,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #cib ,,new ,,york1 ,,july #g1 #ahhc ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xvi1 ,no4 #cib4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,electricity ,,and ,,magnetism4--,improved ,dynamo ,machine4 ,eight figures4 ,an ,improved ,manganese ,battery4--,by ,,geo4 ,,leuchs4 ,the ,cause of ,evident ,magnetism in ,iron1 ,steel1 and other ,magnetic ,metals4--,by ,prof4 ,d4 ,e4 ,,hughes4 ,neutrality4--,superposed ,magnetism4--,elastic ,nature of the ,ether ,surrounding the ,magnetic ,molecules4 #c figures4 ,,ii4 ,,engineering4--,the ,westinghouse ,brake4 #b figures4 ,hydraulic ,elevators and ,motors4--,by ,b4 ,f4 ,,jones4--,bearing upon the ,water ,supply of ,cities4--,cost of ,water used4--,objectionable effects on ,water ,works4--,best method of arranging water supply4--,cause of ,accidents4--,advantages of ,water ,motors over ,steam ,engines4--,rates for ,water ,motors4 ,water ,supply of ,small ,towns4--,process of ,softening ,hard ,water4 ,six figures4 ,improved ,water ,meter4 ,several figures4 ,,iii4 ,,technology4--,washing ,machine for ,wool4 #a figure4 ,increasing the ,illuminating ,power of ,gases1 etc4--,by ,v4 ,,popp4-- #c figures4 ,preventing ,iron from ,rusting4 ,an ,elastic ,mass for ,confectioners' ,use4 ,caoutchouc4 ,photographic ,action ,studied ,spectroscopically4 ,salt and ,lime4 ,renewing ,paint without ,burning4 ,a ,green or ,golden ,color for all ,kinds of ,brass4--,by ,e4 ,,pulcher4 ,vinegar4 ,the ,preservation of ,meat by ,carbonic ,acid4 ,on the ,adulteration of ,soap4--,by ,dr4 ,h4 ,,brackebusch4 ,,iv4 ,,chemistry4--,testing ,olive ,oil4--,by ,dr4 ,o4 ,,bach4 ,on the ,theory of the ,formation of ,compound ,ethers4 ,the ,alizarine ,industry4 ,reduction of ,oxidized ,iron by ,carbonic ,oxide4 ,v4 ,,medicine ,,and ,,hygiene4--,bovine and ,human ,milk2 the ,difference in its ,action and ,composition4--,by ,c4 ,,husson4 ,cereal ,foods in their ,relation to ,health and ,disease4--,by ,f4 ,r4 ,,campbell4 ,moist ,air in ,living ,rooms4 ,the ,developmental ,significance of the ,human ,physiognomy4-- ,by ,e4 ,d4 ,,cope4--,numerous illustrations4 ,,vi4 ,,natural ,,history4--,the ,diamond ,fields of ,south ,africa4 ,sponges at the ,bahamas4 ,testing ,fish ,ova for ,impregnation4 ,,vii4 ,,miscellaneous4--,the ,production of ,fire4 #d figures4 ,st4 ,blaise4--,the winner of the ,derby4 #a illustration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improved ,,dynamo ,,machine4 ,the continuous current and the alternating current generators invented by ,dr4 ,j4 ,hopkinson and ,dr4 ,alexander ,muirhead are peculiarly interesting as being probably the first in which the bobbins of the armature were wound with copper ribbon and arranged on a disk armature much in the same way as was afterward done by ,sir ,william ,thomson and by ,mr4 ,ferranti4 ,in the ,muirhead-,hopkinson machine the armature coils are attached to a soft iron ring1 whereas in the ,ferranti the iron core is dispensed with1 and a gain of lightness in the armature or rotating part effected2 this advantage is of considerable importance1 though ,messrs4 ,hopkinson and ,muirhead can of course reduce the weight of this iron core to insignificant proportions4 ,illustration3 ,,hopkinson ,,muirhead',s ,,dynamo-,,electric ,,generator4 ,the general form of this generator is clearly shown by the side and end elevation4 ,the armature is made by taking a pulley and encircling it with a rim of sheet-iron bands1 each insulated from the other by asbestos paper4 ,on one or both sides of the rim thus formed1 radial slots are cut to admit radial coils of insulated copper wire or ribbon1 so that they lie in planes parallel to the plane of the pulley4 ,in the continuous current machine coils are placed on both sides of the iron rim and arranged alternately1 that on the one side always covering the gap between two on the other side4 ,in this way1 when a coil on one side of the rim is at its dead point and yields its minimum of current1 the corresponding coil on the other side is giving out its maximum4 ,the field magnets are made in a similar manner to the armature and run in circles parallel to the rim of the latter4 ,the cores may be built up of wrought iron as the rim of the armature is2 but it is found cheaper to make them of solid wrought or cast iron4 ,to stop the local induced currents in the core1 however1 ,messrs4 ,muirhead and ,hopkinson cut grooves in the faces of the iron cores1 and fill them up with sheet-iron strips insulated from each other1 similar to the sheet-iron rim of the armature4 ,the coils1 both in the armature and electro-magnets1 are packed as closely as they may to each other1 and have thus a compressed or quadrilateral shape4 ,the arrangement is shown in ,figs4 #a and #b1 which represent1 in side view and plan1 the armature pulley with the soft iron rim and coils attached4 ,there a is the pulley which is keyed to the shaft of the machine1 and is encircled with bands of sheet iron1 b1 insulated from each other by ribbons of asbestos paper laid between every two bands4 ,when the rim has been built up in this way1 radial holes are drilled through it from the outer edge inward1 and the whole rim is bound together by bolts1 d1 inserted in the holes and secured by cottars1 e4 ,radial slots are then cut on each side of the rim all round1 and the coils of wire mounted on them4 ,figs4 #c and #d show the armature of the continuous current dynamo1 with the coils on one side of the rim1 half way between the coils on the other side1 so as to give a more continuous current4 ,in the alternating current machine the slots on the opposite faces are face to face4 ,figs4 #e and #i illustrate the complete continuous current machine1 ,fig4 #i showing the internal arrangement of the field magnets1 and ,fig4 #e the external frame of cast iron supporting them4 ,in these figures a is the armature already described1 b b are the cores of the electro-magnets with a strong cast iron backing1 c c2 d d are the exciting coils or field magnets1 so connected that the poles presented to the armature are alternately north and south1 thus bringing a south pole on one side of the armature opposite a north pole on the other side4 ,the commutator1 e1 is arranged to prevent sparking when the brushes leave a contact piece4 ,this is done by splitting up the brushes into several parts and inserting resistances between the part which leaves the contact piece last and the rest of the circuit4 ,this resistance checks the current ere the final rupture of contact takes place4 ,figs4 #f and #g will explain the structure of the commutator4 ,here a a a are the segments or contact pieces insulated from each other1 and b' b b are the collecting brushes carried on a spindle1 c c'4 ,one of these brushes1 b'1 is connected to the spindle1 c1 through an electrical resistance of plumbago1 arranged as shown in ,fig4 #g1 where d e are metal cylinders1 d being in contact with the brush1 b'1 while e is in contact with the spindle1 c4 ,the space1 f1 between these two cylinders1 d e1 is filled with a mixture of plumbago and lampblack of suitable resistance1 confined at the ends by ivory disks4 ,the brush1 b'1 is adjusted by bending till it remains in contact with any segment of the commutator for a short time after the other brushes have left contact with that segment1 and thus instead of sudden break of circuit and consequent sparking1 a resistance is introduced1 and contact is not broken until the current has been considerably reduced4 ,the contact segments are supported at both ends by solid insulating disks2 but they are insulated from each other by the air spaces between them1 where the brushes rub upon them4 ,the alternating current dynamo of ,drs4 ,hopkinson and ,muirhead differs little in general construction from that we have described2 except that the commutator is very much simplified1 and the armature bobbins are placed opposite each other on both sides of the rim4 ,instead of forming the coils into complete bobbins1 ,dr4 ,muirhead prefers to wind them in a zigzag form round the grooved iron rim after the manner shown in ,fig4 #h1 which represents a plan and section of the alternating current armature4 ,this arrangement is simpler in construction than the bobbin winding1 and is less liable to generate self-induction current in the armature4 ,sir ,william ,thomson has adopted a similar plan in one of his dynamos4 ,in ,fig4 #h1 a is the pulley fixed to the spindle of the machine1 b b is the iron rim1 and c c are the zigzag coils of copper ribbon4 ,the field magnets are also wound in a similar manner4 ,it will be seen from our description that ,drs4 ,hopkinson and ,muirhead have scarcely had sufficient credit given them for this interesting machine1 which so closely approximates to the ,ferranti4 ,one of their alternating dynamos has been built1 and was shown at the ,aquarium ,exhibition4 ,it works well1 and is capable of supporting #cjj ,swan lights1 while in size and appearance it resembles the ,ferranti machine in a very striking manner4 ,drs4 ,muirhead and ,hopkinson have also designed a magneto-electric alternating current machine2 but as it closely resembles the machines described1 with the exception that permanent magnets are employed as field magnets1 we need not dwell upon it further4--,engineering4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,an ,,improved ,,manganese ,,battery4 ,by ,,george ,,leuchs4 ,the ,leclanche battery is distinguished for its simplicity1 its small internal resistance 7#j4g to #a4j ,siemens unit71 and that all chemical action ceases when the current is broken1 that it is not sensitive to external influence1 and by the self-renewal of the negative electrodes4 ,but on the opposite side the action is not very great 7 #a4bj or #a4dh ,d471 and the zinc as well as the sal ammoniac are converted into products that cannot be utilized4 ,i replace the solution of sal ammoniac by one of caustic potash or soda 7#ab to #ae per cent471 and the thin zinc rods by zincs with larger surfaces4 ,in this manner1 ,i obtain a powerful and odorless battery1 having all the valuable qualities of the ,leclanche1 and one that permits of a renewal of the potash solution as well as of the negative electrode4 ,the electromotive power of this element may be as high as #a4h ,d4 ,the same pyrolusite 7binoxide of manganese7 cylinder used with the same thin rod of zinc will precipitate #ge per cent4 more copper from solution in an hour when caustic potash is used than when sal ammoniac is employed4 ,but by replacing the thin zinc rod by a zinc cylinder of large surface1 #b times as much copper is precipitated in the same time4 ,the more powerful action of such a pair is explained by the stronger excitation and more rapid regeneration that the negative electrodes undergo from the oxidizing action of the air in the potash solution1 as well as by the fact that this solution is a better conductor than the sal ammoniac solution4 ,the potash solution does not crystallize easily1 hence the negative electrode remains free from crystals and does not require filling up with water4 ,zinc dissolves only while in contact with negative bodies1 hence there is no unnecessary consumption of zinc either in the open or closed circuit4 ,when the potash lye has become useless1 ,i regenerate it by removing the zinc in the following manner3 ,i pour the solution from the cells1 put it in a suitable vessel1 where ,i add water to replace that already evaporated1 and then shake it up well at the ordinary temperature with hydrated oxide of zinc 7zincic hydrate74 ,under this treatment the greater portion of the zinc that had been chemically dissolved by the potash is precipitated in the form of zinc hydrate1 along with some carbonate4 ,the liquid is now allowed to settle1 and the clear supernatant solution is poured back again into the battery cells4 ,the battery has rather greater electromotive force when this regenerated lye is used1 because certain foreign matters from the carbon1 like sulphur1 chlorine1 sulphuric acid1 etc41 are removed by this treatment4 ,the regeneration of the 7brown coal7 carbon goes on of itself1 beneath the lye1 through the oxidizing action of the atmospheric air2 it is advantageous to have a part of the carbon sticking out of the liquid4 ,of course the regeneration takes place much more quickly if the electrodes are taken out and exposed to the air4 ,in this case the carbon electrode need not be very thick1 and can be flat or of tubular form4 ,in the former case it must have a large volume1 and the massive cylindrical form is recommended4 ,the zinc electrode must be kept covered deeply with potash4 ,the cells must have free access of air1 and the potash must be replaced as soon as it is exhausted4--,chem4 ,zeit4 99 99 99 99 99 ,concluded from ,,supplement ,no4 #cij1 page #fbag4 ,,the ,,cause ,,of ,,evident ,,magnetism ,,in ,,iron1 ,,steel1 ,,and ,,other ,,magnetic ,,metals4 ,footnote3 ,paper lately read before the ,society of ,telegraph ,engineers and ,electricians4 ,by ,professor ,d4 ,e4 ,,hughes1 ,f4,r4,s41 ,vice-,president4 ,,neutrality4 ,the apparatus needed for researches upon evident external polarity requires no very great skill or thought1 but simply an apparatus to measure correctly the force of the evident repulsion or attraction2 in the case of neutrality1 however1 the external polarity disappears1 and we consequently require special apparatus1 together with the utmost care and reflection in its use4 ,from numerous researches previously made by means of the induction balance1 the results of which ,i have already published1 ,i felt convinced that in investigating the cause of magnetism and neutrality ,i should have in it the aid of the most powerful instrument of research ever brought to bear upon the molecular construction of iron1 as indeed of all metals4 ,it neglects all forces which do not produce a change in the molecular structure1 and enables us to penetrate at once to the interior of a magnet or piece of iron1 observing only its peculiar structure and the change which takes place during magnetization or apparent neutrality4 ,the induction balance is affected by three distinct arrangements of molecular structure in iron and steel1 by means of which we have apparent external neutrality4 ,fig #a shows several polar directions of the molecules as indicated by the arrows4 ,poisson assumed as a necessity of his theory1 that a molecule is spherical2 but ,dr4 ,joule's experimental proof of the elongation of iron by one seven-hundred and-twenty-thousandth of its length when magnetized1 proves at least that its form is not spherical2 and1 as ,i am unable at present to demonstrate my own views as to its exact form1 ,i have simply indicated its polar direction by arrows--the dotted oval lines merely indicating its limits of free elastic rotation4 ,in ,fig4 #a1 at ,a1 we have neutrality by the mutual attraction of each pair of molecules1 being the shortest path in which they could satisfy their mutual attractions4 ,at ,b we have the case of superposed magnetism of equal external value1 rendering the wire or rod apparently neutral1 although a lower series of molecules are rotated in the opposite direction to the upper series1 giving to the rod opposite and equal polarities4 ,at ,c we have the molecules arranged in a circular chain around the axis of a wire or rod through which an electric current has passed4 ,at ,d we have the evident polarity induced by the earth's directive influence when a soft iron rod is held in the magnetic meridian4 ,at ,e we have a longitudinal neutrality produced in the same rod when placed magnetic west1 the polarity in the latter case being transversal4 ,in all these cases we have a perfectly symmetrical arrangement1 and ,i have not yet found a single case in well-annealed soft iron in which ,i could detect a heterogeneous arrangement1 as supposed by ,ampere1 ,de la ,rive1 ,weber1 ,wiedermann1 and ,maxwell4 ,we can only study neutrality with perfectly soft ,swedish iron4 ,hard iron and steel retain previous magnetizations1 and an apparent external neutrality would in most cases be the superposition of one magnetism upon another of equal external force in the opposite direction1 as shown at ,b1 ,fig4 #a4 ,perfectly soft iron we can easily free1 by vibrations1 from the slightest trace of previous magnetism1 and study the neutrality produced under varying conditions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,if we take a flat bar of soft iron1 of #cj or more centimeters in length1 and hold it vertically 7giving while thus held a few torsions1 vibrations1 or1 better still1 a few slight blows with a wooden mallet1 in order to allow its molecules to rotate with perfect freedom71 we find its lower end to be of strong north polarity1 and its upper end south4 ,on reversing the rod and repeating the vibrations1 we find that its lower end has precisely a similar north polarity4 ,thus the iron is homogeneous1 and its polarity symmetrical4 ,if we now magnetize this rod to produce a strong south pole at its lower portion1 we can gradually reverse this polarity1 by the influence of earth's magnetism1 by slightly tapping the upper extremity with a small wooden mallet4 ,if we observe this rod by means of a direction needle at all parts1 and successively during its gradual passage from one polarity to the other1 there will be no sudden break into a haphazard arrangement1 but a gradual and perfectly symmetrical rotation from one direction to that of the opposite polarity4 ,if this rod is placed east and west1 having first1 say1 a north polarity to the right1 we can gradually discharge or rotate the molecules to zero1 and as gradually reverse the polarity by simply inclining the rod so as to be slightly influenced by earth's magnetism2 and at no portion of this passage from one polarity to neutrality1 and to that of the opposite name1 will there be found a break of continuity of rotation or haphazard arrangement4 ,if we rotate this rod slowly1 horizontally or vertically1 taking observations at each few degrees of rotation of an entire revolution1 we find still the same gradual symmetrical change of polarity1 and that its symmetry is as complete at neutrality as in evident polarity4 ,in all these cases there is no complete neutrality1 the longitudinal polarity simply becoming transversal when the rod is east and west4 ,f1 ,g1 ,h1 ,i1 ,j1 ,fig4 #a1 show this gradual change1 ,h being neutral longitudinally1 but polarized transversely4 ,if1 in place of the rod1 we take a small square soft iron plate and allow its molecules freedom under the sole influence of the earth's magnetism1 then we invariably find the polarity in the direction of the magnetic dip1 no matter in what position it be held1 and a sphere of soft iron could only be polarized in a similar direction ,thus we can never obtain complete external neutrality while the molecules have freedom and do not form an internal closed circle of mutual attractions2 and whatever theory we may adopt as to the cause of polarity in the molecule1 such as ,coulomb's1 ,poisson's1 ,ampere's1 or ,weber's1 there can exist no haphazard arrangement in perfectly soft iron1 as long as it is free from all external causes except the influence of the earth2 consequently these theories are wrong in one of their most essential parts4 ,we can1 however1 produce a closed circle of mutual attraction in iron and steel1 producing complete neutrality as long as the structure is not destroyed by some stronger external directing influence4 ,oersted discovered that an external magnetic needle places itself perpendicular to an electric current2 and we should expect that1 if the molecules of an iron wire possessed inherent polarity and could rotate1 a similar effect would take place in the interior of the wire to that observed by ,oersted4 ,wiedermann first remarked this effect1 and it has been known as circular magnetism4 ,this circle1 however1 consists really in each molecule having placed itself perpendicular to the current1 simply obeying ,oersted's law1 and thus forming a complete circle in which the mutual attractions of the molecules forming that circle are satisfied1 as shown as ,c1 ,fig4 #a4 ,this wire becomes completely neutral1 any previous symmetrical arrangement of polarity rotating to form its complete circle of attractions2 and we can thus form in hard iron and steel a neutrality extremely difficult to break up or destroy4 ,we have evident proof that this neutrality consists of a closed chain1 or circle1 as by torsion we can partially deflect them on either side2 thus from a perfect externally neutral wire1 producing either polarity1 by simple mechanical angular displacement of the molecules1 as by right or left handed torsion4 ,if we magnetize a wire placed east and west1 it will retain this polarity until freed by vibrations1 as already remarked4 ,if we pass an electric current through this magnetized wire1 we can notice the gradual rotation of the molecules1 and the formation of the circular neutrality4 ,if we commence with a weak current1 gradually increasing its strength1 we can rotate them as slowly as may be desired4 ,there is no sudden break or haphazard moment of neutrality3 the movements to perfect zero are accomplished with perfect symmetry throughout4 ,we can produce a more perfect and shorter circle of attractions by the superposition of magnetism1 as at ,b1 ,fig4 #a4 ,if we magnetize a piece of steel or iron in a given direction with a strong magnetic directing power1 the magnetism penetrates to a certain depth4 ,if we slightly diminish the magnetizing power1 and magnetize the rod in a contrary direction1 we may reduce it to zero1 by the superposition of an exterior magnetism upon one of a contrary name existing at a greater depth2 and if we continue this operation1 gradually diminishing the force at each reversal1 we can easily superpose ten or more distinct symmetrical arrangements1 and1 as their mutual attractions are satisfied in a shorter circle than in that produced by electricity1 it is extremely difficult to destroy this formation when once produced4 ,the induction balance affords also some reasons for believing that the molecules not only form a closed circle of attractions1 as at ,b1 but that they can mutually react upon each other1 so as to close a circle of attractions as a double molecule1 as shown at ,a4 ,the experimental evidence1 however1 is not sufficient to dwell on this point1 as the neutrality obtained by superposition is somewhat similar in its external effects4 ,we can produce a perfectly symmetrical closed circle of attractions of the nature of the neutrality of ,c1 ,fig4 #c1 by forming a steel wire into a closed circle1 #aj centimeters in diameter1 if this wire is well joined at its extremities by twisting and soldering4 ,we can then magnetize this ring by slowly revolving it at the extremity of one pole of a strong permanent magnet2 and1 to avoid consequent poles at the part last touching the magnet1 we should have a graduating wedge of wood1 so that while revolving it may be gradually removed to greater distance4 ,this wire will then contain no consequent points or external magnetism3 it will be found perfectly neutral in all parts of its closed circle4 ,its neutrality is similar to ,c1 ,fig4 #c2 for if we cut this wire at any point we find extremely strong magnetic polarity1 being magnetized by this method to saturation1 and having retained 7which it will indefinitely7 its circle of attractions complete4 ,i have already shown that soft iron1 when its molecules are allowed perfect freedom by vibration1 invariably takes the polarity of the external directing influence1 such as that of the earth1 and it does so even with greater freedom under the influence of heat4 ,manufacturers of electro-magnets for telegraphic instruments are very careful to choose the softest iron and thoroughly anneal it2 but very few recognize the importance as regards the position of the iron while annealing it under the earth's directing influence4 ,the fact1 however1 has long since been observed4 ,dr4 ,hooke1 #afhd1 remarked that steel or iron was magnetized when heated to redness and placed in the magnetic meridian4 ,i have slightly varied this experiment by heating to redness three similar steel bars1 two of which had been previously magnetized to saturation1 and placed separately with contrary polarity as regards each other1 the third being neutral4 ,upon cooling1 these three bars were found to have identical and similar polarity4 ,thus the molecules of this most rigid material1 cast steel1 had become free at red heat1 and rotated under the earth's magnetic influence1 giving exactly the same force on each2 consequently the previous magnetization of two of these bars had neither augmented nor weakened the inherent polarity of their molecules4 ,soft iron gave under these conditions by far the greatest force1 its inherent polarity being greater than that of steel4 ,i have made numerous other experiments bearing upon the question of neutrality1 but they all confirm those ,i have cited1 which ,i consider afford ample evidence of the symmetrical arrangement of neutrality4 ,,superposed ,,magnetism4 ,knowing that by torsion we can rotate or diminish magnetism1 ,i was anxious to obtain by its means a complete rotation from north polarity to neutrality1 and from neutrality to south polarity1 or to completely reverse magnetic polarity by a slight right or left torsion4 ,i have succeeded in doing this1 and in obtaining strong reversal of polarities1 by superposing one polarity given while the rod is under a right elastic torsion1 with another of the opposite polarity given under a left elastic torsion1 the neutral point then being reached when the rod is free from torsion4 ,the rod should be very strongly magnetized under its first or right-hand torsion1 so that its interior molecules are rotated1 or1 in other words1 magnetized to saturation2 the second magnetization in the contrary sense and torsion should be feebler1 so as only to magnetize the surface1 or not more than one-half its depth2 these can be easily adjusted to each other so as to form a complete polar balance of force1 producing1 when the rod is free from torsion1 the neutrality as shown at ,b1 ,fig4 #a4 ,the apparatus needed is simply a good compound horseshoe permanent magnet1 #ae centimeters long1 having six or more plates1 giving it a total thickness of at least #c centimeters4 ,we need a sufficiently powerful magnet1 as ,i find that ,i obtain a more equal distribution of magnetism upon a rod or strip of iron by drawing it lengthwise over a single pole in a direction from that pole1 as shown in ,fig4 #b2 we can then obtain saturation by repeated drawings1 keeping the same molecular symmetry in each experiment4 ,in order to apply a slight elastic torsion when magnetizing rods or wires1 ,i have found it convenient to attach two brass clamp keys to the extremities of the rods1 or simply turn the ends at right angles1 as shown in the following diagram1 by which means we can apply an elastic twist or torsion while drawing the rod over the pole of the permanent magnet4 ,we can thus superpose several and opposite symmetrical structures1 producing a polar north or south as desired1 greatly in excess of that possible under a single or even double magnetization1 and by carefully adjusting the proportion of opposing magnetisms1 so that both polarities have the same external force1 the rod will be at perfect external neutrality when free from torsion4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,if we now hold one end of this rod at a few centimeters distance from a magnetic directive needle1 we find it perfectly neutral when free of torsion1 but the slightest torsion right or left at once produces violent repulsion or attraction1 according to the direction of the torsion given to the rod1 the iron rod or strips of hoop-iron which ,i use for this experiment being able1 when at the distance of five centimeters from the needle1 to turn it instantly #ij on either side of its zero4 ,the external neutrality that we can now produce at will is absolute1 as it crosses the line of two contrary polarities1 being similar to the zero of my electric sonometer1 whose zero is obtained by the crossing of two opposing electric forces4 ,this rod of iron retains its peculiar powers of reversal in a remarkable degree1 a condition quite different to that of ordinary magnetization1 for the same rod1 when magnetized to saturation under a single ordinary magnetism1 loses its evident magnetism by a few elastic torsions1 as ,i have already shown2 but when it is magnetized under the double torsion with its superposed magnetism1 it is but slightly reduced by variations or numerous torsions1 and ,i have found it impossible to render this rod again free from its double polar effects1 except by strongly remagnetizing it to saturation with a single polarity4 ,the superposed magnetism then becomes a single directive force1 and we can then by a few vibrations or torsions reduce the rod to its ordinary condition4 ,the effects of superposed magnetism and its double polarity ,i have produced in a variety of ways1 such as by the electro-magnetic influence of coils1 or in very soft iron simply by the directive influence of the earth's magnetism1 reversing the rod and torsions when held in the magnetic meridian1 these rods when placed magnetic west showing distinctly the double polar effects4 ,it is remarkable1 also1 that we are enabled to superpose and obtain the maximum effects on thin strips of iron from to millimeter in thickness1 while in thicker rods we have far less effect1 being masked by the comparatively neutral state of the interior1 the exterior molecules then reaching upon those of the interior1 allowing them to complete in the interior their circle of attractions4 ,i was anxious to obtain wires which would preserve this structure against the destructive influence of torsion and vibrations1 so that ,i could constantly employ the same wires without the comparatively long and tedious process of preparation4 ,soft iron soon loses the structure1 or becomes enfeebled1 under the constant to and fro torsions requisite where we desire a constant change of polarity1 as described later in the magnetic bells4 ,hard steel preserves its structure1 but its molecular rigidity is so great that we obtain but mere traces of any change of polarity by torsion4 ,i have found1 however1 that fine cast drill steel1 untempered1 of the kind employed by watchmakers1 is most suitable2 these are generally sold in straight lengths of #cj centimeters4 ,wires #a millimeter in diameter should be used1 and when it is desired to increase the force1 several of these wires1 say1 nine or ten1 should be formed into a single rod or bunch4 ,the wire as sold is too rigid to give its maximum of molecular rotation effect4 ,we must therefore give it two entire turns or twists to the right1 and strongly magnetize it on the north pole of the magnet while under torsion4 ,we must again repeat this operation in the contrary direction1 after restoring the wire to its previous position1 giving now two entire turns to the left and magnetizing it on the south pole4 ,on restoring the wire to its original place1 it will be extremely flexible1 and we may now superpose several contrary polarities under contrary torsions1 as already described4 ,the power of these wires1 if properly prepared1 is most remarkable1 being able to reverse their polarity under torsion1 as if they were completely saturated2 and they preserve this power indefinitely if not touched by a magnet4 ,it would be extremely difficult to explain the action of the rotative effects obtained in these wires under any other theory than that which ,i have advanced2 and the absolute external neutrality that we obtain in them when the polarities are changing1 we know1 from their structure1 to be perfectly symmetrical4 ,i was anxious to show1 upon the reading of this paper1 some mechanical movement produced by molecular rotation1 consequently ,i have arranged two bells that are struck alternately by a polarized armature put in motion by the double polarized rod ,i have already described1 but whose position1 at three centimeters distant from the axis of the armature1 remains invariably the same4 ,the magnetic armature consists of a horizontal light steel bar suspended by its central axle2 the bells are thin wine glasses1 giving a clear musical tone loud enough1 by the force with which they are struck1 to be clearly heard at some distance4 ,the armature does not strike these alternately by a pendulous movement1 as we may easily strike only one continuously1 the friction and inertia of the armature causing its movements to be perfectly dead beat when not driven by some external force1 and it is kept in its zero position by a strong directive magnet placed beneath its axle4 ,the mechanical power obtained is extremely evident1 and is sufficient to put the sluggish armature in rapid motion1 striking the bells six times per second1 and with a power sufficient to produce tones loud enough to be clearly heard in all parts of the hall of the ,society4 ,as this is the first direct transformation of molecular motion into mechanical movement1 ,i am happy to show it on this occasion4 ,there is nothing remarkable in the bells themselves1 as they evidently could be rung if the armature was surrounded by a coil1 and worked by an electric current from a few cells4 ,the marvel1 however1 is in the small steel superposed magnetic wire producing by slight elastic torsions from a single wire1 one millimeter in diameter1 sufficient force from mere molecular rotation to entirely replace the coil and electric current4 ,,elastic ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,ether ,,surrounding ,,the ,,magnetic ,,molecules4 ,during these researches ,i have remarked a peculiar property of magnetism1 viz41 that not only can the molecules be rotated through any degree of arc to its maximum1 or saturation1 but that1 while it requires a comparatively strong force to overcome its rigidity or resistance to rotation1 it has a small field of its own through which it can move with excessive freedom1 trembling1 vibrating1 or rotating through a small degree with infinitely less force than would be required to rotate it permanently on either side4 ,this property is so marked and general that we can observe it without any special iron or apparatus4 ,let us take a flat rod of ordinary hoop iron1 #cj or more centimeters in length4 ,if1 while holding this vertically1 we give freedom to its molecules by torsions1 vibrations1 or1 better still1 by a few blows with a wooden mallet upon its upper extremity1 we find1 as is well known1 that its lower portion is strongly north1 and its upper south4 ,if we reverse this rod1 we now find it neutral at both extremities4 ,we might here suppose that the earth's directing force had rotated the molecules to zero1 or transversely1 which in reality it has done1 but only to the limit of their comparatively free motion2 for if we reverse the rod to its original position1 its previous strong polarity reappears at both extremities1 thus the central point of its free motion is inclined to the rod1 giving by its free motion great symmetrical inclination and polarity in one direction1 but when reversed the inclination is reduced to zero4 ,in ,fig4 #c1 ,d shows the bar of iron when strongly polarized by earth's magnetic influence1 under vibrations1 with a sufficient force to have rotated its elastic center of action4 ,c shows the same bar with its molecules at zero1 or transversal1 the directing force of earth being insufficient without the aid of mechanical vibration to allow them to change4 ,the dotted lines of ,d suppose the molecule to be in the center of its free motion1 while at ,c the molecules have rotated to zero1 as they are prevented from further rotation by being at the extreme end of its free motion4 ,if1 now1 we hold the rod vertically1 as at ,c1 giving neutrality1 and give a few slight blows with a wooden mallet to its upper extremity1 we can give just the amount of freedom required for it to produce evident polarity1 and we then have equal polarity1 no matter which end of the bar is below1 the center of its free rotation here being perfect1 and the rod perfectly neutral longitudinally when held east and west4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we have given too much freedom by repeated blows of the mallet1 its center of free motion becomes inclined with the molecules1 and we arrive at its first condition1 except that it is now neutral at ,d and polarized at ,c4 ,from this it will be seen that we can adjust this center of action1 by vibrations or blows1 to any point within the external directing influence4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,we can perceive this effect of free rotation in a limited space in all classes of iron and steel1 being far greater in soft ,swedish iron than in hard iron or steel4 ,a similar phenomenon takes place if we magnetize a rod held vertically in the direction of earth's magnetism4 ,it then gives greater polarity than if magnetized east or west1 and if magnetized in a contrary sense to earth's magnetism1 it is very feebly magnetized1 or1 if the rod is perfectly soft1 it becomes neutral after strong magnetization4 ,this property of comparative freedom1 and the rotation of its center of action1 can be demonstrated in a variety of ways4 ,one remarkable example of it consists in the telephone4 ,all those who are thoroughly acquainted with electro-magnetism1 and know that it requires measurable time to charge an electro-magnet to saturation 7about one-fifteenth of a second for those employed in telegraphy71 were surprised that the telephone could follow the slightest change of timbre1 requiring almost innumerable changes of force per second4 ,i believe the free rotation ,i have spoken of through a limited range explains its remarkable sensitiveness and rapidity of action1 and1 according to this view1 it would also explain why loud sounding telephones can never repeat all the delicacy of timbre that is easily done with those only requiring a force comprised in the critical limits of its free rotation4 ,this property1 ,i have found1 has a distinct critical value for each class of iron1 and ,i propose soon to publish researches upon the molecular construction of steel and iron1 in which ,i have made use of this very property as a guide to the quality of the iron itself4 ,the elastic rotation 7in a limited space7 of a molecule differs entirely from that known as mechanical elasticity4 ,in perfectly soft iron we have feeble mechanical elasticity1 while in tempered steel we have that elasticity at its maximum4 ,the contrary takes place as regards molecular elasticity4 ,in tempered steel the molecules are extremely rigid1 and in soft iron its molecular elasticity is at its maximum4 ,its free motion differs entirely from that given it by torsion or stress4 ,we may assume that a molecule is surrounded by continuous ether1 more of the nature of a jelly than of that of a gas2 in such a medium a molecule might freely vibrate through small arcs1 but a rotation extending beyond its critical limit would involve a much greater expenditure of force4 ,the discovery of this comparatively free rotation of molecules1 by means of which1 as ,i have shown1 we can 7without in any degree disturbing the external mechanical elasticity of the mass7 change the axes of their free motion in any direction desired1 has led me into a series of researches which have only indirectly any relation with the theory of magnetism4 ,i was extremely desirous1 however1 of finding an experimental evidence which in itself should demonstrate all portions of the theory1 and the following experiment1 ,i believe1 answers this purpose4 ,let us take a square soft iron rod1 five millimeters in diameter by thirty or more centimeters in length1 and force the molecules1 by aid of blows from a wooden mallet1 as previously described1 to have their centers of free motion in one direction2 the rod will 7as already shown7 have polarity at both ends1 when held vertically2 but if reversed1 both ends become completely neutral4 ,if now we turn the rod to its first position1 in which it shows strong polarity1 and magnetize it while held vertically1 by drawing the north pole of a sufficiently powerful permanent magnet from its upper to its lower extremity1 we find that this rod1 instead of having south polarity at its lower portion1 as we should expect from the direction of the magnetization1 is completely neutral at both extremities1 but if we reverse the rod its fullest free powers of magnetization now appear in the position where it was previously neutral4 ,thus1 by magnetization1 we have completely rotated its free path of action1 and find that we can rotate this path as desired in any direction by the application of a sufficient directing power4 ,if we take a rod as described1 with its polarities evident when held vertically1 and its neutrality also evident when its ends are reversed in the same magnetic field1 we find that its polarity is equal at both ends1 and that it is in every way symmetrical with a perfect magnet4 ,if we gradually reverse the ends and take observations of its condition through each degree of arc passed over1 we find an equal symmetrical diminution of evident external polarity1 until we arrive at neutrality1 when it has no external trace of inherent polarity2 but its inherent polarity at once becomes evident by a simple return to its former position4 ,thus the rod has passed through all the changes from polarity to neutrality1 and from neutrality to polarity1 and these changes have taken place with complete symmetry4 ,the limits of this paper do not allow me to speak of the numerous theoretical evidences as shown by the use of my induction balance4 ,i believe1 however1 that ,i have cited already experimental evidences to show that what has been attributed to coercive force is really due to molecular freedom or rigidity2 that in inherent molecular polarity we have a fact admitted by ,coulomb1 ,poisson1 ,ampere1 ,de la ,rive1 ,weber1 ,du ,moncel1 ,wiedermann1 and ,maxwell2 and that we have also experimental evidence of molecular rotation and of the symmetrical character of polarity and neutrality4 ,the experiments which ,i have brought forward in this paper1 in addition to those mentioned in my paper read before the ,royal ,society1 will1 ,i hope1 justify me in having advanced a theory of magnetism which ,i believe in every portion allows at least experimental evidences of its probable truth4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,westinghouse ,,brake4 ,below we illustrate the main parts of the ,westinghouse brake as applied to a vehicle4 ,the supplementary reservoir brake cylinder and triple valve are shown in position1 and as fitted upon the engine1 tender1 and each vehicle of the train4 ,air compressed by a pump on the locomotive to1 say1 #gj lb4 or #hj lb4 to the square inch fills the main reservoir on the engine1 and flowing through the driver's brake valve and main pipe1 also charges the supplementary reservoirs throughout the train4 ,when a train is running1 uniform air pressure exists throughout its length--that is to say1 the main reservoir on the engine1 the pipe from end to end of train1 the triple valves and supplementary reservoirs on each vehicle1 are all charged ready for work1 the brake cylinders being empty and the brakes off4 ,the essential principle of the system is1 that maintaining the pressure keeps the brakes off1 but letting the air escape from the brake pipe1 purposely or accidentally1 instantly applies them4 ,it follows1 therefore1 that the brake may be applied by the driver or any of the guards1 or if necessary by a passenger1 by the separation of a coupling1 or the failure or injury to a vital part of the apparatus1 whether due to an accident to the train or to the brake2 and as the brake on each vehicle is complete in itself and independent1 should the apparatus on any one carriage be torn off1 the brake will nevertheless remain applied for almost any length of time upon the rest of the train4 ,the triple valve1 as will be seen1 is simply a small piston1 carrying with it a slide valve1 which can be moved up or down by increasing or decreasing the pressure in the brake pipe4 ,as soon as the air from the main reservoir is turned into the brake pipe1 by means of the driver's valve1 the piston is pushed up into the position shown1 and air is allowed to feed past it through a small groove into the reservoir4 ,at the same time the slide valve covers the port to the brake cylinder1 and is in such a position that the air from the latter may exhaust into the atmosphere4 ,the piston has now the same air pressure on both sides2 but if the pressure in the brake pipe is decreased1 the piston and slide valve are forced down1 thereby uncovering the passage through which air from the reservoir flows into the brake cylinder between the pistons1 thus applying the brakes4 ,the brake pipe is shut off as soon as the triple valve piston passes the groove4 ,to release the brakes1 the piston and slide valves are again moved into the position shown1 by the driver turning air from the main reservoir into the brake pipe4 ,the air in the brake cylinder escapes1 and at the same time the reservoir is recharged4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,westinghouse ,,brake4 ,fig4 #b represents two ,westinghouse couplings connected4 ,they are exactly alike in all respects1 and an air tight joint is made between them by means of the rubber washers4 ,these couplings are so constructed that the air pressure within serves to tighten the joint1 and they may be pushed apart by the separation of the train without any injury4 ,such an occurrence as already explained leads to the instant application of all the brakes on the train4 ,by closing the small tap shown between the brake pipe and the triple valve1 the brake on any vehicle1 if out of order1 can be cut out of the system4 ,a release valve is also placed upon each cylinder as shown1 so that in the event of the brakes being applied by the separation of the train1 or the breaking of a pipe1 or when the locomotive is not attached1 they can be released by allowing the air to escape from each brake cylinder direct4 ,the ,westinghouse brake has been made to comply thoroughly with the ,board of ,trade conditions4 ,many people1 however1 do not appear to understand all that is involved in the second requirement1 which runs as follows3 ,in case of accident1 to be instantaneously self-acting4 ,this clearly implies3 ,first1 that accident to the train1 or to any of its vehicles1 shall cause the instant application of the brakes to the wheels of every vehicle in the train without the intervention of the driver or guards4 ,secondly1 that any injury1 however caused1 which may impair the efficiency of the brake apparatus1 shall1 in like manner1 lead to the instant application of all the brakes on the train4 ,it then becomes impossible for a driver to run his train in ignorance of any defect in his brake apparatus because such defect at once discloses itself by applying the brakes and stopping the train4 ,thirdly1 that each vehicle shall carry its own brake power in such a manner that the destruction of the brake apparatus on one or more of the carriages shall not affect the efficiency of the brakes upon any of the others4 ,no continuous brake which does not comply with such conditions can ever be satisfactory4--,the ,engineer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,hydraulic ,,elevators ,,and ,,motors4 ,footnote3 ,read at ,buffalo meeting of the ,american ,water-,works ,association ,may #ae1ahhc4 ,by ,b4 ,f4 ,,jones1 ,kansas ,city4 ,what ,i have to say in relation to elevators and motors will be mostly in regard to questions that their uses necessarily bring up for settlement at the water-works office2 also to show how ,i have been able in a measure to overcome some of the many difficulties that have presented themselves1 as well as to discuss and seek information as to the best way of meeting others that still have to be dealt with4 ,at the outset1 therefore1 let me state that ,i am not an hydraulic engineer1 nor have ,i sufficient mechanical knowledge to undertake the discussion of the construction or relative merits of either elevators or motors4 ,this ,i would respectfully suggest as a very proper and interesting topic for a paper at some future meeting by some one of the many1 eminent engineers of this association4 ,the water-works of ,kansas ,city is comparatively young1 and my experience only dates back six or seven years1 or shortly after its completion4 ,at this time it was deemed advisable on account of the probable large revenue to be derived from their use1 to encourage the putting in of hydraulic elevators by low water rates4 ,with this end in view a number of contracts were made for their supply at low special rates for a period of years1 and our minimum meter rate was charged in all other cases1 regardless of the quantity of water consumed4 ,in most instances these special rates have since been found much too low1 parties paying in this way being exceedingly extravagant in the use of elevators4 ,however1 the object sought was obtained1 and now they are very extensively used4 ,in fact1 so much has their use increased1 that the question is no longer how to encourage their more general adoption1 but how to properly govern those that must be supplied4 ,a present our works furnish power to about #ae passenger and #hj freight elevators1 and the number is rapidly increasing4 ,before going into details it seems proper to give at least a brief description of our water-works1 as my observations are to a great extent local4 ,on account of the peculiar topography of ,kansas ,city 7and ,i believe it has more topography to the square foot than any city in the country7 two systems of water supply have been provided1 the high ground being supplied by direct pumping1 and a pressure of about #ij pounds maintained in the business portion1 and the lower part of the city being supplied by gravity1 from a reservoir at an elevation of #baj feet1 thus giving the business portions of the city1 on high and low ground1 about the same pressure4 ,by an arrangement of valves1 a combination of these two systems is effected1 so that the ,holly machinery can furnish an increased fire pressure at a moment's notice1 into either or both pipe systems4 ,thus at some points the pressure is extremely high during the progress of fires1 causing difficulties that do not exist where the gravity system of works is used exclusively4 ,elevators have become an established institution1 and in cities of any commercial importance are regarded as a necessity1 hotels1 jobbing houses1 factories1 and office buildings being considered as far behind the times when not thus provided1 as a city without a water supply or a community without a boom4 ,the use of elevators has made it practicable and profitable to erect buildings twice as high as were formerly thought of4 ,perhaps some of the most notable examples of this are in ,new ,york city1 where such structures as the ,mills building1 the buildings of the ,tribune1 ,evening ,post1 and ,western ,union ,telegraph ,co44 tower high above the surrounding blocks1 monuments of architecture1 that without this modern invention would reflect little credit upon their designers4 ,it is now found less labor to go to to the fifth1 sixth1 or even tenth floors of these great buildings than it was to reach the second or third1 before their use4 ,in these days1 merchants can shoot a ton of goods to the top of their stores in less time than it would take to get breath for the old hoist or ,yo1 heave ,o arrangement4 ,thousands of dollars are sometimes expended on a single elevator1 the cars are miniature parlors1 and the mechanism has perhaps advanced to nearly the perfection of the modern steam engine4 ,if then they have become such a firmly established institution1 their bearing upon the water supply of cities is a subject to be carefully considered4 ,as before intimated1 there are many questions involved in the use of hydraulic elevators1 that particularly concern towns supplied by direct pumping1 and perhaps other places where the supply by gravity is somewhat limited4 ,in a few larger cities supplied by ample reservoirs and mains1 some of the difficulties suggested are not serious4 ,very little power is necessary to perform the actual work of lifting1 with either steam or hydraulic elevators1 but on account of the peculiar application of the power1 and the great amount of friction to be overcome1 a very considerable power has to be provided4 ,it has been estimated1 by good authorities1 that not more than one-quarter of the power expended in most cases is really utilized4 ,with all hydraulic elevators of which ,i have cognizance1 as much water is required to raise the empty cars as though they were loaded to maximum capacity4 ,still1 to be available for passenger purposes elevators must have capacity of upward of #b1ejj pounds1 particularly in hotels1 where the cars are often arranged with separate compartments underneath for baggage4 ,in general use it is exceptional that passenger elevators are fully loaded2 on the contrary less than half a load is ordinarily carried1 and for this reason it would appear that no actual benefit is derived from at least one-half of the water consumed4 ,in this connection it has occurred to me that passenger elevators could be built at no great additional cost1 with two cylinders1 small and large1 the two piston rods of which could be connected so as to both operate the same cable1 either or both furnishing power1 the smaller cylinder to be used for light loads1 the larger for heavy work1 and the two together for full capacity1 this independent valve arrangement to be controlled by a separate cable running through the car4 ,whether this plan is practicable or not must be left to elevator manufacturers1 but it seems to me that with the ,hale-,otis elevator for instance 7which is conceded to be one of the best7 it could easily be accomplished4 ,certainly some such arrangement would effect a great saving of water1 and perhaps bring water bills to a point that this class of consumers could afford to pay4 ,hydraulic elevators where the water is used over and over again1 by being pumped from the discharge to elevated tanks1 cut little or no figure in connection with a city's water supply4 ,when fuel1 first cost1 attendance of an engineer1 and the poor economy of the class of pumps usually employed to perform this work are considered1 the cost of operating such elevators is greatly in excess of what it would be if power were supplied direct from water mains1 at any reasonable rate4 ,the following remarks will then relate almost exclusively to that class of hydraulic elevators supplied with power directly from the water mains4 ,let us now consider whether they are a desirable source of revenue1 and in this my knowledge does not exceed my actual experience4 ,few elevator users appreciate the great quantity of water their elevators consume4 ,even in ,kansas ,city1 where1 on account of the high pressure carried1 much smaller cylinders than ordinarily are required1 it is found that passenger elevators frequently consume #ejj1jjj to #hjj1jjj gallons of water per month1 which will make a very considerable bill1 at the most liberal rates4 ,i have1 therefore1 concluded that the quantity of water was so large that1 unless liberal concessions were made1 it would be a hardship to consumers to pay their water bills1 and have therefore made a special schedule1 according to quantity1 for elevators and motors1 these rates standing below our regular meter rates1 and running to the lowest point at which we think we can afford to furnish the water4 ,this schedule brings the rate below what we would receive for almost any other legitimate use of water2 and1 in view of our rapidly increasing consumption1 and the probability of soon having to increase all our facilities1 it is an open question whether this will continue a desirable source of revenue4 ,in ,kansas ,city we have elevators of various manufacture3 the ,hale-,otis1 ,ready1 ,smith ,beggs1 ,o',keefe1 ,kennedy1 and perhaps others1 each having its peculiarities1 but alike demanding large openings in the mains for supply4 ,these large openings are objectionable features with any waterworks1 and especially so with direct pumping4 ,an occurrence from this cause1 about two years ago1 is an experience ,i should not like repeated1 but is one that might occur whenever the pressure in the mains is depended upon to throw fire streams4 ,in this instance a large block of buildings occupied by jobbing houses and having three elevators was burned down1 and the elevator connections broken early in the fire1 allowing the water to pour into the cellars in the volume of about twelve ordinary fire streams4 ,this immense quantity of water had to be supplied from a #f-;inch main1 fed from only one end1 which left little pressure available for fighting the fire1 and as a matter of course failure to subdue the fire promptly was attributed to the water-works4 ,we have since had up hill work to restore confidence as to our ability to throw fire streams1 although we have demonstrated the fact hundreds of times since4 ,from this time we have been gradually cutting down on the size of openings for elevator supply1 but under protest of the elevator agents1 who have always claimed that they should be allowed at least a #d-;inch opening in the mains1 until we have found that under #hj to #ij pounds pressure two to four #a-;inch taps will answer the purpose1 provided the water pipes are of ample size4 ,the water hammer produced by the quick acting valves of elevators has always been objectionable1 both in its effect at the pumping-house and upon water mains and connections4 ,to obviate this1 ,engineer ,g4 ,w4 ,pearson has suggested the use of very large air chambers on the elevator supply1 and still smaller openings in the mains1 his theory being that the air chambers would not only materially decrease the concussion or water hammer1 but that they would also act as accumulators of power 7or water under pressure7 to be drawn from at each trip of the elevator1 and replaced when it was at rest4 ,this plan ,i have never seen put to actual test1 but believe it to be entirely practicable1 and that we will have to ultimately adopt it4 ,all things considered1 the plan of operating elevators from tanks in the top of buildings1 supplied by a small pipe connected with the water-mains and arranged with a float valve to keep the tank filled1 ,i believe to be the best manner of supply1 except for the great additional cost of putting up such apparatus4 ,by this arrangement the amount of water consumed is no less1 in fact it would ordinarily be more than with a direct connection with the mains1 but it has the advantage of taking the water in the least objectionable manner4 ,still1 if this mode of supply were generally enforced1 the large first cost1 an additional expense of operating1 would undoubtedly deter many from using elevators4 ,another evil in connection with the use of elevators1 and which no doubt is common1 is the habit many parties have of keeping a key or wrench to turn on and off the water at the curb4 ,this we have sought to remedy by embracing in our plumbers' rules the following3 ,all elevator connections in addition to the curb stop for the use of the ,water ,company must be provided with another valve where the pipe first enters the building for the use of occupants of the building4 ,without this extra valve it was found almost impossible to keep parties from using the curb valve4 ,in most cases the persons were perfectly responsible1 and as there was no intent to defraud the company by the act1 they would claim this privilege as a precaution against the pipes bursting or freezing4 ,this practice was very generally carried on1 and was the direct cause in at least two cases of very serious damage4 ,in the instances referred to1 the pipes burst between the elevator and the area wall of buildings1 and the valves outside had become so worn from frequent use that they would not operate1 allowing the water to literally deluge the basements before the water main could be turned off4 ,one of the greatest causes of waste from elevators is the wearing out of the piston packing1 this being particularly troublesome in most of the ,western cities1 where the water supplied is to a large extent from turbid streams1 carrying more or less fine sand or grit1 which cuts out the packing of the pistons very rapidly4 ,the only practicable remedy for this is close inspection1 to see that the pistons do not allow water to pass1 a fact that can readily be determined from the noise made in the cylinder when the elevator is in motion going upward4 ,i have reserved one of the most annoying features of elevator supply for the last1 hoping to work myself into a mood to do the subject justice1 but doubt if it can be done in language proper to use before this dignified body4 ,i remember on one occasion the mayor of our city1 in discussing a job of plumbing1 said that it seemed to him that even a plumber ought to know something about plumbing4 ,now it would seem that even elevator agents ought to know something about elevators1 but from the following incident1 which is but one of many1 ,i am led to believe that they are not infallible to say the least4 ,only a short time since1 one of these very reliable 787 agents reported at our office that he had just attached a new indicator to the elevator of a leading hotel4 ,he was asked3 ,what does it register8 and promptly replied1 ,cubic feet4 ,in this case our inspector had already made an examination1 and had correctly reported as follows3 ,hale elevator2 indicator started at zero ,february #bh2 internal diameter of cylinder1 #ab inches2 travel of piston for complete trip #cj feet2 indicator registers for complete trip1 #d4 ,when it is understood that we had for a long time been assuming that elevator agents knew about all there was to know on the subject1 a comparison of statements of this agent and our inspector is somewhat startling4 ,now let us see what the difference amounted to3 ,at the end of the month the indicator had registered #ab1iid2 calling it cubic feet1 this register would equal #ig1aie gallons4 ,according to our inspector1 this same register would equal #egh1bcc gallons1 or a difference of nearly half a million of gallons for a single month4 ,our experience with the agents in ,kansas ,city has shown that they will1 if allowed1 put any kind of an indicator on the most convenient point of any sort of an elevator1 without the slightest regard as to what it was intended to indicate2 then report it as registering cubic or lineal feet1 whichever they find the indicator marked4 ,on the same principle they could as well change the fulcrum of a ,fairbanks scale1 and then claim it weighed pounds correctly1 because pounds were marked upon the bar4 ,we have lately prepared a blank1 upon which these agents are required to make a detailed report upon the completion of an elevator before the water will be turned on1 which it is hoped will to some extent correct this trouble4 ,i have come to regard an elevator indicator with a feeling of wonder4 ,some years ago1 when the planchette first came out1 ,i remember that it acquired quite a reputation as a particularly erratic piece of mechanism1 but for real mystery and innate cussedness1 on general principles1 commend me to the indicator4 ,why1 ,i have known an indicator after registering a nice water bill1 to deliberately and without provocation commence taking it all off again1 by going backward4 ,this crab-like maneuver the agent readily explained by saying the ratchet had turned over1 but even he was unable to show us how to make the bills after these peculiar gyrations4 ,i also find that it is quite a favorite amusement for indicators to stop entirely1 like a balky horse1 after which no amount of persuasion will bring them to a realizing sense of their duty4 ,even at the best1 these indicators are very apt to get out of order1 necessitating greater watchfulness in supplying elevators than for any other purpose for which water is furnished4 ,accidents in connection with the use of elevators are common throughout the country1 and in ,kansas ,city had1 until within a short time1 become of altogether too frequent occurrence4 ,the great cause of this ,i believe to be due to the fact that the parties who usually operate elevators are the very ones who know least about them2 the corrosion of pistons1 crystallization and oxidation of cables1 and many other disorders common to elevators1 being matters they do not comprehend4 ,the frequency and fatality of these accidents in ,kansas ,city finally led the city authorities to appoint an ,elevator ,inspector1 who is under heavy bond1 and whose duty is to examine every elevator at least once a month1 and to grant license to run only such as he deems in safe condition4 ,thus far since the establishment of this office we have had no serious accidents1 which leads me to the belief that in most cases a monthly examination will discover in time the causes of many terrible casualties2 also that it is not safe to operate elevators unless so inspected by some competent person4 ,the hatchways of elevators in large buildings are points greatly feared by firemen4 ,they well know that when a fire once reaches this shaft1 it takes but a moment for it to be carried from floor to floor1 until the building is soon past saving4 ,although this great danger is well known1 it is the exception rather than the rule to provide elevators with fire-proof hatches4 ,a properly constructed elevator should1 it seems to me1 be provided with hatches1 or better still1 built within brick fire-proof walls1 with openings to be kept closed when not in use4 ,in this way costly buildings1 valuable merchandise1 and many lives would be saved from fire every year4 ,although considerable has been said on the subject of elevators1 ,i am aware that the ground has not been covered1 and that difficulties have been pointed out more than remedies suggested4 ,there is much yet to be brought out by the engineers1 to whom the subject more properly belongs4 ,in the mean time1 although elevators claim many of the objectionable features in the business of water supply1 most of them are not of a nature that should condemn their use2 on the contrary1 ,i hope that with the joining of our experience there will be an improvement in the methods of their supply4 ,inasmuch as they must be furnished with water1 all that can be done is to adopt such rules and fix such rates as will compensate in some degree for their objectionable qualities4 ,,water ,,motors4 ,my remarks on this subject ,i trust will be more to the have been point than they upon the questions already discussed4 ,certainly my ideas are more decided1 so far at least as supplying water motors is concerned4 ,in many respects ,i believe water motors furnish as nearly perfect power as it is possible to attain4 ,a motor1 for instance1 properly connected and supplied by the even pressure from a reservoir is probably the most reliable and steady power known1 not excepting the most improved and costly steam engines4 ,the convenience and little attendance necessary in operating make them especially desirable for many purposes4 ,where only small power is required1 or even where considerable power for only occasional use is desired1 they are particularly well adapted1 and can be driven at small expense4 ,even for greater power they possess advantages over steam engines which1 to a considerable extent1 compensate for the large water rates that ought to be paid for their supply4 ,these advantages are in the first cost of a motor1 as compared with a steam engine1 the saving in attendance and fuel1 the convenience and cleanliness1 and in some cases a saving in insurance by reason of their being no fire risks attendant upon its use4 ,at just what point steam becomes preferable1 however1 is a question depending considerably upon water rates1 but to some extent on other circumstances1 leaving it largely a question of judgment4 ,as with elevators1 there are difficulties involved in their supply that unless carefully guarded make water motors anything but a desirable source of revenue4 ,how often is the argument advanced3 ,why1 ,i only use water for a quarter of an inch jet6 ,showing how little people who use motors or elevators or fountains realize the quantity of water they consume4 ,this class of consumers may be placed on one footing1 to wit1 a class who1 in spite of the fact that they are supplied with water for much less than any other1 feel that they are imposed upon1 and cannot be made to think otherwise4 ,though not as large as for elevator supply1 water motors require liberal openings in the mains1 and frequently the fault of having too small supply pipes is sought to be remedied by openings in the water mains much larger than needful4 ,a table prepared by an engineer who had given the matter study1 or by some motor manufacturer1 showing the size of taps1 or openings1 for the proper supply of motors1 with the various jets1 under different pressures1 would be of general use to water-works people4 ,in order to use water to the best advantage1 the full pressure in the main1 so far as practicable1 should be had at the jet1 but in order to accomplish this it is not necessary to use as large taps as are ordinarily demanded1 but to provide supply pipes of sufficient capacity to deliver the water to the point of discharge with the least possible friction4 ,lately this theory has been put in practice to some extent by us1 and the result has shown that in this manner we are able to supply motors through smaller taps than beforehand with as satisfactory results4 ,it is a general practice throughout the country to make annual or monthly rates for water motors1 and from my observation ,i believe ,i can safely venture the assertion that in three-quarters of the cases the rates charged will not equal #ej per cent4 of the lowest meter rates in force in these places4 ,although the ,kansas ,city ,water-,works has not perhaps been generally accorded the reputation of being the most liberal monopoly in the country1 still ,i have had occasion at times to make some such claims as an inducement to its generous support4 ,but with all its liberality1 ,i am free to say that we cannot begin to meet the rates for motors that parties claim to have paid almost everywhere else4 ,the ,st4 ,louis ,water-,works1 where the rates are substantially the same as in ,kansas ,city1 have been quoted as having the following motor rates1 but whether correct or not my inquiries have failed to determine3 ,on the supposition that motors are to be used ten hours per day for #cjj days per year1 motors are assessed for-- #a_/d inch jets #abj per annum4 #c_/h #aih #a_/b #cjj --------------------------------- ,these rates based upon a charge of #ej cents per #a1jjj gallons4 ,from ,col4 ,flad's ,report as ,engineer of ,public ,works1 ,may #a1 #ahgf1 p4#gj1 it is found that with #db pounds pressure a inch orifice will discharge #b1afj gallons per hour1 #ba1fjj gallons in #aj hours1 or #f1dhj1jjj gallons in #cjj days1 which at #bj cents per #a1jjj gallons would amount to #a1bif1 for which they assess the rate #cjj4 ,from all of which ,i would conclude that there must be a lack of harmony somewhere between the engineering and office departments4 ,i have made some estimates myself for water motors1 basing rates upon the number of hours it was claimed the motors would be in use1 and afterward supplied the same motors by meter measurement2 in every case found that at least twice as much water was used as had been estimated4 ,although estimates were carefully made upon what was believed to be a reliable basis1 these repeated similar results have led me to the conclusion that the only way to supply motors is to make it an object to the users of them to be economical4 ,in other words1 ,i believe the way to supply water motors is upon an estimate that they will run #bd hours per day and #cfe days per year1 or1 more properly still1 supply them only by meter measurement4 ,at all events this is henceforth my policy2 or1 in other words1 on this rock ,i stand1 believing it the only equitable way out of this difficulty4 ,that class of motors or water engines operated by water pressure in close cylinders upon pistons as with steam in a steam engine1 ,i believe could be easily supplied by measurement of water without a meter4 ,this could be accomplished by the use of revolution counters or indicators1 as the amount of water required per revolution could be readily determined1 and when once computed the cylinders would measure out the water as accurately as a meter4 ,the only objection to this plan is the expense of counters1 which is considerable2 and as to indicators1 it may have been observed that ,i have little faith in their reliability4 ,with cheap revolution this class of motors would be free from many of the objections raised in regard to motors generally4 ,the practical conclusion that ,i would draw from a consideration of this subject is that the question of whether the supply of hydraulic elevators and motors is desirable in its effects upon the water supply is one that hinges so delicately upon their being carefully governed1 connected1 and restricted1 that while on the one hand they may be made the source of large profit1 and at the same time a public benefit1 on the other hand1 unless all the details of their supply be carefully guarded by the wisest rules and greatest watchfulness1 their capacities for waste are so great and the rates charged necessarily so low1 that they may become the greatest source of loss with which we have to contend4 ,i therefore trust that this discussion will be continued until an interest is felt that will result in our all receiving much useful information upon two most important factors of our business4 ,as this paper has been long for the information contained1 ,i will close with the earnest wish that it may at least be of service in bringing these important but often neglected subjects to the attention of the thinking and intelligent body of men1 of whom many have had much longer and more general experience in relation to these matters1 and whose views when expressed will consequently be of more interest and have greater weight4 ,thus as a result may we all derive the benefit of whatever useful information there is to be gained by this annual interchange of experiences in the all-important business of public water supply4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,water ,,supply ,,of ,,small ,,towns4 ,we now describe the new waterworks lately erected for supplying the town of ,cougleton1 ,cheshire4 ,the population is about #ab1jjj1 and the place is a seat of the silk manufacture4 ,after various expensive plans had been suggested1 in the year #ahgi a complete scheme for the supply of the town with water was devised by the then borough surveyor1 ,mr4 ,wm4 ,blackshaw1 now borough surveyor of ,stafford4 ,these we now illustrate above by a general drawing1 and a separate drawing of the tower4 ,with respect to the mechanical arrangements1 the ,corporation called in ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,thornbery1 of ,birmingham1 consulting engineer1 to decide on the best design of those submitted1 and this1 with modifications made by him1 was carried out under his inspection4 ,the water1 for the supply by pumping1 is obtained from springs situated at the foot of ,crossledge ,hill1 about a mile from the town4 ,it does not at present require filtering1 but space enough has been allowed for the construction of duplicate filtering beds without in any way interfering with the present appliances4 ,these filter beds are shown in our perspective illustration1 but they are not yet built or required4 ,illustration3 ,,water ,,supply ,,of ,,small ,,towns--,,congleton ,,waterworks4 ,the waterworks are situated very near the springs1 from which they are only separated by a road1 under which the collecting pipes run4 ,there are two circular collecting tanks of brickwork1 two pumping wells1 engine-house1 boiler-house1 chimney stack1 and engine-driver's dwelling-house1 all inclosed by a wall4 ,on the top of ,crossledge ,hill is erected a circular brick water tower #ce ft4 high to the underside of the service tank1 which is of cast iron #cj ft4 internal diameter1 supported on rolled girders4 ,the tank is capable of containing #ej1jjj gallons of water1 and it is provided with the usual rising and service mains1 overflow and washout pipes4 ,there is an arrangement for pumping direct into the mains in case the tank should require cleaning or repairing4 ,the pumping machinery is in duplicate1 and each set consists of a horizontal condensing engine1 with cylinder #ah in4 diameter1 stroke #cj in41 fitted with ,meyer's expansion gear1 governor1 fly-wheel #ab ft4 diameter1 weighing #d tons1 jet condenser with a single acting vertical air pump1 situated below the engine room floor1 and between the end of the cylinder and the main pump4 ,each main pump is #aj in4 diameter1 horizontal1 double-acting1 worked by a prolongation backward of the piston-rod4 ,the valves and seats are of gun metal1 #h in4 diameter4 ,the capacity is #cej gallons per minute1 raised #bjf ft4 ,the air vessel is #ba in4 internal diameter and #f ft4 high1 and is fitted with a hand pump for renewing the supply of air if necessary4 ,the rising main from the air vessel to the service tank is #i in4 diameter1 and #cjg yards long1 laid up the steep slope of the hill on which the water tower is built4 ,the boilers1 two in number1 are of the ordinary ,cornish single-flued type1 #e ft4 diameter by #ah ft4 long1 with flue #b ft4 #i in4 diameter1 with three ,galloway tubes4 ,they were made by ,messrs4 ,hill ,co41 of ,manchester4 ,the engines and pumps were made by ,mr4 ,albert ,scragg1 of ,congleton1 and the brick1 stone1 and builder's work was executed by ,mr4 ,thomas ,kirk4 ,the waterworks were opened in the autumn of #ahha1 and since then have constantly afforded an abundant supply of water4 ,there is also an independent gravitation system1 also arranged by ,mr4 ,blackshaw1 for supplying an outlying part of the town4 ,the cost of the works was exceedingly moderate1 being not more than #ab1jjj1 including the water mains for distribution4 ,,process ,,for ,,softening ,,hard ,,water4 ,the available water of many villages and small towns is that of the chalk beds1 but it is invariably very hard1 and should be softened4 ,we have received so many inquiries respecting a simple means of carrying out ,clarke's water-softening process1 that the following description of a set of apparatus devised for this purpose by ,messrs4 ,law and ,chatterton1 ,,mm4,i4,c4,e41 may interest many besides those who contemplate the construction of small waterworks supplied by the chalk springs4 ,the apparatus1 as made in various sizes by ,messrs4 ,bowes1 ,scott1 and ,read1 of ,broadway-chambers1 ,westminster1 we illustrate by the accompanying engravings4 ,softening hard water4--,the disadvantages attending the use of hard water either for drinking purposes1 steam generation1 lavatory purposes1 and for many manufacturing purposes1 are well known1 but as there are several methods of softening waters which are hard in different degrees by different substances1 we may be pardoned if we here reproduce1 for the convenience of some of our readers1 a few passages from the sixth report of the ,river ,pollution ,commission1 #ahgd1 pages #ba and #bja-af1 which give some very valuable information on the relative merits of hard and soft waters in domestic and trade uses4 ,some of the mineral substances which occur in solution in potable waters communicate to the latter the quality of hardness4 ,hard water decomposes soap1 and cannot be efficiently used for washing4 ,the chief hardening ingredients are salts of lime and magnesia4 ,in the decomposition of soap these salts form curdy and insoluble compounds containing the fatty acids of the soap and the lime and magnesia of the salts4 ,so long as this decomposition goes on the soap is useless as a detergent1 and it is only after all the lime and magnesia salts have been decomposed at the expense of the soap1 that the latter begins to exert a useful effect4 ,as soon as this is the case1 however1 the slightest further addition of soap produces a lather when the water is agitated1 but this lather is again destroyed by the addition of a further quantity of hard water4 ,thus the addition of hard water to a solution of soap1 or the converse of this operation1 causes the production of the insoluble curdy matter before mentioned4 ,these facts render intelligible the process of washing the skin with soap and hard water4 ,the skin is first wetted with the water and then soap is applied2 the latter decomposes the hardening salts contained in the small quantity of water with which the skin is covered1 and there is then formed a strong solution of soap which penetrates into the pores1 and now the lather and impurities which it has imbibed require to be removed from the skin by wiping the lather off with a towel or by rinsing it away with water4 ,in the former case the pores of the skin are left filled with soap solution2 in the latter they become clogged with the greasy1 curdy matter which results from the action of the hard water upon the soap solution which had previously gained possession of the pores of the cuticle4 ,as the latter process of removing the lather is the one universally adopted1 the operation of washing with soap and hard water is analogous to that used by the dyer and calico printer for fixing pigments in calico1 woolen1 or silk tissues4 ,the pores of the skin are filled with insoluble greasy and curdy salts of the fatty acids contained in the soap1 and it is only because the insoluble pigment produced is white1 or nearly so1 that so repulsive an operation is tolerated4 ,to those1 however1 who have been accustomed to wash in soft water1 the abnormal condition of skin thus induced is for a long time extremely unpleasant4 ,of the hardening salts present in potable water1 carbonate of lime is the one most generally met with1 and to obtain a numerical expression for this quality of hardness a sample of water containing #a lb4 of carbonate of lime1 or its equivalent of other hardening salts1 in #ajj1jjj lb4--#aj1jjj gallons--is said to have #a of hardness4 ,each degree of hardness indicates the destruction and waste of #ab lb4 of the best hard soap by #aj1jjj gallons of water when used for washing4 ,hard water frequently becomes softer after it has been boiled for some time4 ,when this is the case1 a portion at least of the original hardening effect is due to the bicarbonate of lime and magnesia4 ,these salts are decomposed by boiling into free carbonic acid1 which escapes as gas1 leaving carbonates of lime and magnesia2 the latter being nearly insoluble in water1 ceases to exert more than a very slight hardening effect1 and produces a precipitate4 ,as the hardness resulting from the carbonates of lime and magnesia is thus removable by boiling the water1 it is designated temporary hardness1 while the hardening effect which is due chiefly to the sulphates of lime and magnesia1 and cannot be got rid of by boiling1 is termed permanent hardness4 ,the total hardness of water is therefore commonly made up of temporary and permanent hardness4 ,a constant supply of hot water is now almost a necessity in every household1 but great difficulties are thrown in the way of its attainment by the supply of hard water to towns forming thick calcareous crusts in the heating apparatus4 ,waters with much temporary hardness are most objectionable in this respect1 and the evil is so great where the heating is effected in a coil of pipe1 as practically to prevent1 in towns with hard water1 the use of this most convenient method of heating water4 ,the property of being softened by boiling which temporarily hard water possesses is not of much domestic use1 for water is1 as a rule1 either not raised to a sufficiently high temperature or not kept at it for a long enough time4 ,seeing then the disadvantages attendant on the use of hard water1 it remains to be considered how best to soften it4 ,four processes are known to the arts4 ,they are3 ,distillation1 carbonate of soda1 boiling1 lime4 ,of these processes the first and second are the most effective1 but owing to their expense are not applicable on a large scale4 ,the third and fourth processes are efficient only with certain classes of water1 rendered hard by the presence of the bicarbonate of lime1 magnesia1 or iron4 ,the fourth is1 however1 a very cheap process1 and is easily applicable to the vast volumes of water supplied to large cities1 provided the hardening ingredients are of the character described4 ,softening by distillation4--,by evaporation1 water is completely separated from all fixed saline matters1 and consequently from all hardening matters4 ,distilled water1 however1 has a vapid and unpleasant taste1 due partly to deficient aeration and partly to the presence of traces of volatile organic matter2 and though filtration through animal charcoal will remove this1 and the aeration can begin chemically1 the process is too expensive1 except in certain cases1 as on board ship1 or at military or naval stations where no potable water exists4 ,softening by carbonate of soda4--,the hardness of water1 as already explained1 being principally due to the presence in solution of bicarbonates and sulphates of lime and magnesia1 can be reduced by addition of carbonate of soda1 which decomposes these salts slowly in cold water but quickly in hot1 forming insoluble compounds of lime and magnesia1 which are slowly precipitated as a fine mud1 leaving the water charged1 however1 with a solution of bicarbonate and sulphate of soda4 ,this process1 on account of expense1 is only applicable on a small scale to the water for laundry purposes1 as the water acquires an unpleasant taste from the presence of the soda salts4 ,for laundry purposes it is1 however1 valuable1 as it effects a great saving of soap4 ,the softening of water by boiling4--,that portion of the hardness of water due to the presence of bicarbonate of lime1 magnesia1 or iron1 is corrected by boiling the water for half an hour4 ,during ebullition the bicarbonates1 which are soluble1 become carbonates1 which are insoluble1 giving off their carbonic acid as gas1 rendering--by the precipitate produced1 but not allowed in a boiler time to settle--the water muddy1 but incapable of decomposing soap4 ,to raise the temperature of #a1jjj gallons of water to the boiling point and to maintain it for half an hour requires the consumption of about #b cwt4 of coal1 or by the wasteful appliances found in households1 probably three times that amount4 ,softened by boiling1 then1 #a1jjj gallons of water would cost about #gs4 #f;d41 while the cost of softening the same amount by soap is #is41 at #b #fs4 #f;d4 per cwt4 ,the softening of water by lime4--,the economy which carbonate of soda exhibits in comparison with soap as a softening material is far surpassed by the use of lime4 ,lime costs about #h;d4 per cwt41 and this weight of lime will soften the same volume of water as would require the use of #bj cwt4 of soap4 ,from the above it is evident--so soon as it is conceded that there is an advantage in using soft water--that the lime process is by far the most economical4 ,besides the chemical action affecting the hardness1 it has another most important mechanical action1 in consequence of the weight of each particle composing the precipitate produced by it4 ,these particles during subsidence become attached to the almost microscopical organic impurities present in all river water1 and drag them down to the bottom of the settling tank1 whereby the water is rendered1 after some eight hours1 clear as crystal4 ,the average cost of the water supplied by the leading metropolitan water companies is #aj #ajs4 #i;d4 per million gallons4 ,the charge made by the companies to consumers is about #f;d4 per #a1jjj gallons1 or #be per million gallons4 ,it has been found that water can on a large scale be softened from #ad hardness to #e at a cost of #bjs4 per million gallons--that is1 #aj per cent4 on the cost of the water to the companies1 or #d per cent4 as the price charged to consumers4 ,this estimate does not take into account the value of the precipitated chalk1 which has a market price1 and is used for many purposes1 being1 in fact1 whiting of the purest quality4 ,the operations necessary in ,clarke's process are four in number3 7#a7 ,the preparation of milk of lime2 7#b7 the preparation of a saturated solution of lime2 7#c7 the mixture of this solution with the water to be softened2 7#d7 the classification of the softened water by the separation of the precipitated substances ,messrs4 ,law and ,chatterton effect these processes by simple mechanical means which are so far automatic that they only require the presence of a person1 without technical knowledge1 once in each twenty-four hours4 ,no filtering medium whatever is required1 which is a great advantage for the following reasons3 7#a7 ,filtering materials require periodical cleaning and renewal1 which not only occasion much trouble and mess1 but are also frequently inefficiently performed4 7#b7 ,experience has shown that the filtering material1 whether cloth1 charcoal1 or other substance1 is extremely liable to become mouldy or musty1 which makes the wafer both unwholesome and unpalatable4 ,this system is especially adapted for small water supplies and for use in country houses1 there being no operation to perform requiring either technical1 chemical1 or mechanical knowledge1 nor producing dust or dirt4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4--,,law ,,and ,,chatterton',s ,,water-,,softening ,,appartus4 ,the following is a description of this apparatus as fitted at the ,hoo1 ,luton1 ,bedfordshire1 for the supply of ,mr4 ,gerard ,leigh's house1 grounds1 and home farm4 ,the mixing of the lime and the subsequent stirring of the water is effected by water power obtained from a turbine4 ,the whole of the apparatus and tanks occupy a space #fj ft4 square1 #c1fjj ft4 area1 and soften a daily supply of #ej1jjj gallons4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b ,a pump driven from the turbine forces the water to a reservoir in the park and on to the house1 an ingenious automatic arrangement worked by the overflow from the cistern throwing the pump out of gear when the tank is full4 ,a1 ,b1 and ,c4 ,figs4 #a to #f herewith1 are three tanks in which the water remains to be softened1 each capable of holding one day's supply4 ,d and ,e are two smaller tanks in which the lime water is prepared2 ,x is the automatic valve apparatus by which the connections between the several tanks are effected in the order and at the times required2 ,h and ,h show the positions in which two pumps should be placed1 the former for pumping unsoftened water into the tanks1 the latter to pump the softened water into the supply cistern4 ,j is the pipe from the well or other source of supply--in case the supply is at a higher level1 one pump can be dispensed with4 ,the operation consists in adding to the water to be softened a certain quantity of lime water1 depending upon the degree of hardness1 and in then allowing the mixture to rest in a state of perfect quiescence until the whole of the lime has been deposited and the water has become perfectly clear4 ,the tank1 ,a1 has been filled with unsoftened water4 ,tank ,b contains the water and lime in process of clarification by subsidence after mechanical agitation by the screw4 ,tank ,c contains the softened water--and the precipitate--in process of removal for consumption4 ,the mode of working is as follows3 ,the milk of lime1 prepared by slaking new lime in a ,michele mixer--not shown4 ,one of the tanks1 ,d1 having been filled with softened water1 run by gravity from one of the tanks1 ,a1 ,b1 or ,c1 the requisite amount of milk of lime is allowed to flow into it from the lining machine1 and the whole having been thoroughly mixed by the patent agitator1 ,g1 is left in a quiescent state for some hours1 when the superabundant lime falls to the bottom1 and the tank contains a perfectly clear and saturated solution of lime4 ,the requisite quantity of lime water is then suffered to flow by gravity into whichever of the three tanks is empty4 ,in the mean while1 the softened water is being withdrawn by pumping or gravitation1 as the case may be1 from the tank ,c1 until1 upon the water being lowered to within a certain distance of the bottom1 an automatic arrangement shifts the valve1 ,x1 so that the supply then commences from ,b1 the unsoftened water flows into ,c1 and the water is in process of clarification in ,a1 and thus the operation proceeds continuously4 ,where the water can be supplied by gravitation1 and the tanks can be placed at a sufficient elevation to command the service cistern1 no pumps are required1 the softening process1 in fact1 in no way necessitating pumping4 ,the space occupied by the whole of the tanks and apparatus is #fj ft4 square1 #c1fjj ft4 area1 and softens #ej1jjj gallons per day4 ,for the daily softening of quantities less than #a1jjj gallons1 the tanks are made of galvanized sheet iron1 and the whole apparatus and tanks are self-contained1 so as only to require the making of the necessary connections with the existing supply and delivery pipes1 and fixing in place4 ,no expensive foundations are required1 and the entire cost of an apparatus--see ,figs4 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 and #f--;capable of softening #ejj gallons per day is about #ge4 ,annexed is a more detailed description of the manner of fixing and working the smaller apparatus4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c ,the tank must1 of course1 be set up perfectly level4 ,the pipe from the source of supply--in the present case from the hydraulic ram--must be attached to the upper three way cock at ,a1 on the accompanying engravings1 and the pipe to supply softened water is to be connected to the lower three-way cock at ,b1 and should be led into the elevated cistern with a ball cock so as to keep it always filled4 ,the three ball cocks in ,c1 ,d1 and ,e should be adjusted to allow the tanks to fill to within #c in4 of the top4 ,the nuts at the upper extremity of the three rods1 ,f1 ,g1 and ,h1 should be so adjusted that when the water in the several tanks has been drawn down to within #ae in4 of the bottom the rocking shaft1 ,i ,i1 is drawn down and the vertical rod1 ,j1 lifted so as to allow the wheel1 ,k1 and spindle1 ,l1 to revolve by the action of the weight1 ,m4 ,the length of the chain is such that when the weight1 ,m1 rests upon the floor the face of the raised rim on the wheel1 ,k1 should not quite touch the rod1 ,j1 and if necessary1 a thin packing should be put for the weight to drop upon4 ,the lime to be used should be pure chalk lime free from clay1 mixed with water to a smooth1 creamy consistency1 and then poured into the small tank1 ,n4 ,this tank should then be filled with water to within #c in4 of the top1 and the small air pump worked until the lime has become thoroughly mixed and diffused throughout the water4 ,care must be taken that previous to filling the tank the float1 ,o1 is raised up1 as shown by the dotted lines in ,fig4 #c4 ,after the lime has been thoroughly mixed it should be left for at least eight hours for the superabundant lime to subside1 leaving the supernatant fluid a perfectly clear saturated solution of lime4 ,at the end of this time the float1 ,o1 should be lowered1 so that it may float upon the lime water1 and the three-way cock1 ,p1 should be turned in such a position as to allow the contents of the tank1 ,n1 run into the tank1 ,q1 until the necessary quantity has been supplied1 the mode of determining which is hereinafter described4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #d ,the spindle1 ,l1 should then be turned into the position which allows the water from the source of supply to be discharged into the tank1 ,q1 the float1 ,r1 having first been raised into the position shown in ,figs4 #b and #e4 ,a second quantity of the lime should now be added to the tank1 ,n1 mixed with water1 and after agitation1 another eight hours allowed for the contents of both the tanks1 ,q and ,n1 to subside4 ,at the end of this time the three-way cock1 ,p1 should be turned through a third of a circle1 so as to discharge the lime water into the tank1 ,s2 and the spindle1 ,l1 should be turned in the contrary direction to the hands of a watch through the third of a circle1 so as to allow the water from the source of supply to be discharged into the tank1 ,s1 care being taken as before to raise the float1 ,t1 out of the water4 ,a third quantity of lime must be added to the tank1 ,n1 and now mixed with water to be drawn from the tank1 ,q1 by the tap1 ,u1 and after agitation again left for eight hours to subside4 ,the float1 ,r1 may now be lowered into the water in the tank1 ,q1 when it will be found that the clear softened water contained in the tank1 ,q1 will be discharged through the pipe attached to the bottom of the three way tap1 ,b4 ,the weight1 ,m1 must now be lifted about #e in41 so as to allow the ring at the end of the chain to be moved back to the next stud on the wheel1 ,k4 ,the lime water in the tank1 ,n1 must next be discharged into the tank1 ,v1 and then another quantity of lime must be added to the tank1 ,n1 and filled up with softened water from the tank1 ,s1 by means of the tap1 ,w1 and after being duly agitated and left to subside4 ,as soon as the softened water from the tank1 ,q1 has been drawn down to within #ae in4 of the bottom1 the rod1 ,h1 will move the rocking shaft1 ,i1 and lift the rod1 ,j1 so releasing the wheel1 ,k1 and allowing the weight1 ,m1 to descend and turn the spindle1 ,l1 and the upper and lower three-way cocks through a third of a circle2 the effect of which movement will be to continue the supply of softened water from the tank1 ,s1 and to fill up the tank1 ,v1 with water from the source of supply4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #e ,the apparatus will now be in the condition to afford a regular supply of softened water2 all that will be necessary to insure its continuous action will be that at certain stated intervals dependent upon the rapidity with which the water is used--but which interval should not be less than eight hours--the following things should be done3 7#a7 ,the float must be raised out of the tank last emptied4 7#b7 ,the float must be lowered into the tank last filled4 7#c7 ,the weight1 ,m1 must be raised1 and the ring of the chain shifted to the next stud on the wheel1 ,k4 7#d7 ,the clear lime water found in the tank1 ,n1 must be turned into the tank last emptied4 7#e7 ,the requisite quantity of lime must be put into the tank1 ,n4 7#f7 ,the requisite quantity of water must be drawn off from the tank last filled into the tank1 ,n4 7#g7 ,the contents of tank1 ,n1 must be thoroughly mixed by means of the air pump4 ,the quantity of lime to be used for each tankful of water must depend upon the hardness of the water1 oz4 being required for each tankful for each degree of hardness4 ,it is desirable1 however1 always to have an excess of lime in the tank1 ,n1 so as to insure obtaining a saturated solution of lime4 ,when first mixed the contents of the tank1 ,n1 will have a creamy appearance1 but when the superabundant lime has subsided the supernatant liquid will be a perfectly clear saturated solution of lime4 ,therefore1 in the first instance1 #c lb4 of lime should be put into the tank1 ,n1 and subsequently each time such a quantity of lime should be added as is found to be necessary by the method hereinafter described4 ,the quantity of the saturated lime water to be run into each of the softening tanks1 ,q1 ,s1 and ,v1 will depend upon the hardness of the water4 ,for every degree of temporary hardness a depth of #a-f_/aj in4 of the contents of the tank1 ,n1 will be required2 so that if the water has #ad deg4 of temporary hardness1 then #bb in4 in depth of lime water must be run off into each of the tanks1 ,q1 ,s1 and ,v4 ,in the first instance an excess of lime may be used1 and the softened water tested by means of nitrate of silver in the following manner3 ,a solution of #a oz4 of nitrate of silver in a pint of twice distilled water should be obtained4 ,having let two or three drops of this solution fall on the bottom of a white tea cup1 slowly add the softened water2 then if there be any excess of lime1 a yellow color will show itself1 and the quantity of lime water used must be reduced until only the faintest trace of color is perceptible4--,the ,engineer4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #f 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improved ,,water ,,meter4 ,we annex illustrations of a meter designed by ,mr4 ,a4 ,schmid1 of ,zrich1 and which1 according to ,engineering1 is now considerably used on the ,continent1 not only for measuring water1 but the sirup in sugar factories1 in breweries1 etc4 ,it consists of a cast iron body containing two gun-metal-lined cylinders1 and connected by an intermediate chamber4 ,round the body are formed two channels1 one for the entrance and the other for the discharge of the water1 etc41 to be measured4 ,within the cylinder are placed two long pistons1 provided with openings in such a way that each piston serves as a slide valve to the other1 the flow being maintained through the ports in the connecting chamber4 ,the arrangement of openings in the piston is shown in ,figs4 #e1 #f1 #g1 and the intermediate passages in ,figs4 #a1 #b1 and #c4 ,to the upper side of each piston is attached a cross-head working on a disk placed at each end of a horizontal shaft4 ,to one of the disks is added a short connecting rod that drives the spindle of a counter4 ,illustration3 ,,schmid',s ,,water ,,meter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,washing ,,machine ,,for ,,wool4 ,the washing machines in use for wool on the rake principle have during the last few years experienced many improvements in the details of their arrangement1 which we have illustrated at different times in our columns4 ,the introduction of these improvements and alterations shows that the washing of wool has attracted more attention on the part of observant manufacturers and machine makers1 and demonstrated at the same time that the machines hitherto in use1 with all their advantages1 left much to be desired in other respects4 ,the main difficulty with all washing machines for wool has been the avoidance of felting of the wool1 which tendency is increased by the use of warm water for washing and by the agitation that some consider necessary for a thorough cleansing of the wool and removal of the adhering impurities1 but which agitation is deprecated by others4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,wool ,,washing ,,machine4 ,referring to our different illustrations of improvements in this direction1 our subscribers will observe that the tendency of all these has been to keep the wool floating in the water1 and to apply all mechanical appliances required for its cleansing and pressing as much as possible while it is in this suspended condition4 ,the success which the different appliances and improvements mentioned by us have had when used for the class of wool for which they are intended1 has induced us to look up any attempts in a similar direction which have been made on the ,continent1 where the subject has attracted attention1 as well as with us4 ,we therefore give the annexed illustration of a machine invented by a ,german woolen manufacturer1 which in many respects is a wide departure from the acknowledged type in use in this country4 ,as with the ,english machines1 the wool enters from a creeper at one end1 passes through a long trough1 filled with water or lye1 ascends an inclined plane1 and passes out through a pair of squeezing rollers4 ,the invention mentioned applies to the treatment in the trough which latter is shown in our illustration at ,k4 ,it has a second bottom1 a little distance from a false one1 at ,k4 ,the false bottom is traversed in its whole length by an air pipe1 communicating with the atmospheric air outside the trough4 ,from this longitudinal pipe other pipes branch off at right angles at stated intervals1 as shown in section in ,fig4 #b4 ,these smaller pipes contain a number of small perforations on their upper part1 through which the air ascends into the water in innumerable small bubbles4 ,this is one of the principal aims of the invention1 for in ascending the bubbles lift the wool more or less to the surface and tend to open it out without the risk of doing so by any mechanical means liable to produce felting4 ,this is the same effect that is produced in many cases so successfully in boiling4 ,instead of rakes the inventor has placed four hexagonal drums into the trough1 marked ,d1 ,e1 ,f1 ,g4 ,the flat parts of these drums are made of perforated metal and set back a little4 ,this produces an alternate passing of the water into and out of them during their revolution and consequent sucking and repulsing of the wool1 which also likewise agitates it4 ,these drums are made wide at the entrance end of the trough and gradually narrower toward the delivery end4 ,the pipe1 ,v ,v1 is the usual steam pipe for heating the water4 ,we have said before that the improvements introduced into the wool washing machines nearer home have been of advantage for the wools for which they are intended1 and possibly the invention just described will also be valuable in some cases4--,tex4 ,manuf4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,increasing ,,the ,,illuminating ,,power ,,of ,,gases1 ,,etc4 ,by ,v4 ,,popp1 of ,paris4 ,this invention relates to lighting by mixing air or other gaseous supporter of combustion with illuminating or other hydrocarbon gas or vapor1 and burning the mixture 7at a suitable pressure7 in a burner of special construction1 shown in the accompanying illustrations4 ,illustration ,the burner is constructed as shown in ,figs #a and #b4 ,it consists of a central tube1 i1 screwing upon the pipe by which the gaseous mixture is supplied4 ,upon this tube is screwed a cup1 k1 of metal or refractory material which supports a cap1 l1 of fire-clay in the shape of a thimble 7or of other form1 according to the intended use of the burner74 ,the flanged base of this cap is perforated with a ring of holes1 m1 as small and numerous as possible1 and the sides of the cap are pierced with oblique perforations1 n4 ,the top of the tube1 i1 is provided with four small projections1 upon which rests a copper cone1 o1 soldered to the tube at a point below the perforations in the base of the thimble4 ,the cone is perforated at its lower end with small holes1 p1 the sum of whose areas is at least equal to the area of the tube4 ,the thimble1 l1 is surrounded by an envelope1 q1 of platinum wire netting or other refractory material of the same form4 ,the gaseous mixture arriving by the pipe1 i1 escapes at the upper orifices1 r1 and passes down against the interior surface of the cone1 o1 out at the orifices1 p1 and escapes through the orifices in the cap1 l1 at which it is burned4 ,the cap is thereby raised to a high temperature2 and the platinum wire sheath becoming incandescent radiates the light4 ,the gaseous mixture1 by coming first in contact with the copper cone and then with the refractory cap1 becomes raised to an exceedingly high temperature before it is consumed4 ,in the modified burner represented in ,fig4 #c1 the metal cone and the fire-cap are truncated4 ,the tube1 i1 is provided with a number of small perforations1 r1 at its upper end1 the sum of whose areas is at least equal to the area of the tube1 and by which the gaseous mixture is distributed within the chamber1 k4 ,upon the upper closed end of the tube is fixed a cup or inverted thimble1 o1 of fire-clay4 ,a refractory cone1 l1 surrounds this cup and rests by its base upon the cup4 ,this flanged base is perforated with small vertical holes1 m1 and upon it is fixed a platinum wire cage or envelope1 q4 ,an annular space is left between the cone and cup for the passage of the gaseous mixture1 which1 on escaping from the orifices1 r1 passes over the exterior surface of o1 the interior of which is already heated by the flame which has not passed through the wire gauze1 and has been forced by the pressure of the mixture into the interior of o4 ,the gaseous mixture before passing through the annular space thus attains such a temperature that on escaping from the orifice its combustion is greatly promoted4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,preventing ,,iron ,,from ,,rusting4 ,in the present state of civilization the use of iron has reached a very wide extension1 and in a great number of cases iron is used where wood or stone was formerly used4 ,it is certainly an important question how this metal can be protected under all circumstances against rust or oxidation1 so that the many costly iron structures may retain their usefulness and strength1 and be handed down uninjured to posterity4 ,wherever bright iron comes into contact with air and moisture it immediately begins to rust1 and this rust is not content to continually rob it of its substance in its persistent progress by scaling off the surface1 but at the same time it injures the remainder of the iron by making it brittle4 ,attempts have hitherto been made to protect the iron by covering it with other and less easily oxidizable metals4 ,for this purpose tin was first selected1 then lead and zinc1 and recently nickel4 ,furthermore1 earthy glazings and enamels1 such as are used on stone ware1 have been applied to iron vessels1 and they have already found extensive use in the household4 ,in most cases these coatings1 either metallic or vitreous1 are inapplicable1 either because they cannot be applied or are too expensive1 so that on a large scale recourse must be had to paints made by mixing oils with metallic oxides1 earths1 etc41 for protecting the surface of the iron from air and moisture4 ,it has been observed that iron does not rust in dry air1 not even in dry oxygen4 ,in like manner it frequently happens that unpainted iron1 such as weather vanes1 fences1 etc41 is exposed to the air for a century with very little injury1 being covered with a thin coating of the magnetic oxide 7proto-sesquioxide71 which acts as a protection and prevents farther action4 ,hence it has been proposed to produce a layer of this magnetic oxide on the surface artificially1 and it was found that superheated steam furnished the means for doing this4 ,but it is not to be supposed that such a process would find use on a large scale1 and besides this protection could only serve for iron tolerably exposed to the open air and not for that in direct contact with carbonic acid and water4 ,an interesting observation has been made on railways that the iron rails1 ties1 bolts1 etc41 rust until the road begins to be used4 ,here we must assume that anything made of iron is more inclined to rust when at rest than if occasionally caused to vibrate1 when an electrical action probably comes into play and decreases the affinity of iron for oxygen4 ,in tearing down old masonry iron bonds and clamps are often found which are as free from rust1 so far as they are covered with mortar1 as they were the day they left the blacksmith's hands4 ,a ,french engineer met with such a phenomenon when he uncovered the anchor plates of several chain bridges which had been built about thirty years4 ,where the anchors were covered with the fatty lime mortar of the masonry they showed no traces of rust1 but the prolongations of the anchors in empty spaces were rusted to such an extent that they were only one-third of their original thickness4 ,it has been repeatedly observed that iron does not rust in water in which are dissolved small quantities of caustic alkalies or alkaline earths1 which neutralize every trace of acid4 ,it seems that these experiences are the basis of ,a4 ,riegelmann's 7,hanau7 new protection against rust4 ,the paint that he uses contains caustic alkaline earths 7baryta1 strontia1 etc471 so that the iron is in a condition similar to the iron anchors of the chain bridges that were embedded in lime mortar4 ,although a paint is not thick enough to inclose so much alkali as the masonry did that the iron was embedded in1 nevertheless the alkaline action will make itself felt as long as the coating has a certain consistence4 ,under all circumstances1 however1 these new paints will be free from active acids1 which is more than can be said of our iron paints hitherto in use4 ,besides this1 the rust protector has such a composition that it could serve its intended purpose without the addition of any alkali4 ,if experience confirms this claim1 it will be an interesting step forward in the preservation of iron1 and contribute to an extension in the use of iron4--,polytechn4 ,notizblatt4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,suggestions ,,in ,,decotative ,,art4--,a ,,cupboard ,,in ,,italian ,,walnut ,,with ,,darker ,,paneling4--,from ,the ,workshop4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,an ,,elastic ,,mass ,,for ,,confectioners' ,,use4 ,it should be made in a well glazed earthen crock2 metallic vessels are not good1 as the gelatine burns too easily on the sides1 and dries out where it gets too hot4 ,nor is a water bath to be recommended for dissolving the gelatine1 for the sides get too hot and dry out the gelatine4 ,a quart of water is put in the crock and heated to boiling2 it is then taken off the open fire and two pounds of the finest gelatine stirred in1 a little at a time4 ,after the gelatine is completely dissolved there is to be added eight or ten pounds 7according to the quality of the gelatine7 of the finest white sirup previously warmed1 and constantly stirred4 ,the mass must not boil1 as it would easily burn1 or turn brown and acquire a bad color4 ,thirty or forty pounds of a beautiful white elastic mass can be made by this recipe in an hour at a cost of ten or twelve cents4 ,its chief use is for making figures and ornaments to put on bridal cakes and other fanciful productions of the confectioner4 ,it contains no harmful ingredients and can be eaten without danger4 ,if coloring is added1 cochineal1 plant green 7chlorophyl71 and turmeric are safer than aniline colors4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,caoutchouc4 ,a4 ,levy contributes the following brief account of this subject to the ,moniteur ,scientifique3 ,the crude gum cut in irregular strips is passed five or six times between two strong rolls sixteen inches in diameter1 and making two or three revolutions per minute4 ,these rolls are kept wet by water trickling on them4 ,this broad strip of gum is perforated with foreign substances and looks like a sieve4 ,it is next put in the cutting machine1 a horizontal drum provided with an axle having knives on it4 ,so much heat is produced by this cutting that the water would soon boil if it were not renewed4 ,a second machine of this kind completes the cutting and subdividing1 and expels the air and water from it4 ,the mass is then pressed in round or quadrangular blocks4 ,the vulcanization of thin articles from one twenty-fifth to one-sixteenth inch thick1 is done by ,parkes' patented process1 that is1 dipping it in carbon disulphide for a short time1 to which chloride or bromide of sulphur has been added1 and when the solvent has evaporated the sulphur remains behind4 ,balls1 ornamental articles1 and surgical apparatus are dipped into melted sulphur at #bge or #cjj ,fahr4 ,the third most important process consists in mixing in the sulphur mechanically with the gum in the cutting machine4 ,after the pieces have received the form they are to have they are heated with steam or hot air to #bge4 ,flat articles are vulcanized between press plates heated by steam4 ,this vulcanization is said to have been discovered accidentally by searching different colored stuffs1 some of which were dyed yellow with sulphur2 the latter stood well4 ,hard rubber contains more sulphur1 and is heated longer and higher4 ,small or fine tubes and hose are made by a continuous machine that presses it through a hole with a core to it4 ,large hose is made by wrapping strips around iron rods or tubes4 ,the little air balloons are made in ,paris 7their value is #cjj1jjj7 by ,brissonet from ,english ,mackintosh cloth4 ,powdered soapstone is strewed over it in cutting4 ,the edges are united by hammering on a horn anvil1 or by machinery through simple adhesion1 and the cut surfaces are smooth4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,photographic ,,action ,,studied ,,spectroscopically4 ,at the last meeting of the ,chemical ,society ,captain ,abney gave a lecture on the above subject to a large audience4 ,we may premise by saying that the demonstrations he gave were carried out principally by means of experiments on paper1 to enable his hearers to understand the different points he wished to enforce4 ,the lecture was commenced by insisting on the fact that all photographic action took place within the molecules of the compound acted upon and not on the molecule itself1 and from this he deduced that the absorption of radiation which take place by such compounds is principally caused by the atoms composing the molecule4 ,this was found to be the case in the organic liquids1 which the lecturer to some extent had investigated1 where he had further traced the absorption to the vibrating atoms of hydrogen in those bodies4 ,in order to properly investigate the action of light it was necessary to ascertain which components of light in the spectrum were the chief agents in causing it1 and this led him to consider the means to be employed to obtain a spectrum4 ,the effects of diffraction gratings were first discussed1 and in two which were shown it was found that in some spectra the visible portions were dimmed2 in others the ultra-violet and the infra-red were almost entirely absent4 ,it thus became necessary to investigate the condition of a grating before placing any confidence in the results obtained4 ,this was the first pitfall into which an experimentalist was liable to fall4 ,if prisms were used for obtaining the spectrum1 then precautions had also to be taken1 since all glass absorbed a portion of the ultra-violet rays and some the infra-red4 ,on the whole1 he considered that the best glass to use was pure white flint glass for the collimator1 the prisms1 and the camera lens4 ,another inquiry that was necessary was the source of radiation which it was proposed to use4 ,diagrams showed the unsatisfactory nature of solar radiation1 and a photograph of the whole spectrum1 taken with it under certain atmospheric conditions in which the effect of the green rays were almost nil1 demonstrated the false conclusions that might be deduced as to the sensitiveness of any particular compound4 ,captain ,abney also showed the satisfactory conditions which existed in using the crater of the positive pole of the electric arc light as a source1 and by diagrams illustrated the inferiority of an incandescent light for the purpose1 owing to the deficiency of violet and ultra-violet rays4 ,having thus settled the source of illumination and the kind of apparatus to employ1 he next considered the conditions under which the sensitive salts were to be exposed4 ,the action of ordinary sensitizers was explained and demonstrated by experiments1 from which point the results of certain colored sensitizers were considered4 ,thus1 various aniline dyes were proved to be bromine absorbents1 and likewise1 more or less1 to be capable of being acted upon by light in those regions of the spectrum they absorbed4 ,the result of the two effects was to produce a developable image of the spectrum just in those parts to which the salt of silver was sensitive1 and also in the parts where the dye itself was acted upon4 ,the latter effect was traced to the organic matter being oxidized in the presence of the sensitive silver salt4 ,the sensitizing effect of one silver compound upon another was then gone into1 and experiments and photographs showed where two salts of silver were in contact with one another1 and without an energetic sensitizer being at hand1 that the one when acted upon by light absorbed the halogen liberated from the other through the same cause and that a new molecule was formed4 ,this was of importance1 since in photographic spectroscopic researches a conclusion might be arrived at that a body suffered absorption in those regions of the spectrum where this interesting reaction took place1 whereas in reality the phenomenon might be due to the silver salts employed4 ,this was another pitfall for the unwary4 ,again1 it became necessary in studying photographic action to make sure that the effect of radiation was only a reducing action1 and that the results were not vitiated by some other action4 ,the destruction by oxidizing agents of the effect produced by light was then experimentally demonstrated1 and photographs of the spectrum showed that this effect was increased by the action of light itself4 ,thus1 when immersing a plate sensitive to all radiations1 visible and invisible1 in a very dilute solution of nitric acid1 bichromate of potash1 or hydroxyl1 it was shown that if the plate were exposed to light1 first the parts acted upon by the red rays were reduced before the parts not acted upon at all by the spectrum1 thus conclusively proving that light itself helped forward the oxidation or so-called solarization of the image4 ,it thus became a struggle1 under ordinary circumstances1 between the reducing action on the normal salt and the oxidizing action on the altered salt as to which should gain the mastery4 ,if the reducing action of any particular ray were the most active1 then a negative image resulted1 whereas if the oxidizing action were in the ascendant1 a positive image resulted4 ,thus1 in determining the action of light on a particular salt1 this antagonism had to be taken into account1 and exposure made with such precautions that no oxidizing action could occur1 as would be the case if an inorganic sensitizer1 such as sulphite of soda1 were used4 ,the reversal of the image by soluble haloid salts1 such as bromide of potassium1 was then dwelt upon with experimental demonstration4 ,it was shown that the merest trace of soluble haloid would reverse an image by the extraction of bromine from it1 and the fact that the most refrangible part of the spectrum was principally efficacious in completing this action showed how necessary it was to avoid falling into error when analyzing photographic action by the spectroscope4 ,a reference was next made to gelatine plates1 in which1 owing to their preparation1 reversal through the above cause was most likely to take place1 and a plate soaked in sulphite of soda and exposed in the camera for a couple of minutes--a time largely in excess of that necessary to give a reversal under ordinary circumstances--proved the efficacy of the oxygen absorber1 the image remaining in its normal condition after development4 ,the lecturer closed his remarks by showing the different molecular states of iodide1 bromide1 and chloride of silver1 as produced by different modes of preparation4 ,the color of the film by transmitted light in every case indicated the effect which was likely to be produced on them1 and the photographed spectrum in each of them showed the remarkable differences that were found4 ,the points raised by ,captain ,abney at different times are well worthy the study of scientific photographers1 since strict attention to the modes of exposure to the spectrum1 to the instruments employed1 and to the source of light used can alone insure accuracy in comparative experiments4--,br4 ,jour4 of ,photo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,salt ,,and ,,lime4 ,m4,f4,k4 communicates the following interesting circumstance to ,neueste ,erfindung43 ,a few years ago it was decided to whitewash the walls and ceiling of a small cellar to make it lighter4 ,for this purpose a suitable quantity of lime was slaked4 ,a workman who had to carry a vessel of common salt for some other purpose stumbled over the lime cask and spilled some of his salt into it4 ,to conceal all traces of his mishap he stirred in the salt as quickly as possible4 ,the circumstance came to my knowledge afterward1 and this unintentional addition of salt to the lime excited my liveliest curiosity1 for the whitewash was not only blameless1 but hard as cement1 and would not wash off4 ,after this experience ,i employed a mixture of milk of lime and salt 7about three parts of stone lime to one part of salt71 for a court or light well4 ,to save the trouble and expense of a scaffold to work on1 ,i had it applied with a hand fire engine 7garden syringe87 to the opposite walls4 ,the results were most satisfactory4 ,for four years the weather has had no effect upon it1 and ,i have obtained a good and cheap means of lighting the court in this way4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,renewing ,,paint ,,without ,,burning4 ,it is stated in the ,gewerbeblatte fur ,hessen that paint can be renewed and refreshed in the following manner3 ,when cracks and checks appear in the paint on wooden articles1 this usually indicates that the varnish has cracked4 ,if this is the case1 the article can easily be prepared for a fresh coat by sponging it over with strong ammonia water1 and two or three minutes later scraping off the varnish with the broad end of a spatula before the ammonia has dried up4 ,in this way the first coat is removed4 ,if it is necessary to remove the next coating1 the same operation is repeated4 ,after the last coat has been scraped off that is to be removed1 it must be washed with sufficient water to render the ammonia inactive1 and then the surface is rubbed with pulverized pumice to make it smooth4 ,any desired paint or varnish can be applied to a surface prepared in this way4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,testing ,,olive ,,oil4 ,by ,,dr4 ,o4 ,,bach4 ,there is no department in analytical chemistry in which so little success has been attained as in the testing of commercial fats and oils4 ,all methods that have been proposed for distinguishing and recognizing the separate oils1 alone or mixed1 bear upon them the stamp of uncertainty4 ,the facts observed by ,j4 ,koenig1 and described by him in his excellent book entitled ,die ,menschlichen ,nahrungs und ,genussmittel 7p4 #bdh71 excited great expectations2 viz41 that the quantity of glycerine in vegetable fats was much less than the amount required to combine with all the fatty acids1 and that the quantity of oleic acid in the oils that he examined exhibited essential differences4 ,koenig himself asserts that the fats have hitherto been too little investigated to found upon it a method for distinguishing them1 but that nevertheless it may possibly do good service in some cases4 ,my own estimation of the amount of glycerine in different olive oils1 by ,koenig's method1 has shown1 unfortunately1 that the percentage may vary from #a4f to #d4fh1 according to the origin and quality of the oil4 ,in like manner the estimation of the oleic acid1 which was conducted essentially in the manner proposed by ,koenig1 showed that the amount of oleic acid in different olive oils varied from #de to #ed per cent4 ,but since cotton seed oil1 for example1 which is most frequently used to adulterate olive oil1 contains #e per cent4 of glycerine1 and #ei4e per cent4 of oleic acid1 it is easy to see an admixture of cotton seed oil cannot be detected by this method1 which appeared to be so exact4 ,the method of analysis that ,i am about to describe is based chiefly upon the determination of the melting point of the fatty acids contained in the oils1 and upon their solubility in a mixture of alcohol and acetic acid4 ,the oils employed in adulterating olive oil1 and to which regard must be had in testing it1 are the following3 ,cotton seed oil1 sesame1 peanut1 sun flower1 rape1 and castor oils4 ,the tests for the two last named have hitherto never presented any difficulty1 as rape seed is easily detected1 owing to the sulphur in it1 by saponifying it in a silver dish1 and castor oil by its solubility in alcohol4 ,but in recent times another product has come into the market called sulphur oil or pulpa oil1 obtained by extracting the pressed olive cake with sulphide of carbon4 ,this also gives a sulphur reaction when saponified1 while it resembles castor oil by its solubility in alcohol4 ,when this oil is mixed with ordinary olive oil1 it can easily deceive any one who uses the ordinary tests4 ,my method of testing olive oil is as follows3 ,first1 the so-called elaidine test is made1 and then the test with nitric acid4 ,about #e c4 c4 7a teaspoonful7 of the oil is mixed in a test tube with its own volume of nitric acid1 spec4 gr4 #a4cj1 and shaken violently for one minute4 ,at the expiration of this time the oils will have acquired the following colors3 ,olive oil1 pale green2 cotton seed oil1 yellowish brown2 sesame1 white2 sun flower1 dirty white2 peanut1 rape1 and castor oils1 pale pink or rose4 ,as soon as the color has been observed1 the test glass is put in a water bath at the full boiling temperature and left there five minutes4 ,it was found that the action of nitric acid upon cotton seed and sesame oil was the most violent1 sometimes so violent as to throw the oil out of the glass4 ,at the end of another five minutes after the test tube is taken out of the water bath1 the following colors are seen3 olive and rape oils are red2 castor oil is golden yellow2 sun flower oil1 reddish yellow2 sesame and peanut1 brownish yellow2 cotton seed1 reddish brown4 ,after standing #ab to #ah hours at about #fj ,fahr4 the olive1 rape1 and peanut oils will have solidified2 sun flower1 castor1 and cotton seed will be like salve 7sticky71 while sesame will remain perfectly liquid4 ,mixtures of olive oil with small quantities of cotton seed or sesame are distinguished by this characteristic--that1 although the whole mass1 which is darker in color than olive oil1 solidifies at first1 at the end of #bd or #cf hours a brown oil will be found floating upon the surface of the solid mass1 while the lower strata exhibit the yellow color of pure olive oil4 ,oil of rosemary has no effect when shaken with cold nitric acid1 and imparts to it only a slightly darker color on heating4 ,oils treated with lye act just like pure oils4 ,far the purpose of determining the melting point of the fatty acids1 #aj grammes of oil were saponified with #e grammes of caustic potash on the water bath2 some water and alcohol being added4 ,after all the alcohol had been expelled the soap was dissolved in hot water1 and the fatty acids separated from the clear solution by adding hydrochloric acid4 ,after prolonged heating these acids will swim on the salt solution as a perfectly clear oil1 a portion of which is then put into a little1 narrow1 thin walled tube and allowed to solidify4 ,the point at with it melts and solidifies is determined by putting this tube in a beaker glass filled with water and warming with a small flame4 ,a thermometer is placed in the fatty acids and moved gently about during the observation1 and the point accurately observed at which the whole mass becomes perfectly clear1 and also when the mercury bulb begins to be clouded4 ,it was found that the acids from pure olive oil melt between #bf and #bh ,c4 7 #hj to #hc ,fahr47 and solidify at a point not lower than #bb ,c4 7#gb ,fahr474 ,the melting point of the fatty acids in the oils used to adulterate olive oil differs considerably from this4 ,the melting and solidifying points of the acids in cotton seed1 sesame1 and peanut oils lie considerably higher1 those of sunflower1 rape1 and castor oils decidedly lower than those of olive oil4 ,the melting and solidifying points of these acids are as follows3 ,cotton seed melts at #ch4j;,c4 solidifies #ce4j;,c4 ,sesame do4 #ce4j do4 do4 #cb4e do4 ,peanut do4 #cc4j do4 do4 #ca4j do4 ,sunflower do4 #bc4j do4 do4 #ag4j do4 ,rape do4 #bj4g do4 do4 #ae4j do4 ,castor oil do4 #ac4j do4 do4 #b4j do4 ,the above figures differ so much from those of olive oil1 that adulteratious carried to the extent that they are in trade can easily be detected by the aid of an estimation of the melting point1 for a ,gallipoli olive oil1 mixed with #bj per cent4 of sunflower oil1 melted at #bd ,c4 and solidified at #ah ,c4 7of course1 the fatty acids are meant74 ,a ,nizza oil1 mixed with #bj per cent4 cotton seed oil1 melted at #ca ,c4 and solidified at #bh ,c4 ,a ,gallipoli oil with #cc-a_/c per cent4 of rape oil melted at #bc ,c4 and solidified at #af ,c4 ,when #j4ej per cent4 of rape is added1 it melts as low as #bj and solidifies at #ac ,c41 etc4 ,in testing the solubility of the fatty acids in alcohol and acetic acid1 ,i employ the method proposed by ,david 7in ,comptes ,rendus1 #ahgh1 p4 #adaf7 for estimating stearic acid4 ,it depends upon the principle that when acetic acid is poured drop by drop into an alcoholic solution of oleic acid1 there comes a time when all the oleic acid separates1 but stearic acid1 which is insoluble in a mixture of alcohol and acetic acid1 remains insoluble if the mixture contains oleic acid4 ,the following manipulations are adopted in testing olive oil3 ,equal parts of glacial acetic acid and water are mixed in a bottle4 ,then #a c4c4 of pure oleic acid1 #c c4c4 of #ie per cent4 alcohol1 and #b c4c4 of acetic acid are put in a small tube graduated in tenths of cubic centimeters4 ,the solution should remain clear2 on adding another one-tenth c4c4 of acetic acid it becomes turbid1 and when #a c4c4 of oleic acid 7or at first even more7 floats on the mixture of acid and alcohol1 the liquid is ready for use4 ,if this is not the case1 the proportions 7of acetic acid and alcohol87 must be varied until the addition of one-tenth c4c4 of the former will cause all the oleic acid to separate4 ,the proportions having been ascertained from these preliminary experiments1 the alcohol and acid are then mixed accordingly1 e4g41 #cjj of alcohol to #bbe of acid4 ,one or two grammes of stearic acid are added to the alcoholic acetic acid1 and the clear supernatant liquid used for the experiments4 ,one cubic centimeter of the oil 7acids7 to be tested is put in the tube1 and #ae c4c4 of alcoholic acetic acid added1 well shaken1 and the whole left to stand quietly at #ae ,c4 7#fj ,fahr74 ,if the olive oil is pure1 the acids dissolve to a clear solution that remains so4 ,cotton seed oil is insoluble1 and the solution obtained by heating the solution solidifies at #fj ,fahr4 to a white jelly4 ,sesame and peanut oil react in a similar manner4 ,sunflower oil dissolves1 but at #fj a granular precipitate falls4 ,rape oil is entirely insoluble and floats like oil on the surface4 ,castor oil on the contrary dissolves completely1 just like olive oil1 and hence cannot be detected therein by this method4 ,to detect this oil we must take the melting point of the acids along with the solubility of the oil itself in alcohol4 ,olive oil when mixed with #be per cent4 of cotton seed oil yields a granular precipitate1 and so does #be per cent4 of sesame4 ,smaller quantities cannot be detected by these methods4 ,for rape oil the limit is #ej per cent41 and in smaller quantities the oil does not collect on the alcoholic solution4 ,the decided lowering of the melting point of the fatty acids in combination with the sulphur reaction1 and the insolubility of the oil in alcohol1 also furnish a method of detecting when present in smaller quantities in olive oil4 ,although ,i am well aware that ,i am making public a research that is by no means free from objections1 ,i nevertheless believe that it may be of use to those who have to undertake the ticklish and intricate analyses of commercial fats4--,translated from the ,chemiker ,zeitung1 p4 #cee4 ,leipsic1 ,jan41 #ahhc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,theory ,,of ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,compound ,,ethers4 ,in a note presented to the ,industrial ,society of ,mulhouse1 ,a4 ,pabst discusses the different stages in the formation of compound ethers1 as ,williamson has explained the production of ordinary ethers by the action of sulphuric acid upon alcohol4 ,pabst has observed that the compound ethers are formed in an analogous manner4 ,if alcohol1 sulphuric acid1 and acetic acid are heated together1 acetic ether1 we know1 is formed4 ,pabst has shown that it takes place in three stages4 ,in the first stage1 ethyl sulphuric acid and water are formed2 in the second1 acetate of ethyl with the reproduction of sulphuric acid1 which again converts a fresh quantity of alcohol into ethyl sulphuric acid4 7#a7 ,c#b;,h#e,,oh,,ho1,,so#b,,oh ,c#b;,h#e,o1,,so#b,,oh,h#b,o4 7,alcohol47 7,sulphuric acid47 7,ethyl sulphuric acid47 7#b7 ,c#b;,h#e,o1,,so#b,,oh,c#b;,h#c,o1,,oh 7,ethyl sulphuric acid47 7,acetic acid47 ,c#b;,h#e,o1,c#b;,h#c,o,,ho1,,so#b;,,ho4 7,acetate of ethyl47 7,sulphuric acid47 ,pabst proved this by letting methyl sulphuric acid act upon a mixture of acetic acid and ethyl alcohol4 ,he obtained by this process acetate of methyl and ethyl sulphuric acid4 ,by the continued action of ethyl alcohol and acetic acid upon this mixture1 of course1 acetate of ethyl was formed4 ,at the conclusion of the operation there was no longer any methyl sulphuric acid present in the liquid4 ,in the course of his investigations1 ,pabst was led to a very practical method for preparing acetate of methyl1 which consists in heating ethyl sulphuric acid to #ace or #adj ,c1 and allowing a mixture of equal molecules of strong alcohol and acetic acid to flow into it4 ,the details of his experiments and the method of purification will be published by the society4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,green ,,or ,,golden ,,color ,,for ,,all ,,kinds ,,of ,,brass4 ,by ,e4 ,,pulcher4 ,the ,french brass castings and articles of sheet brass are made of cheap1 light colored brass1 and possess a fine golden color which is not produced by gold varnish1 but by a coating of copper4 ,this gives them a finer appearance1 so that they sell better4 ,this golden color can be easily produced at very little expense and with but little trouble by the following process4 ,fifty grammes of caustic soda and #dj grammes of milk sugar are dissolved in a liter of water and boiled for a quarter of an hour4 ,the solution is clear as water at first1 but acquires a dark yellow color4 ,the vessel is next taken from the fire1 placed on a wooden support1 and #dj grammes of a cold concentrated solution of blue vitriol stirred in4 ,a red precipitate of suboxide of copper is at once formed1 and by the time the mixture cools to #afg ,fahr41 the precipitate will have settled4 ,a suitable wooden sieve is placed in the vessel1 and on this the polished articles are laid4 ,in about one minute the sieve is lifted up to see how far the operation has gone1 and at the end of the second minute the golden color is dark enough4 ,the sieve and articles are now taken out1 and the latter are washed and then dried in sawdust4 ,if the brass is left longer in the copper solution1 in a short time a fine green luster is produced1 becoming yellow at first and then bluish green4 ,after it turns green1 then the well-known iridescent colors finally appear4 ,to obtain uniform colors it is necessary that they be produced slowly1 which is attained at temperatures between #ace and #agj ,fahr4 ,the copper bath can be used repeatedly and can be kept a long time if bottled up tightly without change4 ,after it is exhausted it can be renewed by adding #aj grammes of caustic soda1 replacing the water that has evaporated1 heating to boiling1 and adding #be grammes of a cold solution of blue vitriol4 ,similar operations with other well known reducing agents1 such as tartrate of soda1 glycerine1 etc41 do not give such good colors1 because they do not precipitate the copper solution so rapidly and at so low a temperature4 ,if the rinsed and pickled brasses are dipped for five minutes in a three per cent4 neutral solution of cocoa nut oil soap1 and then washed with water again before they dry1 the coating gains in permanence4 ,brass articles that have to be cleaned frequently should be covered with oil of turpentine1 or thin ,english copal varnish4--,neueste ,erfind4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,vinegar4 ,hermann ,kratzer1 of ,leipsic1 communicates the following practical information on the clarification and purification of vinegar to the ,neueste ,erfindungen und ,erfahrungen3 ,if vinegar has an unpleasant odor1 which is rarer now that the vinegar manufacture has reached such a state of perfection1 it may be removed as follows3 ,well burned and finely pulverized wood charcoal is put into the bottles containing the vinegar1 the proportions being #h grammes of charcoal to a liter of vinegar1 or one ounce to the gallon4 ,it is shaken several times very thoroughly1 then left standing three or four days1 and the vinegar filtered through a linen cloth4 ,vinegar treated in this manner will be found to have completely lost its unpleasant odor4 ,i have found that when ,i used blood charcoal or bone coal in place of wood coal it was still more efficient2 but it must be mentioned that when they are used they must be purified as follows before using3 ,charcoal from blood contains potash and hence it is necessary to wash it with distilled water and dry it before using it4 ,bone coal 7also called bone black1 animal charcoal1 etc47 contains on an average #aj per cent4 of nitrogenous and hydrogenated carbon1 #h per cent4 of carbonate of lime1 #gh per cent4 of phosphate of lime1 besides phosphate of magnesia1 sulphate of lime1 soluble salts1 etc4 ,before using1 it should be treated with dilute hydrochloric acid until it does not effervesce any more4 ,the bone coal is then left to stand for #bd or #cj hours and at the end of this time is washed with distilled water until the wash water no longer reddens a blue piece of litmus paper1 i4e41 until every trace of hydrochloric acid has been removed from the bone coal4 ,wood charcoal may be treated in like manner4 ,when this coal is perfectly dry it is employed in the same proportions as the other1 #h to #a1jjj1 the operation being exactly the same4 ,he turns next to the clarification of the vinegar4 ,it happens everywhere that vinegar instead of being clear is sometimes turbid4 ,this is due to particles of yeast dissolved in the vinegar that have not yet settled4 ,to remove this kind of turbidity it is customary to use oak or beech shavings that have been washed in hot water and then dried4 ,these shavings1 which must be very long and extremely thin1 are put in a barrel with a second and perforated bottom1 to a depth of #ab to #cd inches4 ,the vinegar that runs through them deposits its slimy constituents on the shavings and becomes perfectly clear1 and presents to the eye a pleasing appearance4 ,to this generally known method ,i would add a few more3 #a4 ,i take a kilo of well pulverized animal charcoal 7black burned bones7 to #g_/h of a hectoliter of vinegar 7#a lb4 to #bj gallons71 and stir it well with a wooden rod2 or1 if the vinegar is in bottles1 ,i shake it a long time after putting the animal charcoal in the bottle1 and repeat it several times4 ,after three or four days ,i finally filter the vinegar through linen1 when the filtrate will exhibit the desired clearness4 #b4 ,the best way to clarify vinegar is with isinglass4 ,it is first broken up1 then swelled for a day in vinegar 7#ag or #ah grammes to the liter71 then #b liters of vinegar are added and the mass boiled until the isinglass is completely dissolved4 ,such a solution as this 7 ounce to #c quarts7 is mixed with #aj hectoliters 7#bej gallons7 of turbid vinegar and well stirred through it4 ,after the expiration of five or six weeks vinegar treated in this way has a beautifully clear appearance4 #c4 ,albumen can likewise be used to clarify it4 ,the vinegar is boiled with the albumen until the latter is completely coagulated1 and then the vinegar is filtered4 #d4 ,and finally milk may be employed4 ,for this purpose the milk is skimmed1 and #a quart of milk added for every #fh quarts of vinegar1 the mixture well stirred and shaken4 ,after the caseous portion has coagulated 7curdled7 it is filtered as before1 and in this case1 too1 the product is a fine1 clear vinegar4 ,we believe that these few experiments1 so easily performed1 and at so small an expense1 will prove useful to our readers in enabling them to put their product in the market in an excellent condition and nicely clarified4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,alizarine ,,industry4 ,at a recent meeting of the ,manchester section of the ,society of ,chemical ,industry1 ,mr4 ,ivan ,levinstein described the history and progress of the manufacture of alizarine1 from which are produced fast red1 purple1 brown1 and black dyes4 ,he said alizarine was1 until very recently1 made only from the root of the madder plant1 of which the yearly crop was #gj1jjj tons1 and represented an annual value of #c1aej1jjj1 of which the ,united ,kingdom consumed #bc1jjj tons1 representing a value of nearly #a1jjj1jjj4 ,madder is now no longer grown for this purpose4 ,the ,german chemists found that alizarine produced from madder in undergoing certain treatment gave a substance identical with anthracine1 one of the constituents of coal tar1 and in #ahfi the same chemists announced to the world that they had accomplished the synthesis of alizarine from anthracine4 ,the effect of this discovery was to throw madder out of cultivation4 ,mr4 ,perkin1 an ,english chemist1 and ,messrs4 ,graebe and ,liebermann1 ,german chemists1 almost simultaneously applied for patents in #ahfi1 in ,england1 and as their methods were nearly identical they arranged priorities by the exchanging of licenses4 ,the ,german license became the property of the ,badische ,aniline ,company1 and the ,english license became the property of the predecessors of the ,north ,british ,alizarine ,company4 ,these patents expire in about two months1 and the lecturer explained that an attempt made by the ,german manufacturers to further monopolize this industry 7even after the expiry of the patent7 proved abortive4 ,he also stated that alizarine1 #bj per cent4 quality1 is sold to-day at #bs #f;d4 per lb41 but that if the price were reduced by one-half there will still be a handsome profit to makers1 and that the ,united ,kingdom is the largest consumer1 absorbing one-third of the entire production1 and that ,england possesses advantages over all other countries for manufacturing alizarine--first1 by having a splendid supply of the raw material1 anthracine2 secondly1 cheaper caustic soda in ,england than in ,germany by fully #d per ton2 thirdly1 cheaper fuel2 fourthly1 large consumption at our own doors2 and1 fifthly1 special facilities for exporting4 ,the advantages derived from the development of the alizarine manufacture here1 it was stated1 will benefit other collateral industries1 such as manufacture of soda1 of ordinary sulphuric acid1 bichromatic1 and chlorate of potash1 articles used in this manufacture4 ,the lecturer considered that the difficulties attending the manufacture of alizarine were now overcome1 and with sufficient capital and competent chemists ,english manufacturers must be successful4 ,he then proceeded to explain the source from which nearly all the artificial coloring matters are derived1 viz41 gas tar2 showing the principal products of this wonderful1 complex mixture1 of which one is anthracine4 ,alizarine manufacturers originally found scarcity of anthracine2 at present the supply is in excess of the demand1 and the price during the last #ah months has fallen from #cs4 #f;d4 to #as4 per unit1 and the probabilities are that the supply will increase4 ,the quantity of gas tar now obtained the lecturer estimated at #ejj1jjj tons per annum1 and the coal carbonized for gas making1 #aj1jjj1jjj tons4 ,this quantity of tar suffices to produce #i1jjj tons of #bj per cent4 alizarine4 ,the lecturer then reviewed1 in case of an increased demand for anthracine1 the probable new sources of obtaining increased supplies of coal tar3 7#a7 ,the destructive distillation of petroleum2 7#b7 coke ovens and blast furnaces2 7#h7 the carbonization of coal for general manufacturing purposes1 using the coal and gas as fuel1 and giving tar1 benzine1 and ammonia as residues2 and 7#d7 distillation of coal with the object of obtaining the principal products1 tar and benzine1 and as the residual product1 gas4 ,this part of the lecture was important to dyers and printers1 the lecturer showing also1 in a very interesting way1 in what manner manufacturers may very considerably economize their consumption of coal4 ,the lecturer explained that while from one ton of coal there was obtained on an average about #ag oz4 of benzine1 by the new method about thirty times that amount can be got from the same quantity of coal4 ,he also considered in great detail the different processes of the carbonization of coal1 and of increasing the production of the different important residual products of gas tar1 and also the best method of extracting the benzine4 ,he showed samples of benzine which he produced from gas obtained at the ,rochdale ,road ,gasworks1 and1 further1 nitro-benzine1 aniline1 and coloring matters1 which he had made from this gas benzine4 ,the lecturer also discussed the effect of the probable increased production of tar1 ammonia1 benzine1 etc41 as affecting gas companies1 and said it was anticipated they either would raise the price of gas or change the present system of manufacture1 which he considered probable4 ,the enormous increase in the production of ammonia1 of which the larger portion at present1 as sulphate of ammonia1 was used as a fertilizer1 would no doubt considerably reduce its value4 ,it might even replace soda for many purposes1 and thus react on our alizarine industry4 ,he then proceeded to consider the manufacture of alizarine purpurine1 and divided its manufacture into four stages3 #a1 the purification of crude anthracine2 #b1 the conversion of the purified anthracine into anthraquinone2 and #c1 the production of sulpho acid of anthraquinone and the conversion of this sulpho-acid into alizarine and purpurine4 ,this part of the lecture comprised a detailed explanation of the various kinds of apparatus required1 to be used which were beautifully got up1 complete working models having been prepared for the occasion4 ,the lecturer was of opinion that large consumers would be benefited if makers would offer for sale only three distinct coloring matters--iso or anthrapurpurine1 and flavo-purpurine1 leaving it to the dyers and printers to produce for themselves the intermediate shades by mixing the three colors2 and he showed that by reason of the fastness of the shades produced by these coloring agents varying considerably1 the blue shade 7alizarine7 being much faster then the orange shade 7flavo-purpurine71 consumers were in many instances losers by using mixtures of alizarine and flavo-purpurine4 ,in the course of the lecture many interesting specimens of various products were produced and dilated upon1 the lecturer fully describing the process of purifying the crude anthracine and of the conversion of the purified anthracine into anthraquinone4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,preservation ,,of ,,meat ,,by ,,carbonic ,,acid4 ,since #ahgd1 when ,professor ,kolbe1 of ,leipsic1 first published his results on the antiseptic action of salicylic acid1 he has made many efforts to apply this acid to the preservation of meat1 but he has invariably found that after the lapse of a few days an unpleasant flavor has been developed1 which is not that of putridity4 ,if putrid changes be noticed1 it is a sign that salicylic acid is in insufficient quantity1 for where it has turned putrid the meat is found to be no longer acid1 but alkaline4 ,this leads to the assumption that meat is protected from change by acids1 even by gases of that kind2 and in fact it was noticed that beef--from #b to #e kilos4 being taken--when placed in an earthen vessel and loosely covered with a wooden cover1 was long preserved from putridity if the bottom of the vessel contained some hydrochloric acid1 nitric acid1 or aqueous sulphurous acid4 ,the meat1 however1 no longer had the taste of fresh meat1 but of such as had long lain in ice4 ,experiments were therefore made with carbonic acid1 and these proved highly successful4 ,the meat was placed in a cylinder of metal plate1 and suspended from a rod which crossed the upper part and the lower part4 ,a small tube serves to admit a current of carbonic acid from a ,kipp's apparatus4 ,the lid1 which rested in a circular trough of glycerine1 was traversed by a similar tube in its center1 and both tubes could be closed with ,india-rubber tubing and screw taps as soon as sufficient carbonic acid gas had traversed the apparatus4 ,at the end of seven1 fourteen1 and twenty-one days it was found that the meat was still quite good1 and the soup prepared from it was in every respect excellent4 ,at the end of the fourth or fifth week the meat thus preserved in the gas was still quite free from all putridity2 but the broth prepared from it no longer tasted so well as fresh bouillon4 ,the experiments were not extended over a longer time4 ,carbonic acid is thus shown to be an excellent means of preserving beef from putridity and of causing it to retain its good taste for several weeks4 ,mutton does not preserve so well4 ,in eight days it had become putrid2 and veal is by no means so well preserved as beef4 ,the comportment of beef in an atmosphere of carbonic acid1 to which carbonic oxide has been added1 is curious4 ,a number of cylinders were filled in the usual way with such a mixture and opened at the end of two or three weeks2 in each case the flesh had the smell and taste of good1 pure meat1 but it was not of the gray color which meat preserved in carbonic acid gas gradually takes1 but appeared in the interior1 as well as on the outside1 of a bright flesh-red color1 and on the surface here and there1 there were white round masses of fungoid growth of the size of a #bj-pfenning piece1 which were removed with the slightest rubbing4 ,the flesh lying just below these was found to have the same bright red color as that already described4 ,meat which had been for three weeks in such a gas mixture gave a broth which1 in good taste and freshness1 could hardly be distinguished from freshly-made bouillon2 and the boiled meats could not be distinguished either in appearance or taste4 ,the property of carbonic acid to preserve meat suggests a use for the large supplies of this gas evolved from the earth in many localities4 ,and it is as interesting to determine in how far the gas could be of service as an antiseptic during surgical operations4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,reduction ,,of ,,oxidized ,,iron ,,by ,,carbonic ,,oxide4 ,,it is well known that when the heat is sufficient1 carbonic oxide reduces the oxide of iron to metal with the production of carbon dioxide 7carbonic acid74 ,on the other hand1 at lower temperatures carbon dioxide oxidizes metallic iron1 forming carbonic oxide4 ,j4 ,lowthian ,bell's celebrated researches 7see ,,scientific ,,american1 p4 #aii1 ,march #ca1 #ahhc7 established the point of equilibrium where in the presence of both monoxide and dioxide the reducing action of the one just counterbalances the oxidizing action of the other4 ,at the suggestion of ,prof4 ,r4 ,akermann1 of ,stockholm1 ,c4,g4 ,srnstrom has conducted a similar series of forty-five experiments1 the expense being borne by the ,jernkontor4 ,about #a gramme of oxide of iron was placed in a porcelain boat1 and slid in a porcelain tube #ah millimeters 7 inch7 in diameter and #fce millimeters long 7#be inches74 ,this was exposed to the action of a current of mixed carbon dioxide and monoxide made by heating oxalic acid and concentrated sulphuric acid4 ,it was mixed with carbon dioxide as required1 then analyzed1 and preserved in gasometers holding #ff liters4 ,before using1 it is passed over phosphorus and chloride of calcium1 and through sulphuric acid4 ,the porcelain tube and boat were heated to from #cjj to #fjj ,c4 7#egb to #a1feb ,fahr47 while the gases were passing1 and then the state of oxidation determined4 ,it was found that the larger the quantity of dioxide the higher the degree of oxidation1 and the larger the proportion of monoxide the lower the degree of oxidation4 ,the details of the experiment indicate that a saving of fuel in the blast furnace could best be accomplished by the use of a very hot blast1 introducing some carbon monoxide into the blast1 provided1 of course1 that this gas can be made outside of the blast furnace more cheaply than inside of it4 ,nevertheless1 #fdc lb4 of carbon must be burned to every #a1jjj lb4 of iron reduced1 if carbonic oxide is exclusively employed4--,stahl und ,eisen4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,adulteration ,,of ,,soap4 ,by ,dr4 ,h4 ,,brackebusch4 ,the importance of soap as an indispensable article in the household has not restrained the adulterators from making it a favorite object of their operations1 and at the present day soap is only very rarely what it should be1 the alkaline salt of a fatty acid with about #ae per cent4 of water1 which may be increased in case of soft soaps to #cj per cent4 at most4 ,the amount of moisture is an immediate signal for adulteration4 ,of all substances that can be used to adulterate soap1 water is of course the cheapest1 and as it is also harmless1 this was the first point where manufacturers made use of their knowledge4 ,the percentage of water was raised to #bf or #bh per cent41 and now nearly all the ordinary soaps contain that amount when they leave the factory4 ,at first the retailers objected to this method1 because they had to suffer the loss so far as it dried out and lost weight in the store4 ,the next point was to find some substance that would prevent this rapid drying1 and it was very soon discovered that those soaps that contained an excess of lye retained moisture longer4 ,henceforth it was only necessary to use lyes of extra strength so as to obtain a large yield of soap containing an excess of water4 ,the results of this ingenious method are before us2 in the shops of the soap dealers the bars of soap become coated with a crust of white crystals1 which is nothing but soda4 ,if a few drops of corrosive sublimate be dropped on these crystals1 a red spot will at once be produced by the formation of mercuric oxide4 ,in addition to the deception of the public who buy such soaps1 this alkali destroys clothes washed with it1 as the fiber of the tissues is directly attacked by it1 while the proper action of the soap depends on its enveloping the particles of dirt and carrying them off4 ,soap is subject to another kind of adulteration called filling1 or weighting4 ,soapstone and similar mineral substances are added to the finished soap to increase its weight4 ,but it may be added that this fraudulent weighting is rare4 ,large establishments cannot take the risk of being detected in such avaricious practices1 and small ones scarcely have the apparatus at their disposal for making a uniform mixture which will not arouse suspicion4 ,now soaps are frequently found in the market that scarcely deserve this name4 ,mineral soap1 cold water soap1 etc41 are the names inscribed on the placards behind which is buried a preparation consisting for the greater part of water-glass4 ,the well-known water-glass is a silicate of soda or potash dissolved in free or caustic soda1 or potash4 ,there was a time when it excited great hopes1 and its introduction into the household for washing was dreamed of1 but it was soon found that its caustic properties made their appearance at a relatively low temperature4 ,hence we often find the notice1 ,,to ,,be ,,used ,,cold1 printed in bold letters on the wrappers4 ,this product is obtained by thickening water-glass with stearine1 oleine1 or any other easily saponifiable fat4 ,as it takes but very little of the substances named to make an article closely resembling soap1 of course the product is very cheap4 ,there does not seem to be any limit to the amount of water in it2 at least the author found in one kind of mineral soap from ,berlin #eh per cent4 of water4 ,water-glass soaps do not dissolve readily in water1 they make but little suds1 and render the skin hard and unpliable4 ,admitting that they are suitable for many purposes1 nothing can be said against their sale so long as they appear under names which preclude their being confounded with other soaps4 ,nevertheless1 there is always this danger--that water-glass may come into general use in making soap1 and this is to be deplored4 ,water-glass soaps are easily recognized by their insolubility in moderately strong alcohol1 the water-glass remaining behind in a gelatinous form4 ,great deception has been practiced under such names as almond soap1 etc4 ,fortunately the difference between various kinds of fat are not very great from a chemical point of view1 although it is always an unpleasant thought that the fat from animals that have died may return to the house in the form of soap4 ,a white or yellow soap having a good smell is not made from bad fat1 and hence is more appetizing4 ,a method formerly much in use consisted in mixing green soap with starch paste1 a mixture that could not be detected by the naked eye1 especially if colored with caramel4 ,on attempting to dissolve it in ordinary burning alcohol1 a white coagulum forms4 ,from the foregoing it is sufficiently evident that those who buy soap to sell again have every reason to keep a sharp lookout on those who furnish them with soap4--,polyt4 ,notiz4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,bovine ,,and ,,human ,,milk3 ,,the ,,difference ,,in ,,its ,,action ,,and ,,composition4 ,by ,c4 ,,husson4 ,m4 ,meynet1 in a remarkable report upon condensed milk1 has raised a question which it is important to have solved in the interests of infants4 ,this is my excuse for presenting to the ,french ,society of ,hygiene certain observations on this subject4 ,is woman's milk richer in fatty matters and sugar in proportion to the caseine than that of the cow8 ,is the affirmative1 sustained by a large number of chemists1 a mistake that ought to be corrected8 ,such is the question that needs to be answered4 ,in my last work on milk1 my aim was to report new experiments1 and hence ,i gave only the analysis of ,m4 ,colawell4 ,by the side of the essays of ,,mm4 ,doyre1 ,millon1 ,commaille1 and ,wurtz1 ,i put those of ,liebig1 and quoted an interesting chapter written on this question by ,m4 ,caulier1 in ,dechambre's ,encyclopedic ,dictionary4 ,these are the authorities upon which to base any opposition to the analyses of ,boussingault1 ,regnault1 ,littre1 and ,simon1 savants of no less renown4 ,the differences are easily explained4 ,woman's milk is rarely to be had in sufficient abundance to make a complete analysis of it4 ,in the country especially a few precious drops1 obtained with difficulty1 are carried off in a thimble to be placed under a microscope1 where the number of fat globules are counted1 and it is examined to see if they are not mixed with globules of colostrum4 ,it will be necessary at the outset to know whether the analyses given refer to milk drawn from the breast before nursing1 or at the end4 ,in the former case there will be an excess of caseine1 in the second an excess of fat present4 ,this is the reason that in nursing infants the intervals should not be too long1 or the child will not be able to empty the breast completely1 and it will obtain a milk too rich in caseine1 too poor in butter1 and one that it cannot digest4 ,this is the first proof of the importance of fatty matters for the alimentation of babes4 ,let us turn to the second4 ,at birth1 when the milk is still in a state of colostrum1 the fluid contains a variable quantity of albumen coagulable by heat1 much less caseine1 and an excess of butter and sugar4 ,cow's milk1 immediately after calving1 contains more butter and less caseine than milk produced some time later1 when the specific character of ruminants begins to appear in the calf1 that is to say1 when it commences to graze the milk coagulates in the stomach4 ,as in other mammals1 an excess of fat helps digestion by subdividing the caseine and emulsifying it4 ,but the milk of an animal recently calved is reserved for its young1 and it is not until the time of weaning that the lacteal fluid is offered for human consumption4 ,thus it is that the nursling of a day receives milk many months old and heavily loaded with caseine4 ,this milk it cannot digest because the emulsifying element1 the fat1 is not present in it in sufficient quantity in proportion to the coagulable matter4 ,we must not forget either that the difference in coagulation holds also with respect to difference in the age and in the kind of animal4 ,just so the rennet of a sucking calf has a greater power of coagulating cow's milk than that of a sheep1 and vice versa4 ,clinical observation1 says ,dr4 ,condereau1 shows that all young infants digest human milk very easily and cow's milk very imperfectly4 ,when it is fed on the latter1 in the excreta will be found numerous fragments1 sometimes very bulky1 of undigested caseine4 ,in most cases this caseine suffers more or less decomposition in the alimentary canal1 which gives to the feces a tainted odor recalling that of putrid ,roquefort cheese4 ,the excrement vary in appearance as much as they do in odor4 ,frequently the caseous clots are not to be seen1 and the stool has a clammy look reminding one of glazier's putty1 while the color varies from dirty white to pale grayish yellow4 ,that is due to the fact that the composition of the milk from different animals is far from being constant4 ,the proportions of albumen to those of caseine are especially varied4 ,for woman's milk the proportions are as #ajj to #abb4gb4 ,in goat's milk the proportions are #ajj to #agc4ji4 ,in cow's milk it is as #ajj to #bhi4bj4 ,the conclusion is this3 ,caseine is not a food at all for the new born during a space of time1 the duration of which is to be determined experimentally4 ,this substance is a harmful burden that interferes with the regular action of the digestive organs4 ,it is a premature food1 and the more abundant the more injurious4 ,albumen on the contrary remains fluid in the presence of the gastric juice2 it is separated from the other aliments by coagulation of the caseine4 ,it is absorbed entire either in its natural state or in form of peptone4 ,according to clinical observation1 it is still the fats that give to milk its hygienic value1 and the excess of caseine is an obstacle to its digestion4 ,however1 if cow's milk is not easily digested by children1 experience proves that there are other kinds of milk1 from other animals1 which young stomachs are able to bear more easily4 ,there are many proofs of this fact4 ,m4 ,tarnier1 speaking before the ,academy of ,medicine on the artificial nourishment of the new born1 reports that the milk of cows and goats1 pure or diluted in different ways1 that of condensed milk and ,biedert's cream1 have always given disastrous results at the ,maternite in ,paris1 but that the mortality of the new born was considerably reduced from the day when ass's milk was introduced as food4 ,ass's milk was given pure for six weeks or two months2 then cow's milk diluted with one-half water until six months old1 followed by pure cow's milk4 ,this is the most rational course of artificial feeding4 ,prof4 ,parrot reports analogous results obtained at the nursery opened at the ,hospice des ,enfants ,assistes4 ,by the aid of ass's milk he saved a number of the little syphilitics4 ,the following are the numerical results3 #hf infants with hereditary taint of syphilis have been at the nursery4 ,of #f fed exclusively on cow's milk1 only #a survived and the other #e died4 ,forty-two were suckled by goats1 of which #h lived1 #cd are dead1 which is equal to a mortality of #hj4i per cent4 ,thirty-eight were suckled by an ass1 of which #bh lived and #aj died2 a mortality of #bf4c per cent4 ,certainly these figures prove eloquently enough what chemical analysis shows1 that ass's milk1 being better borne by the infant's stomach1 ought to have a composition resembling that of woman's milk4 ,this analogy is not found to consist in the quantity of fat1 but in the small amounts of dry residue 7total solids7 and of caseine4 ,let us now examine the objections raised by ,m4 ,meynet4 ,food has a considerable influence upon the composition of milk2 this fact1 stated by ,m4 ,riche in his treatise on chemistry1 seem to be accepted by all4 ,the milk of carnivor is excessively rich in caseine2 that of herbivor much less4 ,the food of woman1 who enjoys a mixed alimentation1 ought to have a composition intermediate between these two1 and consequently ought to contain more caseine than that of the plant eaters4 ,this is the logical deduction4 ,at first this reasoning misleads one1 but numerous objections present themselves4 ,the food1 no doubt1 has some influence upon the composition of the milk of animals of the same species1 but every animal can secrete something independent of any food1 just as one kind secretes musk1 another castor1 etc4 ,yet it would not be an anomaly if an excess of caseine in proportion to the other substances was a true characteristic of ruminants4 ,but we admit that the milk of all mammals ought to have identically the same composition if their food suffered no modifications4 ,what is the food of ruminants8 ,without doubt it is essentially vegetable1 and the plants of the field constitute the element par excellence of their nurture4 ,these plants contain a large excess of carbohydrates in proportion to the nitrogenous4 ,but what are these other substances8 ,what role do they play in digestion8 ,they are composed in great part of fibers and cells that suffer no change in the animal economy1 and which are not acted upon by the gastric juice1 as proved by their occurrence in excreta4 ,the carbon is found almost unchanged1 so that the excrements of herbivoi1 when dried1 form a valuable fuel4 ,ruminants are compelled1 in order to obtain nourishment from the plants that they eat1 to extract their juices by repeated pressure 7as in chewing the cud72 and what do these soluble juices contain8 ,some saccharine substances1 a little fat1 but mostly albumen and vegetable caseine1 that is to say1 the substance which predominates in their lacteal secretions4 ,what1 on the contrary1 is the food of woman8 ,no doubt she gains much strength from the lean1 muscular flesh that she eats1 but besides this she has butter1 oil1 fats of all kinds1 sugar1 starches1 and alcoholic beverages1 all of which are favorable to the production of butter in the milk4 ,hence1 aside from her physical constitution1 the food of woman alone explains the relative excess of non-nitrogeneous substances4 ,nitrogenous articles of food are expensive1 while the other forms of nutriment are to be had in the form of potatoes1 beans1 and bread1 products sold at a reasonable price4 ,yet logic demands that there shall be an excess of butter in proportion to caseine in the milk4 ,the discrepancies in analyses of woman's milk are easily explained by the mobile and impressible character of woman4 ,if bad treatment and bee stings are able to modify the composition of cow's milk1 how much more ought the emotions of all sorts1 which disturb the heart and head of woman1 to change the composition of her milk8 ,but if new analyses seem to be needed1 they ought to be made4 ,this question is too important to rest in suspense4 ,the mean composition of human milk for the first two months after delivery ought to be established4 ,in chemistry1 as in mathematics1 figures alone are convincing4 ,but from what has been said it is logical to conclude that an excess of caseine in milk is unfavorable to good digestion1 while an excess of butter is favorable to it4--,translated from ,journal d',hygiene1 ,march #a1 #ahhc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,cereal ,,foods ,,in ,,their ,,relation ,,to ,,health ,,and ,,disease4 ,by ,f4,r4 ,,campbell1 ,a4,b41 ,m4,d4 ,the cereals are subject to many diseases which retard their development1 rendering them unfit for food1 and even poisonous4 ,the relation of unwholesome foods to the diseases of the animal body are now being thoroughly studied1 recent advances in chemistry and microscopy contributing valuable aid to the prosecution of such investigations4 ,some enthusiastic advocates of the germ theory of disease believe that many1 if not all1 the so-called disease germs may be transplanted into the human system with the food ingested4 ,but whatever may be the real truth in regard to this subject1 it has been positively demonstrated that many diseases of the human body may be produced by unwholesome food4 ,the specific symptoms produced in man by the various grain diseases are not accurately known1 consequently our remarks upon this subject must be of a very general character4 ,pappenheim divides the diseases of the cereals into two classes1 internal and external4 ,the internal diseases are those depending upon conditions of soil1 climate1 cultivation1 etc41 and may be neglected in our discussion1 as they produce no special disease of the body1 only impairing the nutritive value of the grain4 ,the external diseases are of much greater importance1 as they probably produce some of the most fatal maladies to which the human race is subject4 ,these external diseases of the cereals are due to parasites1 which may be either of an animal or vegetable nature4 ,among the animal parasites may be mentioned the weevil1 vibrio tritici1 which feeds upon the starch cells of the grain4 ,grain attacked by this parasite was at one time supposed to be injurious to health4 ,in #ahdd the ,french ,commission appointed to examine grain condemned a large quantity imported with this parasite1 but afterward reconsidered their decision and permitted its sale1 concluding that it was deficient in nutritive properties1 but not otherwise unwholesome4 ,rust is the most common disease of the cereals1 produced by vegetable parasites4 ,like the other diseases of this class1 it is most prevalent in warm1 damp seasons4 ,prof4 ,hensboro is of the opinion that rust is but an earlier stage of mildew or blight1 the one form of parasite being capable of development into the other1 and the fructification characteristic of the two supposed genera having been evolved on one and the same individual4 ,blight is a term loosely applied to a number of parasitic diseases4 ,in it are included mildew1 cories1 and even rust and smut4 ,the fungi producing these diseases attack the plant and seed at various stages of its growth4 ,the whole kernel is affected1 and not merely the external coat1 as is sometimes maintained4 ,when blighted grain is sown1 the disease recurs the following year1 often making it necessary to import new seed before the disease can be eradicated4 ,various remedies have been used to destroy the spores of these fungi1 but all are uncertain and some are dangerous to health4 ,special machinery and methods have been employed in the mills to separate the mildew from the grain4 ,some of these succeed in removing the fungi and discoloration from the surface of the grain1 but have no effects upon the parts within4 ,blighted grain is soft1 and has an unpleasant taste and smell1 and bread made of it is liable to be heavy and sodden4 ,it is undeniable that the use of blighted grain as food is exceeding dangerous to health4 ,it is a well known fact that vegetable parasites may attack animals2 the silk worm disease produced by the ,botrytis baniana1 being an example4 ,it is stated that the same vegetable parasites which produce plant diseases1 when transmitted to the animal body produce special affections1 the form and appearance of the germs being altered by their environments4 ,the same germs developed under different conditions of temperature and surrounding medium1 assume forms so various that they have been supposed to belong to different species and even different genera4 ,if there is any truth1 then1 in the germ theory of disease1 it is not so very improbable that a fungus which will produce blight in grain may cause cholera or tetanoid fever in an animal4 ,hallier1 the famous physiological botanist1 observed in #ahfg that there was a peculiar disease of the rice plant associated with an epidemic of cholera4 ,rice plants fertilized with the discharges of cholera patients were affected with blight4 ,a concentrated infusion of the blighted grain would produce changes in all animal substances1 blood and albumen being converted into thin odorless products resembling in every respect the material found in the kidneys of cholera patients4 ,the most formidable of the diseases attributed to the use of diseased grain is cerebro-spinal meningitis1 commonly known as spotted or blanoid fever4 ,the disease is rare in ,england1 but is frequently epidemic in the ,united ,states1 in ,ireland1 and on the ,continent4 ,in #ahgc1 in the ,state of ,massachusetts alone1 #gdg persons died of it1 and other epidemics even more fatal have lately occurred in ,new ,york and ,michigan4 ,the disease is a nervous fever attended with convulsions1 the pathological lesion being congestion and inflammation of the membrane of the spinal cord and brain4 ,dr4 ,richardson in writing on the nature and causes of spotted fever concludes that it is due to the use of diseased vegetable substances1 especially grain1 and from a careful analysis of the statistics of this disease reported by the ,michigan ,state ,board of ,health considers it demonstrated that under favoring condition for its action diseased grain received as a food is the primary cause of the phenomena which characterize the disease4 ,these views are substantiated by the experiments of ,dr4 ,h4 ,day1 who found that by feeding rabbits on unsound grain1 spasmodic affections were produced1 due to inflammation of the membranes of the spinal cord and brain4 ,in warm climates1 pellagra or ,italian leprosy is said to be produced by eating diseased maize1 which forms the principal article of food among the poorer classes of the rural districts4 ,pellagra is epidemic in northern ,italy and the south of ,france4 ,the disease is manifested by a redness and discoloration of the exposed parts of the body4 ,it is most active during the hot weather1 the inflammation subsiding in the winter1 leaving a pigmentation of the skin4 ,each year the symptoms become more alarming1 nervous disorders finally setting in1 and a large number die insane4 ,the disease is most prevalent in the country4 ,in the towns1 where maize is supplemented by other articles of food1 it does not exist4 ,ergot is a very common disease of the cereals4 ,the fungus producing it was discovered in #ahec1 but for centuries previous its injurious effects upon the human body were recognized1 and it was observed that ergot of rye was the most poisonous4 ,taken in large doses1 ergot will produce nausea1 vomiting1 diarrhoea1 headache1 and weakness of the heart4 ,in small repeated doses it will produce contraction of all the unstriped muscles1 as those of the blood vessels1 the womb1 and intestines4 ,ergotium is the name given to the disease produced by the continued use of grain affected by this fungus4 ,aitken describes it as a train of morbid symptoms produced by the slow and cumulative action of a specific poison peculiar to wheat and rye1 which produces convulsions1 gangrene of the extremities1 and death4 ,in countries where rye bread is much used ergotium is sometimes epidemic4 ,this was a frequent calamity before the introduction of suitable purifiers into the mills4 ,there are two varieties of the disease1 the convulsive and the gangrenous4 ,the convulsive form begins with tingling of the extremities1 drowsiness1 and headache1 followed by pain in the joints1 violent muscular contractions1 and death4 ,the gangrenous variety begins with coldness and weakness of the extremities followed by gangrene and sloughing4 ,this form is somewhat more fatal than the convulsive1 the mortality of those affected being about #ij per cent4 ,mouldy grain and bread have also caused poisoning4 ,prof4 ,varnell states that six horses died in three days from eating mouldy oats4 ,there was a large amount of matted mycelium1 and this when given to other horses for experiment1 killed them within thirty-six hours4 ,the writer has himself seen seven hogs die within a few days while being fed on mouldy corn4 ,flour which has become stale may produce similar injurious effects1 although most of the germs are destroyed in the process of baking4 ,it is quite probable1 however1 that a poisonous substance is generated by the mould fungus1 which cannot be destroyed in this way4--,milling ,world4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,moist ,,air ,,in ,,living ,,rooms4 ,the injurious effect of dry heat in inhabited rooms is quite generally known1 and different methods have been suggested for moistening the air4 ,to test the effectiveness of these methods1 ,j4 ,melikow1 of ,st4 ,petersburg1 has estimated the quantity of moisture in the air of different rooms by means of ,august's psychrometer1 and also tested the different methods of increasing the moisture4 ,he arrived at the following results1 which are of decided practical value3 #a4 ,when large and small open vessels filled with water are placed in the room1 they do not increase the moisture of the air at all4 #b4 ,tubs of water of the same temperature as the room and parlor fountains have very little effect4 #c4 ,when hot air is used1 open vessels of water placed over the pipes have no effect at all4 #d4 ,wolpert's revolving wheel increases the moisture but slightly4 #e4 ,the ,russian tea machine and the steam pulverizer 7atomizer7 are effective but only for a short time4 #f4 ,wet hand towels suspended in a room are insufficient4 #g4 ,of all the methods tested1 the most efficient seemed to be to hang up a number of wet cloths on a winch or some contrivance that permits of turning them1 so as to hasten their giving out moisture to the air4--,med4 ,zeitung4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the following article is from the ,june number of the ,american ,naturalist1 edited by ,prof4 ,a4 ,s4 ,packard1 ,jr41 and ,prof4 ,e4 ,d4 ,cope4 ,published by ,mc,calla ,stavely1 ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,,the ,,developmental ,,significance ,,of ,,human ,,physiognomy4 ,footnote3 ,abstract of a lecture delivered before the ,franklin ,institute of ,philadelphia1 ,jan4 #bj4ahha1 in exposition of principles laid down in ,the ,hypothesis of ,evolution1 ,new ,haven1 #ahgj1 p4 #ca4 ,by ,e4 ,d4 ,,cope4 ,the ability to read character in the form of the human face and figure is a gift possessed by comparatively few persons1 although most people interpret1 more or less correctly1 the salient points of human expression4 ,the transient appearances of the face reveal temporary phases of feeling which are common to all men2 but the constant qualities of the mind should be expressed1 if at all1 in the permanent forms of the executive instrument of the mind1 the body4 ,to detect the peculiarities of the mind by external marks has been the aim of the physiognomist of all times2 but it is only in the light of modern evolutionary science that much progress in this direction can be made4 ,the mind1 as a function of part of the body1 partakes of its perfections and its defects1 and exhibits parallel types of development4 ,every peculiarity of the body has probably some corresponding significance in the mind2 and the causes of the former are the remoter causes of the latter4 ,hence1 before a true physiognomy can be attempted1 the origin of the features of the face and general form must be known4 ,not that a perfect physiognomy will ever be possible4 ,a mental constitution so complex as that of man cannot be expected to exhibit more than its leading features in the body2 but these include1 after all1 most of what it is important for us to be able to read1 from a practical point of view4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,section of skull of adult orang-outang 7,simia satyrus74 ,,fig4 #b4--,section of skull of young orang1 showing relatively shorter jaws and more prominent cerebral region4 ,the present essay will consider the probable origin of the structural points which constitute the permanent expression4 ,these may be divided into three heads1 viz43 #a4 ,those of the general form or figure4 #b4 ,those of the surface or integument of the body1 with its appendages4 #c4 ,those of the forms of the head and face4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,figure of infant at birth2 a1 front of face4 7,the eye is too far posterior in this figure47 ,the principal points to be considered under each of these heads are the following3 ,i4 ,,the ,,general ,,form4 #a4 ,the size of the head4 #b4 ,the squareness or slope of the shoulders4 #c4 ,the length of the arms4 #d4 ,the constriction of the waist4 #e4 ,the width of the hips4 #f4 ,the length of the leg1 principally of the thigh4 #g4 ,the sizes of the hands and feet4 #h4 ,the relative sizes of the muscles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,portrait of a girl at five years of age4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,surfaces4 #i4 ,the structure of the hair 7whether curled or not74 #aj4 ,the length and position of the hair4 #aa4 ,the size and shape of the nails4 #ab4 ,the smoothness of the skin4 #ac4 ,the color of the skin1 hair1 and irides4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,portrait of the same at seventeen years1 showing the elongation of the facial region1 and less protuberance of the cerebral4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,head ,,and ,,face4 #ad4 ,the relative size of the cerebral to the facial regions4 #ae4 ,the prominence of the forehead4 #af4 ,the prominence of the superciliary 7eyebrow7 ridges4 #ag4 ,the prominence of the alveolar borders 7jaws74 #ah4 ,the prominence and width of the chin4 #ai4 ,the relation of length to width of skull4 #bj4 ,the prominence of the malar 7cheek7 bones4 #ba4 ,the form of the nose4 #bb4 ,the relative size of the orbits and eyes4 #bc4 ,the size of the mouth and lips4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,profile of a ,luchatze negro woman1 showing deficient bridge of nose and chin1 and elongate facial region and prognathism4 ,the significance of these1 as of the more important structural characters of man and the lower animals1 must be considered from two standpoints1 the paleontological and the embryological4 ,the immediate paleontological history of man is unknown1 but may be easily inferred from the characteristics displayed by his nearest relatives of the order ,quadrumana4 ,if we compare these animals with man1 we find the following general differences4 ,the numbers correspond to those of the list above given3 ,i4 ,as to ,general ,form4--7#c7 ,in the apes the arms are longer2 7#h7 the extensor muscles of the leg are smaller4 ,,ii4 ,as to ,surface4--7#i7 ,the body is covered with hair which is not crisp or woolly2 7#aj7 the hair of the head is short2 7#ah7 the color of the skin1 etc41 is dark4 ,,iii4 ,as to ,head and ,face4--7#ad7 ,the facial region of the skull is large as compared with the cerebral2 7#ae7 the forehead is not prominent1 and is generally retreating2 7#af7 the superciliary ridges are more prominent2 7#ag7 the edges of the jaws are more prominent2 7#ah7 the chin is less prominent2 7#bj7 the cheek bones are more prominent2 7#ba7 the nose is without bridge1 and with short and flat cartilages2 7#bb7 the orbits and eyes are smaller 7except in ,nyctipithecus72 7#bd7 the mouth is small and the lips are thin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,face of another negro1 showing flat nose1 less prognathism and larger cerebral region4 ,from ,serpa ,pinto4 ,it is evident that the possession of any one of the above characteristics by a man approximates him more to the monkeys1 so far as it goes4 ,he retains features which have been obliterated in other persons in the process of evolution4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4#h4--,portrait of ,satanta1 a late chief of the ,kiowas 7from the ,red river of ,texas71 from a photograph4 ,the predominance of the facial region1 and especially of the malar bones1 and the absence of beard1 are noteworthy4 ,in considering the physiognomy of man from an embryological standpoint1 we must consider the peculiarities of the infant at birth4 ,the numbers of the following list correspond with those already used 7,fig4 #c74 ,i4 ,as to the ,general ,form4--7#a7 ,the head of the infant is relatively much larger than in the adult2 7#c7 the arms are relatively longer2 7#d7 there is no waist2 7#f7 the leg1 and especially the thigh1 is much shorter4 ,,ii4 ,as to the ,surfaces4--7#aj7 ,the body is covered with fine hair1 and that of the head is short4 ,,iii4 ,the ,head and ,face4--7#ad7 ,the cerebral part of the skull greatly predominates over the facial2 7#af7 the superciliary ridges are not developed2 7#ag7 the alveolar borders are not prominent2 7#bj7 the malar bones are not prominent2 7#ba7 the nose is without bridge and the cartilages are flat and generally short2 7#bb7 the eyes are larger4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--;,australian native 7from ,brough ,smyth71 showing small development of muscles of legs and prognathism4 ,it is evident that persons who present any of the characters cited in the above list are more infantile or embryonic in those respects than are others2 and that those who lack them have left them behind in reaching maturity4 ,we have now two sets of characters in which men may differ from each other4 ,in the one set the characters are those of monkeys1 in the other they are those of infants4 ,let us see whether there be any identities in the two lists1 i4 e41 whether there be any of the monkey-like characters which are also infantile4 ,we find the following to be such3 ,i4 ,as to ,general ,form4--7#c7 ,the arms are longer4 ,,ii4 ,surface4--7#aj7 ,the hair of the head is short1 and the hair on the body is more distributed4 ,,iii4 ,as to ,head and ,face4--7#ba7 ,the nose is without bridge and the cartilages are short and flat4 ,three characters only out of twenty-three4 ,on the other hand1 the following characters of monkey-like significance are the opposites of those included in the embryonic list3 7#ad7 ,the facial region of the skull is large as compared with the cerebral2 7#ae7 the forehead is not prominent2 7#af7 the superciliary ridges are more prominent2 7#ag7 the edges of the jaws are more prominent4 ,four characters1 all of the face and head4 ,it is thus evident that in attaining maturity man resembles more and more the apes in some important parts of his facial expression4 ,illustration3 ,esequibo ,indian woman1 showing the following peculiarities3 deficient bridge of nose1 prognathism1 no waist1 and 7the right hand figure7 deficiency of stature through short femur4 ,from photographs by ,endlich4 ,it must be noted here that the difference between the young and embryonic monkeys and the adults is quite the same as those just mentioned as distinguishing the young from the adult of man 7,figs4 #a and #b74 ,the change1 however1 in the case of the monkeys is greater than in the case of man4 ,that is1 in the monkeys the jaws and superciliary ridges become still more prominent than in man4 ,as these characters result from a fuller course of growth from the infant1 it is evident that in these respects the apes are more fully developed than man4 ,man stops short in the development of the face1 and is in so far more embryonic4#a ,the prominent forehead and reduced jaws of man are characters of retardation4 ,the characters of the prominent nose with its elevated bridge1 is a result of acceleration1 since it is a superaddition to the quadrumanous type from both the standpoints of paleontology and embryology4#b ,the development of the bridge of the nose is no doubt directly connected with the development of the front of the cerebral part of the skull and ethmoid bone1 which sooner or later carries the nasal bones with it4 ,footnote #a3 ,this fact has been well stated by ,c4 ,s4 ,minot in the ,naturalist for #ahhb1 p4 #eaa4 ,footnote #b3 ,see ,cope1 ,the ,hypothesis of ,evolution1 ,new ,haven1 #ahgj1 p4 #ca4 ,illustration3 ,the ,venus of the ,capitol 7,rome74 ,the form and face present the characteristic peculiarities of the female of the ,indo-,european race4 ,if we now examine the leading characters of the physiognomy of three of the principal human sub-species1 the ,negro1 the ,mongolian1 and the ,indo-,european1 we can readily observe that it is in the two first named that there is a predominance of the quadrumanous features which are retarded in man2 and that the embryonic characters which predominate are those in which man is accelerated4 ,in race description the prominence of the edges of the jaws is called prognathism1 and its absence orthognathism4 ,the significance of the two lower race characters as compared with those of the ,indo-,european is as follows3 ,negro4--,hair crisp 7a special character71 short 7quadrum4 accel472 prognathous 7quadrum4 accel472 nose flat1 without bridge 7quadrum4 retard7#a2 malar bones prominent 7quadrum4 accel472 beard short 7quadrum4 retard472 arms longer 7quadrum4 accel472 extensor muscles of legs small 7quadrum4 retard474 ,footnote #a3 ,in the ,bochimans1 the flat nasal bones are co-ossified with the adjacent elements as in the apes 7,thuli74 ,mongolian4--,hair straight1 long 7accel472 jaws prognathous 7quadrum4 accel472 nose flat or prominent with or without bridge2 malar bones prominent 7quadrum4 accel472 beard none 7embryonic72 arms shorter 7retard472 extensor muscles of leg smaller 7quad4 retard474 ,indo-,european4--,hair long 7accel472 jaws orthognathous 7embryonic retard472 nose 7generally7 prominent with bridge 7accel472 malar bones reduced 7retard472 beard long 7accel472 arms shorter 7retard472 extensor muscles of the leg large 7accel474 ,the ,indo-,european race is then the highest by virtue of the acceleration of growth in the development of the muscles by which the body is maintained in the erect position 7extensors of the leg71 and in those important elements of beauty1 a well-developed nose and beard4 ,it is also superior in these points in which it is more embryonic than the other races1 viz41 the want of prominence of the jaws and cheekbones1 since these are associated with a greater predominance of the cerebral part of the skull1 increased size of cerebral hemispheres1 and greater intellectual power4 ,a comparison between the two sexes of the ,indo-,europeans expresses their physical and mental relations in a definite way4 ,i select the sexes of the most civilized races1 since it is in these1 according to ,broca and ,topinard1 that the sex characters are most pronounced4 ,they may be contrasted as follows4 ,the numbers are those of the list already used4 ,i first consider those which are used in the tables of embryonic1 quadrumanous1 and race characters3 ,,male4 ,,female4 ,i4 ,the ,general ,form4 #b4 ,shoulders square4 ,shoulders slope4 #d4 ,waist less constricted4 ,waist more constricted4 #e4 ,hips narrower4 ,hips wider4 #f4 ,legs longer4 ,legs shorter 7very frequently74 #h4 ,muscles larger4 ,muscles smaller4 ,,ii4 ,the ,integuments1 etc4 #aj4 ,more hair on body1 that ,less hair on body1 that of head of head shorter2 beard4 longer2 no beard4 #ab4 ,skin rougher 7generally74 ,skin smoother4 ,,iii4 ,the ,head and ,face4 #af4 ,superciliary ridges more ,superciliary ridges low4 prominent4 #bb4 ,eyes often smaller4 ,eyes often larger4 ,illustration3 ,the ,wrestler2 original in the ,vatican4 ,this figure displays the characters of the male ,indo-,european1 except the beard4 ,the characters in which the male is the most like the infant are two1 viz41 the narrow hips and short hair4 ,those in which the female is most embryonic are five1 viz41 the shorter legs1 smaller muscles1 absence of beard1 low superciliary ridges1 and frequently larger eyes4 ,to these may be added two others not mentioned in the above lists2 these are #a1 the high pitched voice1 which never falls an octave1 as does that of the male2 and #b1 the structure of the generative organs1 which in all mammalia more nearly resemble the embryo and the lower vertebrata in the female than in the male4 ,nevertheless1 as ,bischoff has pointed out1 one of the most important distinctions between man and the apes is to be found in the external reproductive organs of the female4 ,from the preceding rapid sketch the reader will be able to explain the meaning of most of the peculiarities of face and form which he will meet with4 ,many persons possess at least one quadrumanous or embryonic character4 ,the strongly convex upper lip frequently seen among the lower classes of the ,irish is a modified quadrumanous character4 ,many people1 especially those of the ,sclavic races1 have more or less embryonic noses4 ,a retreating chin is a marked monkey character4 ,shortness of stature is mostly due to shortness of the femur1 or thigh2 the inequalities of people sitting are much less than those of people standing4 ,a short femur is embryonic2 so is a very large head4 ,the faces of some people are always partially embryonic1 in having a short face and light lower jaw4 ,such faces are still more embryonic when the forehead and eyes are protuberant4 ,retardation of this kind is frequently seen in children1 and less frequently in women4 ,the length of the arms would appear to have grown less in comparatively recent times4 ,thus the humerus in most of the ,greek statues1 including the ,apollo ,belvidere1 is longer than those of modern ,europeans1 according to a writer in the ,bulletin de la ,socit d',anthropologie of ,paris1 and resembles more nearly that of the modern ,nubians than any other people4 ,this is a quadrumanous approximation4 ,the miserably developed calves of many of the savages of ,australia1 ,africa1 and ,america are well known4 ,the fine1 swelling gastroenemius and soleus muscles characterize the highest races1 and are most remote from the slender shanks of the monkeys4 ,the gluteus muscles developed in the lower races as well as in the higher distinguish them well from the monkeys with their flat posterior outline4 ,it must be borne in mind that the quadrumanous indications are found in the lower classes of the most developed races4 ,the status of a race or family is determined by the percentage of its individuals who do and do not present the features in question4 ,some embryonic characters may also appear in individuals of any race1 as a consequence of special circumstances4 ,such are1 however1 as important to the physiognomist as the more normal variations4 ,some of these features have a purely physical significance1 but the majority of them are1 as already remarked1 intimately connected with the development of the mind1 either as a cause or as a necessary coincidence4 ,i will examine these relations in a future article4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,production ,,of ,,fire4 ,in #ahfg the ,abb ,bourgeois found at ,thenay1 near ,pont-levoy 7,loir-et-,cher71 in a marly bank belonging to the most ancient part of the middle ,tertiary formation1 fragments of silex which bore traces of the action of fire4 ,this fire had not been lighted by accidental causes1 for1 says ,mr4 ,de,mortillet 7,le ,prehistorique1 p4 #ij71 the causes of instantaneous conflagrations can be only volcanic fires1 fermentations1 and lightning4 ,now1 in the entire region there is no trace of volcanic action1 and neither are there any traces of turfy or vegetable deposits capable of giving rise to spontaneous inflammations--phenomena that are always very rare and very exceptional1 as are also conflagrations started by lightning4 ,well1 in the ,thenay marls1 the pieces of silex that had undergone the action of fire were found disseminated at different levels1 and this could not have been a simple accident1 but was evidently something that had been done intentionally4 ,there existed1 then1 during the ,aquitanian epoch1 a being who was acquainted with fire and knew how to produce it4 ,mr4 ,de ,mortillet supposes that this being was an animal intermediate between man and the monkey1 which he calls the anthropopithecus4 ,this precursor of man made use of fire for splitting silex and manufacturing from it instruments whose cutting edge he perfected by means of a series of retouchings produced by slight percussions upon one of the surfaces only4 ,i shall not enter in this place upon a discussion as to the existence of an anthropopithecus or ,tertiary man1 whom every one does not as yet accept1 but will confine myself to giving the facts as to the use of fire in the remotest epochs1 incontestable proofs of which exist from the time at which ,quaternary man made his appearance4 ,how this was discovered is indicated1 according to ,aryan tradition1 by the ,vedic hymns4 ,the ancestors of the ,aryans1 these tell us1 had seen the lighting dart forth from the shock of black clouds4 ,they had seen the spark that fired the forests issue from the friction of dry branches agitated by the storm4 ,they took a branch of soft wood1 arani1 and passing a thong around a branch of hard wood1 pramontha1 they caused it to revolve rapidly in a cavity in the arani1 and thus evoked the god ,agni1 whom they nourished with libations of clarified butter1 soma4 ,the ,pramontha1 became the ,prometheus of the ,greeks1 the ,titan who stole the fire1 and it is from the ,sanscrit ,agni that is derived the ,latin ,ignis1 fire1 and the ,greek ,greek3 ,agnos1 pure1 and the ,agnus ,dei of the ,christians1 who purifies all4 ,orientalists generally agree that the sign which is seen under the forms inline illustration1 inline illustration1 or inline illustration1 on a large number of objects of ,aryan origin is a sort of sacred hieroglyphic1 representing the arani or svastika1 formed of two pieces of soft wood fixed by four pins in such a way as not to revolve under the pressure of the ,pramontha4 ,this process of producing fire is also found among a host of more or less savage peoples1 and especially in ,india1 where1 during the last month of the great feast of sacrifices1 the sacred fire must always be kindled three hundred and sixty times a day with nine different kinds of wood that are prescribed by the rite4 ,fig4 #a shows the arrangement in use among the ,eskimos1 and ,fig4 #b that employed by the ,indians of ,north ,america4 ,in #ahbh there still existed at ,essen1 in ,hanover1 an analogous apparatus designed to produce an alarm fire4 ,this was a large1 horizontal1 round wooden bar whose extremities pivoted in two apertures formed in vertical posts1 and which was provided with a cord that was wound around it several times4 ,several persons1 by pulling on the ends of this cord1 caused the bar to revolve alternately in one direction and the other1 and the heat developed by the friction lighted some tow that had previously been inserted in one of the apertures in the post4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,eskimo ,,producing ,,fire ,,by ,,friction4 ,it is certain that the alternate motion must have been produced directly by hand before being effected by cords4 ,this simpler process is still in use in ,tasmania1 ,australia1 ,polynesia1 ,kamtschatka1 ,thibet1 ,mexico1 and among the ,guanches of the ,canary ,isles1 who are supposed to be the last representatives of the inhabitants of ,atlantis1 which sank under the waters at the close of the ,quaternary epoch4 ,chamisso1 who accompanied ,kotzebue in his voyage1 describes it as follows3 ,in the ,caroline ,islands1 they rest a vertical piece of roundish wood1 terminating in a point1 and about a foot and a half in length and one inch in diameter1 upon a second one fixed in the ground1 and then give it a rotary motion by acting with the palms of the hands4 ,this motion1 which is at first slow and measured1 is at length accelerated1 while at the same time the pressure becomes stronger1 whereupon the dust from the wood which has formed by friction and accumulated around the point of the movable piece begins to carbonize4 ,this dust1 which1 after a fashion1 constitutes a match1 soon bursts into flame4 ,the women of ,eap are wonderfully dexterous in their use of this process4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--,,process ,,employed ,,in ,,north ,,america ,,for ,,producing ,,fire4 ,fig4 #c shows another manner of obtaining fire by rotation which is employed by the ,guachos1 a half savage1 pastoral people who inhabit the pampas of ,south ,america4 ,longitudinal friction must have preceded that obtained by rotation4 ,it is still in use in most of the islands of ,oceanica 7,fig4 #d71 and especially in ,tahiti and in the ,sandwich ,islands4 ,in these latter1 says again ,chamisso1 upon the fixed piece of wood they place another piece of the same kind1 about the length of the palm1 and press it obliquely at an angle of about #cj degrees4 ,the extremity that touches the fixed piece is blunt1 and the other extremity is held with the two hands1 the two thumbs downward1 in order to allow of a surer pressure4 ,the piece is given an alternating motion1 and in such a way that it shall always remain in the same plane inclined at an angle of #cj degrees1 and form1 through friction1 a small groove from six to eight centimeters in length4 ,when the dust thus produced begins to carbonize1 the pressure and velocity are increased4 ,wood of a homogeneous texture1 neither too hard nor too soft1 is the best for the purpose4 ,the ,malays operate as follows3 ,a dry bamboo rod1 about a foot in length1 is split longitudinally1 and the pith which lines the inside is scraped off1 pressed1 and made into a small ball which is afterward placed in the center of the cavity of one of the halves of the tube4 ,this latter half is then fixed to the ground in such a way that the cavity and ball face downward4 ,the operator next fashions the other half of the tube into a straight cutting instrument like a knife-blade1 which he applies transversely to the fixed half and gives an alternating motion so as to produce a sort of sawing4 ,after a certain length of time1 a groove1 and finally a hole1 is produced4 ,the cutting edge of the instrument is then so hot that it sets on fire the ball with which it has come in contact4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--;,,gaucho ,,obtaining ,,fire4 ,some peoples1 the ,fuegians especially1 procure fire by striking together two flints4 ,in the ,aleutian ,islands these latter1 having been previously covered with sulphur1 are struck against each other over a small saucer of dry moss dusted with sulphur4 ,the ,eskimos employ for this purpose pieces of quartz and iron pyrites4 ,in the ,sandwich ,islands recourse is had to a process that necessitates much skill4 ,there is arranged in a large dry leaf1 rolled into the shape of a funnel1 a certain number of flints along with some easily combustible twigs4 ,on attaching the leaf to the end of a rod1 and revolving the latter rapidly1 it is said that fire is produced4 ,processes that are based upon the clashing of two flint stones must be much more inconvenient of application than we would be led to suppose4 ,we are1 in fact1 accustomed to see the flint and steel used1 but here the spark is a bit of iron raised to red heat through a mechanical action that has violently detached it from the mass under the form of a small sliver4 ,in the case of two flint stones1 the light that is perceived is of an entirely different nature1 for it is a phosphorescence which is produced1 even by a very slight friction1 not only between two pieces of silex1 but also between two pieces of quartz1 porcelain1 or sugar2 and that the heat developed is but slight is proved by the fact that the phenomenon may occur under water4 ,of course1 fragments of stones may be raised to a red heat through percussion2 but this does not often occur1 so for this reason the ,fuegians keep up with the greatest care the fires that they have lighted1 and it is this very peculiarity that has given their country a characteristic aspect and caused it to be named ,terra del ,fuego 7land of fire74 ,when they change their residence they always carry with them a few lighted embers which rest in their canoes upon a bed of pebbles or ashes4 ,the same thing occurs1 moreover1 among the ,australians and ,tasmanians1 who employ1 as we have just seen1 the rotary process4 ,there are women among these peoples whose special mission it is to carry day and night lighted torches or cones made of a substance that burns slowly like punk4 ,when1 through accident1 the fire happens to get extinguished in a tribe1 these people often prefer to undertake a long voyage in order to obtain another light from a neighboring tribe rather than have recourse to a direct production of it4 ,we can understand from what is still taking place in these distant countries why the worship of fire should have existed among our ancestors1 and why sacerdotal associations1 such as the ,brahmins of ,india1 the ,guebers of ,persia1 the ,vestals of ,rome1 the priests of ,baal in ,chaldea and ,phenicia should have been specially instituted for producing and preserving it4 ,plutarch narrates 7,numa1 chap4 ii47 that when the sacred fire happened to go out1 there was employed for relighting it a brass mirror that had the form of a cone generated by the hypothenuse of an isosceles rectangular triangle revolving around one of the sides of the right angle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--,,native ,,of ,,oceanica ,,obtaining ,,fire ,,by ,,friction4 ,in a poem upon stones attributed to ,orpheus1 it is said that the sacred fire was also lighted by a bit of crystal which concentrated the rays of the sun upon the material to be inflamed4 ,this process must have been the one that was most usually employed before fire became common4 ,in fact1 a plano-convex crystal lens has been found among the ruins of ,nineveh4 ,aristophanes1 in the ,clouds1 puts on the stage a coarse personage named ,strepsiades1 who points out to ,socrates how he must manage so as not to pay his debts3 ,streps4--,hast thou seen among druggists that beautiful transparent stone that they employ for lighting a fire8 ,socr4--,thou meanest glass4 ,streps4--,yes4 ,socr4--,well6 what wouldst thou do with it8 ,streps4--,when the registrar shall have made out his summons against me1 ,i will take the glass1 and1 placing myself thus in the sun1 will cause his writing to melt4 ,as well known1 writing was then traced on waxen tablets4 ,servius 7in n41 xii41 #bjj7 affirms that men of ancient times1 instead of lighting fire upon the altar themselves1 in their sacrifices1 caused it to descend from heaven4 ,he adds1 according to ,pliny1 ,titus ,livius1 and several old ,latin historians1 that ,numa1 who was initiated into all the wisdom of ,etruria1 practiced this art with success1 but that ,tullius ,hostilius1 having desired to repeat the evocation1 guided only by the books of ,numa1 did not accomplish all the formalities prescribed by the rite and was struck dead by lightning4 ,is it not curious that twenty-four centuries afterward1 in #agec1 the physicist ,reichman was killed by lightning in trying to repeat ,franklin's experiment8 ,this coincidence1 however1 is not the only one4 ,pliny 7ii41 #ec7 recounts that lightning was evoked by ,king ,porsenna at the time when a monster named ,volta1 who was ravaging the country1 was directing himself toward the capital1 ,volsinies4 ,if we return to the ,vedas1 who had the habit of personifying all phenomena1 we shall find that the fire ,agni was the son of the carpenter who had manufactured the instrument by which it was produced1 and of ,maya 7magic74 ,he took the name of ,akta 7anointed1 ,greek3 christos7 when1 nourished by libations of butter1 he had acquired his full development4 ,the ,persians attributed likewise to ,zoroaster the power of causing fire to descend from heaven through magic4 ,saint ,clement of ,alexandria 7,recog41 lib4 iv47 and ,gregory of ,tours 7,hist4 de ,fr41 i41 #e7 speak of this4 ,however this may be1 the marvelous art was lost at an early date1 for it was at such a date that priests began to have recourse to tricks that were more or less ingenious for lighting their sacred fireplaces in an apparently supernatural manner4--,a4 ,de ,rochas1 in ,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,st4 ,,blaise1 ,,the ,,winner ,,of ,,the ,,derby4 ,st4 ,blaise1 the property of ,sir ,frederick ,johnstone1 was bred by ,lord ,alington1 and is by ,hermit from ,fusee4 ,this is an unexceptionable pedigree1 for ,hermit is now as successful and fashionable a sire as was even ,stockwell in his palmiest days1 while ,fusee was far more than an average performer on the turf1 and won several ,queen's ,plates and other races over a distance of ground4 ,st4 ,blaise is by no means a big colt1 standing considerably under sixteen hands4 ,his color is about his worst point1 as he is a light1 washy chestnut1 with a bald face and three white heels4 ,he has a good head and neck1 and very powerful back and muscular quarters1 added to which his legs and feet are well shaped and thoroughly sound4 ,his first appearance was made in the ,twenty-fourth ,stockbridge ,biennial at the ,bibury ,club ,meeting1 when he won easily enough2 but there were only four moderate animals behind him4 ,a walk-over for the ,troy ,stakes followed1 and then ,macheath beat him easily enough for the ,hurstbourne ,stakes1 though he finished in front of ,adriana and ,tyndrum4 ,for the ,molecomb ,stakes at ,goodwood1 he ran a dead-heat with ,elzevir1 to whom he was giving #g lb42 and ,bonny ,jean1 in receipt of #aj lb41 was unplaced4 ,a #g lb4 penalty seemed to put him completely out of the ,dewhurst ,plate2 but he must then have been out of form1 as1 on the following day1 it took him all his time to defeat ,pebble by a neck in the ,troy ,stakes4 ,this season he has only run twice4 ,his fourth in the ,two ,thousand was by no means a bad performance1 considering that he was palpably backward2 and his victory of last week is too recent to need further allusion4 ,porter1 his trainer1 can boast of several other successes in the great race at ,epsom2 but ,charles ,wood had never previously ridden a ,derby winner4 ,st4 ,blaise was unfortunately omitted from the entries for the ,st4 ,leger1 but has several valuable engagements at ,ascot next week1 and appears to have the ,grand ,prize of ,paris1 on ,sunday1 at his mercy4--,illustrated ,london ,news4 ,illustration3 ,,st4 ,,blaise1 ,,the ,,winner ,,of ,,the ,,derby4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,nature4 ,,scientific ,,progress ,,in ,,china ,,and ,,japan4 ,various steps in the progress of ,china1 and ,japan in the adoption of ,western science and educational methods have from time to time been noticed in these columns4 ,to the popular mind the names of the two countries are synonymous with rigid1 unreasoning conservatism and with rapid change1 respectively4 ,the grave1 dignified ,chinese1 who maintains his own dress and habits even when isolated among strangers1 and whose motto appears to be1 ,stare super mas antiquas1 is popularly believed to be animated by a sullen1 obstinate hostility toward any introduction from the ,west1 however plain its value may be2 while his gayer and more mercurial neighbor1 the ,japanese1 is regarded as the true child of the old age of the ,west1 following assiduously in its parent's footsteps1 and pursuing obediently the path marked out by ,european experience4 ,there is considerable misconception in this1 as indeed there is at all times in the ,english popular mind with regard to strange peoples4 ,broadly speaking1 it is no doubt correct to say that1 ,japan has adopted ,western inventions and scientific appliances with avidity2 that she has shown a desire for change which is abnormal1 and a disposition to destroy her charts and sail away into unsurveyed seas1 while ,china remains pretty much where she always was4 ,she is now1 with some exceptions1 what she was twenty1 two hundred1 perhaps two thousand years ago1 while a new ,japan has been created in fifteen years4 ,all this1 we say1 is true1 but it is not the whole truth4 ,china also has had her changes2 not indeed so marked or rapid1 not so much in the nature of a volte-face on all her past as those of her neighbor4 ,the radical difference between the two countries in this respect we take to be this3 that while ,japan loves change for the sake of change1 ,china dislikes it1 and will only adopt it when it is clearly demonstrated to her that change is absolutely necessary4 ,to the ,japanese change appears to be a delightful excitement1 to the ,chinese a distasteful necessity2 to the former whatever is must be wrong1 to the latter whatever is is right4 ,as a consequence of this difference between the two peoples1 when ,china once makes a step forward it is generally after much deliberation1 and is never retraced4 ,japan is constantly undertaking new schemes with little care or thought for the morrow1 but with the applause of injudicious foreign friends4 ,in a short time she discovers that she has underrated the expense or exaggerated the results1 and her projects are straightway abandoned as rapidly and thoughtlessly as they were commenced4 ,swift suggested as a suitable subject for a philosophical writer a history of human projects which were never carried out2 the historian of modern ,japan finds these at every turn4 ,where1 for example1 are the results of the great surveys1 trigonometrical and others1 which were commenced in ,yezo and the main island about ten years ago8 ,a large1 expensive1 but highly competent foreign staff was engaged1 and worked for a few years2 but suddenly the whole survey department was swept away1 and the valuable instruments are1 or were recently1 lying rusting in a warehouse in ,tokio4 ,the same story may be told of scores of other scientific or educational undertakings in ,japan4 ,an able and careful writer1 ,col4 ,h4,s4 ,palmer1 ,r4,e41 who has recently1 with a friendly and sympathetic eye1 examined the whole field of recent ,japanese progress1 in the ,british ,quarterly ,review is forced to acknowledge this4 ,once having recognized1 says this officer1 that progress is essential to welfare1 and having resolved1 first among the nations of the ,east1 to throw off past traditions and mould their civilization after that of ,western countries1 it was not in the nature of the lively and impulsive ,japanese to advance along the path of reform with the calmness and circumspection that might have been possible to a people of less active temperament4 ,without doubt many foreign institutions were at first adopted rather too hastily1 and the passing difficulties which now beset ,japan are to some extent the inevitable result4 ,it would be blindness to deny that the net result of the ,japanese efforts is progress of a very remarkable kind1 but it is a progress which in many respects lacks the firm and abiding characteristics of ,chinese movements4 ,the proverb1 ,chi va piano va sano1 which was recommended ten years ago to ,japanese attention by an eminent ,english official1 and apparently disregarded by them1 has been adopted by their continental neighbors4 ,to the blandishments of pushing diplomatists or acute promoters1 the ,chinese are deaf4 ,however we may felicitate ourselves on our inventions1 scientific appliances1 the railway and the steamship and the thoughts that shake mankind1 our progress1 the newspapers1 the penny post1 and what not1 ,china will not adopt them simply because we have found their value and are proud of them4 ,but if1 within the range of her own experience1 she finds the advantage of these things1 she will employ them with a rapidity and decision surpassing those of the ,japanese4 ,a conspicuous instance of this will be found in her recent action with respect to telegraphs4 ,for years the ,chinese steadily refused to have anything to do with them2 the small land line which connected the foreign community of ,shanghai with the outer world1 was maintained against the violent protests of the local authorities1 and the cable companies experienced some difficulty in getting permission to land their cables4 ,but during the winter of #ahgj-hj1 when war with ,russia was threatened1 the value of telegraphs was demonstrated to the ,peking government4 ,the ,peiho at ,tientsin was closed by ice against steamers1 and news could only be carried to the capital by overland couriers from ,shanghai4 ,before a year elapsed a land line of telegraph was being constructed between this port and ,tientsin2 in a few months the line was in working order1 and the ,chinese metropolis is now in telegraphic communication with every capital in ,europe4 ,this conservatism1 respect for antiquity1 conceit1 prejudice1 call it what we will1 has something in it that extorts our respect4 ,let us imagine a dignified and cultivated ,chinese official conversing with a pushing ,manchester or ,birmingham manufacturer1 who descants on the benefits of our modern inventions4 ,he would probably commune with himself in this wise1 whatever reply ,oriental politeness would dictate to his interviewer3 ,china has got on very well for some tens of centuries without the curious things of which this foreigner speaks2 she has produced in this time statesmen1 poets1 philosophers1 soldiers2 her people appear to have had their share of affliction1 but not more than those of ,europe2 why should we now turn round at the bidding of a handful of strangers who know little of us or our country1 and make violent changes in our life and habits8 ,a railway in a province will throw thousands of coolies and boatmen out of employment and bring on them misery and starvation4 ,this foreigner says that railways and telegraphs have been found beneficial in his country2 good1 let his countrymen have them if they please1 but let us rest as we are for the present4 ,moreover1 past events have not given us such faith in ,europeans that we should take all they say for wisdom and justice4 ,a day will undoubtedly come when ,china also will have her great mechanical and scientific enterprises2 but what we contend for here is that nothing we can say or do will bring that time an hour nearer4 ,european public opinion is to ,china a dead letter2 she refuses to plead before that tribunal4 ,each step of her advance along our path must be the result of her own reflection and experience2 and our wisest policy would be to leave her to herself to advance on it as she deems best4 ,,sinensis4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,diamond ,,fields ,,of ,,south ,,africa4 ,at a recent meeting of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 the paper read was ,on the ,diamond ,fields and ,mines of ,south ,africa1 by ,mr4 ,james ,n4 ,paxman1 ,asoc4 ,m4 ,inst4 ,c4,e4 ,the author commenced by stating that ,kimberley was situated in ,griqualand ,west1 above #gjj miles northeast from ,table ,bay1 and #dej miles inland from ,port ,elizabeth and ,natal on the east coast4 ,lines of railway were in course of construction from ,table ,bay and ,port ,elizabeth to ,kimberley1 and were about half completed4 ,in ,griqualand there were several diamond mines1 the principal of which were ,kimberley1 ,de ,beer's1 ,du ,toit's ,pan1 and ,bultfontein4 ,in the ,orange ,free ,states there were also two mines1 viz41 ,jagersfontein and ,koffeyfontein1 the first of which produced fine white stones4 ,the mines were all divided into claims1 the greatest number of which were to be found in the ,du ,toit's ,pan mine4 ,bultfontein came next4 ,the deepest and most regularly worked was the ,kimberley mine4 ,the next deepest was ,de ,beer's1 which1 however1 was very unevenly worked4 ,then followed ,du ,toit's ,pan and ,bultfontein4 ,the ,du ,toit's ,pan mine ranked next in importance to ,kimberley mine4 ,diamonds were first discovered in #ahfg by ,mr4 ,o',reilley1 a trader and hunter1 who visited a colonist named van ,niekirk1 residing in ,griqua4 ,the first diamond1 on being sent to the authorities1 was valued at #ejjl4 ,considerable excitement was caused throughout the colony1 and the natives commenced to look for diamonds1 and many were found1 among which was one of eighty-three and a half carats1 valued at #ae1jjjl4 ,in #ahfh many enterprising colonists made their way up the ,vaal ,river1 and were successful in finding a good number of diamonds4 ,the center of the river diggings on the ,transvaal side was ,klipdrift1 and on the opposite side ,pniel4 ,in all there were fourteen river diggings4 ,du ,toit's ,pan and ,bultfontein mines were discovered in #ahgj at a distance of twenty-four miles from the river diggings4 ,the diggers took possession of these places4 ,licenses were granted giving the first diggers a right to work4 ,in #ahga ,de ,beer's and ,kimberley mines were discovered1 and in #ahgb1 ,mr4 ,spalding's great diamond of #bhb carats was found at the river diggings4 ,the mines were of irregular shape1 and were surrounded by reef4 ,the top reef was a loose shale1 and had given great trouble from the frequent slips4 ,below this were strata of trachitic breccia and augite2 the formation was then seamy to an unknown depth4 ,within the reef1 the surface soil was red1 and of a sandy nature4 ,the next stratum was of a loose1 yellow1 gravelly lime1 and the third blue1 of a hard1 slaty nature4 ,this last was the real diamantiferous soil4 ,large stones had been found in the yellow1 but the working of this generally did not pay4 ,kimberley mine1 however1 had paid very well all through4 ,the method of working in deep ground was determined by roadways running north and south4 ,the soil was hauled up to these roadways1 and taken to the sorting tables4 ,the roadways decaying shortly after exposure to the atmosphere1 a system of hand windlass was adopted1 which worked very well for a time until horsewhims were adopted in #ahgc4 ,the depths of the mines increasing1 horsewhims had to give way to steam-engines in #ahgf4 ,the first diggers treated on an average ten loads per day each party4 ,at the present time the least taken out by any engine1 when fully employed1 was #bej loads per day4 ,the cost of working1 with present appliances1 the first one hundred feet in depth1 was #cs4 #f;d4 per load2 the second one hundred feet 7mostly blue7 #es42 the third one hundred feet #hs42 and the fourth one hundred feet #aas4 ,through scarcity of water a system of dry-sorting had to be resorted to for several years2 but it was superseded by the introduction of washing machinery1 which was now generally employed4 ,at the commencement1 through inexperience1 many serious mistakes were made4 ,when the first diggers reached the bottom of the red sand1 they thought no diamonds would be found in the next stratum4 ,when1 however1 diamonds were found in the second stratum1 the diggers had again to remove the debris1 and so also when the blue was reached4 ,some of the claims in the ,du ,toit's ,pan and ,bultfontein mines were irregular in shape4 ,the other mines1 however1 had been properly and regularly laid out4 ,one or two shafts had been connected with the mines by underground galleries4 ,these galleries were convenient in the case of falls of reef4 ,labor1 at first1 was cheap2 but from #bjs4 per month1 wages rose to #cjs4 per week1 and food4 ,the yellow soil offered no difficulty in working1 being loose and broken1 but the blue soil required blasting4 ,several methods were adopted for extracting the soil and carrying it from the mine before steam was introduced4 ,the cost of wood for heating purposes was a serious item1 but good coal had now been found at #afj miles from ,kimberley1 costing #acl4 per ton2 another serious item of expense was the transport over natural roads only1 costing from #ahl4 to #cjl4 per ton4 ,the machinery designed by the author for this industry was described4 ,a sixteen horse-power direct-acting winding engine was introduced for hauling up loads at the rate of about one thousand feet per minute1 and a twenty-five horse-power geared engine1 for hauling up heavier loads at the rate of from six hundred feet to seven hundred feet per minute4 ,water was dear1 and water-heaters were fitted to each engine1 by which thirty-three per cent4 of the water was again used1 thus saving one third4 ,the boilers were of the locomotive type1 mostly of steel1 to save weight1 and thus reduce the cost of transit4 ,the fire-boxes were also made of steel of very soft and ductile quality4 ,a semi-portable engine was made for driving the wash mill4 ,the engine was so arranged that it might be removed from the boiler and placed separately4 ,the boiler was made to work at a pressure of #adj pounds per square inch4 ,automatic cut off gear was fixed to each engine1 and the governors were provided with a spiral spring for adjusting the speed4 ,a screen1 or cylinder wash mill and elevator1 were used for dealing with the diamantiferous soil1 and were described4 ,standing wires were fixed at the back of the machinery1 and passed over a frame fixed at the top of the mine1 the end of the mine being secured to strong wooden posts4 ,after the blue soil had been blasted and collected into trucks1 it was placed in tubs1 which ascended the standing wires4 ,it was then emptied into the depositing box4 ,the yellow soil might be put into the wash mill direct1 also that portion of the blue which had passed through the screen fixed over the depositing box4 ,the remainder of the blue1 which was spread out to a thickness of four inches or six inches on the depositing ground1 some distance from the mine to dry1 was delivered into the upper part of the screen4 ,the return water from the elevator1 with a portion of fresh water1 was also discharged at this point1 and operations were thus greatly facilitated1 the soil becoming thoroughly saturated1 and passing more easily down the shoots4 ,the large pieces which would not drop through the meshes of the screen were discharged into trucks at the lower end and carried away4 ,the smaller pieces with water1 in the form of sludge1 fell through into a shoot1 and thus were conveyed into the wash mill pan1 and there kept in constant rotating motion by agitators4 ,the diamonds and other pieces of high specific gravity sank to the deepest part of the pan1 and the remainder of the sludge was forced over the inner ledge to the elevator4 ,the sludge was then lifted and thrown upon an inclined screen and down the shoot over the side of the bank4 ,the residue left in the pan at the end of the day's work was passed through a pulsator1 in which1 by the force of water1 the mud and lighter particles were carried away1 leaving behind the diamonds1 agates1 garnets1 and other heavy stones4 ,it was the practice occasionally to put a few inferior stones in the soil1 to test the efficiency of the machinery4 ,in #ahha the author paid a visit to ,kimberley1 and found the industry a large one4 ,the ,post ,office return showed the value of diamonds passed through the office in one year to be #c1fhe1jjjl4 ,illicit diamond traffic had hitherto been a source of great trouble at the fields4 ,it was a question whether this industry would ever cease2 in any case there was no doubt but that it would last for over a century4 ,it was believed that the main bed of diamonds had not yet been reached1 and that the mines in operation were merely shafts leading to it4 ,now that the water works were finished1 with a bountiful supply of water1 coupled with the great boon of railways to the ,fields1 and the advantage of a law recently passed for the prevention of illicit buying1 a great and prosperous future was in store for the ,diamond ,fields4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,sponges ,,at ,,the ,,bahamas4 ,within the last few decades the sponge industry of the ,bahama ,islands has increased at such a rate that to-day it is the second in importance on the island4 ,although the product is not of such excellent quality as that from the ,mediterranean1 it sells well and is in demand both in ,england and in ,america4 ,for sponge fishing little boats of ten tons burden are employed and manned by from six to twelve men4 ,the sponges that are washed upon the rocks and reefs are taken with iron rakes fastened to long poles1 or are brought to the surface by divers and spread out on the deck of the vessel4 ,this kills their soft1 slimy organisms1 which are black as tar4 ,the sponges are then repeatedly beaten with sticks to remove this black slime1 and afterward well washed4 ,the sponges are then sorted and softened for several hours in lime water1 dried in the sun1 and bleached4 ,they are finally pressed by machinery into #ajj lb4 balls and then packed for shipping4 ,a rich and very extensive sponge field was recently discovered near ,eleuthera1 but as the water there has a considerable depth1 five or six fathoms1 fishing is attended with difficulty4 ,in fact1 it is rendered impossible wherever the segler or sailor fish are found1 for the mud which these tiny creatures stir up completely veils the sponges from the eye of the fisherman4 ,in #ahha the export amounted to #aej1jjj1 of which three-fourths came to ,america4--,chem4 ,zeit4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,testing ,,fish ,,ova ,,for ,,impregnation4 ,the development of the eyes of game fishes 7salmonoids71 as is well known1 is relatively far advanced before the fish culturist is positively assured that embryos are developing normally in the egg4 ,a method1 therefore1 which would enable us to shorten this period of probation would not only be desirable1 but be also of value under certain circumstances1 since it is certainly annoying after having had them in water for four or five weeks1 spending time and care over them1 to eventually find1 when the eye spots do not develop1 that all our trouble was wasted and that no development at all took place4 ,it is true one may1 with proper preparations and with the help of the pocket lens or microscope1 follow the development while there may be no external signs of the process evident4 ,this method of making the test is1 however1 not adapted to the purposes of the practical fish culturist1 who will have better success by the following method3 ,if fertilized fish ova are placed in a #ej per cent4 solution of wine vinegar any ordinary vinegar will probably be found to answer just as well--,tr4 the embryo1 even during the very first stages of development1 will become apparent to the eye lying on the transparent yelk4 ,the acetic acid contained in the mixture1 one part water to one part wine vinegar1 causes the material of the embryo proper to coagulate1 while the yelk remains clear4 ,a short time after the ova are laid in this mixture1 and during the first week after impregnation1 a white circle at one pole of the egg should become apparent1 and in the course of the second week a cylindrical white streak running from the edge of the circle toward its center should be evident4 ,if these features are not developed by the test1 the eggs have not been fertilized1 and are1 therefore1 worthless4 ,we will not complicate the application of the method by describing other details of the development1 but would merely suggest that when a lot of ova are fertilized a small portion should be left unimpregnated4 ,these could then be tested in comparison with the fertilized ova from day to day1 using say three eggs at a time of each lot4 ,the observant culturist could by this means construct for himself a scale of development covering the period embraced by his experiments4 ,at a lower temperature the development is slower than at a higher one4 ,the difference of appearance between fertilized and unfertilized ova treated by the method will demonstrate its utility4 ,whoever does not trust to the method for the evidence of death of the eggs until after five weeks subsequent to impregnation1 must of course wait4 ,director ,tiefenthaler1 of ,klzen1 has had the kindness to test the method practically1 and finds it useful to fish culturists4--,prof4 ,nussbaum4 ,a very little practice1 it seems to the translator1 would serve to enable any person of ordinary intelligence to apply this method1 or several others which might be suggested4 ,other substances which would answer the same purpose would be dilute solutions of picric or chromic acid1 of not more than one to one-half per cent41 or one part to two hundred of water4 ,vinegar or acetic acid of the shops may also be used2 the last to be diluted in the proportions of about one part in ten of water4 ,the acids cited will coagulate and cause the germ disk to turn white or yellow in a few hours4 ,chromic is better than picric acid1 as it coagulates the yelk also1 but turns the latter much darker than the embryo or embryonic disk4--,tr4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a catalogue1 containing brief notices of many important scientific papers heretofore published in the ,,supplement1 may be had gratis at this office4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement4 ,,published ,,weekly4 ,,terms ,,of ,,subscription1 #e ,a ,,year4 ,sent by mail1 postage prepaid1 to subscribers in any part of the ,united ,states or ,canada4 ,six dollars a year1 sent1 prepaid1 to any foreign country4 ,all the back numbers of ,,the ,,supplement1 from the commencement1 ,january #a1 #ahgf1 can be had4 ,price1 #aj cents each4 ,all the back volumes of ,,the ,,supplement can likewise be supplied4 ,two volumes are issued yearly4 ,price of each volume1 #b4ej1 stitched in paper1 or #c4ej1 bound in stiff covers4 ,,combined ,,rates--,one copy of ,,scientific 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