,weymouth ,new ,testament in ,modern ,speech ,preface and ,introductions ,third ,edition #aiac ,public ,domain--,copy ,freely ,these files were produced by keying for use in the ,online ,bible4 ,proofreading was performed by ,earl ,melton4 ,the printed edition used in creating this etext was the ,kregal reprint of the ,ernest ,hampden-,cook 7#aiab7 ,third ,edition1 of the edition first published in #aiji by ,j4 ,clarke1 ,london4 ,kregal edition ,,isbn #j-hbed-djbe-d4 ,due to the plans to add the ,weymouth footnotes1 the footnote markers have been left in the text and page break indicators4 ,other special markings are words surrounded with 99 to indicate emphasis1 and phrases surrounded with to indicate bold ,,ot quotes4 ,see ,,weymouth4,,int in ,,wntint4,,zip for the introduction to the text1 and information on ,weymouth's techniques4 ,the most current corrected files can be found on3 ,bible ,foundation ,,bbs #fjb-ghi-gjdj 7#ad4d kbs7 ,if any errors are found1 please notify me at the above bbs1 or at3 ,mark ,fuller #aabi ,e4 ,loyola ,dr4 ,tempe1 ,az4 #hebhb 7#fjb7 #hbi-hedb ----------- ,corrections to the printed page --------------------- ,introduction says personal pronouns referring to ,jesus1 when spoken by other than the author_/narrator1 are capitalized only when they recognize ,his deity4 ,the following oversights in the third edition were corrected in subsequent editions4 ,therefore we feel justified in correcting them in this computer version4 ,mt #bb3af ,capitalized 'him'4 ,same person speaking as in v4#ae4 ,mt #bg3ed ,capitalized 'he'4 ,joh #ba3bj ,capitalized 'his' ,heb #ab3f ,capitalized last ',,he' 7referring to ,god74 changes made to printed page4 ,lu #aa3di ,added closing quote at end of verse as later editions do4 ,lu #ac3f come came 7changed in later editions7 ,ro #aa3af it if 7an obvious typesetting error corrected in later editions7 #a;,co #aa3f out cut 7an obvious typesetting error corrected in later editions7 ,php #d3c the ,word 'book' in 'book of ,life' was not capitalized in various printings of the third edition1 but it was in later editions4 ,so we have capitalized it here4 #b,ti #a3i deserts desserts 7misspelling perpetuated in later editions7 no change made3 ,eph #f3ag did not capitalize 'word' as in ,word of ,god4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,first ,,edition ,the ,translation of the ,new ,testament here offered to ,english-speaking ,christians is a bona fide translation made directly from the ,greek1 and is in no sense a revision4 ,the plan adopted has been the following4 #a4 ,an earnest endeavour has been made 7based upon more than sixty years' study of both the ,greek and ,english languages1 besides much further familiarity gained by continual teaching7 to ascertain the exact meaning of every passage not only by the light that ,classical ,greek throws on the langruage used1 but also by that which the ,septuagint and the ,hebrew ,scriptures afford2 aid being sought too from ,versions and ,commentators ancient and modern1 and from the ample et cetera of apparatus grammaticus and theological and ,classical reviews and magazines--or rather1 by means of occasional excursions into this vast prairie4 #b4 ,the sense thus seeming to have been ascertained1 the next step has been to consider how it could be most accurately and naturally exhibited in the ,english of the present day2 in other words1 how we can with some approach to probability suppose that the inspired writer himself would have expressed his thoughts1 had he been writing in our age and country4 _/#a #c4 ,lastly it has been evidently desirable to compare the results thus attained with the renderings of other scholars1 especially of course witll the ,authorized and ,revised ,versions4 ,but alas1 the great majority of even new translations1 so called1 are1 in reality1 only ,tyndale's immortal work a little--often very lit,lle--modernized6 #d4 ,but in the endeavour to find in ,twentieth ,century ,english a precise equivalent for a ,greek word1 phrase1 or sentence there are two dangers to be guarded against4 ,there are a ,scylla and a ,charybdis4 ,on the one hand there is the ,english of ,society1 on the other hand that of the utterly uneducated1 each of these patois having also its own special1 though expressive1 borderland which we name 'slang4' ,but all these salient angles 7as a professor of fortification might say7 of our language are forbidden ground to the reverent translator of ,holy ,scripture4 #e4 ,but again1 a modern translation--does this imply that no words or phrases in any degree antiquated are to be admitted8 ,not so1 for great numbers of such words and phrases are still in constant use4 ,to be antiquated is not the same thing as to be obsolete or even obsolescent1 and without at least a tinge of antiquity it is scarcely possible that there should be that dignity of style that befits the sacred themes with which the ,evangelists and ,apostles deal4 #f4 ,it is plain that this attempt to bring out the sense of the ,sacred ,writings naturally as well as accurately in present-day ,english does not permit1 except to a limited extent1 the method of literal rendering--the verbo verbum reddere at which ,horace shrugs his shoulders4 ,dr4 ,welldon1 recently ,bishop of ,calcutta1 in the ,preface 7p4 vii7 to his masterly translation of the ,nicomachean ,ethics of ,aristotle1 writes1 ,i have deliberately rejected the principle of trying to translate the same ,greek word by the same word in ,english1 and where circumstances seemed to call for it ,i have sometimes used two ,english words to represent one word of the ,greek2--and he is perfectly right4 ,with a slavish literality delicate shades of meaning cannot be reproduced1 nor allowance be made for the influence of interwoven thought1 or of the writer's ever shifting--not to say changing--point of view4 ,an utterly ignorant or utterly lazy man1 if possessed of a little ingenuity1 can with the help of a dictionary and grammar give a word-for-word rendering1 whether intelligible or not1 and print ',translation' on his title-page4 ,on the other hand it is a melancholy spectacle to see men of high ability and undoubted scholarship toil and struggle at translation under a needless restriction to literality1 as in intellectual handcuffs and fetters1 when they might with advantage snap the bonds and fling them away1 as ,dr4 ,welldon has done3 more melancholy still1 if they are at the same time racking their brains to exhibit the result of their labours---a splendid but idle philological tour de force --in what was ,english nearly #cjj years before4 #g4 ,obviously any literal translation cannot but carry idioms of the earlier language into the later1 where they will very probably not be understood2 _/#b and more serious still is the evil when1 as in the ,jewish ,greek of the ,n ,t1 the earlier language of the two is itself composite and abounds in forms of speech that belong to one earlier still4 ,for the ,n4,t4 ,greek1 even in the writings of ,luke1 contains a large number of ,hebrew idioms2 and a literal rendering into ,english cannot but partially veil1 and in some degree distort1 the true sense1 even if it does not totally obscure it 7and that too where perfect clearness should be attained1 if possible71 by this admixture of ,hebrew as well as ,greek forms of expression4 #h4 ,it follows that the reader who is bent upon getting a literal rendering1 such as he can commonly find in the ,r4,v4 or 7often a better one7 in ,darby's ,new ,testament1 should always be on his guard against its strong tendency to mislead4 #i4 ,one point however can hardly be too emphatically stated4 ,it is not the present ,translator's ambition to supplant the ,versions already in general use1 to which their intrinsic merit or long familiarity or both have caused all ,christian minds so lovingly to cling4 ,his desire has rather been to furnish a succinct and compressed running commentary 7not doctrinal7 to be used sidc by side with its elder compeers4 ,and yet there has been something of a remoter hope4 ,it can scarcely be doubted that some day the attempt will be renewed to produce a satisfactory ,english ,bible--one in some respects perhaps 7but assuredly with great and important deviations7 on the lines of the ,revision of #ahha1 or even altogether to supersede both the ,a4,v4 and the ,r4,v42 and it may be that the ,translation here offered will contribute some materials that may be built into that far grander edifice4 #aj4 ,,the ,,greek ,,text here followed is that given in the ,translator's ,resultant ,greek ,testament4 #aa4 ,of the ,,various ,,readings only those are here given which seem the most important1 and which affect the rendering into ,english4 ,they are in the footnotes1 with ,v4,l4 7varia lectio7 prefixed4 ,as to the chief modern critical editions full details will be found in the ,resultant ,greek ,testament1 while for the original authorities--,,mss41 ,versions1 ,patristic quotations--the reader must of necessity consult the great works of ,lachmann1 ,tregelles1 ,tischendorf1 and others1 or the numerous monographs on separate ,books4 _/#c ,in the margin of the ,r4,v4 a distinction is made between readings supported by a few ancient authorities1 some ancient authorities1 many ancient authorities1 and so on4 ,such valuation is not attempted in this work4 #ab4 ,considerable pains have been bestowed on the exact rendering of the tenses of the ,greek verb2 for by inexactness in this detail the true sense cannot but be missed4 ,that the ,greek tenses do not coincide1 and cannot be expected to coincide with those of the ,english verb2 that--except in narrative--the aorist as a rule is more exactly represented in ,english by our perfect with have than by our simple past tense2 and that in this particular the ,a4,v4 is in scores of instances more correct than the ,r4,v42 the present ,translator has contended 7with arguments which some of the best scholars in ,britain and in ,america hold to be unanswerable and indisputable7 in a pamphlet ,on the ,rendering into ,english of the ,greek ,aorist and ,perfect4 ,even an outline of the argument cannot be given in a ,preface such as this4 #ac4 ,but he who would make a truly ,english translation of a foreign book must not only select the right nouns1 adjectives1 and verbs1 insert the suitable prepositions and auxiliaries1 and triumph 7if he can7 over the seductions and blandishments of idioms with which he has been familiar from his infancy1 but which1 though forcible or beautiful with other surroundings1 are for all that part and parcel of that other language rather than of ,english3 he has also to beware of connecting his sentences in an un-,english fashion4 ,now a careful examination of a number of authors 7including ,scottish1 ,irish1 and ,american7 yields some interesting results4 ,taking at haphazard a passage from each of fifty-six authors1 and counting on after some full stop till fifty finite verbs--i4 e4 verbs in the indicative1 imperative1 or subjunctive mood--have been reached 7each finite verb1 as every schoolboy knows1 being the nucleus of one sentence or clause71 it has been found that the connecting links of the fifty-six times fifty sentences are about one-third conjunctions1 about one-third adverbs or relative and interrogative pronouns1 while in the case of the remaining third there is what the grammarians call an asyndeton--no formal grammatical connexion at all4 ,but in the writers of the ,n4,t4 nearly two-thirds of the connecting links are conjunctions4 ,it follows that in order to make the style of a translation true idiomatic ,english many of these conjunctions must be omitted1 and for others adverbs1 c41 must be substituted4 ,the two conjunctions for and therefore are discussed at some length in two ,appendices to the above-mentioned pamphlet on the ,aorist1 to which the reader is referred4 #ad4 ,the ,,notes1 with but few exceptions1 are not of the nature of a general commentary4 ,some1 as already intimated1 refer to the readings here followed1 but the great majority are in vindication or explanation of the renderings given4 ,since the completion of this new version nearly two years ago1 ill-health has incapacitated the ,translator from undertaking even the lightest work4 ,he has therefore been obliged to entrust to other hands the labour of critically examining and revising the manuscript and of seeing it through the press4 ,this arduous task has been undertaken by ,rev4 ,ernest ,hampden-,cook1 ,m4,a41 ,st4 ,john's ,college1 ,cambridge1 of ,sandhach1 ,cheshire1 with some co-operation from one of the ,translator's sons2 and the ,translator is under deep obligations to these two gentlemen for their kindness in the matter4 ,he has also most cordially to thank ,mr4 ,hampden-,cook for making the existence of the work known to various members of the ,,old ,,millhilians' ,,club and other former pupils of the ,translator1 who in a truly substantial manner have manifested a generous determination to enable the volume to see the light4 ,very grateful does the ,translator feel to them for this signal mark of their friendship4 ,mr4 ,hampden-,cook is responsible for the headings of the paragraphs1 and at my express desire has inserted some additional notes4 ,i have further to express my gratitude to ,rev4 ,frank ,baliard1 ,m4,a41 ,b4,sc41 ,lond41 at present of ,sharrow1 ,sheffield1 for some very valuable assistance which he has most kindly given in connexion with the ,introductions to the several books4 ,i have also the pleasure of acknowledging the numerous valuable and suggestive criticisms with which ,i have been favoured on some parts of the work1 by an old friend1 ,rev4 ,sydney ,thelwall1 ,b4,a41 of ,leamington1 a clergyman of the ,church of ,england1 whom ,i have known for many years as a painstaking and accurate scholar1 a well-read theologian4 and a thoughtful and devout student of ,scripture4 ,i am very thankful to ,mr4 ,h4 ,l4 ,gethin4 ,mr4 ,s4 ,hales1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,a4 ,latham1 and ,rev4 ,t4 ,a4 ,seed1 for the care with which they have read the proof sheets4 ,and now this ,translation is humbly and prayerfully commended to ,god's gracious blessing4 ,r4,f4,w4 _/#a4 ,i am aware of what ,proffessor ,blackie has written on this subject 7,aeschylus1 ,pref4 p4 viii7 but the problem endeavoured to be solved in this ,translation is as above stated4 _/#b4 ,a flagrant instance is the having in a readiness of #b ,cor4 #aj4f1 ,a4,v4 althoglgh in ,tyndale we find and are redy to take vengeaunce1 and even ,wiclif writes and we han redi to venge4 _/#c ,such as ,mc,clellan's ,four ,gospels2 ,westcott on ,john's ,gospel1 ,john's ,epistles1 and ,hebrews2 ,hackett on ,acts1 ,lightfoot1 and also ,ellicott1 on various ,epistles3 ,mayor on ,james2 ,edwards on ,i ,corinthians and ,hebrews2 ,sanday and ,headlam on ,romans4 ,add to these ,scrivener's very valuable ,introduction to the ,criticism of the ,n4,t4 ,,preface ,,to ,,the ,,third ,,edition ,for the purposes of this edition the whole volume has been re-set in new type1 and1 in the hope of increasing the interest and attractiveness of the ,translation1 all conversations have been spaced out in accordance with modern custom4 ,a freer use than before has been made of capital letters1 and by means of small1 raised figures1 prefixed to words in the text1 an indication has been griven whenever there is a footnote4 ,capernaum and ,philadelphia have been substituted for the less familiar but more literal ,capharnahum and ,philadelpheia4 ,many errata have been corrected1 and a very considerable number of what seemed to be infelicities or slight inaccuracies in the ,english have been removed4 ,a few additional footnotes have been inserted1 and1 for the most part1 those for which the ,editor is responsible have now the letters ,,ed4 added to them4 ,sincere thanks are tendered to the many kind friends who have expressed their appreciation of this ,translation1 or have helped to make it better known1 and to the many correspondents who have sent criticisms of the previous editions1 and made useful suggestions for the improvement of the volume4 ,e4,h4,c4 ,,abbreviations ,,used ,,in ,,the ,,notes ,aorist4 ,dr4 ,weymouth's ,pamphlet on the ,rendering of the ,greek ,aorist and ,perfect ,tenses into ,english4 ,a4,v4 ,authorised ,english ,version1 #afaa4 ,cp4 ,compare4 ,,ed4 ,notes for which the ,editor is responsible1 wholly or in part4 ,i4,e4 ,that is4 ,lit4 ,literally4 ,,lxx4 ,the ,septuagint 7,greek7 ,version of the ,old ,testament4 n4 ,note4 nn4 ,notes4 ,n4,t4 ,new ,testament4 ,o4,t4 ,old ,testament4 ,r4,v4 ,revised ,english ,version1 #ahha-he4 ,s4,h4 ,sanday and ,headlam's ,commentary on ',romans4' ,v4,l4 ,varia ,lectio4 ,an alternative reading found in some ,manuscripts of the ,new ,testament4 ,v4,v4 ,verses4 ,in accordance with modern ,english custom1 ,,italics are used to indicate emphasis4 ,in the etext1 surounded by 9999 ,old ,testament quotations are printed in small capitals4 ,in the etext1 surrounded by ,during ,christ's earthly ministry even ,his disciples did not always recognize ,his super-human nature and dignity4 ,accordingly1 in the ,gospels of this ,translation1 it is only when the ,evangelists themselves use of ,him the words ,he1 ,him1 ,his1 that these are spelt with capital initial letters4 ,the spelling of me and my with small initial letters1 when used by ,christ ,himself in the ,gospels1 is explained by the fact that1 before ,his ,resurrection1 ,he did not always emphasize ,his own super-human nature and dignity4 ,the ,good ,news as ,recorded by ,matthew ,there are ample reasons for accepting the uniform tradition which from earliest times has ascribed this ,gospel to ,levi the son of ,alphaeus1 who seems to have changed his name to ',matthew' on becoming a disciple of ,jesus4 ,our information as to his subsequent life is very scanty4 ,after the feast which he made for his old friends 7,lu #e3bi7 his name only appears in the ,new ,testament in the list of the twelve ,apostles4 ,early ,christian writers add little to our knowledge of him1 but his life seems to have been quiet and somewhat ascetic4 ,he is also generally represented as having died a natural death4 ,where his ,gospel was written1 or where he himself laboured1 we cannot say4 ,not a little controversy has arisen as to the form in which this ,gospel first appeared1 that is1 as to whether we have in the ,greek ,,mss4 an original document or a translation from an earlier ,aramaic writing4 ,modern scholarship inclines to the view that the book is not a translation1 but was probably written in ,greek by ,matthew himself1 upon the basis of a previously issued collection of ,logia or discourses1 to the existence of which ,papias1 ,irenaeus1 ,pantaenus1 ,origen1 ,eusebius and ,jerome all testify4 ,the date of the ,gospel1 as we know it1 is somewhat uncertain1 but the best critical estimates are included between #gj and #ij1 ,a4,d4 ,perhaps1 with ,harnack1 we may adopt #ge1 ,a4,d4 ,the book was evidently intended for ,jewish converts1 and exhibits ,jesus as the ,god-appointed ,messiah and ,king1 the fulfiller of the ,law and of the highest expectations of the ,jewish nation4 ,this speciality of aim rather enhances than diminishes its general value4 ,renan found reason for pronouncing it the most important book of ,christendom-- the most important book which has ever been written4 ,its aim is manifestly didactic rather than chronological4 ,the ,good ,news as ,recorded by ,mark ,this ,gospel is at once the briefest and earliest of the four4 ,modern research confirms the ancient tradition that the author was ,barnabas's cousin1 ,john1 whose other name was ,mark1 who during ,paul's first missionary tour departed from them at ,pamphylia1 and returned to ,jerusalem 7see ,ac #ab3ab1be2 #ae3cg1ci2 ,co #d3a,o2 #b,ti #d3aa2 ,phm #a3bd2 #a,pe #e3ac74 ,his defection appeared to ,paul sufficiently serious to warrant an emphatic refusal to take him with him on a second tour1 but in after years the breach was healed and we find ,mark with ,paul again when he writes to ,colossae1 and he is also mentioned approvingly in the second ,letter to ,timothy4 ,scholars are now almost unanimous in fixing the date of this ,gospel between #fc and #gj1 ,a4 ,d4 ,there is no valid reason for questioning the usual view that it was written in ,rome4 ,clement1 ,eusebius1 ,jerome and ,epiphanius1 all assert that this was so4 ,that the book was mainly intended for ,gentiles1 and especially ,romans1 seems probable from internal evidence4 ,latin forms not occurring in other ,gospels1 together with explanations of ,jewish terms and customs1 and the omission of all reference to the ,jewish ,law1 point in this direction4 ,its vividness of narration and pictorial minuteness of observation bespeak the testimony of an eye-witness1 and the assertion of ,papias1 quoted by ,eusebius1 that ,mark was the interpreter of ,peter is borne out by the ,gospel itself no less than by what we otherwise know of ,mark and ,peter4 ,in a real though not mechanical sense1 this is the ,gospel of ,peter1 and its admitted priority to the ,gospels of ,matthew and ,luke affords substantial reason for the assumption that it is to some extent the source whence they derive their narratives1 although ,papias distinctly affirms that ,mark made no attempt at giving a carefully arranged history such as that at which ,luke confessedly aimed4 ,in spite of the witness of most uncial ,,mss4 and the valiant pleading of ,dean ,burgon and others1 modern scholars are well nigh unanimous in asserting that the last twelve verses of this ,gospel are an appendix4 ,yet less cannot honestly be said than that they must have been of very early date1 and that they embody a true apostolic tradition which may have been written by some companion or successor of the original author4 ,in one ,armenian ,,ms4 they are attributed to ,aristion4 ,the ,good ,news as ,recorded by ,luke ,modern research has abundantly confirmed the ancient tradition that the anonymous author of the third ,gospel is none other than ,luke the beloved physician and the narrator of the ,acts of the ,apostles 7see4 ,col #d3ad2 #b,ti #d3aa2 ,phm #a3bd74 ,even ,renan acknowledges this1 and the objections of a few extremists appear to have been sufficiently answered4 ,the date is not easy to settle4 ,the main problem is whether the book was written before or after the destruction of ,jerusalem in #gj1 ,a4,d4 ,not a few scholars whose views merit great respect still think that it preceded that event1 but the majority of critics believe otherwise4 ,three principal dates have been suggested1 #fc1 ,a4,d41 #hj1 ,a4,d41 #ajj1 ,a4,d4 ,if we accept #hj1 ,a4 ,d41 we shall be in substantial accord with ,harnack1 ,mc,giffert1 and ,plummer1 who fairly represent the best consensus of scholarly opinion4 ,there is no evidence as to where this ,gospel was composed1 although its general style suggests the influence of some ,hellenic centre4 ,its special characteristics are plain4 ,it is written in purer ,greek than the other ,gospels1 and is manifestly the most historic and artistic4 ,it has also the widest outlook1 having obviously been compiled for ,gentiles1 and1 especially1 for ,greeks4 ,the ,author was evidently an educated man and probably a physician1 and was also a close observer4 ,eighteen of the parables and six of the miracles found here are not recorded elsewhere4 ,those portions of the ,gospel narrative which ,luke alone has preserved for us1 are among the most beautiful treasures which we possess1 and we owe them in a great measure to his desire to make his collection as full as possible4 ,luke's object was rather to write history than construct an apology and for this reason his order is generally chronological4 ,this ,gospel is often termed1 and not without reason1 the ,gospel of ,paul4 ,luke's close association with the great ,apostle--an association to which the record in the ,acts and also the ,pauline ,letters bear testimony--at once warrants and explains the ancient assumption that we have here a writing as truly coloured by the influence of ,paul as that of ,mark was by ,peter4 ,this is especially the ,gospel of gratuitous and universal salvation4 ,its integrity has recently been placed beyond dispute4 ,marcion's edition of it in #adj1 ,a4,d41 was a mutilation of the original6 ,the ,good ,news as ,recorded by ,john ,in spite of its rejection by ,marcion and the ,alogi1 the fourth ,gospel was accepted by most ,christians at the end of the second century as having been written by the ,apostle ,john4 ,in the present day the preponderating tendency among scholars favours the traditional authorship4 ,on the other hand the most recent scrutiny asserts3 ,although many critics see no adequate reason for accepting the tradition which assigns the book to the ,apostle ,john1 and there are several cogent reasons to the contrary1 they would hardly deny that nevertheless the volume is ,johannine--in the sense that any historical element throughout its pages may be traced back directly or indirectly to that ,apostle and his school4 ,as regards the date1 no more definite period can be indicated than that suggested by ,harnack--between #hj1 ,a4,d41 and #aaj1 ,a4,d4 ,but that it was written in ,ephesus is practically certain1 and there is evidence that it was composed at the request of ,elders and believers belonging to the ,churches of ,roman ,asia4 ,the special characteristics which render the book unique in literature are unmistakable1 but scarcely admit of brief expression4 ,it is manifestly supplementary to the other ,gospels and assumes that they are known and are true4 ,the differences between the fourth ,gospel and the other three may be easily exaggerated1 but it must be acknowledged that they exist4 ,they relate1 7#a7 to the ministry of ,christ1 and 7#b7 to ,his person4 ,as to the former it is impossible to correlate all the references to distinct events1 for whilst the ,synoptics appear to contemplate little more than the life and work of a single year1 from ,john's standpoint there can scarcely have been less than three years concerned4 ,as to the person of ,christ1 it must be owned that although the fourth ,gospel makes no assertion which contradicts the character of ,teacher and ,reformer attributed to ,him by the ,synoptics1 it presents to us a personage so enwrapped in mystery and dignity as altogether to transcend ordinary human nature4 ,this transcendent ,personality is indeed the avowed centre of the whole record1 and ,his portrayal is its avowed purpose4 ,yet whilst the writer never clearly reveals to us who he himself is1 it is equally manifest that his own convictions constitute the matrix in which the discourses and events are imbedded1 and that there is nothing in this matrix to render that which it contains unreal or untrustworthy4 ,the ,acts of the ,apostles ,the authorship of this book has been much discussed1 but it may now be affirmed with certainty that the writer of our third ,gospel is also the author of the ,acts1 and that he speaks from the standpoint of an eye-witness in the four we sections 7#af3aj-ag2 #bj3e-ae2 #ba3a-ah2 #bg3a--bh3af71 and is known in ,paul's ,letters as ,luke the beloved physician 7,col #d3ad2 #b,ti #d3aa2 ,phm #a3bd74 ,the date necessarily depends upon that of the third ,gospel4 ,if the latter was written before the destruction of ,jerusalem1 then ,luke's second work may well have been issued between #ff and #gj1 ,a4,d4 ,but the tendency1 in the present day1 is to date the ,gospel somewhere between #ge and #he1 ,a4,d41 after the destruction of the city4 ,in that case the ,acts may be assigned to any period between #hj and #ij1 ,a4,d4 ,the latter conclusion1 though by no means certain1 is perhaps the more probable4 ,the familiar title of the book is somewhat unfortunate1 for it is manifestly not the intention of the writer to describe the doings of the ,apostles generally1 but rather just so much of the labours of ,peter and ,paul--and especially the latter--as will serve to illustrate the growth of the early ,church1 and at the same time exhibit the emancipation of ,christianity from its primitive ,judaic origin and environment4 ,it is plain that the writer was contemporary with the events he describes1 and although his perfect ingenuousness ceaselessly connects his narrative with history1 in no case has he been proved to be in error4 ,the intricacy of the connexions between this record and the ,pauline ,letters will be best estimated from a study of ,paley's ,horae ,paulinae4 ,we know nothing definite as to the place where the ,acts was written1 nor the sources whence the information for the earlier portion of the narrative was obtained4 ,but it may be truthfully affirmed that from the modern critical ordeal the work emerges as a definite whole1 and rather confirmed than weakened in regard to its general authenticity4 ,paul's ,letter to the ,romans ,the four books of the ,new ,testament known as the ,letters to the ,romans1 ,corinthians1 and ,galatians1 are allowed by practically all critics1 including some of the most destructive1 to be genuine productions of the ,apostle ,paul4 ,opinions vary as to the order of their composition4 ,the latest research tends to put ',galatians' first1 and ',romans' last1 in the period between #ec and #eh ,a4 ,d4 ,the date generally assigned to the ,roman ,letter is #eh ,a4,d41 but recently ,harnack1 ,mc,giffert1 ,clemen and others have shown cause for putting it some four years earlier4 ,the chronology of the period is necessarily very complicated4 ,it must suffice1 therefore1 to regard this ,letter as having been written1 at either of these dates1 from ,corinth1 where ,paul was staying in the course of his third missionary tour4 ,he was hoping to go to ,rome1 by way of ,jerusalem1 and then proceed to ,spain 7#ae3bd2 ,ac #bd3ba74 ,the object of this ,letter was to prepare the ,christians in ,rome for his visit1 and make a clear statement of the new doctrines which he taught4 ,it is probable that the crisis in ,galatia1 to which the ,letter sent thither bears witness1 had driven the ,apostle's thoughts in the direction of the subject of ,justification1 and he was apparently much troubled by the persistence of ,jewish unbelief4 ,hence the present ,letter has been well termed the ,gospel according to ,paul4 ,we know really nothing about the ,christians then in ,rome beyond what we find here4 ,it is1 however1 fairly certain that reports concerning the ,saviour would be taken to that city by proselytes1 both before and after the events described in ,acts #b1 and we know that there was a large ,jewish population there amongst whom the seed would be sown4 ,some critics have thought that a note addressed to ,ephesus lies embedded in the #afth chapter1 because1 they say1 it is inconceivable that ,paul could have intimately known so many individuals in a ,church like that in ,rome to which he was personally a stranger4 ,but this is by no means demonstrated1 nor is there evidence that the ,church there was founded by any other ,apostle4 ,paul's ,first ,letter to the ,corinthians ,the genuineness of the two ,letters to the ,corinthians has never been seriously disputed4 ,the first was written by the ,apostle ,paul1 probably in the early spring of #ef ,a4,d41 just before he left ,ephesus for ,troas in the course of his third missionary tour 7,ac #ai74 ,the ,church in ,corinth had been founded by him during his previous tour 7,ac #ah74 ,after some hesitation he had been induced to preach in ,corinth1 and in spite of the opposition of the ,jews such great success attended his efforts that he remained there for more than eighteen months4 ,the furious attack upon him which was frustrated by ,gallio gave impetus to the new cause1 so that when the ,apostle left1 there was a comparatively strong ,church there1 consisting mostly of ,greeks1 but including not a few ,jews also4 ,the dangers1 however1 arising out of the temperament and circumstances of the ,corinthians soon manifested themselves4 ,the city was the capital of ,roman ,greece1 a wealthy commercial centre1 and the home of a restless1 superficial intellectualism4 ,exuberant verbosity1 selfish display1 excesses at the ,lord's table1 unseemly behaviour of women at meetings for worship1 and also abuse of spiritual gifts1 were complicated by heathen influences and the corrupting customs of idolatry4 ,hence the ,apostle's pleas1 rebukes1 and exhortations4 ,most noteworthy of all is his forceful treatment of the subject of the ,resurrection of ,christ2 and this only a quarter of a century after the event4 ,of the ,letter mentioned in #e3i we know nothing4 ,paul's ,second ,letter to the ,corinthians ,the second ,letter to the ,corinthians was probably written in the autumn of #ef ,a4,d41 the first ,letter to them having been sent in the spring of that year4 ,but there are other letters of which we have no clear account4 ,one1 lost to us1 evidently preceded the first ,letter 7#a;,co #e3i74 ,in our second ,letter we find mention 7#b3b1d7 of a severe communication which could not but give pain4 ,can this have been our first to the ,corinthians8 ,some think not1 in which case there must have been an intermediate letter4 ,this some students find in #b;,co #aj #a-h3a,o4 ,if so1 there must have been four letters4 ,some have thought that in #b;,co #f3ad-g3a1 and #h1 #i1 yet another is embedded1 making possibly five in all4 ,the reader must form his own conclusions1 inasmuch as the evidence is almost entirely internal4 ,on the whole it would seem that our first ,letter1 conveyed by ,titus1 had produced a good effect in the ,corinthian ,church1 but that this wore off1 and that ,titus returned to the ,apostle in ,ephesus with such disquieting news that a visit of ,paul just then to ,corinth would have been very embarrassing1 alike for the ,church and the ,apostle4 ,hence1 instead of going1 he writes a painful letter and sends it by the same messenger1 proceeding himself to ,troas and thence to ,macedonia1 where1 in great tension of spirit1 he awaits the return of ,titus4 ,at last there comes a reassuring account1 the relief derived from which is so great that our second ,letter is written1 with the double purpose of comforting those who had been so sharply rebuked and of preventing the recurrence of the evils which had called forth the remonstrance4 ,in this way both the tenderness and the severity of the present ,letter may be explained4 ,paul's ,letter to the ,galatians ,there is no question as to the genuineness of this ,pauline ,letter1 but unlike most other writings of the ,apostle it was addressed to ,churches rather than to a single community4 ,formerly it was not easy to decide the precise meaning of the term ,galatia4 ,opinions differed on the subject4 ,the ,north ,galatian theory1 contended for by some ,german scholars1 maintained that the ,letter was addressed to the ,churches of ,ancyra1 ,tavium1 ,pessinus and possibly to those in other cities4 ,the ,south ,galatian theory1 which now holds the field in ,english-speaking countries1 is to the effect that the congregations intended were those of ,pisidian ,antioch1 ,iconium1 ,derbe and ,lystra2 and this is strongly supported by the unique resemblance between this ,letter and ,paul's sermon in ,pisidian ,antioch 7,ac #ac3ad-da74 ,in any case the population was very mixed1 consisting of ,phrygians1 ,greeks1 ,romans1 ,gauls and ,jews4 ,the date of the ,letter cannot be exactly fixed4 ,the periods assigned by recent scholarship vary from #df ,a4,d4 to #eh ,a4,d41 but the medium estimate of #ec ,a4,d41 adopted by ,harnack and ,ramsay1 satisfies all the requirements of the case4 ,the ,apostle certainly visited ,galatia during his second missionary tour1 perhaps about #ea ,a4 ,d41 and1 although suffering from illness1 was received with enthusiasm4 ,after a short stay he departed cherishing a joyful confidence as to his converts there4 ,but when1 less than three years afterwards1 he came again1 he found that the leaven of ,judaism had produced a definite apostasy1 insomuch that both the freedom of individual believers and his own ,apostolic authority were in danger4 ,even his personal presence 7,ac #ah3bc7 did not end the difficulty4 ,hence1 possibly during his journey between ,macedonia and ,achaia1 he sent this ,letter4 ,its rugged and incoherent style shows that it was dictated under great stress of feeling1 and the doctrine of justification by faith is stated more emphatically than in any other of his writings4 ,but his earnest insistence upon the fruit borne by the ,spirit proves that his ideal of practical holiness was rather strengthened than impaired by his plea for ,faith as the mainspring of ,christian life4 ,paul's ,letter to the ,ephesians ,this appears to have been a kind of circular ,letter to the ,churches in ,roman ,asia1 and was not addressed exclusively to the ,church in ,ephesus4 ,ephesus was a well-known seaport and the principal city in ,roman ,asia4 ,it was famous alike for its wonderful temple1 containing the shrine of ,artemis1 and for its vast theatre1 which was capable of accommodating #ej1jjj persons4 ,paul was forbidden at first to preach in ,roman ,asia 7,ac #af3f71 but he afterwards visited ,ephesus in company with ,priscilla and ,aquila 7,ac #ah3ai74 ,about three years later 7,ac #ai3a7 he came again and remained for some time--probably from #ed to #eg ,a4 ,d4--preaching and arguing in the school of ,tyrannus1 until driven away through the tumult raised by ,demetrius4 ,he then went to ,jerusalem1 by way of ,miletus1 but was arrested in the uproar created by the ,jews and was taken first to ,caesarea 7,ac #bc3bc71 and thence to ,rome 7,ac #bh3af74 ,this was probably in the spring of #fa ,a4,d4 ,late in #fb or early in #fc ,a4,d41 this ,letter was written1 together with the companion ,letters to the ,colossians and ,philemon4 ,paul's ,letter to the ,philippians ,this ,letter was written shortly before that to the ,ephesians1 probably late in #fa or early in #fb ,a4,d4 ,epaphroditus had been sent to ,rome to assure the ,apostle1 in his imprisonment1 of the tender and practical sympathy of the ,philippian disciples 7,php #b3be2 #d3ae1af74 ,the messenger1 however1 fell ill upon his arrival1 and only on his recovery could ,paul1 as in this ,letter1 express his appreciation of the thoughtful love of the ,philippians4 ,the ,apostle appears to have visited the city three times4 ,in #eb ,a4,d4 it was the place of his first preaching in ,europe 7,ac #af3ab72 but he came again in #eg and in #eh ,a4,d4 7,ac #bj3b1f71 on the last occasion spending the ,passover season there4 ,two special traits in the ,macedonian character are recognized by the ,apostle in this ,letter2 the position and influence of women1 and the financial liberality of the ,philippians4 ,it is remarkable that a ,church displaying such characteristics1 and existing in a ,roman colonia1 should have lived1 as this one did1 without a history1 and have perished without a memorial4 ,paul's ,letter to the ,colossians ,this ,letter belongs to the same group as those to the ,ephesians and ,philemon1 and was probably written from ,rome about #fc ,a4 ,d4 ,colossae was a town in ,phrygia 7,roman ,asia71 on the river ,lycus1 and was destroyed by an earthquake in the seventh year of ,nero's reign4 ,the ,church there was not founded by ,paul himself 7,col #b3a71 but by ,epaphras 7,col #a3g2 #d3ab71 and this ,letter arose out of a visit which ,epaphras paid to the ,apostle1 for the purpose of discussing with him the development1 at ,colossae1 of certain strange doctrines which may possibly have been a kind of early ,gnosticism4 ,paul here writes to support the authority and confirm the teaching of ,epaphras4 ,paul's ,first ,letter to the ,thessalonians ,during his second missionary tour 7,ac #ag71 ,paul came to ,thessalonica and preached the ,good ,news there with no little success4 ,the city--which had had its name given it by ,cassander1 after his wife1 the sister of ,alexander the ,great--was the most populous in ,macedonia1 besides being a free city and the seat of the ,roman pro-consular administration4 ,its modern name is ,saloniki4 ,very soon the unbelieving ,jews stirred up the mob against ,paul and ,silas1 and dragged ,jason before the magistrates4 ,hence the brethren sent the missionaries away by night to ,beroea1 being alarmed for their safety4 ,as the ,apostle was naturally anxious about the persecuted flock which he had been obliged to leave behind1 he made two attempts to return to them1 but these being frustrated 7#a,th #b3ah71 he then sent ,timothy1 from ,athens1 to inquire after their welfare and encourage them4 ,the report brought back was on the whole satisfactory1 but left occasion for the self-defence1 the warnings and the exhortations of this ,letter1 which was then sent from ,corinth1 probably in #ec ,a4,d4 ,paul's ,second ,letter to the ,thessalonians ,this ,letter was written from ,corinth not long after the preceding one1 and probably in the year #ed ,a4,d4 ,its occasion was the reception of tidings from ,thessalonica which showed that there had been a measure of misapprehension of the ,apostle's teaching in regard to the ,return of the ,lord ,jesus1 and also that there was a definitely disorderly section in the ,church there1 capable of doing great harm4 ,hence ,paul writes to correct the error into which his converts had fallen1 and at the same time he uses strong language as to the treatment to be dealt out to those members of the ,church who were given to idleness and insubordination4 ,paul's ,first ,letter to ,timothy ,there has never been any real doubt among ,christian people as to the authorship of the three pastoral ,letters4 ,but definite objections to their genuineness have been made in recent times upon the ground of such internal evidence as their style1 the indications they present of advanced organization1 their historic standpoint and their references to developed heresy4 ,says one scholar1 ,while there is probably nothing in them to which the ,apostle would have objected1 they must be regarded on account of their style as the product of one who had been taught by ,paul and now desired to convey certain teachings under cover of his name4 ,the date need not be later than #hj ,a4,d4 ,yet a thorough examination of the matter does not support such objections4 ,it is certain that the three ,letters stand or fall together1 and there is no sufficient reason for dismissing the ancient conclusion that they are all the genuine work of ,paul1 and belong to the last years of his life1 #ff-fg ,a4,d4 ,this first ,letter was probably written from ,macedonia4 ,paul's ,second ,letter to ,timothy ,the marks of genuineness in this ,letter are very pronounced4 ,for instance1 the thanksgiving1 the long list of proper names--twenty-three in number--the personal details and the manifest tone of sincerity and earnestness4 ,hence it is accepted as ,paul's even by some who reject the former ,letter and that addressed to ,titus4 ,but it is inseparable from the others1 and was probably written from ,rome during the ,apostle's second imprisonment4 ,it is his last ,letter known to us1 and its apparent date is #fg ,a4,d4 ,paul's ,letter to ,titus ,this ,letter was probably written from ,ephesus in #fg ,a4,d4 ,titus1 who was a ,greek by birth1 is mentioned in eleven other places in the ,pauline ,letters and always with marked approval 7#b;,co #b3ac2 #g3f1ac1ad2 #h3f1af1bc2 #ab3ah2 ,ga #b3a1c2 #b,ti #d3aj74 ,he was often a trusted messenger to the ,churches1 his last errand being to ,dalmatia4 ,tradition confirms the inference commonly drawn from this ,letter that he was long the ,bishop of the ,church in ,crete1 and regards ,candia as having been his birthplace4 ,paul's ,letter to ,philemon ,this ,letter 7#fc ,a4,d47 was written as the result of ,paul's deep interest in ,onesimus1 a slave who had fled from ,colossae to ,rome to get free from ,philemon his master 7,col #d3i74 ,a ,phrygian slave was one of the lowest known types to be found in the ,roman world1 displaying all the worst features of character which the servile condition developed4 ,onesimus had proved no exception4 ,he ran away from his master1 and1 as ,paul thought probable 7verses #ah1ai71 not without helping himself to a share of his master's possessions4 ,by the help of what he had stolen1 and by the cleverness which afterwards made him so helpful to ,paul1 he made his way to ,rome1 naturally drawn to the great centre1 and prompted both by a desire to hide himself and by a youthful yearning to see the utmost the world could show of glory and of vice4 ,but whether feeling his loneliness1 or wearied with a life of vice1 or impoverished and reduced to want1 or seized with a fear of detection1 he made his way to ,paul1 or unbosomed himself to some ,asiatic he saw on the street4 ,and as he stepped out of the coarse debauchery and profanity of the crowded resorts of the metropolis into the room hallowed by the presence of ,paul1 he saw the foulness of the one life and the beauty of the other1 and was persuaded to accept the gospel he had so often heard in his master's house4 ,how long he remained with ,paul does not appear1 but it was long enough to impress on the ,apostle's mind that this slave was no common man4 ,paul had devoted and active friends by him1 but this slave1 trained to watch his master's wants and to execute promptly all that was entrusted to him1 became almost indispensable to the ,apostle4 ,but to retain him1 he feels1 would be to steal him1 or at any rate to deprive ,philemon of the pleasure of voluntarily sending him to minister to him 7verse #ad74 ,he therefore sends him back with this ,letter1 so exquisitely worded that it cannot but have secured the forgiveness and cordial reception of ,onesimus 7,marcus ,dods1 ,d4,d41 ,new ,testament ,introduction74 ,the ,letter to the ,hebrews ,as regards the date of this ,letter1 the only sure conclusion appears to be that it was before #gj ,a4,d4 ,the book itself claims to have been written at the end of the ,jewish ,age 7#a3b2 #i3bf71 whilst the earthly temple was still in existence 7#i3h71 and it is inconceivable that such an overwhelming comment upon the writer's whole position as that afforded by the destruction of ,jerusalem would have been overlooked1 had it been available4 ,hence #fg-fh ,a4,d4 may with probability be alleged as the time of composition4 ,the only fact clear as to the author is that he was not the ,apostle ,paul4 ,the early ,fathers did not attribute the book to ,paul1 nor was it until the seventh century that the tendency to do this1 derived from ,jerome1 swelled into an ecclesiastical practice4 ,from the book itself we see that the author must have been a ,jew and a ,hellenist1 familiar with ,philo as well as with the ,old ,testament1 a friend of ,timothy and well-known to many of those whom he addressed1 and not an ,apostle but decidedly acquainted with ,apostolic thoughts2 and that he not only wrote before the destruction of ,jerusalem but apparently himself was never in ,palestine4 ,the name of ,barnabas1 and also that of ,priscilla1 has been suggested1 but in reality all these distinctive marks appear to be found only in ,apollos4 ,so that with ,luther1 and not a few modern scholars1 we must either attribute it to him or give up the quest4 ,there has never been any question as to the canonicity of this ,letter1 nor can there be any doubt as to its perennial value to the ,church of ,christ4 ,where it was written cannot be decided4 ,the brethren from ,italy 7#ac3bd7 proves nothing4 ,nor is it possible to decide to whom it was sent4 ,the ,hebrews1 to whom it was addressed1 may have been resident in ,jerusalem1 ,alexandria1 ,ephesus1 or ,rome4 ,the most remarkable feature of the ,letter is manifestly its references to the old ,covenant4 ,here there is a mingling of reverence and iconoclasm4 ,the unquestionably divine origin of the ,jewish dispensation is made use of for laying emphasis upon the infinitely superior glory of the ,christian order4 ,thus an a fortiori argument pervades the whole --if the shadow was divine1 how much more must the substance be6 ,the language of the ,epistle1 both in vocabulary and style1 is purer and more vigorous than that of any other book of the ,new ,testament 7,westcott74 ,james's ,letter ,four persons bearing the name of ',james' are mentioned in the ,new ,testament4 7#a7 ,the ,apostle1 the son of ,zabdi4 7#b7 ,the ,apostle1 the son of ,alphaeus4 7#c7 ,the son of ,mary the wife of ,clopas4 7#d7 ,the ,lord's brother1 mentioned as such along with ,joses1 ,simon and ,judah1 and prominent in the ,acts 7#ab3ag2 #ae3ac2 #ba3ah74 ,the last-named was also known as ',james the ,just' and is represented by tradition as having led an ascetic life1 which ended in martyrdom4 ,he was undoubtedly ,bishop1 or ,president1 of the ,church in ,jerusalem and in all probability this ,letter was written by him from that city4 ,there has been some difference of opinion as to the date of the book4 ,the majority of scholars insist that both the internal and external evidence point to its having been written between #dd and #ej ,a4 ,d41 before the earliest of ,paul's ,letters4 ,but1 on the other hand1 the solemn emphasis which the author lays upon the immediateness of the ,lord's ,return 7#e3g1h1i7 may be regarded as a moral proof of a date very much nearer the winding up of the ,mosaic dispensation in #gj ,a4 ,d4 ,the ,letter may have been a ,jewish one1 addressed to the ,christian converts from ,judaism who were scattered abroad1 within or beyond the limits of the ,roman ,empire4 ,luther deemed it an ,epistle of straw1 by reason of its insistence upon the vital importance of 'works4' ,but its practical ideal assumes the same basis of ,christian faith as is found in the ,letters of ,paul4 ,the opening references to severe trial seem to show that the persecution begun by ,herod ,agrippa had already been repeated elsewhere4 ,if the later date of the book be admitted1 the persecution must then1 of course1 have been that under ,nero4 ,peter's ,first ,letter ,the state of things described in this ,letter answers to what we find in the first ,letter to ,timothy1 and points to the same period4 ,the fiery trial referred to is probably the persecution which1 begun by ,nero1 in #fd ,a4,d41 in order to divert attention from himself1 was continued throughout the ,roman ,empire4 ,the ,letter seems to be primarily addressed to those who regarded ,peter as the ,apostle to the ,jews1 although it is manifest that he did not think of these alone4 ,the fact that it is full of ,pauline thought and ,pauline language1 is accounted for by the well-grounded supposition that ,peter arrived in ,rome shortly before ,paul was released4 ,so that this ,letter1 probably written about #fe-ff ,a4,d41 was definitely intended to set before the ,churches of ,roman ,asia the inspiring vision of the two ,apostles working and planning together in the capital4 ,this would be at once the clearest lesson the ,churches could have concerning their unity1 and a great encouragement to those then undergoing tribulation and persecution on behalf of ,christ4 ,peter's ,second ,letter ,it is impossible to speak with any certainty as to either the date or the authorship of this ,letter4 ,from the beginning there have been doubts as to its genuineness and canonicity1 and these are represented to-day in the differing judgements of critics equally able and sincere4 ,it has1 however1 unquestionably had a place in the canon of the ,new ,testament since the ,council of ,laodicea in #cgb ,a4,d41 and there is certainly no such decisive evidence against it as to warrant our omitting it from the ,new ,testament4 ,it would appear that the writer1 whoever he was1 had seen the ,letter from ,jude1 and bore it in mind in this his plea for such character and conduct on the part of believers as were worthy of their faith and would prepare them for the ,coming of the ,lord4 ,the whole ,letter constitutes an earnest appeal for practical holiness4 ,john's ,first ,letter ,that this ,letter was the actual work of the ,apostle ,john1 the son of ,zabdi1 has been abundantly testified from the very earliest times4 ,some modern critics have doubted it1 on the ground of internal evidence4 ,but a calm survey of the whole case does not bear out their objections4 ,dr4 ,salmon well says that no explanation of the origin of the ,epistle fits the facts so well as the one which has always prevailed4 ,it seems to have been addressed to the ,church at large1 with perhaps special reference to the ,churches in ,roman ,asia4 ,the connexion between this ,letter and the fourth ,gospel is intimate and organic4 ,the ,gospel is objective and the ,epistle subjective4 ,the ,gospel suggests principles of conduct which the ,epistle lays down explicitly4 ,the ,epistle implies facts which the ,gospel states as historically true4 ,this ,letter appears to have been written from ,ephesus1 and critics have usually assigned #ie ,a4 ,d41 or some other year equally late in the ,apostolic age1 as the probable date of its composition4 ,on the other hand the internal evidence points to a date immediately preceding the destruction of ,jerusalem in #gj ,a4,d4 ,see #b3h 7last clause72 #b3ah2 #d3c2 and note the expectation of a speedy ,coming of ,christ 7#b3bh2 #c3b7--;an expectation which seems almost to have ceased in the early ,church after that date4 ,john's ,second ,letter ,although we are unable to fix the exact date of this ,letter or the place at which it was written1 there is sufficient evidence1 both external and internal1 to warrant our acceptance of it as a genuine work of the ,apostle ,john4 ,some have thought that the lady addressed stands for an unknown ,church1 but upon careful consideration it appears more reasonable and natural to regard the ,letter as having been a private one4 ,it is impossible to discover the name of the individual to whom it was sent1 but both this and the following ,letter may be taken as precious specimens of the private correspondence of the beloved ,apostle4 ,john's ,third ,letter ,there can be no doubt that this ,letter was addressed to an individual person4 ,we cannot affix to it a definite date1 or place1 but the most natural supposition--which there is nothing to contradict--is that it came from the ,apostle in ,ephesus1 about the same time as the preceding ,letter4 ,the special mention of ,diotrephes and his behaviour points indeed to a somewhat advanced development in the ,church to which ,galus belonged1 but such characters are all too possible at any juncture to afford in this instance any guarantee of a later date4 ,in this1 as in the preceding ,letters1 the writer's great concern is that transcendental truth should be embodied in practical holiness4 ,jude's ,letter ,of the time and place of the composition of this ,letter we know nothing beyond what may be inferred from its contents4 ,these seem to show that it was written in ,palestine1 and the absence of any reference to so striking an event as the destruction of ,jerusalem points to a date earlier than #gj ,a4 ,d4 ,it has1 however1 been thought that such a rebuke of error and licentiousness as that which this ,letter contains can only apply to the forms of ,gnosticism known to have existed in the first quarter of the second century4 ,but there is no reason to doubt that the author was the man he asserts he was1 the brother of ,james1 the head of the ,church in ,jerusalem4 ,he was1 therefore1 not an ,apostle but one of the ,lord's brothers4 ,the abiding value of the ,letter consists in its severe condemnation of merely professional ,christianity1 and its remarkably beautiful doxology4 ,the ,revelation of ,john ,the ,apocalypse was written either in #fg1 or in #if1 ,a4,d4 ,an oft-quoted statement of ,irenaeus that it1 or its author-- there is no word inserted to indicate which of the two he meant--was seen about the end of the reign of ,domitian1 is regarded by many as a conclusive proof of the later date4 ,on the other hand1 the internal evidence--the evidence1 that is1 furnished by the contents of the book itself--appears to point even more unmistakably to the earlier date4 ,e4g-41 in #aa3a1b1h1 the ,holy ,city and the earthly ,temple are spoken of as being still in existence1 and as about to be trodden under foot by the ,gentiles4 ,the language of the book has also a bearing upon the problem of its date4 ,although other explanations have been suggested1 the many ,hebrew idioms that it contains as compared with the much purer ,greek of the fourth ,gospel-- which was probably by the same author--seem to indicate that it was written long before that ,gospel1 at a time when the ,apostle had as yet only an imperfect acquaintance with the ,greek language4 ,dr4 ,stuart ,russell1 in his work ,the ,parousia1 has contended for the belief that the fall of ,jerusalem and ,judaism in #gj ,a4,d4 marked a stupendous epoch in the unseen world1 a personal--although unrecorded--return of the ,saviour to the earth then taking place 7cp4 ,ac #g3ee2 #i3g2 #a;,co #i3a71 accompanied by a spiritual judgement of bygone generations1 a resurrection from ,hades to ,heaven of the faithful of past ages1 and an ingathering of saints then on earth into the ,father's ,house of many mansions 7,mt #bd3ca2 ,joh #ad3c2 #a,th #d3ag2 #b,th #b3a74 ,if this belief ever obtains general acceptance the earlier date of the ,apocalypse will also be regarded as fully established4 ,for it will then be seen that the book describes beforehand events which took place in #gj ,a4,d4 and the years immediately preceding1 partly on earth and partly in the spiritual world1 and is mainly concerned with the downfall of the earthly ,jerusalem and the setting up of ,christ's heavenly ,kingdom--the new ,jerusalem4 ,and its many mysterious symbols will be seen to have been a cipher of which the first ,christians held the key1 but which hid its meaning from their enemies4 ,many scholars1 however1 regard the book as a document of ,nero's time carefully incorporated in one written about #ij ,a4,d43 a ,jewish ,apocalypse in a ,christian framework2 both perhaps being by the same author4--,,editor4