduce the power of ,saxony1 and to detach from it ,thuringia4 ,he was constantly at war with his own subjects4 ,yet on his death-bed he showed his disinterested regard to the interests of the kingdom4 ,he called to him his brother ,eberhard1 and charged him to carry his crown and crown jewels to his enemy ,henry1 duke of the ,saxons1 who was most capable of defending the country against the ,hungarian invaders4 ,,italy4--,after the empire of ,charles the ,fat was broken up1 a strong anti-,german feeling was manifest in ,italy4 ,the people wanted the king of ,italy1 and1 if possible1 the emperor of the ,romans1 to be of their own nation4 ,but they could not agree3 there was a violent contest between the supporters of ,berengar of ,friuli and the supporters of ,guido of ,spoleto4 ,arnulf came twice into ,italy to quell the disturbance1 and on his second visit1 in #hif1 was crowned emperor4 ,civil war soon broke out again4 ,within twenty years the crown had been given to five different aspirants4 ,they were ,germans1 or were ,italians only in name4 ,berengar ,i4 7#hhh-ibd7 was crowned emperor by the ,pope1 but had to fight against a competitor1 ,rudolph1 king of ,burgundy1 whom the turbulent nobles set up in his place4 ,berengar was finally defeated and assassinated4 ,his grandson1 ,berengar ,,ii4 7of ,ivrea7 7#iej-ifa71 had to fly to ,germany 7#idc7 to escape a competitor for the throne1 ,hugh1 count of ,provence1 brother of ,ermengarde1 ,berengar's step-mother1 to whom she had given the crown4 ,his relations with ,otto ,i4 7the ,great7 led to very important consequences1 to be narrated hereafter4 ,,state ,,of ,,learning ,,in ,,the ,,tenth ,,century4--,under ,charles the ,bald1 there were not wanting signs of intellectual activity4 ,john ,scotus ,erigena1--or ,john ,scot1 ,erinborn1--who was at the head of his palace-school1 was an acute philosopher1 who1 in his speculations in the vein of ,new ,platonism1 tended to pantheistic doctrine4 ,his opinions were condemned at the instance of ,hincmar1 the eminent archbishop of ,rheims4 ,but after the deposition of ,charles the ,fat 7#hhg71 there followed a period of darkness throughout the ,west4 ,the universal political disorder was enough to account for this prevalent ignorance4 ,but1 in addition1 the ,latin language ceased to be spoken by the people1 while the new vernacular tongues were not reduced to writing4 ,latin could only be learned in the schools2 and these fell more and more into decay1 in the confusion of the times4 ,the mental stimulus which the study of the ,latin had communicated1 there was nothing1 as yet1 in the new languages to replace4 ,,the ,,papacy ,,in ,,the ,,ninth ,,and ,,tenth ,,centuries4--,while ,italy was under the rule of ,justinian and his successors1 the popes were subject to the tyranny of the ,eastern emperors4 ,after the ,lombard conquest1 their position1 difficult as it was on account of the small protection afforded them from ,constantinople1 was favorable to the growth of their influence and authority4 ,by their connection with ,pipin and ,charlemagne1 they were recognized as having a spiritual headship1 the counterpart of the secular supremacy of the emperor4 ,the election of the ,pope was to be sanctioned by the emperor1 and that of the emperor by the ,pope4 ,but ,charlemagne was supreme ruler over all classes and persons in ,italy1 as in his own immediate dominions4 ,in the disorder that ensued upon his death1 the imperial authority in all directions was reduced4 ,the ,frank bishops were frequently appealed to as umpires among the contending ,carolingian princes4 ,the growth of the power of the great bishops carried in it the exaltation of the highest bishop of all1 the ,roman pontiff4 ,a pallium1 or mantle1 was sent by the ,pope to all archbishops on their accession1 and was considered to be a badge of the papal authority4 ,in the earlier part of the ninth century1 there appeared what are called the pseudo-,isidorian decretals1 consisting of forged ecclesiastical documents purporting to belong to the early ,christian centuries1 which afforded a sanction to the highest claims of the chief rulers of the ,church4 ,these are universally known to be an invention2 but1 in that uncritical day1 this was not suspected4 ,they contained not much in behalf of hierarchical claims which had not1 at one time or another1 been actually asserted and maintained4 ,in the spirit of the decretals ,pope ,nicholas ,i4 7#heh-hfg7 acted1 when this energetic pontiff overruled the iniquitous decision of two ,german synods1 and obliged ,lothar1 king of ,lotharingia1 to take back his lawful wife1 ,theutberga1 whom he had divorced out of regard to a mistress1 ,waldrada4 ,in the tenth century 7#ijd-ifb71 when ,italy1 in the absence of imperial restraint1 was torn by violent factions1 the ,papacy was for half a century disposed of by the ,tuscan party1 and especially by two depraved women belonging to it1 ,theodora1 and her daughter ,maria 7or ,marozia74 ,the scandals belonging to this dismal period in the history of the papal institution are to be ascribed to the anarchy prevailing in ,italy1 and to the vileness of the individuals who usurped power at ,rome4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,invasions ,,of ,,the ,,northmen ,,and ,,others3 ,,the ,,feudal ,,system4 ,,incursions ,,of ,,the ,,northmen4--,the ,scandinavians1 or ,northmen1 were a ,teutonic people1 by whom were gradually formed the kingdoms of ,denmark1 ,norway1 and ,sweden4 ,their incursions1 prior to ,charlemagne1 were towards the ,rhine1 but at length assumed more the character of piracy4 ,they coasted along the shores in their little fleets1 and lay in wait for their enemies in creeks and bays2 whence they were called vikings1 or children of the bays4 ,by degrees they ventured out farther on the sea1 and became bolder in their depredations4 ,they sent their light vessels along the rivers of ,france1 and established themselves in bands of five or six hundred at convenient stations1 whence they sallied out to plunder the neighboring cities and country places4 ,they did not cause1 but they hastened1 the fall of the ,frank ,empire4 ,in #hda they burned ,rouen2 in #hdc they plundered ,nantes1 ,saintes1 and ,bordeaux4 ,hastings1 a famous leader of these hardy sea-robbers1 sailed along the coast of the ,spanish peninsula1 took ,lisbon and pillaged it1 and burned ,seville4 ,making a descent upon ,tuscany1 he captured1 by stratagem1 and plundered the city of ,luna1 which he at first mistook for ,rome4 ,in #hec the daring rovers captured ,tours1 and burned the ,abbey of ,st4 ,martin2 and1 three years later1 they appeared at ,orleans4 ,in #heg they burned the churches of ,paris1 and carried away as captive the abbot of ,st4 ,denis4 ,as pagans they had no scruple about attacking churches and abbeys1 to which fugitives resorted for safety and for the hiding of their treasures4 ,robert the ,strong fell in fighting these marauders 7#hff74 ,their devastations continued down to the year #iaa1 in the reign of ,charles the ,simple2 then the same arrangement was made which the ,romans had adopted in relation to the ,germanic invaders4 ,by the advice of his nobles1 ,charles decided to abandon to the ,northmen1 territory where they could settle1 and which they could cultivate as their own4 ,rolf1 or ,rollo1 one of their most formidable chiefs1 accepted the offer2 and the ,northmen established themselves 7#iaa7 in the district known afterwards as ,normandy4 ,rollo received baptism1 wore the title of duke1 and thus became the liege of ,king ,charles1 who reigned at ,laon1 and whom he loyally served4 ,later the ,normans joined hands with ducal ,france1 and helped ,paris to throw off its dependence on royal ,france and the house of ,charlemagne which had ruled at ,laon4 ,it was by ,norman help that the duchy of ,france was raised to the rank of a kingdom1 and ,hugh ,capet1 in the room of being a vassal of kings of ,german lineage1 became the founder of ,french sovereigns4 ,under the ,normans1 tillage flourished2 and the feudal system was established with greater regularity than elsewhere4 ,,the ,,danes ,,in ,,england4--,when1 in #hbg1 ,egbert1 the king of ,wessex1 united all the ,saxons in ,england under his rule1 the ,danish attacks had already begun4 ,in his later years these ravages increased4 ,alfred 7#hga-ija7 was reduced to such straits in #hgh1 that1 with a few followers1 he hid himself among the swamps and woods of ,somersetshire4 ,it was then1 according to the legend1 that he was scolded by the woman1 who1 not knowing him1 had set him to watch her cakes1 but found that he1 absorbed in other thoughts1 had allowed them to burn4 ,later1 ,alfred gained advantages over the ,danes2 but1 in the treaty that was made with them1 they received1 as vassals of the ,west ,saxon king1 ,east ,anglia1 and part of ,essex and ,mercia4 ,already they had a lodgment in ,northumberland1 so that the larger part of ,england had fallen into ,danish hands4 ,the names of towns ending in by1 as ,whitby1 are of ,danish origin4 ,alfred compiled a body of laws called dooms1 founded monasteries1 and fostered learning4 ,he himself translated many books from the ,latin4 ,his bravery in conflict with the ,danes enabled him to spend his last years in quiet4 ,athelstan1 the grandson of ,alfred 7#ibe-idj71 was victorious over the ,danes1 and over the ,scotch and ,welsh of the ,north4 ,under ,edgar 7#iei-ige71 the power of ,england was at its height4 ,he kept up a strong fleet2 but1 in the time of ,aethelred ,,ii4 7the ,unready71 the ,danish invasions were renewed4 ,he and his bad advisers adopted the practice of buying off the invaders at a large price4 ,in #iid ,swegen invaded the country4 ,he had been baptized1 but had gone back to heathenism4 ,in #ajac ,england was completely conquered by him4 ,aethelred fled to ,duke ,richard the ,good of ,normandy4 ,,canute4--,the son of ,aethelred1 ,edmund1 surnamed ,ironside1 after the death of ,swegen1 kept up the war with his son ,cnut1 or ,canute4 ,after fighting six pitched battles with him1 ,edmund consented to divide the kingdom with him2 but in the same year 7#ajaf7 the ,english king died4 ,canute 7#ajag-ajce7 now became king of all ,england4 ,he had professed ,christianity1 and unexpectedly proved himself1 after his accession1 to be a good ruler4 ,one of the legends about him is1 that he once had a seat placed for himself by the seashore1 and ordered the rising tide not to dare to wet his feet4 ,not being obeyed by the dashing waves1 he said1 ,let all men know how empty and worthless is the power of kings1 for there is none worthy of the name but ,he whom heaven1 earth1 and sea obey by eternal laws4 ,after that he never wore his crown1 but left it on the image of ,jesus on the cross4 ,canute inherited the crown of ,denmark1 and won ,norway and part of ,sweden2 so that he was the most powerful prince of his time4 ,his sons1 however1 did not rule well2 and in #ajdb the ,english chose for king one of their own people1 ,edward1 called the ,confessor1 the son of ,aethelred4 ,in the time of ,canute1 the power of the ,danes1 and of the ,northmen generally1 was at its height4 ,denmark1 ,norway1 ,sweden1 and ,england were ruled by them2 and ,scandinavian princes by descent governed in ,normandy and in ,russia4 ,although a most vigorous race1 the ,northmen showed a wonderful facility in adopting the language and manners of the people among whom they settled4 ,the effect of their migrations was to diminish the strength and importance of their native countries which they had left4 ,,other ,,settlements ,,of ,,northmen4--,the ,northmen made many other voyages which have not yet been mentioned4 ,as early as #heb there was a ,scandinavian king in ,dublin4 ,they early conquered the ,shetland ,isles1 the ,orkneys1 and the ,hebrides4 ,on the northern coast of ,scotland1 they founded the kingdom of ,caithness1 which they held to the end of the twelfth century4 ,iceland was discovered by the ,northmen1 and was settled by them in #hgd4 ,about the same time ,greenland was discovered1 and towards the end of the tenth century a colony was planted there4 ,this led to the discovery of the mainland of ,america1 and to the occupation1 for a time1 of ,vinland1 which is supposed to have been the coast of ,new ,england4 ,in ,russia1 where the ,northmen were called ,varangians1 ,rurik1 one of their leaders1 occupied ,novgorod in #hfb1 and founded a line of sovereigns1 which continued until #aeih4 ,,incursions ,,of ,,saracens4--,the ,saracens were marauders in ,italy1 as the ,northmen were in ,france4 ,from ,cairoan 7in ,tunis71 as we have seen1 they sent out their piratical fleets1 which ravaged ,malta1 ,sicily1 and other islands of the ,mediterranean4 ,these corsairs1 checked for the moment by the fleets of ,charlemagne1 afterwards began anew their conquests4 ,from ,sicily1 of which they made themselves masters in #hca1 they passed over to the ,italian mainland4 ,among their deeds are included the burning of ,ostia1 ,civita ,vecchia1 and the wealthy abbey of ,monte ,cassino1 ,they landed on the shores of ,provence1 established a military colony there1 pillaged ,arles and ,marseilles1 and continued their depredations in ,southern ,france and ,switzerland4 ,,incursions ,,of ,,hungarians4--,the ,magyars1 called by the ,greeks ,hungarians1 a warlike people of the ,turanian group of nations1 crossed the ,carpathian ,mountains about #hhi4 ,they overran the whole of ,hungary and ,transylvania4 ,in #ijj1 in the course of their predatory invasions1 they penetrated into ,bavaria1 and the king of ,germany paid them tribute4 ,they carried their incursions into ,lombardy and into ,southern ,italy4 ,they even crossed the ,rhine1 and devastated ,alsace1 ,lorraine1 and ,burgundy4 ,such terror did they excite that their name remained in ,france a synonym of detestable ferocity4 ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,later ,,invasions4--,the incursions in the ninth century differed from the great ,germanic invasions which had subverted the ,roman ,empire4 ,the ,northmen and the ,saracens moved in small bands1 whose main object was plunder1 and not either permanent conquest1 or1 as was the aim of the ,arabians1 the spread of a religion by the sword4 ,the ,hungarians alone established themselves in the valley of the ,theiss and the ,danube1 after the manner of the ,franks1 the ,burgundians1 and the ,goths2 and there they remained4 ,the great effect of the last invasion was to accelerate the breaking up of political unity1 and the introduction of feudal organization1 or the preponderance of local rule as opposed to centralized power4 ,,the ,,northmen ,,in ,,england ,,and ,,italy4 ,later than the events narrated above1 there were two great achievements of the ,northmen1 which it is most convenient to describe here1 although they occurred in the eleventh century4 ,they are the conquest of ,england1 and the founding of the kingdom of ,naples and ,sicily4 ,i4 ,,the ,,norman ,,conquest ,,of ,,england4 ,the ,,norman ,,invasion4--,the duchy of ,normandy had become very strong and prosperous1 and1 under the ,french-speaking ,northmen1 or ,normans1 had grown to be one of the principal states in ,western ,europe4 ,edward1 king of ,england1 surnamed the ,confessor1 or ,saint 7#ajdb-ajff7 had been brought up in ,normandy1 and favored his own ,norman friends by lavish gifts of honors and offices4 ,the party opposed to the foreigners was led by ,godwin1 earl of the ,west ,saxons4 ,after being once banished1 he returned in arms2 and ,norman knights and priests were glad to escape from the country4 ,edward's wife was ,edith1 daughter of ,godwin4 ,they had no children2 and on his death-bed he recommended that ,earl ,harold1 the son of ,godwin1 should be his successor4 ,the ,normans claimed that he had promised that their duke1 ,william1 should reign after him4 ,it was said that ,harold himself1 on a visit to ,william1 had1 either willingly or unwillingly1 sworn to give him his support4 ,edward1 who was devout in his ways1 though a negligent ruler1 was buried in the monastery called ,westminster1 which he had built1 and which was the precursor of the magnificent church bearing the same name that was built afterwards by ,king ,henry ,,iii4 ,harold was now crowned4 ,duke ,william1 full of wrath1 appealed to the sword2 and1 under the influence of the archdeacon ,hildebrand1 ,pope ,alexander ,,ii4 took his side1 and sanctioned his enterprise of conquest4 ,at the same time the north of ,england was invaded by the king of the ,norwegians1 a man of gigantic stature1 named ,hardrada4 ,the ,norman invaders landed without resistance on the shore of ,sussex1 on the #bhth of ,september1 #ajff1 and occupied ,hastings4 ,harold encamped on the heights of ,senlac4 ,on the #adth of ,october the great battle took place in which the ,normans were completely victorious4 ,the ,english stood on a hill in a compact mass1 with their shields in front and a palisade before them4 ,they repulsed the ,norman charges4 ,but the ,normans pretended to retreat4 ,this moved the ,saxons to break their array in order to pursue4 ,the ,normans then turned back1 and rushed through the palisade in a fierce onset4 ,an arrow pierced the eye of ,harold1 and he was cut to pieces by four ,french knights4 ,the ,norman duke1 ,william the ,conqueror1 was crowned king on ,christmas ,day2 but it was four years before he overcame all resistance1 and got full control over the country4 ,the largest estates and principal offices in ,england he allotted to ,normans and other foreigners4 ,the crown of ,william was handed down to his descendants1 and gradually the conquerors and the conquered became mingled together as one people4 ,,effect ,,of ,,the ,,norman ,,conquest4 ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,saxons4--,the ,saxons at the time of the ,conquest were a strong and hardy race1 hospitable1 and fond of good cheer1 which was apt to run into gluttony and revels4 ,their dwellings were poor1 compared with those of the better class of ,normans4 ,they were enthusiastic in out-door sports1 such as wrestling and hunting4 ,they fought on foot1 armed with the shield and axe4 ,the common soldier1 however1 often had no better weapon than a fork or a sharpened stick4 ,the ordeals in vogue1 as a test of guilt and innocence when one was accused of a crime1 were1 plunging the arm into boiling water1 or holding a hot iron in the hand for three paces4 ,london was fast growing to be the chief town1 and eclipsing ,winchester1 the old ,saxon capital4 ,a king like ,alfred1 and scholars like ,bede and ,alcuin1 not to speak of old chronicles and ballads1 show that literature was valued2 but the ,danish invasions in ,northumberland1 where schools and letters had flourished1 did much to blight the beginnings of literary progress4 ,,the ,,norman ,,spirit ,,and ,,influence4--,the tapestry at ,bayeux represents in a series of pictures the course of the ,norman conquest4 ,there we see the costume of the combatants4 ,the ,norman gentlemen were mounted1 and fought with lance and sword4 ,of their bravery and military skill1 their success affords abundant proof4 ,although the ,normans were victors and masters in ,england1 not only was the conquest gradual1 but the result of it was the amalgamation of the one people with the other4 ,the very title of conqueror1 attached to ,william1 was a legal term 7conquaestor71 and meant purchaser or acquirer4 ,there was an observance of legal forms in the establishment and administration of his government4 ,the folkland1 or the public land1 was appropriated by him1 and became crown-land4 ,so all the land of the ,english was considered to be forfeited1 and estates were given out liberally to ,norman gentlemen4 ,the nobility became mainly ,norman1 and the same was true of the ecclesiastics and other great officers4 ,all the land was held as a grant from the king4 ,in #ajhe the making of ,domesday was decreed1 which was a complete statistical survey of all the estates and property in ,england4 ,the object was to furnish a basis for taxation4 ,the ,domesday ,book is one of the most curious and valuable monuments of ,english history4 ,among the changes in law made by ,william was the introduction of the ,norman wager of battle1 or the duel1 by the side of the ,saxon methods of ordeal described above4 ,in most of the changes1 there was not so much an uprooting as a great transformation of former rules and customs4 ,,england ,,and ,,the ,,continent4--,one of the most important results of the ,norman ,conquest was the bringing of ,england into much more intimate relations with the continent4 ,the horizon of ,english thought and life was widened4 ,one incidental consequence was the closer connection of the ,english ,church with the ,papacy4 ,foreign ecclesiastics1 some of them men of eminence and of learning1 were brought in4 ,it was this connection with the continent that led ,england to take so important a part in the ,crusades4 ,,then ,,norman ,,government4--,as regards feudalism1 one vital feature of it--the holding of land by a military tenure1 or on condition of military service--was reduced to a system by the conquest4 ,but ,william took care not to be overshadowed or endangered by his great vassals4 ,he levied taxes on all1 and maintained the place of lord of all his subjects4 ,he was king of the ,english1 and sovereign lord of the ,norman nobles4 ,he summoned to the ,witan1 or ,great ,assembly1 those whom he chose to call4 ,this summons1 and the right to receive it1 became the foundation of the ,peerage4 ,out of the old ,saxon ,witan1 there grew in this way the ,house of ,lords4 ,the lower orders1 when summoned at all1 were summoned in a mass2 afterwards we shall find that they were called by representatives2 and1 in--the end1 when the privilege of appearing in this way was converted into a right1 the ,house of ,commons came into being4 ,in like manner1 the ,king's ,court gradually came to be1 in the room of the ,assembly itself1 a judicial and governing ,committee of the ,assembly4 ,from this body of the king's immediate counselors emerged in time the ,privy ,council and the ,courts of ,law4 ,out of the ,privy ,council grew1 in modern times1 the ,cabinet1 composed of what are really those privy councilors who are specially summoned4 ,committees of the ,national ,assembly1 in the course of ,english history1 acquired separate being and separate powers1 as the legislative1 judicial1 and executive branches of the government4 ,thus the ,english ,constitution is the product of a steady growth4 ,,mingling ,,of ,,blood ,,and ,,languages4--,a multitude of ,normans emigrated into ,england1 especially to ,london4 ,the ,normans became ,englishmen1 as a natural consequence4 ,but they affected the spirit and manners of the people by whom they were absorbed4 ,by opening avenues for ,french influence1 chivalry1 with its peculiar ideas and ways1 was brought into ,england4 ,but it must never be forgotten that the ,normans were kinsfolk of the ,saxons4 ,both conquerors and conquered were ,teutons4 ,the conquest was very different1 in this particular1 from what the conquest of ,germany by ,france1 or of ,france by ,germany1 would be4 ,the ,french language which the ,normans spoke had been acquired by them in their adopted home across the channel4 ,to this source the ,latin element1 or words of ,latin etymology1 in our ,english tongue is mainly due4 ,the loss of the old ,saxon inflections is another marked change2 but this is not due1 to so large an extent1 solely to the influence of ,norman speech4 ,but the ,english language continued to be essentially ,teutonic in its structure4 ,for a long time the two tongues lived side by side4 ,at the end of the twelfth century1 if ,french was the language of polite intercourse1 ,english was the language of common conversation and of popular writings4 ,learned men spoke1 or could speak1 and they wrote1 in ,latin4 ,,norman ,,buildings4--,the ,normans built the cathedrals and castles4 ,down to the eleventh century1 the ,romanesque1 or round-arched architecture1 derived from ,italy1 had been the one prevalent style in ,western ,europe4 ,in the modification of it1 called the ,norman style1 we find the round arch associated with massive piers and narrow windows4 ,durham cathedral is an example of the ,norman ,romanesque type of building4 ,the ,norman conquerors covered ,england with castles1 of which the ,white ,tower of ,london1 built by ,william1 is a noted specimen4 ,sometimes they were square1 and sometimes polygonal2 but1 except in the palaces of the kings1 they afforded little room for artistic beauty of form or decoration4 ,they were erected as fortresses1 and were regarded by the people with execration as strongholds of oppression4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,normans ,,in ,,italy ,,and ,,sicily4 ,,the ,,norman ,,kingdom ,,of ,,naples ,,and ,,sicily4--,early in the eleventh century1 knights from ,normandy wandered into ,southern ,italy1 and gave their aid to different states in battle against the ,greeks and ,saracens4 ,in #ajbg the ruler of ,naples gave them a fertile district1 where they built the city of ,aversa4 ,by the reports of their victories and good fortune1 troops of pilgrims and warriors were attracted to join them4 ,the valiant sons of the old count1 ,tancred of ,hauteville1 were among the number4 ,they supported the ,greek viceroy in an attack on the ,arabs in ,sicily2 but1 on his failing duly to reward them1 they turned against him1 and conquered ,apulia for themselves4 ,under ,robert ,guiscard 7#ajeg-ajhe71 they made themselves masters of all ,southern ,italy4 ,they had already defeated ,pope ,leo ,,ix4 at ,civitella1 and received from him as fiefs their present and anticipated conquests in ,apulia1 ,calabria1 and ,sicily4 ,twelve years after1 ,robert1 with the help of his brother ,roger1 wrested ,sicily1 with its capital1 ,palermo1 from the ,saracens1 who were divided among themselves 7#ajgb74 ,the seaports of ,otranto and ,bari were also taken by ,robert4 ,he even entered on the grand scheme of conquering the ,byzantine ,empire1 but his death frustrated this endeavor4 ,his nephew ,roger ,,ii4 7#aacj-aaed7 took the remaining possessions of the ,greeks in ,southern ,italy and ,sicily1 united them in the kingdom of ,naples and ,sicily1 and received from the ,pope the title of king4 ,in this kingdom the feudal system was established1 and trade and industry flourished4 ,in culture and prosperity it surpassed all the other ,italian communities4 ,at ,salerno was a famous school of medicine and natural science2 at ,amalfi and ,naples were schools of law4 ,but the ,norman nobility was corrupted and enervated by the luxury of the ,south1 and by the influence of ,mohammedan customs1 and modes of thought4 ,during fifty-six years ,roger and his two successors1 ,william the ,bad 7#aaed-aaff7 and ,william the ,good 7#aaff-aahi71 ruled this flourishing kingdom1 which then fell by inheritance to the ,hohenstaufen ,german princes4 ,on the mainland and in ,sicily1 numerous stately buildings and ruined castles and towers point back to the romantic period of ,norman rule4 ,,norman ,,traits4--,it is a remarkable fact1 that the ,normans1 although so distinguished as rovers and conquerors1 have vanished from the face of the earth4 ,they were lost in the kingdoms which they founded4 ,they adopted the languages of the nations which they subdued4 ,but while in ,england they were merged in the ,english1 and modified the national character1 this effect was not produced in ,italy and ,sicily4 ,in ,sicily they found ,greek-speaking ,christians and ,arabic-speaking ,mussulmans2 and ,italians came into the island in the track of the conquerors4 ,the ,normans did not find there a nation as in ,england2 and they created not a nation1 but a kingdom of a composite sort1 beneficent while it lasted1 but leaving no permanent traces behind4 ,the ,normans in ,sicily1 says ,mr4 ,freeman1 so far as they did not die out1 were merged1 not in a ,sicilian nation1 for that did not exist1 but in the common mass of settlers of ,latin speech and rite1 as distinguished from the older inhabitants1 ,greek and ,saracen4 ,independent1 enterprising1 impatient of restraint1 gifted with a rare imitative power which imparted a peculiar tinge and a peculiar grace to whatever they adopted from others1 they lacked originality1 and the power to maintain their own distinctive type of character and of speech4 ,mr4 ,freeman has eloquently described the spread of the ,normans1 the ,saracens of ,christendom1 in all corners of the world4 ,they fought in the ,east against the ,turks4 ,north1 south1 east1 the ,norman lances were lifted4 ,the ,norman ransacked ,europe for scholars1 poets1 theologians1 and artists4 ,at ,rouen1 at ,palermo1 and at ,winchester he welcomed merit in men of every race and every language4 ,and yet that race1 as a race1 has vanished4 ,the ,scottish ,brace or the ,irish ,geraldine passed from ,scandinavia to ,gaul1 from ,gaul to ,england1 from ,england to his own portion of our islands2 but at each migration1 he ceased to be ,scandinavian1 ,french1 or ,english3 his patriotism was in each case transferred to his new country1 and his historic being belongs to his last acquired home4 ,norman blood was in the veins of the ,crusaders who first stood on the battlements of ,jerusalem1 and of the great ,german emperor1 ,frederic ,,ii4 ,,the ,,normans4 ,,tancred ,,of ,,hauteville4 --,robert ,guiscard1 ,duke of ,apulia1 d4 #ajhe4 ,,sicily --,,roger1 the ,great ,count1 d4 #aaja --,roger 7of ,apulia1 #aabg2 king1 #aacj71 #aaja-aaed4 --,,william ,i the ,bad1 #aaed-aaff1 m4 ,margaret1 daughter of ,garcia ,,iv of ,navarre4 --,,william ,,ii the ,good1 #aaff-aahi1 m4 ,joanna1 daughter of ,henry ,,ii of ,england4 --,,constance 7d4 #aaih71 m4 ,emperor ,henry ,,vi4 ,,the ,,feudal ,,system4 ,,origin ,,of ,,feudalism4--,when the ,franks conquered ,gaul1 they divided the land among themselves4 ,this estate each free ,german held as allodial property1 or as a free-hold4 ,the king took the largest share4 ,his palaces were dwellings connected with large farms or hunting-grounds1 and he went with his courtiers from one to another4 ,to his personal followers and officers he allotted lands4 ,these benefices1 it seems1 were granted at first with the understanding that he might resume them at will4 ,as holders of them1 the recipients owed to him personal support4 ,other chiefs1 and land-owners of a minor grade1 took the same course4 ,this was the germ of feudalism4 ,more and more it grew to be the characteristic method of living and of government in ,western ,europe after the fall of ,charlemagne's empire4 ,the inheritors of his dominion were not the kings of ,france1 of ,germany1 or of ,italy1 but the numerous feudal lords4 ,against the invasions of the ,norman1 ,saracen1 and ,hungarian plunderers1 the kings and the counts proved themselves incapable of defending territory or people4 ,meantime1 the principle of heredity--the principle that benefices should go down from father to son1 or to the next heir--had gained a firm footing4 ,another fact was that the royal offices became hereditary1 and were transmitted to the heirs of allodial property4 ,thus the exercise of government and the possession of land were linked together4 ,in times of danger1 small proprietors more and more put themselves under the protection of the richer and stronger3 that is1 allodial property became feudal4 ,this custom had begun long before1 in the decadence of the ,roman empire1 when not only poor freemen1 but also men of moderate means1 ruined by taxation1 put themselves under the protection of the great1 and settled on their lands4 ,they became thus colons 7coloni74 ,in the later times of disorder of which we are now speaking1 farmhouses in the country gave place to fortified castles on hill-tops or other defensible sites1 about which clustered in villages the dependents of the lord1 who tilled his land1 fought for him1 and1 in turn1 were protected by him4 ,,the ,,substance ,,of ,,feudalism4--,feudality recognizes two principles1 the land and the sword1 riches and force1--two principles on which every thing depends1 to which every thing is related1 and which are united and identified with one another2 since it is necessary to possess land in order to have the right to use the sword in one's own name 7that is to say1 to have the right of private war71 and since the possession of land imposes the duty of drawing the sword for the suzerain1 and in the name of the suzerain of whom the land is held4 ,feudalism is a social system in which there is a kind of hierarchy of lands in the hands of warriors1 who hold of one another in a gradation4 ,there is a chain reaching up from the tower of the simple gentleman to the royal chateau1 or castle4 ,in this social organization1 there are the two grand classes of the seigneurs and the serfs2 but the seigneur1 even if he be a king1 may also hold fiefs as a vassal4 ,,suzerain ,,and ,,vassal4--,the suzerain and the vassal1 or liege1 were bound together by reciprocal obligations4 ,the vassal owed 7#a7 military service on the demand of the lord2 7#b7 such aid as the suzerain called for in the administration of justice within his jurisdiction2 7#c7 other aids1 such as1 when he was a prisoner1 to pay the ransom for his release2 and pecuniary contributions when he armed his eldest son1 and when he married his eldest daughter4 ,these were legal or required aids4 ,they took the place of taxation in modern states4 ,there were other things that the vassal was expected to do which were gracious or voluntary4 ,if the liege died without heirs1 or forfeited the fief by a violation of the conditions on which it was held1 it reverted to the lord4 ,the liege was invested with the fief4 ,he knelt before the suzerain1 put his hands within the hands of the suzerain1 and took an oath to be his man4 ,this was homage1--from homo in the ,latin1 and homme in ,french1 signifying man4 ,the suzerain might at any time require its renewal4 ,under the feudal system1 every thing was turned into a fief4 ,the right to hunt in a forest1 or to fish in a river1 or to have an escort on the roads1 might be granted as a fief1 on the condition of loyalty1 and of the homage just described4 ,,private ,,war4--,the vassal had the right to be tried by his peers2 that is1 by vassals on the same level as himself4 ,he might1 if treated with injustice1 go to the superior3 he might appeal to the suzerain of his immediate lord4 ,but suzerains preferred to take justice into their own hands4 ,hence the custom of private war prevailed1 and of judicial combats1 or duels1 so common in the middle ages4 ,,entanglements ,,of ,,feudalism4--,many suzerains were mutually vassals1 each holding certain lands of the other4 ,the same baron often held lands of different suzerains1 who might be at war with each other1 so that each required his service4 ,the sovereign prince might be bound to do homage to a petty feudal lord on account of lands which the prince had inherited or otherwise acquired4 ,the power of the suzerain depended on a variety of circumstances4 ,the king might be weak1 since feudalism grew out of the overthrow of royal power4 ,the king of ,france1 with the exception of titular prerogatives and some rights with regard to churches1 which were often disputed1 had no means of attack or defense beyond what the duchy of ,france furnished him4 ,yet logically and by a natural tendency1 the king was the supreme suzerain4 ,feudalism carried hid in its bosom the arms by which it was one day to be struck down4 ,,ecclesiastical ,,feudalism4--,the clergy were included in the feudal system4 ,the bishop was often made the count1 and1 as such1 was the suzerain of all the nobles in his diocese4 ,cities were often under the suzerainty of bishops4 ,besides their tithes1 the clergy had immense landed possessions4 ,the abbots and bishops often availed themselves of the protection of powerful vassals1 of whom they were the suzerains4 ,on the other hand1 bishops1 who were also themselves dukes or counts1 sometimes did homage for their temporalities to lay suzerains1 especially to the king4 ,in ,france and in ,england1 in the middle ages1 the feudal clergy possessed a fifth of all the land2 in ,germany1 a third4 ,the church1 through bequests of the dying and donations from the living1 constantly increased its possessions4 ,it might be despoiled1 but it could defend itself by the terrible weapon of excommunication4 ,,serfs ,,and ,,villains4--,in the eleventh century ,europe was thus covered with a multitude of petty sovereigns4 ,below the body of rulers1 or the holders of fiefs1 was the mass of the people4 ,these were the serfs1--the tillers of the ground1 who enjoyed some of the privileges of freemen1 and who1 since they were attached to the seigneurie1 could not be sold as slaves4 ,the villains were a grade above the serfs4 ,the term 7from vill7 originally meant villagers4 ,they paid rent for the land which the proprietor allowed them to till2 but they were subject1 like the serfs1 to the will of the suzerain2 and the constant tendency was for them to sink into the inferior condition4 ,slavery1 as distinguished from serfdom1 gradually passed away under the emancipating spirit fostered by ,christianity and the ,church4 ,,the ,,inheritance ,,of ,,fiefs4--,at first the ,salic principle1 which excluded females from inheriting fiefs1 prevailed4 ,but that gave way1 and daughters were preferred in law to collateral male relatives4 ,when a female inherited1 the fief was occupied by the suzerain up to the time of her marriage4 ,it never ceased to be under the protection of the sword4 ,in ,france1 the right of primogeniture was established1 but with important qualifications1 which varied in different portions of the country4 ,the eldest1 however1 always had the largest portion4 ,in ,germany1 the tendency to the division of fiefs was more prevalent4 ,among the ,normans in ,england1 and under their influence in ,palestine1 the law of inheritance by the eldest was established in its full rigor4 ,,spirit ,,of ,,feudalism4--,feudalism had more vitality than the system of absorbing all the land by a few great proprietors1 which existed in the period of the decline of the ,roman ,empire4 ,individuality1 courage1 the proud sense of belonging to an aristocratic order1 were widely diffused among the numerous feudal landowners4 ,the feeling of loyalty among them was a great advance upon the blind subjection of the slave to his master4 ,but the weight of feudalism was heavy on the lower strata of society4 ,the lord was an autocrat1 whose will there was neither the power nor the right to resist1 and who could lay hold of as much of the labor and the earnings of the subject as he might choose to exact4 ,the petty suzerain1 because his needs were greater1 was often more oppressive than the prince4 ,the serf could not change his abode1 he could not marry1 he could not bequeath his goods1 without the permission of his lord4 ,,the ,,saxon1 ,,franconian1 ,,and ,,hohenstaufen ,,imperial ,,houses4 ,,henry ,i #a #iah-icf4 --,,otto ,i1 #icf-igc1 ,emperor1 #ifb1 m4 #a1 ,eadgyth1 d4 of ,edward the ,elder2 --,liutgarde4 #b1 ,adelheid1 #b d4 of ,rudolph ,,ii1 ,king of ,burgundy4 --,,otto ,,ii1 #igc-ihc1 m4 ,theophania1 daughter of ,romanus ,,ii1 ,eastern ,emperor4 --,,otto ,,iii1 #ihc-ajjb4 --,henry the ,wrangler1 ,duke of ,bavaria4 --,henry the ,wrangler4 --7,st47 ,,henry ,,ii1 #ajjb-ajbd1 m4 ,cunigunda of ,luxemburg4 ,,conrad ,i1 #a #iaa-iah4 --,c4 ,werner 787 m4 daughter4 --,conrad the ,red1 7killed at the ,lechfeld1 #iee7 m4 ,liutgarde1 daughter of ,eadgyth and ,otto ,i4 --,otto4 --,henry4 --,,conrad ,,ii1 the ,salic1 #ajbd-ajci1 m4 ,gisela1 d4 of ,hermann ,,ii1 ,duke of ,swabia4 --,,henry ,,iii1 #ajci-ajef1 m4 #a1 ,gunhilda1 daughter of ,cnut2 #b1 ,agnes1 daughter of ,william1 ,count of ,poitiers4 --,,henry ,,iv1 #ajef-aajf1 m4 #a1 ,bertha1 daughter of ,otto1 ,marquis of ,susa2 --,,henry ,v1 #aajf-aabe1 m4 ,matilda1 d4 of ,henry ,i of ,england4 --,agnes1 m4 #a1 ,frederick of ,hohenstaufen1 ,duke of ,swabia1 #ajhj-aaje2 --,frederick the ,one-eyed1 ,duke of ,swabia1 d4 #aadg1 m4 #a1 ,judith1 daughter of ,henry the ,black4 --,,frederick ,i1 ,barbarossa1 #aaeb-aaij4 --,,henry ,,vi1 #aaij-aaig1 m4 ,constance of ,sicily1 d4 #aaih4 --,,frederick ,,ii1 #abad-abej1 m4 #a1 ,constance1 d4 of ,alfonso ,,ii of ,aragon2 --,,conrad ,,iv1 #abej-abed1 m4 ,elizabeth1 daughter of ,otto ,,ii of ,bavaria4 --,conradin1 d4 #abfh4 --,manfred1#e d4 #abff4 #b1 ,iolande de ,brienne2 #c1 ,isabella1 d4 of ,john of ,england4 --,,philip1 #aaih-abjh1 m4 ,irene1 d4 of ,isaac ,,ii1 ,angelus1 ,eastern ,emperor4 --,beatrix1 m4 ,,otto ,,iv1#d #abjh-abad1 d4 #abah4 --,,conrad ,,iii1#c #aacg-aaeb4 #b1 ,leopold ,,iii1 ,marquis of ,austria1 d4 #aacf4 #b1 ,adelaide1 a ,russian princess4 #a ,conrad ,i and ,henry ,i seem to have been related4 ,by one account their mothers were the daughters of ,emperor ,arnulf4 #b ,widow of ,lothar1 ,king of ,italy4 #c ,elected #aabg in opposition to ,lotharl accepted as his successor4 #d ,elected in opposition to ,philip2 accepted as his successor1 #abjh2 ruined by battle of ,bouvines4 #e ,king of ,naples and ,sicily after ,conrad ,,iv2 killed in battle at ,benevento against ,charles of ,anjou4 ,manfred's mother was ,bianca ,langia1 daughter of a ,lombard noble4 ,,period ,,iii4 ,,from ,,the ,,establishment ,,of ,,the ,,romano-,,germanic ,,empire ,,to ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,crusades4 7,a4,d4 #ifb-abgj47 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,church ,,and ,,the ,,empire3 ,,predominance ,,of ,,the ,,empire3 ,,to ,,the ,,crusades1 ,a4,d4 #ajif4 ,i4 ,,kings ,,and ,,emperors ,,of ,,the ,,saxon ,,house 7#iah-ajbd74 ,,henry ,,the ,,fowler 7#iah-icf74--,the envoys who carried to ,duke ,henry of ,saxony the announcement of his election as king of ,germany are said to have found him in the ,hartz ,mountains with a falcon on his wrist3 hence he was called ,henry the ,fowler4 ,he is a great figure in medival history1 and did much to make ,germany a nation4 ,he won back ,lorraine1 which had broken off from the kingdom4 ,with it the ,netherlands--,holland1 ,flanders1 etc4--came to ,germany4 ,he united all the five great dukedoms1 and governed with wisdom and moderation4 ,at the end of five years1 the ,hungarians poured in with irresistible force4 ,there was no alternative but to conclude with them a truce for nine years1 during which he was to pay tribute4 ,he set to work at once1 however1 to strengthen the defenses of his kingdom4 ,he built walled towns and fortresses in the eastern districts of ,saxony and ,thuringia1 and drafted one out of nine of the men from the population in the marches for military service4 ,the fortresses were to be kept stored with provisions4 ,the oldest towns of ,saxony and of ,thuringia are of this date4 ,then he disciplined his soldiers1 and trained them to fight1 like the ,hungarians1 on horseback4 ,he conquered the ,slavonian ,wends who dwelt east of the ,elbe and the ,saale1 and established the margraviate of ,meissen to repel their attacks4 ,his victory over the ,slaves at ,lenzen 7#ibi7 made the north-eastern frontiers of ,germany secure4 ,eadgyth1 the daughter of ,edward1 king of ,england1 was given in marriage to his eldest son1 ,otto4 ,henry now felt himself strong enough to throw off the ,hungarian yoke1 and answered with defiance their demand for the annual tribute4 ,the struggle with them was hard2 but they were completely vanquished at ,merseburg in #icc1 and their camp taken4 ,henry founded the mark of ,schleswig as a defense against the ,danes4 ,this wise and vigorous monarch laid the foundations of the ,german ,empire4 ,he was not only a mighty warrior3 he built up industry and trade4 ,he was buried at ,quedlinburg in the abbey which he had founded4 ,,otto ,i43 ,,the ,,palsgraves4--,otto ,i4 7#icf-igc7 carried forward with equal energy the work which his father had begun4 ,having been chosen king by the ,german princes and chiefs at ,aix1 he was presented to the people in the church by the archbishop of ,mentz2 and they gave their assent to the election by raising the hand4 ,otto had a contest before him to maintain the unity of the kingdom4 ,he aimed to make the office of duke an office to be allotted by the king1 and thus to sap the power of his turbulent lieges4 ,the dukes of ,bavaria and ,franconia1 with ,lorraine1 and with the support of ,louis ,,iv41 king of ,france1 rose in arms against him4 ,he subdued them2 and the great duchies which had revolted against him becoming vacant1 he placed in them members of his own family4 ,he confirmed his authority by extending the power of the palsgraves1 or counts palatine1--royal officers who superintended the domains of the king in the several duchies1 and dispensed justice in his name4 ,he favored the great ecclesiastics as a check to the aspiring lay lords4 ,he invested the bishops and abbots with ring and staff1 and they took the oath of fealty to him4 ,,wars ,,of ,,otto ,i--,against the ,hungarians1 ,otto achieved a triumph4 ,he gained a victory over them at ,augsburg in #iee1 in which they were said to have lost a hundred thousand men4 ,this put an end to their incursions into ,germany4 ,he was likewise the victor in conflict with ,slavonians4 ,he subdued ,boleslav ,i4 of ,bohemia1 who had thrown off the ,german suzerainty1 and obliged him to pay a tribute4 ,under the pious ,boleslav ,,ii41 ,christianity was established there1 and a bishopric founded at ,prague 7#ifg74 ,the ,duke of ,poland was forced to do homage to him1 and to permit the founding of the bishopric of ,posen4 ,against the ,danish king1 ,harold the ,blue-toothed1 he carried his arms to the sea1 the northern boundary of ,jutland4 ,he erected three new bishoprics among the ,danes1 and founded the archbishopric of ,magdeburg1 with subordinate sees in the valleys of the ,elbe and the ,oder4 ,these achievements gave ,otto great renown in ,western ,europe4 ,the kings sent ambassadors to him1 and presents came from the sovereigns at ,constantinople and ,cordova4 ,,otto ,i4 ,,in ,,italy4--,otto now turned his eyes to ,italy4 ,after ,arnulf1 the ,carlovingian emperor1 left ,italy 7in #hif71 that country had been left to sixty years of anarchy4 ,the demoralization and disorder of ,italy1 the profligacy of the ,romans and of the pontiffs1-- every thing being then subject to the riotous aristocratic factions1 --rendered unity impossible4 ,for a time 7#ibf-ide7 ,hugh of ,provence was called king3 then followed his son ,lothar 7#ide-iej74 ,the next ,italian king1 ,berengar ,,ii4 of ,ivrea 7#iej71 who1 like his two predecessors1 was an offshoot of the ,carlovingian house1 tried to force ,adelheid1 the beautiful young widow of ,lothar1 into a marriage with his son ,adalbert4 ,she 7being then nineteen years of age7 escaped with great difficulty from the prison where she was confined1 took refuge in the castle of ,canossa1 and appealed to the great ,otto1 king of the ,germans1 for help1--to ,otto1 that model of knightly virtue which was beginning to show itself after the fierce brutality of the last age4 ,he descended into ,italy1 married the injured queen1 and obliged ,berengar to own him as suzerain 7#iea74 ,berengar proved faithless and rebellious4 ,once more ,otto entered ,italy with an overpowering force1 and was proclaimed king of the ,lombards at ,pavia4 ,pope ,john ,,xii4 had proposed to him to assume the imperial office4 ,he was crowned1 with his queen1 in ,st4 ,peter's1 in #ifb4 ,he had engaged to confirm the gifts of previous emperors to the popes4 ,when ,john ,,xii4 reversed his steps1 allied himself with ,berengar1 and tried to stir up the ,greeks1 and even the ,hungarians1 against the emperor1 ,otto came down from ,lombardy1 and captured ,rome4 ,he caused ,john to be deposed by a synod for his crimes1 and ,leo ,,viii4 to be appointed in his place 7#ifc74 ,but1 while ,otto was again absent1 ,leo was driven out by the ,romans1 and ,john returned2 but1 soon after1 he died4 ,the ,romans then elected ,benedict pope4 ,otto captured ,rome once more1 deposed him1 and restored ,leo4 ,benedict was held in custody1 and died in ,hamburg4 ,on a third journey to ,italy1 in #iff1 ,otto crushed the factions which had so long degraded ,rome and the ,church4 ,on this occasion1 he negotiated a marriage between ,theophano1 a ,greek princess1 and his son1 also named ,otto4 ,thus he acquired the southern extremity of ,italy4 ,,the ,,holy ,,roman ,,empire4--,otto had taken ,charlemagne for his model4 ,the ,holy ,roman ,empire of the ,german nation1 the great political institution of the middle ages1 was now established4 ,in theory it was the union of the world-state and the world-church1--an undivided community under ,emperor and ,pope1 its heaven-appointed secular and spiritual heads4 ,as an actual political fact1 it was the political union of ,germany and ,italy1 in one sovereignty1 which was in the hands of the ,german king4 ,the junction of the two peoples was not without its advantages to both4 ,it was1 however1 fruitful of evils4 ,the strength of ,germany was spent in endless struggles abroad1 which stood in the way of the building up of a compact kingdom at home4 ,for ,italy it was the rule of foreigners1 of which she might feel the need1 but to which she was never reconciled4 ,,otto ,,ii43 ,,otto ,,iii43 ,,henry ,,ii4--,otto ,,ii4 7#igc-ihc7 was highly gifted intellectually1 but lacked his father's energy and decision4 ,henry the ,quarrelsome1 duke of ,bavaria1 revolted1 but was put down1 and deprived of his duchy4 ,otto obliged ,lothar1 the ,west ,frankish king1 to give up his claim to ,lotharingia1 which he attempted to seize4 ,otto1 in #ihj1 went to ,italy1 and1 in the effort to conquer ,southern ,italy from the ,greeks and ,saracens1 barely escaped with his life4 ,this was in #ihb4 ,he never returned to ,germany4 ,while ,otto ,,iii4 7#ihc-ajjb7 was a child1 his mother1 ,theophano1 was regent for a time in ,germany1 and his grandmother1 ,adelheid1 in ,italy4 ,one of ,otto's tutors was ,gerbert1 an eminent scholar and theologian4 ,the proficiency of the young prince caused him to be styled the ,wonder of the ,world4 ,he was crowned emperor in ,rome in #iif1 when he was only sixteen years old4 ,he dreamed of making ,rome once more the center of the world1 for his interest was chiefly in ,italy4 ,but his schemes were ended by his early death4 ,at this time and afterward1 there was deep agitation manifested in ,europe1 owing to the general expectation that before long the world would come to an end4 ,on this account pilgrims flocked to ,rome4 ,henry ,,ii4 7#ajjb-ajbd71 as nearest of kin to the ,saxon house1 was the next emperor4 ,besides waging war with his own insurgent lieges1 he had to carry on a contest for fourteen years with ,bokslav1 king of ,poland1 who had to give up ,bohemia and ,meissen4 ,he founded the bishopric of ,bamberg 7#ajjg74 ,from this time the ,german kings1 before their coronation as emperors1 took the title of ,king of the ,romans4 ,the highest nobles were styled ,princes4 ,the nobles lived in the castles1 which were built for strongholds1 as the power of the lords grew1 and private wars became more common4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,franconian ,,or ,,salian ,,emperors 7#ajbd-aabe74 ,,conrad ,,ii43 ,,burgundy3 the ,,poles4--,at a great assembly of dukes1 counts1 and prelates at ,oppenheim on the ,rhine1 ,conrad1 a ,franconian nobleman 7,conrad ,,ii471 was elected emperor 7#ajbd-ajci74 ,he was in the prime of life1 and went to work vigorously to repress disorder in his kingdom4 ,he had the support of the cities1 which were now increasing in importance4 ,at his coronation in ,rome1 in #ajbg1 there were two kings present1 ,canute of ,england and ,denmark1 and ,rudolph ,,iii4 of ,burgundy 7or ,arles1 as the kingdom was called which had been formed by ,rudolph ,,ii41 by uniting ,burgundy with a great part of ,provence74 ,after the death of ,rudolph1 who had appointed ,conrad his successor1 the emperor was crowned king of ,arles1 which remained thus attached to ,germany4 ,but at a later time the ,romance1 or non-,german portions1 were absorbed by ,france4 ,the ,duchy of ,burgundy1 a fief of the ,french king1 was not included in the kingdom4 ,the ,poles invaded ,germany in great force4 ,miesko1 their leader1 was repelled1 and obliged to do homage for his crown1 and to give up ,lusatia1 which had been received by ,boleslav from ,henry ,,ii4 ,in ,italy1 ,conrad issued an edict making the smaller fiefs there hereditary4 ,he seems to have designed to do away with dukes1 and to make the allegiance of all vassals to the king immediate4 ,,henry ,,iii43 ,,the ,,truce ,,of ,,god4--,with ,henry ,,iii4 7#ajci-ajef7 the imperial power reached its height4 ,he was for a time duke of ,bavaria1 ,swabia1 and ,franconia1 as well as emperor4 ,in ,hungary he conquered the enemies of ,peter the king1 and restored him to the throne1 receiving his homage as vassal of the empire4 ,he had great success in putting down private war4 ,in #ajdc he proclaimed a general peace in his kingdom4 ,he favored the attempt to bring in the ,truce of ,god4 ,this originated in ,aquitaine1 where the bishops1 in #ajda1 ordered that no private feuds should be prosecuted between the sunset of ,wednesday and the sunrise of ,monday1 the period covered by the most sacred events in the life of ,jesus4 ,this truce1 which was afterwards extended to embrace certain other holy seasons and festivals1 spread from land to land4 ,it shows the influence of ,christianity in those dark and troublous times4 ,although it was imperfectly carried out1 it was most beneficent in its influence1 and specially welcome to the classes not capable of defending themselves against violence4 ,,synod ,,of ,,sutri4--,in #ajdf ,henry was called into ,italy by the well-disposed of all parties1 to put an end to the reign of vice and disorder at ,rome4 ,he caused the three rival popes to be deposed by a synod at ,sutri1 and a ,german prelate1 ,suidger1 bishop of ,bamberg1 to be appointed under the name of ,clement ,,ii41 by whom he was crowned emperor4 ,after ,clement died1 ,henry raised to the ,papacy three ,german popes in succession4 ,while in the full exercise of his great authority1 and when he was not quite forty years of age1 he died4 ,,henry ,,iv43 ,,his ,,contests ,,in ,,germany4--,henry ,,iv4 7#ajef-aajf71 at his father's death1 was but six years old4 ,he had been crowned king at the age of four4 ,agnes of ,poitou1 his mother1 the regent1 had no ability to curb the princes1 who were now released from restraint1 and eager for independence4 ,by a bold stratagem1 an ambitious prelate1 ,hanno1 archbishop of ,cologne1 carried off the young king1 and assumed the guardianship over him4 ,he had a rival in the person of ,adalbert1 archbishop of ,bremen1 whom ,henry liked best1 as being more indulgent and complaisant1 and who at length became his chosen guide4 ,but in #ajff the princes caused ,adalbert to be banished from court4 ,they obliged ,henry to marry ,bertha1 the daughter of the margrave of ,turin1 to whom he had been betrothed by his father4 ,the union was repugnant to him1 and he sought a divorce2 although her patience eventually won the victory1 and she became a cherished wife4 ,henry1 arrived at man's estate1 was involved in a contest with three of the great dukes4 ,it was evident that he meant to tread in the footsteps of his father1 and to reduce the princes to submission4 ,hostility arose1 especially between the young king and the ,saxons1 who did not relish the transfer of the imperial office to the ,franconian line4 ,the passionate and wilful disposition of ,henry1 and his sensual propensities1 were his worst enemies4 ,the strongholds which he erected among the ,saxons1 in themselves a menace1 were made haunts of his boon companions and comrades in the chase4 ,the extortion and depredations to which the ,saxons were a prey provoked a great insurrection1 which at first prevailed2 but the excesses of the elated insurgents--as seen1 for example1 in the plundering and burning of churches--caused a reaction4 ,henry suppressed the revolt1 and dealt with the ,saxons with the utmost harshness1 treating their dukedom as conquered territory4 ,the ,saxon chiefs were now in durance3 his enemies on every side had willingly yielded1 or were prostrate4 ,the hour seemed to have come for ,henry to exercise that sovereignty as ,roman emperor over ,church and ,state which his father had wielded2 but he found himself confronted by a new and powerful antagonist in the celebrated ,pope ,hilde-brand1 or ,gregory ,,vii4 7#ajgc-ajhe74 ,,hildebrand3 ,,investitures4--,the state of affairs in the ,roman ,church had called into existence a party of reform1 the life and soul of which was ,hildebrand4 ,he was the son of a carpenter of ,soano1 a small town in ,tuscany1 and was born in #ajah4 ,he was educated in a monastery in ,rome1 and spent some time in ,france1 in the great monastery of ,cluny4 ,he became the influential adviser of the popes who immediately preceded him4 ,the great aim of ,hildebrand and of his supporters--one of the most prominent of whom was the zealous ,peter ,damiani1 bishop of ,ostia--was to abolish simony and the marriage of priests4 ,by simony was meant the purchase and sale of benefices1 which had come to prevail in the different countries4 ,the old church laws requiring celibacy had been disregarded1 and great numbers of the inferior clergy were living with their wives4 ,in ,hildebrand's view1 there could be no purity and no just discipline in the ,church without a strict enforcement of the neglected rule4 ,the priests must put away their wives4 ,connected with these reforms was the broader design of wholly emancipating the ,church from the control of the secular power1 and of subordinating the ,state to the ,church4 ,for this end there must be an abolition of investiture by lay hands4 ,this demand it was that kindled a prolonged and terrible controversy between the emperors and the popes4 ,the great ecclesiastics had temporal estates and a temporal jurisdiction1 which placed them in a feudal relation1 and made them powerful subjects4 ,it was the custom of the kings to invest them with these temporalities by giving to them the ring and the staff4 ,this enabled the kings to keep out of the benefices persons not acceptable to them1 who might be elected by the clergy4 ,on the other hand1 it was complained that this custom put the bishops and other high ecclesiastics into a relation of dependence on the lay authority2 and1 moreover1 that1 the ring and staff being badges of a spiritual function1 it was sacrilegious for a layman to bestow them4 ,,contest ,,of ,,hildebrand ,,and ,,henry ,,iv4--,in the period of lawlessness at ,rome1 ,hildebrand had welcomed the intervention of ,henry ,,iii41 and even of ,henry ,,iv41 at the beginning of his reign4 ,but this he regarded as only a provisional remedy made necessary by a desperate disorder4 ,on acceding to the ,papacy1 he began to put in force his leading ideas4 ,the attempt to abolish the marriage of priests was resisted1 and stirred up great commotion in all the countries4 ,the legates of the ,pope set themselves to stem the tide of opposition by inveighing1 in addresses to the common people1 against the married clergy1 as unfit to minister at the altar4 ,by this means1 a popular party in favor of the reform was created4 ,in #ajge1 in a synod at ,rome1 ,hildebrand pronounced the ban against five councilors of ,henry ,,iv4 for simony4 ,at the same time he threatened ,philip of ,france with a similar penalty4 ,he forbade princes to invest with any spiritual office4 ,to oaths of allegiance he did not object1 but to any investiture of a spiritual kind4 ,gregory selected ,henry ,,iv4 as the antagonist with whom to fight out the battle4 ,henry's ecclesiastical appointments were not simoniacal in fact1 although they violated the papal decrees against simony4 ,his real offense was his determination to make the appointments himself4 ,moreover1 in #ajge1 he ventured to name ,germans to the sees of ,ferno and ,spoleto4 ,unfortunately he was weakened by the disaffection of the ,german princes1 and1 most of all1 of the ,saxons4 ,the fire of rebellion in ,saxony had not been quenched3 it was still smouldering4 ,gregory summoned ,henry to ,rome to answer to the charges made against him4 ,in three ,german synods held in #ajgf1 the incensed emperor caused empty accusations to be brought against the ,pope1 and a declaration to be passed deposing him4 ,he sent to the pontiff a letter filled with denunciation1 and addressed to the false monk1 ,hildebrand4 ,gregory issued decrees excommunicating ,henry1 deposing him1 and declaring his subjects free from their obligation of allegiance4 ,it was the received doctrine1 that a heretic or a heathen could not reign over ,christian people4 ,the discontented ,german princes took sides with ,gregory4 ,in an assembly at ,tribur in #ajgf1 they invited the ,pope to come to ,augsburg1 and to judge in the case of ,henry3 he was to live as a private man2 and1 if he remained excommunicate for a year1 he was to cease to be king altogether4 ,,humiliation ,,of ,,henry ,,iv4--,henry was now as anxious for reconciliation with the ,pope as before he had been bold in his defiance4 ,in the midst of winter1 with his wife and child and a few attendants1 he crossed the ,mt4 ,cenis pass1 undergoing extreme difficulty and hardship1 and presented himself as a penitent before ,gregory1 who had arrived1 on his way to ,augsburg1 at the strongly fortified castle of ,canossa4 ,the ,pope kept him waiting long1 it is said1 barefoot and bareheaded in the court-yard of the castle4 ,finally he was admitted and absolved1 but only on the condition that ,gregory was to adjust the matters in dispute between the emperor and his subjects4 ,,continued ,,conflict4--,when ,henry found that his imperial rights were still withheld1 his fiery spirit rebounded from this depth of humiliation4 ,the ,lombards1 with whom ,gregory was unpopular1 joined him4 ,a majority of the ,german princes1 adhering to the ,pope1 in #ajgg elected ,rudolph1 duke of ,swabia1 emperor4 ,the ,pope took up his cause1 and in #ajhj once more excommunicated and deposed ,henry4 ,the emperor proclaimed anew1 through synods1 the ,pope's deposition1 and things were back in the former state4 ,the emperor's party appointed a counter-pope1 ,guibert1 archbishop of ,ravenna1 under the name of ,clement ,,iii4 ,rudolph was killed in battle 7#ajhj74 ,henry's power now vastly increased4 ,he invaded ,italy 7#ajha71 and laid waste the territory of ,matilda1 countess of ,tuscany1 a fast friend of ,gregory4 ,in #ajhd he captured ,rome4 ,the ,pope had found a defender in ,robert ,guiscard1 the ,norman duke of ,lower ,italy1 whom he had excommunicated1 but whom 7in #ajhj7 he forgave1 and took into his service4 ,robert released ,gregory1 who had been besieged in the ,castle of ,st4 ,angelo4 ,hildebrand died at ,salerno1 ,may #be1 #ajhe4 ,when near his end he uttered the words which are inscribed on his tomb3 ,i have loved righteousness1 and hated iniquity2 therefore do ,i die in exile4 ,of the rectitude of his intentions1 there is no room for doubt1 whatever view is taken of the expediency of his measures4 ,he united with an unbending will the power of accommodating himself to circumstances1 as is witnessed in his treatment of ,robert ,guiscard1 and in his forbearance towards ,william the ,conqueror1 king of ,england1 with whom he did not wish to break4 ,of this great pontiff1 ,sir ,james ,stephen says3 ,he found the ,papacy dependent on the empire3 he sustained it by alliances almost commensurate with the ,italian peninsula4 ,he found the ,papacy electoral by the ,roman people and clergy3 he left it electoral by a college of papal nomination4 ,he found the emperor the virtual patron of the holy see3 he wrested that power from his hands4 ,he found the secular clergy the allies and dependants of the secular power3 he converted them into the inalienable auxiliaries of his own4 ,he found the higher ecclesiastics in servitude to the temporal sovereigns3 he delivered them from that yoke to subjugate them to the ,roman tiara4 ,he found the patronage of the ,church the mere desecrated spoil and merchandise of princes3 he reduced it within the dominion of the supreme pontiff4 ,he is celebrated as the reformer of the impure and profane abuses of his age3 he is more justly entitled to the praise of having left the impress of his own gigantic character on the history of all the ages which have succeeded him4 ,,last ,,days ,,of ,,henry ,,iv4--,in #ajhe ,henry ,,iv4 returned to ,germany1 having been crowned emperor by his ,pope1 ,clement ,,iii4 ,the ,saxons were tired of strife2 and1 on the assurance that their ancient privileges should be restored1 they were pacified4 ,hermann of ,luxemburg1 whom they had recognized as their king1 had resigned the crown 7#ajhh74 ,the last days of ,henry were clouded by the rebellion of his sons1 first of ,conrad 7#ajic71 and then of ,henry 7#aajd71 who was supported by the ,pope1 ,paschal ,,ii4 ,the emperor was taken prisoner1 and obliged to sign his own abdication at ,ingelheim in #aaje4 ,the duke of ,lotharingia and others came to his support1 and a civil war was threatened2 but ,henry died at ,lttich in #aajf4 ,his body was placed in a stone coffin1 where it lay in an unconsecrated chapel1 at ,spires1 until the removal of the excommunication 7#aaaa74 ,,concordat ,,of ,,worms4--,henry ,v4 7#aajf-aabe7 was not in the least disposed to yield up the right of investiture4 ,hence he was soon engaged in a controversy with ,paschal ,,ii4 ,henry went to ,rome with an army in #aaaj1 and obliged the ,pope to crown him emperor1 and to concede to him the right in question4 ,when he went back to ,germany1 the ,pope revoked the concession1 and excommunicated him4 ,the ,german princes1 as might be expected1 sided with the pontiff4 ,the conflict in ,germany went on4 ,the emperor's authority1 which was established in the ,south by means of his powerful supporters1 was not secured in the ,north2 but1 during the last three years of his life1 he was at peace with the ,church4 ,by the ,concordat of ,worms in #aabb1 it was agreed that investiture should take place in the presence of the emperor or of his deputies2 that the emperor should first invest with the scepter1 and then consecration should take place by the ,church1 with the bestowal of the ring and the staff4 ,all holders of secular benefices were to perform feudal obligations4 ,,lothar ,,of ,,saxony4--,the princes over whom ,henry ,v4 had exercised a severe control opposed the elevation of ,frederick of ,hohenstaufen1 the son of his sister ,agnes4 ,at a brilliant assembly at ,mentz1 ,lothar of ,saxony was chosen emperor 7#aabe-aacg74 ,he allowed all the ,pope's claims1 and was crowned at ,rome by ,innocent ,,ii41 accepting the allodial possessions of ,matilda of ,tuscany1 as a fief from the pontiff4 ,he carried on a war with the ,hohenstaufen princes1 ,frederick of ,swabia1 and his brother ,conrad1 who finally yielded4 ,lothar was helped in the conflict by ,henry the ,proud1 the duke of ,bavaria1 who also became duke of ,saxony4 ,germany under ,lothar extended its influence in the north and east4 ,,culture ,,in ,,the ,,eleventh ,,century4--,the tenth century1 owing to causes which have been explained1 was a dark age4 ,in the eleventh century circumstances were more favorable for culture4 ,under the ,saxon emperors1 intercourse was renewed with the ,greek ,empire4 ,there was some intercourse with the ,arabs in ,spain1 among whom several of the sciences were cultivated1 especially mathematics1 astronomy1 and medicine 7p4 #bcb74 ,the study of the ,roman law was revived in the ,lombard cities1 and this had a disciplinary value4 ,the restoration of order in the ,church1 after the synod of ,sutri 7#ajdf71 had likewise a wholesome influence in respect to culture4 ,there were several schools of high repute in ,france1 especially those at ,rheims1 ,chartres1 ,tours1 and in the monastery of ,bec1 in ,normandy1 where ,lanfranc1 an ,italian by birth1 a man of wisdom and piety1 was the abbot4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,church ,,and ,,the ,,empire3 ,,predominance ,,of ,,the ,,church3 ,,to ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,crusades1 ,a4,d4 #abgj4 ,,the ,,two ,,religions4--,the ,crusades were a new chapter in the long warfare of ,christendom with ,mohammedanism4 ,in the ,middle ,ages1 there were two worlds utterly distinct1--that of the ,gospel and that of the ,koran4 ,in ,europe1 with the exception of ,spain1 the ,gospel had sway2 from the ,pyrenees to the mouths of the ,ganges1 the ,koran4 ,the border contests between the two hostile parties on the eastern and western frontiers of ,christendom were now to give place to conflict on a larger scale during centuries of invasion and war4 ,,state ,,of ,,the ,,greek ,,empire4--,the ,greek ,christian ,empire lay between the ,christian peoples of the ,west and the dominion of the ,arabs4 ,that empire lived on1 a spiritless body4 ,after ,justinian1 there is an endless recurrence of wars with the ,arabs1 and with the barbarians on the ,north1 and of theological disputes1 either within the empire itself1 or with the ,church of the ,west4 ,the ,greeks complained that a phrase teaching the procession of the ,spirit from the ,son had been added in the ,west to the ,nicene ,creed4 ,the ,latins complained of the use of leavened bread in the sacrament1 of the marriage of priests1 and of some other ,greek peculiarities4 ,the separation of the two churches was consummated when1 in #ajed1 the legate of the ,pope laid on the altar of ,st4 ,sophia1 at ,constantinople1 an anathema against the seven mortal heresies of the ,greeks4 ,,attacks ,,of ,,russians ,,and ,,bulgarians4--,left to itself1 the empire showed some energy in repelling the attacks of the ,russians and ,bulgarians4 ,a number of capable rulers arose4 ,the ,russians1 of the same race of ,northmen who had ravaged ,western ,europe1 kept up their assaults until their chief1 ,vladimir1 made peace1 accepted ,christianity1 and married the sister of the emperor1 ,basil ,,ii4 7#ihh74 ,the empire between #ihh and #ajad was invaded twenty-six times by ,king ,samuel of ,bulgaria4 ,but the ,bulgarian kingdom was overthrown1 in #ajai1 by ,basil ,,ii4 ,in the twelfth century it regained its independence4 ,,the ,,greek ,,emperors4--,in the ninth century the ,greeks made head against the ,arabs1 especially by means of their navy4 ,in the tenth century ,john ,i4 7,zimisces7 crossed the ,euphrates1 and created alarm in ,bagdad4 ,the tenacity of life in the ,greek ,empire was surprising in view of the languishing sort of existence that it led4 ,after ,heraclius1 there were three dynasties1 the last of which1 the ,macedonian 7#hfg-ajef71 produced three remarkable men1 ,nicephorus ,phocas1 ,zimisces1 and ,basil ,,ii4 ,but the dynasty of ,comneni1 which1 in the person of ,isaac ,i41 ascended the throne in #ajeg1 had to combat a new and vigorous enemy1 the ,turks1 who had now made themselves masters of ,asia4 ,one of this line of emperors1 ,alexius ,i41 appealed to the ,germans for help4 ,this had some influence in giving rise to the first of the ,crusades4 ,in these conflicts the ,latins bore the brunt4 ,the exhausted ,greek ,empire played a minor part4 ,,conquests ,,of ,,the ,,turks4--,the ,mussulman dominion of the ,arabs had become enfeebled4 ,the ,ommiad dynasty at ,cordova had disappeared under the assaults of ,christians1 and of the ,moors of ,africa4 ,the ,fatimite caliphs were confined to ,egypt4 ,the rule of the ,abassids of ,bagdad had been well-nigh demolished by the ,seljukian ,turks in #ajeh4 ,they founded in the eleventh century an extensive empire4 ,the sultan1 ,alp ,arslan1 took the emperor1 ,romanus ,,iv4 ,diogenes1 prisoner 7#ajga71 and conquered ,armenia4 ,malek ,shah invaded ,syria1 ,palestine1 ,jerusalem1 and carried his arms as far as ,egypt1 while a member of the ,turkish family of ,seljuk wrested ,asia ,minor from the ,greeks1 and established the kingdom of ,iconium1 which was called ,roum1 extending from ,mount ,taurus to the ,bosphorus4 ,after the death of ,malek ,shah1 there were three distinct sultanates1 ,persia1 ,syria1 and ,kerman1--the last being on the shores of the ,indian ,ocean4 ,,the ,,pilgrims ,,to ,,jerusalem4--,the immediate occasion of the ,crusades was the hard treatment of the ,christian pilgrims who visited the sepulcher of ,christ in ,jerusalem4 ,there the ,empress ,helena1 the mother of ,constantine1 had erected a stately church4 ,pilgrimages--which had become more and more a custom since the fourth century--naturally tended to the sacred places in ,palestine4 ,especially was this the case in the eleventh century1 when piety had been quickened by the ,cluny movement4 ,in #ajfd a great pilgrimage1 in which seven thousand persons1 priests and laity1 of all nations1 were included1 under ,siegfried1 archbishop of ,mentz1 made its way through ,hungary to ,syria4 ,not more than a third of them lived to return4 ,the reports of returning pilgrims were listened to with absorbing interest1 as they told of the spots to which the imagination of the people was constantly directed4 ,what indignation then was kindled by the pathetic narrative of the insults and blows which they had endured from the infidels who profaned the holy places with their hateful domination6 ,in the ninth century1 under caliphs of the temper of ,haroun ,al-,raschid1 ,christians had been well treated4 ,about the middle of the tenth century the ,fatimite caliphs of ,egypt were the rulers at ,jerusalem4 ,hakem was fierce in his persecution1 but his successors were more tolerant4 ,when the ,seljukian ,turks got control there1 the harassed pilgrims had constant occasion to complain of insult and inhumanity4 ,,the ,,call ,,of ,,the ,,greeks4--,the ,greek emperor1 ,alexius ,comnenus1 threatened by the ,mussulmans on the opposite bank of the ,bosphorus1 sent his call for succor to all ,christian courts4 ,two popes1 ,sylvester ,,ii4 and ,gregory ,,vii41 had in vain exhorted the princes to rise in their might1 to do away with the wrong and the shame which the disciples of ,jesus were suffering at the hands of his enemies4 ,,motives ,,to ,,the ,,crusades4--,after this1 only a spark was needed to kindle in the ,western nations a flame of enthusiasm4 ,the summons to a crusade appealed to the two most powerful sentiments then prevalent1--the sentiment of religion and that of chivalry4 ,the response made by faith and reverence was reinforced by that thirst for a martial career and for knightly exploits which burned as a passion in the hearts of men4 ,the peoples in the countries formed by the ,germanic conquests were full of vigor and life4 ,outside of the ,church1 there was no employment to attract aspiring youth but the employment of a soldier4 ,western ,europe was covered with a net-work of petty sovereignties4 ,feudal conflicts1 while they were a discipline of strength and valor1 were a narrow field for all this pent-up energy4 ,there was a latent yearning for a wider horizon1 a broader theater of action4 ,thus the ,crusades profoundly interested all classes4 ,the ,church and the clergy1 the lower orders1 the women and the children1 shared to the full in the religious enthusiasm1 which1 in the case of princes and nobles1 took the form of an intense desire to engage personally in the holy war1 in order to crush the infidels1 and at the same time to signalize themselves by gallant feats of arms4 ,there was no surer road to salvation4 ,there was1 moreover1 a hope1 of which all in distressed circumstances partook1 of improving their temporal lot4 ,,the ,,council ,,of ,,clermont4--,the prime author of the first ,crusade was ,pope ,urban ,,ii4 ,he authorized an enthusiast1 ,peter the ,hermit1 of ,amiens1 to travel on an ass through ,italy and ,southern ,france1 and to stir up the people to the great undertaking of delivering the ,holy ,sepulcher4 ,with an emaciated countenance and flashing eye1 his head bare1 and feet naked1 and wearing a coarse garment bound with a girdle of cords1 he told his burning tale of the inflictions endured by the pilgrims4 ,at the great council of ,clermont1 in #ajie1 where a throng of bishops and nobles1 and a multitude of common people who spoke the ,romanic tongue1 were assembled1 ,urban himself addressed the assembly in a strain of impassioned fervor4 ,he called upon everyone to deny himself1 and take up his cross1 that he might win ,christ4 ,whoever would enlist in the war was to have a complete remission of penances1--a plenary indulgence4 ,the answer was thundered forth1 ,god wills it4 ,thousands knelt1 and begged to be enrolled in the sacred bands4 ,the red cross of cloth or silk1 fastened to the right shoulder1 was the badge of all who took up arms4 ,hence they were called crusaders 7from an old ,french word derived from crucem1 ,lat4 acc4 of crux1 a cross74 ,,the ,,undisciplined ,,bands4--,the farmer left his plow1 and the shepherd his flock4 ,both sexes and all ages were inspired with a common passion4 ,before a military organization could be made1 a disorderly host1 poorly armed and ill-provided1 led by ,peter the ,hermit and ,walter the ,penniless1 a ,french knight1 started for ,constantinople by way of ,germany and ,hungary4 ,they were obliged to separate2 and1 of two hundred thousand1 it is said that only seven thousand reached that capital4 ,these perished in ,asia ,minor4 ,they left their bones on the plain of ,nicoea1 where they were found by the next crusading expedition4 ,,first ,,crusade 7#ajif-ajii74--,the ,crusades were primarily a ,gaulish movement3 in ,french-speaking lands1 the fire of chivalric devotion was most intense4 ,the first regular army of soldiers of the cross departed by different routes under separate chiefs4 ,first of these was ,godfrey of ,bouillon1 duke of ,lower ,lorraine1 the bravest and noblest of them all4 ,with him were his brothers1 ,baldwin1 and ,eustace1 count of ,boulogne4 ,prominent among the other chiefs were ,hugh1 count of ,vermandois2 ,robert1 duke of ,normandy1 who had pawned his duchy to his brother1 ,william ,,ii41 the king of ,england2 ,robert1 count of ,flanders2 ,raymond1 count of ,toulouse2 ,bohemond of ,tarentum1 son of ,robert ,guiscard2 and ,tancred1 ,robert ,guiscard's nephew4 ,the ,spaniards were taken up with their own crusade against the ,moors4 ,in consequence of the late absorbing struggles between emperors and popes1 the ,germans and ,italians did not now embark in the enterprise4 ,the relation of the ,norman dynasty in ,england to the conquered ,saxons prevented the first crusading host from receiving substantial aid from that country4 ,the leaders of the army finally consented to become the feudal dependents of the emperor ,alexius while they should be within his borders1 and to restore to him such of their conquests as had been lately wrested by the ,turks from the ,eastern ,empire4 ,alexius was more alarmed than gratified on seeing the swarm of warriors which he had brought into his land4 ,after a siege of seven weeks1 ,nicea was surrendered1 not1 however1 into the hands of the ,european soldiers who had conducted the siege1 but to the shrewd ,alexius4 ,at ,doryleum1 in a desperate battle the ,turks were defeated2 but1 on their march eastward1 they wasted the lands which they left behind them4 ,the crusaders suffered severely from disease consequent on the heat4 ,a private quarrel broke out between ,tancred and ,baldwin4 ,baldwin1 invited to ,edessa by the ,greek or ,armenian ruler1 founded there a ,latin principality4 ,after besieging ,antioch for several months1 by the treachery of a renegade ,christian1 ,bohemond1 with a few followers1 was admitted into the city4 ,the ,christians slew ten thousand of its defenders2 but1 three days after1 ,antioch was shut in by a great army of ,turks under the sultan ,kerboga4 ,the crusaders were stimulated by the supposed discovery of the holy lance1 or the steel head of the spear which had pierced the side of ,jesus4 ,the ,turks were vanquished1 and the citadel of ,antioch was possessed by ,bohemond4 ,the wrangling chieftains were now compelled by the army to set out for ,jerusalem4 ,when they reached the heights where they first caught a glimpse of the holy city1 the crusaders fell on their knees1 and with tears of joy broke out in hymns of praise to ,god4 ,but1 not accustomed to siege operations1 and destitute of the machines and ladders requisite for the purpose1 they found themselves balked in the first attempts to capture the city4 ,yet after thirty days1 their needs having been meantime in a measure supplied1 ,jerusalem was taken by storm 7,july #ae1 #ajii74 ,the infuriated conquerors gave the rein to their vindictive passions4 ,ten thousand ,saracens were slaughtered4 ,the ,jews were burned in the synagogues1 to which they had fled4 ,when the thirst for blood and for plunder was sated1 feelings of penitence and humility took possession of the victors4 ,the leaders1 casting aside their arms1 with bared heads and barefoot1 entered into the church of the ,holy ,sepulcher1 and on their bended knees thanked ,god for their success4 ,after debate1 the princes united in choosing ,godfrey of ,bouillon as ruler of the city4 ,he would not wear a royal crown in the place where the ,saviour of the world had worn on his bleeding forehead a crown of thorns4 ,he designated himself ,protector of the ,holy ,sepulcher4 ,shortly after1 at ,ascalon1 he won a great victory against the vastly superior forces of the ,egyptian sultan4 ,godfrey died the next year 7#aajj71 and was succeeded by his brother ,baldwin1 who first took the title of ,king of ,jerusalem4 ,the force of the ,moslems1 and the almost incessant strife and division among the crusaders themselves1 made the kingdom hard to defend4 ,,the ,,new ,,kingdom4--,venice1 ,genoa1 and ,pisa had the most to do with the defense and enlargement of the new kingdom4 ,it was organized according to the method of feudalism4 ,it continued until the capture of ,jerusalem by ,saladin in #aahg4 ,,the ,,military ,,orders4--,the principal supporters of the new kingdom at ,jerusalem were the orders of knights1 in which were united the spirit of chivalry and the spirit of monasticism4 ,to the monastic vows of chastity1 poverty1 and obedience1 they added a fourth vow1 which bound them to fight the infidels1 and to protect the pilgrims4 ,these military orders acquired great privileges and great wealth4 ,each of them had its own peculiar apparel1 stamped with a cross4 ,the two principal orders were the ,knights of ,st4 ,john1 or the ,hospitallers1 and the ,knights ,templar4 ,the ,hospitallers grew out of a hospital established in the eleventh century near the ,holy ,sepulcher1 for the care of sick or wounded pilgrims4 ,the order1 when fully constituted1 contained three classes of members1--knights1 who were all of noble birth1 priests and chaplains1 and serving brothers4 ,after the loss of the ,holy ,land1 the island of ,rhodes was given up to them4 ,this they held until #aebb1 when they were driven out by the ,turks1 and received from the emperor1 ,charles ,v41 the island of ,malta4 ,the ,templars gained high renown for their valor1 and1 by presents and legacies1 acquired immense wealth4 ,after the loss of their possessions in ,palestine1 most of their members took up their abode in ,cyprus3 from there many of them went to ,france4 ,not a few of them became addicted to violent and profligate ways4 ,they were charged1 whether truly or falsely1 with unbelief1 and ,oriental superstitions caught up in the ,east from their enemies4 ,these accusations1 coupled with a desire to get their property1 led to their suppression by ,philip ,v4 in the beginning of the fourteenth century4 ,a third order was that of ,teutonic ,knights1 founded at ,jerusalem about #aabh4 ,in the next century they subjugated the heathen ,wends in ,prussia 7#abbf-abhc74 ,,welfs ,,and ,,waiblings4--,the emperor ,lothar died on a journey back from ,italy in #aacg4 ,henry the ,proud1 of the house of ,welf1 to whom he had given the imperial insignia1 hoped to be his successor1 and hesitated to recognize ,conrad ,,iii4 7#aacg-aaeb7 of the house of ,hohenstaufen1 who was chosen4 ,conrad required him to give up ,saxony1 for the reason that one prince could not govern two duchies4 ,when he refused1 ,bavaria1 also1 was taken from him1 and given to ,leopold1 margrave of ,austria4 ,this led to war1 in which the king1 as usual1 was strongly supported by the cities4 ,henry the ,proud left a young son1 known later as ,henry the ,lion4 ,count ,welf1 the brother of ,henry the ,proud1 kept up the war in ,bavaria4 ,he was besieged in ,weinsberg4 ,during the siege1 it is said that his followers shouted ,welf as a war-cry1 while the besiegers shouted ,waiblings1--,waiblingen being the birthplace of ,frederick1 duke of ,swabia1 brother of ,conrad4 ,these names1 corrupted into ,guelphs and ,ghibellines by the ,italians1 were afterwards attached to the two great parties1--the supporters1 respectively1 of the popes and the emperors4 ,henry the ,lion afterwards received ,saxony2 and the mark of ,brandenburg was given in lieu of it to ,albert the ,bear4 ,welf ,i4 was a powerful nobleman1 who received from ,henry ,,iv4 the fief of ,bavaria4 ,when ,henry ,v died1 the natural heirs of the extinct ,franconian line were his nephews1 ,frederick of ,hohenstaufen1 duke of ,swabia1 and ,conrad4 ,but the ,saxons supported the wealthy ,lothar1 who was chosen emperor1 and won over to his side ,henry the ,proud1 grandson of ,welf ,i41 to whom ,lothar gave his daughter in marriage1 and gave1 also1 the dukedom of ,saxony1 in addition to his dukedom of ,bavaria4 ,in these events lay the roots of the long rivalship between the ,welfs and the ,hohenstaufens4 ,henry the ,lion1 as stated above1 was the son of ,henry the ,proud4 ,,genealogy ,,of ,,the ,,welfs4 ,,welf1 ,duke of ,bavaria1 #ajgj-aaja4 --,,henry the ,black1 ,duke of ,bavaria1 #aabj-aabf4 --,judith1 m4 to ,frederic1 ,duke of ,swabia 7d4 #aadg71 the son of ,agnes1 who was the daughter of ,,henry ,,iv4 ,,frederic ,i 7,barbarossa7 was the son of ,judith1 and this ,frederic of ,swabia4 ,the ,swabian dukes were called ,hohenstaufens1 from a castle on ,mount ,staufen in ,wurtemberg4 --,,henry the ,proud1 ,duke of ,bavaria #aabf1 of ,saxony #aacg2 deprived1 #aach4 --,,henry the ,lion1 m4 ,matilda1 daughter of ,henry ,,ii of ,england4 --,,henry the ,young1 d4 #abbg4 --,,otto ,,iv1 d4 #abah4 ,,second ,,crusade 7#aadg-aadi74--,the preacher of the second ,crusade was ,st4 ,bernard1 whose saintly life and moving eloquence produced a great effect4 ,louis ,,vii4 of ,france and ,conrad ,,iii4 were the leaders4 ,the expedition was attended by a series of calamities4 ,the design of recapturing ,edessa from ,noureddin1 the sultan of ,aleppo1 was given up4 ,the siege of ,damascus failed 7#aadh74 ,conrad returned home with broken health4 ,soon after1 ,damascus fell into the hands of ,noureddin1 who was a brave and upright leader4 ,through one of his lieutenants1 he conquered ,egypt4 ,after his death1 ,saladin1 who sprung from one of the tribes of ,kurds1 and was in his service1 rose to power there1 and set aside the ,fatimite caliphate 7#aaga74 ,he was not less renowned for his culture and magnanimity than for his valor4 ,saladin united under his scepter all the lands from ,cairo to ,aleppo4 ,in the battle at ,ramla1 not far from ,ascalon 7#aagh71 the crusaders gained their last notable victory over this antagonist1 which served to prolong for some years the existence of the kingdom of ,jerusalem4 ,afterwards victory was on his side3 the crusaders were overthrown in the fatal battle of ,tiberias1 and ,jerusalem was taken by him 7#aahg74 ,thus the ,latin kingdom fell4 ,the ,saracen conqueror was much more humane after success than the ,christian warriors had been in like circumstances4 ,,frederick ,,barbarossa4--,frederick ,i4--,barbarossa1 or ,redbeard1 he was called in ,italy--7#aaeb-aaij7 was one of the grand figures of the ,middle ,ages4 ,he was thirty-one years of age at his election as emperor1 and had already been with the crusaders to the ,holy ,land4 ,in him great strength of understanding and a capacity for large undertakings were combined with a taste for letters and art4 ,his aim was to bring back to the empire the strength and dignity which had belonged to it under the ,saxon and ,franconian emperors4 ,the rulers of ,bohemia and ,poland he obliged to swear fealty as vassals4 ,he put down private war1 and restored order in ,germany4 ,the palatinate on the ,rhine1 formerly a part of ,franconia1 he gave to his half-brother ,conrad1 who founded ,heidelberg 7#aaee74 ,,struggle ,,with ,,the ,,lomabard ,,cities4--,the principal conflict of ,frederick ,i4 was in ,italy1 where he endeavored to restore the imperial supremacy over the ,lombard cities1 which had grown prosperous and freedom-loving1 and were bent on managing their own municipal affairs4 ,they had thrown off the rule of bishops and counts4 ,the burghers of ,milan1 the principal town1 had obliged the neighboring nobles and cities to form a league with them4 ,the smaller cities1 as ,como and ,lodi1 preferred the emperor's control to being subject to ,milan4 ,pavia clung to the empire4 ,but most of the cities prized their independence and republican administration4 ,the ,pope and the emperor were soon at variance1 and the cities naturally looked to the pontiff for sympathy and leadership4 ,in #aaeh ,frederick again crossed the ,alps1 bent on establishing the imperial jurisdiction as it had stood in the days of ,charlemagne4 ,the study of the ,roman law was now pursued with enthusiasm at ,bologna and ,padua4 ,at a great assembly in the ,roncalian ,fields1 ,frederick caused the prerogatives of the empire to be defined according to the terms of the civil law4 ,the emperor was proclaimed as lord of the world1--dominus mundi4 ,in the room of the consuls1 a ,podesta was appointed as the chief officer in each city1 to represent his authority4 ,milan1 which had submitted1 revolted1 but1 after a siege of two years1 was forced to surrender1 and was destroyed1 at the emperor's command1 by the inhabitants of the neighboring cities 7#aafb74 ,in #aaei ,alexander ,,iii4 was elected ,pope by a majority of the cardinals4 ,victor ,,iv4 was chosen by the imperial party1 and was recognized at a council convened by ,frederick at ,pavia4 ,on the death of ,victor1 another anti-pope1 ,paschal ,,iii41 was elected in his place2 and1 on the fourth visit of ,frederick to ,italy 7#aaff-aafh71 he conducted ,paschal to ,rome4 ,in #aafg the cities of ,northern ,italy1 which maintained their cause with invincible spirit1 united in the ,lombard ,league4 ,they built the strongly fortified place1 ,alessandria1--named after the ,pope1--and took possession of the passes of the ,alps4 ,the emperor1 whose army was nearly destroyed by a pestilence at ,rome1 escaped1 with no little difficulty and danger1 to ,germany4 ,,frederick ,i4 ,,and ,,pope ,,alexander ,,iii4--,for nearly seven years ,frederick remained in ,germany4 ,he put an end to a violent feud which had been raging between ,henry the ,lion and his enemies 7#aafh74 ,in #aagd he was ready to resume his great ,italian enterprise4 ,but he did not succeed in taking ,alessandria4 ,all his efforts to induce ,henry the ,lion to come to his support failed4 ,he was consequently defeated in the battle of ,legnano 7#aagf74 ,the extraordinary abilities and indefatigable energy of the great emperor had been exerted in the vain effort1 as he himself now perceived it to be1 to break down the resistance of a free people to a system which they felt to be an obsolete despotism4 ,a reconciliation took place at ,venice in #aagg between ,pope ,alexander ,,iii4 and ,frederick1 in which the latter virtually gave up the plan which he had so long struggled to realize4 ,it was a day of triumph for the ,papacy4 ,at ,constance1 in #aahc1 a treaty was made with the ,lombard cities1 in which their self-government was substantially conceded1 with the right to fortify themselves1 and to levy armies1 and to extend the bounds of their confederacy4 ,the overlordship of the emperor was recognized4 ,there was to be an imperial judge in each town1 to whom appeals in the most important causes might be made4 ,the regalian rights to forage1 food1 and lodging for the emperor's army1 when within their territory1 were reduced to a definite form4 ,the cities grew stronger from their newly gained freedom2 yet the loss of imperial restraint was1 on some occasions1 an evil4 ,,frederick ,,in ,,germany4--,after his return to ,germany1 ,frederick deprived ,henry the ,lion of his lands2 and when ,henry craved his forgiveness at the ,diet of ,erfurt in #aaha1 he was allowed to retain ,brunswick and ,lneburg4 ,he was to live for three years1 with his wife and child1 at the court of his father-in-law1 ,henry ,,ii41 king of ,england4 ,his son ,william1 born there1 is the ancestor of the present royal family in ,england4 ,in #aahd the emperor1 in honor of his sons1 ,king ,henry1 and ,frederick1 duke of ,swabia1 who were of age to become knights1 celebrated at ,mentz a magnificent festival1 where a great throng of attendants was gathered from far and near4 ,in a last and peaceful visit to ,italy1 his son ,henry was married to ,constance1 the daughter of ,roger ,,ii41 and the heiress of the ,norman kingdom of ,lower ,italy and ,sicily4 ,,third ,,crusade 7#aahi-aaib74--,the old emperor now undertook another ,crusade 7#aahi71 in which he was supported by ,philip ,,ii4 7,philip ,augustus71 king of ,france1 and ,richard the ,lion-,hearted 7,cur-de-,lion71 king of ,england1 but of ,french descent4 ,having spent the winter at ,adrianople1 ,frederick crossed into ,asia ,minor1 and conquered ,iconium4 ,in his advance he showed a military skill and a valor which made the expedition a memorable one2 but at the river ,calycadnus in ,cilicia1 either while bathing or attempting to cross on horseback1 the old warrior was swept away by the stream1 and drowned 7#aaij74 ,his son ,frederick died during the siege of ,acre4 ,richard and ,philip quarreled1 before and after reaching ,acre1 which surrendered in #aaia4 ,philip returned to ,france4 ,richard1 with all his valor1 was twice compelled to turn back from ,jerusalem4 ,nothing was accomplished except the establishment of a truce with ,saladin1 by which a strip of land on the coast1 from ,joppa to ,acre1 was given to the ,christians1 and pilgrimages to the holy places were allowed4 ,richard was distinguished both for his deeds of arms and for his cruelty4 ,on his return1 he was kept as a prisoner by ,leopold1 duke of ,austria1 by the direction of the emperor1 ,henry ,,vi41 for thirteen months1 and released on the payment of a ransom1 and rendering homage4 ,he was charged with treading the ,german banner in the filth at ,acre4 ,his alliance with the ,welfs in ,germany is enough to explain the hostility felt towards him by the imperial party4 ,,henry ,,vi43 ,,pope ,,innocent ,,iii4--,henry ,,vi4 7#aaij-aaig7 had the prudence and vigor of his father1 but lacked his magnanimity4 ,he was hard and stern in his temper4 ,twice he visited ,italy to conquer the kingdom of the ,two ,sicilies1 the inheritance of his wife4 ,he waged a new war with ,henry the ,lion 7#aaib-aaid71 which ended in a marriage of ,agnes1 the emperor's cousin1 with ,henry1 the son of ,henry4 ,it was a project of the emperor to convert ,germany and ,italy1 with ,sicily1 into a hereditary monarchy2 but the princes would not consent4 ,he aspired to incorporate the ,eastern ,empire in the same dominion4 ,while engaged in strife with the aged ,pope1 ,coelestin ,,ii41 respecting the ,tuscan lands of ,matilda1 which she had bequeathed to the ,church1 the emperor suddenly died4 ,his son ,frederick was a boy only three years old4 ,on the death of ,coelestin ,,ii41 early in #aaih1 ,innocent ,,iii41 the ablest and most powerful of all the popes1 acceded to the pontifical chair4 ,innocent was a statesman of unsurpassed sagacity and energy4 ,he was imbued with the highest idea of the pontifical dignity4 ,he made his authority felt and feared in all parts of ,christendom4 ,he exacted submission from all rulers1 civil and ecclesiastical4 ,the ,empress ,constance1 in order to secure ,italy for ,frederick1 accepted the papal investment on conditions dictated by the ,pope4 ,after her death ,innocent ruled ,italy in the character of guardian of her son4 ,he dislodged the imperial vassals from the ,tuscan territory of ,matilda1 and thus became a second founder of the papal state4 ,,fourth ,,crusade 7#abjb-abjd74--,under the auspices of ,innocent ,,iii41 a ,crusade was undertaken by ,french barons1 with whom were associated ,baldwin1 count of ,flanders1 and ,boniface1 marquis of ,montferrat4 ,arrived at ,venice1 the crusaders were not able to furnish to the ,venetians the sum agreed to be paid for their transportation4 ,the ,venetians1 whose devotion was strongly tempered with the mercantile spirit1 under the old doge1 ,henry ,dandolo1 greatly to the displeasure of the ,pope1 persuaded them to assist in the capture of ,zara1 which the king of ,hungary had wrested from ,venice4 ,then1 at the call of ,alexius1 son of the ,eastern emperor1 ,isaac ,angelus1 they went with the ,venetian fleet to ,constantinople1 and restored these princes to the throne4 ,the result of the contentions that followed with the ,greeks was the pillage of ,constantinople1 and the establishment of the ,latin ,empire under ,baldwin4 ,principalities were carved out for different chiefs2 the ,venetians taking several ,greek coast towns1 and afterwards ,candia 7,crete74 ,the patriarch of ,constantinople had to take his pallium from ,rome4 ,the ,latin service was established in the churches4 ,there was no real union between the ,greeks and the invaders1 but constant strife1 until1 in #abfa1 ,michael ,paloeologus1 the head of a ,greek empire which had been established at ,nicoea1 put an end to the ,latin kingdom4 ,,children',s ,,crusade4--,the failure of the stupendous undertakings for the conquest of the infidels was attributed to the wicked wrangles1 and still more to the vicious lives1 of the crusaders1 whose defeat was regarded as indicative of the frown of ,heaven on their evil courses4 ,this feeling gave occasion to the ,children's ,crusade1 in #abab4 ,many thousands of ,french and ,german boys made their way1 in two distinct expeditions1 to ,marseilles and the seaports of ,italy1 in order to be conveyed thence to the ,holy ,land4 ,but few returned3 nearly all perished by the way1 or were seized1 and carried off to slave-markets4 ,the enterprise grew out of a wild construction of the injunction of ,jesus to let little children come to him4 ,,otto ,,iv43 ,,civil ,,war ,,in ,,germany4--,frederick had been elected king2 but1 on the death of his father1 his claims were disregarded4 ,the ,hohenstaufens chose ,philip1 brother of ,henry ,,vi43 the ,welfs appointed ,otto1 the second son of ,henry the ,lion4 ,innocent claimed the right1 not to appoint the emperor1 but to decide between the rival claimants4 ,he decided1 in #abja1 in favor of ,otto ,,iv4 7#aaih-abad74 ,philip's party1 however1 seemed likely to succeed2 but1 in #abjh1 he was murdered4 ,otto1 having made large promises of submission to the ,pope's requirements1 was crowned emperor1 and universally acknowledged4 ,when he failed to fulfill his pledges1 and began to assert the old imperial prerogatives in ,italy1 he was excommunicated and deposed by ,innocent 7#abaj74 ,,frederick 7,,ii47 ,,made ,,king4--,innocent was now led to take up the cause of young ,frederick 7#abab74 ,the latter won ,germany over to his side1 and received the ,german crown at ,aix-la-,chapelle in #abae4 ,otto was restricted to his ancestral territory in ,brunswick4 ,,character ,,of ,,frederick ,,ii4 7#abad-abej74--;,frederick ,,ii41 on account of his extraordinary natural gifts and his accomplishments1 was called the wonder of the world4 ,he knew several languages1 and1 in intercourse with the ,saracens in ,sicily1 had acquired a familiarity with the sciences4 ,in many of his ideas of government he was in advance of his time4 ,but his reign was largely spent in a contest with the ,lombard cities and with the popes4 ,he is styled by an eminent modern historian1 the gay1 the brave1 the wise1 the relentless1 and the godless ,frederick4 ,he was often charged with skepticism in relation to the doctrines of the ,church4 ,the main ground of this imputation seems to have been a temper of mind at variance with the habit of the age1--a very moderate degree of reverence for ecclesiastical authority1 and the absence of the usual antipathy to heresy and religious dissent4 ,,fifth ,,crusade 7#abbh-abbi74--;,having caused his son ,henry to be elected king of ,rome1 ,frederick1 in #abbj1 left ,germany for fifteen years4 ,it was the policy of the popes to keep the ,sicilian crown from being united with the empire1 and the emperor from gaining the supremacy in ,lombardy4 ,frederick1 at his coronation at ,aix1 and afterwards1 had engaged to undertake a crusade4 ,but he had postponed it from time to time4 ,pope ,honorius ,,iii4 had patiently borne with this delay4 ,but when ,frederick1 in #abbg1 was about to start1 and was prevented1 as he professed1 by the contagious disease in his army1 from which he himself was suffering1 ,gregory ,,ix41 the next pope1 placed him under the ban of the ,church4 ,nevertheless1 the emperor1 in the following year1 embarked on his crusade4 ,his vigor as a soldier1 and1 still more1 his tact in conciliating the ,saracens1 enabled him to get possession of ,jerusalem4 ,no bishop would crown an excommunicate1 and he had to put the crown on his own head4 ,that he left a mosque unmolested was a fresh ground of reproach4 ,he negotiated an armistice with the sultan1 ,kameel 7,el ,kmil71 who ceded ,nazareth and a strip of territory reaching to the coast1 together with ,sidon4 ,fifteen years later 7in #abdd7 ,jerusalem was finally lost by the ,christians4 ,,contest ,,of ,,frederick ,,with ,,the ,,popes4--,on his return to ,italy1 ,frederick drove the papal troops out of ,apulia4 ,in a personal interview with ,gregory ,,ix4 at ,san ,germane1 a treaty was made between them1 the ban was removed1 and the treaty of ,frederick with the ,sultan was sanctioned by the ,pope4 ,frederick now displayed his talent for organization in all parts of his empire4 ,his constitution for the ,sicilian kingdom1 based on the ruins of the old feudalism1 is tinged with the modern political spirit4 ,his court1 wherever he sojourned1 mingled an almost ,oriental luxury and splendor with the attractions of poetry and song4 ,a sore trial was the revolt of his son ,henry 7#abcd71 whom he conquered1 and confined in a prison1 where he died in #abdb4 ,the efforts of ,frederick to enforce the imperial supremacy over the ,lombard cities were met with the same stubborn resistance from the ,guelfs which his grandfather had encountered4 ,in #abcg he gained a brilliant victory over them at ,cortenuova4 ,but the hard terms on which ,frederick insisted1 in connection with other transactions offensive to the ,pope1 called out another excommunication from ,gregory ,,ix4 7#abci74 ,the ,genoese fleet1 which was conveying ecclesiastics to a council called by the ,pope at ,rome1 was captured by direction of ,frederick2 and the prelates were thrown into prison4 ,pope ,innocent ,,iv4 7#abdc-abed7 fled to ,lyons1 and there published anew the ban against the emperor1 declared him deposed1 and summoned the ,germans to elect another emperor in his place4 ,the ecclesiastical princes in ,germany chose ,henry ,raspe 7#abdf-abdg71 landgrave of ,thuringia1 who was defeated by ,conrad1 ,henry's son4 ,the next emperor thus chosen1 ,william of ,holland 7#abdg71 made no headway in ,germany4 ,during this period of civil war1 many ,german cities gained their freedom from episcopal rule1 attained to great privileges1 and came into an immediate relation to the emperor4 ,a fearful war raged in ,italy between the ,guelfs and ,ghibellines1 in the midst of which ,frederick died1 in the fifty-sixth year of his age4 ,had he been as conscientious and as capable of curbing his passions and appetites as he was highly endowed in other respects1 he might have been a model ruler4 ,as it was2 although his career was splendid1 his private life1 as well as his public conduct1 was stained with flagrant faults4 ,,the ,,sicilian ,,kingdom4--,the kingdom of the ,two ,sicilies was bravely defended by ,manfred1 son of ,frederick ,,ii1 in behalf of young ,conradin1 the son of the new emperor1 ,conrad ,,iv4 ,the ,pope gave the crown to ,charles of ,anjou1 brother of ,louis ,,ix4 of ,france4 ,charles1 after the fall of ,manfred at ,beneventum 7#abff71 gained the kingdom4 ,conradin went to ,italy1 but was defeated and captured in #abfh1 and was executed at ,naples4 ,such was the tragic end of the last of the ,hohenstaufens4 ,the unbearable tyranny of the ,french led to a conspiracy called the ,sicilian ,vespers 7#abhb72 and1 at ,easter ,monday1 at vesper time1 the rising took place4 ,all the ,french in ,sicily were massacred4 ,peter of ,aragon1 who had married the daughter of ,manfred1 became king of ,sicily4 ,the dominion of ,charles of ,anjou was restricted to ,naples4 ,,spain4--,the ,spaniards had a crusade to carry forward in their own land1 which lasted for eight hundred years4 ,in the tenth and eleventh centuries1 especially under ,abderrahman ,,iii4 7#iab-ifa71 the ,moorish civilization was most brilliant4 ,in ,cordova1 there were six hundred mosques4 ,there were said to be seventeen universities and seventy large libraries in ,spain4 ,the caliph's fleets were dominant in the ,mediterranean4 ,he was mild in his policy towards ,jews and ,christians4 ,in the eleventh century the caliphs gave themselves up to luxury1 and the control of their forces was in the hands of the viziers4 ,of these1 ,almanzor1 the general of ,hakem ,,ii 7#igf-ajac71 was the most famous4 ,he took the city of ,leon1 and plundered the church of ,st4 ,james of ,compostella1 the patron saint of ,spain4 ,after this time the caliphate of ,cordova broke up into numerous kingdoms4 ,the ,christian ,visigoths in the north-west had built up the little kingdom of ,oviedo1 which later took the name of ,leon4 ,the rest of ,christian ,spain was united under ,sancho the ,great 7#igj-ajce74 ,to one of his sons1 ,ferdinand ,i1 he left ,castile1 to which ,leon and the ,asturias were united2 to another1 ,aragon2 and1 to a third1 ,navarre and ,biscay4 ,it was under ,ferdinand that the exploits of the ,spanish hero1 the ,cid 7,rodrigo ,diaz of ,bivar71 in conflict with the infidels1 began4 ,the complete conquest of the ,moors was prevented by the strife of the ,christian kingdoms with one another4 ,under ,alfonso ,,vi 7#ajgb-aaji71 they were all once more united4 ,,great ,,defeat ,,of ,,the ,,moors4--,the invasion of the ,almoravids1 invited over from ,africa by the ,mussulman princes 7#ajhf71 checked the progress of the ,christian conquest4 ,these allies of the ,arabs built up a kingdom for themselves1 reconquered ,valencia1 and taxed to the utmost the power of the ,christians to resist their progress4 ,new sects of fanatical ,moslems1 the ,almohads1 having conquered ,morocco1 passed over into ,spain4 ,the ,mohammedans were thus at war among themselves1 and were divided into three parties4 ,military orders were established in ,spain2 and the kings of ,castile1 ,leon1 and ,navarre1 aided by sixty thousand crusaders from ,germany1 ,france1 and ,italy1 defeated ,mohammed1 the chief of the ,almohads1 with great slaughter1 in a decisive battle near ,tolosa 7#abab74 ,the ,spanish crusade built up the little kingdom of ,portugal1 and the states of ,castile and of ,aragon4 ,they were destined to play an important part in the history of commerce and discovery4 ,the ,spanish character owed some of its marked traits to this prolonged struggle with the ,moslems4 ,,the ,,mongolian ,,invasions4--,at the beginning of the thirteenth century1 ,genghis ,khan1 the leader of ,mongolian hordes which roamed over the ,asiatic plateau between ,china and ,siberia1 conquered ,china1 and overthrew the ruling dynasty4 ,he subdued ,hindustan and the empire of the ,chowares1 which had been founded by a ,seljukian slave1 and spread his power from the ,caspian ,sea through ,persia to ,india 7#abah74 ,bokhara and ,samarcand were among the populous cities which were burned with all their treasures by these ruthless invaders4 ,libraries were converted into stalls for the horses of the brutal conquerors4 ,the sons and successors of ,genghis ,khan swept over the countries north of the ,black ,sea1 captured ,moscow and ,kiev1 burned ,cracow1 and pursued their murderous and devastating path over ,poland and ,hungary1 ,at the battle of ,wahlstatt 7#abda71 the ,germans under ,henry the ,pious1 duke of ,liegnitz1 were defeated4 ,the victories of the ,tartars were frightful massacres4 ,it was a custom of the ,mongols to cut off an ear of the slaughtered enemy4 ,it was said that at ,liegnitz these trophies filled nine sacks4 ,the ,mongol hosts retired from ,europe4 ,they attacked the caliphate of ,bagdad1 a city which they took by storm1 and plundered for forty days4 ,they destroyed the dynasty of the ,abassids4 ,they marched into ,syria1 stormed and sacked ,aleppo1 and captured ,damascus4 ,for a time the central point of the ,tartar conquests was the city or camping-ground of ,karakorum in ,central ,asia4 ,after a few generations their empire was broken in pieces4 ,the ,golden ,horde1 which they had planted in ,russia1 on the east of the ,volga1 remained there for two centuries4 ,bagdad was held by the ,mongols until #adjj1 when it was conquered1 and kept for a short time1 by ,tamerlane4 ,the religion of the ,tartars was either ,lamaism--a corrupted form of ,buddhistic belief and worship1--or ,mohammedanism4 ,in ,china and ,mongolia they were ,lamaists3 elsewhere they generally adopted the faith of ,islam4 ,their original religion was ,shamaism1 a worship of spirits1 akin to fetichism4 ,the later ,mongol sovereigns1 especially ,kublai ,khan1 were ready to promote peaceful intercourse with ,europe4 ,it was at this time that ,marco ,polo resided at their court4 ,,sixth ,,crusade 7#abdh-abed73 ,,seventh ,,crusade 7#abgj74-,two additional ,crusades were undertaken under the leadership of that upright and devout king1 ,louis ,,ix4 of ,france4 ,the first 7#abdh-abed7 resulted in the taking of ,damietta in ,egypt 7#abdi72 but the next year ,louis1 with his whole army1 was captured1 and obtained his release after much delay1 by the surrender of his conquests1 and in return for a large ransom4 ,not disheartened by this failure1 the pious monarch1 in #abgj1 sailed to ,tunis1 where he and most of his army perished from sickness4 ,in #abia ,acre1 the last town held by the ,christians1 was taken by the ,egyptian ,mamelukes2 and the ,crusades came to an end4 ,,effects ,,of ,,the ,,crusades4--,the ,crusades were a spontaneous movement of ,christian ,europe4 ,it was a great tide1 which bore away all classes of people4 ,it lends to the ,middle ,ages an ideal and heroic character4 ,an overpowering sentiment1 submerging calculation and self-interest1 swept over society4 ,there was infinite suffering3 countless lives were the forfeit4 ,the results1 however1 were beneficent1 #a4 ,it is true that the conquests made in the ,east were all surrendered4 ,the holy places were given up4 ,yet the ,turks had received a check which was a protection to ,europe during the period when its monarchies were forming1 and were gaining the force to encounter them anew1 and repel their dangerous aggressions4 #b4 ,the ,feudal ,system in ,europe was smitten with a mortal blow4 ,smaller fiefs1 either by sale or by the death of the holders1 were swallowed up in the larger4 ,the anarchical spirit was counteracted4 ,political unity was promoted4 #c4 ,there was a lessening of the social distance between suzerain and serf4 ,they fought side by side1 and aided one another in common perils4 ,the consequence was an increase of sympathy4 #d4 ,there was an expansion of knowledge4 ,there was a widening of geographical knowledge4 ,an acquaintance was gained with other peoples and countries4 ,to the more civilized ,saracens1 the crusaders seemed brutal and barbarous4 ,the crusaders in turn were impressed with the superior advancement and elegance of the ,saracens4 ,it was not the lord only who beheld distant lands3 the serf was taken from the soil to which he had been tied4 ,he drew stimulus and information from sojourning under other skies4 #e4 ,a great impulse was given to trade and commerce4 ,an acquaintance was gained with new products1 natural and artificial4 ,new wants were created4 #f4 ,the cities advanced in strength and wealth4 ,important social consequences resulted from their growth4 ,,why ,,the ,,crusades ,,terminated4--,after the thirteenth century it was impossible to rekindle the crusading enthusiasm4 ,the fire had burned out4 ,it seemed as if the idea had exhausted itself in action4 ,this effect was due1 7#a7 to the absence of novelty in such undertakings2 7#b7 to the long experience of the hardships belonging to them1 which tended to dampen the romantic zeal that had formed a part of the motive2 7#c7 to the disappointments following upon the practical failure of so prodigious and costly exertions2 7#d7 to an altered condition of public feeling of a more general character4 ,antipathy to the infidel1 the more exclusive sway of religious sentiment1 were giving way to a mingling of secular aims and interests4 ,there were new and wider fields of activity at home4 ,the mood of men's minds was no longer the same4 ,,luxuries ,,introduced ,,by ,,the ,,crusades4--,the effect of the ,crusades in bringing in new comforts and luxuries1 and in thus altering the style of living1 was remarkable4 ,at the very outset1 a great deal of money1 obtained by the sale or pawning of estates1 was spent in the outfit of the hundred thousand nobles1 who1 at the beginning1 took the cross4 ,costly furs1 embroidered cushions1 curtains of purple dye1 pavilions worked with gold1 banners of purple or of cloth-of-gold1 showy costumes1 and shining armor1--such was the splendor that met the eyes of thousands who had never before beheld such a spectacle4 ,the journey to the ,east brought under the observation of the crusaders1 arts and fashions to which they had been strangers1 ,they saw the gilded domes and marble palaces of ,constantinople1 and the treasures of ancient art which had been gathered within the walls of that ancient capital4 ,antioch1 with all its wealth1 fell into their hands4 ,later1 the merchants of both religions followed in the wake of the armies1 and met one another4 ,the superb fabrics of the ,east were carried to the ,west by routes which now became safe and familiar4 ,the precious ores and tissues of ,damascus1 and the beautiful glassware of ,tyre1 were conveyed to ,venice1 and thence to places more distant4 ,silk stuffs of exquisite beauty were brought from ,mosul and ,alexandria4 ,the elegance of the ,east1 with its rich fabrics1 its jewels and pearls1 was so enchanting that an enthusiastic crusader termed it the vestibule of ,paradise4 ,it was not the nobles alone in the ,west who acquired these attractive products of skill and industry4 ,the cities shared in them4 ,even the lower classes partook of the change in the way of living4 ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,castle4--,even in the earlier days of feudalism1 the seclusion of the castle was not without an influence in promoting domestic intercourse and affection4 ,a new sentiment respecting woman sprang up in the ,middle ,ages1 and was fostered by the honor which the ,new ,testament and the teaching of the ,church rendered to saintly women4 ,a spirit of gallantry and devotion to woman1 partly natural to the ,germanic race1 and partly arising from causes like that just named1 sprang up in the midst of prevailing ignorance and perpetual strife4 ,in the course of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries life in the castle is found to be very much improved4 ,in the eleventh century it lacked comfort1 to say nothing of luxury4 ,the lights were torches of dry wood3 even candles were not in general use4 ,houses in ,france1 ,england1 and ,germany commonly had thatched roofs4 ,they were made of logs covered with a sort of clay or mud4 ,they were built with low and narrow doors1 and with small windows which admitted but little light4 ,in the middle of the smoky hall was a large1 round fireplace4 ,there was no chimney1 but only a funnel1 which pierced the ceiling4 ,the seats were benches and stools4 ,the feet of the family and guests were kept warm by hay spread beneath them4 ,in the later period the substitution of dry rushes and straw was thought to be a marvelous gain4 ,beds of straw were introduced into all the apartments of nobles1 and even of kings4 ,to sleep on a straw couch was deemed a regal luxury4 ,one consequence of the ,crusades was to introduce carpets and hangings into the dwellings of the great4 ,improved timepieces took the place of the water-clocks1 which were a wonder in the days of ,charlemagne4 ,in the twelfth century the castle begins to look less like a dungeon4 ,within and without1 it ceases to wear so exclusively the aspect of a fortress4 ,the furniture has more beauty4 ,in the great hall are the large tables attached to the floor1 the sideboards1 the cupboards1 the stately chair of the lord1 the couch with its canopy1 the chests for the wearing-apparel1 the armor on the walls4 ,in the thirteenth century ,france was covered with chateaux1 which1 in the case of princes and nobles of highest rank1 had their spacious courts1 their stables1 their lodgings for the servants4 ,all these were within the precincts of the palace4 ,in the great hall were held the assemblies of vassals1 banquets1 judicial trials4 ,in the wealthiest mansions1 there was a main saloon on the floor above1 reached by a spiral stairway1 and serving also for the principal bed-chamber4 ,there the stone floor gave place to marble of varied colors4 ,mosaics and other ornaments were introduced4 ,sculptures1 carvings1 and mural paintings decorated the apartments4 ,glass mirrors1 imported by way of ,venice1 began to supersede the mirrors of polished metal4 ,larger windows1 of painted glass1 became common among the rich1 in the room of the small pieces of glass1 or of alabaster1 which had before served to let in a few rays of light4 ,tallow candles came into vogue4 ,lamps were not unknown4 ,on great occasions1 lanterns and wax candles were used for a festive illumination4 ,chimneys were in use1 and about the vast fire-place the family group could gather4 ,the hospitality of the castle was often bountiful4 ,the chase1 the favorite amusement1 gave life and animation to the scene1 and prepared the inmates for the feast that followed4 ,minstrels enlivened the social gathering4 ,troops of mountebanks and buffoons furnished amusement1 and were sometimes lavishly rewarded4 ,there were singers and buffoons who were attached permanently to the household4 ,there were others who traveled from place to place1 and were even organized into corporations or guilds4 ,the fool1 or jester1 to whom a large license was allowed1 was long deemed a necessary adjunct of the castle-hall4 ,carriages were little used2 rank was indicated by the accouterments of the war-horse or of the palfrey4 ,from the twelfth century onward1 the improvement in the comforts of living was not confined to the nobles and to rich burghers in cities4 ,it was shared by the rural classes1 notwithstanding the miseries--such as insecurity1 and dangers of famine--that belonged to their condition4 ,,poverty ,,and ,,disease4--,a ,french writer on the history of luxury1 speaking of ,france in this period1 says1 ,in the cities1 we meet at once luxury1 certain beginnings of prosperity1 and frightful misery4 ,beggary exists in a form the most hideous3 there is an organization of it with grades1 and a sort of hierarchy4 ,in the face of sumptuous costumes1 of chateaux better adorned1 of the nascent wealth of industry1 ,france included more than two thousand lepers1 and knew not how to treat maladies born of the most imperfect hygiene and the most sordid filth4 ,such were the extremes4 ,the course of general progress went forward between them4 ,the condition of the poorest class in ,england was no better4 ,the absence of vegetable food for the greater part of the year1 the personal dirt of the people1 the sleeping at night in the clothes worn in the day1 and other causes1 made skin-diseases frightfully common4 ,at the outskirts of every town in ,england1 there were crawling about emaciated creatures covered with loathsome sores1 living ,heaven knows how4 ,they were called by the common name of lepers2 and probably the leprosy1 strictly so called1 was awfully common4 ,such being the life of the poor in villages1 and in the absence of drainage and other modern safeguards of health1 in large towns1 it is no wonder that in the ,middle ,ages there were terrible pestilences1 and that the average length of life was much less than at present4 ,,origin ,,and ,,nature ,,of ,,chivalry4--,it was in the period of the crusades that the mediaeval institution of chivalry was ennobled by receiving a religious consecration4 ,chivalry is a comprehensive term1 denoting a system of ideas and customs that prevailed in the middle ages4 ,in the western kingdoms of ,europe there was gradually formed a distinct class of warriors of superior rank1 who fought on horseback1 and were recognized as knights by a ceremony of equipment with arms4 ,among the customs of the ancient ,germans1 which are noticed by ,tacitus1 and in which may be discovered the germs of chivalry1 are the remarkable deference paid to women1 attendance of the aspiring youth on a military superior1--out of which vassalship arose1--and the formal receiving of arms on reaching manhood4 ,at the outset1 knighthood was linked to feudal service3 the knights were landholders4 ,in the age of ,charlemagne1 the warriors on horseback--the caballarii--were the precursors1 both in name and function1 of the chevaliers of later times4 ,the word knight1 meaning a youth or servant1 and then a military attendant1 came to be a term of equivalent meaning4 ,the necessary connection of knighthood with the possession of fiefs was broken in the thirteenth century1 through changes in the circumstances of warfare4 ,knighthood became independent of feudalism4 ,it was a personal distinction1 frequently bestowed as a reward for brave deeds1 and often conferred with elaborate ceremonies1 partly of a religious character4 ,when the boy of gentle birth passed from under the care of females1 he first served as a page or valet at the court of a prince or the castle of a rich noble4 ,having been thus trained in habits of courtesy and obedience1 he was advanced1 not earlier than the age of fourteen1 to the rank of squire1 and instructed in horsemanship and in the use of weapons4 ,he followed his master to the tournament and in battle1 until finally he was himself dubbed a knight1 was clothed in armor of steel1 and took on him all the obligations and privileges of his order4 ,the introduction of hereditary surnames and of armorial bearings served to distinguish the members of this order4 ,he who was a knight in one place was a knight everywhere4 ,there were different classes of knights4 ,the bachelor1 who bore a forked pennon1 was below the knight-banneret1 who alone had the right to carry the square banner4 ,the banneret was required to have a certain estate1 and to be able to bring into the field a certain number of lances1 i4e41 inferior knights with their men-at-arms and foot-soldiers4 ,each knight was accompanied by his squire and personal attendants4 ,not seldom two knights joined together in a brotherhood in arms1 pledging themselves to sustain each other in every peril4 ,,the ,,virtues ,,of ,,knighthood4--,there were characteristic obligations of knighthood4 ,one was loyalty1 which included a strict fidelity to all pledges1 embracing promises made to an enemy4 ,another knightly virtue was courtesy1 which was exercised even towards a foe4 ,the spirit of gallantry1 inspiring devotion to woman1 especially the chosen object of love1 and protection to womanly weakness1 was always a cardinal trait of the chivalric temper4 ,courage1 which delighted in daring exploits1 and sought fields for the exercise of personal prowess1 was an indispensable quality of the knights4 ,the ideal of chivalry was honor rather than benevolence4 ,the influence of chivalry in refining manners was very great2 but1 especially in its period of decline1 it allowed or brought in much cruelty and profligacy4 ,its distinctive spirit could find room for exercise only amid conflict and bloodshed1 which it naturally tended to promote4 ,,ceremonies ,,of ,,investiture4--,when the knight was created according to the complete form1 he entered into a bath on the evening previous1 was instructed by old knights in the order and feats of chivalry1 was then clad in white and russet1 like a hermit1 passed the night in the chapel in orisons and prayers1 and at daybreak confessed to the priest1 and received the sacrament4 ,he then returned to his chamber4 ,at the appointed hour he was conducted to the hall1 where he received the spurs and was girded with the sword by the prince or other lord who was to confer the distinction1 by whom he was smitten on the shoulder and charged to be a good knight4 ,thence he was escorted to the chapel1 where he swore on the altar to defend the church1 and his sword was consecrated4 ,,judicial ,,combats4--,the disposition to resort to single combats as a judicial test of guilt or innocence was stimulated by the development of chivalry4 ,there were other ordeals long in vogue1 by which it was thought that ,heaven would interpose miraculously to shield1 and thus to vindicate1 the innocent1 and to expose the criminal4 ,such were the plunging of the hand into boiling water1 the contact of the flesh with red-hot iron or with fire1 the lot1 the oath taken on holy relics1 the reception of the ,eucharist1 which would choke the perjurer1 and send his soul to perdition4 ,the ordeals were regulated and managed by the clergy4 ,among the ,german1 and also the ,celtic tribes1 there are traces of the duel between combatants1 for purposes of divination1 or of determining on which side in a controversy the right lay4 ,the judicial combat in mediaeval ,europe became general4 ,champions1 in cases where the rights of women were in debate1 and in other instances where the wager of battle between the direct antagonists in a dispute was impracticable1 were selected1 or volunteered1 to try the issue in an armed conflict4 ,sometimes professional champions1 hired for the occasion1 were employed4 ,the custom of judicial combats by degrees declined4 ,the municipalities and the spirit of commerce were averse to it4 ,it was opposed by the ,emperor ,frederic ,,ii4 and by ,louis ,,ix4 of ,france4 ,the influence of the ,roman law helped to undermine it2 but the opposition of the ,church was the most effectual agency in doing away with it4 ,the modern duel1 which survived the judicial combat1 is a relic of the ancient custom of avenging private injuries1 and of proving the courage of the combatants between whom a quarrel had arisen4 ,in the opening of ,shakespeare's play of ,richard ,,ii41 in the quarrel of ,mowbray and ,bolingbroke1 the idea of the judicial combat mingles with the motives and feelings characteristic of the duel when stripped of its religious aspect4 ,,france4--,,descendants ,,of ,,hugh ,,capet ,,hugh ,,the ,,great 7d4 #ief71 m4 #c1 ,hedwiga1 daughter of ,henry ,i of ,germany4 --,,hugh ,,capet1 #ihg-iif4 --,,robert1 #iif-ajca4 --,,henry ,i1#ajca-ajfj4 --,,philip ,i1 #ajfj-aajh1 m4 ,bertha1 daughter of ,florence ,i1 ,count of ,holland4 --,,louis ,,vi1 #aajh-aacg4 --,,louis ,,vii1 #aacg-aahj1 m4 #c1 ,alice1 daughter of ,theobold ,,ii1 ,count of ,champagne4 --,,philip ,,ii 7,augustus71 #aahj-abbc1 m4 #a1 ,isabella1 daughter of ,baldwin ,v1 ,count of ,hainault4 --,,louis ,,viii1 #abbc-abbf1 m4 ,blanche1 daughter of ,alfonso ,,ix of ,castile4 --7,st47 ,louis ,,ix1 #abbf-abgj1 m4 ,margaret1 daughter of ,raimond ,berengar ,,iv1 ,count of ,provence4 --#b1 ,,philip ,,iii1 #abgj-abhe1 m4 #a1 ,isabella1 daughter of ,james ,i of ,aragon4 --,,philip ,,iv1 #abhe-acad1 m4 ,jeanne1 heiress of ,champagne and ,navarre4 --,,louis ,x1 #acad-acaf4 --,,philip ,v1 #acaf-acbb4 --,,charles ,,iv1 #acbb-acbh4 --,charles1 ,count of ,valois 7d4 #acbe71 founder of the house of ,valois1 m4 ,margaret1 daughter of ,charles ,,ii of ,naples4 --,,philip ,,vi1 succeeded #acbh4 --,robert1 ,count of ,clermont1 founder of the house of ,bourbon4 ,,england4--,,from ,,the ,,conquest ,,to ,,edward ,i4 ,,william ,i1 #ajff-ajhg1 m4 ,matilda1 daughter of ,baldwin ,v of ,flanders --,,william ,,ii 7,rufus71 #ajhg-aajj4 7,malcolm ,canmore m4 ,st4 ,margaret7 --,mary m4 ,eustace1 ,count of ,boulogne --,maud --,matilda4 m4 --,,henry ,i1 #aajj-aace --,,matilda 7d4 #aafg7 m4 #a1 ,emperor ,henry ,v2 #b1 ,geoffrey ,plantagenet1 ,count of ,anjou --,,henry ,,ii1 #aaed-aahi m4 ,eleanor of ,aquitaine1 etc41 wife of ,louis ,,vii of ,france4 --#c1 ,,richard ,i1 #aahi-aaii4 --#e1 ,,john1 #aaii-abaf1 m4 ,isabella of ,angouleme --,,henry ,,iii1 #abaf-abgb1 m4 ,eleanor1 daughter of ,raymond ,berengar ,,iv of ,provence4 --,,edward ,i1 succeeded #abgb4 --,adela1 m4 ,stephen1 ,count of ,blois4 --,,stephen1 #aace-aaed4 m4 ,maud1 daughter of ,malcolm ,canmore and ,st4 ,margaret4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,england ,,and ,,france3 ,,the ,,first ,,period ,,of ,,their ,,rivalship 7#ajff-abag74 ,the emperors1 the heads of the ,holy ,roman ,empire1 were the chief secular rulers in the ,middle ,ages1 and were in theory the sovereigns of ,christendom4 ,but in the era of the ,crusades1 the kingdoms of ,england and ,france began to be prominent4 ,in them1 moreover1 we see beginnings of an order of things not embraced in the mediaeval system4 ,in ,france1 steps are taken towards a compact monarchy4 ,in ,england1 there are laid the foundations of free representative government4 ,,connection ,,of ,,england ,,and ,,france4--,for a long time the fortunes of ,england and of ,france are linked together4 ,the kings of the ,french1 with their capital at ,paris1 had been often obliged to contend with their powerful liegemen1 the dukes of ,normandy1 at ,rouen4 ,when the ,norman duke became king of ,england1 he had an independent dominion added to the great fief on the other side of the channel4 ,it sometimes looked as if ,england and ,france would be united under one sovereignty1 so close did their relations become4 ,,death ,,of ,,william ,,the ,,conqueror4--,it was while ,william the ,conqueror1 angry with the king of the ,french1 was burning ,mantes1 in the border-land between ,normandy and ,france1 that1 by the stumbling of his horse in the ashes1 he was thrown forward upon the iron pommel of his saddle1 and received the hurt which ended1 in the next month1 in his death 7,sept41 #ajhg74 ,on his death-bed he was smitten with remorse for his unjust conquest of ,england1 and for his bloody deeds there4 ,he would not dare to appoint a successor3 it belonged1 he said1 to the ,almighty to do that2 but he hoped that his son ,william might succeed him4 ,the burial service at ,caen1 in the church which he had built1 was interrupted by ,ascelin1 a knight1 who raised his voice to protest against the interment1 for the reason that the duke had wrongfully seized from his father the ground on which the church stood4 ,the family of ,william made a settlement with ,ascelin on the spot by paying a sum of money1 and the service proceeded4 ,the whole ground was afterwards paid for4 ,william had left money for the rebuilding of the churches which he had burned at ,mantes4 ,he gave his treasures to the poor and to the churches in his dominions4 ,these circumstances illustrate in a striking way how1 in the ,middle ,ages1 ruthless violence was mingled with power of conscience and a sense of righteous obligation4 ,,william ,,rufus4--,william the ,conqueror was succeeded by his son1 ,william ,rufus 7#ajhg-aajj71 who was as able a man as his father4 ,he promised to be liberal1 and to lay no unjust taxes2 but he proved to be--especially after the death of the good ,lanfranc1 the archbishop of ,canterbury--a vicious and irreligious king4 ,the ,norman nobles would have preferred to have his brother ,robert1 who was duke of ,normandy1 for their king2 but the ,english stood by ,william4 ,he left bishoprics and abbacies vacant that he might seize the revenues4 ,one of his good deeds was the appointment of the holy and learned ,anselm to succeed ,lanfranc2 but he quarreled with ,anselm1 who withdrew from the kingdom4 ,normandy1 which he had tried to wrest from his elder brother ,robert1 was mortgaged to him by the latter1 in order that he might set out upon the first ,crusade4 ,that duchy came thus into the king's possession4 ,william1 while hunting in the ,new ,forest1 was killed1 if not accidentally1 then either1 as it was charged1 by ,walter ,tyrrel1 one of the party1 or by some one who had been robbed of his home when the ,new ,forest was made4 ,he was found in the agonies of death1 pierced by an arrow shot from a cross-bow4 ,,henry ,i4 ,,of ,,england 7#aajj-aace73 ,,louis ,,vi4 7the ,,fat7 ,,of ,,france 7#aajh-aacg73 ,,louis ,,vii4 7#aacg-aahj74--;,henry was the youngest son of the ,conqueror4 ,his wife was ,english1 and was a great-granddaughter of ,edmund ,ironside4 ,her name was ,edith1 but she assumed the ,norman name of ,matilda4 ,her mother ,margaret1 wife of ,malcolm of ,scotland1 was of the stock of the ,west ,saxon kings4 ,thus the blood of ,alfred1 as well as of ,william the ,conqueror1 flowed in the veins of the later ,english kings4 ,in the absence of his older brother ,robert1 who was in ,jerusalem1 he took the crown1 and put forth a ,charter of ,liberties1 promising the ,church to respect its rights1 and giving privileges to his vassals which they in turn were to extend to their own vassals4 ,robert came back from the ,holy ,land1 and tried to wrest ,england from his brother4 ,he failed in the attempt4 ,after this1 ,henry got possession of ,normandy by the victory of ,tinchebrai in #aajf1 and kept ,robert a prisoner in ,cardiff ,castle until his death 7#aace74 ,louis the ,fat1 king of ,france1 espoused the cause of ,william of ,clito1 son of ,robert1 but was beaten in #aaai at ,brenneville4 ,peace was made between the two kings2 but in #aabd ,henry of ,england combined with his son-in-law1 ,henry ,v4 of ,germany1 for the invasion of ,france4 ,louis called upon his vassals1 who gathered in such force that the emperor abandoned the scheme4 ,louis then undertook to chastise those great vassals who had not responded to his summons4 ,william1 the duke of ,aquitane1 seeing the power of the suzerain1 came into his camp1 and offered him his homage4 ,louis inflicted a brutal punishment in ,flanders1 where the count1 ,charles the ,good1 had been assassinated in #aabg1 and which had failed to furnish its contingent in #aabd4 ,he obliged the ,flemish lords to elect as their count1 ,william ,clito1 whose rule1 however1 they presently cast off4 ,louis the ,fat united his son ,louis in marriage with ,eleanor1 the only daughter of ,william 7,x471 the duke of ,aquitaine1 and thus paved the way for a direct control over the ,south4 ,the duchy of ,aquitaine included ,gascony and other districts1 and the suzerainty over ,auvergne1 ,prigord1 etc4 ,louis the ,,vii4 7#aacg-aahj7 was not able to preserve the dominion1 extending from the north to the south of ,france1 which he inherited4 ,he plunged into a dispute with ,pope ,innocent ,,ii4 in relation to the church of ,bourges1 where he claimed the right to name the archbishop4 ,st4 ,bernard took the side of the ,pope4 ,suger1 abbot of ,st4 ,denis1 an able minister1 the counselor of the last king1 supported ,louis4 ,the king attacked the lands of ,theobald of ,champagne1 who sided with the ,pope1 and in his wrath burned the parish church of ,vitry1 with hundreds of poor people who had taken refuge in it4 ,his own remorse and the excommunication of the ,pope moved him to do penance by departing on a ,crusade4 ,suger1 not liking the risk which the monarchy incurred through the absence of the king1 opposed the project4 ,st4 ,bernard encouraged it4 ,the ,crusade failed of any important result2 but it helped to infuse a national spirit into the ,french soldiers1 who fought side by side with the army of the emperor1 ,conrad ,,iii4 ,on his return1 on the alleged ground that ,eleanor was too near of kin1 he divorced her1 and rendered back her dowry 7#aaeb74 ,,louis ,,vii4 ,,of ,,france 7#aacg-aahj73 ,,stephen 7#aace-aaed7 ,,and ,,henry ,,ii4 of ,,england 7#aaed-aahi74--,the king of ,england1 ,henry ,i41 after the death of his son by shipwreck1 declared his daughter ,matilda his heir4 ,she was the widow of ,henry ,v41 the emperor of ,germany4 ,in #aabg she married ,geoffrey1 count of ,anjou1 surnamed ,plantagenet on account of his habit of wearing a sprig of broom 7genet7 in his bonnet4 ,henry left ,matilda1 whom he called the ,empress1 under the charge of his nephew1 ,stephen of ,blois1 who got himself elected king by the barons or great landowners1--as there was no law regulating the succession of the crown1--and was crowned at ,westminster4 ,they had sworn1 however1 to support ,matilda4 ,her uncle ,david1 king of ,scots1 took up her cause2 but the ,scots were defeated at the ,battle of the ,standard in #aach4 ,england was thrown into utter disorder by these circumstances3 some of the barons fought on one side1 and some on the other4 ,there were thieves along the highways1 and the barons in their castles were no better than the thieves4 ,the empress landed in ,england in #aaci1 to recover her rights4 ,in the civil war that ensued1 ,stephen was taken prisoner 7#aada72 but ,matilda1 whose imperious temper made her unpopular in ,london1 was driven out of the city4 ,stephen was released in exchange for the ,earl of ,gloucester4 ,matilda was at one time in great peril1 but contrived to escape in a winter night from ,oxford ,castle 7#aadb74 ,in #aaec peace was made1 by which ,stephen was to retain the kingdom1 but was to be succeeded by ,matilda's eldest son4 ,,cruelty ,,of ,,the ,,nobles4--,in the time of ,stephen and ,matilda1 the barons1 released from the strong hand of his predecessor1 were guilty of atrocities which made the people mourn the loss of ,henry4 ,they built strong castles1 and filled them with armed men4 ,from these they rode out as robbers1 as a wild beast goes forth from its den4 ',they fought among themselves with deadly hatred1 they spoiled the fairest lands with fire and rapine2 in what had been the most fertile of counties they destroyed almost all the provision of bread4' ,whatever money or valuable goods they found1 they carried off4 ,they burnt houses and sacked towns1 ,if they suspected any one of concealing his wealth1 they carried him off to their castle2 and there they tortured him1 to make him confess where his money was4 ',they hanged up men by their feet1 and smoked them with foul smoke4 ,some were hanged up by their thumbs1 others by the head1 and burning things were hung on to their feet4 ,they put knotted strings about men's heads1 and twisted them till they went to the brain4 ,they put men into prisons where adders and snakes and toads were crawling1 and so they tormented them4 ,some they put into a chest short and narrow1 and not deep1 and that had sharp stones within1 and forced men therein so that they broke all their limbs4 ,in many of the castles were hateful and grim things called rachenteges1 which two or three men had enough to do to carry4 ,it was thus made3 it was fastened to a beam1 and had a sharp iron to go about a man's neck and throat1 so that he might noways sit or lie or sleep2 but he bore all the iron4 ,many thousands they starved with hunger4' ,the unhappy sufferers had no one to help them4 ,stephen and ,matilda were too busy with their own quarrel to do justice to their subjects4 ,poor men cried to ,heaven1 but they got no answer4 ',men said openly that ,christ and his saints were asleep4' ,,dominions ,,of ,,henry ,,ii4--,henry1 the son of the empress and of ,count ,geoffrey of ,anjou1 was the first of the ,angevin kings of ,england4 ,they had ,saxon blood in their veins1 but were neither ,norman nor ,saxon1 except in the female line4 ,it was eighty-eight years since the ,conquest2 and1 although the higher classes talked ,french1 almost every one of their number was of mixed descent4 ,the line between ,saxon and ,norman was becoming effaced4 ,a vassal of the king of ,france1 ,henry held so many fiefs that he was stronger than the king himself1 and all the other crown vassals taken together4 ,from his father he had ,anjou2 from his mother1 ,normandy and ,maine2 the county of ,poitou and the duchy of ,aquitaine he received by ,eleanor1 the divorced wife of ,louis ,,vii41 whom he married4 ,later1 by marrying one of his sons to the heiress of ,brittany1 that district1 the nominal fief of ,normandy1 came practically under his dominion4 ,he was a strong-willed man1 who reduced the barons to subjection1 and pulled down the castles which had been built without the king's leave4 ,it might seem probable that the possessor of so great power would absorb the little monarchy of ,france4 ,but this was prevented by long-continued discord in ,england1--discord in the royal family1 between the king and the clergy1 and1 later1 between the king and the barons4 ,on the ,continent1 the king of ,england required a great and united force to break the feudal bonds which grew stronger between the king of ,france and the ,french provinces of ,england4 ,we shall soon see how ,france enlarged her territory1 and how the ,english dominion on the ,continent was greatly reduced4 ,,reforms ,,of ,,henry4--,in order to control the barons1 he arranged with them to pay money in lieu of military service4 ,in this way they were weakened4 ,at the same time1 he encouraged the small landowners to exercise themselves in arms1 which would prepare them for self-defense and to assist the king4 ,moreover1 he sent judges through the land to hear causes4 ,they were to ask a certain number of men in the county as to the merits of the cases coming before them4 ,these men took an oath to tell the truth4 ,they gradually adopted the custom of hearing the evidence of others before giving to the judges their verdict1--that is1 their declaration of the truth 7from vere dictum74 ,out of this custom grew the jury system4 ,,becket3 ,,constitutions ,,of ,,clarendon4--,the ,conqueror had granted to ecclesiastical courts the privilege of trying cases in which the clergy were concerned4 ,on this privilege the clergy had been disposed to insist ever since the fall of the ,roman ,empire4 ,under ,stephen the energetic restraint exercised upon them was removed4 ,in the early years of the reign of ,henry ,,ii41 there were great disorders among the ,norman clergy1 and crimes were of frequent occurrence4 ,these were often punished more lightly than the same offenses when committed by a layman1 as church courts could not inflict capital punishment4 ,henry undertook to bring the clergy under the jurisdiction of the ordinary courts4 ,in this attempt he was resisted by ,thomas ,becket1 who had been his chancelor1 and whom he raised to the archbishopric of ,canterbury 7#aafb71 in the full expectation of having his support4 ,he had been gay and extravagant in his ways1 and zealous in behalf of whatever the king wished4 ,but the brilliant chancelor became a strict and austere prelate1 the champion of the clergy1 with a will as inflexible as that of ,henry4 ,the only bishop that voted against him at his election1 remarked that the king had worked a miracle in having that day turned a layman into an archbishop1 and a soldier into a saint4 ,in this controversy1 the clergy had reason to fear that ,henry1 if he got the power1 would use it to punish and plunder the innocent4 ,at a great council of prelates and barons1 the ,constitutions of ,clarendon were adopted 7#aafd71 which went far towards the subjecting of the ecclesiastics1 as to their appointment and conduct1 to the royal will4 ,becket1 with the other prelates1 swore to observe these statutes2 but he repented of the act1 was absolved by the ,pope from his oath1 and fled to ,france4 ,later a reconciliation took place between him and the king4 ,becket returned to ,england1 but with a temper unaltered4 ,a hasty expression of ,henry1 uttered in wrath1 and indicating a desire to be rid of him1 was taken up by four knights1 who attacked the archbishop1 and slew him1 near the great altar in the cathedral at ,canterbury 7,dec4 #bi1 #aagj74 ,the higher nobles welcomed the occasion to revolt4 ,henry was regarded as the instigator of the bloody deed1 and was moved to make important concessions to the ,pope1 ,alexander ,,iii4 ,his life was darkened by quarrels with his sons4 ,in #aagc the kings of ,france and ,scotland1 and many nobles of ,normandy and ,england1 joined hands with them4 ,henry1 afflicted with remorse1 did penance1 allowing himself to be scourged by the monks at the tomb of ,becket1 or ,st4 ,thomas1--for he was canonized4 ,the people rallied to him1 and the nobles were defeated4 ,the rebellion came to an end4 ,the king of ,scotland became more completely the vassal of ,england4 ,in another rebellion the king's sons rebelled against him3 in #aahi ,john1 the youngest of them1 joined with his brother ,richard4 ,then ,henry's heart was broken1 and he died4 ,,conquest ,,of ,,ireland4--,in the first year of ,henry's reign1 he was authorized by ,pope ,hadrian ,,iv4 to invade ,ireland4 ,in #aafi ,dermot of ,leinster1 a fugitive ,irish king1 undertook to enlist adventurers for this service4 ,he was aided by ,richard of ,clare1 earl of ,pembroke1 called ,strongbow1 and others4 ,they were successful2 and in #aaga ,henry crossed over to ,ireland1 and was acknowledged as sovereign by all the chiefs of the ,south4 ,a synod brought the ,irish ,church into subjection to the see of ,canterbury4 ,but there was constant warfare1 and the ,north and ,east of the island were not subdued4 ,the whole country was not conquered until ,elizabeth's time1 four centuries later4 ,,weakening ,,of ,,great ,,vassals ,,in ,,france4--,the weakening of ,henry's power was the salvation of ,louis ,,vii41 who had more the spirit of a monk than of an active and resolute monarch4 ,at his death a new epoch is seen to begin4 ,the dominion of the great vassals declines1 and the truly monarchical period commences4 ,it was the change which ended in making the king the sole judge1 legislator1 and executive of the country4 ,louis the ,fat1 ,philip ,augustus1 and ,st4 ,louis 7,louis ,,ix47 are the early forerunners of ,louis ,,xiv41 under whom the absolute monarchy was made complete4 ,,philip ,,augustus ,,of ,,france 7#aahj-abbc73 ,,richard ,,the ,,lionhearted ,,of ,,england 7#aahi-aaii74--,philip ,augustus was the last king of ,france to be crowned before his accession4 ,the custom had helped to give stability to the regal system4 ,now it was no longer needful4 ,philip was only fifteen years old when he began to reign alone4 ,for forty-three years he labored with shrewdness and perseverance1 and with few scruples as to the means employed1 to build up the kingly authority4 ,his first act was a violent attack on the ,jews1 whom he despoiled and banished4 ,this was counted an act of piety4 ,he acquired ,vermandois1 ,valois1 and ,amiens2 refusing to render homage to the ,bishop of ,amiens1 who claimed to be its suzerain4 ,during the life of ,henry ,,ii41 ,philip had allied himself closely with his son ,richard 7the ,lion-hearted71 who succeeded his father4 ,richard was passionate and quarrelsome1 yet generous4 ,he was troubadour as well as king4 ,after his coronation 7#aahi71 the two kings made ready for a ,crusade together4 ,to raise money1 ,richard sold earldoms and crown lands1 and exclaimed that he would sell ,london if he could find a buyer4 ,the two kings set out together in #aaij4 ,they soon quarreled4 ,philip came home first1 and1 while ,richard was a prisoner in ,austria1 did his best to profit by his misfortunes1 and to weaken the ,english reigning house4 ,in the absence of ,richard1 ,john1 his ambitious and unfaithful brother1 was made regent by the lords and the ,london citizens4 ,as nothing was heard of the king1 ,john claimed the crown4 ,hearing of the release of ,richard1 ,philip wrote to ,john 7#aaid71 ,take care of yourself1 for the devil is let loose4 ,richard made war on ,philip in ,normandy1 but ,pope ,innocent ,,iii4 obliged the two kings to make a truce for five years 7#aaii74 ,two months after1 ,richard was mortally wounded while besieging a castle near ,limoges1 where it was said that a treasure had been found1 which he as the suzerain claimed4 ,he had never visited ,england but twice2 and1 although he always had the fame of a hero1 the country had no real cause to regret his death4 ,,john ,,of ,,england 7#aaii-abaf74--;,john 7surnamed ,sansterre1 or ,lackland1 a name given to the younger sons1 whose fathers had died before they were old enough to hold fiefs7 was chosen king4 ,anjou1 ,poitou1 and ,touraine desired to have for their duke young ,arthur1 duke of ,brittany1 the son of ,geoffrey1 ,john's elder brother4 ,philip ,augustus took up the cause of ,arthur1 but deserted him when he had gained for himself what he wished4 ,when ,philip wished to reopen the war he took advantage of a complaint from one of ,john's vassals1 ,hugh of ,lusignan1 whose affianced bride ,john had stolen away4 ,as suzerain ,philip summoned ,john to answer at ,paris1 and when he did not appear the court declared his fiefs forfeited4 ,it was in this war that ,arthur was captured by his uncle and was murdered4 ,this crime served only to strengthen ,philip's cause4 ,he seized on ,normandy1 which thenceforward was ,french1 and ,brittany1 which became an immediate fief of the king 7#abjd74 ,he took the other possessions of ,england in ,northern ,gaul4 ,there were left to the ,english the duchy of ,aquitaine1 with ,gascony and the ,channel ,islands4 ,the lands south of the ,loire ,john had inherited from his mother4 ,,tyranny ,,of ,,john4--,john robbed his subjects1 high and low1 under the name of taxation4 ,not content with forcing money out of the ,jews1 one of whom he was said to have coerced by pulling out a tooth every day1 he treated rich land-owners with hardly less cruelty4 ,he had not1 like ,henry ,,ii41 the support of the people1 and added to his unpopularity by hiring soldiers from abroad to help him in his oppression4 ,,john',s ,,quarrel ,,with ,,the ,,pope3 ,,magna ,,charta4--,as rash as he was tyrannical1 ,john engaged in a quarrel with ,pope ,innocent ,,iii4 ,the monks of ,canterbury appointed as archbishop1 not the king's treasurer1 whom he bade them choose1 but another4 ,the ,pope neither heeded the king nor confirmed their choice1 but made them elect a religious and learned ,englishman1 ,stephen ,langton4 ,john1 in a rage1 drove the monks out of ,canterbury1 and refused to recognize the election4 ,the ,pope excommunicated him1 and laid ,england under an interdict2 that is1 he forbade services in the churches1 and sacraments except for infants and the dying2 marriages were to take place in the church porch1 and the dead were to be buried without prayer and in unconsecrated ground4 ,as ,john paid no regard to this measure of coercion1 ,innocent declared him deposed1 and charged the king of ,france to carry the sentence into effect 7#abac74 ,resisted at home1 and threatened from abroad1 ,john now made an abject submission1 laying his crown at the feet of ,pandulph1 the ,pope's legate4 ,he made himself the vassal of the ,pope1 receiving back from him the kingdoms of ,england and ,ireland1 which he had delivered to ,innocent1 and engaging that a yearly rent should be paid to ,rome by the king of ,england and his heirs4 ,philip had to give up his plan of invading ,england4 ,john's tyranny and licentiousness had become intolerable4 ,langton1 a man of large views1 and the ,english ,church1 united with the barons in extorting from him1 in the meadow of ,runnymede1--an island in the ,thames1 near ,windsor1--the ,magna ,charta1 the foundation of ,english constitutional liberty4 ,it secured two great principles3 first1 that the king could take the money of his subjects only when it was voted to him for public objects2 and secondly1 that he could not punish or imprison them at his will1 but could only punish them after conviction1 according to law1 by their countrymen4 ,the ,great ,charter is based on the charter of ,henry ,i4 ,it precisely defines and secures old customs1 #a4 ,it recognizes the rights of the ,church4 #b4 ,it secures person and property from seizure and spoliation without the judgment of peers or the law of the land4 #c4 ,there are regulations for courts of law4 #d4 ,exactions by the lord are limited to the three customary feudal aids4 ,the benefits granted to the vassal are to be extended to the lower tenants4 #e1 ,how the ,great ,council is to be composed1 and how convened1 is defined4 #f4 ,the liberties and free customs of ,london and of other towns are secured4 #g4 ,protection is given against certain oppressive exactions of the ,crown4 #h4 ,the safety of merchants against exactions in coming into ,england1 and in going out1 and in traveling through it1 is guaranteed4 #i4 ,there is some provision in favor of the villain4 ,,war ,,with ,,france4--,john joined in a great coalition against ,philip ,augustus4 ,he was to attack ,france in the south-west2 while the emperor1 ,otto ,,iv41 and the counts of ,flanders and ,boulogne1 with all the princes of the ,low ,countries1 were to make their attack on the north4 ,it was a war of the feudal aristocracy against the king of the ,french4 ,at the great battle of ,bouvines 7#abad7 the ,french were victorious4 ,the success1 in the glory of which the communes shared1 added no territory to ,france2 but it awakened a national spirit4 ,john was beaten in ,poitou1 and went home4 ,,deposition ,,of ,,john4--,in ,england1 ,john found that all his exertions against the ,charter1 even with the aid of ,rome1 were unavailing4 ,in a spirit of vengeance1 he brought in mercenary freebooters1 and marched into ,scotland1 robbing and burning as he went4 ,every morning he burned the house in which he had lodged for the night4 ,at length the ,english barons offered the crown to ,louis1 the eldest son of ,philip ,augustus2 but ,john died in #abaf1 and ,louis found himself deserted4 ,he had shown a disposition to give lands to the ,french4 ,,the ,,albigensian ,,war4--,the war against the ,albigenses began in the reign of ,philip2 but he pleaded that his hands were full1 and left it to be waged by the nobles4 ,that sect had its seat in the south of ,france1 and derived its name from the city of ,albi4 ,it held certain heterodox tenets1 and rejected the authority of the priesthood4 ,in #abjh1 under ,innocent ,,iii41 a crusade was preached against ,raymond ,,vi41 count of ,toulouse1 in whose territory most of them were found4 ,this was first conducted by ,simon de ,montfort1 and then by ,philip's son1 ,louis ,,viii41 the county of ,toulouse being a fief of ,france4 ,the result of the desolating conflict was1 that part of the count's fiefs were in #abbi transferred to the crown1 and the country itself in #abgj4 ,in that year1 at the council of ,toulouse1 the ,inquisition1 a special ecclesiastical tribunal1 was organized to complete the extermination of the ,albigensians who had escaped the sword4 ,the advantages resulting from the crushing of the sovereignties of the south were sure to come to the ,french monarchy4 ,but ,philip left it to the nobles and to his successors to win the enticing prize4 ,the first period of rivalry between ,england and ,france ends with ,john and ,philip ,augustus4 ,for one hundred and twenty years1 each country pursues its course separately4 ,monarchy grows stronger in ,france3 constitutional government advances in ,england4 ,,louis ,,ix4 ,,of ,,france 7#abbf-abgj74--;,in ,louis ,,ix4 7,st4 ,louis7 ,france had a king so noble and just that the monarchy was sanctified in the eyes of the people4 ,at his accession he was but eleven years old1 and with his mother1 ,blanche of ,castile1 had to encounter for sixteen years a combination of great barons determined to uphold feudalism4 ,most of them staid away from his coronation4 ,when the young king and his mother approached ,paris1 they found the way barred2 but it was opened by the devoted burghers1 who came forth with arms in their hands to bring them in4 ,the magistrates of the communes swore to defend the king and his friends 7#abbh74 ,they were supported by the ,papacy4 ,in #abca the war ended in a way favorable to royalty4 ,the treaty of #abbi with ,raymond ,,vii41 count of ,toulouse1 led to the gradual absorption of the ,south4 ,theobald of ,champagne became king of ,navarre1 and sold to the crown ,chartres and other valuable fiefs4 ,in the earlier period of his reign ,louis was guided by his wise1 even if imperious1 mother1 who held the regency4 ,,england ,,and ,,france4--,in #abdc ,louis defeated ,henry ,,iii4 of ,england1 who had come over to help the count of ,la ,marche and other rebellious nobles4 ,in #abde ,charles of ,anjou1 the king's brother1 married ,beatrice1 through whom ,provence passed to the house of ,anjou4 ,the king's long absence 7#abdh-abed71 during the sixth ,crusade1 had no other result but to show to all that he combined in himself the qualities of a hero and of a saint4 ,after his return1 his government was wise and just1 and marked by sympathy with his people4 ,in #abei he made a treaty with ,henry ,,iii41 yielding to him the ,limousin1 ,prigord1 and parts of ,saintonge1 for which ,henry relinquished all claims on the rest of ,france4 ,louis fostered learning4 ,the ,university of ,paris flourished under his care4 ,in his reign ,robert of ,sorbon 7#abeb7 founded the ,sorbonne1 the famous college for ecclesiastics which bears his name4 ,,civil ,,policy ,,of ,,louis4--,in his civil policy ,louis availed himself of the ,roman law to undermine feudal privileges4 ,the legists enlarged the number of cases reserved for the king himself to adjudicate4 ,he established new courts of justice1 higher than the feudal courts1 and the right of final appeal to himself4 ,he made the king's ,parliament a great judicial body4 ,he abolished in his domains the judicial combat1 or duel1--the old ,german method of deciding between the accused and the accuser4 ,he liberated many serfs4 ,but1 mild as he was1 he had no mercy for ,jews and heretics4 ,in his intercourse with other nations1 he blended firmness and courage with a fair and unselfish spirit4 ,he refused to comply with the request of the ,pope to take up arms against the emperor1 ,frederic ,,ii42 but he threatened to make war upon him if he did not release the prelates whom he had captured on their way to ,rome4 ,the ,pragmatic ,sanction of ,st4 ,louis is of doubtful genuineness4 ,it is an assertion of the liberties of the ,gallican ,church4 ,with loyalty to the ,holy ,see1 and an exalted piety1 ,louis defended the rights of all1 and did not allow the clergy to attain to an unjust control4 ,voltaire said of him1 ,it is not given to man to carry virtue to a higher point4 ,he stands in the scale of merit on a level with ,alfred of ,england4 ,,parliaments ,,in ,,france4--,the word parliament in ,french history has a very different meaning from that which it bears when applied to the ,english institution of the same name4 ,there were thirteen parliaments in ,france1 each having a jurisdiction of its own4 ,they were established at different times4 ,of these the ,parliament of ,paris was the oldest and by far the most important4 ,the king and other suzerains administered justice1 each in his own domain4 ,the ,parliament of ,paris was originally a portion of the king's council that was set apart to hear causes among the fiefs4 ,it considered all appeals and judicial questions4 ,but in the reign of ,louis ,,ix41 commissioners1 or baillis1 of the king1 held provincial courts of appeal in his name4 ,the great suzerains established1 each in his own fief1 like tribunals1 but of more restricted authority4 ,louis ,,ix4 made it optional with the vassal to be tried by his immediate suzerain1 or in the king's courts1 which were subordinate to his council4 ,as time went on1 the authority of the royal tribunals increased1 as that of the feudal courts grew weaker4 ,in the ,parliament of ,paris1 a corps of legists who understood the ,roman law were admitted with the lords1 knights1 and prelates4 ,more and more these counsellors were left to themselves4 ,later there was a division into ,chambers1 of which the ,grand ,chamber for the final hearing and decision of appeals was of principal importance4 ,philip the ,fair 7#acjc7 gave a more complete organization to ,parliament4 ,he provided that it should hold two annual sittings at ,paris4 ,thus there grew up a judicial aristocracy4 ,after #acfh the members were appointed for life4 ,at length1 under ,henry ,,iv41 the seats in ,parliament became hereditary4 ,the great magistrates thus constituted wore robes of ermine1 or of scarlet adorned with velvet4 ,the ,palace of ,justice 7,palais de ,justice71 on an island in the ,seine1 was given to ,parliament for its sessions by ,charles ,v4 ,in its hall scenes of tragic interest1 including1 in modern times1 the condemnation of ,marie ,antoinette and of ,robespierre1 have taken place4 ,the crown was represented by a great officer1 a public prosecutor or attorney-general 7procureur gnral74 ,he and his assistants were termed the king's people 7gens du roi74 ,they had the privilege of speaking with their hats on4 ,it was an ancient custom to enroll the royal ordinances in the parliamentary records4 ,gradually it came to be considered that no statute or decree had the force of law unless it was entered on the registers of ,parliament4 ,great conflicts occurred with the kings when ,parliament refused to register their edicts or treaties4 ,then the king would hold a bed of justice1--so called from the cushions of the seat where he sat in the hall of ,parliament1 whither he came in person to command them to register the obnoxious enactment4 ,this royal intervention could not be resisted3 commonly the enrollment would be made1 but sometimes under a protest4 ,each of the local parliaments claimed to be supreme in its own province3 they were held to constitute together one institution1 and all the judges were on a level4 ,attempts at political interference by ,parliaments1 the kings resisted4 ,at the ,french ,revolution in #agij1 the ,parliaments were finally abolished4 ,,henry ,,iii4 7#abaf-abgb74--;,john's eldest son1 ,henry1 when he was crowned by the royalists1 was only nine years old4 ,for a short time he had a wise guardian in ,william1 ,earl of ,pembroke4 ,in two battles1 one on the land and one on the sea1 ,louis ,,viii4 7#abbc-abbf71 son of ,philip ,augustus of ,france1 was defeated4 ,he made peace1 and returned to ,france4 ,henry married ,eleanor1 the daughter of ,raymond1 count of ,provence1--a beautiful and accomplished woman1 but she was unpopular in ,england4 ,the king1 as well as his wife1 lavished offices1 honors1 and lands upon foreigners4 ,he was a weak prince1 and unwisely accepted for his second son1 ,edmund1 the crown of the ,two ,sicilies1 which could be won only at the expense of ,england4 ,this measure induced the barons to compel ,henry to a measure equivalent to the placing of authority in the hands of a council4 ,this brought on a war between the king and the barons4 ,the latter were led by ,simon de ,montfort 7the second of the name71 who had inherited the earldom of ,leicester through his mother4 ,through him ,,parliament assumed the form which it has since retained4 ,the greater barons1 the lords or peers1 with the bishops and principal abbots1 came together in person1 and grew into the ,house of ,lords4 ,the freeholders of each county had sent some of the knights to represent them4 ,the attendance of these knights now began to be regular2 but besides the two knights from each county1 who were like the county members of our own time1 ,simon caused each city and borough to send two of their citizens1 or burgesses4 ,thus the ,house of ,commons arose4 ,simon defeated ,henry at ,lewes 7#abfd73 but the barons flocked to the standard of ,prince ,edward1 who escaped from custody2 and ,simon was defeated and slain at the battle of ,evesham in #abfe4 ,henry was restored to power4 ,he died in #abgb1 and was buried in ,westminster ,abbey1 which he had begun to rebuild4 ,under ,henry1 the ,great ,charter1 with some alterations1 was three times confirmed4 ,a ,charter of the ,forest was added1 providing that no man should lose life or limb for taking the king's game4 ,cruel laws for the protection of game in the forests or uncultivated lands had been a standing grievance from the days of the ,norman ,conquest4 ,the confirming of the ,great ,charter in #abbe was made the condition of a grant of money from the ,national ,council to the king4 ,when the bishops1 in #abcf1 desired to have the laws of inheritance conformed to the rules of the ,church1 the barons made the laconic answer1 ,we will not change the laws of ,england 7,nolumus leges ,anglice mutare74 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,rise ,,of ,,the ,,burgher ,,class3 ,,society ,,in ,,the ,,era ,,of ,,the ,,crusades4 ,,rise ,,of ,,the ,,cities4--,under feudalism1 only two classes present themselves to view1--the nobility and the clergy on the one hand1 and the serfs on the other4 ,this was the character of society in the ninth century4 ,in the tenth century we see the beginnings of an intermediate class1 the germ of the third estate4 ,this change appears in the cities1 where the burghers begin to increase in intelligence1 and to manifest a spirit of independence4 ,from this time1 for several centuries1 their power and privileges continued to grow4 ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,cities4--,the same need of defense that led to the building of towers and castles in the country drove men within the walls of towns4 ,industry and trade developed intelligence1 and produced wealth4 ,but burghers under the feudal rule were obliged to pay heavy tolls and taxes4 ,for example1 for protection on a journey through any patch of territory1 they were required to make a payment4 ,besides the regular exactions1 they were exposed to most vexatious depredations of a lawless kind4 ,as they advanced in thrift and wealth1 communities that were made up largely of artisans and tradesmen armed themselves for their own defense4 ,from self-defense they proceeded farther1 and extorted exemptions and privileges from the suzerain1 the effect of which was to give them a high though limited degree of self-government4 ,,origin ,,of ,,municipal ,,freedom4--,it has been supposed that municipal government in the ,middle ,ages was a revival of old ,roman rights and customs1 and thus an heirloom from antiquity4 ,the cities--those on the ,rhine and in ,gaul1 for example--were of ,roman origin4 ,but the view of scholars at present is1 that municipal liberty1 such as existed in the ,middle ,ages1 was a native product of the ,germanic peoples4 ,the cities were incorporated into the feudal system4 ,they were subject to a lay lord or to a bishop4 ,in ,italy1 however1 they struggled after a more complete republican system4 ,,cities ,,and ,,suzerains4--,in the conflicts which were waged by the cities1 they were sometimes helped by the suzerain against the king1 and sometimes by the king against the nearer suzerain4 ,in ,england the cities were apt to ally themselves with the nobility against the king3 in ,germany and ,france the reverse was the fact4 ,but in ,germany the cities which came into an immediate relation to the sovereign were less closely dependent on him than were the cities in ,france on the ,french king4 ,,two ,,classes ,,of ,,cities4--,not only did the cities wrest from the lords a large measure of freedom3 it was often freely conceded to them4 ,nobles1 in order to bring together artisans1 and to build up a community in their own neighborhood1 granted extraordinary privileges4 ,charters were given to cities by the king4 ,communities thus formed differed from the other class of cities in not having the same privilege of administering justice within their limits4 ,,german ,,cities4--,the cities in ,germany increased in number on the fall of the ,hohenstaufen family4 ,they made the inclosure of their walls a place of refuge1 as the nobles did the vicinity of their castles4 ,they eventually gained admittance to the ,diets of the empire4 ,they formed leagues among themselves1 which1 however1 did not become political bodies1 any more than the ,italian leagues4 ,,the ,,roman ,,law4--,the revised study of the ,roman law brought in a code at variance with feudal principles4 ,the middle class1 that was growing up in the great commercial cities1 availed themselves1 as far as they could1 of its principles in regard to the inheritance of property4 ,the legists helped in a thousand ways to emancipate them from the yoke of feudal traditions4 ,,municipal ,,government4--,the cities themselves often had vassals1 and became suzerains4 ,government rested in the hands of the magistrates4 ,they were chosen by the general assembly of the inhabitants1 who were called together by the tolling of the bell4 ,the magistrates governed without much restraint until another election1 unless there were popular outbreaks1 which were at this time1 as ,guizot remarks1 the great guarantee for good government4 ,where the courage and spirit of burghers were displayed was in the maintenance of their own privileges1 or purely in self-defense4 ,in all other relations they showed the utmost humility2 and in the twelfth century1 when their emancipation is commonly dated1 they did not pretend to interfere in the government of the country4 ,,travelers ,,and ,,trade4--,the ,east1 especially ,india1 was conceived of as a region of boundless riches2 but commerce with the ,east was hindered by a thousand difficulties and dangers4 ,curiosity led travelers to penetrate into the countries of ,asia4 ,among them the ,polo family of ,venice1 of whom ,marco was the most famous1 were specially distinguished4 ,marco ,polo lived in ,china1 with his father and his uncle1 twenty-six years4 ,after his return1 and during his captivity at ,genoa1 he wrote the celebrated accounts of his travels4 ,he died about #acbd4 ,sir ,john ,mandeville also wrote of his travels1 but most of his descriptions were taken from the work of ,friar ,odoric1 of ,pordenone1 who had visited the ,far ,east4 ,merchants did not venture so far as did bold explorers of a scientific turn4 ,commerce in the ,middle ,ages was mainly in two districts1--the borders of the ,north ,sea and of the ,baltic1 and the countries upon the ,mediterranean4 ,trade in the cities on the ,african coast1 in the tenth and eleventh centuries1 was flourishing2 and the ,arabs of ,spain were industrious and rich4 ,arles1 ,marseilles1 ,nice1 ,genoa1 ,florence1 ,amalfi1 ,venice1 vied with one another in traffic with the ,east4 ,intermediate between ,venice and ,genoa1 and the north of ,europe1 were flourishing marts1 among which ,strasburg and other cities on the ,rhine--,augsburg1 ,ulm1 ,ratisbon1 ,vienna1 and ,nuremberg--were among the most prominent4 ,through these cities flowed the currents of trade from the ,north to the ,south1 and from the ,south to the ,north4 ,,the ,,hanseatic ,,league4--,to protect themselves against the feudal lords and against pirates1 the cities of ,northern ,germany formed 7about #abda7 the ,hanseatic ,league1 which1 at the height of its power1 included eighty-five cities1 besides many other cities more or less closely affiliated with it4 ,this league was dominant1 as regards trade and commerce1 in the north of ,europe1 and united under it the cities on the ,baltic and the ,rhine1 as well as the large cities of ,flanders4 ,its merchants had control of the fisheries1 the mines1 the agriculture1 and manufactures of ,germany4 ,lbeck1 ,cologne1 ,brunswick1 and ,dantzic were its principal places4 ,lbeck was its chief center4 ,in all the principal towns on the highways of commerce1 the flag of the ,hansa floated over its counting-houses4 ,wherever the influence of the league reached1 its regulations were in force4 ,it almost succeeded in monopolizing the trade of ,europe north of ,italy4 ,,flanders3 ,,england3 ,,france4--,the numerous cities of ,flanders--of which ,ghent1 ,ypres1 and ,bruges were best known--became hives of industry and of thrift4 ,ghent1 at the end of the thirteenth century1 surpassed ,paris in riches and power4 ,in the latter part of the fourteenth century1 the number of its fighting men was estimated at eighty thousand4 ,the development of ,holland was more slow4 ,amsterdam was constituted a town in the middle of the thirteenth century4 ,england began to exchange products with ,spain4 ,it sent its sheep1 and brought back the horses of the ,arabians4 ,the cities of ,france--,rouen1 ,orleans1 ,rheims1 ,lyons1 ,marseilles1 etc4--were alive with manufactures and trade4 ,in the twelfth century the yearly fairs at ,troyes1 ,st4 ,denis1 and ,beaucaire were famous all over ,europe4 ,,new ,,industries4--,it has been already stated that the crusaders brought back to ,europe the knowledge as well as the products of various branches of industry4 ,such were the cloths of ,damascus1 the glass of ,tyre1 the use of windmills1 of linen1 and of silk1 the plum-trees of ,damascus1 the sugar-cane1 the mulberry-tree4 ,cotton stuffs came into use at this time4 ,paper made from cotton was used by the ,saracens in ,spain in the eighth century4 ,paper was made from linen at a somewhat later date4 ,in ,france and ,germany it was first manufactured early in the fourteenth century4 ,,the ,,jews4--,the ,jews in the ,middle ,ages were often treated with extreme harshness4 ,an outburst of the crusading spirit was frequently attended with cruel assaults upon them4 ,as ,christians would not take interest1 money-lending was a business mainly left to the ,hebrews4 ,by them1 bills of exchange were first employed4 ,,obstacles ,,to ,,trade4--,the great obstacle to commerce was the insecurity of travel4 ,whenever a shipwreck took place1 whatever was cast upon the shore was seized by the neighboring lord4 ,a noble at ,leon1 in ,brittany1 pointing out a rock on which many vessels had been wrecked1 said1 ,i have a rock there more precious than the diamonds on the crown of a king4 ,it was long before property on the sea was respected1 even in the same degree as property on the land4 ,not even at the present day has this point been reached4 ,the infinite diversity of coins was another embarrassment to trade4 ,in every fief1 one had to exchange his money1 always at a loss4 ,louis ,,ix4 ordained that the money of eighty lords1 who had the right to coin1 should be current only in their own territories1 while the coinage of the king should be received everywhere4 ,,guilds4--,a very important feature of medival society was the guilds4 ,societies more or less resembling these existed among the ,romans1 and were called collegia1--some being for good fellowship or for religious rites1 and others being trade-corporations4 ,there were1 also1 similar fraternities among the ,greeks in the second and third centuries ,b4,c4 ,in the ,middle ,ages1 there were two general classes of guilds3 ,first1 there were the peace-guilds1 for mutual protection against thieves1 etc41 and for mutual aid in sickness1 old age1 or impoverishment from other causes4 ,they were numerous in ,england1 and spread over the ,continent4 ,secondly1 there were the trade-guilds1 which embraced the guilds-merchant1 and the craft-guilds4 ,the latter were associations of workmen1 for maintaining the customs of their craft1 each with a master1 or alderman1 and other officers4 ,they had their provisions for mutual help for themselves and for their widows and orphans1 and they had their religious observances4 ,each had its patron saint1 its festivals1 its treasury4 ,they kept in their hands the monopoly of the branch of industry which belonged to them4 ,they had their rules in respect to apprenticeship1 etc4 ,almost all professions and occupations were fenced in by guilds4 ,,monasticism4--,society in the ,middle ,ages presented striking and picturesque contrasts4 ,this was nowhere more apparent than in the sphere of religion4 ,along with the passion for war and the consequent reign of violence1 there was a parallel self-consecration to a life of peace and devotion4 ,with the strongest relish for pageantry and for a brilliant ceremonial in social life and in worship1 there was associated a yearning for an ascetic course under the monastic vows4 ,as existing orders grew rich1 and gave up the rigid discipline of earlier days1 new orders were formed by men of deeper religious earnestness4 ,in the eleventh century1 there arose1 among other orders1 the ,carthusian and ,cistercian2 in the twelfth century1 the ,premonstrants and the ,carmelites1 and the order of ,trinitarians for the liberation of ,christian captives taken by the ,moslems4 ,the older orders1 especially that of the ,benedictines in its different branches1 became very wealthy and powerful4 ,the ,cistercian ,order1 under its second founder1 ,st4 ,bernard 7who died in #aaec71 spread with wonderful rapidity4 ,,the ,,mendicant ,,orders4--,in the thirteenth century1 when the papal authority was at its height1 the mendicant orders arose4 ,the order of ,st4 ,francis was fully established in #abbc1 and the order of ,st4 ,dominic in #abaf4 ,they combined with monastic vows the utmost activity in preaching and in other clerical work4 ,these orders attracted young men of talents and of a devout spirit in large numbers4 ,the mendicant friars were frequently in conflict with the secular clergy1--the ordinary priesthood1--and with the other orders4 ,but they gained a vast influence1 and were devotedly loyal to the popes4 ,it must not be supposed that the monastic orders generally were made up of the weak or the disappointed who sought in cloisters a quiet asylum4 ,disgust with the world1 from whatever cause1 led many to become members of them2 but they were largely composed of vigorous minds1 which1 of their own free choice1 took on them the monastic vows4 ,,the ,,rise ,,of ,,the ,,universities4--,the ,crusades were accompanied by a signal revival of intellectual activity4 ,one of the most important events of the thirteenth century was the rise of the universities4 ,the schools connected with the abbeys and the cathedrals in ,france began to improve in the eleventh century1 partly from an impulse caught by individuals from the ,arabic schools in ,spain4 ,after the scholastic theology was introduced1 teachers in this branch began to give instruction near those schools in ,paris4 ,numerous pupils gathered around noted lecturers4 ,an organization followed which was called a university1--a sort of guild1--made up of four faculties1--theology1 canon law1 medicine1 and the arts4 ,the arts included the three studies 7trivium7 of grammar1 rhetoric1 and philosophy1 with four additional branches 7the quadrivium71--arithmetic1 geometry1 music1 astronomy4 ,paris became the mother of many other universities4 ,next to ,paris1 ,oxford was famous as a seat of education4 ,of all the universities1 ,bologna in ,italy was most renowned as a school for the study of the civil law4 ,,scholastic ,,theology4--,the scholastic theology dates from the middle of the eleventh century4 ,it was the work of numerous teachers1 many of them of unsurpassed acuteness1 who1 at a time when learning and scholarship were at a low ebb1 made it their aim to systemize1 elucidate1 and prove on philosophical grounds1 the doctrines of the ,church4 ,aristotle was the author whose philosophical writings were most authoritative with the schoolmen4 ,in theology1 ,augustine was the most revered master4 ,the main question in philosophy which the schoolmen debated was that of ,nominalism and ,realism4 ,the question was1 whether a general term1 as man1 stands for a real being designated by it 7as man1 in the example given1 for humanity71 or is simply the name of divers distinct individuals4 ,,the ,,leading ,,schoolmen4--,in the eleventh century ,anselm of ,canterbury was a noble example of the scholastic spirit4 ,in the thirteenth century ,abelard was a bold and brilliant teacher1 but with less depth and discretion4 ,he1 like other eminent schoolmen1 attracted multitudes of pupils4 ,the thirteenth century was the golden age of scholasticism4 ,then flourished ,albert the ,great1 ,thomas ,aquinas1 ,st4 ,bonaventura1 and others very influential in their day4 ,there were two schools of opinion1--that of the ,thomists1 the adherents of ,aquinas1 the great theologian of the ,dominican order2 and that of the ,scotists1 the adherents of ,duns ,scotus1 a great light of the ,franciscans4 ,they differed on various theological points not involved in the common faith4 ,the discussions of the schoolmen were often carried into distinctions bewildering from their subtlety4 ,there were individuals who were more disposed to the inductive method of investigation1 and who gave attention to natural as well as metaphysical science4 ,perhaps the most eminent of these is ,roger ,bacon4 ,he was an ,englishman1 was born in #abai1 and died about #abid4 ,he was imprisoned for a time on account of the jealousy with which studies in natural science and new discoveries in that branch were regarded by reason of their imagined conflict with religion4 ,astrology was cultivated by the ,moors in ,spain in connection with astronomy4 ,it spread among the ,christian nations4 ,alchemy1 the search for the transmutation of metals1 had its curious votaries4 ,but such pursuits were popularly identified with diabolic agency4 ,,the ,,vernacular ,,literatures3 ,,the ,,troubadours4--,intellectual activity was for a long time exclusively confined to theology4 ,the earliest literature of a secular cast in ,france belongs to the tenth and eleventh centuries1 and to the dialect of ,provence4 ,the study of this language1 and the poetry composed in it1 became the recreation of knights and noble ladies4 ,thousands of poets1 who were called ,troubadours 7from trobar1 to find or invent71 appeared almost simultaneously1 and became well known in ,spain and in ,italy as well as in ,france4 ,at the same time the period of chivalry began4 ,the theme of their tender and passionate poems was love4 ,they indulged in a license which was not offensive1 owing to the laxity of manners and morals in ,southern ,france at that day1 but would be intolerable in a different state of society4 ,kings1 as well as barons and knights1 adopted the ,provenal language1 and figured as troubadours4 ,in connection with jousts and tournaments1 there would be a contest for poetical honors4 ,the ,court of ,love1 made up of gentle ladies1 with the lady of the castle at their head1 gave the verdict4 ,besides the songs of love1 another class of ,provenal poems treated of war or politics1 or were of a satirical cast4 ,from the ,moors of ,spain1 rhyme1 which belonged to ,arabian poetry1 was introduced1 and spread thence over ,europe4 ,after the thirteenth century the troubadours were heard of no more1 and the ,provenal tongue became a mere dialect4 ,,the ,,norman ,,writers4--,the first writers and poets in the ,french language proper appeared in ,normandy4 ,they called themselves ,trouvres4 ,they were the troubadours of the ,north4 ,they composed romances of chivalry1 and ,fabliaux1 or amusing tales4 ,they sang in a more warlike and virile strain than the poets of the ,south4 ,their first romances were written late in the twelfth century4 ,about that time ,villehardouin wrote in ,french a history of the conquest of ,constantinople4 ,from the poem entitled ,alexander1 the name of ,alexandrine verse came to be applied to the measure in which it was written4 ,a favorite theme of the romances of chivalry was the mythical exploits of ,arthur1 the last ,celtic king of ,britain1 and of the knights of the ,round ,table4 ,another class of romances of chivalry related to the court of ,charlemagne4 ,the ,fabliaux in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries were largely composed of tales of ludicrous adventures4 ,,german1 ,,english1 ,,and ,,spanish ,,writers4--,in ,germany1 in the age of the ,hohenstaufens1 the poets called ,minnesingers abounded4 ,they were conspicuous at the splendid tournaments and festivals4 ,in the thirteenth century numerous lays of love1 satirical fables1 and metrical romances were composed or translated4 ,of the ,round ,table legends1 that of the ,san ,graal 7the holy vessel7 was the most popular4 ,it treated of the search for the precious blood of ,christ1 which was said to have been brought in a cup or charger into ,northern ,europe by ,joseph of ,arimathea4 ,during this period the old ballads were thrown into an epic form2 among them1 the ,nibelungenlied1 the ,iliad of ,germany4 ,the religious faith and loyalty of the ,spanish character1 the fruit of their long contest with the ,moors1 are reflected in the poem of the ,cid1 which was composed about the year #abjj4 ,it is one of the oldest epics in the ,romance languages4 ,in ,england during this period1 we have the chronicles kept in the monasteries4 ,among their authors are ,william of ,malmesbury1 ,geoffrey of ,monmouth1 and ,matthew ,paris1 a ,benedictine monk of ,st4 ,albans4 ,,dante4--,dante1 the chief poet of ,italy1 and the father of its vernacular literature1 was born in ,florence in #abfe4 ,the ,divine ,comedy is universally regarded as one of the greatest products of poetical genius4 ,the family of ,alighieri1 to which ,dante belonged1 was noble1 but not of the highest rank4 ,he was placed under the best masters1 and became not only an accomplished student of ,virgil and other ,latin poets1 but also an adept in theology and in various other branches of knowledge4 ,his training was the best that the time afforded4 ,his family belonged to the anti-imperial party of ,guelfs4 ,the spirit of faction raged at ,florence4 ,dante was attached to the party of ,whites 7,bianchi71 and1 having held the high office of prior in ,florence1 was banished1 with many others1 when the ,blacks 7,neri7 got the upper hand 7#acjb74 ,until his death1 nineteen years later1 he wandered from place to place in ,italy as an exile4 ,circumstances1 especially the distracted condition of the country1 led him to ally himself with the ,ghibellines1 and to favor the imperial cause4 ,all that he saw and suffered until he breathed his last1 away from his native city1 at ,ravenna1 combined to stir within him the thoughts and passions which find expression in his verse4 ,no poet before ,dante ever equaled him in depth of thought and feeling4 ,his principal work is divided into three parts4 ,it is an allegorical vision of hell1 purgatory1 and heaven4 ,through the first two of these regions1 the poet is conducted by ,virgil4 ,in the third1 ,beatrice is his guide4 ,when he was a boy of nine years of age1 he had met1 at a ,may-day festival1 ,beatrice1 who was of the same age2 and thenceforward he cherished towards her a pure and romantic affection4 ,before his twenty-fifth year she died2 but1 after her death1 his thoughts dwelt upon her with a refined but not less passionate regard4 ,she is his imaginary guide through the abodes of the blest4 ,his ,young ,life 7,vita ,nuova7 gives the history of his love4 ,the ,divine ,comedy--so called because the author would modestly place it below the rank of tragedy1--besides the lofty genius which it exhibits1 besides the matchless force and beauty of its diction1 sums up1 so to speak1 what is best and most characteristic in the whole intellectual and religious life of the ,middle ,ages4 ,thomas ,aquinas was ,dante's authority in theology ,the scholastic system taught by the ,church is brought to view in his pictures of the supernatural world1 and in the comments connected with them4 ,,painting4--,after the ,lombard conquest of ,italy1 art branched off into two schools4 ,the one was the ,byzantine1 and the other the ,late ,roman4 ,in the ,byzantine paintings1 the human figures are stiff1 and conventional forms prevail4 ,the ,byzantine school conceived of ,jesus as without beauty of person1--literally without form or comeliness4 ,the ,romans had a directly opposite conception4 ,byzantine taste had a strong influence in ,italy1 especially at ,venice4 ,this is seen in the mosaics of ,st4 ,mark's ,cathedral4 ,the first painter to break loose from ,byzantine influence1 and to introduce a more free style which flourished under the patronage of the ,church1 was ,cimabue 7#abdj-acjb71 who is generally considered the founder of modern ,italian painting4 ,the first steps were now taken towards a direct observation and imitation of nature4 ,the artist is no longer a slavish copyist of others4 ,cimabue says ,m4 ,taine1 already belongs to the new order of things2 for he invents and expresses4 ,but ,cimabue was far outdone by ,giotto 7#abgf-accg71 who cast off wholly the ,byzantine fetters1 studied nature earnestly1 and abjured that which is false and artificial4 ,notwithstanding his technical defects1 his force1 and his feeling for grace of action and harmony of color1 were such as to make him1 even more than ,cimabue1 the founder of the true ideal style of ,christian art1 and the restorer of portraiture4 ,his1 above all1 was a varied1 fertile1 facile1 and richly creative nature4 ,the contemporary of ,dante1 his portrait of the poet has been discovered in recent times on a wall in the ,podesta at ,florence4 ,he stands at the head of the school of allegorical painting1 as the latter of that of poetry4 ,the most famous pupil of ,giotto was ,taddeo ,gaddi 7about #acjj-acfg74 ,,sculpture4--,in the thirteenth century1 the era of the revival of art in ,italy1 a new school of sculpture arose under the auspices especially of two artists1 ,niccolo of ,pisa and his son ,giovanni4 ,they brought to their art the same spirit which belonged to ,giotto in painting and to ,dante in poetry4 ,the same courage that moved the great poet to write in his own vernacular tongue1 instead of in ,latin1 emboldened the artists to look away from the received standards1 and to follow nature4 ,in the same period a new and improved style of sculpture appears in other countries1 especially in the ,gothic cathedrals of ,germany and ,france4 ,,architecture4--,the earliest ,christian churches were copies of the ,roman basilica1--a civil building oblong in shape1 sometimes with and sometimes without rows of columns dividing the nave from the aisles3 at one end1 there was usually a semicircular apse4 ,most of the churches of the eleventh and twelfth centuries were built after this style4 ,then changes were introduced1 which in some measure paved the way for the ,gothic1 the peculiar type of medival architecture4 ,the essential characteristic of this style is the pointed arch4 ,this may have been introduced by the returning crusaders from buildings which they had observed in the ,east4 ,its use and development in the churches and other edifices of ,europe in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries were without previous example4 ,the ,gothic style was carried to its perfection in ,france1 and spread over ,england and ,germany4 ,the cathedrals erected in this form are still the noblest and most attractive buildings to be seen in the old ,european towns4 ,the cathedral in ,rheimes was commenced in #abaa3 the choir was dedicated in #abda1 and the edifice was completed in #adcj4 ,the cathedral of ,amiens was begun in #abbj2 that of ,chartres was begun about #ajbj1 and was dedicated in #abfj2 that of ,salisbury was begun in #abbj2 that of ,cologne1 in #abdh2 the cathedral of ,strasburg was only half finished in #acah1 when the architect1 ,erwin of ,steinbach1 died2 that of ,notre ,dame in ,paris was begun in #aafc2 that of ,toledo1 in #abeh4 ,these noble buildings were built gradually3 centuries passed before the completion of them4 ,several of them to this day remain unfinished4 ,,france4--,,the ,,house ,,of ,,valois4 ,,philip ,,vi1 #acbh-acej1 m4 ,jeanne1 daughter of ,robert ,,ii1 ,duke of ,burgundy4 --,,john1 #acej-acfd1 m4 ,bona1 daughter of ,john1 ,king of ,bohemia4 --,,charles ,v1 #acfd-achj1 m4 ,jeanne1 daughter of ,peter ,i1 ,duke of ,bourbon4 --,,charles ,,vi1 #achj-adbb1 m4 ,isabella1 daughter of ,stephen1 ,duke of ,bavaria4 --,,charles ,,vii1 #adbb-adfa1 m4 ,mary1 daughter of ,louis ,,ii of ,anjou4 --,,louis ,,xi1 #adfa-adhc1 m4 7#b71 ,charlotte1 daughter of ,louis1 ,duke of ,savoy4 --#c1 ,,charles ,,viii1 #adhc-adih1 m4 ,anne of ,bretagne4 --,louis1 ,duke of ,orleans 7d4 #adjg7 m4 ,valentina1 daughter of ,gian ,galeazzi1 ,duke of ,milan4 --,charles1 ,duke of ,orleans 7d4 #adfg71 m4 ,mary of ,cleves4 --#b1 ,anne of ,bretagne1 m4 ,,louis ,,xii1 #adih-aeae4 --,claude1 m4 ,,francis ,i1 #aeae-aedg4 --,john1 ,count of ,angoulme 7d4 #adfg74 --,charles1 count 7d4 #adif71 m4 ,louisa1 daughter of ,philip ,,ii1 ,duke of ,savoy4 --,,francis ,i1 #aeae-aedg4 --,,henry ,,ii4 #aedg-aeei1 m44 ,catherine de' ,medici1 d44 #aehi4 --,,francis ,,ii1 #aeei-aefj1 m4 ,mary1 ,queen of ,scots4 --,,charles ,,ix1 #aefj-aegd1 m4 ,elizabeth1 daughter of ,emperor ,maximilian ,,ii4 --,,henry ,,iii4 #aegd-aehi1 m4 ,louis1 daughter of ,nicholas1 ,duke of ,mercoeur4 --,margaret1 m4 --,,henry ,,iv1 succeeded #aehi4 --,jeanne1 m4 ,anthony of ,bourbon4 --,,margaret1 m4 7#b71 ,,henry ,,ii ,,of ,,navarre4 ,,england4--,,descendants ,,of ,,edward ,i ,,edward ,i1 #abgb-acjg1 m44 #a1 ,eleanor1 daughter of ,ferdinand ,,iii of ,castile2 --#d1 ,,edward ,,ii1 #acjg-acbg1 m44 ,isabel1 daughter of ,philip ,,iv of ,france4 --,,edward ,,iii1 #acbg-acgg1 m4 ,philippa1 daughter of ,william ,,iii of ,hainault4 --,edward1 the ,black ,prince1 m4 ,joan of ,kent4 --,,richard ,,ii1 #acgg-acii1 m4 ,anne1 daughter of ,emperor ,charles ,,iv4 --,lionel1 ,duke of ,clarence4 --,philippa1 m4 ,edmund ,mortimer4 --,roger ,mortimer4 --,edmund ,mortimer4 --,anne ,mortimer1 m4 ,richard1 ,earl of ,cambridge4 --,richard1 ,duke of ,york4 --,,edward ,,iv1 #adfa-adhc4 --,,edward ,v 7d4 #adhc74 --,,richard ,,iii1 #adhc-adhe4 --,john of ,gaunt1 ,duke of ,lancaster4 --,,henry ,,iv1 #acii-adac4 --,,henry ,v1 #adac-adbb4 --,,henry ,,vi1 #adbb-adfa4 --,edmund1 ,duke of ,york4 --,richard1 ,earl of ,cambridge m4 ,anne ,mortimer 7wh4 see74 #b1 ,margaret1 daughter of ,philip ,,iii of ,france4 ,,period ,,iv4 ,,from ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,crusades ,,to ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,constantinople4 7,a4,d4 #abgj-adec47 ,,the ,,decline ,,op ,,ecclesiastical ,,authority3 ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,national ,,spirit ,,and ,,of ,,monarchy4 ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,era4--,the ,church was supreme in the era of the ,crusades4 ,these had been great movements of a society of which the ,pope was the head1--movements in which the pontiffs were the natural leaders4 ,we come now to an era when the predominance of the ,church declines1 and the ,papacy loses ground4 ,mingled with religion1 there is diffused a more secular spirit4 ,the nations grow to be more distinct from one another4 ,political relations come to be paramount4 ,the national spirit grows strong1--too strong for outside ecclesiastical control4 ,within each nation the laity is inclined to put limits to the power and privileges of the clergy4 ,in several of the countries1 monarchy in the modern ,european form gets a firm foothold4 ,the enfranchisement of the towns1 the rise of commerce1 the influence gained by the legists and by the ,roman law1 of which they were the expounders1 had betokened the dawn of a new era4 ,the development of the national languages and literatures signified its coming4 ,germany and the ,holy ,roman ,empire no longer absorb attention4 ,what is taking place in ,france and ,england is1 to say the least1 of equal moment4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,england ,,and ,,france3 ,,second ,,period ,,op ,,rivalship3 ,,the ,,hundred ,,years' ,,war 7,a4,d4 #acci-adec74 ,,philip ,,iii4 ,,of ,,france 7#abgj-abhe74--;,in ,france royalty made a steady progress down to the long ,war of a ,hundred ,years4 ,philip ,,iii4 7#abgj-abhe7 married his son to the heiress of ,navarre4 ,his sway extended to the ,pyrenees4 ,he failed in an expedition against ,peter1 king of ,aragon1 who had supported the ,sicilians against ,charles of ,anjou2 but the time for foreign conquests had not come4 ,,philip ,,iv4 ,,of ,,france 7#abhe-acad73 ,,war ,,with ,,edward ,i4 ,,of ,,england4-- ,philip ,,iv4 7the ,fair7 has been styled the ,king of the ,legists4 ,he surrounded himself with lawyers1 who furnished him1 from their storehouse of ,roman legislation1 weapons with which to face baron and pope4 ,in #abib conflicts broke out between ,english and ,french sailors4 ,philip1 in his character as suzerain1 undertook to take peaceful possession of ,guienne1 but was prevented by the ,english garrisons4 ,thereupon he summoned ,edward ,i4 of ,england1 as the holder of the fiefs1 before his court4 ,edward sent his brother as a deputy1 but the ,french king declared that the fiefs were forfeited in consequence of his not appearing in person4 ,in the war that resulted 7#abid-abig71 each party had his natural allies4 ,philip had for his allies the ,welsh and the ,scots1 while ,edward was supported by the ,count of ,flanders and by ,adolphus of ,nassau1 king of the ,romans4 ,in ,scotland1 ,william ,wallace withstood ,edward4 ,philip was successful in ,flanders and in ,guienne4 ,edward1 who was kept in ,england by his war with the ,scots1 secured a truce through the mediation of ,pope ,boniface ,,viii4 ,philip then took possession of ,flanders1 with the exception of ,ghent4 ,flanders was at that time the richest country in ,europe4 ,its cities were numerous1 and the whole land was populous and industrious4 ,from ,england it received the wool used in its thriving manufactures4 ,to ,england its people were attached4 ,philip loaded the ,flemish people with imposts4 ,they rose in revolt1 and ,robert d',artois1 ,philip's brother1 met with a disastrous defeat in a battle with the ,flemish troops at ,courtrai1 in #acjb4 ,the ,flemish burghers proved themselves too strong for the royal troops4 ,flanders was restored to its count1 four towns being retained by ,france4 ,,conflict ,,of ,,philip ,,iv4 ,,and ,,boniface ,,viii4--,the expenses of ,philip1 in the support of his army and for other purposes1 were enormous4 ,the old feudal revenues were wholly insufficient for the new methods of government4 ,to supply himself with money1 he not only levied onerous taxes on his subjects1 and practiced ingenious extortion upon the ,jews1 but he resorted again and again to the device of debasing the coin4 ,his resolution to tax the property of the ,church brought him into a controversy1 momentous in its results1 with ,pope ,boniface ,,viii4 ,boniface's idea of papal prerogative was fully as exalted as that formerly held by ,hildebrand and ,innocent ,,iii4 ,but he had less prudence and self-restraint1 and the temper of the times was now altered4 ,if ,philip was sustained by the ,roman law and its interpreters1 whose counsels he gladly followed1 ,boniface1 on the other hand1 could lean upon the system of ecclesiastical or canon law1 which had long been growing up in ,europe1 and of which the ,canonists were the professional expounders4 ,the vast wealth of the clergy had led to enactments for keeping it within bounds1 like the statute of mortmain in ,england 7#abgi7 forbidding the giving of land to religious bodies without license from the king4 ,the word mortmain meant dead hand1 and was applied to possessors of land1 especially ecclesiastical corporations1 that could not alienate it4 ,the jurisdiction of ecclesiastical courts1 which kings1 because they happened to have a less liking for feudal law1 had often favored1 had now come to be another great matter of contention4 ,in #abif ,boniface ,,viii41 in the bull clericis laicos1--so named1 like other papal edicts1 from the opening words1--forbade the imposition of extraordinary taxes upon the clergy without the consent of the ,holy ,see4 ,philip responded by forbidding foreigners to sojourn in ,france1 which was equivalent to driving out of the country the ,roman priests and those who brought in the obnoxious bull4 ,at the same time he forbade money to be carried out of ,france4 ,this last prohibition cut off contributions to ,rome4 ,the king asserted the importance of the laity in the ,church1 as well as of the clergy1 and the right of the king of ,france to take charge of his own realm4 ,there was a seeming reconciliation for a time1 through concessions on the side of the ,pope2 but the strife broke out afresh in #acja4 ,philip arrested ,bernard ,saisset1 a bold legate of the ,pope4 ,boniface poured forth a stream of complaints against ,philip 7#acja71 and went so far as to summon the ,french clergy to a council at ,rome for the settlement of all disorders in ,france4 ,the king then appealed to the ,french nation4 ,on the #ajth of ,april1 #acjb1 he assembled in the ,church of ,notre ,dame1 at ,paris1 a body which1 for the first time1 contained the deputies of the universities and of the towns1 and for this reason is considered to have been the first meeting of the ,states ,general1 ,the clergy1 the barons1 the burghers1 sided cordially with the king4 ,the ,pope then published the famous bull1 ,unam ,sanctam1 in which the subjection of the temporal power to the spiritual is proclaimed with the strongest emphasis4 ,boniface then excommunicated ,philip1 and was preparing to depose him1 and to hand over his kingdom to the emperor1 ,albert ,i4 ,,death ,,of ,,boniface ,,viii4--,meantime ,philip had assembled anew the ,states ,general 7#acjc74 ,the legists lent their counsel and active support4 ,it was proposed to the king to convoke a general council of the ,church1 and to summon the ,pope before it4 ,william of ,nogaret1 a great lawyer in the service of ,philip1 was directed to lodge with ,boniface this appeal to a council1 and to publish it at ,rome4 ,with ,sciarra ,colonna1 between whose family and the ,pope there was a mortal feud1 ,nogaret1 attended also by several hundred hired soldiers1 entered ,anagni1 where ,boniface was then staying4 ,the two messengers heaped upon him the severest reproaches1 and ,colonna is said to have struck the old pontiff in the face with his mailed hand4 ,the ,french were driven out of the town by the people2 but from the indignities which he had suffered1 and the anger and shame consequent upon them1 ,boniface shortly afterwards died4 ,,the ,,babylonian ,,captivity 7#acji-acgi74--;,from the date of the events just narrated1 the pontifical authority sank1 and the secular authority of sovereigns and nations was in the ascendant4 ,after the short pontificate of ,benedict ,,xl1 who did what he could to reconcile the ancient but estranged allies1 ,france and the ,papacy1 a ,french prelate1 the ,archbishop of ,bordeaux1 was made pope under the name of ,clement ,v41 he having previously engaged to comply with the wishes of ,philip4 ,while the ,papacy continued subordinate to the ,french king1 its moral influence in other parts of ,christendom was of necessity reduced4 ,clement ,v1 was crowned at ,lyons in #acje1 and in #acji established himself at ,avignon1 a possession of the ,holy ,see on the borders of ,france4 ,after him there followed at ,avignon seven popes who were subject to ,french influence 7#acji-acgf74 ,it is the period in the annals of the ,papacy which is called the ,babylonian captivity4 ,philip remained implacable4 ,he was determined to secure the condemnation of ,boniface ,,viii41 even after his death4 ,clement ,v4 had no alternative but to summon a council1 which was held at ,vienne in #acaa1 when ,boniface was declared to have been orthodox1 at the same time that ,philip was shielded from ecclesiastical censure or reproach4 ,,suppression ,,of ,,the ,,knights ,,templars4--,one of the demands which ,philip had made of ,clement ,v41 and a demand which the council had to grant1 was the condemnation of the order of ,knights ,templars1 whose vast wealth ,philip coveted4 ,on the #acth of ,october1 #acjg1 the ,templars were arrested overall ,france1--an act which evinces both the power of ,philip1 and his injustice4 ,they were charged with secret immoralities1 and with practices involving impiety4 ,provincial councils were called together to decree the judgment preordained by the king4 ,the ,templars were examined under torture1 and many of them were burned at the stake4 ,a large number of those who were put to death revoked the confessions which had been extorted from them by bodily suffering4 ,individuals may have been guilty of some of the charges1 but there is no warrant for such a verdict against the entire order4 ,the order was abolished by ,clement ,v4 ,,law ,,studies3 ,,mercenary ,,troops4--,during the reign of ,philip the ,fair1 it was ordained that ,parliament should sit twice every year at ,paris 7#acjc74 ,a university for the study of law was founded at ,orleans4 ,the king needed soldiers as well as lawyers4 ,mercenary troops were beginning to take the place of feudal bands4 ,philip brought the ,genoese galleys against the ships of ,flanders4 ,,the ,,three ,,sons ,,of ,,philip3 ,,the ,,salic ,,law4--,three sons of ,philip reigned after him4 ,louis ,x4 7#acad-acaf7 was induced to take part in an aristocratic reaction1 in behalf of the good old customs1 against the legists2 but he continued to emancipate the serfs4 ,he was not succeeded by his daughter1 but by his brother4 ,this precedent was soon transformed into the ,salic law that only heirs in the male line could succeed to the throne4 ,the rule was really the result of the genealogical accident that for three hundred and forty-one years1 or since the election of ,hugh ,capet1 every ,french king had been succeeded by his son4 ,in several cases the son had been crowned in the lifetime of the father4 ,thus the principle of heredity1 and of heredity in the male line1 had taken root4 ,under ,philip ,v4 and his successor1 ,charles ,,iv4 7#acbb-acbh71 there was cruel persecution of the ,jews1 and many people suffered death on the charge of sorcery4 ,,edward ,i4 ,,of ,,england 7#abgb-acjg73 ,,conquest ,,of ,,wales3 ,,william ,,wallace4--,edward1 who was in the ,holy ,land when his father died1 was a gallant knight and an able ruler1--the most brilliant monarch of the fourteenth century4 ,llywelyn1 prince of ,wales1 having refused to render the oath due from a vassal1 was forced to yield4 ,when a rebellion broke out several years later1 ,wales was conquered1 and the leader of the rebellion was executed 7#abhc74 ,thus ,wales was joined to ,england2 and the king gave to his son the title of ,prince of ,wales1 which the eldest son of the sovereign of ,england has since worn4 ,edward was for many years at war with ,scotland1 which now included the ,gaelic-speaking people of the ,highlands1 and the ,english-speaking people of the ,lowlands4 ,the king of ,england had some claim to be their suzerain1 a claim which the ,scots were slow to acknowledge4 ,the old line of ,scottish princes of the ,celtic race died out4 ,alexander ,,iii4 fell with his horse over a cliff on the coast of ,fife4 ,two competitors for the throne arose1 both of them of ,norman descent1--,john ,baliol and ,robert ,bruce4 ,the ,scots made ,edward an umpire1 to decide which of them should reign4 ,he decided for ,baliol 7#abib71 stipulating that the suzerainty should rest with himself4 ,when he called upon ,baliol to aid him against ,france1 the latter renounced his allegiance1 and declared war4 ,he was conquered at ,dunbar 7#abif71 and made prisoner4 ,the strongholds in ,scotland fell into the hands of the ,english4 ,the country appeared to be subjugated1 but the ,scots were ill-treated by the ,english4 ,william ,wallace put himself at the head of a band of followers1 defeated them near ,stirling in #abib1 and kept up the contest for several years with heroic energy4 ,at length ,edward1 through the skill acquired by the ,english in the use of the bow1 was the victor at ,falkirk in #abih4 ,wallace1 having been betrayed into his hands1 was brutally executed in ,london 7#acje74 ,edward carried off from ,scone the stone on which the ,scottish kings had always been crowned4 ,it is now in ,westminster ,abbey1 under the coronation chair of the sovereign of ,great ,britain4 ,there was a legend1 that on this same stone the patriarch ,jacob laid his head when he beheld angels ascending and descending at ,bethel4 ,where that stone was1 it was believed that ,scottish kings would reign4 ,this was held to be verified when ,english kings of ,scottish descent inherited the crown4 ,,robert ,,bruce4--,the struggle for ,scottish independence was taken up by ,robert ,bruce1 grandson of the ,bruce who had claimed the crown4 ,his plan to gain the throne was disclosed by ,john ,comyn1 nephew of ,baliol3 this ,comyn young ,bruce stabbed in a church at ,dumfries4 ,he was then crowned king at ,scone1 and summoned the ,scots to his standard4 ,the ,english king sent his son ,edward to conquer him2 but the king himself1 before he could reach ,scotland1 died4 ,,parliament3 ,,the ,,jews4--,under ,edward1 the form of government by king1 lords1 and commons was firmly established4 ,parliament met in two distinct houses4 ,against his inclination he swore to the ,confirmation of the ,charters1 by which he engaged not to impose taxes without the consent of ,parliament4 ,the statute of mortmain has been referred to already4 ,the clergy paid their taxes to the king when they found1 that1 unless they did so1 the judges would not protect them4 ,edward had protected the ,jews1 who1 in ,england as elsewhere1 were often falsely accused of horrible crimes1 and against whom there existed1 on account of their religion1 a violent prejudice4 ,at length he yielded to the popular hatred1 and banished them from the kingdom1 permitting them1 however1 to take with them their property4 ,edward ,,ii4 7#acjg-acbg74--;,edward ,,ii41 a weak and despicable sovereign1 cared for nothing but pleasure4 ,he was under the influence of the son of a ,gascon gentleman1 ,peter of ,gaveston1 whom1 contrary to the injunction of his father1 he recalled from banishment4 ,gaveston was made regent while the king was in ,france1 whither he went1 in #acjh1 to marry ,isabel1 daughter of ,philip the ,fair4 ,after his return1 the disgust of the barons at the conduct of ,gaveston1 and at the courses into which ,edward was led by him1 was such1 that in #acaj they forced the king to give the government for a year to a committee of peers1 by whom ,gaveston was once more banished4 ,when he came back1 he was captured by the barons1 and beheaded in #acab4 ,,bruce3 ,,bannockburn3 ,,deposition ,,of ,,edward ,,ii4--,after various successes1 ,robert ,bruce laid siege to ,stirling in #acad4 ,this led to a temporary reconciliation between the king and the barons4 ,edward set out for ,scotland with an army of a hundred thousand men4 ,a great battle took place at ,bannockburn1 where ,bruce1 with a greatly inferior force of foot-soldiers1 totally defeated the ,english4 ,he had dug pits in front of his army1 which he had covered with turf resting on sticks4 ,the effect was to throw the ,english cavalry into confusion4 ,against the ,despencers1 father and son1 the next favorites of ,edward1 the barons were not at first successful2 but in #acbf ,edward's queen1 ,isabel1 who had joined his enemies1 returned from ,france with young ,edward1 ,prince of ,wales1 and at the head of foreign soldiers and exiles4 ,the barons joined her3 the ,despencers were taken and executed4 ,the king was driven to resign the crown4 ,he was carried from one castle to another1 and finally was secretly murdered at ,berkeley ,castle1 by ,roger ,mortimer1 in whose custody he had been placed4 ,on the suppression of the ,knights ,templars by ,pope ,clement ,v41 their property in ,england was confiscated4 ,the ,temple1 which was their abode in ,london1 became afterwards the possession of two societies of lawyers1 the ,inner and ,middle ,temple4 ,,the ,,hundred ,,years' ,,war3 ,,period ,i4 7,,to ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,br,,tigny4 #acfj74 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,war3 ,,edward ,,iii4 ,,of ,,england 7#acbg-acgg74--;,england and ,france entered on one of the longest wars of which there is any record in history4 ,it lasted1 with only a few short periods of intermission1 for a hundred years4 ,at the outset1 there were two main causes of strife4 ,first1 the king of ,france naturally coveted the ,english territory around ,bordeaux1--,guienne1 whose people were ,french4 ,secondly1 the ,english would not allow ,flanders --whose manufacturing towns1 as ,ghent and ,bruges1 were the best customers for their wool--to pass under ,french control4 ,independently of these grounds of dispute1 ,edward ,,iii4 laid claim to the ,french crown1 for the reason that his mother was the sister of the last king1 while ,philip ,,vi4 7#acbh-acej71 then reigning1 was only his cousin4 ,the ,french stood by the ,salic law1 but a much stronger feeling was their determination not to be ruled by an ,englishman4 ,edward ,,iii4 claimed the throne of ,france in right of his mother1 ,isabel1 the daughter of ,philip ,,iv4 ,the peers and barons of ,france1 on the whole1 for political reasons1 decided that the crown should be given to ,philip 7,,vi474 his nephew1 of the house of ,valois1 a younger line of the ,capets4 ,edward rendered to him1 in #acbh1 feudal homage for the duchy of ,guienne1 but took the first favorable occasion to re-assert his claim to the throne4 ,robert ,,ii41 ,count of ,artois1 was obliged to fly from ,france on a charge of having poisoned his aunt and her daughters1 as a part of his unsuccessful attempt to get possession of the fiefs left to them by his grandsire4 ,he went over to ,england from ,brussels1 and stirred up the young ,english king to attack ,philip 7#accd74 ,david ,bruce1 whom ,edward sought to drive out of ,scotland1 received aid from ,france4 ,philip ordered ,louis1 ,count of ,flanders1 between whom and the burghers there was no affection1 to expel the ,english from his states4 ,james ,van ,arteveld1 a brewer of ,ghent1 convinced the people that it was better to get rid of the count1 and ally themselves with the ,english4 ,edward even then hesitated about entering into the conflict1 but the demands and measures of ,philip showed that he was bent on war4 ,the princes in the neighborhood of ,flanders1 and the emperor ,louis ,v41 to whom the ,pope at ,avignon was hostile1 declared on the side of ,edward4 ,the following tables 7in part repeated1 in a modified form1 from previous tables1 and here connected7 will illustrate the narrative3-- ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,valois4 ,,charles1 ,count of ,valois 7d4 #acbe71 younger son of ,,philip ,,iii1 ,,king ,,of ,,france4 7,see below47 --,,philip ,,vi1 #acbh-acej4 --,,john the ,good1 #acej-acfd4 --,,charles ,v the ,wise1 #acfd-achj4 --,,charles ,,vi1 #achj-adbb4 --,,charles ,,vii1 #adbb-adfa4 --,,louis ,,xi1 #adfa-adhc4 --,,charles ,,viii1 #adhc-adih4 --,jeanne1 m --,duke of ,orleans1 afterwards ,,louis ,,xii1 #adih-aeae4 --,charles1 ,duke of ,orleans1 7d4 #adfg7 --,louis1 ,duke of ,orleans 7assassinated #adjg71 founder of the ,house of ,valois-,orleans4 --,louis1 ,duke of ,anjou1 founder of the second ,royal ,house of ,naples4 --,john1 ,duke of ,berry4 --,philip1 ,duke of ,burgundy 7d4 #adjd74 99 99 99 99 99 ,,philip ,,iii1 #abgj-abhe4 --,,philip ,,iv1 #abhe-acad4 --,isabel1 m4 ,edward ,,ii of ,england --,edward ,,ii of ,england4 --,edward ,,iii of ,england4 --,,philip ,v1 #acaf-acbb4 --,,charles ,,iv1 #acbb-acbh4 --,charles1 ,count of ,valois 7d4 #acbe71 m4 7#a71 ,margaret of ,naples4 --,,philip ,,vi1 #acbh-acej4 ,,early ,,events ,,of ,,the ,,war4--,hostilities began in #accg4 ,edward entered ,france1 and then for the first time publicly set up his claim to be king of ,france1 quartering the lilies on his shield2 and he was accepted by the ,flemish as their suzerain4 ,the first battle was on the sea near ,fort ,sluys 7#acdj71 where ,edward won a victory1 and thirty thousand ,frenchmen were slain or drowned4 ,this established the supremacy of the ,english on the water4 ,the fleet of the ,french was made up of hired ,castilian and ,genoese vessels4 ,in #acda the conflict was renewed on account of a disputed succession in ,brittany1 in which the ,salic law was this time on the ,english side4 ,jane of ,penthievre was supported by ,philip2 while ,jane of ,montfort1 an intrepid woman who was protected by ,edward1 contended for the rights of her husband4 ,this war1 consisting of the sieges of fortresses and towns1 was kept up for twenty-four years4 ,,battle ,,of ,,cr,,cy3 ,,calais3 ,,brittany4--,in #acdf the ,earl of ,derby made an attack in the south of ,france1 while ,edward1 with his young son ,edward1 the ,prince of ,wales1 landed in ,normandy1 which he devastated4 ,king ,edward advanced to the neighborhood of ,paris2 but the want of provisions caused him to change his course1 and to march in the direction of ,flanders4 ,his situation now became perilous4 ,he was followed by ,philip at the head of a powerful army2 and1 had there been more energy and promptitude on the side of the ,french1 the ,english forces might have been destroyed4 ,edward was barely able1 by taking advantage of a ford at low tide1 to cross the ,somme1 and to take up an advantageous position at ,crcy4 ,there he was attacked with imprudent haste by the army of the ,french4 ,the chivalry of ,france went down before the solid array of ,english archers1 and ,edward gained an overwhelming victory4 ,philip's brother ,charles1 count of ,alenon1 fell1 with numerous other princes and nobles1 and thirty thousand soldiers 7#acdf74 ,in the battle1 the ,english king's eldest son --,edward1 the ,black ,prince as he was called from the color of his armor--was hard pressed2 but the father would send no aid1 saying1 ,let the boy win his spurs4 ,it was the custom to give the spurs to the full-fledged knight4 ,after a siege1 ,calais1 the port so important to the ,english1 was captured by them4 ,the deputies of the citizens1 almost starved1 came out with cords in their hands1 to signify their willingness to be hanged4 ,the ,french were driven out1 and ,calais was an ,english town for more than two centuries4 ,france was defeated on all sides4 ,the ,scots1 too1 were vanquished2 and ,david ,bruce was made prisoner 7#acdf74 ,in ,brittany the ,french party was prostrate4 ,a truce between the kings was concluded for ten months4 ,,the ,,black ,,death4--,in the midst of these calamities1 the fearful pestilence swept over ,france1 called the ,black ,death4 ,it came from ,egypt1 possibly from farther east4 ,in ,florence three-fifths of the inhabitants perished by it4 ,from ,italy it passed over to ,provence1 and thence moved northward to ,paris1 spreading destruction in its path4 ,it reached ,england1 and there it is thought by some that one-half of the population perished 7#acdh-acdi74 ,,english ,,and ,,french ,,armies4--,at this time1 when the power of ,france was so reduced1 the king acquired ,montpellier from ,james of ,aragon1 and the ,dauphin of ,vienne by purchase from the last ,dauphin1 ,humbert ,,ii41 who entered a monastery4 ,dauphin became the title of the heir of the ,french crown4 ,it was constantly evident how deep a root the royal power had struck into the soil of ,france4 ,at times1 when the kingdom was almost gone1 the kingship survived4 ,but1 unhappily1 there was no union of orders and classes4 ,chivalry looked with disdain upon the common people4 ,the poor ,genoese archers who had fought with the ,french at ,crcy1 and whose bow-strings were wet by a shower1 were despised by the gentlemen on horseback4 ,in the ,french armies1 there was no effective force but the cavalry1 and there was a fatal lack of subordination and discipline4 ,in ,england1 on the contrary1 under kings with more control over the feudal aristocracy1 and from the combination of lords and common people in resistance to kings1 the ,english armies had acquired union and discipline4 ,the bow in the hands of the ,english yeoman was a most effective weapon4 ,the ,english infantry were more than a match for the brave and impetuous cavaliers of ,france4 ,at ,crcy the entire ,english force fought on foot4 ,cannon were just beginning to come into use4 ,this brought a new advantage to the foot-soldier4 ,but it seems probable that cannon were employed at ,crcy4 ,,battle ,,of ,,poitiers3 ,,insurrection ,,in ,,paris4--,philip left his crown to his son1 ,john 7,,ii47 of ,normandy1 called the ,good 7#acej-acfd72 but the epithet 7le ,bon7 signifies not the morally worthy1 but rather1 the prodigal1 gay and extravagant4 ,he was a passionate1 rash1 and cruel king4 ,his relations with ,charles the ,bad1 king of ,navarre1--who1 however1 was the better man of the two1--brought disasters upon ,france4 ,this ,charles ,,ii4 of ,navarre 7#acdi-achg7 was the grandson1 on his mother's side1 of ,louis ,x4 of ,france4 ,john had withheld from him promised fiefs4 ,later he had thrown him into prison4 ,philip of ,navarre1 the brother of ,charles1 helped the ,english against ,john in ,normandy4 ,meanwhile the ,prince of ,wales 7the ,black ,prince7 ravaged the provinces near ,guienne4 ,the national spirit in ,france was roused by the peril4 ,the ,states ,general granted large supplies of men and money1 but only on the condition that the treasure should be dispensed under their superintendence1 and that they should be assembled every year4 ,the army of the ,black ,prince was small1 and he advanced so far that he was in imminent danger2 but the attack on him at ,poitiers 7#acef71 by the vastly superior force of ,king ,john1 was made with so much impetuosity and so little prudence that the ,french1 as at ,crecy1 were completely defeated4 ,their cavalry charged up a lane1 not knowing that the ,english archers were behind the hedges on either side4 ,their dead to the number of eleven thousand lay on the field4 ,the king1 and with him a large part of the nobility1 were taken prisoners4 ,john was taken to ,england 7#aceg74 ,from the moment of his capture he was treated with the utmost courtesy4 ,the ,french peasantry1 however1 suffered greatly2 and in ,france the name of ,englishman for centuries afterwards was held in abhorrence4 ,,insurrection ,,in ,,paris4--,the incapacity of the nobles to save the kingdom called out the energies of the class counted as plebeian1--the middle class between the nobles and serfs4 ,it was not without competent leaders1 chief of whom were ,robert le ,coq1 bishop of ,laon1 and councilor of ,parliament2 and ,etienne ,marcel1 an able man1 provost of the traders1 or head of the municipality of ,paris4 ,the ,states ,general at ,paris1 at the instigation of such as these1 required of the ,dauphin the punishment of the principal officers of the king1 the release of the ,king of ,navarre1 and the establishment of a council made up from the three orders1 for the direction of all the important affairs of government4 ,the ,states ,general1 representing the ,south1 at ,toulouse voted a levy of men and means without conditions2 but the ,dauphin ,charles was obliged1 at the next meeting of the ,states ,general of ,paris 7#aceg71 to yield to these and other additional demands4 ,the king1 however1 a prisoner in ,england1 at the ,dauphin's request refused to ratify the compact4 ,the agitators at ,paris set the ,king of ,navarre free1 and urged him to assert his right to the throne4 ,marcel and the ,parisian multitude wore the party-colored hood of red and blue1 the civic colors of ,paris4 ,they killed two of the ,dauphin's confidential advisers1 the marshals of ,champagne and ,normandy4 ,a reaction set in against ,marcel1 and in favor of the royal cause4 ,a civil war was the result4 ,,revolt ,,of ,,the ,,jacquerie4--,at this time1 there burst forth an insurrection1 called the ,jacquerie1 of the peasants of the provinces1--,jacques ,bonhomme being a familiar nickname of the peasantry4 ,it was attended with frightful cruelties3 many of the feudal chateaux were destroyed1 and all of their inmates killed4 ,the land was given over to anarchy and bloodshed4 ,marcel made different attempts to effect a combination with ,charles of ,navarre2 but the revolutionary leader was assassinated1 and the ,dauphin ,charles1 having destroyed opposition in ,paris1 made peace with the ,king of ,navarre1 who had kept up in the provinces the warfare against him4 ,the movement of ,marcel1 with whatever crimes and errors belonged to it1 was a brave and loyal effort to stem anarchy1 and to restore good government4 ,by its failure1 the hope of a free parliamentary government in ,france was dashed in pieces4 ,,treaty ,,of ,,br,,tigny 7#acfj74--,the captive king1 ,john1 made a treaty with ,edward1 by which he ceded to the ,english at least one-half of his dominions4 ,the ,dauphin assembled the ,states ,general1 and repudiated the compact4 ,edward ,,iii41 in #acei1 again invaded ,france with an immense force4 ,but ,charles prudently avoided a general engagement1 and ,edward found it difficult to get food for his troops4 ,he concluded with ,france1 in #acfj1 the treaty of ,brtigny1 by which the whole province of ,aquitaine1 with several other lordships1 was ceded to ,edward1 clear of all feudal obligations4 ,edward1 in turn1 renounced his claim to the ,french crown1 as well as to ,normandy1 and to all other former possessions of the ,plantagenets north of the ,loire4 ,the ,king was to be set at liberty on the payment of the first installment of his ransom4 ,,the ,,hundred ,,years' ,,war3 ,,period ,,ii4 7,,to ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,troyes1 #adbj74 ,,duchy ,,of ,,burgundy4--,there was an opportunity to repair a part of these losses4 ,in #acfa the ducal house of ,burgundy became extinct1 and the fief reverted to the crown4 ,but ,john gave it to his son1 ,philip the ,bold1 who became the founder of the ,burgundian branch of the house of ,valois4 ,philip married the heiress of ,flanders1 and thus founded the power of the house of ,burgundy in the ,netherlands4 ,,du ,,guesclin3 ,,contest ,,in ,,spain4--,the provinces of ,france were overrun and plundered by soldiers of both parties1 under the names of routiers 7men of the road7 and great companies4 ,king ,john returned to ,england1 because one of his sons1 left as a hostage1 had fled4 ,there his captivity was made pleasant to him1 but he died soon after4 ,charles ,v41 or ,charles the ,wise 7#acfd-achj71 undertook to restore prosperity to the ,french kingdom4 ,he reformed the coin1 the debasement of which was a dire grievance to the burghers4 ,against the free lances in the service of ,charles of ,navarre1 the king sent bands of mercenary soldiers under ,du ,guesclin1 a valiant gentleman of ,brittany1 who became one of the principal heroes of the time4 ,the war lasted for a year1 and the ,king of ,navarre made peace4 ,in ,brittany1 ,du ,guesclin was taken prisoner by the ,english party and the adventurers who fought with them4 ,the king secured his release by paying his ransom2 and he led the companies into ,spain to help the cause of ,henry of ,transtamare1 who had a dispute for the throne of ,castile with ,peter the ,cruel4 ,the ,black ,prince supported ,peter1 and1 for a time1 with success4 ,in #acfi ,henry was established on the throne1 and with him the ,french party4 ,the principal benefit of this ,spanish contest was the deliverance of ,france from the companies of freebooters4 ,,advantages ,,gained ,,by ,,the ,,french4--,king ,charles reformed the internal administration of his kingdom1 and at length felt himself ready to begin again the conflict with ,england4 ,edward ,,iii4 was old4 ,the ,black ,prince was ill and gloomy1 and his ,aquitanian subjects disliked the supercilious ways of the ,english4 ,charles declared war 7#acfi74 ,the ,english landed at ,calais4 ,but the cities were defended by their strong walls2 and the ,french army1 under the ,duke of ,burgundy1 in pursuance of the settled policy of the king1 refused to meet the enemy in a pitched battle4 ,the next year 7#acgj7 they appeared again1 and once more1 in #acgc1 both times with the same result4 ,the ,duke of ,anjou reconquered the larger part of ,aquitaine4 ,du ,guesclin was made constable of the ,french army1 and thus placed above the nobles by birth4 ,the ,english fleet was destroyed by the ,castilian vessels before ,rochelle 7#acgb74 ,du ,guesclin drove the ,duke of ,montfort1 who was protected by the ,english1 out of ,brittany4 ,in #acge a truce was made1 which continued until the death of ,edward ,,iii4 7#acgg74 ,then ,charles renewed the war1 and was successful on every side4 ,most of the ,english possessions in ,france were won back4 ,the last exploit of the ,black ,prince had been the sacking of ,limoges 7#acgj74 ,after this cruel proceeding1 broken in health1 he returned to ,england4 ,,state ,,of ,,england4--,the ,black ,prince1 after his return1 when his father was old and feeble1 did much to save the country from misrule1 so that his death was deplored4 ,the ,parliament at this time was called the ,good4 ,it turned out of office friends of ,john of ,gaunt1--or of ,ghent 7the place where he was born71--the third son of ,edward4 ,they were unworthy men1 whom ,john had caused to be appointed4 ,at this time occurred the first instance of impeachment of the king's ministers by the ,commons4 ,when the ,black ,prince died1 his brother regained the chief power1 and his influence was mischievous4 ,during ,edward's reign1 ,flemish weavers were brought over to ,england1 and the manufacture of fine woolen cloths was thus introduced4 ,,john ,,wickliffe4--,in this reign the ,english showed a strong disposition to curtail the power of the popes in ,england4 ,when ,pope ,urban ,v41 in #acff1 called for the payment of the arrears of ,king ,john's tribute1 ,parliament refused to grant it1 on the ground that no one had the right to subject the kingdom to a foreigner4 ,it was in the reign of ,edward ,,iii4 that ,john ,wickliffe became prominent4 ,he took the side of the secular or the parish clergy in their conflict with the mendicant orders1--the ,begging ,friars1 as they were styled4 ,he also advocated the cause of the king against the demands of the ,pope4 ,he contended that the clergy had too much wealth and power4 ,he adopted doctrines1 at that time new1 which were not behind the later ,protestant1 or even ,puritan1 opinions4 ,he translated the ,bible into ,english4 ,he was protected by ,edward ,,iii4 and by powerful nobles1 and he died in peace in his parish at ,lutterworth1 in #achd2 but1 after his death1 his bones were taken up1 and burned4 ,his followers bore the nickname of ,lollards1 which is probably derived from a word that means to sing1 and thus was equivalent to psalm-singers4 ,,richard ,,ii4 7#acgg-acii73 ,,the ,,peasant ,,insurrection3 ,,deposition ,,of ,,richard4--,richard1 the young son of the ,black ,prince1 had an unhappy reign4 ,at first he was ruled by his uncles1 especially by ,john of ,gaunt1 ,duke of ,lancaster4 ,four years after his accession1 a great insurrection of the peasants broke out1 from discontent under the yoke of villanage1 and the pressure of taxes4 ,the first leader in ,essex was a priest1 who took the name of ,jack ,straw4 ,in the previous reign1 the poor had found reason to complain bitterly of the landlords2 but their lot was now even harder4 ,when the insurgents reached ,blackheath1 they numbered a hundred thousand men4 ,there a priest named ,john ,ball harangued them on the equality of rights1 from the text1-- ,when ,adam delved1 and ,eve span1 ,who was then a gentleman8 ,young ,richard managed them with so much tact1 and gave them such fair promises1 that they dispersed4 ,one of their most fierce leaders1 ,wat ,tyler1 whose daughter had been insulted by a tax-gatherer1 was stabbed during a parley which he was holding with the king4 ,there was a ,gloucester party--a party led by his youngest uncle1 the ,duke of ,gloucester--which gave ,richard much trouble2 but he became strong enough to send the duke to ,calais1 where1 it was thought1 he was put to death4 ,in #acih he banished two noblemen who had given him1 at a former day1 dire offense4 ,one of them was ,thomas ,mowbray1 ,duke of ,norfolk2 the other was ,henry of ,bolingbroke1 ,duke of ,hereford1 afterwards called ,duke of ,lancaster1 son of ,john of ,gaunt4 ,when ,john of ,gaunt died1 ,richard seized his lands4 ,in #acii1 when ,richard was in ,ireland1 ,bolingbroke landed1 with a few men-at-arms and with ,archbishop ,arundel2 and1 being joined by the great family of ,percy in the ,north1 he obliged ,richard to resign the crown4 ,he was deposed by ,parliament for misgovernment4 ,not long after1 he was murdered4 ,lancaster was made king under the name of ,henry ,,iv4 ,it was under ,richard that the statute of prmunire 7of #acec7 was renewed1 and severe penalties were imposed on all who should procure excommunications or sentences against the king or the realm4 ,,the ,,english ,,language ,,and ,,literature4--,in the course of the reign of ,edward ,,iii41 the ,french language1 which had come in with the ,normans1 ceased to be the speech of fashion2 and the ,english1 as altered by the loss of inflections and by the introduction of foreign words1 came into general use4 ,the ,english ceased to speak the language of those who were now held to be national enemies4 ,in #acfb the use of ,english was established in the courts of law4 ,the ,old ,english ceased to be written or spoken correctly4 ,the ,latin still continued to be familiar to the clergy and to the learned4 ,william ,langland wrote a poem entitled the ,vision of ,piers ,plowman 7#acfb74 ,pierce the ,plowman's ,crede is a poem by another author4 ,the two principal poets are ,chaucer and ,gower1 both of whom wrote the new ,english in use at the court4 ,chaucer's great poem1 the ,canterbury ,tales1 is the latest and most remarkable of his works4 ,,henry ,,iv4 7#acii-adac73 ,,two ,,rebellions3 ,,the ,,lollards4-,by right of birth1 the crown would have fallen to ,roger ,mortimer1 ,earl of ,march1 the grandson of ,lionel1 ,duke of ,clarence1 ,lionel having been a son of ,edward ,,iii41 older than ,john of ,gaunt4 ,but there was no law compelling ,parliament to give the throne to the nearest of kin4 ,so it fell to the house of ,lancaster4 ,henry had to confront two rebellions4 ,one was that of the ,welsh1 under ,owen ,glendower1 which he long tried to put down1 and which was gradually overcome by ,henry1 ,prince of ,wales1 the story of whose wild courses in his youth was perhaps exaggerated4 ,the other rebellion was that of the powerful ,northumberland family of the ,percys1 undertaken in behalf of ,richard if he was alive1--for it was disputed whether or not he had really died1--and if not alive1 in behalf of the ,earl of ,march4 ,the ,percys joined ,glendower4 ,they were beaten in a bloody battle near ,shrewsbury1 in #adjc1 where ,northumberland's son ,hotspur 7,harry ,percy7 was slain4 ,while praying at the shrine of ,st4 ,edward in ,westminster1 the king was seized with a fit1 and died in the ,jerusalem ,chamber of the ,abbot4 ,under ,henry the proceedings against heretics were sharpened2 but the ,commons at length1 from their jealousy of the clergy1 sought1 although in vain1 a mitigation of the statute4 ,in the next reign1 the ,lollards1 who were numerous1 had a leader in ,sir ,john ,oldcastle1 called ,lord ,cobham1 who once escaped from the ,tower1 but was captured1 after some years1 and put to death as a traitor and heretic4 ,whether he aimed at a ,lollard revolution or not1 is uncertain4 ,the ,lollards were persecuted1 not only as heretics1 but also as desiring to free the serfs from their bondage to the landlords4 ,,the ,,burgundians ,,and ,,armagnacs4--,in the last days of ,charles ,v4 of ,france1 he tried in vain to absorb ,brittany4 ,flanders and ,languedoc revolted against him4 ,the aspect of public affairs was clouded when ,charles ,,vi4 7#achj-adbb71 who was not twelve years old1 became the successor to the throne4 ,his uncles1 the ,dukes of ,anjou1 ,berri1 and ,burgundy1 contended for the regency4 ,their quarrels distracted the kingdom4 ,a contest arose with the ,flemish cities under the leadership of ,philip ,van ,artevelde2 but they were defeated by the ,french nobles at ,roosebeke1 and ,arterielde was slain4 ,this victory of the nobles over the cities was followed by the repression of the municipal leaders and lawyers in ,france4 ,two factions sprang up1--the ,burgundians and the ,armagnacs4 ,margaret1 the wife of the ,duke of ,burgundy1 received ,flanders by inheritance1 on the death of her father the ,count 7#achd74 ,the king was beginning to free himself from the control of the factions when he suddenly went mad4 ,thenceforth there was a struggle in ,france for supremacy between the adherents of the dukes of ,burgundy and the adherents of the house of ,orleans4 ,the latter came to be called ,armagnacs 7#adaj71 after the ,count d',armagnac1 the father-in-law of ,charles1 ,duke of ,orleans4 ,the strength of the ,burgundians was in the ,north and in the cities4 ,they adhered to ,urban ,,vi41 the pope at ,rome1 in opposition to the ,avignon pope1 ,clement ,,vii42 for these were the days of the papal schism4 ,they were also friends of the house of ,lancaster in ,england1--of ,henry ,,iv4 and ,henry ,v4 ,the strength of the ,armagnacs was in the ,south4 ,at the outset1 it was a party of the court and of the nobles3 later it became a national party4 ,louis1 ,duke of ,orleans1 was treacherously assassinated by a partisan of the ,burgundians 7#adjg74 ,this act fomented the strife4 ,,battle ,,of ,,agincourt3 ,,treaty ,,of ,,troyes 7#adbj74--;,it was in #acib that the king partially lost his reason4 ,for the rest of his life1 except at rare intervals1 he was either imbecile or frenzied4 ,by the division of counsels and a series of fatalities1 gigantic preparations for the invasion of ,england had come to naught 7#achf-achh74 ,henry ,v4 of ,england 7#adac-adbb7 concluded that the best way to divert his nobles from schemes of rebellion was to make war across the ,channel4 ,accordingly he demanded his inheritance according to the treaty of ,brtigny1 together with ,normandy4 ,on the refusal of this demand1 he renewed the claim of his greatgrandfather to the crown of ,france1 although he was not the eldest descendant of ,edward ,,iii4 ,henry invaded ,france at the head of fifty thousand men4 ,by his artillery and mines he took ,harfleur1 but not until after a terrible siege in which thousands of his troops perished by sickness4 ,on his way towards ,calais1 with not more than nine thousand men1 he found his way barred at ,agincourt by the ,armagnac forces1 more than fifty thousand in number1 comprising the chivalry of ,france 7#adae74 ,in the great battle that ensued1 the horses of the ,french floundered in the mud1 and horse and rider were destroyed by the ,english bowmen4 ,the ,french suffered another defeat like the defeats of ,crcy and ,poitiers4 ,they lost eleven thousand men1 and among them some of the noblest men in ,france4 ,france was falling to pieces4 ,rouen was besieged by ,henry1 and compelled by starvation to surrender 7#adai74 ,the fury of factions continued to rage4 ,there were dreadful massacres by the mob in ,paris4 ,the ,duke of ,burgundy1 ,john the ,fearless 7,jean sans ,peur71 was murdered in #adai by the opposite faction4 ,the young ,duke ,philip1 and even the ,queen of ,france1 ,isabella1 were now found on the ,anglo-,burgundian side4 ,by the ,treaty of ,troyes1 in #adbj1 ,catherine1 the daughter of ,charles ,,vi41 was given in marriage to ,henry ,v41 and he was made the heir of the crown of ,france when the insane king1 ,charles ,,vi41 should die4 ,henry was made regent of ,france4 ,the whole country north of the ,loire was in his hands4 ,the ,dauphin ,charles retired to the provinces beyond that river4 ,,the ,,hundred ,,years' ,,war3 ,,period ,,iii4 7,,to ,,the ,,end1 #adfc74 ,,france ,,in #adbb4--;,both ,henry and ,charles ,,vi4 died in #adbb4 ,the ,duke of ,bedford was made regent in ,france1 ruling in the name of his infant nephew 7,henry ,,vi474 ,charles ,,vii4 7#adbb-adfa7 was proclaimed king by the ,armagnacs south of the ,loire4 ,his situation was desperate1 but he represented the national cause4 ,bedford laid siege to ,orleans1 the last bulwark of the royal party4 ,the ,english were weakened1 however1 by the withdrawal of the ,duke of ,burgundy and his forces4 ,,joan ,,of ,,arc4--,when the national cause was at this low point1 ,providence raised up a deliverer in the person of a pure1 simple-hearted1 and pious maiden of ,domrmy in ,lorraine1 seventeen years of age1 ,jeanne ,dare by name 7the name ,joan of ,arc being merely a mistake in orthography74 ,the tales of suffering that she had heard deeply moved her4 ,she felt herself called of ,heaven to liberate ,france4 ,she fancied that angels' voices bade her undertake this holy mission4 ,her own undoubting faith aroused faith in others4 ,commissioned by the king1 she mounted a horse1 and1 with a banner in her hand1 joined the ,french soldiers1 whom she inspired with fresh courage4 ,they forced the ,english to give up the siege of ,orleans1 and to march away4 ,other defeats of the ,english followed4 ,the ,maid of ,orleans took ,charles to ,rheims1 and stood by him at his coronation4 ,the ,english and ,burgundians rallied their strength4 ,joan of ,arc was ill supported1 and was made prisoner at ,compigne by the ,burgundians4 ,they delivered her to the ,english4 ,she was subjected to grievous indignities1 was condemned as a witch1 and finally burned as a relapsed heretic at ,rouen 7#adca74 ,the last word she uttered was ,jesus4 ,her character was without a taint4 ,in her soul1 the spirit of religion and of patriotism burned with a pure flame4 ,a heroine and a saint combined1 she died a victim to the ingratitude of her friends1 and the brutality of her foes4 ,,the ,,english ,,driven ,,out--,in #adce the ,duke of ,burgundy was reconciled to ,charles ,,vii41 and joined the cause of ,france4 ,the generals of ,charles gained possession of one after another of the provinces4 ,during a truce of two years1 ,henry ,,vi4 of ,england 7#adbb-adfa7 married ,margaret of ,anjou1 the daughter of ,king ,ren4 ,henry was of a gentle temper1 but lacked prudence and vigor4 ,the king of ,france and the dauphin began the organization of a standing army1 which greatly increased the military strength of the country 7#adci74 ,in #addi the war with ,england was renewed4 ,with the defeat of the ,english1 and the death of their commander1 ,talbot1 in #adec1 the contest of a century came to an end4 ,all that ,england retained across the ,channel was ,calais with ,havre and ,guines ,castle4 ,france was desolated by all this fruitless strife4 ,some of the most fertile portions of its territory were reduced to a desert1 given up to wolves1 and traversed only by the robber and the free-lance4 ,,rebellion of ,,jack ,,cade4--,the peasants in ,england were now free from serfdom4 ,under ,henry ,,vi4 occurred a formidable insurrection of the men of ,kent1 who marched to ,london led by ,john ,cade1 who called himself ,john ,mortimer4 ,they complained of bad government and extortionate taxes4 ,one main cause of the rising was the successes of the ,french4 ,the condition of the laboring class had much improved4 ,the insurgents were defeated by the citizens1 and their leader was slain4 ,in this reign began the long ,wars of the ,roses1 or the contest of the houses of ,york and ,lancaster for the throne4 ,,milan4--,,the ,,visconti ,,and ,,sforza4 ,matteo ,i1 ,,visconti 7nephew of ,archbishop ,otto71 ,lord of ,milan1 #abie-accb4 --,stefano 7d4 #acbg74 --,matteo ,,ii1#a #aced-acee4 --,bernabo1#a #aced-ache4 --,catharine1 m4 7#b71 --,,gian ,,galeazzo1 #acgh-adjb 7first duke1 #acif74 --,,giovanni ,,maria1 #adjb-adab4 --,,filippo ,,maria1 #adab-addg4 --,bianca ,maria4 m4 --,,francesco ,,sforza1 #adej-adff --,,galeazzo ,,maria1 #adff-adgf1 m4 ,bona1 daughter of ,louis1 ,duke of ,savoy4 --,,gian ,,galeazzo1 #adgf-adid4 --,,ludovico ,il ,moro1 #adid-aejj1 #c1 7d4 #aeaj7 m4 ,beatrice d',este4 --,,massamillano1#d #aeab-aeae 7d4 #aecj7 --,,francesco ,,maria1 #d1 #aeba-aece4 m4 ,christina1 daughter of ,christian ,,ii of ,denmark 7#a7 ,jacopo 7,muzio7 ,attendolo di ,cotignola1 called ,sforza4 --,valentina1 #b m4 ,louis1 ,duke of ,orleans4 --,charles1 ,duke of ,orleans4 --,,louis ,,xii of ,france1 ,duke of ,milan #aejj-aeab4 --,galeazzo ,,ii1#a #aced-acgh4 #a ,the ,milanese territory was divided between the three brothers1 and united on the death of ,bernabo4 #b ,hence the ,french claim to ,milan4 #c ,louis ,,xii of ,france took ,ludovico prisoner1 and held ,milan #aejj-aeab4 #d ,puppet dukes4 ,milan being1 in fact1 the subject of contention between ,france and the ,hapsburgs4 ,abridged from ,george's ,genealogical ,tables4 ,,the ,,three ,,northern ,,kingdoms ,,before ,,the ,,union ,,of ,,calmar4 ,d4 means ,king of ,denmark2 ,n41 ,king of ,norway2 ,s41 ,king of ,sweden4 ,,haco ,,iv1 ,n4 7d4 #abfc74 --,,magnus ,,vi1 ,n41 #abfc-abha4 --,,eric ,,ii1 ,n41 #abha-abii4 --,,haco ,v1 ,n41 #abii-acbj4 ,,magnus ,i1 ,s41 #abgi-abij4 --,,berger1 ,s41 #abij-acbj 7deposed2 d4 #acbf7 m4 --,martha4 --,,christopher ,,ii1 ,d41 #acbj-acdj4 --,,waldemar ,,iii1 ,d41 #acdf-acge4 --,margaret1#b ,d4 ,n41 #achg1 ,s41 #achh 7d4 #adab74 m4 ,,haco ,,vi1 ,n4 7d4 #achj7 --,,olaf ,,vi1 ,d4 #acgf1 ,n4 #achj 7d4 #achg74 --,,eric ,,vi1 ,d41 #abhf-acbj4 ,,eric ,v1 ,d41 #abej-abhf4 --,eric4 m4 --,ingeburga --,magnus ,,vii 7,,ii71 ,n4 ,s41 #acbj-acfe 7deposed74 --,euphemia4 m4 ,albert1 ,duke of ,mecklenburg1 --,albert1#a ,s41 #acfe-achh 7deposed74 --,henry1 m4 ,ingeburga1 daughter of ,waldemar ,,iii1 ,d4 --,mary1 m4 ,wratislas of ,pomerania4 --,,eric1 ,d4 ,n4 ,s41 #adab-adci 7deposed2 d4 #adei74 --,catharine1 m4 ,john1 son of ,emperor ,robert4 --,,christopher1 ,d4 ,n4 ,s4 7d4 #addh74 m4 7#a7 ,dorothea1 daughter of ,john ,alchymista1 ,margrave of ,brandenburg m4 7#b7 ,,christian ,i1#c ,d4 ,n4 ,s4 --,,haco ,,vi1 ,n4 7d4 #achj7 #a ,elected to ,sweden in opposition to ,haco ,,vi2 deposed by ,margaret4 #b ,having united all three kingdoms in her own person1 framed formal ,union of ,calmar1 #acig4 #c ,elected king on death of ,christopher1 whose widow he married2 said to be descended from ,eric ,v of ,denmark4 ,abridged from ,george's ,genealogical ,tables4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,germany3 ,,italy3 ,,spain3 ,,the ,,scandinavian ,,countries3 ,,poland ,,and ,,russia3 ,,hungary3 ,,ottoman ,,turks3 ,,the ,,greek ,,empire4 ,i4 ,,germany4 ,,the ,,great ,,interregnum4--,after the death of ,frederick ,,ii4 7#abej71 ,germany and ,italy1 the two countries over which the imperial authority extended1 were left free from its control4 ,italy was abandoned to itself1 and thus to internal division4 ,the case of ,germany was analogous4 ,during the great interregnum1 lasting for twenty-three years1 the ,german cities1 by their industry and trade1 grew strong1 as did the burghers in ,france1 and in the towns in ,england1 in this period4 ,but in ,germany the feudal control was less relaxed4 ,this interval was a period of anarchy and trouble4 ,william of ,holland wore the title of emperor until #abef4 ,then the electors were bribed1 and ,alfonso ,x4 of ,castile1 great-grandson of ,frederick ,barbarossa1 and ,richard1 ,earl of ,cornwall1 younger son of ,king ,john of ,england1 were chosen by the several factions2 but their power was nominal4 ,the four electors on the ,rhine1 and the dukes and counts1 divided among themselves the imperial domains4 ,the dismemberment of the duchies of ,swabia and ,franconia 7#abfh71 and at an earlier day 7#aahj7 of ,saxony1 created a multitude of petty sovereignties4 ,the great vassals of the empire1 the kings of ,denmark1 of ,poland1 of ,hungary1 etc41 broke away from its suzerainty4 ,there was a reign of violence4 ,the barons sallied out of their strongholds to rob merchants and travelers4 ,the princes1 and the nobles in immediate relation to the empire1 governed1 each in his own territory1 as they pleased4 ,new means of protection were created1 as the ,league of the ,rhine1 comprising sixty cities and the three ,rhenish archbishops1 and having its own assemblies2 and the ,hanseatic ,league1 which has been described 7p4 #cjc74 ,moreover1 corporations of merchants and artisans were established in the cities4 ,in the ,north1 where the ,crusades1 and war with the ,slaves1 had thinned the population1 colonies of ,flemings1 ,hollanders1 and ,frisians came in to cultivate the soil4 ,during the long-continued disturbances after the death of ,frederick ,,ii41 the desire of local independence undermined monarchy4 ,the empire never regained the vigor of which it was robbed by the interregnum4 ,,house ,,of ,,hapsburg4--,rudolph1 ,count of ,hapsburg 7#abgc-abia71 was elected emperor for the reason1 that1 while he was a brave man1 he was not powerful enough to be feared by the aristocracy4 ,he wisely made no attempt to govern in ,italy4 ,he was supported by the ,church1 to which he was submissive4 ,he devoted himself to the task of putting down disorders in ,germany4 ,against ,ottocar ,,ii41 king of ,bohemia1 who now held also ,austria1 ,styria1 ,carinthia1 and ,carniola1 and who refused to acknowledge ,rudolph1 the emperor twice made war successfully4 ,in a fierce battle at the ,marchfield1 in #abgh1 ,ottocar was slain4 ,austria1 ,styria1 and ,carniola fell into the hands of the emperor4 ,they were given as fiefs to ,rudolph's son ,albert2 and ,carinthia to ,albert's son-in-law1 the ,count of ,tyrol4 ,this was the foundation of the power of the house of ,hapsburg4 ,rudolph strove with partial success to recover the crown lands1 and did what he could to put a stop to private war and to robbery4 ,numerous strongholds of robbers he razed to the ground4 ,his practical abandonment of ,italy1 his partial restoration of order in ,germany1 and his service to the house of ,hapsburg1 are the principal features of ,rudolph's reign4 ,,henry ,,vii4 7#acjh-acac73 ,,italy4--,adolphus of ,nassau 7#abib-abih7 was hired by ,edward ,i4 to declare war against ,france4 ,his doings in ,thuringia4 which he tried to buy from the ,landgrave ,albert1 led the electors to dethrone him1 and to choose ,albert ,i4 7#abih-acjh71 ,duke of ,austria1 son of ,rudolph4 ,his nephew ,john1 whom he tried to keep out of his inheritance1 murdered him4 ,henry ,,vii4 7#acjh-acac71 who was ,count of ,luxemburg1 the next emperor1 did little more than build up his family by marrying his son ,john to the granddaughter of ,king ,ottocar4 ,john was thus made king of ,bohemia4 ,in these times1 when the emperors were weak1 they were anxious to strengthen and enrich their own houses4 ,henry went to ,italy to try his fortunes beyond the ,alps4 ,he was crowned in ,pavia king of ,italy1 and in ,rome emperor 7#acab74 ,but the rival parties quickly rose up against him3 he was excommunicated by ,clement ,v41 an ally of ,france1 and died--it was charged1 by poison mixed in the sacramental cup--in #acac4 ,he was a man of pure and noble character1 but the time had passed for ,italy to be governed by a ,german sovereign4 ,,civil ,,war3 ,,electors ,,at ,,rense4--,one party of the electors chose ,frederick of ,austria 7#acad-accj71 and the other ,louis of ,bavaria 7#acad-acdg74 ,a terrible civil war1 lasting for ten years1 was the consequence4 ,in a great battle near ,mhldorf1 the ,austrians were defeated1 and ,frederick was captured4 ,louis had now to encounter the hostility of ,pope ,john ,,xxii4 7at ,avignon71 who wished to give the imperial crown to ,philip the ,fair of ,france4 ,louis maintained that he received the throne1 not from the popes1 but from the electors4 ,he was excommunicated by ,john1 who refused to sanction the agreement of ,louis and of ,frederick1 now set at liberty1 to exercise a joint sovereignty4 ,louis was in ,italy from #acbg to #accj1 where he was crowned emperor by a pope of his own creation4 ,all efforts of ,louis to make peace with ,pope ,john and his successor1 ,benedict ,,xii41 were foiled by the opposition of ,france4 ,the strife which had been occasioned in ,germany by this interference from abroad created such disaffection among the ,germans1 that the electors met at ,rense1 in #acch1 and declared that the elected king of the ,germans received his authority from the choice of the electoral princes exclusively1 and was ,roman emperor even without being crowned by a pope4 ,,deposition ,,of ,,louis ,,of ,,bavaria4--,the imprudence of ,louis in aggrandizing his family1 and his assumption of an acknowledged papal right in dissolving the marriage of the heiress of ,tyrol with a son of ,king ,john of ,bohemia1 turned the electors against him4 ,in #acdf ,pope ,clement ,,vi4 declared him deposed4 ,the electors chose in his place ,charles1 the ,margrave of ,moravia1 the son of ,king ,john of ,bohemia4 ,louis did not give up his title1 but he died soon after4 ,,charles ,,iv4 7#acdg-acgh74--;,charles ,,iv4 visited ,italy1 and was crowned emperor 7#acee72 but1 according to a promise made to the ,pope1 he tarried in ,rome only a part of one day4 ,he was crowned king of ,burgundy at ,arles 7#acfe74 ,in ,italy he sold what was left of the rights of the empire1 sometimes to cities1 sometimes to tyrants4 ,his principal care was for building up his own hereditary dominion1 which he so enlarged that it extended1 at his death1 from the ,baltic almost to the ,danube4 ,he fortified and adorned ,prague1 and established there1 in #acdh1 the first ,german university4 ,,the ,,golden ,,bull4--,the great service of ,charles ,,iv4 to ,germany was in the grant of the charter called the ,golden ,bull 7#acef74 ,this expressly conferred the right of electing the emperor on the ,,seven ,,electors1 who had1 in fact1 long exercised it4 ,these were the archbishops of ,mentz1 of ,trier1 and of ,cologne1 and the four secular princes1 the ,king of ,bohemia1 the ,count ,palatine of the ,rhine1 the ,duke of ,saxony1 and the ,margrave of ,brandenburg4 ,the electoral states were made indivisible and inalienable1 and hereditary in the male line4 ,the electors were to be sovereign within their respective territories1 and their persons were declared sacred4 ,,the ,,black ,,death4--,germany1 like the other countries1 was terribly afflicted during the reign of ,charles by the destructive pestilence that swept over the most of ,europe 7p4 #cai74 ,one effect was an outbreaking of religious fervor4 ,at this time the movement of the ,flagellants1 which started in the thirteenth century1 reached its height in ,germany and elsewhere4 ,they scourged and lacerated themselves for their sins1 marching in processions1 and inflicting their blows to the sound of music4 ,another result of the plague was a savage persecution of the ,jews1 who were falsely suspected of poisoning wells4 ,many thousands of them were tortured and killed4 ,,anarchy ,,in ,,germany4--,the son of ,charles ,,iv4 7#acgh-adjj71 ,wenceslaus1 or ,wenzel1 was a coarse and cruel king4 ,under him the old disorders of the ,interregnum sprang up anew4 ,the towns had to defend themselves against the robber barons1 and formed confederacies for this purpose4 ,private war raged all over ,germany4 ,,accession ,,of ,,sigismund4--,wenceslaus was deposed by the electors in #adjj4 ,but ,rupert1 the ,count ,palatine1 his successor 7#adjj-adaj71 was able to accomplish little1 in consequence of the strife of parties4 ,sigismund 7#adaj-adcg71 brother of ,wenceslaus1 margrave of ,brandenburg1 and1 in right of his wife1 king of ,hungary1 was chosen emperor1 first by a part1 and then by all1 of the electors4 ,the most important events of this period were the ,council of ,constance 7#adad-adah7 and the war with the ,hussites4 ,,john ,,huss4--,the principal end for which the ,council of ,constance was called was the healing of the schism in the ,church1--in consequence of which there were three rival popes1--and the securing of ecclesiastical reforms4 ,but at this council ,john ,huss1 an eminent ,bohemian preacher1 was tried for heresy4 ,the doctrines of ,wickliffe had penetrated into ,bohemia2 and a strong party1 of which ,huss was the principal leader1 had sprung up in favor of innovations1 doctrinal and practical1 one of which was the giving of the cup in the sacrament to the laity4 ,huss made a great stir by his attack upon abuses in the ,church4 ,under a safe-conduct from ,sigismund1 he journeyed to ,constance4 ,there he was tried1 condemned as a heretic1 and burnt at the stake 7#adae74 ,jerome of ,prague1 another reformer1 was dealt with in the same way by the council 7#adaf74 ,,hussite ,,war4--,the indignation of the followers of ,huss was such that a great revolt broke out in ,bohemia4 ,the leader was a brave man1 ,ziska4 ,the imperial troops1 after the coronation of ,sigismund as king of ,bohemia1 were defeated1 and driven out4 ,the ,hussite soldiers ravaged the neighboring countries4 ,the council of ,basel 7#adca-addi7 concluded a treaty with the more moderate portion of the ,hussites1 in which concessions were made to them4 ,the ,taborites1 the more fanatical portion1 were at length defeated and crushed4 ,,switzerland4--,switzerland1 originally a part of the kingdom of ,arles1 had been ceded1 with this kingdom1 to the ,german ,empire in #ajcc4 ,within it1 was established a lay and ecclesiastical feudalism4 ,in the twelfth century the cities--,zrich1 ,basel1 ,berne1 and ,freiburg--began to be centers of trade1 and gained municipal privileges4 ,the three mountain cantons--,uri1 ,schweitz1 and ,unterwalden--cherished the spirit of freedom4 ,the counts of ,hapsburg1 after the beginning of the thirteenth century1 exercised a certain indefinite jurisdiction in the land4 ,they endeavored to transform this into an actual sovereignty4 ,two of the cantons received charters placing them in an immediate relation to the empire4 ,after the death of ,rudolph ,i41 the three cantons above named united in a league4 ,out of this the ,swiss ,confederacy gradually grew up4 ,there were struggles to cast off foreign control2 but the story of ,william ,tell1 and other legends of the sort1 are certainly fabulous4 ,albert of ,austria left to his successor in the duchy the task of subduing the rebellion4 ,the ,austrians were completely defeated at ,morgarten1 the ,marathon of ,switzerland 7#acae74 ,the ,swiss ,confederacy was enlarged by the addition of ,lucerne 7#accb71 ,zrich and ,glarus 7#acea71 ,zug 7#aceb71 and of the city of ,berne in #acec4 ,the battle of ,sempach 7#achf7 brought another great defeat upon the ,austrians4 ,there1 if we may believe an ancient song1 a ,swiss hero1 ,arnold of ,winkelried1 grasped as many of the spear-points as he could reach1 as a sheaf in his arms1 and devoted himself to death1 opening thus a path in which his followers rushed to victory4 ,once more the ,swiss triumphed at ,nfels 7#achh74 ,from that time they were left to the enjoyment of their freedom4 ,,ii4 ,,italy4 ,,guelfs ,,and ,,ghibellines3 ,,freedom ,,in ,,the ,,cities4--,the inveterate foes of ,italy were foreign interference and domestic faction4 ,after the death of ,frederick ,,ii41 the war of the popes against his successors lasted for seventeen years4 ,after the defeat of ,manfred 7#abff71 ,conradin1 the last of the ,hohenstaufens1 died on the scaffold at ,naples4 ,charles of ,anjou lost ,sicily through the rebellion of the ,sicilian ,vespers 7#abhb72 and dominion in that island1 separated from ,naples1 passed to the house of ,aragon4 ,the papal states1 after the election of ,rudolph of ,hapsburg1 became a distinct sovereignty of the pontiffs4 ,the bitter strife of the ,guelfs and ,ghibellines went on in the ,italian cities4 ,the ,genoese1 who were ,guelfic1 defeated the ,pisans in #abhd2 and ,pisa1 which had ruined ,amalfi1 was now ruined by ,genoa4 ,florence1 which was ,guelfic1 grew in strength4 ,genoa and ,venice became rivals in the contest for the control of the ,mediterranean4 ,in ,florence1 new factions1 the ,neri and ,bianchi 7,blacks and ,whites71 appeared2 the ,neri being violent ,guelfs1 and the ,bianchi being at first moderate ,guelfs and then ,ghibellines4 ,pope ,boniface ,,viii4 invited into ,italy ,charles of ,valois4 ,he was admitted to ,florence 7#acja71 and gave the supremacy there to the ,guelfic side4 ,the coming of the ,emperor ,henry ,,vii4 into ,italy 7#acaj7 was marked by a temporary1 but the last1 revival of imperial feeling4 ,the connection of the popes with the ,french houses of ,anjou and ,valois led to the ,babylonian ,exile at ,avignon1 during which ,italy was comparatively free1 both from imperial and papal control4 ,during the period of the civil wars1 while there was nominally a conflict between the party of the pope and the party of the emperor1 the ,guelfs were devoted to the destruction of feudalism1 and to the building-up of commerce and republican institutions2 while the ,ghibellines1 dreading anarchy1 resisted the incoming of the new order of things4 ,it was in this period that ,dante produced his immortal poem1 which sprang out of the midst of the contest of ,guelf and ,ghibelline 7p4 #cjg74 ,dante was himself a ,ghibelline and an imperialist4 ,in the course of these conflicts1 the plebeian class1 before without power1 is advanced4 ,older families of nobility die out1 or are reduced in influence4 ,new families rise to prominence and power4 ,the burghers band together in arts or guilds2 and out of these1 in their corporate character1 the governments of the cities are formed4 ,ancients1 and priors1 the heads of the arts1 supersede the consuls4 ,the podesta is more and more limited to a judicial function4 ,in some of the ,guelf cities1 there is a gonfalonier of justice1 to curb the nobility4 ,in ,florence1 there were also twenty subordinate gonfaloniers4 ,the final triumph of ,guelfs and of republicanism in ,florence was in #abec4 ,the body of the citizens established their sovereignty4 ,when1 in #abff1 citizenship was confined to those who were enrolled in the guilds1 the nobles1 or ,grandi1 were wholly excluded from the government4 ,this led them to drop their titles and dignities in order to enroll themselves in these industrial societies4 ,the feuds of factions1 especially of the ,whites and ,blacks1 sprang up next4 ,in the latter part of the fourteenth century1 strife arose between the ,lesser ,arts1 or craftsmen whose trades were subordinate to the ,greater ,arts1 and these last4 ,the mob in ,florence drove the ,signory1 or chief magistrates1 out of the public palace4 ,this was the ,tumult of the ,ciompi1--,ciompi signifying wool-carders1 who gave their name to the whole faction4 ,afterwards1 of their own accord1 they gave back the government to the priors of the ,greater ,arts4 ,the effect of these disturbances was to reduce all classes to a level4 ,the way was open for families1 like the ,albizzi and ,medici1 to build up a virtual control by wealth and personal qualities4 ,,the ,,generals ,,in ,,the ,,cities4--,in the cities1 there were captains of the people1 who carried on war1--leaders of the ,guelfs or ,ghibellines1 as either might be uppermost4 ,they were persons who were skilled in arms3 these were often nobles who had been merged in the body of citizens4 ,in this way1 there arose in the cities of ,northern ,italy ruling houses or dynasties2 as the ,della ,scala in ,verona1 the ,polenta at ,ravenna1 etc4 ,in ,tuscany1 where the commercial power of ,florence was so great1 the communes as yet kept themselves free from hereditary rulers2 yet1 from time to time1 their liberties were exposed to attack from successful generals4 ,,the ,,tyrants4--,at the beginning of the fourteenth century1 as the fury of the civil wars declined1 the cities were left more and more under the rule of masters called tyrants4 ,tyranny1 as of old1 was a term for absolute authority1 however it might be wielded4 ,the visits of the emperors ,henry ,,vii41 and ,louis ,,iv4 of ,bavaria1 and of ,john of ,bohemia1 son of ,henry ,,vii41 had no important political effect1 except to bring increased power to the ,ghibelline despots4 ,thus1 after the interference of ,louis ,,iv4 7#acbg71 the ,visconti established their power in ,milan4 ,but the changes in ,italy after this epoch gave to the ,ghibellines no permanent advantage over their adversaries4 ,the leader of the ,guelfs for a long time was ,robert1 king of ,naples 7#acji-acdc74 ,,the ,,classes ,,of ,,despots4--,the methods by which the ,emperor ,frederic ,,ii4 governed in ,italy1 and which he had partly learned from the ,saracens in ,sicily1 furnished an example which the ,italian despots followed later4 ,he was imitated in his system of taxation1 in his creation of monopolies1 in the luxury and magnificence of his court1 and in his patronage of polite culture4 ,his vicar in the ,north of ,italy1 ,ezzelino da ,romano 7#aaid-abei71 who was captain1 in the ,ghibelline interest1 in ,verona1 ,padua1 and other cities1 was guilty of massacres and all sorts of cruelties1 the story of which exercised a horrible fascination over others who came after4 ,at last he was 'hunted down' by ,venice and a league of cities1 and captured2 but he refused to take food1 tore his bandages from his wounds1 and died under the ban of the ,church4 ,the despots of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries have been divided by ,mr4 ,symonds into six classes4 ,the first class had a certain hereditary right from the previous exercise of lordship1 as the house of ,este in ,ferrara4 ,the second class1 as the ,visconti family in ,milan1 had been vicars of the empire4 ,the third class were captains1 or podestas1 chosen by the burghers to their office1 but abusing it to enslave the cities4 ,most of the tyrants of ,lombardy got their power in this way4 ,the fourth class is made up of the ,condottieri1 like ,francesco ,sforza at ,milan4 ,the fifth class includes the nephews or sons of popes1 and is of later origin1 like the ,borgia of ,romagna4 ,their governments had less stability4 ,the sixth class is that of eminent citizens1 like the ,medici at ,florence and the ,bentivogli of ,bologna4 ,these acquired undue authority by wealth1 sometimes by personal qualities and noble descent4 ,among those who are called despots were individuals of worth1 moderation1 and culture4 ,the records of many of them are filled with tragic scenes of violence and crime4 ,to maintain their hated rule1 they were impelled to the practice of barbarities hardly ever surpassed4 7,j4 ,a4 ,symonds1 ,renaissance in ,italy1 vol4 i4 chap1 ii47 ,,condottieri4--,with the end of the civil wars1 there appear the companies of adventure1 or mercenary troops4 ,the burghers1 having put down the nobility and achieved their independence1 lay aside their arms4 ,they are busy in manufactures and trade4 ,the despots and the republics prefer to hire foreign adventurers1 the free companies1 who were a curse to ,italy4 ,their occupation1 which was a profitable one1 was taken up by natives4 ,these were the condottieri4 ,their leaders introduced cavalry and more skillful methods of fighting4 ,but the battles were bloodless games of strategy1 and military energy declined4 ,at the same time intrigue and state-craft were the instruments of political aggrandizement4 ,one of these new leaders was ,sforza ,attendolo1 whose son became ,duke of ,milan4 ,,five ,,states ,,in ,,italy4--,in the middle of the fifteenth century1 we find1 as the political result of the changes of the preceding century and a half1 five principal communities in ,italy4 ,these powers are the kingdom of ,naples1 the duchy of ,milan1 the republic of ,florence1 the republic of ,venice1 and the principality of the ,pope4 ,a brief sketch will be given of each of these states down to #addg1 when ,nicholas ,v4 restablished the papacy in its strength at ,rome1 after the exile at ,avignon 7#acje71 and the ecclesiastical convulsions that followed it4 ,,lower ,,italy4--,robert the ,wise 7of ,anjou7 7#acji-acdc71 the successor of ,charles ,,ii4 of ,naples and the champion of the ,guelfs1 could not extend his power over ,sicily1 where ,frederick ,,ii4 7#abif-accg71 the son of ,peter of ,aragon1 reigned4 ,robert's granddaughter1 ,joan ,i41 after a career of crime and misfortune1 was strangled in prison by ,charles ,durazzo1 the last male descendant of the house of ,anjou in ,lower ,italy 7#achb71 who seized on the government4 ,joan ,,ii41 the last heir of ,durazzo 7#adad-adce71 first adopted ,alfonso ,v4 of ,aragon1 and then ,louis ,,iii4 of ,anjou and his brother ,rene4 ,alfonso1 who inherited the crown of ,sicily1 united both kingdoms 7#adce71 after a war with ,rene and the ,visconti of ,milan4 ,by this contest1 ,italy was divided into two parties1 composed of the respective adherents of the houses of ,anjou and ,aragon1 ,the rights of ,rene were to revert later to the crown of ,france1 and to serve as a ground for new wars4 ,for twenty-three years ,alfonso reigned wisely and prosperously in ,southern ,italy4 ,he was a patron of letters1 and promoted peace among the ,italian states4 ,,the ,,milanese3 ,,sforza4--,another great power was growing up in the ,north4 ,the greatness of the ,visconti family dates from ,john1 ,archbishop of ,milan1 who reigned there1 and died in #aced4 ,gian ,galeazzo ,visconti became sole master of ,milan in #ache1 and extended his dominion over ,lombardy4 ,he bought of the ,emperor ,wenceslaus the ducal title4 ,twenty-six cities1 with their territories1 were subject to him4 ,but at ,galeazzo's death1 his state fell to pieces4 ,the condottieri1 whom he had kept under1 broke loose from control2 and in #adej1 one of them1 ,francesco ,sforza1 with the help of the ,venetians1 seized on the supreme power1 which his family continued to hold for fifty years4 ,,venice4--,venice1 in the fourteenth century1 was as strong as any ,italian state4 ,its constitution was of gradual growth4 ,the doge1 elected by the people1 divided power in #ajcb with a senate2 and in #aagb the ,grand ,council was organized4 ,this council by degrees absorbed the powers of government1 which thus became an aristocracy4 ,in #abig the ,senate became hereditary in a few families4 ,in #acaa the powerful ,council of ,ten was constituted4 ,for a long period ,venice was not ambitious of power in ,italy1 but was satisfied with her commerce with the ,east4 ,her contest with ,genoa began in #aceb1 and lasted for thirty years4 ,in the war of ,chioggia1--so called from a town twenty-five miles south of ,venice1--the ,venetians were defeated by ,luciano ,doria in a sea-fight on the ,adriatic4 ,he blockaded ,venice2 but ,doria1 in turn1 was blockaded in ,chioggia by the ,venetians1 and forced to surrender4 ,after reducing the naval power of ,genoa1 they added ,verona1 ,vicenza1 and ,padua to their territories 7#adaj74 ,under ,francesco ,foscari1 who was doge from #adbc to #adeg1 ,venice took an active part in ,italian affairs4 ,,florence3 ,,the ,,medici4--,in ,florence1 the ,medici family gained an influence which gave them a practical control of the government4 ,in #acgh ,salvestro de ,medici signalized himself by a successful resistance to an oligarchical faction composed partly of the old nobility4 ,the brilliant period in the history of ,florence begins with this triumph of the democracy4 ,pisa was bought from the ,duke of ,milan1 and forced to submit to ,florentine rule 7#adjf74 ,john de ,medici1 a very successful merchant1 was twice chosen gonfalonier 7#adba74 ,his son ,cosmo ,i41 who was born in #achi1 was also a merchant1 possessed of great wealth4 ,he attained to the leading offices in the state1 having overcome the ,albizzi family1 at whose instigation he was for a while banished4 ,cosmo ruled under the republican forms1 but with not less authority on that account4 ,he was distinguished for his patronage of art and letters4 ,by his varied services to ,florence1 he earned the title of ,father of his ,country1 which was given him by a public decree4 ,,the ,,roman ,,principality3 ,,rienzi4--,after the popes took up their abode in ,avignon1 in the first half of the fourteenth century1 ,rome was distracted by the feuds of leading families who built for themselves strongholds in the city4 ,in #acdg the ,romans1 fired by the enthusiast ,rienzi1 who sought to restore the old ,roman liberty1 undertook to set up a government after the ancient model4 ,rienzi was chosen tribune4 ,he found much favor in other cities of ,italy4 ,but his head was turned by the seeming realization of his dreams4 ,he was driven out of ,italy by the cardinals and the nobles4 ,he returned afterwards1 sent by ,pope ,innocent ,,vi41 to aid in winning back ,rome to subjection to the ,holy ,see4 ,but his power was gone4 ,he disgusted the people with his pomps and shows1 and1 while trying to escape in disguise1 was put to death 7#aced74 ,cardinal ,albornoz succeeded in reuniting the dissevered parts of the papal kingdom4 ,but in the period of the ,schism 7#acgh-adag71 in the cities old dynasties were revived1 and new ones arose2 towns and territories were ceded to nobles as fiefs2 and a degree of freedom almost amounting to independence was conceded to old republics1 as ,rome1 ,perugia1 and ,bologna4 ,it was the work of ,pope ,nicholas ,v4 and his successors 7from #adgg7 to regain and cement anew the fragments of the papal principality4 ,,literature ,,and ,,art4--,in this period1 in the midst of political agitation in ,italy1 there was a brilliant development in the departments of literature and art4 ,the major part of ,dante's life 7#abfe-acba7 falls within the thirteenth century4 ,petrarch 7#acjd-acgd71 ,boccaccio 7#acac-acge71 a master in ,italian prose1 and ,dante1 are the founders of ,italian literature4 ,they are followed by an era of study and culture1 rather than of original production4 ,in the arts1 ,venice and ,pisa first became eminent4 ,the church of ,st4 ,mark was built at ,venice1 in the ,byzantine style1 in #ajga4 ,at about the same time the famous cathedral at ,pisa was begun2 which was followed1 in the twelfth century1 by the ,baptistery and the ,leaning ,tower4 ,the ,campo ,santo1 or cemetery1 was built in #abgh4 ,in the thirteenth century1 when architectural industry was so active1 numerous high brick towers were built in ,florence for purposes of defense4 ,some of them remain to recall the bloody feuds of the irreconcilable factions of the nobility4 ,in these conflicts1 the strife was carried on from tower to tower1 from house to house3 streets were barricaded with heavy chains1 and homes made desolate with fire and sword4 ,churches and great public buildings were constructed in this period4 ,at the end of the thirteenth century the church of ,santa ,croce was built at ,florence2 and in the century following1 ,brunelleschi1 the reviver of classical art in ,italy1 placed the great cupola on the ,cathedral4 ,the ,gothic cathedral of ,milan1 with its wilderness of statues1 was begun in #acdf4 ,cimabue1 who died about #acjb1 and ,giotto1 who died about #accg1 laid the foundations of the modern ,italian schools of painting4 ,,trade ,,and ,,commerce4--,the seaports1 ,venice and ,genoa1 were centers of a flourishing commerce1 extending to the far ,east and to the coasts of ,spain and ,france4 ,the interior cities--,milan with its two hundred thousand inhabitants1 ,verona1 ,florence--were centers of manufactures and of trade4 ,the ,italians were the first bankers in ,europe4 ,the bank of ,venice was established in #aaga1 and the bank of ,genoa1 although it was projected earlier1 was founded in #adjg4 ,the financial dealings of ,italian merchants spread over all ,europe4 ,,morality4--,the one thing lacking in ,italy was a broader spirit of patriotism and a higher tone of morality4 ,advance in civilization was attended with corruption of morals4 ,,iii4 ,,spain ,,and ,,portugal4 ,,historical ,,geography4--,resistance to the ,arabs in ,spain began in the northern mountainous region of ,cantabria and ,asturia1 which even the ,west ,goths had not wholly subdued1 although ,asturia was called ,gothia4 ,asturia1 a ,christian principality 7#gcb71 expanded into the kingdom called ,leon 7#iaf71 of which ,castile was an eastern county4 ,east of ,leon1 there grew up the kingdom of ,navarre1 mostly on the southern1 but partly on the northern side of the ,pyrenees4 ,on the death of ,sancho the ,great1 it was broken up 7#ajce74 ,at about the same time the ,ommiad caliphate was broken up into small kingdoms 7#ajca74 ,after the death of ,sancho1 or early in the eleventh century1 we find in ,northern ,spain1 beginning on the west and moving eastward1 the kingdom of ,leon1 the beginnings of the kingdom of ,castile1 the reduced kingdom of ,navarre1 the beginnings of the kingdom of ,aragon1 and1 between ,aragon and the ,mediterranean1 ,christian states which had been comprised in the ,spanish ,march over which the ,franks had ruled4 ,the two states which were destined to attain to the chief importance were ,castile and ,aragon4 ,of these1 ,castile was eventually to be to ,spain what ,france was to all ,gaul4 ,ultimately the union of ,castile and ,aragon gave rise to the great ,spanish monarchy of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries4 ,the four kingdoms of ,leon1 ,castile1 ,aragon1 and ,navarre1 after the death of ,sancho1 as time went on1 were joined and disjoined among themselves in many different ways4 ,castile and ,leon were finally united in #abcj4 ,portugal1 lying on the ocean1 was partly recovered from the ,arabs towards the close of the eleventh century1 and was a county of ,leon and ,castile until1 in #aaci1 it became a kingdom4 ,from this time ,castile1 ,aragon1 and ,portugal were the three antagonists of ,moslem rule4 ,each of these kingdoms advanced4 ,portugal spread especially along the ,atlantic coast2 ,aragon1 along the coast of the ,mediterranean2 ,castile1 the principal power1 spread in the interior1 and included by far the greater part of what is now ,spain4 ,in the latter part of the thirteenth century the ,moslems were confined to the kingdom of ,granada in the ,south1 which was conquered by ,castile and ,aragon 7#adib71 whose sovereigns1 ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 were united in marriage4 ,their kingdoms were united in #aeaf4 ,in the latter part of the ,middle ,ages1 ,aragon1 from its situation on the eastern coast1 played an important part in the politics of ,europe4 ,castile and ,portugal led the way in maritime exploration4 ,,the ,,moors4--,it has been already related 7p4 #bhb71 that1 after the fall of the ,ommiad caliphate1 ,african ,mohammedans came over to the help of their ,spanish brethren4 ,these ,moors did not supplant the ,arabic speech or culture4 ,the two principal invasions of the ,moors were the invasion by the ,almoravides 7#ajhf-aaj71 and that by the ,almohades 7#aadf74 ,,aragon3 ,,navarre4--,the kingdoms of ,aragon and ,castile existed for centuries side by side4 ,aragon sought to extend its conquests along the eastern coast2 ,castile1 to enlarge itself toward the south4 ,james ,i41 or ,james the ,conqueror 7#abac-abgf71 joined the ,moslem state of ,valencia1 by conquest1 to his kingdom of ,aragon1 to which ,catalonia had already been added4 ,the union of these peoples developed a national character of a definite type4 ,in its pride of birth and of blood1 its tenacious clinging to traditional rights1 and in its esteem of military prowess before intellectual culture1 it resembled the old ,spartan temper4 ,peter ,,iii417#abgf-abhe71 the son of ,james ,i41 united with the three states ,sicily1 which1 though it became a separate kingdom1 gave to the house of ,aragon its influence in ,southern ,italy4 ,nearly the whole of the fourteenth century was taken up by ,aragon in the acquisition of ,sardinia1 which the ,pope had ceded1 and in the endless wars1 connected with this matter1 which it waged with the ,genoese4 ,in #adaj the ruling house of ,barcelona became extinct4 ,in the revolutions that followed1 ,navarre and ,aragon were united under ,john ,,ii41 second son of ,ferdinand ,i41 king of ,aragon4 ,john1 by his marriage with ,blanche of ,navarre1 shared her father's throne with her after his death4 ,he was guilty of the crime of poisoning his own son ,don ,carlos1 ,prince of ,vianne4 ,john was the father of ,ferdinand the ,catholic1 under whose scepter the kingdoms of ,aragon1 ,castile1 and ,navarre were brought together4 ,,castile4--,ferdinand ,,iii4 7,st4 ,ferdinand7 7#abad-abeb71 in warfare with the ,moors extended the kingdom of ,castile and ,leon over ,cordova1 ,seville1 and ,cadiz4 ,his son ,alfonso ,x41 or ,alfonso the ,wise 7#abeb-abhd71 cultivated astronomy and astrology1 was fond of music and poetry1 enlarged the ,university of ,salamanca1 gave a code of laws to his kingdom1 and caused historical books to be written2 but he wasted his treasures in pomp and luxury1 and in ambitious designs upon the ,german imperial crown4 ,he allowed the ,merinides1 new swarms of ,african ,saracens1 to spread in the ,south of ,spain4 ,alfonso ,,xi4 7#acab-acej71 after a stormy contest with the nobles during his minority1 distinguished himself by the victory of ,tarifa over the ,moors 7#acdj71 and the taking of the city of ,algeciras 7#acdd74 ,his enemies respected him2 and when he died of the plague1 in his camp before ,gibraltar1 the king of ,granada went into mourning 7#acej74 ,the reign of ,peter the ,cruel 7#acej-acfi7 was filled up with perfidies and crimes4 ,the league of the nobles against him only incited him to fresh barbarities4 ,he committed the most atrocious murders1 sometimes with his own hand4 ,protected by the ,black ,prince1 he was at first victorious against ,henry of ,transtamare his rival2 and ,du ,guesclin was defeated in the battle of ,najara in #acfg4 ,afterwards ,peter was obliged to surrender1 and was killed by the dagger of ,henry in a personal encounter4 ,the power of the nobility in ,castile had so increased during the civil troubles that ,henry ,,iii4 7#acij-adjf7 had to sell his cloak to procure for himself a dinner4 ,roused by this humiliation to assert his authority1 he succeeded with the help of the ,cortes in humbling the nobility2 but ,john ,,ii4 7#adjf-aded7 was compelled by the most powerful lords1 after a protracted contest1 to strike off the head of an unworthy favorite1 ,alvaro de ,luna1 under whose despotic control he had placed the government 7#aded74 ,there was a worse state of anarchy under ,henry ,,iv41 ,john's successor 7#aded-adgd74 ,,constitutions ,,of ,,aragon ,,and ,,castile4--,the political institutions of ,aragon and ,castile are specially worthy of note4 ,the kings of ,aragon were very much restricted in their authority by the ,cortes1 or general assembly1 composed of the higher and lower classes of nobles1 the clergy1 and the cities1 which by their trade and manufactures had risen to wealth and power4 ,with the ,cortes was lodged the right to make laws and to lay taxes4 ,at ,saragassa in #abhg1 it was likewise ordained that they should enjoy certain important privileges4 ,the concurrence of the estates was to be required in the choice of the king's counselors2 and in case the king without the warrant of a judgment of the highest judicial officer1 the justiciary1 and of the estates1 should adjudge to punishment any member of the body1 they should have the right to elect another king4 ,these privileges were lost under ,peter ,,iv4 7#accf-achg71 but the old rights were confirmed4 ,to the justiciary was given the power to determine all conflicts of the estates with the king or with one another4 ,his influence increased as time went on4 ,he was the first magistrate in the kingdom4 ,in ,castile1 as early as #aafi the deputies of the cities were admitted into the ,cortes4 ,we find the cities1 at the end of the thirteenth century1 forming a confederation1 called a fraternity1 against the nobles4 ,their deputies at that time had more power in the assemblies than the nobles and clergy4 ,but the power of the nobles increased1 especially from the accession of ,henry of ,transtamare4 ,in the overthrow of ,alvaro de ,luna1 their triumph was complete3 they proved themselves to be stronger than the king4 ,,the ,,castilians4--,the ,spanish ,mohammedans were superior in refinement to their ,christian adversaries4 ,the latter learned much from their enemies1 without losing the patriotic and religious ardor which was fostered by the popular minstrelsy1 and by the romantic exploits and encounters with the infidels4 ,the result was the peculiar spirit of ,castilian chivalry4 ,the early development of popular government in ,castile increased the feeling of personal independence4 ,outside of ,italy1 no cities of ,europe in the ,middle ,ages were so rich and flourishing as the cities of ,castile1 ,materials of commerce were afforded by the famous breed of sheep1 and by the products of the soil and of manufactures4 ,the nobles gained great wealth1 and had vast estates in the country4 ,they held court as petty sovereigns3 ,alvaro de ,luna had twenty thousand vassals4 ,they were inured to war1 they were haughty and overbearing1 and complaints of their oppressions were frequent on the part of the lower orders4 ,the ,castilian ecclesiastics were often lax in their morals4 ,the higher prelates were possessed of great riches and authority4 ,in the beginning of the fifteenth century the people in ,castile had more power1 compared with the power of the sovereign1 than in any other ,european country4 ,but the representation of the commons was exclusively from the cities1 and not1 as in ,england1 largely from the landed proprietors4 ,,the ,,aragonese4--,the extraordinary authority exercised by the justiciary1 or justice1 of ,aragon was perhaps the most remarkable feature of its constitution4 ,dwelling on the ocean1 the ,aragonese built up a naval power4 ,barcelona1 after its union with ,aragon1 was the seat of a flourishing commerce1 and framed the first written code of maritime law now extant4 ,its municipal officers were merchants and mechanics4 ,membership in the guilds was sought by nobles1 as rendering them eligible to the magistracy4 ,the burghers became proud and independent4 ,the ,catalans did not hesitate to assert their rights against encroachments of the kings4 ,in #adcj the ,university of ,barcelona was founded4 ,after the genuine race of troubadours had passed away1 says ,mr4 ,prescott1 the ,provencal or ,limousin verse was carried to its highest excellence by the poets of ,valencia 7,prescott's ,history of the ,reign of ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 ,introduction74 ,,portugal3 ,,commerce ,,and ,,navigation4--,about #ajie ,alfonso ,,vi41 king of ,castile and ,leon1 gave the territory between the ,minho and the ,douro to his son-in-law1 ,henry of ,burgundy1 who assumed the title of ,count of ,portugal4 ,his son and successor1 ,alfonso ,i41 who defeated the ,moors at ,ourique in #aaci1 was hailed as king by his army1 and later was confirmed in the title by the ,pope 7#aahe74 ,he was acknowledged as independent by the king of ,castile4 ,in a diet at ,laimego1 he gave an excellent constitution and body of laws to his people 7#aadc74 ,soon after1 he conquered ,lisbon1 and made it his capital4 ,his son1 ,sancho ,i4 7#aahe-abaa71 was distinguished both for his victories over the ,moors and for his encouragement of tillage and of farm-laborers4 ,until we reach the fifteenth century1 ,portuguese history is occupied with wars with the ,moors and the ,castilians1 contests of the kings with the nobles1 and struggles between rival aspirants for the throne1 and between the sovereigns on the one hand and the clergy and the popes on the other4 ,under ,dionysius ,,iii4 7#abgi-acbe7 there began a new era1 in which the ,portuguese became eminent for industry and learning1 and in commerce and navigation4 ,he founded the ,university of ,lisbon4 ,alfonso ,,iv4 7#acbe-aceg7 continued on the same path4 ,but he caused ,ines de ,castro1 who had been secretly married to his son1 to be murdered 7#aced72 a crime which the son1 ,peter ,i4 7#aceg-acfg71 after his accession1 avenged by causing the hearts of the murderers to be torn out4 ,john ,i4 7#ache-adcc7 repelled a great invasion of the ,castilians1 in a battle near ,lisbon1 and became at first regent and then king4 ,he was the founder of a new family4 ,by him ,ceuta in ,africa was captured from the ,moors4 ,madeira was discovered 7#adai71 and by the burning of the forests was prepared for the cultivation of sugar-cane and the vine4 ,in #adcb the ,portuguese occupied the ,azores4 ,a most active interest in voyages of discovery was taken by ,prince ,henry the ,navigator 7#acid-adfj71 fourth son of ,king ,john ,i4 and of ,philippa1 daughter of ,john of ,gaunt4 ,,iv4 ,,the ,,scandinavian ,,countries4 ,,the ,,baltic ,,lands4--,there are three divisions of ,europe which neither ,charlemagne's ,empire nor the ,eastern ,empire included4 ,the first is ,spain1 which had been comprised in the old ,roman ,empire4 ,the second is ,great ,britain and the adjacent islands4 ,only a portion of ,britain was held as a province by old ,rome4 ,the third is the two ,scandinavian peninsulas1--,denmark1 and ,norway and ,sweden1 with the ,slavonic lands to the east and south1 which may be said to have had a common relation to the ,baltic4 ,the ,scandinavians had their period of foreign conquest and settlement1 but their settlements abroad remained in no connection with the countries whence they came4 ,sweden was cut off from the ocean4 ,the history of ,sweden--as ,mr4 ,freeman1 to whom we owe a lucid exposition of this subject1 has pointed out--mainly consists in the growth and the loss of her dominion in the ,baltic lands out of her own peninsula4 ,it is only in quite modern times that the union of the crowns1 though not of the kingdoms1 of ,sweden and ,norway1 has created a power wholly peninsular and equally ,baltic and oceanic4 ,the ,germans and ,scandinavians spread their dominion over the ,aryan and non-,aryan tribes on the south and east of the ,baltic4 ,finland1 inhabited by a ,turanian or ,scythic people whose language is akin to that of the ,hungarians1 was long under ,swedish dominion4 ,now ,finland and the east of the ,baltic are in ,russia1 while the southern and south-eastern shore of the ,baltic is ,german4 ,russia1 in modern days1 having no oceanic character like ,great ,britain and ,spain1 has expanded her dominion westward to the ,baltic1 but mainly to the east over ,central ,asia4 ,she has built up a continental1 instead of a maritime and colonial1 empire4 ,,conversion ,,of ,,scandinavia4--,in the earlier part of the ,middle ,ages1 the two ,scandinavian peninsulas are known only through the piratical expeditions which they send forth upon the two adjacent seas4 ,by the way of the ,north ,sea1 the ,northmen reached ,france1 ,england1 ,greenland1 and ,america2 by the way of the ,baltic1 ,russia4 ,the conversion of ,denmark to ,christianity was completed in the eleventh century1 under ,canute2 that of ,norway in the tenth1 and of ,sweden in the eleventh4 ,after the foreign settlements were made1 and with the introduction of the gospel1 piracy ceased1 and civilization began 7p4 #bci74 ,,denmark4--,after ,canute ,,vi4 7#aahb71 ,waldemar ,,ii41 the ,victorious1 was the prominent personage in ,danish history4 ,he conquered ,holstein and ,pomerania1--in fact1 every thing north of the ,elbe and the ,elde4 ,in #abai he overran ,esthonia1 in a crusade for the forcible conversion of the pagans1 when the ,danish standard1 the ,dannebrog1--a white cross on a blood-red field1--began to be used4 ,on his return1 he was treacherously captured1 and with his son was kept in prison in ,mecklenburg for three years1 by ,henry1 ,count of ,schwerin4 ,waldemar was defeated in #abbg1 in the war undertaken to recover the conquests which he had given up as the price of his release4 ,he was the author of a code of laws4 ,,union ,,of ,,crowns4--,waldemar ,,iii4 7#acdj-acge7 regained the conquests of ,waldemar ,,ii4 ,this brought on a general war1 in which the ,hanseatic ,league1 as well as ,sweden1 were among his antagonists 7#acfc74 ,denmark1 having control of the entrance to the ,baltic1 and exacting tolls of vessels1 was a second time involved in war with that great mercantile confederacy and its allies1 and was worsted in the conflict 7#acgb74 ,waldemar's second daughter1 ,margaret1 married ,hakon ,,vi41 ,king of ,norway4 ,hakon's son ,olaf was a child at his father's death1 and the regency was held by his mother4 ,olaf 7#acgf-achg7 was elected by the ,estates king of ,denmark4 ,his mother1 now regent in both countries1 became queen in both after ,olaf's death4 ,in #achh ,margaret accepted the crown of ,sweden2 the ,swedes having revolted against the king1 ,albert1 who was defeated and captured at ,falkoeping 7#achi74 ,,sweden4--,war existed for centuries between the ,swedes and the ,goths1 the inhabitants of the southern part of the peninsula4 ,each race contended for supremacy4 ,political union began with ,waldemar 7#abej-abge71 son of ,birger ,jarl 7,earl ,birger74 ,stockholm was founded in #abee4 ,private wars and judicial combats were suppressed1 commerce was encouraged1 and the condition of women improved4 ,large duchies were established1 afterwards a source of discord4 ,magnus ,i4 7#abgi-abij7 was surnamed ,ladulas1 or ,barnlock1 for protecting the granaries of the peasants from the rapacious nobles4 ,his reign was succeeded by war between his sons4 ,as the result of a popular revolt in #acai1 ,magnus ,smek1 an infant1 became king1 and during the regency succeeded1 by right of his mother1 to the crown of ,norway1 where he 7#acej7 placed on the throne his son ,hakon4 ,but when ,magnus attempted to rule without the senate1 he was deposed1 and ,albert of ,mecklenburg was elected king 7#acfe74 ,but the nobles were supreme3 in #achh they deposed ,albert1 and gave the crown to ,margaret of ,norway and ,denmark4 ,albert was held a prisoner for six years1 and then renounced his claim to the throne4 ,,norway4--,magnus ,,iii4 7#ajie-aajc71 called from his ,scottish dress ,barefoot1 united the ,hebrides and ,orcades into a kingdom for his son ,sigurd1 and invaded ,iceland1 where he died4 ,sigurd inherited the spirit of ,harold ,fairhair 7#hfj-;about #icc71 through whom ,norway had been made a united kingdom4 ,he made a voyage to ,jerusalem through the ,mediterranean1 and was a renowned crusader4 ,after his death 7#aacj71 there were fierce contests for the throne1 the more fierce as illegitimate sons had the same right in law as those born in wedlock4 ,in #aaeb a papal legate established a hierarchy in ,norway1 which interfered in the struggle4 ,conflicts arose between the clerical party and the national party1 in which the latter at length gained the day4 ,under ,hakon ,,vi41 ,iceland was conquered 7#abfj74 ,magnus ,,vi4 7#abfc-abhj7 brought in an era of quiet1 without stifling popular freedom4 ,the cities engaged actively in manufactures and commerce4 ,magnus strengthened and organized the military and naval force4 ,by him the ,hebrides were ceded to ,scotland4 ,under ,eric 7#abhj-abii71 called ,priest-hater1 there was a struggle to curb the power of the clergy and nobles1 in which the king was aided by the peasants4 ,he was worsted in the conflict with the ,hanse towns1 and compelled to join their ,league4 ,the accession of ,magnus ,smek1 the son of his daughter1 to the throne of ,norway 7#acai71 led eventually to the ,union of ,calmar 7#acig71 in which ,sweden1 ,norway1 and ,denmark were brought together4 ,the situation of ,norway1 during the ,middle ,ages1 might be shortly described as an absolute monarchy resting almost directly on one of the most democratic states of society in ,europe4 ,the greater families1 by the partition of their estates1 became a part of the class of small land-owners4 ,between them and the king there was no intermediate class4 ,,after ,,the ,,union ,,of ,,calmar4--,after the death of ,margaret1 who governed the united kingdoms after the union1 ,eric ,,xiii4 of ,pomerania succeeded4 ,the union was shaken by the revolt of ,schleswig and of ,holstein1 and was dissolved on the death of ,christopher of ,bavaria 7#addh71 who had been chosen king4 ,the ,swedes broke off1 and made ,charles ,canutson king1 under the name of ,charles ,,viii4 ,denmark and ,norway remained united2 and under ,christian ,i4 of the house of ,oldenburg1 whom they made king1 ,schleswig and ,holstein were again attached to ,denmark 7#adei74 ,v4 ,,poland ,,and ,,russia4 ,,the ,,slavonic ,,tribes4--,the settlement of the ,hungarians 7,magyars7 in ,europe had the effect to divide the ,slavonic tribes into three general groups4 ,the northern ,slaves were separated from the ,slaves south of the ,danube1--the inhabitants of ,servia1 ,croatia1 ,dalmatia1 etc4 ,the north-western ,slaves bordered on the ,western ,empire4 ,the states of ,bohemia and ,poland grew up among them4 ,on the east of this group of ,slaves were the ,russians4 ,both ,poland and ,russia became independent kingdoms4 ,in the course of history1 a part of the north ,slavonic lands1 those which are represented by ,mecklenburg1 ,pomerania1 ,brandenburg1 and ,saxony1 were ,germanized4 ,lands in the south-west1 as ,bohemia and ,moravia1 remained predominantly ,slavonic in speech4 ,a central region formed the kingdom of ,poland4 ,on the east were the ,slavonic tribes which were the nucleus of modern ,russia4 ,,lithuanians ,,and ,,prussians4--,both ,poland and ,russia were originally cut off from the ,baltic by other races4 ,such were the non-,aryan ,fins in ,esthonia 7,esthland7 and ,livonia 7,livland74 ,such1 also1 were the ,aryans of the ,lettic branch1 of whom the ,lithuanians and the ,prussians were the principal divisions4 ,the ,lithuanians formed at one time a strong state4 ,the ,prussians finally gave their name to the ,teutonic kingdom in which they were absorbed4 ,,the ,,poles4--,the ,poles derive their name from a word meaning plains4 ,they were inhabitants of the plains4 ,they were the strongest of a group of tribes dwelling between the ,oder and the ,vistula1 and holding the coast between their mouths4 ,between them and the sea1 on the east of the ,vistula1 were the ,prussians4 ,,poland3 ,,its ,,constitution4--,in the tenth century the ,lechs1 or ,poles1 on the ,vistula1 had acquired considerable power1 and had a center at ,gnesen1 which remained the metropolis of ,poland4 ,there are legends of a first duke1 ,piast by name4 ,a dynasty which bore his name continued in ,poland until #acgj2 in ,silesia1 until #afge4 ,miecislas ,i4 was converted to ,christianity by his wife1 a ,bohemian princess4 ,he did homage to the ,emperor ,otto ,i4 7#igh74 ,boleslav ,i4 7#iib7 aspired to the regal dignity1 and had himself crowned as king by his bishops4 ,gregory ,,vii4 excommunicated him1 deprived him of the title of king1 and laid ,poland under an interdict4 ,boleslav ,,iii41 the ,victorious 7#aajb-aach71 subdued the ,pomeranians1 and compelled them to receive ,christianity4 ,he divided his kingdom among his four sons4 ,silesia became an independent duchy4 ,a long crusade was carried on against the ,prussians1 a heathen people1 who attacked the ,poles1 by the ,brethren of the soldiers of ,christ1 and the ,teutonic knights1 two orders which were united 7about #abbf74 ,the ,teutonic knights at length became the enemies of the ,poles4 ,the savage ,lithuanians assailed them on the north4 ,from the anarchy that reigned1 ,poland was rescued by ,casimir ,,iii41 the ,great 7#accc-acgj71 who defeated the ,russians1 and carried his eastern boundary as far as the ,dnieper4 ,prior to this time1 ,poland was an important kingdom4 ,casimir framed a code of written laws for his people1 and gave an impulse to commerce4 ,but in order to secure the election of his nephew1 ,louis king of ,hungary 7#acgj-achb71 he had to increase the powers and privileges of the nobles4 ,the accession of ,louis terminated the long rivalry of ,poland and ,hungary4 ,he1 like ,casimir1 died without children4 ,the nobles made ,jagellon1 the ,grand ,duke of ,lithuania1 his successor 7#achf71 who took the name of ,vladislav ,,ii4 ,under a series of conquering princes1 ,lithuania had extended its dominion over the neighboring ,russian lands1 and become a strong state4 ,vladislav was chosen on the condition that he should espouse the daughter of the last king1 and1 with his nation1 embrace ,christianity4 ,this event doubled the territory of ,poland4 ,the ,teutonic ,knights1 who ruled from the ,oder to the ,gulf of ,finland1 were now overcome4 ,the treaty of ,thorn 7#adff7 confined their dominion to ,eastern ,prussia4 ,the misfortune of ,poland was its political constitution4 ,although the monarchy was not yet completely elective1 but hereditary in the house of ,jagellon1 the election of every king had to be sanctioned by the nobles4 ,they alone took part in the diet1 and held the offices and honors4 ,there was no burgher class1 no third estate4 ,every man who owned and was able to equip a horse was counted as a noble4 ,the burden of taxation fell on the peasants4 ,,natural ,,features ,,of ,,russia4--,russia in ,europe comprises at present more than half the territory of that entire continent4 ,yet it has but a small share of seaboard1 and of this a large part is frozen in winter4 ,the surface of ,russia is of a piece with the boundless plateaus of ,northern and ,central ,asia4 ,it has been defined as the ,europe of plains1 in opposition to the ,europe of mountains4 ,the mountains of ,russia are chiefly on its boundaries4 ,it is a country subject to extremes of heat and cold4 ,from the scarcity of stone1 all buildings were formerly of wood1 and hence its towns were all combustible4 ,the rivers of ,russia have been of immense importance in its history4 ,the whole history of this country is the history of its three great rivers1 and is divided into three periods1--that of the ,dnieper with ,kiev1 that of the ,volga with ,moscow1 and that of the ,neva with ,novgorod in the eighth century1 and ,st4 ,petersburg in the eighteenth4 ,,russians ,,and ,,poles4--,the ,russian ,slaves in the ninth century occupied but a small part of what is now ,russia4 ,there was probably little difference then between them and the ,poles2 but the one people were molded by the ,greek ,church and ,greek civilization1 the other by the ,latin ,church and by the collective influences of ,western ,europe4 ,,russian ,,history4--,the ,northmen under ,rurik had founded their dominion in ,russia4 ,novgorod was their center4 ,thence they pushed their conquests to the south4 ,their descendants made ,kiev1 on the ,dnieper1 their capital4 ,in ,russia1 as elsewhere1 the ,scandinavians quickly blended with their native subjects4 ,under ,vladimir ,i4 7#ihj-ajae71 who was converted to ,greek ,christianity1 with his people1 and ,iaroslaf ,i4 7#ajai-ajea71 they attained to considerable power2 but the custom of the sovereigns to divide their dominions among their sons1 broke up their territory into a multitude of petty principalities4 ,the result was a monotonous series of fierce contests1 without any substantial result4 ,in the midst of the bloody and profitless civil wars occurred the great invasion of the ,mongols1 who destroyed the principality of ,kiev1 and made that of ,vladimir tributary4 ,for two centuries the ,russians continued under the yoke of the ,golden ,horde1 which the ,mongols established on the ,volga4 ,they were obliged to pay tribute1 and the ,russian princes at their accession had to swear fealty to the khan on the banks of the river ,amoor4 ,at the time of the ,mongol conquest1 ,novgorod was the center of ,russian dominion4 ,towards the end of the thirteenth century1 ,moscow became a new center of ,russian power4 ,from ,moscow comes the name ,muscovy4 ,muscovy was to ,russia what ,france in the older sense was to the whole land which came to bear that name4 ,in the fourteenth century1 while ,lithuania and ,poland were absorbing by conquest the territories of earlier or ,western ,russia1 the ,duchy of ,moscow was building up a new ,russia in the ,east1 out of which grew the ,russia of to-day4 ,ivan ,i41 regarded as the founder of the ,russian monarchy1 made ,moscow his capital in #acbh4 ,most of the other princes were subject to him4 ,demetrius 7or ,dimtri7 ,i4 gained two great victories over the ,mongol horde 7#acgh and #achj72 but in #achb they burned ,moscow1 and slew twenty-four thousand of its inhabitants4 ,it was not until the reign of ,ivan ,,iii41 ,ivan the ,great 7#adfb-aeje71 that ,novgorod submitted to ,moscow1 and ,russia was wholly delivered from the control and influence of the ,mongols4 ,,vi4 ,,hungary4 ,,the ,,arpad ,,dynasty4--,the chiefs of the ,turanian ,magyars1 about #hhi1 elected ,arpad as successor of the leader under whom they had crossed the ,carpathian ,mountains4 ,they overran ,hungary and ,transylvania1 and terrified ,europe by their invasions 7p4 #bdi74 ,after their defeats by the emperors ,henry ,i4 and ,otto the ,great 7p4 #bfa71 they confined themselves to their own country4 ,the first king1 ,stephen1--,st4 ,stephen1--was crowned1 with the consent of ,pope ,sylvester ,,ii41 in the year #ajjj4 ,he divided the land into counties1 organized the ,church1 and founded convents and schools4 ,he conferred on the bishops high offices4 ,he established a national council1 composed of the lords temporal and spiritual1 and of the knights1 out of which sprung the diets4 ,ladislaus ,i4 conquered ,croatia 7#ajhi71 and a part of the ,red ,russian land of ,galicia 7#ajic74 ,coloman1 the ,learned1 a brave and able man1 annexed ,dalmatia1 which he wrested from the ,venetians 7#aajb74 ,in the reign of ,andrew ,,ii4 7#abje-abce71 the ,golden ,bull was extorted by the nobles1 which conferred on them extraordinary rights and privileges1 including exemption from arrest prior to trial and conviction1 and the control of the diet over appointments to office4 ,it even authorized armed resistance on their part to tyrannical measures of the king1--a right that was not abrogated until #afhg4 ,hungary was devastated by the great ,tartar invasion 7#abda-db7 7p4 #bhc74 ,the kings of ,hungary supported the cause of ,rudolph of ,austria against ,ottocar of ,bohemia 7p4 #ccb74 ,,invasions ,,of ,,the ,,turks4--,the last king of the ,arpad dynasty died in #acja4 ,there was a division of parties in the choice of a successor4 ,pope ,boniface ,,viii4 and the clergy supported the claims of ,count ,charles ,robert of ,anjou1 who was related to the former reigning family4 ,under the son of ,charles ,robert1 ,louis1 who also succeeded ,casimir ,,iii4 as king of ,poland 7#acgj71 ,hungary became a very powerful state4 ,galicia was regained1 ,moldavia and ,bulgaria were conquered4 ,after the death of ,louis1 his daughter ,maria reigned from #achf conjointly with ,sigismund1 afterwards emperor1 and king of ,bohemia4 ,he established his supremacy over ,bosnia4 ,from this time the invasions of the ,turks begin4 ,there had been a party in favor of raising to the throne ,vladislaus1 king of ,poland2 and after the death of ,sigismund's successor1 ,albert ,,ii4 of ,austria 7#adcg71 and the death of the queen1 he gained the crown 7#addb74 ,he was slain at ,varna1 in the great battle in which the ,hungarians were vanquished by the ,turks 7#addd74 ,john ,hunyady1 who had several times defeated the ,turks1 and who escaped on the field of ,varna1 was made for the time governor2 but on the release of the son of ,albert1 ,ladislaus ,posthumus1 who had been kept from the throne by the ,emperor ,frederick ,,iii41 he was recognized as king 7#adeb74 ,hun-yady was made general-in-chief4 ,frederick had also retained in his hands the crown1 which had been intrusted to his care1 and which ,hungarians have always regarded with extreme veneration4 ,a little later1 great advantages were gained over the ,turks1 to be lost again in the sixteenth century4 ,,vii4 ,,the ,,ottoman ,,turks4 ,,osman3 ,,murad ,i4--,towards the end of the thirteenth century1 the ,osman 7or ,ottoman7 ,turks1 warlike nomad hordes1 in order to escape from the ,mongols1 moved from the region east of the ,caspian ,sea1 and conquered in ,asia ,minor the remnant of the kingdom of the ,seljukians 7p4 #bgj74 ,impelled by fanaticism and the desire of booty1 ,ottoman 7or ,osman71 their leader1 advanced into ,bithynia1 and took ,pruse1 or ,broussa1 one of the most important cities of ,asia ,minor4 ,the ,greeks1 with their ,catalonian auxiliaries1 were not able to dislodge him from his new possession4 ,the ,byzantine court was disabled from making an energetic effort for this end1 by the partisan rancor1 and mingled lethargy and cruelty1 which characterized the old age of the ,greek ,empire4 ,nicomedia1 ,nicoea1 and ,ilium were conquered by the ,sultan 7or ,padishah74 ,murad ,i4 7#acfa-achi7 founded the corps of janizaries1 composed of select ,christian youth chosen from the captives for their beauty and vigor4 ,these became the most effective soldiers1--sometimes dangerous1 however1 to the sultans themselves4 ,adrianople was taken by ,murad1 and made the seat of his authority4 ,the ,christian principalities of ,thrace1 and the ancient but depopulated cities founded by the ,greeks and ,romans1 were overrun4 ,the ,servians and ,bulgarians made a stand against the fierce ,ottoman warriors1 but were beaten in the battle of ,kosovo1 where ,muradwas slain4 ,,bajazet4--,bajazet1 the son and successor of ,murad1 outdid his predecessor in his martial prowess4 ,he conquered ,macedonia and ,thessaly1 and ,greece to the southern end of ,peloponnesus4 ,the ,emperor ,sigismund and ,john of ,burgundy1 with one hundred thousand men1 were utterly defeated in the sanguinary battle of ,nicopolis 7#acif74 ,sigismund escaped by sea2 the ,french counts and knights had to be redeemed from captivity with a large ransom2 and ten thousand prisoners of lower rank were slaughtered by ,bajazet4 ,bosnia was now in the hands of the victor4 ,constantinople had to pay tribute1 and seemed likely to become his prey1 when a temporary respite was obtained for it by the coming of a host even more powerful than that of ,bajazet4 ,,mongolian ,,invasion4--,timur1 or ,tamerlane1 a descendant of ,genghis ,khan 7p4 #bhc71 revived the fallen ,tartar kingdom4 ,at the head of his wandering ,tartars1 which grew into an army1 he left ,samarcand1 where he had caused himself to be proclaimed sovereign1 and1 in a rapid career of conquest1 made himself master of the countries from the ,wall of ,china to the ,mediterranean1 and from the boundaries of ,egypt to ,moscow4 ,everywhere his path was marked with blood and with the ruins of the places which he destroyed4 ,at ,ispahan1 in ,persia1 seventy thousand persons were killed4 ,at ,delhi1 one hundred thousand captives were slain1 that his relative1 the ,great ,mogul1 might reign in security4 ,it was his delight to pile up at the gates of cities pyramids of twenty or thirty thousand heads4 ,later 7#adja71 at ,bagdad1 he erected such a pyramid of ninety thousand heads4 ,he gained a great victory over the ,golden ,horde in ,russia 7p4 #bhc71 conquered the unsubdued parts of ,persia1 entered ,bagdad1 ,bassorah1 and ,mosul1 vanquished the khan of ,kaptchak1 and penetrated ,russia in his devastating progress1 as far as ,moscow 7#acif74 ,then followed the conquest of ,hindustan4 ,,tamerlane ,,and ,,bajazet4--,the two powerful monarchs1 ,tamerlane and ,bajazet1 now measured their strength in combat with one another4 ,trembling ambassadors of the ,greek emperor1 and of certain ,seljukian princes1 had waited on ,tamerlane in ,gengia at the foot of the ,caucasus4 ,on the #afth of ,june1 #adjb1 the two armies--four hundred thousand ,turks1 and eight hundred thousand ,mongols1 if one may credit the reports--met at ,ancyra4 ,the ,ottomans were defeated1 and ,bajazet was taken prisoner4 ,led into the presence of ,tamerlane1 he found the ,mongol quietly playing chess with his son4 ,asia ,minor submitted to the conqueror1 who penetrated as far as ,smyrna4 ,an old man1 he was looking towards ,china as another field for invasion1 when he died 7#adje74 ,bajazet died soon after his defeat4 ,,turkish ,,conquests3 ,,the ,,greeks ,,and ,,latins4--,the grandson of ,bajazet1 ,murad ,,ii4 7#adba-adea71 took up anew his projects of conquest4 ,the empire of ,tamerlane quickly fell to pieces4 ,his course had been like that of a hurricane1 terrible in its work of destruction1 but soon at an end4 ,the ,byzantine dominion was soon confined to ,constantinople and small districts adjacent4 ,on all sides the ,ottoman power was supreme4 ,the ,greek emperor1 ,john ,,vii4 7,palaeologus71 now endeavored1 in imitation of previous attempts1 to bring about a union of the ,greek and ,latin churches1 and thus remove a principal obstacle to the obtaining of military help from the ,west4 ,he went to ,italy1 attended by the patriarch and many bishops4 ,after long debates and conferences on the abstruse points of doctrinal difference1 a verbal agreement was reached between the two parties 7#adci74 ,but the result was received with so much disfavor and indignation in ,constantinople1 that the effort to bring the sundered churches together came to naught4 ,the ,pope1 however1 stirred up the ,christian princes to engage in war against the ,turk4 ,the defeat of ,vladislav1 king of ,hungary1 and of ,hunyady1 at ,varna 7#addd71 caused by the rash onset of the king upon the janizaries1 was succeeded by another ,turkish victory at ,kosovo1 four years later4 ,,fall ,,of ,,constantinople4--,murad ,,ii4 was succeeded by his ambitious and unmerciful son1 ,mohammed ,,ii4 7#adea-adha71 who determined that ,constantinople should be his capital4 ,the city had seven thousand defenders1 comprising two thousand ,genoese and ,venetians1 who were commanded by an able man1 the ,genoese ,justiniani4 ,the ,emperor ,constantine ,,xii4 worshiped according to the ,roman rites2 while his court observed the ,greek forms1 and spurned a union with the hated ,latin ,christians1 whose help the emperor was to the end anxious to obtain4 ,the city was stoutly defended for fifty-three days2 and when it could be held no longer against the furious assault of the ,turks1 the gallant ,constantine1 casting aside his golden armor1 fell1 bravely fighting with the defenders on the ramparts 7,may #bi1 #adec74 ,constantinople became the capital of the ,turks4 ,the crescent supplanted the cross1 and the ,church of ,st4 ,sophia was turned into a mosque4 ,,turkish ,,government4--,the ,sultan1 or padischah1 among the ,turks is absolute master1 and proprietor of the soil4 ,there is no order of nobles1 and there are no higher classes except the priests 7imams7 and the religious orders 7dervishes74 ,in the seraglio of the ,sultan1 with its palaces and gardens1 the harem is separated from the other apartments4 ,the grand vizier presides over the council of ministers 7divan74 ,the provinces are governed by pashas with large powers4 ,beneath them is a gradation of inferior rulers in the subdivisions of the provinces4 ,the mufti with his subordinate associates is a high authority on questions of religion and law4 ,,turkish ,,literature4--,the literature of the ,ottoman ,turks is in merit below the literature of other ,mohammedan peoples4 ,it lacks originality1 being based on ,persian and partly on ,arabic models4 ,,changes ,,in ,,the ,,middle ,,ages4--,we have seen great changes gradually taking place in the ,middle ,ages4 ,one is the centralizing of political authority by the subjection of the local rulers1 or lords1 to the will of the king4 ,another is the enfranchisement of the serfs1 and the growing power and self-respect of a middle class4 ,the invention of gunpowder took away the superiority of the mail-clad and mounted warrior4 ,the peasant on the battle-field was a match for the knight4 ,,clergyy ,,and ,,laity4--,there was a change from the time when the clergy were the sole possessors of knowledge1 and the exclusive guides of opinion4 ,in the lay part of society1 there was an awaking of intellectual activity and a spirit of self-assertion4 ,a brief sketch of important ecclesiastical changes1 some of which have been adverted to1 will be here in place4 ,,popes ,,in ,,the ,,thirteenth ,,century4--,from ,gregory ,,vii4 to ,boniface ,,viii41 or from near the end of the eleventh to the beginning of the fourteenth century1 the highest authority was claimed and exercised by the popes4 ,frederick ,barbarossa1 the greatest of the ,german emperors1 held the stirrup of ,hadrian ,,iv41 and humbled himself before ,alexander ,,iii4 ,innocent ,,iii4 compared the authority of popes1 in contrast with that of kings1 to the sun in relation to the moon4 ,he excommunicated ,philip ,augustus of ,france1 ,john of ,england1 and other monarchs4 ,he claimed the right to refuse to crown the emperor if he should judge him not worthy of the imperial office4 ,the papacy continued to exert these lofty prerogatives until ,boniface ,,viii4 ,he asserted that the two swords1 the symbols of both secular and spiritual rule1 were given to ,st4 ,peter and to his successors3 the temporal authority must therefore be subject to the spiritual4 ,the body of canon law was framed in accordance with these views4 ,it embraced the right of the ,pope to depose kings and princes4 ,to the sovereign pontiff was accorded the right to dispense from ,church laws4 ,with the growth of ecclesiastical jurisdiction in the different countries1 the ,pope1 as the supreme tribunal in all matters affecting the clergy and covered by the canon law1 gained a vast increase of judicial prerogatives4 ,,the ,,babylonian ,,exile3 ,,the ,,great ,,schism4--,during the residence of the popes at ,avignon1 there was great complaint on account of the dependence of the papacy on ,france1 as well as on account of the heavy taxes levied for the support of the pontifical court1 and of the immorality which at times prevailed in it4 ,gregory ,,xi41 to the joy of all good men1 returned to ,rome 7#acgf74 ,but at his death1 two years later1 a majority of the cardinals elected an ,italian1 ,urban ,,vi41 in his place4 ,the adherents of the ,french party made a protest1 and chose the ,cardinal of ,geneva1 under the name of ,clement ,,vii4 ,england1 ,germany1 ,hungary1 ,bohemia1 ,holland1 and almost all ,italy1 acknowledged ,urban4 ,france1 ,spain1 ,scotland1 ,savoy1 and ,lorraine obeyed ,clement4 ,this great schism of the ,west created sorrow and alarm among well-disposed ,christian people4 ,it tended strongly to diminish the reverence felt for the papal office1 and to weaken its influence4 ,,the ,,reforming ,,councils4--,the first important effort to terminate the division was made by the ,university of ,paris4 ,its rector1 ,nicolas de ,clemangis1 was prominent in the movement4 ,gerson and other eminent scholars and ecclesiastics took part in it4 ,three great councils were held2 the first at ,pisa 7#adji71 the second at ,constance 7#adad71 and the third at ,basle 7#adca74 ,at these assemblies1 the ,french theologians proceeded upon the ,gallican theory of the constitution of the ,church1 according to which supreme authority was held to reside in a general council1--not in the ,pope1 but in the collective episcopate4 ,at the ,council of ,constance1 where it is a significant fact that the votes were taken by nations1 there were gathered not only a throng of prelates and inferior clergy1 but also the ,emperor ,sigismund1 and a multitude of princes1 nobles1 and spectators of every rank4 ,the whole world1 it was said1 was there4 ,three popes1 each of whom claimed to be legitimate1 were deposed2 and under the auspices of the council1 which affirmed its own sovereign authority1 another pope1 ,martin ,v41 was elected in the room of them4 ,the results of the two councils of ,pisa and ,constance1 as regards the reformation of the ,church in head and members1 disappointed the hopes of those who were disaffected with the existing state of things4 ,the ,council of ,basle exhibited the same spirit as that of ,constance1 and passed various measures in the interest of national churches1 for the restriction of papal prerogatives1 and for practical reforms4 ,the council1 however1 broke into two parts2 and the hopes connected with it were likewise1 to a great extent1 frustrated4 ,in #adch the ,french synod of ,bourges issued the ,pragmatic ,sanction1 containing a strong assertion of the rights and immunities of national churches1--a document which gave occasion to much controversy down to its repeal under ,king ,francis ,i4 ,had it been practicable for good men in the fifteenth century to unite in wholesome measures for promoting the purity and unity of the ,church1 the religious revolutions of the sixteenth might have been postponed1 if not avoided4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,countries ,,of ,,eastern ,,asia4 ,i4 ,,china4 ,,the ,,tang ,,dynasty 7#fah-ijg74--,the confusion in ,china1 after the establishment of the three kingdoms1 was brought to an end by the ,sui dynasty1 which1 however1 was of short duration4 ,between the ,hans and the new epoch beginning with the ,t'angs1 diplomatic intercourse was begun with ,japan2 ,christianity was introduced by the ,nestorians2 a new impulse was given to the spread of ,buddhism2 the first traces of the art of printing are found2 and the ,yang-tse and the ,yellow ,rivers were connected by a canal4 ,,events ,,in ,,this ,,period4--,under the ,t'angs1 the empire was united1 peaceful1 and prosperous4 ,one of the most remarkable occurrences was the usurpation 7#fdi7 and successful reign of a woman1 the ,empress ,wu4 ,her policy was wise1 and her generals were victorious4 ,the ,emperor ,hiuen ,tsung had a long reign 7#gac-gef71 and was an ardent patron of literature1 but in his later years fell into immoral ways1 as was seen in the character of the poems written under his patronage4 ,under this dynasty1 there were productions in poetry of an excellence never surpassed in ,china4 ,buddhism1 although resisted by the ,confucianists and ,taouists1 gained ground4 ,a bone of ,buddha was brought into ,china with great pomp and ceremony4 ,early in the reign of the ,t'angs1 ,mohammedanism first appeared in ,china4 ,in the transition period before the accession of the next dynasty 7#ijj-ifj71 the art of printing came more into use4 ,the practice of cramping women's feet is said by some to have originated at this time4 ,,the ,,sung ,,dynasty 7#ifj-abhj74--;,in the early part of this era1 ,china was prosperous4 ,but the ,tartars began their invasions2 and it was finally agreed that one of their tribes1 which had helped to drive out another1 should retain its conquests in the ,north4 ,these ,tartar conquerors1 the ,kins1 were invaded by the ,mongol ,tartars under ,genghis ,khan 7#abac74 ,after a long struggle1 both the ,kins and the ,sungs were conquered by the ,mongols1 and the empire of ,kublai ,khan 7#abei-abid71 the ruler of nearly all ,asia except ,hindustan and ,arabia1 was established4 ,under the ,sungs1 a system of military drill for all the citizens was ordained4 ,literature flourished2 ,buddhism and ,taouism concluded to live in peace with one another2 and the system of competitive examinations and literary degrees was more fully developed4 ,after the complete conquest of ,china1 the dominion of ,kublai ,khan lasted for about a century4 ,the celebrated ,venetian traveler1 ,marco ,polo1 visited his court4 ,in this period1 mathematics was more studied1 and romances were first written4 ,three out of the ,four ,wonderful ,books1 which are leading novels1 were then composed4 ,the ,grand ,canal was finished by ,kublai ,khan1 and thus ,peking was connected with ,southern ,china4 ,his great naval expedition against ,japan failed4 ,,the ,,ming ,,dynasty 7#acfh-afej74--;,hung-wu1 the son of a ,chinese laborer1 shook off the ,mongol yoke1 and founded a new dynasty with its capital at ,nanking2 whence it was afterwards transferred by the third emperor1 ,yung-lo 7#adjc-adbe71 to ,peking4 ,he conquered and annexed ,cochin ,china and ,tonquin1 and even portions of ,tartary4 ,the ,tartars continued their attack2 and in #adej ,ching-tung1 the emperor1 was taken prisoner1 and held until he was released in consequence of a ,chinese victory4 ,,ii4 ,,japan4 ,,changes ,,in ,,government4--,in the seventh century ,a4,d41 there began changes in ,japan which resulted in a dual government1 and eventually in a feudal system which continued until recent times4 ,the ,mikados retired from personal contact with their subjects2 and the power by degrees fell into the hands of the families related to the ,mikado1 and combined into clans4 ,military control was exercised by the generals 7,shoguns71 and towards the end of the eighth century devolved on the two rival clans of ,gen and ,hei1 or ,taira and ,minamoto4 ,about the same time 7#ggj-ghj7 the agricultural class became distinct from the military1 and were compelled to labor hard for their support4 ,one family1 the ,fujiwara1 by degrees absorbed the civil offices4 ,they gradually sank into luxury4 ,from the middle to the end of the twelfth century1 there was terrible civil war between the ,taira clan and the ,minamoto clan1 in which the former were destroyed4 ,the military power passed from one family to another2 but a main fact is that the ,shoguns acquired such a control as the mayors of the palace had possessed among the ,franks4 ,the ,mikados lost all real power1 and the ,shoguns or ,tycoons had the actual government in their hands4 ,in recent times 7#ahfh7 a revolution occurred which restored to the ,mikado the power which had belonged to him in the ancient times1 before the changes just related took place4 ,,civil ,,war3 ,,feudalism4--,the final struggle of the two clans1 the ,hei or ,taira1 and the ,gen or ,minamoto1 was in the naval battle of ,dannoura1 in #aahe1 which was followed by the extermination of the ,taira4 ,yoritomo1 the victor1 was known as the ,shogun after #aaib4 ,the supremacy of his clan gave way in #abai to that of their adherents1 the ,hj family1 who ruled the ,shogun and the emperor both4 ,the invasion of the ,mongol ,tartars failed1 their great fleet being destroyed by a typhoon 7#abha74 ,the ,hj rule terminated1 after a period of anarchy and civil war1 in #accc4 ,the war of the chrysanthemums--so called from the imperial emblem1 the chrysanthemum--was between two rival ,mikados1 one in the ,north1 and the other in the ,south 7#accf-acib74 ,there ensued a period of confusion and internal war1 lasting for nearly two centuries4 ,gradually there was developed a system of feudalism1 in which the daimios1 or lords of larger or smaller principalities1 owned a dependence1 either close or more loose1 on the ,shogun4 ,but feudalism was not fully established until the days of the ,tokugama dynasty1 early in the seventeenth century4 ,,iii4 ,,india4 ,,mohammedan ,,states4--,during the ,middle ,ages1 ,india was invaded by a succession of ,mohammedan conquerors4 ,the first invasions were in the seventh and the early part of the eighth centuries4 ,a temporary lodgment was effected in the province of ,sind1 on the north-west1 in #gaa2 but the ,moslems were driven out by the ,hindus in #gej4 ,the next invader was the ,afghan sultan1 ,mahmud of ,ghazim1 a ,turk1 who is said to have led his armies seventeen times into ,india4 ,from his time the ,punjab1 except for a brief interval1 has been a ,mohammedan province4 ,the last of his line of rulers1 ,bahram1 was conquered by the ,afghan ,allah-ud-din of ,ghor 7#aaeb74 ,bahram's son fled to ,lahore1 but the ,ghoride dynasty soon absorbed his dominion4 ,one of the ,ghoride rulers1 ,mohammed ,ghori1 the ,shahab-ud-din of the ,mohammedan writers1 spread his dominion so that it reached from the ,indus to the ,brahmaputra4 ,after his death1 ,kutab-ud-din1 who had been a ,turkish slave1 became the founder of the slave dynasty 7#abjf-abij71 whose capital was ,delhi4 ,allah-ud-din1 by whom he was assassinated 7#abid71 had a brilliant reign of twenty years1 and conquered ,deccan and ,guzerat4 ,of the ,togluk dynasty1 which gained the throne in #acba1 ,mohammed ,togluk 7#acbe-acea7 is said to have had the reputation of one of the most accomplished princes and most furious tyrants that ever adorned or disgraced human nature4 ,desiring to remove the seat of empire to the ,deccan1 he compelled the inhabitants of ,delhi to leave their old home1 and to make the journey of seven hundred miles4 ,,tamerlane4--,revolts in ,india made the triumph of ,timour 7,tamerlane7 easy 7#acih74 ,the ,mongol leader sacked ,delhi1 and made a full display of his unrivaled ferocity4 ,a half century of anarchy followed this invasion4 ,,literature4--,on ,mediaeval ,history3 ,the ,general ,subject4 7,see list of works on ,universal ,history1 p4 #af47 ,,gibbon',s ,decline and ,fall1 etc42 ,,the ,,students' ,,gibbon 7,smith1 #a vol472 ,,freeman1 ,general ,sketch of ,european ,history1 and ,historical ,geography of ,europe2 ,,duruy1 ,histoire du ,moyen ,age1 etc4 7#aath edition1 #ahhb72 ,hallam4 ,view of the ,state of ,europe during the ,middle ,ages2 ,lavisse et ,rambaud1 ,histoire ,generale 7vols4 i4-iii472 ,cunningham1 ,western ,civilization 7vol4 ii72 ,lavisse1 ,political ,history of ,europe2 ,dunham1 ,history of ,europe during the ,middle ,ages 7#d vols472 ,,bryce1 ,the ,holy ,roman ,empire2 ,putz and ,arnold1 ,mediaeval ,history2 ,e4 ,a4 ,,freeman1 ,historical ,essays 7series #a and #c74 ,works on ,church ,history4 ,the ,church ,histories of ,,gieseler1 ,,neander2 ,,milman1 ,history of ,latin ,christianity2 ,,alzog a ,roman ,catholic1 ,manual1 etc4 7#c vols4 #ahgd-gh72 ,hardwick 7vol4 i41 ,middle ,ages72 ,students' ,history of the ,church2 ,,stanley',s ,eastern ,church2 ,fisher1 ,history of the ,christian ,church4 ,on ,portions of the ,mediaeval ,period4 ,froissart1 ,chronicles1 etc42 ,,curteis1 ,history of the ,roman ,empire #cie-hjj2 ,r4 ,w4 ,,church1 ,the ,beginning of the ,middle ,ages2 ,a4 ,thierry1 ,histoire d',attila1 etc41 ,st4 ,jerome1 etc41 ,st4 ,jean ,chrysostome1 etc42 ,church1 ,life of ,anselm2 ,,morison1 ,life and ,times of ,st4 ,bernard2 ,gfrrer1 ,pabst ,gregorius ,,vii4 u4 sein ,zeitalter 7#ahei72 ,bury1 ,the ,later ,roman ,empire 7#b vols472 ,oman1 ,the ,dark ,ages 7#dgf-iah72 ,,tout1 ,the ,empire and the ,papacy 7#iah-abgb72 ,emerton1 ,mediaeval ,europe 7#hjj-acjj72 ,pears1 ,the ,fall of ,constantinople2 ,sergeant1 ,the ,franks2 ,,mullinger1 ,the ,schools of ,charles the ,great1 and the ,restoration of ,education in the #ith ,century 7#ahgg72 ,,montalembert1 ,the ,monks of the ,west 7#g vols472 ,sartorius1 ,gesch4 des hanseatischen ,bundes 7#c vols472 ,mombert1 ,charlemagne2 ,sabatier1 ,life of ,francis of ,assisi2 ,hasse1 ,leben ,anselm2 ,west1 ,alcuin2 ,hodgkin1 ,theodoric the ,goth4 ,general ,character of the ,period4 ,,robertson1 ,a ,view of the ,progress of ,society in ,europe from the ,subversion of the ,roman ,empire1 etc4 7,introduction to the ,history of ,charles ,v472 ,kingsley1 ,c41 ,the ,roman and the ,teuton3 a ,series of ,lectures1 etc42 ,,sullivan1 ,historical ,causes and ,effects2 from the ,fall of the ,roman ,empire ,a4,d4 #dgf to #aeag2 ,ozanam1 ,a4 ,f41 ,history of ,civilization in the ,fifth ,century2 ,,laurent1 tudes1 etc4 7vol vii472 ,sir ,james ,stephen1 ,ecclesiastical ,essays2 ,adams1 ,civilization during the ,middle ,ages4 ,scott's novels1--,ivanhoe1 ,the ,talisman1 ,anne of ,geierstein3 they are historically much less correct pictures than his romances which relate to ,scotland4 ,particular ,aspects of the ,period4 ,,savigny1 ,gesch4 d4 rmischen ,rechts im ,mittelalter 7#g vols472 ,sismondi1 ,literature in the ,south of ,europe2 ,hallam1 ,introduction to the ,study of ,literature1 etc42 ,geffchen1 ,church and ,state 7#b vols472 ,,guizot1 ,history of the ,origin of ,representative ,government in ,europe2 ,hecker1 ,epidemics of the ,middle ,ages2 ,j4 ,e4 ,,thorold ,,rogers1 ,a ,history of ,agriculture and ,prices in ,england #abei-agic 7#d vols41 #ahff72 ,amos1 ,roman ,civil ,law2 ,jenks1 ,law and ,politics in the ,middle ,ages2 ,gross1 ,the ,guild ,merchant2 ,oman1 ,art of ,war2 ,,viollet-,,le-,,duc1 ,annals of a ,fortress2 ,h4 ,c4 ,lea1 ,history of ,sacerdotal ,celibacy1 ,history of the ,inquisition 7#c vols471 and ,superstition and ,force2 ,,lacroix1 ,works on the ,middle ,ages1 richly illustrated 7#e vols41 ,london1 #ahhj72 ,gautier1 ,chivalry2 ,cornish1 ,chivalry2 ,,bulfinch1 ,age of ,chivalry1 or ,legends of ,king ,arthur2 ,legends of ,charlemagne1 or ,romance of the ,middle ,ages 7#b vols472 ,,cox ,,and ,,jones1 ,popular ,romances of the ,middle ,ages2 ,,nasse1 ,on the ,agricultural ,community of the ,middle ,ages 7#ahga72 ,roth1 ,gesch4 d4 ,beneficialwesens1 etc42 ,secretan1 ,essai sur la ,feodalit2 ,smith1 ,t41 ,english ,guilds 7#ahgj72 ,,wilda1 ,das ,gildenwesen im ,mittelalter 7#ahca72 ,seignobos1 ,the ,feudal ,regime4 ,works on the ,crusades4 ,g4 ,w4 ,,cox1 ,the ,crusades 7#ahgh72 also1 art4 ,crusades in the ,encycl4 ,brit42 ,michaud1 ,history of the ,crusades 7#c vols472 ,,von ,,sybel1 ,the ,history and ,literature of the ,crusades2 ,mills1 ,a ,history of the ,crusades1 etc4 7#b vols472 ,heeren1 in ,vermischte historische ,schriften 7#c vols472 ,procter's ,history of the ,crusades2 ,gray's ,children's ,crusade2 ,archer and ,kingsford1 ,the ,crusades4 ,for works on ,mohammedanism and the ,arabic kingdom1 see p4 #bcb4 ,the works here mentioned respecting the several countries either relate to their entire history1 or to their history prior to the close of the ,middle ,ages4 ,i4 ,,england ,,and ,,scotland4--,,green',s ,history of the ,english ,people 7#d vols471 and ,short ,history of ,england 7#a vol472 the ,,students' ,,hume2 the histories of ,,bright1 ,knight1 ,,lingard1 ,hume1 ,,guizot1 ,traill1 ,social ,england 7#f vols41 two editions72 ,,gairdner1 ,outline1 etc42 ,turner's ,history of the ,anglo-,saxons2 ,palgrave's ,rise and ,progress of the ,english ,commonwealth2 ,palgrave's ,history of ,normandy and of ,england2 ,,freeman',s ,history of the ,norman ,conquest 7#f vols471 and ,history of ,william ,rufus2 ,green1 ,the ,making of ,england1 and ,the ,conquest of ,england2 ,ramsay1 ,foundations of ,england1 ,angevin ,empire1 ,lancaster and ,york2 ,,stubbs1 ,the ,early ,plantagenets2 ,,longman',s ,history of ,edward ,,iii42 ,cunningham1 ,growth of ,english ,industry and ,commerce2 ,cheyney1 ,industrial and ,social ,history of ,england2 ,seebohm1 ,english ,village ,community2 ,life of ,wickliffe1 by ,,lechler1 by ,,loserth1 by ,,wilson1 by ,trevelyan4 ,kemble's ,the ,saxons in ,england2 ,,stubbs',s ,constitutional ,history of ,england in its ,origin and ,development 7#c vols472 ,,stubbs',s ,select ,charters2 ,,creasy',s ,rise and ,progress of the ,english ,constitution2 ,,thompson',s ,essay on ,magna ,charta2 ,bisset1 ,history of the ,struggle for ,parliamentary ,government in ,england 7#ahgg72 ,,taswell-,,langmead',s ,english ,constitutional ,history1 etc42 ,,freeman',s ,growth of the ,english ,constitution1 etc42 ,bagehot1 ,the ,english ,constitution2 ,macy1 ,the ,english ,constitution4 ,,scotland4--,p4 ,h4 ,brown1 ,history of ,scotland 7#b vols472 ,miss ,macarthur1 ,history of ,scotland 7#a vol472 ,e4 ,m4 ,robertson1 ,scotland under her ,early ,kings 7#b vols474 ,,ireland4--,c4 ,g4 ,walpole1 ,the ,kingdom of ,ireland2 ,morris1 ,ireland4 ,,ii4 ,,france4--,general histories by ,crowe 7#e vols472 ,,duruy 7#b vols472 ,,guizot 7to #aghi1 #e vols42 #aghi-ahdh1 #c vols472 and ,outlines of the ,history of ,france 7#a vol472 ,bonnechose 7to #ahdh72 ,,jervis 7,hassall edition72 ,,martin 7#ag vols472 ,,kitchin1 ,,lacombe1 ,,michelet 7#ag vols472 ,lavisse1 ,histoire de ,france2 ,adams1 ,growth of the ,french ,nation2 ,grant1 ,the ,french ,monarchy2 ,wallon's ,st4 ,louis et son ,temps 7#b vols472 ,sismondi1 ,the ,french under the ,carlovingians 7#a vol471 ,france under the ,feudal ,system 7#a vol472 ,,barante',s ,histoire des ,ducs de ,bourgogne de la ,maison de ,valois1 #acfd-adgg2 ,,wallon',s ,jeanne d',arc 7#b vols472 ,lowell's ,joan of ,arc2 ,jameson's ,life and ,times of ,du ,guesclin4 ,,coulanges' ,histoire des ,institutions politiques de l',ancienne ,france 7#ahgg72 ,viollet1 ,institutions politiques de la ,france 7#c vols472 ,luchaire1 ,manuel des ,institutions ,franaises2 ,esmein1 ,histoire du ,droit ,franais2 ,,guizot',s ,history of ,civilization in ,france 7#c vols471 and ,essai sur l',histoire de ,france2 ,,thierry',s ,the ,formation and ,progress of the ,third ,estate in ,france2 ,sir ,james ,stephens's ,lectures on the ,history of ,france4 ,,iii4 ,,germany4--,henderson1 ,a ,short ,history of ,germany 7#b vols472 ,histories by ,c4 ,t4 ,,lewis 7founded on ,d4 ,mller71 ,kohlrausch2 ,kaufman1 ,deutsche ,geschichte2 ,lamprecht1 ,deutsche ,geschichte 7#f vols472 ,schrder1 ,lehrbuch der d4 ,rechtsgeschichte2 ,richter1 ,annalen4 ,,geisebrecht',s ,geschichte d4 deutschen ,kaiserzeit 7#d vols472 ,,von ,,raumer',s ,geschichte der ,hohenstaufen und ihrer ,zeit 7#f vols474 ,coxe's ,history of the ,house of ,austria2 ,,krones',s ,handbuch d4 ,geschichte ,osterreichs 7#c vols472 ,marlath's ,geschichte ,osterreichs4 ,,arnold1 ,ansiedelungun und ,wanderungen deutscher ,stmme 7#ahge72 also1 ,deutsche ,urzeit 7#ahgi72 ,ozanam1 ,les ,germains avant le ,christianisme 7#ahgb72 ,,sohm1 ,die altdeutsche ,reichs und ,gerichtsverfassung2 ,,maurer',s histories of ,german local institutions 7the ,marks1 the ,villages1 the ,cities72 ,,waitz1 ,deutsche ,verfassungsgeschichte 7#h vols471 ,wirth1 ,die ,geschichte der ,deutschen 7#ahec72 ,,sugenheim1 ,geschichte d4 deutschen ,volkes und seiner ,kultur1 etc4 ,,iv4 ,,italy4--,cantu1 ,histoire des ,italiens 7#ab vols41 #ahei72 ,,hunt',s ,history of ,italy 7in ,freeman's ,series72 ,butt's ,history of ,italy 7#b vols472 ,,leo',s ,geschichte von ,italien 7#e vols472 ,,sismondi',s ,histoire des ,republiques ,italiennes du ,moyen ,age 7#aj vols472 ,,spalding',s ,italy and the ,italians2 ,boscoe and ,morell1 ,compendium of ,italian ,history4 ,hodgkin1 ,italy and her ,invaders 7#b vols472 ,,testa1 ,history of the ,war of ,frederic ,i4 against the ,communes of ,lombardy2 ,,heyd1 ,geschichte des ,levantehandels im ,mittelalter 7#b vols472 ,c4 ,,hegel1 ,gesckichte der ,stdteverfassung von ,italien1 etc4 ,daru1 ,histoire de la ,republique de ,venise 7#i vols472 ,,brown1 ,venice3 an ,historical ,sketch2 ,ranke1 ,zur ,venitianer ,geschichte2 ,machiavelli's ,history of ,florence2 ,napier's ,florentine ,history 7#f vols472 ,,perrens1 ,histoire de ,florence 7#d vols472 ,,reumont',s ,lorenzo the ,magnificent 7#b vols472 ,roscoe's ,life of ,lorenzo de' ,medici2 ,,trollope',s ,history of ,florence2 ,campbell's ,life of ,petrarch2 ,,gregorovius' ,history of the ,city of ,rome in the ,middle ,ages 7#h v41 from fifth to sixteenth century72 ,gallenga1 ,history of ,piedmont 7#c vols472 ,amari1 ,history of the ,war of the ,sicilian ,vespers 7#c vols472 ,malleson1 ,studies from ,genoese ,history 7#a vol472 ,oliphant1 ,makers of ,florence1 etc42 ,,symonds1 ,sketches and ,studies in ,southern ,europe2 ,,taine1 ,florence and ,venice1 and ,rome and ,naples2 ,freeman1 ,historical and ,architectural ,studies 7chiefly ,italian1 #a vol474 ,v4 ,,russia4--,bell's ,history of ,russia 7#c vols472 ,howorth's ,history of the ,mongols2 ,,karamsin1 ,histoire de l',empire de ,russie 7#aa vols472 ,histories of ,russia1 by ,kelly1 ,lamartine1 ,levesque2 ,,rambaud1 ,history of ,russia 7#b vols41 #ahgi72 ,,ralston1 ,early ,russian ,history4 ,,vi4 ,,poland4--,histories of ,poland1 by ,,dunham 7#abmo71 ,fletcher1 ,,joachim 7#b vols471 ,r,,pell ,,and ,,caro4 ,,vii4 ,,spain ,,and ,,portugal4--,lembke und ,schfer1 ,geschichte von ,spanien 7#c vols472 ,,mariana1 ,the ,general ,history of ,spain2 ,,dunham1 ,history of ,spain and ,portugal2 ,,crawford1 ,portugal1 ,old and ,new2 ,burke1 ,history of ,spain 7#b vols472 ,stevens's ,portugal2 ,,ticknor',s ,history of ,spanish ,literature 7#c vols472 ,prescott's ,history of the ,reign of ,ferdinand and ,isabella 7introductory chapter74 ,,viii4 ,,switzerland4--,history of ,switzerland1 in ,,lardner',s ,,cyclopedia 7#ahcb72 ,histories of ,switzerland1 by ,,morin 7#e vols472 ,j4 ,mller2 ,zschokke2 ,rochholz1 ,tell und ,gessler in ,sage und ,geschichte 7#ahgg74 ,,ix4 ,,scandinavia4--,,dunham',s ,history of ,denmark1 ,sweden1 and ,norway 7#c vols472 ,dahlmann's ,geschichte von ,danemark bis zur ,reformation 7with ,norway and ,iceland1 #c vols472 ,histories of ,sweden1 by ,fryxell1 ,,geijer ,,and ,,carlson 7#e vols472 ,laing's ,history of ,norway2 ,,mallet',s ,northern ,antiquities2 ,,maurer',s ,history of ,iceland2 ,,rink',s ,danish ,greenland2 ,sinding's ,scandinavia2 ,,wheaton',s ,history of the ,northmen2 ,worsaac's ,danes and ,northmen in ,great ,britain4 ,x4 ,,ottoman ,,turks4--,,hammer-,,purgstall',s ,geschichte des osmanischen ,reiches 7#aj vols472 ,,creasy',s ,history of the ,ottoman ,turks2 ,,freeman1 ,the ,ottoman ,power in ,europe 7#ahgg72 ,,zinkeisen1 ,geschichte d4 osmanisch4 ,reiches in ,europa 7#g vols474 ,,xi4 ,,china1 ,,japan1 ,,and ,,india4--7,see lists on pp4 #be1 #cb47 ,dickson1 ,japan1 etc4 7vol4 i41 #ahfi72 ,griffis1 ,the ,micado's ,empire 7#ahgf74 ,,xii4 ,,bibliographies4--,in addition to ,adams1 ,manual2 ,sonnenschein1 ,the ,best ,books and ,a ,reader's ,guide2 ,gross1 ,sources and ,literature of ,english ,history 7to #adhe72 ,gardiner and ,mullinger1 ,english ,history for ,students2 ,monod1 ,bibliographie de l',histoire de ,france2 ,dahlmann-,waitz1 ,quellenkunde1 der ,deutschen ,geschichte2 lists in ,lavisse et ,rambaud1 ,histoire ,gnrale4 ,,part ,,iii4 ,,modern ,,history4 ,,from ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,constantinople 7#adec7 ,,to ,,the ,,present ,,time4 ,,introduction4 ,modern history as a whole1 in contrast with medival1 is marked by several plainly defined characteristics4 ,they are such as appear1 however1 in a less developed form1 in the latter part of the ,middle ,ages4 #a4 ,in the recent centuries1 there has been an increased tendency to consolidate smaller states into larger kingdoms4 #b4 ,there has been a gradual secularizing of politics4 ,governments have more and more cast off ecclesiastical control4 #c4 ,as another side of this last movement1 political unity in ,europe has superseded ecclesiastical unity4 ,the bond of union among nations1 in the room of being membership in one great ecclesiastical commonwealth1 became political3 it came to be membership in a loosely defined confederacy of nations1 held together by treaties or by a tacit agreement in certain accepted rules of public law and outlines of policy4 #d4 ,in this system1 one main principle is the balance of power4 ,this means that any one state may be prevented from enlarging its bounds to such an extent as to endanger its neighbors4 ,we have seen the action of such a principle among the ancient states of ,greece4 ,even in the ,middle ,ages1 as regards ,italy1 the popes endeavored to keep up an equilibrium4 ,they supported the ,norman kingdom in ,southern ,italy1 or the ,lombard leagues in the ,north1 as a counterpoise to the ,german emperors4 ,in the sixteenth century1 there were formed combinations to check the power of ,charles ,v41 king of ,spain and emperor of ,germany1 and afterwards to restrain his successor on the ,spanish throne1 ,philip ,,ii4 ,in the seventeenth century1 there were like combinations against ,louis ,,xiv4 of ,france1 and1 over a century later1 against the first ,napoleon4 #e4 ,the vast influence and control of ,europe1 by discovery1 colonization1 and commerce1 in other quarters of the globe1 is a striking feature of modern times4 #f4 ,with the increase of commerce and the growing power of the middle classes1 there has arisen the industrial age4 ,interests connected with production and trade1 and with the material side of civilization1 have come into great prominence4 #g4 ,both the pursuits of men1 and culture1 have become far more diversified than was the case in the ,middle ,ages4 #h4 ,the influence of ,christianity in its ethical relations--as an instrument of political and social reform1 and a motive to philanthropy--has become more active and conspicuous4 ,,period ,i4 ,,from ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,constantinople ,,to ,,the ,,reformation 7#adec-aeag73 ,,the ,,consolidation ,,of ,,monarchy3 ,,invention ,,and ,,discovery3 ,,the ,,renaissance4 ,,character ,,of ,,this ,,period4--,in this period monarchy1 especially in ,france1 ,england1 and ,spain1 acquires new strength and extension4 ,the period includes the reigns of three kings who did much to help forward this change3 ,louis ,,xi4 of ,france1 ,henry ,,vii4 of ,england1 and ,ferdinand the ,catholic of ,spain4 ,the ,italian wars begin with the ,french invasion of ,italy3 the rivalship of the kingdoms1 and the struggles pertaining to the balance of power1 are thus initiated4 ,in this period fall new inventions which have altered the character of civilization1 and great geographical discoveries1 of which the discovery of the ,new ,world is the chief4 ,it is the epoch1 moreover1 of the ,renaissance1 or the re-awakening of learning and art4 ,there is a new era in culture4 ,all these movements and changes foretoken greater revolutions in the age that was to follow4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,france3 ,,england3 ,,spain3 ,,germany3 ,,italy3 ,,the ,,ottoman ,,turks3 ,,russia3 ,,the ,,invasions ,,of ,,italy4 ,i4 ,,france4 ,,charles ,,vii4 ,,and ,,the ,,nobles4--,the result of the hundred-years' war was the acquisition of ,aquitaine by the ,french crown4 ,aquitaine was incorporated in ,france4 ,southern ,gaul and ,northern ,gaul were now one4 ,during the last years of ,charles ,,vii41 his kingdom was comparatively peaceful4 ,its prosperity revived4 ,a new sort of feudalism had sprung up in the room of the old noblesse1 whose power had been crushed4 ,the new nobility was made up of relatives of the royal family1 as the ,dukes of ,burgundy1 ,berry1 ,bourbon1 and the house of ,anjou4 ,on the east of ,france was ,burgundy1 which had expanded into a great ,european power4 ,the duchy of ,burgundy1 with the county of ,charolois1 and the counties of ,flanders and ,artois1 were joined under a common ruler with endless imperial fiefs in the ,low ,countries1 and with the imperial county of ,burgundy4 ,the ,burgundian boundary was on the south of the ,somme1 and little more than fifty miles north of ,paris4 ,the ,burgundian dukes were constantly striving to bring it still nearer4 ,on the east and south1 the house of ,anjou held the duchy of ,bar and ,provence1 besides other possessions4 ,on the south1 too1 was the province of ,dauphiny2 and on the west the strong1 half-independent duchy of ,brtagne1 or ,brittany4 ,charles had a standing quarrel with his son ,louis1 who early showed his power to inspire dread1 but gave no signs of the policy which he triumphantly pursued1 after he became king1 of putting down feudal insubordination4 ,his young wife ,margaret1 daughter of ,james ,i4 of ,scotland1 was twelve years old when he1 a boy of thirteen1 was married to her4 ,he aroused such terror and aversion in her mind that she died at twenty-one of a broken heart4 ,louis--to whom1 much to his disgust1 ,dauphiny instead of ,normandy was given to rule--abetted the great lords in their resistance to his father's authority2 and1 when threatened with coercion1 fled to ,brussels1 to the court of his father's cousin1 ,philip of ,burgundy1 where he was kindly entertained4 ,charles ,,vii41 who knew the traits of his son1 said1 ,as for my cousin of ,burgundy1 he harbors a fox that will one day eat up his chickens4 ,even then the relations of ,louis and ,charles1 ,count of ,charolois1 the heir of ,burgundy1 were cool and unsympathetic4 ,the king occupied ,dauphiny1 and in #adeg it was fully incorporated in ,france4 ,the rulers of ,france and ,burgundy1 taken up with their own schemes of territorial gain1 turned a deaf ear to the calls of ,pope ,pius ,,ii4 for a crusade against the ,turks4 ,it has been said that most of the kings of the house of ,valois were either bad or mad4 ,the indolent and heartless ,charles ,,vii4 would seem to have been both4 ,in his last days he suspected that the ,dauphin's plots were aided by persons about himself1 and that his food was poisoned4 ,he refused to eat1 and died in #adfa4 ,,character ,,of ,,louis ,,xi4--,louis ,,xi4 7#adfa-adhc7 showed himself a master of statecraft1 or the cunning1 diplomatic management which pursued its ends stealthily1 held no engagements sacred1 and was deterred by no scruples of conscience from whatever perfidy was thought requisite to attain the objects in view4 ,louis was one of the earliest examples of the kingcraft which in the succeeding age was deemed a gift to be coveted by princes4 ,it was an art in which the ,italians were masters2 and its secrets were set forth1 somewhat later than the time of ,louis1 in ,the ,prince of ,machiavelli1 a work in which that eminent statesman and historian describes the means by which despots may entrap and crush their enemies4 ,whether he meant to afford aid to tyrants1 or aid to their subjects through an exposure of the tricks of their rulers1 the ,machiavellian spirit designates the policy of intrigue that prevailed all through the sixteenth century1 and infected even some of the best of the public men of that age4 ,louis was mean-looking1 shabby in his dress1 with a cunning aspect2 in his whole deportment and character1 in sharp contrast with the chivalrous princes1 ,philip and ,charles of ,burgundy4 ,if he was vindictive1 he was perhaps not more cruel than others2 but he was ungenial1 regarding men as his tools4 ,he took pleasure in the society of his provosts or hangmen1--,tristan l',hermite and ,olivier le ,daim4 ,he often ordered men to execution without so much as the form of a trial4 ,there was in him a vein of superstition4 ,he was punctilious in his devotions4 ,he would not swear a false oath over the cross of ,st4 ,loup of ,angers1 because he thought that death would be the penalty4 ,he did not quail before an enemy in battle2 yet such was his alarm at the prospect of death1 that he collected about him relics and charms1 magicians and hermits1 to help him prolong his days4 ,,strife ,,with ,,the ,,nobles4--,the first years of ,louis's reign 7#adfa-adfg7 were passed in a struggle with the great lords whom he was determined to subdue4 ,at the beginning his measures for this end were imprudent4 ,they combined against him in the ,league of the ,public ,weal in #adfd4 ,their force was so great that he stood in imminent peril4 ,he counted on the support of ,paris1 and was trying to reach that city when the hostile armies encountered one another at ,montlhry 7#adfe74 ,it was an absurd battle1 where at night both parties thought themselves beaten4 ,the king secured his place of refuge4 ,he deemed it prudent to make peace on the terms demanded by the ,count of ,charolois1 and the other nobles4 ,this treaty of ,conflans 7#adfe7 he caused the ,parliament of ,paris to refuse to ratify or register4 ,he had trusted to his ability to regain what he might surrender4 ,the strife between the ,duke of ,brittany and the king's brother ,charles1 now made ,duke of ,normandy1 enabled ,louis soon to recover ,normandy4 ,,charles ,,the ,,bold1 ,,and ,,louis4--,the death of ,philip made his son1 ,charles the ,bold1 ,duke of ,burgundy4 ,charles was in the prime of life1 of a chivalrous temper1 courteous and polished1 fond of reading and music1 as well as of knightly sports1 and with his head full of dreams of ambition4 ,with certain noble qualities1 his pride was excessive1 his temper not only hot but obstinate1 and1 as he grew older1 he became more overbearing and cruel4 ,he was the most powerful prince in ,europe4 ,the most of his lands were ,german4 ,in the early part of his reign he pursued the same scheme as that which was at the root of the ,league of the ,public ,weal4 ,he aimed to hem in ,louis1 and to build up his own power in the direction of ,france4 ,he allied himself1 in #adff1 with the ,house of ,york1 then uppermost in ,england4 ,an ,english force was sent to ,calais in #adfg4 ,threatened by this coalition of adversaries1 ,louis hastened to attack ,brittany1 and forced its duke to conclude a separate peace4 ,trusting too much to his powers of negotiation1 and yielding to the treacherous advice of ,cardinal ,balue1 one of his chief counselors1 the king determined to go in person to confer with ,charles of ,burgundy4 ,he soon learned that his safe-conduct was of little value4 ,at ,peronne1 he found himself in the midst of enemies1 and in reality a prisoner4 ,while there1 ,lige was in revolt1 as ,charles ascertained1 at the king's instigation4 ,the wrathful duke could be appeased only by agreeing to every thing that he required4 ,louis had to undergo the humiliation of attending ,charles and his army1 and of basely taking part in the vengeance inflicted on the city which he had himself stirred up to revolt4 ,he was glad to escape with his life4 ,after his return1 he ordered ,balue to be put in an iron cage1 where he was kept for ten years1--a mode of punishment of ,balue's own invention4 ,louis repudiated the treaty of ,peronne1 under the advice of a body of ,notables1 all of whom he had nominated and summoned4 ,a new league was organized against him2 but the king by his wariness1 and by his promptitude in attacking ,brittany1 gained advantages1 so that a truce was concluded with the ,burgundian duke in #adgb4 ,philip de ,commines1 at that time a companion and counselor of ,charles1 left his service for that of ,louis4 ,to his ,memoirs we owe most instructive and interesting details respecting these princes1 and the manners and occurrences of the time4 ,,charles ,,the ,,bold1 ,,and ,,the ,,swiss4--,from this time ,charles turned his attention eastward1 and devoted himself to building up a great principality on the ,rhine1 which might open the way for his succession to the empire4 ,it seemed to be his plan to bring together the old kingdom of ,lotharingia and that of the ,burgundies4 ,he found no sympathy in his schemes from the emperor ,frederick ,,iii4 ,the great barrier in ,charles's way was the freedom-loving spirit of the inhabitants of the ,swiss mountains4 ,availing himself of a plausible pretext1 he endeavored to get possession of ,cologne by first laying siege to ,neuss1 which lies below it4 ,wasting his strength in the unsuccessful attempt to capture this place1 he failed to make a junction of his forces with the ,english troops who landed in ,france under his ally1 ,king ,edward ,,iv4 ,the ,english king was persuaded to make a truce with ,france by the wily ,louis1 who was constantly on the watch for any mistakes or mishaps of his impetuous ,burgundian adversary4 ,the cruelty of ,charles to the ,swiss inhabitants of ,granson1 who had surrendered1 brought upon him an attack of their exasperated countrymen near that place 7#adgf74 ,the ,burgundians were routed2 and the duke's camp1 with all its treasures1 including his sword1 the plate of his chapel1 and precious stones of inestimable value1 fell into the hands of the hardy mountaineers1 who knew nothing of the worth of these things4 ,the next year the ,duke once more flung his reckless valor against the strength of the ,swiss infantry1 and barely escaped from an utter defeat at ,morat4 ,made desperate by misfortune1 he risked another battle near ,nanci1 in #adgg1 at the head of an inferior force1 composed partly of treacherous mercenaries1 and was vanquished and slain4 ,he had intended to make ,nanci his capital2 but his body was found near by in a swamp1 stripped of its clothing1 frozen1 and covered with wounds4 ,,extension ,,of ,,france4--,louis ,,xi could hardly stifle expressions of joy at the news of the death of his hated and formidable rival4 ,while ,charles had been busy in ,germany1 ,louis had taken the opportunity to put down1 one by one1 the great nobles who had shown themselves ill-affected4 ,he secured to ,france ,roussillon and the northern slopes of the ,pyrenees4 ,it was now his purpose to lay hold of as many as possible of the possessions of the late duke4 ,mary1 the daughter of ,charles the ,bold1 the heiress of ,burgundy1 gave her hand in marriage to ,maximilian of ,austria1 an event which carried after it the most important consequences4 ,the result of the conflicts of ,louis and ,maximilian was the ,peace of ,arras 7#adhb71 which left in the hands of ,france the towns on the ,somme1 and the great ,burgundian duchy4 ,for a time ,maximilian1 as holder of the ,french fiefs of ,flanders and ,artois1 was a vassal of the ,french king4 ,on the death of ,king ,ren1 in #adhj1 and the extinction of the house of ,anjou1 ,louis annexed the three great districts of ,anjou1 ,maine1 and ,provence1 the last of which was a fief of the empire4 ,,last ,,days ,,of ,,louis ,,xi4--,in his last days1 old ,king ,louis1 in wretched health1 tortured with the fear of death1 and in constant dread of plots to destroy him1 shut himself up in the castle of ,plessis-les-,tours1 which he strongly fortified1 and manned with guards who were instructed to shoot all who approached without leave4 ,he kept up his activity in management1 and in truth devised schemes for the advantage of his realm4 ,his selfish and malignant temper brought to him one unexpected joy from the sudden death of ,mary of ,burgundy 7#adhb71 from which1 however1 ,france did not reap the advantages which he expected4 ,he died in #adhc1 at the age of sixty-one4 ,he1 more than any other1 was the founder of the ,french monarchy in the later form4 ,he centralized the administration of the government4 ,he fought against feudalism1 old and new4 ,he strengthened1 however1 local authority where it did not interfere with the power of the king4 ,in matters of internal government he was often just and wise4 ,,charles ,,viii4 7#adhc-adif73 ,,anne ,,of ,,beaujeu4--,charles ,,viii4 at the death of his father was only fourteen years old4 ,but in his older sister1 ,anne of ,beaujeu1 the wife of ,peter of ,bourbon1 he had an energetic guide who for ten years virtually managed public affairs4 ,she proved too strong for the opposition of the royal princes1 of the nobility1 and of the ,states ,general4 ,the nobles turned for support to ,richard ,,iii4 of ,england4 ,anne strengthened with men and money ,henry of ,richmond1 the rival and conqueror of ,richard4 ,the ,duke of ,brittany1 with his allies1 the ,duke of ,orleans1 the ,prince of ,orange1 and others1 was defeated in a hardly contested battle in #adhh1 which was followed by a treaty advantageous to ,france4 ,the crowning achievement of ,anne of ,beaujeu was the marriage of ,anne of ,brittany to ,charles ,,viii4 ,this was accomplished although she had already been married by proxy to ,maximilian1 while ,charles was pledged to marry ,margaret1 the emperor's daughter4 ,if ,anne of ,brittany should outlive ,charles1 she engaged to marry his successor4 ,this second marriage actually took place3 she became the wife of ,louis ,,xii4 ,brittany was thus incorporated in ,france4 ,the ,italian expeditions1 the great events in the reign of ,charles ,,viii41 will be related hereafter4 ,,ii4 ,,england4 ,,war ,,of ,,the ,,roses3 ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,york4--,the crown in ,england had come to be considered as the property of a family1 to which the legitimate heir had a sacred claim4 ,the ,wars of the ,roses 7#adee-adhe7 grew out of family rivalries4 ,it was a fight among nobles4 ,but other reasons were not without influence4 ,the party of ,york 7whose badge was the white rose7 was the popular party1 which had its strength in ,kent and in the trading cities4 ,it went for reform of government4 ,the party of ,lancaster 7whose badge was the red rose7 was the more conservative party1 having its strength among the barons of the ,north4 ,richard1 ,duke of ,york1 thought that he had a better claim to the ,english crown than ,henry ,,vi41 because his ancestor1 ,lionel1 was an older son of ,edward ,,iii4 than ,john of ,gaunt1 the ancestor of ,henry4 ,the king was insane at times1 and ,richard was made ,protector or ,regent of ,parliament4 ,but ,henry1 becoming better1 drove him from his presence4 ,he organized an insurrection1 but was defeated in a battle at ,wakefield by the troops of the strong-hearted queen4 ,he was crowned with a wreath of grass1 and then beheaded4 ,his brave son1 ,rutland1 was killed as he fled4 ,but ,richard's eldest son1 ,edward--,edward ,,iv4 7#adfa-adhc7--supported by the powerful ,earl of ,warwick1 the king-maker1 defeated the queen at ,towton1 took possession of the throne1 and imprisoned ,henry ,,vi41 who had fallen into imbecility4 ,edward was popular because he kept order4 ,but the favors which he lavished on the ,woodvilles1 relatives of his ,lancastrian wife ,elizabeth1 enabled the opposing party1 to which ,warwick deserted1 to get the upper hand 7#adgj72 and ,edward fled to ,holland4 ,but he soon returned1 and won the battles of ,barnet and ,tewkesbury 7#adga74 ,henry ,,vi4 was secretly murdered in the ,tower4 ,the house of ,york was now in the ascendant4 ,a quarrel between the king and his ambitious brother ,clarence1 who had married ,warwick's daughter1 led to the trial and condemnation of ,clarence1 who was put to death in the ,tower4 ,it was during the reign of ,edward ,,iv4 that ,caxton set up the first printing-press in ,england4 ,after ,edward his brother reigned1 ,richard ,,iii4 7#adhc-adhe71 a brave but merciless man1 who made his way to the throne by the death of the two young princes ,edward and ,richard1 whose murder in the ,tower he is with good reason supposed to have procured4 ,he had pretended that ,edward ,,iv4 had never been lawfully married to their mother4 ,henry ,tudor1 ,earl of ,richmond1 descended by his mother from ,john of ,gaunt1 aided by ,france1 landed in ,wales1 and won a victory at ,bosworth over the adherents of the white rose1--a victory which gave him a kingdom and a crown4 ,thus the house of ,lancaster in the person of ,henry ,,vii4 7#adhe-aeji71 gained the throne4 ,he married ,elizabeth1 the eldest daughter of ,edward ,,iv41 and so the two hostile houses were united4 ,he was the first of the ,,tudor kings4 ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,civil ,,wars4--,the ,wars of the ,roses are1 in certain respects1 peculiar4 ,they extended over a long period1 but did not include more than three years of actual fighting4 ,the battles were fierce1 and the combatants unsparing in the treatment of their foes4 ,yet the population of the country did not diminish4 ,business and the administration of justice went on as usual4 ,trade began to be held in high esteem1 and traders to amass wealth4 ,the number of journeymen and day-laborers increased1 and there was a disposition to break through the guild laws4 ,,effects ,,of ,,the ,,civil ,,wars4--,the most striking result of the civil wars was the strengthening of the power of the king4 ,not more than thirty of the old nobles survived4 ,laws were made forbidding the nobles to keep armed retainers2 and against maintenance1 or the custom of nobles to promise to support1 in their quarrels or law-cases1 men who adhered to them4 ,the court of the ,star ,chamber was set up to prevent these abuses4 ,it was turned into an instrument of tyranny in the hands of the kings4 ,henry ,,vii4 extorted from the rich1 benevolences1 or gifts solicited by the king1 which the law authorized him to collect as a tax4 ,he contrived to get money in such ways1 and thus to carry forward the government without ,parliament1 which met only once during the last thirteen years of his reign4 ,royal power1 in relation to the nobles1 was further exalted by the introduction of cannon into warfare1 which only the king possessed4 ,two pretenders to the throne1 ,lambert ,simnel 7#adhg71 and ,perkin ,warbeck 7#adib71 were raised up2 but the efforts made to dethrone ,henry proved abortive4 ,he kept watch over his enemies at home and abroad1 and punished all resistance to his authority4 ,circumstances enabled the founder of the ,tudor line to exalt the power of the king over the heads of both the nobles and the commons4 ,,iii4 ,,spain4 ,,ferdinand ,,of ,,aragon 7#adgi-ael#f74--,the union of ,aragon and ,castile1 by the marriage of ,ferdinand and ,isabella 7#adgd-aejd71 was nominal1 as each sovereign reigned independently in his own dominion4 ,but both sovereigns were bent on the same end1--that of subjecting the powerful grandees and feudal lords to their authority4 ,in this policy they found efficient helpers in the shrewd and loyal counselor ,mendoza1 ,cardinal and ,archbishop of ,toledo1 and in ,ximenes1 who combined the qualities of a prelate of strict orthodoxy with those of a profound and energetic statesman4 ,to bring both nobles and clergy into subservience to the crown1 was their great aim2 and for this end the sagacious ,ferdinand procured from the ,pope the privilege of filling the bishoprics and the grand masterships of the military orders4 ,he deprived the nobles of their judicial functions1 which he committed to impartial and severe tribunals of his own creation4 ,he re-organized and strengthened the ,holy ,hermanadad1 or militia of the cities1 and thus had at his service against the grandees a standing military force4 ,he used the nobles and the cities to keep one another in check4 ,over both stood the ,inquisition1--a tribunal established against the ,moors and the ,jews who had made an outward profession of ,christianity1 but which under ,torquemada1 who had been confessor of the queen1 became a terror to all ,spain4 ,the king had the power to name the ,grand ,inquisitor and all the judges2 and he thus acquired in this institution not only a fearful weapon against heretics of every description1 but also a political instrument for the subjugation of the nobles and the clergy4 ,by this alliance of the throne and the altar1 the despotic power of ,ferdinand had the firmest prop4 ,,conquest ,,of ,,granada4--,after a ten-years' bloody war1 the ,moorish kingdom of ,granada was conquered4 ,the capital1 with the famous castle of ,alhambra1 was captured 7#adib74 ,the dethroned ,moorish king1 ,boabdil1 robbed of his possessions1 sailed to ,africa1 where he fell in battle4 ,by the terms of their surrender1 the ,moors were to have the free exercise of their religion4 ,but the promise was not kept4 ,choice was given to the ,moslems to become ,christians1 or to emigrate4 ,many left to wage war elsewhere against their ,spanish persecutors1 either as corsairs in ,africa1 or as bands of robbers in ,sierra ,nevada4 ,the professed converts were goaded by cruel treatment into repeated insurrections4 ,it was a fierce war of races and religions4 ,the frightful sufferings of the ,moors1 under the pressure of this double fanaticism1 form a long and gloomy chapter of ,spanish history4 ,the dismal tale continues until the cruel expulsion from the kingdom of nearly a million of this unhappy people by ,philip ,,iii41 in #afji4 ,,ferdinand1 ,,regent ,,of ,,castile4--,most of the children of ,ferdinand and ,isabella died young4 ,their daughter ,joanna married ,philip of ,burgundy1 son of ,maximilian and ,mary2 but he died in #aejf1 at the age of twenty-eight4 ,they had been recognized as the rulers of ,castile4 ,but the mind of ,joanna1 who had always been eccentric1 became disordered1 so that the government devolved on ,ferdinand1 her father4 ,he placed her in the castle at ,tordesillas1 where the remainder of her life1 which continued forty-seven years longer1 was spent4 ,ferdinand was1 in form1 constituted by the ,cortes 7#aeaj71 regent of the kingdom in the name of his daughter1 and as guardian of her son 7,charles74 ,ferdinand administered the government with wisdom and moderation4 ,as there were no children by his second marriage with ,germaine de ,foix1 niece of ,louis ,,xii4 of ,france1 the succession of ,joanna's son remained secure4 ,ferdinand availed himself of the disturbances in ,france to annex to ,castile the portion of ,navarre lying on the south of the ,pyrenees4 ,,iv4 ,,germany ,,and ,,the ,,empire4 ,,frederick ,,iii4 7#addj-adic74--,while ,england1 ,france1 and ,spain were organizing monarchy1 ,italy and ,germany kept up the anarchical condition of the ,middle ,ages4 ,hence these countries1 first ,italy and then ,germany1 became enticing fields of conquest for other nations4 ,frederick ,,iii4 was the last emperor crowned at ,rome 7#adeb71 and only one other emperor after him was crowned by the ,pope4 ,frederick reigned longer than any other ,german king before or after him4 ,he lacked energy1 neglected the empire1 and busied himself in enlarging his ,austrian domains1 which he erected into an archduchy 7#adec74 ,when he sought to interfere with the ,german princes1 they set him at defiance4 ,he did little more than remain an indolent spectator of the conflict in which the ,swiss overthrew ,charles the ,bold4 ,the great danger to ,europe was now from the ,turks4 ,christendom was defended by the ,poles and the ,hungarians4 ,frederick left the ,hungarians1 under the gallant ,john ,hunyady1 without his help1 to drive them1 in #adef1 from ,belgrade4 ,he tried to obtain the ,bohemian and ,hungarian crowns2 but ,podiebrad1 a ,utraquist nobleman1 was made king of ,bohemia1 and ,matthias ,corvinus succeeded ,hunyady1 his father1 on the throne of ,hungary4 ,by the death of ,albert1 the brother of ,frederick1 to whom the emperor had been compelled to give up ,vienna1 he became master of all the ,austrian lands except ,tyrol4 ,he was bent on getting the ,hungarian crown2 but ,vienna was taken by ,matthias1 in #adhe1 and the emperor had to fly for his life4 ,a great confederation1 composed of princes1 nobles1 and cities1 was made in ,swabia1 for repressing private war1 and did much good in ,south ,germany4 ,the western part of ,prussia was taken from the ,teutonic ,knights by the ,peace of ,thorn1 in #adff1 and annexed to ,poland by ,casimir ,,iv4 ,maximilian ,i4 7#adic-ael#i74--,maximilian ,i4 was a restless prince1 eager for adventure4 ,although not crowned1 he was authorized by ,pope ,julius ,,ii4 to style himself ,emperor ,elect4 ,in his reign1 efforts1 only in part successful1 were made to secure peace and order in ,germany4 ,at the ,diet of ,worms in #adie1 a perpetual public peace1 or prohibition of private feuds1 was proclaimed2 and a court called the ,imperial ,chamber1 the judges of which1 except the president1 were appointed by the states1 was constituted to adjust controversies among them4 ,the benefits of this arrangement were partly defeated by the ,aulic ,council1 an ,austrian tribunal established by ,maximilian for his own domains1 but which interfered in matters properly belonging to the ,chamber4 ,germany was also divided into circles1 or districts1 for governmental purposes4 ,in #adii ,maximilian endeavored1 without success1 to coerce the ,swiss ,league into submission to the ,imperial ,chamber1 and to punish it for helping the ,french in their ,italian invasion4 ,although he was brave1 cultured1 and eloquent1 he lacked perseverance1 and not a few of his numerous projects failed4 ,the most fortunate event in his life1 as regards the aggrandizement of his house1 was his marriage to ,mary of ,burgundy 7#adgg74 ,his grandson ,ferdinand married the sister of ,louis ,,ii41 the last king of ,bohemia of the ,polish line1 who was also king of ,hungary2 and by the election of ,ferdinand to be his successor 7#aebf71 both these countries were added to the vast possessions of the ,austrian family4 ,to ,maximilian's doings in ,italy1 we shall soon refer4 ,,german ,,cities4--,from the middle of the thirteenth century there was a rapid growth of ,german cities1 and an advance of the trading-classes4 ,the cities gained a large measure of self-government1 and were prosperous little republics4 ,they were centers of commerce and wealth1 and often exercised power much beyond their own precincts1 which were well defended by ditches1 walls1 and towers4 ,the old ,gothic town-halls in ,aix1 ,nuremburg1 ,cologne1 etc41 are monuments of municipal thrift and dignity4 ,their churches and convents grew rich1 and schools with numerous pupils were connected with them4 ,dwellings became more comfortable and attractive4 ,all branches of art and manufacture flourished4 ,the city nobles and the guilds had their banquets4 ,in the church festivals all the people took part4 ,the ,german cities1 such as ,mayence1 ,worms1 ,strasburg1 ,lbeck1 ,augsburg1 excited the admiration even of ,italian visitors4 ,,the ,,medici4 ,giovanni d' ,medici1 d4 #adbi4 --,,cosmo 7,father of his ,country71 d4 #adfd4 --,,piero1 d4 #adfi4 --,,lorenzo 7the ,magnificent71 d4 #adib4 --,maddelena4 --,,piero d4 #aejc --,,lorenzo ,,ii1 ,duke of ,urbino1 d4 #aeaj4 --,catharine1 m4 ,henry ,,ii of ,france4 --,,alessandro1 ,first ,duke of ,florence1 #aeca-aecg4 --,,giovanni 7,pope ,leo ,x71 d4 #aeba4 --,,giuliano1 ,duke of ,nemours1 d4 #aeaf4 --,ippolito 7,cardinal71 d4 #aece4 --,,giuliano1 killed by ,pozzi #adgh4 --,giulio 7,pope ,clement ,,vii71 d4 #aecd4 --,,lorenzo1 d4 #addj4 --,piero ,francesco1 d4 #adgd4 --,giuliano1 d4 #adih4 --,giovanni 7the ,invincible71 d4 #aebf4 --,,cosimo ,i1 ,first ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany1 #aecg-aegd4 --,,francesco1 #aegd-aehg1 m4 ,joanna1 daughter of ,emperor ,ferdinand ,i4 --,mary m4 ,henry ,,iv of ,france4 --,,ferdinand ,i1 #aehg-afjj1 m4 ,christina1 daughter of ,charles ,,ii of ,lorraine4 --,,cosimo ,,ii1 #afji-afba1 m4 ,mary ,magdalen1 sister of ,emperor ,ferdinand ,,ii4 --,,ferdinand ,,ii1 #afba-afgj4 --,,cosimo ,,iii1 #afgj-agbc4 --,,john ,,gaston1 #agbc-agcg4 ,v4 ,,italy4 ,,condition ,,of ,,italy4--,italy1 at the epoch of the ,french invasions1 was the most prosperous as well as the most enlightened and civilized country in ,europe4 ,its opulent and splendid cities were the admiration of all visitors from the less favored countries of the ,north4 ,but national unity was wanting4 ,the country was made up of discordant states4 ,venice was ambitious of conquest2 and the pontiffs in this period1 to the grief of all true friends of religion1 were absorbed in ,italian politics1 being eager to carve out principalities for their relatives4 ,italy was exposed to two perils4 ,on the one hand1 it was menaced by the ,ottoman ,turks2 not to speak of the kings of ,france and ,spain1 who were rival aspirants for control in the ,italian peninsula4 ,on the other hand1 voyages of discovery were threatening to open new highways of commerce to supersede the old routes of traffic through its maritime cities4 ,,milan4--,the fall of ,constantinople produced a momentary union in ,italy4 ,at ,lodi1 in #aded1 the principal states took an oath of perpetual concord1--,francesco ,sforza1 ,duke of ,milan2 ,cosmo de ,medici1 to whom ,florence had given the name of ,father of his ,country2 ,alfonso ,v4 the ,magnanimous1 king of ,naples and ,sicily2 the ,popes ,calixtus ,,iii4 and ,pius ,,ii4 7#adeh-adfd74 ,but conflicts soon arose among them4 ,an abortive attempt was made by ,john of ,calabria to deprive ,ferdinand of ,naples of his inheritance 7#adfb74 ,in #adgh there was a coalition against ,florence2 in #adhb1 a coalition against ,venice4 ,the ,turks made the best use of these quarrels1 and captured ,otranto 7#adhj71 killing or enslaving twelve thousand ,christians4 ,the idea of the ancients that tyrannicide is a virtue1 whether the master be good or bad1 was caught up1 and gave rise to conspiracies4 ,at ,milan1 in #adgf1 the cruel ,duke ,galeazzo ,maria was assassinated by three young men1 near the ,church of ,st4 ,stephen4 ,giovanni ,galeazzo1 his son1 a minor1 married a daughter of the king of ,naples4 ,but his uncle1 ,ludovico il ,moro1 had seized on power1 and ruled in the name of ,giovanni 7#adhj74 ,he imprisoned ,giovanni and his young wife2 and being threatened by the king of ,naples1 who had for an ally ,peter de ,medici1 he formed an alliance with the ,pope and the ,venetians2 and1 not confiding in them1 he invited ,charles ,,viii4 of ,france to invade the kingdom of ,naples4 ,genoa fell under the yoke of ,ludovico1 who was invested with it by ,charles ,,viii4 as a fief of ,france4 ,,venice4--,venice1 which up to the fall of ,constantinople had been the strongest of the ,italian states1 forgot its duties and its dangers in relation to the ,turks1 in order to aggrandize itself in ,italy4 ,it could not avoid war with them1 which broke out in #adfd4 ,the ,turks took ,negropont and ,scutari1 passed the ,piave1 and the fires kindled by their troops could be seen from ,venice4 ,the city made a shameful treaty with them1 paying them a large sum 7#adgi74 ,but four years after1 it conquered ,cyprus1 which it did not scruple to demand the privilege of holding as a fief of the ,sultan of ,egypt4 ,the great power of ,venice at this time was a cause of alarm to all the other states2 but their first combination against it in #adhb1 in defense of the ,duke of ,ferrara1 was of no effect4 ,in #aded the government of ,venice was placed practically in the hands of three inquisitors1 who exercised despotic power under the old forms1 and1 by such means as secret trials and executions1 maintained internal order and quiet at the cost of liberty4 ,its soldiers were condottieri1 under foreign leaders1 whom it watched with the utmost jealousy4 ,,florence4--,cosmo de ,medici had continued to be a man of the people4 ,but the members of his family who followed him1 while they copied his munificence and public spirit1 behaved more as princes4 ,against ,peter ,i4 plots were formed by the nobles1 but were baffled 7#adfe74 ,jerome ,riario1 a nephew of ,pope ,sixtus ,,iv41 strove with papal help to conquer for himself a principality in the ,romagna4 ,the ,florentines protested against it as a breach of the treaty of ,lodi4 ,hence ,riario took part in the conspiracy of the ,pazzi against the lives of ,lorenzo and ,julian1 sons of ,cosmo4 ,they were attacked in the cathedral of ,florence by the assassins1 during the celebration of mass2 ,julian was killed1 but ,lorenzo escaped4 ,the ,archbishop of ,pisa1 one of the accomplices1 was hung from his palace window in his pontifical robes4 ,the ,pope excommunicated the ,medici1 and all the ,italian states plunged into war4 ,the capture of ,otranto at this time by the ,turks frightened the princes4 ,lorenzo de ,medici repaired in person to ,naples to negotiate with ,ferdinand1 the ,pope's ally1 and peace was concluded4 ,lorenzo earned the name of ,the ,magnificent by his lavish patronage of literature and art4 ,,savonarola4--,against the rule of ,lorenzo1 one voice was raised1 that of the ,dominican monk ,jerome ,savonarola1 a preacher of fervid eloquence1 who aimed in his harangues1 not only to move individuals to repentance1 but to bring about a thorough amendment of public morals1 and a political reform in the direction of liberty4 ,in his discourses1 however1 he lashed the ecclesiastical corruptions of the time1 not sparing those highest in power4 ,there were two parties1 that of the young nobles1--the arribiati1 or enraged2 and that of the people1--the frateschi1 or friends of the monks4 ,savonarola proclaimed that a great punishment was impending over ,italy4 ,he predicted the invasion from north of the ,alps4 ,,florence ,,in ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,lorenzo4--,florence in the time of ,lorenzo presented striking points of resemblance to ,athens in its most flourishing days4 ,in some respects1 the two communities were quite unlike4 ,florence was not a conquering power1 and had no extensive dominion4 ,civil and military life were distinct from one another3 the ,italian had come to rely more upon diplomacy than upon arms1 and his wealth and mercantile connections made him anxious to avoid war4 ,in ,florence1 moreover1 trade and the mechanic arts were in high repute2 industry was widely diffused1 and was held in honor4 ,but in equality and pride of citizenship1 in versatility of talent and intellectual activity1 in artistic genius and in appreciation of the products of art1 in refinement of manners1 cheerfulness of temper1 and a joyous social life1 the ,florentines in the fifteenth century compare well with the ,athenians in the age of ,pericles4 ,in ,florence1 the burgess or citizen had attained to the standing to which in other countries he only aspired4 ,nobility of blood was counted as of some worth2 but where there was not wealth or intellect with it1 it was held in comparatively low esteem4 ,prosperous merchants1 men of genius and education1 and skillful artisans were on a level with the best4 ,men of noble extraction engaged in business4 ,the commonwealth conferred knighthood on the deserving1 according to the practice of sovereign princes4 ,persons of the highest social standing did not disdain to labor in their shops and counting-houses4 ,frugal in their domestic life1 the ,florentines strove to maintain habits of frugality by strict sumptuary laws4 ,limits were set to indulgence in finery1 food1 etc4 ,the population of ,florence somewhat exceeded one hundred thousand4 ,in the neighborhood of the city1 there was a multitude of attractive1 richly furnished villas and country-houses4 ,among the industries in which the busy population was engaged in #adgb1 a chronicler enumerates eighty-three rich and splendid warehouses of the silk-merchants' guild1 thirty-three great banks1 and forty-four goldsmiths' and jewellers' shops4 ,the houses of the rich were furnished with elegance1 and decorated with beautiful works of art4 ,there was a great contrast between the simplicity of ordinary domestic life1 especially as regards provisions for the table1 and the splendor displayed on public occasions1 or when guests were to be hospitably entertained4 ,the effect of literary culture was seen in the tone of conversation4 ,it is remarkable that the great sculptors were all goldsmiths1 and came out of the workshop4 ,a new generation of painters had a like practical training4 ,in those days1 there was a union of manual skill with imagination4 ,the art of the goldsmith preceded and outstripped all the others4 ,in such a society1 there was naturally a great relish for public festivals1 both sacred and secular4 ,everywhere in ,italy the ,mysteries1 or religious plays1 exhibiting events of scriptural history1 were in vogue2 brilliant pantomimes were enjoyed1 and the festivities of the yearly carnival were keenly relished4 ,in the government of ,florence1 the liberty of the citizens was mainly confined to the choosing of their magistrates4 ,once in office1 they ruled with arbitrary power4 ,there was no liberty of the press1 nor was there freedom of discussion in the public councils4 ,it was a community where1 with all its cultivation and elegance1 morality was at a low ebb4 ,lorenzo himself1 although he had all the qualities of poet and statesman1 connoisseur and patron of learning1 citizen and prince1 nevertheless could not keep himself from the epicureanism of the time1 and was infected with its weaknesses and vices4 ,these joyous and refined civilizations1 writes ,m4 ,taine1 based on a worship of pleasure and intellectuality1--,greece of the fourth century1 ,provence of the twelfth1 and ,italy of the sixteenth1--were not enduring4 ,man in these lacks some checks4 ,after sudden outbursts of genius and creativeness1 he wanders away in the direction of license and egotism2 the degenerate artist and thinker makes room for the sophist and the dilettant4 ,,the ,,popes4--,the ,popes1 ,nicholas ,v4 7#addg-adee71 a protector of scholars and a cultivated man1 and ,pius ,,ii4 7#adeh-adfd71 ,,the ,,ottoman ,,sultans4 ,,othman1 #acjg-acbe4 --,,orchan1 #acbe-acei4 --,,amurath ,i1 #acei-achi4 --,,bajezet ,i1 #achi-adjb4 --,soliman1 #adjb-adaj4 --,musa1 #adaj-adac4 --,issa4 --,,mohammed ,i1 #adac-adba4 --,,amurath ,,ii1 #adba-adea4 --,,mohammed ,,ii1 #adea-adha4 --,,bajezet ,,ii1 #adha-aeab4 --,,selim ,i1 #aeab-aebj4 --,,soliman ,i1 #aebj-aeff4 --,,selim ,,ii1 #aeff-aegd4 --,,amurath ,,iii1 #aegd-aeie4 --,,mohammed ,,iii1 #aeie-afjc4 --,,achmet ,i1 #afjc-afag4 --,,othman ,,ii1 #afah-afbb4 --,,amurath ,,iv1 #afbc-afdj4 --,,ibrahim1 #afdj-afdi1 deposed4 --,,mohammed ,,iv1 #afdi-afhg1 deposed4 --,,mustapha ,,ii1 #afie-agjc1 deposed4 --,,mahmoud ,i1 #agcj-aged4 --,,othman ,,iii1 #aged-ageg4 --,,achmet ,,iii1 #agjc-agcj1 deposed4 --,,mustapha ,,iii1 #ageg-aggd4 --,,selim ,,iii1 #aghi-ahjg1 deposed4 --,,abul ,,hamid ,i1 #aggd-aghi4 --,,mustapha ,,iv1 #ahjg-ahjh1 deposed4 --,,mahmoud ,,ii1 #ahjh-ahci4 --,,abdul ,,medjid1 #ahci-ahfa4 --,,murad ,v 7,june #d1 #ahgf- ,aug4 #ca1 #ahgf74 --,,abdul ,,hamid ,,ii 7,aug4 #ca1 #ahgf--74 --,,abdul ,,aziz1 #ahfa-ahgf4 --,,soliman ,,ii1 #afhg-afia4 --,,achmet ,,ii1 #afia-afie4 --,,mustapha ,i1 #afag-afah1 #afbb-afbc4 --,djem4 --,alaeddin4 ,mainly from ,george's ,genealogical ,tables4 zealously but in vain exhorted to crusades against the ,turk4 ,paul ,,ii4 7#adfd-adga7 pursued the same course2 but after him1 for a half-century1 there ensued the deplorable era when the pontiffs were more busied with other interests than with those pertaining to the weal of ,christianity4 ,the pontificates of ,sixtus ,,iv4 7#adga-adhd71 ,innocent ,,viii4 7#adhd-adib71 and especially of ,alexander ,,vi4 7#adib-aejc71 the second pope of the ,borgia family1 present a lamentable picture of worldly schemes and of nepotism1 as the projects for the temporal advancement of their relatives were termed4 ,the ,roman principality was the prey of petty tyrants1 and the theater of wars1 and of assassinations perpetrated by the knife or with poison4 ,alexander ,,vi4 succeeded in subduing or destroying all these petty lords4 ,he was seconded in these endeavors by his son ,csar ,borgia1 brave1 accomplished1 and fascinating1 but a monster of treachery and cruelty4 ,no deed was savage or base enough to cost him any remorse4 ,hardly had he acquired the ,romagna1 when ,pope ,alexander died4 ,although his death was due to ,roman fever1 legend speedily ascribed it to poison4 ,his son was betrayed1 was imprisoned for a time by ,ferdinand the ,catholic1 and1 while he was in the service of the ,king of ,navarre1 was slain before the castle of ,viana4 ,,naples4--,in ,naples1 ,ferdinand ,i41 who was established on his throne by the defeat of his competitors in #adfb1 provoked a revolt of his barons by his tyranny1 invited them to a festival to celebrate a reconciliation with them1 and caused them to be seized at the table1 and then to be put to death4 ,he treated the people with equal injustice and cruelty4 ,he allowed the ,turks to take ,otranto 7#adhj71 and the ,venetians to take ,gallipoli and ,policastro 7#adhd74 ,,weakness ,,of ,,italy4--,italy1 at the close of the fifteenth century1 with all its proficiency in art and letters1 and its superiority in the comforts and elegances of life1 was a prey to anarchy4 ,this was especially true after the death of ,lorenzo de ,medici4 ,diplomacy had become a school of fraud4 ,battles had come to be1 in general1 bloodless2 but either perfidy1 or prison and the dagger1 were the familiar instruments of warfare4 ,the country from its beauty1 its wealth1 and its factious state1 was an alluring prize to foreign invaders4 ,,vi4 ,,the ,,ottoman ,,turks4 ,,their ,,conquests4--,the empire of ,mohammed ,,ii4 7#adea-adha7 extended from the walls of ,belgrade1 on the ,danube1 to the middle of ,asia ,minor4 ,to the east was the ,seljukian principality of ,caramania in the center of ,asia ,minor1 and1 when that was finally overthrown 7#adhf71 ,persia1 whose hostility was inflamed by differences of sect4 ,the conquest of the ,greek ,empire was achieved by ,mohammed4 ,matthias ,corvinus 7#adeh-adic71 the successor of ,hunyady1 was the greatest of the kings of ,hungary1 and defended the line of the ,danube against the ,turkish assaults4 ,for twenty-three years ,scanderbeg1 the intrepid ,prince of ,albania1 repulsed all the attacks of the ,moslems4 ,it was not until ten years after his death 7#adfg7 that his principal stronghold was surrendered to the invaders4 ,the attacks on the ,venetians have already been mentioned1 as well as the capture of ,otranto4 ,bajazet ,,ii4 was more inclined to study than to war3 his brother ,djem1 who tried to supplant him1 passed as a prisoner into the hands of ,pope ,alexander ,,vi4 ,an annual tribute was paid by the ,sultan for keeping him from coming back to ,turkey2 and when1 at last1 he was released1 rumor declared that he had been poisoned4 ,selim ,i4 7#aeab-aebj7 entered anew on the path of conquest4 ,he defeated the ,persians1 and made the ,tigris his eastern boundary4 ,he annexed to his empire ,mesopotamia1 ,syria1 and ,egypt4 ,the ,sultan now became the commander of the faithful1 the inheritor of the prophetic as well as military leadership4 ,the conquest of ,alexandria by ,selim 7#aeag7 inflicted a mortal blow on the commerce of ,venice1 by intercepting its communication with the ,orient4 ,the despotic domination of ,selim stretched from the ,danube to the ,euphrates1 and from the ,adriatic to the cataracts of the ,nile4 ,such was the empire which the ,ottoman conqueror handed down to his son1 ,soliman ,i4 the ,magnificent 7#aebj-aeff74 ,mohammed ,,ii4 and ,selim were the two conquerors by whom the ,ottoman ,empire was built up4 ,each of them combined with an iron will and revolting cruelty a taste for science and poetry1 and the genius of a ruler4 ,they take rank among the most eminent tyrants in ,asiatic history4 ,while they were spreading their dominion far and wide1 the popes and the sovereigns of the ,west did nothing more effectual than to debate upon the means of confronting so great a danger4 ,,russia4 ,,ivan ,,iii1 ,vassilievitch1 #adfb-aeje1 m4 ,sophia1 daughter of ,thomas ,palaeologus1 brother of ,emperor ,constantine ,,xiii4 --,,basil ,,iv1 #aeje-aecc4 --,,ivan ,,iv1#a #aecc-aehd1 m4 --,anastasia ,,house ,,of ,,romanoff --,nicetas4 --,mary #d 7,marta the ,nun71 m4 ,theodore 7,philaret the ,metropolitan74 --,,michael1 #afac-afde4 --,,alexis1 #afde-afgf4 --,,theodore1 #afgf-afhb4 --,,ivan ,v1 #afhb-afhi1 resigned2 d4 #afif4 --,,anna1 #agcj-agdj4 --,catharine m4 ,charles ,leopold1 ,duke of ,mecklenburg-,schwerin --,anna1 m4 ,antony ,ulric1 son of ,ferdinand ,albert ,,ii1 of ,brunswick-,wolfenbuttel4 --,,ivan ,,vi1 #agdj-agda1 deposed4 --,,peter ,i 7the ,great7 #afhi-agbe1 m4 7#a71 ,eudocia2 --,alexis1 executed #agah4 m4 ,charlotte1 d4 of ,lewis ,rudolph1 ,duke of ,brunswick-,wolfenbuttel --,,peter ,,ii1 #agbg-agcj4 7#b71 ,,catharine ,i1 #agbe-agbg4 --,anna1 d4 #agch1 m4 ,charles ,frederick of ,holstein-,gottorp4 --,,peter ,,iii1 ,january-,july1 #agfb 7deposed1 and died soon after7 m4 ,,catherine ,,ii of ,anhalt1 #agfb-agif4 --,,paul1 #agif-ahja4 --,,alexander ,i1 #ahja-ahbe4 --,,nicholas1 #ahbe-ahee1 m4 ,charlotte1 daughter of ,frederick ,william ,,iii of ,prussia4 --,,alexander ,,ii1 #ahee-ahha1 m4 ,mary of ,hesse ,darmstadt4 --,,alexander ,,iii1 #ahha- m4 ,mary 7,dagmar71 daughter of ,christian ,,ix of ,denmark --,,elizabeth1 #agda-agfb4 --,,theodore1 #aehd-aeih4 m4 --,irene1#b --,,boris1 ,godounof1 #c #aeih-afje4 #a ,first ,czar4 #b ,declined the crown on ,theodore's death1 which was seized by her brother4 #c ,succeeded by an imposter pretending to be ,demetrius1 son of ,ivan ,,iv1 who reigned for one year2 then ,basil ,v1 #afjf-afaj2 then chaos until #afac4 #d ,said to be a descendent of the old royal house4 ,mainly from ,george's ,genealogical ,tables4 ,,vii4 ,,russia4 ,,russia3 ,,ivan ,,iii4--,for two centuries ,russia paid tribute to the ,tartar conquerors in the ,south1 the ,golden ,horde 7p4 #bhc74 ,the liberator of his people from this yoke was ,ivan ,,iii41--,ivan the ,great1--7#adfb-aeje74 ,in the period when the nations of the ,west were becoming organized1 ,russia escaped from its servitude1 and made some beginnings of intellectual progress4 ,ivan was a cold and calculating man1 who preferred to negotiate rather than to fight2 but he inflicted savage punishments1 and even his glance caused women to faint4 ,he was able to subdue the rich trading-city of ,novgorod 7#adgh71 which had been connected with the ,hanseatic ,league1 and where a party endeavored to bring to pass a union with ,poland4 ,he conquered unknown frozen districts in the ,north1 and smaller princedoms1 including ,tver1 in the interior4 ,the empire of the ,horde was so broken up that ,ivan achieved an almost bloodless triumph1 which made ,russia free4 ,in wars with ,lithuania1 ,western ,russia was reconquered up to the ,soja4 ,ivan married ,sophia ,palologus1 a niece of the last ,christian emperor of the ,east4 ,she taught him to penetrate the secret of autocracy4 ,numerous ,greek emigrants of different arts and professions came to ,moscow4 ,ivan took for the new arms of ,russia the two-headed eagle of the ,byzantine ,csars1 and thenceforward ,russia looked on herself as the heir of the ,eastern ,empire4 ,the ,russian metropolitan1 called afterwards ,patriarch1 was now elected by ,russian bishops4 ,moscow became the metropolis of orthodoxy1 and as such the protector of ,greek ,christians in the ,east4 ,ivan laid out in the city the fortified inclosure styled the ,kremlin4 ,he brought into the country ,german and ,italian mechanics4 ,it was he who founded the greatness of ,russia4 ,vassali ,ivanovitch 7#aeje-aecc71 his son1 continued the struggle with ,lithuania1 and acquired ,smolensk 7#aead74 ,he exchanged embassies with most of the sovereigns of the ,west4 ,,ivan ,,iv4 7#aecc-aehd74--;,ivan ,,iv41 ,ivan the ,terrible1 first took the title of ,czar1 since attached to the ,autocrat of all the ,russias4 ,it was the name that was given1 in the ,slavonian books which he read1 to the ancient kings and emperors of the ,east and of ,rome4 ,moscow was now to be a third ,rome1 the successor of ,constantinople4 ,ivan conquered the ,tartar principalities of ,kazan and ,astrakhan in the ,south1 and extended his dominion to the ,caucasus4 ,the ,volga1 through its entire course1 was now a ,russian river4 ,he brought ,german mechanics into ,russia1 established printing-presses1 and made a commercial treaty with ,queen ,elizabeth1 whom he invited to an alliance against ,poland and ,sweden4 ,it was in this reign 7#aeha-aehb7 that a brigand chief1 ,irmak by name 7a ,cossack1 in the service of the ,czar71 crossed the ,urals with a few hundred followers1 and made the conquest of the vast region of ,siberia1 then under the dominion of the ,tartars4 ,ivan sent thither bishops and priests4 ,he had to cede ,livonia to the ,swedes1 who1 with their allies were too strong to be overcome4 ,in ,russia1 he put down the aristocracy1 and crushed all resistance to his personal rule4 ,whatever tyranny and cruelty this result cost1 it prevented ,russia from becoming an anarchic kingdom like ,poland4 ,ivan1 by forming the national guard of streltsi or strelitz1 laid the foundation of a standing army4 ,in his personal conduct1 brutal and sensual practices alternated with exercises of piety4 ,in a fit of wrath1 he struck his son ,ivan a fatal blow1 and in consequence was overwhelmed with sorrow4 ,after a short reign of his second son1 ,feodor 7#aehd-aeih71 who was weak in mind and body1 the throne was usurped by one of the aristocracy1 the able and ambitious regent1 ,boris ,godounof 7#aeih-afje74 ,,the ,,cossacks4--,these were brought into subjection by ,ivan ,,iv4 and his successors4 ,they were robber hordes of mixed origin1 partly ,tartar and partly ,russian4 ,their abodes were near the rapids of the ,dnieper1 and on the ,don1 and at the foot of the ,caucasus4 ,they were fierce warriors1 and did a great service to ,russia in subduing the wild nomad tribes on the north and east of the regions where the ,cossacks dwelt4 ,,times ,,of ,,trouble4--,after the death of ,boris ,godounof1 two pretenders1 one after the other1 each assuming to be ,demetrius1 the younger son of ,ivan1--a son who had been put to death1-- seized on power4 ,this was rendered possible by the mutual strife of ,russian factions1 and by the help afforded to the impostors by the ,poles4 ,sigismund ,,iii41 king of ,poland1 openly espoused the cause of the second ,demetrius4 ,moscow was forced to surrender 7#afaj72 and the czar whom the nobles had enthroned1 ,basil ,v41 died in a ,polish prison4 ,these events gave rise to a lasting enmity between the two ,slavonic nations4 ,in #afaa the ,poles were driven out by a national rising1 which led to the elevation to the throne of ,michael ,romanoff 7#afac-afde71 the founder of the present dynasty of czars4 ,peace was concluded with ,gustavus ,adolphus of ,sweden1 and with the ,poles4 ,commercial treaties were made with foreign nations4 ,in ,russia there was a great increase of internal prosperity4 ,,serfdom ,,in ,,russia4--,the lower classes in ,russia consisted of three divisions3 #a4 ,slaves1 captives taken in war1 who were bought and sold4 #b4 ,the inscribed peasants1 who were attached to the soil and became serfs4 ,they belonged to the commune1 or village1 which held the land1 and as a unit paid to the lord his dues4 ,they made up the bulk of the rural population4 ,the peasant was an arbitrary master1 a little czar in his own family4 #c4 ,the free laborers1 who could change their masters1 but who soon fell into the rank of serfs4 ,while the higher classes in ,russia advanced1 the condition of the rustics for several centuries continued to grow worse4 ,,russian ,,society4--,the great nobles kept in their castles a host of servants4 ,these were slaves1 subject to the caprices of their master4 ,russian women were kept in seclusion4 ,there was an ,asiatic stamp imprinted on civil and social life4 ,thanks to the general ignorance1 there was no intellectual life in ,russia3 thanks to the seclusion of women1 there was no society4 ,by degrees intercourse with ,western ,europe was destined to soften1 in some particulars1 the harsh outlines of this picture4 ,,viii4 ,,french ,,invasions ,,of ,,italy4 ,,effect ,,of ,,absolute ,,monarchy4--,the establishment of absolute monarchy in ,western ,europe placed the resources of the nations at the service of their respective kings4 ,the desire of national aggrandizement led to great ,european wars1 which took the place of the feudal conflicts of a former day4 ,these wars began with the invasion of ,italy by ,charles ,,viii41 king of ,france4 ,,motives ,,of ,,the ,,invasion4--,to this unwise enterprise ,charles ,,viii4 was impelled by a romantic dream of conquest1 which was not to be limited to the ,italian peninsula4 ,he intended to attack the ,turks afterward1 and to establish once more1 under his protection1 a ,latin kingdom at ,jerusalem4 ,his counselors could not dissuade him from the hazardous undertaking4 ,in order to set his hands free1 he made treaties that were disadvantageous to ,france with ,henry ,,vii41 ,maximilian1 and ,ferdinand the ,catholic4 ,he was invited to cross the ,alps by ,ludovico il ,moro 7p4 #cgd71 by the ,neapolitan barons1 by all the enemies of ,pope ,alexander ,,vi4 ,the special ground of the invasion was the claim of the ,french king1 through the house of ,anjou1 to the throne of ,naples4 ,in #adid ,charles crossed the ,alps with a large army1 and1 with the support of ,ludovico1 advanced from ,milan1 through ,florence and ,rome to ,naples4 ,when he was crowned he wore the imperial insignia as if pretending to the ,empire of the ,east also4 ,the rapid progress of the ,french power alarmed the ,pope and the other princes1 including ,ludovico himself1 who was afraid that the king might cast a covetous eye on his own principality4 ,a formidable league was formed against ,charles1 including1 besides the ,italian princes1 ,ferdinand1 ,maximilian1 and ,henry ,,vii4 of ,england4 ,it was the first ,european combination against ,france4 ,charles left eleven thousand men under ,gilbert de ,montpensier1 at ,naples2 and after being exposed to much peril1 although he won a victory at ,fornovo 7#adie71 he made his way back to ,france4 ,ferdinand ,,ii41 aided by ,spanish troops1 expelled the ,french from ,naples2 and the remnant of their garrisons1 after the death of ,montpensier1 was led back to ,france4 ,the conquests of ,charles were lost as speedily as they were gained4 ,his great expedition proved a failure4 ,,death ,,of ,,savonarola4--,civil strife continued in the ,italian states4 ,savonarola had been excommunicated by ,alexander ,,vi4 ,the combination of parties against him was too strong to be overcome by his supporters1 and he was put to death in #adih4 ,,louis ,,xii4 7#adih-aeae73 ,,his ,,first ,,italian ,,war4--,on the death of ,charles ,,viii41 who left no male children1 the crown reverted to his nearest relative1 ,louis of ,orleans4 ,he entered once more on the aggressive enterprise begun by his predecessor4 ,he laid claim not only to the rights of ,charles ,,viii4 at ,naples1 but also claimed ,milan through his grandmother ,valentine ,visconti4 ,in alliance with ,venice1 and with ,florence to which he promised ,pisa1 then in revolt against the detested ,florentine supremacy1 and with the support of ,csar ,borgia1 he entered ,italy1 and defeated ,ludovico il ,moro at ,novara 7#aejj74 ,ludovico had before been driven out of ,milan by the ,french1 but had regained the city4 ,he was imprisoned in ,france2 and on his release twelve years afterward1 he died from joy4 ,louis bargained with ,ferdinand the ,catholic to divide with him the ,neapolitan kingdom4 ,ferdinand1 the king of ,naples1 was thus dethroned4 ,but ,ferdinand of ,spain was as treacherous in his dealing with ,louis as he had been in relation to his ,neapolitan namesake2 and the kingdom fell into the hands of ,gonsalvo de ,cordova1 the ,spanish general4 ,,the ,,second ,,italian ,,war ,,of ,,louis4--,anxious for revenge1 ,louis sent two armies over the ,pyrenees1 which failed of success1 and a third army into ,italy under ,la ,trmoille1 which was defeated by ,gonsalvo1 notwithstanding the gallantry of ,bayard1 the pattern of chivalry1 the ,french knight without fear and without reproach4 ,,the ,,third ,,italian ,,war ,,of ,,louis4--,the third ,italian war of ,louis began in #aejg1 and lasted eight years4 ,it includes the history of the ,league of ,cambray1 and also of the anti-,french ,league subsequently formed4 ,france was barely saved from great calamities in consequence of foolish treaties1 three in number1 made at ,blois in #aejd4 ,the party of the queen1 ,anne of ,brittany1 secured the betrothal of ,claude1 the child of ,louis ,,xii41 to ,charles of ,austria1 afterwards ,charles ,v41 the son of ,philip1 with the promise of ,burgundy and ,brittany as her dowry4 ,the arrangement was repudiated by the estates of ,france 7#aejf74 ,claude was betrothed to ,francis of ,angoulme1 the king's nearest male relative1 and the heir of the ,french crown4 ,on the marriage of ,ferdinand to ,germaine of ,foix1 ,louis agreed to give up his claims on ,naples4 ,the sufferings of ,italy had redounded to the advantage of ,venice4 ,among her other gains1 she had annexed certain towns in the ,romagna which fell into anarchy at the expulsion of ,csar ,borgia4 ,the energetic ,pope1 ,julius ,,ii41 organized a combination1 the celebrated ,league of ,cambray 7#aejh71 between himself1 the ,emperor ,maximilian1 the kings of ,france and of ,aragon3 its object was the humbling of ,venice1 and the division of her mainland possessions among the partners in the ,league4 ,,england4--,,the ,,tudors ,,and ,,stuarts4 ,,henry ,,vii1 #adhe-aeji1 m4 ,elizabeth1 daughter of ,edward ,,iv4 --,margaret1 m4 ,james ,,iv of ,scotland4 --,james ,v4 --,mary1 ,queen of ,scots4 --,,james ,i1 #afjc-afbe1 m4 ,anne1 daughter of ,frederick ,,ii of ,denmark4 --#c1 ,,charles ,i1 #afbe-afdi1 m4 ,henrietta ,maria1 daughter of ,henry ,,iv of ,france4 --,,charles ,,ii1 #affj-afhe1 m4 ,catharine1 daughter of ,john ,,iv of ,portugal4 --,mary1 m4 ,william ,,ii1 ,prince of ,orange4 --,,william ,,iii1 #afhh-agjb4 m4 --,,mary1 d4 #afid --,,james ,,ii1 #afhe-afhh 7deposed1 d4 #agja71 m4 ,anne ,hyde1 daughter of ,earl of ,clarendon4 --,,anne1 #agjb-agad1 m4 ,george1 son of ,frederick ,,iii of ,denmark4 --#b1 ,elizabeth1 m4 ,frederick ,v1 ,elector ,palatine4 --,sophia1 m4 ,ernest ,augustus1 ,elector of ,hanover4 --,,george ,i1 succeeded #agad4 --,,henry ,,viii1 #aeji-aedg1 m41 #a4 ,catharine1 daughter of ,ferdinand and ,isabella2 #b1 ,anne ,boleyn2 #c4 ,jane ,seymour2 #d4 ,anne1 sister of ,william1 ,duke of ,cleves2 #e4 ,catharine ,howard2 #f4 ,catharine ,parr4 --#c1 ,,edward ,,vi1 #aedg-aeec4 --#a1 ,,mary1 #aeec-aeeh1 m4 ,philip ,,ii of ,spain4 --#b1 ,,elizabeth1 #aeeh-afjc4 --,mary1 m4 #a1 ,louis ,,xii of ,france2 #b1 ,charles ,brandon1 ,duke of ,suffolk4 --,frances1 m4 ,henry ,grey1 ,duke of ,suffolk4 --,jane 7m4 ,guilford ,dudley71 executed #aeed4 ,a fine army of ,louis1 composed of ,french1 ,lombards1 and ,swiss1 crossed the ,adda1 and routed the ,venetians1 who abandoned all their towns outside of ,venice4 ,each of the other confederate powers now seized the places which it desired4 ,france1 mistress of ,milan1 was at the height of her power4 ,the ,venetians1 however1 retook ,padua from the emperor4 ,the ,pope made peace with them1 and1 fired with the spirit of ,italian patriotism1 organized a new league for the expulsion of the ,french--the barbarians1 as he called them--from the country4 ,old man as he was1 he took the field himself in the dead of winter4 ,he was defeated1 and went to ,rome4 ,louis convoked a council at ,pisa1 which was to depose ,julius4 ,a ,holy ,league was formed between the ,pope1 ,venice1 ,ferdinand of ,aragon1 and ,henry ,,viii4 of ,england4 ,the arms of the ,french under ,gaston of ,foix1 the young duke of ,nemours1 were for a while successful4 ,ravenna was in their hands4 ,but ,gaston fell at the moment of victory4 ,the ,swiss came down1 and established ,maximilian ,sforza at ,milan4 ,leo ,x41 of the house of ,medici1 and hostile to ,france1 was chosen ,pope 7#aeac74 ,the ,french troops were defeated by the ,swiss near ,novara1 and driven beyond the ,alps4 ,france was attacked on the north by the ,english1 with ,maximilian1 who had joined the ,league in #aeac3 and ,bayard was taken captive4 ,james ,,iv4 of ,scotland1 who had made a diversion in favor of ,france1 was beaten and slain at ,flodden ,field 7#aeac74 ,the eastern borders of ,france were attacked by the ,swiss ,leagues1 who1 aided by ,austrians1 penetrated as far as ,dijon4 ,they were bought off by ,la ,trmoille the ,french commander1 by a large payment of money1 and by still more lavish promises4 ,france concluded peace with the ,pope1 the emperor1 and the king of ,aragon 7#aead71 and in the next year with ,henry ,,viii41 whose sister1 ,mary1 ,louis ,,xii4 married1 a few months after the death of ,anne of ,brittany4 ,he abandoned his pretensions to the ,milanese1 in favor of his younger daughter ,rene1 the wife of ,hercules ,,ii41 the duke of ,ferrara4 ,louis died 7#aeae71 shortly after his marriage4 ,the policy of the belligerent pontiff1 ,julius ,,ii41 had triumphed4 ,the ,french were expelled from ,italy1 but the ,spaniards were left all the stronger4 ,the events just narrated bring us into the midst of the struggles and ambitions of ruling houses1 diplomatic intercourse among states1 and international wars4 ,these are distinguishing features of modern times4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,invention ,,and ,,discovery3 ,,the ,,renaissance4 ,we have glanced at the new life of ,europe in its political manifestations4 ,we have now to view this new life in other relations3 we have to inquire how it acted as a stimulus to intellectual effort in different directions4 ,the term ,renaissance is frequently applied at present not only to the new birth of art and letters1 but to all the characteristics1 taken together1 of the period of transition from the ,middle ,ages to modern life4 ,the transformation in the structure and policy of states1 the passion for discovery1 the dawn of a more scientific method of observing man and nature1 the movement towards more freedom of intellect and of conscience1 are part and parcel of one comprehensive change1--a change which even now has not reached its goal4 ,it was not so much the arts and the inventions1 the knowledge and the books1 which suddenly became vital at the time of the ,renaissance1 that created the new epoch3 it was the intellectual energy1 the spontaneous outburst of intelligence1 which enabled mankind at that moment to make use of them4 ,,inventions3 ,,gunpowder4--,in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries1 there were brought into practical use several inventions most important in their results to civilization4 ,of these the principal were gunpowder1 the mariner's compass1 and printing by movable types4 ,gunpowder was not first made by ,schwartz1 a monk of ,freiburg1 as has often been asserted4 ,we have notices1 more or less obscure1 of the use of an explosive material resembling it1 among the ,chinese1 among the ,indians in the ,east as early as ,alexander the ,great1 and among the ,arabs4 ,it was first brought into use in firearms in the middle of the fourteenth century4 ,the effect was to make infantry an effective force1 and to equalize combatants1 since a peasant could handle a gun as well as a knight4 ,another consequence has been to mitigate the brutalizing influence of war on the soldiery1 by making it less a hand-to-hand encounter1 an encounter with swords and spears1 attended with bloodshed1 and kindling personal animosity2 and by rendering it possible to hold in custody large numbers of captives1 whose lives1 therefore1 can be spared4 ,,the ,,compass4--,the properties of the magnetic needle were not first applied to navigation1 as has been thought1 by ,flavio ,gioja1 but long before his time1 as early as the twelfth century1 the compass came into general use4 ,navigation was no longer confined to the ,mediterranean and to maritime coasts4 ,the sailor could push out into the ocean without losing himself on its boundless waste4 ,,printing4--,printing1 which had been done to some extent by wooden blocks1 was probably first done with movable types 7about #adej7 by ,john ,gutenberg1 who was born at ,meniz1 but who lived long at ,strasburg4 ,he was furnished with capital by an associate1 ,faust1 and worked in company with a skillful copyist of manuscripts1 ,schffer4 ,gutenberg brought the art to such perfection1 that in #adef a complete ,latin ,bible was printed4 ,within a short time1 printing-presses were set up in all the principal cities of ,germany and ,italy4 ,as an essential concomitant1 linen and cotton paper came into vogue in the room of the costly parchment4 ,books were no longer confined to the rich4 ,despite the censorship of the press1 thought traveled from city to city and from land to land4 ,it was a sign of a new era1 that ,maximilian in ,germany and ,louis ,,xi4 in ,france founded a postal system4 ,,new ,,route ,,to ,,india4--,the discovery by the ,portuguese of the islands of ,porto ,santo and ,madeira 7#adai-adbj71 of the ,canary ,islands and of the ,azores1 was followed by their discovery of the coast of ,upper ,guinea1 with its gold-dust1 ivory1 and gums 7#adde74 ,the ,pope1 to whom was accorded the right to dispose of the heathen and of newly discovered lands1 granted to the ,portuguese the possession of these regions1 and of whatever discoveries they should make as far as ,india4 ,from ,lower ,guinea 7,congo71 ,bartholomew ,diaz reached the southern point of ,africa 7#adhf71 which ,king ,john ,,ii4 named the ,cape of ,good ,hope4 ,then1 under ,emanuel the ,great 7#adie-aeba71 ,vasco da ,gama found the way to ,east ,india1 round the ,cape1 by sailing over the ,indian ,ocean to the coast of ,malabar1 and into the harbor of ,calicut 7#adih74 ,the ,portuguese encountered the resistance of the ,mohammedans to their settlement2 but by their valor and persistency1 especially by the agency of their leaders ,almeida and the brave ,albuquerque1 their trading-posts were established on the coast4 ,,discovery ,,of ,,america4--,the grand achievement in maritime exploration in this age was the discovery of ,america by ,christopher ,columbus1 a native of ,genoa4 ,the conviction that ,india could be reached by sailing in a westerly direction took possession of his mind4 ,having sought in vain for the patronage of ,john ,,ii4 of ,portugal1 and having sent his brother ,bartholomew to apply for aid from ,henry ,,vii4 of ,england1 he was at length furnished with three ships by ,queen ,isabella of ,castile1 to whom ,granada had just submitted 7#adib74 ,columbus was to have the station of grand admiral and viceroy over the lands to be discovered1 with a tenth part of the incomes to be drawn from them1 and the rank of a nobleman for himself and his posterity4 ,the story of an open mutiny on his vessels does not rest on sufficient proof3 that there were alarm and discontent among the sailors1 may well be believed4 ,on the #aath of ,october1 ,columbus thought that he discovered a light in the distance4 ,at two o'clock in the morning of ,oct4 #ab1 a sailor on the ,pinta espied the dim outline of the beach1 and shouted1 ,land1 land6 ,it was an island called ,guanahani1 named by ,columbus1 in honor of ,jesus1 ,san ,salvador4 ,its beauty and productiveness excited admiration2 but neither here nor on the large islands of ,cuba 7or ,juana7 and ,hayti 7,hispaniola71 which were discovered soon after1 were there found the gold and precious stones which the navigators and their patrons at home so eagerly desired4 ,columbus built a fort on the island of ,hispaniola1 and founded a colony4 ,the name of ,west ,indies was applied to the new lands4 ,columbus lived and died in the belief that the region which he discovered belonged to ,india4 ,of an intermediate continent1 and of an ocean beyond it1 he did not dream4 ,the ,pope granted to ,ferdinand and ,isabella all the newly discovered regions of ,america1 from a line stretching one hundred leagues west of the ,azores4 ,afterwards ,ferdinand allowed to the king of ,portugal that the line should run three hundred and seventy1 instead of one hundred1 leagues west of these islands4 ,in two subsequent voyages 7#adic-adif1 #adih-aejj71 ,columbus discovered ,jamaica and the ,little ,antilles1 the ,caribbean ,islands1 and finally the mainland at the mouths of the ,orinoco 7#adih74 ,in #adig ,john ,cabot1 a ,venetian captain living in ,england1 while in quest of a north-west passage to ,india1 touched at ,cape ,breton1 and followed the coast of ,north ,america southward for a distance of nine hundred miles4 ,shortly after1 ,amerigo ,vespucci1 a ,florentine1 employed first by ,spain and then by ,portugal1 explored in several voyages the coast of ,south ,america4 ,the circumstance that his full descriptions were published 7#aejd7 caused the name of ,america1 first at the suggestion of the printer1 to be attached to the new world4 ,,later ,,voyages ,,of ,,columbus4--,on his return from his first voyage1 ,columbus was received with distinguished honors by the ,spanish sovereigns4 ,but he suffered from plots caused by envy1 both on the islands and at court4 ,once he was sent home in fetters by ,bobadilla1 a commissioner appointed by ,ferdinand4 ,he was exonerated from blame1 but the promises which had been made to him were not fulfilled4 ,a fourth voyage was not attended by the success in discovery which he had hoped for1 and the last two years of his life were weary and sad4 ,isabella had died2 and in #aejf the great explorer1 who with all his other virtues combined a sincere piety1 followed her to the tomb4 ,,the ,,pacific4--,the spirit of adventure1 the hunger for wealth and especially for the precious metals1 and zeal for the conversion of the heathen1 were the motives which combined in different proportions to set on foot exploring and conquering expeditions to the unknown regions of the ,west4 ,the exploration of the ,north-,american coast1 begun by ,john ,cabot 7perhaps also by his son71 and the ,portuguese ,cortereal 7#aeja71 continued from ,labrador to ,florida4 ,in #aeac ,balboa1 a ,spaniard at ,darien1 fought his way to a height on the ,isthmus of ,panama1 whence he descried the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,descending to the shore1 and riding into the water up to his thighs1 in the name of the king he took possession of the sea4 ,in #aebj ,magellan1 a ,portuguese captain1 sailed round the southern cape of ,america1 and over the ocean to which he gave the name of ,pacific4 ,he made his way to the ,east ,indies1 but was killed on one of the ,philippine ,islands1 leaving it to his companions to finish the voyage around the globe4 ,a little later the ,spaniards added first ,mexico1 and then ,peru1 to their dominions4 ,,conquest ,,of ,,mexico4--,the ,spanish conqueror of ,mexico1 the land of the ,aztecs1 was ,hernando ,cortes 7#adhe-aedg74 ,the principal king in that country was ,montezuma1 whose empire was extensive1 with numerous cities1 and with no inconsiderable advancement in arts and industry4 ,from ,santiago1 in #aeai1 ,cortes conducted an expedition composed of seven hundred ,spaniards1 founded ,vera ,cruz1 where he left a small garrison1 subdued the tribe of ,tlascalans who joined him1 and was received by ,montezuma into the city of ,mexico4 ,cortes made him a prisoner in his own palace1 and seized his capital4 ,the firearms and the horses of the ,spaniards struck the natives with dismay4 ,nevertheless1 they made a stout resistance4 ,to add to the difficulties of the shrewd and valiant leader1 a ,spanish force was sent from the ,west ,indies1 under ,narvaez1 to supplant him4 ,this force he defeated1 and captured their chief4 ,in #aebj ,cortes gained over the ,mexicans1 at ,otumba1 a victory which was decisive in its consequences4 ,the city of ,mexico was recaptured 7#aeba72 for ,montezuma had been slain by his own people1 and the ,spaniards driven out4 ,guatimozin1 the new king1 was taken prisoner and put to death1 and the country was subdued4 ,cortes put an end to the horrid religious rites of the ,mexicans1 which included human sacrifices4 ,becoming an object of jealousy and dread at home1 he was recalled 7#aebh74 ,afterwards he visited the peninsula of ,california1 and ruled for a time in ,mexico1 but with diminished authority4 ,,conquest ,,of ,,peru4--,the conquest of ,peru was effected by ,francisco ,pizarro1 and ,almagro1 both illiterate adventurers1 equally daring with ,cortes1 but more cruel and unscrupulous4 ,the ,peruvians were of a mild character1 prosperous1 and not uncivilized1 and without the savage religious system of the ,mexicans4 ,they had their walled cities and their spacious temples4 ,the empire of the ,incas1 as the rulers were called1 was distracted by a civil war between two brothers1 who shared the kingdom4 ,pizarro captured one of them1 ,atahualpa1 and basely put him to death after he had provided the ransom agreed upon1 amounting to more than #ag1ejj1jjj in gold 7#aecc74 ,pizarro founded ,lima1 near the sea-coast 7#aece74 ,almagro and ,pizarro fell out with each other1 and the former was defeated and beheaded4 ,the land and its inhabitants were allotted among the conquerors as the spoils of victory4 ,the horrible oppression of the people excited insurrections4 ,at length ,charles ,v4 sent out ,pedro de la ,gasca as viceroy 7#aeda71 at a time when ,gonzalo ,pizarro1 the last of the family1 held sway4 ,gonzalo perished on the gallows4 ,gasca reduced the government to an orderly system4 ,,the ,,amazon4--,orellena1 an officer of ,pizarro1 in #aeda first descended the river ,amazon to the ,atlantic4 ,his fabulous descriptions of an imaginary ,el ,dorado1 whose capital with its dazzling treasures he pretended to have seen1 inflamed other explorers1 and prompted to new enterprises4 ,the cupidity of the ,spaniards1 and their eagerness for knightly warfare1 made the ,new ,world1 with its floral beauty and mineral riches1 a most enticing field for adventure4 ,to devout missionaries1 to the monastic orders especially1 the new regions were not less inviting4 ,they followed in the wake of the ,spanish conquerors and viceroys4 ,,revival ,,of ,,learning4--,the stirring period of invention and of maritime discovery was also the period of the revival of learning4 ,italy was the main center and source of this intellectual movement1 which gradually spread over the other countries of ,western ,europe4 ,there was a thirst for a wider range of study and of culture than the predominantly theological writings and training of the ,middle ,ages afforded4 ,the minds of men turned for stimulus and nutriment to the ancient classical authors4 ,petrarch1 the ,italian poet 7#acjd-acgd71 did much to foster this new spirit4 ,in the fifteenth century the more active intercourse with the ,greek ,church1 and the efforts at union with it1 helped to bring into ,italy learned ,greeks1 like ,chrysoloras and ,bessarion1 and numerous manuscripts of ,greek authors4 ,the fall of ,constantinople increased this influx of ,greek learning4 ,the new studies were fostered by the ,italian princes1 who vied with one another in their zeal for collecting the precious literary treasures of antiquity1 and in the liberal patronage of the students of classical literature4 ,the manuscripts of the ,latin writers1 preserved in the monasteries of the ,west1 were likewise eagerly sought for4 ,the most eminent of the patrons of learning were the ,medici of ,florence4 ,cosmo founded a library and a ,platonic academy4 ,all the writings of ,plato were translated by one of that philosopher's admiring disciples1 ,marsilius ,ficinus4 ,dictionaries and grammars1 versions and commentaries1 for instruction in classical learning1 were multiplied4 ,these1 with the ancient poets1 philosophers1 and orators themselves1 were diffused far and wide by means of the new art of printing1 and from presses1 of which the ,aldine--that of ,aldus ,minutius--at ,venice was the most famous4 ,by the side of the ,church1 which had hitherto held the countries of the ,west together 7though it was unable to do so much longer7 there arose a new spiritual influence1 which1 spreading itself abroad from ,italy1 became the breath of life for all the more instructed minds in ,europe4 ,,contest ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,and ,,the ,,old ,,culture4--,in ,germany1 the new learning gained a firm foothold4 ,but there1 as elsewhere1 the ,humanists1 as its devotees were called1 had a battle to fight with the votaries of the medival type of culture1 who1 largely on theological grounds1 objected to the new culture1 and were stigmatized as obscurantists4 ,in ,italy1 the study of the ancient heathen writers had engendered1 or at least been accompanied by1 much religious skepticism and indifference4 ,this1 however1 was not the case in ,germany4 ,but the champions of the scholastic method and system1 in which logic and divinity1 as handled by the schoolmen1 were the principal thing1 were strenuously averse to the linguistic and literary studies which threatened to supplant them4 ,the advocates of the new studies derided the lack of learning1 the barbarous style1 and fine-spun distinctions of the schoolmen1 who had once been the intellectual masters4 ,the disciples of ,aristotle and of the schoolmen still had a strong hold in ,paris1 ,cologne1 and other universities4 ,but certain universities1 like ,tbingen and ,heidelberg1 let in the humanistic studies4 ,in #aejb ,frederick1 the elector of ,saxony1 founded a university at ,wittenberg1 in which from the outset they were prominent4 ,in ,england1 the cause of learning found ardent encouragement1 and had able representatives in such men as ,colet1 dean of ,st4 ,paul's1 who founded ,st4 ,paul's ,school at his own expense2 and in ,thomas ,more1 the author of ,utopia1 afterwards lord chancelor under ,henry ,,viii4 ,,reuchlin3 ,,ulrich ,,von ,,hutten4--,a leader of humanism in ,germany was ,john ,reuchlin 7#adee-aebb71 an erudite scholar1 who studied ,greek at ,paris and ,basel1 mingled with ,politian1 ,pica de ,mirandola1 and other famous scholars at ,florence1 and wrote a ,hebrew as well as a ,greek grammar4 ,this distinguished humanist became involved in a controversy with the ,dominicans of ,cologne1 who wished to burn all the ,hebrew literature except the ,old ,testament4 ,the ,humanists all rallied in support of their chief1 to whom heresy was imputed1 and their success in this wide-spread conflict helped forward their cause4 ,ulrich von ,hutten1 one of the young knights who belonged to the literary school1 and others of the same class1 made effective use1 against their illiterate antagonists1 of the weapons of satire and ridicule4 ,,erasmus4--,the prince of the ,humanists was ,desiderius ,erasmus 7#adfg-aecf74 ,no literary man has ever enjoyed a wider fame during his own lifetime4 ,he was not less resplendent for his wit than for his learning4 ,latin was then the vehicle of intercourse among the educated4 ,in that tongue the books of ,erasmus were written1 and they were eagerly read in all the civilized countries4 ,he studied theology in ,paris2 lived for a number of years in ,england1 where1 in company with ,more and ,colet1 he fostered the new studies2 and finally took up his abode at ,basel4 ,in early youth1 against his will1 he had been for a while an inmate of a cloister4 ,the idleness1 ignorance1 self-indulgence1 and artificial austerities1 which frequently belonged to the degenerate monasticism of the day1 furnished him with engaging themes of satire4 ,but in his ,praise of ,folly1 and in his ,colloquies1 the two most diverting of his productions1 he lashes the foibles and sins of many other classes1 among whom kings and popes are not spared4 ,by such works as his editions of the ,church ,fathers1 and his edition of the ,greek ,testament1 as well as by his multifarious correspondence1 he exerted a powerful influence in behalf of culture4 ,if he incurred the hostility of the conservative ,churchmen1 he still adhered to the ,roman communion1 and won unbounded applause from the advocates of liberal studies and of practical religious reforms4 ,,literature ,,in ,,italy4--,the first effect of the revival of letters in ,italy was to check original production in literature4 ,the charm of the ancient authors who were brought out of their tombs1 the belles-lettres studies1 and the criticism awakened by them1 naturally had this effect for a time4 ,italy had two great authors in the vernacular1 the poet ,ariosto 7#adgd-aecc71 and ,machiavelli3 it had1 besides1 one famous historian1 ,guicciardini 7#adhb-aedj74 ,,renaissance ,,of ,,art4--,this period was not simply an era of grand exploration and discovery1 and of the new birth of letters3 it was the brilliant dawn of a new era in art4 ,sculpture and painting broke loose from their subordination to ,church architecture4 ,painting1 especially1 attained to a far richer development4 ,,architecture ,,and ,,sculpture4--,in architecture and sculpture1 the influence of the antique styles was potent4 ,under the auspices of ,brunelleschi 7#acgg-addf71 the ,pitti ,palace and other edifices of a like kind had been erected at ,florence4 ,at ,rome1 ,bramante 7who died in #aeae71 and1 in particular1 ,michael ,angelo 7#adge-aefd71 who was a master in the three arts of painting1 sculpture1 and architecture1 and a poet as well1 were most influential4 ,the great ,florentine artist ,ghiberti 7#acgh-adee71 in the bronze gates of the ,baptistery1 exhibited the perfection of bas-relief4 ,the highest power of ,michael ,angelo1 as a sculptor1 is seen in his statue of ,moses at ,rome1 and in the sepulchers of ,julian and ,lorenzo de ,medici at ,florence4 ,a student of his works1 ,cellini 7#aejj-aega7 is one of the men of genius of that day1 who1 like his master1 was eminently successful in different branches of art4 ,in the same period1 there were sculptors of high talent in ,germany1 especially at ,nuremberg1 where ,adam ,kraft 7#adbi-aejg71 and ,peter ,vischer 7#adce-aebi71 whose skill is seen in the bronze tomb of ,sebaldus1 in the church of that saint1 are the most eminent4 ,after the death of ,michael ,angelo1 in ,italy there was a decline in the style of sculpture1 which became less noble and more affected4 ,,painting ,,in ,,italy4--,the ancients had less influence on the schools of painting than on sculpture4 ,in painting1 as we have seen1 ,giotto 7#abff-accg71 a contemporary of the poet ,dante1 and ,cimabue 7who died about #acjb71 had led the way4 ,the art of perspective was mastered2 and real life1 more or less idealized1 was the subject of delineation4 ,in ,italy1 there arose various distinct styles or schools4 ,the ,florentine school reached its height of attainment in the majestic works of ,michael ,angelo1 the frescos of the ,sistine ,chapel at ,rome4 ,the ,roman school is best seen in the stanzas of the ,vatican1 by ,raphael 7#adhc-aebj71 and in the ideal harmony and beauty of his ,madonnas4 ,prior to ,michael ,angelo and ,raphael1 there was the symbolic religious art of the ,umbrian painters4 ,of these1 the chief was ,fra ,angelico 7#achg-adee71 the devout monk who transferred to the canvas the tenderness and fervor of his own gentle spirit4 ,the ,venetian school1 with its richness of color1 has left splendid examples of its power in the portraits of ,titian 7#adgg-aegf71 the works of ,paul ,veronese 7who died in #aehh71 and the more passionate products of the pencil of ,tintoretto 7who died in #aeid74 ,the ,lombard school has for its representatives the older contemporary of ,raphael1 ,leonardo da ,vinci 7#adeb-aeai71 who combines perfection of outward form with deep spirituality1 and by whom ,the ,last ,supper was painted on the wall of the cloister at ,milan2 and ,correggio 7#adid-aecd71 whose play of tender sensibility1 and skill in the contrasts of light and shade in color1 are exhibited in ,the ,night1 or ,worship of the ,magi 7at ,dresden71 and in his frescos at ,parma4 ,the school of ,bologna1 founded by the three ,caracci1 numbers in its ranks ,guido ,rent 7#aege-afdb71 gifted with imagination and sensibility1 and ,salvator ,rosa 7#afae-afgc71 who depicted the more wild and somber aspects of nature and of life4 ,,michael ,,angelo ,,and ,,raphael4--,the two foremost names in the history of ,italian art are ,michael ,angelo and ,raphael4 ,if there is one man who is a more striking representative of the ,renaissance than any of his contemporaries1 it is ,michael ,angelo4 ,in him character is on a par with genius4 ,his life of almost a century1 and marvelously active1 is spotless4 ,as an artist1 we can not believe that he can be surpassed4 ,he unites in his wondrous individuality the two master faculties1 which are1 so to speak1 the poles of human nature1 whose combination in the same individual creates the sovereign greatness of the ,tuscan school1--invention and judgment1--a vast and fiery imagination1 directed by a method precise1 firm1 and safe4 ,raphael lacks the grandeur and the many-sided capacity of the great master by whom he was much influenced4 ,raphael had a nature which converted every thing to beauty4 ,he produced in a short life an astonishing number of works of unequal merit2 but to all of them he imparted a peculiar charm1 derived from an instinct for beauty1 which was his true genius4 ,,painting ,,in ,,the ,,netherlands4--,in the ,netherlands1 a school of painting arose under the brothers ,van ,eyck 7#acff-adbf1 #achf-addj74 ,one of them1 ,john1 was the first artist to paint in oil4 ,at a later day1 a class of painters1 of whom ,rubens 7#aegg-afdj7 is the most distinguished1 followed more the track of the ancients and of the ,italian school4 ,these belonged to ,flanders and ,brabant2 while in ,holland a school sprang up of a more original and independent cast1 in which genius of the highest order was manifested in the person of ,rembrandt 7#afjg-affi71 its most eminent master4 ,,painting ,,in ,,germany ,,and ,,france4--,in ,germany1 a school marked by peculiarities of its own was represented by ,hans ,holbein 7who died in #aedc71 and by ,albert ,drer the ,nuremberg artist 7#adga-aebh74 ,in ,spain1 ,murillo 7#afag-afhb7 combined inspiration with technical skill1 and stands on a level with the renowned ,italians4 ,velasquez 7#aeii-affj71 an artist of extraordinary power1 is most distinguished for his portraits4 ,the ,french artists mostly followed the ,italian styles4 ,claude ,lorraine 7#afjj-afhb7 was the painter of landscapes that are luminous in sunlight and atmosphere4 ,in ,england1 the humorous ,hogarth 7#afig-agfd7 was much later4 ,,music4--,music shared in the prosperity of the sister arts4 ,the interest awakened in its improvement paved the way in ,italy for ,palestrina 7#aead-aeid71 whose genius and labors constitute an epoch4 ,in ,germany1 ,luther became one of the most efficient promoters of musical culture in connection with public worship4 ,the great ,german composers1 ,bach 7#afhe-agej7 and ,hndel 7#afhe-agei71 belong to a subsequent period3 they are1 however1 in some degree the fruit of seed sown earlier4 ,,literature4--,for works on general history1 see p4 #af4 ,for general histories of particular countries1 see p4 #cei4 ,on ,modern ,times4 ,dyer's ,history of ,modern ,europe2 ,duruy's ,history of ,modern ,times #adec-aghi2 ,lavisse et ,rambaud1 ,histoire ,gnrale1 ,vol4 ,,iv42 ,the ,cambridge ,modern ,history1 ,vol4 ,i43 ,the ,renaissance2 ,heeren1 ,political ,system of ,europe2 ,historical ,treatises 7#a vol472 ,heeren u4 ,ukert1 ,geschichte der europisch4 ,staaten 7#gf vols4 #ahbi #ge72 ,t4 ,,arnold',s ,lectures on ,modern ,history2 ,michelet's ,modern ,history 7#a vol471 ,yonge's ,three ,centuries of ,modern ,history4 ,on the ,age of the ,renaissance4 ,symonds's ,renaissance in ,italy 7#e vols472 ,,burckhardt',s ,the ,civilization of the ,period of the ,renaissance in ,italy 7#b vols472 ,,reumont',s ,lorenzo de' ,medici 7#b vols72 ,roscoe's ,life of ,lorenzo de' ,medici2 ,,villari',s ,machiavelli and his ,times2 ,machiavelli1 ,history of ,florence2 ,oliphant1 ,makers of ,florence3 ,dante'1 ,giotto1 ,savonarola1 and their city 7#a vol472 ,voigt1 ,die ,wiederbelebung des classischen alterthums 7#ahei72 ,lanzi1 ,history of ,painting 7#c vols472 ,vasari1 ,lives of ,painters1 ,sculptors1 and ,architects2 ,crowe and ,cavalcasselle1 ,history of ,painting in ,north ,italy #acjj-aejj 7#b vols41 #ahga72 ,crowe1 ,handbook of ,painting3 the ,german1 ,flemish and ,dutch ,schools 7#b parts1 #ahgd72 ,eastlake1 ,handbook of ,painting1 the ,italian ,schools 7based on ,kugler1 #b parts1 #ahgd72 ,crowe and ,cavalcasselle1 ,life of ,titian 7#b vols472 ,illustrated ,biographies of the ,great ,artists 7#ad vols472 ,mrs4 ,jameson1 ,lives of ,italian ,painters2 ,grimm1 ,life of ,michael ,angelo 7#b vols472 ,crowe and ,cavalcasselle1 ,life and ,works of ,raphael2 ,fergusson1 ,history of ,modern ,styles of ,architecture2 ,,ruge',s ,geschichte d4 ,zeitalters d4 ,entdeckungen 7#a vol4 in ,oncken's ,series72 ,,geiger',s ,renaissance und ,humanismus in ,italien und ,deutschland 7#a vol4 in ,oncken's ,series72 ,lives of ,erasmus1 by ,le ,clerc1 ,jortin1 ,knight1 ,burigny 7#b vols471 ,froude1 ,emerton1 ,drummond 7#b vols472 ,lives of ,columbus1 by ,irving1 ,major 7#ahdg71 ,harrisse 7#ahhd71 ,markham 7#ahib71 ,winsor2 ,,prescott',s ,history of ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 ,history of the ,conquest of ,mexico1 and ,history of the ,conquest of ,peru2 ,robertson1 ,history of ,america2 ,beazly1 ,dawn of ,modern ,geography 7#b vols472 ,fiske1 ,discovery of ,america 7#b vols472 ,payne1 ,america 7#b vols472 ,scebohm's ,oxford ,reformers2 ,robinson and ,rolfe1 ,petrarch2 ,creighton1 ,history of the ,papacy during the ,reformation 7,vols4 ,i4-,,iv472 ,pastor1 ,history of the ,popes from the ,close of the ,middle ,ages 7#c vols472 ,janssen1 ,history of the ,german ,people at the ,close of the ,middle ,ages 7#h vols472 ,whitcomb1 ,source ,books of the ,italian and ,german ,renaissance2 ,grant1 ,the ,french ,monarchy 7#b vols472 ,johnson1 ,european ,history in the ,sixteenth ,century4 ,,period ,,ii4 ,,the ,,era ,,of ,,the ,,reformation4 7#aeag-afdh7 ,,introduction4 ,the general stir in men's minds1 as indicated in the revival of learning and in remarkable inventions and discoveries1 was equally manifest in great debates and changes in religion4 ,one important element and fruit of the ,renaissance is here seen4 ,at the beginning of the sixteenth century1 the nations of ,western ,europe were all united in one ,church1 of which the ,pope was the acknowledged head4 ,there were differences as to the extent of his proper authority2 sects had sprung up at different times2 and there had arisen leaders1 like ,wickliffe and ,huss1 at war with the prevailing system4 ,ecclesiastical sedition1 however1 had been mostly quelled4 ,yet there existed a great amount of outspoken and latent discontent4 ,first1 complaints were loud against maladministration in ,church affairs4 ,there were extortions and other abuses that excited disaffection4 ,secondly1 the authority exercised by the ,pope was charged with being inconsistent with the rights of civil rulers and of national churches4 ,thirdly1 disputes sprang up1 both in regard to various practices deemed objectionable1 like prayers for the dead1 and the invocation of saints1 and also concerning important doctrines1 like the doctrine of the mass or the ,lord's ,supper1 and the part that belongs to faith in the ,christian method of salvation4 ,out of this ferment arose what is called the ,protestant ,reformation4 ,the ,teutonic nations generally broke off from the ,church of ,rome1 and renounced their allegiance to the ,pope4 ,the ,latin or ,romanic nations1 for the most part1 still adhered to him4 ,as the common idea was that there should be uniformity of belief and worship in a state1 civil wars arose on the question which form of belief should dominate4 ,germany was desolated for thirty years by a terrible struggle4 ,yet1 in all the conflicts between kingdoms and states in this period1 it was plain that political motives1 or the desire of national aggrandizement1 were commonly strong enough to override religious differences4 ,when there was some great interest of a political or dynastic sort at stake1 those that differed in religion most widely would frequently assist one another4 ,it is in this period that we see ,spain1 under ,charles ,v4 and ,philip ,,ii41 reach the acme of its power1 and then sink into comparative weakness4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,reformation ,,in ,,germany1 ,,to ,,the ,,treaty ,,of ,,nuremberg 7#aeag-aecb74 ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,reformation4--,the ,reformation began in ,germany1 where there was a great deal of discontent with the way in which the ,church was governed and managed1 and on account of the large amounts of money carried out of the country on various grounds for ecclesiastical uses at ,rome4 ,the leader of the movement1 ,martin ,luther1 was the son of a poor miner1 and was born at ,eisleben in #adhc4 ,he was an ,augustinian monk1 and had been made professor of theology1 and preacher at ,wittenberg1 by the ,elector of ,saxony1 ,frederick the ,wise 7#aejh74 ,luther was a man of extraordinary intellectual powers1 and a hard student1 of a genial and joyous nature1 yet not without a deep vein of reflection1 tending even to melancholy4 ,he had a strong will1 and was vigorous and vehement in controversy4 ,he had been afflicted with profound religious anxieties2 but in the study of ,st4 ,paul and ,st4 ,augustine1 and after much inward wrestling1 he emerged from them into a state of mental peace4 ,the immediate occasion of disturbance1 the spark that kindled the flame1 was the sale of indulgences in ,saxony by a ,dominican monk named ,tetzel4 ,indulgences were the remission1 total or partial1 of penances1 and1 in theory1 always presupposed repentance2 but1 as the business was managed in ,germany at that time1 it amounted in the popular apprehension to a sale of absolution from guilt1 or to the ransom of deceased friends from purgatory for money4 ,these gross abuses were painful to sincere friends of religion4 ,in #aeag ,luther posted on the door of the church at ,wittenberg his celebrated ninety-five theses4 ,it was customary in those days for public debates to take place in universities1 where1 as in jousts and tournaments among knights1 scholars offered to defend propositions in theology and philosophy against all comers4 ,such were the theses of ,luther on indulgences4 ,the public mind was in such a state that a great commotion was kindled by them4 ,conflict spread2 and the name of ,luther became famous as a stanch antagonist of ecclesiastical abuses1 and a fearless champion of reform4 ,the ,elector1 a religious man1 calm and cautious in his temper1 was friendly to ,luther1 often sought to curb him1 but stretched over him the shield of his protection4 ,,luther ,,and ,,leo ,x4--,pope ,leo ,x2 was of the house of ,medici1 the son of ,lorenzo the ,magnificent4 ,he had been made nominally a cardinal at the age of thirteen1 and had advanced to the highest station in the ,church4 ,he was much absorbed in matters pertaining to learning and art1 and in political affairs1 and at first looked upon this ,saxon disturbance as a mere squabble of monks4 ,he attempted ineffectually to bring ,luther to submission and quietness1 first through his legate ,cajetan1 a scholarly ,italian1 who met him at ,augsburg 7#aeah71 and then by a second messenger1 ,miltitz 7#aeai71 a ,saxon by birth4 ,a turning-point in ,luther's course was a public disputation at ,leipsic1 before ,duke ,george2 for ducal ,saxony was hostile to him4 ,with ,luther1 on that occasion1 was ,philip ,melanchthon1 the young professor of ,greek at ,wittenberg1 who was a great scholar1 and a man of mild and amiable spirit4 ,he became a very effective and noted auxiliary of the reformer1 and acquired the honorary title of preceptor of ,germany4 ,in the ,leipsic debate1 when ,luther was opposed by the ,catholic champion ,eck1 and by others1 his own views in opposition to the papacy became more distinct and decided4 ,he soon disputed the right of the ,pope to make laws1 to canonize1 etc41 denied the doctrine of purgatory1 and avowed his sympathy with ,huss4 ,he issued a stirring ,address to the ,christian ,nobles of the ,german ,nation4 ,in #aebj he was excommunicated by the ,pope1 but the elector paid no regard to the papal bull4 ,luther himself went so far as publicly to burn it at the gates of the town1 in the presence of an assembly of students and others gathered to witness the scene4 ,both parties had now taken the extreme step3 there was now open war between them4 ,jurists1 who were aggrieved by the interference of ecclesiastical with civil courts1 supported ,luther4 ,so the ,humanists who had defended ,reuch-lin1 among whom were the youthful literary class of which ,ulrich von ,hutten was one1 became his allies4 ,many among the inferior clergy and the monastic orders sympathized with him4 ,,condition ,,of ,,germany4--,it was now for the ,empire to decide between ,luther and the ,pope4 ,the efforts to create a better political system under ,maximilian had proved in the main abortive4 ,there was strife between the princes and the knights1 as well as between princes and bishops4 ,the cities complained bitterly of oppressive taxation and of lawless depredations4 ,there was widespread disaffection1 threatening open revolt1 among the peasants4 ,maximilian had been thwarted politically by the popes4 ,at first he was glad to hear of ,luther's rebellion4 ,he said to ,frederick the ,wise1 ,let the ,wittenberg monk be taken good care of3 we may some day want him4 ,in the latter part of his reign his interests drew him nearer to ,rome4 ,,election ,,of ,,charles ,v4--,on the death of ,maximilian 7#aeai71 as the ,elector ,frederick would not take the imperial crown1 there were two rival candidates1--,francis ,i41 the king of ,france1 and ,charles ,i41 of ,spain1 the grandson of ,maximilian4 ,francis was a gallant and showy personage1 but it was feared that he would be despotic2 and the electors made choice of ,charles4 ,the extent of ,charles's hereditary dominions in ,germany1 and the greatness of his power1 would make him1 it was thought1 the best defender of the empire against the ,turks4 ,the electors1 at his choice1 bound him in a capitulation to respect the authority of the ,diet1 and not to bring foreign troops into the country4 ,charles was the inheritor of ,austria and the ,low ,countries1 the crowns of ,castile and ,aragon1 of ,navarre1 of ,naples and ,sicily1 together with the territories of ,spain in the ,new ,world2 and now he was at the head of the ,holy ,roman ,empire4 ,the concentration of so much power in a single hand could not but provoke alarm in all other potentates4 ,the great rival of ,charles was ,francis ,i41 and the main prize in the contest was dominion in ,italy4 ,charles was a sagacious prince2 from his ,spanish education1 strongly attached to the ,roman-,catholic system1 and1 in virtue of the imperial office1 the protector of the ,church4 ,yet with him political considerations1 during most of his life1 were uppermost4 ,he made the mistake of not appreciating the strength that lay in the convictions at the root of the ,protestant movement4 ,he over-estimated the power of political combinations4 ,,diet ,,of ,,worms4--,charles ,v4 first came into ,germany in #aeba1 and met the ,diet of the empire at ,worms4 ,there ,luther appeared under the protection of a safe-conduct4 ,he manifested his wonted courage2 and in the presence of the emperor1 and of the august assembly1 he refused to retract his opinions1 planting himself on the authority of the ,scriptures1 and declining to submit to the verdicts of ,pope or council4 ,after he had left ,worms1 a sentence of outlawry was passed against him4 ,charles at that moment was bent on the re-conquest of ,milan1 which the ,french had taken2 and the ,pope was friendly to his undertaking1 although ,leo ,x4 had been opposed to ,charles's election4 ,,francis ,i4--,francis ,i4 7#aeae-aedg7 aimed to complete the work begun by his predecessors1 and to make the ,french monarchy absolute4 ,by a concordat with the ,pope 7#aeaf71 the choice of bishops and abbots was given into the king's hand1 while the ,pope was to receive the annates1 or the first year's revenue of all such benefices4 ,francis continued the practice of selling judicial places begun under ,louis ,,xii44 ,he was bent on maintaining the unity of ,france1 and1 as a condition1 the ,catholic system4 ,but he was always ready to help the ,protestants in ,germany when he could thereby weaken ,charles4 ,for the same end1 he was even ready to join hands with the ,turk4 ,,rivalry ,,of ,,charles ,,and ,,francis4--,charles claimed the old imperial territories of ,milan and ,genoa4 ,he claimed1 also1 a portion of ,southern ,france1--the duchy of ,burgundy1 which he did not allow that ,louis ,,xi4 had the right to confiscate4 ,francis claimed ,naples in virtue of the rights of the house of ,anjou2 also ,spanish ,navarre1 which ,ferdinand of ,aragon had seized1 and the suzerainty of ,flanders and ,artois4 ,he had gained a brilliant victory over the ,swiss at the battle of ,marignano1 in #aeae1 and reconquered ,milan4 ,he concluded a treaty of peace with the ,swiss1--the treaty of ,freiburg 7#aeaf71 which gave to the king1 in return for a yearly pension1 the liberty to levy troops in ,switzerland4 ,this treaty continued until the ,french ,revolution4 ,,first ,,war ,,of ,,charles ,,and ,,francis 7#aeba-aebf74--;,hostilities between ,francis and ,charles commenced in ,italy in #aeba4 ,the ,french were driven from ,milan in #aebb1 which was again placed in the hands of ,francesco ,sforza2 and the emperor was soon master of all ,northern ,italy4 ,england and the ,pope sided with ,charles2 and on the death of ,leo ,x41 a former tutor of the emperor was made his successor1 under the name ,adrian ,,vi4 7#aebb74 ,the most eminent and the richest man in ,france1 next to the king1 ,charles of ,bourbon1 constable of the kingdom1 joined the enemies of ,francis4 ,he complained of grievances consequent on the enmity of ,louisa of ,savoy1 the mother of the king1 and attempted1 with the aid of the emperor and ,henry ,,viii41 to create a kingdom for himself in ,south-eastern ,france4 ,but the national spirit in ,france was too strong for such a scheme of dismemberment and foreign conquest to succeed1 and all that ,charles gained in the end was one brave general4 ,in the winter of #aebd-be ,francis crossed the ,alps at the head of a brilliant army1 and recaptured ,milan2 but he was defeated and taken prisoner at ,pavia1 and the ,french army was almost destroyed4 ,charles was able to dictate terms to his captive4 ,it was stipulated in the ,peace of ,madrid 7#aebf71 that ,francis should renounce all claim to ,milan1 ,genoa1 and ,naples1 and to the suzerainty of ,flanders and ,artois1 cede the duchy of ,burgundy1 and deliver his sons as hostages1 terms which could not be fulfilled4 ,,luther ,,at ,,the ,,wartburg4--,we have now to glance at the events in ,germany during the absence of ,charles ,v4 ,luther1 although under the ban of the empire1 was in no immediate peril while he staid in ,saxony4 ,the elector1 however1 thought it prudent to place him in the castle of the ,wartburg1 where he could have a safe and quiet asylum4 ,there he began his translation of the ,bible1 which1 apart from its religious influence1 from the vigor and racy quality of its style made an epoch in the literary history of the ,german people4 ,it was a work of great labor4 ,the language used by ,luther in both the ,old and ,new ,testaments did not exist before in so pure1 powerful1 and genuine a form4 ,while ,luther was engaged in this work1 a radical movement broke out at ,wittenberg1 of which ,carlstadt1 one of his supporters1 was the principal leader4 ,he was for carrying changes in worship to such an extreme1 and for introducing them so abruptly1 that the greatest disorder was threatened4 ,against the wish of the elector1 ,luther left his retreat1 and by his discourses and personal presence quieted the disturbance4 ,,progress ,,and ,,reaction4--,no attempt was made to carry out the ,worms decree4 ,the reason was that the influential classes were so much in sympathy with ,luther's cause4 ,the ,imperial ,chamber1 which ruled in the emperor's absence1 would do nothing against him4 ,its committee refused to carry out the decree2 and a list of one hundred grievances was sent to ,pope ,adrian ,,vi41 of which the ,german nation had reason to complain 7#aebc74 ,events1 however1 soon occurred that were unfavorable in their effect on the ,lutheran movement4 ,the knights banded together in large numbers1 under ,franz van ,sickingen1 and tried by force of arms to reduce the power of the princes4 ,luther showed no favor to their plans and doings2 but1 as their leaders had applauded him1 a reaction against innovations1 including changes in doctrine1 was the natural consequence4 ,pope ,adrian ,,vi4 was earnestly desirous of practical reforms2 but his successor1 ,clement ,,vii4 7#aebc-aecd71 was of the house of ,medici1 and a man of the world1 like ,leo ,x4 ,an alliance was made by the ,catholic princes and bishops of ,south ,germany at ,ratisbon in #aebd1 to do away with certain abuses1 but to prevent the spread of the new doctrine4 ,,the ,,peasants' ,,war4--,in #aebd a great revolt of the peasants broke out1 and the next year it became general4 ,they were groaning under intolerable burdens of taxation1 and other forms of oppression4 ,they demanded liberty in church affairs1 and for the preaching of the new doctrine1 and release from feudal tyranny4 ,luther felt and said that they were wronged grievously2 but when they took up arms1 he1 and with him the great middle class which he led1 took sides strongly against them4 ,the revolt was put down1 and its authors inhumanly punished4 ,for a time the peasants had wonderful success4 ,napoleon wondered that ,charles ,v4 did not seize the occasion to make ,germany a united empire4 ,then seemed to be a time when the princes could have been stripped of their power4 ,one of the foremost leaders of the rebellion was ,thomas ,mnzer4 ,on the defeat of the peasants1 he was captured and beheaded4 ,,second ,,war ,,between ,,charles ,,and ,,francis 7#aebg-aebi74--;,in the ,peace of ,madrid1 ,charles and ,francis had agreed to proceed against the ,turks and against the heretics4 ,but1 after the release of ,francis1 he repudiated the concessions before mentioned 7p4 #djj71 which were made1 he alleged1 under coercion2 and with ,clement ,,vii4 he formed a conspiracy against the emperor4 ,the ,diet of ,spires1 in #aebf1 decided to leave each of the component parts of the empire1 until the meeting of a general council1 to decide for itself as to the course to be taken in the matter of religion and in respect to the edict of ,worms4 ,in #aebg a ,german army1 largely composed of ,lutherans1 led by ,constable ,bourbon and ,george ,frundsberg1 stormed and captured ,rome4 ,the ,pope made an alliance with ,henry ,,viii4 ,a ,french army under ,lautrec appeared at ,naples1 but it was so weakened by a fearful pestilence that it was easily destroyed4 ,the ,pope concluded peace with ,charles in #aebi4 ,the emperor promised to exterminate heresy4 ,in the ,peace of ,cambray1 ,francis renounced his claims on ,italy1 ,flanders1 and ,artois3 ,charles engaged for the present not to press his claims upon ,burgundy1 and set free the ,french princes4 ,,to ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,nuremberg 7#aecb74--,the ,diet of ,spires in #aebi reversed the policy of tacit toleration4 ,it passed an edict forbidding the progress of the ,reformation in the states which had not accepted it1 and allowing in the reformed states full liberty of worship to the adherents of the old confession4 ,the protest by the ,lutheran princes and cities1 against the decree of the ,diet1 gave the name of ,protestants to their party4 ,the successful defense of ,vienna against an immense army of the ,turks under ,soliman delivered ,charles for the moment from anxiety in that quarter4 ,a theological controversy between the ,lutheran and the ,swiss reformers1 on the ,lord's ,supper1 made a division of feeling between them4 ,a conference of the two parties at ,marburg1 in which ,luther and ,melanchthon met ,zwingli and his associates1 brought no agreement4 ,every thing was propitious for an effort at coercion2 and this was resolved upon at the ,diet of ,augsburg in #aecj1 where the emperor was present in person1 and where ,melanchthon presented the celebrated ,protestant ,confession of ,faith4 ,the threats against the ,protestant princes induced them to form the ,league of ,smalcald for mutual defense4 ,but it was found impracticable to carry out the measures of repression against the ,lutherans4 ,bavaria was jealous of the house of ,hapsburg1 and opposed to the plan of the emperor to make his brother1 ,ferdinand of ,austria1 his successor4 ,the ,turks under ,soliman were threatening4 ,france and ,denmark were ready to help the ,protestants4 ,accordingly the ,peace of ,nuremberg was concluded in #aecb1 in which religious affairs were to be left as they were1 and both parties were to combine against the common enemy of ,christendom4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,reformation ,,in ,,teutonic ,,countries3 ,,switzerland1 ,,denmark1 ,,sweden1 ,,england4 ,,the ,,swiss ,,reformation3 ,,zwingli4--,the founder of ,protestantism in ,switzerland was ,ulrich ,zwingli4 ,he was born in #adhd4 ,his father was the leading man in a mountain village4 ,the son1 at ,vienna and at ,basel1 became a proficient in the humanist studies4 ,he read the ,greek authors and the ,bible in the original4 ,a curate first at ,glarus1 and then at ,einsiedeln1 he became pastor at ,zurich4 ,as early as #aeah he preached against the sale of indulgences4 ,he was a scholarly man1 bluff and kindly in his ways1 and an impressive orator4 ,the ,swiss were corrupted by their employment as mercenary soldiers1 hired by ,france1 by the ,pope1 or by the emperor4 ,of the demoralizing influence of this practice1 ,zwingli became deeply convinced2 and his exertions as a ,church reformer were mingled with a patriotic zeal for the moral and political regeneration of ,switzerland4 ,mainly by his influence1 ,zurich separated from the jurisdiction of the bishop of ,constance1 and became ,protestant in #aebd4 ,the example of ,zurich was followed by ,berne 7#aebh7 and by ,basel 7#aebi74 ,zwingli agreed with ,luther on the two main points of the sole authority of the ,scriptures1 and the doctrine of salvation by faith alone2 but on the sacrament of the ,lord's ,supper he went farther in his dissent from the ,church of ,rome4 ,this made ,luther and his followers stand aloof when cordial fellowship was proposed between the two parties4 ,,civil ,,strife3 ,,death ,,of ,,zwingli4--,the aim of ,zwingli was to establish a republican constitution in the several cantons1 and also in the confederation as a body1 where the five ,forest ,cantons had an undue share of power4 ,these adhered to the old ,church4 ,in ,berne the oligarchic party was supplanted by the republican1 reforming party1--an event of decisive importance4 ,as the irritation increased between the ,forest ,cantons and the cities1 the former entered into a league with ,ferdinand of ,austria1 and the cities leaned for support on the ,german states in sympathy with their opinions4 ,a treaty was made 7#aebi71 but each side accused the other of breaking it4 ,at length war began3 ,berne failed to come to the help of ,zurich4 ,each city wished to be the metropolis of the reformed confederation4 ,the forces of ,zurich were vanquished at ,cappel1 where ,zwingli himself1 who was on the field in the capacity of a chaplain1 was slain 7#aeca74 ,by the peace of ,cappel in #aeca1 ,protestantism was not coerced1 but a check was put upon its progress4 ,neither party was strong enough to subdue the other4 ,,protestantism ,,in ,,scandinavia4--,in the ,scandinavian countries1 monarchical power was built up by means of the ,reformation4 ,the union of ,calmar 7#acig7 under ,queen ,margaret1 between ,denmark1 ,norway1 and ,sweden1 had been a dynastic union4 ,the several peoples were not united in feeling4 ,the sovereign1 moreover1 had his power limited by a strong feudal nobility1 and by a rich ,church impatient of control4 ,first the ,church was overcome by means of ,protestantism1 and then the nobles4 ,,the ,,reformation ,,in ,,denmark--,on the accession of ,christian ,i4 of ,oldenburg 7#addh-adha71 the duchies of ,holstein and ,schleswig became connected with ,denmark in a personal union4 ,his grandson1 ,christian ,,ii4 7#aeac-aebc71 did not rule the duchies1 which were governed by ,frederic ,i41 who afterwards succeeded ,christian ,,ii4 as king of ,denmark4 ,christian ,,ii4 was bent on putting down the aristocracy1 lay and clerical1 but lacked the moral qualities necessary to success in so difficult a task4 ,he at first favored ,protestantism from political motives4 ,he hoped to bring the ,swedes into subjection by the aid of the ,danes1 and then to subdue the ,danish nobility4 ,in ,sweden the nobles practically ruled2 and the regency was in the hands of the ,stures1 who befriended the common people1 and were opposed by the other nobles and the clergy4 ,christian made use of these divisions1 and of the help of ,german and ,french troops1 to get possession of ,stockholm 7#aebj74 ,he took the ,catholic side4 ,but his perfidy1 and the massacre of eminent ,swedes1--known as the ,massacre of ,stockholm1--excited an inextinguishable hatred against ,denmark4 ,the ,danish nobles feared the same sort of treatment4 ,the king's attempts at reform offended them without pleasing the peasants1 and a revolution took place which dethroned him4 ,duke ,frederic of ,schleswig was made king 7#aebc73 the duchies and ,denmark were again together4 ,frederic swore not to introduce the ,reformation1 nor to attack ,catholicism4 ,but he was an ardent ,lutheran4 ,the new doctrine had come into the land1 and was spreading4 ,the nobles1 who coveted the possessions of the ,church1 espoused it4 ,at the ,diet of ,odensee1 in #aebg1 toleration was granted to ,lutheranism4 ,on ,frederic's death1 in #aecc1 an effort of the bishops to restore the exclusive domination of the old system of religion was defeated4 ,christian ,,iii4 was made king2 and at a ,diet at ,copenhagen in #aecf1 the ,reformation was legalized1 and the ,lutheran system1 with bishops or superintendents1 was established4 ,,the ,,reformation ,,in ,,sweden4--,after the massacre of ,stockholm1 ,denmark was detested by the ,swedes4 ,a great political revolution occurred1 which involved also a religious revolution4 ,the author of the change1 and the real founder of the ,swedish monarchy1 was ,gustavus ,vasa1 a young ,swede of noble family1 who had been held as a captive in ,copenhagen1 but had escaped and returned to his country4 ,he was of imposing presence1 prudent yet daring1 and with a natural gift of eloquence4 ,amid great dangers and sufferings1 such as tradition ascribed to ,king ,alfred of ,england1 he succeeded1 at the head of a force gathered to him in the province of ,dlecarlia1 in gaining the most important places in the country1 and was proclaimed king in #aebc4 ,he was not deeply interested in the religious controversy1 although he favored ,lutheranism2 but he made it his steady aim to break down the clerical aristocracy1 to weaken the nobles1 and to organize a strong and prosperous monarchy4 ,he proceeded carefully3 but the peasants1 who had been his warmest supporters1 were strongly attached to the old ,church2 and the opposition to his measures from all quarters was such that at the ,diet of ,westers1 in #aebg1 he took the bold step of offering to lay down the crown4 ,at this ,diet he had assembled representatives of the citizens and peasants1 as well as the clergy and nobles4 ,he proposed to pay an enormous debt which was due to ,lbeck1 by using the colossal wealth of the ,church for this purpose1 and to shake off the monopoly of trade which the ,hanse towns enjoyed4 ,finding himself withstood1 he renounced the throne4 ,the distraction and tumults which followed his act of relinquishing the crown were such that a great party of the nobles joined him4 ,three days after his abdication1 he was recalled to the throne3 the clergy submitted abjectly1 and the ,church was no longer a power in the state1 or possessed of wealth4 ,trade was released from its bondage to ,lbeck and the other towns2 commerce was opened with foreign countries2 and a market was provided for iron1 the main product of the country4 ,the nobles were held in subjection4 ,the ,lutheran doctrine made very rapid progress1 and became dominant4 ,,england3 ,,henry ,,viii4 ,,and ,,luther4--,in ,england1 as in ,france1 there were earnest desires for church reform1 partly aroused by such serious-minded humanists as ,colet1 ,more1 and ,erasmus4 ,even ,cardinal ,wolsey sympathized with this movement1 and intended to endow colleges and bishoprics out of the confiscated wealth of the more useless monasteries4 ,what might have been a slow development of religious thought was transformed by the requirements of the king's own policy4 ,of all the ,tudor princes none had a more obstinate and tyrannical will than ,henry ,,viii4 ,the advantages derived from the effect of the civil wars1 which had reduced the strength and numbers of the nobility1 and the natural ,english jealousy1 always shown1 of foreign and papal supremacy1 enabled ,henry to break off the connection of ,england with ,rome2 while1 at the same time1 he resisted ,protestantism and persecuted its adherents4 ,proud of his theological acquirements1 he appeared1 in #aebb1 as an author against ,luther1 in a book in defense of the ,seven ,sacraments1 for which he received from the ,pope the title of ,defender of the ,faith4 ,the vituperative character of ,luther's answer confirmed him in his hatred of the new doctrine4 ,when ,god1 said the blunt ,saxon reformer1 wants a fool1 he turns a king into a theological writer4 ,,the ,,divorce ,,question4--,what made the breach between ,henry ,,viii4 and the papacy was the question of the king's divorce4 ,he had been married in his twelfth year to ,catherine of ,aragon1 the aunt of ,charles ,v4 and the widow of ,henry's deceased brother ,arthur 7who had been married to her in #aeja1 when he was fifteen years old1 and had died the next year74 ,a dispensation permitting the marriage of ,henry had been granted by ,pope ,julius ,,ii4 ,how far ,henry's passion for ,anne ,boleyn1 whom he desired to wed1 was at the root of his scruples respecting the validity of his marriage1 it may not be easy to decide4 ,his application to ,clement ,,vii4 for a separation reached the ,pope after the ,peace of ,madrid1 when there was a desire to lessen the power of the emperor4 ,cardinal ,wolsey1 the favorite counselor of ,henry1 who himself aspired to the papal office1 was obliged to help on the cause of his imperious master4 ,but whatever disposition there was at ,rome to gratify ,henry1 there was no inclination to hurry the proceedings4 ,there were long delays in ,england1 whither a papal legate1 ,campeggio1 had been sent to investigate and determine the cause4 ,in #aebi the legates decided that the case must be determined at ,rome4 ,this the queen had before demanded in vain4 ,aside from other objections to the divorce1 ,clement ,,vii4 was now at peace with ,charles ,v41 whom it was undesirable to offend4 ,the incensed king took the matter into his own hands4 ,wolsey1 having been one of the legates1 was deprived of all his dignities3 he was charged with treason1 his strength melted away on his fall from the heights of power1 and he died a broken-spirited man4 ,,separation ,,of ,,england ,,from ,,rome4--,henry now gave free rein to the spirit of opposition in ,parliament to ,rome4 ,he took for his principal minister1 who became vicegerent in ecclesiastical affairs1 ,thomas ,cromwell4 ,cromwell1 unlike ,wolsey1 was hostile to the temporal power of ,rome4 ,he made ,thomas ,cranmer ,archbishop of ,canterbury1 who was inclined toward ,protestant views1 but1 though sincere in his beliefs1 was a man of pliant temper1 indisposed to resist the king's will1 preferring to bow to a storm1 and to wait for it to pass by4 ,by ,cranmer the divorce was decreed1 but this was after the marriage with ,anne ,boleyn had taken place4 ,henry was excommunicated by the ,pope4 ,acts of ,parliament abolished the ,pope's1 and established the king's1 supremacy in the ,church of ,england4 ,in #aecf the cloisters were abolished4 ,their property was confiscated1 and fell to a large extent into the hands of the nobles and the gentry4 ,this measure bound them to the policy of the sovereign4 ,the mitered abbots were expelled from the ,house of ,lords1 which left the preponderance of power with the lay nobles4 ,the hierarchy bowed to the will of the king4 ,,the ,,two ,,parties4--,there were two parties in ,england among the upholders of the king's supremacy4 ,there were the ,protestants by conviction1 who were for spreading the new doctrine4 ,this had already taken root and spread in the universities1 and in some other places in the country4 ,the new literary culture had paved the way for it4 ,in the ,north1 there were still left many ,lollards1 disciples of ,wickliffe4 ,cromwell1 ,cranmer1 and one of the bishops1 ,latimer1 were prominent leaders of this party4 ,against them were the adherents of the ,catholic theology1 such as ,gardiner1 ,tunstal of ,durham1 and other bishops4 ,at first the king inclined towards the first of these two parties4 ,one of his most important acts was the ordering of a translation of the ,bible into ,english1 a copy of which was to be placed in every church4 ,but a popular rebellion in #aecf was followed by a change of ecclesiastical policy4 ,the ,six ,articles were passed1 asserting the ,roman ,catholic doctrines1 and punishing those who denied transubstantiation with death4 ,the queen1 ,anne ,boleyn1 who was an adherent of the ,protestant side1 was executed on the charge of infidelity to her marriage vows 7#aecf74 ,a few years later ,cromwell was sent to the scaffold because the king no longer approved of his policy and1 seeing how unpopular he had become1 used him as a scapegoat 7#aedj74 ,lutheran bishops were thrown into the ,tower3 ,cranmer alone was shielded by the king's personal favor1 and by his own prudence4 ,this system of a national church1 of which the king1 and not the ,pope1 was the head1 where the doctrine was ,roman ,catholic1 and the great ecclesiastical officers were appointed1 like civil officers1 by the monarch1 was the creation of ,henry ,,viii4 ,his strong will was able to keep down the conflicting parties4 ,despite his sensuality and cruelty1 he was a popular sovereign4 ,one of his principal crimes was the execution of ,sir ,thomas ,more for refusing to take the oath of supremacy because this contained an affirmation of the invalidity of the king's marriage with ,catherine4 ,more was one of the noblest men in ,england1 a man who combined vigor with gentleness4 ,he was willing to swear that the children of ,anne were lawful heirs to the throne1 because ,parliament1 he believed1 could regulate the succession2 but this did not satisfy the tyrannical monarch4 ,in the latter portion of his reign he grew more suspicious1 willful1 and cruel4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,reformation ,,in ,,germany1 ,,from ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,nuremberg ,,to ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,augsburg 7#aecb-aeee74 ,,the ,,parties ,,in ,,germany1 #aecb-aedb4--;,for ten years after the ,peace of ,nuremberg1 the ,protestants in ,germany were left unmolested4 ,the menacing attitude of the ,turks1 and the occupations of the emperor in ,italy and in other lands1 rendered it impossible to interfere with them4 ,philip1 the ,landgrave of ,hesse1 a chivalrous ,protestant prince1 led the way in the armed restoration of ,duke ,ulrich of ,wrtemberg1 who had been driven out of his dominion4 ,thus a ,protestant prince was established in the heart of ,southern ,germany 7#aecd74 ,in ,westphalia1 a fanatical branch of the ,anabaptist sect at ,mnster1 with whom the ,lutherans did not sympathize1 was broken up by the neighboring ,catholic princes4 ,the overthrow of the power of ,lbeck and of the ,hanseatic ,league did not check the advance of ,lutheranism4 ,it continued to make great progress in different directions4 ,the ,smalcald ,league was extended4 ,a league of the ,catholic states was formed at ,nuremberg in #aech4 ,during three years 7#aech-aeda7 efforts were made by the emperor to secure peace and union4 ,of these the ,conference and ,diet of ,ratisbon in #aeda is the most remarkable4 ,the ,protestants and ,catholics could not agree upon statements of doctrine2 but the necessity of getting ,protestant help against the ,turks compelled ,charles to sanction the ,peace of ,nuremberg1 and to make to the ,lutherans other important concessions4 ,this arrangement the emperor regarded as only a temporary truce4 ,among the conquests of ,protestantism after the ,peace of ,nuremberg1 and prior to #aedd1 were ,brandenburg and ,ducal ,saxony1 whose rulers adopted the new doctrine4 ,it was spreading in ,austria1 in ,bavaria1 and in other states4 ,duke ,henry of ,brunswick fell into conflict with the ,smalcaldic ,league1 and was conquered1 so that his principality became ,protestant4 ,even the ecclesiastical elector of ,cologne was taking steps towards joining the ,protestant side4 ,this would have given to the ,lutherans a majority in the electoral college4 ,the bishoprics with temporal power were numerous in ,germany4 ,if they were secularized1 the old religious system would be deprived of a principal support4 ,,the ,,smalcaldic ,,war4--,charles ,v4 was now secretly resolved to coerce the ,protestants in ,germany1 and silently made his preparations for war4 ,before hostilities commenced1 ,luther died 7#aedf74 ,the emperor concluded the ,peace of ,crespy1 after a fourth war with ,francis ,i4 ,it was a part of the agreement1 that they should act jointly against the heretics4 ,but as ,francis in the last two wars against the emperor 7#aecf-aech1 #aedb-aedd7 had taken for allies the ,turks under ,soliman1 it could not be predicted how long he would abide by his engagements4 ,for the present1 ,charles was safe in this quarter4 ,he now took pains to shut the eyes of the ,protestant princes to their danger4 ,the ,smalcaldic ,league was over-confident of its strength4 ,its members were discordant among themselves4 ,of the two chief leaders1 the elector of ,saxony1 ,john ,frederic1 was a slow and unskillful general2 and ,philip1 the ,landgrave of ,hesse1 a brave and capable soldier1 could not take command over an elector4 ,above all1 ,maurice1 the ,duke of ,saxony1 was in the midst of a quarrel with his relative1 the elector1 and coveted a part of his territories4 ,maurice was an able and adroit man1 a ,protestant1 but without the earnest religious convictions that belonged to the electors and to that generation of princes which was passing away4 ,maurice was won by the emperor1 through promises of enrichment and favor1 and pledges not to interfere with religion in his principality4 ,charles might have been prevented from bringing in foreign troops from the ,netherlands and from ,italy1 but the military conduct of the elector was feeble and indecisive4 ,he was defeated and captured in #aedg at ,mhlberg1 and the surrender of the ,landgrave ,philip soon followed4 ,the ,protestant cause was prostrate4 ,the clever ,maurice had his reward3 the electoral office was transferred to him2 he obtained a goodly portion of the elector's territory4 ,,the ,,result3 ,,the ,,interim4--,charles was victorious1 and apparently master of ,germany4 ,the country was occupied by his forces as far north as the ,elbe4 ,he was engaged in the work of pacification and of confirming his authority4 ,in #aedh he issued the ,interim of ,augsburg1 in which concessions were made to both parties1 which proved satisfactory to neither4 ,skillful as the emperor was in diplomacy1 he always showed weakness in dealing with the religious question4 ,he proceeded to force the new measure on the refractory cities in the ,south4 ,in the ,north it had little effect4 ,maurice modified it in his own dominion4 ,when ,charles seemed to himself to be on the eve of a complete triumph1 he was deserted by the allies on whom he counted1--,rome1 ,france1 and the princes1 especially ,maurice4 ,,breach ,,of ,,charles ,,with ,,rome4--,the emperor's assuming to regulate the affairs of religion was regarded with disfavor at ,rome4 ,there had been a constant call for a general council to adjust the religious controversies4 ,rome1 from fear of imperial influence1 and for other reasons1 had opposed the measure4 ,at length1 in #aede1 the famous ,council of ,trent assembled4 ,the emperor wanted that body to begin with measures for the reformation of abuses4 ,he looked for co-operation in his scheme for uniting the parties in ,germany4 ,but the council took another path3 it began with anathemas against the heretical doctrines4 ,charles found himself at variance with the policy of ,rome1 at the moment when he was trying to bring ,germany to submission4 ,,disaffection ,,of ,,maurice4--,the emperor's course in ,germany produced general alarm4 ,he separated the ,netherlands from the jurisdiction of the empire1 but settled the succession in the government in the house of ,hapsburg4 ,he drove the ,diet into other measures which looked towards the acquiring of military supremacy for himself in ,germany4 ,he violated his pledges respecting the two captive princes4 ,philip of ,hesse1 the father-in-law of ,maurice1 he treated with great severity and indignity4 ,threats were thrown out by the counselors of ,charles against the other princes1 and even against ,maurice1 who complained of the treatment of ,philip1 and was sore under the load of unpopularity that rested on him on account of his warfare against his co-religionists1 by whom he was considered another ,judas4 ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,augsburg4--,maurice laid his plans with secrecy and with masterly skill4 ,he secured the coperation of other ,german princes4 ,he concluded an alliance with ,henry ,,ii4 of ,france4 ,he arranged with ,magdeburg1 which he had been besieging1 to make it a place of refuge if there should be need of an asylum4 ,when all was ready1 without having excited any suspicion on the part of ,charles1 he suddenly took the field1 marched southward with an army that increased as he advanced1 crossed the ,alps1 and forced the emperor1 tormented with the gout1 to fly hastily from ,innsbruck 7#aeeb74 ,the captive princes were released4 ,it was decided that ,germany was not to be ruled by ,spanish soldiery4 ,the dream of imperial domination vanished4 ,the ,protestants were promised by ,ferdinand of ,austria1 in the name of his brother1 toleration1 and equality of rights4 ,at the ,diet of ,augsburg in #aeee1 the ,religious ,peace was concluded4 ,every prince was to be allowed to choose between the ,catholic religion and the ,augsburg ,confession1 and the religion of the prince was to be that of the land over which he reigned3 that is1 each government was to choose the creed for its subjects4 ,ferdinand put in the ecclesiastical reservation1 which provided that if the head of an ecclesiastical state should become a ,lutheran1 he should resign his benefice4 ,he also declared that the ,lutheran subjects of ecclesiastical princes were not to be disturbed4 ,the reservation was to please the ,catholics3 the additional provision was to meet the wishes of the ,protestants4 ,neither stood on the same basis as the other part of the treaty4 ,from ,maurice the electoral dignity descended in the ,albertine line of ,saxon princes4 ,the ,ernestine line retained ,weimar1 ,gotha1 etc4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,calvinism ,,in ,,geneva3 ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,catholic ,,counter-,,reformation4 ,,calvin4--,second in reputation to ,luther only1 among the founders of ,protestantism1 is ,john ,calvin4 ,he was a ,frenchman1 born in #aeji1 and was consequently a child when the ,saxon ,reformation began4 ,he was keen and logical in his mental habit1 with a great organizing capacity1 naturally of a retiring temper1 yet fearless1 and endued with extraordinary intensity and firmness of will4 ,a more finished scholar than ,luther1 he lacked his geniality and tenderness1 and his imaginative power4 ,calvin first studied for the priesthood at ,paris2 but when his father determined to make him a jurist1 he studied law at ,orleans and ,bourges4 ,espousing the ,protestant doctrines1 he was obliged to fly from ,paris1 and1 when still young1 published his ,institutes of the ,christian ,religion1 in which he expounded the ,protestant creed in a systematic although fervid way4 ,in his type of theology1 he laid much stress on the sovereignty of ,god1 and predestination2 and taught a view of the ,lord's ,supper not so far from that of the old ,church as the doctrine of ,zwingli1 but farther removed from it than was the doctrine of ,luther4 ,,the ,,genevan ,,government4--,in #aecf1 reluctantly yielding to the exhortations of ,farel1 a ,french preacher of the ,protestant doctrine at ,geneva1 ,calvin established himself in that city4 ,geneva was a fragment of the old kingdom of ,burgundy4 ,the dukes of ,savoy claimed a temporal authority in the city1 which was subject to its bishop4 ,the authority of the dukes was overthrown by a revolution1 and power passed from the bishop into the hands of the people 7#aecc74 ,the change was effected with the aid of ,berne and ,freiburg4 ,there had been two parties in ,geneva1--the party of the ,confederates1 who were for striking hands with the ,swiss1 and the party of the ,mamelukes1 adherents of the dukes4 ,the civil was followed by an ecclesiastical revolution4 ,protestantism1 with the aid of ,berne1 was legally established 7#aece74 ,geneva was a prosperous1 gay1 and dissolute city4 ,farel1 a popular orator of striking power1 unsparing in denunciation1 found the people impatient of the restraints that the new religious system which they had adopted laid upon them4 ,the regulations as to doctrine1 worship1 and discipline1 which ,calvin and his associates proceeded to introduce1 were so distasteful1 that the preachers were expelled by the ,council and by the ,assembly of ,citizens from the place4 ,after he had been absent three years1 ,calvin1 in consequence of the increase of disorder and vice1 and the distraction occasioned by contending factions1 was recalled1 and remained in ,geneva until his death4 ,he became the virtual lawgiver of the city4 ,he framed a system of ecclesiastical and civil government4 ,it was an ecclesiastical state1 in which orthodoxy of belief1 and purity of conduct1 were not only inculcated by systematic teaching1 but enforced by stringent enactments4 ,offenses comparatively trivial were punished by strict and severe penalties4 ,to the system of church discipline1 stretching over the life of every individual1 and carried out by the civil magistrates in alliance with the pastors1 there was much opposition1 which led to outbreakings of violent resistance4 ,but the supporters of ,calvin were reinforced by numerous ,protestant refugees from ,france4 ,the improvement of the city in morals and in public order was signal4 ,in the end1 ,calvin1 who was as firm as a rock1 triumphed over all opposition4 ,geneva became a place of resort for exiles and students from various countries4 ,by his writings and correspondence1 ,calvin's influence spread far and wide4 ,in the affairs of the ,french ,protestants1 in particular1 his influence was predominant4 ,,servetus4--,the ,reformers were not1 any more than their adversaries1 advocates of liberty in religious beliefs and professions4 ,a melancholy example of the prevailing idea1 that it was the duty of the civil authority to inflict penalties upon heresy1 is the case of ,michael ,servetus4 ,a ,spaniard by birth1 with a remarkable aptitude for natural science and medicine1 adventurous and fickle1 he had published books in which doctrines received by both the great divisions of the ,church1 especially the doctrine of the ,trinity1 were assailed4 ,he escaped out of the hands of the ,catholics1 and came to ,geneva4 ,there he was tried for heresy and blasphemy1 and was burned at the stake 7#aeec74 ,this was at a time when ,calvin was in the midst of his contest with the ,libertines1 the party actuated by hostility to him4 ,they appear to have stood behind ,servetus in his defiant attitude towards the ,genevan authorities4 ,,influence ,,of ,,calvinism4--,the personal influence of ,calvin was directly exerted upon the more cultured and educated4 ,his religious system has wielded a great power1 not only on this class1 but also over the common people in different countries4 ,calvinism was never awed by monarchical authority4 ,like the ,church of ,rome1 it always refused to subordinate the ,church and religion to the civil power4 ,it numbered among its votaries many men of dauntless courage and of unbending fidelity to their principles4 ,,the ,,catholic ,,reaction4--,the first effectual resistance to the spread of ,protestant opinions was made in ,italy4 ,in that country1 there was opposition to the papacy from those who saw in it an instrument of political disunion1 and also from some who were aggrieved by ecclesiastical abuses4 ,the prevailing feeling1 however1 was that of pride in the papacy1 which1 in other countries1 was attacked as an ,italian institution4 ,the humanist learning had done much to undermine belief in the old religious system4 ,in the train of the new studies1 came much indifference and infidelity4 ,the books of the ,protestant leaders1 however1 were widely circulated4 ,there were not a few sincere converts to the new doctrine in the cities2 but they were chiefly confined to the educated class1 and to persons in high station4 ,it took no root among the common people4 ,after the time of the ,medici popes1 a new spirit of faith and devotion awoke in circles earnestly devoted to the papacy and to the ,church4 ,there was at ,rome an ,oratory of ,divine ,love1--a group of persons who met together for mutual edification4 ,in this class were some1 like ,contarini1 afterwards a cardinal1 who were not wholly without sympathy with the ,lutheran doctrine as to faith and justification2 but out of the same class came others who led in the great ,catholic ,reaction1 which1 while it aimed at a rigid reform in morals1 was inflexibly hostile to all innovations in doctrine1 and was bent on regaining for the ,church the ground that had been lost4 ,,the ,,council ,,of ,,trent3 ,,caraffa4--,the ,council of ,trent was governed in its conclusions by this ,catholic reactionary and reforming party4 ,it allowed no curtailing of the prerogatives of the ,pope4 ,on points of doctrine in dispute within the pale of the ,church1 it adopted formulas which the different schools might accept4 ,practical reforms1 for example in respect to the education of the clergy1 were adopted2 but dogma and teaching were to remain unaltered4 ,cardinal ,caraffa1 the most energetic mover in the ,catholic reform and restoration1 became ,pope1 under the name of ,paul ,,iv4 7#aeee-aeei74 ,,the ,,order ,,of ,,jesus4--,the ,council of ,trent1 by providing a clear definition of doctrine1 cemented unity1 and was the first great bulwark raised against ,protestantism4 ,another means of defense1 and of attack as well1 was provided in new orders1 especially the order of ,jesuits4 ,this was founded by ,ignatius ,loyola1 a ,spanish soldier of noble birth1 who mingled with the spirit of chivalry a strong devotional sentiment4 ,it was the temper of medival knighthood1 which still lingered in ,spain4 ,wounded at the siege of ,pampeluna1 and disabled from war1 he had visions of a spiritual knighthood2 out of which grew the ,society of ,jesus1 which was sanctioned by ,pope ,paul ,,iii4 in #aedj4 ,its members took the monastic vows4 ,they went through a rigorous spiritual drill4 ,they were bound to unquestioning obedience to the ,pope4 ,the organization was strict1 like that of an army2 each province having a provincial at its head1 with a general over all4 ,to him all the members were absolutely subject4 ,all other ties were renounced3 to serve the ,church and the order1 was the one supreme obligation4 ,,influence ,,of ,,the ,,jesuits4--,the influence of the ,jesuit order was manifold4 ,it was active in preaching1 and in hearing confessions4 ,it made the education of youth a great part of its business4 ,its members found their way into high stations in ,church and ,state3 they were in the cabinets of princes4 ,from the beginning1 they showed an ardent zeal in missionary labors among the heathen in distant lands1 and for the reconquest of countries won by the ,protestants4 ,,the ,,inquisition4--,under the auspices of ,cardinal ,caraffa 7,paul ,,iv471 the ,inquisition was introduced into ,italy 7#aedb71 and exerted the utmost vigilance and severity in crushing out the new faith4 ,one of its instruments was the censorship of the press4 ,so thorough was this work1 that of the little book on the ,benefits of ,christ's ,death1 which had an immense circulation1 it has been possible in recent years to find but two or three copies4 ,the ,index of prohibited books was established4 ,the result of these measures was1 that ,protestantism was suppressed in ,italy1 and the type of ,catholicism that was partially sympathetic with certain doctrinal features of the ,saxon ,reform likewise vanished4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,philip ,,ii41 ,,and ,,the ,,bevolt ,,of ,,the ,,netherlands4 ,,character ,,of ,,philip ,,ii4--,in #aeee ,charles ,v41 enfeebled by his lifelong enemy1 the gout1 resigned his crowns1 and devolved on his son1 ,philip ,,ii41 the government of the ,netherlands1 together with the rest of his dominions in ,spain1 ,italy1 and ,america4 ,the closing part of his life1 the emperor passed in the secluded convent of ,yuste1 in ,spain1 where1 notwithstanding the time spent by him in religious exercises1 and in his favorite diversion of experimenting with clocks and watches1 he remained an attentive observer of public affairs4 ,political and religious absolutism was the main article in ,philip's creed4 ,he was more thoroughly a ,spaniard in his tone and temper than his father1 who was born in the ,netherlands1 and always loved the people there1 as he was loved by them4 ,philip was cold and forbidding in his manners4 ,he was shy1 as well as haughty1 in his deportment to those who approached him4 ,to re-establish everywhere the old religion by the unrelenting exercise of force1 was his fixed purpose4 ,only one thing did he value more2 and that was his own power1 which he would not suffer ,church or clergy to curb or invade4 ,he had few ideas1 but was an adept in concealment and treachery4 ,a man of untiring industry1 he was a plodder without insight4 ,he lived to see the vast strength which fell to him as a legacy slip out of his hands1 and to see ,spain sink to a condition of comparative weakness4 ,charles ,v4 had consolidated his dominion in that country by putting down democratic insurrections4 ,this he had done by military force and the arm of the ,inquisition4 ,what ,charles had left undone in this line1 ,philip completed4 ,he quelled the resistance of the ,aragonese1 and reduced them to submission4 ,spain swarmed with civil and ecclesiastical officials4 ,the new religious doctrine1 which assumed the same type as in ,italy1 was stifled4 ,the monarch displayed his zeal by personal attendance at the autos da fe1 the great public ceremonials for the execution of heretics1 where the victims of his intolerance perished4 ,a system of brutal military administration was adopted in the colonies4 ,,state ,,of ,,the ,,low ,,countries4--,philip undertook to treat the ,netherlands as a ,spanish province1 and to break down the spirit of local independence4 ,the people of the ,low ,countries were industrious1 intelligent1 prosperous1 spirited4 ,each of the seventeen provinces had its own constitution4 ,in the ,north1 it was more democratic2 in ,flanders and ,brabant1 there was a landed aristocracy4 ,in all parts of the country1 there were local privileges and cherished rights4 ,the population numbered three millions4 ,antwerp1 with its hundred thousand inhabitants1 had more trade than any other ,european city4 ,the ,reformation1 first in the ,lutheran but later in the ,calvinistic form1 had numerous adherents in the ,netherlands1 whom severe edicts of ,charles ,v41 under which large numbers were put to death1 did not extirpate4 ,,tyranny ,,of ,,philip4--,philip did not select for his regent in the ,netherlands one of the aristocracy of the country4 ,of this class was ,count ,egmont1 a nobleman of brilliant courage and attractive manners4 ,william1 ,prince of ,orange1 united with far more self-control the sagacity of a statesman4 ,he was destined to be the formidable antagonist of ,spanish tyranny1 and the liberator of ,holland4 ,philip passed by the nobles1 whom he distrusted and disliked1 and appointed as regent the illegitimate daughter of ,charles ,v41 ,margaret of ,parma 7#aeei-aefg72 placing at her side1 as her principal adviser1 the astute ,granvelle1 the ,bishop of ,arras1 one of his devoted servants1 who was made cardinal in #aefa4 ,three nobles1 ,william of ,orange1 and the ,counts ,egmont and ,horn1 were in the council4 ,the power was in ,granvelle's hands4 ,there was soon a breach between him and the nobles4 ,two measures of ,philip created disaffection4 ,he was slow in withdrawing the hated ,spanish soldiers2 he increased the number of bishops1 a cherished scheme of ,charles ,v4 ,moreover1 he renewed and proceeded to enforce edicts1 embracing minute provisions of a most rigorous character1 against the property and lives of the ,protestants1 although the ,inquisition had lost public favor4 ,the terror and indignation of the people found expression through the nobles4 ,they left the council4 ,at length ,granvelle had to be withdrawn from the country 7#aefd74 ,egmont went to ,spain to procure a mitigation of the king's policy1 but found on his return that he had been duped by false promises4 ,the young nobility formed an agreement called the ,compromise1 to withstand the king's system1 at first by legal means 7#aeff74 ,they were contemptuously called beggars by the regent1 and themselves adopted the name4 ,the king professed a willingness to make some concessions3 he was only gaining time for measures of a different sort4 ,in the same year a storm of iconoclasm burst out3 the ,calvinists made reprisals for what they had suffered2 they vented their zeal against what they called idolatry1 by sacking the churches1 and by destroying paintings and images1 and other symbols and implements of worship4 ,orange penetrated the designs of ,philip1 and retired to ,nassau4 ,egmont1 more credulous and confiding1 remained4 ,,alva',s ,,rule4--,philip now sent into the ,netherlands the ,duke of ,alva1 an officer of considerable military capacity1 cold1 arrogant1 and merciless in his temper4 ,his force consisted of ten thousand men4 ,a tribunal was erected by him1 called the ,council of ,blood4 ,egmont and ,horn were executed at ,brussels 7#aefh74 ,great numbers of executions of men and women1 of all ranks1 who were accused of some sort of insubordination1 or some manifestation of heresy1 followed4 ,william of ,orange was active in devising means of deliverance4 ,the first marked success was the capture of ,briel by the sea-beggars1 inhabitants of the coasts of ,holland and ,zealand1 under their admiral1 ,william de la ,mark4 ,the barbarities and extortion of ,alva by degrees aroused universal and intense hatred4 ,holland and ,zealand threw off ,alva's rule1 and made ,william their stadtholder4 ,the nominal connection with ,spain was still kept up4 ,the massacre of ,st4 ,bartholomew 7#aegb7 cut off ,william from the help which he expected from the ,french4 ,it was felt1 however1 that ,alva had failed in his attempt to subjugate the people1 and he was withdrawn from the country by ,philip 7#aegc74 ,,the ,,utrecht ,,union4--,from the capture of ,briel may be dated the beginning of the long and arduous struggle which resulted in the building-up of the ,dutch ,republic of the ,united ,provinces1 and the ultimate prostration of the power of ,spain4 ,the hero of the struggle was ,william of ,orange4 ,the successor of ,alva1 ,requesens1 was really more dangerous than ,alva1 because he was more magnanimous1 and therefore excited less antagonism4 ,in #aegd occurred the memorable siege of ,leyden by the ,spanish forces4 ,that city1 when reduced to the last extremity1 was saved by letting in the sea and by inundating the neighboring plains1 which compelled the ,spaniards to flee in dismay4 ,as a memorial of the heroic defense of the place1 the ,university of ,leyden was founded4 ,a new ,protestant state was growing up in the ,north1 under the guidance of ,william4 ,in the ,south1 where ,catholicism prevailed1 ,requesens was more successful4 ,but when he died1 in #aegf1 a frightful revolt of his soldiers1 who were loosed from restraint1 in the cities1 moved all ,netherlands to unite1 in the ,pacification of ,ghent1 against the ,spanish dominion4 ,don ,john of ,austria1 a brilliant and manly soldier1 who had defeated the ,turks at ,lepanto1 was the next regent 7#aegf-aegh74 ,he made large concessions3 these were welcome in the ,south1 and weakened the ,union4 ,alexander of ,parma 7#aegh1 #aegi71 his successor1 was the ablest general of the time4 ,the ,catholic ,south was at variance with the ,protestant ,north4 ,in #aegi1 there was formed between the seven provinces in the ,north the ,utrecht ,union1 the germ of the ,dutch ,republic4 ,philip proclaimed ,william an outlaw1 and set a price on his head4 ,after six ineffectual attempts at assassination1 this heroic leader1 the idol of his countrymen1 was fatally shot1 in his own house 7#aehd74 ,his work as a deliverer of his people was mainly accomplished4 ,when the ,utrecht ,union was formed1 the greater part of the ,catholic provinces in the ,south entered into an arrangement with ,parma4 ,brabant and ,flanders were recovered to ,spain4 ,the attention of ,philip had to be mainly given to the affairs of ,france and ,england during the remainder of his life4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,civil ,,wars ,,in ,,france1 ,,to ,,the ,,death ,,of ,,henry ,,iv4 7#afaj74 ,,francis ,i43 ,,henry ,,ii4--,in ,france1 the old faith had strong support in the ,sorbonne1 the influential theological faculty of the ,university of ,paris1 and in the ,parliament4 ,the new culture1 the influx of ,italian scholars and ,italian influences1 produced a party averse to the former style of education1 and1 to some extent1 unfriendly to the old opinions4 ,the ,lutheran doctrines were first introduced2 but it was ,calvinism which prevailed among the ,french converts to ,protestantism1 and acquired a strong hold in the middle and higher classes1 although the preponderance of numbers in the country was always on the ,catholic side4 ,francis ,i4 was a friend of the new learning4 ,his sister ,margaret1 ,queen of ,navarre1 who was of a mystical turn1 was favorably inclined to the new doctrines1 and befriended preachers who were of the same spirit4 ,the king did the same until after the battle of ,pavia1 when he helped on the persecution of them2 for his conduct was governed by the interest of the hour1 and by political motives4 ,it was doubtful what course he would finally take amid the conflict of parties2 but his motto was1 ,one king1 one code1 one creed4 ,he would put down the new doctrine at home1 and sustain it by force1 if expedient1 abroad4 ,henry ,,ii41 who acceded to the throne in #aedg1 unlike his father had no personal sympathy with ,protestantism4 ,the ,huguenots1 as the ,calvinists were called1 were led to the stake1 and their books burned4 ,yet in #aeeh they had two thousand places of worship in ,france3 they soon held a general synod at ,paris1 and organized themselves 7#aeei74 ,that same year1 when1 in the ,peace of ,cateau-,cambresis1 ,henry had given up all his conquests except the three bishoprics of ,metz1 ,toul and ,verdun1 and ,calais1 he suddenly died from a wound in the eye1 accidentally inflicted in a tilt4 ,,catherine ,,de ,,medici3 ,,the ,,two ,,parties4--,the widow of ,henry ,,ii4 was ,catherine de ,medici1 to whom he had been married from political considerations4 ,she was a woman of talents1 full of ambition which had hitherto found no field for its exercise1 trained from infancy in an atmosphere of deceit1 and void of moral principle4 ,her aim was to rule by keeping up an ascendency over her sons1 and by holding in check whatever party threatened to be dominant4 ,for this end she did not scruple to accustom her children to debauchery1 and to resort to whatever other means1 however false and however cruel1 to effect her purposes4 ,she proved to be the curse of the house of ,valois1 and the evil genius of ,france4 ,francis ,,ii4 was a boy of sixteen1 and legally of age2 but his mother expected to manage the government4 ,she was thwarted by the control over him exercised by the family of ,guise1 sons of ,claude of ,guise1 a wealthy and prominent nobleman of ,lorraine1 who had distinguished himself at ,marignano1 and in later contests against ,charles ,v4 ,francis1 the ,duke of ,guise1 had defended ,metz1 and had taken ,calais4 ,charles1 the ,cardinal of ,lorraine1 was the king's confessor4 ,their sister had married ,james ,v4 of ,scotland4 ,her daughter1 ,mary ,stuart1 a charming young girl1 was married to ,francis ,,ii41 who was infirm in mind and body1 and easily managed by his wife and her uncles4 ,the great nobles of ,france1 especially the ,bourbons1 sprung in a collateral line from ,louis ,,ix41 ,montmorency1 and his three nephews1 among them a man of extraordinary ability and worth1 the ,admiral ,coligny1 looked on the ,guises as upstarts4 ,the ,bourbons and the nobles allied to them were1 some from sincere conviction and some from policy1 adherents of ,calvinism4 ,thus the ,protestants in ,france became a political party1 as well as a religious body1 and a party with anti-monarchical tendencies4 ,anthony of ,bourbon1 a weak and vacillating person1 had married ,jeanne d',albret1 the heiress of ,barn and ,navarre1 a heroic woman and an earnest ,protestant1 the mother of ,henry ,,iv4 ,his brother ,louis1 ,prince of ,cond1 a brave1 impetuous soldier1 whose wife1 the niece of the ,grand ,constable ,montmorency1 was a strict ,protestant1 joined that side4 ,,conspiracy ,,of ,,amboise4--,la ,rnaudie1 a ,protestant nobleman who was determined to avenge the execution of a brother1 contrived the ,conspiracy of ,amboise 7#aefj7 in order to dispossess the ,guises of their power by force4 ,the plan was discovered1 and a savage revenge was taken upon the conspirators4 ,a great number of innocent persons1 who had no share in the plot1 were put to death4 ,the ,estates were summoned to ,orleans1 and the occasion was to be seized for extirpating heresy throughout the kingdom4 ,cond was under arrest1 and charged with high treason4 ,just then1 on ,dec4 #e1 #aefj1 the young king died4 ,,charles ,,ix43 ,,edict ,,of ,,st4 ,,germain4--,the coveted opportunity of the queen-mother had come4 ,charles ,,ix4 7#aefj-aegd7 was only ten years old4 ,she assumed the practical guardianship over him1 and with it a virtual regency4 ,the plan of the ,guises had failed1 and they had to give way4 ,there were now two parties in the council4 ,the ,states-general were called together in #aefa1 and a great religious colloquy was held before a brilliant concourse at ,poissy1 where ,theodore ,beza1 an eloquent and polished scholar and a man of high birth1 pleaded the cause of the ,calvinists4 ,in #aefb the ,edict of ,january was issued1 which gave up the policy that had been pursued for forty years1 of extirpating religious dissent4 ,a very restricted toleration was given to ,protestants3 they could hold their meetings outside of the walls of cities1 unarmed1 and in the daytime4 ,calvin and his followers expected the largest results from this measure of liberty4 ,catherine wished for peace1 without a rupture with the ,pope and ,philip ,,ii4 ,,civil ,,war4--,it was impossible to prevent outbreakings of violence against the hated dissenters4 ,the ,guises and their associates were resolved not to allow toleration4 ,the event that occasioned war was the massacre of ,vassy4 ,on the #ast of ,march1 #aefb1 the soldiers of the ,duke of ,guise1 who was passing through the town1 attacked some ,huguenots who were worshiping in a barn at the village of ,vassy4 ,a large number were slain1 and some houses plundered1 in spite of the ,duke's efforts to check his troops4 ,the civil wars1 so begun1 closed only with the accession of ,henry ,,iv4 to the throne4 ,france was a prey to religious and political fanaticism4 ,other nations mingled in the frightful contest1 and the country was well-nigh robbed of its independence4 ,at first1 there was petty warfare at ,paris1 ,sens1 and other places4 ,the ,huguenots destroyed altars and censers1 monuments of art and sepulchers1 which1 as they thought1 ministered to idolatry4 ,rouen was captured by the ,catholics and sacked4 ,at ,dreux 7#aefb7 the ,protestants were defeated2 but in #aefc ,guise1 the leader of their adversaries1 was assassinated by a ,huguenot nobleman4 ,the charge that ,coligny had a part in the deed was false2 but he was considered responsible for it1 and vengeance was kept in store by the family of the slain chief4 ,the ,edict of ,amboise 7#aefc7 was favorable to the ,protestant nobles1 but less favorable to the smaller gentry and to the towns4 ,paris1 from which ,calvinist worship was excluded1 became more and more a stronghold of the ,catholic party4 ,another war ended in the ,peace of ,longjumeau 7#aefh71 which was essentially the same as the ,edict of ,amboise4 ,philip ,,ii4 and the ,duke of ,alva spared no effort to induce ,france to set about the extermination of the heretics4 ,in the third war1 the ,huguenots were beaten at ,jarnac1 where ,cond fell1 leaving his name to his son ,henry1 a youth of seventeen 7#aefi74 ,the same year they were defeated again at ,moncontour4 ,la ,rochelle was a place of safety to the ,protestants1 who were strong in the wise leadership of ,coligny4 ,there the ,queen of ,navarre held her court4 ,thence the ,huguenot cavalry with the young princes ,cond1 and ,henry of ,navarre1 her son1 sallied forth and traversed ,france4 ,,england ,,or ,,spain4--,the ambition of ,philip alarmed the ,french4 ,his complex schemes1 if carried out1 would involve the reduction of their country under ,spanish control4 ,he wanted to liberate ,mary1 ,queen of ,scots1 then a prisoner of ,elizabeth1 to marry her to his half-brother1 ,don ,john1 and to marry his sister to ,charles ,,ix4 ,the court1 in #aegj1 agreed to the ,peace of ,st4 ,germain1 which1 for the security of the ,huguenots1 placed four fortified towns in their possession4 ,thus ,france became a kingdom divided against itself4 ,england1 as well as ,france1 looked with alarm upon the ambitious projects of ,philip ,,ii41 who was now in union with ,venice and with the ,pope1 and had beaten the ,turks at ,lepanto4 ,it was proposed to marry the brother of ,charles ,,ix41 the ,duke of ,anjou1 to ,queen ,elizabeth2 and when this negotiation was broken off1 it was proposed that the ,duke of ,alenon1 a younger brother1 should marry her4 ,catherine de ,medici fell in with this anti-,spanish policy4 ,it was agreed that her youngest daughter1 ,margaret of ,valois1 should become the wife of ,henry of ,navarre4 ,the policy favored by the ,huguenots was in the ascendant4 ,their leaders were invited to ,paris to be present at the nuptials4 ,coligny came1 with ,henry of ,navarre1 ,cond1 and a large number of their adherents4 ,there was no place where the animosity against them was so rancorous4 ,,the ,,massacre ,,of ,,st4 ,,bartholomew4--,the massacre of ,st4 ,bartholomew was devised by ,catherine de ,medici1 who brought to her aid the ,duchess of ,nemours1 widow of ,francis of ,guise and mother of ,henry of ,guise1 ,anjou 7afterwards ,henry ,,iii471 and ,italian counselors who were no strangers to plots of assassination4 ,the motive of the queen-mother was her dread of the ascendency which she saw that ,coligny was gaining over the morbid mind of the king1 in whom the ,huguenot veteran had inspired esteem1 and had stirred up a desire to enter into the proposed war against ,philip ,,ii4 in the ,netherlands4 ,on the #bb;d of ,august 7#aegb71 a shot was fired at ,coligny1 from a window of a house1 by an adherent of the ,guises4 ,he was wounded1 but not killed4 ,charles was incensed4 ,at a visit made to the wounded chief1 the king was warned by him1 as ,catherine quickly learned1 against her pernicious influence in the government4 ,thereupon she arranged with her confederates for a general slaughter of the ,huguenots1 and almost coerced the half-frantic and irresolute king to acquiesce in the plan4 ,perhaps1 in gathering them into the city1 she had foreseen the possible expediency of a change of policy1 and that such a crime as she now undertook to perpetrate might be found desirable4 ,in the night of the #bdth of ,august1 at a concerted signal1 the fanatical enemies of the ,huguenots were let loose1 and fell upon their victims4 ,several thousands1 including ,coligny1 were murdered4 ,couriers were sent through the country1 and like bloody scenes were enacted in many other cities and towns4 ,navarre and ,cond1 to save their lives1 professed conformity to the ,catholic ,church4 ,if these atrocious events excited joy in the mind of ,philip ,,ii41 and of the numerous intolerant party of which he was the head1 they were regarded with horror and execration elsewhere1 among the ,catholic as well as the ,protestant nations4 ,,the ,,politiques3 ,,the ,,league3 ,,henry ,,iii4--,the queen-mother did not even now forsake her general policy4 ,she stood aloof from the combinations of ,philip4 ,a new party1 the ,politiques1 or liberal ,catholics1 in favor of toleration1 arose4 ,henry ,,iii4 7#aegd-aehi7 was incompetent to govern a country torn by factions1 with an exhausted treasury1 and a people groaning under the burdens of taxation4 ,by his double dealing he lost the confidence of both the religious parties4 ,in ,may1 #aegf1 he agreed to allow the religious freedom which the ,huguenots and ,politiques demanded4 ,but he had to reckon with the ,catholic ,league which was organized under ,henry of ,guise4 ,in #aehd ,henry of ,navarre was left the next heir to the throne4 ,the ,league1 with ,spain and ,rome1 resolved that he should not reign4 ,together with ,cond1 he was excommunicated4 ,in the war of he three ,henrys1 he was supported by ,england1 and by troops from ,germany and ,switzerland4 ,henry ,,iii41 finding that ,henry of ,guise was virtual master1 and that the ,states-general at ,blois 7#aehh7 reduced the royal power to the lowest point1 caused ,guise and his brother1 the ,cardinal of ,lorraine1 to be assassinated4 ,excommunicated1 and detested by the adherents of the ,league1 the king took refuge in the camp of ,henry of ,navarre1 where he was killed by a fanatical priest 7#aehi74 ,,abjuration ,,and ,,accession ,,of ,,henry ,,iv4--,the ,duke of ,mayenne1 brother of the slain ,guises1 was at the head of the government provisionally established by the ,league4 ,philip ,,ii4 was intriguing to bring the ,catholic nations under his sway4 ,there was discord in the ,league1 from the jealousy of ,philip on the part of ,mayenne4 ,henry1 a dashing soldier1 gained a brilliant victory at ,ivry in #aeij4 ,the grand obstacle in his way to the throne was his adhesion to ,protestantism4 ,a ,calvinist by birth and education1 but without profound religious convictions1 a gallant and sagacious man1 but loose in his morals1 he yielded1 for the sake of giving peace to ,france1 to the persuasions addressed to him1 and1 from motives of expediency1 conformed to the ,catholic ,church4 ,the nation was now easily won to his cause4 ,,reign ,,of ,,henry ,,iv4--,when ,henry ,,iv4 gained his throne1 the country was in a most wretched condition4 ,in the desolating wars1 population had fallen off4 ,everywhere there were poverty and lawlessness4 ,yet war with ,spain was inevitable4 ,in this war1 ,henry was the victor2 and the ,peace of ,vervins restored the ,spanish conquests1 and the conquests made by ,savoy1 to ,france 7#aeih74 ,the idea of ,henry's foreign policy1 which was that of weakening the power of ,spain and of the house of ,hapsburg1 was afterwards taken up by a powerful statesman1 ,richelieu1 and fully realized4 ,in the ,edict of ,nantes 7#aeih71 the king secured to the ,huguenots the measure of religious liberty for which they had contended4 ,fortified cities were still left in their hands4 ,security was obtained by the ,calvinists1 but they became a defensive party with no prospect of further progress4 ,order and prosperity were restored to the kingdom4 ,in all his measures1 the king was largely guided by a most competent minister1 ,sully4 ,but the useful reign of ,henry ,,iv4 was cut short by the dagger of an assassin1 ,ravaillac 7#afaj74 ,for fifteen years confusion prevailed in ,france1 and a contest of factions1 until ,richelieu took up the threads of policy which had fallen from ,henry's hand4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,thirty-,,years' ,,war1 ,,to ,,the ,,peace ,,op ,,westphalia 7#afah-afdh74 ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,war4--,in ,germany1 more than in any other country1 the ,reformation had sprung from the hearts of the people4 ,its progress would have been far greater had it not been retarded by political obstacles1 and by divisions among ,protestants themselves4 ,germany1 to be sure1 was not disunited by the ,reformation3 it was disunited before4 ,but now strong states existed on its borders1--,france1 even ,denmark and ,sweden1--which might profit by its internal conflicts4 ,the ,peace of ,augsburg1 unsatisfactory as it was to both parties1 availed to prevent open strife as long as ,ferdinand ,i4 7#aeef-aefd7 and ,maximilian ,,ii4 7#aefd-aegf7 held the imperial office4 ,the latter1 especially1 favored toleration1 and did not sympathize with the fanaticism of the ,spanish branch of his family4 ,he condemned the cruelties of ,alva and the massacre of ,st4 ,bartholomew4 ,with the accession of ,rudolph ,,ii41 a change took place4 ,he had been brought up in ,spain4 ,the ,catholic counter-reformation was now making its advance4 ,the order of the ,jesuits was putting forth great and successful exertions to win back lost ground4 ,there were out-breakings of violence between the two religious parties4 ,a ,catholic procession was insulted in ,donauwrth1 a free city of the empire4 ,the city was put under the ban by the emperor2 the ,bavarian ,duke marched against it1 and incorporated it in his own territory 7#afjg74 ,on both sides1 complaints were made of the infraction of the ,peace of ,augsburg4 ,the ,donauwrth affair led to the formation of the ,evangelical ,union1 a league into which1 however1 all the ,protestant states did not enter4 ,the ,catholic ,league1 under the ,leadership of ,maximilian of ,bavaria1 was firmly knit together and full of energy4 ,,first ,,stage ,,in ,,the ,,war 7to #afbi74 ,,the ,,bohemian ,,struggle4--,the ,bohemians revolted against ,ferdinand ,,ii4 in #afah1 when their religious liberties were violated1 and shortly after 7#afai7 refused to acknowledge him as their king4 ,he was a narrow and fanatical1 though not by nature a cruel1 ruler4 ,he gave himself up to the control of the ,catholic ,league4 ,the two branches of the ,hapsburg family--the ,austrian and ,spanish--were now in full accord with each other4 ,the ,bohemians gave their crown to ,frederick ,v41 the ,elector ,palatine1 the son-in-law of ,james ,i4 of ,england4 ,bohemia was invaded by ,ferdinand1 aided by the ,league1 and abandoned to fire and sword4 ,the terrible scenes of the ,hussite struggle were re-enacted4 ,in the protracted wars that ensued1 it was estimated that the ,bohemian population was reduced from about four millions to between seven and eight hundred thousand6 ,the ,palatinate was conquered and devastated4 ,the electoral dignity was transferred to the ,duke of ,bavaria4 ,at last1 in #afbe1 ,england1 ,holland1 and ,denmark intervened in behalf of the fugitive ,elector ,palatine4 ,christian ,,iv4 of ,denmark was defeated1 and the intervention failed4 ,the power gained by ,maximilian1 the ,bavarian ,duke1 made his interests separate1 in important particulars1 from those of ,ferdinand4 ,ferdinand was able to release himself from the virtual control of ,maximilian and the ,league1 through ,wallenstein1 a general of extraordinary ability4 ,he was a ,bohemian noble1 proud1 ambitious1 and wealthy4 ,he raised an army1 and made it support itself by pillage4 ,the unspeakable miseries of ,germany1 in this prolonged struggle1 were due largely to the composition of the armies1 which were made up of hirelings of different nations1 whose trade was war1 and who were let loose on an unprotected population4 ,captured cities were given up to the unbridled passions of a fierce and greedy soldiery4 ,germany1 traversed for a whole generation by these organized bands of marauders1 was in many places reduced almost to a desert4 ,,edict ,,of ,,restitution4--,victory attended the arms of ,wallenstein1 and of ,tilly1 a brutal commander1 the general of the ,league4 ,the territory of the ,dukes of ,mecklenburg was given to ,wallenstein as a reward 7#afbi74 ,he was anxious to conquer the ,german towns on the ,baltic4 ,stralsund offered a stubborn resistance1 which he could not overcome4 ,the ,league moved ,ferdinand to the adoption of the ,edict of ,restitution 7#afbi71 which put far off the hope of peace4 ,this edict enforced the parts of the ,peace of ,augsburg which were odious to the ,protestants1 especially the ,ecclesiastical ,reservation 7p4 #daj71 and abrogated the provisions of an opposite tenor4 ,it was evident that the real aim was the entire extinction of ,protestantism4 ,the ,league1 moreover1 induced the emperor to remove ,wallenstein1 of whom they were jealous4 ,the effect of these measures was to rouse the most lukewarm of the ,protestant princes1 including the electors of ,brandenburg and ,saxony1 to a sense of the common danger4 ,it was plain that ,wallenstein was a sacrifice to the ,league1 and to the ambition of ,maximilian of ,bavaria4 ,,second ,,stage ,,in ,,the ,,war 7#afbi-afcb74 ,in the second act of this long drama1 ,gustavus ,adolphus of ,sweden is the hero4 ,his reign is marked by the rise of his country to the height of its power4 ,,events ,,in ,,sweden3 ,,career ,,of ,,gustavus ,,adolphus4--,gustavus ,vasa made the mistake of undertaking to divide power among his four sons4 ,there was a vein of eccentricity1 amounting sometimes to insanity1 in the family4 ,eric ,,xiv4 was hasty and jealous1 imprisoned his brother ,john1 and committed reckless crimes4 ,in #aefi he was himself confined1 and nine years after was secretly put to death4 ,john and another brother1 ,charles of ,sdermanland1 now reigned together4 ,john was favorable to the ,roman-,catholic ,church1 and offended his ,protestant subjects by efforts at union and compromise4 ,moreover1 he unwisely made concessions to the nobles1 and increased the burdens of the peasants4 ,finally1 he wanted to make his son ,sigismund king of ,poland1 a country which1 from its anarchical constitution1 was on the road to ruin4 ,poland was a ,catholic land2 and1 in order to get the crown1 ,sigismund avowed himself a ,catholic4 ,charles1 a strict ,lutheran1 drew to his side all who were hostile to ,john's spirit and policy4 ,on the death of the latter 7#aeib71 ,duke ,charles came into collision with ,sigismund and with the nobles1 whose power depended on his concessions2 and he gained the victory over them 7#aeih74 ,in #afjd the ,diet gave him the crown1 which he wore for seven years4 ,he had to contend against faction1 and to withstand the attacks of ,denmark and of ,russia4 ,in the midst of these troubles he died1 and was succeeded by his son ,gustavus ,adolphus1 then less than eighteen years of age 7#afaa-afcb74 ,he was a well-educated prince1 early familiar with war1 a devoted patriot1 and1 although tolerant in his temper1 was a sincere ,protestant1 after the type of the old ,saxon electors4 ,for eighteen years after his accession1 it had been his aim to control the ,baltic4 ,this had brought him into conflict with ,denmark1 ,poland1 and ,russia4 ,his interposition in the ,german war1 a step which was full of peril to himself1 was regarded by ,brandenburg and ,saxony with jealousy and repugnance4 ,but when the savage troops of ,tilly 7#afca7 sacked and burned ,magdeburg1 the neutral party was driven to side with ,sweden4 ,gustavus defeated ,tilly1 and the advance of his army in the ,south of ,germany prostrated the power of the ,league4 ,the princes regarded the ,swedish king with suspicion3 the cities regarded him with cordiality4 ,whether along with his sagacious and just intentions he connected his own elevation to the rank of ,king of ,rome1 and emperor1 must be left uncertain4 ,ferdinand was obliged to call back ,wallenstein4 ,the battle of ,ltzen1 in #afcb1 was a great defeat of ,wallenstein1 and a grand victory for the ,swedes2 but it cost them the life of their king4 ,,france4--,,the ,,bourbon ,,kings4 ,,henry ,,iv1 #aehi-afaj1 7#b71 m4 ,mary1 daughter of ,francis1 ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany --,,louis ,,xiii1 #afaj-afdc1 m4 ,anne1 daughter of ,philip ,,iii of ,spain4 --,,louis ,,xiv1 #afdc-agae1 m4 ,maria ,theresa1 daughter of ,philip ,,iv of ,spain4 --,louis1 ,dauphin1 d4 #agaa1 m4 ,maria ,anna1 daughter of ,ferdinand ,maria1 ,elector of ,bavaria4 --,louis1 ,duke of ,burgundy1 d4 #agab1 m4 ,mary ,adelaide1 daughter of ,victor ,amadeus ,,ii of ,savoy4 --,,louis ,,xv1 #agae-aggd1 m4 ,mary1 daughter of ,stanislas ,leczinsky1 ,king of ,poland4 --,louis1 ,dauphin1 d4 #agfe1 m ,maria ,josepha1 daughter of ,frederick ,augustus ,,ii of ,poland and ,saxony4 --,,louis ,,xvi1 #aggd-agib 7deposed1 executed #agic71 m4 ,marie ,antoinette1 daughter of ,emperor ,francis ,i4 --,louis1 ,count of ,provence 7,,louis ,,xviii71 #ahad-ahbd4 --,charles1 ,count of ,artois 7,,charles ,x71 #ahbd-ahcj 7deposed71m ,maria ,theresa1 daughter of ,victor ,amadeus ,,iii of ,savoy4 --,francoise 7,mademoiselle de ,blois71 m4 --,philip1 regent1 d4#agbc4 --,louis1 d4 #ageb4 --,louis ,philippe1 d4 #aghe4 --,louis ,philippe 7,egalite71 executed #agic4 --,,louis ,,philippe1 #ahcj-ahdh 7deposed71 m4 ,maria ,amelia1 daughter of ,ferdinand ,i of ,two ,sicilies4 7#b71 ,elizabeth1 daughter of ,charles ,lewis1 ,elector ,palatine4 7#a71 ,henrietta ,maria4 --,philip1 m4 --,henrietta ,maria m4 ,charles ,i of ,england4 ,,third ,,stage ,,in ,,the ,,war 7#afcb-afdh74 ,,france ,,after ,,henry ,,iv4--,after the death of ,gustavus1 in the new phase of the war1 the influence of ,richelieu1 the great minister of ,france1 becomes more and more dominant4 ,germany was in the end doomed to eat the bitter fruits of civil war1 such as spring from foreign interference1 even when it comes in the form of help4 ,henry ,,iv4 had died when he was on the point of directing the power of ,france1 as of old1 against the house of ,hapsburg4 ,the country now fell back for a series of years to a state akin to that under the kings who preceded him1 although it was saved from a long civil war4 ,louis ,,xiii4 7#afaj-afdc7 was a child2 and the queen1 ,mary de ,medici1 who was the regent1 an ,italian woman1 with no earnest principles1 deprived of the counsels of ,sully1 lavished the resources of the crown upon nobles1 who were greedy of place and pelf4 ,at the assembly of the ,states-general in #afad1 nobles1 clergy1 and the third estate were loud in reciprocal accusations4 ,the queen fell under the influence of the ,concinis1 an ,italian waiting-maid and her husband1 the latter of whom she made a marquis and a marshal of ,france4 ,she leagued herself in various ways with ,spain4 ,as the king grew older1 a party rallied about him1 and the marshal was assassinated 7#afag74 ,from that time ,louis was under the influence of a favorite1 the ,duke de ,luynes1 a native ,frenchman1 with whom the nobles were in sympathy4 ,the duke died in #afba4 ,then ,richelieu1 ,bishop of ,lucon 7made a cardinal in #afbb71 a statesman of extraordinary genius1 began his active career in politics1 and after #afbd guided the policy of ,france1 as a sort of ,mayor of the ,palace4 ,louis ,,xiii4 was not personally fond of him1 but felt the need of him4 ,richelieu's aim1 as regards the government of ,france1 was to consolidate the monarchy by bringing the aristocracy into subjection to the king4 ,under him began the process of centralization1 the system of officers appointed and paid by the government1 which was fully developed after the great revolution4 ,he accomplished the overthrow of the ,huguenots as a political organization1 a state within the state4 ,in #afbh ,rochelle1 the last of their towns1 fell into his hands4 ,he was determined to make the civil authority supreme4 ,he resisted interference with its rights on the part of the ,church4 ,the nobles were reduced to obedience by the infliction of severe punishments4 ,the common people were kept under4 ,but the domestic government of ,richelieu made it possible for the selfish and ruinous policy of ,louis ,,xiv4 to arise4 ,the key of his foreign policy was hostility to ,austria and ,spain1 to both branches of the ,hapsburgs4 ,before he took active measures against them1 he had to procure quiet in ,france1 and to provide himself with money and troops4 ,,intervention ,,of ,,richelieu4--,the pretext of ,richelieu for taking part in the ,german war was the alleged ambitious aim of the ,hapsburgs to destroy the independence of other nations4 ,he helped ,gustavus with money2 but the ,swedish king would neither allow him to take territory1 nor to dictate the method of prosecuting the contest4 ,it was agreed that the ,catholic religion as such should not be attacked4 ,oxenstiern1 the ,swedish chancelor1 in the ,heilbronn ,treaty 7#afcc7 adhered to the same policy4 ,,death ,,of ,,wallenstein4--,wallenstein had now become dangerous to the emperor4 ,he negotiated with the ,protestants1 the ,swedes1 and the ,french1 possibly to confront the emperor with the accomplished fact of peace and to claim as a reward the ,palatinate or the ,kingdom of ,bohemia4 ,deprived of his command and declared a traitor1 he was assassinated by some of his officers 7#afcd74 ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,war4--,the imperial victory of ,nordlingen 7#afcd7 made the active assistance of ,france necessary4 ,but it was not until the death of ,bernard of ,weimar1 the foremost general of the ,germans 7#afci71 that ,richelieu found himself at the goal of his efforts4 ,the armies opposed to the emperor were now under the control of the ,french4 ,the character of the war had changed4 ,protestant states were fighting on the imperial side3 the old theological issues were largely forgotten4 ,yet the ,court of ,vienna still clung to the ,edict of ,restitution 7p4 #dbd7 for eight long years1 during which the confused1 frightful warfare was kept up4 ,at last the military reverses of the emperor1 ,ferdinand ,,iii4 7#afcg-afeg71 who1 unlike his father1 was not indisposed to peace1 wrung from him a consent to the necessary conditions4 ,,effects ,,of ,,the ,,war4--,the barbarities of this long war are indescribable4 ,the unarmed people were treated with brutal ferocity4 ,the population of ,germany is said to have diminished in thirty years from twenty to fifty per cent4 ,the population of one city1 ,augsburg1 fell from eighty to eighteen thousand4 ,there were four hundred thousand people in ,wrtemberg3 in #afda only forty-eight thousand were left4 ,in fertile districts1 the destruction of the crops had caused great numbers to perish by famine4 ,it is only in recent years that the number of horned cattle in ,germany has come to equal what it was in #afah4 ,cities1 villages1 castles1 and dwellings innumerable1 had been burned to the ground4 ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,westphalia4--,the ,peace of ,westphalia1 concluded in #afdh1 was a great ,european settlement4 ,it was agreed1 that in ,germany1 whatever might be the faith of the prince1 the religion of each state was to be ,catholic or ,protestant1 according to its position in #afbd1 which was fixed upon as the normal year4 ,in the imperial administration1 the two religions were to be substantially equal4 ,religious freedom and civil equality were extended to the ,calvinists4 ,the empire was reduced to a shadow by giving to the ,diet the power to decide in all important matters1 and by the permission given to its members to make alliances with one another and with foreign powers1 with the futile proviso that no prejudice should come thereby to the empire or the emperor4 ,the independence of ,holland and ,switzerland was acknowledged4 ,sweden obtained the territory about the ,baltic1 in addition to other important places1 and became a member of the ,german ,diet4 ,among the acquisitions of ,france were the three bishoprics1 ,metz1 ,toul1 and ,verdun1 and the landgraviate of ,upper and ,lower ,alsace4 ,thus ,france gained access to the ,rhine4 ,sweden and ,france1 by becoming guarantors of the peace1 obtained the right to interfere in the internal affairs of ,germany4 ,,consequences ,,of ,,the ,,treaty4--,by this treaty1 what was left of central authority in ,germany was destroyed3 the empire existed only in name2 the medival union of empire and papacy was at an end4 ,valuable ,german territories were given up to ambitious neighbors4 ,france had extended her bounds1 and disciplined her troops4 ,sweden had gained what ,gustavus had coveted1 and1 for the time1 was a power of the first class4 ,spain and ,austria were both disabled1 and reduced in rank4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,second ,,stage ,,of ,,the ,,reformation ,,in ,,england3 ,,to ,,the ,,death ,,of ,,elizabeth 7#aedg-afjc74 ,,reign ,,of ,,edward ,,vi4 7#aedg-aeec74--;,henry ,,viii41 with ,parliament1 had determined the order of succession1 giving precedence to ,edward1 his son by ,jane ,seymour1 over the two princesses1 ,mary1 the daughter of ,catherine1 and ,elizabeth1 the daughter of ,anne ,boleyn4 ,edward ,,vi41 who was but ten years old at his accession1 was weak in body1 but was a most remarkable instance of intellectual precocity4 ,the government now espoused the ,protestant side4 ,somerset1 the king's uncle1 was at the head of the regency4 ,the ,six ,articles 7p4 #djg7 were repealed4 ,protestant theologians from the ,continent were taken into the counsels of the ,english prelates1 ,cranmer and ,ridley4 ,under the leadership of ,cranmer1 the ,book of ,common ,prayer was framed1 and the ,articles1 or creed1 composed4 ,the clergy were allowed to marry4 ,the ,anglican ,protestant ,church was fully organized1 but the progress in the ,protestant direction was rather too rapid for the sense of the nation4 ,somerset1 who was fertile in schemes and a good soldier1 invaded ,scotland in order to enforce the fulfilling of the treaty which had promised the young ,princess ,mary of ,scotland to ,edward in marriage4 ,he defeated the ,scots at ,pinkie1 near ,edinburgh2 but the project as to the marriage failed4 ,mary was sent by the ,scots to ,france1 there to become the wife of ,francis ,,ii4 ,land belonging to the ,church was seized by ,somerset to make room for ,somerset ,house4 ,a ,catholic rebellion in ,cornwall and ,devonshire1 provoked by the ,protector's course1 was suppressed with difficulty4 ,the opposition to him on various grounds1 which was led by the ,duke of ,northumberland1 finally brought the ,protector to the scaffold4 ,but ,northumberland proved to be less worthy to hold the protectorate than he1 and labored to aggrandize his relatives4 ,he was one of the nobles who made use of ,protestantism as a means of enriching themselves4 ,he persuaded the young king1 when he was near his end1 to settle the crown1 contrary to what ,parliament had determined1 on ,lady ,jane ,grey1 ,northumberland's daughter-in-law1 a descendant of ,henry's sister4 ,,the ,,reign ,,of ,,mary4--,notwithstanding the ,protector's selfish scheme1 ,mary succeeded to the throne without serious difficulty4 ,northumberland was beheaded as a traitor4 ,an insurrection under ,wyat was put down1 and led to the execution of the unfortunate and innocent ,lady ,jane ,grey4 ,from her birth and all the circumstances of her life1 ,mary was in cordial sympathy with the ,church of ,rome and with ,spain4 ,she proceeded as rapidly as her more prudent advisers1 including her kinsman ,philip ,,ii41 would allow1 to restore the ,catholic system4 ,the married clergy were excluded from their places1 and the ,prayer-,book was abolished4 ,the point where ,parliament showed most hesitation was in reference to the royal supremacy4 ,the nobles were afraid of losing their fields and houses1 which had belonged to the ,church4 ,it was stipulated that the abbey lands1 which were now held by the nobles and gentry as well as by the crown1 should not be given up4 ,personally1 ,mary was inclined to any measure which obligation to the ,catholic religion might dictate4 ,contrary to the general wish of her subjects1 she married ,philip ,,ii4 ,rigorous measures of repression were adopted against the ,protestants4 ,a large number of persons1 eminent for talents and learning1 were put to death on the charge of heresy4 ,among them were the three bishops1 ,cranmer1 ,ridley1 and ,latimer1 who were burned at the stake at ,oxford 7#aeef74 ,gardiner1 ,bonner1 and the rigid advocates of persecution1 had full sway4 ,these severe measures were not popular2 and1 although the queen was not in her natural temper cruel1 they have given her the name of the ,bloody ,mary4 ,each party used coercion when it had the upper hand4 ,a great number of the ,protestant clergy fled to the ,continent4 ,mary sided with ,spain against ,france1 and1 greatly to the disgust of the ,english1 lost ,calais 7#aeeh74 ,pope ,paul ,,iv4 was disposed to press upon ,england the extreme demands of the ,catholic ,reaction4 ,he was1 moreover1 hostile to the ,spanish-,austrian house4 ,there was great fear respecting the confiscated ,church property3 her own share in it1 the queen persuaded ,parliament to allow her to surrender4 ,cardinal ,pole1 a moderate man1 no longer guided her policy4 ,he was deprived of the office of papal legate4 ,general discontent prevailed in the kingdom4 ,the queen herself was dispirited1 and her life ended in anxiety and sorrow4 ,,character ,,of ,,elizabeth 7#aeeh-afjc74--,the nation welcomed ,elizabeth to the throne4 ,her will was as imperious as that of her father4 ,her character was not without marked faults and foibles4 ,she was vain1 unwisely parsimonious1 petulant1 and overbearing1 and evinced that want of truthfulness which was too common among rulers and statesmen at that period4 ,but she had regal virtues1--high courage1 devotion to the public good1 for which she had the strength to sacrifice personal inclinations1 together with the wisdom to choose astute counselors and to adhere to them4 ,her title to the throne was disputed4 ,she had to contend against powerful and subtle adversaries4 ,her defense lay in the mutual jealousy of ,france and ,spain1 and in the determination of ,englishmen not to be ruled by foreigners4 ,her reign was long and glorious4 ,,her ,,religious ,,position4--,in her doctrine1 ,elizabeth was a moderate ,lutheran1 not bitterly averse to the ,church of ,rome1 but1 in accordance with the prevalent ,english feeling which ,henry ,,viii4 represented1 clinging to the royal supremacy4 ,the ,protestant system1 with the ,prayer-,book1 and the hierarchy dependent on the sovereign1 was now restored4 ,,protestantism ,,in ,,scotland4--,in case ,elizabeth's claim to the crown were overthrown1 the next heir would be ,mary1 ,queen of ,scots4 ,her grandmother was the eldest sister of ,henry ,,viii4 ,her claim to the ,english crown was a standing menace to ,elizabeth4 ,when ,mary's father1 ,james ,v41 died 7#aedb71 she was only a few days old4 ,her mother1 ,mary of ,guise1 became regent4 ,the ,reformation had then begun to gain adherents in ,scotland4 ,on the accession of ,elizabeth1 at a time when the religious wars in ,france were about to begin1 the ,scottish regent undertook repressive measures of increased rigor4 ,the principal agent in turning ,scotland to the ,protestant side was ,john ,knox1 an intrepid preacher1 honest1 and rough in his ways1 deeply imbued with the spirit of ,calvinism1 and free from every vestige of superstitious deference for human potentates4 ,he returned from the ,continent in #aeee4 ,many of the turbulent nobles1 partly from conviction and partly from covetousness1 adopted the new opinions4 ,more and more1 however1 ,knox gained a hold upon the common people4 ,his preaching was effective3 one of its natural consequences was an outburst of iconoclasm4 ,even ,philip ,,ii4 was willing to have the nobles helped in the contest with the regent1 ,scotland being the ally of ,france4 ,the queen-regent died in #aefj4 ,the ,presbyterians now had full control1 and ,calvinistic ,protestantism was legally established as the religion of the country4 ,,the ,,queen ,,of ,,scots4--,such was the situation when ,mary1 the young widow of ,francis ,,ii41 came back to ,scotland to assume her crown4 ,a zealous ,catholic1 she undertook to rule a turbulent people among whom the most austere type of ,protestantism was the legal and cherished faith4 ,she had personal charms which ,elizabeth lacked1 but as a sovereign she was wanting in the public virtue which belonged to her rival4 ,mary was quick-witted and full of energy2 but she had been brought up in the court of ,catherine de ,medici1 in an atmosphere of duplicity and lax morals4 ,she had the vices of the ,stuarts1--an extravagant idea of the sacred prerogatives of kings1 a disregard of popular rights1 a willingness to break engagements4 ,her levity1 even if it had been kept within bounds1 would have been offensive to her ,calvinistic subjects4 ,she had at heart the restoration of the ,catholic system4 ,in ,knox she found a vigilant and fearless antagonist1 with so much support among the nobles and the common people that her attempts at coercion1 like her blandishments1 proved powerless4 ,contrary to the wishes and plans of ,elizabeth1 she married ,darnley1 a ,scottish nobleman 7#aefe71 whom1 not without reason1 she soon learned to despise4 ,her half-brother ,murray1 a very able man1 and the other ,protestant nobles1 had been opposed to the match4 ,she allowed herself an innocent1 but unseemly1 intimacy with an ,italian musician1 ,rizzio4 ,with the connivance of her husband1 he was dragged out of her supper-room at ,holyrood1 and brutally murdered by ,ruthven and other conspirators4 ,in #aefg1 the house in which ,darnley was sleeping1 close by ,edinburgh1 was blown up with gunpowder1 and he was killed4 ,whether ,mary was privy to the murder1 or not1 is a point still in dispute4 ,certain it is that she gave her hand in marriage to ,bothwell1 the prime author of the crime4 ,a revolt of her subjects followed4 ,she was compelled to abdicate3 ,murray was made regent1 and her infant son1 ,james ,,vi41 was crowned at ,stirling 7#aefg74 ,escaping from confinement at ,lochleven1 she was defeated at ,langside1 and obliged to fly to ,england for protection4 ,,execution ,,of ,,mary4--,elizabeth had no liking for the new religious system in ,scotland4 ,she hated the necessity of aiding rebels against their sovereign4 ,but there was no alternative4 ,in #aefi the defeat of the ,huguenots in ,france was followed by a ,catholic rebellion in the ,north of ,england4 ,elizabeth was excommunicated by ,pope ,pius ,v4 ,there was a determination to dethrone her1 and to hand over her crown to ,mary4 ,the drift of events was towards a conflict of ,england with ,spain4 ,the ,duke of ,norfolk1 a leader in conspiracy and rebellion1 who acted in concert with ,philip and with ,mary1 was brought to the scaffold 7#aegb74 ,elizabeth secretly aided the revolted subjects of ,philip in the ,netherlands1 as ,philip encouraged the malcontents in ,england and ,ireland4 ,the ,queen of ,scots was the center of the hopes of the enemies of ,england and of ,elizabeth4 ,when her complicity in the conspiracy of ,babington1 which involved a ,spanish invasion and the dethronement and death of ,elizabeth1 was proved1 ,mary1 after having been a captive for nineteen years1 was condemned to death1 and executed 7#aehg7 at ,fotheringay ,castle4 ,,the ,,spanish ,,armada4--,in #aehe ,elizabeth openly sent troops to the ,netherlands under the command of her favorite1 ,leicester4 ,the contest with ,spain was kept up on the sea by bold ,english mariners1 who captured the ,spanish treasure-ships1 and harassed the ,spanish colonies4 ,it was a period of maritime adventure1 when men like ,frobisher1 ,hawkins1 and ,raleigh made themselves famous1 and when ,sir ,francis ,drake sailed around the world4 ,in the course of this voyage1 ,drake had seized from the ,spanish vessels1 and from the settlements on the coast of ,peru and ,chili1 a vast amount of silver and gold4 ,when it was known that ,philip was preparing to invade ,england1 ,drake sailed into the harbor of ,cadiz1 and destroyed the ships and stores there 7#aehg74 ,he burned every ,spanish vessel that he could find4 ,he boasted on his return that he had singed the king of ,spain's beard4 ,philip made ready a mighty naval expedition1 the ,invincible ,armada1 for the conquest of ,england4 ,the fame of it resounded through ,europe4 ,a ,spanish force in the ,netherlands1 under ,parma1 was to coperate with it4 ,in ,england1 there were preparations to meet the attack4 ,catholics and ,protestants were united for the defense of the kingdom4 ,at ,tilbury1 ,queen ,elizabeth reviewed her troops on horseback1 saying to them in a spirited speech1 ,i know ,i have the body but of a weak and feeble woman1 but ,i have the heart and stomach of a king1 and of a king of ,england too4 ,the tempest1 aiding the valor of the ,english seamen1 dispersed the great fleet4 ,no landing was effected1 and the grand enterprise proved a complete failure4 ,only fifty-four out of the one hundred and fifty vessels succeeded in making their way back to ,spain4 ,,monopolies4--,the queen knew how to yield to the people when she saw that they were determined upon a measure4 ,this she did near the close of her reign1 when the ,commons called upon her to put an end to the monopolies which she had been in the habit of granting to individuals whom she specially liked4 ,,the ,,earl ,,of ,,essex4--,the queen had her personal favorites4 ,among them1 ,robert ,dudley1 whom she made the ,earl of ,leicester1 was the one of whom she was most fond4 ,she esteemed him much above his merits4 ,another of her favorites was the young ,earl of ,essex1 who was vain and ambitious4 ,he went in #aeif with ,lord ,howard in an expedition which took and plundered ,cadiz4 ,then he was sent to ,ireland in command of an army4 ,he failed1 and came back to ,england without leave4 ,he made a foolish attempt at insurrection1 was tried for treason1 and convicted2 and ,elizabeth reluctantly signed the warrant for his execution 7#afja74 ,,conquest ,,of ,,ireland4--,after the return of ,essex from ,ireland1 where he had done nothing well1 ,lord ,mountjoy was sent to conquer ,tyrone1 the ,desmonds1 and other ,irish chiefs4 ,it was a long and fierce contest4 ,he succeeded in subduing the country2 but the effect of his conquest was a terrible famine in the ,north1 where the food had been destroyed4 ,at the end of ,elizabeth's reign1 all ,ireland was subject to ,england4 ,,the ,,puritans4--,uniformity in the forms of religious worship was ordained by law in ,england1 and the queen was bent on enforcing it4 ,a ,court of ,high ,commission was established to punish heresy and nonconformity4 ,this policy early brought on a conflict1 not only with the ,roman ,catholics1 but also with the large and growing class of ,protestants who were called ,puritans4 ,these wished to carry the ,reformation farther than it had been carried by the ,tudors in ,england1 and to make the ,english ,church more like the ,calvinistic churches in ,scotland and on the ,continent4 ,they disliked surplices and other vestments worn by the clergy1 which they pronounced badges of popery1 the sign of the cross used in baptism1 and like customs retained in the ,church as established by law4 ,many of them became opposed to the whole prelatical organization4 ,they did not admit the supremacy of the sovereign1 as ,elizabeth claimed it1 in things having to do with the ,church and religion4 ,many of the ,puritans conformed to the existing system of ,church government and worship1 but under a protest and with the hope of seeing it changed4 ,others were nonconformists2 that is1 they did not formally break off from the ,english ,church1 but avoided taking part in the forms of worship of which they disapproved4 ,this class was numerous4 ,a third and smaller class1 the ,independents1 separated from the ,established ,church1 and disbelieved in national churches1 or a national organization of religion1 altogether4 ,they formed religious societies of their own4 ,thus ,english ,protestants were divided among themselves4 ,upon both ,puritans and ,roman ,catholics--upon the latter1 partly on political grounds--severe penalties were inflicted4 ,churchman and ,puritan1 while they agreed substantially in theology1 stood at variance in regard to ,church government and modes of worship4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,the ,,english ,,revolution ,,and ,,the ,,commonwealth 7#afjc-afeh74 ,,james ,i4--,james ,,vi4 of ,scotland1 and ,i4 of ,england1 was the son of ,mary ,stuart and ,darnley4 ,scotland and ,england were now united under one king4 ,he was not wanting in acquirements1 and plumed himself on his knowledge of theology4 ,a conceited pedant1 he was impatient of dissent from his opinions4 ,in ,scotland1 among insubordinate nobles and the ministers of the ,kirk1--who on one occasion went so far as to pull his sleeve when they addressed to him their rebukes1--he had hardly tasted the sweets of regal power4 ,the deference with which the ,english clergy treated him deepened his attachment to their ,church4 ,he had high notions of the divine right of kings4 ,no bishop1 no king1 was his favorite maxim4 ,early1 in the ,hampton ,court ,conference between the bishops and the ,puritans1 over which ,james presided1 he showed his antipathy to the ,puritans4 ,it may be here stated1 that a suggestion there made led to the making of the ,authorized ,version of the ,bible1 for which previous translations1 especially the translation of ,tyndale1 furnished the basis4 ,the king's severity to the ,catholics was the occasion of the ,gunpowder ,plot1 a project that failed1 for blowing up the ,parliament ,house by means of powder placed under it1 to which one ,guy ,fawkes was to apply the match 7#afje74 ,,ireland4--,the ,earl of ,tyrone1 an ,irish chief1 fell into a dispute with the ,english authorities1 and1 with another ,irish earl1 fled to ,spain4 ,the best of their lands in ,ulster were given to ,english and ,scotch colonists4 ,only what was left of the land was granted to the ,irish1 many of whom were dispossessed of their homes4 ,the ,ulster colonies were industrious and prosperous2 but among the natives1 seeds of lasting enmity were sown by this injustice4 ,,james',s ,,foreign ,,policy4--,the nation became imbittered against the king4 ,one grievance was the sale not only of patents of nobility1 but also of monopolies to companies or individuals4 ,this was a continuance of an old abuse4 ,the trial and conviction of ,lord ,bacon1 the ,lord ,chancelor1 who was impeached on the charge of receiving presents which were intended to influence his decisions as a judge1 was one evidence of the corruption of the times1 and of the displeasure occasioned by it4 ,instead of aiding his son-in-law1 ,frederick ,v41 the ,elector ,palatine1 whose dominions had been seized by a ,spanish army sent to aid his enemies1 ,james busied himself with schemes for marrying his son ,charles to the ,infanta1 or ,princess1 ,maria of ,spain1 the sister of ,philip ,,iv4 ,as a part of his truckling to ,spain1 he caused ,sir ,walter ,raleigh to be executed4 ,raleigh1 who had no love for ,spain1 had long been kept in the ,tower on the charge of treason2 but the king1 who wanted gold1 had permitted him to go on a voyage to ,south ,america to seek for it4 ,there1 without his fault1 some of his men had a collision with the ,spaniards1 up the ,orinoco4 ,not having procured any treasure1 he was disposed to attack ,spanish ships2 but the captains with him would not consent4 ,on his return to ,england1 he was again thrown into prison1 and brought to the block4 ,at length the marriage treaty with ,spain1 to the joy of the nation1 was broken off4 ,charles1 it was agreed1 should marry ,henrietta ,maria1 the sister of ,louis ,,xiii41 the king of ,france4 ,the king came to a better understanding with ,parliament1 which had constantly opposed his policy and withstood his arrogant assumption of absolute authority4 ,,charles ,i4 7#afbe-afdi74--;,charles ,i4 in dignity of person far excelled his father4 ,he had more skill and more courage2 but he had the same theory of arbitrary government1 and acted as if insincerity and the breaking of promises were excusable in defense of it4 ,his strife with ,parliament began at once4 ,they would not grant supplies of money without a redress of grievances and the removal of ,buckingham1 the king's favorite4 ,war had begun with ,spain before the close of the last reign4 ,an expedition was now sent to ,cadiz1 but it accomplished nothing4 ,buckingham was impeached2 but before the trial ended1 the king dissolved ,parliament4 ,a year later he went to war with ,france4 ,he was then obliged 7#afbh7 to grant to his third ,parliament their ,petition of ,right1 which condemned his recent illegal doings1--arbitrary taxes and imprisonment1 the billeting of soldiers on householders1 proceedings of martial law4 ,a few months later ,buckingham was assassinated by one ,john ,felton at ,portsmouth4 ,certain taxes called tonnage and poundage1 ,charles continued to levy by his own authority4 ,a patriotic leader and a prominent speaker in the ,house of ,commons was ,sir ,john ,eliot4 ,the king dissolved ,parliament 7#afbi71 and sent ,eliot and two other members of the ,house to prison4 ,no other ,parliament was summoned for eleven years4 ,the king aimed to establish an absolute system of rule such as ,richelieu had built up in ,france4 ,two ministers were employed by him in furthering this policy4 ,one was a layman1 ,wentworth1 ,earl of ,strafford1 who exercised almost unlimited power in the northern counties4 ,the other was ,william ,laud1 ,bishop of ,london and then ,archbishop of ,canterbury 7#afcc71 who undertook to force the ,puritans to conform to all the observances of the ,church4 ,two courts--the ,high ,commission1 before which the clergy were brought2 and the ,star ,chamber1 which was made up from the king's council--were the instruments for carrying out this tyranny4 ,grievous and shameful punishments were inflicted on the victims of it4 ,,john ,,hampden4--,there was need of a fleet4 ,charles1 without asking any grant from ,parliament1 undertook to levy a tax called ship-money in every shire4 ,john ,hampden1 a country gentleman1 refused to pay it4 ,the judges gave a verdict against him1 but he won great applause from patriotic ,englishmen4 ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,long ,,parliament4--,in #afcg ,charles embarked in the foolish enterprise of endeavoring to force the ,english liturgy upon ,scotland4 ,this called out the ,solemn ,league and ,covenant of the ,scots for the defense of ,presbyterianism4 ,for eleven years the king had governed without a ,parliament1 but he needed money4 ,the ,short ,parliament was assembled2 but1 as it refused to obey the king1 it was quickly dissolved4 ,the invasion of the ,scots in #afdj made it necessary for ,charles to assemble that body known as the ,long ,parliament1 one of the most memorable of all legislative assemblies4 ,strafford and ,laud were impeached4 ,strafford1 by a bill of attainder passed by both ,houses1 was condemned and executed 7#afda74 ,it was enacted that the present ,parliament should not be dissolved or prorogued without its own consent1--an act which ,charles reluctantly sanctioned4 ,the ,star ,chamber and ,high ,commission ,courts were abolished4 ,a great ,irish insurrection broke out in ,ulster4 ,it has already been related how ,henry ,,viii4 established in ,ireland his ecclesiastical system2 how1 during ,elizabeth's reign1 there was fierce and incessant war with the ,desmonds1 and other ,anglo-,irish families1 who resisted ,protestantism2 and how ,james ,i41 robbing many ,irish of their lands1 planted in ,ulster numerous ,english and ,scotch ,protestant settlers4 ,these were now massacred in great numbers by the ,irish1 who almost succeeded in seizing ,dublin4 ,parliament would not trust ,charles with an army to use in ,ireland1 fearing that the troops would be used by him to defend his arbitrary government at home4 ,the king came to the ,house of ,commons with a body of armed men1 and made an abortive attempt to seize five members on the charge of resisting his authority1 among whom were ,john ,hampden1 and ,john ,pym1 who was one of the most influential orators on the popular side4 ,a bill was passed excluding the bishops from the ,house of ,lords1 where a majority were for the king4 ,to this ,charles consented1 but he refused to allow ,parliament to control the militia4 ,the ,,civil ,,war3 ,,success ,,of ,,cromwell4--,in ,july1 #afdb1 ,parliament appointed a ,committee of ,public ,safety1 and called out the militia4 ,soon ,charles raised the royal standard at ,nottingham4 ,in the civil war1 on one side were the ,royalists1 who were familiarly styled cavaliers 7that is1 horsemen1 or gentlemen71 and on the other were the ,parliamentarians1 who were nicknamed ,roundheads1 for the reason that the ,puritans did not follow the fashion of allowing their hair to fall in tresses on the shoulders4 ,the ,earl of ,essex1 the ,parliamentary general1 fought an indecisive battle with the king at ,edgehill4 ,charles then made ,oxford his headquarters4 ,early in the war1 two men of spotless character fell1--,hampden1 on the popular side 7#afdc71 and ,lord ,falkland 7#afdc71 who1 not without hesitation1 had joined the ,royalists4 ,the cavalry of ,charles1 under a gallant but rash leader1 ,prince ,rupert1 son of the ,electress ,palatine1 and grandson of ,james ,i41 was specially effective4 ,charles made peace with the ,irish insurgents in order to get their help in fighting ,parliament4 ,parliament united with the ,scots in the ,solemn ,league and ,covenant1 by which there was to be uniformity in religion in ,england1 ,ireland1 and ,scotland4 ,,presbyterians ,,and ,,independents4--,presbyterianism was now made the legal system2 and about two thousand beneficed clergymen in ,england1 who refused to subscribe to the ,covenant1 were deprived of their livings4 ,the ,westminster ,assembly met in #afdc1 and organized a church system without bishops and without the liturgy4 ,but ,parliament did not give up its own supremacy in ecclesiastical affairs4 ,there was no ,general ,assembly to rule the ,church1 as in ,scotland4 ,another party1 the ,independents1 were gaining strength1 and by degrees getting control in the army4 ,of their number was ,oliver ,cromwell1 a gentleman of ,huntingdonshire1 who had been a member of the ,house of ,commons1 where he spoke for the first time in #afbi4 ,,cromwell3 ,,naseby4--,by many of his adversaries1 and by numerous writers since that day1 ,cromwell has been considered a hypocrite in religion1 actuated by personal ambition4 ,the ,puritan poet1 ,john ,milton1 who became his secretary after he acquired supreme power1 gives to him the warmest praise for integrity and piety1 as well as for genius and valor4 ,of his religious earnestness after the ,puritan type1 and of his sincere patriotism1 there is at present much less doubt4 ,as to the transcendent ability and sagacity that lay beneath a rugged exterior1 there has never been any question4 ,he raised and trained a regiment of ,puritan troops1 called the ,ironsides1 who were well-nigh invincible in battle1 but whose camp was a conventicle for prayer and praise4 ,with their help1 the ,royalists were defeated at ,marston ,moor 7#afdd74 ,the army was now modeled anew by the ,independents4 ,the ,self-denying ,ordinance excluded members of ,parliament from military command4 ,cromwell was made an exception4 ,he came to the front1 with no other general except ,fairfax1 who had replaced ,essex1 above him4 ,laud was condemned for high treason by an ordinance of ,parliament1 and beheaded 7#afde74 ,the ,royalist army experienced a crushing defeat at ,naseby in ,june of the same year4 ,,trial ,,and ,,execution ,,of ,,charles4--,charles surrendered to the army of the ,scots before ,newark 7#afdf72 and by them he was delivered for a ransom1 in the form of an indemnity for war expenses1 to their ,english allies4 ,the king hoped much from the growing discord between the ,presbyterians1 who favored an accommodation with him if they could preserve their ecclesiastical system2 and the ,independents1 who controlled the army1 and were in favor of toleration1 and of obtaining more guaranties of liberty against regal usurpation4 ,in ,june1 #afdg1 the army took the king out of the hands of ,parliament1 into their own custody4 ,he negotiated with all parties1 and was trusted by none4 ,in #afdh he agreed1 in a secret treaty with the ,scots1 to restore ,presbyterianism4 ,there were ,royalist risings in different parts of ,england1 which ,cromwell suppressed4 ,he defeated at ,preston ,pans a ,scotch army1 led into ,england by the ,duke of ,hamilton to help ,charles4 ,cromwell's army were now determined to baffle the plans of the ,parliamentary majority4 ,col4 ,pride1 with a regiment of foot1 excluded from the ,house of ,commons about a hundred members4 ,this measure1 dictated by a council of officers1 was called ,pride's ,purge4 ,the ,commons closed the ,house of ,lords1 and constituted a ,high ,court of ,justice for the trial of the king4 ,he refused to acknowledge the tribunal1 and behaved with calmness and dignity to the end4 ,he was condemned1 and beheaded on a scaffold before his own palace at ,whitehall1 ,jan4 #cj1 #afdi4 ,by one party he was execrated as a tyrant1 whose life was a constant danger to freedom4 ,by the other party he was revered as a martyr4 ,his two eldest sons were ,charles1 born in #afcj1 and ,james1 born in #afcc4 ,,the ,,commonwealth4--,the monarchy was now abolished2 and ,england was a free commonwealth1 governed by the ,house of ,commons4 ,a council of state1 under the presidency of ,bradshaw1 who had presided at the trial of the king1 was appointed to carry on the government4 ,in ,ireland1 a rebellion in behalf of young ,charles1 son of the late king1 was organized by ,butler1 ,marquis of ,ormond 7#afdi74 ,in nine months ,cromwell subdued it1 treating the insurgents with unsparing severity4 ,there was a savage massacre of the garrisons at ,drogheda and ,wexford4 ,the massacre at ,drogheda was by his orders4 ,soldiers of ,parliament were settled in ,munster1 ,leinster1 and ,ulster4 ,the country was reduced to complete subjection4 ,in #afej ,charles landed in ,scotland1 subscribed to the ,covenant1 and was proclaimed king4 ,cromwell fought the ,scots at ,dunbar1 and totally routed them4 ,returning to ,england1 he overtook ,charles and his army at ,worcester1 and defeated them 7#afea74 ,cromwell called this victory a crowning mercy4 ,charles escaped in disguise1 and1 after strange perils and adventures1 landed in ,normandy4 ,,war ,,with ,,holland4--,england1 under its new government1 engaged in a contest for dominion on the sea4 ,the new order of things1 contrary to the expectation of ,cromwell1 was regarded with hostility in ,holland1 where the ,orange family were in power4 ,in #afea the ,english ,navigation ,act1 requiring all goods from abroad to be brought in1 either in ,english ships1 or in ships of the countries on the ,continent in which the imported wares were produced1 struck a heavy blow at ,dutch commerce4 ,war followed1 in which the great ,dutch admirals1 ,van ,tromp1 ,de ,ruyter1 ,de ,witt1 found more than a match in the ,english commander1 ,blake4 ,the terms of peace were dictated by ,cromwell1 and ,holland had to attach itself to his policy 7#afed74 ,,the ,,lord ,,protector4--,there was a growing discord between the unworthy remnant of the ,parliament--now called the ,rump ,parliament--and the army4 ,in #afec ,cromwell used his military force to dissolve the assembly4 ,by the ,little ,parliament which he called together1 he was constituted ,lord ,protector1 with a ,council of ,state composed of twenty-five members4 ,later he declined the title of king1 out of respect to the feelings and prejudices of his party4 ,but he reigned in state1 and exercised regal functions4 ,his attempts to restore the old forms of parliamentary government1 in an orderly form1 with two houses1 were baffled by difficulties beyond control4 ,he insisted on a large degree of toleration1 so long as religion was not made a pretense for arms and blood4 ,,cromwell',s ,,government4--,under the ,protector1 ,england once more took the proud and commanding place in ,europe which she had not held since the death of ,elizabeth4 ,cromwell made his power to be everywhere respected4 ,blake chastised the pirates of the ,barbary ,states1 and punished the ,duke of ,tuscany for attacks on ,english commerce4 ,in #afee ,jamaica was wrested from ,spain2 and1 two years after1 ,blake burned the ,spanish treasure-ships in the harbor of ,santa ,cruz1 in ,teneriffe4 ,cromwell efficiently protected the adherents of the ,protestant faith in ,piedmont1 and wherever they were subjected to persecution4 ,in the last year of his life1 in conjunction with the ,french1 he took ,dunkirk from the ,spaniards4 ,,power ,,of ,,cromwell4--,cromwell's power was not diminished in his closing years4 ,macaulay1 who pronounces him the greatest prince that ever ruled ,england1 says of him1 ,it is certain that he was to the last honored by his soldiers1 obeyed by the whole population of the ,british ,isles1 and dreaded by all foreign powers2 that he was laid among the ancient sovereigns of ,england with funeral pomp such as ,england had never before seen2 and that he was succeeded by his son1 ,richard as quietly as any king had ever been succeeded by any ,prince of ,wales4 7#afeh74 ,the talents of ,cromwell1 and the vigor of his administration1 deeply impressed those who heartily disliked him4 ,a strong illustration of this fact is presented in the character of the ,protector as depicted by ,lord ,clarendon1 in the ,history of the ,great ,rebellion2 and by the poet ,cowley in his essay or ,discourse4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,colonization ,,in ,,america3 ,,asiatic ,,nations2 ,,culture ,,and ,,literature 7#aeag-afdh74 ,,colonization ,,in ,,america4 ,the ,european nations kept up their religious and political rivalship in exploring and colonizing the ,new ,world4 ,,french ,,explorers4--,the ,french and ,english sent their fishermen to the coasts of ,newfoundland and ,nova ,scotia4 ,french fishermen from ,breton gave its name to ,cape ,breton4 ,francis ,i4 sent out ,verrazano1 an ,italian sailor1 who is thought to have cruised along the coast of ,north ,america from ,cape ,fear northward 7#aebd74 ,later1 ,jacques ,cartier explored the ,st4 ,lawrence as far as the site of ,montreal 7#aece72 other expeditions followed1 and thus was founded the claim of the ,french to that region4 ,,spanish ,,explorers4--,the ,spaniards brought negroes from the coast of ,africa to the ,west ,indies1 to take the place of the ,indians2 and thus the slave-trade and negro slavery were established4 ,they gave the name of ,florida to a vast region stretching from the ,atlantic to ,mexico1 and from the ,gulf of ,mexico to an undefined limit in the ,north4 ,from ,tampa ,bay1 in what we now call ,florida1 they sent into this unexplored region an expedition under ,narvaez 7#aebh72 and afterwards1 on the same track1 another party led by ,hernando de ,soto 7#aeci71 which made its way to the ,mississippi near the present site of ,vicksburg4 ,tempted by tales of rich cities1 ,coronado led an army to the conquest of the pueblos of the south-west4 ,he penetrated as far as the boundary of the present ,nebraska4 ,,contest ,,in ,,florida4--,the great ,huguenot leader1 ,coligny1 made three attempts to found ,huguenot settlements in ,america4 ,he wanted to provide for them an asylum1 and to extend the power of ,france4 ,one company went to ,brazil1 and failed2 a second perished at ,port ,royal in ,florida2 a third 7#aefd7 built ,fort ,caroline on the shores of the ,st4 ,john4 ,this last company was mercilessly slaughtered by ,menendez1 the leader of a ,spanish expedition which founded ,st4 ,augustine 7#aefe71 the oldest town in the ,united ,states4 ,the act was avenged by the massacre of the ,spanish settlers at ,fort ,caroline1 by ,dominique de ,gourgues and the ,french company that came over with him4 ,,english ,,voyages4--,the ,english1 full of zeal for maritime discovery1 tried to find a north-west passage to ,asia4 ,this was attempted by ,martin ,frobisher1 a sea-captain1 from whom ,frobisher's ,strait takes its name4 ,after him followed ,john ,davis1 who gave his name also to a strait4 ,as the ,english grew stronger and bolder on the water1 they ceased to avoid a contest with ,spain4 ,in #aegg ,sir ,francis ,drake set out from the harbor of ,plymouth on his voyage around the globe4 ,the defeat of the ,spanish ,armada occurred in #aehh2 and after that the ,english felt themselves to be stronger than their old adversary4 ,,gilbert ,,and ,,raleigh4--,sir ,humphrey ,gilbert1 in #aehc1 took possession of ,newfoundland in the name of the queen of ,england4 ,walter ,raleigh1 his half-brother1 on his voyage in #aehd1 visited ,roanoke ,island1 and named the whole country between the ,french and the ,spanish possessions1 ,virginia1 in honor of the ,virgin ,queen1 ,elizabeth4 ,a colony which he sent out to ,roanoke 7#aehe7 failed1 and a second settlement had no better result4 ,bartholomew ,gosnold landed on ,cape ,cod1 and cruised along the neighboring coast 7#afjb74 ,,the ,,french ,,in ,,canada4--,in #afjc ,champlain1 a ,french gentleman1 sailed to ,canada1 whither the fur-trade enticed explorers4 ,a few years later he founded ,quebec 7#afjh71 and explored the country as far as ,lake ,huron4 ,the ,jesuit missionaries commenced their efforts to convert the ,indian tribes1 in which they evinced an almost unparalleled fortitude and perseverance4 ,the ,huron and ,algonquin ,indians helped ,champlain gain a victory over the hostile and warlike ,iroquois1 who afterwards hated the ,french4 ,the ,french occupants of the country of the ,st4 ,lawrence devoted themselves too exclusively to trading1 and too little to the tilling of the ground and to the forming of a community4 ,,the ,,dutch ,,settlements4--,the ,dutch were as eager as the other maritime powers to find a passage to ,india4 ,in #afji an ,english captain in their service1 ,henry ,hudson1 balked in this endeavor1 sailed up the river now called by his name4 ,the next year1 being in the service of an ,english company1 he discovered ,hudson's ,bay4 ,amsterdam traders established themselves on the island of ,manhattan 7an ,indian name72 which led to the formation of the ,new ,netherlands ,company1 by whom a fort 7,orange7 was built at the place afterwards called ,albany 7#afae74 ,the ,west ,india ,company followed 7#afba71 with authority over ,new ,netherlands1 as the country was called4 ,the powerful land-owners were styled patroons4 ,their territory reached to ,delaware ,bay2 and they had a trading-post on the ,connecticut1 on the site of the present city of ,hartford4 ,in #afcg the ,swedes made a settlement at the mouth of the ,delaware ,river1 but in #afee they were subdued by the ,dutch4 ,,settlement ,,of ,,virginia4--,the ,virginia ,company1 divided into two branches1--the ,london ,company1 having control in the ,south1 and the ,plymouth ,company1 having control in the ,north1--received its patent of privileges from ,james ,i4 7#afjf74 ,a settlement by the ,plymouth ,company on the ,kennebec ,river 7#afjg7--the ,popham ,colony--was given up4 ,in #afjg ,jamestown in ,virginia1 as the name ,virginia is now applied1 was settled4 ,a majority of the first colonists were gentlemen not wonted to labor4 ,the military leader was ,capt4 ,john ,smith1 whose life1 according to his own account1 was spared by ,powhatan1 an ,indian chief4 ,powhatan's daughter ,pocahontas married ,rolfe1 an ,englishman4 ,the ,jamestown colony seemed likely to become extinct1 when1 in #afaj1 ,lord ,delaware arrived with fresh supplies and colonists4 ,he was the first of a series of governors who ruled with almost unlimited authority4 ,but the colony grew to be more independent1 and in sympathy with the popular party in ,england4 ,in #afai the ,house of ,burgesses first met1 which brought in government by the people4 ,at this time negroes began to be imported from ,africa1 and sold as slaves4 ,,the ,,pilgrim ,,settlement4--,the first permanent settlement in ,new ,england was made at ,plymouth in #afbj1 by a company of ,english ,christians1 who landed from the ,mayflower4 ,they were ,puritans of that class called ,independents1 who had separated from the ,english ,church1 and did not believe in any national church organization4 ,the emigrants left ,leyden1 in ,holland1 where they had lived for some time in exile1 and where the remainder of their congregation remained under the guidance of a learned and able pastor1 ,john ,robinson4 ,in the harbor of ,provincetown1 they agreed to a compact of government4 ,their civil polity was republican2 their church polity was ,congregational4 ,they endured with heroic and pious fortitude the severities of the first winter1 when half of their number died4 ,their military leader was ,capt4 ,miles ,standish4 ,in their dealings with the ,indians1 they were equally just and brave4 ,,settlement ,,of ,,massachusetts4--,somewhat different in its origin and character from the ,pilgrim settlement at ,plymouth1 was the other ,puritan settlement of ,massachusetts4 ,the emigrants to ,massachusetts were not separatists from the ,church of ,england1 but more conservative ,puritans who desired1 however1 many ecclesiastical changes which they could not obtain at home4 ,both classes of settlers1 transferred to ,new ,england1 found no difficulty in agreeing in religious matters2 for when left free1 they desired about the same things4 ,but at ,plymouth there was more toleration for religious dissent than in the later colony4 ,in #afbi certain ,london merchants formed a corporation called the ,governor and ,company of the ,massachusetts ,bay in ,new ,england1 and received a charter directly from ,charles ,i4 ,they sent out ,john ,endicott to be governor of a settlement already formed at ,salem4 ,charles had dissolved ,parliament1 and was beginning the experiment of absolutism4 ,the new company was strengthened by the accession of a large number of ,puritan gentlemen who were anxious to emigrate4 ,they resolved to transfer the company and its government to the shores of ,america4 ,john ,winthrop was chosen governor1 and in #afcj landed at ,charlestown with a large body of settlers4 ,winthrop and his associates soon removed to the peninsula of ,boston4 ,the new colony was well provided with artisans4 ,soon ships began to be built4 ,in #afcf a college1 named in #afci1 in honor of a benefactor1 ,harvard1 was founded at ,cambridge4 ,at first all the voters met together to choose their rulers and frame their laws4 ,as the towns increased in number1 a ,general ,court1 or legislative assembly1 was established by the colony1 in which each town was represented4 ,each town had its church1 and only church-members voted4 ,the ,general ,court superintended the affairs of both town and church4 ,the political troubles in ,england stimulated emigration4 ,within ten years1 about twenty thousand ,englishmen1 mainly ,puritans1 crossed the ,atlantic1 and took up their abode in ,new ,england4 ,in the ecclesiastical system each church was self-governing1 except as the ,general ,court was over all4 ,there were no bishops1 and the liturgy was dispensed with in worship4 ,,settlement ,,of ,,connecticut4--,after the ,dutch had built a trading-post on the site of ,hartford1 people from ,plymouth formed a settlement at ,windsor1 on the ,connecticut1 six miles above4 ,from ,boston and its neighborhood1 there was a migration which settled ,hartford4 ,in #afcg the three towns of ,windsor1 ,wethersfield1 and ,hartford became the distinct colony of ,connecticut4 ,a colony led by the younger ,john ,winthrop1 under a patent given to ,lord ,say and ,sele and ,lord ,brook1 drove away the ,dutch from the mouth of the ,connecticut1 and settled ,saybrook 7#afce74 ,this colony was afterwards united with the ,connecticut colony4 ,a third colony was established at ,new ,haven 7#afch71 which had an independent existence until #affb4 ,,settlement ,,of ,,rhode ,,island1 ,,of ,,new ,,hampshire1 ,,and ,,of ,,maine4--,roger ,williams1 a minister who was not allowed to live in ,massachusetts1 on account of his differences with the magistrates1 was the founder of ,rhode ,island 7#afcf74 ,he held that the ,state should leave matters of religious opinion and worship to the conscience of the individual1 and confine government to secular concerns4 ,this was not the view of the ,puritans generally2 and the incoming of dissenters from their religious and political system made them afraid that the colony would be broken up1 or fall into disorder4 ,williams1 in most of his qualities a noble man1 obtained a patent for his government1 which was framed in accordance with his liberal ideas4 ,on lands granted by the ,plymouth ,company to ,sir ,ferdinando ,gorges1 settlements were made in ,new ,hampshire and in ,maine 7#afbc74 ,a line between the two was drawn in #afca2 ,gorges taking the territory on the east of the ,piscataqua ,river1 and ,capt4 ,john ,mason taking the remainder4 ,,virginia4--,after #afbd the king appointed the governor in ,virginia1 which1 however1 had its own assembly4 ,the colony grew rapidly1 its chief export being tobacco4 ,the people lived on their estates or plantations1 employing indented servants and negro slaves4 ,,maryland4--,maryland was founded by ,george ,calvert1 ,lord ,baltimore1 a ,roman ,catholic1 to whom ,charles ,i4 granted a charter 7#afcb74 ,the first settlement was made by ,calvert's sons1 after his death4 ,they planted a colony near the mouth of the ,potomac4 ,the ,calverts sent out both ,puritans and ,roman ,catholics1 and secured the safety of the adherents of their own faith by the grant of toleration to the ,protestants4 ,under ,cromwell1 a ,puritan governor was appointed by ,lord ,baltimore 7#afdi74 ,there were boundary disputes with ,virginia2 and ,clayborne1 a ,puritan and a ,virginian1 at one time got control of the government1 which the ,calverts regained under ,charles ,,ii4 7#affj74 ,,new ,,england3 ,,new ,,york4--,during the war between king and ,parliament in ,england1 the ,puritan colonies were in sympathy with the popular party1 but were cautious in their avowals4 ,they took great pains to prevent the king1 and later the ,parliament under the ,commonwealth1 from taking away their self-government4 ,the ,english navigation acts1 which forbade them to use foreign ships for their trade and forced them to send nearly all their products to ,english ports1 were a grievance to them4 ,the rivalries of the ,english and the ,dutch gave the colonists a chance to expel the ,dutch from ,connecticut4 ,charles ,,ii4 at length conquered ,new ,netherland1 and ceded this territory to his brother1 the ,duke of ,york1 afterwards ,james ,,ii4 ,new ,amsterdam became ,new ,york1 and ,fort ,orange became ,albany4 ,in #afgd the country was formally ceded to ,england by ,holland4 ,,the ,,indians4--,when ,america was discovered1 ,mexico1 ,central ,america1 and ,peru were empires1 to a considerable degree civilized4 ,relics taken from the mounds of the ,ohio and ,mississippi valleys indicate1 also1 that races somewhat advanced in culture had once dwelt in those regions4 ,the most of both continents was inhabited by very numerous tribes of ,indians1 who were savages1 with the ordinary virtues and vices of savage life4 ,they were brave and patient1 but indolent1 treacherous1 and implacable4 ,there was an immense variety of dialects among them1 yet there are traces of a common original unity of language4 ,the tribes had no fixed boundaries1 but roamed over extensive hunting-grounds4 ,the ,iroquois1 or the ,six ,nations1 occupied central ,new ,york from the ,hudson to the ,genesee4 ,the ,algonquins were spread over nearly all the rest of the country on the east of the ,mississippi ,river1 and north of ,north ,carolina4 ,the ,creeks1 ,choctaws1 and ,chickasaws were in the ,south4 ,,the ,,whites ,,and ,,the ,,red ,,men4--,it was fortunate for the settlers of ,new ,england1 that1 before their arrival1 the ,indians had been much reduced in numbers by pestilence4 ,sometimes they were treated wisely and humanely1 and efforts were made by noble men like ,john ,eliot 7#afjd-afij71 who has been called the ,apostle to the ,indians1 to teach and civilize them4 ,but this spirit was not always shown by the whites1 and wrongs done by an individual are avenged by savages upon his race4 ,the first important conflict between the ,english and the ,indians was the ,pequot ,war 7#afcf71 when the ,english1 helped by the ,narragansetts1 who were under the influence of ,roger ,williams1 crushed the ,pequots1 who were a dangerous tribe4 ,a league between the ,new-,england colonies1 for mutual counsel and aid1 followed 7#afdc74 ,into this league1 ,massachusetts would not allow ,rhode ,island1 whose constitution was disliked1 to be admitted4 ,there were to be two commissioners to represent each colony in common meetings4 ,,science1 ,,philosophy1 ,,literature4 ,,astronomy4--,in this period wonderful progress was made in astronomy4 ,copernicus1 a ,german or ,polish priest 7#adgc-aedc71 detected the error of the ,ptolemaic system1 which made not the sun1 but the earth1 the center of the solar system4 ,thus a revolution was made in that science4 ,tycho ,brahe1 a ,danish astronomer 7#aedf-afja71 was a most accurate and indefatigable observer1 although he did not adopt the ,copernican theory4 ,his pupil ,kepler 7#aega-afcj7 discovered those great principles respecting the orbits and motions of the planets1 which are called the ,laws of ,kepler4 ,galileo 7#aefd-afdb71 the ,italian scientist1 in addition to important discoveries in mechanics1 with the telescopes1 which his ingenuity had constructed1 discerned the moons of ,jupiter1 and made other striking discoveries in the heavens4 ,in promulgating the ,copernican doctrine1 he incurred the displeasure of ecclesiastics1 and was driven by the ,inquisition to renounce his opinion4 ,it was reserved for ,sir ,isaac ,newton 7#afdc-agbg7 to discover the law of gravitation4 ,,jurisprudence4--,in jurisprudence1 the ,roman law was more and more studied in universities4 ,in political science1 ,bodin1 a learned ,frenchman 7#aecj-aeif71 wrote a work on the ,state1 advocating a strong monarchy4 ,in the ,netherlands1 ,hugo ,grotius 7#aehc-afde71 a great jurist and scholar1 was one of the principal founders of the science of ,international ,law4 ,an eminent expounder of natural and international law in ,germany was ,pufendorf 7#afcb-afid74 ,,historical ,,writings4--,in history1 ,sleidan1 a ,german 7#aejf-aeef71 and later a learned statesman1 ,seckendorf 7#afbf-afib71 wrote histories of the ,reformation4 ,de ,thou1 a ,frenchman 7#aeec-afag71 wrote a valuable history of his own times4 ,grotius described the war for independence in the ,netherlands4 ,church history1 on the ,protestant side1 was written by a company of authors called the ,magdeburg ,centuriators2 and on the ,catholic side1 in the ,annals of ,baronius 7who died in #afjg74 ,in the ,tower of ,london1 ,sir ,walter ,raleigh employed himself in writing a ,history of the ,world1 remarkable1 if not for its researches1 for passages of noble eloquence4 ,in ,italy1 historians followed in the path opened by ,machiavelli1 through his ,discourses on ,livy and his ,florentine ,history4 ,davila 7#aegf-afca7 composed a narrative of the ,civil ,wars in ,france1 and the ,cardinal ,bentivoglio wrote the history of the ,civil ,war in the ,netherlands4 ,sarpi1 a keen ,venetian1 of much independence of thought1 related the history of the ,council of ,trent1 which was followed by a history of the same ,council by the more orthodox ,pallavicini4 ,in ,spain1 there was at least one historian of superior value1 ,mariana1 who composed a history of his own country4 ,,medicine4--,medicine felt the benefit of the revival of learning4 ,hippocrates and ,galen were studied1 and were translated into ,latin4 ,paracelsus1 a ,german physician 7#adic-aeda71 besides broaching various theories more or less visionary1 advanced the science on the chemical side1 introducing certain mineral remedies4 ,vesalius1 a native of ,brussels 7#aead-aefd71 who became chief physician of ,charles ,v4 and ,philip ,,ii41 dissected the human body1 and produced the first comprehensive and systematic view of anatomy4 ,in the sixteenth century clinical instruction was introduced into hospitals4 ,harvey1 an ,english physician 7#aegh-afeg71 discovered the circulation of the blood4 ,in the seventeenth century activity in medical study was shown by the rise of various discordant systems4 ,,philosophy4--,in philosophy1 ,aristotle continued to be the master in the most conservative schools1 where the old ways of thinking were cherished4 ,his ethical doctrines were especially attacked by ,luther4 ,giordano ,bruno1 an ,italian1 not without genius1 promulgated a theory of pantheism1 which identified the ,deity with the world4 ,he wandered from land to land1 was a vehement assailant of received religious views1 and was burned at the stake at ,rome 7#afjj74 ,in some gifted minds1 the conflict of doctrinal systems1 and the influence of the ,renaissance1 engendered skepticism4 ,montaigne 7#aecc-aeib71 the genial essayist on men and manners1 the ,plutarch of ,france1 is an example of this class4 ,the opposition to ,aristotle and to the schoolmen found a great leader in the ,english philosopher1 ,francis ,bacon 7#aefa-afbf74 ,the influence of ,lord ,bacon was more in stimulating to the use of the inductive method1 the method of observation1 than in any special value belonging to the rules laid down for it4 ,he pointed out the path of fruitful investigation4 ,hobbes 7#aehh-afgi71 an ,english writer1 propounded1 in his ,leviathan 7#afea7 and in other writings1 his theory of the absolute authority of the king1 and the related doctrine that right is founded on the necessity of a common power1 if the desires are to be gratified1 and if endless destructive contention is to be avoided4 ,from the epoch of ,bacon1 the natural and physical sciences acquire a new importance4 ,in metaphysical science1 the modern epoch dates from ,descartes 7#aeif-afej71 born in ,france1 who insisted that philosophy must assume nothing1 but must start with the proposition1 ,i think1 therefore ,i am4 ,before1 philosophy had been the handmaid of theology4 ,it had taken for granted a body of beliefs respecting ,god1 man1 and the world4 ,descartes was a theist4 ,spinoza 7#afcb-afgg71 of ,jewish extraction1 born in ,holland1 is the founder of modern pantheism4 ,he taught that there is but one substance2 that ,god and the world--the totality of things--are the manifestation of one impersonal being4 ,,literature ,,in ,,italy4--,in ,italy1 among many authors in different departments of poetry1 ,tasso 7#aedd-aeie71 the author of the epic ,jerusalem ,delivered1 is the most eminent4 ,in it1 the classic and the romantic styles are combined2 the spirit of the ,middle ,ages blends with the unity and harmony of ,homer and ,virgil4 ,in the seventeenth century1 under the hard ,spanish rule1 the literary spirit in ,italy was chilled4 ,,literature ,,in ,,spain ,,and ,,portugal4--,in ,spain1 it was poetry and the drama that chiefly flourished4 ,other sorts of literary activity were stifled with the extinction of liberty4 ,lope de ,vega 7#aefb-afce71 one of the most facile and marvelous of all poets1 the author of twenty-two hundred dramas1--was the precursor of a school4 ,after him came ,calderon 7#afjj-afha71 who carried the ,spanish drama to its perfection4 ,early in the seventeenth century ,cervantes published the classic tale of ,don ,quixote1 to render abhorred of men the false and absurd stories contained in books of chivalry1 an end which he accomplished4 ,mariana's 7#aecf-afbc7 vivid and interesting ,history of ,spain was continued in a less attractive style by ,sandoval4 ,herrera 7#aedi-afbe7 composed a ,general ,history of the ,indies4 ,other works relating to the ,new ,world and the ,spanish conquests were written4 ,in the production of proverbs1 the ,spanish mind is without a rival4 ,not the least of the bad effects of the despotic system of ,philip ,,ii4 was the decay of literature4 ,the most celebrated writer of ,portugal is the poet ,camoens 7#aebd-aegi71 who1 in his epic the ,lusiad1 has treated of the glorious events in the history of his country1 giving special prominence to the discovery by ,vasco da ,gama of the passage to ,india4 ,,literature ,,in ,,france4--,in ,france1 with the exception of ,montaigne1 it was ,rabelais 7#adie-aeec71 a physician1 philosopher1 and humorist1 who1 notwithstanding his profanity and obscenity1 was the most popular author of his day1 and who well represents the tone of the ,renaissance in that country4 ,ronsard 7#aebd-aehe71 an imitator of the ,latins and ,greeks1 was the favorite poet of ,mary1 ,queen of ,scots4 ,in the first half of the seventeenth century the light literature of the ,french is ruled by fashion1 and is void of serious feeling4 ,in this time the literary societies of ,france take their rise4 ,madame de ,rambouillet 7#aehh-affe71 a lady of ,italian birth1 set the example in establishing such reunions4 ,she made her hotel a resort for writers and politicians4 ,being an invalid1 she kept her bed1 which was placed in an alcove of the salon where she received her visitors4 ,,literature ,,in ,,england4--,in ,england1 in the age of ,elizabeth1 there is a galaxy of great authors in prose and verse4 ,the events and debates of the ,reformation1 the voyages and geographical discoveries of the period1 gave a powerful quickening to thought and imagination4 ,the ,renaissance culture1 which made familiar the stories of ,greek and ,roman mythology1 and the romantic tales and poetry of ,italy and ,spain1 was potent in its effect4 ,some of the numerous theological writers1 as ,bishop ,hall 7#aegd-afef71 ,jeremy ,taylor 7#afac-affg71 and ,richard ,hooker 7#aeec-afjj71 have gained a high place in general literature4 ,bacon1 apart from his philosophical writings1 towers above almost all his contemporaries in the field of letters4 ,the chivalrous ,sir ,philip ,sidney 7#aeed-aehf7 wrote the pastoral romance of ,arcadia4 ,burton 7#aegf-afdj71 the author of ,the ,anatomy of ,melancholy1 and ,sir ,thomas ,brown1 who published 7#afdb7 the ,religio ,medici 7the religion of a physician7 and1 at a later date1 the ,urn ,burial1 are quaint and original authors4 ,the merit of ,shakspeare 7#aefd-afaf7 is so exalted and unique that he almost eclipses even the greatest names4 ,the ,english drama did not heed what are called the classic unities of time and place1 which limit the action of a play to a brief duration and a contracted area4 ,other celebrated dramatic writers are ,beaumont 7#aehf-afae7 and ,fletcher 7#aegi-afbe71 who wrote many plays jointly2 ,ben ,jonson 7#aegd-afcg71 and ,massinger 7#aehd-afdj74 ,the imaginative poetry which is not dramatic1 in this period1 begins with ,spenser 7#aeec-aeii71 whose ,farie ,queene is a poem of chivalry2 and it ends with ,milton 7#afjh-afgd71 the ,puritan poet1 imbued with the culture of the ,renaissance1 whose majesty and beauty place him almost on a level1 at least in the esteem of readers of the ,english race1 with ,dante4 ,among the religious poets is ,george ,herbert 7#aeic-afce74 ,one of the most famous of the lyric authors was the last of them1 ,cowley 7#afah-affg74 ,,literature ,,in ,,germany4--,in ,germany1 the great literary product of this period was ,luther's translation of the ,bible4 ,the immediate effect of the controversy in religion was not favorable to the cause of letters4 ,attention was engrossed by theological inquiries and discussion4 ,but in most of the countries1 in the department of theology1 preachers and writers of much ability and learning appeared on both sides of the controversy4 ,biblical study and historical researches were of necessity fostered by the exigencies of religious debate4 ,,asiatic ,,nations4 ,i4 ,,china4 ,,the ,,jesuit ,,missions4--,the ,ming dynasty continued in power in ,china until #afdd4 ,about the middle of the sixteenth century the ,portuguese came to the island of ,macao1 and commercial relations began between ,china and ,europe4 ,they brought opium into ,china1 which had previously been imported overland from ,india4 ,in #aehc ,matteo ,ricci1 a ,jesuit missionary1 began his labors in ,china4 ,he and his associates had great success4 ,his knowledge of the book language was most remarkable4 ,the concessions of the ,jesuit fathers to the ,chinese in matters of ritual excited much opposition in the ,church4 ,but for this dissension among the different ,catholic orders1 the ,roman ,catholic faith1 which had gained very numerous converts1 would have spread far more widely4 ,,the ,,manchu ,,conquest4--,there were notable literary achievements in this period1 one of which was an encyclopedia in more than twenty-two thousand books4 ,four copies were made3 only one1 a damaged copy1 now remains4 ,the great political event of the time was the seizure of the throne by the ,manchu ,tartars 7#afdd71 who came in as auxiliaries against a rebellion1 but have worn the crown until now4 ,the shaved head and the long cue are customs introduced by the ,tartar conquerors4 ,certain privileges1 and certain habits to which the natives clung1 as the mode of dress for women1 and the compression of their feet1 were retained by express stipulation4 ,,ii4 ,,japan4 ,,feudal ,,system4--,in #afjc ,iyyasu1 an eminent general1 founded the ,tokugawa dynasty1 which continued until the resignation of the last ,shgun 7or ,tycoon7 in #ahfg4 ,the rulers of that line held their court at ,yedo1 which grew into a flourishing city4 ,the long period of anarchy and bloodshed that had preceded1 was brought to an end4 ,iyyasu laid the foundation of a feudal system which his grandson ,iymitsu 7#afbc-afej7 completed4 ,japan was divided into fiefs1 each under a daimi for its chief1 who enjoyed a large degree of independence4 ,the people consisted of four classes3 7#a7 the military families1 who had the right to wear two swords1 the clansmen of the great nobles2 7#b7 the farming class2 7#c7 the artisans2 7#d7 the tradesmen4 ,,christianity ,,in ,,japan4--,christianity was preached in ,japan by ,xavier1 a successful ,jesuit missionary1 in #aehc4 ,other ,jesuit preachers followed4 ,a multitude of converts were made4 ,but on account of immoralities of ,europeans1 and the dread of foreign political domination1 the government engaged in a series of severe persecutions4 ,in #afad an edict proscribed ,christianity4 ,a portion of the peasants who were converts were so oppressed1 that they revolted 7#afcg74 ,the result was an act of terrible cruelty1--the massacre of all ,christians2 so that none remained openly to profess the ,christian faith4 ,,iii4 ,,india4 ,,the ,,mughal ,,empire4--,in the latter half of the fourteenth and in the fifteenth centuries1 the most of ,india was ruled by distinct ,mohammedan dynasties4 ,the dominion of the ,afghan dynasty at ,delhi was thus greatly reduced4 ,in #aebe the ,mughal 7,mogul7 ,empire was founded by ,babar1 a descendant of ,tamerlane4 ,babar invaded ,india1 and defeated the ,sultan of ,delhi in the battle of ,paniput4 ,the new empire was not permanently established until his grandson ,akbar 7#aeef-afje71 in a series of conquests1 spread his dominion over all ,india north of the ,vindhyar mountains4 ,not until the reign of ,aurungzeb 7#afeh-agjg71 was the ,deccan subdued4 ,after #afjj the ,portuguese no longer had the monopoly of the foreign trade3 the ,dutch and ,english became their rivals4 ,,literature4--,see lists of works on general history1 p4 #af2 on modern history1 p4 #cie2 on the history of particular countries1 p4 #cei4 ,general ,works on the ,period4 ,de ,thou's ,history of his own ,times2 ,,robertson',s ,history of ,charles ,v4 7,prescott's ed472 ,von ,raumer's ,gesch4 ,europas seit d4 ,ende d1 #ae tu ,jahrk1 7#h vols742 ,hallam's ,introduction to the ,literature of ,europe in the ,fifteenth1 ,sixteenth1 and ,seventeenth ,centuries2 ,,ranke',s series of works on this period1--the ,history of the ,popes1 and the ,histories of ,germany1 ,france1 and ,england2 ,histories of the ,reformation by ,d',aubign1 ,dllinger 7,roman ,catholic71 ,spalding 7,roman ,catholic71 ,fisher1 ,,hausser1 ,hardwick1 ,stebbing2 ,laurent1 ,la ,reforme2 ,lavisse et ,rambaud1 ,histoire ,genrale 7iv4 and v472 ,seebohm's ,era of ,protestant ,revolution2 ,works of ,janssen1 ,pastor1 ,creighton4 ,on the ,german and ,swiss ,reformation3 ,waddington's ,history1 etc42 ,hagenhach1 ,vorlesungen1 etc42 ,lives of ,luther1 by ,meurer1 ,michelet1 ,beard1 ,k,,stlin2 ,lives of ,zwingh1 by ,,christoffel1 ,,morikofer2 ,lives of ,calvin1 by ,,henry1 ,dyer1 ,kampschulte 7,roman ,catholic74 ,reformation in ,france4 ,works by ,soldan1 ,von ,polenz1 ,smiles1 ,browning2 ,,baird',s works on ,huguenots2 ,perkins1 ,france under ,richelieu and ,mazarin 7#b vols472 ,hanotaux1 ,richelieu 7#b vols474 ,the ,revolt of the ,netherlands4 ,blok's ,history of the ,netherlands 7#c vols471 etc42 ,,motley',s ,rise of the ,dutch ,republic1 and ,history of the ,united ,netherlands2 ,,prescott',s ,history of ,philip ,,ii42 ,,th4 ,,juste1 ,hist1 de la ,rvol4 des ,pays-,bas1 etc4 7#b vols74 ,the ,reformation in ,england4 ,the ,histories of ,macaulay4 ,lingard1 ,froude1 ,burnet's ,history of the ,reformation in ,england4 ,s4 ,r4 ,gardiner's ,history of ,england 7#afjc to #afef72 ,clarendon's ,history of the ,great ,rebellion2 a series of works on this period by ,,guizot2 ,neal's ,history of the ,puritans2 ,gairdner1 ,history of the ,english ,church from ,henry ,,viii4 to ,mary2 selections of documents by ,prothero and by ,gardiner2 ,lives of ,cromwell1 by ,,carlyle1 by ,forster1 ,gardiner1 ,harrison1 ,firth2 ,strype's ,lives of the ,leading ,reformers--,cranmer1 etc4 ,on the ,reformation in ,scotland4 ,,burton',s ,history of ,scotland2 ,robertson's ,history of ,scotland2 ,mc,crie's ,life of ,john ,knox2 ,w4 ,m4 ,,taylor1 ,life of ,john ,knox4 ,on the ,thirty ,years' ,war4 ,,gindely',s ,history1 etc42 ,gardiner1 ,the ,thirty ,years' ,war2 ,life of ,gustavus ,adolphus4 ,for more extended lists1 see ,adams's ,manual1 etc42 and ,fisher's ,the ,reformation 7,appendix74 ,for list of works on colonization in ,america1 see the list at the end of ,period ,,iii4 ,,period ,,iii4 ,,from ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,westphalia ,,to ,,the ,,french ,,revolution4 7#afdh-aghi7 ,,introduction4 ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,period4--,one feature of this period is the efforts made by the nations to improve their condition1 especially to increase the thrift and to raise the standing of the middle class4 ,an illustration is what is called the mercantile system in ,france4 ,along with this change1 there is progress in the direction of greater breadth in education and culture4 ,in both of these movements1 rulers and peoples cooperate4 ,monarchical power1 upheld by standing armies1 reaches its climax4 ,the result is internal order1 coupled with tyranny4 ,great wars were carried on1 mostly contests for succession to thrones4 ,the outcome was an equilibrium in the ,european state system1 dependent on the relations of five great powers4 ,,first ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,period4--,in the first half of the period1 the ,east and the ,west of ,europe are slightly connected4 ,in the ,west1 ,france gains the preponderance over ,austria1 until1 by the ,spanish war of succession1 ,england restores the balance4 ,in the ,east1 ,sweden is in the van1 until1 in the great ,northern war 7#agjj-agba71 ,russia becomes predominant4 ,,second ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,period4--,in the second half of the period1 the ,east and the ,west of ,europe are brought together in one state system1 in particular by the rise of the power of ,prussia4 ,,chief ,,events4--,the fall of ,sweden and the rise of ,russia and ,prussia are political events of capital importance4 ,the maritime supremacy of ,england1 with the loss by ,england of the ,american colonies1 is another leading fact4 ,in the closing part of the period appear the intellectual and political signs of the great ,revolution which broke out in ,france near the end of the eighteenth century4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,preponderance ,,of ,,france3 ,,first ,,part ,,of ,,the ,,reign ,,of ,,louis ,,xiv4 7,,to ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,ryswick1 #afig73 ,,the ,,restoration ,,of ,,the ,,stuarts3 ,,the ,,english ,,revolution ,,of #afhh4 ,,louis ,,xiv43 ,,mazarin4--,the great minister ,richelieu died in #afdb4 ,abroad1 though a cardinal of the ,church1 he arrested the ,catholic reaction1 freed ,northern from ,southern ,europe1 and made toleration possible2 at home1 out of the broken fragments of her liberties and her national prosperity1 he paved the way for the glory of ,france4 ,he paved the way1 also1 for the despotism of her kings4 ,he had been feared and hated by king and people1 but had been obeyed by both4 ,a few months later ,louis ,,xiii41 a sovereign without either marked virtues or vices1 followed him 7#afdc74 ,louis ,,xiv4 7#afdc-agae7 was then only five years old2 and ,mazarin1 the heir of ,richelieu's power1 stood at the helm until his death 7#affa74 ,to this ,italian statesman1 ambitious of power and wealth1 but astute1 and1 like ,richelieu1 devoted to ,france1 the queen1 ,anne of ,austria1 willingly left the management of the government4 ,the rebellion of the ,fronde 7#afdh-afec7 was a rising of the nobles to throw off the yoke laid on them by ,richelieu4 ,they were helped by the discontent of parliament and people with the oppressive taxation4 ,in ,paris1 there was a rising of the populace1 who built barricades2 but the revolt was quelled4 ,its leaders1 ,conti1 the ,cardinal de ,retz1 and the great ,cond1 a famous soldier1 were compelled to fly from the country4 ,mazarin1 who had been obliged to fly to ,cologne1 returned in triumph4 ,after that1 resistance to the absolute monarch ceased1--the monarch whose theory of government was expressed in the assertion1 ,i am the ,state 7l'etat c'est moi74 ,in the ,peace of the ,pyrenees 7#afei71 ,spain gave in marriage to ,louis1 the ,infanta ,maria ,theresa1 the daughter of ,philip ,,iv41 and ceded to ,france important places in the ,netherlands4 ,maria renounced all claims on her inheritance1 for herself and her issue1 in consideration of a dowry of five hundred thousand crowns to be paid by ,spain4 ,shortly after1 ,mazarin1 who had negotiated the treaty1 in full possession of his exalted authority and the incalculable treasures which he had amassed1 died4 ,,louis ,,xiv4 ,,and ,,his ,,officers4--,louis ,,xiv4 was now his own master4 ,his appetite for power was united with a relish for pomp and splendor1 which led him to make ,versailles1 the seat of his court1 as splendid as architectural skill and lavish expenditure could render it1 and to make ,france the model in art1 literature1 manners1 and modes of life1 for all ,europe4 ,with sensual propensities he mingled a religious or superstitious vein1 so that from time to time he sought to compound for his vices by the persecution of the ,huguenots4 ,he was the central figure in the ,european life of his time4 ,taking care that his own personal authority should not be in the least impaired1 he made ,colbert controller-general1 to whom was given charge of the finances of the kingdom4 ,louvois was made the minister of war4 ,colbert not only provided the money for the costly wars1 the luxurious palaces1 and the gorgeous festivities of his master1 but constructed canals1 fostered manufactures1 and built up the ,french marine4 ,louvois1 with equal success1 organized the military forces in a way that was copied by other ,european states4 ,able generals--,turenne1 ,cond1 and ,luxemburg--were in command4 ,the nobles who held the offices1 military as well as civil1 vied with one another in their obsequious devotion to the great king4 ,vauban1 the most skillful engineer of the age1 erected impregnable fortifications in the border towns that were seized by conquest4 ,in the arts of diplomacy1 the ,french ambassadors were equally superior4 ,the monarch was sustained by the national pride of the people1 and by their ambition to dominate in ,europe4 ,,attack ,,on ,,the ,,netherlands4--,louis had already purchased of the ,english ,dunkirk1--which was shamefully sold to him by ,charles ,,ii41--when ,philip ,,iv4 of ,spain died 7#affe74 ,he now claimed parts of the ,netherlands as being an inheritance of his queen1 according to an old law of those provinces4 ,he conquered the county of ,burgundy1 or ,franche ,comt1 and various places in that country4 ,holland1 afraid that he might push his conquests farther1 formed the ,triple ,alliance with ,england and ,sweden4 ,in the ,treaty of ,aachen 7,aix71 ,louis gave up to the ,spaniards ,franche ,comt1 but retained the captured cities in the ,netherlands 7#affh71 which ,vauban proceeded to fortify4 ,,attack ,,on ,,holland4--,the next attack of ,louis was upon ,holland4 ,holland and the ,spanish ,netherlands were at variance in religion1 as well as in their political systems1 and rivals in trade and industry4 ,the first minister of the emperor1 ,leopold41 was in the pay of ,louis4 ,sweden1 in the minority of ,charles ,,xi41 was in the hands of the ,swedish nobles4 ,england had now joined ,louis1 who1 in return for help in the ,netherlands1 was to furnish subsidies to assist ,charles ,,ii4 in establishing ,catholicism in his realm4 ,in ,holland1 there was a division between the republicans1 of whom the grand pensionary1 ,john de ,witt1 was the chief1 and the adherents of the house of ,orange4 ,,the ,,war3 ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,nimwegen4--,louis1 having first seized ,lorraine1--whose duke had allied himself to the ,united ,provinces1--accompanied by his famous generals1 ,cond1 ,turenne1 and ,vauban1 put himself at the head of an army of one hundred and twenty thousand men1 which crossed the ,rhine1 and advanced to the neighborhood of the capital of ,holland4 ,the ,orange party charged the blame of the failure to defend the land on their adversaries1 whom they accused of treachery4 ,de ,witt and his brother1 ,cornelius1 were killed in the streets of ,hague4 ,william ,,iii41 the ,prince of ,orange 7#afgb-agjb71 assumed power4 ,grningen held out against the ,french troops4 ,storms on the sea and on the land aided the patriotic defenders of their country4 ,the ,great ,elector of ,brandenburg1 ,frederic ,william1 lent them help4 ,at length the ,german emperor was driven by the ,french aggressions to join actively in the war1 on the side of the ,dutch4 ,the ,english ,parliament 7#afgd7 forced ,charles ,,ii4 to conclude peace with them4 ,in the battle of ,sasbach1 ,turenne fell 7#afge74 ,sweden took the side of ,france1 and invaded the elector's territory2 but the elector's victory at ,fehrbellin 7#afge7 laid the foundation of the greatness of ,prussia4 ,william ,,iii4 kept the field against the great generals of ,france1 and married the daughter of ,james1 the ,duke of ,york1 the brother of ,charles ,,ii4 ,in bringing the war to an end1 ,louis1 by shrewd diplomacy1 settled with the ,united ,provinces first4 ,by the ,peace of ,nimwegen 7#afgh and #afgi71 ,holland received back its whole territory2 ,france kept most of her new conquests in the ,netherlands1 with the county of ,burgundy1 the city of ,besanon1 and some imperial towns in ,alsace not ceded in the ,peace of ,westphalia2 the emperor lost to ,france ,freiburg in the ,breisgau4 ,the elector1 left to shift for himself1 was forced to give back his profitable conquests to ,sweden 7#afgi74 ,,effect ,,of ,,the ,,war4--,in the war with ,holland1 ,louis had shown his military strength1 and his skill in making and breaking alliances4 ,he had made progress towards the goal of his ambition1 which was to act as dictator in the ,european family of states4 ,to the end of the century1 ,france stood on the pinnacle of power and apparent prosperity4 ,,condition ,,of ,,france4--,manufactures flourished to an astonishing degree4 ,france became a naval power with a large fleet and with all its services better organized than those of the contemporary ,english marine4 ,colbert finished the canal between the ,mediterranean and the ,atlantic4 ,colonies were founded in ,st4 ,domingo1 ,cayenne1 ,madagascar4 ,canada was increasing in strength4 ,a uniform1 strict judicial system was established4 ,restless nobles were cowed1 and the common people thus drawn to the monarch4 ,,the ,,french ,,court4--,in his court1 the king established elaborate forms of etiquette1 and made himself almost an object of worship4 ,the nobility swarmed about him1 and sought advancement from his favor4 ,festivals and shows of all sorts--plays1 ballets1 banquets1 dazzling fireworks--were the costly diversion of the gay throngs of courtiers1 male and female1 in that court1 where sensuality was thinly veiled by ceremonious politeness and punctilious religious observances4 ,poets1 artists1 and scholars were liberally patronized1 and joined in the common adulation offered to the sovereign4 ,stately edifices were built1 great libraries gathered2 academies of art and of science1 an astronomical observatory1 and the botanic garden for the promotion of the study of natural history1 were founded4 ,the palace at ,versailles1 with its statues1 fountains1 and gardens1 furnished a pattern which all the rest of ,europe aspired to copy4 ,every thing there wore an artificial stamp1 from the trimming of the trees to the etiquette of the ballroom4 ,but there was a splendor and a fascination which caused the ,french fashions1 the ,french language and literature1 with the levity and immorality which traveled in their company1 to spread in the higher circles of the other ,european countries4 ,,the ,,gallican ,,church4--,louis ,,xiv4 desired1 without any rupture with ,rome1 to take to himself a power in ecclesiastical affairs like that assumed in ,england by ,henry ,,viii4 ,under the pontificate of ,innocent ,,xi41 the assembly of the ,french clergy passed four propositions asserting the rights of the national ,gallican ,church1 and limiting the ,pope's prerogative 7#afhb74 ,the king had for his ecclesiastical champion the able and eloquent ,bossuet1 the ,bishop of ,meaux4 ,subsequently1 under ,innocent ,,xii41 ,louis1 afraid of a schism and anxious to procure other advantages1 yielded up the four obnoxious propositions4 ,,jansenism4--,the controversy raised by the ,jansenists was an important event in the history of ,france4 ,they took their name from ,jansenius1 who had been ,bishop of ,ypres1 an ardent disciple of ,st4 ,augustine's theology4 ,they strenuously opposed the theology and moral maxims of the powerful ,jesuit order4 ,their leaders1 ,st4 ,cyran1 ,pascal1 ,arnauld1 ,nicole1 and others1 were called ,port ,royalists1 from their relation to a cloister at ,port ,royal1 where some of them resided4 ,they were men of literary and philosophical genius1 as well as theologians and devotees4 ,blaise ,pascal wrote the ,provincial ,letters1 a satirical and polemical work against the ,jesuit doctrines4 ,this has always been deemed in style a masterpiece of ,french prose4 ,his posthumous ,thoughts is a profound and suggestive fragment on the evidences of religion4 ,in the heated controversy that arose1 the ,jansenist leaders were for a more limited definition of the ,pope's authority in deciding questions of doctrine4 ,the ,french court at length took the side of the ,jesuits4 ,in #agac the ,pope's bull against the ,moral ,reflections of ,quesnel1 a ,jansenist author1 was a heavy blow at his party4 ,finally1 the ,jansenists were proscribed by the king1 and the cloister at ,port ,royal leveled to the ground4 ,the ,jansenist influence made a part of the tendencies to liberalism that led to the ,revolution at the close of the century4 ,,the ,,huguenots4--,after ,mazarin's death1 the king fell under the influence of a party hostile to the ,huguenots4 ,louvois fostered this feeling in him1 as did ,madame de ,maintenon1 whom he had secretly married1 and by whom he was influenced through life4 ,as he grew older1 he sought to appease a guilty conscience by inflicting tortures on religious dissenters4 ,he issued edicts of the most cruel character4 ,he adopted the atrocious scheme of the dragonade1 or the billeting of soldiers1 over whom there was no restraint1 in ,huguenot families4 ,in the course of three years1 fifty thousand families1 industrious and virtuous people1 had fled the country4 ,in #afhe the ,edict of ,nantes1 the charter of ,protestant rights1 was revoked4 ,emigration was forbidden2 yet not far from a quarter of a million of refugees escaped1 to enrich by their skill and labor the ,protestant countries where they found an asylum4 ,many of the refugees were received by the ,elector ,frederick1 and helped to build up ,berlin1 then a small city of twelve thousand inhabitants4 ,france was not only in a degree impoverished by those who fled1 but1 also1 by the much larger number who remained to be harassed and ruined by the foolish and brutal bigotry of their ruler4 ,the loss to ,france by the exile of the ,huguenots was incalculable4 ,here were the thriftiest1 the bravest1 the most intelligent of ,frenchmen1 the very flower of the race2 some of their best and purest blood1 some of their fairest and most virtuous women1 all their picked artisans4 ,in war1 in diplomacy1 in literature1 in production of wealth1 these refugees gave what they took from ,france to her enemies2 for they carried with them that bitter sense of wrong which made them henceforth foremost among those enemies1 the forlorn hope of every attack on their ancient fatherland4 ,large numbers of officers1 and those among the ablest1 emigrated2 among them pre-eminent ,marshal ,schomberg1 'the best general in ,europe4' ,the fleet especially suffered3 the best of the sailors emigrated2 the ships were almost unmanned4 ,the seamen carried tidings of their country's madness to the ends of the earth3 as ,voltaire says1 'the ,french were as widely dispersed as the ,jews4' ,not only in industry1 but in thought and mental activity1 there was a terrible loss4 ,from this time literature in ,france loses all spring and power4 ,in ,england1 the ,huguenot exiles quickened manufactures2 in ,holland1 commerce2 in ,brandenburg1 they made a new era in agriculture4 ,moreover1 from this time the policy of ,brandenburg was changed3 the hostility to the emperor and the house of ,austria gave way4 ,an antagonism to ,france arose3 a process begun by the ,great ,elector1 carried on by ,frederick the ,great1 and brought to a triumphant close in our own days1 dates from the revocation of the ,edict of ,nantes4 ,,the ,,cost ,,of ,,national ,,unity ,,in ,,france4--,from the beginning of the ,reformation1 the problem for the nations to solve was1 how to combine religious freedom with national unity4 ,the intolerance of the ,spanish branch of the ,hapsburgs deprived them of ,holland1 and broke down their power4 ,this effort to secure uniformity of belief was shattered4 ,a like effort in ,germany resulted in the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 and the utter loss of the national unity which it aimed to restore4 ,the civil wars in ,france1 aiming at the same result1 uniformity of belief1 ended in an accommodation between the parties1 secured by ,henry ,,iv4 in the ,edict of ,nantes4 ,there was a partial sacrifice of national unity4 ,this was reestablished by the policy of ,richelieu and the acts of ,louis ,,xiv41 but at a fearful cost4 ,the loss of the ,huguenot emigrants2 the loss of character1 with the loss of the spirit of independence1 in the nobles of ,france2 the full sway of a monarchical despotism1--this was the price paid for national unity4 ,,aggressions ,,of ,,louis4--,the readiness of the ,european states to accept the provisions of the ,nimwegen ,treaty emboldened ,louis to further outrages and aggressions4 ,germany1 split into a multitude of sovereignties1 and for the most part inactive as if a paralysis lay upon her1 was a tempting prey to the spoiler4 ,he claimed that all the places which had stood in a feudal relation to the places acquired by ,france in the ,westphalian and ,nimwegen treaties1 should become dependencies of ,france4 ,he constituted ,reunions1 or courts of his own1 to decide what these places were1 and enforced their decrees with his troops 7#afgi74 ,he went so far1 in a time of peace1 as to seize and wrest from the ,german ,empire the city of ,strasburg1 to establish his domination there1 and to introduce the ,catholic worship1 in the room of the ,protestant1 in the minster 7#afha74 ,instead of heeding the warning of the ,prince of ,orange1 the empire concluded with ,louis the truce of ,regensburg1 by which he was suffered to retain these conquests4 ,he evinced his arrogance in making a quarrel with ,genoa1 in bombarding the city1 and in forcing the doge to come to ,versailles and beg for peace 7#afhd74 ,,hungary ,,and ,,austria4--,the ,emperor ,leopold was busy in the eastern part of his dominions4 ,the success of the ,turks1 who gained possession of ,lower ,hungary1 called out a more energetic resistance2 but a victory gained by the imperial general1 ,montecuculi1 at ,st4 ,gothard1 on the ,raab 7#affd71 only resulted in a truce4 ,the ,austrian government1 guided by the minister1 ,lobkowitz1 used the opportunity to rob the ,hungarians of their liberties and rights4 ,political tyranny and religious persecution went hand in hand4 ,protestant preachers were sold as galley-slaves4 ,tkly1 an ,hungarian nobleman1 led in a revolt1 and invoked the help of the ,turks4 ,in #afhc the ,turks laid siege to ,vienna1 which was saved by a great victory gained under its walls by a united ,german and ,polish army2 the hero in the conflict being ,john ,sobieski1 king of ,poland4 ,the ,german princes and ,venice now united in the prosecution of the war4 ,the conquest of ,hungary from the ,turks enabled ,leopold to destroy ,hungarian independence4 ,after their defeat by ,charles of ,lorraine at ,mohacs 7#afhg71 the ,diet of ,pressburg conferred on the male ,austrian line the crown of ,hungary1 and abandoned its old privilege of resisting unconstitutional ordinances 7#afhg74 ,a great victory gained over the ,turks by ,prince ,eugene at ,zenta was followed by the ,peace of ,carlowitz1 which gave ,hungary and ,transylvania to ,austria1 ,morea to ,venice1 and ,azof to ,russia4 ,tkly died in exile4 ,,the ,,restoration ,,in ,,england 7#affj74--,richard ,cromwell quietly succeeded to the ,protectorate4 ,but the officers of the army recalled the ,rump ,parliament1 the survivors of the ,long ,parliament4 ,after eight months ,richard gave up his office4 ,the ,rump was soon in a quarrel again with the army1 and was expelled by its chief1 ,lambert4 ,monk1 the commander of the ,english troops in ,scotland1 refused to recognize the government set up by the officers in ,london4 ,the fleet declared itself on the side of ,parliament4 ,lambert was forsaken1 and ,monk entered ,london 7#affj74 ,a new ,parliament or ,convention was convoked1 which included the ,upper ,house4 ,the restoration of ,charles ,,ii4 was now effected by means of the combined influence of the ,episcopalians and ,presbyterians1 and through the agency of ,monk4 ,charles1 in his ,declaration from ,breda1 prior to his return1 promised liberty to tender consciences4 ,this and subsequent pledges were falsified3 he had the ,stuart infirmity of breaking his engagements4 ,with an easy good-nature and complaisant manners1 he was void of moral principle1 and in his conduct an open profligate4 ,at heart he was a ,roman ,catholic1 and simply from motives of expediency deferred the avowal of his belief to his death-bed4 ,the army was disbanded4 ,vengeance was taken on such of the regicides1 the judges of ,charles ,i41 as could be caught1 and on the bodies of ,cromwell1 ,ireton1 and ,bradshaw4 ,the ,cavalier party had now every thing their own way4 ,the ,episcopal system was reestablished1 and a stringent ,act of ,uniformity was passed4 ,two thousand ,presbyterian ministers were turned out of their parishes4 ,if there was at any time indulgence to the nonconformists1 it was only for the sake of the ,roman ,catholics4 ,john ,bunyan1 the author of ,pilgrim's ,progress1 was kept in prison for more than twelve years4 ,the sale of ,dunkirk to ,france 7#affb7 awakened general indignation4 ,,the ,,year ,,of ,,wonders3 ,,the ,,conduct ,,of ,,charles4--,the year #affe was marked as the year of the ,great ,plague in ,london1 where the narrow and dirty streets admitted little fresh air4 ,it was estimated that not less than one hundred thousand people perished4 ,in less than a year after the plague ceased1 there occurred the ,great ,fire in ,london 7,sept41 #afff71 which burned for three days1 and laid ,london in ashes from the ,tower to the ,temple1 and from the ,thames to ,smithfield4 ,st4 ,paul's1 the largest cathedral in ,england1 was consumed1 and was replaced by the present church of the same name1 planned by ,sir ,christopher ,wren4 ,the king showed an unexpected energy in trying to stay the progress of the flames4 ,but neither public calamities1 nor the sorrow and indignation of all good men1 including his most loyal and attached adherents1 could check the shameless profligacy of his palace-life4 ,the diaries of ,evelyn and of ,pepys1 both of whom were familiar with the court1 picture the disgraceful depravation of morals1 which was stimulated by the king's example4 ,but the nation was even more aggrieved by his conduct in respect to foreign nations4 ,in a war with ,holland1 arising out of commercial rivalry1 the ,english had the mortification of seeing the ,thames blockaded by the ,dutch fleet 7#affg74 ,hyde1 ,earl of ,clarendon1 ,charles's principal adviser1 whose daughter married the ,duke of ,york1 was driven from office1 and went into exile to escape a trial4 ,the ,triple ,alliance against ,louis 7p4 #dec7 was gratifying to the people2 but in the ,treaty of ,dover 7#afgj71 ,charles engaged to declare himself a ,roman ,catholic as soon as he could do so with prudence1 and promised to join his cousin1 ,louis ,,xiv41 against ,holland1 and to aid him in his schemes2 in return for which he was to receive a large subsidy from ,louis1 a pension during the war1 and armed help in case of an insurrection in ,england4 ,,the ,,cabal ,,ministry4--,a cabinet1 as we now term it1--a small number of persons1--had1 before this reign1 begun to exercise the functions which belonged of old to the ,king's ,council4 ,at this time1 the cabal ministry--so called from the first letters of the names1 which together made the word--was in power4 ,in #afgb war with ,holland was declared1 and was kept up for two years4 ,,declaration ,,of ,,indulgence4--,when ,charles began this second ,dutch war1 he issued orders for the suspension of the laws against the ,catholics and ,dissenters4 ,his design was to weaken the ,church of ,england4 ,the anger of ,parliament and of the people at this usurpation obliged him to recall the declaration4 ,,the ,,test ,,act4--,parliament1 in #afgc1 passed an act which shut out all ,dissenters from office4 ,this act the king did not venture to reject2 although the effect of it was to oblige his brother ,james1 the ,duke of ,york1 to resign his office of lord high admiral4 ,,danby',s ,,ministry4--,the cabal ministry was gradually broken up2 and ,shaftesbury1 an able minister1 went over to the other side4 ,the ,earl of ,danby became the chief minister4 ,he was in agreement with the ,house of ,commons4 ,he favored the marriage which united ,mary1 the daughter of the ,duke of ,york1 to ,william1 ,prince of ,orange4 ,,the ,,popish ,,plot 7#afgh74--,the already exasperated nation was infuriated by an alleged ,popish ,plot for the subverting of the government1 and for the murder of the king and of all ,protestants4 ,titus ,oates1 a perjurer1 was the main witness4 ,many innocent ,roman ,catholics were put to death4 ,this pretended plot led to stringent measures shutting out papists from office4 ,halifax1 an able man who called himself a trimmer1 because he did not always stay on one side or with one party1 opposed a bill that would have excluded the king's brother from the succession1 and it failed4 ,,habeas ,,corpus ,,act4--,in #afgi the ,habeas ,corpus ,act was passed1 providing effectually against the arbitrary imprisonment of subjects4 ,persons arrested must be brought to trial1 or proved in open court to be legally confined4 ,,parties3 ,,russell ,,and ,,sidney4--,at this time the party names of ,whig and ,tory came into vogue4 ,insurgent ,presbyterians in ,scotland had been called ,whigs1 a ,scotch word meaning whey1 or sour milk4 ,the nickname was now applied to ,shaftesbury's adherents1 opponents of the court1 who wished to exclude the ,duke of ,york from the throne on account of his being a ,catholic4 ,tories1 also a nickname1 the designation of the supporters of the court1 meant originally ,romanist outlaws1 or robbers1 in the bogs of ,ireland4 ,many of the ,whigs began to devise plans of insurrection1 from hatred of ,charles's arbitrary system of government4 ,some of them were disposed to put forward ,monmouth1 the eldest of ,charles's illegitimate sons1 and a favorite of the common people4 ,the ,rye-,house ,plot for the assassination of the king and his brother was the occasion of the trial and execution of two eminent patriots1--,william1 ,lord ,russell1 and ,algernon ,sidney1 a warm advocate of republican government4 ,both1 it is believed1 were unjustly condemned4 ,the ,duke of ,york assumed once more the office of admiral4 ,charles1 before his death1 received the sacrament from a priest of the ,church of ,rome 7#afhe74 ,,james ,,ii4 7#afhe-afhh73 ,,monmouth',s ,,rebellion4--,a few months after ,james's accession1 the ,duke of ,monmouth landed in ,england2 but his effort to get the crown failed4 ,his forces1 mostly made up of peasants1 were defeated at ,sedgemoor2 and he perished on the scaffold4 ,vengeance was taken upon all concerned in the revolt2 and ,chief ,justice ,jeffreys1 for his brutal conduct in the ,bloody ,assizes1 in which1 savage as he was1 he nevertheless became rich by the sale of pardons1 was rewarded with the office of lord chancelor4 ,,james',s ,,arbitrary ,,government4--,james paid no heed to his promise to defend the ,church of ,england4 ,of a slow and obstinate mind1 he could not yield to the advice of moderate ,roman ,catholics1 and of the ,pope1 ,innocent ,,xi42 but set out1 by such means as dispensing with the laws1 to restore the old religion1 and at the same time to extinguish civil liberty4 ,he turned out the judges who did not please him4 ,he created a new ,ecclesiastical ,commission1 for the coercion of the clergy1 with the notorious ,jeffreys at its head4 ,after having treated with great cruelty the ,protestant dissenters1 he unlawfully issued a ,declaration of ,indulgence 7#afhg7 in their favor1 in order to get their support for his schemes in behalf of his own religion4 ,he turned out the fellows of ,magdalen ,college1 ,oxford1 for refusing to appoint a ,catholic for their president4 ,he sent seven bishops to the ,tower in #afhh1 who had signed a petition against the order requiring a second ,declaration of ,indulgence to be read in the churches4 ,popular sympathy was strongly with the accused1 and the news of their acquittal was received in the streets of ,london with shouts of joy4 ,,revolution ,,of #afhh3 ,,william ,,and ,,mary 7#afhi-afid74--,the birth of a ,prince of ,wales by his second wife1 ,mary of ,modena1 increased the disaffection of the ,english people4 ,his two daughters by his first wife--,mary and ,anne--were married to ,protestants2 ,mary1 to ,william1 ,prince of ,orange and stadtholder of ,holland1 and ,anne to ,george1 ,prince of ,denmark4 ,by a combination of parties hostile to the king1 ,william was invited to take the ,english throne4 ,james was blind to the signs of the approaching danger1 and to the warnings of ,louis ,,xiv4 of ,france4 ,when it was too late1 he attempted in vain to disarm the conspiracy by concessions4 ,william landed in safety at ,torbay4 ,he was joined by persons of rank4 ,lord ,churchill1 afterwards the celebrated ,duke of ,marlborough1 left the royal force of which he had the command1 and went over to him4 ,the king's daughter1 ,anne1 fled to the insurgents in the ,north4 ,william was quite willing that ,james should leave the kingdom1 and purposely caused him to be negligently guarded by ,dutch soldiers4 ,he fled to ,france1 never to return4 ,parliament declared the throne to be1 on divers grounds1 vacant1 and promulgated a ,declaration of ,right affirming the ancient rights and liberties of ,england4 ,it offered the crown to ,william and ,mary1 who accepted it 7#afhi74 ,a few months later1 the estates of ,scotland bestowed upon them the crown of that country4 ,presbyterianism was made the established form of religion there4 ,the union of the kingdoms was consummated under their successor1 ,anne1 when ,scotland began to be represented in the ,english ,parliament4 ,,the ,,massacre ,,of ,,glencoe4--,a ,highland chief1 ,mac,ian of ,glencoe1 with many of his followers1 was treacherously slaughtered by order of ,dalrymple1 the ,master of ,stair1 who governed ,scotland1 and had obtained by misrepresentation from ,william leave to extirpate that set of thieves1 as he had called them4 ,,william ,,in ,,ireland4--,the sovereignty of ,ireland passed1 with that of ,england1 to ,william and ,mary4 ,there ,james ,,ii41 supported by ,france1 made a stout resistance4 ,it was a conflict of the ,irish ,catholics1 together with the descendants of the ,norman-,english settlers1 comprising together about a million of people1 against the ,english and ,scottish colonists1 not far from two hundred thousand in number4 ,the latter1 with steadfast courage1 sustained a siege in ,londonderry until the city was relieved by ships from ,england4 ,many of the inhabitants had perished from hunger4 ,the victory of ,william at ,boyne 7#afij71 where ,schomberg1 his brave general1 a ,huguenot ,french marshal1 fell1 decided the contest4 ,william led his troops in person through the ,boyne ,river1 with his sword in his left hand1 since his right arm was disabled by a wound4 ,james was a spectator of the fight at a safe distance4 ,,english ,,liberty4--,in ,william's reign1 liberty in ,england was fortified by the ,bill of ,rights1 containing a series of safeguards against regal usurpation4 ,papists were made ineligible to the throne4 ,the ,toleration ,act afforded to ,protestant dissenters a large measure of protection and freedom4 ,the press was made free from censorship 7#afie71 and newspapers began to be published4 ,provision was made for the fair trial of persons indicted for treason4 ,the ,act of ,settlement 7#agja7 settled the crown1 if there should be no heirs of ,anne or of ,william1 upon the ,princess ,sophia1 ,electress of ,hanover1 the daughter of ,elizabeth of ,bohemia1 and granddaughter of ,james ,i41 and on her heirs1 being ,protestants4 ,,the ,,grand ,,alliance3 ,,to ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,ryswick4--,the next war which ,louis ,,xiv4 began was that of the succession in the territory of the ,palatinate1 which he claimed1 on the extinction of the male line of electors1 for ,elizabeth ,charlotte1 the gifted and excellent sister of the deceased ,elector ,charles1 and the wife of the ,duke of ,orleans1 the king's brother4 ,the table which follows will show the nature of this claim3-- ,,frederic1 ,v1 #afaj-afcb1 ,elector and ,king of ,bohemia1 m4 ,elizabeth1 daughter of ,james ,i4 of ,england4 --,,charles ,,lewis1 #afdi-afhj4 --,,charles1 #afhj-afhe4 --,elizabeth1 m4 ,philip1 ,duke of ,orleans1 d4 #agja4 --,sophia1 m4 ,ernest ,augustus1 ,elector of ,hanover4 --,george ,i of ,england4 ,philip1 ,duke of ,orleans1 was the only brother of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,from him descended ,king ,louis ,philippe 7#ahcj-ahdh74 ,another reason that ,louis had for war was his determination to secure the archbishopric of ,cologne for the bishop of ,strasburg1 a candidate of his own4 ,in #afhf the ,league of ,augsburg had been formed by the emperor with ,sweden1 ,spain1 ,bavaria1 ,saxony1 and the ,palatinate1 for defense against ,france4 ,the ,grand ,alliance1 in which ,england and ,holland were included1 was now made 7#afhi74 ,in the year before1 by the advice of ,louvois1 the ,french had deliberately devastated the ,palatinate1 demolishing buildings1 and burning cities and villages without mercy4 ,the ruins of the ,castle of ,heidelberg are a monument of this worse than vandal incursion1 the pretext for which was a desire to prevent the invasion of ,france4 ,in the war the ,english and ,dutch fleets1 under ,admiral ,russell1 defeated the ,french1 and burned their ships1 at the battle of ,la ,hogue 7#afib74 ,this battle was a turning-point in naval history3 as at ,lepanto1 says ,ranke1 where the ,turks were defeated 7#aega71 so at ,la ,hogue1 the mastery of the sea passed from one side to the other4 ,but in the ,netherlands1 where ,william ,,iii41 the soul of the ,league1 steadfastly kept the field1 after being defeated by ,luxemburg2 in ,italy1 where the ,duke of ,savoy was opposed by the ,marshal ,catinat2 and in a naval battle between the ,english and ,french at ,lagos ,bay1--the ,french commanders were successful4 ,in #afie ,william's troops besieged and captured the town of ,namur4 ,at length ,louis was moved by the exhaustion of his treasury1 and the stagnation of industry in ,france1 to conclude the ,peace of ,ryswick with ,england1 ,spain1 and ,holland 7#afig74 ,the ,duke of ,savoy had been detached from the alliance4 ,most of the conquests on both sides were restored4 ,william ,,iii4 was acknowledged to be king of ,england4 ,in the treaty with the emperor1 ,france retained ,strasburg4 ,william was a man of sterling worth1 but he was a ,dutchman1 and was cold in his manners4 ,the plots of the ,jacobites1 as the adherents of ,james were called1 did more than any thing else to make him popular with his subjects4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,war ,,of ,,the ,,spanish ,,succession 7,,to ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,utrecht1 #agac72 ,,decline ,,of ,,the ,,power ,,of ,,france3 ,,power ,,and ,,maritime ,,supremacy ,,of ,,england4 ,,occasion ,,of ,,the ,,war4--,the death of ,charles ,,ii4 of ,spain 7#agjj7 was followed by the ,war of the ,spanish ,succession4 ,the desire of ,louis to have his hands free in the event of ,charles's death had influenced him in making the ,treaty of ,rysivick4 ,charles had no children4 ,it had been agreed in treaties1 to which ,france was a party1 that the ,spanish monarchy should not be united either to ,austria or to ,france2 and that ,archduke ,charles1 second son of the ,emperor ,leopold ,i41 should have ,spain and the ,indies4 ,but ,charles ,,ii4 of ,spain left a will making ,louis's second grandson1 ,philip ,duke of ,anjou1 the heir of all his dominions1 with the condition annexed that the crowns of ,france and ,spain should not be united4 ,instigated by dynastic ambition1 ,louis made up his mind to break the previous agreements1 and seize the inheritance for ,philip4 ,philip ,v4 thus became king of ,spain4 ,on the death of ,james ,,ii4 7#agja71 ,louis recognized his son ,james1 called the ,pretender1 as king of ,great ,britain4 ,this act1 as a violation of the ,treaty of ,ryswick1 and as an arrogant intermeddling on the part of a foreign ruler1 excited the wrath of the ,english people1 and inclined them to war4 ,the ,grand ,alliance against ,france 7#agja7 included the ,empire1 ,england1 ,holland1 ,brandenburg 7or ,prussia71 and afterwards ,portugal and ,savoy 7#agjc74 ,france was supported by the electors of ,bavaria and ,cologne1 and at first by ,savoy4 ,william ,,iii4 died in #agjb1 and was succeeded by ,anne1 the sister of his deceased wife1 and the second daughter of ,james ,,ii4 ,the following table will help to make clear the several claims to the ,spanish succession3-- ,philip ,,iii1 ,king of ,spain1 #aeih-afba4 --,maria ,anna1 m4 ,emperor ,ferdinand ,,iii4 --,leopold ,i1 m4 7#c7 ,eleanor1 daughter of ,elector ,palatine4 --,joseph ,i1 d4 #agaa4 --,charles ,,vi4#b --,anna ,maria m4 --,,philip ,,iv 7#afba-affe7 --,,charles ,,ii1 #affe-agjj4 --,margaret ,theresa m4 ,leopold ,i --,maria ,antonia m4 ,maximilian of ,bavaria --,joseph ,ferdinand1 #a ,electoral ,prince of ,bavaria4 --7#a7 ,maria ,theresa4 m4 --,louis ,,xiv --,louis1 the ,dauphin4 --,philip of ,anjou #b 7,,philip ,v of ,spain71 d4 #agdf4 --,anne4 m4 ,louis ,,xiii of ,france #a ,recognized as heir of ,charles ,,ii of ,spain until his death4 #b ,rival claimants for the ,spanish crown after ,charles ,,ii1 the elder brother of each having resigned his pretensions4 ,,events ,,of ,,the ,,war4--,in this war1 there were displayed the military talents of two great generals1--the ,duke of ,marlborough and ,prince ,eugene of ,savoy4 ,marlborough had two glaring faults1 ,he was avaricious1 and1 like other prominent public men in ,england at that day1 was double-faced4 ,after deserting the service of ,james for that of ,william1 he still kept up at times a correspondence with the exiled house4 ,he was a man of stately and winning presence1 a careful commander1 in battle cool and self-possessed4 ,at the council board1 he had the art of quietly composing differences by winning all to an adhesion to his own views4 ,it is said of him1 that he never committed a rash act1 and never missed an opportunity for striking an effective blow4 ,eugene1 on his father's side1 sprang from the house of ,savoy4 ,his mother was a niece of ,mazarin4 ,he was brought up at the court of ,louis ,,xiv42 but when the king repeatedly refused him a commission in the army1 he entered the service of ,austria1 was employed in campaigns against the ,turks1 and rose to the highest distinction4 ,flattering offers from ,louis ,,xiv4 he indignantly rejected4 ,his career as a soldier was long and brilliant4 ,the personal sympathy of ,eugene and ,marlborough with each other was one important cause of their success4 ,eugene was first sent to ,italy4 ,there he drove ,catinat1 the ,french general1 back on ,milan1 and captured his successor in command1 ,villeroi 7#agjb74 ,after a drawn battle between ,eugene and ,vendome 7#agjb71 a commander of much more skill than his predecessor1 the ,french had the advantage in ,italy4 ,in #agjc1 ,eugene came to ,germany1 and ,marlborough invaded the ,spanish ,netherlands4 ,in #agjd ,marlborough carried out the plan of a grand campaign which he had devised4 ,he crossed the ,rhine at ,cologne1 moved southward1 captured ,donauwrth1 and drove the ,bavarians across the ,danube4 ,the united forces of ,marlborough and ,eugene defeated the ,french and ,bavarian armies at ,blenheim 7or ,hochstdt71 on the left bank of the river1 with great slaughter4 ,there were captured fifteen thousand ,french soldiers1 with their general ,tallard4 ,this victory raised ,marlborough's reputation1 already great on account of his masterly conduct of his army1 to the highest point4 ,he was made a duke by ,queen ,anne1 and a prince of the ,empire by ,leopold4 ,in ,spain1 the ,english captured ,gibraltar4 ,charles of ,austria 7who had assumed the title of ,charles ,,iii4 of ,spain7 conquered ,madrid 7#agjf71 but held it for only a short time4 ,the country generally favored ,philip2 the arms of ,vendome were triumphant2 and ,aragon1 ,catalonia1 and ,valencia had to submit to ,castilian laws as the penalty of their adhesion to the ,austrian cause4 ,in #agjf ,marlborough vanquished ,villeroi at ,ramillies1 a village in the ,netherlands1 in a great battle in which the ,french army was routed1 and their banners and war material captured4 ,the ,netherlands submitted to ,austria4 ,at ,turin1 ,eugene gained a victory over an army of eighty thousand men2 and the fame of this modest and unpretending1 but brave and skillful leader was now on a level with that of the ,english general4 ,lombardy submitted to ,charles ,,iii41 and the ,french were excluded from ,italy4 ,another victory of the two commanders at ,oudenarde 7#agjh7 over ,vendome and the ,duke of ,burgundy1 broke down the hopes of ,louis1 and moved him to offer the largest concessions1 which embraced the giving up of ,strasburg and of ,spain4 ,but the allies1 flushed with success1 went so far as to demand that he should aid in driving his grandson out of ,spain4 ,this roused ,france1 as well as ,louis himself1 to another grand effort4 ,at ,malplaquet1 in a bloody conflict1 the ,french were again defeated by ,marlborough and ,eugene4 ,,to ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,utrecht4--,circumstances now favored the vanquished and humbled king of ,france4 ,the ,whig ministry in ,england1 which the victories of ,marlborough had kept in office1 fell from power 7#agaj72 and its enemies1 and the enemies of ,marlborough1 were anxious to weaken him4 ,anne dismissed from her service the ,duchess of ,marlborough1 a haughty woman of a violent temper4 ,harley1 ,earl of ,oxford1 and ,st4 ,john1 afterwards ,viscount ,bolingbroke1 became the queen's principal ministers4 ,they wished to end the war4 ,the ,emperor ,joseph 7#agje-agaa71 who had succeeded ,leopold ,i41 died2 so that ,charles1 if he had acquired ,spain1 would have restored the vast monarchy of ,charles ,v41 and brought in a new source of jealousy and alarm4 ,negotiations for peace began4 ,marlborough1 who had been guilty of traitorous conduct1 was removed from his command1 and deprived of all his offices 7#agab74 ,in #agac the ,peace of ,utrecht was concluded between ,england and ,france1 in which ,holland1 ,prussia1 ,savoy1 and ,portugal soon joined4 ,it was followed by the ,peace of ,rastadt and ,baden with the emperor 7#agad74 ,spain and ,spanish ,america were left to ,philip ,v41 the ,bourbon king1 with the proviso that the crowns of ,france and ,spain should never be united4 ,france ceded to ,england ,newfoundland1 ,nova ,scotia1 and the ,hudson ,bay ,territory4 ,spain ceded to ,england ,gibraltar and ,minorca4 ,the ,elector of ,brandenburg was recognized as ,king of ,prussia4 ,savoy received the island of ,sicily1 which was exchanged seven years later for ,sardinia1 and for the title of king for the duke4 ,holland gained certain barrier fortresses on its border4 ,austria received the appanages of the ,spanish monarchy1--the ,spanish ,netherlands1 ,naples1 ,sardinia1 and ,milan1 but not ,sicily4 ,the emperor did not recognize the ,bourbons in ,spain4 ,,last ,,days ,,of ,,louis ,,xiv4--,in the next year after the peace1 ,louis ,,xiv4 died4 ,within two years 7#agaj-agab7 he had lost his son1 his grandson the ,duke of ,burgundy 7whom the pious ,fenlon had trained71 his wife1 and his eldest great-grandson1 and1 two years later 7#agad71 his third grandson1 the ,duke of ,berry4 ,he left ,france overwhelmed with debt1 its resources exhausted1 its credit gone1 its maritime power prostrate2 a land covered with poverty and wretchedness4 ,this was the reward of lawless pride and ambition in a monarch who owed his strength1 however1 to the sympathy and subservience of the nation4 ,,law',s ,,bank4--,during the minority of ,louis ,,xv4 7#agae-aggd7 ,philip1 ,duke of ,orleans1 was regent1 a man of extraordinary talents1 but addicted to shameful debauchery4 ,the opportunity for effective reform was neglected4 ,the most influential minister was ,cardinal ,dubois1 likewise a man of unprincipled character4 ,the state was really bankrupt1 when a ,scottish adventurer and gambler1 ,john ,law1 possessed of unusual financial talents1 but infected with the economical errors of the time1 offered to rescue the national finances by means of a bank1 which he was allowed to found1 the notes of which were to serve as currency4 ,almost all the coined money flowed into its coffers2 its notes went everywhere in the kingdom1 and were taken for government dues2 it combined with its business the ,mississippi scheme1 or the control of the trade1 and almost the sovereignty1 in the ,mississippi region2 it absorbed the privileges of the different companies for trading with the ,east2 finally it took charge of the national mint and the issue of coin1 and of the taxation of the kingdom1 and it assumed the national debt4 ,the temporary success of the gigantic financial scheme turned the heads of the people1 and a fever of speculation ran through all ranks4 ,the crash came1 the shares in the bank sunk in value1 the notes depreciated2 and1 in the wrath which ensued upon the general bankruptcy1 ,law1 who had been honored and courted by the high and the low1 fled from the kingdom4 ,he died in poverty at ,venice4 ,the state alone was a gainer by having escaped from a great part of its indebtedness4 ,,italy4--,before the middle of the eighteenth century1 the ,spanish ,bourbons again had possession of ,naples and ,sicily1 besides other smaller ,italian states4 ,austria1 besides holding ,milan1 was the virtual ruler of ,tuscany4 ,,spain ,,in ,,italy4--,philip ,v4 was afflicted with a mental derangement peculiar to his family4 ,the government was managed by the ambitious queen1 ,elizabeth of ,parma1 and the intriguing ,italian1 ,alberoni1 the minister in whom she confided4 ,he sought to get back the ,italian states lost by the ,peace of ,utrecht4 ,but ,sardinia and ,sicily were restored when he was overthrown1 through the fear excited by the ,quadruple ,alliance of ,france1 ,england1 ,austria1 and ,holland 7#agah74 ,later1 the queen succeeded in obtaining the kingdom of ,naples and ,sicily for her oldest son1 ,don ,carlos1 under the name of ,charles ,,iii4 ,parma1 ,piacenza1 and ,guastalla1 she gained for her second son1 ,philip 7#agce74 ,when ,charles succeeded to the ,spanish throne 7#agei-aghh71 he left ,naples and ,sicily to his third son1 ,ferdinand4 ,,austria ,,in ,,italy4--,the house of ,savoy steadily advanced in power4 ,by the ,peace of ,ryswick1 ,victor ,amadeus ,,ii4 7#afge-agcj71 secured important places previously gained4 ,he became ,king of ,sardinia 7#agbj74 ,by him the ,university of ,turin was founded1 and the administration of justice much improved4 ,his next two successors carried forward this good work4 ,venice lost ,morea to the ,turks1 but retained ,corfu and her conquests in ,dalmatia 7#agah74 ,liberty was gone1 and there was decay and conscious weakness in the once powerful republic4 ,genoa was coveted by ,savoy1 ,austria1 and ,france4 ,the consequent struggles are the material of ,genoese history for a long period4 ,corsica was oppressed1 and ,genoa called on ,france to lend help in suppressing its revolt 7#agcf74 ,the ,corsicans especially1 under ,paoli1 defended themselves with such energy that ,france found its work of subjugation hard and slow 7#agee74 ,the island was ceded to ,france by ,genoa7#agfh74 ,milan1 with ,mantua1 was ,austrian1 after the ,peace of ,utrecht 7#agac74 ,tuscany under ,ferdinand ,,ii4 7#afbh-afgj7 bestowed its treasure on ,austria and ,spain1 and fell under the sway of ecclesiastics4 ,under ,cosmo ,,iii4 7#afgj-agbc71 the process of decline went on4 ,after the death of the last of the ,medici1 ,john ,gasto 7#agcg71 ,tuscany was practically under the power of ,austria1 notwithstanding the stipulation that both states should not have the same ruler4 ,it was governed by ,francis ,stephen 7#agch-agfe71 ,duke of ,lorraine1 husband of the ,empress ,maria ,theresa2 and1 when he became emperor 7,francis ,i471 by his second son1 ,leopold 7#agfe-agij74 ,at ,rome1 ,pope ,innocent ,,xi4 7#afgf-afhi7 had many conflicts with ,louis ,,xvi4 which came to an end under the well-meaning ,innocent ,,xii4 7#afia-agjj74 ,contests arose on the part of ,rome against the ,bourbon courts respecting the ,jesuit order1 and with the forces adverse to the ,church and the ,papacy1 in the closing part of the eighteenth century4 ,in #agce1 the ,emperor ,charles ,,vi4 allowed that ,naples and ,sicily should be handed over1 as a kingdom1 to ,don ,carlos1 the son of the ,spanish ,bourbon king1 under the name of ,charles ,,iii41 by whom it was granted to his son ,ferdinand ,,iv4 7#agei74 ,,close ,,of ,,anne',s ,,reign4--,anne's husband1 ,prince ,george of ,denmark1 had no influence1 and deserved none4 ,one of the important events of her reign was the ,union of ,england and ,scotland in #agjg 7p4 #dfa74 ,after the ,tories came into power1 the two leaders1 ,oxford and ,bolingbroke1 were rivals4 ,an angry dispute between them hastened the queen's death 7#agad74 ,one of the ,tory measures1 prompted by hostility to ,dissenters1 was a law forbidding any one to keep a school without a license from a bishop4 ,,george ,i1 #agad-agbg1 m4 ,sophia ,dorothea of ,zell4 --,,george ,,ii1 #agbg-agfj1 m4 ,caroline1 daughter of ,john ,frederick1 ,margrave of ,anspach4 --,frederick1 ,prince of ,wales1 d4 #agea1 m4 ,augusta of ,saxe ,gotha4 --,augusta m4 ,charles ,william ,ferdinand1 ,duke of ,brunswick4 --,caroline m4 --,,george ,,iv1 #ahbj-ahcj4 --,,george ,,iii1 #agfj-ahbj1 m4 ,charlotte of ,mecklenburg-,strelitz4 --,,william ,,iv1 #ahcj-ahcg4 --,edward1 ,duke of ,kent1 d4 #ahbj1 m4 ,victoria of ,saxe ,coburg4 --,,victoria1 succeeded #ahcg1 m4 ,albert of ,saxe ,coburg4 ,,reign ,,of ,,george ,i4--,george ,i41 the first king of the house of ,hanover1 could not speak ,english4 ,his private life was immoral4 ,his first ministers were ,whigs4 ,bolingbroke and ,oxford were impeached1 and fled the country4 ,the ,pretender1 ,james ,edward 7son of ,james ,,ii471 with the aid of ,tory partisans1 endeavored to recover the ,english crown4 ,his standard was raised in the ,highlands and in ,north ,england 7#agae71 but this ,jacobite rebellion was crushed4 ,after the rebellion of #agae1 a law was passed1 which is still in force1 allowing a ,parliament to continue for the term of seven years4 ,a second conspiracy in #agag had the same fate4 ,england had an experience analogous to that of ,france with ,law1 with the ,south ,sea ,company1 which had a monopoly of trade with the ,spanish coasts of ,south ,america4 ,a rage for speculation was followed by a panic4 ,the estates of the directors of the company were confiscated by ,parliament for the benefit of the losers4 ,robert ,walpole was made first minister1 a place which he held under ,george ,i4 and ,george ,,ii4 for twenty-one years4 ,william and ,anne had attended the meetings of the ,cabinet4 ,george ,i41 who could not speak ,english1 staid away4 ,from this time1 one of the ministers was called the prime minister4 ,,the ,,reign ,,of ,,george ,,ii4--,george ,,ii4 was systematic in his ways1 frugal1 willful1 and fond of war4 ,in his private life1 he followed the evil ways of his father4 ,walpole's influence was predominant4 ,the clever ,queen ,caroline lent him her support4 ,walpole reluctantly entered into war with ,spain 7#agci71 on account of the measures adopted by that power to prevent ,english ships from carrying goods1 in violation of the treaty of ,utrecht1 to her ,south ,american colonies4 ,the principal success of ,england was the taking of ,porto ,bello by ,admiral ,vernon4 ,when the war was declared1 the people expressed their joy by the ringing of bells4 ,they are ringing the bells now1 said ,walpole3 they will be wringing their hands soon4 ,the blame for the want of better success in the war was laid on the prime minister1 and he was driven to resign4 ,then followed the ministry of the ,pelhams1 ,henry ,pelham and the ,duke of ,newcastle1 who1 like ,walpole1 managed ,parliament by bribing the members through the gift of offices4 ,in the war of the ,austrian succession 7#agdj71 ,england took part with ,austria1 and the king in person fought in ,germany4 ,in #agde ,prince ,charles ,edward ,stuart1 the young ,pretender 7whose father1 the old ,pretender1 styled himself ,james ,,iii471 landed in the ,highlands4 ,the ,highlanders defeated the ,english at ,preston ,pans1 near ,edinburgh4 ,the ,pretender marched into ,england as far as ,derby1 at the head of the ,jacobite force1 but had to turn back and retreat to ,scotland4 ,the contest was decided by the victory of the ,english under the ,duke of ,cumberland1 at ,culloden 7#agdf71 which was attended by an atrocious slaughter of the wounded4 ,culloden was the last battle fought in behalf of the ,stuarts4 ,nearly eighty ,jacobite conspirators1 one of whom was an octogenarian1 ,lord ,lovat1 were executed as traitors4 ,these ,jacobites were the last persons who were beheaded in ,england4 ,the ,pretender wandered in the ,highlands and ,western ,islands for five months1 under different disguises4 ,he was concealed and aided by a ,scottish lady1 ,flora ,macdonald4 ,then he escaped to the ,continent1 where he led a miserable and dissipated life1 and died in #aghh4 ,his brother ,henry1 ,cardinal ,york1 the last of the ,stuarts in the male line1 died in #ahjg4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,great ,,northern ,,war3 ,,the ,,fall ,,op ,,sweden3 ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,power ,,of ,,russia4 ,,sweden4--,the eventful epoch in the history of ,sweden1 in this period1 is the reign of ,charles ,,xii4 7#afig-agah74 ,at his accession1 when he was only sixteen years old1 ,sweden ruled the ,baltic4 ,its army was strong and well disciplined4 ,what is now ,st4 ,petersburg was a patch of swampy ground in ,swedish territory1 where a few fishermen lived in their huts4 ,the youth of ,charles was prophetic of his career4 ,in doors1 he read the exploits of ,alexander the ,great2 out of doors1 gymnastic sports and the hunting of the bear were his favorite diversions4 ,he became an adventurous warrior after1 the type of ,alexander4 ,his rashness and obstinacy occasioned at last the downfall of his country4 ,three great powers1 ,russia1 ,poland1 and ,denmark1 with the support of ,patkul1 a disaffected ,livonian subject of ,sweden1 joined in an attack on the youthful monarch 7#afii74 ,patkul1 who was a patriot1 unable to secure the rights of ,livonia1 and condemned as a rebel1 had entered the service of the ,elector ,augustus of ,saxony1 who was king of ,poland4 ,there were territories belonging to ,sweden which each of the confederates coveted4 ,frederick ,,iv4 of ,denmark expected to incorporate ,sweden itself in his dominions4 ,,russia3 ,,peter ,,the ,,great4--,the first ruler of the house of ,romanoff1 which has raised ,russia to its present rank1 was ,michael 7#afac-afde74 ,under ,alexis1 his son 7#afde-afgf71 important conquests were made from the ,poles1 and the ,cossacks acknowledged the sovereignty of the ,czar4 ,the principal founder of ,russian civilization was ,peter the ,great 7#afhb-agbe74 ,through the machinations of his half-sister ,sophia1 who contrived to get the armed aid of the streltzi1--the native militia1--he had to share the throne with a half-brother1 ,ivan1 who was older than himself1 and lived until #afif4 ,sophia pushed aside ,peter's mother1 and grasped the reins of power4 ,peter learned ,latin1 ,german1 and ,dutch1 and acquired much knowledge of various sorts4 ,as he grew older1 his life was in danger2 but at the age of seventeen1 he was able to crush his enemies 7#afhi74 ,sophia1 who was at their head1 he shut up in a monastery for the remainder of her days4 ,from ,lefort1 a ,swiss1 and other foreigners1 ,peter derived information about foreign lands1 and was led to visit them in order to instruct himself1 and to introduce into his own country the arts and inventions of civilized peoples4 ,he invited into ,russia artisans1 seamen1 and officers from abroad4 ,he traveled through ,germany and ,holland to ,england1 and with his own hands worked at ship-building at the dock-yards of ,zaandam 7near ,amsterdam7 and ,deptford4 ,on his way to ,venice1 he was called home by a revolt of the streltzi1 which he put down4 ,he was unsparing in his vengeance1 and1 despite his veneer of culture1 never got rid of his innate barbarism4 ,azoff he conquered1 and it was ceded to him by the ,turks in the ,peace of ,carlowitz 7#afii74 ,then his ambitious thoughts turned to the ,baltic1 for he was bent on making ,russia a naval power4 ,he formed a secret alliance with ,denmark and ,poland against ,sweden4 ,,condition ,,of ,,poland4--,in #afig ,frederick ,augustus ,,ii41--,augustus the ,strong1--,duke of ,saxony1 was elected king of ,poland3 he became a ,roman ,catholic that he might get the crown4 ,but the ,polish nobles took care to increase their power1 which was already far too great to be compatible with unity or order4 ,under the anarchical but despotic nobility and higher clergy1 stood the serfs1 embracing nine-tenths of the whole population1 who were without protection against the greed and tyranny of their lords4 ,,events ,,of ,,the ,,northern ,,war4--,the ,danes first attacked the territory of ,holstein ,gottorp1 whose duke had married the sister of ,charles ,,xii4 ,william ,,iii4 of ,england supported ,sweden4 ,the ,anglo-,dutch fleet came to ,charles's assistance4 ,he landed his troops in ,zealand4 ,the ,danes gave up their alliance1 and sued for peace4 ,europe was now astonished to discover that the ,swedish king was an antagonist to be feared4 ,in the field he shared the hardships of the common soldier1 and was as brave as a lion4 ,charles now attacked the ,russian army before ,narva1 in ,livonia4 ,with the ,swedish infantry he stormed the camp of the ,russians1 and routed their army1 which was much larger in numbers than his own 7#agjj74 ,he then raised the siege of ,riga1 which the ,poles and ,saxons were besieging1 having first defeated their troops on the ,dwina4 ,these brilliant successes might have enabled ,charles to conclude peace on very advantageous terms4 ,but he lacked moderation4 ,he was as passionate in his public conduct as ,peter the ,great was in his private life4 ,he was resolved to dethrone ,augustus in ,poland4 ,after the battle of ,clissau 7#agjc71 he occupied that country1 and made the ,diet give the crown to ,stanislas ,lesczinski1 the ,palatine of ,posen4 ,to prevent ,russia and ,saxony from uniting against the new king1 ,charles carried the war into ,saxony1 and forced ,augustus1 in the ,peace of ,altranstdt1 to renounce his claim to the ,polish crown1 and to surrender ,patkul1 the rebel1 who had become a subject of ,russia1 whom he put to death with circumstances of cruelty4 ,in #agjc ,peter laid the foundations of the new city of ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,but1 a few years later1 ,russia was invaded by ,charles1 who in #agjh almost captured the ,czar at ,grodno1 defeated his army near ,smolensk1 and was expected to advance to ,moscow4 ,but the imprudent ,swede turned southward into the district of the ,ukraine1 there to be joined by ,mazeppa1 the hetman of the ,cossacks1 who led them in revolt against ,peter4 ,mazeppa was able1 however1 to bring him but few auxiliaries4 ,the harshness of the winter1 and other untoward events1 weakened the ,swedish force4 ,the battle of ,pultowa 7#agji7 was a great victory for the ,czar4 ,charles escaped with difficulty to ,turkey4 ,there he remained for three years1 supported with his retinue1 at ,bender1 by the ,sultan4 ,his object was to bring about a war between the ,sultan and the ,czar4 ,he so far succeeded that ,peter1 when surrounded on the ,pruth by ,turkish troops1 was rescued only by the courage and energy of ,catherine1 the mistress whom he afterwards married4 ,charles was finally obliged to leave ,turkey1 after being exposed to imminent peril in an attack by the janizaries1 who seized his camp and took him captive4 ,with a few attendants1 riding by day and sleeping in a cart or carriage by night1 he journeyed back to ,sweden1 and arrived at ,stralsund 7#agad74 ,the hostile allies1 together with ,hanover and ,prussia1 were once more in array against him4 ,baron van ,grtz1 a ,german1 became his principal adviser4 ,he negotiated a peace with ,peter1 of whom the other allies were beginning to be jealous4 ,charles's plan was to invade ,norway1 then to land in ,scotland1 and1 with the help of ,spain and of the ,jacobites1 to restore the ,stuarts to the ,english throne4 ,while besieging ,friedrichshall1 a fortress in ,norway1 he exposed himself near the trenches1 and was killed by a bullet 7#agah74 ,it was long a question whether the fatal shot was fired from the enemy or by an assassin4 ,not until #ahei was it settled1 by an examination of the skull1 that the gun was discharged from the fortress4 ,,results ,,of ,,the ,,war--,one result of the ,northern war was the execution of ,grtz1 to whom the ,swedish aristocracy were inimical1 and a reduction of the king's authority4 ,hanover received ,bremen and ,verden2 ,prussia1 the largest part of ,pomerania2 ,sweden gave up its freedom from custom duties in the ,sound4 ,augustus was recognized as king of ,poland4 ,russia1 by the ,peace of ,nystadt 7#agba71 obtained ,livonia1 ,esthonia1 ,ingermannland1 and a part of ,carelia1 but restored ,finland4 ,sweden no longer had a place among the great powers4 ,the place that ,sweden had held was now taken by ,russia4 ,,changes ,,in ,,russia4--,the ,czar1 ,peter1 took the title of emperor4 ,he transferred the capital from ,moscow to ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,by constructing canals1 roads1 and harbors1 he promoted trade and commerce4 ,by fostering manufactures and the mechanic arts1 and by opening the mines1 he increased the wealth of the country4 ,he altered the method of government1 making the ukases1 or edicts1 emanate from the sole will of the emperor4 ,he abolished the dignity of ,patriarch1 making the ,holy ,synod1 of which the ,czar is president1 the supreme ecclesiastical authority4 ,peter made a second journey through ,germany1 ,holland1 and ,france 7#agaf74 ,his son ,alexis1 who allied himself with a reactionary party that aimed to reverse the ,czar's policy1 he finally caused to be tried for treason4 ,he was condemned1 but died either from the bodily torture inflicted on him to extort confession1 or1 as many have believed1 by poison1 or other means1 used by the direction of his father4 ,his friends1 after being barbarously tortured1 were put to death4 ,great as was the work of ,peter1 he brought ,russia prematurely into the circle of ,european politics4 ,the result has been to turn the rulers of ,russia away from home affairs1 and the regular development of internal institutions1 to foreign politics and the creation of a great military power4 ,in his last years1 the frugality of his own way of living in his new capital was in striking contrast with the splendor with which his queen1 ,catherine1 preferred to surround herself4 ,he died at the age of fifty-three1 in consequence of plunging into icy water to save a boat in distress4 ,the document called ,the ,testament of ,peter the ,great1 which explains what has to be done in order that ,russia may conquer all ,europe1 is not genuine4 ,it is first heard of in #ahab1 in a book published by ,lesur1 probably by direction of ,napoleon ,i4 ,lesur's book1 says ,mr4 ,e4 ,schuyler1 was merely a pamphlet to justify the invasion of ,russia by ,napoleon4 7,schuyler's ,life of ,peter the ,great1 vol4 ii1 p4 #eab47 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,war ,,of ,,the ,,austrian ,,succession2 ,,growth ,,op ,,the ,,power ,,of ,,prussia3 ,,the ,,destruction ,,of ,,poland4 ,,the ,,pragmatic ,,sanction4--,on the death of ,augustus ,,ii41 there were two competitors for the ,polish crown1--his son1 ,augustus ,,iii4 of ,saxony1 and ,stanislaus ,lesczinski whom ,france supported4 ,after a contest1 by the consent of the ,emperor ,charles ,,vi41 ,lesczinski1 whose daughter had married ,louis ,,xv41 obtained the duchy of ,lorraine1 which thus became a possession of ,france 7#agce74 ,in return1 the emperor's son-in-law1 ,francis ,stephen 7afterwards ,francis ,i471 was to have ,tuscany2 and ,france1 in connection with the other powers1 assented to the ,pragmatic ,sanction1 according to which the hereditary possessions of ,austria were to descend intact in the female line4 ,it was expected that the empire would pass along with them4 ,,prussia3 ,,frederick ,,william ,i4--,in #afaa the duchy of ,prussia and the mark or electorate of ,brandenburg were joined together4 ,the duchy was then a fief of ,poland4 ,but under the ,great ,elector1 ,frederick ,william 7#afdj-afhh71 this relation of the duchy to ,poland ended4 ,by him the military strength of the electorate was increased4 ,frederick1 his son 7#afhh-agac71 with the emperor's license1 took the title of ,king of ,prussia 7,frederick ,i474 ,he built up the city of ,berlin1 and encouraged art and learning4 ,king ,frederick ,william ,i4 7#agac-agdj71 unlike his predecessor1 was exceedingly frugal in his court4 ,he was upright and just in his principles1 but extremely rough in his ways1 and governed his own household1 as well as his subjects generally1 with a ,spartan rigor4 ,individuals whom he met in the street1 whose conduct or dress he thought unbecoming1 he did not hesitate to scold1 and he even used his cane to chastise them on the spot4 ,he cared nothing for literature3 artists and players were his abomination4 ,he favored industry1 and was a friend of the working-class4 ,every thing was done with despotic energy4 ,he disciplined the military force of ,prussia1 and gathered at ,potsdam a regiment of tall guards1 made up of men of gigantic height1 who were brought together from all quarters4 ,he left to his son1 ,frederick ,,ii4 7#agdj-aghf71 a strong army and a full treasury4 ,,character ,,of ,,frederick ,,the ,,great4--,young ,frederick had no sympathy with his father's austere ways4 ,the strict system of training arranged for him1 in which he was cut off from ,latin and from other studies for which he had a taste1 his time all parceled out1 and a succession of tasks rigorously ordained for him1 he found a yoke too heavy to bear4 ,once he attempted to escape to the court of his uncle1 ,george ,,ii4 of ,england2 but the scheme was discovered1 and the incensed father was strongly inclined to execute the decree of a court-martial1 which pronounced him worthy of death4 ,frederick1 from the window of the place where he was confined1 saw ,katte1 his favorite tutor1 who had helped him in his attempt at flight1 led to the scaffold1 where he was hanged4 ,in the later years of the old king1 the relations of father and son were improved4 ,the prince had for his abode the little town of ,rheinsberg1 where he could indulge1 with a circle of congenial friends1 in the studies and amusements to which he was partial4 ,he grew up with a strong predilection for ,french literature1 and for the ,french habits and fashions--free-thinking in religion included--which were now spreading over ,europe4 ,on his accession to the throne1 ,frederick broke up the ,potsdam regiment of giants1 and called back to ,halle the philosopher ,wolf1 whom his father had banished4 ,frederick was visited by ,voltaire1 who at a later day took up his abode for a time with him in ,berlin4 ,but the king was fond of banter1 and the foibles of each of these companions were a target for the unsparing wit of the other2 so that eventually they parted company with mutual disgust4 ,later they resumed their correspondence1 and never wholly lost their intellectual sympathy with each other4 ,as a soldier1 ,frederick had not the military genius of the greatest captains4 ,he applied superior talents to the discharge of the duties of a king1 and to the business of war4 ,he was cool1 knew how to profit by his errors and to repair his losses1 and to press forward in the darkest hour4 ,napoleon said of him that he was great1 especially at critical moments4 ,,war ,,of ,,the ,,austrian ,,sucession---,charles ,,vi4 was succeeded1 in #agdj1 by his daughter ,maria ,theresa1 who united in her character many of the finest qualities of a woman and of a sovereign4 ,notwithstanding the pragmatic sanction by which all the ,austrian lands were to be hers1 different princes deemed the occasion favorable for seizing on the whole1 or on portions1 of her inheritance4 ,charles1 elector of ,bavaria1 claimed to be the lawful heir1 and was aided by ,france1 which was afraid of losing ,lorraine if ,maria ,theresa's husband1 ,francis ,stephen1 should become emperor4 ,augustus ,,iii4 of ,poland was a participant in the plot4 ,frederick ,,ii4 of ,prussia claimed ,silesia1 and1 after defeating the ,austrians at ,molwitz 7#agda71 seized the greater part of that district4 ,soon after1 the ,french and ,bavarians overran ,austria4 ,the ,bavarian elector was chosen emperor4 ,even the elector of ,hanover 7,george ,,ii4 of ,england7 engaged not to assist the empress4 ,the claims to ,austria were as follows3-- ,augustus ,,iii41 king of ,saxony1 and ,charles ,albert1 elector of ,bavaria1 had married daughters of the ,emperor ,joseph ,i4 7the brother and predecessor of ,charles ,,vi474 ,the wife of ,charles ,albert was the younger daughter2 but he appealed to an alleged provision in the will of the ,emperor ,ferdinand ,i41 according to which the posterity of his daughter ,anna 7who married a ,bavarian duke7 was to inherit the duchy of ,austria and ,bohemia1 in case his male descendants should die out4 ,it was not to the male descendants1 but to the legitimate descendants1 however1 that the will referred4 ,the ,bourbons in ,france and ,spain seized the occasion to regain the possessions of ,spain lost in the ,peace of ,utrecht 7p4 #dff74 ,francis ,stephen1 the husband of ,maria ,theresa1 it was feared1 might seek to get back ,lorraine from ,france 7p4 #dgd74 ,spain was anxious to recover ,milan4 ,philip ,v4 of ,spain claimed the ,austrian possessions on the basis of certain stipulations of ,charles ,v4 and ,philip ,,iii4 in the cession of them4 ,to weaken the ,austrian house in ,germany1 was an aim of ,france4 ,the courts of ,france and ,spain were ready1 on all these grounds1 to support ,charles of ,bavaria4 ,they were ready1 also1 to support ,frederick ,,ii4 in legal claims which he set up to a portion of ,silesia4 ,the empress rejected the offer of ,frederick to defend ,austria if she would give up this territory4 ,,spirit ,,of ,,the ,,empress3 ,,cession ,,of ,,silesia4--,maria ,theresa proved herself a ,minerva4 ,she threw herself for support on her ,hungarian subjects1 who responded with loyal enthusiasm to her appeal made at the ,diet of ,presburg4 ,her forces drove the ,bavarian and ,french troops before them in ,austria1 entered ,bavaria1 and captured ,munich4 ,reluctantly the queen1 in the ,peace of ,breslau 7#agdb71 ceded ,silesia to ,frederick1 in order to lessen the number of her antagonists4 ,she was crowned 7#agdc7 in ,prague1 and at length gained an ally in ,george ,,ii4 of ,england4 ,the ,pragmatic ,army1 as it was called1 defeated the ,french under ,marshal ,noailles at ,dettingen4 ,sardinia and ,saxony joined the ,austrian alliance4 ,,to ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,aix-,,la-,,chapelle4--,these events widened the dimensions of the contest4 ,france declared war directly against ,england and ,austria4 ,frederick ,,ii4 of ,prussia was now the ally of ,france1 and began the second ,silesian war4 ,he took ,prague1 but1 being deserted by the ,french1 was driven back into ,saxony4 ,the son of ,charles ,albert of ,bavaria1 ,maximilian ,joseph1 made peace with ,austria1--the ,peace of ,fssen1--promising to give his vote to ,francis1 the husband of ,maria ,theresa1 for the office of emperor4 ,francis 7#agde-agfe7 was crowned at ,frankfort4 ,victories in ,saxony on the side of ,frederick led to the ,treaty of ,dresden1 which left ,silesia in his hands 7#agde74 ,the most of the ,english army went back to ,england to fight the ,pretender4 ,the war went on in the ,netherlands and in ,italy1 and between ,france and ,england2 the ,english being victors on the sea under ,anson 7#agdg71 while the ,french were generally successful on the land4 ,the peace of ,aix-la-,chapelle 7#agdh7 provided for a reciprocal restoration of all conquests3 ,silesia was given to ,prussia1 and the ,pragmatic ,sanction was sustained in ,austria4 ,,alliance ,,against ,,frederick4--,frederick the ,great used the next eight years in doing what he could to encourage industry and to increase the prosperity and resources of ,prussia1 at the same time that he strengthened his military force4 ,prussia had evinced so much power in the late conflicts as to be an object of envy and apprehension4 ,maria ,theresa was anxious to recover ,silesia4 ,frederick had a foe in ,elizabeth1 empress of ,russia1 whose personal vices he made a subject of sarcastic remark1 and who1 besides1 coveted ,prussian provinces on the ,baltic4 ,an alliance was formed between ,russia and ,austria4 ,this was joined by ,saxony1 and by ,france2 since ,louis ,,xv4 had become alarmed by the calculating selfishness of ,frederick's policy1 and was induced to depart from the ,french traditional policy1 and to unite with ,austria4 ,the only ally of ,frederick was ,george ,,ii4 of ,england1 which was then engaged in a contest with ,france respecting the ,american colonies 7#agef74 ,,the ,,seven ,,years' ,,war4--,thus arose the ,seven ,years' ,war4 ,frederick1 secretly informed of the plans of his enemies1 anticipated their action by invading ,saxony and capturing ,dresden 7#agef74 ,at ,lobositz he defeated the ,austrians3 he soon took eighteen thousand ,saxon troops4 ,he had now to encounter the military strength of the various nations opposed to him4 ,with the bulk of his forces he marched into ,bohemia1 and gained a great but costly victory at ,prague 7#ageg74 ,for the next six months1 successes and reverses alternated2 but before the end of the year 7#ageg7 ,frederick won two of his most famous triumphs1--one at ,rossbach1 over the ,french and the ,imperialists2 and the other over the ,austrians1 at ,leuthen4 ,frederick was now admired as a hero in ,england1 and was furnished by the elder ,william ,pitt1 who had succeeded ,newcastle1 with money and troops4 ,in #ageh the ,prussians vanquished the ,russians at ,zorndorf1 but were1 in turn1 soon defeated by the ,austrians at ,hochkirch ,of the numerous battles in this prolonged war1 in which the military talents of ,frederick were so strikingly shown1 it is possible to refer only to a few of the most important4 ,he was defeated by the united ,austrians and ,russians at ,kunersdorf2 and so completely that he was for the moment thrown into despair1 and wrote to his minister ,finkenstein1 ,all is lost4 ,in #agfj ,berlin was held for a few days by the ,russians1 but ,frederick soon defeated the ,austrians once more at ,torgau4 ,in #agfa1 however1 his situation was in the highest degree perilous4 ,his resources were apparently exhausted4 ,spain joined the ranks of his enemies4 ,he faced them all with determined resolution1 but he confessed in his private letters that his hopes were gone4 ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,war4--,at this time there was a turn of events in his favor4 ,in ,russia1 ,peter ,,iii41 who succeeded ,elizabeth1 was an admirer of ,frederick1--so much so that he wore a ,prussian uniform1--and hastened to conclude a peace and alliance with him 7#agfb74 ,peter was soon dethroned and killed by ,russian nobles2 and his queen and successor1 ,catherine ,,ii41 recalled the troops sent to ,frederick's aid4 ,nevertheless1 they helped him to a victory over the ,austrians1 under the command of ,daun1 at ,burkersdorf 7#agfb74 ,austria1 too1 was exhausted and ready for peace4 ,the negotiations between ,england and ,france1 which ended in the ,peace of ,paris 7#agfc71 made it certain that the ,french armies would evacuate ,germany4 ,prussia and ,austria agreed to the ,peace of ,hubertsburg1 by which ,prussia retained ,silesia1 and promised her vote for the ,archduke ,joseph1 son of ,maria ,theresa1 as king of ,rome and successor to the empire 7#agfc74 ,,position ,,of ,,prussia4--,joseph ,,ii4 succeeded his father as emperor in #agfe1 and was associated by his mother1 ,maria ,theresa1 in the government of her hereditary dominions4 ,from the conclusion of the ,seven ,years' ,war1 ,prussia took her place as one of the five great powers of ,europe4 ,,the ,,british ,,indian ,,empire4--,it was during this period that the empire of the ,british in ,india grew up out of the mercantile settlements of a trading corporation1 the ,east ,india ,company4 ,the result was effected after a severe struggle with the ,french4 ,after the beginning of the eighteenth century1 the ,mughal empire at ,delhi declined4 ,insubordinate native princes admitted only a nominal control over them4 ,the effect of successive ,mahratta and ,afghan invasions was such1 that when ,england and ,france went to war in ,europe1 in #agde1 ,india was broken up into different sovereignties1 to say nothing of the great number of petty chieftains who were practically independent4 ,pondicherry was the chief ,french settlement4 ,for a time it seemed that in the struggle for control ,france1 under the masterly guidance of ,dupleix1 must triumph4 ,in #agef ,calcutta was taken from the ,english by the ,nabob of ,bengal1 and many ,englishmen died in the close room of the military prison in which they were shut up1--the ,black ,hole4 ,in #ageg ,clive defeated a great army of the natives1 with whom were a few ,french1 in the decisive battle of ,plassey4 ,he had previously shown his indomitable courage in the seizure of ,arcot1 and in its defense against a host of besiegers4 ,the victory at ,plassey secured the ,british supremacy1 which gradually extended itself over the country4 ,the various local sovereignties became like ,roman provinces4 ,on the death of ,clive1 ,warren ,hastings was made governor-general 7#aggb74 ,after his recall1 he was impeached 7#aghh71 on charges of cruelty and oppression in ,india1 and his trial by the ,house of ,lords did not end until seven years after it began4 ,he was then acquitted4 ,among the conductors of the impeachment on the part of the ,house of ,commons1 were the celebrated orators ,edmund ,burke and ,richard ,brinsley ,sheridan4 ,in #aghd the power of the ,east-,india ,company had been restricted by the establishment of the ,board of ,control4 ,up to that time the ,indian ,empire1 made up of dependent and subject states1 had been governed by the sole authority of the company4 ,,catherine ,,ii4 ,,of ,,russia4--,catherine ,,ii4 7#agfb-agif7 in her private life was notoriously dissolute4 ,if she did not connive at the assassination of her husband1 ,peter ,,iii41 she heaped gifts upon his murderers4 ,in her policy1 she aimed to strengthen ,russia1 especially towards the sea4 ,this occasioned successful conflicts with the ,turks4 ,,the ,,partition ,,of ,,poland4--,at first inimical to ,frederick the ,great1 ,catherine afterwards made an alliance with him4 ,she compelled the election of one of her lovers1 ,poniatowski1 to the throne of ,poland4 ,poland was mainly ,catholic2 and the ,confederation of ,bar 7#agfh71 made by the ,poles to prevent the toleration of ,greek ,christians and ,protestants1 was defeated by a ,russian army1 and broken up4 ,the ,turks were worsted in the war which they made in defense of the confederacy4 ,as one result1 ,russia gained a firm footing on the north coasts of the ,black ,sea 7#aggd74 ,the free veto1 oppression of the peasantry1 their distress1 and the general want of union and public spirit1 had reduced ,poland to a miserable condition4 ,catherine1 however1 favored no reforms there looking to an improvement in the constitution4 ,she preferred to prolong the anarchy and confusion4 ,she wished to make the death of ,poland in part a suicide4 ,at length she invited ,prussia and ,austria to take part with her in the first seizure and partition of ,polish territory 7#aggb74 ,each took certain provinces4 ,in #agic the second1 and in #agie the final partition of ,poland1 was made by its three neighbors4 ,the capture of ,warsaw1 and the defeat of the national rising under ,kosciusko1 obliterated that ancient kingdom from the map of ,europe4 ,it should be said that a large part of the territory that ,russia acquired had once been ,russian1 and was inhabited by ,greek ,christians4 ,by the division of ,poland1 ,russia was brought into close contact with the ,western powers4 ,the ,crimea was incorporated with ,russia in #aghc4 ,after a second war1 provoked by her1 with the ,turks1 who now had the ,austrians to help them1 the ,russian boundaries through the ,treaty of ,jassy 7#agib7 were carried to the ,dniester4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,contest ,,of ,,england ,,and ,,france ,,in ,,america3 ,,war ,,of ,,american ,,independence3 ,,the ,,constitution ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,in this period the ,united ,states of ,america achieved their independence1 and began their existence as a distinct nation4 ,,the ,,english ,,colonies4--,the ,english colonies south of ,canada had become thirteen in number4 ,in the southern part of what was called ,carolina1 ,charleston was settled in #afhj4 ,more than a century before 7#aefb71 a band of ,huguenots under ,ribault had entered the harbor of ,port ,royal1 and given this name to it1 and had built a fort on the river ,may1 which they called ,charlesfort--the ,carolina--in honor of ,king ,charles ,,ix4 of ,france4 ,in #affc the territory thus called1 south of ,virginia1 was granted to the ,earl of ,clarendon4 ,in it were two distinct settlements in the northern part4 ,the ,english philosopher ,john ,locke drew up a constitution for ,carolina1 never accepted by the freemen4 ,the rights of the proprietors were purchased by ,george ,,ii42 and the region was divided 7#agbi7 into two royal provinces1 ,north and ,south ,carolina1 each province having a governor appointed by the king1 and an assembly elected by the people4 ,besides the ,english1 ,huguenots and emigrants from the ,north of ,ireland1 as well as from ,scotland1 planted themselves in ,south ,carolina4 ,georgia was settled by ,james ,oglethorpe1 who made his settlement at ,savannah4 ,he had a charter from ,george ,,ii41 in whose honor the region was named 7#agcb74 ,soon the trustees gave up their charter1 and the government was shaped like that of the other colonies 7#ageb74 ,john ,wesley1 afterwards the founder of ,methodism1 sojourned for a time in ,georgia4 ,the settlement of ,new ,jersey was first made by members of the ,society of ,friends1 or ,quakers1 sent over by ,william ,penn1 the son of an ,english admiral1 and familiar at court4 ,the ,quakers gave up the government to the crown1 and from #agjb to #agch it formed one province with ,new ,york4 ,pennsylvania was granted to ,penn himself1 by the king1 in discharge of a claim against the crown4 ,penn procured also a title to ,delaware4 ,he sent out emigrants in #afha1 and the next year came himself4 ,by him ,philadelphia was founded4 ,he dealt kindly with all the settlers1 and made a treaty of peace and amity with the ,indians4 ,the government organized by ,penn was just and liberal4 ,in #agjc the inhabitants of ,delaware began to have a governing assembly of their own4 ,,the ,,french ,,colonies4--,among the ,french explorers in ,america1 ,la ,salle is one of the most famous4 ,having traversed the region of the upper lakes1 he reached the ,mississippi1 and floated in his boats down to its mouth 7#afhb74 ,the region of the great river and of its tributaries1 he named ,louisiana1 in honor of his king1 ,louis ,,xiv4 ,this name was applied to the whole region from the ,alleghanies to the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,on his return1 ,la ,salle built ,fort ,st4 ,louis4 ,afterwards 7#afhd7 he took part in an expedition from ,france which had for its purpose the building of a fort at the mouth of the ,mississippi1 but which was so wrongly guided as to land on the coast of ,texas4 ,la ,salle himself perished1 while seeking to find his way to ,canada4 ,but a ,french settlement was made near the mouth of the river 7#afii71 and a connection established by a series of forts with ,canada4 ,on the principle that the country belonged to the explorer1 ,spain claimed all the southern part of ,north ,america from the ,atlantic to the ,pacific4 ,the ,french claim stretched from the coast of ,nova ,scotia westward to the ,great ,lakes1 and embraced the valley of the ,mississippi to its mouth4 ,england claimed the country from ,labrador as far south as ,florida1 and westward to the ,pacific4 ,this region included within it the claims of the ,dutch1 founded on the discoveries of ,henry ,hudson4 ,war between ,england and ,france1 whenever it occurred1 was attended with conflicts between the ,english and the ,french settlements in ,america4 ,the ,indians were most of them on the side of the ,french4 ,but the fierce ,iroquois in central ,new ,york1 who wished to monopolize the fur-trade1 were hostile to them4 ,a massacre perpetrated by these at ,la ,chine1 near ,montreal 7#afhi71 provoked a murderous attack of ,french and ,indians upon the settlement at ,schenectady1 the most northern post of the ,english4 ,this was an incident of ,king ,william's ,war 7#afhi74 ,in ,queen ,anne's ,war 7#agjb-agac7 ,deerfield in ,massachusetts was captured and destroyed by ,french and ,indians 7#agjd74 ,by an expedition fitted out in ,massachusetts1 and commanded by ,sir ,william ,phipps1 ,port ,royal in ,nova ,scotia was captured 7#agaj74 ,the colonies incurred great expense in fitting out expeditions 7#agji and #agaa7 against ,canada1 which were abandoned4 ,the contest between ,france and ,england for supremacy in ,america was further continued in a series of conflicts lasting from #agdd for nearly twenty years4 ,an early event of much consequence in the contest known as ,king ,george's ,war1--a part of the war of the ,austrian succession 7p4 #dgf71--was the capture of ,louisburg1 an important fortified place on ,cape ,breton1 by an expedition from ,boston 7#agde74 ,the colonists1 who were with reason proud of their achievement1 had the mortification to see this place restored to the ,french in the treaty of peace 7#agdh74 ,in these contests the ,french had the help of their ,indian allies1 who fell upon defenseless villages4 ,the ,english were sometimes aided by the ,iroquois4 ,the ,english founded ,halifax 7#agdi74 ,,the ,,old ,,french ,,war 7#agef-agfc74--,the ,old ,french and ,indian ,war in ,america was a part of the ,seven ,years' ,war in ,europe4 ,a ,british officer1 ,gen4 ,braddock1 led a force which departed from ,fort ,cumberland in ,maryland1 against ,fort ,du ,quesne at the junction of the ,monongahela and ,alleghany ,rivers4 ,disregarding the advice of ,george ,washington1 who was on his staff1 he allowed himself to be surprised by the ,indians and the ,french1 and was mortally wounded4 ,the remains of his army were led by ,washington1 whose courage and presence of mind had been conspicuous1 to ,philadelphia 7#agee74 ,prior to the expedition1 ,washington had made a perilous journey as envoy1 to demand of the ,french commander his reasons for invading the ,ohio valley4 ,the ,english held ,nova ,scotia1 and expelled from their homes the ,french ,acadians1 seven thousand in number1 in a way that involved severe hardships1 including the separation of families 7#agee74 ,they were carried off in ships1 and scattered among the colonies along the ,atlantic shore4 ,the ,english also took the forts in ,acadia4 ,there were two battles near ,lake ,george 7#agee71 in the first of which the ,french were victors1 but in the second they were routed4 ,montcalm1 the ,french commander1 captured the ,english fort near ,oswego1 from which an expedition was to have been sent against the ,french fort at ,niagara 7#agef74 ,in #ageg he took ,fort ,william ,henry on ,lake ,george4 ,,the ,,campaigns ,,of #ageh ,,and #agei4--,the ,english were dissatisfied at their want of success on the ,continent and in ,america4 ,but they had advantages for prosecuting the conflict4 ,the ,french1 who had been successful at the outset1 had to bring their troops and supplies from ,europe4 ,they were1 to be sure1 disciplined troops2 but the ,english had the substantial strength which was derived from the prosperous agriculture1 and still more from the brave and self-respecting spirit1 of their ,american colonies4 ,the elder ,william ,pitt1 afterwards ,earl of ,chatham1 again entered the cabinet1 and began to manage the contest 7#ageg74 ,the ,french held posts at important points1--,fort ,du ,quesne1 where ,pittsburg now stands1 for the defense of the ,west2 ,crown ,point and ,ticonderoga on ,lake ,champlain1 guarding the approach to ,canada2 ,niagara1 near the ,great ,lakes and the region of the fur-trade2 and ,louisburg1 on the coast of ,nova ,scotia1 which protected the fisheries1 and was a menace to ,new ,england4 ,to seize these posts1 and to break down the ,french power in ,america1 was now the aim of the ,english4 ,in #ageh an expedition of ,gen4 ,abercrombie1 at the head of sixteen thousand men1 against ,crown ,point and ,ticonderoga1 was repulsed2 ,lord ,howe was killed1 and the army retreated4 ,louisburg1 to the joy of the colonies1 was captured anew by ,lord ,amherst 7#ageh74 ,fort ,du ,quesne was taken 7#ageh71 and named ,fort ,pitt2 ,fort ,frontenac on ,lake ,ontario was destroyed4 ,the object of the campaign of #agei was the conquest of ,canada4 ,fort ,niagara was captured by ,sir ,william ,johnston 7#agei74 ,ticonderoga and ,crown ,point were taken1 and the ,french driven into ,canada4 ,then came the great expedition under ,major-,gen1 ,wolfe1 a most worthy and high-spirited young officer1 which left ,louisburg for the capture of ,quebec1 the ,gibraltar of ,america4 ,the attempt of ,wolfe to storm the heights in front of the city1 which were defended by the army of ,montcalm1 failed of success4 ,from a point far up the river1 he embarked a portion of his troops in the night1 and1 silently descending the stream1 climbed the heights in the rear of the city1 and intrenched himself on the ,plains of ,abraham4 ,in the battle which took place in the morning1 both commanders1 ,wolfe and ,montcalm1 were mortally wounded4 ,wolfe lived just long enough to be assured of victory2 ,montcalm died the next day4 ,five days after the battle the town surrendered 7#agei74 ,an incident connected with ,wolfe's approach by night to ,quebec is thus given by ,mr4 ,parkman3 ,for full two hours the procession of boats1 borne on the current1 steered silently down the ,st4 ,lawrence4 ,the stars were visible1 but the night was moonless and sufficiently dark4 ,the general was in one of the foremost boats2 and near him was a young midshipman1 ,john ,robison1 afterwards professor of natural philosophy in the ,university of ,edinburgh4 ,he used to tell in his later life how ,wolfe1 with a low voice1 repeated ,gray's ,elegy in a ,country ,churchyard to the officers about him4 ,among the rest1 was the verse which his fate was soon to illustrate1-- ',the paths of glory lead but to the grave4' ',gentlemen1' he said1 as his recital ended1 ',i would rather have written those lines than take ,quebec4' ,none were there to tell him that the hero is greater than the poet4 7,montcalm and ,wolfe1 p4 #bhg47 ,in the following year ,montreal and all ,canada were in the hands of the ,english4 ,the ,english colonies were safe4 ,it was decided that ,english1 not ,french1 should be spoken in aftertimes on the banks of the ,ohio4 ,in the ,peace of ,paris 7#agfc71 ,france kept ,louisiana1 but had already ceded it to ,spain 7#agfb74 ,,conspiracy ,,of ,,pontiac4--,the ,indians in the ,west were dissatisfied with the transference of ,canada and the region of the ,lakes to ,england4 ,pontiac1 chief of the ,ottawas1 combined a large number of tribes1 and kindled a war against the ,english1 which spread from the ,mississippi to ,canada 7#agfc74 ,he captured eight forts1 but failed to take ,detroit and ,fort ,pitt4 ,three years passed before the ,indians were completely beaten1 and a treaty of peace concluded with their leader 7#agff74 ,,state ,,of ,,the ,,colonies3 ,,population4--,at the close of the ,french war1 the population of the thirteen colonies probably exceeded two millions1 of whom not far from one fourth were negro slaves4 ,the number of slaves in ,new ,england was small4 ,they were proportionately much more numerous in ,new ,york1 but they were found principally in the ,southern colonies4 ,quakers were always averse to slavery4 ,the slave-trade was still kept up4 ,newport in ,rhode ,island was one of the ports where slave-ships frequently discharged their cargoes4 ,,government4--,the forms of government in the different colonies varied4 ,all of them had their own legislative assemblies1 and regarded them as essential to their freedom4 ,under ,charles ,,ii41 the charter which secured to ,massachusetts its civil rights was annulled 7#afhd74 ,under ,james ,,ii41 the attempt was made to revoke all the ,new ,england charters4 ,sir ,edmund ,andros was appointed governor of ,new ,england1 and by him the new system began to be enforced4 ,the revolution of #afhh restored to the colonies their privileges2 but ,massachusetts 7with which ,plymouth was now united71 under its new charter 7#afia71 no longer elected its governor4 ,prior to the ,revolution1 there were three forms of government among the colonies4 ,proprietary governments 7that is1 government by owners or proprietors7 still remained in ,pennsylvania1 ,delaware1 and ,maryland4 ,in these the king appointed no officers except in the customs and admiralty courts4 ,in ,rhode ,island and ,connecticut1 which like ,massachusetts retained their charters1 the governors were chosen by the people4 ,new ,hampshire1 ,new ,york1 ,new ,jersey1 ,virginia1 ,north and ,south ,carolina1 had royal or provincial governments3 the governor and council were appointed by the king4 ,,occupations4--,the chief occupation of the colonists was agriculture4 ,in the ,north1 wheat and corn were raised4 ,from ,virginia and ,maryland1 great crops of tobacco were exported from the plantations1 in ,english ships which came up the ,potomac and the ,james4 ,rice was cultivated in the ,carolinas4 ,indigo was also raised4 ,cotton was grown in the ,south4 ,labor in the fields in the ,southern colonies was performed by the negroes4 ,building of ships was a profitable occupation on the coast of ,new ,england4 ,the cod and other fisheries also gave employment to many1 and proved a school for the training of seamen4 ,the colonists were industrious and prosperous1 but generally frugal and plain in their style of living4 ,,education ,,and ,,religion4--,common schools were early established by law in ,new ,england1 and by the ,dutch in ,new ,york4 ,as ,mr4 ,bancroft well observes1 ,he that will understand the political character of ,new ,england in the eighteenth century must study the constitution of its towns1 its congregations1 its schools1 and its militia4 ,harvard ,college was founded in #afcf2 ,william and ,mary1 in #afic2 ,yale1 in #agjj4 ,eighteen years after the landing of the ,pilgrims at ,plymouth1 a printing-press was set up at ,cambridge4 ,in #agjd the first ,american newspaper1 ,the ,boston ,news ,letter1 was established4 ,in the ,puritan colonies1 the minds of the people were quickened intellectually as well as religiously1 by the character of the pulpit discourses4 ,theology was an absorbing theme of inquiry and discussion4 ,in the town-meetings1 especially in the closing part of the colonial period1 political affairs became a subject of earnest debate4 ,in all the colonies1 the representative assemblies furnished a practical training in political life4 ,in the ,eastern colonies1 the people were mostly ,congregationalists and ,calvinists3 ,presbyterians were numerous in the ,middle ,states4 ,in ,virginia the ,episcopal ,church was supported by legislative authority2 and it was favored1 though not established by law1 in ,new ,york4 ,in ,pennsylvania1 while there was freedom in religion1 the ,quakers still swayed legislation and public opinion4 ,philadelphia1 with its population of thirty thousand1 was the largest city in ,america1 and was held in high esteem for its intelligence and refinement4 ,,complaints ,,of ,,the ,,colonies4--,the colonists all acknowledged the authority of king and parliament1 but they felt that they had brought with them across the ocean the rights of ,englishmen4 ,one thing that was more and more complained of was the laws compelling the colonies to trade with the mother country exclusively1 and the enactments laying restraint on their manufactures4 ,in the conflicts with the ,indians from time to time1 the necessity had arisen for leagues2 and1 more than once1 congresses of delegates had met4 ,one of these was held at ,albany in #aged1 where ,benjamin ,franklin was present4 ,in the ,old ,french ,war1 there had been a call for concert of action1 and a deepening of the sense of common interests and of being really one people4 ,,new ,,grounds ,,of ,,disaffection4--,the colonies had taxed themselves in the ,french ,war2 but the condition of the finances in ,england at the close of it inspired the wish there to enforce the laws of trade more rigidly in ,america1 and to levy additional taxes upon the provinces4 ,these ,english laws were so odious that they were often evaded4 ,the writs of assistance in ,massachusetts authorized custom-house officers to search houses for smuggled goods 7#agfa74 ,in the legal resistance to this measure1 a sentence was uttered by a ,boston patriot1 ,james ,otis1 which became a watchword4 ,taxation1 he said1 without representation is tyranny4 ,taxation1 it was contended1 must be ordained by the local colonial assemblies in which the tax-payers are represented4 ,but the ,stamp ,act 7#agfe71 requiring for legal and other documents the use of stamped paper1 was a form of taxation4 ,it excited indignation in all the colonies1 especially in ,virginia and in ,new ,england4 ,in all the measures of resistance1 ,virginia and ,massachusetts were foremost4 ,patrick ,henry1 an impassioned1 patriotic orator1 in the ,virginia ,legislature1 was very bold in denouncing the obnoxious ,act1 and the alleged right to tax the colonies which it implied4 ,this right was denied in a ,congress where nine colonies were represented1 which met in ,new ,york in #agfe4 ,they called for the repeal of the ,stamp ,act1 and declared against the importation of ,english goods until the repeal should be granted4 ,william ,pitt1 in the ,house of ,commons1 eulogized the spirit of the colonies4 ,the ,stamp ,act was repealed4 ,the discussions which it had provoked in ,america had awakened the whole people1 and made them watchful against this sort of aggression4 ,political topics engrossed attention4 ,when ,parliament ordered that the colonies should support the troops quartered on them1 and that the royal officers should have fixed salaries1 to be obtained1 not by the voluntary grants of colonial legislatures1 but by the levy of new duties1 there was a renewed outburst of disaffection1 especially in ,new ,york and ,boston 7#agfh74 ,by way of response to a petition that was sent to the king against these ,acts of ,parliament1 four regiments of troops were sent to ,boston4 ,their presence was a bitter grievance4 ,in one case1 there was bloodshed in a broil in the street between the populace and the soldiers1 which was called ,the ,boston ,massacre 7#aggj74 ,an influential leader of the popular party in ,boston was the stanch ,puritan patriot1 ,samuel ,adams4 ,,progress ,,of ,,the ,,controversy4--,after the other taxes were repealed1 the tax on tea remained in force4 ,a mob of young men1 disguised as ,indians1 went on board three vessels in ,boston ,harbor1 and threw overboard their freight of tea 7#aggc74 ,before1 there had been outbreakings of popular wrath against the stamp-officers4 ,their houses had been sometimes attacked3 they had been burnt in effigy1 and in some cases driven to resign4 ,in general1 however1 the methods of resistance had been legal and orderly4 ,when the news of the destruction of the tea reached ,england1 ,parliament retaliated by passing the ,boston ,port ,bill 7#aggd71 which closed that port to the exportation or importation of goods1 except food or fuel4 ,the courts1 moreover1 were given the power to send persons charged with high crimes to ,england1 or to another colony1 for trial4 ,to crown all1 ,general ,gage1 the commander of the ,british troops1 was made ,governor of ,massachusetts4 ,,the ,,first ,,continental ,,congress4--,in order to produce concert of action1 committees of correspondence between the several colonies were established4 ,the ,first ,continental ,congress1 composed of delegates from the colonies1 was convened in ,philadelphia 7#aggd74 ,the remedies to which they resorted were1 addresses to the king and to the people of ,great ,britain2 an appeal for support to ,canada2 and a resolve not to trade with ,great ,britain until there should be a redress of grievances4 ,,concord ,,and ,,bunker ,,hill4--,the ,legislature in ,massachusetts1 which ,gage would not recognize1 formed itself into the ,provincial ,congress4 ,the first collision took place at ,concord 7,april #ai1 #agge71 where a detachment of ,british troops was sent to destroy the military stores gathered by this body4 ,on ,lexington ,green1 the ,british troops fired on the militia1 and killed seven men4 ,arriving at ,concord1 they encountered resistance4 ,there the first shot was fired by ,america in the momentous struggle1--the shot heard round the world4 ,a number were killed on both sides1 and the attacking force was harassed all the way on its return to ,boston4 ,the people everywhere rose in arms4 ,men flocked from their farms and workshops to the camp which was formed near ,boston4 ,israel ,putnam1 who had been an officer in the ,french ,war1 left his plow in the field at his home in ,connecticut1 and rode to that place1 a distance of sixty-eight miles1 in one day4 ,stark from ,new ,hampshire1 and ,greene from ,rhode ,island1 soon arrived4 ,,the ,,second ,,continental ,,congress1 in session at ,philadelphia1 assumed control of military operations in all the colonies4 ,at the suggestion first made by ,john ,adams of ,massachusetts1 ,colonel ,george ,washington of ,virginia was unanimously appointed commander-in-chief4 ,his mingled courage and prudence1 his lofty and unselfish patriotism1 his admirable sobriety of judgment1 and his rare power of self-control1 connected as it was with a not less rare power of command1 and with a firmness which no disaster could shake1 made him one of the noblest of men4 ,before he reached ,cambridge1 where he assumed command of the gathering forces 7,july #c1 #agge71 he received the news of the battle of ,bunker ,hill1 in which the provincial soldiers1 under ,putnam and ,prescott1 made a stand against the regulars1 as the ,british troops were called1 and retreated only on the third assault1 and when their ammunition had given out4 ,dr4 ,joseph ,warren1 a leading ,boston patriot1 was slain in the battle4 ,before this time1 ,fort ,ticonderoga had been captured by ,ethan ,allen1 and cannon been sent from it to aid in the siege of ,boston 7#agge74 ,but an attack on ,quebec by ,arnold and ,montgomery1 who entered ,canada by different routes1 failed of its object4 ,before ,british reinforcements arrived1 the ,american troops abandoned ,canada4 ,in the attack on ,quebec1 ,montgomery fell1 and ,arnold was severely wounded 7,dec4 #ca1 #agge74 ,,independence4--,only a brief sketch can here be given of the seven years' struggle of the ,united ,colonies4 ,on the #dth of ,july1 #aggf1 the ,declaration of ,independence1 drawn up in the main by ,thomas ,jefferson1 and of which ,john ,adams was the most eloquent advocate on the floor of ,congress1 passed that body4 ,it was signed by the ,president1 ,john ,hancock1 and fifty-five members4 ,the colonies easily converted themselves into ,states1 nearly all of them framing new constitutions4 ,thirteen ,articles of ,confederation made them into a league1 under the name of the ,united ,states of ,america1 each ,state retaining its sovereignty 7#aggg74 ,franklin1 an old man1 and respected in ,europe as well as at home for his scientific attainments as well as for his sturdy sagacity1 went to ,france as their envoy4 ,among the soldiers who came from ,europe to join the ,americans were ,la ,fayette1--a young ,french nobleman1 who was inspired with a zeal for liberty1 and was not without a thirst for fame1 which1 however1 he desired to merit1--and ,steuben1 an officer trained under ,frederick the ,great4 ,in ,parliament1 the ,whig orators spoke out manfully for the ,american cause4 ,the king hired ,german troops for the subjugation of its defenders4 ,,the ,,events ,,of ,,the ,,war4--,the maneuvers of ,washington forced ,gage to evacuate ,boston4 ,the ,american general then undertook the defense of ,new ,york4 ,the ,british forces1 to the number of thirty thousand1 under ,gen4 ,howe1 and ,admiral ,howe his brother1 were collected on ,staten ,island4 ,the ,americans were defeated in a battle on ,long ,island 7,aug4 #bg1 #aggf71 and could not hold the city4 ,it remained in the hands of the ,british to the end of the war4 ,washington withdrew his troops to ,white ,plains4 ,fort ,washington and ,fort ,lee were lost4 ,the ,american commander1 followed by ,lord ,cornwallis1 retreated slowly through ,new ,jersey 7#aggf74 ,these were serious reverses4 ,by bold and successful attacks at ,trenton and ,princeton1 the depressed spirits of the army and the country were revived4 ,in the spring of #aggg ,howe sought to capture ,philadelphia1 and landed his forces at the head of ,chesapeake ,bay4 ,the ,americans were defeated at ,brandywine 7,sept4 #aj72 and ,philadelphia1 which had been the seat of ,congress1 was1 like ,new ,york1 in the possession of the ,british4 ,their policy was to isolate ,new ,england4 ,to this end1 ,gen4 ,burgoyne1 with a large army of ,french and ,indians1 came down from the north of ,lake ,champlain4 ,a detachment of his forces was defeated by ,stark at ,bennington4 ,burgoyne himself was obliged to surrender1 with six thousand men1 to ,gates1 at ,saratoga 7,oct4 #ag74 ,this event made its due impression abroad4 ,france recognized the independence of the ,united ,states1 and entered into an alliance with them4 ,this alliance was a turning-point in the struggle4 ,washington's army1 ill-clad and ill-fed1 suffered terribly in the winter of #aggg-gh at ,valley ,forge2 but he shared in their rough fare1 and their discipline was much improved by the drill which they received there from ,steuben4 ,sir ,henry ,clinton left ,philadelphia in order that the ,british forces might be concentrated in ,new ,york4 ,he was overtaken by ,washington1 and the battle of ,monmouth took place1 which was1 on the whole1 a success for the ,americans4 ,the design of the ,british to separate ,new ,england from the rest of the ,states had failed4 ,washington was again at ,white ,plains4 ,they now began operations in the ,southern ,states4 ,among the occurrences in this period of the war were the massacre of the settlements in the valley of the ,wyoming1 in ,pennsylvania1 by the ,indian auxiliaries of the ,british2 the surrender of ,savannah1 and with it ,georgia and ,charleston1 by the ,americans2 the gallant storming of ,stony ,point1 on the ,hudson1 by ,wayne 7,july #ae1 #aggi71 and a brilliant naval victory of ,paul ,jones in a desperate engagement with two ,british frigates near the north-eastern coast of ,england 7,sept4 #aggi74 ,the ,american partisan leaders1 ,marion1 ,sumter1 and ,pickens1 carried forward an irregular but harassing warfare in ,south ,carolina4 ,at ,camden1 ,gates was defeated by ,cornwallis2 and ,baron de ,kalb1 a brave ,french officer1 of ,german extraction1 in the ,american service1 fell 7,aug4 #af1 #aghj74 ,in this year 7#aghj7 ,benedict ,arnold's treason was detected2 and ,major ,andr1 a ,british officer through whom ,arnold had made arrangements for giving up the fortress of ,west ,point to the enemy1 was taken captive1 and executed as a spy4 ,in the next year ,gen4 ,nathanael ,greene conducted military operations in ,georgia and the ,carolinas with much skill1 and succeeded in pressing the army of ,lord ,cornwallis into the peninsula formed by the ,york and ,james ,rivers in ,virginia4 ,thither the ,french fleet sailed under ,count ,de ,grasse2 and ,washington1 by forced marches1 was enabled to join with the ,french in surrounding the ,british works at ,yorktown4 ,on the day when ,clinton left ,new ,york1 at the head of his forces1 to unite with ,cornwallis1 that officer surrendered1 with his entire army of seven thousand men1 to ,washington 7#agha74 ,this blow was fatal to the ,british cause4 ,the independence of the ,united ,states was recognized by ,holland1 ,sweden1 ,denmark1 ,spain1 and ,russia 7#aghb74 ,the war had been prolonged by the personal obstinacy of ,george ,,iii41 against the wishes of his minister1 ,lord ,north4 ,the surrender of ,cornwallis made it plain that further effort to conquer ,america was hopeless4 ,spain and ,holland had joined hands with ,france1 but ,rodney had won a great naval victory over ,de ,grasse 7,april #ab1 #aghb74 ,by the treaty of peace1 signed at ,paris and ,versailles 7#aghc71 ,england recognized the independence of her former colonies4 ,,america ,,at ,,the ,,close ,,of ,,the ,,war4--,the ,congress during the war had issued paper money to the amount of twenty millions of dollars4 ,it had no power to lay taxes1 or to compel the ,states to pay their several portions of the public indebtedness4 ,the ,states themselves were poor1 and largely in debt4 ,they surrendered1 however1 their unoccupied public lands to the ,united ,states4 ,in #aghg ,congress made one territory of the district north-west of the ,ohio ,river1 which ,virginia had ceded1 and by an ordinance excluded slavery from it for ever4 ,,the ,,constitution4--,the lack of one system of law for the different ,states in reference to duties on imports1 and on various other matters of common concern1 and disorders springing up in different places1 inspired an anxious desire for a stronger central government4 ,a convention1 over which ,washington presided1 met in ,philadelphia in #aghg1 and formed the new ,constitution4 ,hamilton of ,new ,york and ,madison of ,virginia were leading members4 ,there was much opposition to the new plan of government which they agreed upon1 but it was finally adopted by all the ,states4 ,it supplied the defects of the old confederation by uniting national with federal elements4 ,to the ,senate1 made up of two delegates from each ,state1 it added a ,house of ,representatives1 where the number of members from each ,state was made proportionate to the population4 ,it put the general government1 within the limit of its defined functions1 into a direct relation to the citizens1 and gave to it judicial and executive departments to carry out and enforce its legislation4 ,it committed to the central authority the management of foreign affairs1 and various other powers necessary for the preservation of peace and unity in the land1 and for the securing of the common weal of the whole country4 ,washington was unanimously chosen as the first president of the ,republic1 and ,john ,adams was chosen vice-president4 ,the first ,congress met in ,new ,york in ,april1 #aghi1 although the day appointed was ,march #d4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,literature1 ,,science1 ,,and ,,religion4 ,,literature4 ,i4 ,,france4 ,,poetry ,,and ,,the ,,drama4--,the literature of ,france in the age of ,louis ,,xiv4 was classical in its spirit4 ,the ancient ,greek and ,roman writers were admired and imitated4 ,the ,renaissance was now to run its course4 ,the ,french ,academy1 founded by ,richelieu1 undertook to regulate and improve the ,french language4 ,measure1 finish1 elegance1 were demanded by the reigning taste1 in all literary productions4 ,corneille 7#afjf-afhd71 the father of ,french tragedy1 was the most virile of the ,french dramatists4 ,racine 7#afci-afii71 who followed1 if less grand1 was more pathetic4 ,we find1 however1 in writers of genius1--even in the great preachers1 as ,bourdaloue and ,massillon1 who formed a type of pulpit eloquence peculiar to ,france1--a tendency to what seems now a stilted style4 ,the master in comedy was ,molire 7#afbb-afgc71 an actor1 as well as an author of inimitable humor4 ,one of the most popular of ,french authors has been ,la ,fontaine 7#afba-afie71 whose fables have charmed multitudes by their smooth versification1 as well as by their contents4 ,boileau 7#afcf-agaa71 the ,horace of ,france1 prescribed1 as a lawgiver1 rules upon the ,art of ,poetry1 and himself wrote satires and other poems of high merit4 ,,prose ,,literature4--,bossuet 7#afbg-agjd7 was an eloquent preacher and historical writer1 and an expert theological polemic of the liberal ,catholic school4 ,of a very different tone is ,rochefoucauld1 whose ,maxims1 expressed in pithy language1 seek to trace all virtuous action to self-seeking4 ,the ,french fondness for epigram--for terse1 paradoxical statement--is exemplified even in the best writers1 as1 for example1 ,blaise ,pascal4 ,la ,bruyre 7#afde-afif71 a genial philosopher1 wrote in a most attractive style a work entitled ,the ,characters of ,our ,age4 ,the metaphysician ,malebranche 7#afch-agae7 taught that we know through our spiritual union with ,god1 or that we see all things in ,god4 ,a disciple of ,des ,cartes1 he did not strictly follow his master4 ,fnelon 7#afea-agae71 illustrious for his piety as well as for his versatile authorship1 wrote on religious topics and on education4 ,of all his writings1 his ,telemachus1 composed for the young ,duke of ,burgundy1 his pupil1 has been the most read4 ,the letters of ,madame de ,svign1 addressed to her daughter1 and not meant for publication1 present most graphic descriptions of the characters and occurrences of the day4 ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century4--,when we cross the limit of the eighteenth century1 we meet with growing signs of skepticism in religion1 and of innovation in political thought4 ,criticism of the past1 of traditional creeds and established institutions1 is spreading4 ,the ,historical and ,critical ,dictionary of ,bayle1 a storehouse of chronicle and anecdote1 is leavened with the spirit of doubt4 ,three great writers deserve special attention4 ,montesquieu 7#afhi-agee7 satirized all dogma in his ,persian ,letters4 ,his celebrated work on the ,spirit of ,laws is just and humane in its tone1 and full of original and inspiring views on history and government4 ,he is one of the founders of modern political science4 ,voltaire 7#afid-aggh71 the most popular of all the writers of his age1 was the incarnation of its critical and skeptical spirit1 the highest example of its wit as of its levity1 and of the artificial character of its literary ideals4 ,he was play-writer1 poet1 historian1 critic1 and brilliant converser1 all in one4 ,in religion1 a scoffer not only at superstition1 but at all beliefs and rites which imply revelation1 he still clung to the belief in a personal ,god4 ,his creed was deism1 ,jean ,jacques ,rousseau 7#agab-aggh7 was1 like ,voltaire1 a deist in his creed2 but in religion1 as in all his mental action1 there was a vein of sentiment4 ,by the fascination of his style1 he was able1 in his various writings1 including his autobiographical ,confessions1 to interest profoundly multitudes of readers of both sexes1 and even to move them to sympathy with himself in a career which deserves not less abhorrence than commiseration4 ,he was1 perhaps1 the first author to evoke in others a genuine relish1 which he felt himself1 for the wild scenery of nature4 ,in his ,social ,contract he maintained that government grows out of a contract of individuals with one another1 all of whom in the state of nature are free and independent4 ,he carried to a great extreme an idea which in ,england had been held by ,hooker1 and more explicitly expounded by ,locke4 ,his doctrine furnished a theory for the political revolution in ,france4 ,the ,encyclopdists went much beyond ,voltaire and ,rousseau4 ,d',alembert1 ,helvetius1 ,holbach1 advocated atheism and materialism4 ,condillac 7#agae-aghj7 sought to reduce this species of infidelity to an exact philosophical system by tracing even conscience to sensation and self-interest4 ,all religious sentiment was condemned as morbid illusion4 ,,ii4 ,,germany4 ,in ,germany1 the great name in philosophy is that of ,leibnitz 7#afdf-agaf71 a rival of ,newton in mathematics and natural science1 and an eminent thinker in metaphysics1 theology1 and in jurisprudence4 ,in intellect and in variety of attainments1 he is almost the peer of ,aristotle4 ,wolf 7#afgi-aged7 his disciple1 systemized and modified his philosophical views4 ,klopstock 7#agbd-ahjc71 the author of ,messiah1 written somewhat after the manner of the ,paradise ,lost of ,milton1 excelled the other ,german poets of his day4 ,frederick the ,great treated with disrespect the native literary products of his country4 ,yet a new era in ,german letters and criticism was opened by ,lessing 7#agbi-agha71 a poet1 and a critic of admirable insight1 whose influence in this direction in ,germany has been likened in its power to that of ,luther in religion4 ,,iii4 ,,italy4 ,in the eighteenth century1 there was a new revival of literature in ,italy4 ,vico 7#affh-agdd7 almost made an epoch in the scientific treatment of history and mythology2 in political economy and in archeology1 there were numerous explorers2 ,florence became once more a seat of learning4 ,beccaria 7#agch-agid7 by his writings introduced more humane views in criminal jurisprudence4 ,volta 7#agde-ahbg71 an electrician1 constructed the instrument called the voltaic pile4 ,metastasio 7#afih-aghb7 fostered the melodrama1 or ,italian opera1 by his dramatic writings4 ,goldoni 7#agjg-agic71 a ,venetian1 was the most eminent writer of comedies4 ,tragedy reached its acme in the works of ,alfieri 7#agdi-ahjc71 the founder of a new school4 ,,iv4 ,,england4 ,in ,england1 after the ,restoration1 the influence of ,french standards in literature is obvious4 ,the drama declined1 partly from the earlier antagonism of the ,puritans1 and partly from the rage for indecency which infected the dramatic writers1--even those of much ability1 as ,congreve1--and defiled the stage4 ,the ,pilgrim's ,progress of ,bunyan 7#afbh-hh7 is written in a plain1 unaffected style1 and is the most popular work of that age4 ,in sharp contrast with ,bunyan is ,butler's ,hudibras1 a witty satire1 in doggerel verse1 upon ,puritanism4 ,the principal writer1 prior to ,queen ,anne1 is ,dryden 7#afca-agjj74 ,we have passed now from the ,romantic school of poetry1 in which ,shakspeare is the most exalted name1 to the ,classical school4 ,in the age of ,queen ,anne1 ,pope 7#afhh-agdd71 with his vigor1 without elevation1 of thought1 his smooth versification and bright wit1 is the principal figure4 ,the same period produced the labored novels of ,richardson 7#afhi-agfa71 and the vigorous and lifelike fictions of ,fielding 7#agjg-aged71 which are1 unhappily1 disfigured by coarse and licentious passages4 ,in the early part of the century1 ,addison 7#afgb-agai7 and ,steele 7#afgb-agbi7 were the most distinguished essayists4 ,in them1 as in the novels of ,defoe 7#affa-agca71 the author of ,robinson ,crusoe1 and in the prose writings of ,swift 7#affg-agde71 the richness and idiomatic force of the ,english tongue are seen2 while in ,samuel ,johnson1 the literary dictator in the latter part of the century1 the author of the ,english ,dictionary1 of ,the ,rambler1 the ,lives of the ,poets1 and ,rasselas1 we have a striking and contagious example of a stately1 sounding1 ,latinized diction4 ,in pleasing contrast1 as regards style1 which charms from its simplicity1 are the writings of ,goldsmith 7#agbh-gd74 ,in poetry1 ,gray 7#agaf-ga71 the author of the ,elegy in a ,country ,churchyard1 and ,collins 7#agba-ei71 wrote little1 but wrote well4 ,the triumvirate of great ,english historians of the century are ,hume1 ,robertson1 and ,gibbon4 ,gibbon's ,decline and ,fall of the ,roman ,empire is a monument of masterly ability and of vast research2 a work1 however1 marred by a want of naturalness in style1 and1 still more1 by a lack of religious faith and reverence1 and by impurity of tone and allusion4 ,hume's style is one of his chief claims to esteem as an historian2 for he was indolent in his researches1 and prejudiced in his views4 ,he merited distinction chiefly as an economist and a metaphysician4 ,,philosophy4--,in ,english philosophy1 there are several writers of extraordinary talents and influence4 ,john ,locke 7#afcb-agjd71 an upright man and a lover of freedom1 wrote the celebrated ,essay on the ,understanding1 besides other important works in political science and theology4 ,he traced all our knowledge to two sources1 sensation and reflection1 ultimately to the first of these4 ,berkeley 7#afhe-agec7 advocated with rare genius an ideal theory of matter1 and defended theism4 ,hume 7#agaa-gf7 indirectly gave rise to much of the later philosophy1 by his acute speculations in behalf of skepticism as to the reality of human knowledge and the foundation of accepted beliefs4 ,reid 7#agaj-if7 rescued philosophy from the attacks of ,hume by the doctrine of common sense1 and thus founded the ,scottish school of metaphysicians4 ,among the numerous authors who cultivated both philosophy and theology1 particular distinction belongs to ,dr4 ,samuel ,clarke 7#afge-agbi71 and to ,bishop ,joseph ,butler 7#afib-ageb7 who wrote briefly1 but with marked power1 on the nature of conscience1 and on the ,analogy between religion and what we know of the constitution and course of nature4 ,,newton3 ,,adam ,,smith4--,sir ,isaac ,newton 7#afdb-agbg71 the discoverer of the law of gravitation1 made1 through his ,principia1 one of the most important contributions ever made to the advancement of physical science4 ,in #aggf ,adam ,smith1 a ,scotchman1 who had previously written on metaphysics and politics1 published his treatise on ,the ,wealth of ,nations1 the first complete system of political economy4 ,he showed that money is not wealth1 but simply one product serving as a means of exchange4 ,he made it clear1 that1 for one nation to gain in trade1 it is not requisite that another should lose4 ,much light was thrown on political economy by essays of ,hume4 ,v4 ,,america4 ,the most notable ,american writers before the ,war of ,independence were ,jonathan ,edwards 7#agjc-eh71 a great metaphysical genius1 and the founder of a school in theology2 and ,benjamin ,franklin 7#agjf-ij71 whose writings1 in excellent ,english1 related mainly to ethical and economical topics4 ,as the ,revolution approached1 there sprung up authors of ability on the political questions of the day4 ,the ,federalist1 written after the war1 by ,hamilton1 ,madison1 and ,jay1 in favor of the proposed ,constitution1 is a work of high merit1 as regards both matter and style4 ,,natural ,,and ,,physical ,,science4 ,the inductive method1 or the ,baconian method of observation and experiment1 began to bear rich fruits4 ,sir ,isaac ,newton 7#afdb-agbg7 not only discovered the law of gravitation3 other discoveries by him in mechanics and optics were of great moment in the progress of those sciences4 ,fluxions1 or the differential calculus1 was discovered independently by both ,newton and ,leibnitz4 ,euler1 a ,swiss mathematician of the highest ability 7#agjg-aghc71 contributed essentially to the advancement of mechanics4 ,napier invented logarithms1 to shorten mathematical calculations4 ,huygens1 a ,dutch philosopher 7#afbi-afie71 invented the pendulum clock4 ,gregory 7#afch-afge7 invented the reflecting telescope1 ,halley1 an ,english astronomer 7#afef-agdb71 gave his name to a comet whose return he predicted4 ,guericke invented 7#afhj71 and ,robert ,boyle 7#afbg-afia7 perfected1 the air-pump4 ,boyle was active in founding the ,royal ,society 7#affj74 ,volta1 by the invention of the pile called by his name1 and ,franklin1 signally advanced the study of electricity4 ,in the history of zology1 ,buffon is a great name1 as is that of ,lavoisier in chemistry4 ,linnaeus1 a ,swede1 born in the same year with ,buffon 7#agjg71 attained to the highest distinction by reducing botany to a system4 ,the lives of the eminent astronomers ,lagrange 7#agcf-ahac71 ,laplace 7#agdi-ahbg71 and ,sir ,william ,herschel 7#agch-ahbb71 outlasted the eighteenth century4 ,the radical improvement of the steam-engine by ,james ,watt1 a ,scotchman 7#agcf-ahai71--who obtained his first patent in #agfi1--;and the invention of the spinning-jenny by ,richard ,arkwright 7#agcb-agib71 are indicative of a new era of progress in the application of science to practical arts and uses4 ,,religion ,,and ,,theology4 ,,english ,,deism4--,the religious debates and the religious wars of the seventeenth century were followed by much indifference and disbelief in the eighteenth4 ,weariness with sectarian struggles1 and revolt against the yoke of creeds1 were pushed to the extreme of a denial of revealed religion1--finally1 in ,france1 to a denial of the truths of natural religion also4 ,in ,england1 there appeared a school of deistical writers1 beginning earlier with ,lord ,herbert of ,cherbury 7#aeha-afdh71 and continued through ,tindal1 ,morgan1 ,bolingbroke1 ,shaftesbury1 ,collins1 and others4 ,on the other side1 ,butler1 ,lardner 7#afhd-agfh71 ,bentley1 the best of ,england's classical scholars and critics 7#affb-agdb71 and1 later1 ,paley 7#agdc-ahje71 were among the authors who defended the divine origin of ,christianity on rational and historical grounds4 ,of these writers1 ,butler was the most profound1 ,lardner and ,bentley the most learned1 and ,paley the most lucid4 ,,the ,,quakers4--,during this period1 the ,society of ,friends1 ,quakers1 was founded in ,england by ,george ,fox 7#afbd-afia71 who in #afdg1 impelled by what he considered a divine call1 began the life of an itinerant preacher4 ,he and his followers were subjected frequently to cruel persecution1 both in ,england and ,america4 ,in exceptional cases1 they fell into extravagances of enthusiasm1 interrupted public worship1 walked in the streets clothed in sackcloth1 or in some instances naked4 ,they condemned war1 practiced non-resistance1 objected to oaths and to a paid ministry1 and set an example of the utmost plainness and simplicity in speech and dress4 ,among their many converts were ,william ,penn1 and their able and learned theologian1 ,robert ,barclay 7#afdh-afij74 ,the ,friends1 by their ,christian forbearance and patience1 their purity of conduct and their philanthropy1 and their tranquil piety1 gradually won the respect of the other religious bodies1 who were at first offended by their novel tenets and manners1 and by the occasional occurrence of revolting manifestations of a half-insane enthusiasm4 ,,methodism4--,of the religious movements in ,protestant countries1 ,methodism is the most noteworthy4 ,this movement was originated by a little group of students at ,oxford1 of whom ,john ,wesley1 his brother ,charles1 and ,george ,whitefield were the chief4 ,of these1 ,john ,wesley 7#agjc-agia7 united with intellectual ability and cultivation1 and religious fervor1 a remarkable organizing capacity4 ,whitefield was an orator in the pulpit1 of unrivaled eloquence4 ,he was a ,calvinist in his theology1 and separated from ,wesley on account of ,wesley's ,arminian views4 ,they were nicknamed ,methodists1 from their strictness of life in the ,university1 and their systematic ways4 ,wesley and his associates preached to the common people in ,england1 including the poor colliers and miners1 with untiring ardor and surprising effect4 ,their converts were very numerous1 and were formed into societies under a definite polity and discipline4 ,the ,wesleyan movement was much opposed in the ,church of ,england by those who stood in dread of enthusiasm4 ,by ordaining lay preachers and superintendents for ,america1 and by putting its chapels under the protection of the ,toleration ,act1--measures which ,wesley deemed necessary1--,methodism became separate from the ,anglican ,established ,church4 ,as a distinct body1 it gained a4 multitude of adherents in ,england and ,america4 ,,moravianism4--,in #agbb a company of persecuted ,moravian ,christians was received by ,count ,zinzendorf 7#agjj-agfj7 on his estate1 situated on the borders of ,bohemia4 ,they founded a town called ,herrnkut4 ,zinzendorf became their bishop4 ,the new community was distinguished for sincere piety and for missionary zeal4 ,they did not in the least antagonize the ,lutheran churches1 yet had an organization of their own4 ,some of them settled in ,america4 ,the ,moravians never became a very numerous body2 but their influence in promoting spiritual religion and education1 and in carrying ,christianity to the heathen1 has been more potent than that of many larger bodies of ,christians4 ,it was specially wholesome in ,germany1 at a time when1 under the auspices of ,frederick the ,great1 the ,french type of unbelief prevailed in the higher classes of society4 ,,pietism4--,prior to ,zinzendorf1 ,spener 7#afce-agje71 a man of devout feeling1 had given rise to the ,pietists1 as the promoters of a warmer type of religious experience than was approved by the current opinion were derisively named4 ,,swedenborg4--,swedenborg 7#afhh-aggb71 a ,swedish noble1 a mathematician and naturalist of large attainments1 communicated1 in copious writings1 what he sincerely professed to consider special revelations made to him respecting ,god1 the unseen world1 and the sense of the ,scriptures4 ,his adherents are called ,the ,new ,church1 or ,swedenborgians4 ,,the ,,jesuit ,,order4--,under the influences that had sway in the eighteenth century1 the authority of the popes sank in the ,catholic countries4 ,the spirit of innovation was rife4 ,one of the remarkable incidents of the time1 characteristic of its tendency1 was the conflict of ,portugal and the ,bourbon courts of ,france and ,spain1 with the ,society of ,jesuits4 ,the ,jesuits had secretly established1 unobserved1 a state under their own exclusive control in ,paraguay1 a part of which1 by a treaty of ,portugal with ,spain1 fell to ,portugal4 ,other charges1 some relating to interference in political affairs1 and some to other and different grounds of complaint1 led to the expulsion of the order from all ,portuguese territory 7#ageg72 and soon after1 it was suppressed in ,france and in ,spain1 and in several of the ,italian states4 ,the ,jesuit order was formally abolished by ,pope ,clement ,,xiv4 in #aggc1 to be again restored by papal authority in #ahad4 ,,essays ,,at ,,political ,,reform4 ,,russia3 ,,germany4--,the minds of men were unsettled1 not only by the prevalent tone of literature and speculation1 but by governmental changes and reforms4 ,the disposition was to introduce ,french methods of administration4 ,catherine ,,ii4 of ,russia 7#agfb-agif7 tried the experiment of various judicial and educational reforms4 ,frederick the ,great1 with more wisdom and consistency1 introduced many changes for the benefit of the industrial class4 ,the most sweeping reforms were undertaken by the ,emperor ,joseph ,,ii4 7#aghj-agij71 after the death of his mother1 ,maria ,theresa4 ,his measures for the reduction of the power of the clergy and of the nobility1 the closing of monasteries1 and the weakening of the connection of the ,austrian ,church with ,rome1 were of a very radical character4 ,he himself finally became convinced that they were too radical to be completely realized1 in the existing state of opinion among his subjects4 ,two of his reforms--the abolition of serfdom1 and the edict of religious toleration--remained in force4 ,the other changes did not survive him4 ,the attempts to impose his reforms in the ,austrian ,netherlands provoked an insurrection4 ,leopold ,,ii4 7#agij-agib71 ,joseph's successor1 suppressed the ,belgian revolt1 but repealed the ordinances of his brother which had occasioned it4 ,,tuscany4--,in ,tuscany1 the brother of ,joseph ,,ii41 ,leopold1 prior to his becoming emperor1 undertook likewise a great plan of ecclesiastical reform in the same line as that of ,joseph 7#aghf72 but there the opposition of the bishops prevented him from practically carrying out his scheme4 ,,portugal4--,in ,portugal1 the house of ,braganza had ascended the throne in #afdj4 ,joseph ,emanuel 7#agej-aggg7 left the management of the government to his minister1 ,pombal4 ,his measures were contrived to weaken the power of the nobles and the clergy4 ,by him the warfare against the ,jesuits was carried forward4 ,the fall of ,pombal1 which followed the death of the king1 led to the abolition of all his reforms1 which had the same fate as those undertaken later in ,austria by ,joseph ,,ii4 ,,literature4--,see the lists of works on pp4 #af1 #cie1 #dej1 and ,adams's ,manual of ,historical ,literature2 ,,schlosser',s ,history of the ,eighteenth ,century 7#h vols172 ,,noorden',s ,europaische ,gesch4 im #ahtn4 ,jahr43 ,der ,spanische ,erbfolgekrieg 7#b vols472 ,lord ,john ,wakeman1 ,european ,history1 #aeih-agae2 ,hassall1 ,european ,history1 #agae-aghi2 ,perlcins1 ,regency and ,louis ,,xv1 7#c vols472 ,st4 ,simon1 ,the ,memoirs of the ,reign of ,louis ,,xiv4 and the ,regency an abridgment1 #c vols42 ,voltaire1 ,age of ,louis ,,xiv42 ,,philippson 7in ,oncken's ,series71 ,das ,zeitalter ,ludwigs d4 ,vierzehten2 ,a4 de ,broglie1 ,louis ,,xv3 ,the ,king's ,secret ,correspondence with his ,agents1 etc4 7#b vols472 ,a4 ,thiers1 ,the ,mississippi ,bubble2 ,morley's ,life of ,voltaire1 and ,life of ,rousseau4 ,a4 v1 ,arneth1 ,geschichte ,maria ,theresas 7#aj vols41 #ahfc-gi73 ,,duncker1 ,aus der ,zeit ,friedrichs d4 ,grossen1 etc42 ,,ranke1 ,memoirs of the ,house of ,brandenburg1 and ,history of ,prussia during the ,seventeenth and ,eighteenth ,centuries 7#c vols72 ,,carlyle',s ,history of ,frederick the ,second 7#f vols472 ,tuttle1 ,history of ,prussia 7#d vols472 ,von ,raumer1 ,frederick the ,second and his ,times2 ,a4 de ,broglie1 ,frederick the ,great and ,maria ,theresa 7#b vols472 ,,oncken1 ,das ,zeitalter ,friedrich d4 ,grossen 7#b vols474 ,the ,diaries of ,,pepys and ,,evelyn2 ,r4 ,vaughan1 ,protectorate of ,oliver ,cromwell2 ,,macaulay',s ,history of ,england from the ,accession of ,james ,,ii4 7#d vols472 ,,mahon',s ,history of ,england 7#agja-ac71 also ,history of ,england 7#agac to #aghc7 7#g vols472 ,,burton1 ,history of the ,reign of ,queen ,anne2 ,e4,e4,,morris1 ,the ,age of ,anne2 ,alison1 ,military ,life of the ,duke of ,marlborough2 ,life of ,marlborough1 by ,gleig1 by ,coxe 7#c vols472 ,,lecky',s ,history of ,england in the ,eighteenth ,century 7#b vols472 ,froude1 ,the ,english in ,ireland in the ,eighteenth ,century 7#b vols472 ,mahan1 ,influence of the ,sea ,power on ,history2 ,egerton1 ,short ,history of ,british ,colonial ,policy2 ,seeley1 ,the ,expansion of ,england2 ,payne1 ,european ,colonies2 ,lucas1 ,introduction to a ,historical ,geography of the ,british ,colonies2 ,h4 ,walpole1 ,memoirs of the ,reign of ,george ,,ii4 7#c vols471 and of ,george ,,iii4 7#d vols472 ,j4 ,g4 ,phillimore1 ,history of ,england during the ,reign of ,george ,,iii42 ,j4 ,adolphus1 ,history of ,england #agfj #hc 7#c vols472 ,wraxall 7#agea-ahca71 ,historical ,memoirs of his own ,time 7#d vols474 and ,posthumous ,memoirs of his own ,time1 7#c vols472 ,may1 ,constitutional ,history of ,england #agfj-ahfj 7#b vols472 ,,stoughton1 ,history of ,religion in ,england from the ,opening of the ,long ,parliament to the ,end of the ,eighteenth ,century 7#f vols472 ,,tyerman',s ,life of ,wesley2 ,,southey',s ,life of ,wesley2 ,,tyerman',s ,life of ,whitefield2 ,,tyler',s ,history of ,american ,literature2 ,,van ,,laun1 ,history of ,french ,literature 7#c vols472 ,,morley',s ,series of ,english ,men of ,letters2 ,,taine',s ,history of ,english ,literature4 ,schuyler's ,life of ,peter the ,great2 ,catherine ,,ii41 ,memoirs written by herself2 ,,ram-,,baud',s ,history of ,russia4 ,histories of the ,united ,states by ,,bancroft1 ,,hildreth1 ,mc,master1 ,bryant and ,howard1 ,,doyle1 ,wilson1 ,laboulaye1 ,,neumann1 ,fiske1 ,schouler2 ,winsor1 ,narrative and ,critical ,history of ,america 7#h vols472 ,hart1 ,american ,history told by ,contemporaries 7#d vols472 ,macdonald1 ,select ,charters and ,select ,documents2 ,preston1 ,documents2 ,channing1 ,the ,united ,states of ,america 7#agfe-ahfe72 ,higginson1 ,larger ,history of the ,united ,states2 ,goldwin ,smith1 ,the ,united ,states2 ,,lodge',s ,short ,history of the ,english ,colonies in ,america2 ,,parkman',s ,series of ,histories of the ,french in ,america2 ,frothingham1 ,rise of the ,republic to #agij2 ,weeden1 ,economic and ,social ,history of ,new ,england2 ,palfrey's ,history of ,new ,england2 ,sabine's ,american ,loyalists2 ,bruce1 ,economic ,history of ,virginia2 ,trevelyan1 ,the ,american ,revolution 7#agff-gf72 ,,lossing1 ,field ,book of the ,american ,revolution2 ,fiske's ,old ,virginia and ,dutch and ,quaker ,colonies2 brief treatment of epochs by ,fisher1 ,thwaites1 ,hart1 ,sloane1 ,walker4 ,lives of ,washington1 by ,,marshall1 ,,sparks1 ,,irving1 ,weems2 ,lives of ,john ,adams1 by ,c4 ,f4 ,,adams1 by ,,morse2 ,life of ,franklin1 by himself 7,bigelow's ed471 by ,,sparks1 by ,parton2 ,lives of ,jefferson1 by ,,randall1 ,parton1 ,morse2 ,tudor's ,life of ,james ,otis2 ,life of ,samuel ,adams1 by ,wells1 by ,hosmer2 ,life of ,hamilton1 by ,,morse2 ,life of ,madison1 by ,,rives2 ,w4 ,jay's ,life of ,john ,jay 7#b vols472 ,h4 ,von ,hoist1 ,constitutional and ,political ,history of the ,united ,states from #agei2 ,sparks's ,american ,biography 7#b series1 #be vols474 ,,winsor's ,reader's ,handbook of the ,american ,revolution 7#agfa-hc71 a very useful work1 gives the literature on the subject 7#ahhj72 ,bancroft1 ,history of the ,formation of the ,constitution of the ,united ,states4 ,,period ,,iv4 ,,the ,,era ,,of ,,the ,,french ,,revolution4 7#aghi-ahae47 ,,introduction4 ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,revolution4--,the ,french ,revolution was a tremendous upheaval of society1 which brought with it the abolition of feudalism and monarchy1 and the securing of an equality of political rights4 ,its immediate result in ,france was the establishment of a democratic republic1 followed by an empire resting on military power4 ,its conquests1 and the predominance of ,france1 provoked an uprising of the other ,european peoples in behalf of national independence4 ,this overthrew the ,french empire1 and produced a temporary restoration of the old dynasty4 ,but the effect of the ,revolution1 in which the other civilized nations largely shared1 was the substitution1 in the room of the medieval state1 of the modern state resting on a broader basis of equality as regards the rights and obligations of different classes4 ,in the ,western nations of the ,continent1 serfdom1 and manifold abuses1 civil and ecclesiastical1 were abolished4 ,,causes ,,of ,,the ,,revolution4--,first among the causes of the ,revolution in ,france1 was the hostility felt towards the privileged classes1--the king1 the nobles1 and the clergy1--on account of the disabilities and burdens which law and custom imposed on the classes beneath them4 ,when ,charles ,vll4 organized a standing army1 and laid direct taxes to support it1 the burghers and peasants rejoiced 7p4 #cbh74 ,the monarchy was thus enabled to shield them1 and subdue the great nobles4 ,louis ,,xiv41 as long as he was successful1 was sustained by the pride and national spirit of the country4 ,yet his domination over the nobility and the ,church left the higher orders in possession not only of the offices and honors which helped to fasten them submissively to the monarch1 but also left them in the exercise of the numberless complicated privileges of local rule and taxation1--privileges which were the growth of ages1 and which laid on the necks of the people a yoke too heavy to be borne4 #a4 ,,the ,,land3 ,,the ,,peasants4--,nearly two-thirds of the land in ,france was in the hands of the nobles and of the clergy4 ,a great part of it was ill cultivated by its indolent owners4 ,the nobles preferred the gayeties of ,paris to a residence on their estates4 ,there were many small land-owners1 but many had individually too little land to furnish them with subsistence4 ,the treatment of the peasant was often such that when he looked upon the towers of his lord's castle1 the dearest wish of his heart was to burn it down1 with all its registers of debt4 ,there was not a large middle class of land-owners1 possessed of farms which1 although small1 were yet adequate to yield them a living4 ,the clergy1 besides having the whole management of education1 held an immense amount of land1 seigniorial control over thousands of peasants1 and a vast income from tithes and other sources4 ,in some provinces1 there was a better state of things than in others2 but1 in general1 the rich had the enjoyments1 and the poor carried the burdens4 #b4 ,,monopolies4--,manufactures and trade1 although encouraged under ,colbert1 were fettered by oppressive monopolies and a strict organization of guilds4 #c4 ,,corrupt ,,government4--,the administration of government was both arbitrary and corrupt4 ,places in parliament and in the army1 and most higher offices1 were sold1 but sold1 as a rule1 only to nobles4 ,when parliament refused to register decrees of taxation1 the king held beds of justice1--a method of passing laws against parliamentary protest 7p4 #bii74 ,warrants of arrest and imprisonment--lettres de cachet--were issued by his sole authority4 #d4 ,,loss ,,of ,,respect ,,for ,,royalty4--,respect for the throne was lost4 ,under ,louis ,,xiv41 the number of salable offices was incredibly multiplied4 ,in his last days1 in many towns the trade in timber1 wine1 and spirits was taken out of private hands2 nay1 even the poor earnings of those who towed boats on the rivers1 of porters and funeral mutes1 were made a monopoly1 and secured to certain families exclusively1 in consideration of a large premium4 ,famine prevailed in every province4 ,the bark of trees was the daily food of hundreds of thousands4 ,the debauchery of ,louis ,,xv41 and his feeble foreign policy1 tended to dissipate what reverence for royalty was left4 #e4 ,,abortive ,,essays ,,at ,,reform4--,the efforts at political and social reform in ,france and in other countries1 emanating from sovereigns after the great wars1 produced a restless feeling without effecting their purpose of social reorganization4 #f4 ,,political ,,speculation4--,the current of thought was in a revolutionary direction4 ,traditional beliefs in religion were boldly questioned4 ,political speculation was rife4 ,montesquieu had drawn attention to the liberty secured by the ,english constitution4 ,voltaire had dwelt on human rights1--the rights of the individual4 ,rousseau had expatiated on the sovereign right of the majority4 #g4 ,,example ,,of ,,america4--,add to these agencies1 the influence of the ,american ,revolution1 and of the ,american ,declaration of ,independence1 with its proclamation of human rights1 and of the foundation of government in contract and the consent of the people4 #h4 ,,the ,,immediate ,,cause4--,the immediate cause of the ,revolution was the immense public debt1 and the virtual bankruptcy of the government4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,from ,,the ,,assembling ,,of ,,the ,,states ,,general ,,to ,,the ,,execution ,,of ,,louis ,,xvi4 7#aghi-agic74 ,,louis ,,xvi4 7#aggd-ib73 ,,the ,,queen4--,louis ,,xvi4 differed from his two predecessors in being morally pure1 and benevolent in his feelings2 but he was of a dull mind1 void of energy1 and with an obstinacy of character that did not supply the place of an enlightened firmness4 ,he had married 7#aggj7 ,marie ,antoinette1 the daughter of the ,empress ,maria ,theresa4 ,the vivacious young queen1 as well as the youthful king1 at first charmed the people4 ,but her disregard of court etiquette1 and her gay1 impulsive ways1 provoked the dislike of many high in station1 and exposed her to the natural but unmerited suspicion1 on the part of the people1 that she had faults worse than mere indiscretion4 ,a great scandal connected with a diamond necklace1 which an unprincipled woman1 the ,countess ,lamotte1 falsely asserted that the queen desired the ,cardinal de ,rohan to purchase for her1 did much to make her the victim of gross defamation 7#aghe74 ,her forbearance towards unworthy favorites1 and her intermeddling in the affairs of government1 in opposition to political reforms1 gradually kindled against her wide-spread disrespect and aversion4 ,,to ,,the ,,states ,,general4--,helpless under the pressure of the heavy debt and the deficit in revenue1 the king called to his side ,turgot 7#aggd7 as controller-general of finance1 a political economist and statesman of remarkable integrity and insight4 ,he set to work to reduce the enormous and extravagant public expenditures1 and to introduce reforms for the purpose of increasing the public income4 ,he proposed to do away with internal duties on articles of commerce2 to break up many guilds2 to abolish the corve1 or the hard and hateful requirement upon the peasant to labor so many days on the land of the lord2 and to introduce a greater amount of local self-government4 ,these1 and other wholesome reforms in the civil service and in the army1 excited the violent opposition of the nobles and the clergy1 and of the whole body of interested courtiers4 ,the king weakly yielded2 the great minister was dismissed2 and ,france lost its golden opportunity to prevent infinitely greater calamities than any which the selfish opponents of change dreaded for themselves4 ,necker1 a ,genevan banker of far less financial ability1 was now placed at the helm 7#aggf-agha74 ,his remedies were not radical2 yet his movements in the direction of economy1 and for giving publicity to the financial situation of the government1 provoked such hatred in the classes affected that he had to withdraw4 ,calonne1 a prodigal and incapable successor1 in connection with the increased expenses of the government consequent on the ,american ,war1 brought things to such a pass that the king called together 7#aghg7 an ,assembly of ,notables1 not so much to get their advice as to obtain their support for a plan of reform not unlike that of ,turgot4 ,this necessary reform they selfishly refused to sanction4 ,calonne fled to ,london4 ,necker1 to the joy of the people1 who built on him vain hopes1 was recalled 7#aghh72 and it was resolved to summon the ,states ,general1 who had not met since #afad4 ,to this measure the incompetence and selfishness of the ruling classes had inevitably led4 ,,the ,,triumph ,,of ,,the ,,third ,,estate4--,the ,states ,general met at ,versailles1 ,may #e1 #aghi4 ,the clergy numbered three hundred1 the nobles three hundred1 and the third estate 7tiers etat7--whose plain black dress was in contrast with the more showy costume of the higher orders--numbered six hundred4 ,a pamphlet of ,abb ,sieys1 in answer to the question1 ,what is the ,third ,estate8 declared that is the nation in its true sovereignty and supreme authority4 ,a contest arose at once on the question1 whether there should be three houses1 or whether all the members should sit together4 ,the ,third ,estate insisted on the latter plan4 ,the ,parisian astronomer1 ,bailly1 was their president4 ,among the members were ,sieyes1 and ,mirabeau1 a man of great intellect and of commanding eloquence4 ,they declared themselves to be the ,national ,assembly2 and they persisted1 against the king's will1 in sitting apart until1 at his request1 the other orders gave away and joined them4 ,it was resolved not to adjourn until the nation should be put in possession of a constitution2 meantime1 however1 that1 so long as the body should not be dissolved1 money should be raised by increase of taxation1 and the interest be paid on the public debt4 ,the attempts of ,louis to dissolve the assembly were firmly resisted by the third estate1 which was joined by ,talleyrand1 ,bishop of ,autun1 ,gregoire1 afterwards ,bishop of ,blois1 and1 of the nobility1 by the rich1 ambitious1 and unprincipled ,duke of ,orleans4 ,the king again yielded1 and advised the nobles and clergy to remain4 ,,destruction ,,of ,,the ,,bastille3 ,,emigration ,,of ,,nobles4--,the aristocratic party1 on account of this victory of the third estate1 and because they could not trust the guard of the king1 procured the substitution for it of ,german and ,swiss troops4 ,the excitement caused by this proceeding1 and the news of ,necker's dismissal1 led to a mob of the rough ,parisian populace1 who seized weapons from the workshops1 and forced the surrender of the ,bastille1 the grim old prison where political offenders had been immured1--the visible monument of ages of royal tyranny1--which they razed to the ground4 ,the heads of ,delaunay the governor1 and several of the garrison1 were carried on pikes through the streets by the frenzied crowd4 ,the mob wore cockades on their hats2 these became the badges of the ,revolution4 ,this first outbreaking of mob violence had at once important effects4 ,necker was recalled4 ,lafayette was made commander of the militia of ,paris1 organized as a ,national ,guard4 ,the tricolor--red1 white1 and blue--was adopted for the flag4 ,bailly became mayor of ,paris4 ,the king came to ,paris1 and showed himself1 with the national colors on his breast1 to the people1 at the ,hotel de ,ville1 thereby giving a tacit sanction to what had been done4 ,then began the emigration of the nobles to foreign countries3 the king's brother1 the ,prince of ,cond1 and others high in rank1 left the country4 ,the vices which the nobles had learned to practice at home were now to be exhibited abroad4 ,the passions of the revolutionary party were to be inflamed by the suspicion of a complicity of the king and court with the plots of their absent supporters1 who strove to enlist other nations in the work of trampling down liberty in ,france4 ,the emigrants had some reason to fear4 ,municipal guards were formed in various towns by the party of progress4 ,soon there were risings of peasantry in several districts4 ,individuals in ,paris--among them one of the ministers who succeeded ,necker-were massacred4 ,nevertheless1 the emigration was a grand error4 ,the danger at the moment was not great2 and1 whatever the peril1 the evils of desertion were far more to be deprecated4 ,,the ,,new ,,constitution3 ,,assignats4--,the ,national ,assembly1 at the instigation of ,lafayette1 passed a ,declaration of ,rights1 after the pattern of the ,american ,declaration of ,independence4 ,on motion of his brother-in-law1 the ,vicomte de ,noailles1 the representatives of the nobles1 in an outburst of enthusiastic self-renunciation1 gave up their feudal rights and privileges4 ,they liberated the peasants from their burdensome obligations3 the clergy relinquished their tithes2 the sale of offices and titles was abolished2 equality of taxes was ordained2 all citizens were made eligible to all stations1 civil and military4 ,the new constitution provided for one legislative chamber1 to which should belong the right to initiate all enactments4 ,the king's veto only suspended the adoption of a measure for two legislative terms4 ,the assent of the chamber was necessary for the validity of all foreign treaties1 and for declaring war or concluding peace4 ,the ,state assumed the support of the clergy4 ,it was a constitutional monarchy that was framed1--such a system as ,la ,fayette and moderate republicans desired4 ,the essence of republicanism was secured under old forms4 ,assignats1 or notes1 were issued as a currency1 for which the public lands were to be the security1--a safeguard that was ineffective4 ,,the ,,mob ,,at ,,versailles4--,the delay of the king to proclaim the constitution1 the call of a regiment of troops to ,versailles1 imprudent speeches and songs at a court banquet1 stirred up the ,parisian mob1 who ascribed the scarcity of food to the absence of the king from ,paris4 ,a countless throng1 made up largely of coarse women1 went out to ,versailles1 intruded into the legislative chamber1 and at night 7,oct4 #e7 made their way into the palace1 over the bodies of the guards4 ,the royal family were rescued by ,la ,fayette and the ,national ,guard4 ,the next day they were forced to go to ,paris1 attended by this wild and hungry retinue1 and took up their abode in the ,tuileries4 ,to ,paris1 also1 the ,national ,assembly transferred itself4 ,more and more1 ,paris gained control4 ,,progress ,,of ,,the ,,revolution4--,the independence of the clergy1 and the judicial authority of the parliaments1 were now extinguished by the ,assembly1 ,the property of the ,church was confiscated1 as the salaries of the clergy were to be paid by the ,state2 the cloisters and monastic orders were abolished2 the clergy were to be chosen by the people2 there was to be absolute religious freedom2 there was a new organization of bishoprics2 the press was to be free2 ,france was divided1 for purposes of government1 into eighty-three departments2 civil officers were to be chosen1 directly or indirectly1 by popular vote2 hereditary nobility1 with titles and coats-of-arms1 was swept away4 ,the equality of all citizens was ordained4 ,there was to be uniformity in measures1 weights1 and coinage4 ,a uniform judicial system was instituted1 with jury trials in criminal cases4 ,,the ,,clergy4--,thenceforward the clergy were divided into two classes1--those who took the required oath to the constitution 7about one third of the whole number71 and the refractory ones1 who1 in accordance with the ,pope's will1 refused it4 ,,the ,,clubs3 ,,paris4--,while these constitutional changes were taking place1 the mass of the populace were becoming more and more excited by vehement orators1 who discoursed of human rights1 and by inflammatory journals4 ,clubs were organized for democratic agitation1 which were named1 from the places where they met1 ,jacobins and ,cordeliers4 ,the latter had for their head ,danton1 with his stentorian voice1 and the brilliant young journalist ,camille ,desmoulins4 ,the ,jacobins aimed later at the destruction of the old institutions4 ,the moderate monarchists1 such as ,bailly and ,la ,fayette1 then formed another club 7the ,feuillants74 ,the municipality or commune of ,paris was divided into forty-eight sections1 each with an assembly which served as a theater for demagogical harangues4 ,f,,te ,,of ,,the ,,federation4--,for a time the skies appeared bright4 ,on the #adth of ,july1 #agij1 a great ,federative ,commemoration1 or festival of civic fraternity1 was held on the ,champ de ,mars in ,paris4 ,talleyrand at the head of three hundred priests clad in white1 with tri-color sashes1 officiated at an altar in the midst of the arena4 ,first1 ,la ,fayette as president of the ,national ,guard1 then the president of the ,assembly1 and last the king1 took an oath before the half-million of spectators to uphold the constitution4 ,then the queen1 partaking in the common enthusiasm1 held up the dauphin in her arms1 and pledged his future obedience to the oath4 ,there was unbounded joy at what was supposed to be a new millennial era of political freedom and brotherhood4 ,the grand festival awakened sympathy and hope in all the countries of ,europe4 ,,flight ,,of ,,the ,,king4--,the hope of unity and political bliss1 which exalted all minds to a high pitch of emotion1 proved1 before long1 to be an illusive dream4 ,the king was not ready to confirm the ordinance respecting priests1 which made them civil officers2 nor was he ready to declare the plotting emigrant nobles at ,coblenz and ,worms traitors4 ,mirabeau1 who had enlisted in behalf of the king in a resistance to further measures for the reduction of regal authority1 and in behalf of a constitutional monarchy1 in which the legislative1 judicial1 and executive functions should be kept apart1 suddenly died 7,april #b1 #agia71 at the age of forty-two4 ,his death1 caused partly by overwork of brain1 and partly by dissolute habits1 deprived the conservative republicans and the court of their ablest defender4 ,no one like him was left to stem the current of revolutionary passion1 which threatened to burst through all barriers4 ,the ,paris sections became more and more violent4 ,they hindered a proposed journey of ,louis to ,st4 ,cloud4 ,this determined him1 against the urgent wishes of the queen1 to escape1 with his family1 to the army of the ,marquis de ,bouill1 at ,montmdy4 ,but the fugitives were stopped in their flight1 at ,varennes1 and brought back in custody to ,paris4 ,this unwise and abortive proceeding of the king1 coupled with his formal annulling of all that he had done in the two years previous1 had for its natural consequence his suspension from office4 ,an insurrection of the mob1 to put an end to the monarchy1 was suppressed by ,la ,fayette4 ,at the end of ,september1 ,louis swore to the revised constitution1 and was restored to the throne4 ,the ,assembly then dissolved1 to give place to another1 which should complete the new political creation by needful legislation3 hence it was called ,,the ,,legislative ,,assembly 7,oct4 #agia-,sept4 #agib74--;,it was composed of seven hundred and forty-five members1 mostly young men1 among them a number of eloquent orators4 ,one-half of the body were advocates4 ,the ,national ,assembly1 by a kind of self-denying ordinance1 had voted to exclude themselves from membership in the new body1 which thus lacked the benefit of their knowledge and experience4 ,in the ,assembly1 on the right1 were the different classes of supporters of constitutional monarchy1 the royalists1 and the ,feuillants 7of the school of ,la ,fayette74 ,on the left1 were the majority1 which steadily increased in numbers1 and embraced 7#a7 the ,girondists1 or moderate republicans2 7#b7 the ,mountain1--so called from their higher seats in the hall1--comprising the most decided democrats or radicals4 ,here were the leaders of the ,jacobins and ,cordeliers4 ,a few of the ,girondists were for going beyond the constitution of #agia1 in the direction of a republic after the model of the ,united ,states4 ,they were enamored of the spirit of the ancient commonwealths4 ,they were fond of recurring to the ,roman orators and historians4 ,roland1 ,brissot1 and ,vergniaud were among their leaders4 ,,the ,,parisian ,,populace4--,the populace of ,paris made ,ption1 a democrat1 their mayor4 ,in the ,jacobin club were ,robespierre2 ,marat1 who denounced fiercely in his journal1 ,the ,friend of the ,people1 as aristocrats1 all classes above the common level1 whether by birth or property1 and the former play-actor1 ,d',herbois4 ,danton1 and ,camille ,desmoulins1 who belonged to the ,cordeliers1 took part in its sessions4 ,from this company1 the ,girondists separated after the fall of the king4 ,the red ,jacobin cap came into vogue as a badge of republicanism1 and the ,marseillaise as its favorite inspiring song4 ,declaimers and journals were in full blast1 stirring up the fears and wrath of the people4 ,,the ,,assembly ,,and ,,the ,,king4--,the ,assembly passed penal acts against the recusant priests1--those who refused the oath2 and against the emigrants1 who were trying to stir up the powers of ,europe against the ,french government in its new form4 ,these enactments were met by the king with a veto4 ,,war ,,with ,,austria ,,and ,,prussia4--,the authors of the ,french ,revolution have been so generally objects of execration1 and so terrible crimes were actually perpetrated in the course of it1 that it is only just to note the circumstances which explain the origin of these atrocities1 and which enabled violent leaders and wild passions to usurp control4 ,the efforts of the constitutionalists to save the throne were balked by the exiles and the foreign governments4 ,frederick ,william ,,ii4 of ,prussia 7#aghf-agig71 and ,leopold ,,ii4 the emperor 7#agij-agib71 in the ,declaration of ,pilnitz 7,aug4 #bg1 #agia71 called on the other ,european powers to join them in aiding ,louis ,,xvi4 to establish a right sort of government4 ,from ,russia1 ,sweden1 ,spain1 and even ,switzerland1 there were not wanting manifestations of hostility4 ,the attitude of ,austria had the effect to bring into power a ,girondist ministry4 ,they wanted war as the best means of attaining the objects which they had in view at home4 ,on ,april #bj1 #agib1 ,louis was compelled to go to the ,assembly1 and propose a declaration of war against ,austria4 ,the courts of ,europe had heaped up the fuel3 the ,girondists applied the torch4 ,they were not averse to a crusade in behalf of liberty4 ,,the ,,condition ,,of ,,germany4--,germany consisted of a multitude of states1 of which ,austria 7which had large territories not ,german7 and ,prussia were the chief1 and were in constant rivalry4 ,the ,holy ,roman ,empire kept up its name and forms4 ,besides smaller sovereignties1 as ,saxony and ,bavaria1 there were two hundred and fifty petty principalities1 fifty imperial cities1 and several hundred knights1 each with an insignificant domain subject to him4 ,the empire was one body only in theory4 ,national feeling had died out4 ,the ,diet had little to do1 and no efficiency4 ,austria1 which held the imperial office1 and included in its extensive dominions ,milan and ,southern ,netherlands1 had sunk into a gloomy and soulless despotism4 ,the reforms of ,joseph ,,ii4 produced a ferment2 but after the death of ,leopold ,,ii4 7#agij-agib71 under ,francis ,,ii41 a sickly and selfish ruler1 a reactionary policy1 inspired by the dread of change1 had full sway4 ,thugut1 the minister of ,francis1 cared only for the acquisition of territory3 the people were so many millions to be taxed1 to be drilled1 to be kept down by the police4 ,in ,prussia1 ,frederick ,william ,,ii4 7#aghf-agig7 and his people had no feeling so strong as that of hostility to ,austria1 whose influence was predominant in the minor states4 ,prussia cared more for getting additional ,polish territory than for helping the ,french emigrants4 ,the ,prussian people were separated by rigorous lines into three classes1--nobles1 burghers1 and peasants4 ,the nobles were poor4 ,the lawful occupations of each class were prescribed by law4 ,the mass of the peasantry1 at least in the country east of the ,elbe1 were serfs attached to the soil4 ,the offices in the army were confined to nobles1 on whose absolute obedience the king could count4 ,blows were inflicted on the common soldier as if he were a slave4 ,in some of the other ,protestant states1 the character of the government had improved4 ,in the south and west1 the serfs had been set free4 ,in the ecclesiastical states1 including the electorates of ,mentz1 ,trves1 and ,cologne1 the prince-bishops and canons were nobles1 who led a gay and luxurious life4 ,nowhere were poverty and wretchedness so general as in the lands of the knights4 ,the political life of ,germany1 notwithstanding its abundant resources1 mainly from the decay of public spirit and the want of political unity1 had become stagnant and corrupt4 ,germany was almost incapable of vigorous1 united action4 ,,conflict ,,of ,,louis ,,and ,,the ,,assembly4--,there was no real union between ,louis ,,xvi4 and the ,assembly4 ,troops of the ,national ,guard1 to the number of twenty thousand1 from the provinces were to encamp near ,paris4 ,this measure1 as well as a decree for the banishment of the non-juring clergy1 the king refused to sanction4 ,the ,girondist ministers laid down their office4 ,a mob burst into the ,tuileries3 they put on the king's head a ,jacobin cap1 but he remained calm and steadfast in his refusal to assent to the decrees4 ,la ,fayette came to ,paris from the ,northern army1 to restore order2 but the queen treated him with habitual distrust1 and he fell under suspicion with the radicals4 ,he went back to the army without effecting any thing4 ,,imprisonment ,,of ,,the ,,king4--,prussia had joined its rival1 ,austria4 ,ferdinand of ,brunswick1 an officer trained under ,frederick the ,great1 commanded the ,prussian forces4 ,he issued 7,july #be7 a threatening proclamation to the ,french people4 ,there were three ,french armies in the field1 under ,rochambeau1 ,la ,fayette1 and ,luckner2 but the fire of the ,revolution had not yet entered into the veins of the soldiers4 ,military reverses heightened the revolutionary excitement in ,paris4 ,the municipal government was broken up by ,danton and his associates1 with the mob of poor and desperate partisans at their back2 and its place was taken by commissioners from the sections4 ,an armed throng again attacked the ,tuileries4 ,the king took refuge in the hall of the ,assembly4 ,the ,swiss guards fought bravely against the assailants1 when they received an order from him to cease firing4 ,the result was that they were slaughtered without mercy4 ,the uniform composure of the king in the most trying situations1 and his conscientious feelings1 were a poor substitute for intellectual force4 ,the ,assembly voted to suspend the exercise of his authority1 to put him and his family under surveillance1 to hand over the young prince to the custody of a person charged with his education1 and to call a national convention to draw up a constitution4 ,the royal family were given into the hands of the ,paris commune1 and lodged as prisoners1 in apartments scantily furnished1 in the castle called the ,temple4 ,,massacres ,,of ,,september4--,the blundering of the royalists1 their intrigues1 and the pressure of the coalition of foreign enemies1 had thrown the power into the hands of the ,jacobins4 ,the city council1 and ,danton1 the minister of justice1 were really supreme1 although the ,girondists had a share in the new ministry4 ,la ,fayette was accused and proscribed1 and fled from the country4 ,he was captured by the ,austrians1 and kept in prison at ,olmutz until #agig4 ,the news of the advance of the allies led to the massacres of ,september1 when the prisons in ,paris1 which had been filled with priests and laymen arrested on charges of complicity with the enemies of liberty1 were entered by ruffians acting under influence of ,marat and the commune's committee of surveillance1 and1 after a burlesque trial before an armed jury1 were murdered4 ,in ,versailles1 ,lyons1 ,orleans1 and other towns1 there were like massacres4 ,the victims of these massacres numbered about two thousand4 ,,trial ,,and ,,execution ,,of ,,the ,,king4--,the ,national ,convention was made up entirely of republicans4 ,the monarchy was abolished1 and ,france was declared a republic4 ,the ,girondists had at first the preponderance in numbers2 but the ,jacobins1 led by ,robespierre1 ,danton1 ,marat1 ,couthon1 ,fouch1 the ,duke of ,orleans 7who called himself ,philip galit71 ,st4 ,just1 ,billaud-,varenne1 ,barre1 were supported by the clubs and the city council1 and by the savage populace of the sections1--the sans culottes4 ,the guillotine--a machine for beheading1 which ,guillotin1 a physician1 did not invent1 but recommended for use--was the instrument on which the fanatical revolutionists placed most of their reliance for the extirpation of aristocracy4 ,the energy of the ,jacobins1 aided by the general dread of a restoration of the royalists to power1 and by the fury of the ,paris populace1 proved too strong for the more moderate party to withstand4 ,the king1 designated as ,louis ,capet1 was arraigned before the assembly1 tried1 and condemned to death4 ,there were seven hundred and twenty-one votes3 his death was decreed by a small majority 7,jan4 #ag1 #agic74 ,through all the terrible scenes of the trial1 the parting with his wife and children1 and the execution 7,jan4 #ba71 ,louis manifested a serene and ,christian temper4 ,,victories ,,of ,,france4--,meantime1 in ,france the war was felt1 and justly1 to be a war of self-defense4 ,the enemies were a privileged class in alliance with foreign invaders4 ,volunteers flocked to the field4 ,the troops under ,dumouriez and others had been successful4 ,at ,valmy 7,sept4 #bj1 #agib7 the allies1 under ,brunswick1 were defeated4 ,the victory of ,dumouriez at ,jemmappes was followed by the conquest of the ,austrian ,netherlands 7,nov41 #agib74 ,savoy and ,nice were annexed to ,france4 ,the ,scheldt was declared free and open to commerce1 and ,antwerp was made an open port4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,from ,,the ,,execution ,,of ,,louis ,,xvi4 ,,to ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,robespierre 7,,jan4 #ba1 #agic-;,,july #bg1 #agid74 ,,the ,,first ,,coalition4-,the execution of the king was the signal for the union of the ,european powers against ,france4 ,the intention of the revolutionary party to propagate their system in other countries afforded one excuse for this interference4 ,the ,convention 7,nov4 #ai1 #agib7 had offered their assistance to peoples wishing to throw off the existing governments4 ,another reason was the recent annexations1 and the proceedings in respect to the free navigation of the ,scheldt4 ,the main ground and cement of the coalition was the dread which the governments felt of revolutionary movements among their own subjects1 from their sympathy with the new institutions in ,france4 ,,politics ,,in ,,england4--,the reason just mentioned was operative in ,great ,britain4 ,the revolution of #afhh had given power to a group of ,whig families and their retainers4 ,to shake off this ,whig control1 which had long continued1 was a constant aim of ,george ,,iii4 ,in ,william ,pitt1 the younger1 he found a minister capable1 under the favoring circumstances1 of achieving this result4 ,he was made prime minister in #aghc1 when he was only twenty-five years old4 ,the king1 in #aghh1 had been attacked with insanity2 and while he was thus afflicted1 ,george1 ,prince of ,wales1 who was unpopular on account of his loose morals1 ruled as regent4 ,the regent affiliated with the ,whigs1 but ,pitt retained his office4 ,the leader of the liberal party was ,charles ,james ,fox1 a man of noble talents and generous instincts1 but notoriously irregular in his habits4 ,the sympathy in ,england with the ,revolution of #aghi was widely diffused4 ,edmund ,burke1 however1 the great philosophical statesman1 who had defended the cause of freedom in the ,american ,war1 was alarmed by the events in ,france1 and still more by the theories of human rights propounded by the enthusiastic friends of the ,revolution4 ,these ideas were set forth in ,england1 in an offensive form1 in the writings of ,thomas ,paine4 ,burke published1 in #agij1 his ,reflections on the ,french ,revolution1 in which he attacked as visionary the political notions of the ,french school in regard to human rights1 and denounced them for their dangerous tendency4 ,he separated from his party1 and publicly broke friendship with ,fox4 ,pitt was personally averse to war with ,france1 but was driven into it by the prevailing sentiment4 ,the anti-revolutionary feeling excited by the news of the death of ,louis moved ,england to an armed interference which involved the most important consequences to all ,europe4 ,a ,tory minister1 ,pitt was supported in the long struggle in ,europe by a majority of the ,whigs4 ,in the next twenty years1 ,great ,britain1 by her military strength on the land1 and much more on the sea1 and in particular by her wealth1 freely poured out in subsidies to her allies on the ,continent1 was a powerful1 as well as the most persevering1 antagonist of ,france4 ,,fall ,,of ,,the ,,girondists4--,the advance of the allied armies increased the violence and strengthened the hands of the ,jacobins4 ,dumouriez lost a battle in ,neerwinden 7,march #ah1 #agic71 and fell back1 through ,belgium1 to the ,french frontier4 ,he was in sympathy with the ,girondists1 and complained of the doings of the ,jacobins in ,paris and in his army4 ,being called to account1 he went over to the ,austrians4 ,this desertion weakened the ,girondist party1 and put new force into the party of ,jacobins4 ,at the same time1 news came of a royalist revolt in the ,west1 and of conflicts between the ,jacobins and their adversaries in the cities of the ,south4 ,danton1 who understood that audacity was the secret of success1 procured the appointment by the convention of a ,committee of ,public ,safety 7,april #f1 #agic71 which was to exercise the most frightful dictatorship known in history4 ,a committee of general security was put in charge of the police of the whole country4 ,the commune of ,paris co-operated in the energetic efforts of the ,jacobin leaders to collect recruits and to strengthen the military force4 ,the three chiefs were ,danton1 ,marat1 and ,robespierre4 ,there was a mortal struggle between the advocates of order and the apostles of anarchy4 ,the fate of the moderates and ,girondists was sealed by a great insurrection in ,paris1 and an invasion of the ,convention by an armed force4 ,the violent party had at their back eighty thousand ,national ,guards1 who hemmed in the ,convention4 ,twenty-nine ,girondist leaders were placed under arrest4 ,their party fell4 ,the boldest and most reckless faction1 which had the ,paris commune behind it1 triumphed4 ,,war ,,of ,,la ,,vend,e4--,outside of ,paris1 in other parts of ,france1 there were risings against the ,jacobin rule4 ,the most formidable of these was in the ,west1 where the relation of the nobles to the peasants had been kindly1 and where the common people looked on the violent proceedings at ,paris with anger and disgust4 ,thus began the war of ,la ,vende1 a terrible episode of civil strife1 in which the people of that region were subdued1 but not until after protracted conflict and immense slaughter4 ,,the ,,jacobin ,,revolution4--,danton and the other revolutionary leaders showed a tremendous energy in their attack on both domestic and foreign enemies4 ,a levy was ordered of the whole male population capable of bearing arms4 ,a maximum price was fixed by law for commodities1 and also for wages4 ,the government paid its dues in depreciated assignats at the face value4 ,its emissaries were in all parts of ,france1 stirring up the people and forming revolutionary committees4 ,thus a system of revolutionary government was everywhere established4 ,a new constitution1 of an extreme democratic type1 was offered to the acceptance of the people4 ,this dominion of the ,jacobins1 it must be observed1 was a second revolution4 ,the ,revolution of #agib was as different from that of #aghi as was the proposed constitution of #agic from that of #agia4 ,the insurrections1 except at ,lyons and ,toulon and in ,la ,vende1 were soon quelled4 ,the ,jacobin rule was identified with the cause of patriotism in arms against foreign invasion1 and with antipathy to the restoration of ,bourbon royalty and misrule4 ,in ,paris1 the revolutionary tribunal was filling the prisons with the suspected1 and sending daily its wagon-loads of victims to the guillotine4 ,,military ,,successes ,,of ,,france4-,the achievements of the great coalition were not at all in proportion to its apparent strength4 ,it was weakened by mutual jealousies and inefficient commanders4 ,in the ,south1 the ,spaniards and ,piedmontese did not profit by their successes4 ,in the ,north and ,north-east1 the summer of #agic was partly wasted by the ,english1 ,austrians1 and ,prussians1 in long sieges and in dissensions among themselves4 ,meantime the ,french army was growing stronger1 and more and more on fire with patriotic ardor4 ,the ,duke of ,york1 an incapable general1 was obliged to raise the siege of ,dunkirk 7,sept4 #h1 #agic74 ,the forces of the coalition began to retire from ground that they had won4 ,at ,paris1 ,carnot's efficient management of military affairs gave ,france an advantage over her foes4 ,the ,prussians were inactive on the ,rhine2 and ,jourdan1 reinforced by a ,french detachment from that quarter1 defeated the ,austrians at ,wattignies4 ,by the movements of ,hoche1 the allies were driven out of ,alsace4 ,lyons1 after a stubborn defense1 was captured and savagely punished1 and the brave ,vendeans were completely defeated by ,kleber at ,savenay4 ,near the end of the year1 ,toulon1 then in revolt1 was captured4 ,at the siege1 a young artillery officer1 ,napoleon ,bonaparte1 first distinguished himself by pointing out the proper spot for the planting of batteries that would drive away the ,english and ,spanish fleets1 and by carrying out his project4 ,,bonaparte4--,napoleon was born on the island of ,corsica1 ,aug4 #ae1 #agfi1 two months after ,corsica became subject to the ,french4 ,his family1 on both sides1 were ,italians4 ,napoleon himself never became so fully master of the ,french tongue that he did not betray in his speech his foreign extraction4 ,he was educated at the military school of ,brienne 7#aggi-aghd71 and then went to the military school at ,paris4 ,his principal studies were mathematics and history4 ,he quickly made manifest his military talents1 and seems first to have aspired to gain distinction and power1 in this line1 in ,corsica4 ,his connection was at first with the ,jacobins1 although he afterwards denied it4 ,he had imbibed the ideas of the ,revolution1 and saw that in the service of the leaders in the war there was opened to him a military career4 ,he turned against his patriotic countryman1 ,paoli1 when the latter sought to separate ,corsica from ,france1 at that time under the ,jacobin rule4 ,,the ,,reign ,,of ,,terror4--,the ,reign of ,terror had now established itself in ,france4 ,the ,committee of ,public ,safety wielded absolute power4 ,every man1 woman1 and child was called upon to take part in the defense of the country4 ,the property of all the emigrants and prisoners of state was seized4 ,whoever was suspected of being hostile to the established tyranny was thrown into prison4 ,even to be lukewarm in adhesion to it1 was a serious offense4 ,summary trials were followed by swift executions4 ,the tenderness of youth and the venerableness of age were no protection4 ,day after day1 the stream of human blood continued to flow4 ,a new calendar was ordained3 ,sept4 #bb1 #agib1 was the beginning of the year one4 ,there was a new division of months2 in the room of the week1 each tenth day was made a holiday4 ,the commune of ,paris1 followed by other cities1 began a crusade against ,christianity4 ,fashions of dress1 modes of speech1 and manners were revolutionized4 ,every vestige of aristocracy was to be swept off the earth4 ,there was a wild license given to divorce and to profligacy4 ,paris was like a camp where young soldiers were drilled1 weapons were forged1 and lint and bandages made ready for the wounded4 ,there were seen1 even in the hall of the ,convention1 throngs of coarse and fierce men1 and of coarser and fiercer women1 with their songs and wild outcries and gestures4 ,the commune of ,paris instituted a sacrilegious festival in the ancient cathedral of ,notre ,dame1 where an actress was enthroned as ,goddess of ,liberty4 ,there were priests and bishops who abjured the ,christian faith1 and there were others who adhered to it at the peril of their lives4 ,the prisons1 which were packed with all classes1 were theaters of strange and thrilling scenes4 ,in many cases1 death1 made familiar1 ceased to terrify4 ,crowds escorted the batch of victims carried on carts each day to the place of execution1 and insulted them with their brutal shouts4 ,the arrested ,girondist deputies were executed4 ,some of the leaders of that party1 including ,roland1 perished by suicide4 ,among the eminent persons sent to the guillotine were the eloquent ,vergniaud1 ,brissot1 ,bailly1 ,malesherbes 7the brave advocate who had defended ,louis ,,xvi471 and ,madame ,roland2 also the infamous ,duke of ,orleans1 who had intrigued to get himself raised to the throne4 ,marie ,antoinette1 her hair turned white in the tragic scenes through which she had passed1 miserably clad1 was dragged before the merciless tribunal4 ,there she was insulted with foul accusations which nobody believed4 ,after the mockery of a trial1 she was carried like a common criminal1 in a cart1 with her arms bound1 to the place of execution 7,oct4 #af74 ,her dignity and serenity1 her pallid countenance1 and the simple1 pathetic words uttered by her at her arraignment1 touched for the moment the hardened hearts of the imbruted spectators4 ,her sad fate has blinded many to the calamitous errors committed by her in the days of her power4 ,,the ,,jacobin ,,chiefs4--,the ,reign of ,terror was not confined to ,paris4 ,the unexampled atrocities there were repeated in the other large towns with like circumstances of barbarity4 ,a species of fanaticism ruled and raged in the land4 ,the mania1 if one may so call it1 reached its height in such chiefs of the revolutionary party as ,marat1 ,billaud1 and ,robespierre4 ,in ,marat especially1 the mastery gained by one idea almost amounted to mental disorder4 ,he demanded first five hundred heads1 then 7in ,sept41 #agic7 forty thousand2 then1 six weeks later1 two hundred and seventy thousand4 ,it did seem to be a homicidal mania4 ,marat was assassinated by a young maiden1 ,charlotte ,corday1 who devoted herself to the task of ridding the world of such a monster4 ,,death ,,of ,,danton4--,the ,jacobin leaders found their ideal of virtue in the ,spartan spirit4 ,infatuated by ,rousseau's theory of the omnipotence of the state1 in which the individual is merged and lost under the despotism of the majority1 they looked on the massacre of countless persons1 guilty of no crime1 as a good deed4 ,at length men began to grow weary of this frightful tyranny4 ,the leaders became divided among themselves4 ,danton1 though often the advocate of violent measures1 was a statesman1 and1 to his credit be it said1 halted at a point where the others advanced4 ,he made an objection to the confounding of the innocent with the guilty4 ,hbert and the leaders of the commune1 with their atheism1 as dangerous political rivals1 were offensive to ,robespierre1 who was a deist4 ,he held a sort of middle position1 had most power with the ,jacobins1 and was enabled to crush and destroy his associates4 ,he was a dull man1 of a quiet mien1 often seen with a nosegay in his hand1 and bloodthirsty according to a precise theory4 ,his ascendency gave him the power1 after scenes of tempestuous debate1 to inflict first on ,hbert1 on ,clootz1 and his other confederates1 and then on ,danton and the ,dantonist chiefs1 the same death by the guillotine to which they had doomed so many4 ,robespierre abolished the worship of ,reason1 and caused the ,convention to pass a resolution acknowledging the existence of a supreme ,being1 in whose honor ftes were held4 ,christianity was denounced as a base superstition4 ,,cruelties ,,in ,,the ,,provinces4--,when ,robespierre was supreme1 the ,reign of ,terror became still more terrible4 ,in trials1 the hearing of evidence and of argument were dispensed with4 ,the prisons were crowded with suspects4 ,alleged conspiracies in prisons were made a pretext for wholesale slaughter under the guillotine4 ,suicide and madness were of common occurrence4 ,even before ,robespierre's predominance there had been in the provinces scenes of horror like those which occurred in the capital4 ,the revolted cities1 as ,lyons and ,toulon1 were punished with savage ferocity4 ,at ,lyons1 men1 women1 and children in masses were shot down with artillery4 ,those who were not killed with the shot were cut in pieces by the soldiery4 ,at ,nantes prisoners were bound together in pairs1 and huddled together in barges1 which were scuttled and set afloat down the ,loire4 ,for these atrocities the deputy ,carrier was responsible4 ,,french ,,victories4--,yet1 at this time1 the arms of the republic1 except on the sea1 where the ,french fleet was badly beaten by the ,english1 were mostly successful4 ,the ,duke of ,york was vanquished on the ,belgian frontier1 and the defeat of the allies at ,fleurus 7,june #bf1 #agid7 obliged them to evacuate ,belgium4 ,,the ,,bonapartes ,charles ,bonaparte1 m4 ,letitia ,ramolino4 --#a1 ,joseph1 ,king of ,spain1 d4 #ahdd4 --,lucien1 ,cardinal4 --,znade1 m4 --,charles1 d4 #aheg --#c1 ,lucien1 ,prince of ,canino1 d 4#ahdj4 --,lucien4 --,pierre4 --#b1 ,,napoleon ,i1 #ahjd-ahad1 7deposed1 d4 #ahba71 m4 7#a71 ,maria ,louisa1 daughter of ,emperor ,francis ,,ii4 --,napoleon1 ,duke of ,reichstadt 7,napoleon ,,ii71 d4 #ahcb4 7#b71 ,josephine1 m4 ,general ,beauharnais4 --,eugene1 ,duke of ,leuchtenberg1 d4 #ahbd4 m4 ,augusta1 daughter of ,maximilian ,joseph of ,bavaria4 --,josephine1 m4 ,oscar ,i of ,sweden4 --,hortense1 m4 --#d1 ,louis1 ,king of ,holland1 d4 #ahdf4 --,napoleon ,charles1 d4 #ahjg4 --,napoleon ,louis1 d4 #ahca4 --,,louis ,,napoleon ,,iii1 #aheb-ahgj1 d4 #ahgc4 m4 ,eugenie1 ,countess of ,teba --,napoleon1 d4 #ahgi4 --#e1 ,caroline1 m4 ,joachim ,murat1 ,king of ,naples1 shot #ahae4 --#f1 ,jerome1 ,king of ,westphalia1 d4 #ahfj1 m4 ,catharine of ,wurtemberg4 --,napoleon4 m4 ,clotilde1 d4 of ,victor ,emmanuel ,,ii of ,italy --,,napolean ,,victor ,,jerome ,,frederic4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,from ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,robespierre ,,to ,,the ,,empire ,,of ,,napoleon 7#agid-ahjd74 ,,fall ,,of ,,robespierre 7#i,,th ,,thermidor74--,a reaction set in against the cruelties of ,jacobinism4 ,men--even the judges of the murderous tribunal--grew weary of bloodshed4 ,the authority of ,robespierre began to wane1 even with his colleagues4 ,the assembly at length turned against him4 ,on ,july #bg 7the #ith ,thermidor1 according to the new calendar7 he was arrested4 ,he was released1 but was again seized1 and1 with ,st4 ,just1 ,couthon1 and most of the leaders of the commune1 was guillotined4 ,bare statistics1 accompanied by no thrilling descriptions1 convey a strong impression of the atrocities of the ,reign of ,terror4 ,according to ,m4 ,taine1 there were guillotined at ,paris1 between ,april #af1 #agic1 and the #ith ,thermidor1 #b1fbe persons4 ,the same process went forward all over ,france4 ,in ,arras1 #bii men and #ic women2 in ,orange1 #cca persons2 in ,nantes1 #a1iga2 in ,lyons1 #a1fhd 7avowedly1 but a correspondent of ,robespierre estimates the total at #f1jjj72 in the fusillades 7deaths by shooting7 of ,toulon1 more than #a1jjj2 in the noyades 7drownings7 of ,nantes1 nearly #e1jjj perished4 ,in the eight departments of the ,west1 it is reckoned that nearly half a million perished4 ,the deaths from want1 under the ,jacobin government1 ,m4 ,taine thinks1 much exceeded a million4 ,france was on the brink of a great famine on the ,asiatic scale4 ,,reaction3 ,,control ,,of ,,the ,,moderates4--,the ,reign of ,terror was brought to an end4 ,the moderates controlled the ,convention4 ,the prison doors were opened1 and the multitude of suspects were set free4 ,the revolutionary tribunal was broken down4 ,the commune of ,paris was so shaped as to strip it of its most dangerous powers4 ,the ,jacobin and other incendiary clubs were suppressed4 ,religion was declared to be free1 and the churches were opened to their congregations4 ,the ,girondist deputies who survived were invited back to their seats in the ,convention4 ,the ,national ,guards were filled up from the middle class1--the bourgeoisie4 ,little mercy was shown to the ,jacobins anywhere4 ,the reaction was seen in the altered character of society and of manners4 ,those who had acquired wealth in the late time by the changes of property came to the front4 ,the old fondness for dress and gayety reappeared4 ,paris was again alive with balls and other festive entertainments4 ,the salons were crowded with elegant youth of the higher class 7the jeunesse dore74 ,the party of ,terror were cowed2 but in consequence of the rise in the cost of provisions1 and of the distress caused by it1 and by the sudden abrogation of tyrannical laws settling the price of food and wages1 there were two fierce outbreakings of the mob of ,paris 7,april #a1 ,may #bj1 #agie74 ,these were quelled1 and the power of the ,jacobins was finally crushed4 ,the moderates had now to guard against the increasing strength and rising hopes of the royalists4 ,,conquest ,,of ,,holland3 ,,prussia4--,the armies of ,france were everywhere successful4 ,through the victories of ,jourdan and ,pichegru1 ,holland was conquered1 and converted into the ,batavian ,republic1 and ,dutch ,flanders surrendered to ,france4 ,the ,low ,countries were now a dependency of the ,french ,republic 7#agid-agie74 ,hoche1 an excellent general1 partly by conciliation1 reduced the ,west--the theater of the ,la ,vende revolt--to submission4 ,the ,english and emigrants landed in ,quiberon1 on the coast of ,brittany1 but were defeated4 ,the coalition was broken up1 first by the withdrawal of ,prussia1 which ceded 7,april #e1 #agie71 and1 in a secret article1 ceded permanently1 its territories on the left bank of the ,rhine to the ,french1 for a compensation to be obtained from secularized ,german states1--that is1 states in which the old ecclesiastical rule should be abolished4 ,a few months later 7,july1 #agie71 ,spain concluded peace1 ceding ,st4 ,domingo to the ,republic4 ,the soldiers of ,france were fast becoming trained1 and their confidence rose with their increasing success4 ,this success was due largely to the weak generalship of the allies4 ,the ,french were commonly hard masters in the conquered places4 ,on the other hand1 however1 they effected a welcome abolition of old feudal inequalities and abuses4 ,,constitution ,,of #aiie4--,meanwhile1 there was disaffection1 especially in the cities1 with the rule by the ,convention4 ,in the cities there was distress1 except in the moneyed class4 ,there was a yearning for a strong and stable government4 ,the ,convention framed and submitted to the nation a new constitution1 the third in the order of political fabrics of this sort4 ,there were to be seven hundred and fifty legislators1 divided into two bodies1--the ,council of ,elders1 or the ,ancients1 of two hundred and fifty1 and the ,council of ,five ,hundred4 ,the executive power was given to a ,directory of five persons4 ,two-thirds of the councils for the first term were to be taken from the ,convention4 ,the constitution1 thus conservative and anti-,jacobin in its character1 was well received4 ,but there was dissatisfaction in the reactionary parties2 and a great insurrection of the royalist middle class in ,paris 7,oct4 #e1 #agie1 the #acth ,vendmaire7 was promptly put down by the resolute action of ,bonaparte1 to whom had been given the command of the troops of the city4 ,it was the royalist and the anti-republican parties which now threatened the government4 ,but a new authority1 the will of the army1 was beginning plainly to disclose itself4 ,the dread of ,jacobinism still existed4 ,what the people more and more craved was internal tranquillity and order4 ,,bonaparte ,,in ,,italy3 ,,to ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,campo ,,formio4--,the assignats became worthless4 ,this bankruptcy had one benefit3 it relieved the state of its debt1 and brought coin into circulation4 ,a triple attack was planned by ,carnot against ,austria4 ,in ,germany1 ,jourdan and ,moreau were driven back by the ,archduke ,charles of ,austria4 ,but a splendid success attended the arms of ,bonaparte in the attack on the ,austrian power in ,italy4 ,he had been lately married to ,josephine ,beauharnais1 the widow of a ,french general guillotined in #agid1 the only woman to whom he appears ever to have been warmly attached4 ,there were two children by her former marriage1--,eugne 7#agha-ahbd71 and ,hortense 7#aghc-ahcg7 who married ,louis ,bonaparte4 ,starting from ,nice1 and following the coast1 ,bonaparte defeated the ,austrians and ,piedmontese separately1 and forced the latter to conclude a distinct peace1 which ceded ,savoy and ,nice to ,france4 ,he exemplified in this campaign the characteristics which in after-years contributed essentially to his success as a general4 ,he struck the enemy before they could combine their forces4 ,he did not1 after the old method1 wait to capture all the fortresses in his path1 but by swift marches made his attacks at unexpected places and times4 ,he defeated the ,austrians after a brief struggle at the bridge of ,lodi on the ,adda1 captured ,milan1 overran ,lombardy as far as ,mantua1 and forced the ,pope1 and ,parma1 ,modena1 and ,naples1 to purchase peace by giving up their treasures of art4 ,thus began the custom of despoiling conquered capitals1 and other subjugated cities1 of works of art1 which went to adorn and enrich ,paris1--a new custom among civilized ,christian nations4 ,wurmser1 the veteran ,austrian general1 was defeated in a series of engagements2 and1 after him1 another great ,austrian army1 under ,alvinzi1 was vanquished at ,arcola 7,nov4 #ad-ag1 #agif7 and at ,rivoli 7,jan4 #ad1 #agig74 ,bonaparte now crossed the ,alps to meet the ,archduke ,charles1 who had cleared ,germany of its invaders4 ,the ,french general1 although his own situation was not free from peril1 was able to dictate the terms of peace4 ,in the treaty of ,campo ,formio 7,oct4 #ag1 #agig71 ,austria ceded the ,belgian provinces to ,france1 recognized the ,cisalpine ,republic to be established by ,bonaparte in ,north ,italy1 and secretly consented to the cession of the ,german provinces on the left bank of the ,rhine4 ,in return1 he gave ,venice to ,austria1 in disregard of the principles of international law1 and perfidiously as regards that republic1 which had made its peace with him1 and become a democracy dependent on ,france4 ,in this treaty with ,austria1 there was another secret stipulation that ,prussia should not be indemnified in ,germany for her losses on the west of the ,rhine4 ,thus ,napoleon used the selfishness of the allies to divide them from one another4 ,at ,tolentino in ,february the ,pope had ceded for the ,cispadane ,republic the ,romagna1 ,bologna1 and ,ferrara4 ,a young man of twenty-seven1 ,bonaparte had given proof of his astonishing military genius by a series of victories over large armies and experienced generals2 and he had evinced equally his skill1 as well as his lack of principle1 in the field of diplomacy4 ,he had won admiration from his enemies by his evident freedom from the revolutionary fanaticism1 and his contempt for declamation about the rights of man4 ,returning to ,paris1 he was received with acclamation1 but thought it politic to avoid publicity1 and to live quietly in his modest dwelling4 ,,coup ,d',,tat3 #ah ,,fructidor 7,sept4 #d1 #agig74--;,during ,bonaparte's absence1 the royalist and reactionary faction had gained ground in the governing bodies4 ,pichegru was plotting on that side4 ,these schemes had been baffled with the timely assistance of a detachment of troops sent to ,paris by ,bonaparte under ,augereau4 ,on ,sept4 #d 7the #ahth ,fructidor71 the palace of the ,tuileries1 where the councils met1 was surrounded4 ,the reactionary deputies were arrested2 ,pichegru and his fellow-conspirators were banished4 ,this coup d'tat sealed the triumph of the republicans1 but it was effected through the army4 ,,the ,,egyptian ,,expedition4--,the ,directory were conscious of weakness1 and looked with alarm and distrust on the young general1 who was fast becoming the idol of the people1 as well as of the army4 ,they wished him to attempt a descent on ,england4 ,he preferred1 in the room of this impracticable venture1 to conduct an expedition to ,egypt1 with the design of getting control1 if possible1 of the ,eastern ,mediterranean1 and of striking at the possessions of ,great ,britain in ,india4 ,to this scheme the ,directory1 quite willing to have him at a distance1 readily consented4 ,hiding his plans until all was ready1 he sailed from ,toulon 7,may #ai1 #agih7 with a strong fleet and army2 on his way captured ,malta through treachery of the knights1 and landed safely in ,egypt4 ,with him were some of the best of the ,french generals1 and a large company of scientific men4 ,he defeated the ,mamelukes in a great battle fought within sight of the ,pyramids4 ,but at ,aboukir1 in the ,battle of the ,nile1 the ,french fleet was destroyed by the ,english naval force under ,nelson4 ,the ,french army was thus cut off from the means of return4 ,bonaparte invaded ,syria1 but was prevented by the ,english fleet from getting a foothold on the coast4 ,he had to raise the siege of ,acre1 and returned to ,egypt1 where he vanquished the ,turks at ,aboukir4 ,,reverses ,,of ,,france ,,in ,,italy4--,here ,bonaparte received information which determined him to leave the army under the command of ,klber1 and himself to return to ,france4 ,the ,european powers had once more taken up arms4 ,among the causes of the renewal of the war were the formation by the ,french of the ,roman ,republic out of the dominion of the ,pope1 the establishment of the ,helvetian ,republic in ,switzerland1 and the change of ,genoa by its own act into the ,ligurian ,republic4 ,prussia1 since #agie1 from selfish motives had cooperated with ,france1 and stood aloof from the new--the second--coalition4 ,paul ,i41 emperor of ,russia1 was active against the ,french ,republic1 and ,pitt was its indefatigable enemy4 ,the ,czar had been made ,grand ,master of the ,knights of ,malta1 and made much of this empty dignity4 ,the victory of ,nelson at ,aboukir cemented the union of the hostile powers1 with whom the ,sultan was now joined4 ,the management of the ,french armies by the government at ,paris was unskillful4 ,naples1 to be sure1 was overcome1 and transformed into the ,parthenopan ,republic4 ,the king of ,sardinia was driven out of ,piedmont4 ,but ,jourdan was defeated by the ,archduke ,charles1 and retreated across the ,rhine4 ,the ,austrians and the ,russian army under ,suvoroff1 a veteran officer1 were victorious south of the ,alps 7,june1 #agii72 ,moreau and ,macdonald were defeated at ,trebbia4 ,the ,french were defeated again at ,novi 7,aug4 #ae71 and lost almost all ,italy4 ,the king of ,naples came back1 and thousands of republicans there were cruelly put to death1--a proscription in which ,nelson had a part4 ,it was the victory of ,massna1 over the ,russians at ,zurich1 that saved ,france itself from invasion4 ,,overthrow ,,of ,,the ,,directory3 #ah,,th ,,brumaire4--,these reverses added to the unpopularity of the ,directory4 ,the discontent of the ,jacobins with their government had given rise to strong measures of repression4 ,on the other hand1 the wealthy class were disgusted at the renewal of the war4 ,a rising was threatened in ,la ,vendee4 ,the feeling was widely diffused1 that there was need of a strong man at the helm to save the ship of state from another terrible shipwreck4 ,at this juncture ,napoleon appeared in ,paris1 and was greeted with enthusiasm4 ,sieys and one other director1 with a majority of the ,ancients1 agreed to another coup d'tat which should make ,bonaparte the first magistrate4 ,the garrison of ,paris was ready to lend its aid4 ,the resistance of the ,council of five ,hundred at ,st4 ,cloud was baffled by ,lucien ,bonaparte1 ,napoleon's brother1 their president1 and by the use of military force4 ,thus there was accomplished the revolution of the #ahth ,brumaire 7,nov4 #i1 #agii74 ,,the ,,consulate4--,in the provisional government set up by the remnant of the council1 ,napoleon only gradually assumed the chief rle4 ,he was later enabled to take and to hold supreme power1 because of the mutual fear of royalists and republicans1 their common dread of ,jacobinism1 and a prevailing conviction that safety must be sought in the sway of an individual1 representing neither extreme1 and strong enough to hold all in check4 ,yet the event evinced the supremacy now gained by the military power4 ,napoleon immediately made excellent financial reforms1 and repealed or softened the laws against the emigrants and the priests4 ,by such mild and conservative measures1 the prosperity of ,france began to be renewed4 ,the constitution of the year ,,viii41 as planned by ,sieys and modified by ,bonaparte1 kept up the semblance1 without much of the reality1 of democracy4 ,the checks on the power of the ,first ,consul were more nominal than real4 ,the mass of the people had power only to vote for lists of citizens1 out of whom all the higher officers were to be selected by successive steps4 ,all legislation was initiated by the ,council of ,state2 the ,tribunate of a hundred members could discuss proposals made thus1 but could not act2 the ,legislative ,chamber of three hundred could vote1 but not discuss2 and the ,senate of eighty was chosen for life1 with little to do4 ,this constitution of #agii1 in opposition to the communal system of #aghi and #agia1 established a centralized administration which destroyed local liberty and self-government4 ,france no longer represented in other countries the cause of liberty4 ,in this character its armies had been hailed in ,italy1 where a yearning for national unity was awakened4 ,equality1 not liberty1 was all that the cause of ,france now represented4 ,napoleon could not have expected that his overtures of peace would be accepted by ,austria4 ,the rough1 impolitic response made by ,england1 helped him by rousing resentment in ,france4 ,,marengo3 ,,peace ,,of ,,lungville4--,if ,sieys and others expected that ,napoleon would merely direct military operations from ,paris1 they were soon undeceived4 ,massna was at the head of the army in ,italy1 and found it most difficult to hold ,genoa against the ,austrians4 ,moreau was at the head of the army in ,germany4 ,apart from other reasons for taking the field in person1 it would not have been safe for the new ruler of ,france to allow himself to be eclipsed in military fame by ,moreau4 ,napoleon1 as usual veiling his purpose1 gradually collected a large army1 and between ,may #af and #ai1 #ahjj1 led his troops1 and dragged his cannon1 over the ,great ,st4 ,bernard ,pass into ,italy1 threw himself in the rear of ,melas1 the ,austrian general1 and entered ,milan4 ,he appears1 however1 to have used less than his usual caution1 probably from fear that ,melas might escape2 so that he was attacked at ,marengo 7,june #ad71 by that general1 at a moment when the ,french forces were not sufficiently concentrated4 ,what threatened to be a disastrous defeat for the ,french1 however1 was turned into a signal victory by the timely arrival of ,desaix2 and the name of ,marengo rang through ,europe4 ,in ,december1 ,moreau won the great victory of ,hohenlinden over the ,archduke ,john4 ,in ,february1 #ahja1 the peace of ,lunville was concluded4 ,france kept its natural boundaries1 ,belgium and the west of the ,rhine4 ,the ,italian republics1 except ,rome and ,naples1 were restored4 ,tuscany was to be given to a prince of ,spain1 a country now dependent on ,france4 ,the ,german princes who lost territory were to be indemnified by secularizing ,german ecclesiastical states1 and vied with one another in imploring favors of the conqueror4 ,,the ,,northern ,,alliance3 ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,amiens4--,england now stood alone against ,france4 ,her navies were supreme1 and had captured most of the ,dutch as well as ,french colonies4 ,the ,french army in ,egypt had been driven to capitulate on the condition that it should be transported in ,english vessels to ,france4 ,russia1 ,sweden1 and ,denmark made 7#ahjj7 a defensive alliance of armed neutrality on the sea1 to maintain the right of neutrals to trade with belligerents1 and the doctrine that the neutral ship protects its freight 7not being munitions of war7 against seizure4 ,england succeeded in ruining this alliance4 ,pitt now retired from office4 ,he had accomplished the legislative union of ,england and ,ireland1 by which the separate ,irish ,parliament had ceased to exist 7#ahjj74 ,but he had encouraged the ,irish ,catholics to expect that they would be delivered from the restrictions which excluded them from the ,house of ,commons and from many other offices4 ,when the king refused to consent to the fulfillment of these expectations1 ,pitt resigned 7#ahja74 ,addington became prime minister4 ,england was tired of the war4 ,peace was concluded at ,amiens 7,march1 #ahjb74 ,france was to retain all her conquests on the ,continent4 ,england surrendered to ,france and her allies all conquests except ,trinidad and ,ceylon4 ,malta was to be given back by ,england to the ,knights of ,malta4 ,a third great civil triumph of ,napoleon1 added to ,luneville and ,amiens1 was the ,concordat with the ,pope4 ,,reforms ,,of ,,napoleon4--,napoleon now was free to give his attention to internal reforms in ,france4 ,he called into his counsels the ablest men in all departments of knowledge4 ,in the reconstruction of political and social order1 his own clear perceptions and energy were everywhere seen4 ,he brought back from the old institutions whatever was good and valuable which the tempest of revolution had swept away4 ,he reformed the judicial system4 ,he caused to be framed the famous ,code which bears his name1 and which still forms the basis of law in several ,european countries4 ,he reduced the power of the communes1 and centralized the administration of government by the system of prefects and sub-prefects4 ,through the ,concordat1 he renewed the connection of the ,catholic ,church of ,france with ,rome1 reserving1 however1 to the executive the nomination of archbishops and bishops1 whom the government was to support1 and guarding1 in the spirit of the ,gallican theory1 the supremacy of the civil authority4 ,full toleration was secured for non-,catholics4 ,napoleon personally participated in the religious ceremonies which attended the formal restoration of the old system of worship where the ,goddess of ,reason had been enthroned during the ,terror4 ,the ultimate effect of the ,concordat was to build up the ultramontane1 or papal1 theory and sway within the church of ,france4 ,education was organized by the establishment of the university1 the comprehensive name for the entire educational system of the country4 ,all branches of technical instruction were carefully fostered4 ,the devotees of science were encouraged with an enlightened sympathy and liberal aid4 ,a better organization and discipline were brought into the army4 ,,character ,,of ,,the ,,changes4--,the changes made by ,napoleon1 while they secured the equality of all ,frenchmen before the law1 did nothing to rescue civil liberty1 such as the republicans had aimed to secure4 ,they were all in the direction of monarchy4 ,distinctions1 like the ,legion of ,honor1 were invented2 titles were instituted2 a new aristocracy1 made up of relics of the old noblesse and of fresh recruits1 was created2 ,napoleon was declared to be consul for life1 and the mechanism of the government was converted into a practical dictatorship4 ,unsparing in his treatment of ,jacobins1 he aimed still to moderate the passions of party4 ,his activity was seen in an excellent system of public works1 such as canals and noble highways1 in new towns1 and in magnificent buildings which he erected in ,paris4 ,at the same time1 he went as far as it was safe to go in bringing in monarchical manners and luxuries4 ,he himself adopted a regal way of living4 ,he had no faith in democracy1 and spoke with unaffected scorn of ideology1 or the theoretical statesmanship which based itself on ideas of human rights in the matter of exercising government4 ,the press was placed under stringent police regulation4 ,napoleon's family began to contend1 with ,corsican shamelessness1 for high honors4 ,a feud soon came to exist between them and the ,beauharnais1--the family of ,josephine4 ,was the principle of heredity to come back8 ,,renewed ,,war ,,with ,,england4--,in #ahjc the war was renewed with ,england4 ,that ,napoleon was resolved to dictate in ,european affairs1 as he was practical dictator in the ,french ,republic1 was plain4 ,he controlled the republics dependent on ,france4 ,he annexed ,piedmont4 ,he made the ,spanish ,bourbons do his bidding4 ,he intervened in ,germany2 among other things1 offending ,austria by enlarging the bounds of ,prussia4 ,he exercised over the minor ,german states the influence of which ,austria had been robbed4 ,he complained of the strictures of the ,english press1 and of the asylum granted in ,england to conspirators against his rule4 ,he was angry that ,malta was not given up1 which ,england refused to do on account of an aggrandizement of ,france not consistent with the ,peace of ,amiens4 ,there were provocations on both sides1 and war was inevitable4 ,,plan ,,of ,,invading ,,england4--,napoleon seized ,hanover4 ,he talked of making a descent on ,england4 ,he gathered a vast army near ,boulogne1 and constructed an immense flotilla for the transportation of it across the ,channel4 ,his design was to decoy away the ,british fleet1 and then to concentrate enough ships of his own in the ,channel to protect the passage of his forces4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,from ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,empibe ,,to ,,the ,,russian ,,campaign 7#ahjd-ahab74 ,,the ,,empire 7#ahjd74--,various attempts had been made against ,napoleon's life4 ,an infernal machine was exploded near his carriage4 ,on that occasion1 only the swift driving of the coachman saved him from death 7#ahjj74 ,there were now royalist plots against his life1 of which ,count d',artois was cognizant4 ,pichegru was an accomplice2 and ,moreau1 although not favoring the restoration of the ,bourbons1 was not entirely innocent4 ,the former died in prison2 ,moreau escaped to ,america4 ,napoleon1 exasperated by these plots1 caused the ,duke d',enghien1 a young prince of the ,cond branch of the ,bourbons1 to be seized on ,german territory1--in ,baden1--and dragged away into ,france1 where1 at ,vincennes1 after a hurried military examination1 he was shot1 and buried in a grave that had been dug for him before the sentence was pronounced4 ,of this act of ,napoleon1 it was said by ,fouch1 ,it was worse than a crime3 it was a blunder4 ,the young prince was really innocent4 ,he was a victim of the natural1 but violent1 wrath of ,napoleon1 who wanted to strike a blow that his enemies would feel4 ,the event opened the way for him--as it was perhaps intended that it should--to the object of his ambition1 the imperial title and throne4 ,he was authorized to adopt a successor4 ,this1 the different parties felt1 would make his government stable and secure4 ,he was proclaimed emperor1 the election being ratified by popular vote4 ,the crown was to be handed down in his family4 ,in imitation of ,charlemagne1 whom he affected to consider a ,frenchman and a predecessor1 he was crowned1 with splendid pomp1 by ,pope ,pius ,,vii4 7,dec4 #b1 #ahjd71 in ,notre ,dame4 ,he took the crown from the ,pope's hands1 and placed it on his own head4 ,,the ,,new ,,royalty4--,the emperor surrounded himself with the insignia and ceremonies of royalty4 ,the members of his family became princes and princesses4 ,a new nobility1 with the various ancient titles1 was called into being4 ,he made his generals--eighteen in number1 most of whom had sprung from the ranks--marshals4 ,he first diminished the number of the ,tribunate1 then 7#ahjg7 abolished it4 ,the republic of #aghi had now passed into an absolute military monarchy4 ,,third ,,coalition ,,against ,,france 7#ahje74--,napoleon turned the ,italian ,republic into a vassal monarchy1 with himself for its ruler 7#ahje74 ,he incorporated ,genoa with ,france4 ,his step-son1 ,eugne ,beauharnais1 he made viceroy of ,italy4 ,pitt had come back to office4 ,events since the death of the ,duke d',enghien made it possible for him to create the third coalition of ,england 7in union with ,austria1 ,russia1 and ,sweden7 for restoring the balance of power in ,europe4 ,paul ,i4 of ,russia had been won over from the previous coalition by the adroit efforts of ,napoleon1 and by the ,czar's hostility to ,england on account of ,malta 7#ahjj71 he being grand master of the knights4 ,his ordinary state of mind bordered on derangement1 so that he was not fit to reign4 ,refusing to abdicate1 he was assassinated by nobles 7#ahja71 and his son ,alexander ,i4 7#ahja-bd7 succeeded him4 ,russia was now reconciled to ,england1 and the ,northern ,neutrality ,convention against her maritime oppression was dissolved4 ,,position ,,of ,,prussia4--,the king of ,prussia1 ,frederick ,william ,,iii4 7#agig-ahdj71 and the ministers whom he trusted1 refused to listen to his spirited queen1 ,louisa1 and the more earnest1 patriotic party1 by which he was urged to unite with the coalition4 ,he clung to his policy of neutrality1 and was to be bribed by the gift of ,hanover4 ,the attitude of ,prussia1 which had been governed by selfish considerations1 was long the pivot on which the success of ,napoleon's aggressions hung4 ,,failure ,,of ,,villeneuve4--,if ,napoleon ever seriously projected an invasion of ,england he abandoned the scheme before #ahje1 although he retained an army at ,boulogne to alarm the ,english4 ,villeneuve1 whose fleet was to command the ,channel1 had escaped from ,nelson and was on his way back from the ,west ,indies4 ,the admiralty were warned of his movement by a vessel of light draught which ,nelson1 when he could not find his foe1 dispatched to inform them of the danger4 ,villeneuve1 after an indecisive action against the force sent to meet him under ,sir ,robert ,calder1 put first into the harbor of ,ferrol1 and then repaired to ,cadiz4 ,nelson came back with his fleet to the ,channel4 ,,ulm ,,and ,,trafalgar4--,the allies marked out four lines of invasion4 ,the second and principal advance was to be up the valley of the ,danube1 and to be pursued by the ,russians and ,austrians4 ,napoleon did not wait for them to unite4 ,he now made use of the army collected for the proposed invasion of ,england4 ,he suddenly broke up his camp at ,boulogne1 and swiftly led his splendid and thoroughly drilled army across the ,rhine1 to the rear of the ,austrian forces1 of which ,mack was the commander4 ,other detachments from ,hanover and ,holland came down the ,main to take part in the movement4 ,the ,austrians were surrounded in ,ulm1 and gave themselves up1 thirty thousand in number1 as prisoners of war 7,oct4 #ag1 #ahje74 ,the strategy was like that pursued in the campaign of ,marengo3 the result was even more astonishing4 ,it was not long1 however1 before news came to him of a great disaster to the ,french on the sea4 ,four days after the surrender at ,ulm1 ,nelson achieved a grand victory off ,cape ,trafalgar1 over the ,french and ,spanish fleets4 ,before ,villeneuve decided to leave the shelter of ,cadiz1 he had been obliged to weaken himself by sending away a number of his ships4 ,the watchword sent from the flag-ship just before the encounter--,england expects every man to do his duty--called forth shouts of enthusiasm from the decks of the ,british fleet4 ,two-thirds of the ,french ships were captured or ruined4 ,nelson himself was struck by a bullet1 and died the same night4 ,his private life was not free from grave faults1 but he was the greatest naval hero ,england has ever produced4 ,,austerlitz3 ,,confederation ,,of ,,the ,,rhine4--,on the land1 the career of ,napoleon was triumphant4 ,the ,grand ,army1 with its system of corps and reserves1 marched on ,vienna1 which was occupied on the #acth of ,november4 ,the ,russians were still to be encountered4 ,the army of ,alexander was a very powerful one2 but he made1 instead of awaiting1 the attack1 and1 on the #b;d of ,december1 was utterly defeated on the memorable field of ,austerlitz4 ,the ,peace of ,pressburg followed 7,dec4 #bf1 #ahje74 ,austria gave up ,venice1 which was annexed to the new ,italian kingdom1 of which ,napoleon was the head4 ,the ,tyrol went to ,bavaria1 whose elector was recognized as a king1 as was also the elector of ,wrtemberg4 ,soon after1 the ,bourbons were dethroned at ,naples1 and ,napoleon's brother ,joseph took that kingdom4 ,bavaria1 ,baden1 ,wrtemberg1 and other smaller states were united into a ,confederation of the ,rhine 7#ahjf71 with ,napoleon for its protector4 ,the ,holy ,roman ,empire from that time had no longer even the shadow of a reality4 ,francis ,i4 was simply emperor of ,austria1 and ,austria was greatly reduced in power4 ,,fall ,,of ,,prussia4--,prussia now stood by herself4 ,out of alarm at the progress of the ,french arms1 and anger because ,french troops had been led across her territory without her consent1 she had preferred to join the coalition4 ,austerlitz moved her to retrace her steps4 ,she received ,hanover as the price of a renewed alliance4 ,england now declared war against ,prussia4 ,but ,fox1 who was an advocate of peace1 had come into power in ,england 7,jan4 #bc1 #ahjf72 and ,prussia discovered that ,napoleon1 who was friendly to him1 was negotiating for the surrender of ,hanover to that country4 ,this crowning indignity moved ,prussia1 at this inopportune moment1 to take up arms against him4 ,prussia had no ally but ,russia4 ,the ,prussian army was full of pride and hope2 but its organization and method of warfare were after the old1 traditional fashion which had come down from the days of ,frederick the ,great1 and its commander1 the ,duke of ,brunswick1 though brave1 was superannuated4 ,in the two battles of ,jena and ,auersfadt1 fought on the same day 7,oct4 #ad1 #ahjf71 the ,prussian forces were routed1 and either captured or dispersed4 ,a fortnight later 7,oct4 #bg71 ,napoleon was in ,berlin4 ,fortress after fortress was surrendered1 and corps after corps captured by his troops4 ,the royal family1 including the ,queen ,louisa1 were treated personally with harshness and disdain4 ,the ,prussian monarchy1 to all appearance1 was in ruins4 ,its museums and picture-galleries were robbed of their treasures1 which went away as trophies to ,paris4 ,the ,saxon ,elector1 made a king1 joined the ,rhenish ,confederacy4 ,fox died on ,sept4 #ac1 #ahjf4 ,in #ahjg 7,march #ca71 the ,duke of ,portland became prime minister2 the rival and rising statesmen1 ,castlereagh and ,canning1 being both in the cabinet4 ,,to ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,tilsit4--,it remained for the conqueror to deal with ,russia4 ,he had intended to prosecute a winter campaign in ,poland1 but the severity of the winter and the lack of supplies obliged him to fall back from ,pultusk to the ,vistula4 ,the ,russians now took the initiative4 ,a terrible battle at ,eylau 7,feb4 #g and #h1 #ahjg7 was indecisive4 ,napoleon drew additional troops from all parts of his empire to supply the losses of the grand army4 ,benningsen1 the ,russian general1 was incautious1 and at ,friedland 7,june #ad7 was routed4 ,dantzic and the still unconquered provinces of ,prussia fell into the hands of the ,french4 ,this series of wonderful successes made the revolution in the art of war1 which ,napoleon had introduced1 obvious to the dullest eyes4 ,his peculiar method of rapid movement1 and subsistence on the country1 and the obstacles to its uniform success1 were likewise evident4 ,the ,emperor ,alexander and ,napoleon met on the ,niemen4 ,alexander was won by ,napoleon's gracious and friendly demeanor4 ,at ,tilsit1 on the ,north-,prussian frontier1 peace was concluded 7,july #g and #i1 #ahjg74 ,prussia fared the hardest4 ,she lost half of her territory4 ,she had to close her ports and lands to ,british trade1 to limit her army to forty-two thousand men1 and to consent to the erection of a duchy of ,warsaw out of her ,polish territory4 ,out of the ,elbe provinces1 a kingdom of ,westphalia was constructed1 of which ,jerome ,bonaparte received the crown4 ,russia also recognized ,louis ,bonaparte1 another brother of ,napoleon1 as king of ,holland4 ,alexander promised to go to war with ,england in case ,england rejected the offer of peace which he was to make as mediator4 ,alexander and ,napoleon were to be fast friends and allies4 ,russia was to expand on the north and east1 but not to have ,constantinople4 ,napoleon had no better apology for the dismemberment of ,prussia than a reference to the intemperate manifesto of the ,duke of ,brunswick in #agib1 on the occasion of the first invasion of ,france4 ,his real object was thoroughly to divide and disable ,germany1 and to take away the last obstacle to his complete control within its borders4 ,,power ,,of ,,napoleon4--,no ruler since ,charlemagne had held such power as was now wielded by ,napoleon4 ,sovereign of ,france from the ,scheldt to the ,pyrenees1 and of ,italy from the ,alps to the ,tiber1 he had given the throne of ,holland to his brother ,louis1 that of ,naples to ,joseph1 and made ,jerome king of ,westphalia4 ,spain was content to do his will1 and ,germany was under his feet4 ,he was the leader of mighty armies1 with no military rival to endanger his supremacy over them4 ,his conquests1 it was impossible to deny1 carried with them the abolition of numerous time-worn abuses1 and the introduction of important material improvements4 ,france was in many respects prosperous under the despotism established over it4 ,,elements ,,of ,,weakness4--,but there were certain elements of weakness which ,napoleon did not sufficiently discern4 ,the feeling of nationality and patriotism in the subject countries was certain to awake with a strength which he did not at all anticipate4 ,old ,rome had extinguished this feeling in most of her provinces1 but there were countries whose spirit even ,rome could not break4 ,napoleon undertook a task to which no man was equal4 ,meantime1 he was exhausting the military resources of ,france4 ,if its male population continued to be willing to follow him to the slaughter1 where were the men to be found to fill the places of the multitudes that fell8 ,the time must come when the hunger of the ,french for military glory would be sated1 and dazzling victories would cease to hide the fearful cost at which they were purchased4 ,,the ,,continental ,,system4--,the ,treaty of ,tilsit was followed by acts on the part of ,napoleon which show the presumptuous confidence and arrogant spirit of domination1 which1 however natural on the pinnacle of might to which he had raised himself1 proved disastrous1 and1 in the end1 fatal4 ,one of these acts was the ,continental ,system1 ordained in the ,berlin and ,milan ,decrees4 ,a ,prussian decree 7#ahjf71 ,prussia being then a vassal of ,napoleon1 undertook to close the ports and rivers of the ,north ,sea to ,english shipping4 ,in retaliation1 there was issued a ,british ,order in ,council1 declaring the coast from the ,elbe to ,brest in a state of blockade2 the portion from ,ostend to the ,seine being declared to be under a rigorous blockade4 ,this led to the ,berlin ,decree of ,napoleon 7,nov4 #ba1 #ahjf74 ,then second ,orders in ,council 7,nov4 #aa1 #ahjg71 prohibiting trade with ,france1 her allies and colonies1 as if they were blockaded1 called out the ,milan ,decree of ,napoleon 7,dec4 #ag1 #ahjg74 ,the continental system thus originated undertook to cut off trade between the entire ,continent and ,england1 by ordering all the merchandise of ,england and her colonies to be seized and confiscated1 wherever it might be found1--even ships which touched at ,english ports4 ,the design was to inflict injury on ,england4 ,it had this effect1 but it had the same effect on ,france1 and still more in the other countries which profited by ,english trade4 ,wide-spread disaffection at the attempts to enforce this system was the inevitable consequence4 ,moreover1 one result of it was to stimulate ,napoleon to further conquests to keep up and to extend his commercial policy4 ,another motive was added to his growing and insatiable ambition for universal dominion4 ,,invasion ,,of ,,spain3 ,,wagram4--,russia had declared war against ,great ,britain1 according to the promise of ,alexander at ,tilsit4 ,the ,british seized the ,danish fleet in the harbor of ,copenhagen1 to prevent it from falling into the hands of ,russia and ,france 7,sept41 #ahjg74 ,napoleon made this act a partial excuse for invading the ,spanish peninsula1 under the pretense of guarding the coasts against the ,english4 ,his army entered ,lisbon1 and he declared that the house of ,braganza had ceased to reign4 ,his forces advanced into ,spain beyond ,madrid4 ,dissensions between ,charles ,,iv4 and his son ,ferdinand enabled ,napoleon to get himself chosen as arbiter2 and having enticed the two contestants to ,bayonne1 he set them both aside1 and gave the crown of ,spain to his brother ,joseph1--,murat1 who had married ,napoleon's sister ,caroline1 taking the throne of ,naples4 ,this high-handed proceeding roused the ,spanish people to revolt4 ,the officers of ,napoleon were several times defeated4 ,a ,british force under ,wellington--then ,sir ,arthur ,wellesley--appeared in ,portugal to lend help to the national movement4 ,a ,french fleet in ,cadiz was destroyed4 ,napoleon invaded ,spain with an overwhelming force1 and established his brother at ,madrid 7,dec4 #b1 #ahjh74 ,but the people still kept up a harassing guerilla war4 ,from ,spain ,napoleon was called away by the rising of ,austria1 which the events in ,spain had once more moved to begin hostilities4 ,within a month from the beginning of the campaign1 he again entered ,vienna as a victor 7,may #aa1 #ahji74 ,he suffered a reverse at ,aspern2 but in the desperate battle of ,wagram1 in which not far from three hundred thousand men took part1 he was triumphant4 ,austria purchased peace by further cessions of territory1 and by joining the ,continental ,system4 ,the brave ,tyrolese kept up the struggle with an heroic spirit2 but at last ,hofer1 their leader1 was captured and shot at ,mantua 7#ahaj74 ,,pius ,,vii4--,as ,pius ,,vii4 refused to close his ports against ,england1 and to ally himself with ,france1 ,napoleon proclaimed 7,may1 #ahji7 that the ,papal ,states were annexed to his empire4 ,the ,pope1 who had steadfastly resisted his attempts at coercion1 excommunicated him4 ,the pontiff was arrested1 and conveyed to ,savona1 and afterwards to ,france4 ,,sweden3 ,,bernadotte4--,another ally in upholding the ,continental ,system against ,england1 ,napoleon gained in ,sweden1 where one of his marshals1 ,bernadotte1 had been chosen ,crown ,prince4 ,under ,adolf ,frederic 7#agea-agga71 a council of nobles usurped many of the functions of the king4 ,a combined ,russian and ,french party in ,sweden was against him4 ,his son1 ,gustavus ,,iii4 7#agga-agib71 being supported by ,france1 invaded ,russian ,finland1 and1 by the help of the ,estates1 reduced the power of the nobles1 giving1 however1 to the ,estates in the new constitution1 the right to veto a project for offensive war4 ,he was murdered in #agib4 ,his son ,gustavus ,,iv41 who became of age in #ahjh1 was a bitter opponent of ,napoleon1 whom he considered to be the beast of the ,apocalypse 7,rev4 xiii4 #a74 ,after the ,peace of ,tilsit1 he made war on ,russia1 and on ,denmark1 from which he sought to wrest ,norway4 ,the nobles and the army rose against him1 and obliged him to abdicate 7#ahji74 ,his uncle1 ,charles ,,xiii41 became king4 ,finland was surrendered to ,russia4 ,the king having no children1 ,bernadotte 7#agfd-ahdd71 a ,french marshal1 made by ,napoleon ,prince of ,pontecorno1 but who often showed himself independent in his relations to him1 was elected ,crown ,prince of ,sweden 7#ahaj74 ,sweden joined the ,continental ,system4 ,,napoleon',s ,,divorce ,,and ,,marriage4--,napoleon1 who was childless1 in the hope of founding a dynasty on a sure basis procured a divorce from ,josephine1 and married ,maria ,louisa1 the daughter of ,francis ,i4 of ,austria4 ,to the son who was born of this marriage he gave the sounding title of ,king of ,rome1 the old designation of the emperors-elect before their coronation4 ,,torres ,,vedras4--,the first successful stand against the military supremacy of ,bonaparte was made in ,spain4 ,wellington divined the secret of the ,french victories1 and devised the means of effectual resistance4 ,in ,portugal1 between the ,tagus and the sea he fortified the position called ,torres ,vedras1 which could be defended against superior forces4 ,this he held against all the efforts of ,massna to conquer and dislodge him4 ,deprived of the means of subsistence1 the ,french suffered great losses and privations1 and were obliged to retreat 7,may1 #ahaa74 ,their method depended for success on the attaining of the desired result in a short time by swift operations4 ,,reaction ,,against ,,napoleon4--,the campaign of ,wellington produced a strong moral effect in other parts of ,europe4 ,while ,france was beginning to show signs of weariness with the endless war1 and with the despotic government under which it was kept up1 in ,germany a new spirit of patriotism was stirring in the hearts of the people4 ,under ,stein1 a great and patriotic minister1 the ,prussian system of civil administration was reorganized on a sound basis4 ,the army was likewise reconstructed on the basis of universal military service4 ,serfdom was abolished and the old caste system1 with its restrictions on land-holding1 abandoned4 ,a new ,germany was slowly waking to life1 and collecting its energies for the combat for freedom4 ,the ,continental ,system caused increasing irritation4 ,louis ,bonaparte abdicated his throne in ,holland1 rather than enforce its odious requirements 7,july1 #ahaj74 ,the quarrel of ,napoleon with the ,pope1 and the indignities suffered by the pontiff1 who lived for three years upon alms1 added to the discontent which the emperor's commercial policy provoked1 even in ,france4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,from ,,the ,,russian ,,campaign 7#ahab7 ,,to ,,the ,,congress ,,of ,,vienna 7#ahad-ae74 ,,the ,,russian ,,campaign--,the circumstances narrated above did not prevent ,napoleon from the fatal mistake of invading ,russia4 ,the czar would not enforce the commercial restrictions4 ,napoleon refused to promise not to restore the kingdom of ,poland4 ,there were various other causes of mutual jealousy and coolness4 ,sweden1 under ,bernadotte1 which had been forced to declare war against ,england 7#ahaj71 now joined ,russia4 ,austria and ,prussia1 in their state of practical vassalage1 had to furnish military help to ,napoleon4 ,in ,june1 #ahab1 when he crossed the ,niemen1 he had brought together a force of five hundred and fifty thousand men4 ,he had reinforcements from ,poland1 and might have had more had he not1 from deference to ,austria and ,prussia1 refused to restore the ,polish kingdom4 ,the ,russians retreated as he advanced4 ,barclay1 the ,russian general1 declined a battle1 and destroyed whatever places could afford an advantage to the invader4 ,at length1 ,kutusoff took the command1 and was compelled by the ,russian feeling1 against his will1 to give battle4 ,at ,borodino1 where there was immense slaughter on both sides1 the ,russians retired1 but without disorder4 ,when the ,french arrived at ,moscow1 they found an empty town1 which was set on fire by accident or by ,russians4 ,the ,czar refused to treat for peace4 ,there was no alternative but to retreat 7,oct4 #ai1 #ahab74 ,the sufferings of the soldiers from cold and famine were terrible4 ,the ,russians availed themselves of every opportunity to harass the retreating force4 ,when it reached the ruins of ,smolensk1 only forty thousand were left of more than a hundred thousand that had left ,moscow4 ,the army continued to dwindle4 ,at ,smorgoni1 ,napoleon left ,murat in command1 and hastened in disguise to ,paris4 ,the expedition cost the lives of not less than three hundred thousand men4 ,this gigantic failure was due to the foiling by the ,russians of ,napoleon's habitual plan of forcing decisive battles by movements so rapid that his troops could subsist upon the country which they overran1 and to the unexpected destruction of ,moscow4 ,,the ,,german ,,war ,,of ,,liberation3 ,,leipsic4--,in ,germany1 there now began the great ,war of ,liberation4 ,york--the commander of the ,prussian contingent reluctantly furnished to ,napoleon--went over to the ,russians 7,dec4 #ahab74 ,during the first three months of #ahac1 all ,north ,germany rose in arms4 ,heart-stirring appeals were issued by ,frederick ,william ,,iii4 to his people4 ,he called for the formation of volunteer corps1 and all young men capable of bearing arms responded with alacrity to the summons4 ,russia and ,prussia formed a defensive alliance4 ,sweden made a treaty with ,england1 and agreed to assist the allies4 ,napoleon's wonted success attended him at first in the encounter with the ,russian and ,prussian forces4 ,he gained a victory at ,ltzen 7,may #b71 and another at ,bautzen 7,may #bj1 #ba74 ,austria sought to mediate1 but ,napoleon unwisely preferred war4 ,austria now1 disregarding the family tie with ,napoleon1 was drawn by the current of ,german patriotism1 as well as by self-interest1 into the alliance against him4 ,his imperious and arrogant domination was felt to be insupportable4 ,but the circumstance that determined the course of ,austria was the victory gained by ,wellington at ,vittoria1 in ,spain1 over the ,french under ,jourdan 7,june #ba74 ,the news of it turned the scale in the ,austrian councils4 ,the odds against ,napoleon were now fearful1 especially as his own army was largely composed of recruits who were hardly above the age of boys4 ,he won one more triumph at ,dresden 7,aug4 #bg71 but this was his last victory on ,german soil4 ,the allies avoided the errors which he had taught them to avoid1 and succeeded in bringing their forces together1 and in compelling ,napoleon to fight at ,leipsic4 ,the allied armies numbered three hundred thousand1 while the ,french force did not exceed a hundred and eighty thousand4 ,the battle of the nations lasted for three days 7,oct4 #af1 #ah1 #ai71 although the fighting was chiefly on the first and third4 ,on the last day it continued for nine hours4 ,the ,saxon contingent abandoned the ,french on the field1 and went over to the allies4 ,the defeat of the ,french1 as night approached1 became a rout4 ,napoleon1 with the remnant of his army1 was driven to the ,rhine4 ,the battle of ,leipsic was really the decisive contest in the wars of ,europe against ,napoleon4 ,from the defeat there1 it was impossible for him to recover4 ,,fall ,,of ,,napoleon3 ,,elba4--,the members of the ,confederacy of the ,rhine joined the allies4 ,holland rose in revolt1 and drove out the ,french officials4 ,even ,france was exhausted and full of discontent4 ,meantime ,wellington defeated ,soult in the ,pyrenees1 and invaded ,france from that side4 ,napoleon was bent on resistance1 and by his superior skill succeeded in ousting the brave ,prussian soldier1 but inexpert strategist1 ,blcher1 as well as the ,austrian general ,schwartzenberg 7,jan4 and ,feb4 #ahad74 ,but the preponderance of numbers on the side of the allies was too great4 ,their bold decision to march on ,paris secured their triumph4 ,the city surrendered 7,march #cj74 ,napoleon had lost his hold on the ruling bodies4 ,the senate1 through the influence of the astute ,talleyrand1 once his minister1 declared that he and his family had forfeited the throne4 ,at ,fontainebleau1 he signed his abdication in favor of his son 7,april #f71 but this condition was rejected4 ,the small island of ,elba was given to him by the allies as a sovereign principality4 ,after a pathetic farewell to his veteran ,guard1 he betook himself to his small dominion4 ,louis ,,xviii41 the brother of ,louis ,,xvi41 was placed on the throne of ,france4 ,france1 by the ,peace of ,paris 7,may #cj71 was left with its ancient boundaries as they were before the ,revolution slightly increased4 ,,the ,,charter4--,according to a promise which the king had given1 he 7,june #d1 #ahad7 promulgated a constitutional ,,charter1 a name borrowed from the ,middle ,ages when charters were granted to vassals4 ,there was to be a legislature1 with a house of peers or lords appointed by the king1 and a chamber of deputies chosen by limited suffrage2 the electors to be owners of property to a certain amount1 and to be thirty years old4 ,the king was to have the initiative in legislation4 ,the ,roman ,catholic religion was declared to be the religion of the state1 but liberty was given to dissenters4 ,the right to make peace and war was given to the king1 and also the right to issue ordinances necessary for the execution of the laws and the safety of the state4 ,this last provision opened a door for arbitrary government1 and paved the way for the downfall of the dynasty4 ,the points of resemblance in the constitution to the ,english system were adapted to provoke a constant contrast with it1 in respect to the degree of liberty actually secured and exercised by the people4 ,the charter was dated from the nineteenth year of ,louis ,,xviii41 as if there had been no ,republic or ,empire4 ,,pius ,,vii4--,pope ,pius ,,vii41 who1 after #ahji1 was a virtual prisoner at ,savona1 refused to comply with ,napoleon's demands4 ,he could not be moved to invest the bishops whom the emperor had appointed4 ,this was a principal point in the dispute4 ,napoleon called a national council of ,french bishops 7#ahaa74 ,in #ahab the ,pope was taken to ,fontainebleau1 and treated by him with harshness4 ,when the pontiff refused to give a full and final sanction to the proposed agreement1 until he should be free to confer with his cardinals1 he was treated with still greater severity4 ,the fall of ,napoleon set him free1 and he entered ,rome1 ,may #bd1 #ahad4 ,,congress ,,of ,,vienna4--,in ,september1 #ahad1 the congress of ,vienna met to readjust the map of ,europe after the whirlwind of change and revolution4 ,there were present the emperors of ,russia and ,austria1 the kings of ,prussia1 ,denmark1 ,bavaria1 and ,wrtemberg1 and a great number of ,german princes4 ,castlereagh1 and later ,wellington1 represented ,england1 and ,talleyrand was one of the representatives of ,france4 ,the conferences were far from being harmonious4 ,in particular1 the claims of ,russia upon ,poland1 and the claims of ,prussia on ,germany1 threatened another war4 ,while the debates1 alternating with gay festivities1 were still proceeding1 the participants were startled by the news of the reappearance of ,napoleon in ,france4 ,,return ,,of ,,napoleon ,,from ,,elba4--,the new ,bourbon rule was unpopular with the ,french4 ,it was felt to be the effect and sign of national humiliation4 ,the offensive conduct of the returned emigrant nobility1 and measures looking towards a restoration of bygone abuses in government1 fomented the disaffection4 ,napoleon1 while apparently busy in laying out roads and canals1 and regulating the affairs of his little kingdom1 which was only sixty miles in circumference1 kept himself well informed as to the state of public opinion in ,france4 ,with a few hundred men of the ,imperial ,guard1 he landed at ,cannes 7,march ,i1 #ahae71 and was joined by one regiment after another which were sent out to crush him4 ,ney1 one of the best of his marshals1 was carried away by the common feeling1 and went over to the side of his old commander4 ,louis ,,xviii4 fled from ,paris2 and1 on ,march #bj1 ,napoleon was again installed in the ,tuileries4 ,,waterloo4--,napoleon offered to the country a more liberal constitution1 but the ,bourbons were more hated than he was trusted4 ,he professed to the great powers his desire for peace1 but they did not listen to these assurances4 ,each agreed to furnish an army of one hundred and eighty thousand men to serve against him4 ,he put forth prodigious exertions to gather a force with which to meet the host of his enemies2 and although he could appeal to no warm national feeling1 such as had called into being the armies of the ,revolution1 he succeeded in bringing together a force of over one hundred thousand men4 ,he decided not to wait for the attack1 but to assail the two armies of ,blcher and ,wellington in ,belgium4 ,his plan was to attack them separately4 ,blcher so far fell into the trap1 that1 in his eagerness to meet the detested foe1 he offered battle to ,napoleon at ,ligny 7,june #af71 and1 after a desperate contest1 was forced to retire from the field4 ,on the same day1 ,wellington so far checked ,ney in his attack at ,quatre ,bras1 that he could not strike the ,prussians on the flank1 as ,napoleon had designed4 ,napoleon thought that the ,prussians would not be able1 after their defeat1 at once to aid ,wellington4 ,he sent ,grouchy1 however1 with thirty-four thousand men1 to observe them and inflict on them a final blow4 ,on the forenoon of ,june #ah1 he himself attacked the ,british forces at ,waterloo4 ,the ,french got possession of ,la ,haye ,sainte1 a farmhouse in front of ,wellington's center1 the scene of a bloody contest2 but all their charges on ,wellington's main line were met and repelled by the immovable squares of the ,british infantry4 ,in the afternoon ,napoleon's right began to be assailed by the ,prussians2 and finding1 at seven o'clock1 that they were coming in great force1 he ordered a charge of the ,imperial ,guard on ,wellington's forces4 ,after a fierce struggle1 the ,guard was compelled to recoil and retire4 ,the ,prussians1 piercing the right flank of the ,french army1 turned its defeat into a rout4 ,grouchy was at ,wavre1 fighting the ,prussian corps of ,thielmann1 which he seems to have mistaken for the entire ,prussian army4 ,,abdication ,,of ,,napoleon3 ,,st4 ,,helena4--,on the #bbnd of ,june ,napoleon again abdicated in favor of his son4 ,carnot was for a dictatorship4 ,the ,french ,assembly1 with ,la ,fayette at its head1 insisted on the abdication4 ,on ,july #g ,blcher and ,wellington entered ,paris4 ,napoleon fled to ,rochefort1 and1 finding himself unable to escape to ,america1 surrendered to the ,british admiral1 and was taken on board the war-ship ,bellerophon4 ,louis ,,xviii4 was brought back to ,paris4 ,napoleon1 by the agreement of the allies1 was conveyed to the island of ,st4 ,helena1 where he remained1 a fretful captive1 until his death 7,may #e1 #ahba74 ,ney escaped1 but was captured1 condemned1 and shot 7,dec4 #g1 #ahae74 ,france engaged to pay a war indemnity of seven hundred million francs4 ,its boundaries were fixed as at #agij4 ,,character ,,of ,,napoleon4--,respecting certain traits of ,napoleon1 there is no dispute4 ,his military genius all allow1 although his daring was sometimes over-daring2 and there are critics who profess to discern1 after the beginning of the ,russian campaign1 and especially in the last contest in ,belgium1 signs of a decline in his almost superhuman vigilance and energy4 ,yet all must admit that transcendent geometrical faculty1 as ,sainte-,beuve calls it1 which characterized ,napoleon1 and which that powerful genius applied to war with the same ease and the same aptitude that ,monge a great ,french mathematician applied it to other subjects4 ,no general ever had greater power to fascinate soldiers1 and secure their devotion to him4 ,one reason was1 that he recognized and rewarded merit wherever he saw it4 ,his intellectual movements were as much swifter than the ordinary as his marches were more rapid than those to which armies had been accustomed4 ,for civil organization and administration he had rare talents1 and in many directions enlightened views4 ,europe owes much to his innovations in this sphere4 ,he was not incapable of warm personal attachments2 as was manifested1 for example1 in his grief over ,duroc1 the favorite general1 who fell at ,bautzen4 ,but an insatiable appetite for war1 and1 still more1 a conviction1 which he sometimes confessed1 that he could retain and fortify his authority only by dazzling ,france1 and continuing to astonish mankind by brilliant achievements1 drove him forward on a path of aggression and bloodshed4 ,he had an unpitying nature3 he was careless of human suffering4 ,early in his career1 in ,italy1 he ordered a needless and useless attack on the outposts of the enemy1 to treat a lady to a sight of real war4 ,he did not shrink from ordering two thousand prisoners at ,jaffa to be shot4 ,he shocked all ,germany by causing ,palm1 a bookseller of ,nuremberg1 to be shot for refusing to tell the name of the author of a publication offensive to him4 ,he frequently displayed a petty rancor1--as1 for example1 in leaving a legacy in his will to the man who was accused of an attempt to assassinate the ,duke of ,wellington4 ,his violence of temper1 as in the murder of the ,duke d',enghien1 hurried him into acts that were not less impolitic than criminal4 ,his tyrannical will would brook no contradiction1 even in matters o trifling importance4 ,he broke away from engagements when he thought it advantageous to do so4 ,it is not an injustice to say1 that he was habitually untruthful3 his bulletins were disfigured by flagrant falsehoods1 as well as gross exaggerations4 ,in a letter to ,talleyrand from ,italy 7,oct4 #ag1 #agig7 he says1 ,this is history3 what ,i say in my proclamations and speeches is a romance4 ,with his wonderful intellectual powers1 inexhaustible energy1 and amazing achievements1 he never quite loses the characteristic spirit of an adventurer4 ,he is haunted by a secret consciousness that this character belongs to him4 ,the judgment ,of an adversary must be taken with allowance2 but ,wellington spoke at least without passion when he said1 ,bonaparte's whole life--civil1 political1 and military--was a fraud4 ,there was not a transaction1 great or small1 in which lying and fraud were not introduced4 ,his foreign policy was force and menace1 aided by fraud and corruption4--,croker's ,correspondence1 etc41 vol4 ii4 p4 #hf4 ,,the ,,congress ,,of ,,vienna4--,the ,congress of ,vienna was dissolved in ,june1 #ahae4 ,its ,acts were finally signed by the five great powers1--,austria1 ,france1 ,great ,britain1 ,prussia1 and ,russia1--and by ,spain1 ,portugal1 and ,sweden4 ,the ,austrian and ,prussian monarchies were restored4 ,austria received back ,venice with ,milan1--forming the subject ,lombardo-,venetian kingdom1--besides receiving the ,illyrian provinces and the ,tyrol4 ,the old possessions of ,prussia were restored4 ,she received the ,rhenish provinces1 a part of the duchy of ,warsaw 7,posen71 and a great part of ,saxony1 besides other important additions4 ,holland and ,belgium were formed into the one kingdom of the ,netherlands1 which had also a part of ,luxemburg1 and was ruled by the stadt-holder ,william ,i4 ,the ,german ,confederacy was instituted1 with thirty-nine sovereign states1 including the four free cities1--,austria being the presiding state4 ,the greater part of the duchy of ,warsaw fell to ,russia1 under the name of the ,kingdom of ,poland4 ,sweden retained ,norway1 which1 however1 kept its own free constitution2 and ,denmark acquired ,lauenburg4 ,england had vastly enlarged her colonial possessions4 ,the present ,swiss ,confederation1 consisting of twenty-two cantons1 was established2 three new cantons having been added to the former nineteen4 ,the old dynasties were restored in ,spain1 in ,tuscany1 ,modena1 and the ,papal ,states1 in ,naples1 and in ,sardinia4 ,to ,sardinia1 ,genoa1 against its will1 was annexed4 ,,chronological ,,statement4--,the ,first ,coalition was formed in #agic1 when all ,europe1 except ,sweden1 ,denmark1 ,tuscany1 ,switzerland1 ,venice1 and ,genoa1 and ,turkey1 joined against ,france4 ,in #agib ,france had been at war with ,austria and ,prussia4 ,in #agie the coalition was broken3 ,prussia and ,spain made peace with ,france4 ,in #agig ,austria also concluded peace with ,france 7the ,peace of ,campo',formio74 ,in #agih the ,second ,coalition was formed1 in which ,turkey was included4 ,prussia and ,spain were not parties to it4 ,the ,peace of ,amiens1 made with ,england 7#ahjb71 ended the contest following it4 ,the ,third ,coalition was formed in #ahje1 by ,england1 ,russia1 ,austria1 and ,sweden4 ,peace was concluded between ,austria and ,france 7,dec4 #bf1 #ahje74 ,war followed in #ahjf-g1 between ,france on one side1 and ,prussia and ,russia on the other4 ,these allies1 with ,england1 made a ,fourth ,coalition4 ,in #ahjg ,france and ,russia were allies4 ,the rupture between ,austria and ,france in #ahji gave rise to what is often called the ,fifth ,coalition4 ,in #ahac the ,sixth ,coalition1 made up1 after the accession of ,austria1 of all the principal powers1 was in arms against ,france4 ,on ,march #be1 #ahae1 after ,napoleon's return from ,elba1 the powers again declared war against him4 ,as there was a fresh treaty1 this may be called a ,seventh ,coalition4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,american ,,history ,,in ,,this ,,period 7#aghi-ahae74 ,,the ,,two ,,parties4--,the cabinet of ,washington consisted of four members4 ,the secretary of the treasury was ,alexander ,hamilton of ,new ,york4 ,the secretary of state was ,thomas ,jefferson of ,virginia4 ,the seat of government was placed at ,philadelphia2 but in #ahjj it was removed to the ,district of ,columbia1 which was ceded for the purpose by ,virginia and ,maryland4 ,almost from the beginning1 there were two political parties4 ,the ,federalists were made up of those who had been most in favor of the new ,constitution1 and desired to build up a strong central government4 ,accordingly they advocated a liberal construction of the ,constitution as regards the extent of federal authority4 ,they cherished the traditional spirit of the ,english laws and ,english political institutions4 ,washington and ,john ,adams belonged to this class1 and ,hamilton was their most active leader4 ,the ,anti-,federalists1 of whom ,jefferson was the chief1 were for a careful guarding of the rights of the ,states1 and a strict interpretation of the powers allotted to the ,general ,government4 ,they had more sympathy with the political ideas at that time fast coming into vogue in ,france4 ,they had a warm faith in the capacity of the mass of the people for self-government and for suffrage4 ,they were called ,republicans1 and were sometimes styled ,democrats4 ,,hamilton',s ,,measures3 ,,the ,,conflict ,,of ,,parties4--,hamilton proposed and carried highly important measures for the restoration of public credit and for the revival of industry and commerce4 ,under his leadership1 the debts of the old confederacy1 and the debts of the separate ,states which they had incurred in the common defense1 were assumed4 ,to provide revenue1 a protective tariff and a system of internal taxation were ordained4 ,a national bank was incorporated 7#agia71 and a mint was established at ,philadelphia4 ,these measures had a great effect at home1 and made a strong impression favorable to the new government abroad2 but they were opposed by the ,anti-,federalists as an unwarrantable assumption of power by the ,general ,government4 ,the excise on domestic spirits provoked an insurrection1 called the ,whisky ,rebellion1 in ,western ,pennsylvania1 which was put down by the militia4 ,as the ,french ,revolution advanced from step to step1 the division of parties in ,america became more marked1 and their mutual hostility more intense4 ,at first all were in sympathy with ,france4 ,la ,fayette sent the key of the fallen ,bastille as a gift to ,washington4 ,but the ,federalists were determined to maintain a strict neutrality in the conflict between ,france and ,england4 ,as the ,revolution proceeded1 a strong antipathy was awakened in ,america to the radical theories1 as well as to the bloody deeds1 of its promoters4 ,this was enhanced by the strenuous efforts of the ,french ,republic1 aided by the ,anti-,federalists1 to induce the ,united ,states to take an active part in the war1 on the side of ,france4 ,genet1 the ,french minister1 undertook to fit out privateers in ,charleston4 ,washington issued a proclamation of neutrality 7#agic71 which was followed by a ,neutrality ,act of ,congress 7#agid74 ,when ,genet had the effrontery to appeal from the ,president to the people1 at the demand of ,washington he was recalled4 ,,jay',s ,,treaty4--,the contest of parties reached its climax in connection with ,jay's ,treaty with ,great ,britain 7#agid71--;a treaty negotiated by ,john ,jay1 chief justice1 whom ,washington had sent as envoy to ,london4 ,there were mutual grounds of complaint between the two countries4 ,the ,british had not surrendered the ,western military posts1 and were in the habit of impressing seamen4 ',this last practice was founded on the claim that a ,british subject can never become the subject of another country1 and that1 moreover1 his military service may be always called for by his sovereign4 ,when almost all ,europe was at war1 the carrying trade naturally fell1 to a large extent1 into ,american hands2 hence1 it was alleged1 many ,english sailors deserted to get employment in ,american ships4 ,the ,british claimed and exercised the right to visit foreign vessels1 and to take from their decks the sailors who were asserted to be ,british subjects4 ,the ,english1 on their part1 complained that the treaty stipulations as to debts due in ,america to ,british subjects had not been observed4 ,jay's ,treaty provided for the giving-up of the ,western posts1 according to the previous stipulation2 but said nothing respecting the right of impressment1 which the ,british at that time would never have consented to relinquish4 ,it was alleged1 also1 that in other features the treaty favored ,england unwarrantably1 and unfairly in relation to ,france4 ,it encountered violent opposition from the ,republicans2 but it was approved by ,washington1 and the legislative measures for carrying it out were passed in the ,house of ,representatives by a slender majority1 obtained through the eloquence of ,fisher ,ames1 a member from ,massachusetts4 ,,new ,,states3 ,,inventions4--,according to the census of #agij1 there were somewhat less than four millions of people in the ,united ,states4 ,virginia was the most populous ,state2 next to ,virginia stood ,pennsylvania1 then ,north ,carolina1 and1 fourth in order1 ,massachusetts4 ,a little more than one-fifth of the population were negro slaves4 ,vermont1 the territory of which had been claimed by both ,new ,york and ,new ,hampshire1 was the first new ,state admitted to the ,union 7#agia74 ,a genius for mechanical invention early manifested itself in the country4 ,eli ,whitney invented the cotton-gin 7#agib71 for separating the seed from the fiber of the cotton-plant1--a machine which indirectly lent a powerful impulse to the production of cotton4 ,in #aghh ,john ,fitch was running a steamboat on the ,delaware ,river2 but the construction of a steamboat with side-paddles was due to the inventive talent of ,robert ,fulton 7#ahjg74 ,emigration from the ,atlantic border to the ,west took three principal routes1--one from ,new ,england and ,new ,york1 through the valley of the ,mohawk2 the second1 through the passes of the ,alleghanies2 and the third1 across the ,blue ,ridge to the rivers flowing from the south into the ,ohio4 ,in #agib ,kentucky1 settled mainly by emigrants over the last-mentioned path1 was made a ,state4 ,the next ,state to be admitted was ,tennessee 7#agif74 ,the new settlers carried into the ,west the spirit and institutions of the several communities which they had left4 ,south of the ,ohio1 negro slavery was introduced4 ,a treaty with ,spain 7in #agie7 secured the free navigation of the ,mississippi4 ,,washington',s ,,retirement ,,and ,,death4--,washington himself was not exempt from bitter partisan attack in public prints4 ,on his retirement from office1 he prepared1 with the assistance of ,hamilton1 a ,farewell ,address to the people1 in which he exhorted them to maintain the ,union as the only safeguard of liberty1 and warned them against entangling alliances with ,european powers4 ,the deep and universal sorrow which was felt when he died 7#agii7 was a tribute as exalted as any nation ever paid to a fallen hero and benefactor4 ,,adams3 ,,rupture ,,of ,,the ,,federal ,,party4--,john ,adams1 a ,federalist1 succeeded ,washington as president2 and ,jefferson became vice-president 7#agig74 ,the ,french had seized a large number of ,american vessels1 on the pretense that they were affording aid to ,england4 ,in order1 if possible1 to prevent war1 the ,president sent out a special mission to ,france2 but the commissioners--,pinckney1 ,gerry1 and ,marshall--were told by the ,directory that they must pay money as a bribe before they could be received1 and were finally ordered to quit the country 7#agig74 ,the phrase of ,pinckney1 ,millions for defense1 but not one cent for tribute1 expressed the universal feeling4 ,the report of the insulted envoys roused the indignation of the ,american people1 and moved ,congress to prepare for war4 ,washington was made general of all the forces to be raised1 and he appointed ,hamilton to be second in command4 ,hostilities had really commenced2 the ,federalists were eager for a declaration of war2 but ,president ,adams1 without the knowledge of his cabinet1 suddenly nominated to the senate another ambassador to ,france4 ,he had previously become assured that such a messenger would be well received4 ,napoleon having come into power1 a treaty was concluded with him 7#ahjj74 ,the course of the ,president1 however1 gave mortal offense to the adherents of ,hamilton1 and fatally divided the ,federal party4 ,hamilton and his supporters became wholly alienated from ,adams1 so that the triumph of the ,republicans was rendered certain4 ,,resolutions ,,of '#ih4--,the violence of the attacks upon the administration1 which were made partly by foreign emissaries1 had caused the ,federalists 7#agih7 to pass the alien and sedition laws4 ,the first authorized the ,president to order out of the country aliens who were conspiring against its peace4 ,its operation was limited to two years4 ,the second punished seditious libels upon the government with fine and imprisonment4 ,these acts provoked a storm of opposition4 ,under the auspices of ,jefferson1 and of ,madison1 who was now one of his supporters1 the ,virginia and ,kentucky ,resolutions of #agih-ii were passed by the ,legislatures of those ,states4 ,these resolves affirmed the right of a ,state to judge of the constitutionality and validity of an ,act of ,congress4 ,they were interpreted as an assertion of the extreme doctrine of ,state rights4 ,,purchase ,,of ,,louisiana4--,in #ahjj ,jefferson was elected to the presidency1 and ,aaron ,burr1 a scheming politician of the ,republican school1 was made vice-president4 ,at that time1 and until the amendment of the ,constitution 7#ahjd71 the electors voted for two persons1 without designating either for the presidency or the vice-presidency4 ,the candidate having the highest number of votes became president4 ,as ,jefferson and ,burr had an equal number1 the choice between them for the highest office was made by the ,house of ,representatives4 ,the obnoxious laws of the preceding administration disappeared with it4 ,one of the most important events under ,jefferson's administration was the purchase of ,louisiana from ,france1 which had acquired it from ,spain4 ,napoleon knew that he could not keep it from falling into the hands of ,england1 and readily sold it for fifteen millions of dollars4 ,thereby the territory of the ,united ,states was doubled in its extent4 ,the whole region between the ,mississippi and the ,rocky ,mountains1 with ,new ,orleans1 was added to the country1 together with whatever claim ,france had to ,west ,florida1 ,texas1 and the district west of the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,ohio1 composed of the south-eastern portion of the northwest territory1 was admitted to the ,union in #ahjc4 ,in the first fifteen years after the government was organized1 there are four things that affected powerfully the character and career of the ,united ,states4 ,the first was the influence of ,washington in inspiring attachment to the ,union4 ,the second was the genius of ,hamilton in creating an efficient administration of the new civil polity4 ,the third was the democratic political tendency fostered by ,jefferson4 ,the fourth was the vast expansion of the national territory by the ,louisiana ,purchase1 insuring the extension of the ,union1 and preventing the rise of rival political communities in its neighborhood4 ,,war ,,with ,,the ,,algerines4--,the pirates of ,algiers1 ,morocco1 and the other ,barbary ,states1 demanded tribute of ,american vessels on the ,mediterranean4 ,the first exploits of the navy of the ,united ,states were in combats with these marauders 7#ahja-e74 ,decatur performed the exploit of burning in the harbor of ,tripoli the ,american ship ,philadelphia1 which the ,tripolitans had captured 7#ahjd74 ,derne was captured1 and ,tripoli bombarded4 ,finally a treaty put an end to the exaction of tribute 7#ahje74 ,an event that deeply moved the whole country was the killing of ,hamilton by ,burr in a duel 7#ahjd74 ,burr was afterwards charged with an intention to form a new government on the south-western borders of the ,united ,states4 ,he was tried for treason 7#ahjg71 and not convicted1 although many have believed him to be guilty4 ,,causes ,,of ,,the ,,war ,,of #ahl#b-ae4--,the great ,european wars brought the ,united ,states into serious difficulties1 principally in regard to questions relating to commerce4 ,attempts were made by the ,european nations to establish blockades by mere enactment1 without actual and sufficient occupation of the ports which were declared to be closed4 ,the tendency of the ,british ,orders in council1 and of ,napoleon's ,berlin and ,milan ,decrees 7p4 #ebh71 was to grind to pieces the few remaining neutral powers4 ,these were in effect cut off from trade with both ,continental and ,english ports by the ordinances of one or the other of the two belligerents1 the penalty being the confiscation of the vessels employed in such traffic4 ,such were the restrictions upon neutrals1 that a great number of ,american ships were seized and confiscated by ,english and ,french cruisers4 ,in addition to these grievances1 the ,leander1 a ,british ship1 exercised the pretended right of impressment by firing on an ,american trading-sloop 7#ahjf72 and in like manner another ,british vessel1 the ,leopard1 fired on the frigate ,chesapeake1 which was not prepared for resistance1 and took four men from its crew 7,june #bb1 #ahjg74 ,in retaliation1 ,jefferson ordered all ,british ships of war to leave the coast of the ,united ,states4 ,then followed the ,embargo1 embracing a succession of enactments of ,congress1 which forbade ,american vessels to leave the harbors of the ,united ,states for ,europe1 and forbade ,european vessels to land cargoes in ,american ports4 ,the result of this measure was to smite ,american commerce with an utter paralysis4 ,the ships rotted at the wharves4 ,the unpopularity of the ,embargo1 especially in the ,eastern commercial ,states1 was such that in ,jefferson's second term it was repealed4 ,it was followed 7#ahji7 by the ,non-,intercourse ,act1 prohibiting commerce with ,france and ,england4 ,the ,british ,orders in ,council were then1 in a measure1 relaxed1 as was the practical enforcement against our vessels of the ,berlin ,decree4 ,in #ahab1 the ,french rescinded their obnoxious decrees2 and the ,english immediately took the same step1 but not soon enough to prevent a war with the ,united ,states4 ,,events ,,of ,,the ,,war ,,in #ahab ,,and #ahac4-;,james ,madison1 a wise and moderate statesman of the ,republican party1 became president in #ahji4 ,he was personally averse to engaging in war with ,great ,britain2 but the exasperation of a large part of the country1 and the pressure of the younger leaders of his party1--,calhoun1 ,clay1 and ,lowndes1--moved him to a reluctant consent4 ,the war1 which was declared in #ahab1 was bitterly opposed in the ,new-,england ,states1 where the strength of the ,federalists chiefly lay4 ,by them the real motive of it was considered to be partiality for ,france4 ,the treasury was nearly empty2 there were but few ships of war1 and only a small land force of about ten thousand men1 made up in part of raw recruits4 ,before this time1 the ,north-western ,indians1 under ,tecumseh1 whom the ,british were suspected of inciting to war1 had been defeated at ,tippecanoe 7#ahaa71 by ,william ,henry ,harrison1 governor of ,indiana4 ,the war with ,england opened inauspiciously with the surrender of ,detroit by ,gen4 ,william ,hull to ,gen4 ,brock 7,aug4 #af1 #ahab71 and an unsuccessful attempt to invade ,canada at ,queenstown4 ,on the sea1 however1 the ,americans had successes which filled them with pride and exultation4 ,captain ,isaac ,hull1 of the frigate ,constitution1 captured the ,british frigate ,guerrire1 and brought his prisoners to ,boston4 ,decatur1 captain of the ,united ,states1 brought the ,macedonian as a prize into the harbor of ,new ,york4 ,the ,constitution destroyed the ,java2 but the ,chesapeake1 whose captain was killed1 surrendered to the ,shannon4 ,privateers were fitted out1 which captured several hundreds of ,british ships and several thousands of prisoners4 ,in #ahac ,perry defeated the ,english fleet on ,lake ,erie4 ,his victory gave the ,americans the command of ,lake ,erie and ,lake ,michigan4 ,harrison defeated the ,british and ,indians1--who had been driven to abandon ,michigan1--near the ,river ,thames in ,canada4 ,except on the ,lakes the navy was successful only in single ship actions4 ,the ,americans had taken possession of ,mobile1 which they as well as the ,spanish claimed2 but the ,creek ,indians were incited by the ,spaniards to engage in hostilities4 ,forces from ,tennessee1 under ,andrew ,jackson1 and troops from ,georgia and ,mississippi1 fought the ,creeks with success4 ,,the ,,war ,,in #ahad-ae4--;,in #ahad a third attempt of the ,americans under ,gen4 ,brown1 to invade ,canada1 produced no decisive result4 ,there was hard fighting4 ,the ,british were routed at ,chippewa2 and they were repulsed at ,lundy's ,lane1 opposite ,niagara ,falls1 by ,lieut4 7afterwards ,general7 ,winfield ,scott4 ,napoleon had now been defeated2 and the ,english sent twelve thousand troops1 who had served under ,wellington in ,spain1 to ,canada1 to invade the ,united ,states from the north1 while another army was to make an invasion by way of ,new ,orleans4 ,a fleet under ,admiral ,cockburn sailed up the ,potomac1 and burned the ,capitol and other public buildings at ,washington 7,aug4 #bd1 #ahad74 ,an attack was made on ,baltimore by a ,british fleet1 but was bravely repelled4 ,the defeat of the ,british fleet near ,plattsburg1 on ,lake ,champlain1 by ,commodore ,macdonough 7,sept4 #aa1 #ahad71 resulted in the retreat of the ,british army1 which was besieging that place1 to ,canada4 ,new ,orleans was defended by ,general ,jackson4 ,the ,british under ,pakenham and ,gibbs attacked his works1 but were defeated and withdrew 7,jan4 #h1 #ahae74 ,the town was protected from the approach of the ,english fleet by the fort4 ,before the battle1 peace had been concluded1 but the news had not reached this country4 ,,the ,,hartford ,,convention4--,the antagonism to the war in the ,new ,england ,states found expression in the call of a convention at ,hartford1 where their delegates met 7,dec4 #ae1 #ahad74 ,these ,states complained1 that while their commerce and fisheries were ruined1 there was no protection afforded to their sea-coast4 ,stonington in ,connecticut had been bombarded1 and ,castine in ,maine had been captured4 ,they denied1 also1 that the ,general ,government had the power over the ,state militia which it claimed4 ,for these and other grievances1 they sought for a remedy not repugnant to their obligations as members of the ,union4 ,they declared that measures of the ,general ,government which are palpable violations of the ,constitution are void1 and that the ,states injuriously affected might severally protect their citizens from the operation of them1 by such means as the several ,states should judge it wise to adopt2 but they disavowed the right or intent to break up the ,union4 ,the effect of the convention was to bring great popular discredit on the ,federalists1 and to seal their doom as a distinct party4 ,,treaty ,,of ,,peace3 ,,algiers4--,in the ,treaty of ,ghent 7,dec4 #bd1 #ahad71 provisions were made for defining boundaries as settled by previous treaties1 and an engagement was made on both sides to suppress the slave-trade2 but no mention was made of maritime rights and the impressment of seamen4 ,this last practice was1 however1 discontinued1 although it was never renounced4 ,the war left the disputes that caused it just where they were4 ,many then and since have regarded it as really undertaken by the dominant party in the ,united ,states1 in order to help one of the belligerents in the great struggle then going forward between ,england and ,france4 ,whether this view be just1 or not1 it is certain that the war imparted to ,americans the consciousness of power and nationality4 ,the connection between ,america and ,great ,britain was broken off at the ,revolution1 because1 as ,turgot once said1 colonies are like fruits which only stay on the tree until they are ripe4 ,but the conflict was not over at the conclusion of the ,peace of #aghc4 ,bancroft has called the war of #ahab-ae the second war of independence4 ,nothing lent it this character so much as the naval victories won by the ,united ,states1 which gave them a standing among the nations4 ,in #ahae a squadron under ,decatur was sent to ,algiers1 and the ,barbary ,states were compelled to give up by treaties all their demands4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,literature1 ,,art1 ,,and ,,science 7#aghi-ahae74 ,,new ,,spirit ,,in ,,literature4--,in the latter part of the eighteenth and the early part of the nineteenth centuries1 literature broke away from the artificial rules and the one-sided intellectual tone of the classical school1--that school which had prevailed through the influence of the ,french writers of the age of ,louis ,,xiv4 ,the new era was marked by more spontaneity1 and a return to nature1 and by a more free rein given to imagination and feeling4 ,romanticism1 a general designation of the results of this new movement as contrasted with the classical period1 sometimes ran out into extravagances of sentiment1 and an exaggerated relish for the mediaeval spirit4 ,,writers ,,in ,,italy ,,and ,,in ,,france4--,in ,italy1 there were few writers of distinction4 ,monti 7#aged-ahbh7 was a poet full of harmony and elegance1 a follower1 but with unequal steps1 of ,alfieri4 ,another of the same school is the patriotic poet1 ,ugo ,foscolo 7#aggh-ahbg71 a master of his native tongue4 ,the poems of ,pindemonte 7#agec-ahbh7 are graceful and pathetic4 ,leopardi 7#agih-ahcg7 mingles sublimity with pathos4 ,of the ,italian historians of this period1 ,botta 7#agff-ahcg71 who published a history of the ,american ,revolution1 and histories of ,italy1 is a clear writer1 with a talent for vivid description4 ,in ,france1 ,chateaubriand 7#agfh-ahdh71 who figured both in political life and as a prolific and brilliant author1 by his ,genius of ,christianity and many other productions gained great celebrity1--more1 however1 by charms of style and sentiment1 than by weight of matter4 ,madame de ,stal 7#agff-ahag7 was the daughter of ,necker4 ,between her and ,napoleon there was a mutual hostility4 ,she wrote ,corinne1 ,delphine1--in which she idealizes herself1--a work on ,germany1 and various other productions4 ,she was versatile1 vigorous in thought1 and humane in her temper and spirit4 ,in philosophy1 a believing and spiritual school1 in opposition to materialism1 was founded by ,maine de ,biran 7#agff-ahbd71 ,royer-,collard 7#agfc-ahdf71 and ,benjamin ,constant4 ,de ,maistre 7#aged-ahba7 wrote ably on the side of authority and of the ,catholic ,church4 ,,english ,,poetry4--,literature in ,england1 especially in the department of poetry1 casting off the trammels of the classical school1 in which ,dryden and ,pope were foremost1 entered on a new and splendid era4 ,whether it dwelt on external nature or human passions and experiences1 it appealed to sensibility4 ,it was no more exclusively1 or in the main1 an address to the understanding4 ,cowper 7#agca-ahjj7 set the example of genuine naturalness1 and of interest in nature and in every-day life4 ,robert ,burns1 a ,scottish peasant 7#agei-agif71 by his wonderful union of tenderness1 passion1 and humor1 with poetic fancy and simplicity of diction1 was more than the poet of a single nation4 ,wordsworth 7#aggj-ahej7 blended in his poems a delight in rural and mountain scenery1 with a deep vein of pensive thought and sentiment4 ,if he wrote dull pages1 even the severest critics allow that in ,the ,excursion there are most beautiful oases in the desert2 while in such poems as the ,ode on the ,power of ,sound1 the ,intimations of ,immortality from the ,recollections of ,childhood1 and ,laodamia1 there are passages not excelled since ,milton4 ,a more sustained fervor of feeling and imagination belonged to ,byron 7#aghh-ahbd71 who1 notwithstanding his morbid egotism and offenses against morality1 combined passion with beauty1 and was never dull4 ,walter ,scott 7#agga-ahcb7 exhibited in his narrative poems the spirit of the romantic school1 with none of its sentimentality or extravagance4 ,coleridge 7#aggb-ahcd71 the author of ,christabel and ,the ,ancient ,mariner1 was a highly original poet1 as well as a philosopher4 ,southey 7#aggd-ahdc71 with less genius1 was a man of letters1 prolific both in verse and in prose4 ,shelley and ,keats had a much higher gift of imagination4 ,campbell1 ,rogers1 and ,moore are names of distinction1 although less illustrious than those of ,wordsworth and ,coleridge1 ,scott and ,byron4 ,walter ,savage ,landor 7#agge-ahfd71 a poet and the author of ,imaginary ,conversations1 and other prose writings1 was master of a style of extraordinary power and purity4 ,,english ,,prose ,,writers4--,in novel-writing1 ,miss ,austen1 ,miss ,porter1 and ,miss ,edgeworth preceded ,walter ,scott4 ,waverley1 the first in the series of ,scott's novels1 appeared anonymously in #ahad4 ,in #ahjb the ,edinburgh ,review1 the first of the noted critical quarterlies1 began its existence1 under the editorship of ,francis ,jeffrey1 and numbered among its writers ,brougham1 ,sydney ,smith1 and ,sir ,james ,mackintosh4 ,in #ahji the ,quarterly ,review1 the organ of the ,tories as the ,edinburgh ,review represented the ,whigs1 began1 with ,gifford for its editor4 ,among the essayists of that time1 in a lighter vein1 were ,john ,wilson 7,christopher ,north71 poet and critic in one2 and the genial humorist1 the friend of ,wordsworth and ,coleridge1 ,charles ,lamb4 ,john ,foster 7#aggj-ahdc7 was an original essayist on grave themes4 ,in philosophy1 ,dugald ,stewart 7#agec-ahbh71 a clear and fluent expositor1 and ,thomas ,brown 7#aggh-ahba71 kept up the reputation of the ,scottish school founded by ,reid4 ,burke1 ,alison1 and ,jeffrey wrote on beauty1 and on the taste for the beautiful4 ,mackintosh1 a statesman of liberal opinions1 wrote on ethics4 ,coleridge1 inspired by the ,german thinkers ,kant and ,schelling1 through his philosophical fragments and theological essays did much to create a new current in ,english philosophical and religious thought4 ,jeremy ,bentham 7#agdh-ahcb7 was less eminent as a metaphysician than as a contributor1 through his writings1 to legislative reform4 ,,american ,,writers4--,in ,america1 the political writings of ,adams1 ,jefferson1 ,hamilton1 ,jay1 ,madison1 ,marshall1 and ,ames1 have a permanent value4 ,their letters and the letters of ,washington are written in clear and manly ,english4 ,lindley ,murray 7#agde-ahbf7 published 7#agie7 an ,english ,grammar1 which superseded all others4 ,in theology1 there were a number of vigorous thinkers and writers1 such as the younger ,president ,edwards1 ,samuel ,hopkins1 ,bellamy1 ,emmons1 ,j4 ,m4 ,mason1 and ,dwight4 ,dwight's ,system of ,theology was much read in ,england and ,scotland4 ,belles-lettres literature in ,america was in its infancy4 ,there was a triad of poets1--,trumbull1 a humorous writer 7#agej-ahca71 ,joel ,barlow 7#agee-ahab71 and ,dwight 7#ageb-ahag72 all of them survivors of the school of ,pope4 ,their patriotic feeling was their chief merit1 but ,barlow and ,dwight each wrote one excellent hymn4 ,,german ,,authors4--,one of the most versatile and stimulating of ,german writers was ,herder 7#agdd-ahjc74 ,full of imagination and spirit1 he made his quickening influence felt as a theologian1 critic1 philosopher1 and philologist4 ,his name is in some measure eclipsed by the fame of his two great associates at ,weimar1 ,goethe 7#agdi-ahcb7 and ,schiller 7#agei-ahje74 ,by the universality of his genius1 which was equally exalted in the sphere of criticism and of original production1 ,goethe is1 by common consent1 the foremost of ,german authors4 ,his dramas1 especially ,tasso1 ,egmont1 and ,faust1 and his pastoral epic1 ,hermann and ,dorothea1 are the most celebrated of his poems2 but many of his minor pieces are marked by exquisite harmony and beauty4 ,schiller1 with less repose and a less profound artistic feeling1 yet from his humane impulses and fire of emotion stands closer to the popular heart4 ,krner 7#agia-ahac71 and ,arndt 7#agfi-ahfj71 the author of the song1 ,where is the ,german's ,fatherland1 were patriotic lyrists of high merit4 ,uhland 7#aghg-ahfb7 is a ballad-writer1 not surpassed in this species of composition by any of his contemporaries4 ,the ,romantic ,school1 with its predilection for the ,middle ,ages1 included ,novalis1 ,tieck1 and also the two brothers ,schlegel1 who were critics rather than poets4 ,one of the most unique and original of the ,german writers was ,jean ,paul ,richter 7#agfc-ahbe71 essentially a philosopher and moralist1 yet with a pervading element of humor and pathos4 ,,german ,,philosophy4--,in philosophy1 the first name in the order of time and of merit is that of ,immanuel ,kant 7#agbd-ahjd74 ,the ,critique of ,pure ,reason is the most important of his productions4 ,he showed1 against ,hume1 that the ideas of cause1 substance1 self1 etc41 are not products of imagination1 or due to a mere custom of thought1 but are from within1 and are necessary and universal4 ,in the ,critique of the ,practical ,reason he found the real basis of faith in ,god1 free-will1 and immortality1 in our moral nature4 ,on all the topics which he treated1 he was both earnest and profound4 ,on the basis of a portion of his teaching1 subsequent speculative philosophers reared a system of idealism and pantheism4 ,of these1 the most celebrated are ,fichte 7#agfb-ahad71 who held that the world external to the mind has no existence2 ,schelling 7#agge-ahed71 who taught that nature and mind are at bottom one and the same substance1 in different manifestations2 and ,hegel 7#aggj-ahca71 who resolved all being into a realm of ideas1 a self-existent and self-developing thought-world4 ,among the numerous writers in other departments in this period1 the brothers ,alexander von ,humboldt and ,william von ,humboldt were eminent1--the former in natural science and as an explorer2 the latter in political sciences1 criticism and philology4 ,,painting ,,and ,,sculpture4--,in ,italy1 a great sculptor--the greatest since ,michael ,angelo--appeared in the person of ,canova 7#ageg-ahbb72 who1 however1 was equaled by an ,englishman1 ,john ,flaxman 7#agee-ahbf74 ,an eminent follower of ,canova was ,thorwaldsen 7#aggj-ahdd71 a ,dane4 ,dannecker1 a ,german sculptor 7#ageh-ahdd71 excelled in portrait statues4 ,another ,german sculptor1 the founder of a school1 was ,rauch 7#aggd-aheg71 whose statues are faithful1 yet idealized1 likenesses4 ,a famous ,french painter in this period was ,david1 whose pictures1 in the classic style1 lack force and warmth4 ,many of his scholars attained to high proficiency in the art4 ,horace ,vernet 7#aghi-ahfc7 and ,paul ,delaroche 7#agig-ahef7 chose their subjects from modern ,european history4 ,the modern ,german school of painting was founded by ,overbeck1 ,von ,schadow1 and ,cornelius4 ,the greatest ,english painter after ,hogarth was ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds 7#agbc-agib71 whose portraits have seldom1 if ever1 been surpassed4 ,almost or quite on a level with him was ,gainsborough 7#agbg-aghh74 ,benjamin ,west 7#agch-ahbj7 was by birth an ,american1 as was ,copley1 an artist of superior talents 7#agci-ahae74 ,lawrence 7#agfi-ahcj7 was a ,british painter whose portraits have a high historical value4 ,the greatest of the ,english landscape painters was ,turner 7#agge-ahea74 ,john ,trumbull 7#agef-ahdc71 an ,american1 painted spirited battle-pieces1 and miniature portraits of decided artistic merit4 ,washington ,allston 7#aggi-ahdc71 another ,american painter1 produced works admired for their warmth of color1 and for the refined feeling expressed in them4 ,,music4--,the great ,german musicians ,haydn and ,mozart were followed by an equal or greater genius in music1 ,beethoven 7#aggj-ahbg74 ,at the head of the school of ,german song-writers is ,schubert 7#agig-ahbh74 ,one of the most popular of the ,german composers was ,weber 7#aghf-ahbf74 ,,physical ,,and ,,natural ,,science4--,the most brilliant discoveries in astronomy were made by the ,french philosopher ,laplace1 whose ,mcanique ,cleste made an epoch in that science4 ,dr4 ,thomas ,young 7#aggc-ahbi7 did much to explain the true theory of the tides1 and to confirm the undulatory theory of light4 ,others eminent in the progress of optics are ,fresnel 7#aghh-ahbg71 ,biot1 ,arago1--all ,french physicists1--and ,sir ,david ,brewster4 ,lavoisier 7#agdc-agid7 infused a new spirit into chemical science4 ,priestley 7#agcc-ahjd7 discovered oxygen and other gases4 ,dalton 7#agff-ahdd7 is the author of the atomic theory of the composition of matter4 ,sir ,humphry ,davy added to chemical knowledge1 and1 simultaneously with ,george ,stephenson1 invented the safety-lamp for miners4 ,berzelius 7#aggi-ahdh71 a ,swedish chemist1 and ,gay-,lussac 7#aggh-ahej71 a ,frenchman1 are great names in the history of this science4 ,galvani1 the discoverer of animal electricity1 and ,volta1 the inventor of the galvanic pile1 stimulated others to fruitful experiments in this branch of study4 ,lamarck 7#agdd-ahbi7 was one of the first of the modern advocates of the origin of species by development4 ,cuvier 7#agfi-ahcb71 the greatest naturalist of modern times1 made most important observations in comparative anatomy1 and established many of the positive laws of geology and paleontology4 ,geology first assumed the place of a science through the labors of ,werner 7#agej-ahag71 a ,german mineralogist4 ,there were two classes of geologists1--the ,neptunians1 or ,wernerians1 who ascribed rocks to aqueous deposition exclusively2 and the ,vulcanians1 or ,huttonists1--adherents of the view of ,dr4 ,hutton 7#agbf-agig7 of ,edinburgh1--who attributed many of them to the action of fire4 ,the ,geological ,society of ,london was founded in #ahjg4 ,among discoveries of practical utility in science1 the discovery of vaccination for the prevention of small-pox1 by ,jenner 7#agdi-ahbc71 an ,english physician1 is one of the most remarkable4 ,,literature3 ,see the lists on pp4 #af1 #cei1 #dig2 also ,president ,a4 ,d4 ,white's list1 with critical notes1 attached to ,morris's ,the ,french ,revolution and ,first ,empire 7in ,epochs of history71 and ,adams's ,manual3 the ,histories of ,alison 7,tory71 ,louis ,blanc1 ,carlyle1 ,jomini1 ,fyffe1 ,stephens1 ,mahan1 ,chuquet4 ,aulard1 ,lavisse et ,rambaud1 ,histoire ,gnrale ,,viii41 ,,ix4 ,michelet 7#g vols471 ,mignet1 ,morris1 ,von ,sybel 7#d vols471 ,thiers1 ,taine1 ,l4 ,hasser2 ,madame de ,rmusat's ,memoirs2 ,metternich's ,memoirs 7#e vols471 ,joyneville1 ,life and ,times of ,alexander ,i4 7#c vols472 ,seeley1 ,life of ,stein2 ,lowell1 ,eve of the ,french ,revolution2 on ,napoleon1 ,rose1 ,lanfrey1 ,sloane4 ,de ,tocqueville's ,l',ancien ,rgime et la ,rvolution2 ,p4 ,janet's ,philosophie de la ,rvolution ,franaise2 ,quinet1 ,la ,rvolution2 ,the ,essays on the ,revolution1 by ,burke1 ,mackintosh1 ,croker2 ,macaulay's ,essays on ,mirabeau and ,barre2 ,lamartine's ,the ,girondists2 ,a4 ,young's ,travels in ,france in #aghg-hh-hi 7,london1 #agid72 ,oncken1 ,das ,zeitalter der ,revolution des ,kaiserreiches 7#b vols472 ,sorel1 ,l',europe et la ,rvolution ,franaise 7#e vols472 ,debidour1 ,rapports de l'glise et de l',etat en ,france2 ,vandal1 ,napolon et ,alexandre #ast4 ,treitschke ,deutsche ,geschichte im neunzehnten ,fahrhundert 7#d vols474 ,taine1 ,history of ,english ,literature2 ,mrs4 ,oliphant1 ,literary ,history of ,england in the end of the #ahth and beginning of the #aith centuries2 ,allibone1 ,dictionary of ,british and ,american ,authors2 ,wendell1 ,a ,literary ,history of ,america4 ,,period ,v4 ,,from ,,the ,,congress ,,of ,,vienna 7#ahae7 ,,to ,,the ,,present ,,time4 ,,introduction4 ,,political ,,changes ,,in ,,europe4--,the aspiration of the peoples of ,europe after constitutional freedom and national unity1 after the yoke of ,napoleon had been thrown off1 was for a long season baffled4 ,this was owing partly to the lassitude natural after the protracted and exhausting wars1 and more to the combination of the principal sovereigns1 instigated by the love of power and the dread of revolution1 for the purpose of preventing the popular yearning from being gratified4 ,but in #ahcj--when half of the lifetime of a generation had passed by--the overthrow of the old ,bourbon line of kings in ,france was the signal for disturbances and changes elsewhere on the ,continent4 ,in ,england1 at about the same time1 there began an era of constitutional and legislative reforms which effected a wider diffusion of political power4 ,in #ahdh--;after a second interval of about equal length--another revolutionary crisis occurred4 ,at the same time1 movements in favor of communism and socialism brought in a new peril4 ,alarm felt on this account1 by the middle class in ,france1 was one important aid to the third ,napoleon in reviving the empire in ,france4 ,the condition of ,europe--in particular1 the divided state of ,germany--enabled him to maintain a leading influence for a score of years in ,european politics4 ,the unification of ,germany1 which began in the triumph of ,prussia over ,austria1 was completed in ,napoleon's downfall through the ,franco-,german war4 ,the unification of ,italy1 to which ,louis ,napoleon had contributed by the ,french alliance with ,sardinia against ,austria1 was consummated under ,victor ,emmanuel1 after his cooperation with ,prussia in her great struggle with ,austria4 ,thus ,germany and ,italy reached the goal to which they had looked with desire and hope at the close of the ,napoleonic wars in #ahae4 ,,america4--,on the ,western ,continent1 ,mexico and the ,south-,american dependencies of ,spain and ,portugal gained their independence in connection with political revolutions in the ,european countries to which they had been attached4 ,the ,united ,states1 in the enjoyment of peace1 and favored by great material advantages1 advanced with marvelous rapidity in population and in wealth4 ,discord1 growing out of the existence of negro slavery in the ,south1 brought on at last the ,civil ,war1 which terminated in the conquest of the ,confederate ,states and their restoration to the ,union1 in the freedom of the slaves1 and in the prohibition of slavery by ,constitutional amendment4 ,,military ,,system ,,in ,,europe4--,during this period1 in ,europe there has been a wide diffusion of popular education4 ,but a serious hinderance in the way of physical comfort and general improvement in the principal ,european states has long existed1 in the immense standing armies and costly military system which their mutual jealousies and apprehensions have caused them to keep up4 ,,science ,,and ,,invention4--,this period outstrips all previous eras as regards the progress of the natural and physical sciences1 and of invention and discovery in the practical applications of science4 ,an almost miraculous advance has taken place in the means of travel and of transmitting thought4 ,there has been an equally marvelous advance in devising machinery for use in agriculture and manufactures1 and in connection with labor of almost every sort4 ,,peace ,,and ,,philanthropy4--,the vast extension of commerce1 with its interchange of products1 and the intercourse which is incidental to it1 has proved favorable to international peace4 ,the better understanding of economical science1 by bringing to view the mischiefs of war and the bad policy of selfishness1 has tended in the same direction4 ,philanthropy has manifested itself with new energy and in new forms of activity4 ,a quickened and more enlightened zeal has been shown in providing for the infirm and helpless1 and for mitigating the sufferings of the soldier4 ,missionary undertakings1 for the conversion and civilizing of heathen nations1 have been a marked feature of the age4 ,,socialism4--,the industrial age had its own perils to confront4 ,the progress of manufactures and trade1 the accumulation of wealth unequally distributed1 brought forward new questions pertaining to the rights and reciprocal aggressions of laborer and capitalist4 ,socialism1 with novel and startling doctrines as to the right of property1 and to the proper function of the state1 inaugurated movements of grave concern to the order and well-being of society4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,europe1 ,,from ,,the ,,congress ,,op ,,vienna 7#ahae7 ,,to ,,the ,,french ,,revolution ,,of #ahcj4 ,,germany3 ,,the ,,holy ,,alliance4--,the years of peace which followed the ,war of ,liberation produced a signal increase of thrift and of culture in ,germany4 ,but they brought also a grievous disappointment of ardent political hopes4 ,there was a feeling of national brotherhood1 which that struggle had engendered1--such a feeling as ,germans had not experienced for centuries before4 ,constitutional government and ,german unity were objects of earnest desire4 ,frederick ,william ,,iii41 the king of ,prussia 7#agig-ahdj71 had promised his people a constitution4 ,but the two emperors1 ,francis ,i4 of ,austria and ,alexander of ,russia1 together with ,frederick ,william1 had1 at the instigation of ,alexander1--whose mind was tinged with religious mysticism1--formed at ,paris 7,sept4 #bf1 #ahae7 the ,holy ,alliance1 a covenant in which they pledged themselves1 in dealing with their subjects and in their international relations1 to be governed by the rules of ,christian justice and charity4 ,they invited all the potentates of ,europe1 except the ,sultan and the ,pope1 to become parties to this sacred compact4 ,with the exception of ,george ,,iv41 the ,prince ,regent of ,england1 the sovereigns complied with the request4 ,this alliance1 which was sincerely meant by ,alexander1 was popularly confused with the alliance of ,austria1 ,russia1 ,prussia1 ,england1 and ,france1 the aim of which was to prevent further revolutions4 ,francis ,i41 who lived until #ahce1 was stubbornly averse to every movement that in the least favored popular freedom and constitutional government4 ,supreme in his counsels for a whole generation was ,metternich1 not a profound statesman1 but an expert diplomatist1 who labored1 generally with success1 to stifle every effort for an increase of freedom in ,germany1 and elsewhere on the ,continent4 ,in the smaller ,german states1 especially those which had belonged to the ,confederacy of the ,rhine1 there was a disposition to found a constitutional system2 but the ,prussian government followed in the wake of ,austria1 and ,austria stood in the way of every such innovation4 ,,agitation ,,and ,,reaction4--,the agitation for liberty was specially rife among the students in the ,german universities4 ,a demonstration by them at the ,wartburg 7#ahag71 in commemoration of ,luther and of the victory over ,napoleon at ,leipsic1--in which there were songs and speeches1 and a burning of anti-liberal books1--was noticed by the ,prussian and ,austrian ministers2 and the alleged revolutionary movements of students were denounced by the ,emperor ,alexander4 ,this reactionary zeal was whetted by the murder of ,kotzebue1 a ,german poet1 who was hated as a tool of ,russia and a foe of liberty1 and was assassinated by ,karl ,sand1 a fanatical ,prussian student 7,march #bc1 #ahai74 ,young ,sand was executed for the deed1 but his fate drew out many expressions of pity and sympathy4 ,the ,diet of the confederacy 7,sept4 #bj1 #ahai7 adopted what were called the ,carlsbad ,resolutions1 which provided for a more rigid censorship of the press1 committees of investigation to suppress revolutionary agitation1 and a strict supervision of the universities by the governments4 ,all the states were required to enforce these regulations4 ,the liberal party1 the party of freedom and unity1 still subsisted1 especially in the smaller states1 where some of the princes1 as ,william ,i4 of ,wrtemberg 7#ahai-ahfd7 and ,louis ,i4 of ,bavaria 7#ahbe-ahdh71 entertained comparatively liberal views4 ,,france ,,under ,,louis ,,xviii4--,the ,congress of ,aix-la-,chapelle 7#ahah7 withdrew the army of occupation left by the allies in ,france4 ,the ,pentarchy1 or ,five ,great ,powers1 pledged themselves to the continued maintenance of peace by means of conferences and congresses4 ,louis ,,xviii4 7#ahad-ahbd71 although inactive1 was not void of good sense1 and was disposed to accommodate himself to the times4 ,but the court party1 with his brother the ,count d',artois at its head1 were unyielding in their despotic ideas4 ,they were for restoring the system of the old monarchy4 ,the increase in the liberal members of the ,chamber1 or legislative assembly1 impelled ,richelieu1 the head of the ministry1 to resign 7,dec41 #ahah74 ,a more liberal man1 ,decazes1 succeeded him4 ,he was supported by a party which arose at this time1 called ,doctrinaires on account of a certain pedantic spirit1 and a disposition to shape political action by preconceived theories or ideas1 which was imputed to them4 ,in their ranks were ,royer-,collard1 ,guizot1 ,villemain1 ,barante1 and others4 ,they advocated a constitutional monarchy4 ,among the liberals not affiliated with them was ,la ,fayette1 who encouraged the ,charbonniers1 a secret society for promoting liberty1 that had its origin in ,italy4 ,,tyranny ,,in ,,spain4--,in #ahbj revolts broke out against the ,bourbon governments in ,spain and ,italy4 ,ferdinand ,,vii4 had been restored to liberty by ,napoleon in #ahad1 and had returned to the ,spanish throne4 ,in #ahab the ,cortes had established a constitution with a system of parliamentary government1 limited prerogatives being left to the king4 ,in favor of the new system were the educated and enlightened class generally4 ,but--as was not the case in ,germany--the uprising against ,napoleon in ,spain had owed its strength very much to the ignorant and superstitious peasantry1 who1 while they hated the foreign yoke1 clung to the feudal and ecclesiastical abuses which the ,french rulers in ,spain1 as far as time and opportunity permitted1 swept away4 ,ferdinand thus had a strong support in his movement to bring back the former bigoted and exclusive system4 ,he wrested the national property from the holders to whom it had been sold4 ,he restored the ,inquisition3 not less than fifty thousand individuals were imprisoned for their opinions4 ,from his tyranny ten thousand ,spaniards escaped into ,france4 ,,south ,,american ,,independence4--,the ,french usurpation in ,spain cost that country its ,american colonies4 ,they would not submit to the ,french sovereignty1 and after its fall maintained their independence4 ,buenos ,ayres broke loose from ,spain in #ahaj1 and in #ahaf joined the ,plate states in a confederation4 ,paraguay declined a union with ,buenos ,ayres1 and continued under the patriarchal absolutism introduced by the ,jesuits1 ,dr4 ,francia being its ruler until his death 7#ahdj74 ,uruguay became a republic distinct from ,buenos ,ayres in #ahbh4 ,in the northern colonies1 the principal hero of the struggle for independence was ,simon ,bolivar1 who sprang from a noble ,creole family4 ,he first fought for the independence of ,venezuela 7#ahaj71 but was made by ,new ,granada its general in #ahab1 and became president of the two countries1 which were united under the name of ,colombia 7#ahai74 ,quito was now taken1 and ,peru was set free from the ,spanish rule4 ,upper ,peru1 in #ahbe1 was named1 in honor of the ,liberator1 ,bolivia4 ,he found it impracticable to connect the different states in one confederacy1 and closed his eventful life in #ahcj4 ,colombia divided itself into the three states1 ,venezuela1 ,new ,granada1 and ,ecuador 7#ahca74 ,,mexican ,,independence4--,after the year #ahjh1 there were various attempts at revolution in ,mexico4 ,in #ahba its independence was achieved by an insurrection under ,iturbide1 a native ,mexican4 ,he failed in the effort to make himself emperor 7#ahbb72 and the ,republic of ,mexico was organized in #ahbd1 and was recognized by the ,united ,states in #ahbi4 ,,military ,,revolt ,,in ,,spain4--,the loss of her ,american colonies1 and the efforts to restore them1 reduced ,spain to extreme poverty4 ,in #ahbj a successful military insurrection1 led by ,quiroga1 ,riego1 and ,mina1 proclaimed anew the constitution of #ahab4 ,ferdinand1 who was capable of any amount of hypocrisy as well as cruelty1 swore to uphold it4 ,the revolution was supported by the intelligent class of people1 but the defenders of it were split into different parties4 ,the clergy and the peasantry were arrayed on the other side4 ,guerilla bands were organized under the name of the ,army of the ,faith4 ,,congress ,,of ,,verona4--,the military revolt in ,spain alarmed the ,great ,powers4 ,the three sovereigns were now leagued for the defense of the throne and the altar2 for ,alexander1 who had shown liberal inclinations on the subject of the emancipation of the serfs1 and even towards ,greece in its aspiration for independence1 now recoiled from every thing that savored of freedom4 ,at the ,congress of ,verona 7,oct41 #ahbb71 the sovereigns resolved to interfere in ,spain4 ,the ,duke of ,wellington declined to concur with them1 and1 on his return from the congress1 advised ,louis ,,xviii4 to take the same course4 ,,england3 ,,canning4--,george ,,iv4 7#ahbj-ahcj7 had been regent since #ahaj4 ,already unpopular1 he became still more so in consequence of his abortive effort 7#ahbj7 to procure a divorce from ,queen ,caroline1 whom he had married at the demand of his father 7#agie74 ,she was not allowed to be present at his coronation4 ,on account of the profligacy of her husband1 there was a strong sympathy with her1 although she was a coarse-minded woman4 ,for a number of years after the ,peace of #ahae1 the ,english government resisted movements towards reform at home2 and in its foreign policy1 under the guidance of ,castlereagh1 it sustained the reactionary cause abroad4 ,disaffection towards the ministers gave rise to a plot1 contrived by some desperate men1 to destroy them in a body4 ,it was detected2 and ,thistlewood1 with some of his confederates1 was executed 7#ahbj74 ,on the death of ,lord ,castlereagh in #ahbb1 ,canning1 a disciple of ,pitt1 became foreign secretary4 ,he adopted a more liberal policy1 and worked against the schemes of ,metternich for interference in the affairs of foreign states4 ,he transferred ,england1 says ,guizot1 from the camp of resistance and of ,european order into the camp of liberty4 ,,the ,,rebellion ,,crushed ,,in ,,spain4--,the ,french unwisely rejected ,england's advice4 ,louis ,,xviii4 sent an army into ,spain1 under the ,duke of ,angoulme1 released ,ferdinand at ,cadiz1 and gave him the power to revoke all that he had done in favor of liberty4 ,the brave ,riego was hung on a gibbet of enormous height4 ,the ,spanish army was disbanded1 and the ,army of the ,faith took its place4 ,many thousands of constitutionalists were thrown into prison4 ,canning recognized the republics of ,south ,america1 lest they1 too1 should fall under ,french control4 ,it was his boast1 that he called the ,new ,world into existence to redress the balance of the ,old4 ,,portugal3 ,,brazil4--,the royal family of ,portugal were residing in ,brazil when the ,spanish revolution occurred4 ,portugal1 in the absence of ,king ,john ,,vi41 framed a liberal constitution4 ,the ,brazilians were eager for independence from ,portugal4 ,john decided to withdraw4 ,arrived in ,portugal1 he accepted the new constitution2 but the anti-revolutionary party rallied about his son ,dom ,miguel1 who was supported by his mother1 a sister of ,ferdinand ,,vii1 of ,spain4 ,dom ,miguel was at length driven into exile1 and went to ,vienna4 ,meantime ,dom ,pedro1 a son of ,john ,,vi41 had made himself emperor in ,brazil by allying himself with the constitutional party2 and ,john was prevailed on by the ,british1 in #ahbe1 to recognize the new ,south ,american empire4 ,,naples ,,and ,,sicily4--,in all the eight principalities of ,italy1 except in ,tuscany1 the misrule of the restored governments was galling to the people1 whose hope of freedom had been raised only to be cast down4 ,everywhere the tyrannical influence of ,austria was dominant4 ,the rulers in ,italy were slavishly submissive to her will2 and any rising of the people1 if not put down by them1 was crushed by ,austrian forces sent down from ,lombardy4 ,secret societies sprung up2 the chief of which1 the ,carbonari1 aimed at national independence1 but beyond that cherished no definite1 united purpose4 ,the ,spanish revolution served as the occasion for a similar rebellion of the soldiery of ,naples4 ,a new liberal constitution was established1 which ,ferdinand ,,iv4 7,july #ac1 #ahbj7 solemnly swore to maintain4 ,the insurrection in ,sicily aimed at independence1 but ,palermo was surrendered to the revolutionary government of ,naples4 ,the ,neapolitan rebellion led to the ,congress of ,troppau 7,oct41 #ahbj71 which was transferred to ,laybach 7,jan41 #ahba74 ,there ,austria1 ,prussia1 and ,russia formed a league1 the fruit of which was1 that an ,austrian army of sixty thousand men marched into the ,south of ,italy1 and the revolution was crushed4 ,ferdinand restablished his despotism1 disbanded the greater part of his army1 and punished with exile1 imprisonment1 and death the leading supporters of the constitution which he had taken an oath to defend4 ,,sardinia4--,in ,piedmont1 the demand for a constitution and a rising at ,alessandria impelled ,victor ,emmanuel ,i4 to abdicate in favor of his brother1 ,charles ,felix1 who was favorable to ,austria and her policy4 ,prince ,charles ,albert1--a distant cousin1--who had liberal views1 held the regency for a few months2 but ,charles ,felix1 on his return from ,modena 7,oct41 #ahba71 governed according to despotic principles4 ,the contest in ,italy between despots and conspirators went on until the renewed outbreakings of revolt in #ahcj4 ,,the ,,greek ,,insurrection4--,the weakness of ,turkey emboldened the ,greeks to attempt to throw off the hated ,ottoman yoke4 ,the sultans had become the puppets of their guards1 the janizaries4 ,one after another of them had been dethroned by their soldiers4 ,the pashas were insubordinate3 in ,egypt1 ,mehemet ,ali had almost made himself independent4 ,russia1 by the ,peace of ,bucharest in #ahab1 had possessed herself of ,bessarabia and of ,eastern ,moldavia as far as the ,pruth4 ,among the ,greeks1 who were not more than a million in number1 and were only one among the various peoples subject to ,turkey1 there were formed ,hetaireiai1 or secret societies1 for the purpose of organizing an insurrection4 ,the people were first summoned to rise by ,alexander ,ypsilanti 7#ahba74 ,a national congress promulgated a new constitution for ,greece 7#ahbb74 ,great enthusiasm in behalf of the ,greek cause was awakened in most of the civilized countries2 but the ,congress of ,verona 7#ahbb71 inspired by ,metternich1 decided to give no help to the insurgents4 ,in the war of the ,greeks with the ,turks1 there were atrocities committed on both sides4 ,scio was taken by the latter in #ahbb4 ,not far from twenty thousand of the inhabitants were massacred1 and twice that number were enslaved4 ,in #ahbd the ,greeks began to receive foreign help4 ,among those who volunteered with a chivalrous sympathy to aid them in their combat was ,lord ,byron1 who died at ,missolonghi 7#ahbd74 ,nicholas ,i4 of ,russia1 who in #ahbe succeeded ,alexander ,i41 was more inclined to take an active part in the ,greek contest1 as he considered himself the head of all ,christians of the ,greek faith4 ,the ,sultan ,mahmoud ,,ii41 by crushing the janizaries1 strengthened himself at home1 but weakened his means of attack and defense abroad4 ,in #ahbf he made important concessions to ,russia2 among other things1 allowing her to occupy the east coast of the ,black ,sea1 and giving to her vessels a free admission to ,turkish waters4 ,,greek ,,independence4--,mehemet ,ali hoped to succeed ,mahmoud4 ,his son ,ibrahim had defeated the ,greeks at ,navarino 7#ahbe74 ,the next year1 in conjunction with the ,turks1 he captured ,missolonghi4 ,the apprehension that ,nicholas might seek to divide ,turkey with ,mehemet ,ali caused the ,treaty of ,london to be concluded by the ,great ,powers which founded the kingdom of ,greece 7,july #f1 #ahbg74 ,england1 ,russia1 and ,france joined in executing the treaty4 ,they destroyed the ,turkish-,egyptian fleet at ,navarino 7,oct4 #bj74 ,later1 ,nicholas waged a separate war with the ,porte1 which was terminated by the ,peace of ,adrianople 7#ahbi71 when the latter recognized the independence of ,greece4 ,the crown of ,greece was accepted in #ahcb by ,otho1 son of ,louis of ,bavaria4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,europe ,,from ,,the ,,revolution ,,of #ahcj ,,to ,,the ,,revolutionary ,,epoch ,,of #ahdh4 ,,charles ,x4--,louis ,,xviii4 died in #ahbd4 ,his brother1 ,charles ,x4 7#ahbd-cj71 dealt generously with the collateral branch of the ,bourbons1 the house of ,orleans4 ,he restored to ,louis ,philippe1 the son of that ,philip ,egalite whose base career was ended by the guillotine 7p4 #eab71 the vast estates of the ,orleans family1 and gave him the title of ,royal ,highness4 ,but he failed to secure the cordial support of this ambitious relative4 ,the ,duke of ,orleans stood well with the king1 but was on good terms with the liberal leaders4 ,the king sought to reinstate the ideas and ways of the old rgime4 ,he was specially zealous in behalf of ecclesiastics1 and ceremonies of devotion4 ,but liberal views in politics gained ground in the second ,chamber1 as well as in the army and among the people4 ,a liberal ministry under ,martignac was in power for a while2 but in #ahbi it was succeeded by a ministry the head of which was the unpopular ,prince ,polignac1 and the other principal members of which were hardly less obnoxious4 ,they represented the extreme reactionary and royalist party4 ,their active opponents--,guizot1 ,thiers1 and ,benjamin ,constant among them--found that their assaults on the government were generally applauded4 ,all of these were brilliant political writers4 ,constant 7from #ahbe7 had been the leader of the opposition4 ,thiers was a journalist of wide influence4 ,guizot had held office under the liberal ministers1 and as lecturer on modern history1 and by his writings1 had laid the foundation of the great distinction which he deservedly gained1 as one of the foremost students and expounders of history in recent times4 ,thiers and ,guizot were at this time united in the advocacy of a constitutional system1 as opposed to the reactionary policy and the personal government to which the king and his ministers were committed4 ,later we shall see that the paths of these two statesmen diverged4 ,in #ahcj ,guizot was the opposition leader in the ,chamber of ,deputies4 ,in the ,chamber of ,peers1 the ministry was attacked by ,chateaubriand1 who had been a valuable supporter of the ,bourbon cause1 and by others4 ,the ,chambers were dissolved by the king4 ,the capture of ,algiers1 in a war against the piratical power of which it was the seat1 did not avail to lessen the growing hostility to his government4 ,it found expression through the press and in speeches at a great banquet4 ,,ordinances ,,of ,,st4 ,,cloud4--,taking advantage of the provision in the charter which gave extraordinary powers to the king for special emergencies 7p4 #ecg71 the ministry took the fatal step 7,july #be1 #ahcj7 of issuing the ordinances of ,st4 ,cloud1 dissolving the ,chamber of ,deputies1 further restricting the suffrage so that many merchants and manufacturers lost this privilege1 and restablishing the censorship of the press in a peculiarly burdensome form4 ,,the ,,july ,,revolution4--,the ordinances were published on ,july #bf4 ,that evening ,prince ,polignac's windows were broken by a mob4 ,the whole city of ,paris was in a tumult4 ,the liberal journals protested4 ,there were collisions between the mob and the king's troops4 ,a protest of the liberal deputies1 who met at the house of ,casimir ,perier1 was issued4 ,in the night the people armed themselves4 ,la ,fayette arrived in ,paris4 ,on the #bhth students1 workmen1 and all classes of citizens1 armed themselves with whatever weapons they could lay hold of4 ,the revolutionists took possession of the ,htel de ,ville4 ,the cry was that the charter was violated4 ,all efforts to induce the king to make concessions failed4 ,many of the soldiers in ,paris fraternized with the people1 who on the #bith had control of the whole city1 except the vicinity of the ,tuileries1 which they gained possession of that evening4 ,la ,fayette1 at the call of the deputies1 assumed command of the ,national ,guard4 ,finally1 when it was too late1 the king decided to withdraw the ordinances1 and to change the ministry4 ,thiers and ,mignet caused anonymous placards to be posted1 proposing that the ,duke of ,orleans should take the crown from the people4 ,on the #cjth ,louis ,philippe entered ,paris on foot3 he had passed the summer at his country place at ,neuilly4 ,talleyrand1--whose influence was great with foreign courts1--,lafitte1 and ,thiers were active in the effort to advance him to the throne4 ,the deputies decided that he must be made lieutenant-general of the kingdom4 ,charles ,x41 who still blindly confided in him1 on the #cast appointed him to this office4 ,what the intentions of ,louis ,philippe were1 is not clear4 ,he probably meant to be governed by circumstances4 ,on the #bith a municipal commission was installed at the ,htel de ,ville1 consisting of ,la ,fayette and six other leading men4 ,they selected several persons as officials whose authority was generally acknowledged4 ,louis ,philippe1 at the head of the deputies1 went to the ,htel de ,ville4 ,he was cordially received by ,la ,fayette and his associates4 ,it was agreed that there should be a popular throne1 with free institutions4 ,on the balcony1 under the tri-color flag1 the ,duke of ,orleans was introduced as the man of the people4 ,la ,fayette felt that a republic would be contrary to the national wish4 ,thiers was of the same mind4 ,they feared complications and contests abroad1 and what might be the results of general suffrage1 in the existing state of the country1 at home4 ,,flight ,,of ,,charles ,x4--,the desertion of ,charles ,x4 by his troops would have rendered an armed contest on his part impracticable4 ,the dexterous management of ,louis ,philippe was made effectual by the favoring circumstances4 ,on ,aug4 #b the king abdicated in favor of his grandson1 the ,duke of ,bordeaux1 and was compelled to fly from the kingdom4 ,the volunteer army had been stirred up to go out to ,rambouillet to drive him away4 ,the angry old king did not wait for their coming4 ,,louis ,,philippe ,,made ,,king4--,the ,chamber of ,deputies declared the throne vacant4 ,they altered the charter1--putting all religious bodies on a level1 giving freedom to the press1 limiting the powers of the king1 and giving to the ,chambers1 as well as to him1 the initiative in framing laws4 ,they chose ,louis ,philippe ,king of the ,french4 ,he owed his elevation to the middle classes1 and claimed to be the citizen king4 ,,separation ,,of ,,belgium4--,the effect of the new revolution was to set in motion the elements of discontent in the other ,european countries4 ,belgium was the first to feel the shock4 ,the ,belgians were restless under the rule of ,william ,i41 whose treatment of them aggravated the disaffection which their political relation to ,holland constantly occasioned4 ,a revolt broke out at ,brussels4 ,the offer of a legislative and administrative separation of ,belgium from ,holland1 with one king over both1 might have been accepted if it had been made earlier2 but it followed unsuccessful efforts to quell the insurrection by force4 ,a provisional government was created at ,brussels1 which proclaimed the independence of ,belgium 7,oct4 #d71 and convoked a national congress4 ,france confined itself to preventing the interference of foreign powers4 ,a conference of ministers at ,london 7,jan41 #ahca7 recognized the new state1 which adopted a liberal constitution4 ,leopold ,i4 of ,saxe-,coburg was chosen king4 ,he was aided by the forces of the ,french2 but the war with ,holland lasted until #ahcc1 and it was not until #ahci that ,holland definitely accepted the action of the ,london congress4 ,,poland4--,poland was harshly ruled for the ,czar by the ,grand ,duke ,constantine4 ,the revolution in ,france was the signal for a ,polish rising1 that began in an unsuccessful attempt of students and others to seize the person of the grand duke4 ,the insurrection spread3 men of talents and distinction1 as well as ,polish soldiers1 joined the cause of the people4 ,the ,czar1 ,nicholas1 would make no terms with the insurgents1 and the ,diet 7,jan4 #be1 #ahca7 declared him to have forfeited the ,polish crown4 ,the ,poles fought with desperate valor in a series of bloody battles1 only to be overwhelmed by superiority of numbers4 ,they were defeated at ,ostrolenka by ,diebitsch 7,may #bf74 ,after his death1 ,warsaw surrendered to ,paskievitch 7,sept4 #h71 and another ,russian general entered ,cracow4 ,poland was now reduced1 as far as it could be1 to a ,russian province4 ,the army was merged in the ,russian forces2 the university was suppressed2 the ,roman ,catholic religion1 the prevailing faith1 was persecuted2 and it was computed that in one year 7#ahcb7 eighty thousand ,poles were sent to ,siberia4 ,,germany3 ,,hungary4--,in ,saxony and in the minor states of ,germany1 disturbances were consequent on the tidings of the revolution at ,paris4 ,prussia and ,austria were little affected by it2 but the demands of the ,diet in ,hungary1 when ,ferdinand1 the son of ,francis ,i4 was crowned king of that country1 were an augury of a far greater commotion to arise at a later day4 ,in the ,diet of #ahcb ,louis ,kossuth first appeared as a member4 ,between the years #ahbh and #ahcd1 the ,german states 7not including ,austria71 under the guidance of ,prussia and ,bavaria1 formed a ,zollverein1 or customs-union1 which was an important step in the direction of ,german unity1 and one which ,austria looked on with disfavor4 ,,italy4--,in #ahca1 there were signs of revolt in different states of ,italy4 ,at ,modena1 a provisional government was erected4 ,the same thing was done at ,bologna4 ,maria ,louisa was driven out of ,parma4 ,among those who joined the insurgents in the ,papal ,kingdom were ,napoleon and his younger brother ,louis ,bonaparte1 sons of ,louis ,bonaparte king of ,holland4 ,the elder of the sons died soon after at ,forli4 ,the ,italians relied on the help of ,louis ,philippe1 but the citizen king had no disposition to engage in war with ,austria4 ,the uprisings were put down with the assistance of ,austrian troops4 ,charles ,albert1 after ,april1 #ahca1 king of ,sardinia1 did a good work in the discipline of his army4 ,without any esteem for ,austria1 he refused to further the plans of the revolutionary party1 and thus incurred the hostility of ,mazzini1 who was organizing the movement of ,young ,italy for independence and unity4 ,mazzini1 a man of elevated spirit and disinterested aims1 was long to be known as the head of the republican patriots and plotters4 ,,england4--,in ,england1 reform went forward peacefully4 ,the middle class gradually obtained its demands4 ,the national debt1 at the close of the wars with ,napoleon1 amounted to nearly eight hundred millions of pounds4 ,in #ahbc1 with the accession of ,mr4 ,huskisson to office1 began the movement for a more free commercial policy1 which led in the end to the repeal of the corn-laws4 ,the question of ,catholic disabilities was agitated from time to time1 and something had been done to lighten them4 ,yet in #ahbh ,catholics were still shut out by law from almost every office of trust and distinction4 ,they could not sit in either house of ,parliament4 ,the endeavors of liberal statesmen for their relief were defeated by the ,tory majorities4 ,the agitation was increased by the ,catholic ,association formed in ,ireland by the ,irish leader and orator1 ,daniel ,o',connell4 ,a ,tory ministry was formed by the ,duke of ,wellington1 with ,mr4 7afterwards ,sir7 ,robert ,peel for its chief supporter in the ,house of ,commons 7#ahbi74 ,yet1 to avert the danger of civil war1 the ministry introduced1 and with aid of the ,whigs carried1 the ,catholic ,emancipation ,bill4 ,,the ,,reform ,,bill4--,on the death of ,george ,,iv41 ,william ,,iv41 his brother 7#ahcj-ahcg71 succeeded to the throne4 ,he was favorable to parliamentary reform4 ,the ferment on this subject caused the resignation of the ,wellington ministry1 which was succeeded by the ministry of ,earl ,grey4 ,a bill for reform was presented to ,parliament1 depriving eighty-eight rotten or decayed boroughs1 where there were very few inhabitants1 of a hundred and forty-three members of the ,house of ,commons1 who were given to counties or to large towns1 such as ,birmingham and ,manchester1 which had no representation4 ,at the same time the franchise was greatly extended4 ,the bill was strenuously resisted by the ,tories1 who now began to be called ,conservatives4 ,its repeated rejection by the ,house of ,lords caused a violent agitation4 ,finally1 in #ahcb1 when it was understood that the king would create new peers enough to pass the measure1 it was carried in the upper house1 and became a law4 ,,slavery ,,abolished4--,in #ahcc the system of slavery in the ,british colonies was abolished1 twenty million pounds being paid as a compensation to the slave-owners4 ,this measure was the result of an agitation in which ,wilberforce1 ,clarkson1 and ,buxton had been foremost4 ,in the latter part of the eighteenth century1 a strong feeling arose against the slave-trade4 ,granville ,sharp 7#agcd-ahac7 was one of the earliest promoters of its abolition4 ,by his agency1 in the case of a negro1--,somerset1--claimed as a slave1 the decision was obtained from ,lord ,mansfield1 that a slave could not be held in ,england1 or carried out of it4 ,the ,quakers were early in the field in opposition to the traffic in slaves4 ,in the ,house of ,commons1 ,wilberforce1 a man of earnest religious convictions and one of the most eloquent orators of his time1 contended against it for years4 ,his friend ,pitt1 and ,fox1 joined him in #agij4 ,the measure of abolition was carried in #ahjg4 ,then followed the agitation for the abolition of slavery itself4 ,the slave-trade was made illegal by ,france in #ahai4 ,it had been condemned by the ,congress of ,vienna4 ,in the ,french colonies1 slavery continued until #ahdh4 ,,legal ,,reforms4--,in the same year the monopoly of the ,east-,india ,company was abolished1 and trade with the ,east was made free to all merchants4 ,a new ,poor ,law 7#ahcd7 checked the growth of pauperism4 ,in #ahce1 by the ,municipal ,corporations ,act1 the ancient rights of self-government by the towns1 which had been lost since the fourteenth century1 were restored to them4 ,civil marriage was made legal1 in compliance with a demand of the ,dissenters1 who were likewise relieved of other grounds of complaint 7#ahcf74 ,increased attention began to be paid to popular education4 ,,chartism4--,notwithstanding the constitutional changes in ,england1 the distress and discontent of the poorer classes occasioned the riotous ,chartist movement in #ahci1 when universal suffrage1 annual parliaments1 and other radical changes were in vain demanded4 ,mass meetings were held1 and outbreakings of violence were feared2 but order was preserved4 ,,china3 ,,afghanistan4--,a war with ,china 7#ahci7 had no better ground than the refusal of the ,chinese government to allow the importation of opium4 ,the occupation of ,kabul in #ahci caused a general revolt of the ,afghans4 ,a ,british army was destroyed in the ,khyber ,pass4 ,the ,british then conquered1 but did not care to retain1 ,afghanistan4 ,,repeal ,,of ,,the ,,corn ,,laws4--,victoria1 the only child of the ,duke of ,kent1 the brother of ,william ,,iv41 succeeded the latter in #ahcg4 ,she married her cousin1 ,albert of ,saxe-,coburg and ,gotha 7#ahdj74 ,in #ahdf the party which had long advocated free trade gained a triumph in the repeal of the ,corn ,laws1 which had existed since #ahae1 imposing duties on imported grain4 ,in the agitation which preceded the repeal1 ,richard ,cobden was the leader3 he was effectively aided by ,john ,bright4 ,but the measure was carried by ,sir ,robert ,peel1 who on this question abandoned his former views and those of the ,conservatives1 by whom he had been raised to power4 ,he was bitterly assailed1 especially by ,d',israeli1 who was rising to the position of a leader among them4 ,,louis ,,philippe4--,louis ,philippe made up his first ministry from the party which had raised him to the throne4 ,among its members were ,broglie1 ,guizot1 and ,casimir ,prier4 ,the king aimed by shrewd management to maintain his popularity at home1 and to keep the peace with foreign powers1 by taking care to encourage liberal movements abroad1 yet without taking any step in that direction which would bring on war4 ,he did nothing for the ,poles in their mortal struggle1 and nothing really effectual for the ,italians4 ,several abortive attempts upon his life were made by secret societies2 one of a dangerous character1 by ,fieschi 7#ahce71 who fired an infernal machine from his window when the king was passing4 ,this was followed by the ,laws of ,september1 to curb the license of the press4 ,they reminded the public of the royalist laws of #ahbj4 ,they were opposed by the more liberal men3 ,royer-,collard and ,villemain spoke against them4 ,they went by the name of the ,fieschi laws4 ,an effort to raise an insurrection among the ,french troops in ,strasburg was made by ,louis ,napoleon ,bonaparte 7#ahcf71 who1 after his flight from ,italy1 had resided in ,switzerland1 where he had busied himself in study1 and had written several books4 ,the enterprise proved a ridiculous failure3 its author was allowed to go to ,america4 ,,french ,,policy ,,in ,,the ,,east4--,various causes conspired to undermine ,louis ,philippe's government4 ,one of these was its connection with the war of ,mehemet ,ali with the ,sultan4 ,in the former war with his over-lord1 the ,sultan1 the viceroy of ,egypt had been invested with ,syria as a fief4 ,he now sent an army into ,syria1 under his son ,ibrahim1 who overran that country1 advanced victoriously into ,asia ,minor1 and threatened ,constantinople 7#ahcb74 ,the ,european powers intervened1 and obliged ,mehemet ,ali to content himself with ,syria1 together with the district of ,adana in ,asia ,minor1 and the island of ,candia1 which the ,sultan had ceded to him before4 ,in #ahci the ,sultan tried to recover ,syria1 but encountered an overwhelming defeat1 and lost the entire ,turkish fleet4 ,england now combined with ,austria1 ,prussia1 and ,russia1 and the ,western powers once more saved the ,turkish ,empire2 although ,france1 under the ministry of ,thiers1 had strongly favored the cause of ,mehemet ,ali 7#ahdj74 ,contrary to the wish of the ,french1 he had to give up ,syria4 ,he secured for himself and his descendants the pashalic of ,egypt 7#ahda74 ,the failure of the ,french policy in the ,east1 by this action of the ,quadruple ,alliance1 caused indignation and chagrin in ,france4 ,even ,thiers1 who was in sympathy with the cause of ,mehemet ,ali1 was loudly blamed4 ,there was danger of a rupture with ,england4 ,thiers was a principal author of the plan for fortifying ,paris by encircling the city with forts4 ,the king judged that they might prove to be of use in putting down insurrections4 ,louis ,napoleon thought the occasion favorable for another attempt to seize the crown4 ,he landed from ,england at ,boulogne with a few followers1 and proclaimed himself emperor4 ,he was captured1 tried1 and imprisoned in the fortress of ,ham1 where he spent six years4 ,his time there was mostly given to study and writing4 ,a few months before this attempt of ,louis ,napoleon1 the ,french government had arranged for the bringing of the body of the first ,napoleon from ,st4 ,helena to ,paris4 ,it was one of various impolitic measures1 in which ,thiers was actively concerned1 for doing honor to the emperor and his military achievements4 ,but at that time ,louis ,napoleon1 who was known to be a man of slow mind1 but whose capacity for intrigue was not understood1 was regarded with contempt1 and the ,bonapartists excited no alarm4 ,in #ahda1 in the presence of the royal family and of a vast concourse1 the remains of ,napoleon were deposited with great pomp in a magnificent tomb under the dome of the ,church of the ,invalides4 ,marshal ,soult superseded ,thiers at the head of the ministry 7#ahdj72 but ,guizot was the ruling spirit in the cabinet1 and was associated with the king until his dethronement4 ,the death of the ,duke of ,orleans1 the eldest son of ,louis ,philippe1 by a fall from his carriage 7,july #ac1 #ahdb71 endangered the new dynasty4 ,the duke's eldest son1 the ,count of ,paris1 was then only four years of age4 ,,guizot',s ,,administration4--,from #ahdj ,guizot was the principal minister of ,louis ,philippe1 and ,thiers was in the opposition4 ,they differed both as regards foreign and domestic policy4 ,thiers1 who in his convictions was a decided liberal1 and in full sympathy with the spirit of the ,french ,revolution1 was for the extension of suffrage1 and for making the influence of ,france felt and respected in matters of ,european concern1 even at the risk of war4 ,guizot1 on the contrary1 clung to the ,english alliance1 and he considered that a foreign war--for example1 in defense of ,mehemet ,ali1--would be to ,france a great and needless calamity4 ,claiming to be a fast friend of representative government1 ,guizot nevertheless inflexibly resisted movements for the extension of popular rights1--movements which he believed would lead1 if they were not withstood1 to revolution and anarchy4 ,on the one hand were the legitimists1 aiming at the restoration of the elder branch of the ,bourbons2 on the other hand there were the republicans1 who wished to be rid of monarchy altogether4 ,the government of ,louis ,philippe satisfied neither4 ,it served as a transition1 or temporary halting-place1 in the progress of ,france towards the goal of rational and stable republicanism1 to which the great ,revolution tended4 ,it was an attempt to put new wine in old bottles4 ,this inherent weakness of the ,orleans rule1 it would have been difficult by any means to neutralize in such a way as to avert1 sooner or later1 a catastrophe4 ,the unbending conservatism of ,guizot--as seen1 for instance1 in his refusal to extend suffrage--hastened this result4 ,a government over which less than half a million of voters of the middle class alone had an influence1 could not stand against the progressive feeling of the country4 ,the middle class1 on which the throne depended1 became separated from the advanced party1 to which the youth of ,france more and more rallied4 ,guizot was personally upright2 but official corruption was suffered to spread in the last years of his administration1 and bribery was used in the elections4 ,these circumstances1 added to the mortification of national pride from the little heed paid to ,france by the other powers1 weakened the throne4 ,the failure of the government to support the cause of liberty in ,poland and ,italy was another important source of its growing unpopularity4 ,guizot1 in the personal ,memoirs written by him after the fall of ,louis ,philippe1 has defended himself against the charge of a want of loyal support of ,thiers1 the head of the ministry1 while he 7,guizot7 was ambassador to ,england 7#ahdj74 ,there was a private understanding that he should go no farther than his sympathy with the views of ,thiers extended4 ,guizot has undertaken1 also1 to show that a war in behalf of ,mehemet ,ali would have been most unwise2 and that it was for the interest of ,france to regain its weight in ,european affairs1 not by the renewal of the bloody and fruitless contests of the past1 but by methods of peace4 ,he deemed it his duty not to give way to the warlike tastes and inclinations of the ,french people4 ,the effort1 however1 to tie down so spirited a nation to so tame a policy1 proved to be futile4 ,the recollections of the empire1 which the government itself did so much to arouse1 moved the people to compare the achievements of the past with the humiliating position of their country under the ,orleans rule4 ,guizot has left this interesting exposition of his principles and policy3 ,in the diplomatic complication which agitated ,europe1 ,i saw a brilliant opportunity of exercising and loudly proclaiming a foreign policy1 extremely new and bold in fact1 though moderate in appearance1 the only foreign policy which in #ahdj suited the peculiar position of ,france and her government1 as also the only course in harmony with the guiding principles and permanent wants of the great scheme of civilization to which the world of to-day aspires and tends4 ,the spirit of conquest1 of propagandism1 and of system1 has hitherto been the moving cause and master of the foreign policy of states4 ,the ambition of princes or peoples has sought its gratification in territorial aggrandizement4 ,religious or political faith has endeavored to expand by imposing itself4 ,great heads of government have attempted to regulate the destinies of nations according to profound combinations1 the offspring rather of their own thought than the natural result of facts4 ,let us cast a glance over the history of international ,european relations4 ,we shall see the spirit of conquest1 or of armed propagandism1 or of some systematic design upon the territorial organization of ,europe1 inspire and determine the foreign policy of governments4 ,let one or other of these impulses prevail1 and governments have disposed arbitrarily of the fate of nations4 ,war has ever been their indispensable mode of action4 ,i know that this course of things has been the fatal result of men's passions2 and that1 in spite of those passions and the evils they have inflicted on nations1 ,european civilization has continued to increase and prosper1 and may increase and prosper still more4 ,it is to the honor of the ,christian world1 that evil does not stifle good4 ,i know that the progress of civilization and public reason will not abolish human passions1 and that1 under their impulse1 the spirit of conquest1 of armed propagandism1 and of system1 will ever maintain1 in the foreign policy of states1 their place and portion4 ,but1 at the same time1 ,i hold for certain that these various incentives are no longer in harmony with the existing state of manners1 ideas1 interests1 and social instincts2 and that it is quite possible to-day to combat and restrain materially their empire4 ,the extent and activity of industry and commerce2 the necessity of consulting the general good2 the habit of frequent1 easy1 prompt1 and regular intercourse between peoples2 the invincible bias for free association1 inquiry1 discussion1 and publicity1--these characteristic features of great modern society already exercise1 and will continue to exercise more and more1 against the warlike or diplomatic fancies of foreign policy1 a preponderating influence4 ,people smile1 not without reason1 at the language and puerile confidence of the ,friends of ,peace1 and of the ,peace ,societies4 ,all the leading tendencies1 all the most elevated hopes of humanity1 have their dreams1 and their idle1 gaping advocates1 as they have also their days of decline and defeat2 but they no less pursue their course2 and through all the chimeras of some1 the doubts and mockeries of others1 society becomes transformed1 and policy1 foreign and domestic1 is compelled to transform itself with society4 ,we have witnessed the most dazzling exploits of the spirit of conquest1 the most impassioned efforts of the spirit of armed propagandism2 we have seen territories and states molded and re-molded1 unmade1 re-made1 and unmade again1 at the pleasure of combinations more or less specious4 ,what survives of all these violent and arbitrary works8 ,they have fallen1 like plants without roots1 or edifices without foundation4 ,and now1 when analogous enterprises are attempted1 scarcely have they made a few steps in advance when they pause and hesitate1 as if embarrassed by1 and doubtful of1 themselves2 so little are they in accord with the real wants1 the profound instincts1 of existing society1 and with the persevering1 though frequently disputed1 tendencies of modern civilization4444 ,i repeat1 our history since #aghi1 our endless succession of shocks1 revolutions1 and wars1 have left us in a state of leverish agitation which renders peace insipid1 and teaches us to find a blind gratification in the unexpected strokes of a hazardous policy4 ,we are a prey to two opposing currents1--one deep and regular1 which carries towards the definite goal of our social state2 the other superficial and disturbed1 which throws us here and there in search of new adventures and unknown lands4 ,thus we float and alternate between these two opposing directions1--called towards the one by our sound sense and moral conviction1 and enticed towards the other by our habits of routine and freaks of imagination4 7,memoirs of a ,minister of ,state1 from the year #ahdj pp4 #g-i1 #aj47 ,,the ,,king',s ,,avarice4--,the imputation of avarice to ,louis ,philippe was one source of his increasing unpopularity4 ,on his accession he had handed over to his children the estates of the house of ,orleans1 in order that1 as private property1 they might not be forfeited with the loss of the crown4 ,he was not content with increasing his wealth by adding to it all the possessions of ,charles ,x4 and of the ,duke of ,bourbon1 but it was discovered that he was engaged in business ventures4 ,in providing for ample marriage settlements for his children1 he resorted to devices which gave offense to the ,chamber of ,deputies and to the public4 ,yet writers like ,martin1 who are strongly averse to his method of rule1 clear him of blame in these particulars1 if he is to be judged by what is usual in a monarchical system4 ,,the ,,spanish ,,marriages4--,an event of consequence in relation to the fall of ,louis ,philippe from power was the affair of the ,spanish marriages1 which took place under the ministry of ,guizot4 ,the ,duke de ,montpensier1 the youngest son of the king1 was married to the sister of ,isabella ,,ii4 of ,spain4 ,the design1 it was believed1 was1 in the anticipated childlessness of the queen1 to secure for his heirs the ,spanish crown4 ,ferdinand ,,vii4 of ,spain was an absolutist2 but the extreme monarchical party there wished for a king of more energy1 and desired to raise to the throne his brother ,don ,carlos4 ,in #ahcj ,ferdinand1 being then childless1 was induced by his wife1 the daughter of ,ferdinand ,,iv4 of ,naples1 to abrogate the ,salic law excluding females from the succession4 ,her daughter ,isabella was born a few months later4 ,after the death of the king 7#ahcc71 the ,carlists resisted the exclusion of their favorite from the throne4 ,don ,carlos was proclaimed in the ,basque provinces1 and a civil war arose4 ,the queen1 ,maria ,christina1 as regent1 was supported by the moderados 7moderates7 and the liberals1 and was allowed to recruit for her army in ,england and ,france4 ,the leading constitutionalist general1 ,espartero1 was successful2 and ,don ,carlos fled into ,france 7#ahci74 ,the queen regent allied herself with the conservative wing of the progressive party 7the moderados72 but insurrections at ,barcelona and ,madrid1 in the interest of the radical wing1 obliged her to make ,espartero1 the head of the movement1 prime minister 7#ahdj74 ,his administration greatly promoted the prosperity of the country4 ,but the conservatives and absolutists were against him2 and1 as the result of a counter-insurrection1 ,gen4 ,narvaez1 the leader of the conservatives1 became chief of the cabinet 7#ahdd72 but he was dismissed two years later4 ,the constitution was divested of some of its liberal features4 ,the queen1 ,isabella ,,ii41 had been declared of age by the ,cortes1 and placed on the throne 7,nov4 #aj1 #ahdc74 ,christina1 her dissolute mother1 returned from ,france1 whither she had fled4 ,in the hope of securing the ,spanish throne to the ,orleans family1 ,louis ,philippe arranged with ,christina to effect a marriage between ,isabella and a weakling in body and mind1 ,francis de ,assis2 and1 at the same time1 a marriage of his son1 the ,duke de ,montpensier1 with her sister ,maria ,louisa 7,oct4 #aj1 #ahdf74 ,an ,orleans prince would not have acquired the crown1 even if ,louis ,philippe had remained on the ,french throne1 since a daughter was born to ,isabella in #ahea4 ,there was loud complaint in ,england against the king and ,guizot1 for the alleged violation of a promise in this affair4 ,their defense was that ,lord ,palmerston1 who succeeded ,aberdeen1 took a very different position from that of this minister1 which had been the condition of the engagement4 ,it was from ,palmerston's action previously in the affair of ,egypt1 that the ,french were embittered1 the ,english alliance was weakened1 and the policy of ,guizot1 who was sincerely desirous to maintain this friendly relation1 was discredited at home4 ,,fall ,,of ,,louis ,,philippe4--,the scarcity of provisions in #ahdf and #ahdg provoked much discontent in ,france4 ,bread riots broke out in various places4 ,the liberal party1 composed of diverse elements1 organized committees as one of their instruments of agitation in behalf of political reform4 ,the democratic and socialistic journals published inflammatory discussions and appeals4 ,the complaint of corruption among officials grew louder4 ,communism had numerous votaries2 and ,m4 ,louis ,blanc was an apostle of socialism1--the theory that the government should furnish work and maintenance to all of its subjects4 ,great reform banquets were held1 where the spirit was inimical to ,guizot1--who would yield nothing to the popular clamor1--and hostile to the reactionary policy of the ,orleans monarchy4 ,the spark that kindled the flames of revolution was the prohibition by ,guizot of a great reform banquet appointed to be held on the #bb;d of ,february1 #ahdh1 in the ,champs ,elyses1 in which a hundred thousand persons were expected to participate4 ,on that day barricades were thrown up in the streets1 and there were some conflicts with the municipal guard4 ,these disturbances continued on the next day4 ,the king1 who did not lack physical courage1 evinced no firmness or boldness in this crisis1 dismissed ,guizot as a peace-offering1 and called upon ,count ,mol to form a cabinet4 ,mol declined2 the riotous disturbances increased2 and ,thiers1 on the promise of the king to consent to the reforms demanded1 undertook1 when it was too late1 to take office1 and try to pacify the people4 ,soldiers began to fraternize with the mob4 ,the king showed no spirit1 but abdicated in favor of his grandson1 the ,count of ,paris4 ,the ,duchess of ,orleans presented her two sons1 the count and his brother1 before the ,chamber of ,deputies4 ,but the motion for a provisional government prevailed 7,feb4 #bd74 ,it consisted of ,dupont de l',eure1 ,lamartine the poet1 ,arago1 ,ledru-,rollin1 and six associates4 ,it established itself in the ,hotel de ,ville4 ,this act1 and the firmness and eloquence of ,lamartine1 prevented the establishment of an ultra-republican1 socialistic ,directory4 ,the middle classes1 alarmed on account of the displays of mob violence1 rallied to the support of ,lamartine and the party of order4 ,louis ,philippe and his family were allowed to escape to ,england4 ,there ,guizot temporarily took up his abode4 ,after a year1 this last of the ,huguenots returned to ,france1 where he died in #ahgd4 ,,contest ,,with ,,socialists4--,a concession was made to the socialists in the establishment of government workshops1 which turned out to be not workshops at all1 but mere excavations4 ,a mob of the ,red ,republicans was checked 7,april #af7 by the ,national ,guards4 ,the ,national ,assembly voted for a republic4 ,another mob of socialists and communists was suppressed 7,may #ae74 ,but the great contest came 7,june #bc-bf7 when the government dismissed a part of those given employment on public works4 ,the battle was severe2 but the government troops under the command of a patriotic general1 ,cavaignac1 who was made dictator during the struggle1 subdued the insurgents4 ,he was now appointed president of the council1 or chief of the executive commission4 ,,the ,,republic3 ,,louis ,,napoleon4--,fear of communism and of mob violence gave a new impetus to the conservative tendency4 ,a republican constitution1 however1 with a president holding for a term of four years1 was adopted4 ,louis ,napoleon was elected a member of the assembly4 ,he was chosen president of the republic1 mainly by the votes of the peasantry and common soldiers1 and with the help of ,thiers and others who thought him incapable1 and desired to bring about a restoration of the ,orleans rule4 ,thiers was a personal enemy of ,cavaignac4 ,thiers says ,martin1 did not feel the same repulsion for the consulate and the empire as does the present generation3 he took ,louis ,napoleon for an inexperienced and somewhat narrow-minded man1 whom he could easily restrain and direct1 not guessing the determined obstinacy and prejudice hidden beneath his heavy and commonplace exterior4 7,popular ,history of ,france from #aghi1 iii4 #bjj47 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,europe1 ,,from ,,the ,,revolutions ,,of #ahdh ,,to ,,the ,,austro-,,prussian ,,war 7#ahff74 ,,disturbances ,,in ,,germany4--,the effect of the revolution which dethroned ,louis ,philippe was felt like an electric shock through all ,europe4 ,it was experienced immediately in the smaller states of ,germany4 ,new ministries were installed1 which were pledged to a liberal policy4 ,louis of ,bavaria resigned the crown to his son ,maximilian4 ,the ,grand ,duke of ,baden agreed to the demands of a popular convention at ,mannheim1 and he placed a liberal ministry in control of the government4 ,prussia and ,austria were thoroughly disturbed by the movement for freedom and national unity4 ,a rising in ,vienna 7,march #ac-ae71 headed by the students1 compelled ,metternich to depart for safety to ,england1 the asylum of political exiles of every creed4 ,the emperor summoned a ,diet to be chosen by popular suffrage1 and went for safety to ,innsbruck among his faithful ,tyrolese4 ,in ,berlin1 at the same time1 there were excited meetings1 and conflicts in the streets between the people and the soldiers4 ,the ,prussian king yielded to the demand of the crowd which gathered before his palace on the #ahth of ,march1 that the troops should be sent out of ,berlin2 but he did not send them away until the next day1 and after an attack had been made on them from behind barricades4 ,the ministry was dismissed1 and a call was issued for a ,national ,assembly to be chosen by ballot4 ,,the ,,frankfort ,,convention4--,there was a gathering at ,frankfort1 of about five hundred ,germans1 who organized themselves as a provisional parliament under the presidency of ,mittermaier 7,march #ca74 ,they resolved to call a ,national ,assembly1 to be elected by the ,german people4 ,the ,confederate ,diet recognized the authority of the provisional parliament4 ,,the ,,frankfort ,,parliament4--,the ,national ,assembly met on ,may #ah1 and created a new provisional central government1 with the ,archduke ,john of ,austria as its head4 ,the ,confederate ,diet ceased to exist4 ,but the division of parties in the assembly1 with respect to the system of government for united ,germany1 gave rise to long and profitless discussions4 ,differences of opinion as to the steps to be taken in a war which had sprung up with ,denmark1 respecting the duchies of ,schleswig and ,holstein1 made the strife of factions in the parliament still more bitter4 ,,new ,,prussian ,,constitution4--,the ,prussian ,national ,assembly met on ,may #bb4 ,a hot contention arose between the moderate and the radical parties4 ,at length the king adjourned the assembly to meet in ,brandenburg2 but the party of the ,left 7the radical party7 protested1 and was soon dispersed by force4 ,in ,brandenburg a quorum failed to meet4 ,the government framed a constitution with two chambers1--the second to be chosen by universal suffrage1--and called a new parliament to consider it4 ,the new parliament failed to agree with the government1 but another parliament met 7,aug4 #g1 #ahdi74 ,mutual concessions were made1 and the king swore to maintain the new constitution 7,feb4 #f1 #ahej74 ,,austria3 ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,frankfort ,,assembly4--,the ,diet of the ,austrian ,empire was a confused assembly representing different nationalities4 ,kossuth1 an eloquent ,hungarian deputy in the lower house1 demanded independence for his country4 ,the ,slavonic tribes resisted the supremacy of the ,magyars4 ,when the emperor took active measures against these 7,oct4 #f71 there was an uprising in ,vienna4 ,the city was held by the revolutionists until the #cjth1 when it was captured by the emperor after much bloodshed4 ,ferdinand ,i abdicated in favor of his young nephew1 ,francis ,joseph4 ,the ,frankfort ,assembly debated the question1 what relation ,austria should have to united ,germany4 ,a majority decided 7,march #bg1 #ahdi7 that a president should be appointed1 whose office should descend in his family1 and that he should be styled ,emperor of the ,germans4 ,the station was offered to ,frederick ,william of ,prussia1 but he declined it4 ,the new constitution was not accepted by the more important states4 ,the assembly dwindled away through the withdrawal or resignation of members1 and1 having adjourned to ,stuttgart1 was finally dispersed by the ,wrtemberg government 7,june #ah74 ,its history was a grievous disappointment of ardent hopes4 ,the ,prussians helped the ,saxon1 ,bavarian1 and ,baden governments1 to put down formidable and partially successful popular insurrections in their states4 ,,the ,,hungarian ,,revolt4--,austria reduced her ,german provinces to subjection1 and early in #ahdi the ,italian provinces also4 ,but a great contest was to be waged with the ,hungarians1 who gathered an army of one hundred thousand men1 and gained decided advantages over incompetent ,austrian generals4 ,but in the end ,austria brought together overwhelming forces and was aided by the intervention of ,russia1 which sent an army into ,hungary4 ,the ,hungarian general1 ,gorgey1 whom ,kossuth and the ministers had made dictator1 surrendered at ,vilagos 7,aug4 #ac1 #ahdi74 ,kossuth and other ,hungarian patriots fled into ,turkey4 ,hungary was dealt with as conquered territory4 ,the ,austrian commander1 ,haynau1 treated the vanquished people with brutal severity4 ,the ,hungarian constitution was abolished4 ,the general constitution of ,austria was abrogated on ,dec4 #ca1 #ahea4 ,,condition ,,of ,,italy4--,charles ,albert1 the king of ,piedmont1 or ,sardinia1 disliked the preponderance of the ,austrians1 and desired to give his people good government1 but was disinclined to enter into the schemes of ,young ,italy1 composed of the ardent republicans of whom ,mazzini was the chief4 ,on this account they were exasperated with him4 ,on the contrary1 a great part of the moderates placed their hope for ,italy in the ,sardinian king and his house4 ,to one of these1 ,d',azeglio1 a nobleman of high character1 who reported to him1 in #ahde1 the danger that revolutionary risings against misrule in ,italy would occur1 and set forth the necessity for a speedy remedy1 the king said1 ,make known to these gentlemen1 that they must be quiet and not move1 for at present nothing can be done2 but let them be certain1 that1 if the occasion presents itself1 my life1 the life of my sons1 my arms1 my treasure1 my army1 all shall be devoted to the cause of ,italy4 ,in ,tuscany1 there was much less oppression than elsewhere1 but even there the government was despotic4 ,,liberal ,,policy ,,of ,,pius ,,ix4--,on the death of ,gregory ,,xvi4 7#ahdf71 ,cardinal ,mastai ,feretti was made ,pope1 and took the name of ,pius ,,ix4 ,he adopted a new and liberal policy4 ,prisoners for political offenses were set free1 an amnesty was proclaimed1 and improvements--including railroads--were promised4 ,the ,gregoriani1 who were devoted to the old administrative system and to ,austrian predominance1 were offended4 ,the ,roman people generally were full of joy and hope4 ,the extreme republicans were dissatisfied and suspicious4 ,on the occasion of disturbances1 the ,pope consented to the formation of a ,national ,guard1 as the liberal party wished4 ,the consequence was1 that ,austrian troops were marched into his territory4 ,this movement roused ,charles ,albert to espouse more actively the ,italian cause4 ,in ,tuscany the ,liberals1 with ,ricasoli for a leader1 drove the ,grand ,duke to measures of reform4 ,austrian aggressions were more severely felt in ,parma and ,modena4 ,in ,palermo1 there was a rising 7,jan4 #ab7 against the unbearable tyranny of ,ferdinand ,,ii4 ,this was followed by an insurrection in ,naples itself4 ,the king was obliged to grant to his people a constitution4 ,the same boon was granted by ,pius ,,ix41 by the king of ,sardinia1 and by the ,tuscan ,grand ,duke4 ,italy1 it should be observed1 was already on fire with these revolutionary movements prior to the overthrow of the government of ,louis ,philippe4 ,the earliest popular demonstrations at ,milan were on ,sept4 #e and #h1 #ahdg4 ,,events ,,in ,,italy4--,the revolt in ,vienna and in ,hungary in #ahdh furnished the long-coveted occasion for the ,italians to attack the hated ,austrian rule4 ,lombardy flew to arms1 and expelled the ,austrian troops4 ,the ,venetians set up a provisional government under ,daniele ,manin1 their leader in the insurrection4 ,the king of ,sardinia declared war against ,austria4 ,a multitude of ,italian volunteers rushed to his standard4 ,but there was no national league2 his military management lacked skill2 and after some successes he was defeated by ,radetzky1 the ,austrian general1 at ,custozza 7,july #be74 ,garibaldi1 who had been a sailor1 but was now a gallant and adventurous champion of the ,italian movement1 kept up the contest in the mountains on the north4 ,the ,austrians were once more in power4 ,the refusal of the ,pope to take part in hostilities against them alienated the liberals4 ,his best minister ,rossi1 who stood midway between the extreme parties1 was assassinated 7,nov4 #ae74 ,from the disorder that reigned at ,rome1 ,pius ,,ix4 escaped in the dress of a common priest to ,gaeta4 ,the extreme democrats in ,tuscany got the upper hand1 and set up a provisional government4 ,in ,piedmont1 ,gioberti1 the minister1 gave way to ,ratazzi1 who was of the democratic school4 ,but the dream of an ,italian confederation was dissipated by the great defeat of ,charles ,albert by ,radetzky at ,novara 7,march #bc74 ,the broken-hearted king resigned his crown to his son1 ,victor ,emmanuel4 ,in ,rome1 the government1 after the flight of the ,pope1 was lodged in an assembly elected by popular suffrage1 with triumvirs1 of whom ,mazzini was the first4 ,the ,french were not disposed to allow the ,austrians to dominate in the peninsula1 and sent an army under ,oudinot1 who captured ,rome from the republicans1 after a stubborn defense by ,garibaldi4 ,a ,french garrison now occupied the city4 ,the ,pope1 who had abandoned the idea of political changes in the direction of ,italian freedom and unity1 was brought back to the ,vatican 7,april1 #ahej74 ,by the close of the summer of #ahdi1 the ,austrian authority was restored1 and was exercised with redoubled severity in ,venice and ,milan4 ,the rulers of ,tuscany1 ,modena1 and ,parma had before returned to their capitals4 ,they were kept in power by means of ,austrian garrisons4 ,the will of ,austria was law in the greater part of ,italy4 ,ferdinand ,,ii4 7called ,bomba7 maintained his tyranny by the help of ,swiss mercenaries and loathsome dungeons4 ,piedmont was the only spot where constitutional freedom survived4 ,in its youthful monarch and in ,garibaldi1 the hope of ,italy rested4 ,the course of events ultimately proved that both the fire of the republicans and the prudence of more moderate statesmen were requisite for its emancipation4 ,,coup ,d',,tat ,,of ,,louis ,,napoleon4--,the ,legislative ,assembly in ,france1 consisting of one chamber1 had in it many monarchists4 ,as the first ,napoleon was sustained by the dread of ,jacobin rule1 so the third ,napoleon profited by the dread of the ultra-republicans4 ,it was felt by the trading-class1 that the safety of society depended on him4 ,when the ,french troops were sent to ,rome in #ahdi1 the opposition of ,ledru-,rollin and his radical party became more furious4 ,but ,changarnier and his troops dispersed their procession 7,june #ac71 and broke down their barricades4 ,the ,paris insurrection was put down1 and ,ledru-,rollin fled the country4 ,thiers1 ,broglie1 ,mol1 ,montalembert1 and other adherents of the ,bourbons1 either of the old or of the ,orleans branch1 now professed to yield to ,louis ,napoleon their adhesion4 ,his measures for the restraint of the press1 the punishment of political offenses1 etc41 were popular1 especially in the provinces4 ,the clergy were favorable to him4 ,the soldiers1 in the autumn of #ahej1 began to shout ,vive ,i',empreur6 ,changarnier was removed from the command of the troops 7,jan41 #ahea7 when it was learned that his regiments did not join in the cry4 ,movements of this kind1 together with petitions for a revision of the constitution1 provoked hostility in the ,assembly4 ,the struggle between the president and that body culminated in the ,coup d'tat of ,december #b1 #ahea4 ,st4 ,arnaud had been appointed minister of war1 the fidelity of the troops in ,paris rendered sure1 and all needful preparations made with profound secrecy4 ,the president gave a great party on the night of the first4 ,during the night1 the republican and ,orleanist leaders--,cavaignac1 ,changarnier1 ,lamoricire1 ,thiers1 ,victor ,hugo1 and many others--were surprised in their beds1 and imprisoned4 ,they were sent away in custody to different places4 ,placards were posted1 dissolving the ,assembly1 and declaring ,paris in a state of siege2 also1 an address submitting to the people the question whether there should be a responsible chief of state for ten years4 ,the soldiers fired on gatherings of the people in the streets1 killing many innocent persons1 for the purpose of forestalling any attempt at resistance4 ,the deputies1 as they persisted in their purpose to meet1 were surrounded1 and placed under arrest4 ,within a few weeks many thousands of persons suspected of disaffection were exiled or imprisoned4 ,nearly seven and a half million votes were cast for ,napoleon1 and only #fdg1bib against him4 ,the political prisoners were released4 ,thiers was allowed to return to ,paris4 ,,new ,,french ,,empire4--,a new constitution was promulgated 7,jan4 #ad1 #aheb71 resembling that which existed under the consulate4 ,the ,legislative ,assembly was virtually stripped of power4 ,one year later1 the restoration of the ,empire was decreed1 and sanctioned by popular vote4 ,the change was at first viewed with alarm by ,austria1 ,prussia1 and ,russia4 ,francis ,joseph made a visit to ,berlin1 and was received with great honor4 ,the two principal ,german sovereigns reviewed the troops of ,berlin1 in front of the bronze statue of ,blcher4 ,but ,napoleon declared that the ,empire meant peace1 and the other great powers followed the example of ,england in recognizing his imperial government4 ,,the ,,crimean ,,war4--,the administration of the ,french emperor was acceptable to the commercial classes1 who prized tranquillity4 ,he erected new edifices in ,paris1 and made many other improvements1 which1 however1 had an eye to defense against popular insurrection1 and involved much hardship for the poor4 ,he married 7,jan4 #cj1 #ahec7 a young ,spanish countess1 ,eugnie ,montijo4 ,what did most to give stability to his power1 and to raise his repute in ,europe1 was the union of ,france with ,england in the prosecution of the ,crimean war4 ,the ,emperor ,nicholas thought the time propitious for the aggressive ambition of ,russia with regard to ,turkey4 ,his plan of attack embraced a provisional occupation of ,constantinople by ,russian troops4 ,he had intimated to ,england that the situation of the sick man--meaning the decaying government of ,turkey--opened the way for a division of the ,turkish ,empire between the two powers4 ,lord ,aberdeen was then prime minister in ,england1 and ,mr4 ,gladstone was chancellor of the exchequer4 ,the dispute of ,russia with ,turkey1 which was the ostensible occasion of the war1 related to the holy places in ,jerusalem1 the resort of worshipers of different creeds1 and to the privileges accorded by the ,sultan to the ,greek and ,latin ,christians respectively4 ,the claim of ,nicholas resolved itself into a demand to exercise a sole protectorate over the ,christians of the ,greek faith in the ,turkish ,empire4 ,without formally declaring war his forces crossed the ,pruth4 ,alarm was awakened in ,austria1 in consequence of the ,russian movements in that region4 ,nicholas had only been able to secure neutrality from ,prussia and ,austria4 ,louis ,napoleon was anxious for war4 ,lord ,aberdeen was averse to it2 but the pressure of ,lord ,palmerston and his supporters was too strong1 and war was declared 7,march #bg1 #ahed7 by ,england and ,france in alliance with ,turkey4 ,at first the ,turks had unexpectedly gained advantages over the ,russians1 but the ,turkish fleet was destroyed at ,sinope 7,nov4 #cj1 #ahec74 ,approaches of ,russia which portend the acquisition of the mouths of the ,danube1 or of any of the ,slavonic districts of ,european ,turkey1 can only excite jealousy and apprehension on the side of ,austria4 ,nicholas1 on the demand of ,francis ,joseph1 which was seconded by ,prussia1 evacuated the ,danubian principalities1 which were provisionally held by ,austrian forces4 ,the ,english and ,french fleets that were sent into the ,baltic did not produce the effect that was anticipated by the allies4 ,the shores of the ,black ,sea were the main theater of the conflict4 ,the troops of the ,english and ,french landed at ,eupatoria in the ,crimea in ,september1 #ahed1 and defeated the ,russians in the battle of the ,alma4 ,there was a second engagement at ,balaklava 7,oct4 #be72 and in the battle of ,inkermann 7,nov4 #e7 the attempt of the ,russians to surprise the ,british forces met with a defeat4 ,the effort of the allies was directed to the capture of the strong fortress of ,sebastopol4 ,st4 ,arnaud1 the ,french general1 had died1 and been succeeded by ,canrobert4 ,later1 ,lord ,raglan1 the ,english commander1 died4 ,the siege was prolonged4 ,once the batteries of ,malakoff and ,redan were attacked by the allies unsuccessfully2 but1 after a month's bombardment1 both were taken by storm 7,sept4 #h1 #ahee71 and ,malakoff1 which the ,french took1 was held4 ,the ,russians blew up their forts at ,sebastopol1 and withdrew to the northern part of the fortress4 ,meantime ,nicholas had died 7,march #b1 #ahee71 and been succeeded by ,alexander ,,ii42 and ,lord ,aberdeen had been superseded by ,palmerston as head of the ,english ministry4 ,,peace ,,of ,,paris 7,,march #cj1 #ahef7--;,in the ,peace of ,paris1 ,russia was obliged to cede the mouths of the ,danube and a small portion of ,bessarabia to ,moldavia1 to limit the number of her ships in the ,black ,sea1 and to engage to establish no arsenals on its coast4 ,the ,black ,sea was to be open to commerce1 but interdicted to vessels of war4 ,russia gave up the claim to an exclusive protectorate over ,christians in ,turkey4 ,she surrendered also the fortress of ,kars in ,turkish ,armenia1 which she had captured4 ,wallachia and ,moldavia were confirmed in important privileges of self-government1 under the ,porte4 ,austria1 ,france1 and ,great ,britain1 in a distinct treaty1 guaranteed the independence and integrity of the ,ottoman ,empire4 ,,neutrality ,,declarations4--,the parties to the ,treaty of ,paris 7including ,austria and ,prussia7 united in four declarations on the subject of neutrality1 by which privateering was abolished1 the neutral flag was made to protect enemy's goods except contraband of war1 these goods under an enemy's flag were exempted from capture1 and it was ordained that blockades in order to be binding must be effective4 ,the ,united ,states declined to concur in this agreement unless the private property of subjects or citizens of a belligerent power 7unless it be contraband of war7 should be also exempted from seizure by armed vessels of the enemy4 ,this rule1 were it adopted1 would put private property on the sea on a level with private property on the land1 in case of war4 ,,war ,,of ,,france ,,and ,,sardinia ,,with ,,austria4--,after the contests of #ahdh-di1 ,victor ,emmanuel ,,ii4 was looked on by all except the ardent republicans of the school of ,mazzini as the champion of ,italian independence4 ,he made ,azeglio his chief minister1 and ,cavour his minister of commerce4 ,various reforms were adopted1 especially for the reduction of the power and wealth of ecclesiastics4 ,the rapid progress of administrative changes led ,azeglio to withdraw from office4 ,cavour1 his successor1 a statesman of broad views and consummate ability1 began to plan not only for the ,sardinian kingdom1 but likewise for all ,italy4 ,by his advice1 ,sardinia joined ,england and ,france in the ,crimean war4 ,at the ,congress of ,paris 7#ahef71 he spread before the ,european powers the deplorable misgovernment at ,naples and in the other states of ,southern ,italy4 ,he denounced a plot against the life of ,louis ,napoleon1 which ,orsini1 a ,roman1 and a member of a secret society1 tried to carry out1 but failed 7,jan4 #ad1 #aheh74 ,communications and a personal interview between ,napoleon and ,cavour followed4 ,an alliance was formed1 one of the objects of which was the expulsion of the ,austrians from ,italy4 ,prince ,napoleon1 the son of ,louis ,napoleon's uncle ,jerome1 was married to ,clotilde1 the daughter of ,victor ,emmanuel4 ,napoleon's ministers were opposed to a war with ,austria1 and he himself affected to have no intention of that kind4 ,russia proposed a congress2 but ,austria refused to admit ,sardinia1 or to join it herself1 unless that power should immediately disarm4 ,russia was at that moment unfriendly to ,austria1 which had refused to help the ,czar in the ,crimean war4 ,prussia1 also1 showed a disinclination to interfere4 ,france and ,sardinia declared war against ,austria1 and ,napoleon proclaimed that he would free ,italy1 from the ,alps to the ,adriatic 7,may1 #ahei74 ,as the war began1 a revolt broke out in ,tuscany4 ,the ,tuscan ,duke1 the ,duchess regent of ,parma1 and the ,duke of ,modena1 had to fly from their capitals4 ,cavour accepted help from all ,italian patriots except the adherents of ,mazzini1 to whom were imputed schemes of assassination4 ,garibaldi led the ,riflemen of the ,alps4 ,louis ,napoleon commanded the ,french army in person4 ,the ,french were victorious at ,magenta 7,june #d71 where ,mac,mahon was made a marshal4 ,at the battle of ,solferino 7,june #bd71 all of the three contending sovereigns were present4 ,the ,austrians were vanquished with very heavy losses4 ,at this time ,napoleon1 unexpectedly to his ,italian ally1 in a personal interview with ,francis ,joseph at ,villafranca1 arranged preliminaries of peace1 which provided1 to be sure1 for the cession of ,lombardy to ,sardinia1 but left ,venice and the ,quadrilateral1--as the district1 with its fortifications1 east of the ,mincio1 was called1--under the ,austrian rule4 ,it was proposed that an ,italian confederation should be formed1 with the ,pope for its honorary president1--a plan not destined to be realized4 ,the ,grand ,duke of ,tuscany and the ,duke of ,modena were to be restored1 could it be done without a resort to arms4 ,napoleon was afraid of a long war4 ,russia was not disposed to suffer him to stir up a revolution in ,hungary4 ,prussia might soon intervene2 and this1 ,austria1 too1 did not anticipate without anxiety1 since ,prussia would thereby become predominant in ,germany4 ,cavour1 in disgust and indignation at this premature close of the struggle1 laid down his office4 ,,further ,,extension ,,of ,,the ,,sardinian ,,kingdom4--,tuscany1 ,modena1 and ,parma1 and ,romagna which belonged to the ,pope1 by deputies implored ,victor ,emmanuel to annex them to his kingdom4 ,plus ,,ix4 made the most strenuous opposition4 ,napoleon refused to use coercion1 or to suffer it to be used by others1 to carry out the ,villafranca arrangements in the duchies4 ,cavour was recalled to office in #ahfj2 and at his suggestion1 made to ,napoleon1 the communities just named were allowed to dispose of themselves by popular vote4 ,the result was their incorporation in the ,sardinian kingdom4 ,by way of compensation to ,napoleon1 ,savoy and ,nice were ceded by the ,sardinian government to ,france4 ,the ,pope excommunicated all invaders and usurpers of the ,papal ,states1 without the mention of names4 ,,annexing ,,of ,,naples ,,and ,,sicily4--,the next great event in ,italy was the expulsion of ,francis ,,ii41 the tyrant who reigned in ,naples and ,sicily after the death of ,ferdinand ,,ii4 7#ahei74 ,garibaldi1 without the consent of the ,sardinian government1 raised the standard of revolt in ,sicily 7#ahfj71 and conquered the island4 ,the king and ,cavour feared that his movement would give control to the republicans1 and also bring ,sardinia into war with other powers4 ,but1 despite this opposition1 ,garibaldi entered ,naples as a victor1 and was joined by ,mazzini4 ,the ,sardinian troops entered the ,papal ,states1 which the king had threatened to do unless the guerilla attacks of pontifical troops in the south were suppressed4 ,the ,french general1 ,lamoricire1 in the service of the pontiff1 was defeated at ,castelfidardo4 ,garibaldi1 triumphant in the ,neapolitan kingdom1 met ,victor ,emmanuel in the ,abruzzi1 and hailed him as ,king of ,italy4 ,naples and ,sicily voted to join the kingdom of ,sardinia4 ,with the exception of ,venice and the ,roman ,campagna1 the whole of ,italy was now united under the house of ,savoy4 ,on ,feb4 #ah1 #ahfa1 the first parliament of united ,italy was opened by ,cavour4 ,shortly after1 there was a public reconciliation between him and ,garibaldi1 between whom there had been an estrangement4 ,in addition to ,garibaldi's general and constant dissent from the moderate policy of ,cavour1 the former was displeased that his soldiers had not been rewarded with higher positions in the ,sardinian army than it was practicable or safe to grant to them4 ,cavour believed that society was on the march towards democracy1 but that no republic1 at the present1 in ,italy could be stable4 ,cavour had his heart set on gaining ,rome for the capital of the kingdom1 and on establishing a free church in a free state4 ,he did not live to see the realization of his hopes4 ,his death occurred 7,may #cj1 #ahfa71 shortly after the amicable interview with the republican patriot1 to which reference has just been made4 ,,the ,,september ,,convention4--,the hope of the national party in ,italy was now directed towards the gaining of ,venice and ,rome4 ,but1 as regards ,austria1 the ,european powers would not have suffered a breach of the ,peace of ,villafranca4 ,louis ,napoleon had assumed the part of protector of the ,holy ,see1 and a ,french garrison was stationed at ,rome4 ,after ,cavour's death1 ,ricasoli1 the head of the ministry1 led the constitutional party2 and ,ratazzi1 who succeeded him and had been more in sympathy with the ,garibaldians1 did not deviate from his predecessor's cautious policy4 ,the relations of the ,italian government to ,france1 even obliged the king to interfere to put down a rising1 set on foot by ,garibaldi1 for driving the ,french out of ,rome4 ,garibaldi was defeated by the ,sardinian troops at ,aspromonte 7,aug4 #bg1 #ahfb71 and taken to ,spezzia4 ,thence he went to ,caprera4 ,the liberal party in ,europe were incensed with ,louis ,napoleon4 ,this was one inducement that moved him to enter into an agreement with ,victor ,emmanuel1 by which ,france engaged to withdraw her troops gradually from ,rome1 leaving the ,pope to form an army of his own2 while1 on the other hand1 the king engaged 7,sept4 #ahfd7 to prevent any attack on the papal territory4 ,the ,french minister of foreign affairs said to the ,italian minister at ,paris1 ,naturally the result of all this will be that you will end by going to ,rome2 but matters were to be so managed that ,france should not be held responsible4 ,this was the ,september ,convention4 ,florence was made the capital of ,italy2 but it was acknowledged that this was a temporary arrangement1 and that1 as soon as the progress of events should open the way1 the seat of government would be transferred to ,rome4 ,after the withdrawal of the ,french troops in #ahff1 ,garibaldi1 with the connivance of the ,italian government1--in which ,ratazzi1 who had been obliged to leave his office1 was again the ruling spirit1--once more gathered a force for the capture of ,rome 7#ahfg72 but ,france interfered1 and the advance of ,garibaldi was checked at ,mentana by ,french troops4 ,afterwards ,napoleon again placed a ,french garrison in ,rome4 ,ratazzi1 whose scheme of capturing ,rome by non-interference was balked1 had to lay down his office4 ,the next step towards ,italian unity was to be a result of the ,austro-,prussian war4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,europe1 ,,from ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,austro-,,prussian ,,war ,,to ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,franco-,,german ,,war 7#ahff-ahga74 ,,rivalship ,,of ,,prussia ,,and ,,austria4--,the brief but mighty struggle which secured for ,prussia the preponderance in ,germany grew immediately out of complications respecting ,schleswig-,holstein4 ,it was1 however1 the fruit of a rivalship which had been gaining in intensity since the times of ,frederick the ,great4 ,it was the grand triumph of ,prussia1 after a long succession of defeats and humiliations in the field of diplomacy4 ,,schleswig-,,holstein4--,the two duchies of ,holstein and ,schleswig had long been annexed to the crown of ,denmark1 whose king1 as ,duke of ,holstein1 was a member of the ,german ,confederation4 ,the two duchies1 as regards their government1 did not stand on the same footing2 but the people of ,holstein and the ,german portion of the ,schleswig people held that by a treaty in #adfj the two duchies could not be separated4 ,moreover1 the law of succession in the duchies excluded the female line1 and when there was a prospect that the male line of the ,danish dynasty would die out the ,germans wished the duchies to become independent under an ,augustenburg prince while the ,danes wished to absorb the duchies in ,denmark4 ,in #ahdh the ,germans of ,schleswig-,holstein revolted against ,frederick ,,vii4 ,the troops of the ,german confederation assisted them2 but the attitude of ,england and ,russia1 which favored the ,danes1 moved ,prussia to conclude the armistice of ,malm1--an act that excited the anger of the ,german ,national ,assembly at ,frankfort4 ,after the expiration of the truce1 the war1 with intermissions1 went on1 waged by ,schleswig-,holstein1 alone or with aid from ,germany2 later in a protocol--an agreement signed in ,london in #aheb by the ,great ,powers1 in which ,austria and ,prussia concurred1--the king of ,denmark and his heirs were guaranteed in the possession of the duchies4 ,this act1 however1 was not accepted by the duchies themselves1 or by the ,diet of the ,german ,confederation2 so that the seeds of strife still remained4 ,,preponderance ,,of ,,austria4--,after the suppression of the revolts of #ahdh1 ,austria1 whose counsels were guided by the astute minister ,schwarzenberg1 labored to dwarf and supplant the influence of ,prussia4 ,frederick ,william ,,iv4 of ,prussia aimed to bring about a closer union of ,german states1 and called a national parliament to meet at ,erfurt4 ,austria withstood these attempts4 ,the disposition of ,prussia to support the resistance in ,hesse to the tyranny of its elector1 threatened to bring on an armed contest with ,austria and its ,german allies2 but the attitude of ,russia caused ,prussia to desist from its movement4 ,at the conference at ,olmtz 7#ahej71 ,manteuffel1 the ,prussian minister1 yielded every thing to ,austria2 and subsequently1 under the influence of ,russia1 the ,german ,confederation of #ahae was restored4 ,prussia took no part with the ,western powers in the ,crimean war1 with which it had no direct concern1 and thus did not1 like ,austria1 make herself obnoxious to the ,czar4 ,,william ,i3 ,,bismarck4--,on the accession of ,william ,i4 as regent 7,oct4 #aheg71 the ,prussian government initiated a more spirited and independent policy in its relations to ,austria4 ,it refused to lend active aid to that country in the war with ,france and ,sardinia 7#ahei74 ,the efficient measures of ,king ,william for the reorganization and increase of the army encountered constant opposition1 year after year1 in the assembly1 from the liberal party1 which did not divine his motives1 and saw in them nothing but the usurping of an unconstitutional authority4 ,in #ahfb the king made ,bismarck minister of foreign affairs1 and the virtual head of the administration4 ,this able man had widened his knowledge of ,european politics by serving as ambassador first at ,st4 ,petersburg and then at ,paris4 ,previously he had been allied with the absolutist party of ,manteuffel3 he was always for strong government4 ,after #ahea1 when he was delegate of ,prussia at the ,federal ,diet at ,frankfort1 he made up his mind to deliver ,prussia from the domineering influence of ,austria4 ,but he was held in distrust by the ,prussian liberals1 who saw in him only an energetic supporter of the king in his reform of the army by acts of arbitrary power not warranted by the constitution4 ,in #ahfc ,francis ,joseph summoned a congress of ,german princes to ,frankfort to frame a new ,german constitution2 but as ,prussia stood aloof1 nothing was accomplished4 ,there was much bitterness between the two states4 ,for the moment1 however1 attention was diverted by the aspect of affairs in ,schleswig-,holstein4 ,,events ,,leading ,,to ,,war4--,on ,march #cj1 #ahfc1 ,frederick ,,vii4 of ,denmark issued a decree for the separation of ,schleswig1 and its incorporation in ,denmark4 ,the troops of the ,german ,confederacy were sent by the ,diet into ,holstein4 ,prussia and ,austria1 who held that the ,danes had broken the ,treaty of #aheb1 announced their agreement to prosecute the war with ,denmark as independent powers1 apart from the confederation4 ,they persisted in this purpose1 and their victories over the ,danes compelled ,christian ,,ix4 to sign a treaty 7,oct4 #cj1 #ahfd7 by which he resigned his rights in the duchies in favor of the emperor of ,austria and the king of ,prussia4 ,how should the duchies be disposed of8 ,it was ,bismarck's aim to annex them to ,prussia1 which was sorely in need of seaports4 ,he professed that the war had abrogated the ,london ,treaty of #aheb4 ,the prime object of ,austria was to prevent ,prussia from making this gain4 ,the dispute was hot and threatening2 but in the ,gastein ,convention 7,aug4 #ad1 #ahfe71 ,lauenburg 7which the ,danes had also ceded7 was sold to ,prussia1 and the disposition of the duchies was left to be determined later4 ,meantime the ,prussians were to hold ,schleswig1 and the ,austrians ,holstein4 ,the ,prussians were1 moreover1 to hold provisionally the port of ,kiel4 ,the scheme of ,austria was to hand over the debated question to the ,diet of the ,confederation1 where it could command a majority4 ,to this ,prussia would not consent1 but demanded that the ,confederacy should be reconstituted in such a that ,prussia1 as well as ,germany1 might have strength in the event of a ,european war4 ,bismarck made a secret treaty with ,sardinia1 which provided that ,prussia and ,sardinia should act together in case of war with ,austria1 and that peace should not be made until ,venetia had been given up to the kingdom of ,italy4 ,when ,austria convoked the estates of ,holstein ,prussia retorted by sending twenty thousand troops into ,holstein4 ,the ,austrian force1 which was inferior1 retired4 ,when the ,confederation 7,june #ad7 passed a motion made by ,austria to put the confederate troops1 not ,austrian or ,prussian1 on a war footing1 the ,prussian plenipotentiary protested1 and declared the ,diet dissolved4 ,he also presented a new constitution as the basis of a new league of states1 from which ,austria was to be excluded4 ,prussia issued a proclamation1 to the effect that the purpose of the war that was now to begin was the union of ,germany1 and the establishment of a free parliament of the ,german nation4 ,,the ,,austro-,,prussian ,,war4--,the ,prussian military plans were the work of ,von ,moltke1 chief of the general staff1 who was without a superior in military science4 ,they were carried out with astonishing precision and celerity4 ,on ,june #ae ,prussia required ,saxony1 ,hanover1 and ,hesse to disarm1 to remain neutral1 and to send delegates to a ,german parliament4 ,a few hours were given them to decide4 ,they refused the demand1 and on the #afth the ,prussian forces marched into their lands4 ,on that day they seized the capital of ,hesse1 and took the elector prisoner4 ,on the #bith they had surrounded ,king ,george of ,hanover1 and he was compelled to surrender with his whole army4 ,the main ,austrian army1 under ,benedek1 made up of contingents from the various nations subject to the emperor1 with the troops of ,saxony1 one of his ,german allies1 were gathered in ,bohemia4 ,thither three ,prussian armies moved1 on different lines1 as they were directed by telegraph from ,berlin4 ,several battles occurred4 ,the armies approached one another1 but were purposely kept apart4 ,on ,june #cj ,king ,william and ,von ,moltke left ,berlin4 ,on the #b;d of ,july it was determined to attack the ,austrians the next day2 and word was sent to the crown prince1 whose division was not so far that he could not bring up his forces to take part in the combat4 ,in the morning the battle of ,sadowa1 in which between two hundred thousand and three hundred thousand men were in each of the contending hosts1 began4 ,it raged until noon1 with no decisive advantage on either side4 ,at two o'clock the division of the crown prince1 after a hard march1 arrived2 and their attack on the flank of the ,austrians was the signal for a forward movement along the whole ,prussian line4 ,the battle in its course resembled that of ,waterloo4 ,the defeat of the ,austrians virtually decided the whole contest4 ,francis ,joseph asked ,france to mediate1 but ,prussia and ,italy refused to consent to the proposal4 ,the ,austrian emperor ceded ,venice by telegraph to ,louis ,napoleon4 ,the ,austrians had defeated the ,italians at ,custozza 7,june #bd71 and in a naval battle at ,lissa4 ,but a great part of the ,austrian army it was necessary to transfer to the ,north4 ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,prague3 ,,the ,,peace ,,of ,,vienna4--,the ,peace of ,prague was concluded between ,prussia and ,austria 7,aug4 #bc1 #ahff74 ,austria was excluded from ,germany1 and gave up her rights in ,schleswig-,holstein to ,prussia4 ,at the request of ,prussia1 ,venice was ceded to ,italy4 ,schleswig-,holstein1 ,hanover1 ,hesse-,cassel1 ,nassau1 and ,frankfort were incorporated in ,prussia4 ,the population of ,prussia from about nineteen millions was increased to twenty-three millions five hundred thousand4 ,in the ,peace of ,vienna 7,oct4 #c71 ,austria recognized the kingdom of ,italy1 to which ,venice had been ceded4 ,,north ,,german ,,confederation4--,the ,south ,german states remained independent2 but the ,north ,german ,confederation was formed1 under the leadership of ,prussia1 which was to have control of the military forces of its members4 ,in the council of the ,confederation1 ,prussia was to have seventeen votes1 and the other states together twenty-six votes4 ,an imperial ,diet was established1 the members of which were to be elected by general suffrage4 ,bismarck was made chancelor of the ,confederation4 ,,the ,,austro-,,hungarian ,,empire4--,the war with ,prussia was followed by the political reorganization of the ,austro-,hungarian empire on a more liberal basis4 ,von ,beust1 who had been a ,saxon minister1 became minister of foreign affairs 7#ahff71 and afterwards president of the ministry and chancellor of the empire4 ,the ,hungarian constitution of #ahdh was restored1 and a separate ministry was constituted for ,hungary2 while1 as regards the army and foreign affairs of both divisions of the empire1 an imperial ministry was established4 ,the ,cisleithan division1 composed of the ,german and ,slavonic provinces1 was to have its own ministry and constitution4 ,this conferred on the people and their representatives rights and privileges of the greatest importance1--equality of all citizens before the law1 freedom of the press1 right of association and meeting1 complete liberty of faith and conscience1 the unrestricted right to impose taxes and levy recruits1 etc4 ,the reconciliation with ,hungary having been effected1 ,francis ,joseph was crowned as ,king of ,hungary at ,pesth4 ,transylvania and ,croatia were united with ,hungary4 ,great legal improvements in ,austria ensued4 ,the army was re-constituted after the example of the ,prussian military system4 ,there was an improvement in financial administration4 ,marriage by civil contract was authorized2 and on subjects connected with marriage1 the clergy were deprived of jurisdiction4 ,the control of education1 except religious education1 was assumed by the state4 ,in case of marriage between ,catholics and ,protestants1 the male children were to be educated according to the faith of the father2 the female children1 according to that of the mother4 ,,louis ,,napoleon ,,baffled4--,the ,austro-,prussian war hastened the downfall of ,louis ,napoleon4 ,the only consolation which the ,french had for the loss of freedom at home was power and reputation abroad4 ,the astonishing rapidity of the ,prussians1 and the overwhelming success of their arms1 had disconcerted the schemes of the ,french emperor4 ,the defeat of ,austria was so quick and so complete that he could not come in as mediator between the belligerents1 and manage to secure the extension of ,france to its natural frontiers on the ,rhine4 ,he was baffled by ,bismarck's diplomacy1 as before he had been outwitted by ,cavour2 for ,napoleon had wished1 not a united ,italy1 but simply a ,northern ,kingdom4 ,the ,french felt humiliated at the sight of military achievements parallel to those by which in other days they had disposed of the fate of ,prussia herself4 ,the opposing factions grew bolder in their attitude towards the ,napoleonic government4 ,the emperor made cautious attempts to secure cessions of territory from ,prussia on the ,rhine1 but was met with a blunt refusal from ,bismarck4 ,he then sought to purchase from the king of ,holland1 ,luxemburg1 which had formerly belonged to the ,german ,confederation4 ,this attempt was resisted by ,prussia1 and war seemed imminent2 but it was finally settled at the ,london ,conference1 that the duchy should be neutral territory1 and that the fortress1 which had been occupied by the ,prussians1 should be demolished4 ,germany was making progress towards a more complete union4 ,a customs parliament1 representing all the states1 met at ,berlin in ,may1 #ahfh4 ,before that time1 treaties of offensive and defensive alliance had been made between the ,north ,german ,confederation and ,wrtemberg1 ,baden1 and ,bavaria4 ,they were published on ,march #ag1 #ahfg4 ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,franco-,,prussian ,,war4--,as ,louis ,napoleon1 or those who held sway in his counsels1 were bent on war with ,prussia1 a pretext was easily found4 ,the bad administration of ,queen ,isabella of ,spain1 and her personal misconduct1 caused insurrections to break out in #ahfh2 and she was obliged to fly to ,france4 ,a provisional government was established under ,gens4 ,serrano and ,prim1 and ,seor ,olozaga4 ,later 7#ahfi7 ,serrano was made regent4 ,the ,cortes in #ahgj offered the ,spanish crown to ,prince ,leopold of ,hohenzollern-,sigmaringen1 who belonged to a younger branch of ,king ,william's family4 ,the proposal was regarded in ,france with indignation1 as a new step in the upbuilding of ,prussian power4 ,king ,william was required to forbid his relative's candidacy1 which he declined to do4 ,the prince1 however1 of his own accord withdrew4 ,not satisfied with this issue of the affair1 ,napoleon insisted that the ,prussian king should engage never to support the candidacy of a ,hohenzollern prince for the ,spanish crown4 ,william1 who was at ,ems1 told the ,french ambassador1 ,benedetti1 that he could not give a promise of this sort4 ,when the question was again raised he sent an aide-de-camp1 declining to discuss the matter further4 ,this act was represented at ,paris as an insult to ,france1 and orders were issued to mobilize the army4 ,the king1 on his way to ,berlin1 was met at the ,brandenburg station by the crown prince1 ,von ,moltke1 ,von ,roon1 the able war minister1 and ,bismarck4 ,the ,confederate ,diet assembled ,july #ai1 and placed its resources at the disposal of the king4 ,the ,french declaration of war was received on the same day4 ,bavaria1 ,wrtemberg1 and the ,south ,german ,states1 contrary to the unreasonable expectation of ,napoleon1 allied themselves with ,prussia4 ,in a moment all ,germany was ablaze4 ,the recollection of the days of the first ,napoleon1 and of the war of liberation1 filled the whole land with patriotic enthusiasm4 ,more than a million of men took the field in defense of the fatherland4 ,,events ,,to ,,sedan4--,at the outset ,napoleon tried to modify the plans ,marshal ,niel had drawn up in #ahfg for such an emergency1 and which called for three armies4 ,he unwisely attempted to unite all the troops under his own command4 ,had he been able by a bold initiative to have gained a foothold in ,south ,germany1 ,italy and ,austria would probably have come to his support4 ,but the ,french army was not in the state of full readiness which had been alleged to exist4 ,the masterly dispositions of ,von ,moltke1 and the swift movements of the ,germans1 broke up the ,french programme4 ,the three great divisions of the ,german army were led by ,steinmetz1 ,prince ,frederick ,charles1 the king's nephew1 and the crown prince1 ,frederick ,william4 ,they advanced towards the boundary from ,treves to ,landau4 ,three victories of the ,germans--at ,weissenburg 7,aug4 #d71 over ,marshal ,mac,mahon at ,wrth 7,aug4 #f71 and at ,spicheren on the same day--compelled the ,french army to retreat towards the ,moselle4 ,the ,baden division was left to besiege ,strasburg4 ,the next great battles1 of which ,gravelotte 7,aug4 #ah7 was the most hotly contested1 were fought for the purpose of preventing ,marshal ,bazaine from joining with the main army the forces of ,mac,mahon4 ,bazaine was defeated1 and confined with his immense body of troops in and about the fortress of ,metz2 and his efforts to break through the ,german lines were baffled4 ,the ,prussian crown prince and the crown prince of ,saxony1 with their combined armies1 proceeded against ,mac,mahon4 ,the defeats of the ,french had occasioned such wrath at ,paris1 that the ministry of ,m4 ,ollivier was compelled to retire 7,aug4 #aj71 and it was not safe for the emperor1 who was with ,mac,mahon1 to return to the capital4 ,the ,french general concentrated his forces at ,sedan4 ,on ,sept4 #a the decisive battle was fought4 ,the ,french were worsted and surrounded4 ,the ,emperor ,napoleon yielded his sword to ,king ,william4 ,the terms of capitulation were agreed upon by ,von ,moltke and ,gen4 ,wimpffen 7,mac,mahon being disabled by a wound71 while other matters of a civil nature were arranged between ,napoleon and ,bismarck4 ,the army that was surrendered numbered eighty-two thousand men1 with fifty generals and five thousand other officers4 ,,siege ,,of ,,paris3 ,,surrender ,,of ,,metz4--,as soon as the news of ,sedan reached ,paris1 the imperial government fell to pieces4 ,the ,empress ,eugnie escaped to ,england4 ,a republic was proclaimed2 and a new government was improvised1 composed of enemies of the ,empire1 who belonged to different parties4 ,trochu was president1 and governor of ,paris2 ,jules ,favre1 a moderate republican1 was minister of foreign affairs2 and ,gambetta1 an extreme republican1 was minister of the interior4 ,the wish was for peace2 but the inexorable demand of the ,germans for the cession of ,alsace and ,lorraine1 once parts of ,germany1 and now asserted to be necessary for its defense against future attack from ,france1 called out a united and indignant spirit of resistance4 ,the defense of ,paris was undertaken with extraordinary energy3 a large army was collected there1 and a great supply of provisions was gathered4 ,the siege of ,paris was prosecuted by the ,germans with an equally unflinching determination1 from ,sept4 #ai1 #ahgj1 to ,jan4 #bh1 #ahga4 ,repeated sallies of the ,french troops1 although made with much spirit1 failed of success4 ,the efforts to break the ,prussian lines of connection with ,paris1 and to compel them by movements from without to raise the siege1 were likewise baffled4 ,gambetta escaped from ,paris in a balloon1 and at ,tours directed in the formation of two armies1--the army of the ,loire1 and the northern army1 both of which were defeated4 ,strasburg capitulated 7,sept4 #bg72 and a month later 7,oct4 #bg7 ,bazaine surrendered ,metz1 with three marshals1 three thousand officers1 and one hundred and seventy-three thousand soldiers4 ,the main army of ,france was thus lost4 ,,william ,,made ,,emperor3 ,,surrender ,,of ,,paris4--,while the siege of ,paris was in progress1 all the princes of ,germany1 and the senates of the three free towns1 united in the resolution to offer to the ,president of the ,confederation the title of ,emperor4 ,accordingly1 on ,jan4 #ah1 #ahga1 ,king ,william1 in the ,hall of ,mirrors at ,versailles1 was formally proclaimed ,emperor of ,germany4 ,on the next day ,trochu led the final sortie from ,paris1 of a hundred thousand men1 which was repulsed after a severe contest4 ,the provisions in the city were nearly exhausted1 and on ,jan4 #bc an armistice for twenty-one days was signed4 ,paris surrendered on the #bhth2 and on the first day of ,march a national convention at ,bordeaux accepted the preliminaries of peace1 which included the cession of ,alsace and the ,german part of ,lorraine with ,metz1 and the payment of an indemnity of five thousand million francs4 ,thiers1 who was elected chief of the executive department 7,feb4 #ag71 had managed the negotiations with ,bismarck at ,versailles1 and urged the acceptance of them on the convention4 ,,the ,,german ,,imperial ,,constitution4--,the first ,diet of the new ,german ,empire was opened at ,berlin on ,march #ba4 ,the constitution of it left to each state the management of its domestic affairs4 ,to the imperial government1 with the ,federal ,council or ,bundesrath1 the ,reichstag1 and the emperor were relegated the affairs of common interest4 ,the president of the ,council was the imperial chancellor3 ,bismarck was appointed to that office4 ,the ,reichstag was composed of deputies chosen by general suffrage4 ,the chancellor is not responsible to the ,reichstag1 but to the emperor4 ,power has not passed from the monarch to the representatives of the people4 ,,contest ,,with ,,the ,,communists3 ,,republican ,,constitution4--,after the conditions of peace with the ,germans were settled1 ,paris had to pass through a terrible period of disorder4 ,the communists were bent on establishing municipal independence1 or the self-government of the ,commune1 and a democratic republic4 ,they demanded a federation of the townships1 or communes1 and distrusted the republicanism of the officials who were in the exercise of power4 ,they are not to be confounded with communists in the socialistic sense3 only a small fraction of the communal government1 or central committee1 were socialists4 ,the party comprised a multitude of fanatical democrats of the lower classes1 who were ready for the most violent measures4 ,they had risen several times during the siege of ,paris1 and had tried to seize on power1 but had been put down by the troops4 ,after the surrender of ,paris1 they gained possession of the northern part of the city1 and fortified it4 ,the attempt to get back the cannon which they had seized caused a great communist uprising 7,march #ah1 #ahga74 ,a new reign of terror began4 ,darboy1 the ,archbishop of ,paris1 and many others1 were murdered4 ,mac,mahon1 acting for the ,assembly1 besieged ,paris anew2 the ,germans being neutral in the forts that were still left1 according to the treaty1 in their hands4 ,in the fierce struggle for the possession of the city1 the principal buildings of ,paris were set on fire by the savage communistic mob4 ,the ,tuileries1 the ,htel de ,ville1 and a part of the ,palais ,royal1 with other public edifices1 were destroyed4 ,the insurrection was at length suppressed1 and severe punishments were inflicted4 ,a large number of the ringleaders were either shot or transported4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,europe1 ,,the ,,third ,,french ,,republic1 ,,and ,,the ,,union ,,of ,,italy 7#ahga-74 ,,completed ,,union ,,of ,,italy4--,when the war between ,prussia and ,france broke out1 the republicans in ,italy were disposed to take possession of ,rome at once4 ,mazzini urged them to this step4 ,the king1 however1 was bound by the agreement with ,france to prevent this action2 which1 moreover1 might have divided1 instead of uniting1 ,italy4 ,mazzini was arrested1 and sent to ,gaeta4 ,but with the fall of ,napoleon1 on the declaration of ,jules ,favre that the ,september ,convention 7p4 #egd7 was at an end1 ,victor ,emmanuel1 professing that he was bound to maintain order in the peninsula1 sent his troops into ,rome4 ,the ,pope lost his temporal dominions1 and was limited to the title and prerogatives of the spiritual head of the ,catholic ,church4 ,the seat of the ,italian government was removed to the ancient capital 7,july #a1 #ahga74 ,the present king1 ,umberto ,i41 ascended the throne #ahgh4 ,,pius ,,ix43 ,,the ,,council ,,of ,,the ,,vatican4--,the long pontificate of ,pius ,,ix4 was distinguished by important acts having relation to the doctrine and discipline of the ,roman ,catholic ,church4 ,in #ahed he promulgated the declaration of the ,immaculate ,conception of the ,virgin ,mary4 ,he thus determined authoritatively a question which had long been debated in the schools of theology4 ,ten years later 7#ahfd7 he issued an ,encyclical1 together with a ,syllabus of ,errors1 in which1 besides the condemnation of opinions in matters of faith which were adjudged heterodox1 various alleged encroachments of the civil authority and heretical views respecting the control of the state in reference to marriage1 education1 etc41 were denounced4 ,the views thus condemned are such as the kingdom of ,belgium had recognized1 and ,france and some other ,roman ,catholic countries have shown themselves willing to accept4 ,in #ahfi the ,oecumenical ,council of the ,vatican assembled1 and after long debate sanctioned the doctrine of papal infallibility2 that is1 they promulgated the dogma that the ,pope1 when addressing the whole ,church on a subject of morals or theology1 is kept by the ,spirit of ,god from enunciating error4 ,,old ,,catholics4--,most of those who had strenuously endeavored to prevent this action1 either because they considered it inexpedient1 or disbelieved in the doctrine which it established1 acquiesced in the decision of the council4 ,there were some persevering dissentients1 however1 in ,germany especially1 of whom ,dr4 ,dllinger was the most distinguished4 ,they organized themselves as a distinct body1 under the name of ,old ,catholics4 ,they were mostly educated persons2 the party had no root among the common people4 ,in ,france1 the most distinguished of them was ,pre ,hyacinthe1 a preacher of much popularity and eloquence4 ,,revolutions ,,in ,,spain4--,after the revolution attended by the flight of ,queen ,isabella from ,spain 7#ahfh71 a majority of the ,cortes decided for a monarchy1 although many desired a republic4 ,in #ahgj ,amadeus1 the second son of the ,king of ,italy1 accepted the crown4 ,but he found it impossible to restore order and peace1 and ,feb4 #aa1 #ahgc1 abdicated the throne4 ,a bloody conflict of factions ensued4 ,don ,carlos1 the new ,pretender of that name1 raised his standard in the ,north4 ,the ,cortes were for a federal republic4 ,castelar1 who as president was at the head of the government1 and after him ,marshal ,serrano1 by whom he was superseded1 made no decisive progress against the ,carlists4 ,alfonso1 the youthful son of ,isabella1 was proclaimed king by ,general ,martinez ,campos2 and the army pronounced in his favor 7,dec4 #bi1 #ahgd74 ,serrano laid down his office4 ,the ,carlist revolt was crushed1 and ,don ,carlos driven out of the country4 ,alfonso died #ahhe1 and was succeeded by a regency during the long minority of his posthumous son1 ,alfonso ,,xiii4 ,both ,canovas and ,sagasta loyally supported the queen-mother1 ,maria ,christina1 acting as regent4 ,,state ,,of ,,the ,,ottoman ,,empire4--,in ,july1 #ahge1 the ,turkish provinces of ,herzegovina and ,bosnia rebelled against the intolerable oppression of the ,sultan's government4 ,the little mountainous kingdom of ,montenegro--which for four centuries had preserved its independence through numerous struggles with ,turkey1 and had a quarrel of its own with that power--lent help to its ,slavonian neighbor4 ,servia did the same4 ,the ,austro-,hungarian ,empire1 a composite of distinct provinces and nationalities1 was strongly interested to avert war in that region4 ,the revolt was not put down by the ,turks4 ,the three ,european emperors moved the ,sultan to pledge himself to an extensive programme of reforms in ,bosnia and ,herzegovina1--a pledge which there was no intention on his part to fulfill4 ,england gave no aid to the revolt1 but strengthened herself in the ,east by obtaining1 through a purchase of shares from the ,khedive of ,egypt1 the control of the ,suez ,canal 7,nov4 #be1 #ahge74 ,russia1 as kinsman of all the ,slavonic peoples1 and protector of ,greek ,christians1 assumed alone the part of a champion of the maltreated provinces4 ,but ,england refused to join with ,russia1 ,germany1 ,austria1 and ,france1 in threatening more effectual--that is1 coercive--measures1 in case of the ,porte's refusal to pacify the insurgents by carrying out his promises4 ,great ,britain was bent on keeping the ,sultan's empire1 as being a barrier in the way of ,russian ambition and essential to the security of ,india1 from being dismembered1 and professed to be swayed by respect for the rights of ,turkey as an independent power4 ,a revolt in ,bulgaria was crushed by the ,turks1 who were guilty of such terrible atrocities that the ,bulgarian massacres shocked all ,christendom 7#ahgf74 ,in the course of the difficulties just narrated1 two revolutions1 by which sultans had been dethroned1 had taken place in the palace at ,constantinople4 ,the ambassadors of the ,great ,powers1 in a conference at ,constantinople1 agreed in demanding of ,turkey a constitution and guaranties for the benefit of the oppressed subjects in the provinces of the ,ottoman ,empire4 ,this requirement the ,porte refused to accept4 ,a subsequent attempt of the same nature met with no better success 7#ahgg74 ,russia allowed its subjects to render effective help to the revolted districts4 ,on the contrary1 ,england was offended by the alleged ambitious schemes of the ,muscovites1 and advocated longer forbearance with the ,sultan2 but ,lord ,derby announced 7,april #ai1 #ahgg7 that ,turkey had been warned to expect no assistance from ,england4 ,nevertheless1 the mission of ,mr4 ,layard to ,constantinople1 and all the other circumstances1 emboldened the ,turks to refuse compliance with the ,czar's demands4 ,,the ,,russo-,,turkish ,,war4--,the ,turko-,russian war began in ,april1 #ahgg4 ,russia1 according to her previous declaration1 took up arms alone4 ,the ,russian troops crossed the ,danube and the ,balkan ,mountains1 and seized on the important ,shipka ,pass4 ,at first they seemed destined to a speedy triumph4 ,but the ,turks under ,osman ,pasha fought with unexpected valor and success4 ,at length1 however1 their leader was obliged to surrender his army of forty-four thousand men at ,plevna 7,dec4 #aj74 ,adrianople was occupied by the ,russians 7,jan4 #bh74 ,they were thus in the neighborhood of ,constantinople4 ,meantime1 after reverses in the ,east1 the ,russians had taken ,kars1 and pushed on to ,erzeroum4 ,,treaty ,,of ,,san ,,stefano3 ,,the ,,berlin ,,conference4--,turkey now appealed to ,england to mediate2 but ,russia declined any such intervention1 and insisted on treating separately with ,turkey4 ,england was now ready to interfere in behalf of the ,sultan1 and for the safety of ,constantinople4 ,russia hastened to conclude with ,turkey the ,peace of ,san ,stefano 7,march #c71 the stipulations of which greatly reduced the ,turkish power in ,europe4 ,bulgaria was to be governed by a ,christian prince1 and fifty thousand ,russian troops were to occupy it for two years4 ,england concluded 7,june #d7 a secret treaty engaging to protect ,turkey in ,asia3 ,cyprus was given up to be occupied by the ,british4 ,austria1 as well as ,great ,britain1 was anxious to deprive ,russia of the advantages which she had naturally expected to reap by the war1--a war in which the other powers had declined to take part4 ,thus another great war was threatened1 about the provisions of the ,san ,stefano treaty4 ,the conflict was averted by the ,congress at ,berlin 7,june #ac-;,july #ac1 #ahgh71 where ,d'lsraeli--who was then prime minister1 and a friend of the anti-,russian policy--represented ,england4 ,austria and ,england were aided by ,germany1 and the diplomacy of ,gortchakoff was thus overborne4 ,servia and ,roumania1 as well as ,montenegro1 were declared independent4 ,bulgaria was divided into two portions2 the southern of which1 called ,east ,roumelia1 was to be governed by the ,sultan directly1 but with a separate administration under a ,christian governor4 ,to ,austria1 the military occupation of ,bosnia and ,herzegovina1 which meant the possession of these provinces1 was yielded4 ,thessaly had engaged in an insurrection1 and ,greece had hoped for an extension of her boundaries2 but nothing effectual was done by ,england to forward this claim4 ,here ,russia1 always opposed to the building-up of a strong ,greek kingdom1 was at one with ,england4 ,russia obtained ,kars1 but her gains were far less than she deemed herself entitled to receive4 ,the other powers1 on the contrary1 permitted ,austria to advance far in the direction of ,constantinople4 ,during the war1 the hostility of the ,magyars 7or ,hungarians proper7 to the ,slaves had been ready to break out in the form of direct armed assistance to ,turkey4 ,on the other hand1 the ,slaves in ,hungary1 and in all the ,austrian territories1 were with difficulty restrained from enlisting actively in aid of the ,russians4 ,the arbitrary dealing of the ,berlin ,conference with ,bosnia and ,herzegovina occasioned an armed but ineffectual resistance1 in these provinces1 to the extension of the ,austrian sway over them4 ,,situation ,,of ,,russia4--,russia1 embittered by ,austria's refusal to aid in the ,crimean ,war1 had remained neutral in the struggle with ,prussia1 which ended in the exclusion of ,austria from ,germany4 ,russia was now offended with ,germany for repaying her neutrality in the ,franco-,prussian struggle by helping in the ,berlin ,conference the schemes of ,england and ,austria4 ,the attempt of ,russia to form an alliance with ,france prompted ,bismarck 7,sept41 #ahgi7 to negotiate a defensive alliance with ,austria4 ,the activity of the ,nihilists1 and the refusal of ,france 7,march1 #ahhj7 to deliver up ,hartmann1 charged with an attempt on the life of the ,czar1 made the ,french alliance impossible4 ,the sympathy of the ,emperor ,william1 after the endeavor made to assassinate ,alexander 7,feb4 #ag1 #ahhj71 tended to restore cordiality4 ,russia was embarrassed by these internal troubles4 ,alexander was murdered by ,nihilists 7,march #ac1 #ahha71 and was succeeded by his son1 ,alexander ,,iii41 who died after a lingering illness1 ,nov4 #a1 #ahid4 ,he was succeeded by his son ,nicholas ,,ii4 ,in #ahia and #ahib ,russia was afflicted by famine and cholera4 ,,nihilism4--,the accession of ,alexander ,,ii41 following on the rigid autocracy of ,nicholas1 had introduced a more lenient rule4 ,alexander decreed 7,march #c1 #ahfa7 the emancipation of the serfs1 who were also endowed with small possessions in land4 ,the boon thus conferred1 along with its advantages1 brought with it hardship2 for there were ways of oppression still open to the nobles1 by which the emancipated class were made grievously to suffer4 ,the great measure served to increase the national agitation which was connected with other causes4 ,there had long been an enthusiastic party of ,slavophils1 actuated by a strong race-feeling1 and eager for ,panslavism1 or a union of ,slavonic peoples4 ,it was the people in ,russia which moved the court1 against its will1 to go to war1 single-handed1 with ,turkey1 in #ahgg4 ,in the prosecution of the war1 the abuses which were brought to light among officials1 civil and military1 heightened the indignation which the corrupt bureaucracy--the administration by departments1 each under its chief--provoked4 ,the failure to gather the harvest of the war1 of which ,russia was deprived by diplomacy1 increased the popular unrest4 ,a party of socialistic democracy1 a revolutionary party1 had developed itself as early as #ahgd4 ,the way had been preparing for it for a decade of years4 ,out of this party came later 7#ahgh7 the ,terrorists1--the secret body which sought for a remedy for social and governmental evils by annihilating all existing authority in ,church and ,state4 ,they had begun with the demand of a constitution4 ,the despotic1 repressive measures of the government--in #ahgi and #ahhj1 sixty thousand persons were sent to ,siberia without a trial--were followed by more desperate attempts of ,nihilist conspirators upon the lives of the rulers of the land1 and of their agents4 ,these culminated in the murder of the ,czar4 ,,communism ,,and ,,socialism4--,a brief sketch of the various movements thus designated may be here in place4 ,communism is the name given to the theory that it is desirable to have a community of goods1 and a total or partial abolition of private property4 ,socialism is often used to designate the same system1 but is more commonly applied to the doctrine that government should own the land and all the implements of industry4 ,not a few religious sects of communists1 like the ,shakers 7established in #aghj1 in the ,united ,states71 have long existed4 ,the hope of social amelioration by societies of a communistic character has led to a variety of movements for the formation of them on both sides of the ,atlantic4 ,equality1 education1 deliverance from poverty and from burdensome toil1 have been the blessings sought4 ,prominent leaders in such movements were ,saint-,simon 7#agfj-ahbe71 whose ideas produced a strong effect in ,france2 ,charles ,fourier 7#aggb-ahcg71 by whose influence phalanxes1 as the communities adopting his views were named1 were formed in ,europe and ,america2 and ,robert ,owen 7#agga-aheh71 whose societies were built up at ,new ,lanark in ,scotland1 ,new ,harmony in ,indiana1 and in other places4 ,since the ,french ,revolution of #ahdh1 these particular attempts of philanthropic socialism have passed out of notice4 ,shortly after the ,reign of ,terror1 ,babeuf attempted 7#agif7 to overthrow the authorities in ,paris1 and to bring to pass an equal division of property4 ,the course of political struggles in ,france1 in connection with the revolutions in industry and trade1 which have occurred since the fall of the first ,napoleon1 have given rise to a disaffected working-class1 or proletariat4 ,the complaint has arisen1 that the benefits resulting from political freedom in ,europe have come to the middle class1--to tradesmen and manufacturers possessed of capital1--and that the laboring class are deprived of their due share of the profits of industry4 ,one noted expounder of communism in ,france was ,proudhon 7#ahji-ahfe71 who sought to give emphasis to his doctrine by affirming that property is theft4 ,louis ,blanc1 who was a member of the provisional government in ,france in #ahdh1 both before and after that time was an active promoter of the scheme under which government is to furnish labor on a large scale1 and to become the grand employer of the working-class4 ,in ,germany1 socialism in its later distinctive form1 as defined above1 has been advocated by a number of well-known writers4 ,perhaps the ablest of these was ,ferdinand ,lasalle 7#ahbe-ahfd74 ,like the other principal socialists1 he would clothe the ,state with a vastly augmented power and responsibility4 ,in this particular1 socialism is directly antagonistic to the ideas of democracy which had previously prevailed4 ,lasalle's doctrine was that the ,state should lend capital at interest to associations of laborers4 ,this1 he thought1 would be the first step in their emancipation4 ,karl ,marx would go much farther4 ,he would transfer to the ,state all capital and all means of production4 ,he would1 as he professes1 overthrow all the existing arrangements of society4 ,with property1 inheritance is to be abolished2 labor is to be made compulsory2 all means of transport are to be in the hands of the ,state1 and so forth4 ,the ,international ,working ,men's ,association--popularly called the ,international--was organized in ,london in #ahfd4 ,it has held congresses in ,geneva1 and in other cities4 ,it entered upon the most destructive schemes of social agitation and revolution4 ,but the society was divided in #ahgb1 on the expulsion of ,bakunin1 a ,russian ,nihilist4 ,a faction of the most violent class continued its activity for a while1 and stirred up risings in several towns in ,spain in #ahgc1 in imitation of the insurrections in ,paris in #ahga4 ,different shades of socialistic theory have been advocated2 from the ,christian ,socialism which aims at such objects as the creation of cooperative associations in the working-class1 to the fanatics who would sweep away existing institutions by violence1 and who resort to the use of dynamite as a means of inspiring terror4 ,,the ,,french ,,revolution ,,since #ahga4--,thiers had wonderful success in providing for the payment of the ,german indemnity4 ,his term of office was prolonged 7,aug4 #ca1 #ahga7 for three years1 with the title of ,president4 ,thiers had cooperated with ,mac,mahon in crushing the commune1 and in wholesome measures for the preservation of order4 ,an adverse vote in the ,assembly 7,may #bd1 #ahgc7 caused his resignation4 ,this was effected by a combination of the monarchical parties4 ,mac,mahon1 his successor1 took a very conservative position4 ,the monarchists united to restore the ,count of ,chambord to the throne as ,henry ,v41 but the scheme failed4 ,in ,february1 #ahge1 a new constitution1 of a conservative republican cast1 was established1 which provided for a president and a cabinet1 a senate1 and a chamber of deputies4 ,the legitimists1 ,orleanists1 and imperialists united with the president in his reactionary1 anti-republican policy4 ,the whole clerical party were on that side4 ,the republicans were divided among themselves1 the most radical group being under the leadership of ,gambetta4 ,the danger to the republic compelled a common policy4 ,one of the great subjects of controversy related to public education1 in the management of which the ,church and the clergy desired to retain and extend their influence and control4 ,to secularize education1 was a main aim of the body of the republicans4 ,the success of the republicans1 against extraordinary efforts made to defeat them1 in the elections of #ahgg1 at last prevailed on the marshal-president to accept the verdict of the country2 and late in the year a republican cabinet was formed4 ,the measures of ,jules ,ferry and his supporters1 for taking the business of instruction out of the hands of ecclesiastics and of the clerical orders1 although most earnestly resisted by ,bishop ,dupanloup and the whole clerical party1 and opposed by a section of the republicans led by ,jules ,simon1 were1 after heated contention1 adopted1 and were completely carried out 7#ahhj74 ,the death of ,thiers 7,sept41 #ahgg7 did not weaken the party of which he was the most honored leader4 ,the death of the young ,prince ,louis ,napoleon 7#ahgi7 in ,south ,africa1 where he was serving1 under the ,british1 against the ,zulus1 was an almost fatal blow to the hopes of the ,bonapartist faction4 ,the more recent death of ,count ,chambord 7#ahhc7 was followed by the recognition1 on the part of the legitimists1 of the ,count of ,paris1 of the ,orleans house1 as the next heir to the throne4 ,a manifesto of ,prince ,jerome ,napoleon 7#ahhc71 after the death of the young ,prince ,napoleon1 aroused an agitation against all pretenders to the throne1--in particular1 against the ,orleanists2 which led1 after protracted debates1 to the forced retirement of all the princes of this family from active service in the ,french army4 ,in ,november1 #ahha1 ,gambetta became the head of the cabinet2 but the opposition to his policy within the republican ranks was stronger than had been anticipated4 ,after a short time he laid down his office4 ,he died ,dec4 #ca1 #ahhb4 ,jules ,grvy 7first elected ,jan4 #cj1 #ahgi7 was re-elected president ,dec4 #bh1 #ahhe4 ,he was forced to resign in #ahhg because his son-in-law was implicated in corrupt transactions4 ,his successor was ,sadi ,carnot4 ,,french ,,conquests ,,abroad4--,the failure of ,france1 in the ,oriental difficulties1 to gain the power which she desired1 impelled her to build up colonial interests and settlements4 ,partly to punish marauding tribes1 in #ahha1 an expedition was sent against ,tunis2 and the ,bey was forced to accept a protectorate of the ,french over his dominion4 ,thus the ,french enlarged their power in ,africa4 ,this proceeding gave great offense to ,england1 ,italy1 and the ,turkish ,sultan4 ,on the ground of a treaty of #ahda1 a ,french admiral demanded the submission of the north-west coast of ,madagascar to a ,french protectorate2 and when this demand was refused1 he bombarded and captured the second city in the island1 ,tamatave 7#ahhc74 ,the efforts of ,france to gain control over ,tonquin and the adjacent territory in ,china attracted still more attention4 ,tonquin is the most populous province of the kingdom of ,anam1 of which it formed a part after #ahjb4 ,over this kingdom1 ,china claimed the rights of a suzerain2 which the ,french refused to acknowledge4 ,in #ahfb1 after a war lasting for almost four years1 ,napoleon ,,iii4 obtained from ,anam1 by the treaty of ,saigun1 the provinces called ,cochin-,china4 ,in #ahgd the ,french ,republic extorted from ,king ,tuduc of ,anam a treaty by which his foreign policy was placed under the direction of ,france4 ,against this treaty1 ,china protested4 ,in #ahhb the ,french commander ,rivire seized the city of ,hanoi4 ,the ,black ,flags1 a body of free-lances or pirates1 whose leader had been one of the ,chinese rebels1 fought against the ,french2 but it soon appeared that both the king of ,anam and the government of ,china were in league with his hostile force4 ,two years later a treaty was signed bringing ,tonkin almost directly under ,french rule and restablishing the protectorate in ,anam4 ,,the ,,conflict ,,of ,,prussia ,,and ,,the ,,vatican4--,the ,roman ,catholic ,church in ,germany is recognized as a legal institution4 ,its revenues are received from the state1 which1 in turn1 exercises a supervision over the education of its clergy4 ,in ,prussia1 especially under ,frederick ,william ,,iv41 large privileges were granted by law to the ,catholic body4 ,the proceedings of the ,vatican ,council awakened in ,germany1 as elsewhere in ,europe1 the apprehension that the decree of papal infallibility might give rise to conflict between the authorities of the ,church and of the ,state4 ,bismarck considered that the ultramontane party in the ,church involved danger to the newly created ,german ,empire4 ,the ,prussian government resisted the attempt of the ,church1 in #ahga1 to remove from office ,catholic teachers who refused to subscribe to the ,vatican dogma of papal infallibility4 ,in other words1 the government recognized and undertook to protect the ,old ,catholics4 ,the contest with the clerical or ultramontane party went on2 and before the end of the year1 the ,catholic branch of the ,prussian ,ministry of ,worship and ,instruction was abolished4 ,in a debate in #ahgb1 ,bismarck said1 ,of this be sure1 that neither in ,church nor in ,state are we on the way to ,canossa4 ,his policy met with a determined resistance from ,pius ,,ix4 ,the ,jesuits were expelled from the ,german ,empire4 ,this law was afterwards construed to include other orders4 ,,the ,,falk ,,laws3 ,,continued ,,conflict4--,the laws proposed by the ,prussian minister of worship1 ,falk1 required that candidates for the clerical office in the ,catholic ,church should have a training in the gymnasium and university1 and that every ecclesiastical appointment should be sanctioned by the civil authorities4 ,they provided for a royal court for the settlement of ecclesiastical questions4 ,these laws were passed in #ahgc4 ,in #ahge civil marriage was made obligatory in the empire4 ,these measures were stoutly resisted by the ,center1 or the clerical party1 in the ,prussian ,parliament1 and in the ,reichstag4 ,they were declared by the ,pope to be invalid1 and ,roman ,catholics were forbidden to obey them4 ,other enactments1 one of which forbade all payments to the bishops and clergy unless they should sign a promise to obey the laws of the state1 were adopted by ,prussia4 ,refractory bishops and priests were punished in various ways4 ,the result was that the ,roman ,catholic party1 led by ,windhorst1 ex-minister of ,hanover1 in opposition to ,bismarck's measures1 was consolidated4 ,the struggle extended beyond the bounds of ,prussia3 it was ,bavaria1 a ,catholic state1 which proposed the law requiring civil marriage4 ,after the accession of ,leo ,,xiii41 there was on both sides an increased disposition to find terms of peace by which the numerous vacancies in ,catholic clerical offices could be filled4 ,the need which ,bismarck felt of the support of the ,center for his financial measures favored this result4 ,falk resigned 7,july #ac1 #ahgi71 he being personally odious to the ,roman party4 ,after long debates1 a bill was passed 7,jan4 #a1 #ahhb7 giving to the king and his ministers discretionary powers1 which opened the way for filling the vacant places4 ,still1 in the great festival at the completion of the ,cologne ,cathedral 7,oct4 #ae71 the clerical party stood aloof4 ,but the mutual friendly approaches of the chancelor and his ultramontane opponents continued4 ,diplomatic correspondence was opened with the ,vatican4 ,some of the harsher features of the anti-papal legislation were revoked4 ,,bismarck ,,and ,,socialism4--,one motive in this modification of the chancelor's policy was the rapid progress of socialism4 ,at first1 while ,bismarck was engaged in a struggle with the liberals1 who impeded his plans in the ,prussian ,parliament1 he had willingly availed himself of the support of ,lasalle and his socialistic followers4 ,but after the war with ,france1 the party of the ,social ,democrats became more and more numerous and formidable4 ,it was not1 however1 until a second attempt was made on the emperor's life1 that ,bismarck was able to carry1 against the combination of parties1 his measures giving to the government extraordinary powers for the stifling of socialistic agitation 7#ahgi74 ,the law for the suppression of socialistic meetings1 newspapers1 etc41 was rigorously enforced4 ,,the ,,particularists4--,bismarck was1 moreover1 obliged to contend with the ,particularists1 who were hostile to the ,empire1 and with a large number besides them1 who were opposed to a greater degree of imperial centralization at the expense of the power of the separate states4 ,unable to obtain for the imperial government the control over the ,german railroad system1 he devised a plan 7#ahgi7 by which ,prussia would eventually control three-quarters of the railroads of ,germany4 ,an imperial code of laws was adopted 7#ahgg72 but1 from jealousy of ,prussia1 the seat of the supreme court of appeal was fixed at ,leipsic4 ,in his economical and financial measures1 the chancelor was often charged with the exercise of arbitrary power4 ,free1 representative government1 according to the ,english system1 did not accord with his idea of the ,prussian monarchy1 and with the character of the new empire1 the unity of which he was naturally anxious to fortify4 ,by his alliance with ,austria in #ahgi1 he placed ,germany in a situation to resist ,russia and ,france1 in case ,russia1 aggrieved by the action of ,germany at the ,berlin ,conference 7#ahgh71 should join hands with ,france in acts of hostility against the ,german empire4 ,in #ahhh ,william ,i4 died and was succeeded by his son1 ,frederick ,,iii41 who held the sovereignty but a few months1 dying ,june #ae1 #ahhh4 ,his son1 ,william ,,ii41 succeeded him4 ,,the ,,british ,,sway ,,in ,,india4--,british sway by degrees extended itself over ,india4 ,the fall of the ,mogul empire left the country in a state of anarchy4 ,strife arose with one tribe after another1 until the authority of ,england came to be acknowledged as far north as the ,himalayas4 ,the ,english advance was made with the help of native auxiliaries1 and could not have been made without it4 ,it was quite as much an internal revolution as a foreign conquest4 ,as the ,british enlarged their dominion1 and came into conflict with the ,french1 the appetite for supremacy grew4 ,under the rule of the ,marquis of ,wellesley 7#agih-ahje71 partly through the victories of ,sir ,arthur ,wellesley 7afterwards the ,duke of ,wellington71 the policy of intervention and annexation was pursued with brilliant success4 ,the ,burmese were conquered1 and parts of their territory annexed1 in #ahbf1 #aheb1 and #ahhe4 ,the effort always was to secure a quiet frontier4 ,in #ahdc a war with ,scinde resulted in its absorption in ,british territory4 ,in #ahdi the annexation of ,punjab followed1 a ,british protectorate having been found insufficient4 ,the misgovernment of the native princes in ,oude led to the assumption of the government of that province by the ,english in #ahef4 ,,the ,,indian ,,mutiny4--,there was hostility to ,british rule among the ,mohammedans in ,india1 and distrust among the ,hindoos4 ,the latter acquired a fanatical belief that the ,english1 who had abolished the burning of widows1 and even legalized their marriage1 meant to force the people to lose caste by driving them to sacrilegious practices4 ,the report that cartridges had been served out which had been lubricated with the fat of the swine1 abhorred by ,moslems1 and of the cow1 venerated by the ,hindoos1 stirred up a revolt among the native ,sepoy troops 7#aheg74 ,the insurrection spread1 and was attended with savage cruelties4 ,there was a frightful massacre of women and children at ,cawnpore1 before ,general ,havelock could arrive for its relief4 ,the ,english1 who were besieged in ,lucknow1 after terrible suffering1 were relieved by the opportune coming of this gallant soldier4 ,all the ,english residents in ,delhi1 who could not escape into the jungle1 were murdered4 ,the weak old king placed himself at the head of the rebellion4 ,delhi was recaptured by the ,british1 and the conquest completed by ,sir ,colin ,campbell 7,march #bb1 #aheh74 ,oude was subdued4 ,gradually the rebellion was crushed1 and merciless severity was exercised by the conquerors upon those most actively concerned in it4 ,one consequence of the revolt was the entire transference of the government of ,india from the ,east ,india ,company to the ,crown4 ,the measure was introduced into ,parliament by ,lord ,palmerston 7#aheh74 ,under the ministry of ,disraeli1 and on his motion1 the ,queen added to her titles that of ,empress of ,india 7#ahgg74 ,,british ,,wars ,,with ,,the ,,afghans4--,in the last century ,ahmed ,khan1 the ruler of ,afghanistan1 extended his dominion as far as ,delhi4 ,but he died in #aggc1 and his son ,timour changed the seat of government from ,candahar to ,cabul4 ,in #ahch the ,english declared war against ,dost ,mohammed1 one of the three rulers of the country1 whose seat of power was in this city4 ,the ,british attack was successful2 but insurrections broke out 7#ahda71 and they agreed to evacuate the country4 ,the whole ,british army1 which had to pass through the ,kurd-,cabul ,pass1 was destroyed by cold and hunger1 and by the harassing attacks of the mountaineers 7#ahdb74 ,it numbered forty-five hundred fighting men and twelve thousand five hundred camp-followers4 ,another ,british army1 under ,gen4 ,pollock1 forced the ,khyber ,pass1 and took vengeance on ,cabul4 ,in #ahee ,dost ,mohammed1 now an ally of the ,english1 drove the ,persians out of ,herat1 which1 as the key of ,india1 the ,british were anxious to protect against ambitious schemes of ,russia4 ,in #ahfc he took ,herat from ,ahmed1 the sultan there1 who was considered a tool of ,persia and of ,russia4 ,dost ,mohammed died soon after1 and was succeeded by his son ,sher ,ali ,khan4 ,after the acquisition of ,quetta by the ,english1 he began to side with the ,russians4 ,his intrigues with them1 and his refusal to receive a ,british embassy1 brought on the second ,afghan war of the ,british 7#ahgh-ha74 ,the ameer died 7,feb4 #ba1 #ahgi72 the ,afghans were defeated by ,gen4 ,roberts1 who took ,cabul1 and installed as ameer ,abdurrahman ,khan 7#ahhj74 ,the ,english then decided to evacuate the territory4 ,on their march they were attacked by ,ayub ,khan of ,herat4 ,later he was defeated by ,roberts1 and driven back to that place4 ,the ,gladstone ministry had succeeded the ministry of ,disraeli1 who had been anxious to establish a scientific frontier between ,afghanistan and the ,czar's territories1--such a frontier as would secure a neutral zone between them and ,india1 to serve as a barrier against ,russian invasion4 ,,russia ,,and ,,afghanistan4--,the gradual approaches of ,russia in the direction of ,herat have been on two lines4 ,the one is the line south-easterly from the ,caspian4 ,she gained a lodgment in #ahfi at ,krasnovodsk on the eastern shore of that sea4 ,in #ahhj ,geopteke and ,askabat were taken4 ,the other line of aggressive approach is south-westerly from the neighborhood of the ,oxus4 ,on this line1 partly from displeasure at the ,english occupation of ,egypt1 and in pursuance of the policy1 adopted especially since the ,berlin ,conference 7#ahgh71 to advance towards ,herat1 the ,russians suddenly seized ,merv1 an oasis extremely important from a military point of view1 over which ,persia claimed a certain suzerainty4 ,the ,russians occupied it in force1 under ,gen4 ,komaroff 7,march #af1 #ahhd74 ,subsequently ,england and ,russia agreed to ascertain and fix the northern boundary of ,afghanistan4 ,the occupation of ,penjdeh by the ,afghans1 followed by the advance of ,komaroff1--of which the ,british complained as an aggression1--brought the two countries to the verge of war 7#ahhe74 ,,the ,,western ,,powers ,,and ,,egypt4--,the ,oriental question--the question relating to ,turkey and its dependencies--constantly took on new phases1 and presented to the powers of ,europe fresh difficulties and dangers of conflict4 ,the ,khedive of ,egypt1 ,ismail ,pasha1 was a friend and admirer of ,napoleon ,,iii4 and of the ,french4 ,he succeeded in obtaining from the ,sultan repeated concessions1 which reduced his dependence on ,turkey to little more than an obligation to pay an annual tribute1 together with certain marks of respect and honor4 ,his conflicts with lands on the south1 ,dafour and ,abyssinia1 his extravagant outlays in public works of internal improvement1 and the enormous interest paid to foreign capitalists for their loans1 involved him in the utmost financial embarrassment4 ,this furnished the occasion to the ,western powers1 in particular to ,england and ,france1 to intermeddle still more in ,egyptian affairs4 ,the ,khedive sold to the ,british ,government his shares in the ,suez ,canal1 and gave into the hands of the ,english and ,french 7#ahgh7 the control of the financial administration of the country4 ,this sort of dependence was repugnant to both the ,khedive and the ,egyptian people4 ,the native officers were pushed into the background4 ,the most lucrative stations were filled by foreigners1 and the weight of taxation was almost intolerable4 ,the attempt to throw off this yoke only resulted in the deposition of ,ismail by the ,sultan1 on the demand of the two ,western powers4 ,his weak son1 ,tewfik ,pasha1 took his place4 ,the control of the finances remained in foreign hands4 ,the result of the discontent of the people1 and of the disaffection of the ,egyptian officers1 was a revolt led by ,arabi ,pasha1 a military officer 7#ahha74 ,the ,khedive complied with the demands of the insurgents3 their chief was made minister of war4 ,the ,western powers were bent on suppressing this movement1 and1 in addition to threats and diplomatic measures1 sent their fleets to ,egypt4 ,a revolt broke out in ,alexandria1 in which the ,english consul was wounded and many ,europeans were slain 7,june1 #ahhb74 ,the city was filled with terror1 and all trade was suspended4 ,the ,english fleet bombarded the city1 and set it on fire4 ,arabi withdrew his troops to ,cairo4 ,he was now deposed by the ,khedive1 and declared a rebel4 ,his troops showed little spirit4 ,the fortifications of ,tel-el-,kebir were taken by the ,english general1 ,sir ,garnet ,wolseley1 almost without resistance4 ,aboukir1 ,damietta1 and ,cairo surrendered1 and the ,egyptian leader1 ,arabi1 was captured and banished4 ,from that time ,egypt fell into a condition of helpless dependence on ,england4 ,france found herself without the influence there which she had always coveted since the days of the first ,napoleon4 ,the system of administration in ,egypt was now organized by the ,english1 through ,lord ,dufferin4 ,great complaint was made against them by the other powers1 for not taking sufficient precautions to prevent the introduction of the cholera from ,india4 ,the principal troubles of the ,english grew out of the invasion of the false prophet called ,el ,mahdi1 who gathered to himself a host of followers in the ,soudan1 partly instigated by ,moslem fanaticism1 but largely impelled by their hatred of the ,egyptian government established over that region4 ,the people of the ,soudan complained bitterly of the oppressive ,egyptian officers4 ,the slave-dealers there were exasperated at the prohibition of their traffic1 on which ,england had insisted4 ,in the course of the conflict with ,el ,mahdi1 ,hicks ,pasha1 an ,english officer in the service of the ,khedive1 was defeated and slain1 and his force cut to pieces1 near ,el ,obeid 7,nov4 #c1 #d1 and #e1 #ahhc74 ,there was great fear now for the province of ,sennaar and especially for the city of ,khartoum1 where there were many ,europeans4 ,mr4 ,gladstone1 and the ,english ministry of which he was the head1 were not disposed to hold the ,soudan1 but desired to give it up as soon as the garrisons could be rescued and brought away4 ,to this policy the ,khedive was opposed4 ,the project of a military interference in the ,soudan by the ,sultan1 the ,english took care to prevent by attaching to it impossible conditions4 ,on the ,red ,sea1 ,osman ,digna1 a partisan of the ,mahdi1 made repeated attacks upon ,suakim1 the base of the operations of ,baker ,pasha1 another former ,english officer1 now become general of the ,egyptian army4 ,on account of the cowardice of the ,egyptian troops1 ,baker was defeated with heavy loss 7,feb4 #d1 #ahhd74 ,the ,british troops from ,cairo under ,graham had better success2 and ,osman ,digna was vanquished1 and driven into the mountains4 ,the ,english government adopted the extraordinary measure of sending ,general ,gordon to ,khartoum2 his errand being to pacify the tribes of the ,soudan1 to provide for the deliverance of the garrisons1 and to arrange terms of accommodation with ,el ,mahdi4 ,this last it was found impossible to accomplish4 ,berber was captured by the enemy1 and garrison and male population were slaughtered4 ,gordon was shut up in ,khartoum4 ,the peculiar financial situation obliged the ,english ministry to hold a conference of the great powers 7,june #bh1 #ahhe7 at ,london4 ,lord ,granville insisted that only financial points1 and not the general ,egyptian question1 should be considered1 which did not accord with the views of the other powers1 and the conference adjourned without effecting anything4 ,the perilous situation of ,gordon1 and the feeling in ,england on this account1 obliged the government to send out ,general ,wolseley with a large force to ,egypt2 but before aid could be given ,gordon1 ,khartoum1 was betrayed1 and he was slain4 ,the course of ,england respecting ,egypt had left her isolated as regards the other ,european powers1 and had awakened much disaffection in ,england4 ,it was the policy of the ,gladstone ministry in relation to ,egypt1 even more than complaints growing out of their conduct in the troubles with ,russia1 that obliged them to resign1 and to give place to the ,tory cabinet of ,lord ,salisbury4 ,upon the death of ,tewfik 7,jan4 #g1 #ahib7 his son1 ,abbas ,pasha1 became khedive4 ,,great ,,britain ,,and ,,canada4--,on the cession of ,canada to ,great ,britain 7#agfc71 the ,french inhabitants of ,lower ,canada were secured in the free exercise of the ,catholic religion1 and in the possession of equal rights with ,english settlers4 ,the ,quebec ,act of #aggd made ,canada one royal government1 and brought in the ,english criminal code with trial by jury4 ,during the ,revolution1 many loyalists emigrated to ,upper ,canada4 ,a strong desire arose for a repeal of the ,quebec ,act4 ,in #agia1 under ,pitt1 the two parts of ,canada were made separate provinces4 ,a constitution was granted1 which provided for an elective legislature for each4 ,the governors1 the executive councils1 and the legislative councils were to be appointed by the ,crown4 ,the governments were still subject to the ,colonial ,office in ,london4 ,a spirit of opposition between the two provinces increased4 ,upper ,canada1 under ,english law1 grew in numbers and prosperity2 but the growth of population in ,lower ,canada was much more rapid4 ,here there was an antagonism between the ,assembly and the ,english governors4 ,there was an open rebellion in #ahcg1 which spread into ,upper ,canada4 ,the two ,canadas were united in #ahda2 the executive department became responsible1 as in ,england1 to the popular branch of the legislature2 and under the liberal and enlightened administration of ,lord ,elgin 7#ahdg-ed71 a better feeling arose4 ,he was obliged1 however1 to suppress a mob of the conservatives1 or loyalists 7#ahdi71 who were hostile to the extension of a general amnesty to former rebels4 ,in #ahef the ,upper ,house was made elective4 ,in #aheg ,ottawa was made the seat of government4 ,in #ahfg the ,dominion of ,canada was constituted4 ,it was at first a federal union of ,nova ,scotia1 ,new ,brunswick1 and the ,canadas2 ,upper ,canada receiving the name of ,ontario1 and ,lower ,canada being named ,quebec4 ,manitoba1 formed out of a part of ,hudson ,bay ,territory1 was admitted to the ,dominion in #ahgj1 and ,british ,columbia in #ahga4 ,prince ,edward ,island was admitted in #ahgc2 and the same year the territories were received by transfer from the ,hudson ,bay ,company4 ,the ,dominion has a ,senate and a ,house of ,commons4 ,the authority of the ,crown is represented by the governor-general and the council4 ,legislation is subject to a veto from the sovereign4 ,each province has its local government1 but whatever powers are not expressly reserved to the several provinces are granted to the ,general ,government1--a provision the reverse of that found in the ,constitution of the ,united ,states1 which the ,canadian system in various features resembles4 ,in the ,peace of ,utrecht 7#agac71 ,france gave up its claim to ,nova ,scotia3 the ,peace of ,paris 7#agfc7 surrendered to ,great ,britain ,new ,brunswick1 and ,cape ,breton and ,prince ,edward islands4 ,these are known at present as the maritime provinces4 ,when the ,american ,war of ,revolution began1 thousands of loyalists emigrated to ,nova ,scotia1 as well as to ,upper ,canada1 from whom many of the present inhabitants are descended4 ,the island of ,vancouver1 on the western coast of ,british ,columbia1 was surrendered to the navigator of this name by ,quadra1 a ,spanish commander1 in #agib4 ,in #ahdc a trading-post was established at ,victoria by the ,hudson ,bay ,company4 ,the island forms politically a part of ,british ,columbia4 ,the ,government of the ,dominion1 when ,british ,columbia was received1 engaged to construct a railway to the ,pacific across ,british ,north ,america4 ,england acquired a title to ,newfoundland in #agac4 ,it first received a constitution in #ahcb4 ,the government was made responsible to the ,assembly in #aheb4 ,,great ,,britain ,,and ,,australia4--,australia1 which covers an area of three million square miles1 when it was first visited by ,europeans was found to be inhabited by native tribes of the ,papuan1 ,melanesian1 or ,australasian race1 of whom about eighty thousand now remain4 ,in the seventeenth century1 various points along its coasts were touched by ,european voyagers1 especially by the ,dutch4 ,the discoveries of ,captain ,cook 7#agfi to #aggg7 had an important influence in leading to settlements on this island-continent4 ,new ,south ,wales1 a name given by ,cook1 is the oldest of the ,english provinces in ,australia4 ,not ,botany ,bay1 which he had selected for a settlement1 but ,port ,jackson1 was made a penal station 7#aghh7 for convicts from ,england4 ,this place1 however1 continued to be erroneously called ,botany ,bay4 ,the principal harbor was named ,sydney ,cove4 ,in #ahjc ,van ,dieman's ,land1 now called ,tasmania1 was first occupied4 ,thus the beginnings of colonization in ,australia were made by the dregs of ,english society4 ,the convicts labored for their own support1 and1 when their terms had expired1 sometimes received as a gift small farms1 and implements with which to till them4 ,the character of the settlement1 and the management of it1 became much more humane after #ahaj1 when ,macquarie became governor4 ,free colonists1 ,english and ,scotch1 came and joined it4 ,the discovery of the upland pastures beyond the ,blue ,mountains1 which were remarkably adapted to sheep1 made an epoch in the history of the colony4 ,spanish merino sheep were introduced3 wool became the chief staple2 the production of it1 especially after the invention of the combing-machine1 became very profitable1 and free emigrants poured in4 ,the ,australian ,agricultural ,company was formed in ,england4 ,western ,australia began to be settled in #ahbi1 but did not thrive4 ,new colonies continued to be formed in ,eastern ,australia4 ,south ,australia was made prosperous by copper-mines4 ,victoria1 which became a distinct province in #ahea1 owes its growth to gold mines4 ,melbourne1 its chief town1 was planted in #ahcg4 ,the first ,british governors at ,sydney were military officers1 ruling with despotic authority4 ,representative institutions were gradually formed in the different provinces4 ,the constitutions were framed on the model of the home government2 but in ,victoria and ,tasmania the ,upper ,house was made elective4 ,after long conflicts with the home government1 the ,australian colonies escaped from the misfortune of being places to which convicts were transported4 ,the discovery of gold in ,new ,south ,wales and ,victoria was made in #ahea1 and caused at once an immense influx of immigrants4 ,next to gold1 the most important article of export has been wool4 ,wheat and copper have been exported in large quantities4 ,the breeding of cattle has been a profitable employment in these communities4 ,,new ,,zealand4--,in #ahch the first regular and permanent settlement was made in ,new ,zealand4 ,wellington was founded in the next year4 ,new ,zealand1 with ,south ,island and ,north ,island1 became a colony independent of ,australia in #ahda4 ,,england ,,and ,,ireland4--,the disaffection of the ,irish1 and their antipathy to ,english rule1 broke out in different forms1 as circumstances changed4 ,for a long time the demand was for ,catholic emancipation4 ,this was granted 7p4 #eeh72 but most of the ,english concessions were made under such a pressure1 and in appearance so grudgingly1 that little was accomplished by them in placating ,irish hostility4 ,the outcry against tithes for the support of the ,protestant ,established ,church was to a great extent quieted in #ahch1 when the odious features of this tax were removed4 ,the ,act disestablishing the ,irish ,protestant ,church1 carried by ,mr4 ,gladstone in #ahfi1 and put in execution in #ahga1 took away one of the great grievances of which the ,irish nation had to complain4 ,the repeal of the legislative union of ,england and ,ireland was the watchword of ,o',connell and his followers4 ,in one form or another1 the demand for local self-government or independence1 which has been more lately urged under the name of home rule1 has been kept up with little intermission4 ,it is about the special question of land reform that the most bitter conflicts have centered4 ,the ownership of a great part of the land in ,ireland by a few persons3 the fact that great obstacles and great expenses--difficulties of late somewhat lightened--have existed in the way of the transference of land if any one had the means to purchase it3 the circumstances that the owners have generally been1 not residents1 but absent landlords2 that1 in cases of dispute with tenants1 the laws were for a long period framed in their interest2 that the management of estates was left to agents or middle-men2 that multitudes of tenants1 whose holdings were small1 could glean a bare subsistence from the soil1 were doomed to famine if the potato-crop failed1 and1 when unable to pay the rent1 were liable to eviction1 that is1 to be turned out of doors1 with their families1 to perish1--these have been causes sufficient to give rise to endless disputes and conflicts4 ,add to these facts the inbred hostility arising from differences of race and religion2 the memory1 on the part of the ,irish1 of centuries of misgovernment1 and the feeling that the lands held by sufferance were wrested from their ancestors by force1--and the animosity manifested in revolts and outrages is easily explained4 ,the ,english government1 in a series of measures1--in connection with which1 acts of coercion for preventing and punishing violence have been passed1--undertook to lessen the evils that exist1 and to produce a better state of feeling4 ,the ,encumbered ,estates ,court was established to render more easy the transfer of lands4 ,this ,act1 and the ,land ,act passed the same year 7#ahfj71 although well meant1 failed to improve the situation of the tenants4 ,mr4 ,gladstone's great measure of disestablishment has been referred to4 ,his second great reform measure was the ,land ,law of #ahgj1 the effect of which was to make the landlord pay damages to the evicted tenant1 to compensate him for improvements which he had made1 etc4 ,one object of this ,act was to create a body of peasant proprietors in ,ireland4 ,additional ,acts1 in #ahhj1 were designed to assist tenants to purchase their holdings4 ,the hopes as to the practical benefit to follow the ,act of #ahgj were disappointed4 ,in #ahgg1 #ahgh1 and #ahgi1 there was a partial failure of the crops4 ,the ,fenian movement1 designed to secure ,irish independence by force1 was organized in the ,united ,states1 #aheg4 ,by uniting with similar ,irish brotherhoods1 it extended itself in ,great ,britain as well as ,america1 collected large funds1 and1 #ahff1 made ineffectual attempts to invade ,canada4 ,an armed rising in ,ireland shortly after1 under ,fenian leadership1 was suppressed4 ,the national agitation consequent on these proceedings in ,ireland1 issued in the organization1 #ahgj1 of the ,home ,rule party1 with ,mr4 ,isaac ,butt a leading promoter4 ,the object was to secure an ,irish ,parliament for ,irish affairs1 and for the control of ,irish resources2 the ,imperial ,parliament being left to deal with imperial affairs4 ,in this period 7about #ahgd7 ,mr4 ,parnell grew to be conspicuous in politics4 ,he became the leader of the ,home ,rule members of the ,house of ,commons1 who sought1 by obstructing the progress of business1 to compel the ,english government to withdraw its measures of coercion1 and to legislate in accordance with the views of himself and his associates4 ,the obstructionists1 by joining the ,tories1 effected the retirement of the ,gladstone ,cabinet 7#ahhe74 ,in ,ireland a system of boycotting was adopted for the punishment of landlords guilty of evicting tenants4 ,this led to deeds of violence and blood4 ,parnell died in #ahia4 and ,justin ,mc,carthy became the leader of the ,irish cause in ,parliament4 ,a ,gladstone ,cabinet again came into power in #ahib1 with an avowed object of securing ,home ,rule for ,ireland4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,the ,,united ,,states 7#ahae-ahij73 ,,mexico3 ,,south ,,american ,,states3 ,,eastern ,,asia4 ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,federal ,,party4--,the end of the war with ,great ,britain 7#ahab-ae7 was marked by the extinction of the ,federal party4 ,but the ,republicans1 the opposing party1 were now equally zealous for the perpetuity of the ,union1 and were quite ready to act on a liberal construction of the ,constitution with respect to the powers conferred on the ,general ,government4 ,this had been shown in the purchase of ,louisiana3 it was further exemplified in #ahaf in the establishment of a national bank1 and in the enactment of a protective tariff4 ,then1 and until #ahcb1 presidential candidates were nominated by ,congressional caucuses4 ,james ,monroe 7#ahag-be7 received the votes of all of the ,states but three4 ,the absence of party division has caused his time to be designated as the era of good feeling4 ,,purchase ,,of ,,florida4--,slaves in ,georgia and ,alabama frequently escaped from their masters1 and fled for shelter to the swamps of ,florida4 ,the ,creek and the ,seminole ,indians were always disposed to aid them4 ,in #ahag ,general ,andrew ,jackson was appointed to conduct an expedition against the ,seminoles4 ,he came into conflict with the ,spanish authorities in ,florida1 where he seized ,spanish forts1 and built a fort of his own4 ,finally1 in #ahai1 the ,floridas were purchased of ,spain for five million dollars1 and the ,united ,states gave up its claim to the extensive territory west of the ,sabine ,river1 which was known afterwards as ,texas4 ,this became a part of ,mexico two years later4 ,,slavery3 ,,the ,,missouri ,,compromise4--,in #ahbj a sectional struggle arose in ,congress1 on the question of the admission of ,missouri as a ,state with a constitution permitting slavery4 ,the slave-trade had been carried on by the ,states separately1 before the ,national ,constitution was formed4 ,it was abolished by ,congress in #ahjh1 the earliest date allowed by the ,constitution for the power to abolish it to be exercised4 ,the principal founders of the government1 both in the ,north and ,south1 considered slavery an evil1 and looked forward to its gradual extinction4 ,in the ,north1 where the slaves were less numerous1 laws for gradual emancipation were early passed4 ,but the rapid increase of slaves in the ,south1 the growing demand for cotton1 and the stimulus given to the production of it by the cotton-gin1 made the prospect of emancipation by legislative action less probable as time advanced4 ,the ,american ,colonization ,society was formed in #ahaa2 and the fallacious hope was entertained by many1 that the negroes might be carried back to the ,liberian settlement on the ,african coast4 ,the extension of slavery in the territory north-west of the ,ohio had been prevented by the ,congressional ordinance of #aghg4 ,when the question of the admission of ,missouri to the ,union came up1 the members of ,congress from the ,north and the members from the ,south were in hostile array on the point1 and a dangerous excitement was kindled4 ,by the exertions of ,henry ,clay1 the ,missouri ,compromise was adopted1 by which the new ,state was admitted with slavery in it2 but1 as a kind of equivalent1 slavery was prohibited forever in all the remaining territory of the ,united ,states north of #cf #cj' north latitude1 the southern boundary of ,missouri4 ,,the ,,monroe ,,doctrine4--,when the ,holy ,alliance was engaged in its crusade against liberty in ,europe1 it was thought that they might attempt to conquer for ,spain the revolted ,south ,american republics4 ,canning suggested to the ,american minister in ,england1 that it would be well for the ,united ,states to take action against such a scheme4 ,president ,monroe1 in his annual message in #ahbc1 said that we should consider an attempt of the allied powers to extend their system in this country1 or any interference on their part for the purpose of controlling the destiny of the ,american ,states1 as unfriendly action towards the ,united ,states4 ,this is the ,monroe ,doctrine4 ,an additional statement in disapproval of future colonization on the ,american continents by ,european powers was made in the same message4 ,this second statement was never sanctioned by the ,house of ,representatives4 ,it is vague1 and was probably meant to exclude indirect attempts to overthrow the liberty of the new ,american republics4 ,the only thing which the ,monroe ,doctrine really contains is the intimation on the part of the ,united ,states of a right to resist attempts of ,european powers to alter the constitutions of ,american communities4 ,the true origin and intent of the ,monroe ,doctrine are often misunderstood4 ,they are set forth in ,woolsey's ,international ,law1 and in his article in ,johnson's ,encyclopedia1 ,monroe ,doctrine2 also in ,webster's writings1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 p4 l#gh1 and in ,calhoun's ,speech on the ,panama ,question4 ,see also ,foster1 ,a ,century of ,american ,diplomacy1 ,chap4 ,,xii4 ,,parties ,,after ,,monroe4--,at the expiration of ,monroe's second term1 there being no choice for president by the people1 ,john ,quincy ,adams1 who had long been in public life in various important stations1 was chosen by the ,house of ,representatives4 ,his supporters combined with the adherents of ,henry ,clay1 who became secretary of state4 ,this alliance was loudly denounced by their opponents as a bargain4 ,from the close of the last war with ,great ,britain1 a party called by their adversaries loose constructionists of the ,constitution1 of which ,clay was a leader1--a party who were in favor of measures like a protective tariff1 a national bank1 and internal improvements1--as the making of canals1--to be undertaken by ,congress1--had been growing up4 ,it now took the name of ,national ,republicans1 which was afterwards exchanged for that of ,whigs4 ,on the other side were the strict constructionists1 who1 however1 differed among themselves respecting certain measures1--for example1 the tariff4 ,in their ranks ,andrew ,jackson belonged4 ,of this political tendency1 ,john ,c4 ,calhoun of ,south ,carolina became a leading promoter4 ,andrew ,jackson was a favorite candidate for the presidency1 and the name of ,democrats was applied to his followers4 ,,presidency ,,of ,,jackson4--,jackson was elevated to the presidency in #ahbi4 ,he was a fearless man1 an ardent patriot1 with a choleric temper and an imperious will4 ,he carried to an unexampled extent a custom1 which had begun with ,jefferson1 of supplanting office-holders of the opposite political party by supporters of the administration4 ,this came to be called the spoils system1 from the maxim once quoted in defense of it1 that to the victors belong the spoils4 ,,nullification4--,during ,jackson's administration1 there occurred the nullification crisis4 ,in #ahbh a new protective tariff had been passed1 which was regarded in the ,south1 especially in ,south ,carolina1 as extremely unjust and injurious4 ,the ,new ,england ,states had been averse to protection2 and in #ahaf ,daniel ,webster opposed the tariff measure as specially hurtful to the ,eastern ,states1 whose capital was so largely invested in commerce4 ,after the protective policy had been adopted1 and when1 under its shield1 manufacturing had been extensively established in the ,north1 the former adversaries of protection1 with ,webster1 as well as ,clay1 who had been a protectionist before1 thought it unfair and destructive to do away with the tariff4 ,its adversaries denounced it as unconstitutional4 ,calhoun and his followers1 moreover1 contended that nullification is legal and admissible2 in other words1 that a law of ,congress may be set aside by a ,state within its own limits1 provided it is considered by that ,state a gross infraction of the ,constitution4 ,there was a memorable debate on this subject in #ahcj1 in the ,united ,states ,senate1 when the ,state-rights theory was advocated by ,robert ,y4 ,hayne of ,south ,carolina1 and the opposite doctrine defended by ,webster4 ,in #ahcb ,south ,carolina passed an ordinance declaring that the tariff laws of #ahbh and #ahcb were null and void1 and not binding in that ,state4 ,president ,jackson issued a spirited proclamation in which the nullification doctrine was repudiated1 and the opposite1 or national1 theory was affirmed1 and the ,president's resolute intention to execute the laws of the ,united ,states was announced4 ,the difficulty was ended by the compromise tariff introduced by ,henry ,clay1 providing for the gradual reduction of duties 7#ahcc74 ,,removal ,,of ,,the ,,deposits4--,the ,president was hostile to the ,national ,bank1 which he considered dangerous1 as liable to be converted into a tool for partisan ends4 ,not being able to carry ,congress with him1 he assumed the responsibility1 after his second election1 of removing the deposits1 or public funds1 from its custody1 or1 rather1 of an order for the cessation of these deposits4 ,for this he was censured by the ,senate1 a majority of which regarded his act as arbitrary and unconstitutional4 ,,anti-,,slavery ,,agitation4--,from about this time1 the agitation respecting slavery constantly increased4 ,in the ,north a party arose1 which1 through lectures and in newspapers and pamphlets1 denounced slavery as iniquitous1 and called for immediate emancipation4 ,the most prominent leader of this party was ,william ,lloyd ,garrison1 and its most captivating orator was ,wendell ,phillips4 ,this party advocated disunion1 on account of the obligations imposed upon the ,north in reference to slavery by the ,constitution4 ,they were sometimes assailed by mobs in ,northern cities4 ,the major part of the people in the ,north desired some method of extinguishing slavery which should leave the ,union intact4 ,meantime they were for obeying the ,constitution1 although the obligation to restore fugitive slaves was felt to be obnoxious1 and there grew up a disposition to avoid compliance with it4 ,the colonizationists diminished in number4 ,there were various types and degrees of anti-slavery sentiment4 ,the resolution to confine slavery1 by political action1 within the limits of the ,states where it was under the shield of local law1 became more and more prevalent4 ,in the ,south1 on the contrary1 the enmity to abolitionism was intense1 and served to increase the popularity of the doctrine of ,state-rights4 ,slavery came to be defended as necessary under the circumstances1 and as capable of justification on moral and ,scriptural grounds4 ,occasions of reciprocal complaint between ,north and ,south1 for illegal doings relating in one way or another to slavery1 tended to multiply4 ,,annexation ,,of ,,texas4--,in #ahcf ,texas declared its independence of ,mexico4 ,general ,sam ,houston1 an emigrant from ,tennessee1 was the leader in the revolt4 ,he defeated the ,mexicans under ,santa ,ana1 at the ,san ,jacinto 7#ahcf74 ,in #ahde1 largely by the agency of ,mr4 ,calhoun1 ,texas1 by an ,act of ,congress1 was annexed to the ,united ,states4 ,the motive which he avowed was the fear that it might fall into the hands of ,england1 and become dangerous to the institution of slavery in the ,south4 ,the measure was strenuously opposed in the ,north as a scheme by which it was intended to strengthen the influence of the slaveholding ,states in ,congress4 ,it was favored1 for the same reason1 by those who were inimical to abolitionism in whatever form4 ,,war ,,with ,,mexico4--,a consequence of the acquisition of ,texas was a war with ,mexico4 ,the successes of ,gen4 ,zachary ,taylor at ,palo ,alto and ,monterey 7#ahdf71 and at ,buena ,vista 7#ahdg71 and the campaign of ,gen4 ,winfield ,scott1 who captured ,vera ,cruz1 fought his way through the pass of ,cerro ,gordo1 and at length entered the city of ,mexico 7,sept4 #ad1 #ahdg71 compelled the ,mexicans to agree to the ,treaty of ,guadaloupe ,hidalgo 7#ahdh74 ,by this treaty all claim on ,texas to the ,rio ,grande was relinquished1 together with the provinces of ,upper ,california and ,new ,mexico4 ,,the ,,wilmot ,,proviso4--,the ,wilmot ,proviso was proposed in ,congress1 excluding slavery from all territory to be acquired from ,mexico4 ,this demand for the prevention of the further extension of slavery in the territories subject to national jurisdiction1 became a rallying-cry4 ,on the nomination of ,general ,taylor to the presidency by the ,whigs 7#ahdh71 a ,free-,soil party was organized on this basis1--the precursor of the ,republican party4 ,the convention which nominated ,taylor laid on the table a motion approving of the ,wilmot ,proviso4 ,the ,whigs succeeded in the election1 but their party lost a portion of its adherents4 ,,clay',s ,,compromise4--,the application of ,california for admission to the ,union1 which1 on account of the rapid growth of that community through the discovery of gold1 was soon made1 brought the sectional difficulty to another crisis4 ,president ,taylor died 7,july #i1 #ahej71 and was succeeded by ,millard ,fillmore1 the vice-president4 ,the contest in ,congress was soon after adjusted by ,clay's compromise1 by which ,california was admitted as a free ,state1 ,utah and ,new ,mexico were organized into ,territories without any mention of slavery1 the slave-trade was prohibited in the ,district of ,columbia1 and a new fugitive-slave law was enacted1 that was framed in such a way as to give great offense at the ,north4 ,webster1 in a celebrated speech in favor of the compromise 7,march #g71 gave as a reason for not insisting on the ,wilmot ,proviso1 that the physical character of the new ,territories of itself excluded slavery from them4 ,,the ,,kansas ,,troubles4--,in #ahed1 during the administration of ,franklin ,pierce1 the standing sectional controversy reached a new phase4 ,two ,territories1 ,kansas and ,nebraska1 were knocking at the doors of ,congress for admission as ,states4 ,kansas lay west of ,missouri1 and1 like ,nebraska on the north1 was protected from slavery by the ,missouri ,compromise 7p4 #fja74 ,but the ,democrats carried through ,congress a bill introduced by ,mr4 ,douglas of ,illinois1 practically repealing that compromise1 and leaving the matter of the toleration of slavery to be determined by the actual settlers as they might see fit4 ,this measure was extensively regarded in the ,north as a breach of faith4 ,companies of emigrants were organized in the ,northern ,states1 to form permanent settlements in ,kansas2 and in order to prevent that country from becoming a free ,state1 marauders from ,missouri crossed the line1 to attack them1 and to harass the newly planted colonies4 ,,the ,,dred-,,scott ,,case4--,james ,buchanan became president in #aheg4 ,at this time the ,supreme ,court decided that neither negro slaves nor their descendants1 slave or free1 could become citizens of the ,united ,states2 and added incidentally the dictum that the ,missouri ,compromise was unconstitutional1 and that ,congress had no right to prohibit the carrying of slaves into any ,state or ,territory4 ,the effect of this opinion1 if embodied in a legal decision1 would have been to prevent the exclusion of slavery1 even by a ,territorial legislature1 prior to the existence of the ,state government4 ,this judicial act1 following upon the attitude taken by the government at ,washington with reference to the ,kansas troubles1 greatly strengthened the numbers and stimulated the determination of the ,republican party in the ,northern ,states4 ,,the ,,john ,,brown ,,raid4--,an occurrence not without a considerable effect in exciting the resentment1 as well as the apprehensions1 of the ,south1 was the attempt of ,john ,brown1 a brave old man of the ,puritan type1 whose enmity to slavery had been deepened by conflict and suffering in the ,kansas troubles1 to stir up an insurrection of slaves in ,virginia4 ,with a handful of armed men1 he seized the ,united ,states arsenal at ,harper's ,ferry in ,virginia4 ,half of his followers were killed3 he himself was captured1 and1 after being tried and convicted by the ,state authorities1 was hanged 7,dec4 #b1 #ahei74 ,,secession ,,of ,,states4--,in the election of #ahfj1 ,abraham ,lincoln received the electoral vote of every ,northern ,state except ,new ,jersey4 ,the conviction of the ,southern political leaders that the anti-slavery feeling of the ,north1 with its great and growing preponderance in wealth and population1 would dictate the policy of the general government1 determined them to attempt to break up the ,union4 ,the result1 it was expected1 would be the permanent establishment of a slave-holding confederacy1 or the obtaining of new constitutional guaranties and safeguards of the institution of slavery2 which1 it was felt1 would be undermined even if nothing more were done than to prevent the spread of it beyond the ,states where it existed4 ,south ,carolina passed an ordinance of secession 7,dec4 #bj1 #ahfj71 and was followed in this act by ,mississippi1 ,florida1 ,alabama1 ,georgia1 ,louisiana1 and ,texas4 ,the delegates of the seceding ,states met at ,montgomery1 ,ala41 and formed a new government under the name of the ,confederate ,states of ,america 7,feb4 #h1 #ahfa74 ,jefferson ,davis was elected president1 and ,alexander ,h4 ,stephens vice-president4 ,except at ,pensacola in ,florida1 and in ,charleston1 all the national property within the borders of the seceding ,states was seized4 ,efforts looking to compromise and conciliation were of no effect4 ,after the accession of ,mr4 ,lincoln1 the purpose of the government to send supplies to the garrison of ,fort ,sumter in the harbor of ,charleston1 caused the ,confederates to attack that fortress1 which the commander1 ,major ,anderson1 after a gallant defense1 was obliged to surrender4 ,president ,lincoln immediately issued a proclamation calling for seventy-five thousand volunteers to serve for three months1 and called ,congress together 7,april #ae74 ,there was a great uprising in the ,northern ,states4 ,the ,president's call for troops at once met with an enthusiastic response4 ,virginia1 ,arkansas1 ,tennessee1 and ,north ,carolina now joined the ,southern ,confederacy1 the capital of which was established at ,richmond4 ,great ,britain recognized the ,confederate ,states as having the rights of belligerents 7,may #ac74 ,france did the same4 ,,events ,,of ,,the ,,war ,,in #ahfa-fb4--,only a brief account can be given of the events of the war4 ,general ,winfield ,scott was at first in command of the ,union forces1 and ,general ,j4 ,e4 ,johnston of the forces of the ,confederates4 ,it was imagined at the ,north1 that there could be an easy and quick advance of the ,federal forces to ,richmond2 but the troops were not drilled1 and the preparations for a campaign were wholly inadequate4 ,the ,union troops were defeated at ,bull ,run1 or ,manassas1 and ,washington was thrown into a panic 7,july #ba1 #ahfa74 ,congress at once adopted energetic measures for raising a large army and for building a navy4 ,general ,george ,b4 ,mc,clellan was placed in command of the forces4 ,it was foreseen on both sides1 that the result of the conflict might depend on the course taken by foreign powers1 especially by ,england4 ,the ,south counted upon the demand for cotton as certain to secure ,english help1 direct or indirect1 for the ,southern cause4 ,mr4 ,charles ,francis ,adams was selected by ,mr4 ,seward1 the secretary of state1 to represent the ,union at the ,court of ,st4 ,james4 ,the ,confederates sent abroad ,mr4 ,mason and ,mr4 ,slidell to procure the full recognition of the new ,confederacy by ,england and ,france4 ,the ,trent1 on which they sailed1 was stopped by ,captain ,wilkes of the ,united ,states ,navy1 and the commissioners taken from it4 ,this breach of international law threatened war1 which was averted by the surrender of the two captives to ,england4 ,england1 however1 refused to assent to ,louis ,napoleon's proposal to recognize the independence of the seceding ,states2 but the laxness of the ,british ,government in not preventing the fitting out of vessels of war in her ports1 to prey on ,american commerce1 excited indignation in the ,united ,states4 ,palmerston was at the head of the cabinet1 and ,lord ,john ,russell was secretary for foreign affairs4 ,for the depredations of the ,alabama1 the tribunal chosen to arbitrate at the end of the war1 and meeting at ,geneva1 condemned ,england to pay to the ,united ,states an indemnity of fifteen and a half millions of dollars4 ,early in #ahfb ,fort ,henry on the ,tennessee1 and ,fort ,donelson on the ,cumberland1 were taken by ,general ,ulysses ,s4 ,grant1 who led the land forces1 and ,commodore ,a4 ,h4 ,foote1 who commanded the gunboats4 ,at ,fort ,donelson nearly fifteen thousand prisoners were captured4 ,grant fought the battle of ,pittsburg ,landing1 or ,shiloh1 which continued two days 7,april #f1 #g71 and ended in the retreat of the ,confederates4 ,their general1 ,a4 ,s4 ,johnston1 was killed1 and the command of his troops devolved on ,beauregard4 ,grant1 who had been reinforced by ,buell1 drove the ,confederates back to ,corinth1 ,miss41 nineteen miles distant4 ,the capture of ,island ,number ,ten1 by ,pope1 followed2 and soon ,memphis was in the hands of the ,union forces4 ,farragut ran the gauntlet of the forts at ,new ,orleans 7,april #bd71 and captured that city4 ,in the ,east the ,union forces had not been so successful4 ,the iron-sheathed frigate ,merrimac destroyed the ,union fleet at ,hampton ,roads 7,march #i71 but was driven back to ,gosport by the timely appearance of the iron-clad ,union vessel1 the ,monitor4 ,mc,clellan undertook to approach ,richmond by the peninsula4 ,the campaign lasted from ,march to ,july1 and included1 besides various other engagements1 the important battles of ,fair ,oaks1 and of ,malvern ,hill 7,july #a74 ,at the end of ,june the ,union army was driven back to ,harrison's ,landing on the ,james ,river4 ,meantime the ,confederate general1 ,jackson1 in the valley of the ,shenandoah1 repulsed ,fremont1 ,banks1 and ,mc,dowell1 and joined ,general ,robert ,e4 ,lee1 the commander of the ,confederate forces1 who now pressed forward towards ,washington4 ,pope was defeated at ,manassas 7,aug4 #bi1 #cj71 and ,lee crossed the ,potomac into ,maryland4 ,he was met by ,mc,clellan1 and defeated at ,antietam 7,sept4 #ag71 but was able to withdraw in safety across the river4 ,mc,clellan was superseded by ,burnside1 who was defeated by ,lee at ,fredericksburg 7,dec4 #ac74 ,,emancipation4--,on the #ast of ,january1 #ahfc1 ,president ,lincoln issued a proclamation declaring all slaves in ,states or parts of ,states in rebellion1 to be free4 ,this act was legally possible only as a belligerent measure1 or as an exercise of the right of a commander4 ,the refusal of the ,government to carry on the war for the direct purpose of emancipation1 or to adopt measures of this character before1--measures which the ,constitution did not permit1--was not understood in foreign countries1 and1 in ,england especially1 had tended to chill sympathy with the ,northern cause4 ,regiments of negro soldiers were now formed4 ,,the ,,first ,,six ,,months ,,of #ahfc4--;,hooker succeeded ,burnside in command of the ,potomac ,army1 and was defeated by ,lee at ,chancellorsville 7,may #c74 ,there ,stonewall ,jackson1 one of the best and bravest of the ,confederate generals1 lost his life4 ,lee now crossed the river1 and entered ,pennsylvania4 ,this was the critical moment in the struggle4 ,great pains were taken1 by such people in the ,north as were disaffected with the administration at ,washington1 to manifest hostility to the war1 or to the method in which it was prosecuted4 ,a riot broke out in the city of ,new ,york while the drafts for troops were in progress1 and it was several days before it was put down4 ,the defeat of ,lee by ,meade at ,gettysburg 7,july #a-c7 turned the tide against the ,confederates2 their army again retired beyond the ,potomac4 ,at the same time1 in the ,west1 ,general ,grant captured ,vicksburg with upwards of thirty thousand men 7,july #d71 and ,port ,hudson was taken4 ,the ,mississippi was thus opened to its mouth4 ,the ,union navy acted effectively on the ,atlantic coast1 and at the end of the year nearly all the ,southern ports were closed by blockades4 ,,victories ,,at ,,chattanooga4--,grant assumed command of the military division of the ,mississippi1 including the region between the ,alleghanies and that river4 ,with the ,army of the ,cumberland under ,thomas1 with reinforcements from ,vicksburg under ,sherman and from the ,army of the ,potomac under ,hooker1 he won the victories of ,lookout ,mountain and ,missionary ,ridge1 at ,chattanooga1 ,tennessee 7,nov4 #bd and #be74 ,this success opened a path for the ,union forces into ,alabama and the ,atlantic ,states4 ,sherman was sent to reinforce ,burnside in ,tennessee1 and defeated ,longstreet4 ,,to ,,the ,,surrender ,,of ,,lee4--,grant was made lieutenant-general1 or first in command under the ,president 7,march #g1 #ahfd74 ,three attempts to reach ,richmond1 made severally by ,mc,clellan1 ,hooker1 and ,burnside1 had failed1 as ,lee's two aggressive movements had been defeated at ,antietam and ,gettysburg4 ,the border ,states in the ,west were in the hands of the ,union forces1 as well as the lower ,mississippi2 and the blockade was maintained along the ,atlantic coast4 ,the plan now was for ,sherman to secure ,georgia1 and to march eastward and northward into the heart of the ,confederacy1 starting at ,chattanooga4 ,military operations1 which had been prosecuted over so vast an extent of territory1 now began to have a unity which they had greatly missed before4 ,grant personally took command of the ,army of the ,potomac4 ,his object was to get between ,lee's army and ,richmond4 ,this object was not effected2 but the sanguinary battle of the ,wilderness 7,may #e1 #f71 and other subsequent battles1 had the effect1 in the course of six weeks1 to push ,lee back within the fortifications of ,petersburg and ,richmond4 ,during the long siege of these places1 diversions were attempted by ,early in ,maryland and ,pennsylvania2 but he was repelled and defeated by ,sheridan4 ,the ,confederate vessel ,alabama was sunk in the ,english ,channel by the ,kearsarge 7,june1 #ahfd74 ,farragut captured the forts in ,mobile ,bay4 ,sherman's forces1 after a series of engagements1 entered ,atlanta1 ,ga41 which the ,confederates had been compelled to evacuate 7,sept4 #b74 ,a detachment was sent by ,sherman1 under ,thomas1 after ,hood1 which defeated him at ,nashville 7,dec4 #ae1 #af74 ,sherman marched through ,georgia1 and entered ,savannah 7,dec4 #ba74 ,on ,feb4 #a1 #ahfe1 he commenced his movement northward4 ,the attempts of ,general ,j4 ,e4 ,johnston to check his advance were ineffectual4 ,sherman entered ,columbia1 ,s4 ,c41 and pushed on to ,raleigh2 ,johnston1 whose numbers were inferior1 retiring as he approached4 ,the efforts of ,lee to break away from ,grant1 in order to effect a junction with ,johnston1 did not succeed4 ,sheridan's victory over ,lee at ,five ,forks 7,april #a7 compelled him to evacuate ,petersburg4 ,he was pursued and surrounded by ,grant1 and surrendered his army at ,appomattox ,court ,house 7,april #i74 ,the ,union forces had entered ,richmond 7,april #b74 ,johnston surrendered his forces to ,sherman 7,april #bf74 ,jefferson ,davis was captured by a body of ,union cavalry in ,georgia 7,may #aj74 ,,murder ,,of ,,lincoln4--,the joy felt in the ,north over the complete victory of the ,union cause was turned into grief by the assassination of ,president ,lincoln 7,april #ad71 who had begun his second term on the #dth of ,march4 ,he was shot in a theater in ,washington1 by a fanatic named ,booth1 who imagined that he was avenging wrongs of the ,south4 ,an attempt was made at the same time to murder ,secretary ,seward in his bed4 ,the assailant inflicted on him severe but not fatal wounds4 ,mr4 ,lincoln had taken a strong hold upon the affections of the people4 ,with a large store of plain common-sense1 with an even temper1 an abounding good-nature1 and a humor that cast wise thoughts into the form of pithy maxims and similes1 he combined an unflinching firmness1 and loyalty to his convictions of duty4 ,he refused to be hurried to the issue of an edict of emancipation1 which1 as he judged1 if prematurely framed1 would lose to the ,union cause the great ,states of ,maryland1 ,tennessee1 ,arkansas1 and ,missouri4 ,keeping steadily before him the prime object of the war1 he inculcated1 as he felt1 malice toward none1 and charity for all4 ,what ,clarendon says of ,cromwell is true of ,lincoln3 ,as he grew into place and authority1 his parts seemed to be raised1 as if he had had concealed faculties1 till he had occasion to use them4 ,,finances ,,in ,,the ,,war4--,the ,confederate ,government had carried on the war by the issue of paper money made redeemable on the condition of success in gaining independence4 ,this currency1 of course1 became worthless4 ,the debt of the ,united ,states at the close of the war had risen from about sixty-five millions to more than twenty-seven hundred millions of dollars1 not to speak of the debts incurred by ,states and towns4 ,,amendments ,,to ,,the ,,constitution4--,the ,thirteenth ,amendment to the ,constitution 7declared in force ,dec4 #ah1 #ahfe7 prohibited slavery in the ,united ,states4 ,the ,fourteenth ,amendment 7declared in force ,july #bh1 #ahfh7 secured to all the freedmen the right of citizenship and equality under ,state law1 and ordained that the basis of representation in each ,state should be reduced in proportion to any abridgment by ,state law of the right of suffrage in its male population4 ,the ,fifteenth ,amendment 7declared in force ,march #cj1 #ahgj7 forbade the abridgment of the right to vote1 on account of race1 color1 or previous condition of servitude4 ,the effect of the amendments was to confer on the blacks the civil and political rights enjoyed by the whites4 ,,reconstruction3 ,,administration ,,of ,,johnson4--,the ,southern ,states were conquered communities2 but the theory was held that they had not been1 and could not be in law1 dissevered from the ,union4 ,the difficulty of reconstructing ,state governments was aggravated by the fact that the bulk of the intelligent people in the seceding ,states were precluded1 or excluded themselves1 from taking part in the measures requisite for this end2 by the additional fact of the ignorance of the blacks1 and of the selfish greed of white adventurers who took the place of leaders among them2 and by dissensions in the ,north1 and in the administration at ,washington1 as to the right and lawful course to be pursued4 ,the ,president1 ,andrew ,johnson1 who succeeded ,lincoln1 became involved in a contest with the dominant ,republican party in ,congress1 on questions pertaining to reconstruction4 ,he was impeached and tried by the ,senate 7,feb4 #bd-,may #af1 #ahfh71 but the number of votes for his conviction was one less than the number required4 ,on the expiration of ,johnson's term1 ,general ,grant was raised to the presidential office4 ,it was complained1 that the new governments instituted in the ,south by the freedmen and their white coadjutors were grossly corrupt and incapable1 and that their returning boards made false results of elections4 ,on the other hand1 it was complained1 that the opponents of these governments resorted to violence and fraud to intimidate their political adversaries1 and to keep them out of office4 ,the troops of the ,united ,states1 which had sustained the officers appointed by the blacks and by their white allies in several of the ,states1 were at length withdrawn2 and political power was resumed throughout the ,south by the adverse party1 or the class which had contended against what were derisively styled carpet-bag governments4 ,a difficulty arose in #ahgf1 in consequence of a dispute about the result of the presidential election4 ,it was referred to an ,electoral ,commission appointed by ,congress1 and ,rutherford ,b4 ,hayes was declared to be chosen 7#ahgg-ahha74 ,during his administration 7,jan4 #a1 #ahgi7 the banks and the government resumed specie payments1 which had been suspended since an early date in the civil war4 ,the rapid diminution of the national debt is one of the important features of later ,american history4 ,the ,republicans succeeded in the next national election2 but ,general ,garfield1 who was chosen ,president1 was mortally wounded by an assassin 7,july #b1 #ahha71 a few months after his inauguration4 ,guiteau1 who committed the causeless and ruthless deed1 claimed to be inspired by the ,deity1 but was judged to be morally and legally responsible1 and died on the gallows4 ,chester ,a4 ,arthur1 the ,vice-president1 filled the highest office for the remainder of the presidential term4 ,at the election in #ahhd ,grover ,cleveland1 ,governor of ,new ,york1 was elected as ,chief ,magistrate2 and the ,democrats1 for the first time since the retirement of ,mr4 ,buchanan and the inauguration of ,mr4 ,lincoln 7in #ahfa71 took the reins of power into their hands2 the ,republicans1 however1 retaining a majority in the ,senate4 ,benjamin ,harrison 7,republican7 succeeded ,cleveland as ,president1 #ahhi4 ,the ,mc,kinley ,tariff ,bill1 #ahij1 reduced the duty on some imports1 but increased them heavily on others4 ,in #ahib the four hundredth anniversary of ,america's discovery was celebrated1 and ,grover ,cleveland1 ,democratic nominee1 was again elected to the presidency4 ,the revival of industry and prosperity in the ,southern ,states1 and efforts for popular education for the blacks as well as whites1 are circumstances worthy of special record4 ,,grant ,,and ,,lee4--,about two months after his retirement from the presidency1 ,general ,grant began a tour of the world4 ,he landed in ,san ,francisco from ,japan1 on his return1 in ,september1 #ahgi1 after an absence of nearly two years and a half4 ,in #ahhj an effort was made by his warm political supporters to bring him forward as a candidate of the ,republicans for a third term in the presidency4 ,this effort failed1 as had a similar endeavor1 made with less vigor1 four years before4 ,the remainder of his days were spent in private life4 ,his death occurred on ,july #bc1 #ahhe4 ,he was buried in ,new ,york1 on ,aug4 #h1 with distinguished honors4 ,general ,lee1 the commander of the ,confederate forces in the civil war1 from the close of the struggle to his death 7,oct4 #ab1 #ahgj7 was president of ,washington and ,lee ,university1 at ,lexington1 ,va4 ,,utah3 ,,the ,,mormons4--,the sect of ,mormons was founded in ,manchester1 ,n4 ,y41 in #ahcj1 by ,joseph ,smith1 a native of ,vermont1 who claimed to have received heavenly visions from the time when he was fifteen years old4 ,he pretended that he was guided by an angel to the spot1 near ,manchester1 where was buried a stone box containing a volume made up of thin gold plates1 which were covered with strange characters in the reformed ,egyptian tongue4 ,this ,book of ,mormon was really a manuscript composed1 in #ahab1 for quite another purpose1 by one ,solomon ,spaulding1 who had been a preacher4 ,a copy of it made by a printer1 ,sidney ,rigdon1 fell into the hands of ,joseph ,smith4 ,it contains fabulous stories of the settlement of refugees coming from the ,tower of ,babel to ,america1 who were followed in #fjj ,b4,c4 by a colony from ,jerusalem that landed on the coast of ,chili4 ,war broke out among their descendants1 from the bad part of whom the ,north ,american ,indians sprung4 ,one of the survivors of the better class of these ,hebrews1 named ,mormon1 collected in a volume the books of records of former kings and priests1 which1 with some additions from his son1 was buried until the prophet chosen of ,god should appear4 ,in style the ,book of ,mormon endeavors to imitate the ,english version of the ,scriptures4 ,on the basis of this volume and of its alleged miraculous origin1 ,smith founded the sect of ,latter ,day ,saints1 as he styled them4 ,from ,kirtland1 ,o41 where they came in #ahca1 and where the converts were numerous1 they removed to a place which they named ,new ,jerusalem1 in ,jackson ,county1 ,mo4 ,here they were joined by ,brigham ,young1 also a native of ,vermont1 a man of much energy and shrewdness4 ,smith was charged by the ,missourians1 and some of his own followers who deserted him1 with outrageous crimes and frauds4 ,the conflict between the ,mormons and the ,missourians resulted in the migration of the former to ,nauvoo in ,illinois1 where a community was organized in which ,smith exercised supreme power4 ,in #ahdc ,smith1 who was as profligate as he was knavish1 professed to receive a revelation sanctioning polygamy4 ,his bad conduct1 and that of his adherents1 brought on a conflict with the civil authorities4 ,smith1 with his brother1 was killed in the jail by a mob4 ,driven out of ,nauvoo1 the ,mormons 7#ahdh7 made their way to ,utah1 and founded ,salt ,lake ,city4 ,their systematic efforts to obtain converts brought to them a large number from the ignorant working-class in ,great ,britain and in ,sweden and ,norway4 ,the ,territory of ,utah was organized by ,congress in #ahdi4 ,the laws and officers of the ,united ,states1 however1 were treated with defiance and openly resisted by ,brigham ,young1 the ,mormon leader2 and he was removed from the office of governor1 to which he had been appointed by ,president ,fillmore4 ,a contest with the ,united ,states authorities was succeeded by the submission of the ,mormons in #aheh4 ,in #ahga efforts for the suppression of polygamy by law were undertaken by the ,federal ,government1 and have since been continued with imperfect success4 ,brigham ,young died in #ahgg1 and was succeeded in the presidency of the ,mormons by ,john ,taylor1 an ,englishman4 ,a body of anti-polygamist seceders from the ,mormon community1 including a son of ,brigham ,young1 has been formed4 ,another ,mormon sect opposed to polygamy1 calling itself the ,reorganized ,church of ,latter ,day ,saints1 originated in #ahea4 ,the number of professed believers in the strange and grotesque tenets of ,mormonism1 in all the different places where its disciples are found1 probably exceeds two hundred thousand4 ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,states4--,the ,district of ,maine formed a part of ,massachusetts from #afea to #ahbj1 when it was admitted to the ,union as a distinct ,state4 ,its northern boundary was not clearly defined until the treaty of #ahdb between the ,united ,states and ,england1 which was made by ,mr4 ,webster and ,lord ,ashburton4 ,the ,north-,west ,territory1 which was organized in #aghi1 comprised the cessions north of the ,ohio and as far west as the ,mississippi1 which had been made by the landed ,states2 that is1 the several ,states holding portions of this region4 ,a small portion1 the ,western ,reserve1 was retained by ,connecticut until #agie1 when it was sold to the ,national ,government4 ,out of this ,north-,west ,territory1 there were formed five ,states4 ,connected with the name of each is the date of its admission to the ,union3 ,ohio 7#ahjb71 ,indiana 7#ahaf71 ,illinois 7#ahah71 ,michigan 7#ahcg71 ,wisconsin 7#ahdh74 ,south of the ,ohio and east of the ,mississippi1 lay the territory belonging to ,virginia1 the ,carolinas1 and ,georgia4 ,from this1 the cession of ,virginia formed the ,state of ,kentucky 7#agib72 that of the ,carolinas formed ,tennessee 7#agif72 that of ,georgia formed ,alabama 7#ahai7 and ,mississippi 7#ahag74 ,the extensive territory called ,louisiana was ceded by ,france to ,spain in #agfb1 was ceded back to ,france in #ahja1 and purchased by the ,united ,states in #ahjc4 ,from this territory1 there have been formed the ,states of ,louisiana 7#ahab71 ,missouri 7#ahbj71 ,arkansas 7#ahcf71 ,iowa 7#ahdf71 ,minnesota 7#aheh71 ,kansas 7#ahfa71 ,nebraska 7#ahfg71 ,colorado 7#ahgf71 ,montana and the two ,dakotas 7#ahhi71 ,wyoming 7#ahij71 and ,oklahoma and ,indian ,territories4 ,from the cession of ,florida by ,spain 7#ahai71 the ,state of ,florida was formed 7#ahde74 ,oregon was claimed by the ,united ,states by the right of prior discovery3 it was organized as a ,territory in #ahdi2 the ,territory of ,washington was formed from it in #ahec1 and ,idaho in #ahfc4 ,oregon was admitted as a ,state in #ahei1 ,washington in #ahhi1 and ,idaho in #ahij4 ,texas was admitted to the ,union in #ahde4 ,from the cessions of ,mexico 7#ahdh7 there have been formed the ,states of ,california 7#ahej7 and ,nevada 7#ahfd71 and the ,territories of ,arizona1 ,new ,mexico1 and ,utah4 ,alaska was purchased from ,russia in #ahfg4 ,west ,virginia was formed into a distinct ,state in #ahfc1 in consequence of the secession of ,virginia4 ,,mexico4 ,,the ,,french ,,invasion3 ,,maximillian4--,after the close of the war with the ,united ,states 7#ahdh71 there continued to be a war of factions in ,mexico4 ,there was a democratic party1 which obtained the upper hand in #aheg1 but was opposed by the church party4 ,the clergy and the religious bodies were possessed of nearly one-half of the landed property in the country4 ,benito ,juarez1 who had been chief justice1 became president2 but he was resisted by the clerical party1 with their military supporters1 and there was civil war 7#aheg-eh74 ,juarez was recognized as the lawful president by the ,united ,states4 ,spain1 ,france1 and ,england demanded reparation for injuries and losses suffered in ,mexico by their subjects4 ,in ,december1 #ahfa1 and ,january1 #ahfb1 they landed troops at ,vera ,cruz1 to compel ,mexico to satisfy their claims4 ,the demands of ,england and ,spain were met1 and they withdrew their forces4 ,it became clear1 however1 that ,louis ,napoleon1 who refused to recognize ,juarez1 had an ulterior design to overthrow the ,mexican government1 and to establish an empire in its place4 ,it was a part of a visionary scheme to establish the domination of the ,latin race4 ,he expected to check the progress of the ,united ,states1 and ventured on this aggressive enterprise on account of the opportunity offered by the civil war in ,america4 ,he persuaded the ,archduke ,maximilian1 the brother of ,francis ,joseph1 emperor of ,austria1 to accept the throne1 and agreed to sustain him with men and money4 ,maximilian arrived in ,mexico in #ahfd4 ,large bodies of ,french troops fought on his side4 ,the war resolved itself into a guerrilla contest1 in which great cruelties were perpetrated on both sides4 ,the end of the ,american civil war put the ,government of the ,united ,states in a position to demand of ,louis ,napoleon the withdrawal of the ,french forces4 ,his own situation in ,france1 and the state of public opinion there1 prevented him from refusing this demand4 ,the folly1 as well as criminality1 of the undertaking1 had become more and more obvious4 ,he therefore decided to violate his promises to ,maximilian4 ,deserted thus by his defenders1 this prince1 who1 although misled by ambition1 had noble traits1 was captured by the troops of ,juarez1 tried by court-martial1 and shot 7#ahfg74 ,his wife ,carlotta1 the daughter of ,leopold ,i4 of ,belgium1 and the grand-daughter of ,louis ,philippe1 failing in negotiations at ,rome1 had lost her reason4 ,juarez was installed in power at the capital4 ,in #ahfh and #ahfi1 there was a succession of insurrections and revolutions2 but he was again elected in #ahga1 and died the next year4 ,after that time1 there was more tranquillity in ,mexico1 and much was done to develop the mines and other material resources of the country1 and for public education4 ,,diaz3 ,,internal ,,improvements4--,president ,juarez died in #ahgb1 and was succeeded by ,lerdo de ,tejada4 ,under him the authority of the ,state over the ,church was maintained4 ,the monastic orders were abolished4 ,the democratic constitution1 which had been framed in #aheg1 was amended 7#ahgc-d71 and was afterwards upheld against the efforts of the reactionary or ecclesiastical party to overthrow it4 ,in #ahgf1 there were three claimants of the presidency1--,tejada1 ,iglesias1 the chief justice1 who denied the validity of his election1 and ,gen4 ,porfirio ,diaz1 who was at the head of a revolt4 ,diaz established himself in power1 and was succeeded in #ahhj by ,manuel ,gonzalez4 ,on the expiration of his term 7#ahhd71 ,diaz was once more chosen to the same office4 ,in #ahia an insurrection1 headed by ,catarino ,garza1 a journalist1 and ,general ,riez ,sandival1 was directed against the ,diaz government4 ,it was put down and ,diaz was re-elected president1 ,july #aa1 #ahib4 ,under ,diaz and his coadjutors much was done for the development of the country4 ,mexico has advanced towards a stable government in the republican form4 ,,south ,,america4 ,,brazil4--,after returning to ,portugal1 ,king ,john recognized the independence of ,brazil1 and his son ,dom ,pedro as emperor of the country 7#ahbe71 although ,john kept the title during his lifetime 7p4 #eec74 ,the two crowns were not to be united4 ,on the death of his father 7#ahbf71 ,dom ,pedro resigned his claim to the throne of ,portugal4 ,his subsequent career in ,brazil was a troublous one1 owing to his contest with a liberal party4 ,he returned to ,spain in #ahca4 ,after his departure there were party contests under a regency4 ,in #ahdj ,dom ,pedro ,,ii41 who had been left behind in ,brazil by his father1 and was then fourteen years of age1 was proclaimed emperor4 ,measures were taken against the slave-trade1 and it was finally abolished2 an effective plan for the gradual emancipation of slaves was adopted 7#ahga74 ,rosas1 dictator of ,buenos ,ayres1 who intended to subvert the republics of ,uruguay and ,paraguay1 was defeated by the ,brazilian forces and their allies 7#aheb74 ,a long war against ,lopez1 dictator of ,paraguay1 ended in his capture and death 7#ahgj74 ,this war involved losses to ,brazil in men and money4 ,under ,dom ,pedro ,,ii41 public works1 manufactures1 and commerce were promoted4 ,a long strife of the government with the ,catholic hierarchy ended in an accommodation 7#ahge74 ,in ,november1 #ahhi1 as the result of a bloodless revolution1 ,dom ,pedro ,,ii4 was dethroned1 and a republican form of government declared4 ,in ,feb41 #ahia1 ,marshal ,deodoro da ,fonseca was confirmed as ,president1 resigned in ,november1 and was succeeded by ,vice-,president ,floriano ,peixoto1 who held office until ,nov4 #ae1 #ahid1 when ,prudente de ,moraes1 the first ,brazilian ,president elected by a popular vote1 was inaugurated4 ,,ohili1 ,,peru1 ,,bolivia4--,the contest of ,chili with ,peru and ,bolivia has attracted special notice4 ,chili1 after the formation of its constitution in #ahcc1--which resembles the constitution of the ,united ,states1--enjoyed remarkable prosperity4 ,the strife to which we refer began between ,chili and ,bolivia4 ,the point in dispute was the right to the province of ,atacama1 between ,chili and ,peru1 the southern part of which was claimed by ,chili4 ,bolivia claimed the whole4 ,by a treaty in #ahff1 the territory in dispute was to be1 under certain conditions1 common property4 ,a rivalry existed between ,chili and ,peru1 and a secret alliance was formed in #ahgc between ,peru and ,bolivia4 ,bolivia now asserted her title to the entire province of ,atacama4 ,the ,argentine ,republic was disposed to take sides against ,chili1 but1 in consequence of the success of the ,chilians1 remained neutral4 ,the ,chilians captured 7,oct4 #h1 #ahgi7 the ,peruvian iron-clad vessel1 the ,huascar4 ,they gained other advantages1 and took possession of the whole province1 with its deposits of nitrate and guano4 ,revolutions ensued in ,bolivia and ,peru4 ,chilians took ,lima1 the ,peruvian capital1 and overran the country4 ,terms of peace proposed by ,chili1 involving large cessions of territory1 were ratified by the ,congress at ,lima 7,march #a1 #ahhd74 ,a treaty of peace was made between ,chili and ,bolivia 7,may #d74 ,in ,jan41 #ahia1 war broke out in ,chili1 resulting in the defeat of ,president ,balmaceda in ,august4 ,an assault on ,american seamen by ,chilians in ,valparaiso1 ,oct41 #ahia1 caused strained relations between ,chili and the ,united ,states1 the latter demanding apology and reparation4 ,chili complied1 ,jan41 #ahib4 ,,china ,,and ,,japan4 ,,china ,,and ,,foreign ,,nations3 ,,the ,,taiping ,,rebellion4--,in the recent period1 there has been a gradual but grudging and reluctant opening of ,china to commercial intercourse with foreign nations1 and to the labors of ,christian missionaries4 ,in #ahdj there began the first war with ,great ,britain1 called the opium war for the reason that it was caused by the ,chinese prohibition of the importing of that article4 ,in the treaty at the end of the war1 five ports were made free to ,british trade2 ,hong-,kong was ceded to ,england2 and it was provided that the intercourse between the officials of the two nations should be on the basis of equality 7#ahdb74 ,two years later an advantageous treaty was concluded by the ,united ,states with ,china3 a treaty was also concluded with ,france 7#ahdd74 ,aggressions of the ,chinese led to a second war with ,great ,britain1 in alliance with ,france 7#aheg-fj72 in which the ,chinese fleet was destroyed1 and ,canton1 a city of a million inhabitants1 was captured4 ,treaties were made1 but the infraction of them was followed by the capture of ,peking 7#ahei74 ,in the settlement which immediately took place1 toleration was granted to ,christianity1 and liberty to foreign ambassadors to reside at the capital4 ,in #ahfh ,mr4 ,anson ,burlingame1 who had been ,united ,states minister to ,china1 with two ,chinese envoys1 visited the powers which had made treaties with ,china1 and negotiated agreements by which important principles of international law were mutually adopted4 ,the most important domestic event in ,china1 in recent times1 is the ,taiping-rebellion1 which broke out in #ahej1 in ,southern ,china4 ,complaints of oppression and consequent disorder were brought to a climax on the accession of the young emperor1 ,heen-fung4 ,the revolt spread from province to province1 and found a leader in the person of ,hung ,lew-tseuen1 who called himself ,teen-,wang 7,celestial ,virtue74 ,he proclaimed his purpose to overthrow the ,manchu dynasty1 and to restore the throne to the native ,chinese4 ,he claimed a divine commission1 had caught up certain ,christian ideas1 and professed to be an adherent of ,christianity4 ,multitudes flocked to his standard4 ,city after city fell into their hands4 ,the war with ,england and ,france operated in his favor4 ,after the conclusion of peace1 the government was more energetic and successful in its effort to suppress the rebellion1 and was helped by foreign officers1 in particular by ,major 7afterwards ,general7 ,gordon4 ,nanking was recaptured 7#ahfd72 and the revolt1 which had been attended with an enormous destruction of life1 came to an end4 ,,japan ,,and ,,foreign ,,nations4--,up to the year #ahff1 the actual rulers of ,japan were the ,shogun1 or emperor's lieutenant1 who resided at ,yedo1 and the daimios1 or territorial nobles1 whose residence was also there4 ,the ,mikado1 or emperor1 lived in ,kioto1 surrounded by his relatives1 the imperial nobles4 ,there was a strict classification of the whole people1 and a strict supervision of them1 and the country was shut to foreigners4 ,in #ahec ,commodore ,perry1 of the ,united-,states ,navy1 first entered the harbor of ,yedo1 and in #ahed returned1 and negotiated a treaty with the ,shogun1 which opened certain ports to foreign trade1 and to the admission of consuls4 ,treaties of a like nature between ,japan and the other principal nations were soon made4 ,the ,mikado and his court were deeply incensed at the ,shogun's usurpation of authority1 and were at the same time hostile to the introduction of foreigners4 ,thus a double contest arose4 ,there was an attempt to put down the ,shogun1 and to strip him of his authority1 and to drive off the strangers4 ,this last effort led the ,mikado's officers to fire on the ships of the foreign nations4 ,the punishment which these inflicted in the harbor of ,shimonoseki 7#ahfd7 so impressed the emperor1 in conjunction with his fear lest the foreigners should help the ,shogun1 that he completely reversed his policy1 and proceeded to remove the barriers to intercourse with them4 ,the daimios1 who had been compelled to live at ,yedo1 flocked to ,kioto4 ,the ,mikado1 countenanced by the foreigners1 overcame the resistance of the party of the ,shoguns4 ,he removed his residence to ,yedo1 now called ,tokio 7#ahfi74 ,feudalism was abolished 7#ahga71 and a constitution promulgated in #ahhi4 ,the empire was thus united and strengthened4 ,institutions and customs of ,western civilization were rapidly introduced4 ,political and legal reforms kept pace with the introduction of railroads and other material improvements4 ,christian missionaries actively engaged in preaching and teaching4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,the ,,last ,,decade ,,of ,,the ,,nineteenth ,,century4 ,during the last decade of the nineteenth century tendencies which years before had begun to appear became the dominant feature of the ,european situation4 ,the old ideals of the ,manchester school--freer trade1 more intimate and peaceful intercourse between nations1 the right of each people to control its destiny1 the development of liberal institutions--gave way to a policy of high protective tariffs and bitter commercial warfare1 of constant increase in armaments1 of eager rivalry in seizing the territory of less civilized and weaker peoples1 accompanied1 particularly on the continent1 by a decrease in the effectiveness of parliamentary government4 ,several of the great statesmen of the century yielded to new men4 ,although the close came without such wars as desolated ,europe at the end of the eighteenth century1 the heavy burdens which rested upon the taxpayer and the constant danger that the work of civilization would be rudely interrupted hardly justified the optimism of the earlier decades4 ,the pronunciamento of the ,czar ,nicholas in favor of restricting the growth of armaments and the consequent establishment1 in #aijj1 of an international tribunal of arbitration at the ,hague held out hopes of a better future4 ,,england4--,an analysis of the majority which ,gladstone had obtained in the general election of #ahib showed that the prospects of ,home ,rule for ,ireland were slight4 ,this majority was composed of an ,english minority supported by ,scottish1 ,welsh1 and ,irish groups4 ,the bill which was introduced in the following year differed from the previous bill in that it did not withdraw the ,irish members from ,westminster4 ,although the ,house of ,commons gave it a small majority1 it was defeated in the ,lords4 ,gladstone felt that his support was too precarious to force the question to a final settlement by an appeal to the country4 ,he accordingly turned his attention to the remainder of his programme1 the most important part of which was a ,parish ,councils bill4 ,this aimed to do for local government in the parishes what the previous ,salisbury ministry had done for local government in the counties4 ,after the success of the bill was assured ,gladstone withdrew1 and ,lord ,rosebery became prime-minister4 ,gladstone spent the remainder of his life in retirement4 ,the ,rosebery ministry soon fell1 and a new ,salisbury ministry dissolved ,parliament4 ,in the general election of #ahie the ,conservatives and their allies1 the ,liberal-,unionists1 received an overwhelming majority4 ,this took the ,home ,rule question out of practical politics4 ,only through a series of minor concessions was the attempt to be made to satisfy ,ireland's legitimate aspirations4 ,this victory also showed that ,english public sentiment was ready to break definitely with the principles of ,gladstone and his friends1 and support a policy of energetic imperialism4 ,the ,queen1 whose jubilee was again celebrated in #ahig1 died on ,january #bb1 #aija4 ,the new king1 ,edward ,,vii41 at the age of sixty-one1 was crowned in #aijb4 ,,germany3 ,,bismarck's ,,later ,,policy4--,since #ahgh1 when ,bismarck abandoned his alliance with the ,national ,liberals1 he had been endeavoring to increase the financial strength of the empire by changing the customs and excise system1 to conquer the socialists both by direct attack and by taking the working classes under the special care of the state1 and1 more recently1 to procure for ,germany colonial possessions4 ,although his new financial policy was definitely protectionist1 his chief aim was to free the imperial government from the need of applying to the different states for a subvention4 ,in consequence of his policy1 the income from customs and excises rose in ten years from #bcj1jjj1jjj marks to #gjj1jjj1jjj4 ,but the plan of state subventions although altered in fact was preserved in appearance1 for ,bismarck was obliged to concede to ,particularist jealousies that all income from these sources above #acj1jjj1jjj must be paid to the states and the deficiency in the imperial treasury be made up in the usual manner4 ,later on the new naval programme again made state contributions a reality4 ,in the laws to protect the workingmen ,bismarck affirmed this to be the duty of the ,christian state2 he did not concede that such measures were simply the right of the workmen4 ,the plan was carried out in three great laws3 that of insurance in case of illness 7#ahhc71 in case of accident in mines or factories 7#ahhd71 and in case of old age or incapacity 7#ahhi74 ,these laws were enacted in the face of much outcry from employers1 and were effectively administered4 ,they did not1 however1 so far remove the grievances of the lower classes as to check the growth of the ,social ,democratic party4 ,although the party has since #ahia embodied in its programme the theories of ,marx1 it is not wholly socialistic in character2 it is also a protest of the democratic spirit against the administration of ,germany as an aristocratic1 military monarchy4 ,in the face of repressive laws the party grew steadily1 so that in #ahij it was able to cast #a1djj1jjj votes4 ,the only force able to resist its advance was the ,catholic ,center1 because the ,catholic ,church included among its members all classes in the community2 while the ,protestant ,church1 in the cities at least1 was more generally composed of the employing class4 ,from #ahhd ,bismarck had put ,germany forward as an eager competitor for colonial acquisitions in ,africa and the ,pacific4 ,the lands that ,germany was able to obtain were hardly suited to distinctively ,german settlement1 and afforded comparatively little advantage to trade4 ,,bismarck',s ,,fall4--,william ,,ii4 began by continuing the policies which had been characteristic of the closing years of his grandfather's reign4 ,it was not long before he became restive under the leadership of ,bismarck4 ,he desired to make his own personal aims more prominent4 ,in #ahij there was a struggle over the renewal of the laws against the socialists and a consequent general election4 ,the ,emperor seized the opportunity to declare his purpose to improve still further the situation of the working classes1 and1 with this in view1 to call an international congress4 ,in ,prussia he declared it to be the duty of the state to regulate the conditions of labor4 ,such declarations took the control of the electoral campaign out of ,bismarck's hands4 ,one result was decided losses for the conservative groups4 ,bismarck tried to maintain his ascendency by insisting that1 according to a cabinet order of ,frederick ,william ,,iv41 the king of ,prussia must communicate with the ministers through the president of the council4 ,william retorted by denying ,bismarck's right to negotiate with the chiefs of the parliamentary groups1 and by requiring a decree reversing the obnoxious cabinet order4 ,on ,march #bj he demanded ,bismarck's resignation4 ,bismarck left ,berlin amid a great ovation a few days later4 ,for some years he and his friends formed an unofficial center of opposition and criticism4 ,he died in ,july1 #ahih4 ,,germany ,,since ,,bismarck',s ,,fall4--,bismarck's successors were ,count ,caprivi 7#ahij-ahid71 ,prince ,hohenlobe 7#ahid-aijj71 and ,count ,blow4 ,it was tacitly recognized that the anti-socialist laws had failed1 and they were not renewed4 ,the socialists as well as all other groups received the additional advantage that somewhat later a law was passed permitting societies of all kinds to affiliate4 ,it was estimated that in #aijj the ,social ,democrats controlled over #b1jjj1jjj votes4 ,the government vainly attempted to dike the rising flood by laws providing a practical censorship of art and of literature1 but these had to be abandoned4 ,in the parliamentary life of ,germany the most significant change was the disintegration of the old parties1 the strengthening of such groups as the ,catholic ,center and the ,social ,democrats1 and the creation of a strong ,agrarian party or interest4 ,the ,agrarians became prominent during the controversy over a commercial treaty with ,russia4 ,this treaty was part of a general attempt to develop the ,european market to make good the loss through the adoption of high tariffs in countries like ,america and ,france1 and1 at first1 by ,russia herself4 ,although ,germany could not furnish enough grain to feed her own people1 and there was a tariff on imported grain1 the price kept falling1 while the prices of manufactured articles steadily increased4 ,the peasants and the landowners felt that they were threatened with ruin4 ,accordingly they formed an alliance in #ahic1 and a parliamentary union which1 from that time on1 was so formidable as to force important concessions from the government4 ,among other important measures of this period were the adoption of a new ,civil ,code for the empire1 to go into effect ,jan4 #a1 #aijj2 the reduction of the term of military service to two years2 and the efforts by the successive naval programmes of #ahig and #aijj to create for ,germany a strong sea power capable of supporting her trade and colonial aspirations4 ,,france3 ,,boulanger4--,in #ahhh the continuance of the ,republic was endangered by the support which many of its enemies and some of its ignorant friends lent to the pretensions of ,general ,boulanger1 who had made himself popular as minister of war by his army reforms and by his belligerent attitude toward ,germany4 ,when he ceased to be minister1 and particularly after he was deprived of his military command1 he began an energetic propaganda for a revision of the constitution1 with the cry ,dissolution1 ,revision1 ,constituent4 ,the royalists gave freely to further the campaign1 hoping that moderate men would be frightened into calling the ,count of ,paris to the throne in order to save the country from another military empire4 ,the ,boulangists took skillful advantage of the fact that the deputies representing each department were elected at large1 and not on single district tickets1 so that it was possible for ,boulanger's name to be placed on each departmental ticket1 and so in time to receive the votes of all ,france4 ,with such a mandate it would be impossible for the moderate ,republicans to resist him4 ,for a time the scheme was successful4 ,boulanger was even elected on the ,paris list4 ,had he been willing to undertake a coup d'etat he might then have overthrown the ,republic1 but he wished for a more peaceful triumph at the approaching general election4 ,this his opponents deprived him of by abolishing the method of election at large1 so that each deputy was to represent a particular district4 ,boulanger was soon after attacked on a charge of treason before the ,senate acting as a high court4 ,he fled to ,belgium and a little later committed suicide on the grave of his mistress4 ,,panama ,,crisis4--,hardly had the danger from ,boulanger subsided when1 in #ahib1 many of the leading politicians were discredited by the disclosures made in the judicial investigation of the bankruptcy of the ,panama ,canal ,company4 ,it appeared that the company had spent large sums to muzzle the press1 so that ignorant investors should not discover the precarious condition of the enterprise4 ,it had also contributed to the campaign expenses of friendly deputies and directly purchased votes in order to obtain authority to negotiate a loan in a manner ordinarily illegal4 ,although several deputies and senators were tried1 no one was convicted save an ex-minister1 who confessed that he had accepted #cjj1jjj francs4 ,had the exposure come a little earlier1 it must have led to the triumph of ,boulanger4 ,its principal consequence was to bring new men of less tarnished reputations to the front4 ,,the ,,church4--,in the same year the ,church with direct encouragement and even pressure from ,pope ,leo ,,xiii1 rallied to the support of the ,republic4 ,the pope issued an encyclical to ,french ,catholics and followed this by a letter to the ,french cardinals4 ,many royalists were afflicted by this attitude1 but nearly all were submissive4 ,they called themselves the constitutional party1 but were also called the rallied4 ,their watchword seemed to be1 ,accept the constitution in order to modify legislation4 ,,parties4--,the radical revolutionary groups1 which had been crushed in the suppression of the ,commune of #ahga1 and which had not been able to reconstitute themselves effectively until the amnesty of #ahhj1 began in the early nineties to make their influence more effective4 ,this coincided with a general shifting of political power toward the ,left4 ,the assassination of ,president ,carnot1 in #ahid1 and the enthusiasm provoked by the cementing of the ,russian alliance and by the coming of the ,czar to ,paris1 prolonged the control of the moderates1 or ,progressists1 as they were called in #ahif4 ,it was the persistent attacks of the radicals that disgusted ,casimir-,prier with the presidency4 ,his successor was ,flix ,faure1 a successful business man4 ,when he died suddenly in #ahii1 mile ,loubet was chosen by the support of the groups of the ,left4 ,before the moderate ,republicans lost control they revolutionized the economic policy of ,france1 substituting for practical free trade and commercial treaties a high protective tariff4 ,,dreyfus ,,case4--,france had not recovered from the shock of the ,panama scandal before she was involved in another scandal far more subtle in its demoralizing influence4 ,jealousy of the success of ,jewish financiers1 strengthened by the common feeling that capitalists are enriched by ill-gotten gains1 led to an obscure campaign against the ,jews and all capitalists4 ,the reminiscences of ,panama did not allay these feelings4 ,soon the royalists seized this instrument as a means of discrediting the ,republic1 asserting that it had been organized through the influence of ,german-,jewish immigrants who were enriching themselves at the expense of the thrifty but guileless ,french4 ,it was also asserted that ,jews in the army were betraying its secrets to their ,german kindred4 ,as the army was universally popular1 this was an effective blow at the ,jews4 ,the denouement was the arrest of ,captain ,dreyfus1 his degradation1 and his confinement on an island off the coast of ,french ,guiana4 ,the evidence had been slight1 and it was discredited when a courageous officer of the ,intelligence ,department told his superiors that even this had been constructed by a ,major ,esterhazy4 ,the officer1 ,colonel ,picquart1 was removed1 and his place taken by ,colonel ,henry1 who undertook to supply the necessary evidence4 ,although he imposed on the minister of war1 he was unable to endure the moral strain1 especially after distinguished men like ,zola became champions of the innocence of ,dreyfus1 and he committed suicide after making a confession4 ,the government was obliged to bring the case before the ,court of ,cassation in #ahih1 which ordered a new trial4 ,although ,dreyfus was again convicted by a military court1 he was immediately pardoned by the ,president4 ,,other ,,countries4--,after #ahig the situation in ,austro-,hungary became precarious1 owing to the difficulties which arose when the time came to renew the ,ausgleich1 or agreement1 between ,austria and ,hungary1 first made in #ahfg4 ,neither portion of the empire was satisfied with its part of the bargain4 ,as the ,hungarians always stood together in any struggle with ,austria1 they were likely to get the better of the bargain4 ,there was the additional difficulty that no agreement of any sort could be adopted in the ,austrian parliament1 which had become hopelessly disorganized through the savage conflicts between the various groups1 ,germans1 ,czechs1 anti-,semites1 etc4 ,the only way to prevent the actual dissolution of the empire was to renew the agreement in behalf of ,austria by imperial warrant4 ,another country belonging to the ,triple ,alliance1 ,italy1 was brought into trouble by the policy of extravagant expansion1 pursued especially under the leadership of ,crispi4 ,but the disastrous defeat by the ,abyssinians at ,adowa1 in #ahif1 gave pause to the plans of such statesmen4 ,spain also suffered disaster in this period1 first through the outbreak of revolt in ,cuba1 and then through the loss of the remnant of her once splendid colonial empire in consequence of the war with the ,united ,states4 ,,european ,,diplomacy4--,the foundation of the ,triple ,alliance had been laid by the treaty between ,germany and ,austria4 ,to this ,italy had acceded in #ahhc4 ,such a combination tended to bring ,russia and ,france together1 especially as ,russia began to see that the only power pursuing a policy favorable to her desires was ,france4 ,finally ,russian and ,french officers were authorized to arrange for the possible coperation of armies in case of war1 and in #ahid a military convention was completed4 ,that there came to be a definite understanding still more comprehensive has been generally believed1 but its terms were not divulged4 ,the ,french minister of foreign affairs used the word alliance in the ,chamber of ,deputies in #ahie1 and two years later1 when ,president ,faure visited the ,czar at ,st4 ,petersburg1 the ,czar used the phrase two great nations1 friends and allies4 ,the consequence of these two alliances1 and of the peaceful policy pursued by ,england1 was the localizing of difficulties and the maintenance of a concert on all questions likely to embroil ,europe4 ,this was evident from the treatment of the ,eastern1 the ,african1 and the ,far ,eastern questions4 ,,armenia4--,bulgarian affairs had not received their final solution at the ,berlin ,congress1 for the peaceful revolution of ,philippopolis in #ahhe had forcibly reunited ,bulgaria and ,east ,roumelia4 ,but the powers did not recognize the change until ,prince ,alexander had withdrawn1 and ,prince ,ferdinand had placed himself more under ,russian tutelage1 making this emphatic by the decision to bring up his son1 ,prince ,boris1 according to the ,greek rite4 ,the success of ,bulgaria rendered the ,armenians envious4 ,discontent at the failure to carry out the reforms promised by the treaty of ,berlin led to the formation of a revolutionary party which hoped by provoking a ,turkish repression1 similar to the ,bulgarian atrocities1 to necessitate a new ,european intervention4 ,such a scheme was opposed by ,american missionaries and by the native clergy1 for they saw that it was doomed to disaster4 ,the revolutionists endeavored to compromise the missionaries by posting their placards on the walls of the ,american college at ,marsivan4 ,the suspicions of the ,turks were directed against the missionaries1 and the ,girls' ,schoolhouse was burned by a mob4 ,ostensibly to capture agitators the ,kurds followed by the regular troops perpetrated terrible massacres in the mountain villages of ,sasn in #ahic and #ahid4 ,the powers could not agree upon any common plan to check such evils1 and when they did force upon the ,sultan a scheme of reform1 it served only as a signal for worse massacres1 which recurred chronically until the final massacre in ,constantinople in ,august1 #ahif4 ,as the concert was honeycombed by jealousies1 it was impossible to do more than prevent the development of this horror into a general ,european war4 ,england was unable to intervene separately because of the hostile attitude of ,russia4 ,such statesmen as ,lord ,salisbury recognized that ,england's traditional support of ,turkey had been discredited by such events4 ,when1 in the following year1 war broke out between ,greece and ,turkey1 and when ,crete fell into a state of anarchy1 the powers were more successful in their common action1 for they were able to mitigate the terms which the victorious ,turks demanded1 and to withdraw ,crete from direct ,turkish control4 ,,egypt4--,the history of ,egypt touches both the situation in the ,turkish empire and the more general situation of ,africa and the routes to the ,far ,east4 ,england's occupation of ,egypt1 at first considered temporary1 gave her practical control of the ,suez ,canal2 it also gave her a strong position in the eastern ,mediterranean1 the lack of which had been one reason for her hostility to the treaty of ,san ,stefano in #ahgh4 ,the problem of the equatorial provinces had remained vexatious ever since the triumph of the ,mahdi and of his successor1 the ,kalifa4 ,any attempt to begin a campaign for their recovery was hindered by the peculiar financial condition of ,egypt4 ,as all the funds were either mortgaged to creditors1 or at least under an international control not favorable to the presence of ,england1 the only money absolutely under the control of the ,egyptian government was a special reserve fund1 the result of painful administrative economies4 ,but the necessity of an advance was imperative4 ,although the attempt of the ,congo ,free ,state to establish a permanent foothold in the upper ,nile basin had been checked by ,england1 ,france was striving to extend her territorial possessions straight across from ,senegal to ,jibutil1 on the ,gulf of ,aden4 ,major ,marchand had left ,paris secretly in #ahif with this mission4 ,in this year also the defeat of the ,italians at ,adowa1 and the pressure of the troops of the ,kalifa upon ,kassala1 held by the ,italians for the ,english1 did not permit longer delay4 ,a great preparatory work had been done in the ten years previous4 ,a new army had been created4 ,the advance began in ,march1 under the leadership of ,sir ,herbert ,kitchener4 ,one of its most effective and brilliant features was the construction in the following year of a railway #bcj miles across the ,nubian desert to save a river journey of #fjj miles4 ,the decisive campaign took place in #ahih1 with the battle on the ,atbara and the crushing defeat of the ,kalifa at ,omdurman in ,september4 ,during the summer ,marchand had been establishing posts in the upper ,nile region as far as ,fashoda4 ,kitchener immediately proceeded thither1 raised the ,english and ,egyptian flags near by1 leaving the settlement of the question to diplomacy4 ,the ,french1 not being supported by ,russia in an aggressive attitude1 were obliged to give way1 and their sphere of influence was not to include any portion of the ,nile basin4 ,the war had been economically managed1 so that ,egyptian finances were not seriously disarranged4 ,the help that ,england was obliged to give justified her in considering the ,sudan as territory held jointly by her and by ,egypt4 ,the general consequence of ,english rule in ,egypt has been a reduction of taxation1 and1 at the same time1 the collection of a larger revenue4 ,vast public improvements1 like the dam at ,assouan1 also added to the resources of the country4 ,,africa4--,although ,africa since #ahhe had been the subject of an important conference at ,berlin and of various international agreements it was1 strictly speaking1 beyond the sphere of action of the ,european concert4 ,its partition among the ,european states1 a movement originating in the expeditions of ,livingstone and ,stanley1 went on rapidly from #ahhd4 ,the ,congo ,free ,state1 which at first promised to be an international enterprise1 speedily changed into a territorial possession of the king of ,belgium4 ,when in #ahij it became necessary for him to raise funds for the support of his rule1 it was agreed that the reversion of the territory belonged to ,belgium as a colony4 ,king ,leopold1 as already remarked1 made an attempt to establish his authority over a part of the upper ,nile basin1 but here he was thwarted by the ambition of both ,england and ,france4 ,england undertook to lease the ,bahr-el-,ghazal in consideration of the lease from him of a strip fifteen and a half miles wide along the eastern border of the state1 in order to make possible the scheme of a railway on land under ,british control from the ,cape to ,cairo4 ,this scheme was defeated by the ,germans as well as by the ,french4 ,the ,portuguese were in turn prevented from extending their holdings from ,angola to ,mozambique4 ,the ,french and the ,english1 though each disappointed in their extreme purposes1 made substantial gains2 ,england in the regions north of the ,cape1 across the ,zambezi1 in ,uganda1 and in the ,sudan2 ,france in western and northern ,africa1 so that all the northwest1 except the coast colonies and the independent ,sultanate of ,morocco1 came under her power4 ,france also turned her protectorate of ,madagascar into a colonial possession4 ,england's policy of expansion1 together with difficulties arising out of the gold mining industry1 involved her in a war with the ,boer republics1 the ,south ,african ,republic and the ,orange ,free ,state4 ,the center of the mining industry was ,johannesberg4 ,so rich were the mines that the foreign population there soon outnumbered the ,boers4 ,these foreigners1 or uitlanders1 desired all the privileges of ,englishmen1 although they had become residents in a state ruled by primitive agriculturists4 ,they claimed that their industry was ruinously hampered by unwise taxation4 ,so great did their sense of wrong become that they entered into an arrangement with ,cecil ,rhodes1 premier of ,cape ,colony1 and with ,dr4 ,jameson1 administrator of the ,south ,african ,chartered ,company1 in accordance with which1 at a given signal1 they were to rise and ,dr4 ,jameson with armed troopers was to come to their assistance4 ,dr4 ,jameson did not wait for the signal1 the scheme broke down1 and he and his troops were captured4 ,to the ,boers all this seemed to be an ,english plot against their independence1 and so they became more suspicious4 ,through a series of incidents the ,colonial ,secretary1 ,joseph ,chamberlain1 was led to attempt to extort by force from the ,boers the desired concessions4 ,before the diplomatic campaign was well begun new issues were introduced1 both parties began to prepare for war1 and finally in ,october1 #ahii1 the ,boers took the initiative and invaded the ,british colonies4 ,the war was at first disastrous for the ,english1 but finally through a large army under ,lord ,roberts the ,boers were driven from both the ,transvaal and the ,orange ,free ,state1 which were occupied and declared to be colonies of the empire4 ,but it was not until three years after the beginning of the war that the last ,boer bands were compelled by ,lord ,kitchener to surrender1 and the country was pacified4 ,england's influence in ,south ,africa was greatly strengthened by this victory1 although her prestige in the world at large was somewhat compromised4 ,,the ,,far ,,east4--,before the close of the century the interest which had once belonged to the near ,east was transferred to the ,far ,east4 ,the first indication of this was the action of the powers at the close of the war which broke out between ,japan and ,china1 in #ahid1 over their relations to ,korea4 ,japan was triumphant1 demonstrating in the battle of the ,yaloo ,river the superiority of her new navy4 ,she occupied the peninsula of ,liaotung and ,port ,arthur1 a harbor of strategic importance4 ,she demanded a cession of this peninsula1 together with ,formosa and a large indemnity4 ,russia1 ,germany1 and ,france intervened and kept ,japan from establishing herself on the mainland4 ,this action did not appear altogether in the interest of ,china1 for each of the three powers soon asked of ,china quite as important concessions for themselves1--,france in the south1 ,germany at ,kiaochow1 and ,russia at ,port ,arthur1--which compelled ,england to guard her interests by leasing ,w,vei-hai-wei1 opposite ,port ,arthur4 ,at this time began the marking out of spheres of influence1 a practical partition of ,china1 accompanied by demands of all sorts of railway and mining concessions4 ,this unedifying pressure from aggressive ,europeans seemed for a time to awaken ,china4 ,the emperor began to urge forward reform4 ,it was thought that ,china might follow in the footsteps of ,japan1 but suddenly there was a palace revolution1 the dowager-empress seized control1 and the reformers had to fly for their lives4 ,closely following this came a serious anti-foreign outbreak1 led by the ,boxers1 and encouraged by certain high officials4 ,before ,europe was aware of the gravity of the situation it was alarmed by the report that the foreign legations at ,pekin had been besieged1 captured1 and massacred4 ,although this was a false report1 it was true that from ,june #bj to ,august #ad1 #ahii1 the legations were besieged1 partly by a mob and partly by ,chinese regulars4 ,the siege was raised by a mixed expedition of ,european and ,japanese troops sent from the coast4 ,the satisfaction with which the news of rescue was received in ,europe was chilled by stories that some portions of the expeditionary corps had been guilty of crimes only to be paralleled in the history of ,european wars in the seventeenth century4 ,after the war a difficult diplomatic question remained1 all the more puzzling because the ambitions of the powers prevented any hearty agreement among them4 ,these questions were only in appearance settled by the signing of the protocol in ,january1 #aija4 ,attention was fixed upon ,russia1 supported by a new instrument of influence1 the ,trans-,siberian railway1 because it appeared to be her purpose to establish her power in ,manchuria on a permanent basis4 ,,australia4--,during the ,boer war the ,english colonies by their loyal and generous cooperation strengthened the bonds of empire and forced to the front schemes to render the imperial tie more practically beneficial and effective4 ,one of these groups succeeded in completing its own federal organization4 ,this was ,australia4 ,active effort towards federation was begun in #ahhi by ,sir ,henry ,parkes1 but not until six years later was public sentiment sufficiently aroused4 ,the main difficulty1 as in the case of the ,american colonies1 was to reconcile the differing trade-interests and to establish a proper balance between the larger and the smaller states4 ,finally1 in #aijj1 these difficulties were overcome1 and all the colonies save ,new ,zealand voted to become parts of the commonwealth of ,australia4 ,each state was to have six senators1 and to be represented in the lower house in proportion to its population1 although no state was to have fewer than five representatives4 ,matters of taxation were more fully intrusted to the lower house than in the ,united ,states4 ,for a time it seemed impossible to settle the delicate questions of appeal to the ,judicial ,committee of the ,privy ,council of ,england1 the only instrument of control left in the hands of the home government1 but this was settled by a judicious compromise4 ,during the last decade not only ,australia1 but also ,new ,zealand1 made many interesting attempts to solve labor and social problems by legislation4 ,although the prosperity of ,australia received heavy blows after #ahij1 it began to recover after #ahie1 and to advance towards its earlier level4 ,,united ,,states3 ,,cleveland',s ,,second ,,administration4--,although the ,mc,kinley tariff aided in elevating its author to the presidency1 its first political consequences were not helpful to the ,republican party4 ,in #ahib there was a popular cry for tariff reduction1 and ,cleveland was triumphantly elected by the ,democrats1 who also obtained control of both houses of ,congress4 ,president ,cleveland's purpose of reforming the tariff was hindered at first by a grave financial and industrial crisis1 which came in the spring of #ahic4 ,the causes of this crisis were the extravagant inflation of business during the preceding years1 a financial policy accompanied by the purchase for coinage of vast quantities of silver1 and the natural timidity of capital while the economic policy of the government was in danger of fundamental change4 ,the opponents of the administration took skillful advantage of the panic to bring its policies into discredit4 ,so great was the stringency of the money market1 especially on account of the depletion of the gold reserve in the treasury1 that ,president ,cleveland was obliged to call an extra session of ,congress1 and to urge upon that body the repeal of the law requiring the monthly purchases of silver for coinage4 ,this measure1 adopted by the ,senate with evident reluctance in the late fall1 did not wholly relieve the situation1 and to maintain the gold reserve and defend its credit the government was forced four times to issue bonds for more gold1 the consequence of which was the increase of the public debt by over #bfb1jjj1jjj4 ,during the controversies upon monetary legislation1 the ,president had alienated many members of his party in the ,house1 and particularly in the ,senate4 ,he was unable to bring them together for such tariff legislation as had been promised4 ,a bill was passed which also embodied income tax provisions1 and this bill became a law without the ,president's signature4 ,not long afterwards the ,supreme ,court declared the income-tax clauses unconstitutional4 ,since the tariff bill did not produce the expected revenue1 the government was obliged to face an ominous deficit4 ,the ,president1 however1 by his courage and honesty1 upheld the national credit despite attacks from his own party4 ,his foreign policy1 save in one instance1 was conservative4 ,he refused to take advantage of the ,hawaiian revolution to bring on the annexation of those islands1 and he endeavored to maintain the neutrality of the ,united ,states in the struggle between ,spain and the ,cuban revolutionists2 but he intervened in a boundary dispute between ,great ,britain and ,venezuela1 insisting that the question should be submitted to arbitration rather than be settled on the terms imposed by the stronger4 ,,mckinley ,,administration4--,in the campaign of #ahif the older leaders of the democracy were thrust aside and ,william ,j4 ,bryan became the party candidate1 with the free coinage of silver at the ratio of #af to #a as its watchword4 ,this appealed strongly to the distressed debtor class1 very numerous in the ,west on account of the hard times4 ,the tone of the platform and of the speeches of the leaders was such as to attract the workingmen4 ,the ,republicans nominated ,mc,kinley1 with the promise to reenact the former tariff legislation1 to foster industries1 and to protect the financial credit of the country4 ,the success of the ,republicans was at first doubtful2 but the conservative interests became alarmed1 and finally the ,republicans gained a decisive victory4 ,by the time ,president ,mc,kinley was inaugurated1 the period of business liquidation and readjustment was over1 confidence had returned1 and so the new ,president became1 as campaign placards of his party had announced1 the advance agent of prosperity4 ,the tariff was restored to its older level1 the monetary system was reformed1 and the gold standard legally established4 ,it was not this legislation1 however1 that rendered the period significant2 it was the adoption of a new national policy of expansion1 incident to the war with ,spain4 ,the ,spaniards had been unable to put down the ,cuban insurrection4 ,the drastic measures1 especially the policy of reconcentration adopted by ,general ,weyler1 had discredited the ,spanish cause4 ,the ancient tradition of ,spain's cruelty to her colonies predisposed the ,american people to credit reports of atrocity4 ,the administration was apparently anxious to perform its duties as a friendly power1 but this was rendered more and more difficult owing to the growing popular demand for intervention4 ,on the #aeth of ,february1 #ahih1 the ,american battleship ,maine was blown up in ,havana harbor4 ,although there was no decisive proof that this was due to the ,spaniards1 there was no doubt of it in the popular mind4 ,a little later the ,spaniards were ready to make any concessions short of an actual abandonment of their sovereignty4 ,it was now too late4 ,there was an irresistible demand for war1 and war was declared in ,april4 ,the result was inevitable1 and ,spain was obliged to yield sooner than was anticipated4 ,her fleet at ,manila was destroyed by ,admiral ,dewey1 ,may #a1 and her ,west ,india squadron by the fleet in which ,rear ,admiral ,sampson held the chief command1 on ,july #c4 ,meantime a small ,american army had rendered ,santiago untenable4 ,after the surrender of ,santiago1 ,porto ,rico was soon overrun4 ,manila1 which had been under the ,american guns since ,may1 was also forced to surrender4 ,a protocol signed in ,august led to the negotiation of peace in ,december4 ,according to its terms1 not only was ,cuba to be evacuated1 but ,porto ,rico1 the ,philippines1 and the ,ladrones were to become ,american possessions4 ,in this way a war begun because of popular sympathy with the ,cubans1 turned into a means of territorial expansion4 ,the resistance to the policy of an expansion of this sort was strong in certain sections of the country4 ,many senators held similar opinions1 long delaying the ratification of the treaty of peace4 ,,colonial ,,problems4--,simultaneously with the ratification of the peace1 war broke out in the ,philippines between the ,american army and the natives1 whose leaders had been bent on securing independence4 ,the ,american troops easily defeated the organized native armies1 though one consequence of the struggle was widespread ruin in the island of ,luzon2 but they were unable for over two years to pacify the country4 ,even before these troubles were ended1 measures were taken to substitute a civil for a military administration1 which went into effect in the summer of #aija4 ,porto ,rico was organized as a partly autonomous territory1 and although on its trade with the ,united ,states there was not at first a full freedom from tariff restrictions1 these subsequently disappeared4 ,in dealing with ,cuba there had been no formal recognition of the revolutionary organization4 ,it was suspected by many that the military occupation would be prolonged until annexation was brought about1 but the ,president insisted upon the fulfilment of the pledges which had been made at the beginning of the war4 ,a ,cuban convention agreed to a treaty in accordance with which the ,united ,states acquired the right to intervene to guarantee the independence of the island should this be endangered by entanglements with foreign states4 ,the ,cubans also promised to sell or lease to the ,united ,states sites for naval stations4 ,the army of occupation was then withdrawn1 and the new government inaugurated in #aijb4 ,even before the outbreak of the war1 ,president ,mc,kinley had endeavored to bring about the annexation of the ,hawaiian ,islands1 but it required such a pressing need of a controlling position in the mid-,pacific1 as the hostilities emphasized1 to overcome the opposition4 ,it was not until after the war closed that the islands were organized as a territory4 ,about the same time ,england withdrew from her joint control of ,samoa1 and ,germany agreed with the ,united ,states for a partition of the group4 ,active preparations were also made for the building of an interoceanic canal through ,nicaragua or the ,isthmus of ,panama on the route laid out by the ,french4 ,with these questions of expansion and colonial government1 other equally important problems1 growing out of the new period of prosperity1 agitated the public mind1 particularly the formation of gigantic corporations1 a form of organization which tended to supersede the trusts4 ,as the state laws were helpless to check abuse of power by such corporations1 there was a growing demand for the better enforcement of the national laws already enacted or the adoption of other laws more effective4 ,in #aijj ,mc,kinley was relected1 ,bryan again being put forward by the ,democrats4 ,a few months after his inauguration1 while he was visiting the ,pan-,american ,exposition at ,buffalo1 he was fatally shot by an anarchist4 ,upon his death1 the ,vice-,president1 ,theodore ,roosevelt1 became ,president4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,discovery ,,and ,,invention3 ,,science ,,and ,,literature3 ,,progress ,,of ,,humane ,,sentiment3 ,,progress ,,toward ,,the ,,unity ,,of ,,mankind4 ,as an era of invention and discovery1 the nineteenth century is a rival of the fifteenth4 ,,geographical ,,discoveries4--,too much was already known of the globe to leave room for another so stupendous discovery as that of the ,new ,world4 ,nevertheless1 many important geographical discoveries have been made1 especially since about #ahbe4 ,geographical societies without number have been founded1 of which the ,royal ,geographical ,society in ,england 7#ahcj7 is one of the best known4 ,geographical knowledge is increased in two ways1--first1 by the discovery of places not before known2 and secondly1 by the scientific examination of countries and districts1 with accurate surveys1 and the making of maps4 ,in both these departments1 especially in the latter1 the recent period won distinction4 ,the ,russians in their advance rendered the regions of ,northern and ,central ,asia accessible to travelers4 ,not only ,india1 but also extensive districts in ,central ,asia1 have been explored by the ,british4 ,china has been traversed by a succession of travelers1 and ,japan has unbarred its gates for the admission of foreigners4 ,abyssinia has been traversed4 ,the mystery respecting the sources of the ,nile has been dispelled by ,speke1 ,grant1 and ,baker4 ,in #ahbb and #ahbe ,clapperlon1 in two journeys1 went over the whole route from ,tripoli to the coast of ,guinea4 ,in #ahcj ,richard and ,john ,lander settled the question as to the outlet of the ,niger4 ,barth1 and other later explorers1 have carried forward the study of the course of this great river1 in the exploration of which ,mungo ,park lost his life 7#ahjf74 ,in #ahaf the ,congo was explored to the falls of ,yellala4 ,the travels of ,schweinfurth1 ,livingstone1 ,barth1 ,cameron1 and ,stanley have greatly enlarged our acquaintance with formerly unknown portions of the ,african continent4 ,in #ahgi ,stanley1 commissioned by ,king ,leopold of ,belgium1 opened up communication with the populous basin of the ,congo4 ,during the struggle of the ,european states to acquire colonial territory1 no part of the continent remained unexplored4 ,european rivalries also had similar important consequences to geography in ,asia1 especially in the ,trans-,caspian region and in ,tibet4 ,dr4 ,sven ,hedin was the most successful of the explorers in ,tibet1 traversing wholly unknown districts4 ,unknown regions on the ,american continent1 in ,south ,america1 in far north-western ,north ,america1 and in ,labrador1 have been visited4 ,the same is true of the interior of ,australia4 ,the eagerness to find a north-western passage 7and later in scientific exploration7 has led to hazardous and not unfruitful expeditions under ,ross1 ,parry1 ,franklin1 ,kane1 ,markham1 ,mc,clintock1 ,greely1 and other voyagers4 ,in #ahge ,markham reached the highest latitude that up to that time had been attained 7#hc #ba' #bf74 ,a still higher point 7#hf #ad'7 was reached by ,dr4 ,nansen who in #ahic started to drift in the ,fram across the polar regions4 ,in #ahib ,lieutenant ,peary crossed ,greenland from the west coast to a part of the north-east coast never before visited4 ,the ,antarctic seas were also explored first by the ,challenger in #ahgd4 ,by #aijj the farthest point reached was #gh #ej'4 ,geography has become a much more profound and instructive science4 ,the physical character of the globe1 and of the atmosphere that surrounds it1 have been studied in their relation to man and history4 ,physical geography1 or physiography1 has thus arisen4 ,in recent years scientists have gone far in the study of the physical geography of the sea1 in making maps of its bottom1 and in the endeavor to define the system of oceanic winds and currents4 ,in connection with physical geography1 the distribution of animal life on the land and in the depths of the sea has been studied1 and much valuable information gained4 ,,four ,,inventions4--,among the useful inventions of the present century1 there are four which are of preminent consequence4 ,the honor connected with each of these1 as is generally the case with great inventions1 belongs to no individual exclusively4 ,several1 and in some cases many persons1 can fairly claim a larger or smaller share in it4 7#a7 ,the most efficient agent in bringing the steam-engine to perfection was ,james ,watt 7#agcf-ahai71 a native of ,scotland4 7#b7 ,in connection with the application of steam to navigation1 no name stands higher than that of ,robert ,fulton4 7#c7 ,carriages on railroads were at first drawn by horses4 ,in #ahad ,george ,stephenson1 in ,england1 invented the locomotive1 and afterwards 7#ahbi7 an improved construction of it4 ,the first great railroad for the transportation of passengers began to run between ,manchester and ,liverpool in #ahcj4 ,remarkable achievements in engineering have been connected with the construction of railways4 ,the ,alps were pierced1 and the ,mont ,cenis tunnel was completed in #ahga4 ,the principal civilized countries have gradually become covered with networks of railways4 ,the whole method of transportation of the products of industry has been altered by them4 ,besides their vast influence in facilitating and stimulating travel and trade1 they have modified the method of conducting warfare1 with very important results4 7#d7 ,in contriving the electric telegraph1 ,wheatstone1 an ,englishman1 ,oersted1 a ,dane1 and ,henry1 an ,american1 had each an important part4 ,the most simple and efficient form of the telegraphic instrument is admitted to be due to the inventive sagacity of ,morse 7#ahcg74 ,his instrument was first put in use in #ahdd4 ,the first submarine wires connecting ,europe with ,america transmitted messages in #aheh1 between ,england and the ,united ,states4 ,since that time numerous submarine cables have been laid in different parts of the globe4 ,upon the invention of the telegraph1 another invention--that of the telephone--has followed1 by which conversation can be held with the voice between distant places4 ,by the phonograph it has become possible to reproduce audibly songs1 speeches1 and conversations4 ,still more recently a system of wireless telegraphy has been invented by which messages may be sent even across the ,atlantic without the use of a cable4 ,the ,suez ,canal1 a channel for ships1 connecting the ,mediterranean with the ,red ,sea and the ,indian ,ocean1 and opening thus a shorter highway by water between ,europe and the ,east1 was officially opened on the #agth of ,november1 #ahfi4 ,,uses ,,of ,,steam4--,the practical applications of steam1 besides its use in the propulsion of vessels1 and of carriages on railways1 are numberless4 ,it is used1 for example1 in automobiles1 in traction engines1 in plowing and harvesting machinery1 in fire-engines1 in road-rollers1 and in all sorts of hoisting and conveying machinery4 ,steam forge hammers were invented by ,nasmyth1 an engineer of ,manchester1 in #ahci4 ,in a multitude of industrial occupations1 where water-power was once used1 or tools and machines whose use involved muscular exertion1 the work is now done by the energy of steam4 ,more recently electricity has been displacing steam not only on street railroads and suburban railroads1 but also in many other industrial processes1 as well as the lighting of buildings and streets4 ,,tools ,,and ,,machines4--,in modern days no small amount of skill has been directed to the devising of tools and machines for the more facile and exact production of whatever costs labor4 ,factories have become monuments of ingenuity1 and museums in the useful arts4 ,improved machinery lightens the toil of the sailor4 ,machines in a great variety facilitate agricultural labor4 ,they open the furrow1 sow the seed1 reap and winnow the harvest4 ,in-doors1 the sewing-machine performs a great part of the labor formerly done by the fingers of the seamstress4 ,the art of printing has attained to a marvelous degree of progress4 ,hoe's printing-press1 moved by steam1 seizes on the blank paper1 severs it from the roll in sheets of the right size1 prints it on both sides1 and folds it in a convenient shape1--all with miraculous rapidity4 ,inventions in rock-boring and rock-drilling have made it possible to tunnel mountains4 ,the use of explosives for mechanical purposes is a highly important fact in connection with the modern labor-saving inventions4 ,,india ,,rubber4--,shoes made of caoutchouc1 the thickened milky juice of the india-rubber plant1 were imported from ,brazil to ,boston as early as #ahbe4 ,improvements in the use of this material1 in the solid form and in solution1 were made by ,mr4 ,macintosh of ,glasgow1 and ,thomas ,hancock of ,newington1 ,england1 about #ahbj4 ,from the dissolved caoutchouc1 a coating was obtained making garments water-proof4 ,in #ahci ,charles ,goodyear1 an ,american1 discovered the process of vulcanizing india-rubber1--that is1 producing in it a chemical change whereby its valuable qualities are greatly enhanced4 ,the material thus procured was applied to a great number of uses4 ,it enters into a great variety of manufactured articles4 ,,enginery ,,of ,,war4--,a continual advance has been made in the construction of the implements of war4 ,the whole science and art of war have been fundamentally changed1 mainly in consequence of these modern inventions4 ,reference may be made to the invention of rifled cannon1 heavier ordnance1 breech-loading guns1 and shells and explosive bullets4 ,it was the needle-gun of the ,prussians1 which gave them a signal advantage in their war with the ,french4 ,the building of armored battle ships has been followed by the construction of small swift vessels from which to launch torpedoes at the battle ships4 ,other swift vessels have been constructed to pursue and destroy the torpedo boat4 ,high explosives and smokeless powder have also been invented4 ,,the ,,telescope ,,and ,,microscope4--,among the instruments which have promoted the extension of science1 the microscope1 with its modern improvements1 is one of the most interesting4 ,it has aided discovery in botany1 in physiology1 in mineralogy1 and in almost all other branches of science4 ,it has even assisted in the detection of crime4 ,the large refracting telescopes have been constructed within the last few decades4 ,telescopes have recently been used with increasing success in photographing the heavens with accuracy4 ,,instruments ,,in ,,medicine ,,and ,,surgery4--,the microscope has rendered inestimable service to the healing art4 ,rare ingenuity has been exerted in contriving surgical instruments by which difficult operations are performed with comparative safety and without pain4 ,in medicine and surgery1 the discovery of anesthetics for the general or partial suspending of nervous sensibility is one of the triumphs of practical science in later times4 ,chloroform was brought into general use in the medical profession in #ahdg2 although it had been discovered1 and had been used by individuals in the profession1 much earlier4 ,nitrous oxide was first used by ,horace ,wells1 a dentist of ,hartford1 in the extraction of a tooth 7#ahdd74 ,in #ahdf the great discovery of ansthetic ether1 by ,morton of ,boston1 was first applied in surgery4 ,jackson and others were claimants1 with more or less justice1 to a part in the honors of this discovery4 ,lately cocaine has been found to benumb the sensibility of the more delicate membranes1 as those of the eye and the throat4 ,in auscultation1 or the ascertaining of the state of the internal organs by listening to their sound1 a very valuable instrument is the stethoscope4 ,the principle of the ophthalmoscope1 that wonderful instrument for inspecting the interior of the eye1 was expounded by ,helmholtz in #ahea4 ,by its aid1 not only the condition of that organ is explored1 but indications of certain diseases in the brain1 and in other parts of the body1 are discovered4 ,helmholtz did an equal work in acoustics4 ,the recent discovery and use of the ,x-rays has assisted surgeons in locating foreign substances and in diagnosing disease4 ,,the ,,spectroscope3 ,,photography4--,in connection with the phenomena of light1 the spectroscope1 by which the chemical elements entering in the composition of the sun and of other heavenly bodies are ascertained1 is one of the marvels of the age4 ,the way was paved for this discovery by a succession of chemists and opticians1--,fraunhofer 7#ahad71 ,brewster 7#ahcb71 ,sir ,john ,herschel 7#ahbb71 ,j4 ,w4 ,draper1 and others2 but the instrument was devised by ,kirchhoff and ,bunsen4 ,photography1 or the art of making permanent sun-pictures1 is the result of the labors of ,niepce 7who died in #ahcc71 ,daguerre 7#ahci71 ,fox ,talbot1 an ,englishman1 ,j4 ,w4 ,draper1 and other men of science and practical artisans4 ,instantaneous photography has been of much service in the observation of eclipses and other astronomical phenomena4 ,progress has also been made in color-photography4 ,,the ,,conservation ,,of ,,energy4--,perhaps the most important conclusion of physical science which has been reached in the recent period is the doctrine of the conservation of energy4 ,chemists had shown that the sum of matter always remains the same4 ,in the transformations of chemistry no matter is destroyed1 however it may change its form4 ,now1 it has been proved that the quantity of power or energy is constant4 ,if lost in one body1 it reappears in another2 if it ceases in one form1 it is exerted in another1 and this according to definite ratios4 ,one form of energy is convertible into another3 heat1 light1 electricity1 magnetism1 chemical action1 are so related that one can be made to produce either of the others4 ,this fact is termed the correlation of physical forces4 ,connected with the discovery of it are ,meyer in ,germany1 and ,grove and ,joule in ,england4 ,it has been expounded by ,sir ,william ,thompson1 ,helmholtz1 ,tait1 ,maxwell1 etc4 ,the truth was elucidated by ,tyndall in his ,heat considered as a ,mode of ,motion1 and by ,balfour ,stewart in his ,conservation of ,energy4 ,but ,count ,rumford1 an ,american 7#agec-ahad71 the real founder of the ,royal ,institution1 long ago opened the path for this discovery by furnishing the data for computing the mechanical equivalent of heat4 ,,geology ,,and ,,paleontology4--,in geology1 from the publication of ,lyell's work 7#ahcj71 the tendency has more and more prevailed to explain the geological structure of the earth by the slow operation of forces now in action1 rather than by violent convulsions and catastrophes4 ,in #ahca ,sedgwick and ,murchison1 likewise ,english geologists1 commenced their labors4 ,agassiz published his ,essay on the ,glaciers in #ahcg1 the precursor of like investigations by ,tyndall and others4 ,these are only a small fraction of the numerous body of explorers and writers in geological science4 ,in the ,united ,states1 ,benjamin ,silliman 7#aggi-ahfd71 an eminent scientific teacher1 lent a strong stimulus to the progress of geology1 as well as of chemistry4 ,even in the branch of paleontology1 or the study of the fossil remains of extinct animals1 it would be impracticable to give the names of those who have added so much to our knowledge of the earth and its inhabitants in the ages that preceded man4 ,,astronomy4--,the great ,french geometers1 ,lagrange and ,laplace1 made an epoch in astronomical science4 ,since their time1 however1 there has been a large increase of knowledge in this branch4 ,the discovery of the planet ,neptune 7#ahdf7 by ,galle1 as the result of mathematical calculations of ,leverrier1 which were made independently also by ,adams1 was hailed as a signal proof of scientific progress2 and1 recently1 the discovery of a fifth satellite of ,jupiter4 ,besides ,neptune hundreds of thousands of stars have been discovered and registered4 ,mathematical astronomy has advanced1 while the study of nebulae and of meteors1 and the investigation of the constitution of celestial bodies by the help of the spectroscope1 are among the more recent achievements of this oldest of the sciences4 ,among the names identified with the recent progress of astronomy are ,sir ,john ,herschel and ,a4 ,herschel1 ,maxwell1 ,struve1 ,secchi1 ,bessel1 ,bond1 ,peirce1 ,newton1 ,newcomb1 ,young1 ,lockyer1 ,schiaparelli4 ,,progress ,,in ,,chemistry4--,in chemistry the major part of the more rare elements have been discovered since the century began4 ,it was proved in #ahai that the capacities for heat which belong to the atoms of the different elements are equal4 ,in the same year ,mitscherlich's law was propounded1--the law of isomorphism1 according to which atoms of elements of the same class may replace each other in a compound without altering its crystalline structure4 ,chemists have directed their attention to the molecular structure--the ultimate constitution--of various compounds4 ,faraday 7#agia-ahfg7 developed the relations of electricity to chemistry4 ,liebig 7#ahjc-ahgc71 a ,german chemist1 in connection with numerous laborers in the same field1 made interesting contributions in the different departments of chemical science4 ,among the recent elements which have been discovered are argon1 which enters into the composition of air1 helium1 and radium4 ,,biology4--,no branch of natural science has been more zealously cultivated of late than biology4 ,among those who have given an impulse to the study of natural history1 one of the most eminent names is that of ,charles ,darwin4 ,his work on ,the ,origin of ,species 7#ahei7 advocated the opinion that the various species of animals1 instead of being all separately created1 spring by natural descent and slow variation from a few primitive forms of animal life4 ,he laid much stress upon natural selection1 or the survival of the strongest or fittest in the struggle for existence4 ,with the name of ,darwin should be associated that of ,wallace1 who simultaneously propounded the same doctrine4 ,the general doctrine of evolution1 or of the origin of species by natural generation1 has been held in other forms and modifications by ,richard ,owen1 and other distinguished naturalists4 ,one of the most noted opponents of the evolution doctrine in zoology was ,louis ,agassiz 7#ahjg-ahgc71 a very able and enthusiastic student of nature4 ,one of its most eminent expounders and defenders was ,huxley4 ,some have sought to extend the theory of natural development over the field of inorganic as well as living things1 and to trace all existences back to nebulous vapor4 ,,archeology4--,geology lends its aid to archeology1 or the inquiry into the primitive condition of man4 ,not only has much light been thrown on obscure periods of history1 by the uncovering of the remains of ,babylon1 ,assyria1 and other abodes of early civilization1 and by the deciphering of monumental inscriptions in characters long forgotten2 but the discovery of buried relics of prehistoric men has afforded glimpses of human life as it was prior to all written memorials4 ,one of the most instructive writers on this last subject is ,tylor in his ,primitive ,culture1 and in other works on the same general theme4 ,,philosophy ,,and ,,literature4 ,,philosophy ,,in ,,france4--,victor ,cousin 7#agib--ahfg71 a brilliant thinker and eloquent lecturer and writer1 founded in ,france the eclectic school of philosophy4 ,he aimed to construct a positive view on the basis of previous systems1 which he classified under four heads1--idealism1 sensualism1 skepticism1 and mysticism4 ,in his teaching1 he sought a middle path between the ,german and the ,scottish schools1 leaning now more decidedly to the one1 and now to the other4 ,jouffroy 7#agif-ahdb71 the most prominent of ,cousin's disciples1 but more exact and methodical than his master1 wrote instructively1 especially on aesthetics and moral philosophy4 ,philosophy in ,france took an altogether different direction in the hands of ,auguste ,comte 7#agih-aheg71 the founder of the positivist school4 ,he taught that we know only phenomena1 or things as manifested to our consciousness1 and know nothing either of first causes1 efficient causes1 or of final causes 7or design74 ,we are limited to the ascertaining of facts by observation and experiment1 which we register according to their likeness or unlikeness1 and their chronological relation1 or the order of their occurrence in time4 ,,scottish ,,philosophy4--,the most distinguished expounder of the ,scottish philosophy1 and the most learned of that whole school1 was ,sir ,william ,hamilton 7#aghh-ahef74 ,he maintained the doctrine of natural realism1--that we have a direct1 face to face perception of external things4 ,he held that the range of the mind's power of conceptive thought lies between two inconceivables1 one of which must be real4 ,thus we can not conceive of free-will 7which would be a new beginning71 nor can we conceive of an endless series of causes4 ,free-will--and the same is true of the fundamental truths of religion--is verified to us as real by our moral nature4 ,a ,scottish writer of ability1 who1 however1 opposed the peculiar tenets of the ,scottish school1 was ,ferrier 7#ahjh-ahfd74 ,among the other philosophical writers of ,scotland1 affiliated1 but with different degrees of dissent1 with the school of ,reid and ,hamilton1 are ,professors ,fraser and ,calderwood1 and the late ,james ,mc,cosh4 ,,philosophy ,,in ,,england4--,more allied to the philosophy of ,hume and of ,comte are the metaphysical theories of ,john ,stuart ,mill 7#ahjf-ahgc74 ,intuitions were regarded by ,mill as the impression produced by a frequent conjunction of like experiences1 and thus to be the product of sensation4 ,causation was resolved into the invariable association of phenomena1 by which an expectation is created that seems instinctive4 ,another writer of the same general tendency1 who seeks for the explanation of knowledge in the materials furnished by the senses1 is ,alexander ,bain1 a ,scottish author1 versed in physiology4 ,herbert ,spencer constructed a general system of philosophy on the basis of the theory of evolution4 ,he holds that our knowledge is limited to phenomena1 which are the manifestation in our consciousness of things which in themselves are unknown2 and that behind and below all is the ,unknowable1--an inscrutable force1 out of which the universe of matter and mind is developed1 and which gives to it unity and coherence4 ,,philosophy ,,in ,,germany4--,in ,germany the decline of the school of ,hegel was succeeded by a sort of anarchy in philosophy4 ,herbart 7#aggf-ahda71 a contemporary of ,hegel1 framed a system antagonistic to ,hegelian idealism4 ,among numerous metaphysical authors1 each of whom has a standpoint of his own1 are the justly distinguished names of ,fichte 7the younger71 ,ulrici1 ,trendelenburg1 and ,hermann ,lotze4 ,lotze4 in his ,microcosm1 has unfolded1 in a style attractive to the general reader1 profound and genial views of man1 nature1 and religion4 ,a remarkable phenomenon in ,german speculation is pessimism1--the doctrine gravely propounded in the systems of ,schopenhauer and ,e4 ,von ,hartmann1 that the world is radically and essentially evil1 and personal existence a curse from which the refuge is in the hope of annihilation4 ,in its view of the world as springing from an unconscious force1 and of the extinction of consciousness as the state of bliss1 as well as in its notions of evil as inwrought in the essence of things1 this philosophy is a revival of ,indian ,oriental speculation4 ,historical and critical writings in the department of philosophy abound in ,germany4 ,the histories of philosophy by ,ritter1 ,erdmann1 ,zeller1 ,kuno ,fischer1 and ,lange1 are works of remarkable merit4 ,,philosophy ,,in ,,italy4--,among the ,italian metaphysicians1 the two writers who are most noteworthy are ,rosmini 7#agig-ahee71 who taught idealism2 and ,gioberti 7#ahja-ahhb71 whose system is on a different basis1--a gifted writer who was equally conspicuous as a statesman and a philosopher4 ,,philosophy ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states4--,philosophy in ,america has been zealously cultivated1 both in connection with theology and apart from it1 by a considerable number of teachers and writers4 ,among them are ,james ,marsh1 ,c4 ,s4 ,henry1 ,francis ,wayland1 ,l4 ,p4 ,hickok1 ,h4 ,b4 ,smith1 and other eminent authors1 mostly of a more recent date4 ,,political ,,economy4--,ricardo 7#aggb-ahbc71 who followed ,adam ,smith 7p4 #dib71 dealt more in abstractions and processes of logic1 than his predecessor4 ,the writings of ,ricardo1 together with the discussions of ,malthus 7#agff-ahcd7 on population1--in which it was maintained that the tendency to an increase of population outstrips the increase of the means of subsistence1--led to numerous other writings4 ,political economy was handled in productions by ,james ,mill 7#ahba71 ,j4 ,r4 ,mc,culloch1 ,n4 ,w4 ,senior 7#agij-ahfd71 ,r4 ,torrens 7#aghj-ahfd71 ,harriet ,martineau 7#ahjb-ahgf71 ,thomas ,chalmers1 the celebrated ,scottish divine1 ,archbishop ,richard ,whately1 ,richard ,jones 7#agij-ahee71 a critic of the system of ,ricardo1 and others4 ,an eminent writer1 an expositor with important modifications of the ,ricardian teaching1 is ,john ,stuart ,mill 7#ahjf-ahgc74 ,fawcett and other able authors have followed for the most part in ,mill's path4 ,an ,english author of distinction in this field is ,j4 ,e4 ,cairnes 7#ahbd-ahge74 ,the ,french school of economists have adhered to the principles of ,adam ,smith much more than have the ,germans4 ,among the most noted of the ,french authors in this field are ,say 7#agfg-ahcb71 whose views are founded on those of ,smith2 ,sismondi 7#aggc-ahdb71 who1 however1 departs from the ,english doctrine1 and favors the intervention of government to regulate the progress of wealth2 ,dunoyer 7#aghf-ahfb72 ,bastiat 7#ahja-ahej71 one of the most brilliant advocates of free-trade2 ,cournot 7#ahja-ahgg71 who applies1 with much acumen1 mathematics to economical questions4 ,in ,america1 since the days of ,franklin and ,hamilton1 both of whom wrote instructively on these topics1 a number of writers of ability have appeared4 ,among them are ,h4 ,c4 ,carey1 who opposes the views of ,ricardo and ,malthus1 and defends the theory of protection2 ,francis ,bowen1 also a protectionist2 ,f4 ,a4 ,walker1 ,perry1 etc4 ,in ,italy1 there have not been wanting productions of marked acuteness in this department4 ,of the numerous ,german writers1 one of the most eminent is ,list 7#agih-ahdf71 a critic of ,adam ,smith1 and not an adherent of the unqualified doctrine of free-trade4 ,in the list of later ,english writers1 the names of ,bagehot1 ,leslie1 ,jevons1 and ,sidgwick are quite prominent4 ,with regard to free-trade and protection1 the latter doctrine has been maintained in two forms4 ,some have regarded protection as the best permanent policy for a nation to adopt4 ,others have defended it as a provisional policy1 to shield manufactures in their infancy1 until they grow strong enough to compete1 without help1 with foreign products4 ,after the repeal of the corn-laws in ,england 7#ahdf71 the free-trade doctrine prevailed in ,england4 ,since ,comte published his exposition of ,sociology 7#ahci71 the tendency has arisen to consider political economy as one branch of this broader theme4 ,with it the controversies pertaining to socialism are intimately connected4 ,the disciples of ,adam ,smith have contended for the non-intervention of governments in the industrial pursuits of the people4 ,they are to be left to the natural desire of wealth1 and the natural exercise of competition in the pursuit of it4 ,the prevalent theories of socialism are directly hostile to this--called the laissez-faire--principle4 ,socialists would make government the all-regulative agent1 the owner of land and of the implements of labor4 ,,english ,,essayists4--,in literature the later time has seen an extraordinary multiplying of periodicals and newspapers1 among whose editors and contributors have been included numerous writers of much celebrity4 ,in ,great ,britain1 several famous authors first acquired distinction mainly by historical and critical articles in reviews4 ,this is true of ,thomas ,babington ,macaulay and ,thomas ,carlyle4 ,each of them became a historian4 ,macaulay1 an ardent ,whig1 with an astonishing familiarity with political and literary facts1 wrote in a spirited and brilliant style a ,history of ,england from the ,accession of ,james ,,ii4 to the death of his hero1 ,william ,,iii4 ,carlyle1 with a unique force of imagination and a rugged intensity of feeling1 original in his thought1 yet strongly affected by ,german literature1 especially by ,richter and ,goethe1 wrote in his earlier days a ,life of ,schiller4 ,he wrote later a history of the ,french ,revolution1 in which the scenes of that tragic epoch are depicted with dramatic vividness2 and a copious ,history of ,frederick the ,great4 ,among the most characteristic of his writings are his ,heroes and ,hero-,worship2 the ,latter-,day ,pamphlets1 in which is poured out his contempt of democracy2 and the ,life of ,john ,sterling1--the counterpart of a biography of ,sterling1 written in a different vein by a learned and scholarly divine1 ,julius ,hare4 ,of essayists in a lighter1 discursive vein1 one of the most popular1 who has already been referred to 7p4 #edd71 was the ,scottish writer1 ,john ,wilson 7#aghe-ahed71 the author of numerous tales and criticisms1 and of diverting papers written under the name of ,christopher ,north4 ,without the fancy and humor of ,wilson1 yet master of a style keeping within the limits of prose while verging on poetry1 was ,thomas ,de ,quincey1 the author of ,the ,confessions of an ,opium ,eater1 ,essays on the ,roman ,emperors1 etc4 ,,historical ,,writings ,,in ,,england4--,the literature of history has been enriched by ,british authors with important works besides those named above4 ,grote and ,thirlwall each composed histories of ,greece which are the fruit of thorough and enlightened scholarship4 ,the work of ,grote is a vindication of the ,athenian democracy1 a view the antipode of that taken in the work on ,grecian history by ,mitford4 ,an elaborate work on the ,history of the ,romans under the ,empire is one of several historical productions of ,charles ,merivale4 ,stanhope ,lord ,mahon composed a narrative of the ,war of the ,spanish ,succession1 and other useful histories4 ,sir ,w4 ,f4 ,p4 ,napier wrote a ,history of the ,war in the ,peninsula1 in which the campaigns of ,wellington in ,spain are described by an author who took part in them4 ,the constitutional history of ,england has been treated with satisfactory learning and judgment by ,hallam1 ,may1 and ,stubbs4 ,the ,puritan revolution has been described with masterly skill and judicial fairness by ,s4 ,r4 ,gardiner4 ,in the earlier field1 ,mr4 ,edward ,a4 ,freeman labored with distinguished success1 the ,history of the ,norman ,conquest being his principal work in this branch of historical inquiry4 ,j4 ,r4 ,green is the author of an attractive history of the ,english people4 ,j4 ,a4 ,froude wrote with engaging literary art a ,history of ,england in the ,reign of ,elizabeth1 which attempts1 in the preliminary part1 an apology for the character and conduct of ,henry ,,viii4 ,spencer ,walpole has written a ,history of ,england since #ahae4 ,ramsay has written the ,foundations of ,england1 ,angevin ,england1 ,lancaster1 and ,york4 ,john ,hill ,burton1 a ,scottish author1 educated as a lawyer1 composed vigorously written histories of ,scotland and of the reign of ,queen ,anne4 ,lecky wrote in a pleasing style a ,history of ,england in the ,eighteenth ,century1 besides a ,history of ,rationalism in ,europe1 and a ,history of ,european ,morals from ,augustus to ,charlemagne4 ,in ecclesiastical history1 ,milman1 whose leading work is the ,history of ,latin ,christianity1 ,dean ,stanley1 and ,bishop ,creighton have been the principal writers4 ,,english ,,novelists4--,the series of ,waverley novels by ,walter ,scott 7#agga-ahcb7 had an unbounded popularity4 ,pervaded by a cheerful1 healthy tone1 they presented fascinating pictures of life and manners1 and kindled a fresh sympathy with the ,middle ,ages and with the spirit of chivalry4 ,the poems of ,scott depicted1 in a metrical form1 like picturesque scenes1 and knightly combats and adventures4 ,the fictions of ,scott gave rise to a school of writers1 one of whom was ,g4 ,p4 ,r4 ,james 7#ahja-ahfj74 ,a new and different type of novel appeared1 in connection with which the names of ,dickens 7#ahab-ahgj7 and ,thackeray 7#ahaa-ahfc7 are preminent4 ,both are humorists2 in ,dickens especially1 humor runs into broad caricature4 ,both present pictures of society and of common life4 ,they illustrate the tendency of the novel at present to rely for its attraction upon scenes and incidents of ordinary life1 and the minute portraiture of manners and of character4 ,dickens owes his popularity largely to the unique sort of drollery and the genuine pathos that are mingled in his pages4 ,thackeray is a satirist1 with a keen eye to detect the weaknesses of humanity1 but with a deep well of sympathy1 veiled1 however1 and sedulously guarded from sentimentalism1 by a tone of banter and a semblance of cynicism4 ,measured by their popularity with the cultivated class1 the novels of ,mrs4 ,lewes 7,george ,eliot7 stand next in rank to the productions last referred to4 ,in some of her tales1 the artistic motive and spirit are qualified by the didactic aim1 or the underlying tendency1--the purpose to teach1 or to promote a favorite cause1--which has become a frequent characteristic in modern fiction4 ,among the other ,english novelists1 ,bulwer 7#ahje-ahgc71 whose later stories are free from the immorality that stains the earlier1 is one of the most widely read4 ,the novels of ,charles ,kingsley 7#ahai-ahge7 are among the justly popular productions in this department4 ,among the novelists of the late ,victorian ,era were ,charles ,keade1 ,blackmore1 ,stevenson1 ,kipling1 ,meredith1 ,hardy1 and ,mrs4 ,humphry ,ward4 ,,english ,,poets4--,alfred ,tennyson 7#ahji-ahib71 the author of ,the ,princess1 ,in ,memoriam1 and the ,idylls of the ,king1 held the first place among the poets of his day4 ,an adept in the metrical art1 he combines in these mature productions1 with terseness of diction and fresh1 striking imagery1 deep reflection and sympathy with the intellectual questionings and yearnings of the time4 ,in his lyrical poems the fullness of his power is seen4 ,he was1 without question1 a consummate literary artist4 ,browning 7#ahab-ahhi71 careless of rhythmical art1 with a defiance of form1 but with dramatic power1 in his descent to the under-currents of the soul1 placed himself open to the reproach of obscurity4 ,among ,english poets of high merit in the recent period stand the names of the delightful humorist ,thomas ,hood 7#agih-ahde71 ,arthur ,clough 7#ahai-ahfa71 and more recently1 ,matthew ,arnold 7#ahbb-ahhh74 ,with this reference to the poets may be coupled the name of the most eloquent and suggestive of the ,english writers on art1 ,john ,ruskin4 ,,theology ,,in ,,england4--,theological scholarship in ,great ,britain1 after a long season of partial eclipse1 again shone forth in the present period4 ,critical works relating to the ,scriptures have been produced1 which are on a level with the best ,continental learning4 ,about #ahcc1 there began at ,oxford what has been called the ,tractarian movement1 from a series of ,tracts for the ,times1 relating to theology and the ,church1 which were issued by its promoters4 ,the party thus originating were called ,puseyites1 as ,dr4 ,edward ,pusey 7#ahjj-ahhb71 the author of learned commentaries1 and of works in other departments of divinity1 was their acknowledged leader4 ,they formed one branch of the class called ,high ,churchmen4 ,they laid great emphasis on the doctrine of the apostolic succession of the ministry1 the necessity and efficacy of the sacraments administered by them1 and the importance of visible ecclesiastical unity4 ,they claimed to stand in the middle path between the ,church of ,england and the ,church of ,rome4 ,one of the leading associates of ,pusey was ,john ,keble 7#agib-ahff71 the poet1 author of ,the ,christian ,year4 ,the most eminent writer in this group of theologians was ,john ,henry ,newman 7#ahja-ahij71 who won general admiration by the subtlety of his genius and its rare felicity of expression4 ,he entered the ,church of ,rome1 and was advanced to the rank of a cardinal4 ,one of the principal literary undertakings of the recent period is the ,revision of the ,authorized ,version of the ,bible1 by associated companies of ,english and ,american scholars4 ,in the long catalogue of influential writers in theology1 it is practicable to refer here to a few suggestive names4 ,thomas ,chalmers 7#aghj-ahdg7 was equally noted as a glowing preacher1 an eloquent defender of the ,christian faith1 and a lucid expounder of the ,calvinistic system4 ,edward ,irving 7#agib-ahcd7 was a pulpit orator of unsurpassed eloquence in his day1 whose peculiar view as to the restoration of the miraculous gifts of the ,spirit1 that were granted in the apostolic age1 gave rise to a religious body calling itself the ,catholic ,apostolic ,church4 ,frederick ,denison ,maurice 7#ahje-ahgb7 was one of the leaders of the liberal1 or ,broad ,church1 portion of the ,english ,episcopal ,church4 ,his writings have exerted a strong influence4 ,in the same general direction1 but of a more critical and argumentative tone1 were ,richard ,whately 7#aghg-ahfc71 ,archbishop of ,dublin2 and ,thomas ,arnold1 who1 in addition to his influence as a teacher1 classical scholar1 and historian1 engaged actively in discussions on the questions relating to ,church and ,state4 ,,literature ,,in ,,america3 ,,poems ,,and ,,tales4--,the period which we are now considering witnessed a gratifying development of belles-lettres and historical literature in the ,united ,states4 ,at the outset1 two writers appeared who acquired a transatlantic fame4 ,washington ,irving 7#aghc-ahei7 in #ahah published ,the ,sketch ,book1 in a series of pamphlets4 ,it had been preceded by ,knickerbocker's ,history of ,new ,york and other humorous publications4 ,among his later writings were included the ,life of ,columbus1 the ,life of ,mohammed1 and the ,life of ,washington4 ,the refinement and charm of his style1 which brought back the simplicity of ,goldsmith1 satisfied the foreign critics who had ridiculed the florid rhetoric of previous ,american authors4 ,james ,fenimore ,cooper 7#aghi-ahea7 published ,the ,spy1 the first of his novels1 which attracted much attention1 in #ahba4 ,this was followed1 two years later1 by ,the ,pioneers1 the first of the famous ,leatherstocking series of novels1 in which ,indian life and manners were portrayed4 ,cooper was also the founder of the sea-novel1 a line of fiction in which he was followed by an ,english writer1 ,marryat 7#agib-ahdh74 ,richard ,h4 ,dana and ,fitz-,greene ,halleck were poets who had a much higher than the merely negative merit of freedom from tumidity1 the bane of the earlier ,american bards4 ,not only in verse1 but also in his prose tales1 ,dana manifested genius4 ,several later poets1 acknowledged at home and abroad1 well deserve the name4 ,such are ,bryant 7#agid-ahgh71 whose poems1 pensive and elevated in their tone1 lack neither vigor nor finish2 ,longfellow 7#ahjg-ahhb71 a poet of exquisite culture1 whose purity of sentiment1 as well as polish and melody of diction1 have made him a favorite in both ,europe and ,america2 ,whittier 7#ahjg-ahib71 whose spirited productions are pervaded with a glowing love of liberty and humanity4 ,lowell 7#ahai-ahia7 has justly earned fame as a poet and a critic2 and1 as a poet1 in both serious and humorous compositions4 ,the ,biglow ,papers are without a rival in the species of humor that characterize them4 ,distinction as a poet and a prose writer belongs likewise to ,oliver ,wendell ,holmes 7#ahji-ahid71 who was especially successful as an author of poems of society4 ,edgar ,allan ,poe 7#ahji-ahdi71 faulty in his moral spirit as he was wayward in his conduct1 exhibited1 both in his poems and tales1 which are unique in their character1 the traits of a wild and somber genius4 ,ralph ,waldo ,emerson 7#ahjc-ahhb71 admired as a poet1 but more generally as an essayist1 valuing insight above logic1 has commented on nature1 man1 and literature with so rare a penetration and felicity of expression that ,matthew ,arnold has placed his productions on a level with the ,meditations of the ,emperor ,marcus ,aurelius4 ,in the list of ,american novelists the foremost name is that of ,nathaniel ,hawthorne4 ,in his romances the subtle analysis of the workings of conscience and sensibility1 in particular the obscure--including the morbid-action of these powers1 is combined with perfection of style and of literary art4 ,the novels of ,harriet ,beecher ,stowe1 especially those which relate to slavery and depict negro character1 have had a world-wide currency4 ,among other novelists were ,paulding and ,sedgwick1 and more recently1 ,howells1 ,james1 ,bret ,harte1 ,cable1 and ,aldrich4 ,the most distinguished humorist has been ,s4 ,m4 ,clemens 7,mark ,twain74 ,good work has been done by ,americans in literary history and criticism4 ,the ,history of ,spanish ,literature1 by ,george ,ticknor1 is the fruit of many years of labor by a competent scholar4 ,,historical ,,writings ,,in ,,america4--,creditable works have been produced in ,america in the department of historical literature4 ,the lives of ,washington and ,franklin1 and other biographical and historical writings of much value1 have been composed or edited by ,jared ,sparks4 ,george ,bancroft 7#ahjj-ahia7 published1 in successive editions1 the results of extensive researches in the history of the ,united ,states4 ,works on the same subject have been published by ,richard ,hildreth and many others4 ,john ,g4 ,palfrey is the author of an excellent history of ,new ,england4 ,william ,h4 ,prescott by his ,history of the ,reign of ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 his histories of ,spanish conquest in ,america1 and his fragment on the reign of ,philip ,,ii4 of ,spain1 has deservedly attained to a high distinction on both sides of the ,atlantic4 ,the same may be said of ,john ,lothrop ,motley 7#ahad-ahgg71 in his ,rise and ,progress of the ,dutch ,republic4 ,the history of ,french colonization and of the contests of ,france in ,america has been detailed with thoroughness and skill by ,francis ,parkman4 ,other prominent writers have been ,john ,fiske1 ,justin ,winsor1 ,henry4 ,adams1 ,james ,f4 ,rhodes1 and ,a4 ,t4 ,mahan4 ,,american ,,writers ,,on ,,law ,,ans ,,politics4--,american writers on law embrace names of world-wide celebrity4 ,among them are ,henry ,wheaton1 in international law1 a science to which ,woolsey and ,lawrence have made valuable contributions2 ,james ,kent1 whose ,commentaries on ,american ,law is a work held in high honor by the legal profession2 and ,joseph ,story1 a jurist and legal writer of distinguished merit4 ,the speeches and other productions of ,webster1 ,calhoun1 ,clay1 ,john ,quincy ,adams1 ,edward ,everett1 ,seward1 ,sumner1 form a valuable body of political writings4 ,the works of ,francis ,lieber1 a ,german by birth1 and the treatise on ,political ,science by ,theodore ,d4 ,woolsey1 are important contributions to the branch of knowledge to which they relate4 ,,philology ,,in ,,america4--,on the catalogue of students of language1 the name of ,noah ,webster 7#ageh-ahdc7 is prominent1 through his ,english ,dictionary1 the fruit of many years of arduous labor2 a work that since his death has appeared in successive and improved editions4 ,another successful laborer in the same field was ,joseph ,e4 ,worcester 7#aghd-ahfe71 likewise the author of a copious and valuable lexicon of the ,english language4 ,george ,p4 ,marsh1 an erudite ,scandinavian scholar1 wrote also on the ,origin and ,history of the ,english ,language4 ,in the departments of classical learning1 of ,oriental study1 and of general philology1 there have appeared other ,american authors of acknowledged merit1 e4g4 ,william ,d4 ,whitney4 ,,theology ,,in ,,america4--,theology has been cultivated with much fruit by a large number of preachers and authors1 of different religious bodies4 ,moses ,stuart1 by his commentaries on ,biblical books1 and ,edward ,robinson1 especially through his published ,travels in the ,holy ,land1 were widely known4 ,charles ,hodge1 long a professor at ,princeton2 ,nathaniel ,w4 ,taylor1 who broached modifications of the ,calvinistic system2 ,henry ,b4 ,smith1 an acute and learned theologian2 and ,horace ,bushnell1--are among the influential authors on the ,protestant side4 ,to these should be added the name of ,william ,ellery ,channing1 the most prominent leader of the ,unitarians1 equally distinguished as a preacher and as a philanthropist4 ,the ,unitarian movement in ,new ,england1 which began in the early part of the nineteenth century1 included other theological writers1 one of the most learned and scholarly of whom was ,andrews ,norton 7#aghf-ahec74 ,theodore ,parker 7#ahaj-ahfj7 subsequently went so far in his divergence from received views as to reject miracle and supernatural revelation altogether4 ,he was one of the most vigorous combatants in the warfare carried on through the press and in the pulpit against slavery4 ,out of the ,unitarian school there came a class of cultured writers in literature and criticism1 of whom ,george ,ripley 7#ahjb-ahhj7 was a representative4 ,the transcendentalists1 as they were popularly styled1 with whom these were often at the outset affiliated1 were much influenced by contemporary ,french and ,german authors and speculations4 ,emerson1 was the most prominent writer in this vaguely defined class4 ,a periodical called ,the ,dial was issued by them4 ,one of the most ingenious and active-minded thinkers in the ,roman ,catholic ,church was ,orestes ,a4 ,brownson1 a prolific author on topics of religion and philosophy4 ,,literature ,,in ,,germany4--,the ,german mind has been so productive in almost all branches of literary effort1 that the annual issues of the ,german press have numbered many thousands4 ,the political condition of ,germany until a recent date was such as to attract large numbers to the pursuits of literature and science4 ,it is possible to allude to but few of the principal authors4 ,in imaginative literature1 ,heinrich ,heine 7#agii-ahef71 of ,jewish extraction1 was a most witty yet irreverent satirist1 and one of the principal song-writers of modern times4 ,gustav ,freytag has written some of the best of the later ,german novels4 ,auerbach1 ,keller1 and ,spielhagen stand very high on the roll of novelists4 ,of numerous recent poets1 ,lenau and ,freiligrath are among the few best esteemed4 ,in the long catalogue of ,german historical writers1 to whom the world owes a debt1 are found the names of ,schlosser 7#aggf-ahfa71 ,heeren 7#agfj-ahdb71 ,raumer 7#agha-ahgc72 ,ranke1 whose numerous works are based on original researches1 and are written with masterly skill2 ,gervinus1 a critic as well as historian2 ,von ,sybel1 ,droysen1 ,duncker1 ,weber1 ,giesebrecht1 ,mommsen1 ,curtius1 ,treitschke4 ,a powerful impulse was given to the study of history by ,niebuhr 7#aggf-ahca74 ,german researches have been carried into every region of the past4 ,in ,egyptology1 ,lipsius1 ,bunsen1 ,brugsch1 and ,ebers are leading authorities4 ,neander1 ,gieseler1 ,baur1 ,dllinger1 ,hefele1 ,alzog1 ,harnack1 ,janssen1 and ,pastor are writers on ecclesiastical history4 ,german travelers have explored many of the countries of the globe4 ,schliemann has uncovered the ruins of ,troy4 ,in mathematics and the natural sciences1 in philology and criticism1 in philosophy1 in law and the political sciences1 and in the different branches of theology1 the world acknowledges its debt to the patient1 methodical investigations and the exhaustive discussions of ,german students during the nineteenth century4 ,,theology ,,in ,,germany4--,the history of religious thought in ,germany includes the successive phases of rationalism1 or that general theory which makes the human understanding1 apart from supernatural revelation1 the chief or the exclusive source of religious knowledge1 and the umpire in controversies4 ,in the age of ,frederick ,,ii41 the ,anglo-,french deism was widely diffused 7p4 #dic74 ,lessing2 the genial poet and critic 7#agbi-agha71 allied himself to no party4 ,in his work on ,the ,education of the ,human ,race1 he set forth the view that the ,scriptures have a high providential purpose as an instrument for the religious training of mankind1 but that their essential contents are ultimately verified by reason on grounds of its own2 so that the prop of authority eventually becomes needless1 and falls away4 ,not radically different was the position of ,kant 7p4 #ede71 who gave rise to a school of theologians that for a time flourished4 ,this school made the essential thing in ,christianity to be its morality4 ,with ,semler 7#agba-agia71 the rationalistic ,biblical criticism took its rise4 ,from that day1 a host of scholars have engaged in the investigation of the origin and interpretation of the ,bible1 and of the early history of ,christianity4 ,a middle position between the established orthodoxy and the ,kantian rationalism was taken by ,frederick ,schleiermacher 7#agfh-ahcd71 a man of genius1 alike eminent as a critic1 philosopher1 and theologian4 ,he placed the foundation of religion in the feeling of absolute dependence4 ,in laying stress on feeling as at the root of piety1 he had been preceded by the philosopher ,jacobi4 ,from the impulse given by ,schleiermacher1 there sprung up an intermediate school of theologians1 many of whom departed less than he from the traditional ,protestant creed4 ,this they professed to undertake to revise in accordance with the results of the scientific study of the ,bible and of history4 ,in their number belong ,neander1 ,nitzsch1 ,twesten1 ,tholuck1 ,j4 ,mller1 ,dorner1 ,rothe1 ,bleek1 ,ullman1 and many other influential authors and teachers4 ,in the department of ,biblical criticism1 ,ewald1 ,tischendorf1 ,meyer1 ,weiss1 are among the names of ,german theological scholars which are familiar to ,biblical students in all countries4 ,the critical works of ,de ,wette 7#aghj-ahdi7 were extensively studied4 ,the philosophy of ,hegelconnected itself with a new form of rationalism1 which found expression in the ,life of ,jesus1 by ,strauss1 published in #ahce1 in which the ,gospel miracles were treated as myths2 and in the writings of ,ferdinand ,christian ,baur1 in connection with his followers of the ,tubingen ,school1 who attempted to resolve primitive ,christianity into a natural growth out of prexisting conditions1 and held that the historical books of the ,new ,testament were the product of different theological tendencies and parties in the apostolic and the subsequent age4 ,the ,roman ,catholic system has not lacked in ,germany able defenders1 one of the most noted of whom was ,mhler1 the author of ,symbolism 7,symbolik71 an ingenious polemical work in opposition to ,protestantism4 ,,philology ,,and ,,law ,,in ,,germany4--,classical philology was founded as a science by ,heyne 7#agbi-ahab7 and ,wolf 7#agei-ahbd74 ,their work was carried forward by ,g4 ,hermann 7#aggb-ahdh71 ,buttmann 7#agfd-ahbi71 ,jacobs 7#agfd-ahdg71 ,k4 ,o4 ,muller 7#agig-ahdj71 and by numerous contemporaries and successors of these4 ,by this succession of scholars1 not only have the tongues of ,greece and ,rome been accurately learned and taught1 but classical antiquity has been thoroughly explored4 ,comparative philology1 under the hands of ,bopp 7#agia-ahfg71 of ,lassen 7#ahjj-ahgf71 a ,norwegian by birth1 of ,w4 von ,humboldt 7#agfg-ahce71 of ,pott 7born in #ahjb71 of ,schleicher 7#ahba-ahfh71 and their coadjutors1 has grown to be a fruitful science4 ,in the study of the ,german language and early literature1 ,j4 ,grimm 7#aghe-ahfc71 ,w4 ,grimm 7#aghf-ahei71 ,lachmann 7#agic-ahea71 ,simrock 7#ahjb-ahgh71 have been among the pioneers4 ,the study of law1 especially of ,roman law1 was placed on a new foundation by the labors of ,savigny 7#aggi-ahfa71 while a like thoroughness was brought to the exposition of ,german law by ,mittermaier and others4 ,in political science1 ,mohl 7#aggi-ahge71 ,bluntschli 7#ahjh-ahha71 ,stahl 7#ahjb-ahfa71 and ,gneist 7#ahaf-ahie7 gained a worldwide celebrity4 ,,literature ,,in ,,france4--,a class of vigorous young writers in ,france broke loose from the restraints of the classical school and its patterns1 and composed dramas in the more free method of the romantic school4 ,they drew their ideas of the drama from ,shakspeare1 rather than from ,corneille4 ,among these writers were ,alexandre ,dumas1 a most prolific novelist as well as writer of plays2 and the celebrated poet and dramatist1 ,victor ,hugo4 ,the romances of ,dumas comprise more than a hundred volumes4 ,in his historical novels1 incidents and characters without number crowd upon the scene1 but without confusion1 while the narrative maintains an unfailing vivacity4 ,of the authors of light and witty comedies1 ,scribe is one of the most fertile4 ,george ,sand 7,mme4 ,dudevant7 is one of the principal novel-writers of the age4 ,eugene ,sue and ,balzac are both popular authors in this department4 ,the leading poets are the song-writer ,branger1 ,lamartine1 ,victor ,hugo1 and ,alfred de ,musset4 ,with the close of the first half-century romanticism began to give way before realism1 from which1 however1 there was a reaction before the century closed4 ,among the greater poets are ,sully-,prudhomme and ,coppe2 among the novelists1 ,daudet1 ,zola1 ,maupassant1 and ,bourget4 ,in history some writers1 as ,villemain1 are remarkable for their power of descriptive narrative2 others1 like ,guizot1 for their breadth of philosophical reflection1 superadded to deep researches4 ,some1 like ,augustin ,thierry1 in his work on the ,middle ,ages1 combined both elements4 ,his brother1 ,amde ,thierry1 depicted the state of society in ,gaul and other countries in the period of the fall of the ,roman ,empire4 ,barante composed an interesting history of the ,dukes of ,burgundy4 ,among those1 besides ,guizot1 who treated of the history of ,france1 ,sismondi1 the spirited ,michelet1 and the thorough and dispassionate ,henri ,martin are specially eminent4 ,thiers1 ,mignet1 ,louis ,blanc1 ,taine1 and ,lanfrey wrote on the ,revolution or ,napoleon4 ,the most eminent of the newer school of scientific historians are ,boissier1 ,sorel1 ,lavisse1 ,luchaire1 and ,aulard4 ,in political economy and the science of politics1 ,chevalier1 ,de ,tocqueville 7the author of ,democracy in ,america71 and ,bastiat are among the writers widely read beyond the limits of ,france4 ,sainte-,beuve is only one of the foremost in the class of literary critics1 in which are included ,renan1 ,sarcey1 ,brunetire1 ,lematre1 ,faguet1 and others1 themselves authors4 ,the clearness of exposition which goes far to justify the claim of the ,french to be the interpreters of ,european science to the world1 appears in numerous treatises in mathematics and physics4 ,the qualities of lucid arrangement1 transparency of style1 and terseness of language have extended1 however1 to other branches of authorship2 so that the ,french have presented a fair claim to precedence in the literary art4 ,,sweden ,,and ,,russia4--,there are ,swedish authors who are well known in other countries4 ,such are the historian ,geijer 7#aghc-ahdg72 and the novelist ,fredrika ,bremer1 who wrote ,the ,neighbors1 and other tales4 ,the most famous of the ,russian novelists is ,ivan ,turgenejff1 some of whose stories contain admirable pictures of ,russian life4 ,,architecture4--,the nineteenth century witnessed in ,germany1 ,france1 and ,england a revival of the ancient or classic styles of architecture4 ,this appears1 for example1 in edifices at ,munich1 and in such buildings as ,st4 ,george's ,hall at ,liverpool4 ,but a reaction arose against this tendency1 and in behalf of the ,gothic style1 which is exemplified in the new ,houses of ,parliament in ,london4 ,many ,gothic churches have been erected in ,great ,britain4 ,many-storied office buildings are characteristic of ,america4 ,,sculpture ,,and ,,painting4--,one of the most original of modern sculptors was ,schwanthaler 7#ahjb-ahdh71 who carved the pediments of the ,walhalla at ,munich1 and the bronze statue of ,bavaria4 ,french sculptors at the present day are fully on a level with the recent sculptors of ,italy4 ,chantrey 7#aghh-ahda7 and ,john ,gibson 7#agia-ahff71 a pupil of ,canova and himself an original mind1 are high on the roll of ,english sculptors4 ,a genius for sculpture appeared among ,americans1 and to the names of ,powers and ,crawford1 of ,story1 ,brown1 and ,ward1 the names of other meritorious artists in this province might justly be added4 ,the ,german national school of painting had ,overbeck for its most eminent founder4 ,cornelius 7#aghc-ahfg7 revived the art of fresco-painting1 and established the ,munich school4 ,von ,kaulbach1 who painted the ,battle of the ,huns in the ,berlin ,museum1 was one of his pupils4 ,w4 von ,schadow is the founder of the ,dsseldorf school4 ,one of his eminent pupils was ,k4 ,f4 ,lessing4 ,still more recent are ,ad4 ,menzel1 ,liberman1 and ,lenbach4 ,in ,great ,britain1 ,constable 7#agif-ahcg7 painted ,english landscapes full of thought and feeling1 and gave a fresh impulse to this branch of art4 ,stanfleld 7#aghh-ahfd7 was a master of the realistic school1 which aims at a simple and faithful representation of the landscape to be depicted4 ,wilkie1 a ,scotchman 7#aghe-ahda71 was chief among the genre painters1 of whom ,leslie 7#agid-ahei71 by birth an ,american1 was one of the most forcible and refined4 ,eastlake 7#agic-ahfe7 was a writer on art1 as well as a painter4 ,landseer 7#ahjb-ahgc7 was unrivaled as an animal painter4 ,william ,hunt 7#agij-ahfd7 had decided skill as a painter in water-colors4 ,the pre-,raphaelite school1 professing to go back of ,raphael to nature1 included ,turner1 ,hunt1 ,millais1 and ,burne-,jones4 ,other prominent artists have been ,herkomer1 ,leighton1 and ,alma-,tadema4 ,in ,france1 ,paul ,delaroche 7#agig-ahef7 followed in the path of ,horace ,vernet 7#aghi-ahfc71 as a painter of battle-pieces and other modern historical scenes4 ,ary ,scheffer 7#agie-aheh71 a ,dutchman by birth1 painted in a graceful and pathetic tone ,christ the ,consoler1 and other sacred subjects4 ,the more recent ,french school1 comprising ,delacroix1 ,meissonier1 ,grome1 ,cabanel1 ,millet1 ,rosa ,bonheur1 an artist of masculine vigor1 the famous painter of animal pictures1--is distinguished for technical skill and finish1 but also for a bold and peculiar method of treatment4 ,among the leading landscape-painters of this school1 ,corot1 ,daubigny1 ,rousseau1 ,diaz1 are conspicuous4 ,still more recent are ,bastien-,lepage1 ,chavannes1 ,brton1 ,bouguereau1 ,dagnan-,bouveret1 ,lhermitte1 ,jean-,paul ,laurens1 and ,dupr4 ,about the year #ahbe an ,american school of landscape-painters was founded by ,thomas ,cole1 many of whose pictures were allegorical4 ,durand is one of those who excelled in landscape painting4 ,in other provinces of the art1 ,peale1 ,weir1 ,huntington1 ,page1 ,morse1 ,chase1 ,whistler1 ,sargent1 ,abbey2 in landscape1 ,gifford1 ,kensett1 ,church1 ,bierstadt1 ,mc,entee1 ,inness1 ,winslow ,homer1 well represent what is best and most characteristic in the later productions of ,american painters4 ,,music4--,in music1 ,germany in the nineteenth century held the palm4 ,schubert1 ,spohr1 ,weber1 ,meyerbeer1 and ,wagner are names of world-wide celebrity1 while in the works of ,mendelssohn 7#ahji-ahdi7 and ,schumann 7#ahaj-ahef7 the art of music reached its climax4 ,chopin 7#ahaj-ahdi71 the founder of a new style of piano-forte music1 was born in ,poland3 his father1 however1 was ,french4 ,,philanthropic ,,reform4 ,in a survey of the course of recent history1 notice should be taken of the increased activity of a humane spirit in the several nations4 #a4 ,,social ,,science4--,the investigation of social evils and of their proper remedies1 and of the laws which govern man in his social relations1 has received of late the name of social science4 ,in #aheg a meeting in ,london1 over which ,lord ,brougham presided1 resulted in the organization of a society of persons interested in different forms of social improvement1 bearing the name of the ,national ,association for the ,promotion of ,social ,science4 ,its work embraced the consideration of these five subjects3 law-amendment1--to promote which a society had existed1 of which ,lord ,brougham was the head2 education2 prevention and repression of crime2 public health2 and social economy4 ,branches were established in various towns in ,england4 ,similar societies have flourished in the ,united ,states4 ,an international society of the same character held its first meeting in ,brussels in #ahfb4 ,the wide range of special topics which these societies consider may give an appearance of indefiniteness to their aims4 ,the movement at least indicates that social advancement has assumed the form of a distinct and comprehensive problem1 and is drawing to itself the deliberate attention of thoughtful persons of diverse nations and creeds4 #b4 ,,mitigation ,,of ,,the ,,sufferings ,,of ,,war3 ,,hospitals4--,if wars are still frequent and destructive1 much more has been done of late to mitigate the sufferings consequent upon armed conflicts4 ,the right of an invading force to ravage the territory of an enemy was seldom practically asserted in the nineteenth century4 ,non-combatants1 according to the modern rules of war1 are not to be molested4 ,their property1 if it is taken1 is to be paid for at its fair value4 ,the doctrine that requisitions may be made by a commander is not yet abandoned4 ,it was acted on by ,napoleon on a large scale4 ,it was not approved by ,wellington4 ,there is a growing opinion against it4 ,it is not now held to be a crime for an officer to hold a fortress as long as he can4 ,in the care of the sick and the wounded1 there has been a great change for the better4 ,the ambulance system1 or the system of movable hospitals accompanying armies on the field1 was established by the ,french1 with the approval of ,napoleon1 in #agie4 ,the name ambulance is also frequently given to the vehicles for transporting the wounded and sick4 ,the whole ambulance system was completely organized in the ,american civil war1 and defined by an ,act of ,congress in #ahfd4 ,to a ,french surgeon is due1 also1 the establishment of a corps of stretcher-bearers4 ,by the ,european ,convention adopted at ,geneva 7#ahfd71 the wounded1 and the whole official staff connected with ambulances1 are exempted from capture as prisoners of war4 ,for the more efficient organization of hospitals1 a great service was rendered by the example of ,florence ,nightingale1 an ,english lady1 who1 at the head of a company of volunteer nurses1 during the ,crimean war created a great establishment of this sort at ,scutari 7#ahed74 ,the increased pains-taking in the method of building1 in the ventilation and general management of hospitals1 during the last half-century1 has gone far towards freeing them from the dangers and evils to which they were formerly subject4 ,,sanitary ,,science4--,sanitary science1 and the engineering connected with it1 belong to the nineteenth century1 and mainly to the second half of it4 ,systems of drainage have been devised which involve much mechanical skill1 not to dwell on their usefulness in promoting health4 ,prior to #ahae1 in ,england1 the law forbade the discharge of sewage in water-drains4 ,the law of #ahdg required that which up to #ahae was prohibited4 ,the great change on this whole subject dates from the cholera of #ahcb1 which awoke public attention to the sources of disease4 ,the condition of the poor1 and the discussions relating to it1 lent a new stimulus to the inquiry4 ,a series of ,english reports1 from #ahdb to #ahdh1 had a great influence in producing a sanitary reform1 in the particulars referred to1 in ,england and in other countries4 #c4 ,,public ,,education4--,during the nineteenth century1 systems of general education were established in different countries4 ,in a part of the ,united ,states1 an effective common-school system has always existed4 ,in ,germany also1 especially in ,prussia1 there have long been thorough provisions for the instruction of all the young in elementary branches4 ,in ,france1 in consequence of the laws requiring primary schools in all the communes of any considerable size1 the average of illiteracy has of late steadily diminished4 ,in #ahha1 in ,france1 instruction in the public primary schools was made absolutely free4 ,england has witnessed a very great change in the legal establishment of means of instruction in the rudiments of knowledge for the whole people4 ,the ,education ,act of #ahgf required that every child between the ages of five and fourteen should receive such teaching4 ,in ,england1 and in some other countries1 the employment of children who have not had a certain amount of school instruction was prohibited by law4 ,in the new kingdom of ,italy1 every commune having four thousand inhabitants was required by law 7#ahei7 to maintain a primary school4 ,by subsequent legislation1 the compulsory principle was adopted as far as the circumstances of the country would allow4 ,the result has been a most remarkable diminution in the numbers of the wholly illiterate class4 ,other ,european states have made primary education compulsory4 ,for instance1 in ,hungary1 attendance at school was made obligatory for children from the beginning of the eighth to the end of the twelfth year4 ,such measures in behalf of general education as governments have adopted in recent times are founded1 to be sure1 partly on the conscious need of self-protection against ignorance and its baleful consequences to the state4 ,a more directly humane impulse1 however1 mingles with this motive4 ,the operation of benevolent feeling is seen in the multiplying of special schools for the benefit of the blind1 of the deaf and dumb1 and even of imbeciles4 #d4 ,,reform ,,of ,,criminal ,,law4--,the advance of humane sentiment has produced a reform of criminal law4 ,in ,england1 in the closing part of the eighteenth century1 there were two hundred and twenty-three offenses that were punished with death4 ,to injure ,westminster ,bridge1 to cut down young trees1 to shoot at rabbits1 to steal property of the value of five shillings1 were capital offenses4 ,vigorous and persevering opposition was made to the mitigation of this bloody code4 ,sir ,samuel ,romilly 7#ageg-ahah7 began his effort at reform by endeavoring to secure the repeal of these cruel laws1 one by one4 ,his bills1 when carried with difficulty through the ,commons1 were repeatedly thrown out by the ,house of ,lords4 ,one of the most strenuous opponents of the change was the ,lord ,chancellor1 ,eldon4 ,lord ,ellenborough1 the chief justice1 stigmatized the proposed alteration of the statutes as the fruit of speculation and modern philosophy4 ,it was predicted that1 if it were made1 there would be a terrible increase of crime4 ,sir ,james ,mackintosh continued with success the effort of ,romilly4 ,in #ahcg the list of capital offenses had been reduced to seven4 ,one consequence was the striking diminution of crime4 ,another reform in ,england was that of the police-system 7#ahaf74 ,the officers of the police had encouraged crime in order to secure the reward of forty pounds offered by the government on conviction1 in the case of crimes of a certain grade4 #e4 ,,prison-,,discipline ,,reform4--,one of the distinctions of modern philanthropy is the prison-discipline reform4 ,when ,howard began his labors 7#aggc71 the prisons in ,england were generally dirty1 pestiferous dens1 crowded with inmates of both sexes1--nurseries of loathsome disease1 and of still more loathsome vice4 ,soon after this time1 a serious effort began to make prisons a means of reform1 instead of schools of debauchery and crime4 ,there was a movement for the erection of penitentiaries of improved construction4 ,this was aided by the exertions of ,jeremy ,bentham4 ,the most successful efforts in behalf of a better system of management in prisons were made by members of the ,society of ,friends4 ,of these1 the most useful person in this cause was ,mrs4 ,elizabeth ,gurney ,fry 7#aghj-ahde71 a woman of rare powers of mind and of the noblest ,christian character4 ,by her personal influence1 she wrought such a transformation of character and behavior among the female convicts in ,newgate ,prison as it had been deemed impossible to effect4 ,the reforms which ,mrs4 ,fry effected spread to other places4 ,her labors were not confined to ,great ,britain4 ,she visited ,france 7#ahch71 ,belgium1 ,holland1 and other countries4 ,her correspondence in the interest of the cause which she served extended to ,russia and ,italy4 ,her recommendations bore fruit for good in almost all parts of ,europe4 ,signal improvements in plans of construction1 and in the interior life of prisons1 have been effected under the auspices of the ,prison ,discipline ,society in ,england4 ,in these changes1 the example of changes and reforms in this matter in the ,united ,states has had a marked influence4 ,the two great ends kept in view at present in the arrangements and occupations of prisons are the reform of the criminal1 and the deterring of others from the commission of crime4 ,distinct establishments for the detention1 reform1 and training of juvenile offenders1 who were formerly corrupted by association with criminals mature in vice1 are peculiar to recent times4 ,the transportation of ,english convicts to ,australia began in #aghg4 ,as these multiplied1 there sprang up cruelty on the part of supervisors in the colonies2 and in the penal settlements where the worst offenders were guarded1 there were found the most corrupt and degraded herds of criminals4 ,the opposition in the colonial communities to transportation found support in ,england4 ,in #ahdj deportation to ,new ,south ,wales ceased4 ,at length ,van ,dieman's ,land also refused to receive this forced emigration even of released convicts4 ,the ,british ,government was obliged to rely on other methods of punishment1 especially on the graduation of the term of confinement according to the conduct of the criminal4 ,,progress ,,towards ,,the ,,unity ,,of ,,mankind4 ,,unity ,,amid ,,diversity4--,the path of human progress has led in the direction of unity as the ultimate goal4 ,it is1 however1 a unity in variety toward which the course of history has moved4 ,the development and growth of distinct nations1 each after its own type1 and1 not less1 the freedom of the individual to realize the destiny intended for him by nature1 are necessary to the full development of mankind1--necessary to the perfection of the race4 ,the final unity that is sought is to be reached1 not by stifling the capacities of human nature1 but by the complete unfolding of them in all their diversity4 ,the modern era has made an approach toward this higher unity that is to coexist with a rich and manifold development4 ,an enlightened man1 ,prince ,albert of ,england1 remarked in a public address 7#ahej73 ,nobody who has paid any attention to the peculiar features of our present era will doubt for a moment that we are living at a period of most wonderful transition1 which tends rapidly to accomplish that great end to which1 indeed1 all history points1 the realization of the unity of mankind6 ,not a unity which breaks down the limits and levels the peculiar characteristics of the different nations of the earth1 but rather a unity1 the result and product of those very national varieties and antagonistic qualities4 ,in concluding this volume1 it is proper to advert to some of the signs and means of this unification of mankind1 which belong to the recent era4 #a4 ,,industrial ,,exhibitions4--,the words quoted above from ,prince ,albert were spoken in anticipation of the ,great ,international ,exhibition in ,london1 in #ahed4 ,the industrial exhibitions1 in which the products of many nations are collected1 and to which visitors are drawn from different parts of the earth1 are one indication of the effect of manufactures and commerce in drawing mankind together4 ,the first displays of this kind were for ,french manufactures alone1 and were held in ,paris in #agih1 and1 under the consulate of ,napoleon1 in #ahja and #ahjb4 ,the first international exposition was in ,paris in #ahdd2 and it was followed by the ,world's ,fair in ,london 7#ahej71 for which the vast edifice called the ,crystal ,palace1 made of iron and of glass1 was constructed4 ,similar exhibitions were held in ,new ,york 7#ahec71 in ,paris in #ahee and again in #ahfg1 in ,constantinople1 ,amsterdam1 ,vienna1 7#ahgc71 in ,philadelphia on the hundredth anniversary of ,american independence 7#ahgf71 in ,chicago in #ahic1 and in ,paris in #aijj4 ,in these fairs1 the products of the industry of the far ,east were shown by the side of the products of ,european and ,american manufacture4 #b4 ,,economical ,,enlightenment4--,in connection with the wide extension of commerce1 the better methods and ideas which have come into vogue in respect to commercial relations deserve notice4 ,the system of credit1 facilitating trade and forming a bond of confidence and of union between different nations1 although it began in the ,middle ,ages1 was not fairly established until the organization of the ,bank of ,amsterdam in #afji4 ,this system1 if it is one of the most powerful engines of warfare1 is likewise one of the great pledges of peace4 ,the stimulus given to manufactures by mechanical inventions has been an effective promoter of commercial intercourse4 ,the teaching of ,adam ,smith1 and of the political economists since his time1 by which it is seen that the gain of one nation is not the loss of another1 and that nations are mutually benefited by the interchange of the products of their labor1 which is the true source of wealth1 has operated as an antidote to discord4 ,the ruin of a neighbor1 or non-intercourse with him1 has been discovered to be as contrary to the demands of a prudent self-interest as of a disinterested benevolence4 #c4 ,,community ,,in ,,science ,,and ,,letters4--,the community of literature and science has been growing more cosmopolitan4 ,the barriers created by differences of language are overcome4 ,the custom of learning foreign languages has become more diffused4 ,the most important writings1 in whatever country they appear1 circulate through translations in all other civilized lands4 ,all well-stored libraries are polyglot4 #d4 ,,widened ,,political ,,system4--,in the political relations of countries1 it is found necessary to comprehend all parts of the globe in the political system1 in the right adjustment of which each country has a stake1 and over which stretches an acknowledged code of international law4 ,the establishment of an international tribunal of arbitration at ,the ,hague is a long step toward making such a code effective and toward preventing war4 #e4 ,,internation ,,philanthropy4--,the growth of humane feeling1 of the interest felt in man as man1 engendered a spirit of universal philanthropy4 ,for example1 the hostility to the slave-trade led to the treatment of it as piracy by the municipal laws and by the treaties of several nations1 while it is prohibited and punished by nearly all of the countries of ,europe4 ,this is the direct result of a heightened respect for man and for the rights of human nature1 however poor or degraded man may be4 ,instances have occurred in which help has been generously given to sufferers by fire or famine1 by strangers in remote lands4 ,a famine in ,persia called out liberal contributions from ,america4 ,examples of the exercise of justice and kindness toward distant nations may remind the reader of opposite examples of wrong and cruelty4 ,we are pointing out1 however1 only the drift of sentiment2 and it must be remembered that the facts which have been referred to as illustrative of the growth of philanthropy1 are such as never occurred in former ages4 #f4 ,,christian ,,missions4--,the spread of the ,christian religion by missionary efforts is one of the means of unifying mankind4 ,in ancient times and in the ,middle ,ages1 the two great achievements of the ,church were the conversion of the ,roman ,empire1 and then of the barbarian nations by whom it was subverted4 ,but1 in the ,middle ,ages1 there was also missionary labor1 here and there among the ,saracens and in the lands of the ,east4 ,since the thirteenth century1 missions in the ,roman ,catholic ,church have been chiefly prosecuted by the monastic orders4 ,in this work1 the ,jesuits1 from the first establishment of their order1 were conspicuously active in all quarters of the globe4 ,of their missionaries1 none have been more eminent and zealous than ,francis ,xavier 7#aejf8aeeb71 who died just as he was about to undertake the conversion of ,china4 ,protestants1 in the period after the ,reformation1 were too busy in the struggles going forward in their own lands1 to undertake foreign missions on an extended scale4 ,yet they were not indifferent to the importance of the work4 ,under the protectorate of ,cromwell1 an ordinance established a ,society for the ,propagation of the ,gospel in ,new ,england 7#afdi74 ,in #agja the ,society for the ,propagation of the ,gospel in ,foreign ,parts was established in ,england4 ,later1 the ,moravians from the beginning evinced great interest in foreign missions1 and planted missionary stations in several countries4 ,in the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 the ,congregation of the ,propaganda was founded in #afbb1 for the general superintendence of missionary operations4 ,colleges for their training were established1 the chief of which was the ,urban ,college at ,rome1 where students from all nations have been educated for missionary service4 ,the nineteenth century was marked by an extraordinary outburst of missionary activity4 ,in this sort of exertion the ,roman ,catholic body has kept up an unflagging zeal4 ,within the various ,protestant denominations1 a remarkable increase of fervor and of success in this department of ,christian labor has been witnessed4 ,in the room of seven societies for this purpose at the end of the eighteenth century1 there were in #ahhj1 in ,europe and ,america1 seventy organizations4 ,at this last date1 there were not less than twenty-four hundred ordained ,europeans and ,americans employed in this service1 besides a great number of assistants1 both foreign and native4 ,the native converts numbered not less than #a1fej1jjj4 ,the yearly contributions for the support of the missions increased proportionately4 ,in #ahhb ,british contributions alone amounted to #a1jij1jjj4 ,it is not an exaggeration to say that the globe is now covered with a network of ,christian outposts4 ,the following passage1 slightly abbreviated1 from a ,german writer1 presents a glowing sketch of the wide extension of recent missionary labors3-- ,at the beginning of this century1 the island world of the ,pacific was shut against the gospel2 but ,england and ,america have attacked those lands so vigorously in all directions1 especially through native workers1 that whole groups of islands1 even the whole ,malayan ,polynesia1 is to-day almost entirely ,christianized1 and in ,melanesia and ,micronesia the mission-field is extended every year4 ,the gates of ,british ,east ,india have been thrown open wider and wider during this century2 at first for ,english1 then for all missionaries4 ,this great kingdom1 from ,cape ,comorin to the ,punjaub and up to the ,himalayas1 where the gospel is knocking on the door of ,thibet1 has been covered with hundreds of mission-stations1 closer than the mission-net which at the close of the first century surrounded the ,roman empire2 the largest and some of the smaller islands of the ,indian ,archipelago1 ,sumatra1 ,java1 ,borneo1 ,celebes1 and now ,new ,guinea also1 are occupied1 partly on the coast and partly in the interior4 ,burmah1 and in part ,siam1 is open to the gospel2 and ,china1 the most powerful and most populous of heathen lands1 forced continually to open her doors wider1 has been traversed by individual pioneers of the gospel1 to ,thibet and ,burmah1 and half of her provinces occupied from ,hong-,kong and ,canton to ,peking2 and in ,manchuria1 if by only a thin chain1 yet at many of the principal points1 stations have been founded1 while the population overflowing into ,australia and ,america is being labored with by ,protestant missionaries4 ,japan also1 hungry for reform1 by granting entrance to the gospel has been quickly occupied by ,american and ,english missionary societies1 and already1 after so little labor1 has scores of evangelical congregations4 ,indeed1 the aboriginal ,australians have1 in some places1 been reached4 ,in the lands of ,islam1 from the ,balkans to ,bagdad1 from ,egypt to ,persia1 there have been common central evangelization stations established in the chief places1 for ,christians and ,mohammedans1 by means of theological and ,christian medical missions1 conducted especially by ,americans4 ,also in the primitive seat of ,christianity1 ,palestine1 from ,bethlehem to ,tripoli1 and to the northern boundaries of ,lebanon1 the land is covered by a network of ,protestant schools1 with here and there an evangelical church4 ,africa1 west1 south1 and east1 has been vigorously attacked2 in the west1 from ,senegal to ,gaboon1 yes1 lately even to the ,congo1 by ,great ,britain1 ,basel1 ,bremen1 and ,america1 which have stations all along the coast4 ,south ,africa at the extremity was evangelized by ,german1 ,dutch1 ,english1 ,scotch1 ,french1 and ,scandinavian societies4 ,upon both sides1 as in the center1 ,protestant missions1 although at times checked by war1 are continually pressing to the north2 to the left1 beyond the ,walfisch ,bay2 to the right1 into ,zululand1 up to ,delagoa ,bay2 in the center1 to the ,bechuana and ,basuto lands4 ,in the east1 the sun of the gospel1 after a long storm1 has burst forth over ,madagascar in such brightness that it can never again disappear4 ,along the coasts from ,zanzibar and the ,nile1 even to ,abyssinia1 out-stations have been established1 and powerful assaults made by the ,scotch1 ,english1 and recently also by the ,american mission and civilization1 into the very heart of the ,dark ,continent1 even to the great central and east ,african lakes4 ,in ,america1 the immense plains of the ,hudson's ,bay ,territory1 from ,canada over the ,rocky ,mountains to the ,pacific ,ocean1 have not only been visited by missionaries1 but have been opened far and wide to the gospel through rapidly growing ,indian missions4 ,in the ,united ,states1 hundreds of thousands of freedmen have been gathered into evangelical congregations2 and1 of the remnants of the numerous ,indian tribes1 some at least have been converted through the work of evangelization by various churches1 and have awakened new hope for the future4 ,in ,central ,america and the ,west ,indies1 as far as the country is under ,protestant home nations1 the net of evangelical missions has been thrown from island to island1 even to the mainland in ,honduras1 upon the ,mosquito ,coast2 and in ,british and ,dutch ,guiana it has taken even firmer hold4 ,finally1 the lands on and before the southern extremity of the continent1 the ,falkland ,islands1 ,terra del ,fuego1 and ,patagonia1 received the first light through the ,south ,american ,missionary ,society 7in ,london72 and recently its messengers have pushed into the heart of the land1 and are rapidly pressing on to the banks of the great ,amazon1 to the ,indians of ,brazil4 ,,results ,,of ,,missions4--,in carrying forward missionary work during the nineteenth century1 the ,bible has been translated into numerous languages4 ,missionaries1 as in the early days of the ,church1 have reduced the languages of uncultivated peoples to writing1 and made the beginning of native literatures4 ,schools1 colleges1 and printing-presses follow in the path of the preachers4 ,the contributions made to philology and to other branches of science by missionary preachers and explorers are of high value4 ,as far as the number of converts is concerned1 progress has been more rapid1 as was the case in the first ,christian centuries1 among uncivilized tribes4 ,the reception of ,christianity is more slow in a country like ,china1 and among the ,aryan inhabitants of ,india4 ,but the influence exerted by missions in such communities is not to be measured by the number of converts4 ,moreover1 history has often shown1 that1 in the spread of the ,christian religion1 the first steps are the most slow and difficult3 they are like the early operations in a siege4 ,sir ,bartle ,frere writes thus3 ,statistical facts can in no way convey any adequate idea of the work done in any part of ,india4 ,the effect is enormous where there has not been a single avowed conversion4 ,the teaching of ,christianity amongst a hundred and sixty millions of civilized1 industrious ,hindoos and ,mohammedans in ,india1 is effecting changes1 moral1 social1 and political1 which for extent and rapidity in effect are far more extraordinary than any that have been witnessed in modern ,europe4 ,of the same tenor is an opinion expressed in strong terms by ,sir ,henry ,lawrence1 governor-general of ,india during the mutiny of #aheg1 and a most competent judge4 ,it is worthy of remark1 as one characteristic of the ,christian missions of the recent period1 that the religions of the non-,christian nations have been studied more thoroughly1 and the true and praiseworthy elements in them have been better appreciated4 ,the progress made in the past encourages the hope that the unity of mankind1 a unity which shall be the crown of individual and national development1 will one day be reached4 ,that unity of mankind1 in loyal fellowship with ,him in whose image man was made1 is the community of which the ancient ,stoic vaguely dreamed1 and which the apostles of ,christ proclaimed and predicted1--the perfected kingdom of ,god4 ,,literature4 ,see lists on pp4 ,alison1 ,hist4 of ,europe1 from #ahae to #aheb 7#h vols472 ,bulle1 ,gesch4 d4 neuesten ,zeit1 #ahae-ahga 7#b vols472 ,flathe4 ,zeitalter der ,restauration und der ,revolution2 ,stern1 ,geschichte ,europas 7#c vols472 ,debidpur1 ,hist4 ,diplomatique de l',europe 7#b vols472 ,seignobus1 ,political ,history of ,europe since #ahad2 ,sears4 ,political ,growth in the ,nineteenth ,century2 ,lavisse et ,rambaud4 ,hist ,gn41 ,vols4 ,x41 ,,xi41 ,,xii42 ,phillips1 ,european ,history1 #ahae-ahii2 ,mller1 ,political ,history of ,recent ,times 7,peters's translation1 #ahhb72 ,mller1 ,politische ,gesch4 d4 ,gegenwart 7an annual1 since #ahfg72 ,honegger1 ,grundsteine einer allgem4 ,culturgeschichte d4 neuesten ,zeit 7#e vols474 ,works on the ,history of ,italy4 ,thayer1 ,dawn of ,italian ,independence 7#b vols472 ,reuchlin1 ,geschichte ,italiens 7#d vols472 ,stillman1 ,union of ,italy2 ,probyn1 ,italy from #ahae-ahgh2 ,lives of ,cavour1 by ,de la ,rive 7,english translation71 by ,e4 ,dicey1 by ,mazade 7,french72 ,life and ,writings of ,mazzini 7#i vols474 ,works on the ,history of ,germany4 ,treitschke1 ,deutsche ,geschichte2 ,von ,sybel1 ,founding of the ,german ,empire 7#f vols172 ,busch1 ,bismarck in the ,franco-,prussian ,war 7#b vols471 ,bismarck1 ,the ,man and the ,statesman 7#b vols472 ,springer1 ,geschichte ,oesterreichs 7#b vols474 ,france4 ,hillebrand1 ,gesch4 ,frankreichs 7#ahcj-ahgj72 ,adams1 ,democracy and ,monarchy in ,france2 ,stein1 ,gesch4 der ,sozialen ,bewegung in ,frankreich2 ,guizot1 ,memoirs of ,his ,own ,time 7#ahjg-ahdh7 7#d vols472 ,delord1 ,hist4 du ,second ,empire 7#f vols472 ,zevort1 ,hist4 de la #c'me ,republique 7#d vols472 ,hanotaux1 ,contemporary ,france 7,vol4 ,i472 ,bodley1 ,france 7#b vols472 ,simon1 ,the ,government of ,m4 ,thiers 7from #ahga-ahgc7 7#b vols474 ,works on the ,history of ,england4 ,harriet ,martineau1 ,the ,history of ,england 7#ahjj-ahed72 ,walpole1 ,a ,history of ,england1 from #ahae 7#f vols41 #ahgh-ahhj72 ,molesworth1 ,the ,history of ,england 7#ahcj-ahgd72 ,justin ,mc,carthy1 ,a ,history of ,our ,own ,times 7#ahgh-ahhj72 ,kinglake1 ,the ,invasion of the ,crimea 7#f vols472 ,seeley1 ,the ,expansion of ,england2 ,rutherford1 ,the ,fenian ,conspiracy2 ,richey1 ,the ,irish ,land ,laws2 ,king1 ,the ,irish ,question2 ,morley1 ,life of ,gladstone1 #c vols4 7#aijc7 7an able historical review74 ,works on ,history of the ,united ,states4 ,benton1 ,thirty ,year's ,view #ahbj-ahej2 ,johnston1 ,history of ,american ,politics2 ,,de ,,tocqueville1 ,democracy in ,america 7#b vols472 ,thorpe1 ,constitutional ,history of the ,american ,people 7#b vols472 ,roosevelt1 ,winning of the ,west 7#d vols72 ,stanwood1 ,a ,history of the ,presidency2 ,bryce1 ,the ,american ,commonwealth 7#b vols742 ,ostrogorski1 ,democracy and the ,origin of ,political ,parties 7#b vols472 ,henry ,adams1 ,history of the ,united ,states 7#ahjj-ahag1 #i vols472 ,rhodes1 ,history of the ,united ,states from the ,compromise of #ahej 7#d vols472 ,wilson1 ,division and ,reunion2 ,burgess1 ,the ,middle ,period1 ,the ,civil ,war and the ,constitution 7#b vols472 ,dunning1 ,essays on the ,civil ,war and ,reconstruction2 ,bolles1 ,financial ,history of the ,united ,states 7#c vols472 ,wilson1 ,history of the ,rise and ,fall of the ,slave ,power2 ,blaine1 ,twenty ,years in ,congress2 ,histories of the ,civil ,war1 by the ,count of ,paris 7#b vols471 by ,roper1 by ,j4 ,w4 ,draper1 by ,h4 ,greeley1 by ,a4 ,h4 ,stephens1 by ,e4 ,a4 ,pollard 7,the ,lost ,cause72 ,swinton's ,twelve ,decisive ,battles of the ,civil ,war2 ,memoirs of ,gen4 ,w4 ,t4 ,sherman1 by himself2 ,grant1 ,personall ,memoirs 7#b vols472 ,john ,sherman1 ,recollections 7#b vols472 ,moore1 ,the ,rebellion ,record 7#ahfa-ahga72 ,biography of ,gallatin1 by ,h4 ,adams2 of ,jackson1 by ,parton1 by ,w4 ,g4 ,sumner2 of ,madison1 by ,rives2 of ,j4 ,q4 ,adams1 by ,morse2 of ,josiah ,quincy1 by ,edmund ,quincy2 of ,webster1 by ,g4 ,t4 ,curtis1 by ,lodge2 of ,clay1 by ,schurz2 of ,calhoun1 by ,crall2 of ,sumner1 by ,e4 ,l4 ,pierce2 of ,lincoln1 by ,nicolay and ,hay1 by ,morse2 of ,seward1 by ,fr4 ,brancroft2 of ,w4 ,l4 ,garrison1 by ,o4 ,johnson1 by ,w4 ,p4 ,garrison2 ,the ,american ,commonwealths1 a series of histories of the separate ,states 7edited by ,h4 ,e4 ,scudder72 writings of ,j4 ,q4 ,adams1 ,webster1 ,clay1 ,calhoun1 ,e4 ,everett1 ,c4 ,sumner1 ,w4 ,h4 ,seward2 ,john ,fiske1 ,american ,political ,ideas4 ,literary ,biographies4 ,life of ,walter ,scott1 by ,lockhart2 of ,jeffrey1 by ,cockburn2 of ,macaulay1 by ,trevelyan2 of ,arnold1 by ,stanley2 of ,dickens1 by ,forster2 of ,carlyle1 by ,froude2 of ,george ,eliot ,mrs4 ,lewes1 by ,cross4 ,life of ,irving1 by ,p4 ,m4 ,irving2 of ,bryant1 by ,parke ,godwin2 ,life and ,letters of ,george ,ticknor2 ,life of ,ripley1 by ,frothingham2 ,series of ,american ,men of ,letters1 including ,washington ,irving1 by ,warner2 ,cooper1 by ,t4 ,r4 ,lounsbury2 ,emerson1 by ,o4 ,w4 ,holmes1 etc4 ,argyll1 ,the ,eastern ,question1 #ahef to #aheh and the ,second ,afghan ,war2 ,taylor1 ,russia before and after the ,war of #ahgg 7#ahhj72 ,daily ,news ,correspondence of the ,war between ,russia and ,turkey #ahgg-gh 7#b vols472 ,baker ,pasha1 ,war in ,bulgaria 7#b vols472 ,wallace1 ,egypt and the ,egyptian ,question2 ,malleson1 ,history of ,afghanistan2 ,labilliere1 ,early ,history of the ,colony of ,victoria 7#b vols472 ,grant and ,knollys1 ,the ,china ,war of #ahfj2 ,scott1 ,france and ,tongking in #ahhd2 ,vambry1 ,central ,asia2 ,stanley1 ,congo and the ,founding of its ,free ,state 7#b vols474 ,rae1 ,contemporary ,socialism2 ,woolsey1 ,communism and ,socialism2 ,laveleye1 ,le ,socialisme ,contemporain 7#ajth ed472 ,schaeffle1 ,quintessens des ,socialismus2 ,a4 ,menger1 ,das ,recht auf den vollen ,arbeitsertrag 7#b;d ed474