,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #chd ,,new ,,york1 ,,may #ab1 #ahhc ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xv41 ,no4 #chd4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,engineering4--,locomotive for ,st4 ,gothard ,railway4--,several figures4 ,the ,mersey ,railway ,tunnel4 ,dam ,across the ,ottawa ,river1 and ,new ,canal at ,carillon1 ,quebec4 ,several figures and map4 ,,ii4 ,,architecture4--,dwelling ,houses4--,hints on building4 ,by ,,william ,,hennan4--,considerations necessary in order to have thoroughly sweet homes4--,experiment illustrating the necessity of damp courses4--,how to make dry walls and roofs4--,methods of heating4--,artificial lighting4--,refuse4--,cesspools4--,drain age ,house at ,heaton4--,illustration4 ,a ,mansard ,roof ,dwelling4 #b figures4 ,,iii4 ,,electricity4--,the ,history of the ,electric ,telegraph4--,documents relating to the magnetic telegraph4--,apparatus of ,comus and ,alexandre4--,origin of the electric telegraph4--,apparatus of ,lesage1 ,lemond1 ,reveroni1 ,saint ,cyr1 and others4--,several figures4 ,electrical ,transmission and ,storage4--,by ,,dr4 ,c4 ,,wm4 ,,siemens4 ,,iii4 ,,medicine ,,and ,,hygiene4--,malaria4 ,by ,dr4 ,,james ,,salisbury4--,,vii4 ,report on the cause of ague4--,studies of ague plants in their natural and unnatural habitats4--,list of objects found in the ,croton water4--,synopsis of the families of ague plants4-- ,several figures4 ,ichthyol4 ,autopsy ,table4 #a figure4 ,the ,exciting ,properties of ,oats4 ,filaria ,disease4 ,,iv4 ,,chemistry4--,preparation of ,hydrogen ,sulphide from ,coal ,gas4 ,by ,j4 ,,taylor4 #a figure4 ,setting of ,gypsum4 ,v4 ,,technology4--,on the ,preparation of ,gelatine ,plates4 ,by ,e4 ,,howard ,,farmer4 ,pictures on ,glass4 ,,vi4 ,,natural ,,history4--,survey of the ,black ,canon4 ,the ,ancient ,mississippi and its ,tributaries4 ,by ,j4 ,w4 ,,spencer4 ,,vii4 ,,agriculture4--,the ,spectral ,masdevallia4--,illustration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,locomotive ,,for ,,st4 ,,gothard ,,railway4 ,we give engravings of one of a type of eight-coupled locomotives constructed for service on the ,st4 ,gothard ,railway by ,herr ,t4,a4 ,maffei1 of ,munich4 ,as will be seen from our illustrations1 the engine has outside cylinders1 these being #bj4dh in4 in diameter1 with #bd in4 stroke1 and as the diameter of the coupled wheels is #c ft4 #aj in41 the tractive force which the engine is capable of exerting amounts to 7#bj4dh x #bd7 _/ #df #bah4d lb4 for each pound of effective pressure per square inch on the pistons4 ,this is an enormous tractive force1 as it would require but a mean effective pressure of #ajb lb4 per square inch on the pistons to exert a pull of #aj tons4 ,inasmuch1 however1 as the engine weighs #dd tons empty and #ea tons in working order1 and as all this weight is available for adhesion1 this great cylinder power can be utilized4 ,the cylinders are #f ft4 #aj in4 apart from center to center1 and they are well secured to the frames1 as shown in ,fig4 #d4 ,the frames are deep and heavy1 being #a #c_/h in4 thick1 and they are stayed by a substantial box framing at the smokebox end1 by a cast-iron footplate at the rear end1 and by the intermediate plate stays shown4 ,the axle box guides are all fitted with adjusting wedges4 ,the axle bearings are all alike1 all being #g4hg in4 in diameter by #i4de in4 long4 ,the axles are spaced at equal distances of #d ft4 #c4a in4 apart1 the total wheel base being thus #ab ft4 #i4c in4 ,in the case of the #ast1 #b;d1 and #c;d axles1 the springs are arranged above the axle boxes in the ordinary way1 those of the #b;d and #c;d axles being coupled by compensating beams4 ,in the case of the trailing axle1 however1 a special arrangement is adopted4 ,thus1 as will be seen on reference to the longitudinal section and plan 7,figs4 #a and #b1 first page71 each trailing axle box receives its load through the horizontal arm of a strong bell-crank lever1 the vertical arm of which extends downward and has its lower end coupled to the adjoining end of a strong transverse spring which is pivoted to a pair of transverse stays extending from frame to frame below the ash pan4 ,this arrangement enables the spring for the trailing axle to be kept clear of the firebox1 thus allowing the latter to extend the full width between the frames4 ,the trailing wheels are fitted with a brake as shown4 ,illustration3 ,,locomotives ,,for ,,st4 ,,gothard ,,railway4 ,the valve motion is of the ,gooch or stationary link type1 the radius rods being cranked to clear the leading axle1 while the eccentric rods are bent to clear the second axle4 ,the piston rods are extended through the front cylinder covers and are enlarged where they enter the crossheads1 the glands at the rear ends of cylinders being made in halves4 ,the arrangement of the motion generally will be clearly understood on reference to ,figs4 #a and #b without further explanation4 ,the boiler1 which is constructed for a working pressure of #adg lb4 per square inch1 is unusually large1 the barrel being #fj4d in4 in diameter inside the outside rings2 it is composed of plates #j4fe in4 thick4 ,the firebox spreads considerably in width toward the top1 as shown in the section1 ,fig4 #e1 and to enable it to be got in the back plate of the firebox casing is flanged outward1 instead of inward as usual1 so as to enable it to be riveted up after the firebox is in place4 ,the inside firebox is of copper and its crown is stayed directly to the crown of the casing by vertical stays1 as shown1 strong transverse stays extending across the boiler just above the firebox crown to resist the spreading action caused by the arrangement of the crown stays4 ,the firegrate is #f ft4 #aa4f in4 long by #c ft4 #d in4 wide4 ,illustration3 ,,st4 ,,gothard ,,locomotives4 ,the barrel contains #bbe tubes #a4ig in4 in diameter outside and #ac ft4 #i in4 long between tube plates4 ,on the top of the barrel is a large dome containing the regulator1 as shown in ,fig4 #a1 from which view the arrangement of the gusset stays for the back plate of firebox casing and for the smokebox tube plate will be seen4 ,a grid is placed across the smokebox just above the tubes1 and provision is made1 as shown in ,figs4 #a and #d1 for closing the top of the exhaust nozzle1 and opening a communication between the exhaust pipes and the external air when the engine is run reversed4 ,the chimney is #ae in4 in diameter at its lower end and #ah4i in4 at the top4 ,the chief proportions of the boiler are as follows3 ,sq4 ft ,heating surface3 ,tubes #aeih4e ,firebox #ajb4e ------ #agja4j ,firegrate area #bc4c #a ,sectional area through tubes 7disregarding ferrules7 #c4e ,least sectional area of chimney4 #a4ce ,ratio of firegrate area to heating surface4 #a3gc ,ratio of flue area through tubes to firegrate area4 #a3f4g ,ratio of least sectional area of chimney to firegrate area4 #a3ag4bf ,transcribers note #a3 ,best guess1 #bnd digit illegible ,the proportion of chimney area to grate is much smaller than in ordinary locomotives1 this proportion having no doubt been fixed upon to enable a strong draught to be obtained with the engine running at a slow speed4 ,of the general fittings of the engine we need give no description1 as their arrangement will be readily understood from our engravings1 and in conclusion we need only say that the locomotive under notice is altogether a very interesting example of an engine designed for specially heavy work4--,engineering4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,mersey ,,railway ,,tunnel4 ,the work of connecting ,liverpool with ,birkenhead by means of a railway tunnel is now an almost certain success4 ,it is probable that the entire cost of the tunnel works will amount to about half a million sterling4 ,the first step was taken about three years ago1 when shafts were sunk simultaneously on both sides of the ,mersey4 ,the engineers intrusted with the plans were ,messrs4 ,brunlees ,fox1 and they have now as their resident representative ,mr4 ,a4,h4 ,irvine1 ,c4,e4 ,the contractor for the entire work is ,mr4 ,john ,waddell1 and his lieutenant in charge at both sides of the river is ,mr4 ,james ,prentice4 ,the post of mechanical engineer at the works is filled by ,mr4 ,george ,ginty4 ,under these chiefs1 a small army of nearly #gjj workmen are now employed night and day at both sides of the river in carrying out the tunnel to completion4 ,on the ,birkenhead side1 the landward excavations have reached a point immediately under ,hamilton ,square1 where ,mr4 ,john ,laird's statue is placed1 and here there will be an underground station1 the last before crossing the river1 the length of which will be about #djj feet1 with up and down platforms4 ,riverward on the ,cheshire side1 the excavators have tunneled to a point considerably beyond the line of the ,woodside ,stage2 while the ,lancashire portion of the subterranean work now extends to ,st4 ,george's ,church1 at the top of ,lord street1 on the one side1 and ,merseyward to upward of #ij feet beyond the quay wall1 and nearly to the deepest part of the river4 ,when completed1 the total length of the tunnel will be three miles one furlong1 the distance from wall to wall at each side of the ,mersey being about three-quarters of a mile4 ,the underground terminus will be about ,church street and ,waterloo place1 in the immediate neighborhood of the ,central ,station1 and the tunnel will proceed from thence1 in an almost direct line1 under ,lord street and ,james street2 while on the south side of the river it will be constructed from a junction at ,union street between the ,london and ,northwestern and ,great ,western ,railways1 under ,chamberlain street1 ,green lane1 the ,gas ,works1 ,borough road1 across the ,haymarket and ,hamilton street1 and ,hamilton square4 ,drainage headings1 not of the same size of bore as the part of the railway tunnel which will be in actual use1 but indispensable as a means of enabling the railway to be worked1 will act as reservoirs into which the water from the main tunnel will be drained and run off to both sides of the ,mersey1 where gigantic pumps of great power and draught will bring the accumulating water to the surface of the earth1 from whence it will be run off into the river4 ,the excavations of these drainage headings at the present time extend about one hundred yards beyond the main tunnel works at each side of the river4 ,the drainage shafts are sunk to a depth of #ahj feet1 and are below the lowest point of the tunnel1 which is drained into them4 ,each drainage shaft is supplied with two pumping sets1 consisting of four pumps1 viz41 two of #bj in4 diameter1 and two of #cj in4 diameter4 ,these pumps are capable of discharging from the ,liverpool shafts #f1ajj gallons per minute1 and from the ,birkenhead #e1jdj gallons per minute2 and as these pumps will be required for the permanent draining of the tunnel1 they are constructed in the most solid and substantial manner4 ,they are worked by compound engines made by ,hathorn1 ,davey ,co41 of ,leeds1 and are supplied with six steel boilers by ,daniel ,adamson ,co41 of ,dukinfield1 near ,manchester4 ,in addition to the above1 there is in course of construction still more powerful pumps of #dj in4 diameter1 which will provide against contingencies1 and prevent delay in case of a breakdown such as occurred lately on the ,liverpool side of the works4 ,the nature of the rock is the new red sandstone1 of a solid and compact character1 favorable for tunneling1 and yielding only a moderate quantity of water4 ,the engineers have been enabled to arrange the levels to give a minimum thickness of #be ft4 and an average thickness of #cj ft4 above the crown of the tunnel4 ,barges are now employed in the river for the purpose of ascertaining the depth of the water1 and the nature of the bottom of the river4 ,it is satisfactory to find that the rock on the ,liverpool side1 as the heading is advanced under the river1 contains less and less water1 and this the engineers are inclined to attribute to the thick bed of stiff bowlder clay which overlies the rock on this side1 which acts as a kind of overcoat to the under garments4 ,the depth of the water in one part of the river is found to be about #gb ft42 in the middle about #ij ft42 and as there is an intermediate depth of rock of about #bg ft41 the distance is upward of #ajj ft4 from the surface of low water to the top of the tunnel4 ,it is expected that the work will shortly be pushed forward at a much greater speed than has hitherto been the case1 for in place of the miner's pick and shovel1 which advanced at the rate of about ten yards per week1 a machine known as the ,beaumont boring machine will be brought into requisition in the course of a day or two1 and it is expected to carry on the work at the rate of fifty yards per week1 so that this year it may be possible to walk through the drainage heading from ,liverpool to ,birkenhead4 ,the main tunnel works now in progress will probably be completed and trains running in the course of #ah months or two years4 ,the workmen are taken down the shaft by which the debris is hoisted1 ten feet in diameter1 and when the visitor arrives at the bottom he finds himself in quite a bright light1 thanks to the ,hammond electric light1 worked by the ,brush machine1 which is now in use in the tunnel on both sides of the river4 ,the depth of the pumping shaft is #agj feet1 and the shaft communicates directly with the drainage heading4 ,this circular heading now has been advanced about #gcg yards4 ,the heading is #g feet in diameter1 and the amount of it under the river is upward of #bjj yards on each side4 ,the main tunnel1 which is #bf feet wide and #ba feet high1 has also made considerable progress at both the ,liverpool and ,birkenhead ends4 ,from the ,liverpool side the tunnel now extends over #dcj yards1 and from the opposite shore about #eij yards4 ,this includes the underground stations1 each of which is #djj feet long1 #ea feet wide1 and #cb feet high4 ,although the main tunnel has not made quite the same progress between the shafts as the drainage heading1 it is only about #ajj yards behind it4 ,when completed1 the tunnel will be about a mile in length from shaft to shaft4 ,in the course of the excavations which have been so far carried out1 about #gj cubic yards of rock have been turned out for every yard forward4 ,ten horses are employed on the ,birkenhead side for drawing wagons loaded with debris to the shaft1 which1 on being hoisted1 is tipped into the carts and taken for deposit to various places1 some of which are about three miles distant4 ,the tunnel is lined throughout with very solid brickwork1 some of which is1 #ah inches thick 7composed of two layers of blue and two of red brick71 and toward the river this brickwork is increased to a thickness of six rings of bricks--three blue and three red4 ,a layer of ,portland cement of considerable thickness also gives increased stability to the brick lining and other portions of the tunnel1 and the whole of the flooring will be bricked4 ,there are about #bb yards of brickwork in every yard forward4 ,the work of excavation up to the present time has been done by blasting 7tonite being employed for this purpose71 and by the use of the pick and shovel4 ,at every #de ft4 on alternate sides niches of #ah in4 depth are placed for the safety of platelayers4 ,the form of the tunnel is semicircular1 the arch having a #ac ft4 radius1 the side walls a #be ft4 radius1 and the base a #dj ft4 radius4 ,fortunately not a single life has up to the present time been lost in carrying out the exceedingly elaborate and gigantic work1 and this immunity from accident is largely owing to the care and skill which are manifested by the heads of the various departments4 ,the ,mersey ,tunnel scheme may now be looked upon as an accomplished work1 and there is little doubt its value as a commercial medium will be speedily and fully appreciated upon completion4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,dam ,,across ,,the ,,ottawa ,,river ,,and ,,new ,,canal ,,at ,,carillon ,,que ,by ,,andrew ,,bell ,resident ,engineer ,the natural navigation of the ,ottawa ,river from the head of the ,island of ,montreal to ,ottawa ,city--a distance of nearly a hundred miles--is interrupted between the villages of ,carillon and ,grenville which are thirteen miles apart by three rapids1 known as the ,carillon1 ,chte ,blondeau1 and ,longue ,sault ,rapids1 which are in that order from east to west4 ,the ,carillon ,rapid is two miles long and has1 or had1 a fall of #aj feet the ,chte ,blondeau a quarter of a mile with a fall of #d feet and the ,longue ,sault six miles and a fall of #df feet4 ,between the ,carillon and ,chte ,blondeau there is or was a slack water reach of three and a half miles1 and between the latter and the foot of the ,longue ,sault a similar reach of one and a quarter miles4 ,small canals limited in capacity to the smaller locks on them which were only #aji feet long #ai feet wide1 and #e to #f feet of water on the sills1 were built by the ,imperial ,government as a military work around each of the rapids4 ,they were begun in #ahai and completed about #ahcb4 ,they were transferred to the ,canadian ,government in #ahef4 ,they are built on the north shore of the river1 and each canal is about the length of the rapid it surmounts4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,great ,,dam ,,across ,,the ,,ottawa ,,river1 ,,at ,,carillon4 ,the ,grenville ,canal 7around the ,longue ,sault7 with seven locks1 and the ,chte ,blondeau with one lock1 are fed directly from ,ottawa4 ,but with the ,carillon that method was not followed as the nature of the banks there would have in doing so1 entailed an immense amount of rock excavation--a serious matter in those days4 ,the difficulty was overcome by locking up at the upper or western end #ac feet and down #bc at lower end1 supplying the summit by a 'feeder from a small stream called the ,north ,river1 which empties into the ,ottawa three or four miles below ,carillon1 but is close to the main river opposite the canal4 ,in #ahgj-ga the ,government of ,canada determined to enlarge these canals to admit of the passage of boats requiring locks #bjj feet long1 #de feet wide1 and not less than #i feet of water on the sills at the lowest water4 ,in the case of the ,grenville ,canal this was and is being done by widening and deepening the old channel and building new locks along side of the old ones4 ,but to do that with the ,carillon was found to be inexpedient4 ,the rapidly increasing traffic required more water than the ,north ,river could supply in any case1 and the clearing up of the country to the north had materially reduced its waters in summer and fall1 when most needed4 ,to deepen the old canal so as to enable it to take its supply from the ,ottawa would have caused the excavation of at least #a1bej1jjj cubic yards of rock1 besides necessitating the enlargement of the ,chte ,blondeau also4 ,it was therefore decided to adopt a modification of the plan proposed by ,mr4 ,t4,c4 ,clarke1 of the present firm of ,clarke ,reeves ,co1 several years before when he made the preliminary surveys for the then proposed ,ottawa ,ship ,canal1 namely to build a dam across the river in the ,carillon ,rapid but of a sufficient height to drown out the ,chte ,blondeau1 and also to give the required depth of water there4 ,during the summer and fall of #ahgb the writer made the necessary surveys of the river with that end in view4 ,by gauging the river carefully in high and low water1 and making use of the records which had been kept by the lock masters for twenty years back1 it was found that the flow of the river was in extreme low water #bf1jjj cubic feet per second1 and in highest water #aij1jjj cubic feet per second1 in average years about #cj1jjj and #aej1jjj cubic feet respectively4 ,the average flow in each year would be nearly a mean between those quantities1 namely1 about #ij1jjj cubic feet per second4 ,it was decided to locate the dam where it is now built1 namely1 about the center of ,carillon ,rapid1 and a mile above the village of that name and to make it of a height sufficient to raise the reach between the head of ,carillon and ,chte ,blondeau about six feet1 and that above the latter two feet in ordinary water4 ,at the site chosen the river is #a1hjj feet wide1 the bed is solid limestone1 and more level or flat than is generally found in such places--the banks high enough and also composed of limestone4 ,it was also determined to build a slide for the passage of timber near the south shore 7see map71 and to locate the new canal on the north side4 ,contracts for the whole works were given out in the spring of #ahgc1 but as the water remained high all the summer of that year very little could be done in it at the dam4 ,in #ahgd a large portion of the foundation1 especially in the shallow water1 was put in4 #ahge and #ahgf proved unfavorable and not much could be done1 when the works were stopped4 ,they were resumed in #ahgi1 and the dam as also the slide successfully completed1 with the exception of graveling of the dam in the fall of #ahha4 ,the water was lower that summer than it had been for thirty five years before4 ,the canal was completed and opened for navigation the following spring4 ,,the ,,dam ,in building such a dam as this the difficulties to be contended against were unusually great4 ,it was required to make it as near perfectly tight as possible and be1 of course1 always submerged4 ,allowing for water used by canal and slide and the leakage there should be a depth on the crest of the dam in low water of #b4ej feet and in high of about #aj feet4 ,these depths turned out ultimately to be correct4 ,the river reaches its highest about the middle of ,may1 and its lowest in ,september4 ,it generally begins to rise again in ,november4 ,nothing could be done except during the short low water season1 and some years nothing at all4 ,even at the most favorable time the amount of water to be controlled was large4 ,then the depth at the site varied in depth from #b to #ad feet1 and at one place was as much as #bc feet4 ,the current was at the rate of from #aj to #ab miles an hour4 ,therefore1 failures1 losses1 etc41 could not be avoided1 and a great deal had to be learned as the work progressed4 ,i am not aware that a dam of the kind was ever built1 or attempted to be built across a river having such a large flow as the ,ottawa4 ,the method of construction was as follows4 ,temporary structures of various kinds suited to position1 time1 etc41 were first placed immediately above the site of the dam to break the current4 ,this was done in sections and the permanent dam proceeded with under that protection4 ,in shallow water timber sills #cf feet long and #ab inches by #ab inches were bolted to the lock up and down stream1 having their tops a uniform height1 namely1 #i4cj feet below the top of dam when finished4 ,these sills were1 where the rock was high enough1 scribed immediately to it1 but if not1 they were 'made up' by other timbers scribed to the rock1 as shown by ,figs #d and #e4 ,they were generally placed in pairs about #f feet apart1 and each alternate space left open for the passage of water1 to be closed by gates as hereafter described4 ,each sill was fastened by five #a in4 bolts driven into pine plugs forced into holes drilled from #ah inches to #bd inches into the rock4 ,the temporary rock was then removed as far as possible1 to allow a free flow of the water4 ,in the channels of which there are three1 having an aggregate width of about #fej feet1 cribs #df feet wide up and down stream were sunk4 ,in the deepest water1 where the rock was uneven1 they covered the whole bottom up to about five feet of the level of the silts1 and on top of that isolated cribs1 #df in4 ,x #f in4 and of the necessary height were placed seven feet apart1 as shown at ,c ,figs #b and #c4 ,at other places similar narrow cribs were placed on the rock1 as shown at ,d1 ,figs #b and #c4 ,the tops of all were brought to about the same level as the before mentioned sills4 ,the rock bottom was cleaned by divers of all bowlders1 gravel1 etc4 ,the cribs were built in the usual manner1 of #ab in4 ,x #ab in4 timber generally hemlock1 and carefully fitted to the rock on which they stand4 ,they were fastened to the rock by #a in4 bolts1 five on each side of a crib1 driven into pine plugs as mentioned for the sills4 ,the drilling was done by long runners from their tops4 ,the upstream side of the cribs were sheeted with #d in4 tamarack plank4 ,on top of these sills and cribs there was then placed all across river a platform from #cf to #df feet wide made up of sawed pine timber #ab in4 ,x #ab in41 each piece being securely bolted to its neighbor and to the sills and cribs below4 ,it was also at intervals bolted through to the rock4 ,on top of the platform there was next built a flat dam of the sectional form shown by ,fig #a4 ,it was built of #ab in4 ,x #ab in4 sawed pine timbers securely bolted at the crossings and to the platform1 and sheeted all over with tamarack #aj in4 thick and the crest covered with in4 boiler plate #c ft4 wide4 ,the whole structure was carefully filled with stone--field stone1 or hard head generally being used for the purpose4 ,at this stage of the works1 namely1 in the fall of #ahha the structure presented somewhat the appearance of a bridge with short spans4 ,the whole river--fortunately low--flowed through the sluices of which there were #aac and also through a bulkhead which had been left alongside of the slide with a water width of #fj ft4 ,these openings had a total sectional area of #d1djj sq4 ft41 and barely allowed the river to pass1 although1 of course1 somewhat assisted by leakage4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,,cross ,,section ,,in ,,deep ,,water4 ,it now only remained1 to complete the dam1 to close the openings4 ,this was done in a manner that can be readily understood by reference to the cuts4 ,gates had been constructed with timber #aj in4 thick1 bolted together4 ,they were hung on strong wooden hinges and1 before being closed1 laid back on the face of dam as shown at ,b1 ,figs4 #a1 #b1 and #c4 ,they were all closed in a short time on the afternoon of #ith ,november1 #ahha4 ,to do this it was simply necessary to turn them over1 when the strong current through the sluices carried them into their places1 as shown at ,a1 ,figs4 #b and #c and by the dotted lines on ,fig4 #a4 ,the closing was a delicate as well as dangerous operation1 but was as successfully done as could be expected4 ,no accident happened further than the displacement of two or three of the gates4 ,the openings thus left were afterward filled up with timber and brushwood4 ,the large opening alongside of the slide was filled up by a crib built above and floated into place4 ,the design contemplates the filling up with stone and gravel on up-stream side of dam about the triangular space that would be formed by the production of the line of face of flat dam till it struck the rock4 ,part of that was done from the ice last winter2 the balance is being put in this winter4 ,observations last summer showed that the calculations as to the raising of the surface of the river were correct4 ,when the depth on the crest was #b4ej feet1 the water at the foot of the ,longue ,sault was found to be #be in4 higher than if no dam existed4 ,the intention was to raise it #bd in4 ,the timber slide was formed by binding parallel piers about #fjj feet long up and down stream1 as shown on the map1 and #bh ft4 apart1 with a timber bottom1 the top of which at upper end is #c ft4 below the crest of dam4 ,it has the necessary stop logs1 with machinery to move them1 to control the water4 ,the approach is formed by detached piers1 connected by guide booms1 extending about half a mile up stream4 ,see map4 ,alongside of the south side of the slide a large bulkhead was built1 #fi ft4 wide1 with a clear waterway of #fj ft4 ,it was furnished with stop logs and machinery to handle them4 ,when not further required1 it was filled up by a crib as before mentioned4 ,the following table shows the materials used in the dam and slide1 and the cost3 ,stone ,exca- ,timber1 ,iron1 filling1 vation1 ,cost4 cu4 ft4 lb4 cu4 yds4 cu4 yds4 ---------------------------------------- ------- ,temporary works #acd1ejj #ib1jjj #aa1djj #gi1jjj ,permanent dam #bfe1jjj #dci1fjj #bd1jjj #f1ejj #aea1jjj ,slide1 including #bif1ejj #aef1djj #cb1hjj #ajb1jjj apparatus ---------------------------------------- ------- ,total #fif1jjj #fhg1jjj #fh1bjj #f1ejj #ccb1jjj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------ ,the above does not include cost of surveys1 engineering1 or superintendence1 which amounted to about ten per cent1 of the above sum4 ,illustration3 ,,details ,,of ,,the ,,ottawa ,,river ,,dam1 ,,at ,,carillon4 ,the construction of the dam and slide was ably superintended by ,horace ,merrill1 ,esq41 late superintendent of the ,ottawa ,river ,improvements1 who has built nearly all the slides and other works on the ,ottawa to facilitate the passage of its immense timber productions4 ,the contractors were the well known firm of ,f4,b4 ,mc,namee ,co41 of ,montreal1 and the successful completion of the work was in a large degree due to the energy displayed by the working member of that firm--,mr4 ,a4,g4 ,nish1 formerly engineer of the ,montreal harbor4 ,,the ,,canal ,the canal was formed by fencing in a portion of the river-bed by an embankment built about a hundred feet out from the north shore and deepening the intervening space where necessary4 ,there are two locks--one placed a little above the foot of the rapid 7see map71 and the other at the end of the dam4 ,wooden piers are built at the upper and lower ends--the former being #hjj ft4 long1 and the latter #cjj ft2 both are about #bi ft4 high and #ce ft4 wide4 ,the embankment is built1 as shown by the cross section1 ,fig4 #f4 ,on the canal side of it there is a wall of rubble masonry ,f1 laid in hydraulic cement1 connecting the two locks1 and backed by a puddle wall1 ,e1 three feet thick2 next the river there is crib work1 ,g1 from ten to twenty feet wide and the space between brick-work and puddle filled with earth4 ,the outer slope is protected with riprap1 composed of large bowlders4 ,this had to be made very strong to prevent the destruction of the bank by the immense masses of moving ice in spring4 ,the distance between the locks is #c1cjj feet4 ,in building the embankment the crib-work was first put in and followed by a part 7in width7 of the earth-bank4 ,from that to the shore temporary cross-dams were built at convenient distances apart and the space pumped out by sections1 when the necessary excavation was done1 and the walls and embankments completed4 ,the earth was put down in layers of not more than a foot deep at a time1 so that the bank1 when completed1 was solid4 ,the water at site of it varied in depth from #ae feet at lower end to #b feet at upper4 ,the locks are #bjj ft4 long in the clear between the gates1 and #de ft wide in the chamber at the bottom4 ,the walls of the lower one are #bi ft4 high1 and of the upper one #ca ft ,they are from #aj to #ab ft thick at the bottom1 ,the locks are built similar to those on the new ,lachine and ,welland canals1 of the very best cut stone masonry1 laid in hydraulic cement4 ,the gates are #bd in4 thick1 made of solid timber1 somewhat similar to those in use on the ,st4 ,lawrence canals4 ,they are suspended from anchors at the hollow quoins1 and work very easily4 ,the miter sills are made of #bf in4 square oak4 ,the bottom of the lower lock iis timbered throughout1 but the upper one only at the recesses1 the rock there being good4 ,illustration3 ,,map ,,of ,,the ,,ottawa ,,river ,,at ,,carillon ,,rapids4 ,,section ,,of ,,river ,,at ,,dam4 ,,note4--,,the ,,lowest ,,dotted ,,line ,,is ,,low ,,water ,,beforethe ,,dam ,,was ,,built4 ,,then ,,the ,,line ,,of ,,high ,,water ,,was ,,about ,a ,,foot ,,above ,,what ,,is ,,crest ,,of ,,dam ,,now4 ,the rise to be overcome by the two locks is #af ft41 but except in medium water1 is not equally distributed4 ,in high water nearly the whole lift is on the upper lock1 and in low water the lower one4 ,in the very lowest known stage of the river there will never be less than #i ft4 on the miter sills4 ,as mentioned at the beginning of this article1 four locks were required on the old military canal to accomplish what is now done by two4 ,the canal was opened in ,may1 #ahhb1 and has been a great success1 the only drawback--although slight--being that in high water the current for about three-quarters of a mile above the upper pier1 and at what was formerly the ,chute a ,biondeau1 is rather strong4 ,these difficulties can be easily overcome--the former by building an embankment from the pier to ,brophy's ,island1 the latter by removing some of the natural dam of rock which once formed the ,chute4 ,the following are1 in round numbers1 the quantities of the principal materials used3 ,earth and puddle in embankment 444cub4 yds4 #adh1ejj ,rock excavation1 #ch1jjj ,riprap1 #f1fjj ,lock masonry #ad1bjj ,rubble masonry1 #af1fjj ,timber in cribs1 lock bottoms and gates #cfh1jjj ,wrought and cast iron1 lb 44444444444444444 #agc1jjj ,stone filling cu yds 4444444444444444444444 #de1cjj ,concrete #hcj ,the total cost to date has been about #egj1jjj1 not including surveys1 engineering1 etc4 ,the contractors for the canal1 locks1 etc41 were ,messrs4 ,r4 ,p4 ,cooke ,co41 of ,brockville1 ,ont41 who have built some large works in the ,states1 and who are now engaged building other extensive works for the ,canadian ,government4 ,the work here reflects great credit on their skill4 ,on the enlarged ,grenville ,canal1 now approaching completion1 there are five locks1 taking the place of the seven small ones built by the ,imperial ,government4 ,it will be open for navigation all through in the spring of #ahhd1 when steamers somewhat larger than the largest now navigating the ,st4 ,lawrence between ,montreal and ,hamilton can pass up to ,ottawa ,city4--,engineering ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,dwelling ,,houses--,,hints ,,on ,,building--,,home1 ,,sweet ,,home4 ,footnote3 ,from a paper read before the ,birmingham ,architectural ,association1 ,jan #cj1 #ahhc ,by ,,william ,,henman1 ,a4,r4,i4,b4,a4 ,my intention is to bring to your notice some of the many causes which result in unhealthy dwellings1 particularly those of the middle classes of society4 ,the same defects1 it is true1 are to be found in the palace and the mansion1 and also in the artisan's cottage2 but in the former cost is not so much a matter of consideration1 and in the latter1 the requirements and appliances being less1 the evils are minimized4 ,it is in the houses of the middle classes1 ,i mean those of a rental at from #ej to #aej per annum1 that the evils of careless building and want of sanitary precautions become most apparent4 ,until recently sanitary science was but little studied1 and many things were done a few years since which even the self-interest of a speculative builder would not do nowadays1 nor would be permitted to do by the local sanitary authority4 ,yet houses built in those times are still inhabited1 and in many cases sickness and even death are the result4 ,but it is with shame ,i must confess that1 notwithstanding the advance which sanitary science has made1 and the excellent appliances to be obtained1 many a house is now built1 not only by the speculative builder1 but designed by professed architects1 and in spite of sanitary authorities and their by-laws1 which1 in important particulars are far from perfect1 are unhealthy1 and cannot be truly called sweet homes4 ,architects and builders have much to contend with4 ,the perverseness of man and the powers of nature at times appear to combine for the express purpose of frustrating their endeavors to attain sanitary perfection4 ,successfully to combat these opposing forces1 two things are above all necessary1 viz #a1 a more perfect insight into the laws of nature1 and a judicious use of serviceable appliances on the part of the architect2 and1 #b1 greater knowledge1 care1 and trustworthiness on the part of workmen employed4 ,with the first there will be less of that blind following of what has been done before by others1 and by the latter the architect who has carefully thought out the details of his sanitary work will be enabled to have his ideas carried out in an intelligent manner4 ,several cases have come under my notice1 where1 by reckless carelessness or dense ignorance on the part of workmen1 dwellings which might have been sweet and comfortable if the architect's ideas and instructions had been carried out1 were in course of time proved to be in an unsanitary condition4 ,the defects1 having been covered up out sight1 were only made known in some cases after illness or death had attacked members of the household4 ,in order that we may have thoroughly sweet homes1 we must consider the localities in which they are to be situated1 and the soil on which they are to rest4 ,it is an admitted fact that certain localities are more generally healthy than others1 yet circumstances often beyond their control compel men to live in those less healthy4 ,something may1 in the course of time1 be done to improve such districts by planting1 subdrainage1 and the like4 ,then1 as regards the soil2 our earth has been in existence many an age1 generation after generation has come and passed away1 leaving behind accumulations of matter on its surface1 both animal and vegetable1 and although natural causes are ever at the work of purification1 there is no doubt such accumulations are in many cases highly injurious to health1 not only in a general way1 but particularly if around1 and worse still1 under our dwellings4 ,however healthy a district is considered to be1 it is never safe to leave the top soil inclosed within the walls of our houses2 and in many cases the subsoil should be covered with a layer of cement concrete1 and at times with asphalt on the concrete4 ,for if the subsoil be damp1 moisture will rise2 if it be porous1 offensive matter may percolate through4 ,it is my belief that much of the cold dampness felt in so many houses is caused by moisture rising from the ground inclosed within the outer walls4 ,cellars are in many cases abominations4 ,up the cellar steps is a favorite means of entrance for sickness and death4 ,light and air1 which are so essential for health and life1 are shut out4 ,if cellars are necessary1 they should be constructed with damp proof walls and floors2 light should be freely admitted2 every part must be well ventilated1 and1 above all1 no drain of any description should be taken in4 ,if they be constructed so that water cannot find its way through either walls or floors1 where is the necessity of a drain8 ,surely the floors can be kept clean by the use of so small an amount of water that it would be ridiculous specially to provide a drain4 ,the next important but oft neglected precaution is to have a good damp course over the whole of the walls1 internal as well as external4 ,i know that for the sake of saving a few pounds 7most likely that they may be frittered away in senseless1 showy features7 it often happens1 that if even a damp course is provided in the outer walls1 it is dispensed with in the interior walls4 ,this can only be done with impunity on really dry ground1 but in too many cases damp finds its way up1 and1 to say the least1 disfigures the walls4 ,here ,i would pause to ask3 ,what is the primary reason for building houses8 ,i would answer that1 in this country at least1 it is in order to protect ourselves from wind and weather4 ,after going to great expense and trouble to exclude cold and wet by means of walls and roofs1 should we not take as much pains to prevent them using from below and attacking us in a more insidious manner8 ,various materials may be used as damp courses4 ,glazed earthenware perforated slabs are perhaps the best1 when expense is no object4 ,i generally employ a course of slates1 breaking joint with a good bed of cement above and below2 it answers well1 and is not very expensive4 ,if the ground is irregular1 a layer of asphalt is more easily applied4 ,gas tar and sand are sometimes used1 but it deteriorates and cannot be depended upon for any length of time4 ,the damp course should invariably be placed above the level of the ground around the building1 and below the ground floor joists4 ,if a basement story is necessary1 the outer walls below the ground should be either built hollow1 or coated externally with some substance through which wet cannot penetrate4 ,above the damp course1 the walls of our houses must be constructed of materials which will keep out wind and weather4 ,very porous materials should be avoided1 because1 even if the wet does not actually find its way through1 so much is absorbed during rainy weather that in the process of drying much cold is produced by evaporation4 ,the fact should be constantly remembered1 viz41 that evaporation causes cold4 ,it can easily be proved by dropping a little ether upon the bulb of a thermometer1 when it will be seen how quickly the mercury falls1 and the same effect takes place in a less degree by the evaporation of water4 ,seeing1 then1 that evaporation from so small a surface can lower temperature so many degrees1 consider what must be the effect of evaporation from the extensive surfaces of walls inclosing our houses4 ,this experiment 7thermometer with bulb inclosed in linen7 enables me as well to illustrate that curious law of nature which necessitates the introduction of a damp course in the walls of our buildings2 it is known as capillary or molecular attraction1 and breaks through that more powerful law of gravitation1 which in a general way compels fluids to find their own level4 ,you will notice that the piece of linen over the bulb of the thermometer1 having been first moistened1 continues moist1 although only its lower end is in water1 the latter being drawn up by capillary attraction2 or we have here an illustration more to the point3 a brick which simply stands with its lower end in water1 and you can plainly see how the damp has risen4 ,from these illustrations you will see how necessary it is that the brick and stone used for outer walls should be as far as possible impervious to wet2 but more than that1 it is necessary the jointing should be non-absorbent1 and the less porous the stone or brick1 the better able must the jointing be to keep out wet1 for this reason1 that when rain is beating against a wall1 it either runs down or becomes absorbed4 ,if both brick and mortar1 or stone and mortar be porous1 it becomes absorbed2 if all are non-porous1 it runs down until it finds a projection1 and then drops off2 but if the brick or stone is non-porous1 and the mortar porous1 the wet runs down the brick or stone until it arrives at the joint1 and is then sucked inward4 ,it being almost impossible to obtain materials quite waterproof1 suitable for external walls1 other means must be employed for keeping our homes dry and comfortable4 ,well built hollow walls are good4 ,stone walls1 unless very thick1 should be lined with brick1 a cavity being left between4 ,a material called ,hygeian ,rock ,building ,composition has lately been introduced1 which will1 ,i believe1 be found of great utility1 and1 if properly applied1 should insure a dry house4 ,a cavity of one-half an inch is left between the outer and inner portion of the wall1 whether of brick or stone1 which1 as the building rises1 is run in with the material made liquid by heat2 and not only is the wall waterproofed thereby1 but also greatly strengthened4 ,it may also be used as a damp course4 ,good1 dry walls are of little use without good roofs1 and for a comfortable house the roofs should not only be watertight and weathertight1 but also1 if ,i may use the term1 heat-tight4 ,there can be no doubt that many houses are cold and chilly1 in consequence of the rapid radiation of heat through the thin roofs1 if not through thin and badly constructed walls4 ,under both tiles and slates1 but particularly under the latter1 there should be some non-conducting substance1 such as boarding1 or felt1 or pugging4 ,then1 in cold weather heat will be retained2 in hot weather it will be excluded4 ,roofs should be of a suitable pitch1 so that neither rain nor snow can find its way in in windy weather4 ,great care must be taken in laying gutters and flats4 ,with them it is important that the boarding should be well laid in narrow widths1 and in the direction of the fall2 otherwise the boards cockle and form ridges and furrows in which wet will rest1 and in time decay the metal4 ,after having secured a sound waterproof roof1 proper provision must be made for conveying therefrom the water which of necessity falls on it in the form of rain4 ,all eaves spouting should be of ample size1 and the rain water down pipes should be placed at frequent intervals and of suitable diameter4 ,the outlets from the eaves spouting should not be contracted1 although it is advisable to cover them with a wire grating to prevent their becoming choked with dead leaves1 otherwise the water will overflow and probably find its way through the walls4 ,all joints to the eaves spouting1 and particularly to the rain-water down pipes1 should be made watertight1 or there is great danger1 when they are connected with the soil drains1 that sewer gas will escape at the joints and find its way into the house at windows and doors4 ,there should be a siphon trap at the bottom of each down pipe1 unless it is employed as a ventilator to the drains1 and then the greatest care should be exercised to insure perfect jointings1 and that the outlet be well above all windows4 ,eaves spouting and rain-water down pipes should be periodically examined and cleaned out4 ,they ought to be painted inside as well as out1 or else they will quickly decay1 and if of iron they will rust1 flake off1 and become stopped4 ,it is impossible to have a sweet home where there is continual dampness4 ,by its presence chemical action and decay are set up in many substances which would remain in a quiescent state so long as they continued dry4 ,wood will rot2 so will wall papers1 the paste used in hanging them1 and the size in distemper1 however good they have been in the first instance2 then it is that injurious exhalations are thrown off1 and the evil is doubtless very greatly increased if the materials are bad in themselves4 ,quickly grown and sappy timber1 sour paste1 stale size1 and wall papers containing injurious pigments are more easily attacked1 and far more likely to fill the house with bad smells and a subtile poison4 ,plaster to ceilings and walls is quickly damaged by wet1 and if improper materials1 such as road drift1 be used in its composition1 it may become most unsavory and injurious to health4 ,the materials for plaster cannot be too carefully selected1 for if organic matter be present1 the result is the formation of nitrates and the like1 which combine with lime and produce deliquescent salts1 viz1 those which attract moisture4 ,then1 however impervious to wet the walls1 etc41 may be1 signs of dampness will be noticed wherever there is a humid atmosphere1 and similar evils will result as if wet had penetrated from the exterior4 ,organic matter coming into contact with plaster1 and even the exhalations from human beings and animals1 will in time produce similar effects4 ,hence stables1 water closets1 and rooms which are frequently crowded with people1 unless always properly ventilated1 will show signs of dampness and deterioration of the plaster work2 wall paper will become detached from the walls1 paint will blister and peel off1 and distemper will lose its virtue4 ,to avoid similar mishaps1 sea sand1 or sand containing salt1 should never be used either for plaster or mortar4 ,in fact1 it is necessary that the materials for mortar should be as free from salts and organic matter as those used for plaster1 because the injurious effects of their presence will be quickly communicated to the latter4 ,unfortunately1 it is not alone by taking precaution against the possibility of having a damp house that we necessarily insure a sweet home4 ,the watchful care of the architect is required from the cutting of the first sod until the finishing touches are put on the house4 ,he must assure himself that all is done1 and nothing left undone which is likely to cause a nuisance1 or worse still1 jeopardize the health of the occupiers4 ,yet1 with all his care and the employment of the best materials and apparatus at his command1 complete success seems scarcely possible of attainment4 ,we have all much to learn1 many things must be accomplished and difficulties overcome1 ere we can rest and be thankful4 ,it is impossible for the architect to attempt to solve all the problems which surround this question4 ,he must in many cases employ such materials and such apparatus as can be obtained2 nevertheless1 it is his duty carefully to test the value of such materials and apparatus as may be obtainable1 and by his experience and scientific knowledge to determine which are best to be used under varying circumstances4 ,but to pass on to other matters which mar the sweetness of home4 ,with many1 ,i hold that the method usually employed for warming our dwellings is wasteful1 dirty1 and often injurious to health4 ,the open fire1 although cheerful in appearance1 is justly condemned4 ,it is wasteful1 because so small a percentage of the value of the fuel employed is utilized4 ,it is dirty1 because of the dust and soot which result therefrom4 ,it is unhealthy1 because of the cold draughts which in its simplest form are produced1 and the stifling atmosphere which pervades the house when the products of imperfect combustion insist1 as they often do1 in not ascending the flues constructed for the express purpose of carrying them off2 and even when they take the desired course1 they blacken and poison the external atmosphere with their presence4 ,some of the grates known as ventilating grates dispose of one of the evils of the ordinary open fire1 by reducing the amount of cold draught caused by the rush of air up the flues4 ,this is effected1 as you probably know1 by admitting air direct from the outside of the house to the back of the grate1 where it is warmed1 and then flows into the rooms to supply the place of that which is drawn up the chimneys4 ,provided such grates act properly and are well put together1 so that there is no possibility of smoke being drawn into the fresh air channels1 and that the air to be warmed is drawn from a pure source1 they may be used with much advantage2 although by them we must not suppose perfection has been attained4 ,the utilization of a far greater percentage of heat and the consumption of all smoke must be aimed at4 ,it is a question if such can be accomplished by means of an open fire1 and it is a difficult matter to devise a method suited in every respect to the warming of our dwellings1 which at the same time is equally cheering in appearance4 ,so long as we are obliged to employ coal in its crude form for heating purposes1 and are content with the waste and dirt of the open fire1 we must be thankful for the cheer it gives in many a home where there are well constructed grates and flues1 and make the best use we can of the undoubted ventilating power it possesses4 ,a constant change of air in every part of our dwellings is absolutely necessary that we may have a sweet home1 and the open fireplace with its flue materially helps to that end2 but unless in every other respect the house is in a good sanitary condition1 the open fire only adds to the danger of residing in such a house1 because it draws the impure air from other parts into our living rooms1 where it is respired4 ,closed stoves are useful in some places1 such as entrance halls4 ,they are more economical than the open fireplaces2 but with them there is danger of the atmosphere1 or rather1 the minute particles of organic matter always floating in the air1 becoming burnt and so charging the atmosphere with carbonic acid4 ,the recently introduced slow-combustion stoves obviate this evil4 ,it is possible to warm our houses without having separate fireplaces in each room1 viz41 by heated air1 hot water1 or steam2 but there are many difficulties and some dangers in connection therewith which ,i can scarcely hope to see entirely overcome4 ,in ,america steam has been employed with some success1 and there is this advantage in its use1 that it can be conveyed a considerable distance4 ,it is therefore possible to have the furnace and boilers for its production quite away from the dwelling houses and to heat several dwellings from one source1 while at the same time it can be employed for cooking purposes4 ,in steam1 then1 we have a useful agent1 which might with advantage be more generally employed2 but when either it or hot water be used for heating purposes1 special and adequate means of ventilation must be employed4 ,gas stoves are made in many forms1 and in a few cases can be employed with advantage2 but ,i believe they are more expensive than a coal fire1 and it is most difficult to prevent the products of combustion finding their way into the dwellings4 ,gas is a useful agent in the kitchen for cooking purposes1 but ,i never remember entering a house where it was so employed without at once detecting the unpleasant smell resulting4 ,it is rare to find any special means for carrying off the injurious fumes1 and without such ,i am sure gas cooking stoves cannot be healthy adjuncts to our homes4 ,the next difficulty we have to deal with is artificial lighting4 ,whether we employ candle1 oil lamp1 or gas1 we may be certain that the atmosphere of our rooms will become contaminated by the products of combustion1 and health must suffer4 ,in order that such may be obviated1 it must be an earnest hope that ere long such improvements will be made in electric lighting1 that it may become generally used in our homes as well as in all public buildings4 ,gas has certainly proved itself a very useful and comparatively inexpensive illuminating power1 but in many ways it contaminates the atmosphere1 is injurious to health1 and destructive to the furniture and fittings of our homes4 ,leakages from the mains impregnate the soil with poisonous matter1 and it rarely happens that throughout a house there are no leakages4 ,however small they may be1 the air becomes tainted4 ,it is almost impossible1 at times1 to detect the fault1 or if detected1 to make good without great injury to other work1 in consequence of the difficulty there is in getting at the pipes1 as they are generally embedded in plaster1 etc4 ,all gas pipes should be laid in positions where they can be easily examined1 and1 if necessary1 repaired without much trouble4 ,in ,france it is compulsory that all gas pipes be left exposed to view1 except where they must of necessity pass through the thickness of a wall or floor1 and it would be a great benefit if such were required in this country4 ,the cooking processes which necessarily go on often result in unpleasant odors pervading our homes4 ,i cannot say they are immediately prejudicial to health2 but if they are of daily or frequent occurrence1 it is more than probable the volatile matters which are the cause of the odors become condensed upon walls1 ceiling1 or furniture1 and in time undergo putrefaction1 and so not only mar the sweetness of home1 but in addition affect the health of the inmates4 ,cooking ranges should therefore be constructed so as to carry off the fumes of cooking1 and kitchens must be well ventilated and so placed that the fumes cannot find their way into other parts of the dwelling4 ,in some houses washing day is an abomination4 ,steam and stife then permeate the building1 and1 to say the least1 banish sweetness and comfort from the home4 ,it is a wonder that people will1 year after year1 put up with such a nuisance4 ,if washing must be done home1 the architect may do something to lessen the evil by placing the washhouse in a suitable position disconnected from the living part of the house1 or by properly ventilating it and providing a well constructed boiler and furnace1 and a flue for carrying off the steam4 ,there is daily a considerable amount of refuse found in every home1 from the kitchen1 from the fire-grate1 from the sweeping of rooms1 etc41 and as a rule this is day after day deposited in the ash-pit1 which but too often is placed close to the house1 and left uncovered4 ,if it were simply a receptacle for the ashes from the fire-grates1 no harm would result1 but as all kinds of organic matter are cast in and often allowed to remain for weeks to rot and putrefy1 it becomes a regular pest box1 and to it often may be traced sickness and death4 ,it would be a wise sanitary measure if every constructed ash pit were abolished4 ,in place thereof ,i would substitute a galvanized iron covered receptacle of but moderate size1 mounted upon wheels1 and it should be incumbent on the local authorities to empty same every two or three days4 ,where there are gardens all refuse is useful as manure1 and a suitable place should be provided for it at the greatest distance from the dwellings4 ,until the very advisable reform ,i have just mentioned takes place1 it would be well if refuse were burnt as soon as possible4 ,with care this may be done in a close range1 or even open fire without any unpleasant smells1 and certainly without injury to health4 ,it must be much more wholesome to dispose of organic matter in that way while fresh than to have it rotting and festering under our very noses4 ,a greater evil yet is the privy4 ,in the country1 where there is no complete system of drainage1 it may be tolerated when placed at a distance from the house2 but in a crowded neighborhood it is an abomination1 and1 unless frequently emptied and kept scrupulously clean1 cannot fail to be injurious to health4 ,where there is no system of drainage1 cesspools must at times be used1 but they should be avoided as much as possible4 ,they should never be constructed near to dwellings1 and must always be well ventilated4 ,care should be taken to make them watertight1 otherwise the foul matter may percolate through the ground1 and is likely to contaminate the water supply4 ,in some old houses cesspools have been found actually under the living rooms4 ,i would here also condemn the placing of r4 w4 tanks under any portion of the dwelling house1 for many cases of sickness and death have been traced to the fact of sewage having found its way through1 either by backing up the drains1 or by the ignorant laying of new into old drains4 ,earth closets1 if carefully attended to1 often emptied1 and the receptacles cleaned out1 can be safely employed even within doors2 but in towns it is difficult to dispose of the refuse1 and there must necessarily be a system of drainage for the purpose of taking off the surface water2 it is thereupon found more economical to carry away all drainage together1 and the water closet being but little trouble1 and1 if properly looked after1 more cleanly in appearance1 it is generally preferred1 notwithstanding the great risks which are daily run in consequence of the chance of sewer-gas finding an entrance into the house by its means4 ,after all1 it is scarcely fair to condemn outright the water closet as the cause of so many of the ills to which flesh is subject4 ,it is true that many w4 c4 apparatus are obviously defective in construction1 and any architect or builder using such is to be condemned4 ,the old pan closet1 for instance1 should be banished4 ,it is known to be defective1 and yet ,i see it is still made1 sold1 and fixed1 in dwelling houses1 notwithstanding the fact that other closet pans far more simple and effective can be obtained at less cost4 ,the pan of the closet should be large1 and ought to retain a layer of water at the bottom1 which1 with the refuse1 should be swept out of the pan by the rush of water from the service pipe4 ,the outlet may be at the side connected with a simple earthenware s-trap with a ventilating outlet at the top1 from which a pipe may be taken just through the wall4 ,from the ,s-trap ,i prefer to take the soil pipe immediately through the wall1 and connect with a strong #d in4 iron pipe1 carefully jointed1 watertight1 and continued of the same size to above the tops of all windows4 ,this pipe at its foot should be connected with a ventilating trap1 so that all air connection is cut off between the house and the drains4 ,all funnel-shaped w4 c4 pans are objectionable1 because they are so liable to catch and retain the dirt4 ,wastes from baths1 sinks1 and urinals should also be ventilated and disconnected from the drains as above1 or else allowed to discharge above a gulley trap4 ,excrement1 etc41 must be quickly removed from the premises if we are to have sweet homes1 and the w4c4 is perhaps the most convenient apparatus1 when properly constructed1 which can be employed4 ,by taking due precaution no harm need be feared1 or will result from its use1 provided that the drains and sewers are rightly constructed and properly laid4 ,it is then to the sewers1 drains1 and their connections our attention must be specially directed1 for in the majority of cases they are the arch-offenders4 ,the laying of main sewers has in most cases been intrusted to the civil engineer1 yet it often happens architects are blamed1 and unjustly so1 for the defective work over which they had no control4 ,when the main sewers are badly constructed1 and1 as a result1 sewer gas is generated and allowed to accumulate1 ordinary precautions may be useless in preventing its entrance by some means or other to our homes1 and special means and extra precautions must be adopted4 ,but with well constructed and properly ventilated sewers1 every architect and builder should be able to devise a suitable system of house drainage1 which need cause no fear of danger to health4 ,the glazed stoneware pipe1 now made of any convenient size and shape1 is an excellent article with which to construct house-drains4 ,the pipes should be selected1 well burnt1 well glazed1 and free from twist4 ,too much care cannot be exercised in properly laying them4 ,the trenches should be got out to proper falls1 and unless the ground is hard and firm1 the pipes should be laid upon a layer of concrete to prevent the chance of sinking4 ,the jointing must be carefully made1 and should be of cement or of well tempered clay1 care being taken to wipe away all projecting portions from the inside of the pipes4 ,a clear passage-way is of the utmost importance4 ,foul drains are the result of badly joined and irregularly laid pipes1 wherein matter accumulates1 which in time ferments and produces sewer-gas4 ,the common system of laying drains with curved angles is not so good as laying them in straight lines from point to point1 and at every angle inserting a man-hole or lamp-hole1 ,this plan is now insisted upon by the ,local ,government ,board for all public buildings erected under their authority4 ,it might1 with advantage1 be adopted for all house-drains4 ,now1 in consequence of the trouble and expense attending the opening up and examination of a drain1 it may often happen that although defects are suspected or even known to exist1 they are not remedied until illness or death is the result of neglect4 ,but with drains laid in straight lines1 from point to point1 with man holes or lamp holes at the intersections1 there is no reason why the whole system may not easily be examined at any time and stoppages quickly removed4 ,the man holes and lamp-holes may1 with advantage1 be used as means for ventilating the drains and also for flushing them4 ,it is of importance that each house drain should have a disconnecting trap just before it enters the main sewer4 ,it is bad enough to be poisoned by neglecting the drainage to one's own property1 but what if the poison be developed elsewhere1 and by neglect permitted to find its way to us4 ,such will surely happen unless some effective means be employed for cutting off all air connection between the house-drains and the main sewer4 ,i am firmly convinced that simply a smoky chimney1 or the discovery of a fault in drainage weighs far more1 in the estimation of a client in forming his opinion of the ability of an architect1 than the successful carrying out of an artistic design4 ,by no means do ,i disparage a striving to attain artistic effectiveness1 but to the study of the artistic1 in domestic architecture at least1 add a knowledge of sanitary science1 and foster a habit of careful observation of causes and effects4 ,comfort is demanded in the home1 and that cannot be secured unless dwellings are built and maintained with perfect sanitary arrangements and appliances4--,the ,building ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,house ,,at ,,heaton ,this house1 which belongs to ,mr ,j4 ,n4 ,d',andrea1 is built on the ,basque principle1 under one roof1 with covered balconies on the south side1 the northside being kept low to give the sun an opportunity of shining in winter on the house and greenhouse adjacent1 as well as to assist in the more picturesque grouping of the two4 ,on this side is placed1 approached by porch and lobby1 the hall with a fireplace of the olden time1 lavatory1 etc41 butler's pantry1 w4 c41 staircase1 larder1 kitchen1 scullery1 stores1 etc4 ,on the south side are two sitting rooms1 opening into a conservatory4 ,there are six bedrooms1 a dining-room1 bath room1 and housemaid's sink4 ,the walls are built of colored wall stones known as insides1 and half-timbered brickwork covered with the ,portland cement stucco1 finished ,panan1 and painted a cream-color4 ,all the interior woodwork is of selected pitch pine1 the hall being boarded throughout4 ,colored lead light glass is introduced in the upper parts of the windows in every room1 etc4 ,the architect is ,mr4 ,w4 ,a4 ,herbert ,martin1 of ,bradford4--,architect ,illustration3 ,,house ,,at ,,heaton1 ,,bradford4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,mansard ,,roof ,,dwelling4 ,the principal floor of this design is elevated three feet above the surface of the ground1 and is approached by the front steps leading to the platform4 ,the height of the first floor is eleven feet1 the second ten feet1 and the cellar six feet six inches in the clear4 ,the porch is so constructed that it can be put on either the front or side of the house1 as it may suit the owner4 ,the rooms1 eight in number1 are airy and of convenient size4 ,the kitchen has a range1 sink1 and boiler1 and a large closet1 to be used as a pantry4 ,the windows leading out to the porch will run to the floor1 with heads running into the walls4 ,in the attic the chambers are #ajx#aj feet1 #acx#ad feet1 #abx#ac feet1 #ajx#aj feet1 and a hall #f feet wide1 with large closets and cupboards for each chamber4 ,the building is so constructed that an addition can be made to the rear any time by using the present kitchen as a dining room and building a new kitchen4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,mansard ,,roof ,,dwelling4 ,first ,floor4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,mansard ,,roof ,,dwelling4 ,second ,floor4 ,these plans will prove suggestive to those contemplating the building of a new house1 even if radical changes are made in the accompanying designs4--,american ,cultivator4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,mansard ,,roof ,,dwelling4 ,front ,elevation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,electric ,,telegraph4 ,footnote3 ,aug4 ,guerout in ,la ,lurmire ,electrique4 ,an endeavor has often been made to carry the origin of the electric telegraph back to a very remote epoch by a reliance on those more or less fanciful descriptions of modes of communication based upon the properties of the magnet4 ,it will prove not without interest before entering into the real history of the telegraph to pass in review the various documents that relate to the subject4 ,in continuation of the #bast chapter of his ,magia naturalis1 published in #aeec1 ,j4 ,b4 ,porta cites an experiment that had been made with the magnet as a means of telegraphing4 ,in #afaf1 ,famiano ,strada1 in his ,prolusiones ,academic1 takes up this idea1 and speaks of the possibility of two persons communicating by the aid of two magnetized needles influenced by each other at a distance4 ,galileo1 in ,dialogo intorno1 written between #afba and #afcb and ,nicolas ,caboeus1 of ,ferrara1 in his ,philosophia magnetica1 both reproduce analogous descriptions1 not however without raising doubts as to the possibility of such a system4 ,a document of the same kind1 to which great importance has been attached is found in the ,recreations mathematiques published at ,rouen in #afbh1 under the pseudonym of ,van ,elten1 and reprinted several times since1 with the annotations and additions of ,mydorge and ,hamion and which must1 it appears1 be attributed to the ,jesuit ,leurechon4 ,in his chapter on the magnet and the needles that are rubbed therewith1 we find the following passage4 ,some have pretended that1 by means of a magnet or other like stone1 absent persons might speak with one another4 ,for example1 ,claude being at ,paris1 and ,john at ,rome1 if each had a needle that had been rubbed with some stone1 and whose virtue was such that in measure as one needle moved at ,paris the other would move just the same at ,rome1 and if ,claude and ,john each had an alphabet1 and had agreed that they would converse with each other every afternoon at #f o'clock1 and the needle having made three and a half revolutions as a signal that ,claude1 and no other1 wished to speak to ,john1 then ,claude wishing to say to him that the king is at ,paris would cause his needle to move1 and stop at ,t1 then at ,h1 then at ,e1 then at ,k1 ,i1 ,n1 ,g and so on4 ,now1 at the same time1 ,john's needle1 according with ,claude's1 would begin to move and then stop at the same letters1 and consequently it would be easily able to write or understand what the other desired to signify to it4 ,the invention is beautiful1 but ,i do not think there can be found in the world a magnet that has such a virtue4 ,neither is the thing expedient1 for treason would be too frequent and too covert4 ,the same idea was also indicated by ,joseph ,glanville in his ,scepsis scientifica1 which appeared in #affe1 by ,father ,le ,brun1 in his ,histoire critique des pratiques superstitieuses1 and finally by the ,abb ,barthelemy in #aghh4 ,the suggestion offered by ,father ,kircher1 in his ,magnes sive de arte magnetica1 is a little different from the preceding4 ,the celebrated ,jesuit father seeks however1 to do nothing more than to effect a communication of thoughts between two rooms in the same building4 ,he places1 at short distances from each other1 two spherical vessels carrying on their circumference the letters of the alphabet1 and each having suspended within it1 from a vertical wire a magnetized figure4 ,if one of these latter he moved1 all the others must follow its motions1 one after the other1 and transmission will thus be effected from the first vessel to the last4 ,father ,kircher observes that it is necessary that all the magnets shall be of the same strength1 and that there shall be a large number of them1 which is something not within the reach of everybody4 ,this is why he points out another mode of transmitting thought1 and one which consists in supporting the figures upon vertical revolving cylinders set in motion by one and the same cord hidden with in the walls4 ,there is no need of very thoroughly examining all such systems of magnetic telegraphy to understand that it was never possible for them to have a practical reality1 and that they were pure speculations which it is erroneous to consider as the first ideas of the electric telegraph4 ,we shall make a like reserve with regard to certain apparatus that have really existed1 but that have been wrongly viewed as electric telegraphs4 ,such are those of ,comus and of ,alexandre4 ,the first of these is indicated in a letter from ,diderot to ,mlle4 ,voland1 dated ,july #ab1 #agfb4 ,it consisted of two dials whose hands followed each other at a distance1 without the apparent aid of any external agent4 ,the fact that ,comus published some interesting researches on electricity in the ,journal de ,physique has been taken as a basis for the assertion that his apparatus was a sort of electrical discharge telegraph in which the communication between the two dials was made by insulated wires hidden in the walls4 ,but1 if it be reflected how difficult it would have been at that epoch to realize an apparatus of this kind1 if it be remembered that ,comus1 despite his researches on electricity1 was in reality only a professor of physics to amuse1 and if the fact be recalled that cabinets of physics in those days were filled with ingenious apparatus in which the surprising effects were produced by skillfully concealed magnets1 we shall rather be led to class among such apparatus the so-called ,comus electric telegraph4 ,we find1 moreover1 in ,guyot's ,recreations physiques et mathematiques--a work whose first edition dates back to the time at which ,comus was exhibiting his apparatus--a description of certain communicating dials that seem to be no other than those of the celebrated physicist1 and which at all events enables us to understand how they worked4 ,let one imagine to himself two contiguous chambers behind which ran one and the same corridor4 ,in each chamber1 against the partition that separated it from the corridor1 there was a small bracket1 and upon the latter1 and very near the wall1 there was a wooden dial supported on a standard1 but in no wise permanently fixed upon the bracket4 ,each dial carried a needle1 and each circumference was inscribed with twenty-five letters of the alphabet4 ,the experiment that was performed with these dials consisted in placing the needle upon a letter in one of the chambers1 when the needle of the other dial stopped at the same letter1 thus making it possible to transmit words and even sentences4 ,as for the means of communication between the two apparatus1 that was very simple3 ,one of the two dials always served as a transmitter1 and the other as a receiver4 ,the needle of the transmitter carried along in its motion a pretty powerful magnet1 which was concealed in the dial1 and which reacted through the partition upon a very light magnetized needle that followed its motions1 and indicated upon an auxiliary dial1 to a person hidden in the corridor1 the letter on which the first needle had been placed4 ,this person at once stepped over to the partition corresponding to the receiver1 where another auxiliary dial permitted him to properly direct at a distance the very movable needle of the receiver4 ,everything depended1 as will be seen1 upon the use of the magnet1 and upon a deceit that perfectly accorded with ,comus' profession4 ,there is1 then1 little thought in our opinion that if the latter's apparatus was not exactly the one ,guyot describes1 it was based upon some analogous artifice4 ,jean ,alexandre's telegraph appears to have borne much analogy with ,comus'4 ,its inventor operated it in #ahjb before the prefect of ,indre-et-,loire4 ,as a consequence of a report addressed by the prefect of ,vienne to ,chaptal1 and in which1 moreover1 the apparatus in question was compared to ,comus'1 ,alexandre was ordered to ,paris4 ,there he refused to explain upon what principle his invention was based1 and declared that he would confide his secret only to the ,first ,consul4 ,but ,bonaparte1 little disposed to occupy himself with such an affair1 charged ,delambre to examine it and address a report to him4 ,the illustrious astronomer1 despite the persistence with which ,alexandre refused to give up his secret to him1 drew a report1 the few following extracts from which will1 we think1 suffice to edify the reader3 ,the pieces that the ,first ,consul charged me to examine did not contain enough of detail to justify an opinion4 ,citizen ,beauvais 7friend and associate of ,alexandre7 knows the inventor's secret1 but has promised him to communicate it to no one except the ,first ,consul4 ,this circumstance might enable me to dispense with any report2 for how judge of a machine that one has not seen and does not know the agent of8 ,all that is known is that the telegraphe intime consists of two like boxes1 each carrying a dial on whose circumference are marked the letters of the alphabet4 ,by means of a winch1 the needle of one dial is carried to all the letters that one has need to use1 and at the same instant the needle of the second box repeats1 in the same order1 all the motions and indications of the first4 ,when these two boxes are placed in two separate apartments1 two persons can write to and answer one another1 without seeing or being seen by one another1 and without any one suspecting their correspondence4 ,neither night nor fog can prevent the transmission of a dispatch4444 ,the inventor has made two experiments--one at ,portiers and the other at ,tours--in the presence of the prefects and mayors1 and the record shows that they were fully successful4 ,to-day1 the inventor and his associate ask that the ,first ,consul be pleased to permit one of the boxes to be placed in his apartment and the other at the house of ,consul ,cambaceres in order to give the experiment all the clat and authenticity possible2 or that the ,first ,consul accord a ten minutes' interview to citizen ,beauvais1 who will communicate to him the secret1 which is so easy that the simple expose of it would be equivalent to a demonstration1 and would take the place of an experiment4444 ,if1 as one might be tempted to believe from a comparison with a bell arrangement1 the means adopted by the inventor consisted in wheels1 movements1 and transmitting pieces1 the invention would be none the less astonishing4444 ,if1 on the contrary1 as the ,portier's account seems to prove1 the means of communication is a fluid1 there would be the more merit in his having mastered it to such a point as to produce so regular and so infallible effects at such distances4444 ,but citizen ,beauvais 444 desires principally to have the ,first ,consul as a witness and appreciator4444 ,it is to be desired1 then1 that the ,first ,consul shall consent to hear him1 and that he may find in the communication that will be made to him reasons for giving the invention a good reception and for properly rewarding the inventor4 ,but ,bonaparte remained deaf1 and ,alexandre persisted in his silence1 and died at ,angers1 in #ahcb1 in great poverty1 without having revealed his secret4 ,as1 in #ahjb1 ,volta's pile was already invented1 several authors have supposed an application of it in ,alexandre's apparatus4 ,is it not allowable to believe1 exclaims one of these1 that the electric telegraph was at that time discovered8 ,we do not hesitate to respond in the negative4 ,the pile had been invented for too short a time1 and too little was then known of the properties of the current1 to allow a man so destitute of scientific knowledge to so quickly invent all the electrical parts necessary for the synchronic operation of the two needles4 ,in this telegraphe intime we can only see an apparatus analogous to the one described by ,guyot1 or rather a synchronism obtained by means of cords1 as in ,kircher's arrangement4 ,the fact that ,alexandre's two dials were placed on two different stories1 and distant1 horizontally1 fifteen meters1 in nowise excludes this latter mode of transmission4 ,on another hand1 the mystery in which ,alexandre was shrouded1 his declaration relative to the use of a fluid1 and the assurance with which he promised to reveal his secret to the ,first ,consul1 prove absolutely nothing1 for too often have the most profoundly ignorant people--the electric girl1 for example--befooled learned bodies by the aid of the grossest frauds4 ,from the standpoint of the history of the electric telegraph1 there is no value1 then1 to be attributed to this apparatus of ,alexandre1 any more than there is to that of ,comus or to any of the dreams based upon the properties of the magnet4 ,the history of the electric telegraph really begins with #agec1 the date at which is found the first indication of a telegraph truly based upon the use of electricity4 ,this telegraph is described in a letter written by ,renfrew1 dated ,feb4 #a1 #agec1 and signed with the initials ,c4,m41 which1 in all probability1 were those of a savant of the time--,charles ,marshall4 ,a few extracts from this letter will give an idea of the precision with which the author described his invention3 ,let us suppose a bundle of wires1 in number equal to that of the letters of the alphabet1 stretched horizontally between two given places1 parallel with each other and distant from each other one inch4 ,let us admit that after every twenty yards the wires are connected to a solid body by a juncture of glass or jeweler's cement1 so as to prevent their coming in contact with the earth or any conducting body1 and so as to help them to carry their own weight4 ,the electric battery will be placed at right angles to one of the extremities of the wires1 and the bundle of wires at each extremity will be carried by a solid piece of glass4 ,the portions of the wires that run from the glass support to the machine have sufficient elasticity and stiffness to return to their primitive position after having been brought into contact with the battery4 ,very near to this same glass support1 on the opposite side1 there descends a ball suspended from each wire1 and at a sixth or a tenth of an inch beneath each ball there is placed one of the letters of the alphabet written upon small pieces of paper or other substance light enough to be attracted and raised by the electrified ball4 ,besides this1 all necessary arrangements are taken so that each of these little papers shall resume its place when the ball ceases to attract4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,lesage',s ,,telegraph4 ,all being arranged as above1 and the minute at which the correspondence is to begin having been fixed upon beforehand1 ,i begin the conversation with my friend at a distance in this way3 ,i set the electric machine in motion1 and1 if the word that ,i wish to transcribe is ',sir1' for example1 ,i take1 with a glass rod1 or with any other body electric through itself or insulating1 the different ends of the wires corresponding to the three letters that compose the word4 ,then ,i press them in such a way as to put them in contact with the battery4 ,at the same instant1 my correspondent sees these different letters carried in the same order toward the electrified balls at the other extremity of the wires4 ,i continue to thus spell the words as long as ,i judge proper1 and my correspondent1 that he may not forget them1 writes down the letters in measure as they rise4 ,he then unites them and reads the dispatch as often as he pleases4 ,at a given signal1 or when ,i desire it1 ,i stop the machine1 and1 taking a pen1 write down what my friend sends me from the other end of the line4 ,the author of this letter points out1 besides1 the possibility of keeping1 in the first place1 all the springs in contact with the battery1 and1 consequently1 all the letters attracted1 and of indicating each letter by removing its wire from the battery1 and consequently making it fall4 ,he even proposed to substitute bells of different sounds for the balls1 and to produce electric sparks upon them4 ,the sound produced by the spark would vary according to the bell1 and the letters might thus be heard4 ,nothing1 however1 in this document authorizes the belief that ,charles ,marshall ever realized his idea1 so we must proceed to #aggd to find ,lesage1 of ,geneva1 constructing a telegraph that was based upon the principle indicated twenty years before in the letter of ,renfrew4 ,the apparatus that ,lesage devised 7,fig4 #a7 was composed of #bd wires insulated from one another by a non conducting material4 ,each of these wires corresponded to a small pith ball suspended by a thread4 ,on putting an electric machine in communication with such or such a one of these wires1 the ball of the corresponding electrometer was repelled1 and the motion signaled the letter that it was desired to transmit4 ,not content with having realized an electric telegraph upon a small scale1 ,lesage thought of applying it to longer distances4 ,let us conceive1 said he in a letter written ,june #bb1 #aghb1 to ,mr4 ,prevost1 of ,geneva1 a subterranean pipe of enameled clay1 whose cavity at about every six feet is separated by partitions of the same material1 or of glass1 containing twenty-four apertures in order to give passage to as many brass wires as these diaphragms are to sustain and keep separated4 ,at each extremity of this pipe are twenty-four wires that deviate from one another horizontally1 and that are arranged like the keys of a clavichord2 and1 above this row of wire ends1 are distinctly traced the twenty-four letters of the alphabet1 while beneath there is a table covered with twenty-four small pieces of gold-leaf or other easily attractable and quite visible bodies4 ,lesage had thought of offering his secret to ,frederick the ,great2 but he did not do so1 however1 and his telegraph remained in the state of a curious cabinet experiment4 ,he had1 nevertheless1 opened the way1 and1 dating from that epoch1 we meet with a certain number of attempts at electrostatic telegraphy4 #a ,footnote #a3 ,advantage has been taken of a letter from ,alexander ,volta to ,prof4 ,barletti 7dated #aggg71 indicating the possibility of firing his electric pistol from a great distance1 to attribute to him a part in the invention of the telegraph4 ,we have not shared in this opinion1 which appears to us erroneous1 since ,volta1 while indicating the possibility above stated1 does not speak of applying such a fact to telegraphy4 ,the first in date is that of ,lemond1 which is spoken of by ,arthur ,young 7,october #af1 #aghg71 in his ,voyage ,agronomique en ,france3 ,in the evening1 says he1 we are going to ,mr4 ,lemond's1 a very ingenious mechanician1 and one who has a genius for invention4444 ,he has made a remarkable discovery in electricity4 ,you write two or three words upon paper2 he takes them with him into a room and revolves a machine within a sheath at the top of which there is an electrometer--a pretty little ball of feather pith4 ,a brass wire is joined to a similar cylinder1 and electrified in a distant apartment1 and his wife on remarking the motions of the ball that corresponds1 writes down the words that they indicate2 from whence it appears that he has formed an alphabet of motions4 ,as the length of the wire makes no difference in the effect1 a correspondence might be kept up from very far off1 for example with a besieged city1 or for objects much more worthy of attention4 ,whatever be the use that shall be made of it1 the discovery is an admirable one4 ,and1 in fact1 ,lemond's telegraph was of the most interesting character1 for it was a single wire one1 and we already find here an alphabet based upon the combination of a few elementary signals4 ,the apparatus that next succeeds is the electric telegraph that ,reveroni ,saint ,cyr proposed in #agij1 to announce lottery numbers1 but as to the construction of which we have no details4 ,in #agid ,reusser1 a ,german1 made a proposition a little different from the preceding systems1 and which is contained in the ,magazin fr das ,neueste aus der ,physik und ,naturgeschichte1 published by ,henri ,voigt4 ,i am at home1 says ,reusser1 before my electric machine1 and ,i am dictating to some one on the other side of the street a complete letter that he is writing himself4 ,on an ordinary table there is fixed vertically a square board in which is inserted a pane of glass4 ,to this glass are glued strips of tinfoil cut out in such a way that the spark shall be visible4 ,each strip is designated by a letter of the alphabet1 and from each of them starts a long wire4 ,these wires are inclosed in glass tubes which pass underground and run to the place whither the dispatch is to be transmitted4 ,the extremities of the wires reach a similar plate of glass1 which is likewise affixed to a table and carries strips of tinfoil similar to the others4 ,these strips are also designated1 by the same letters1 and are connected by a return wire with the table of him who wishes to dictate the message4 ,if1 now1 he who is dictating puts the external armature of a ,leyden jar in contact with the return wire1 and the ball of this jar in contact with a metallic rod touching that of the tinfoil strip which corresponds with the letter which he wishes to dictate to the other1 sparks will be produced upon the nearest as well as upon the remotest strips1 and the distant correspondent1 seeing such sparks1 may immediately write down the letter marked4 ,will an extended application of this system ever be made8 ,that is not the question2 it is possible4 ,it will be very expensive2 but the post hordes from ,saint ,petersburg to ,lisbon are also very expensive1 and if any one should apply the idea on a large scale1 ,i shall claim a recompense4 ,every letter1 then1 was signaled by one or several sparks that started forth on the breaking of the strip2 but we see nothing in this document to authorize the opinion which has existed1 that every tinfoil strip was a sort of magic tablet upon which the sparks traced the very form of the letter to be transmitted4 ,voigt1 the editor of the ,magazin1 adds1 in continuation of ,reusser's communication3 ,mr4 ,reusser should have proposed the addition to this arrangement of a vessel filled with detonating gas which could be exploded in the first place1 by means of the electric spark1 in order to notify the one to whom something was to be dictated that he should direct his attention to the strips of tinfoil4 ,this passage gives the first indication of the use of a special call for the telegraph4 ,the same year 7#agid71 in a work entitled ,versuch ber ,telegraphie und ,telegraphen1 ,boeckmann likewise proposed the use of the pistol as a call signal1 in conjunction with the use of a line composed of two wires only1 and of discharges in the air or a vacuum1 grouped in such a way as to form an alphabet4 ,experiments like those indicated by ,boeckmann1 however1 seem to have been made previous to #agid1 or at that epoch1 at least1 by ,cavallo1 since the latter describes them in a ,treatise on ,electricity written in ,english1 and a ,french translation of which was published in #agie4 ,in these experiments the length of the wires reached #bej ,english feet4 ,cavallo likewise proposed to use as signals combustible or detonating materials1 and to employ as a call the noise made by the discharge of a ,leyden jar4 ,in #agif occurred the experiments of ,dr4 ,francisco ,salva and of the ,infante ,d4 ,antonio4 ,the following is what we may read on this subject in the ,journal des ,sciences3 ,prince de la ,paix1 having learned that ,dr4 ,francisco ,salva had read before the ,royal ,academy of ,sciences of ,barcelona a memoir on the application of electricity to telegraphy1 and that he had presented at the same time an electric telegraph of his own invention1 desired to examine this machine in person4 ,satisfied as to the accuracy and celerity with which we can converse with another by means of it1 he obtained for the inventor the honor of appearing before the king4 ,prince de la ,paix1 in the presence of their majesties and of several lords1 caused the telegraph to converse to the satisfaction of the whole court4 ,the telegraph conversed some days afterward at the residence of the ,infante ,d4 ,antonio4 ,his ,highness expressed a desire to have a much completer one that should have sufficient electrical power to communicate at great distances on land and sea4 ,the ,infante therefore ordered the construction of an electric machine whose plate should be more than forty inches in diameter4 ,with the aid of this machine ,his ,highness intends to undertake a series of useful and curious experiments that he has proposed to ,dr4 ,d4 ,salva4 ,in #agig or '#ih 7some authors say #aghg71 the ,frenchman1 ,betancourt1 put up a line between ,aranjuez and ,madrid1 and telegraphed through the medium of discharges from a ,leyden jar4 ,but the most interesting of the telegraphs based upon the use of static electricity is without doubt that of ,francis ,ronalds1 described by the latter1 in #ahbc1 in a pamphlet entitled ,descriptions of an ,electrical ,telegraph and of some other ,electrical ,apparatus1 but the construction of which dates back to #ahaf4 ,what is peculiarly interesting in ,ronalds' apparatus is that it presents for the first time the use of two synchronous movements at the two stations in correspondence4 ,the apparatus is represented in ,fig4 #b4 ,it is based upon the simultaneous working of two pith-ball electrometers1 combined with the synchronous running of two clock-work movements4 ,at the two stations there were identical clocks for whose second hand there had been substituted a cardboard disk 7,fig4 #c71 divided into twenty sectors4 ,each of these latter contained one figure1 one letter1 and a conventional word4 ,before each movable disk there was a screen1 ,a 7,fig4 #b71 containing an aperture through which only one sector could1 be seen at a time4 ,finally1 before each screen there was a pith-ball electrometer4 ,the two electrometers were connected together by means of a conductor 7,c7 passing under the earth1 and which at either of its extremities could be put in communication with either an electric machine or the ground4 ,a lever handle1 ,j1 interposed into the circuit a ,volta's pistol1 ,f1 that served as a call4 ,when one of the operators desired to send a dispatch to the other he connected the conductor with the machine1 and1 setting the latter in operation1 discharged his correspondent's pistol as a signal4 ,the call effected1 the first operator continued to revolve the machine so that the balls of pith should diverge in the two electrometers4 ,at the same time the two clocks were set running4 ,when the sender saw the word attention pass before the slit in the screen he quickly discharged the line1 the balls of the two electrometers approached each other1 and1 if the two clocks agreed perfectly1 the correspondent necessarily saw in the aperture in his screen the same word1 attention4 ,if not1 he moved the screen in consequence1 and the operation was performed over until he could send1 in his turn1 the word ready4 ,afterward1 the sender transmitted in the same way one of the three words1 letters1 figures1 dictionary1 in order to indicate whether he wished to transmit letters or figures1 or whether the letters received1 instead of being taken in their true sense1 were to be referred to a conventional vocabulary got up in advance4 ,it was after such preliminaries that the actual transmission of the dispatch was begun4 ,the pith balls1 which were kept constantly apart1 approached each other at the moment the letter to be transmitted passed before the aperture in the screen4 ,ronalds1 in his researches1 busied himself most with the construction of lines4 ,he put up on the grounds near his dwelling an air line #h miles long2 and1 to do so1 stretched fine iron wire in zigzag fashion between two frames #ah meters apart4 ,each of these frames carried thirty-seven hooks1 to which the wire was attached through the intermedium of silk cords4 ,he laid1 besides1 a subterranean line of #ebe feet at a depth of #d feet4 ,the wire was inclosed within thick glass tubes which were placed in a trough of dry wood1 of #b inch section1 coated internally and externally with pitch4 ,this trough was1 moreover1 filled full of pitch and closed with a cover of wood4 ,ronalds preferred these subterranean conductors to air lines4 ,a portion of one of them that was laid by him at ,hammersmith figured at the ,exhibition of #ahha1 and is shown in ,fig4 #d4 ,nearly at the epoch at which ,ronalds was experimenting in ,england1 a certain ,harrisson ,gray ,dyar was also occupying himself with electrostatic telegraphy in ,america4 ,according to letters published only in #ahgb by ,american journals1 ,dyar constructed the first telegraph in ,america4 ,this line1 which was put up on ,long ,island1 was of iron wire strung on poles carrying glass insulators1 and1 upon it1 ,dyar operated with static electricity4 ,causing the spark to act upon a movable disk covered with litmus paper1 he produced by the discoloration of the latter dots and dashes that formed an alphabet4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,these experiments1 it seems1 were so successful that ,dyar and his relatives resolved to construct a line from ,new ,york to ,philadelphia2 but quarrels with his copartners1 lawsuits1 and other causes obliged him to leave for ,rhode ,island1 and finally for ,france in #ahca4 ,he did not return to ,america till #aheh4 ,dyar1 then1 would seem to have been the first who combined an alphabet composed of dots and dashes4 ,on this point1 priority has been claimed by ,swaim in a book that appeared at ,philadelphia in #ahbi under the title of ,the ,mural ,diagraph1 and in a communication inserted in the ,comptes ,rendus of the ,academic des ,sciences for ,nov4 #bg1 #ahfe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,in #ahbh1 likewise1 ,victor ,triboaillet de ,saint ,amand proposed to construct a telegraph line between ,paris and ,brussels4 ,this line was to be a subterranean one1 the wire being covered with gum shellac1 then with silk1 and finally with resin1 and being last of all placed in glass tubes4 ,a strong battery was to act at a distance upon an electroscope1 and the dispatches were to be transmitted by the aid of a conventional vocabulary based upon the number of the electroscope's motions4 ,finally1 in #ahdd1 ,henry ,highton took out a patent in ,england for a telegraph working through electricity of high tension1 with the use of a single line wire4 ,a paper unrolled regularly between two points1 and each discharge made a small hole in it1 ,but this hole was near one or the other of the points according as the line was positively or negatively charged4 ,the combination of the holes thus traced upon two parallel lines permitted of the formation of an alphabet4 ,this telegraph was tried successfully over a line ten miles long1 on the ,london and ,northwestern ,railway4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,we have followed electrostatic telegraphs up to an epoch at which telegraphy had already entered upon a more practical road1 and it now remains for us to retrace our steps toward those apparatus that are based upon the use of the voltaic current4 99 99 99 99 99 ,prof4 ,dolbear observes that if a galvanometer is placed between the terminals of a circuit of homogeneous iron wire and heat is applied1 no electric effect will be observed2 but if the structure of the wire is altered by alternate bending or twisting into a helix1 then the galvanometer will indicate a current4 ,the professor employs a helix connected with a battery1 and surrounding a portion of the wire in circuit with the galvanometer4 ,the current in the helix magnetizes the circuit wire inclosed1 and the galvanometer exhibits the presence of electricity4 ,the experiment helps to prove that magnetism is connected with some molecular change of the magnetized metal4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,electrical ,,transmission ,,and ,,storage4 ,footnote3 ,from a recent lecture in ,london before the ,institute of ,civil ,engineers4 ,by ,dr4 ,c4 ,,william ,,siemens1 ,f4,r4,s1 ,mem4 ,inst4 ,c4,e4 ,dr4 ,siemens1 in opening the discourse1 adverted to the object the ,council had in view in organizing these occasional lectures1 which were not to be lectures upon general topics1 but the outcome of such special study and practical experience as members of the ,institution had exceptional opportunities of acquiring in the course of their professional occupation4 ,the subject to be dealt with during the present session was that of electricity4 ,already telegraphy had been brought forward by ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,preece1 and telephonic communication by ,sir ,frederick ,bramwell4 ,thus far electricity had been introduced as the swift and subtile agency by which signals were produced either by mechanical means or by the human voice1 and flashed almost instantaneously to distances which were limited1 with regard to the former1 by restrictions imposed by the globe4 ,to the speaker had been assigned the task of introducing to their notice electric energy in a different aspect4 ,although still giving evidence of swiftness and precision1 the effects he should dwell upon were no longer such as could be perceived only through the most delicate instruments human ingenuity could contrive1 but were capable of rivaling the steam engine1 compressed air1 and the hydraulic accumulator in the accomplishment of actual work4 ,in the early attempts at magneto electric machines1 it was shown that1 so long as their effect depended upon the oxidation of zinc in a battery1 no commercially useful results could have been anticipated4 ,the thermo-battery1 the discovery of ,seebeck in #ahbb1 was alluded to as a means of converting heat into electric energy in the most direct manner2 but this conversion could not be an entire one1 because the second law of thermo-dynamics1 which prevented the realization as mechanical force of more than one seventh part of the heat energy produced in combustion under the boiler1 applied equally to the thermo-electric battery1 in which the heat1 conducted from the hot points of juncture to the cold1 constituted a formidable loss4 ,the electromotive force of each thermo-electric element did not exceed #j4jcf of a volt1 and #a1hjj elements were therefore necessary to work an incandescence lamp4 ,a most useful application of the thermo-electric battery for measuring radiant heat1 the thermo pile1 was exhibited4 ,by means of an ingenious modification of the electrical pyrometer1 named the bolometer1 valuable researches in measuring solar radiations had been made by ,professor ,langley4 ,faraday's great discovery of magneto-induction was next noticed1 and the original instrument by which he had elicited the first electric spark before the members of the ,royal ,institution in #ahca1 was shown in operation4 ,it was proved that although the individual current produced by magnetoinduction was exceedingly small and momentary in action1 it was capable of unlimited multiplication by mechanical arrangements of a simple kind1 and that by such multiplication the powerful effects of the dynamo machine of the present day were built up4 ,one of the means for accomplishing such multiplication was the ,siemens armature of #ahef4 ,another step of importance was that involved in the ,pacinotti ring1 known in its practical application as the machine of ,gramme4 ,a third step1 that of the self exciting principle1 was first communicated by ,dr4 ,werner ,siemens to the ,berlin ,academy1 on the #agth of ,january1 #ahfg1 and by the lecturer to the ,royal ,society1 on the #dth of the following month4 ,this was read on the #adth of ,february1 when the late ,sir ,charles ,wheatstone also brought forward a paper embodying the same principle4 ,the lecturer's machine1 which was then exhibited1 and which might be looked upon as the first of its kind1 was shown in operation2 it had done useful work for many years as a means of exciting steel magnets4 ,a suggestion contained in ,sir ,charles ,wheatstone's paper1 that a very remarkable increase of all the effects1 accompanied by a diminution in the resistance of the machine1 is observed when a cross wire is placed so as to divert a great portion of the current from the electro-magnet1 had led the lecturer to an investigation read before the ,royal ,society on the #dth of ,march1 #ahhj1 in which it was shown that by augmenting the resistance upon the electro-magnets #ajj fold1 valuable effects could be realized1 as illustrated graphically by means of a diagram4 ,the most important of these results consisted in this1 that the electromotive force produced in a shunt-wound machine1 as it was called1 increased with the external resistance1 whereby the great fluctuations formerly inseparable from electric arc lighting could be obviated1 and thus1 by the double means of exciting the electro-magnets1 still greater uniformity of current was attainable4 ,the conditions upon which the working of a well conceived dynamo machine must depend were next alluded to1 and it was demonstrated that when losses by unnecessary wire resistance1 by ,foucault currents1 and by induced currents in the rotating armature were avoided1 as much as #ij per cent41 or even more1 of the power communicated to the machine was realized in the form of electric energy1 and that vice versa the reconversion of electric into mechanical energy could be accomplished with similarly small loss4 ,thus1 by means of two machines at a moderate distance apart1 nearly #hj per cent1 of the power imparted to one machine could be again yielded in the mechanical form by the second1 leaving out of consideration frictional losses1 which latter need not be great1 considering that a dynamo machine had only one moving part well balanced1 and was acted upon along its entire circumference by propelling force4 ,jacobi had proved1 many years ago1 that the maximum efficiency of a magneto-electric engine was obtained when e _/ ,e w _/ ,w which law had been frequently construed1 by ,verdet 7,theorie ,mecanique de la ,chaleur7 and others1 to mean that one-half was the maximum theoretical efficiency obtainable in electric transmission of power1 and that one half of the current must be necessarily wasted or turned into heat4 ,the lecturer could never be reconciled to a law necessitating such a waste of energy1 and had maintained1 without disputing the accuracy of ,jacobi's law1 that it had reference really to the condition of maximum work accomplished with a given machine1 whereas its efficiency must be governed by the equation3 e _/ ,e w _/ ,w nearly #a ,from this it followed that the maximum yield was obtained when two dynamo machines 7of similar construction7 rotated nearly at the same speed1 but that under these conditions the amount of force transmitted was a minimum4 ,practically the best condition of working consisted in giving to the primary machine such proportions as to produce a current of the same magnitude1 but of #ej per cent1 greater electromotive force than the secondary2 by adopting such an arrangement1 as much as #ej per cent1 of the power imparted to the primary could be practically received from the secondary machine at a distance of several miles4 ,professor ,silvanus ,thompson1 in his recent ,cantor ,lectures1 had shown an ingenious graphical method of proving these important fundamental laws4 ,the possibility of transmitting power electrically was so obvious that suggestions to that effect had been frequently made since the days of ,volta1 by ,ritchie1 ,jacobi1 ,henry1 ,page1 ,hjorth1 and others2 but it was only in recent years that such transmission had been rendered practically feasible4 ,just six years ago1 when delivering his presidential address to the ,iron and ,steel ,institute1 the lecturer had ventured to suggest that time will probably reveal to us effectual means of carrying power to great distances1 but ,i cannot refrain from alluding to one which is1 in my opinion1 worthy of consideration1 namely1 the electrical conductor4 ,suppose water power to be employed to give motion to a dynamo-electrical machine1 a very powerful electrical current will be the result1 which may be carried to a great distance1 through a large metallic conductor1 and then be made to impart motion to electromagnetic engines1 to ignite the carbon points of electric lamps1 or to effect the separation of metals from their combinations4 ,a copper rod #c in4 in diameter would be capable of transmitting #a1jjj horse power a distance of say thirty miles1 an amount sufficient to supply one-quarter of a million candle power1 which would suffice to illuminate a moderately-sized town4 ,this suggestion had been much criticised at the time1 when it was still thought that electricity was incapable of being massed so as to deal with many horse power of effect1 and the size of conductor he had proposed was also considered wholly inadequate4 ,it would be interesting to test this early calculation by recent experience4 ,mr4 ,marcel ,deprez had1 it was well known1 lately succeeded in transmitting as much as three horse power to a distance of #dj kilometers 7#be miles7 through a pair of ordinary telegraph wires of #d millimeters in diameter4 ,the results so obtained had been carefully noted by ,mr4 ,tresca1 and had been communicated a fortnight ago to the ,french ,academy of ,sciences4 ,taking the relative conductivity of iron wire employed by ,deprez1 and the #c in4 rod proposed by the lecturer1 the amount of power that could be transmitted through the latter would be about #d1jjj horse power4 ,but ,deprez had employed a motor-dynamo of #b1jjj volts1 and was contented with a yield of #cb per cent4 only of the energy imparted to the primary machine1 whereas he had calculated at the time upon an electromotive force of #bjj volts1 and upon a return of at least #dj per cent4 of the energy imparted4 ,in ,march1 #ahgh1 when delivering one of the ,science ,lectures at ,glasgow1 he said that a #b in4 rod could be made to accomplish the object proposed1 because he had by that time conceived the possibility of employing a current of at least #ejj volts4 ,sir ,william ,thomson had at once accepted these views1 and with the conceptive ingenuity peculiar to himself1 had gone far beyond him1 in showing before the ,parliamentary ,electric ,light ,committee of #ahgi1 that through a copper wire of only in4 diameter1 #ba1jjj horse power might be conveyed to a distance of #cjj miles with a current of an intensity of #hj1jjj volts4 ,the time might come when such a current could be dealt with1 having a striking distance of about #ab ft4 in air1 but then1 probably1 a very practical law enunciated by ,sir ,william ,thomson would be infringed4 ,this was to the effect that electricity was conveyed at the cheapest rate through a conductor1 the cost of which was such that the annual interest upon the money expended equaled the annual expenditure for lost effect in the conductor in producing the power to be conveyed4 ,it appeared that ,mr4 ,deprez had not followed this law in making his recent installations4 ,sir ,william ,armstrong was probably first to take practical1 advantage of these suggestions in lighting his house at ,cragside during night time1 and working his lathe and saw bench during the day1 by power transmitted through a wire from a waterfall nearly a mile distant from his mansion4 ,the lecturer had also accomplished the several objects of pumping water1 cutting wood1 hay1 and swedes1 of lighting his house1 and of carrying on experiments in electro-horticulture from a common center of steam power4 ,the results had been most satisfactory2 the whole of the management had been in the hands of a gardener and of laborers1 who were without previous knowledge of electricity1 and the only repairs that had been found necessary were one renewal of the commutators and an occasional change of metallic contact brushes4 ,an interesting application of electric transmission to cranes1 by ,dr4 ,hopkinson1 was shown in operation4 ,among the numerous other applications of the electrical transmission of power1 that to electrical railways1 first exhibited by ,dr4 ,werner ,siemens1 at the ,berlin ,exhibition of #ahgi1 had created more than ordinary public attention4 ,in it the current produced by the dynamo machine1 fixed at a convenient station and driven by a steam engine or other motor1 was conveyed to a dynamo placed upon the moving car1 through a central rail supported upon insulating blocks of wood1 the two working rails serving to convey the return current4 ,the line was #ijj yards long1 of #b ft gauge1 and the moving car served its purpose of carrying twenty visitors through the exhibition each trip4 ,the success of this experiment soon led to the laying of the ,lichterfelde line1 in which both rails were placed upon insulating sleepers1 so that the one served for the conveyance of the current from the power station to the moving car1 and the other for completing the return circuit4 ,this line had a gauge of #c ft4 #c in41 was #b1ejj yards in length1 and was worked by two dynamo machines1 developing an aggregate current of #i1jjj watts1 equal to #ab horse power4 ,it had now been in constant operation since ,may #af1 #ahha1 and had never failed in accomplishing its daily traffic4 ,a line half a kilometer in length1 but of #d ft4 #h in4 gauge was established by the lecturer at ,paris in connection with the ,electric ,exhibition of #ahha4 ,in this case1 two suspended conductors in the form of hollow tubes with a longitudinal slit were adopted1 the contact being made by metallic bolts drawn through these slit tubes1 and connected with the dynamo machine on the moving car by copper ropes passing through the roof4 ,on this line #ie1jjj passengers were conveyed within the short period of seven weeks4 ,an electric tramway1 six miles in length1 had just been completed1 connecting ,portrush with ,bush ,mills1 in the north of ,ireland1 in the installation of which the lecturer was aided by ,mr4 ,traill1 as engineer of the company by ,mr4 ,alexander ,siemens1 and by ,dr4 ,e4 ,hopkinson1 representing his firm4 ,in this instance the two rails1 #c ft4 apart1 were not insulated from the ground1 but were joined electrically by means of copper staples and formed the return circuit1 the current being conveyed to the car through a ,t iron placed upon short standards1 and insulated by means of insulate caps4 ,for the present the power was produced by a steam engine at ,portrush1 giving motion to a shunt-wound dynamo of #ae1jjj watts#bj horse power1 but arrangements were in progress to utilize a waterfall of ample power near ,bush ,mills1 by means of three turbines of #dj horse power each1 now in course of erection4 ,the working speed of this line was restricted by the ,board of ,trade to ten miles an hour1 which was readily obtained1 although the gradients of the line were decidedly unfavorable1 including an incline of two miles in length at a gradient of #a in #ch4 ,it was intended to extend the line six miles beyond ,bush ,mills1 in order to join it at ,dervock station with the north of ,ireland narrow gauge railway system4 ,the electric system of propulsion was1 in the lecturer's opinion1 sufficiently advanced to assure practical success under suitable circumstances--such as for suburban tramways1 elevated lines1 and above all lines through tunnels2 such as the ,metropolitan and ,district ,railways4 ,the advantages were that the weight1 of the engine1 so destructive of power and of the plant itself in starting and stopping1 would be saved1 and that perfect immunity from products of combustion would be insured ,the experience at ,lichterfelde1 at ,paris1 and another electric line of #gfe yards in length1 and #b ft4 #b in4 gauge1 worked in connection with the ,zaukerode ,colliery since ,october1 #ahhb1 were extremely favorable to this mode of propulsion4 ,the lecturer however did not advocate its prospective application in competition with the locomotive engine for main lines of railway4 ,for tramways within populous districts1 the insulated conductor involved a serious difficulty4 ,it would be more advantageous under these circumstances to resort to secondary batteries1 forming a store of electrical energy carried under the seats of the car itself1 and working a dynamo machine connected with the moving wheels by means of belts and chains4 ,the secondary battery was the only available means of propelling vessels by electrical power1 and considering that these batteries might be made to serve the purpose of keel ballast1 their weight1 which was still considerable1 would not be objectionable4 ,the secondary battery was not an entirely new conception4 ,the hydrogen gas battery suggested by ,sir ,wm4 ,grove in #ahda1 and which was shown in operation1 realized in the most perfect manner the conception of storage1 only that the power obtained from it was exceedingly slight4 ,the lecturer1 in working upon ,sir ,wm4 ,grove's conception1 had twenty-five years ago constructed a battery of considerable power in substituting porous carbon for platinum1 impregnating the same with a precipitate of lead peroxidized by a charging current4 ,at that time little practical importance attached however to the object1 and even when ,plante1 in #ahfj1 produced his secondary battery1 composed of lead plates peroxidized by a charging current1 little more than scientific curiosity was excited4 ,it was only since the dynamo machine had become an accomplished fact that the importance of this mode of storing energy had become of practical importance1 and great credit was due to ,faure1 to ,sellon1 and to ,volckmar for putting this valuable addition to practical science into available forms4 ,a question of great interest in connection with the secondary battery had reference to its permanence4 ,a fear had been expressed by many that local action would soon destroy the fabric of which it was composed1 and that the active surfaces would become coated with sulphate of lead1 preventing further action4 ,it had1 however1 lately been proved in a paper read by ,dr4 ,frankland before the ,royal ,society1 corroborated by simultaneous investigations by ,dr4 ,gladstone and ,mr4 ,tribe1 that the action of the secondary battery depended essentially upon the alternative composition and decomposition of sulphate of lead1 which was therefore not an enemy1 but the best friend to its continued action4 ,in conclusion1 the lecturer referred to electric nomenclature1 and to the means for measuring and recording the passage of electric energy4 ,when he addressed the ,british ,association at ,southampton1 he had ventured to suggest two electrical units additional to those established at the ,electrical ,congress in #ahha1 viz43 the watt and the joule1 in order to complete the chain of units connecting electrical with mechanical energy and with the unit quantity of heat4 ,he was glad to find that this suggestion had met with a favorable reception1 especially that of the watt1 which was convenient for expressing in an intelligible manner the effective power of a dynamo machine1 and for giving a precise idea of the number of lights or effective power to be realized by its current1 as well as of the engine power necessary to drive it2 #gdf watts represented #a horse-power4 ,finally1 the watt meter1 an instrument recently developed by his firm1 was shown in operation4 ,this consisted simply of a coil of thick conductor suspended by a torsion wire1 and opposed laterally to a fixed coil of wire of high resistance4 ,the current to be measured flowed through both coils in parallel circuit1 the one representing its quantity expressible in amperes1 and the other its potential expressible in volts4 ,their joint attractive action expressed therefore volt-amperes or watts1 which were read off upon a scale of equal divisions4 ,the lecture was illustrated by experiments1 and by numerous diagrams and tables of results4 ,measuring instruments by ,professors ,ayrton and ,perry1 by ,mr4 ,edison and by ,mr4 ,boys1 were also exhibited4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,preparation ,,of ,,gelatine ,,plates4 ,footnote3 ,being an abstract of the introductory lecture to a course on photography at the ,polytechnic ,institute1 ,november #aa4 ,by ,e4 ,,howard ,,farmer1 ,f4,c4,s4 ,since the first announcement of these lectures1 our ,secretary has asked me to give a free introductory lecture1 so that all who are interested in the subject may come and gather a better idea as to them than they can possibly do by simply leading a prospectus4 ,this evening1 therefore1 ,i propose to give first a typical lecture of the course1 and secondly1 at its conclusion1 to say a few words as to our principal object4 ,as the subject for this evening's lecture ,i have chosen1 ,the ,preparation of ,gelatine ,plates1 as it is probably one of very general interest to photographers4 ,before preparing our emulsion1 we must first decide upon the particular materials we are going to use1 and of these the first requisite is nitrate of silver4 ,nitrate of silver is supplied by chemists in three principal conditions3 #a4 ,the ordinary crystallized salt1 prepared by dissolving silver in nitric acid1 and evaporating the solution until the salt crystallizes out4 ,this sample usually presents the appearance of imperfect crystals1 having a faint yellowish tinge1 and a strong odor of nitrous fumes1 and contains1 as might be expected1 a considerable amount of free acid4 #b4 ,fused nitrate1 or lunar caustic1 prepared by fusing the crystallized salt and casting it into sticks4 ,lunar caustic is usually alkaline to test paper4 #c4 ,recrystallized silver nitrate1 prepared by redissolving the ordinary salt in distilled water1 and again evaporating to the crystallizing point4 ,by this means the impurities and free acid are removed4 ,i have a specimen of this on the table1 and it consists1 as you observe1 of fine crystals which are perfectly colorless and transparent2 it is also perfectly neutral to test paper4 ,no doubt either of these samples can be used with success in preparing emulsions1 but to those who are inexperienced1 ,i recommend that the recrystallized salt be employed4 ,we make1 then1 a solution of recrystallized silver nitrate in distilled water1 containing in every #ab ounces of solution #a ounces of the salt4 ,the next material we require is a soluble bromide4 ,i have here specimens of various bromides which can be employed1 such as ammonium1 potassium1 barium1 and zinc bromides2 as a rule1 however1 either the ammonium or potassium salt is used1 and ,i should like to say a few words respecting the relative efficiency of these two salts4 #a4 ,as to ammonium bromide4 ,this substance is a highly unstable salt4 ,a sample of ammonium bromide which is perfectly neutral when first prepared will1 on keeping1 be found to become decidedly acid in character4 ,moreover1 during this decomposition1 the percentage of bromine does not remain constant2 as a rule1 it will be found to contain more than the theoretical amount of bromine4 ,finally1 all ammonium salts have a most destructive action on gelatine2 if gelatine1 which has been boiled for a short time with either ammonium bromide or ammonium nitrate1 be added to an emulsion1 it will be found to produce pink fog--and probably frilling--on plates prepared with the emulsion4 ,for these reasons1 ,i venture to say that ammonium bromide1 which figures so largely in formul for gelatine emulsions1 is one of the worst bromides that can be employed for that purpose1 and is1 indeed1 a frequent source of pink fog and frilling4 #b4 ,as to potassium bromide4 ,this is a perfectly stable substance1 can be readily obtained pure1 and is constant in composition2 neither has it 7nor the nitrate7 any appreciable destructive action on gelatine4 ,we prepare1 then1 a solution of potassium bromide in water containing in every #ab ounces of solution #a ounce of the salt4 ,on testing it with litmus paper1 the solution may be either slightly alkaline or neutral2 in either case1 it should be faintly acidified with hydrochloric acid4 ,the last material we require is the gelatine1 one of the most important1 and at the same time the most difficult substance to obtain of good quality4 ,i have various samples here--notably ,nelson's ,no4 #a and ,x opaque2 ,coignet's gold medal2 ,heinrich's2 the ,autotype ,company's2 and ,russian isinglass4 ,the only method ,i know of securing a uniform quality of gelatine is to purchase several small samples1 make a trial emulsion with each1 and buy a stock of the sample which gives the best results4 ,to those who do not care to go to this trouble1 equal quantities of ,nelson's ,no4 #a and ,x opaque1 as recommended by ,captain ,abney1 can be employed4 ,having selected the gelatine1 #a ounces should be allowed to soak in water1 and then melted1 when it will be found to have a bulk of about #f ounces4 ,in order to prepare our emulsion1 ,i take equal bulks of the silver nitrate and potassium bromide solutions in beakers1 and place them in the water bath to get hot4 ,i also take an equal bulk of hot water in a large beaker1 and add to it one-half an ounce of the gelatine solution to every #ab ounces of water4 ,having raised all these to about #ahj ,f41 ,i add 7as you observe7 to the large beaker containing the dilute gelatine a little of the bromide1 then1 through a funnel having a fine orifice1 a little of the silver1 swirling the liquid round during the operation2 then again some bromide and silver1 and so on until all is added4 ,when this is completed1 a little of the emulsion is poured on a glass plate1 and examined by transmitted light2 if the mixing be efficient1 the light will appear--as it does here--of an orange or orange red color4 ,it will be observed that we keep the bromide in excess while mixing4 ,i must not forget to mention that to those experienced in mixing1 by far the best method is that described by ,captain ,abney in his ,cantor lectures1 of keeping the silver in excess4 ,the emulsion1 being properly mixed1 has now to be placed in the water bath1 and kept at the boiling point for forty-five minutes4 ,as1 obviously1 ,i cannot keep you waiting while this is done1 ,i propose to divide our emulsion into two portions1 allowing one portion to stew1 and to proceed with the next operation with the remainder4 ,supposing1 then1 this emulsion has been boiled1 it is placed in cold water to cool4 ,while it is cooling1 let us consider for a moment what takes place during the boiling4 ,it is found that during this time the emulsion undergoes two remarkable changes3 #a4 ,the molecules of silver bromide gradually aggregate together1 forming larger and larger particles4 #b4 ,the emulsion increases rapidly in sensitiveness4 ,now what is the cause1 in the first place1 of this aggregation of molecules3 and1 in the second place1 of the increase of sensitiveness8 ,we know that the two invariably go together1 so that we are right in concluding that the same cause produces both4 ,it might be thought that heat is the cause1 but the same changes take place more slowly in the cold1 so we can only say that heat accelerates the action1 and hence must conclude that the prime cause is one of the materials in the emulsion itself4 ,now1 besides the silver bromide1 we have in the emulsion water1 gelatine1 potassium nitrate1 and a small excess of potassium bromide2 and in order to find which of these is the cause1 we must make different emulsions1 omitting in succession each of these materials4 ,suppose we take an emulsion which has just been mixed1 and1 instead of boiling it1 we precipitate the gelatine and silver bromide with alcohol2 on redissolving the pellicle in the same quantity of water1 we have an emulsion the same as previously1 with the exception that the niter and excess of potassium bromide are absent4 ,if such an emulsion be boiled1 we shall find the remarkable fact that1 however long it be boiled1 the silver bromide undergoes no change1 neither does the emulsion become any more sensitive4 ,we therefore conclude1 that either the niter or the small excess of potassium bromide1 or both together1 produce the change4 ,now take portions of a similarly washed emulsion1 and add to one portion some niter1 and to another some potassium bromide2 on boiling these we find that the one containing niter does not change1 while that containing the potassium bromide rapidly undergoes the changes mentioned4 ,here1 then1 by a direct appeal to experiment1 we prove that to all appearance comparatively useless excess of potassium bromide is really one of the most important constituents of the emulsion4 ,the following table gives some interesting results respecting this action of potassium bromide3 ,excess of potash bromide4 ,time to acquire maximum sensitiveness4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- #j4b grain per ounce no increase after six hours4 #b4j about one-half an hour4 #bj4j seven minutes4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,i must here leave the rationale of the process for the present1 and proceed with the next operation4 ,our emulsion being cold1 ,i add to it1 for every #f ounces of mixed emulsion1 #a ounce of a saturated cold solution of potassium bichromate2 then1 gently swirling the mixture round1 a few drops of a dilute 7#a to #h7 solution of hydrochloric acid1 and place it on one side for a minute or two4 ,when hydrochloric acid is added to bichromate of potash1 chromic acid is liberated4 ,now1 chromic acid has the property of precipitating gelatine1 so that what ,i hope to have done is to have precipitated the gelatine in this emulsion1 and which will carry down the silver bromide as well4 ,you see here ,i can pour off the supernatant liquid clear1 leaving our silver and gelatine as a clot at the bottom of the vessel4 ,another action of chromic acid is1 that it destroys the action of light on silver bromide1 so that up to this point operations can be carried on in broad daylight4 ,the precipitated emulsion is now taken into the dark room and washed until the wash water shows no trace of color2 if there be a large quantity1 this is best done on a fine muslin filter2 if a small quantity1 by decantation4 ,having been thoroughly washed1 ,i dissolve the pellicle in water by immersing the beaker containing it in the water bath4 ,i then add the remaining gelatine1 and make up the whole with #c ounces of alcohol and water to #cj ounces for the quantities given4 ,i pass the emulsion through a funnel containing a pellet of cotton wool in order to filter it1 and it is ready for coating the plates4 ,to coat a plate1 ,i place it on this small block of leveled wood1 and pour on down a glass rod a small quantity of the emulsion1 and by means of the rod held horizontally1 spread it over the plate4 ,i then transfer the plate to this leveled slab of plate glass1 in order that the emulsion on it may set4 ,as soon as set1 it is placed in the drying box4 ,this process1 as here described1 does not give plates of the highest degree of sensitiveness1 to attain which a further operation is necessary2 they are1 however1 of exceedingly good quality1 and very suitable for landscape work4--,photo4 ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,pictures ,,on ,,glass4 ,the invention of ,m4 ,e4 ,godard1 of ,paris1 has for its object the reproduction of images and drawings1 by means of vitrifiable colors on glass1 wood1 stone1 on canvas or paper prepared for oil-painting and on other substances having polished surfaces1 e4 g41 earthenware1 copper1 etc4 ,the original drawings or images should be well executed1 and drawn on white1 or preferably bluish paper1 similar to paper used for ordinary drawings4 ,in the patterns for glass painting1 by this process1 the place to be occupied is marked by the lead1 before cutting the glass to suit the various shades which compose the color of a panel1 as is usually done in this kind of work2 the operation changes only when the glass cutter hands these sheets over to the man who undertakes the painting4 ,the sheets of glass are cut according to the lines of the drawing1 and after being well cleaned1 they are placed on the paper on the places for which they have been cut out4 ,if the window to be stained is of large size and consists of several panels1 only one panel is proceeded with at a time4 ,the glass is laid on the reverse side of the paper 7the side opposite to the drawing71 the latter having been made transparent by saturating it with petroleum4 ,this operation also serves to fix the outlines of the drawing more distinctly1 and to give more vigor to the dark tone of the paper4 ,when the paper is thus prepared1 and the sheets of glass each in its place1 they are coated by means of a brush with a sensitizing solution on the side which comes into contact with the paper4 ,this coating should be as thin and as uniform as possible on the surface of the glass4 ,for more perfectly equalizing the coating1 a second brush is used4 ,the sensitizing solution which serves to produce the verifiable image is prepared as follows3 ,bichromate of ammonia is dissolved in water till the latter is saturated2 five grammes of powdered dextrin or glucose are then dissolved in #ajj grammes of water2 to either of these solutions is added #aj per cent4 of the solution of bichromate1 and the mixture filtered4 ,the coating of the glass takes place immediately afterward in a dark room2 the coated sheets are then subjected to a heat of #ej or #fj ,c4 7#abj to #adj ,fahr47 in a small hot chamber1 where they are laid one after the other on a wire grating situated #ce centimeters above the bottom4 ,care should be taken not to introduce the glass under treatment into the hot chamber before the required degree of heat has been obtained4 ,a few seconds are sufficient to dry each sheet1 and the wire grating should be large enough to allow of the dried glass being laid in rows1 on one side where the heat is less intense4 ,for the reproduction of the pictures or images a photographic copying frame of the size of the original is used4 ,a stained glass window being for greater security generally divided into different panels1 the size of one panel is seldom more than one square meter4 ,if the picture to be reproduced should be larger in size than any available copying frame1 the prepared glass sheets are laid between two large sheets of plate-glass1 and part after part is proceeded with1 by sliding the original between the two sheets4 ,a photographic copying frame1 however1 is always preferable1 as it presses the glass sheets better against the original4 ,the original drawing is laid fiat on the glass of the frame4 ,the lines where the lead is to connect the respective sheets of glass are marked on the drawing with blue or red pencil4 ,the prepared sheets of glass are then placed one after the other on the original in their respective places1 so that the coated side comes in contact with the original4 ,the frame is then closed4 ,it should be borne in mind that the latter operations must be performed in the dark room4 ,the closed frame is now exposed to light4 ,if the operations are performed outdoors1 the frame is laid flat1 so that the light falls directly on it2 if indoors1 the frame is placed inclined behind a window1 so that it may receive the light in front4 ,the time necessary for exposing the frame depends upon the light and the temperature2 for instance1 if the weather is fine and cloudless and the temperature from #af to #ah ,c4 7#fj to #fd ,fahr471 it will require from #ab to #ae minutes4 ,it will be observed that the time of exposure also depends on the thickness of the paper used for the original4 ,if1 however1 the weather is dark1 it requires from #cj to #ej minutes for the exposure4 ,it will be observed that if the temperature is above #be ,c4 7about #hj ,fahr471 the sheets of glass should be kept very cool and be less dried2 otherwise1 when exposed the sheets are instantly metallized1 and the reproduction cannot take place4 ,the same inconvenience takes place if the temperature is beneath #e ,c4 7#da ,fahr474 ,in this case the sheets should be kept warm1 and care should be taken not to expose the frame to the open air1 but always behind a glass window at a temperature of from #ad to #ah ,c4 7about #fj ,fahr474 ,the time necessary for the exposure can be ascertained by taking out one of the many pieces of glass1 applying to the sensitive surface a vitrifiable color1 and observing whether the color adheres well4 ,if the color adheres but slightly to the dark1 shady portions of the image1 the exposure has been too long1 and the process must be recommenced2 if1 on the contrary1 the color adheres too well1 the exposure has not been sufficient1 the frames must be closed again1 and the exposure continued4 ,when the frame has been sufficiently exposed1 it is taken into the dark room1 the sensitized pieces of glass laid on a plate of glass or marble with the sensitive surface turned upward1 and the previously prepared vitrifiable color strewed over it by means of a few light strokes of a brush4 ,this powder does not adhere to the parts of the picture fully exposed to light1 but adheres only to the more or less shady portions of the picture4 ,this operation develops on the glass the image as it is on the paper4 ,thirty to #dj grammes of nitric acid are added to #a1jjj grammes of wood-spirit1 such as is generally used in photography1 and the prepared pieces of glass are dipped into the bath1 leaving them afterward to dry4 ,if the bath becomes of a yellowish color1 it must be renewed4 ,this bath has for its object to remove the coating of bichromate1 so as to allow the color to adhere to the glass1 from which it has been separated by the layer of glucose and bichromate1 which would prevent the vitrification4 ,the bath has also for its object to render the light parts of the picture perfectly pure and capable of being easily retouched or painted by hand4 ,the application of variously colored enamels and the heating are then effected as in ordinary glass painting4 ,the same process may be applied to marble1 wood1 stone1 lava1 canvas prepared for oil painting1 earthenware1 pure or enameled iron4 ,the result is the same in all cases1 and the process is the same as with glass1 with the difference only that the above named materials are not dipped into the bath1 but the liquid is poured over the objects after the latter have been placed in an inclined position4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,preparation ,,of ,,hydrogen ,,sulphide ,,from ,,coal-,,gas4 ,by ,i4 ,,taylor1 ,b4,a41 ,science ,master at ,christ ,college1 ,brecon4 ,hydrogen sulphide may be prepared very easily1 and sufficiently pure for ordinary analytical purposes1 by passing coal-gas through boiling sulphur4 ,coal-gas contains #dj to #ej per cent1 of hydrogen1 nearly the whole of which may1 by means of a suitable arrangement1 be converted into sulphureted hydrogen4 ,the other constituents of coal-gas--methane1 carbon monoxide1 olefines1 etc4--are not affected by passing through boiling sulphur1 and for ordinary laboratory work their removal is quite unnecessary1 as they do not in any way interfere with the precipitation of metallic sulphides4 ,illustration3 ,,preparation ,,of ,,hydrogen ,,sulphide ,,from ,,coal-,,gas4 ,a convenient apparatus for the preparation of hydrogen sulphide from coal-gas1 such as we have at present in use in the ,christ ,college laboratory1 consists of a retort1 ,r1 in which sulphur is placed4 ,through the tubulure of the retort there passes a bent glass-tube1 ,t ,e1 perforated near the closed end1 ,f1 with a number of small holes4 7,the perforations are easily made by piercing the partially softened glass with a white-hot steel needle2 an ordinary crotchet needle1 the hook having been removed and the end sharpened1 answers the purpose very well47 ,the end1 ,t1 of the glass tube is connected by caoutchouc tubing with the coal-gas supply1 the perforated end dipping into the sulphur4 ,the neck of the retort1 inclined slightly upward to allow the condensed sulpur1 as it remelts1 to flow back1 is connected with awash bottle1 ,b1 to which is attached the flask1 ,f1 containing the solution through which it is required to pass the hydrogen sulphide2 ,f is connected with an aspirator1 ,a4 ,about one pound of sulphur having been introduced into the retort and heated to the boiling-point1 the tap of the aspirator is turned on and a current of coal-gas drawn through the boiling sulphur2 the hydrogen sulphide formed is washed by the water contained in ,b1 passes on into ,f1 and finally into the aspirator4 ,the speed of the current may be regulated by the tap1 and as the aspirator itself acts as a receptacle for excess of gas1 very little as a rule escapes into the room1 and consequently unpleasant smells are avoided4 ,this method of preparing sulphureted hydrogen will1 ,i think1 be found useful in the laboratory4 ,it is cleanly1 much cheaper than the ordinary method1 and very convenient4 ,during laboratory work1 a burner is placed under the retort and the sulphur kept hot1 so that its temperature may be quickly raised to the boiling-point when the gas is required4 ,from time to time it is necessary to replenish the retort with sulphur and to remove the condensed portions from the neck4--,chem4 ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,setting ,,of ,,gypsum4--,this setting is the result of two distinct1 though simultaneous1 phenomena4 ,on the one hand1 portions of anhydrous calcium sulphate1 when moistened with water1 dissolve as they are hydrated1 forming a supersaturated solution4 ,on the other hand1 this same solution deposits crystals of the hydrated sulphate1 gradually augment in bulk1 and unite together4--,h4 ,le ,chatellier4 99 99 99 99 99 ,continued from ,,supplement ,no4 #chc1 page #faah4 ,,malaria4 ,by ,,james ,h4 ,,salisbury1 ,a4,m41 ,m4,d4 ,,prize ,,essay ,,of ,,the ,,albany ,,medical ,,college ,,alumni ,,association1 ,,feb41 #ahhb4 ,,vii4 ,i have made careful microscopic examinations of the blood in several cases of ,panama fever ,i have treated1 and find in all severe cases many of the colorless corpuscles filled more or less with spores of ague vegetation and the serum quite full of the same spores 7see ,fig4 ,n1 ,plate ,,viii474 ,mr4 ,john ,thomas4 ,panama fever4 ,vegetation in blood and colorless corpuscles4 7,fig ,n1 ,plate ,,viii47 ,vegetation1 spores of1 in the colorless corpuscles of the blood4 ,spores in serum of blood adhering to fibrin filaments4 ,mr4 ,thomas has charge of the bridge building on the ,tehuantepec ,railroad4 ,went there about one year ago4 ,was taken down with the fever last ,october4 ,returned home in ,february last1 all broken down4 ,put him under treatment ,march #ae1 #ahhb4 ,gained rapidly 7after washing him out with hot water1 and getting his urine clear and bowels open every day7 on two grains of quinia every day1 two hours1 till sixteen doses were taken4 ,after an interval of seven days1 repeated the quinia1 and so on4 ,this fever prevails on all the low lands1 as soon as the fresh soil is exposed to the drying rays of the sun4 ,the vegetation grows on the drying soil1 and the spores rise in the night air1 and fall after sunrise4 ,all who are exposed to the night air1 which is loaded with the spores1 suffer with the disease4 ,the natives of the country suffer about as badly as foreigners4 ,nearly half of the workmen die of the disease4 ,the fever is a congestive intermittent of a severe type4 ,henry ,thoman4 ,leucocythmia4 ,spleen #aa inches in diameter1 two white globules to one red4 ,german4 ,thirty-six years of age4 ,weight1 #ahj pounds4 ,colorless corpuscles very large and varying much in size1 as seen at ,n4 ,corpuscles filled--many of them--with the spores of ague vegetation4 ,also spores swimming in serum4 ,this man has been a gardener back of ,hoboken on ague lands1 and has had ague for two years preceding this disease4 ,i will now introduce a communication made to me by a medical gentleman who has followed somewhat my researches for many years1 and has taken great pains of time and expense to see if my researches are correct4 ,,report ,,on ,,the ,,cause ,,of ,,ague4--,,by ,,dr4 ,,ephraim ,,cutter1 ,,to ,,the ,,writer ,at your request ,i give the evidence on which ,i base my opinion that your plan in relation to ague is true4 ,from my very start into the medical profession1 ,i had a natural intense interest in the causes of disease1 which was also fostered by my father1 the late ,dr4 ,cutter1 who honored his profession nearly forty years4 ,hence1 ,i read your paper on ague with enthusiasm1 and wrote to you for some of the plants of which you spoke4 ,you sent me six boxes containing soil1 which you said was full of the gemiasmas4 ,you gave some drawings1 so that ,i should know the plants when ,i saw them1 and directed me to moisten the soil with water and expose to air and sunlight4 ,in the course of a few days ,i was to proceed to collect4 ,i faithfully followed the instructions1 but without any success4 ,i could detect no plants whatever1 ,this result would have settled the case ordinarily1 and ,i would have said that you were mistaken1 as the material submitted by yourself failed as evidence4 ,but ,i thought that there was too much internal evidence of the truth of your story1 and having been for many years an observer in natural history1 ,i had learned that it is often very difficult for one to acquire the art of properly making examinations1 even though the procedures are of the simplest description4 ,so ,i distrusted1 not you1 but myself1 and hence1 you may remember1 ,i forsook all and fled many hundred miles to you from my home with the boxes you had sent me4 ,in three minutes after my arrival you showed me how to collect the plants in abundance from the very soil in the boxes that had traveled so far backward and forward1 from the very specimens on which ,i had failed to do so4 ,the trouble was with me--that ,i went too deep with my needle4 ,you showed me it was simply necessary to remove the slightest possible amount on the point of a cambric needle2 deposit this in a drop of clean water on a slide cover with1 a covering glass and put it under your elegant #a_/e inch objective1 and there were the gemiasmas just as you had described4 ,i have always felt humbled by this teaching1 and ,i at the time rejoiced that instead of denouncing you as a cheat and fraud 7as some did at that time71 ,i did not do anything as to the formation of an opinion until ,i had known more and more accurately about the subject4 ,i found all the varieties of the palmell you described in the boxes1 and ,i kept them for several years and demonstrated them as ,i had opportunity4 ,you also showed me on this visit the following experiments that ,i regarded as crucial3 #ast4 ,i saw you scrape from the skin of an ague patient sweat and epithelium with the spores and the full grown plants of the ,gemiasma verdans4 #b;d4 ,i saw you take the sputa of a ague patient and demonstrate the spores and sporangia of the ,gemiasma verdans4 #c;d4 ,i saw you take the urine of a female patient suffering from ague 7though from motives of delicacy ,i did not see the urine voided--still ,i believe that she did pass the urine1 as ,i did not think it necessary to insult the patient71 and you demonstrated to me beautiful specimens of ,gemiasma rubra4 ,you said it was not common to find the full development in the urine of such cases1 but only in the urine of the old severe cases4 ,this was a mild case4 #dth4 ,i saw you take the blood from the forearm of an ague patient1 and under the microscope ,i saw you demonstrate the gemiasma1 white and bleached in the blood4 ,you said that the coloring matter did not develop in the blood1 that it was a difficult task to demonstrate the plants in the blood1 that it required usually a long and careful search of hours sometimes1 and at other times the plants would be obtained at once4 ,when ,i had fully comprehended the significance of the experiments ,i was filled with joy1 and like the converts in apostolic times ,i desired to go about and promulgate the news to the profession4 ,i did so in many places1 notably in ,new ,york city1 where ,i satisfactorily demonstrated the plants to many eminent physicians at my room at the ,fifth ,avenue ,hotel2 also before a medical society where more than one hundred persons were present4 ,i did all that ,i could1 but such was the preoccupation of the medical gentlemen that a respectful hearing was all ,i got4 ,this is not to be wondered at1 as it was a subject1 now1 after the lapse of nearly a decade and a half1 quite unstudied and unknown4 ,after this ,i studied the plants as ,i had opportunity1 and in #ahgg made a special journey to ,long ,island1 ,n4,y41 for the purpose of studying the plants in their natural habitat1 when they were in a state of maturity4 ,i have also examined moist soils in localities where ague is occasionally known1 with other localities where it prevails during the warm months4 ,below ,i give the results1 which from convenience ,i divide into two parts3 #ast4 ,studies of the ague plants in their natural habitat4 #b;d4 ,studies of the ague plants in their unnatural habitat 7parasitic74 ,i think one should know the first before attempting the second4 ,first--,studies to find in their natural habitat the palmell described as the ,gemiasma rubra1 ,gemiasma verdans1 ,gemiasma plumba1 ,gemiasma alba1 ,protuberans lamella4 ,second--,outfit4--,glass slides1 covers1 needles1 toothpicks1 bottle of water1 white paper and handkerchief1 portable microscope with a good ,tolles one inch eyepiece1 and one-quarter inch objective4 ,wherever there was found on low1 marshy soil a white incrustation like dried salt1 a very minute portion was removed by needle or toothpick1 deposited on a slide1 moistened with a drop of water1 rubbed up with a needle or toothpick into a uniformly diffused cloud in and through the water4 ,the cover was put on1 and the excess of water removed by touching with a handkerchief the edge of the cover4 ,then the capillary attraction held the cover in place1 as is well known4 ,the handkerchief or white paper was spread on the ground at my feet1 and the observation conducted at once after the collection and on the very habitat4 ,it is possible thus to conduct observations with the microscope besides in boats on ponds or sea1 and adding a good kerosene light in bed or bunk or on lounge4 ,august #aa1 #ahgg4--;,excursion to ,college ,point1 ,flushing1 ,long ,island3 ,observation #a4 #a3ej ,p4,m4 ,sun excessively hot4 ,gathered some of the white incrustation on sand in a marsh west of ,long ,island ,railroad depot4 ,found some ,gemiasma verdans1 ,g4 rubra2 the latter were dry and not good specimens1 but the field swarmed with the automobile spores4 ,the full developed plant is termed sporangia1 and seeds are called spores4 ,observation #b4 ,another specimen from same locality1 not good2 that is1 forms were seen but they were not decisive and characteristic4 ,observation #c4 ,earth from ,wallabout1 near ,naval ,hospital1 ,brooklyn1 ,rich in spores 7,a7 with automobile protoplasmic motions1 7,b7 ,gemiasma rubra1 7,c7 ,g4 verdans1 very beautiful indeed4 ,plants very abundant4 ,observation #d4 ,walking up the track east of ,l4 ,i4 ,r4,r4 depot1 ,i took an incrustation near creek2 not much found but dirt and moving spores4 ,observation #e4 ,seated on long marsh grass ,i scraped carefully from the stalks near the roots of the grass where the plants were protected from the action of the sunlight and wind4 ,found a great abundance of mature ,gemiasma verdans very beautiful in appearance4 ,notes4--,the time of my visit was most unfavorable4 ,the best time is when the morning has just dawned and the dew is on the grass4 ,one then can find an abundance1 while after the sun is up and the air is hot the plants disappear2 probably burst and scatter the spores in billions1 which1 as night comes on and passes1 develop into the mature plants1 when they may be found in vast numbers4 ,it would seem from this that the life epoch of a gemiasma is one day under such circumstances1 but ,i have known them to be present for weeks under a cover on a slide1 when the slide was surrounded with a bandage wet with water1 or kept in a culture box4 ,the plants may be cultivated any time in a glass with a water joint4 ,a1 ,goblet inverted over a saucer2 ,b1 filled with water2 ,c1 ,d1 specimen of earth with ague plants4 ,observation #f4 ,some ,gemiasma verdaus2 good specimens1 but scanty4 ,innumerable mobile spores4 ,dried4 ,observation #g4 ,red dust on gray soil4 ,innumerable mobile spores4 ,dried red sporangia of ,g4 rubra4 ,observation #h4 ,white incrustation4 ,innumerable mobile spores4 ,no plants4 ,observation #i4 ,white incrustation4 ,many minute alg1 but two sporangia of a pale pink color2 another variety of color of gemiasma4 ,innumerable mobile spores4 ,observation #aj4 ,gemiasma verdans and ,g4 rubra in small quantities4 ,innumerable mobile spores4 ,observation #aa4 ,specimen taken from under the shade of short marsh grass4 ,gemiasma exceedingly rich and beautiful4 ,innumerable mobile spores4 ,observation #ab4 ,good specimens of ,gemiasma rubra4 ,innumerable spores present in all specimens4 ,observation #ac4 ,very good specimens of ,protuberans lamella4 ,observation #ad4 ,the same4 ,observation #ae4 ,dead ,gemiasma verdans and rubra4 ,observation #af4 ,collection very unpromising by macroscopy1 but by microscopy showed many spores1 mature specimens of ,gemiasma rubra and verdans4 ,one empty specimen with double walls4 ,observation #ag4 ,dry land by the side of railroad4 ,protuberans not abundant4 ,observation #ah4 ,from side of ditch4 ,filled with mature ,geraiasma verdans4 ,observation #ai4 ,moist earth near a rejected timber of the railroad bridge4 ,abundance of ,gemiasma verdans1 ,sphrotheca ,diatoms4 ,observation #bj4 ,scrapings on earth under high grass4 ,large mature specimens of ,gemiasma rubra and verdans4 ,many small4 ,observation #ba4 ,same locality4 ,gemiasma rubra and verdans2 good specimens4 ,observation #bb4 ,a dry stem of a last year's annual plant lay in the ditch not submerged1 that appeared as if painted red with iron rust4 ,this redness evidently made up of ,gemiasma rubra dried4 ,observation #bc4 ,a twig submerged in a ditch was scraped4 ,gemiasma verdans found abundantly with many other things1 which if rehearsed would cloud this story4 ,observation #bd4 ,scrapings from the dirty end of the stick 7#bc7 gave specimens of the beautiful double wall palmell and some empty ,g4 verdans4 ,observation #be4 ,stirred up the littoral margins of the ditch with stick found in the path1 and the drip showed ,gemiasma rubra and verdans mixed in with dirt1 debris1 other algae1 fungi1 infusoria1 especially diatoms4 ,observation #bf4 ,i was myself seized with sneezing and discharge running from nostrils during these examinations4 ,some of the contents of the right nostril were blown on a slide1 covered1 and examined morphologically4 ,several oval bodies1 round algae1 were found with the characteristics of ,g4 verdans and rubra4 ,also some colorless sporangia1 and spores abundantly present4 ,these were in addition to the normal morphological elements found in the excretions4 ,observation #bg4 ,dried clay on margin of the river showed dry ,g4 verdans4 ,observation #bh4 ,saline dust on earth that had been thrown out during the setting of a new post in the railroad bridge showed some ,gemiasma alba4 ,observation #bi4 ,the dry white incrustation found on fresh earth near railroad track entirely away from water1 where it appeared as if white sugar or sand had been sprinkled over in a fine dust1 showed an abundance of automobile spores and dry sporangia of ,g4 rubra and verdans4 ,it was not made up of salts from evaporation4 ,observation #cj4 ,some very thick1 long1 green1 matted marsh grass was carefully separated apart like the parting of thick hair on the head4 ,a little earth was taken from the crack1 and the ,protuberans lamella1 the ,gemiasma rubra and verdans found were beautiful and well developed4 ,observation #ca4 ,brooklyn ,naval ,hospital1 ,august #ab1 #ahgg1 #d ,a4,m4 ,called up by the ,quartermaster4 ,with ,surgeon ,c4 ,w4 ,white1 ,u4,s4,n41 took 7,a7 one five inch glass beaker1 bottomless1 7,b7 three clean glass slides1 7,c7 chloride of calcium solution1 symbol3 dra7ch7m i to symbol3 ounce i water4 ,we went1 as near as ,i could judge in the darkness1 to about that portion of the wall that lies west of the hospital1 southeast corner 7now all filled up71 where on the #ajth of ,august previously ,i had found some actively growing specimens of the ,gemiasma verdans1 rubra1 and protuberans4 ,the chloride of calcium solution was poured into a glass tumbler1 then rubbed over the inside and outside of the beaker4 ,it was then placed on the ground1 the rim of the mouth coming on the soil and the bottom elevated on an old tin pan1 so that the beaker stood inclined at an angle of about forty-five degrees with the horizon4 ,the slides were moistened1 one was laid on a stone1 one on a clod1 and a third on the grass4 ,returned to bed1 not having been gone over ten minutes4 ,at #f ,a4,m4 collected and examined for specimens the drops of dew deposited4 ,results3 ,in every one of the five instances collected the automobile spores1 and the sporangia of the gemiasmas and the protuberans on both sides of slides and beaker4 ,there were also spores and mycelial filaments of fungi1 dirt1 and zoospores4 ,the drops of dew were collected with capillary tubes such as were used in ,edinburgh for vaccine virus4 ,the fluid was then preserved and examined in the naval laboratory4 ,in a few hours the spores disappeared4 ,observation #cb4 ,some of the earth near the site of the exposure referred to in ,observation #ca1 was examined and found to contain abundantly the ,gemiasma verdans1 rubra1 ,protuberans lamella1 confirmed by three more observations4 ,observation #cc4 ,in company with ,surgeon ,f4 ,m4 ,dearborne1 ,u4,s4,n41 in charge of ,naval ,hospital1 the same day later explored the wall about marsh west of hospital4 ,found the area abundantly supplied with palmell1 ,gemiasma rubra1 verdans1 and ,protuberans lamella1 even where there was no incrustation or green mould4 ,made very many examinations1 always finding the plants and spores1 giving up only when both of us were overcome with the heat4 ,observation #cd4 ,august1 #ahha4 ,visited the ,wallabout2 found it filled up with earth4 ,august #ag4 ,visited the ,flushing district2 examined for the gemiasma the same localities above named1 but found only a few dried up plants and plenty of spores4 ,with sticks dug up the earth in various places near by4 ,early in ,september revisited the same1 but found nothing more2 the incrustation1 not even so much as before4 ,the weather was continuously for a long time very dry1 so much so that vegetables and milk were scarce4 ,the grass and grounds were all dried up and cracked with fissures4 ,there must be some moisture for the development of the plants4 ,perhaps if ,i had been able to visit the spots in the early morning1 it would have been much better1 as about the same time ,i was studying the same vegetation on #afeth ,street and #ajth ,avenue1 ,new ,york1 and found an abundance of the plants in the morning1 but none scarcely in the afternoon4 ,should any care to repeat these observations1 these limits should be observed and the old adage about the early bird catching the worm1 etc4 ,some may object to this directness of report1 and say that we should report all the forms of life seen4 ,to this ,i would say that the position ,i occupy is much different from yours1 which is that of discoverer4 ,when a detective is sent out to catch a rogue1 he tumbles himself but little with people or things that have no resemblance to the rogue4 ,suppose he should return with a report as to the houses1 plants1 animals1 etc41 he encountered in his search2 the report might be very interesting as a matter of general information1 but rather out of place for the parties who desire the rogue caught4 ,so in my search ,i made a special work of catching the gemiasmas and not caring for anything else4 ,still1 to remove from your mind any anxiety that ,i may possibly not have understood how to conduct my work1 ,i will introduce here a report of search to find out how many forms of life and substances ,i could recognize in the water of a hydrant fed by ,croton water 7two specimens only71 during the present winter 7#ahha and #ahhb7 ,i beg leave to subjoin the following list of species1 not individuals1 ,i was able to recognize4 ,in this list you will see the ,gemiasma verdans distinguished from its associate objects4 ,i think ,i can in no other way more clearly show my right to have my honest opinion respected in relation to the subject in question4 ,illustration3 ,,malaria ,,plants ,,collected ,,sept4 #aj1 #ahhb1 ,,at ,,washington ,,heights1 #agf,,th ,,street1 ,,near #aj,,th ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york ,,city1 ,,etc4 ,,plate ,,viii4--,a1 ,b1 ,c1 ,large plants of ,gemiasma verdans4 ,a1 ,mature plant4 ,b1 ,mature plant discharging spores and spermatia through a small opening in the cell wall4 ,c1 ,a plant nearly emptied4 ,d1 ,gemiasma rubra2 mature plant filled with microspores4 ,e1 ,ripe plant discharging contents4 ,f1 ,ripe plant1 contents nearly discharged2 a few active spermatia left behind and escaping4 ,g1 nearly empty plant4 ,h1 ,vegetation in the ,,sweat of ague cases during the paroxysm of sweating4 ,i1 ,vegetation in the ,,blood of ague4 ,j1 ,vegetation in the urine of ague during paroxysm4 ,k1 ,l1 ,m1 ,vegetation in the urine of chronic cases of severe congestive type4 ,n1 ,vegetation in ,,blood of ,panama fever2 white corpuscles distended with spores of ,gemiasma4 ,o1 ,gemiasma alba4 ,p1 ,gemiasma rubra4 ,q1 ,gemiasma verdans4 ,r1 ,gemiasma alba4 ,o1 ,p1 ,q1 ,r1 ,found ,june #bh1ahfg1 in profusion between ,euclid and ,superior ,streets1 near ,hudson1 ,cleveland1 ,o4 ,s1 ,sporangia of ,protuberans4 ,list of objects found in the ,croton water1 winter of #ahha and #ahhb4 ,the specimens obtained by filtering about one barrel of water3 #a4 ,acineta tuberosa4 #b4 ,actinophrys sol4 #c4 ,amoeba proteus4 #d4 radiosa4 #e4 verrucosa4 #f4 ,anabaina subtularia4 #g4 ,ankistrodesmus falcatus4 #h4 ,anurea longispinis4 #i4 monostylus4 #aj4 ,anguillula fluviatilis4 #aa4 ,arcella mitrata4 #ab4 vulgaris4 #ac4 ,argulus4 #ad4 ,arthrodesmus convergens4 #ae4 ,arthrodesmus divergens4 #af4 ,astrionella formosa4 #ag4 ,bacteria4 #ah4 ,bosmina4 #ai4 ,botryiococcus4 #bj4 ,branchippus stagnalis4 #ba4 ,castor4 #bb4 ,centropyxis4 #bc4 ,chetochilis4 #bd4 ,chilomonads4 #be4 ,chlorococcus4 #bf4 ,chydorus4 #bg4 ,chytridium4 #bh4 ,clatbrocystis ruginosa4 #bi4 ,closterium lunula4 #cj4 didymotocum4 #ca4 moniliferum4 #cb4 ,coelastrum sphericum4 #cc4 ,cosmarium binoculatum4 #cd4 ,cyclops quad4 #ce4 ,cyphroderia amp4 #cf4 ,cypris tristriata4 #cg4 ,daphnia pulex4 #ch4 ,diaptomas castor4 #ci4 sull4 #dj4 ,diatoma vulgaris4 #da4 ,difflugia cratera4 #db4 globosa4 #dc4 ,dinobryina sertularia4 #dd4 ,dinocharis pocillum4 #de4 ,dirt4 #df4 ,eggs of polyp4 #dg4 entomostraca4 #dh4 plumatella4 #di4 bryozoa4 #ej4 ,enchylis pupa4 #ea4 ,eosphora aurita4 #eb4 ,epithelia1 animal4 #ec4 vegetable4 #ed4 ,euastrum4 #ee4 ,euglenia viridis4 #ef4 ,euglypha4 #eg4 ,eurycercus lamellatus4 #eh4 ,exuvia of some insect4 #ei4 ,feather barbs4 #fj4 ,floscularia4 #fa4 ,feathers of butterfly4 #fb4 ,fungu1 red water4 #fc4 ,fragillaria4 #fd4 ,gemiasma verdans4 #fe4 ,gomphospheria4 #ff4 ,gonium4 #fg4 ,gromia4 #fh4 ,humus4 #fi4 ,hyalosphenia tinctad4 #gj4 ,hydra viridis4 #ga4 ,leptothrix4 #gb4 ,melosira4 #gc4 ,meresmopedia4 #gd4 ,monactina4 #ge4 ,monads4 #gf4 ,navicul4 #gg4 ,nitzschia4 #gh4 ,nostoc communis4 #gi4 ,o,edogonium4 #hj4 ,oscillatoriace4 #ha4 ,ovaries of entomostraca4 #hb4 ,pandorina morum4 #hc4 ,paramecium aurelium4 #hd4 ,pediastrum boryanum4 #he4 incisum4 #hf4 perforatum4 #hg4 pertusum4 #hh4 quadratum4 #hi4 ,pelomyxa4 #ij4 ,penium4 #ia4 ,peredinium candelabrum4 #ib4 ,peredinium cinc4 #ic4 ,pleurosigma angulatum4 #id4 ,plumatella4 #ie4 ,plagiophrys4 #if4 ,playtiptera polyarthra4 #ig4 ,polycoccus4 #ih4 ,pollen of pine4 #ii4 ,polyhedra tetratzica4 #ajj4 triangularis4 #aja4 ,polyphema4 #ajb4 ,protococcus4 #ajc4 ,radiophrys alba4 #ajd4 ,raphidium duplex4 #aje4 ,rotifer ascus4 #ajf4 vulgaris4 #ajg4 ,silica4 #ajh4 ,saprolegnia4 #aji4 ,scenedesmus acutus4 #aaj4 obliquus4 #aaa4 obtusum4 #aab4 quadricauda4 #aac4 ,sheath of tubelaria4 #aad4 ,sphrotheca spores4 #aae4 ,spirogyra4 #aaf4 ,spicules of sponge4 #aag4 ,starch4 #aah4 ,staurastrum furcigerum4 #aai4 gracile4 #abj4 ,staurogenum quadratum4 #aba4 ,surirella4 #abb4 ,synchoeta4 #abc4 ,synhedra4 #abd4 ,tabellaria4 #abe4 ,tetraspore4 #abf4 ,trachelomonas4 #abg4 ,trichodiscus4 #abh4 ,uvella4 #abi4 ,volvox globator4 #acj4 sull4 #aca4 ,vorticel4 #acb4 ,worm fluke4 #acc4 ,worm1 two tailed4 #acd4 ,yeast4 ,more forms were found1 but could not be determined by me4 ,this list will give an idea of the variety of forms to be met with in the hunt for ague plants2 still1 they are as well marked in their physical characters as a potato is among the objects of nature4 ,although ,i know you are perfectly familiar with alg1 still1 to make my report more complete1 in case you should see fit to have it pass out of your hands to others1 allow me to give a short account of the ,order ,three of ,alg1 namely1 the ,chlorospore or ,confervoid ,alg1 derived from the ,micrographic ,dictionary1 this being an accessible authority4 ,algae form a class of the thallophytes or cellular plants in which the physiological functions of the plant are delegated most completely to the individual cell4 ,that is to say1 the marked difference of purpose seen in the leaves1 stamens1 seeds1 etc41 of the phanerogams or flowering plants is absent here1 and the structures carrying on the operations of nutrition and those of reproduction are so commingled1 conjoined1 and in some cases identified1 that a knowledge of the microscopic anatomy is indispensable even to the roughest conception of the natural history of these plants2 besides1 we find these plants so simple that we can see through and through them while living in a natural condition1 and by means of the microscope penetrate to mysteries of organism1 either altogether inaccessible1 or only to be attained by disturbing and destructive dissection1 in the so called higher forms of vegetation4 ,we say so-called advisedly1 for in the ,alg are included the largest forms of plant life4 ,the ,macrocystis pyrifera1 an ,alg1 is the largest of all known plants4 ,it is a sea weed that floats free and unattached in the ocean4 ,covers the area of two square miles1 and is #cjj feet in depth 7,reinsch74 ,at the same time its structure on examination shows it to belong to the same class of plants as the minute palmell which we have been studying4 ,alg are found everywhere in streams1 ditches1 ponds1 even the smallest accumulations of water standing for any time in the open air1 and commonly on walls or the ground1 in all permanently damp situations4 ,they are peculiarly interesting in regard to morphological conditions alone1 as their great variety of conditions of organization are all variations1 as it were1 on the theme of the simple vegetable cell produced by change of form1 number1 and arrangement4 ,the ,alg comprehend a vast variety of plants1 exhibiting a wonderful multiplicity of forms1 colors1 sizes1 and degrees of complexity of structure1 but algologists consider them to belong to three orders3 #a4 ,red spored ,alg1 called ,rhodospore or floride4 #b4 ,the dark or black spored ,alg1 or ,melanospore or ,fucoide4 #c4 ,the green spored ,alg1 or ,chlorospore or ,confervoide4 ,the first two classes embrace the sea-weeds4 ,the third class1 marine and aquatic plants1 most of which when viewed singly are microscopic4 ,of course some naturalists do not agree to these views4 ,it is with order three1 ,confervoide1 that we are interested4 ,these are plants growing in sea or fresh water1 or on damp surfaces1 with a filamentous1 or more rarely a leaf-like pulverulent or gelatinous thallus2 the last two forms essentially microscopic4 ,consisting frequently of definitely arranged groups of distinct cells1 either of ordinary structure or with their membrane silicified--,diatomace4 ,we note three forms of fructification3 #a4 ,resting spores produced after fertilization either by conjugation or impregnation4 #b4 ,spermatozoids4 #c4 ,zeospores2 #b1 #d1 or multiciliated active automobile cells--gonidia--discharged from the mother cells or plants without impregnation1 and germinating directly4 ,there is also another increase by cell division4 ,,synopsis ,,of ,,the ,,families4 #a4 ,lemane4--,frond filamentous1 inarticulate1 cartilaginous1 leathery1 hollow1 furnished at irregular distances with whorls or warts1 or necklace shaped4 ,fructification3 tufted1 simple or branched1 necklace shaped filaments attached to the inner surface of the tubular frond1 and finally breaking up into elliptical spores4 ,aquatic4 #b4 ,batrachosperme--,plants filamentous1 articulated1 invested with gelatine4 ,frond composed of aggregated1 articulated1 longitudinal cells1 whorled at intervals with short1 horizontal1 cylindrical or beaded1 jointed ramuli4 ,fructification3 ovate spores and tufts of antheridial cells attached to the lateral ramuli1 which consist of minute1 radiating1 dichotomous beaded filaments4 ,aquatic4 #c4 ,chaetophorace4--,plants growing in the sea or fresh water1 coated by gelatinous substance2 either filiform or a number of filaments being connected together constituting gelatinous1 definitely formed1 or shapeless fronds or masses4 ,filaments jointed1 bearing bristle-like processes4 ,fructification3 zoospores produced from the cell contents of the filaments2 resting spores formed from the contents of particular cells after impregnation by ciliated spermatozoids produced in distinct antheridial cells4 ,coleocht4 #d4 ,confervace4--,plants growing in the sea or in fresh water1 filamentous1 jointed1 without evident gelatine 7forming merely a delicate coat around the separate filaments7 ,filaments very variable in appearance1 simple or branched2 the cells constituting the articulations of the filaments more or less filled with green1 or very rarely brown or purple granular matter2 sometimes arranged in peculiar patterns on the walls1 and convertible into spores or zoospores4 ,not conjugating4 #e4 ,zygnemace4--,aquatic filamentous plants1 without evident gelatine1 composed of series of cylindrical cells1 straight or curved4 ,cell contents often arranged in elegant patterns on the walls4 ,reproduction resulting from conjugation1 followed by the development of a true spore1 in some genera dividing into four sporules before germinating4 #f4 ,o,edogoniace4--,simple or branched aquatic filamentous plants attached without gelatine4 ,cell contents uniform1 dense1 cell division accompanied by circumscissile debiscence of the parent cell1 producing rings on the filaments4 ,reproduction by zoospores formed of the whole contents of a cell1 with a crown of numerous cilia2 resting spores formed in sporangial cells after fecundation by ciliated spermatozoids formed in antheridial cells4 #g4 ,siphonace--,plants found in the sea1 fresh water1 or on damp ground2 of a membranous or horny byaline substance1 filled with green or colorless granular matter4 ,fronds consisting of continuous tubular filaments1 either free or collected into spongy masses of various shapes4 ,crustaceous1 globular1 cylindrical1 or flat4 ,fructification3 by zoospores1 either single or very numerous1 and by resting spores formed in sporangial cells after the contents have been impregnated by the contents of autheridial cells of different forms4 #h ,oscillatoriace4--,plants growing either in the sea1 fresh water1 or on damp ground1 of a gelatinous substance and filamentous structure4 ,filaments very slender1 tubular1 continuous1 filled with colored1 granular1 transversely striated substance2 seldom blanched1 though often cohering together so as to appear branched2 usually massed together in broad floating or sessile strata1 of a very gelatinous nature2 occasionally erect and tufted1 and still more rarely collected into radiating series bound together by firm gelatine and then forming globose lobed or flat crustaceous fronds4 ,fructification3 the internal mass or contents separating into roundish or lenticular gonidia4 #i4 ,nostochac4--,gelatinous plants growing in fresh water1 or in damp situations among mosses1 etc42 of soft or almost leathery substance1 consisting of variously curled or twisted necklace-shaped filaments1 colorless or green1 composed of simple1 or in some stages double rows of cells1 contained in a gelatinous matrix of definite form1 or heaped together without order in a gelatinous mass4 ,some of the cells enlarged1 and then forming either vesicular empty cells or densely filled sporangial cells4 ,reproduction3 by the breaking up of the filaments1 and by resting spores formed singly in the sporanges4 #aj4 ,ulvace4--,marine or aquatic algae consisting of membranous1 flat1 and expanded tubular or saccate fronds composed of polygonal cells firmly joined together by their sides4 ,reproduced by zoospores formed from the cell contents and breaking out from the surface1 or by motionless spores formed from the whole contents4 #aa4 ,palmellace4--,plants forming gelatinous or pulverulent crusts on damp surfaces of stone1 wood1 earth1 mud1 swampy districts1 or more or less regular masses of gelatinous substance or delicate pseudo-membranous expansion or fronds1 of flat1 globular1 or tubular form1 in fresh water or on damp ground2 composed of one or many1 sometimes innumerable1 cells1 with green1 red1 or yellowish contents1 spherical or elliptical form1 the simplest being isolated cells found in groups of two1 four1 eight1 etc41 in course of multiplication4 ,others permanently formed of some multiple of four2 the highest forms made up of compact1 numerous1 more or less closely joined cells4 ,reproduction3 by cell division1 by the conversion of the cell contents into zoospores1 and by resting spores1 formed sometimes after conjugation2 in other cases1 probably1 by fecundation by spermatozoids4 ,all the unicellular alg are included under this head4 #ab4 ,desmidiace4--,microscopic gelatinous plants1 of a screen color1 growing in fresh water1 composed of cells devoid of a silicious coat1 of peculiar forms such as oval1 crescentic1 shortly cylindrical1 cylindrical1 oblong1 etc41 with variously formed rays or lobes1 giving a more or less stellate form1 presenting a bilateral symmetry1 the junction of the halves being marked by a division of the green contents2 the individual cells being free1 or arranged in linear series1 collected into fagot-like bundles or in elegant star like groups which are embedded in a common gelatinous coat4 ,reproduced by division and by resting spores produced in sporangia formed after the conjugation of two cells and union of their contents1 and by zoospores formed in the vegetative cells or in the germinating resting spores4 #ac4 ,diatomace4--,microscopic cellular bodies1 growing in fresh1 brackish1 and sea water3 free or attached1 single1 or embedded in gelatinous tubes1 the individual cells 7frustules7 with yellowish or brown contents1 and provided with a silicious coat composed of two usually symmetrical valves variously marked1 with a connecting band or hoop at the suture4 ,multiplied by division and by the formation of new larger individuals out of the contents of individual conjugated cells2 perhaps also by spores and zoospores4 #ad4 ,volvocine4--,microscopic cellular fresh water plants1 composed of groups of bodies resembling zoospores connected into a definite form by their enveloping membranes4 ,the families are formed either of assemblages of coated zoospores united in a definite form by the cohesion of their membranes1 or assemblages of naked zoospores inclosed in a common investing membrane4 ,the individual zoospore-like bodies1 with two cilia throughout life1 perforating the membranous coats1 and by their conjoined action causing a free co-operative movement of the whole group4 ,reproduction by division1 or by single cells being converted into new families2 and by resting spores formed from some of the cells after impregnation by spermatozoids formed from the contents of other cells of the same family4 ,illustration3 ,,malaria ,,plants ,,collected ,,at #afe,,th ,,street1 ,,east ,,of #aj,,th ,,avenue1 ,,oct41 #ahha4 ,plate ,,ix4--,large group of malaria plants1 ,gemiasma verdans1 collected at #afeth ,street1 east of #ajth ,avenue1 ,new ,york1 in ,october1 #ahha1 by ,dr4 ,ephraim ,cutter1 and projected by him with a solar microscope4 ,dr4 ,cuzner--the artist--outlined the group on the screen and made the finished drawing from the sketch4 ,he well preserved the grouping and relative sizes4 ,the pond hole whence they came was drained in the spring of #ahhb1 and in ,august was covered with coarse grass and weeds4 ,no plants were found there in satisfactory quantity1 but those figured on ,plate ,,viii4 were found half a mile beyond4 ,this shows how draining removes the malaria plants4 ,from the description ,i think you have placed your plants in the right family4 ,and evidently they come in the genera named1 but at present there is in the authorities at my command so much confusion as to the genera1 as given by the most eminent authorities1 like ,nageli1 ,kutzing1 ,braun ,rabenht1 ,cohn1 etc41 that ,i think it would be quite unwise for me to settle here1 or try to settle here1 questions that baffle the naturalists who are entirely devoted to this specialty4 ,we can safely leave this to them4 ,meantime let us look at the matter as physicians who desire the practical advantages of the discovery you have made4 ,to illustrate this position let us take a familiar case4 ,a boy going through the fields picks and eats an inedible mushroom4 ,he is poisoned and dies4 ,now1 what is the important part of history here from a physician's point of view8 ,is it not that the mushroom poisoned the child8 ,next comes the nomenclature4 ,what kind of agaricus was it8 ,or was it one of the gasteromycetes1 the coniomycetes1 the hyphomycetes1 the ascomycetes1 or one of the physomycetes8 ,suppose that the fungologists are at swords' points with each other about the name of the particular fungus that killed the boy8 ,would the physicians feel justified to sit down and wait till the whole crowd of naturalists were satisfied1 and the true name had been settled satisfactorily to all8 ,i trow not2 they would warn the family about eating any more2 and if the case had not yet perished1 they would let the nomenclature go and try all the means that history1 research1 and instructed common sense would suggest for the recovery4 ,this leads me here to say that physicians trust too much to the simple dicta of men who may be very eminent in some department of natural history1 and yet ignorant in the very department about which1 being called upon1 they have given an opinion4 ,all everywhere have so much to learn that we should be very careful how we reject new truths1 especially when they come from one of our number educated in our own medical schools1 studied under our own masters4 ,if the subject is one about which we know nothing1 we had better say so when asked our opinion1 and we should receive with respect what is respectfully offered by a man whom we know to be honest1 a hard worker1 eminent in his department by long and tedious labors4 ,if he asks us to look over his evidence1 do so in a kindly spirit1 and not open the denunciations of bar room vocabularies upon the presenter1 simply because we don't see his point4 ,in other words1 we should all be receptive1 but careful in our assimilation1 remembering that some of the great operations in surgery1 for example1 came from laymen in low life1 as the operation for stone1 and even the operation of spaying came from a swineherd4 ,it is my desire1 however1 to have this settled as far as can be among scientists1 but for the practical uses of practicing physicians ,i say that far more evidence has been adduced by you in support of the cause of intermittent fever than we have in the etiology of many other diseases4 ,i take the position that so long as no one presents a better history of the etiology of intermittent fever by facts and observations1 your theory must stand4 ,this1 too1 notwithstanding what may be said to the contrary4 ,certainly you are to be commended for having done as you have in this matter4 ,it is one of the great rights of the profession1 and duties also1 that if a physician has or thinks he has anything that is new and valuable1 to communicate it1 and so long as he observes the rules of good society the profession are to give him a respectful hearing1 even though he may have made a mistake4 ,i do not think you had a fair hearing1 and hence so far as ,i myself am concerned ,i indorse your position1 and shall do so till some one comes along and gives a better demonstration4 ,allow me also to proceed with more evidence4 ,observation at ,west ,falmouth1 ,mass41 ,sept #a1 #ahgg4 ,i made five observations in like manner about the marshes and bogs of this town1 which is1 as it were1 situated on the tendo achillis of ,cape ,cod1 ,mass4 ,in only one of these observations did ,i find any palmell like the ague plants1 and they were not characteristic4 ,chelsea1 ,mass41 near the ,naval ,hospital1 ,september #e1 #ahgg4 ,three sets of observations4 ,in all spores were found and some sporangia1 but they were not the genuine plants as far as ,i could judge4 ,they were ,protococcace4 ,it is not necessary to add that there are no cases of intermittent fever regarded as originating on the localities named4 ,still1 the ancient history of ,new ,england contains some accounts of ague occurring there1 but they are not regarded as entirely authentic4 ,observation4 ,lexington1 ,mass1 ,september #f1 #ahgg4 ,observation made in a meadow4 ,there was no saline incrustation1 and no palmell found4 ,no local malaria4 ,observation4 ,cambridge1 ,mass4 ,water works on the shore of ,fresh ,pond4 ,found a few palmell analogous to1 but not the ague palmell4 ,observation4 ,woburn1 ,mass1 ,september #bg1 #ahgg1 with ,dr4 ,j4 ,m4 ,moore4 ,found some palmell1 but scanty4 ,abundance of spores of cryptogams4 ,observation4 ,stonington1 ,conn41 ,august #ae1 #ahgg4 ,examined a pond hole nearly opposite the railroad station on the ,new ,york ,shore ,line4 ,found abundantly the white incrustation on the surface of the soil4 ,here ,i found the spores and the sporangias of the gemiasmas verdans and rubra4 ,observation #b4 ,repetition of the last4 ,observation #c4 ,i examined some of an incrustation that was copiously deposited in the same locality1 which was not white or frosty1 but dark brown and a dirty green4 ,here the spores were very abundant1 and a few sporangias of the ,gemiasma rubra4 ,ague has of late years been noted in ,connecticut and ,rhode ,island4 ,observations in ,connecticut4 ,middlefield near ,middletown1 summer of #ahgh4 ,being in this locality1 ,i heard that intermittent fever was advancing eastward at the rate of ten miles a year4 ,it had been observed in ,middlefield4 ,i was much interested to see if ,i could find the gemiasmas there4 ,on examining the dripping of some bog moss1 ,i found a plenty of them4 ,observations in ,connecticut4 ,new ,haven4 ,early in the summer of #ahha ,i visited this city4 ,one object of my visit was to ascertain the truth of the presence of intermittent fever there1 which ,i had understood prevailed to such an extent that my patient1 a consumptive1 was afraid to return to his home in ,new ,haven4 ,at this time ,i examined the hydrant water of the city water works1 and also the east shore of the ,west ,river1 which seemed to be too full of sewage4 ,i found a plenty of the ,oscillatoreace1 but no ,palmell4 ,in ,september ,i revisited the city1 taking with me a medical gentleman who1 residing in the ,south1 had had a larger experience with the disease than ,i4 ,from the macroscopical examination he pronounced a case we examined to be ague1 but ,i was not able to detect the plants either in the urine or blood4 ,this might have been that ,i did not examine long enough4 ,but a little later ,i revisited the city and explored the soil about the ,whitney ,water ,works1 whence the city gets its supply of water1 and ,i had no difficulty in finding a good many of the plants you describe as found by you in ague cases4 ,at a still later period my patient1 whom ,i had set to use the microscope and instructed how to collect the ague plants1 set to work himself4 ,one day his mother brought in a film from off an ash pile that lay in the shade1 and this her son found was made up of an abundance of the ague plants4 ,by simply winding a wet bandage around the slide1 ,mr4 ,a4 was enabled to keep the plants in good condition until the time of my next visit1 when ,i examined and pronounced them to be genuine plants4 ,i should here remark that ,i had in examining the sputa of this patient sent to me1 found some of the ague plants4 ,he said that he had been riding near the ,whitney ,pond1 and perceived a different odor1 and thought he must have inhaled the miasm4 ,i told him he was correct in his supposition1 as no one could mistake the plants2 indeed1 ,prof4 ,nunn1 of ,savannah1 ,ga41 my pupil recognized it at once4 ,this relation1 though short1 is to me of great importance4 ,so long as ,i could not detect the gemiasmas in ,new ,haven1 ,i was very skeptical as to the presence of malaria in ,new ,haven1 as ,i thought there must be some mistake1 it being a very good cloak to hide under 7malaria74 ,there is no doubt but that the name has covered lesions not belonging to it4 ,but now the positive demonstrations above so briefly related show to my mind that the local profession have not been mistaken1 and have sustained their high reputation4 ,i should say that ,i have examined a great deal of sputa1 but1 with the exception of cases that were malarious1 ,i have not encountered the mature plants before4 ,of course ,i have found them as you did1 in my own excretions as ,i was traveling over ague bogs4 ,to be continued4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ichthyol4 ,,dr4 ,p4,g4 ,,unna1 of ,hamburg1 has lately been experimenting on the dermato therapeutic uses of a substance called ichthyol1 obtained by ,herr ,rudolph ,schroter by the distillation of bituminous substances and treatment with condensed sulphuric acid4 ,this body1 though tar-like in appearance1 and with a peculiar and disagreeable smell of its own1 does not resemble any known wood or coal tar in its chemical and physical properties4 ,it has a consistence like vaseline1 and its emulsion with water is easily washed off the skin4 ,it is partly soluble in alcohol1 partly in ether with a changing and lessening of the smell1 and totally dissolves in a mixture of both4 ,it may be mixed with vaseline1 lard1 or oil in any proportions4 ,its chemical constitution is not well established1 but it contains sulphur1 oxygen1 carbon1 hydrogen1 and also phosphorus in vanishing proportions1 and it may be considered comparable with a #aj per cent1 sulphur salve4 ,over ordinary sulphur preparations it has this advantage1 that the sulphur is in very intimate and stable union1 so that ichthyol can be united with lead and mercury preparations without decomposition4 ,ichthyol when rubbed undiluted on the normal skin does not set up dermatitis1 yet it is a resolvent1 and in a high degree a soother of pain and itching4 ,in psoriasis it is a fairly good remedy1 but inferior to crysarobin in ,p4 inveterata4 ,it is useful also locally in rheumatic affections as a resolvent and anodyne1 in acne1 and as a parasiticide4 ,the most remarkable effects1 however1 were met with in eczema1 which was cured in a surprisingly short time4 ,from an experience in the treatment of thirty cases of different kinds--viz41 obstinate circumscribed moist patches on the hands and arms1 intensely itching papular eczema of the flexures and face1 infantile moist eczemas1 etc4--he recommends the following procedure4 ,as with sulphur preparations1 he begins with a moderately strong preparation1 and as he proceeds reduces the strength of the application4 ,for moist eczema weaker preparations 7#bj to #cj per cent4 decreased to #aj per cent47 must be used than for the papular condition 7#ej per cent4 reduced to #bj per cent471 and the hand1 for example1 will require a stronger application than the face1 and children a weaker one than adults2 but ichthyol may be used in any strength from a #e per cent4 to a #dj to #ej per cent4 application or undiluted4 ,for obstinate eczema of the hands the following formula is given as very efficacious3 ,r4 ,lithargyri #aj4j2 coq4c4 aceti1 #cj4j2 ad reman4 #bj4j2 adde olei olivar41 adipis1 aa #aj4j2 ichthyol #aj4j1 ,m4 ft4 ung4 ,until its internal effects are better known1 caution is advised as to its very widespread application1 although ,herr ,schroter has taken a gramme with only some apparent increase of peristalsis and appetite4--,lancet4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,autopsy ,,table4 ,the illustration represents an autopsy table placed in the ,coroner's ,department of the ,new ,york ,hospital1 designed by ,george ,b4 ,post and ,frederick ,c4 ,merry4 ,an amphitheater1 fitted up for the convenience of the jury and those interested when inquests are held1 surrounds the table1 which is placed in the center of the floor1 thus enabling the subject to be viewed by the coroner's jury and other officials who may be present4 ,the mechanical construction of this table will be readily understood by the following explanation3 ,the top1 indicated by letter1 ,a1 is made of thick1 heavy1 cast glass1 concaved in the direction of the strainer1 as shown4 ,it is about eight feet long and two feet and six inches wide1 in one piece1 an opening being left in the center to receive the strainer1 so as to allow the fluid matter of the body1 as well as the water with which it is washed1 to find its way to the waste pipe below the table1 and thus avoid soiling or staining the floor1 ,the strainer is quite large1 with a downward draught which passes through a large flue1 as shown by letter1 ,f1 connected above the water seal of the waste trap and trunk of the table to the chimney of the boiler house1 as indicated by the arrows1 carrying down all offensive odors from the body1 thereby preventing the permeating of the air in the room4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,autopsy ,,table4 ,the base of the table1 indicated by letter1 ,b1 represents a ground swinging attachment1 which enables the turning of the table in any direction4 ,d represents the cold water supply cock and handle1 intersecting with letter1 ,e1 which is the hot water cock1 below the base1 as shown1 and then upward to a swing or ball joint1 ,c1 then crossing under the plate glass top to the right with a hose attachment for the use of the operator4 ,here a small hose pipe is secured1 for use as may be required in washing off all matter1 to insure the clean exposure of the parts to be dissected4 ,the ball swing1 ,c1 enables the turning of the table in any direction without disturbing the water connections4 ,this apparatus has been in operation since the building of the hospital in #ahgf1 and has met all the requirements in connection with its uses4--,hydraulic ,plumber4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,exciting ,,properties ,,of ,,oats4 ,experiments have been recently made by ,mr4 ,sanson with a view to settling the question whether oats have or have not the excitant property that has been attributed to them4 ,the nervous and muscular excitability of horses was carefully observed with the aid of graduated electrical apparatus before and after they had eaten a given quantity of oats1 or received a little of a certain principle which ,mr4 ,sanson succeeded in isolating from oats4 ,the chief results of the inquiry are as follows3 ,the pericarp of the fruit of oats contains a substance soluble in alcohol and capable of exciting the motor cells of the nervous system4 ,this substance is not 7as some have thought7 vanilline or the odorous principle of vanilla1 nor at all like it4 ,it is a nitrogenized matter which seems to belong to the group of alkaloids2 is uncrystallizable1 finely granular1 and brown in mass4 ,the author calls it avenine4 ,all varieties of cultivated oats seem to elaborate it1 but they do so in very different degrees4 ,the elaborated substance is the same in all varieties4 ,the differences in quantity depend not only on the variety of the plant but also on the place of cultivation4 ,oats of the white variety have much less than those of the dark1 but for some of the former1 in ,sweden1 the difference is small2 while for others1 in ,russia1 it is considerable4 ,less than #j4i of the excitant principle per cent4 of air-dried oats1 the dose is insufficient to certainly affect the excitability of horses1 but above this proportion the excitant action is certain4 ,while some light-colored oats certainly have considerable excitant power1 some dark oats have little4 ,determination of the amount of the principle present is the only sure basis of appreciation1 though 7as already stated7 white oats are likely to be less exciting than dark4 ,crushing or grinding the grain weakens considerably the excitant property1 probably by altering the substance to which it is due2 the excitant action is more prompt1 but much less strong and durable4 ,the action1 which is immediate and more intense with the isolated principle1 does not appear for some minutes after the eating of oats2 in both cases it increases to a certain point1 then diminishes and disappears4 ,the total duration of the effect is stated to be an hour per kilogramme of oats ingested4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,filaria ,,disease4 ,the rapid strides which our knowledge has made during the past few years in the subject of the filaria parasite have been mainly owing to the diligent researches of ,dr4 ,patrick ,manson1 who continues to work at the question4 ,in the last number of the ,medical ,reports for ,china1 ,dr4 ,manson deals with the phenomenon known as filarial periodicity1 and with the fate of embryo parasites not removed from the blood4 ,the intimate pathology of the disease1 and the subject of abscess caused by the death of the parent filaria1 also receive further attention4 ,an endeavor to explain the phenomenon of filarial periodicity by an appeal to the logical method of concomitant variations takes ,manson into an interesting excursion which is not productive of any positive results2 nor is any more certain conclusion come to with regard to the fate of the embryos which disappear from the blood during the day time4 ,manson does not incline to the view that there is a diurnal intermittent reproduction of embryos with a corresponding destruction4 ,an original and important speculation is made with respect to the intimate pathology of elephantiasis1 chyluria1 and lymph scrotum1 which is thoroughly worthy of consideration4 ,our readers are probably aware that the parent filaria and the filaria sanguinis hominis may exist in the human body without entailing any apparent disturbance4 ,the diameter of an embryo filaria is about the same as that of a red blood disk1 one three-thousandth of an inch4 ,the dimensions of an ovum are one seven-hundred-and-fiftieth by one five-hundredth of an inch4 ,if we imagine the parent filaria located in a distal lymphatic vessel to abort and give birth to ova instead of embryos1 it may be understood that the ova might be unable to pass such narrow passages as the embryo could1 and this is really the hypothesis which ,manson has put forward on the strength of observations made on two cases4 ,the true pathology of the elephantoid diseases may thus be briefly summarized3 ,a parent filaria in a distant lymphatic prematurely expels her ova2 these act as emboli to the nearest lymphatic glands1 whence ensues stasis of lymph1 regurgitation of lymph1 and partial compensation by anastomoses of lymphatic vessels2 this brings about hypertrophy of tissues1 and may go on to lymphorrhoea or chyluria1 according to the site of the obstructed lymphatics4 ,it may be objected that too much is assumed in supposing that the parent worm is liable to miscarry4 ,but as ,manson had sufficient evidence in two cases that such abortions had happened1 he thinks it is not too much to expect their more frequent occurrence4 ,the explanation given of the manner in which elephantoid disease is produced applies to most1 if not all1 diseases1 with one exception1 which result from the presence of the parasite in the human body4 ,the death of the parent parasite in the afferent lymphatic may give rise to an abscess1 and the frequency with which abscess of the scrotum or thigh is met with in ,chinese practice is1 in ,manson's opinion1 attributable to this4 ,dr4 ,manson's report closes with an account of a case of abscess of the thigh1 with varicose inguinal glands1 in which fragments of a mature worm were discovered in the contents of the abscess4--,lancet4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,spectral ,,masdevallia4 7,m4 chimra47 ,of all orchids no genus we can just now call to mind is more distinct or is composed of species more widely divergent in size1 form1 structure1 and color than is this one of ,masdevallia4 ,it was founded well nigh a century ago by ,ruiz and ,pavon on a species from ,mexico1 ,m4 uniflora4 which1 so far as ,i know1 is nearly if not quite unknown to present day cultivators4 ,when ,lindley wrote his ,genera and ,species in #ahcf1 three species of ,masdevallias only were known to botanists but twenty-five years later1 when he prepared his ,folio ,orchidace1 nearly forty species were2 known in herbaria1 and to-day perhaps fully a hundred kinds are grown in our gardens1 while travelers tell us of all the gorgeous beauties which are known to exist high up on the cloud-swept sides of the ,andes and ,cordilleras of the ,new ,world4 ,the ,masdevallia is confined to the ,western hemisphere alone1 and as in bird and animal distribution1 so in the case of many orchids we find that when any genus is confined to one hemisphere1 those who look for another representative genus in the other are rarely disappointed4 ,thus hornbills in the ,east are represented by toucans in the ,west1 and the humming bird of the ,west by the sunbird of the ,east1 and so also in the ,malayan archipelago4 ,notably in ,borneo we find bolbophyls without pseudo bulbs1 and with solitary or few flowered scapes and other traits singularly suggestive at first sight of the ,western ,masdevallia4 ,thus some bolbophyl1 for example1 have caudal appendages to their sepals1 as in ,masdevallias1 and on the other hand some ,masdevallias have their labellums hinged and oscillatory1 which is so commonly the case as to be almost characteristic in the genus ,bolbophyllum or ,sarcopodium4 ,speaking generally1 ,masdevallias1 coming as most of them do from high altitudes1 lend themselves to what is now well known as cool treatment1 and cultivators find it equally necessary to offer them moisture in abundance both at the root and in the atmosphere1 also seeing that when at home in cloud-land they are often and well nigh continually drenched by heavy dews and copious showers4 ,of all the cultivated ,masdevallias1 none are so weirdly strange and fascinating as is the species ,m4 chimra1 which is so well illustrated in the accompany engraving4 ,this singular plant was discovered by ,benedict ,roezl1 and about #ahgb or #ahgc ,i remember ,m4 ,lucien ,linden calling upon me one day1 and among other rarities showing me a dried flower of this species4 ,i remember ,i took up a pen and rapidly made a sketch of the flower1 which soon after appeared 7#ahgc1 p4 #c7 in ,the ,florist1 and was perhaps the first published figure of the plant4 ,it was named by ,professor ,reichenbach1 who could find for it no better name than that of the mythical monster ,chimra1 than which1 as an old historian tells us1 no stranger bogy ever came out of the earth's inside4 ,our engraving shows the plant about natural size1 and indicates the form and local coloring pretty accurately4 ,the ground color is yellowish1 blotched with lurid brownish crimson1 the long pendent tails being blood color1 and the interior of the sepals are almost shaggy4 ,the spectral appearance of the flower is considerably heightened by the smooth1 white1 slipper-like lip1 which contrasts so forcibly in color and texture with the lurid shagginess around it4 ,sir ,j4 ,d4 ,hooker1 in describing this species in the ,botanical ,magazine1 t4 #f1 #aeb1 says that the aspect of the curved scape as it bears aloft its buds and hairy flowers is very suggestive of the head and body of a viper about to strike4 ,dr4 ,haughton1 ,f4,r4,s41 told me long ago that ,darlingtonia californica always reminds him of a cobra when raised and puffed out in a rage1 and certainly the likeness is a close one4 ,grown in shallow teak wood baskets1 suspended near the roof in a partially shaded structure1 all the chimroid section of ,masdevallia succeed even better than when grown in pots or pans1 as they have a ,stanhopea-like habit of pushing out their flowers at all sorts of deflected angles4 ,a close glance at the engraving will show that for convenience sake the artist has propped up the flower with a stick1 this much arrangement being a necessity1 so as to enable the tails to lie diagonally across the picture4 ,from tip to tip the flower represented is #i inches1 or not so much by #g inches as the flower measured in ,messrs4 ,backhouse's nursery at ,york4--,the ,garden4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,spectral ,,masdevallia4--,,masdevallia ,,chim,,ra 7,natural ,size7 99 99 99 99 99 ,,survey ,,of ,,the ,,black ,,ca,,on4 ,it is rumored again that a survey is soon to be made through the heaviest portion of the ,black ,canon of the ,gunnison4 ,for a long distance the walls of syenite rise to the stupendous height of #c1jjj feet1 and for #a1hjj feet the walls of the caon are arched not many feet from the bed of the river4 ,if the survey is successful1 and the ,denver and ,rio ,grande is built through the caon1 it will undoubtedly be the grandest piece of engineering on the ,american continent4 ,the river is very swift1 and it is proposed to build a boat at the western end1 and provision it for a length of time1 allowing it to float with the stream1 but controlled by ropes4 ,if the boat goes1 the chances are that the baby road goes1 too4--,gunnison 7,colo47 ,review4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,ancient ,,mississippi ,,and ,,its ,,tributaries4 ,footnote3 ,this lecture was delivered in the ,chapel of the ,state ,university1 at ,columbia1 as an inaugural address on ,january #aj1 #ahhc1 and illustrated by projections4 ,the author has purposely avoided the very lengthy details of scientific observation by which the conclusions have been arrived at relating to the former wonderful condition of the ,mississippi1 and the subsequent changes to its present form3 as a consideration of them would not only cause him to go beyond the allotted time1 but might1 perhaps1 prove tiresome4 ,by ,j4 ,w4 ,,spencer1 ,b4,a4,sc41 ,ph4,d41 ,f4,g4,s41 ,professor of ,geology in the ,state ,university of ,missouri4 ,physical geology is the science which deals with the past changes of the earth's crust1 and the causes which have produced the present geographical features1 everywhere seen about us4 ,the subject of the present address must therefore be considered as one of geology rather than of geography1 and ,i propose to trace for you the early history of the great ,mississippi ,river1 of which we have only a diminished remnant of the mightiest river that ever flowed over any terrestrial continent4 ,by way of introduction1 ,i wish you each to look at the map of our great river1 with its tributaries as we now see it1 draining half of the central portion of the continent1 but which formerly drained1 in addition1 at least two of our great lakes1 and many of the great rivers at the present time emptying into the colder ,arctic ,sea4 ,let us go back1 in time1 to the genesis of our continent4 ,there was once a time in the history of the earth when all the rocks were in a molten condition1 and the waters of our great oceans in a state of vapor1 surrounding the fiery ball4 ,space is intensely cold4 ,in course of time the earth cooled off1 and on the cold1 solid crust geological agencies began to work4 ,it is now conceded by the most accomplished physicists that the location of the great continents and seas was determined by the original contraction and cooling of the earth's crust2 though very greatly modified by a long succession of changes1 produced by the agencies of water1 air1 heat1 and cold1 through probably a hundred million of years1 until the original rock surface of the earth has been worked over to a depth of thirty or forty miles4 ,like human history1 the events of these long ons are divided into periods4 ,the geologist divides the past history of the earth and its inhabitants into five ,great ,times2 and these1 again1 into ages1 periods1 epochs1 and eras4 ,at the close of the first ,great ,time--called ,archan--the continent south of the region of the great lakes1 excepting a few islands1 was still submerged beneath a shallow sea1 and therefore no portion of the ,mississippi was yet in existence4 ,at the close of the second great geological ,time--the ,palozoic--the ,american continent had emerged sufficiently from the ocean bed to permit the flow of the ,ohio1 and of the ,mississippi1 above the mouth of the former river1 although they were not yet united4 ,throughout the third great geological ,time--the ,mesozoic--these rivers grew in importance1 and the lowest portions of the ,missouri began to form a tributary of some size4 ,still the ,ohio had not united with the ,mississippi1 and both of these rivers emptied into an arm of the ,mexican ,gulf1 which then reached to a short distance above what is now their junction4 ,in point of time1 the ,ohio is probably older than the ,mississippi1 but the latter river grew and eventually absorbed the ,ohio as a tributary4 ,in the early part of the fourth great geological ,time--the ,cenozoic--nearly the whole continent was above water4 ,still the ,gulf of ,mexico covered a considerable portion of the extreme ,southern ,states1 and one of its bays extended as far north as the mouth of the ,ohio1 which had not yet become a tributary of the ,mississippi4 ,the ,missouri throughout its entire length was at this time a flowing river4 ,i told you that the earth's crust had been worked over to a depth of many miles since geological time first commenced4 ,subsequently1 ,i have referred to the growth of the continent in different geological periods4 ,all of our continents are being gradually worn down by the action of rains1 rills1 rivulets1 and rivers1 and being deposited along the sea margins1 just as the ,mississippi is gradually stretching out into the ,gulf1 by the deposition of the muds of the delta4 ,this encroachment on the ,gulf of ,mexico may continue1 yea1 doubtless will1 until that deep body of water shall have been filled up by the remains of the continent1 borne down by the rivers2 for the ,mississippi alone carries annually #bfh cubic miles of mud into the ,gulf1 according to ,humphreys and ,abbot4 ,this represents the valley of the ,mississippi losing one foot off its whole surface in #f1jjj years4 ,and were this to continue without any elevation of the land1 the continent would all be buried beneath the sea in a period of about four and a half million years4 ,but though this wasting is going on1 the continent will not disappear1 for the relative positions of the land and water are constantly changing2 in some cases the land is undergoing elevation1 in others1 subsidence4 ,prof4 ,hilgard has succeeded in measuring known changes of level1 in the lower ,mississippi ,valley1 and records the continent as having been at least #dej feet higher than at present 7and if we take the coast survey soundings1 it seems as if we might substitute #c1jjj feet as the elevation71 and subsequently at more than #dej feet lower1 and then the change back to the present elevation4 ,let us now study the history of the great river in the last days of the ,cenozoic ,time1 and early days of the fifth and last great ,geological ,time1 in which we are now living--the ,quaternary1 or ,age of ,man--an epoch which ,i have called the ,great ,river ,age4 ,it is to the condition of the ,mississippi during this period and its subsequent changes to its present form that ,i wish particularly to call your attention4 ,during the ,great ,river age we know that the eastern coast of the continent stood at least #a1bjj feet higher than at present4 ,the region of the ,lower ,mississippi was also many hundred feet higher above the sea level than now4 ,although we have not the figures for knowing the exact elevation of the ,upper ,mississippi1 yet we have the data for knowing that it was very much higher than at the present day4 ,the ,lower ,mississippi1 from the ,gulf to the mouth of the ,ohio ,river1 was of enormous size flowing through a valley with an average width of about fifty miles1 though varying from about twenty-five to seventy miles4 ,in magnitude1 we can have some idea1 when we observe the size of the lower three or four hundred miles of the ,amazon ,river1 which has a width of about fifty miles4 ,but its depth was great1 for the waters not only filled a channel now buried to a depth of from three to five hundred feet1 but stood at an elevation much higher than the broad bottom lands which now constitute those fertile alluvial flats of the ,mississippi ,valley1 so liable to be overflowed4 ,from the western side1 our great river received three principal tributaries--the ,red ,river of the ,south1 the ,washita1 and the ,arkansas1 each flowing in valleys from two to ten miles in width1 but now represented only by the depauperated streams meandering from side to side1 over the flat bottom lands1 generally bounded by bluffs4 ,the ,mississippi from the east received no important tributaries south of the ,ohio2 such rivers as the ,yazoo being purely modern and wandering about in the ancient filled-up valley as does the modern ,mississippi itself4 ,so far we find that the ,mississippi below the mouth of the ,ohio differed from the modern river in its enormous magnitude and direct course4 ,from the mouth of the ,ohio to that of the ,minnesota ,river1 at ,fort ,snelling1 the characteristics of the ,mississippi ,valley differ entirely from those of the lower sections4 ,it generally varies from two to ten miles in width1 and is bounded almost everywhere by bluffs1 which vary in height from #aej to #ejj feet1 cut through by the entrances of occasional tributaries4 ,the bottom of the ancient channel is often #ajj feet or more below the present river1 which wanders about1 from side to side1 over the bottom lands of the old valley1 now partly filled with debris1 brought down by the waters themselves1 and deposited since the time when the pitch of the river began to be diminished4 ,there are two places where the river flows over hard rock4 ,these are at the rapids near the mouth of the ,des ,moines ,river1 and a little farther up1 at ,rock ,island4 ,these portions of the river do not represent the ancient courses1 for subsequent to the ,great ,river ,age1 according to ,general ,warren1 the old channels became closed1 and the modern river1 being deflected1 was unable to reopen its old bed4 ,the ,missouri ,river is now the only important tributary of this section of the ,mississippi from the west4 ,like the western tributaries1 farther south1 it meanders over broad bottom lands1 which in some places reach a width of ten miles or more1 bounded by bluffs4 ,during the period of the culmination1 it probably discharged nearly as much water as the ,upper ,mississippi4 ,at that time there were several other tributaries of no mean size1 such as the ,des ,moines1 which filled valleys1 one or two miles wide1 but now represented only by shrunken streams4 ,the most interesting portion of our study refers to the ancient eastern tributaries1 and the head waters of the great river4 ,the greater portion of the ,ohio ,river flows over bottom lands1 less extensive than those of the west1 although bounded by high bluffs4 ,the bed of the ancient valley is now buried to a depth of sometimes a hundred feet or more4 ,however1 at ,louisville1 ,ky41 the river flows over hard rock1 the ancient valley having been filled with river deposits on which that city is built1 as shown first by ,dr4 ,newberry1 similar to the closing of the old courses of the ,mississippi1 at ,des ,moines ,rapids and ,rock ,island4 ,however1 the most wonderful changes in the course of the ,ohio are further up the river4 ,mr4 ,carll1 of ,pennsylvania1 in #ahhj1 discovered that the ,upper ,alleghany formerly emptied into ,lake ,erie1 and the following year ,i pointed out that not only the ,upper ,alleghany1 but the whole ,upper ,ohio1 formerly emptied into ,lake ,erie1 by the ,beaver and ,mahoning ,valleys 7reversed71 and the ,grand ,river 7of ,ohio74 ,therefore1 only that portion of the ,ohio ,river from about the ,pennsylvania-,ohio ,state line sent its waters to the ,mexican ,gulf1 during the ,great ,river ,age4 ,other important differences in the river geology of our country were ,lake ,superior emptying directly into the northern end of ,lake ,michigan1 and ,lake ,michigan discharging itself1 somewhere east of ,chicago1 into an upper tributary of the ,illinois ,river4 ,even now1 by removing rock to a depth of ten feet1 some of the waters of ,lake ,michigan have been made to flow into the ,illinois1 which was formerly a vastly greater river than at present1 for the ancient valley was from two to ten miles wide1 and very deep1 though now largely filled with drift4 ,the study of the ,upper ,ancient ,mississippi is the most important of this address4 ,the principal discoveries were made only a few years since1 by ,general ,g4,k4 ,warren1 of the ,corps of ,engineers1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,at ,ft4 ,snelling1 a short distance above ,st4 ,paul1 the modern ,minnesota ,river empties into the ,mississippi1 but the ancient condition was the converse4 ,at ,ft4 ,snelling1 the valleys form one continuous nearly straight course1 about a mile wide1 bounded by bluffs #aej feet high4 ,the valley of the ,minnesota is large1 but the modern river is small4 ,the uppermost valley of the ,mississippi enters this common valley at nearly right angles1 and is only a quarter of a mile wide and is completely filled by the river4 ,though this body of water is now the more important1 yet in former days it was relatively a small tributary4 ,the character of the ,minnesota ,valley is similar to that of the ,mississippi below ,ft4 ,snelling1 in being bounded by high bluffs and having a width of one or two miles1 or more1 all the way to the height of land1 between ,big ,stone ,lake and ,traverse ,lake1 the former of which drains to the south1 from an elevation of #iib feet above the sea1 and the latter only half a dozen miles distant 7and eight feet higher7 empties1 by the ,red ,river of the ,north1 into ,lake ,winnipeg4 ,during freshets1 the swamps between these two lakes discharge waters both ways4 ,the valley of the ,red ,river is really the bed of an immense dried-up lake4 ,the lacustrine character of the valley was recognized by early explorers1 but all honor to the name of ,general ,warren1 who1 in observing that the ancient enormous ,lake ,winnipeg formerly sent its waters southward to the ,mexican ,gulf1 made the most important discovery in fluviatile geology--a discovery which will cause his name to be honored in the scientific world long after his professional successes have been forgotten4 ,general ,warren considered that the valley of ,lake ,winnipeg only belonged to the ,mississippi since the ,ice ,age1 and explained the changes of drainage of the great north by the theory of the local elevation of the land4 ,facts which settle this question have recently been collected in ,minnesota ,state by ,mr4 ,upham1 although differently explained by that geologist4 ,however1 he did not go far enough back in time1 for doubtless the ,winnipeg ,valley discharged southward before the last days of the ,ice ,age1 and the great changes in the river courses were not entirely produced by local elevation1 but also by the filling of the old water channels with drift deposits and sediments4 ,throughout the bottom of the ,red ,river ,valley a large number of wells have been sunk to great depths1 and these show the absence of hard rock to levels below that of ,lake ,winnipeg2 but some portions of the ,minnesota ,river flow over hard rock at levels somewhat higher4 ,whether the presence of these somewhat higher rocks is due entirely to the local elevation1 which we know took place1 or to the change in the course of the old river1 remains to be seen4 ,mr4 ,upham has also shown that there is a valley connecting the ,minnesota ,river1 at ,great ,bend at ,mankato1 with the head waters of the ,des ,moines ,river1 as ,i predicted to ,general ,warren a few months before his death4 ,at the time when ,lake ,winnipeg was swollen to its greatest size1 extending southward into ,minnesota1 as far as ,traverse ,lake1 it had a length of more than #fjj miles and a breadth of #bej miles4 ,its greatest tributary was the ,saskatchewan--a river nearly as large as the ,missouri4 ,it flowed in a deep broad caon now partly filled with drift deposits1 in some places1 to two hundred feet or more in depth4 ,another tributary1 but of a little less size1 was the ,assiniboine1 now emptying into the ,red ,river1 at the city of ,winnipeg4 ,following up this river1 in a westerly direction1 one passes into the ,qu',appelle ,valley--the upper portion of which is now filled with drift1 as first shown by ,prof4 ,h4 ,y4 ,hind4 ,this portion of the valley is interesting1 for through it1 before being filled with drift1 the south branch of the ,saskatchewan ,river formerly flowed1 and constituted an enormous river4 ,but subsequent to the ,great ,river ,age1 when choked with drift1 it sent its waters to the ,north ,saskatchewan as now seen4 ,there were many other changes in the course of the ancient rivers to the north1 but ,i cannot here record them4 ,as we have seen1 the ancient ,mississippi and its tributaries were vastly larger rivers than their modern representatives4 ,at the close of the ,great ,river ,age1 the whole continent subsided to many hundred feet below its present level1 or some portions to even thousands of feet4 ,during this subsidence1 the ,mississippi ,states north of the ,ozark ,mountains formed the bed of an immense lake1 into the quiet waters of which were deposited soils washed down by the various rivers from the northwestern and north central ,states and the northern territories of ,canada4 ,these sediments1 brought here from the north1 constitute the bluff formation of the ,state1 and are the source of the extraordinary fertility of our lands1 on which the future greatness of our ,state depends4 ,however1 time will not permit me to enter into the application of the facts brought forward to agricultural interests4 ,but although this address is intended to be in the realm of pure science1 ,i cannot refrain from saying a word to our engineering students as to the application of knowledge of river geology to their future work4 ,the subject of river geology is yet in its infancy1 and ,i have known of much money being squandered for want of its knowledge4 ,in one case1 ,i saved a company several thousand dollars1 though ,i should have been willing to give a good subscription to see the work carried out from the scientific point of view4 ,i will briefly indicate a few interesting points to the engineer4 ,sometimes in making railway cuttings it is possible to find an adjacent buried valley through which excavations can be made without cutting hard rock4 ,in bridge building especially1 in the western country1 a knowledge of the buried valleys is of the utmost importance4 ,again1 in sinking for coal do not begin your work from the bed of a valley1 unless it be of hard rock1 else you may have to go through an indefinite amount of drift and gravel2 and once more1 in boring for artesian wells1 it sometimes happens that good water can be obtained in the loose drift filling these ancient valleys2 but when you wish to sink into harder rock1 do not select your site of operations on an old buried valley1 for the cost of sinking through gravel is greater than through ordinary rock4 ,in closing1 let us consider to what the name ,mississippi should be given4 ,in point of antiquity1 the ,ohio and ,upper ,mississippi are of about the same age1 but since the time when ingrowing southward they united1 the latter river has been the larger4 ,the ,missouri ,river1 though longer than the ,mississippi1 is both smaller and geographically newer--the upper portion much newer4 ,above ,ft4 ,snelling1 the modern ,mississippi1 though the larger body of water1 should be considered as a tributary to that now called ,minnesota1 while the ,minnesota ,valley is really a portion of the older ,mississippi ,valley--both together forming the parent river1 which when swollen to the greatest volume had the ,saskatchewan ,river for a tributary1 and formed the grandest and mightiest river of which we have any record4--,kansas ,city ,review4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a catalogue1 containing brief notices of many important scientific papers heretofore published in the ,,supplement1 may be had gratis at this office4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement4 ,,published ,,weekly4 ,,terms ,,of ,,subscription1 #e ,a ,,year4 ,sent by mail1 postage prepaid1 to subscribers in any part of the ,united ,states or ,canada4 ,six dollars a year1 sent1 prepaid1 to any foreign country4 ,all the back numbers of ,,the ,,supplement1 from the commencement1 ,january #a1 #ahgf1 can be had4 ,price1 #aj cents each4 ,all the back volumes of ,,the ,,supplement can likewise be supplied4 ,two volumes are issued yearly4 ,price of each volume1 #b4ej1 stitched in paper1 or #c4ej1 bound in stiff covers4 ,,combined ,,rates--,one copy of ,,scientific ,,american and one copy of ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement1 one year1 postpaid1 #g4jj4 ,a liberal discount to booksellers1 news agents1 and canvassers4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,,publishers1 #bfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york1 ,n4 ,y4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,patents4 ,in connection with the ,,scientific ,,american1 ,messrs4 ,,munn ,co4 are ,solicitors of ,american and ,foreign ,patents1 have had #ch years' experience1 and now have the largest establishment in the world4 ,patents are obtained on the best terms4 ,a special notice is made in the ,,scientific ,,american of all ,inventions patented through this ,agency1 with the name and residence of the ,patentee4 ,by the immense circulation thus given1 public attention is directed to the merits of the new patent1 and sales or introduction often easily effected4 ,any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain1 free of charge1 whether a patent can probably be obtained1 by writing to ,,munn ,co4 ,we also send free our ,hand ,book about the ,patent ,laws1 ,patents1 ,caveats4 ,trade ,marks1 their costs1 and how procured4 ,address ,,munn ,,co41 #bfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york4 ,branch ,office1 cor4 ,p and #gth ,sts41 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4