,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #dja ,,new ,,york1 ,,september #h1 #ahhc ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xvi1 ,no4 #dja4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,chemistry4--,on the ,different ,modifications of ,silver ,bromide and ,silver ,chloride4 ,analysis of ,new ,zealand ,coal4 ,on the ,determination of ,manganese in ,steel1 ,cast ,iron1 ,ferro-manganese1 etc4 ,manganese and its ,uses4 ,ozokerite or ,earth-wax4 ,by ,,william ,l4 ,,lay4 ,a valuable and instructive paper read before the ,new ,york ,academy of ,sciences4--,showing the nature1 sources1 and applications of this remarkable product4 ,on the ,constitution of the ,natural ,fats4 ,,ii4 ,,engineering ,,and ,,mechanics4--,improved ,spring wheel ,traction ,engine4--,with two engravings4 ,an ,improved ,iron ,frame ,gang ,saw ,mill4--,with one large engraving4 ,the ,heat ,regenerative ,system of ,firing ,gas ,retorts4--,siemens' principle4--,as operated at the ,glasgow ,corporation ,works4--,with two engravings4 ,a ,new ,gas ,heated ,baker's ,oven4 ,,iii4 ,,technology4--,how to ,produce ,permanent ,photographic ,pictures on ,terra ,cotta1 ,glass1 etc4--,with recipes and full directions4 ,how to ,make ,paper ,photo ,negatives4--,full directions4 ,some of the ,uses of ,common ,alum4 ,an ,improved ,cloth ,stretching ,machine4--,with an engraving4 ,purification of ,woolen ,fabrics by ,hydrochloric ,acid ,gas4 ,apparatus for ,preventing the ,loss of ,carbonic ,acid in ,racking ,beer4--,with an engraving4 ,,iv4 ,,electricity4--,application of ,electricity to the ,bleaching of ,vetable ,textile ,materials4--,with figure of apparatus4 ,table ,showing the ,relative ,dimensions1 ,lengths1 ,electrical ,resistances1 and ,weights of ,pure ,copper ,wires4 ,v4 ,,astronomy4--,the ,solar ,eclipse of #ahhc4--;,an interesting abstract from a report of ,c4 ,s4 ,,hastings 7,johns ,hopkins ,university71 of the ,american ,astronomical ,exhibition to the ,caroline ,islands4 ,,vi4 ,,natural ,,philosophy4--,recent ,experiments ,affecting the ,received ,theory of ,music4--,an interesting paper descriptive of certain experiments by ,president ,morton1 of ,stevens ,institute4 ,the ,motions of ,camphor upon ,water4--,with an engraving4 ,,vii4 ,,architecture4--,suggestions in ,village ,architecture4-- ,semidetached villas4--,bloomfield crescent4--,with an engraving4 ,specimens of ,old ,knocking ,devices for ,doors4--,several figures4 ,,viii4 ,,arch,,ology4--,a ,buried ,city of the ,exodus4--,being an account of the recent excavations and discoveries of ,pithom ,succoth1 in ,egypt4--,with an engraving4 ,the ,moabite ,manuscripts4 ,,ix4 ,,agriculture4 ,,horticulture1 ,,etc4--,the ,queen ,victoria ,century ,plant4--,with an engraving4 ,charred ,clover4 ,a ,new ,weathercock4--,with one figure4 ,x4 ,,miscellaneous4--,new ,monumental ,statue and ,landing ,place in ,honor of ,christopher ,columbus at ,barcelona1 ,spain4--,with an engraving4 ,scenery on the ,utah ,line of the ,denver and ,rio ,grande ,railway4 ,captain ,matthew ,webb4--,biographical sketch4--,with portrait4 ,the ,dwellings of the ,poor ,in ,paris4 ,shipment of ,ostriches from ,cape ,town1 ,south ,africa4--,with one page of engravings4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,monument ,,to ,,christopher ,,columbus1 ,,at ,,barcelona1 ,,spain4 ,the cultivated and patriotic city of ,barcelona is about to erect a magnificent monument in honor of ,columbus1 the personage most distinguished in the historic annals of all nations and all epochs4 ,the ,city of ,earls does not forget that here the discoverer of ,america disembarked on the #c;d of ,april1 #adic1 to present to the ,catholic monarchs the evidences of the happy termination of his enterprise4 ,in honoring ,columbus they honor and exalt the sons of ,catalonia1 who also took part in the discovery and civilization of the ,new ,world1 among whom may be named the ,treasurer ,santangel1 ,captain ,margarit1 ,friar ,benardo ,boyl1 first patriarch of the ,indies1 and the twelve missionaries of ,monserrat1 who accompanied the illustrious admiral on his second voyage4 ,in ,september1 #ahha1 a national competition was opened by the central executive committee for the monument1 and by the unanimous voice of the committee the premium plans of the architect1 ,don ,cayetano ,buigas ,monraba1 were adopted4 ,from these plans1 which we find in ,la ,ilustracion ,espaola1 we give an engraving4 ,richness1 grandeur1 and expression1 worthily combined1 are the characteristics of these plans4 ,the landing structure is divided into three parts1 a central and two laterals1 each of which extends forward1 after the manner of a cutwater1 in the form of the bow of a vessel of the fifteenth century1 bringing to mind the two caravels1 the ,pinta and ,nia2 two great lights occupy the advance points on each side2 a rich balustrade and four statues of celebrated persons complete the magnificent frontage4 ,a noble monument1 surmounted by a statue of the discoverer1 is seen on the esplanade4 ,illustration3 ,,monumental ,,landing ,,and ,,statue ,,to ,,columbus1 ,,at ,,barcelona1 ,,spain4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the commission appointed in ,france to consider the phylloxera has not awarded to anybody the prize of three hundred thousand francs that was offered to the discoverer of a trustworthy remedy or preventive for the fatal grape disease4 ,there were not less than #ahb competitors for the prize2 but none had made a discovery that filled the bill4 ,it is said1 however1 that a ,strasbourg physician has found in naphthaline an absolutely trustworthy remedy4 ,this liquid is poured upon the ground about the root of the vine1 and it is said that it kills the parasites without hurting the grape4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,scenery ,,on ,,the ,,utah ,,line ,,of ,,the ,,denver ,,and ,,rio ,,grande4 ,mr4 ,r4,w4 ,raymond gives the following interesting account of the remarkable scenery on this recently opened route from ,denver to ,salt ,lake3 ,having just made the trip from ,salt ,lake ,city to this place on the ,denver ,rio ,grande line1 ,i cannot write you on any other subject at present4 ,there is not in the world a railroad journey of thirty hours so filled with grand and beautiful views4 ,i should perhaps qualify this statement by deducting the hours of darkness2 yet this is really a fortunate enhancement of the traveler's enjoyment2 it seems providential that there is one part of the way just long enough and uninteresting enough to permit one to go to sleep without the fear of missing anything sublime4 ,leaving ,salt ,lake ,city at noon1 we sped through the fertile and populous ,jordan ,valley1 past the fresh and lovely ,utah ,lake1 and up the ,valley of ,spanish ,fork4 ,all the way the superb granite walls and summits of the ,wahsatch accompanied us on the east1 while westward1 across the wide valley1 were the blue outlines of the ,oquirrh range4 ,one after another of the magnificent caons of the ,wahsatch we passed1 their mouths seeming mere gashes in the massive rock1 but promising wild and rugged variety to him who enters--a promise which ,i have abundantly tested in other days4 ,parley's ,caon1 the ,big and ,little ,cottonwood1 and most wonderful of all1 the caon of the ,american ,fork1 form a series not inferior to those of ,boulder1 ,clear ,creek1 the ,platte1 and the ,arkansas1 in the front range of the ,rockies4 ,following ,spanish ,fork eastward so far as it served our purpose1 we crossed the divide to the head waters of the ,south ,fork of ,price ,river1 a tributary of ,green ,river4 ,it was a regret to me1 in choosing this route1 that ,i should miss the familiar and beloved scenery of ,weber and ,echo caons--the only part of the ,union ,pacific road which tempts one to look out of a car window1 unless one may be tempted by the boundless monotony of the plains or the chance of a prairie dog4 ,great was my satisfaction1 therefore1 to find that this part of the new road1 parallel with the ,union ,pacific1 but a hundred miles farther south1 traverses the same belt of rocks1 and exhibits them in forms not less picturesque4 ,castle ,caon1 on the ,south ,fork of the ,price1 is the equivalent of ,echo ,caon1 and is equal or superior in everything except color4 ,the brilliant red of the ,echo cliffs is wanting4 ,the towers and walls of ,castle ,caon are yellowish-gray4 ,but their forms are incomparably various and grotesque--in some instances sublime4 ,the valley of ,green ,river at this point is a cheerless sage-brush desert1 as it is further north4 ,to be sure1 this uninviting stream1 a couple of hundred miles further south1 having united with the ,grande1 and formed the ,rio ,colorado1 does indeed1 by dint of burrowing deeper and deeper into the sunless chasms1 become at last sublime4 ,but here it gives no hint of its future somber glory4 ,i remained awake till we had crossed ,green ,river1 to make sure that no striking scenery should be missed by sleep4 ,but ,i got nothing for my pains except the moonlight on the muddy water2 and next time ,i shall go to bed comfortably1 proving to the conductor that ,i am a veteran and not a tender-foot4 ,in the morning1 we breakfasted at ,cimarron1 having in the interval passed the foot-hills of the ,roan ,mountains1 crossed the ,grande1 and ascended for some distance the ,gunnison1 a tributary of the ,grande1 the ,uncompahgre1 a tributary of the ,gunnison1 and finally a branch1 flowing westward1 of the ,uncompahgre4 ,a high divide at the head of the latter was laboriously surmounted2 and then1 one of our two engines shooting ahead and piloting us1 we slid speedily down to ,cimarron4 ,it is in such descents that the unaccustomed traveler usually feels alarmed4 ,but the experience of the ,rio ,grande ,railroad people is1 that derailment is likely to occur on up-grades1 and almost never in going down4 ,from this point1 comparison with the ,union ,pacific line in the matter of scenery ceases4 ,as everybody knows1 that road crosses the ,rocky ,mountains proper in a pass so wide and of such gradual ascent that the high summits are quite out of sight4 ,if it were not for the monument to the ,ameses1 there would be nothing to mark the highest point4 ,for all the wonderful scenery on the ,rio ,grande road1 between ,cimarron and ,pueblo1 the ,union ,pacific in the same longitudes has nothing to show4 ,from an artistic stand-point1 one road has crossed the ranges at the most tame and uninteresting point that could be found1 and the other at the most picturesque4 ,at ,cimarron1 the road again strikes the ,gunnison1 and plunges into the famous ,black ,caon4 ,in length1 variety1 and certain elements of beauty1 such as forest-ravines and waterfalls1 this caon surpasses the ,royal ,gorge of the ,arkansas4 ,there is1 however1 one spot in the latter 7,i mean1 of course1 the point where the turbulent river fills the whole space between walls #b1hjj ft4 high1 and the railroad is hung over it7 which is superior in desolate1 overwhelming grandeur to anything on the ,gunnison4 ,take them all in all1 it is difficult to say which is the finer4 ,i have usually found the opinion of travelers to favor the ,gunnison ,caon4 ,but why need the question be solved at all8 ,this one matchless journey comprises them both2 and he who was overwhelmed in the morning by the one1 holds his breath in the afternoon before the mighty precipices of the other4 ,to excuse myself from even hinting such folly as a comparison of scenery1 ,i will merely remark that these two caons are more capable of a comparison than different scenes usually are2 for they belong to the same type--deep cuts in crystalline rocks4 ,between them come the ,marshall ,pass 7nearly #aa1jjj ft4 above sea-level71 over the continental divide1 and the ,poncha ,pass1 over the ,sangre di ,cristo range4 ,this range contains ,harvard1 ,yale1 ,princeton1 ,elbert1 ,massive 7the peak opposite ,leadville71 and other summits exceeding the altitude of #ad1jjj ft4 ,to the east of it is the valley of the ,arkansas1 into which and down which we pass1 and so through the ,royal ,gorge to ,caon ,city and ,pueblo1 where we arrived before dark on the day after leaving ,salt ,lake4 ,salt ,lake1 the ,jordan ,valley1 ,utah ,lake1 the ,wahsatch1 ,castle ,caon1 the ,black ,caon of the ,gunnison1 ,marshall ,pass1 ,poncha ,pass1 the ,arkansas ,valley1 the ,royal ,gorge--what a catalogue for so brief a journey6 ,no wonder everybody who has made it is wild about it6 ,if enthusiastic urgency of recommendation from every passenger has any influence 7and ,i know it has a great deal71 this road will continue to be1 as it is at present1 crowded with tourists4 ,it furnishes a delightful route for those who wish on the overland journey to see ,denver 7as who does not87 and to visit ,colorado ,springs and ,manitou4 ,all this can be done en route1 without retracing the steps4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,photography ,,applied ,,to ,,terra-,,cotta ,,and ,,opal ,,glass4 ,in the natural course of things it must necessarily have occurred to practical men to utilize photography in the case of terra-cotta1 as it has already been employed in connection with so many other wares2 but ,i have not to this day known of its successful application to terra-cotta4 ,now this is strange1 if one considers how fashionable plaque and plate painting have become of late1 and the good photographic results that are easily obtained on these as on sundry articles of this same burnt earth4 ,portraits1 animals1 landscapes1 seascapes1 and reproductions are one and all easily transferred1 whether for painting upon or to be left purely photographic4 ,as a matter of business1 too1 one fails to see that it would not be remunerative1 but rather the contrary4 ,it was with something of this feeling that ,i was led to try and see what could be done to attain the end in view1 and as ,i knew of no data to go by1 ,i had to use my own experience1 or rather experiment on my own account4 ,since emulsion was constantly at hand in my establishment1 in the commercial production of my gelatine dry plates1 it was but natural ,i should first have turned to this as a mode of obtaining the desired results2 but1 alas6 all attempts in that direction signally failed--the ware most persistently refused to have anything to do with emulsion4 ,the bugbear was the fixing agent or hypo41 which not only left indelible marks1 but1 despite any amount of washing1 the image on a finished plate vanished to nothing at the end of an hour's exposure in the show window4 ,there was nothing left but to seek other means for the attainment of my object4 ,i would not have troubled the reader as to this unsuccessful line of experiment but that ,i wished to put him on his guard and save him useless researches in the same direction4 ,to cut matters short1 the method ,i found best and most direct was the now old but still excellent wet collodion transfer4 ,i will now proceed to detail my system of working to facilitate the matter to the inexperienced in collodion transfer4 ,,terra-,,cotta ,,photography ,,in ,,practice4 ,the first and indispensable operation1 in the preparation of the surface to receive the transfer1 is the sizing of the surface4 ,it simply consists of a solution of gelatine chrome-alumed1 as follows3 ,gelatine4 #aj grains4 ,water4 #a ounce4 ,a trace of chrome alum4 ,coat with a soft camel's hair brush and let dry4 ,it is needless to say that numbers of plaques1 plates1 vases1 etc41 may be coated right off1 and will then be ready for use at any time4 ,having settled on the subject and carefully dusted the negative1 as well as placed it in situ for reproduction1 the next thing required is a suitable collodion1 and the following will be found all that can be desired3 ,,transfer ,,collodion4 ,cotton4 #c drachms4 ,iodide of cadmium4 #fe grains4 ,ammonium iodide4 #be ,bromide of cadmium4 #ai ,ammonium bromide4 #aa ,alcohol4 #ae ounces4 ,ether4 #ae ,the plate thoroughly cleaned and coated with the collodion is now transferred to a bath1 as follows3 ,nitrate of silver 7common7 #be grains to the ounce4 ,made slightly acid with nitric acid4 ,after sensitizing1 the plate is exposed in the usual way and taken to the room where pictures are ordinarily developed1 and quantum suff4 of the following poured into the developing cup to bring out the image3 ,,developing ,,solution4 ,a ,winchester of water1 i4e4 #hj ounces4 ,protosulphate of iron4 #bdj grains4 ,citric acid4 #bdj ,or the following may be used3 ,pyro #c grains ,citric acid #b per ounce of water4 ,glacial acetic acid #cj drops _/ ,after perfect development the picture is well washed and then fixed in a saturated solution of hypo42 after which it is thoroughly washed4 ,it will now be found that the picture is not altogether satisfactory2 it lacks both vigor and color4 ,to improve matters recourse is now had to ,,toning4 ,gold4 #a grain4 ,water4 #e ounces4 ,with this a very fine depth is soon attained1 and a nice picture the result4 ,leave out the toning1 and only a poor1 sunken-looking picture will be the outcome2 but directly the toning bath is employed richness at once comes to the fore4 ,i have1 however1 known of instances where the picture needed no toning4 ,,opal ,,production ,,in ,,practice4 ,this is still a secret with some in the profession4 ,a limited number of workers have succeeded in bringing out good opals1 and their modus operandi is kept from the many4 ,now this is a pity1 when one considers the great charm attached to a good picture on opal1 with pure whites and rich blacks1 and in many localities the demand that might be created for them4 ,apart from their beauty1 another charm attaches to opals--their absolute permanence2 and this1 it must be allowed1 is no trifle4 ,what1 in fact1 can be more painful to the worker who values his work1 and sets store by it1 than to feel it must ere long fade and pass into oblivion6 ,a properly executed opal will no more fade than the glass pictures so common at one time1 and which1 wherever taken care of1 are as perfect now as they were when first taken4 ,now1 excellent pictures are to be made on opals by means of emulsion2 but ,i propose first taking the transfer method 7mainly applicable to ground opal and canvas7 as given above for pottery1 since in practice it is found very ready1 easy of manipulation1 and safe4 ,the details are much the same as above1 and necessitate double transfer4 ,after the picture had been obtained on the plate 7ordinary glass plate71 and after thoroughly fixing1 washing1 and toning1 the picture 7and this1 remember1 is the case likewise with terra-cotta7 then has to be loosened from its support1 and this is done with a solution of sulphuric acid--one drachm to fifteen ounces of water--which is made to flow between the image and the glass1 after which perfectly wash and mount4 ,when the image is loosened a piece of tracing paper is put on the image1 evened out1 raised 7assisted by some one else to hold the two opposite corners during the operation71 and with the aid of the helper the picture is carefully centered1 gently pressed out or down1 and the transfer is so far effected4 ,but what will happen1 and does happen1 in the case of vignettes1 is impurity of the whites1 when the picture becomes positively objectionable4 ,now the way to remedy this lies simply in the application1 to the dirty-looking parts1 of a solution of iodine dissolved in iodide of potassium to sherry color2 after which1 well wash and apply a weak solution of cyanide of potassium1 and wash well again4 ,this1 by the way1 is equally applicable to paper transfers2 and it is to be remembered that the toning comes last of all4 ,it is a rather difficult matter to clean a ground opal which has been used two or three times1 and acid must then be had recourse to 7nitric acid is as good as any72 but by transferring from the support on the ground surface1 all stains are at once avoided4 ,on the flushed glass1 or on the pot metal 7unground71 after well cleaning the surface it should be covered with a substratum of egg4 ,then the picture is taken direct1 not transferred2 that is1 the plate is exposed direct in the camera1 regularly proceeded with1 and1 when dried1 varnished with a pale negative varnish1 or with dead varnish if intended for chalk or water-color4 ,this1 when a good negative is used1 gives a remarkably fine picture1 not requiring a vestige of retouching1 and having likewise the invaluable advantage of being perfectly durable if varnished with the negative varnish4 ,moreover1 on that1 effective pictures may be made in oil with simply tinting4 ,a gentleman1 who has a right to be considered a good judge in all art matters1 on looking at one of these pictures transferred on flushed glass1 said it was one of the finest productions of photography4 ,he urged that negatives ad rem should be taken most carefully1 and that1 like the picture ,i showed him1 they should be full of half-tone and detail1 and yet have plenty of vigor4 ,they should1 he said1 be robust in the high lights1 have perfectly clear glass in the few points of deep shadows1 and thus have powerful relief4 ,moreover1 the negatives should be retouched only by a competent hand1 and care taken that the likeness shall be in no way altered1 which is so frequently the case now4 ,if done as thus suggested there is no doubt that remarkably fine pictures are to be produced on opal1 whether ground or not4 ,most artistic results are to be obtained1 and1 with proper care1 absolute permanency4 ,in this age of keen competition1 all have to think of what may be really recommended to one's clientle1 and likely to meet with approbation from strangers and friends when the picture has once been delivered2 and ,i candidly think that the opal1 of all1 is the picture most likely to meet with this general approbation4 ,i hope ,i have left it clearly to be understood that the class of opal picture to which ,i have chiefly alluded is one that remains untouched after the transfer--that is1 absolutely unpainted upon4 ,it is pure photography in every sense of the word1 and the resultant picture one hardly to be surpassed in any way4 ,i have rather laid a stress on this point1 well knowing how pictures are at times irretrievably ruined by the barbarous hand of would-be artists1 who by far exceed the true artists in number2 and the hint on retouching should not be lost sight of1 either1 at a period when the tendency is to stereotype every one in marble-like texture1 or rather lack of texture1 as if the face were devoid of all fleshiness and as hard and rigid as cast-iron4 ,it might be wise to weigh this point carefully1 and act upon it1 before the enlightened public have raised a cry against the pernicious practice and made photographers smart for their want of applying timely remedial measures to a decided evil4 ,on reading the above again1 fearing lest any misconception should arise in the mind of the reader1 ,i deem it expedient1 to clearly state that for terra-cotta recourse is had to double transfer2 that is1 the picture first taken is lifted from the support on tracing paper1 put in the right position on terra-cotta1 and pressed down while wet with blotting-paper1 left to dry1 and is then so far ready4 ,respecting the production of pictures by means of emulsion1 ground opal being the best1 the system ,i employ is as follows3 ,after well cleaning the glass1 coat it with emulsion 7which had better not be too thick74 ,when dry it is exposed and developed with the usual oxalate developer1 to which a little bromide of potassium has been added4 ,the remainder of the operations is as usual4 ,those varnished with dead varnish can be tinted and worked up with colored crayons or black lead pencil and make very pleasing pictures4 ,it is needless to add that they are also to be finished in water-colors if thought preferable4--,g4 ,w4 ,martyn1 in ,br4 ,jour4 ,photo4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,paper ,,negatives4 ,the process of ,a4,c4,a4 ,thiebaut is as follows3 the paper has the following advantages3 ,first4 ,the sensitive coating is regular1 and its thickness is uniform throughout the entire surface of each sheet4 ,second4 ,it can be exposed for a luminous impression in any kind of slide as usually constructed4 ,third4 ,it can be developed and fixed as easily as a negative on glass4 ,fourth4 ,the negative obtained dries quite flat on blotting paper4 ,fifth4 ,the film which constitutes the negative can be detached or peeled from its support or backing easily and readily by the hand1 without the assistance of any dissolving or other agent4 ,thus this invention does away with all sensitive preparations on glass1 which latter is both a brittle and relatively heavy material1 thus diminishing the bulk and weight of amateur and scientific photographers' luggage when traveling2 it produces photographic negatives as fine and as transparent as those on glass1 in so much that the film does not contain any grain2 and1 lastly1 it admits of printing from either face of the film1 as regards the production of positives on paper or other material1 as well as plates for phototypy and photo-engraving1 which latter processes require a negative to be reversed4 ,for the manufacture of my sensitized film paper3 ,first4 ,a gelatinized sheet of paper is properly damped with cold water1 and when evenly saturated it is placed on a glass1 to which it is attached by means of bands of paper pasted partially on the glass1 and partially on the edges of the said sheet2 in this state it is allowed to dry1 whereby it is stretched quite flat4 ,secondly4 ,i coat the dry sheet with a solution of ordinary collodion1 containing from one to two per cent4 cubic measure of azotic cotton 7#a per cent4 gives very good results7 and from #a to #b per cent4 of castor oil 7#b per cent4 gives very good results72 this coating is allowed to dry2 and1 ,thirdly4 ,the glass1 with the prepared paper upward1 is leveled1 and then it is coated1 in a room from which all rays but red rays of light are excluded1 with a tepid emulsion of bromide of silver to the extent of about one millimeter thick1 and after leaving it in this position until the gelatine has set 7say7 about five minutes1 with the film paper still attached1 it is placed upright in a drying-room1 where it should remain about twelve hours exposed to a temperature of from #fb to #ff degrees ,fahrenheit2 and1 ,fourthly4 ,the film paper is detached from the glass ready for exposure1 development1 and fixing in the usual manner4 ,for the purpose of developing1 oxalate of iron or pyrogallic acid answers equally well2 for the purpose of fixing1 ,i have found that a mixture by weight1 water1 #a1jjj1 hyposulphite of soda #aej1 and powdered alum #fj1 produces excellent results1 after being allowed to dry4 ,fifthly4 ,the film is peeled off the paper by hand1 and can be immediately used for producing negatives recto or verso as above mentioned4 ,i claim as my invention3 ,first4 ,the preparation or formation of gelatino-bromide film paper for photographic negatives1 in the manner and for the purposes above described2 and1 ,secondly4 ,the use for this purpose of castor oil1 or any other analogous oil1 more especially with the view of peeling off the film from the paper backing as above described4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,some ,,of ,,the ,,uses ,,of ,,common ,,alum4 ,a substance very much used by photographers of late years--in fact1 so much used that no well-appointed laboratory could be considered complete without it--is the substance known is common alum1 or potash alum1 being a double sulphate of alumina and potash2 but it is interesting to note that much of the commercial alum met with at the present time is ammonia alum1 or the double sulphate of alum and ammonia4 ,it is quite a matter of indifference to the photographer whether he uses potash alum or ammonia alum4 ,besides its great value to the autotype1 ,woodburytype1 and mechanical printers as an agent for hardening the gelatine films1 it has been recommended for all sorts of ailments photographic4 ,the silver printer adds a small portion to his sensitizing bath to keep it in working order1 and to prevent blistering of the albumen2 then1 again1 silver prints are soaked in a dilute solution of alum1 having for its object the thorough elimination of the last traces of the fixing salt4 ,a very good proportion to use for this latter purpose is four fluid ounces of a saturated solution1 diluted with one gallon of water1 the prints being well agitated during an immersion of ten minutes4 ,of all the uses to which alum is put1 perhaps not in any single instance can so much satisfaction be derived as when it is used to arrest frilling of gelatine plates4 ,this it has the power to do instantaneously1 and many of the most careful workers1 both amateur and professional1 or at least those who do net care to run any unnecessary risks with negatives which have cost them a good deal of anxiety and trouble to secure1 but prefer to make assurance doubly sure--such individuals may be numbered by the hundred--make it a point in every-day practice to immerse all their plates in a solution of alum1 either before fixing1 or immediately afterward4 ,in fact1 some operators have two alum baths in use1 one a normal bath1 as above mentioned1 for immersing the plates in when of the ordinary printing intensity2 and the other a saturated solution strongly acidified by means of a vegetable acid 7such as citric7 or a mineral acid 7such as sulphuric71 for use when there is too much printing density1 since it has been found in practice that an acid solution of alum in contact with sodium thio-sulphate on the gelatine image 7after fixing1 but before washing7 not only removes the color or stain caused by the alkaline or pyrogallol1 but perceptibly reduces the strength of the image4 ,moreover1 the color does not again reappear after washing1 as it does sometimes when the fixing salt has been partially washed away4 ,in cases where there is great tendency to frill--such1 for instance1 as when a soft sample of gelatine has been employed1 or old decomposed emulsion worked in with the fresh emulsion--it will in such cases be safer to put the plates in the normal-bath for a few minutes previous to immersing them in the acid bath4 ,potash alum is obtained tolerably pure in commerce in colorless transparent crystalline masses1 having an acid1 sweetish1 astringent taste4 ,it is soluble in #ah parts of water at #fj ,f41 and in its own weight of water at #bab ,f42 but the excess crystallizes out upon cooling4 ,the solution reddens litmus paper1 and1 when impure1 usually contains traces of oxide of iron4 ,upon the addition of either caustic soda or potash1 a white gelatinous precipitate is formed 7hydrate of alumina71 which is soluble in excess of the reagent employed4 ,the precipitate thus obtained has much of the character of the opalescent film sometimes observed on gelatine plates1 when dry1 which have been soaked in alum1 and not well washed afterward4 ,alkaline carbonates--such as washing soda1 for instance--precipitate hydrate of alumina1 which does not dissolve in an excess of the reagents1 and carbon dioxide is evolved4 ,ammonia hydrate produces a precipitate in a much finer state of divison1 which does not dissolve in excess when examined in a test-tube1 it somewhat resembles thin starch paste4 ,the presence of traces of iron may be known by adding a few drops of hydrochloric acid to a small quantity of a saturated solution of alum in a test-tube1 to which add strong liquid ammonia2 should any iron be present1 the mixture will have a reddish-brown tinge when examined over a sheet of white paper4 ,other alums exist1 such as the double sulphate of alumina and sodium1 and sodium or aluminum and ammonium2 but hitherto their uses have been confined to the experimental portion of the community rather than the practical4--,photo4 ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,cloth ,,stretching ,,machine4 ,as is well known1 in the process of bleaching and dyeing1 cotton cloths become considerably contracted in the width1 in consequence of carrying on the operations when the cloth is in the form of a rope4 ,the effect is that1 together with the tension1 although slight1 and the drying1 the weft partly shrinks and partly curls up1 the latter1 however1 being scarcely observable to the naked eye4 ,it may almost be said that as regards the width the shrinkage is due to a number of minute crumples because the cloth is easily streatched again by the fingers almost to its gray width4 ,the main use of a stretching machine1 therefore1 is not so much to make the cloth more than it is as to bring it again to its normal or woven width after operations that tend to shrinkage have been performed upon it4 ,the stretching operation1 therefore1 is especially useful to calico printers1 as it enables them to obtain when desired a white margin of even width1 the irregularities due to bleaching being corrected before printing4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,cloth ,,stretching ,,machine4 ,the machine now illustrated is one we have recently seen in operation in a ,salford finishing works4 ,it is an improved form of another stretching machine which had been turned out in considerable numbers by ,mr4 ,archibald ,edmeston1 engineer1 of ,salford1 who makes a specialty of calico printers' and finishers' machinery4 ,the improvements consist mainly of a simplification of the working parts and thoroughly substantial construction of the machine4 ,the principle adopted is a well-known one4 ,the selvages of the cloth1 or more strictly the two edges of the cloth1 of a width of about two inches1 are caused to pass over and at the same time are held by the rims of two diverging pulleys4 ,the rims are further apart where the cloth leaves them than where they seize it1 hence the stretching is gradually1 certainly1 and uniformly performed4 ,the cloth is gripped by the pressure of an endless belt acting against the lower half of each pulley1 the edges being held between them4 ,in the engraving these stretching pulleys are indicated by the letters ,,aa2 the endless leather band passes over the pulleys1 ,,cc1 of which there are a set of four provided for each stretching pulley4 ,the lower pair of pulleys in each case may be tightened up by a screw for the purpose of imparting the requisite tension to the bands4 ,the stretching pulleys are mounted upon and driven by the same shaft1 an ingenious but simple swiveling joint in their bosses enabling them to be set at any angle to the shaft and yet to revolve and be driven by it without throwing any undue strain upon the working parts4 ,the piece1 wound upon the ordinary batch shell1 is placed upon the running-off center1 ,d2 it is led off over the rails1 ,,ee1 and then downward to the nip of the bands and pulleys1 ,,aa4 ,as explained1 the selvages are here gripped between the bands and stretching pulleys1 the rims of which are wider apart at the back than the front1 and thus1 in being conveyed underneath1 the piece is suitably stretched4 ,leaving the grip at the back it passes over leading-off rollers1 ,,ff1 and the scrimp or opening rail1 ,g1 and thence downward to the winding-on center1 which cannot be seen4 ,the winding-on center is driven by friction4 ,as the batch fills it and tends to wind faster than the machine delivers the cloth1 the driving slips4 ,in addition to a capability of being set at an angle to the shaft1 the stretching pulleys1 ,,aa1 may be slided upon1 so as to separate or bring them closer together1 to allow for the treatment of different widths of cloths4 ,this adjustment is provided for by mounting the stretching pulleys1 ,,aa1 and the band pulleys1 ,,cc1 etc41 on frames1 ,,bb1 the ends of which rest1 as shown1 upon rails1 at the back and front of the machine4 ,the adjustment either for width of piece or for the angularity 7extent of stretching7 is easily made by the hand-wheel1 ,l4 ,by the bevel wheels shown1 two cross screws having nuts connected to the ends of frames1 ,,bb1 are actuated in such a way that as desired the space between the back and front of the pulleys may be closed in or opened out1 or the two wheels1 maintaining the same angularity1 may be separated or closed in1 either adjustment being expeditiously made4 ,the wheels1 ,,hhh1 are called center stretching wheels1 the use of which is sometimes advantageous4 ,they act in conjunction with a set of stretching pulleys1 of which one1 ,k1 may be seen in illustration4 ,by a proper adjustment at the latter the piece is bent into a wavy form1 where it passes between the whole of them1 the effect of the corrugation being to loosen the center threads and to allow the piece to be more equally stretched with those near the selvages and more easily4 ,this part of the machine may be used or not as required4 ,the production1 we observe1 was about #abj yards per minute4 ,the machine is solidly built and well fitted together1 as was obvious to us from an inspection of some in course of construction at the maker's works4 ,it is also claimed to be of considerable advantage to bleachers and finishers of white goods1 on account of the uniformity of the stretching causing but small disturbance to the stiffening4--,textile ,manufacturer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,woolen ,,fabrics ,,purified ,,by ,,hydrochloric ,,acid ,,gas4 ,all known methods for chemically purifying woolen stuffs from vegetable fibers depend on the action of acids or substances of acid reaction4 ,the excessive temperature1 hitherto unavoidable in the operation1 acts injuriously on the woolen fibers1 especially during the formation of hydrochloric acid1 with which process especially the development of an injuriously high temperature has been hitherto unavoidable4 ,the best method of absorbing the heat developed is in the evaporation of the moisture naturally present in the wool4 ,the patentees find agitation of the fabric and the use of an exhauster during the process of material assistance4 ,the operation maybe successfully performed in two ways--either by acting on the fabric at the ordinary pressure with constant agitation1 or by saturation without agitation in a vacuum4 ,for the first method the patentees employ a wooden cylinder with an aperture at one end for inserting and removing the cloth1 and having apertures all round to allow free access of air4 ,this cylinder rests on a hollow axle1 closed at one end and perforated with holes1 through which the acid gas is passed4 ,by the rotation of the cylinder the gas is drawn through the material and the latter exposed to the atmosphere1 whereby it gives up a quantity of aqueous vapor4 ,an average temperature of #cj ,cent4 is best suited to the operation1 and it can be regulated according to the supply of gas by opening or shutting a three-way cock between the gas generator and the revolving cylinder4 ,this process is assisted by the use of an exhauster of the usual construction4 ,when fully saturated1 the fabric is allowed to remain until the vegetable fibers are sufficiently friable4 ,the treatment in vacuo is as follows3 ,the hydrochloric acid gas passes into a vessel of suitable material provided with a perforated false bottom4 ,from under this false bottom a pipe connects with a second similar vessel connected itself with a vacuum pump having a let-off pipe4 ,as soon as the maximum vacuum is attained1 the gas is turned on through a three-way cock at a pressure of #dj mm4 mercury4 ,the gas fills the first vessel and saturates the cloth4 ,the warmth set free 7about #ejj calories per kilo1 gas7 is taken up by the combined water in the wool1 as1 owing to the low pressure1 a quantity of vapor is formed sufficient to take up the heat4 ,this vapor streams through the second vessel at a temperature of #ce ,cent41 penetrates the material1 and passes out through the pump4 ,after saturating the contents of the first vessel the gas passes into the second4 ,,as soon as this is one-quarter or one-third saturated the first vessel is taken out and replaced by a third1 which receives the overplus from ,no4 #b in like manner1 and so on4 ,this plan of working prevents gas passing through and damaging the pump4 ,instead of working under reduced pressure1 the desired low temperature can be maintained by passing alternately with the gas currents of air which absorb heat in evaporating the moisture of the material4 ,the cloth1 after saturation by these processes1 is left from six to twelve hours in the vessels1 after which it is freely exposed to the air until the vegetable particles are friable4 ,as soon as this occurs1 the fabrics are washed4 ,it is advantageous to add to the wash water powdered carbonate of baryta1 strontia1 magnesia1 or preferably lime1 and subsequently to rinse in pure water4 ,phosphate of lime containing carbonate may also be employed for neutralizing the acid1 and the residue recovered and separated from the organic residues mixed with it4--,h4 ,j41 ,journal of the ,society of ,chemical ,industry4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,application ,,of ,,electricity ,,to ,,the ,,bleaching ,,of ,,vegetable ,,textile ,,materials4 ,it is a recognized fact that chemical bodies in a nascent state are characterized by peculiarly energetic affinities1 and the results of numerous experiments permit us to affirm that animal and vegetable fibers are rapidly bleached when they are placed in contact with oxides and chlorides which1 when submitted to electrolysis1 permit oxygen and chlorine to disengage themselves in the nascent state4 ,the coloring matter that impregnates the majority of vegetable textile substances1 such as cotton1 flax1 and hemp1 to cite only those most generally known1 is in fact completely destroyed only by the combined action of oxygen and chlorine1 which always act in the same manner1 whether the fibers be in a raw or woven state4 ,in the application of electrolysis to the bleaching of textile materials1 it is only necessary to have the electrodes of any sufficiently powerful generator of electricity end in a vessel containing in aqueous solution such decolorizing agents as the hypochlorites in general1 and chlorides1 bromides1 and iodides that are capable of disengaging chlorine1 and iodine or an iodide in a nascent state4 ,these gases perform the role of oxidizing or decolorizing agents4 ,the fibers that are immersed in the solution during the passage of the electric current must necessarily remain therein for a greater or less length of time1 according to the nature of the material to be bleached1 and must1 after this first operation1 be washed1 rinsed1 and dried4 ,the use of an electric current for decomposing the metallic chlorides and disengaging their elements is not new1 and there have been specially utilized for this purpose1 up to the present time1 the alkaline hypochlorites that are obtained by well known processes4 ,in the latter case the metal is brought to the state of oxide in presence of the water that is necessary for the reaction4 ,but the results obtained in practicing this method are deceiving1 as far as bleaching is concerned1 and it is evidently more rational and economical to endeavor to compound the hypochlorite directly by borrowing all its elements from the metallic chloride itself1 and from the water by means of which such transformation is to be effected4 ,this is a reversal of the problem1 and1 propos thereof1 we would call the attention of the reader to an apparatus invented by ,messrs4 ,naudin ,schneider for effecting such synthesis in a simple and practical manner4 ,if a solution of chloride of sodium or kitchen salt1 ,na,cl1 be submitted to electrolysis in a hermetically closed vessel containing the material to be bleached1 a formation of hypochlorite of soda is produced in the following way3 #b,na,cl #b ,h#b,o ,na,cl ,na,o1 ,cl,o #d;,h4 ,in operating in this manner we shall have the advantage that results from the nascent body through the electrical double decomposition of the chloride of sodium and water1 which puts the chlorine1 the metal1 the hydrogen1 and the oxygen simultaneously in presence4 ,the chlorine and oxygen will combine their action to decolorize the textile material4 ,while starting from this idea1 it will nevertheless be preferable to adopt ,naudin ,schneider's arrangement4 ,the apparatus consists of a hermetically closed electrolyzer1 ,a1 into the lower part of which enters the electrodes1 ,e and ,f1 of any electrical machine whatever4 ,the receptacle1 ,a1 is provided with a safety-tube1 ,t1 that issues from its upper part and communicates with a reservoir1 ,b4 ,a second tube1 ,d1 forms a communication between the electrolyzer and the vessel1 ,c4 ,the liquid contained in this latter is sucked up by a pump1 ,p1 and forced to the lower part of the vessel1 ,a1 by means of the tubes1 ,g and ,h4 ,the apparatus operates as follows3 ,the closed vessel1 ,c1 in which the material to be bleached is put1 is filled1 as is also the electrolyzer1 with a solution of chloride of sodium4 ,this solution is then submitted to the action of an electric current1 when1 as a consequence of the chemical decomposition of the chloride and the water1 the elements in a nascent state form hypochlorite of soda4 ,when the partial or total conversion of the liquid has been effected 7this being ascertained by chlorometric tests71 the pump1 ,p1 is set rapidly in operation1 and1 as a consequence1 draws up the chloride of sodium from the bottom of the vessel1 ,c1 to the lower part of the electrolyzer1 ,a4 ,the hypochlorite that has formed passes through the tube1 ,d 7as a natural consequence of the elevation of the level of the liquid in ,a brought about by the entrance of a new supply of chloride71 and distributes itself throughout the vessel1 ,c1 where it acts upon the textile material4 ,illustration3 ,,apparatus ,,for ,,bleaching ,,textile ,,fibers ,,by ,,electricity4 ,the safety-tube1 ,t1 which is attached to the electrolyzer1 permits of the escape of the hydrogen which is produced during the chemical reaction1 and fixes1 through an alkaline solution contained in the reservoir1 ,b1 the chloride whose escape might discommode the operator4 ,as may be conceived1 the slow transfer of the saline solution from the receptacle1 ,c1 to the electrolyzer1 and its rapid conversion into decolorizing chloride1 as well as its prompt application upon the materials to be bleached1 presents important advantages4 ,while1 in the present state of the industries that make use of bleaching chlorides1 the chloride of sodium is converted into hydrochloric acid1 which1 in order to disengage chlorine1 must in its turn react upon binoxide of manganese1 we shall be able1 with this new method1 to utilize the chloride of sodium1 which is derived from ordinary salt works1 and extract from it the constituent elements of the hypochlorite by a simple displacement of molecules produced under the influence of an electric current4 ,another and very serious advantage of electric bleaching is that of having constantly at hand a fresh solution of hypochlorite possessing a uniform decolorizing power1 which may be regulated by the always known intensity of the current4 ,we must remark that the hypochlorites require a certain length of time to permit the chlorine to become disengaged1 and that1 besides1 all chlorides1 bromides1 and iodides that are isomorphous are capable of undergoing an analogous chemical transformation and of being employed for the same purpose4 ,this is especially the case with the chlorides of potassium or barium1 the bromides of strontium or calcium1 and the iodides of aluminum or magnesium4 ,on another hand1 as sea water contains different chlorides1 it results that it might serve directly as a raw material for bleaching textile fibers4 ,then1 when the solution of chloride of sodium has been deprived of its chlorine by electrolysis1 there remains a solution of caustic soda which may be utilized for scouring fibers4--,h4 ,danzer1 in ,le ,gnie ,civil4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improved ,,spring ,,traction ,,engine4 ,messrs4 ,j4 ,h4 ,mc,laren1 of the ,midland ,engine ,works1 ,hunslet1 ,leeds1 ,england1 for several years past have devoted considerable attention to the question of mounting traction engines on springs4 ,the outcome of this is the engine in question1 the front end of which is carried by a pair of ,timmis spiral springs1 resting on the center pin of the front axle1 which is on ,messrs4 ,mc,laren's principle1 which enables it to accommodate itself to the inequalities of the road without throwing any undue strain on the front carriage4 ,the chief difficulty hitherto has been to mount the hind end on springs without interfering with the spur gearing1 which must be kept perfectly rigid to prevent breakage of the cogs4 ,this is entirely provided for by the new arrangement1 whereby all the spring is allowed for in the spokes of the wheel itself1 which will be clearly seen on reference to the illustrations1 in which ,fig4 #a is a perspective view of the engine1 while ,fig4 #b shows a detail view of the wheel4 ,the rim of the wheel is built up in the ordinary way of strong ,t-iron rings1 with steel crossplates riveted on4 ,the nave of the wheel has wrought-iron ribs to which the spokes are bolted4 ,these spokes are made of the best spring steel1 specially manufactured and rolled for the purpose1 #i inches wide and inch thick4 ,they are bent in a pear shape1 with the narrow ends fastened to the nave1 and the crown resting upon the rim of the wheel1 where they are divided1 and held in their places by means of clip fastened with bolts4 ,when the weight of the engine comes on these spokes1 those nearest the ground are compressed and those1 at the top are elongated a little4 ,in order to avoid any of the driving strain passing through the springs1 a strong arm is fixed on the differential wheel and attached to the rim as shown in ,fig4 #b1 so that the springs have really no work to do beyond carrying the weight of the engine4 ,messrs4 ,mc,laren naturally felt a certain amount of diffidence in placing their invention before the public until they had thoroughly tested it in practical work4 ,this1 we are informed1 they have done1 with the most satisfactory results1 during the last five or six months2 and they have a set of springs which ran during that time between #b1jjj and #c1jjj miles1 besides which there are several of these spring engines in daily use4--,iron4 ,illustration3 ,,fig #a4 ,,improved ,,spring ,,traction ,,engine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,showing ,,the ,,relative ,,dimensions1 ,,lengths1 ,,resistances1 ,,and ,,weights ,,of ,,pure ,,copper ,,wire4 ,,diameter ,,area ,b4,w4,g ,inch4 ,milli- ,circu- ,square ,square ,no4 metres lar inches4 ,milli- ,mils4 metres4 #jjjj 4#ded #aa4ecac #bjfaaf 4#afahhc #aj4ddce #jjj 4#dbe #aj4gie #ahjfbe 4#adahfb #i4aeb #jj 4#ch #i4feah #adddjj 4#aacdaa #g4cafe #j 4#cd #h4fceh #aaefjj 4#jijgibb #e4hegc #a 4#c #g4fbj #ijjjj 4#jgjfhf #d4efjb #b 4#bhd #g4bacd #hjfef 4#jfccdgb #d4jhfg #c 4#bei #f4eghd #fgjha 4#jebfhed #c4cihi #d 4#bch #f4jdea #effdd 4#jdddhha #b4hgja #e 4#bb #e4ehgi #dhdjj 4#jchjacc #b4debc #f 4#bjc #e4aefa #dabji 4#jcbcfee #b4jhh #g 4#ah #d4egai #cbdjj 4#jbeddfi #a4fdag #h 4#afe #d4aiji #bgbbe 4#jbachbe #a4cgid #i 4#adh #c4geia #baijd 4#jagbjcd #a4ajih #aj 4#acd #c4djce #agief 4#jadajbf 4#ijif #aa 4#ab #c4jdgi #addjj 4#jaacjig 4#gbif #ab 4#aji #b4ggja #aahha 4#jjiccacc 4#fjaii #ac 4#jie #b4dabi #ijbe 4#jjgjhhb 4#degc #ad 4#jhc #b4ajhb #fhhi 4#jjedajfb 4#cdijf #ae 4#jgb #a4hbhh #eahd 4#jjdjgaea 4#bdhf #af 4#jfe #a4feaj #dbbe 4#jjccahca 4#badjg #ag 4#jeh #a4dgcb #ccfd 4#jjbfdba 4#agjde #ah 4#jdi #a4bddf #bdja 4#jjahhegd 4#abafe #ai 4#jdb #a4jffh #agfd 4#jjachedd 4#jhid #bj 4#jce #j4hhij #abbe 4#jjjifbaae 4#jfbjg #ba 4#jcb #j4habh #ajbd 4#jjjhjdbe 4#jeahh #bb 4#jbh #j4gaab #ghd 4#jjjfaegec 4#jcigb #bc 4#jbe #j4fce #fbe 4#jjjdijhg 4#jcafg #bd 4#jbb #j4eehh #dhd 4#jjjchjacc 4#jbdeb #be 4#jb #j4ejh #djj 4#jjjcadaf 4#jbjbg #bf 4#jah #j4dega #cbd 4#jjjbeddfi 4#jafdb #bg 4#jaf #j4djfd #bef 4#jjjbjajfb 4#jabig #bh 4#jad #j4ceef #aif 4#jjjaecich 4#jjiic #bi 4#jac #j4ccjb #afi 4#jjjacbgcb 4#jjhef #cj 4#jab #j4cjdh #add 4#jjjaacjig 4#jjgbif ,,length ,,and ,,weight ,b4,w4,g ,pounds ,pounds ,pounds ,pounds ,feet ,yards #a4jjj feet ,miles ,no4 per per per #a4jjj per per lb4 per lb4 per lb4 per lb4 foot4 ,yard ft4 mile4 #jjjj 4#fbcibd #a4hgaggb #fbc4ibd #cbid4cb #a4fjbgf 4#ecdbec 4#jjafjbgf 4#jjcjceec #jjj 4#edfgf #a4fdjbh #edf4gf #bhhf4hi #a4hbhie 4#fjife 4#jjahbhie 4#jjcdfci #jj 4#dcgaje #a4caacae #dcg4aje #bcjg4ib #b4bhggg 4#gfbei 4#jjbbhggg 4#jjdccc #j 4#cdiibh #a4jdighd #cdi4ibh #ahdg4fb #b4heggc 4#iebegff 4#jjbheggc 4#jjedabd #a 4#bgbdce 4#hagcje #bgb4dce #adch4dc #c4fgjf #a4bbcec 4#jjcfgjf 4#jjfieai #b 4#bddaea 4#gcbdec #bdd4aea #abhi4aa #d4jieh #a4cfebff 4#jjdjieh 4#jjggegc #c 4#bjcjeh 4#fjiagd #bjc4jeh #ajgb4ae #d4ibdg #a4fdaeff 4#jjdibdg 4#jjicbg #d 4#agadfc 4#eadcie #aga4dfe #ije4ccc #e4hcba #a4iddjcc 4#jjehcba 4#jaajdeg #e 4#adfea 4#dciec #adf4eaj #ggc4ef #f4hbee #b4bgeaff 4#jjfhbee 4#jabibg #f 4#abdgdb 4#cgdbbf #abd4gdb #feh4fch #h4jafe #b4fgbaff 4#jjhjafe 4#jaeahc #g 4#jihjgf 4#bidbbh #ih4jgf #eag4hdd #aj4aifb #c4cihgc 4#jajaifb 4#jaicaa #h 4#jhbdaa 4#bdgbcc #hb4daa #dce4ace #ab4acde #d4jddhc 4#jabacde 4#jbbiha #i 4#jffcje 4#aihiae #ff4cje #cej4jhi #ae4jhah #e4jbgbff 4#jaejhah 4#jbhefd #aj 4#jedced 4#afcjfb #ed4ced #bhf4ii #ah4cih #f4acbff 4#jahcih 4#jcdhde #aa 4#jdcei 4#acjgg #dc4eij #bcj4aeb #bb4idac #g4fdga 4#jbbidac 4#jdcde #ab 4#jceifd 4#ajghib #ce4ifd #ahi4hic #bg4hje #i4bfhc 4#jbghje 4#jebff #ac 4#jbgcai 4#jhaieg #bg4cai #add4bde #cf4fjdf #ab4bjaec 4#jcffjdf 4#jficbf #ad 4#jbjhec 4#jfbeei #bj4hec #aaj4ajhh #dg4ied #ae4ihdff 4#jdgied 4#jijhb #ae 4#jaefib 4#jdgjgf #ae4fib #hb4hee #fc4gbfg #ba4bdbbc 4#jfcgbfa 4#abjfi #af 4#jabghi 4#jchcfg #ab4ghi #fg4ebgf #gh4aijb #bf4jfcd 4#jghaijb 4#adhji #ag 4#jajahbh 4#jcjedhd #aj4ahbh #ec4gffe #ih4bjb #cb4gcd 4#jihbjc 4#ahehi #ah 4#jjgbfgie 4#jbahjchh #g4bfgif #ch4cgdh #acg4eij #de4hfcc 4#acgeij 4#bfjehg #ai 4#jjeccigb 4#jafjaiaf #e4ccigb #bh4aicg #ahg4bgf #fb4dbec 4#ahgbgf 4#cedfi #bj 4#jjcgjhae 4#jaaabdde #c4gjhae #ai4egi #bfi4fgf #hi4hib 4#bfiffgf 4#eajge #ba 4#jjcjiigb 4#jjibiiaj #c4jiigb #af4cffe #cbb4faj #ajg4ecff 4#cbbfaj 4#faajj #bb 4#jjbcgcab 4#jjgaaicf #b4cgcab #ab4ecja #dba4chd #adj4dfac 4#dbaccd 4#gihjgh #bc 4#jjahiaj 4#jjefgeg #a4hiai #i4ihib #ebh4egj #agf4aij 4#ebhegj 4#ajjajh #bd 4#jjadfej 4#jjdciej #a4dfej #g4gceg #fhb4ee #bbg4eaff 4#fhbee 4#abibga #be 4#jjabajhb 4#jjcfcbdf #a4bajhb #f4cicae #hbe4hhj #bge4bidc 4#hbehhc 4#aefdag #bf 4#jjjihjgg 4#jjbidbca 4#ihjgg #e4aghdd #ajai4fa #cci4hgj #a4jaifa 4#aicajh #bg 4#jjjggdib 4#jjbcbdgf 4#ggdib #d4jiaf #abij4dd #dcj4adff #a4bijdd 4#bdddj #bh 4#jjjeicc 4#jjaggii 4#eicc #c4acbfd #afhe4dh #efa4hbff #a4fhedh 4#caibb #bi 4#jjjeaaega 4#jjaecdgac 4#eaaega #b4gjaa #aied4gf #fea4ehff #a4iedgf 4#cgjbbj #cj 4#jjjdcei 4#jjacjgg 4#dcei #b4cjaeb #bbid4ac #gfd4gaj #b4bidac 4#dcddif ,,length ,,and ,,resistance ,b4,w4,g ,feet ,yards #a4jjj feet ,miles ,ohms ,ohms ,ohms ,ohms ,no4 per ,ohm4 per ,ohm4 per ,ohm4 per ,ohm4 per foot4 per yard4 per #a4jjj per mile4 foot4 #jjjj #aiiff4e #ffee4e #ai4iffe #c4ghae 4#jjjjejfhd 4#jjaefbeb 4#jejjhd 4#bfdddc #jjj #agdig4ae #ehcb4chcc #ag4digae #c4cache 4#jjjjegaebb 4#jjjagadeff 4#jegaebb 4#cjagfc #jj #acihh4fd #dffb4fh #ac4ihhjd #b4fdibe 4#jjjjgadhi 4#jjjbaddfg 4#jgadhi 4#cggdfe #j #aaaih4ag #cgcb4gccc #aa4aihag #b4abjhf 4#jjjjhicjjb 4#jjjbfgijjf 4#jhicjjb 4#dgaeje #a #hgah4cj #bijf4aj #h4gahcj #a4feab 4#jjjaadgj 4#jjjcdda 4#aadgja 4#fjefb #b #ghac4ej #bfjd4ej #g4hacej #a4dgigc 4#jjjabgii 4#jjjchcig 4#abgii 4#fgehj #c #fdih4ad #baff4jdff #f4dihad #a4bcjga 4#jjjaechi 4#jjjdfafg 4#aechi 4#habed #d #edhg4ajg #ahbi4jceg #e4dhgajg #a4jcibc 4#jjjahbbde 4#jjjedfgce 4#ahbbde 4#ifbbef #e #dfhh4ea #aefb4hcff #d4fhhea 4#hhgige 4#jjjbacbhg 4#jjjfcihfa 4#bacbhg #a4abfaf #f #ciia4ia #accj4fcff #c4iiaia 4#gefjde 4#jjjbejejf 4#jjjgeaeah 4#bejejf #a4cbbfg #g #cach4ei #ajdf4aiff #c4achei 4#eiddc 4#jjjcahfad 4#jjjieehdb 4#cahfad #a4fhbbh #h #bfcg4bi #hgi4jiff #b4fcgbi 4#diidhf 4#jjjcgiagg 4#jjaacgeca 4#cgiagg #b4jjbjf #i #baba4hd #gjg4bhj #b4abahd 4#djahfd 4#jjjdgabhi 4#jjadachfg 4#dgabhi #b4dhhdje #aj #agci4dj #egi4hj #a4gcidj 4#cbidcb 4#jjjegdiaa 4#jjagbdgcc 4#egdiaa #c4jceec #aa #acid4ic #dfd4igff #a4cidic 4#bfdaia 4#jjjgafhhb 4#jjbaejfdf 4#gafhhb #c4ghead #ab #aaej4ia #chc4fcff #a4aejia 4#bagigf 4#jjjhfhhge 4#jjbfjffbe 4#hfhhge #d4ehgff #ac #hgd4beb #bia4dagc 4#hgdbeb 4#afeegh 4#jjaadchc 4#jjcdcadi #a4adchc #f4jcide #ad #ffg4cch #bbb4ddf 4#ffgcch 4#abfci 4#jjadihdi 4#jjddiedg #a4dihdi #g4iabjc #ae #ejb4age #afg4ciaff 4#ejbage 4#jieaji 4#jjaiiacd 4#jjeigdjb #a4iiacd #aj4eadb #af #dji4bgf #acf4dbecc 4#djibgf 4#jggead 4#jjbddccd 4#jjgccjjb #b4ddccd #ab4ijjh #ag #cbe4hga #ajh4fbcff 4#cbehga 4#jfagah 4#jjcjfhg 4#jjibjfa #c4jfhg #af4bjbgd #ah #bcb4ehe #gg4ebhcc 4#bcbehe 4#jddje 4#jjdbiie 4#jabhihe #d4biie #bb4gjad #ai #agj4hgi #ef4ieiff 4#agjhgi 4#jcbcfc 4#jjeheba 4#jageefc #e4heba #cj4hiia #bj #adi4ciae #di4gigaff 4#adiciae 4#jbbdge 4#jjhdbgjc 4#jbebhaji #h4dbgjc #dd4didg #ba #ii4aie #cc4jfe 4#jiiaie 4#jahghg 4#jajjhaaj 4#jcjbdcdh #aj4jhaaf #ec4bbhe #bb #ge4idfa #be4caecff 4#jgeidfa 4#jadchd 4#jacafgb 4#jciejaf #ac4afgb #fi4ebcj #bc #fj4edcgg #bj4ahabef 4#jfjedcgg 4#jaadfg 4#jafeagj 4#jdieeaj #af4eagj #hg4bjif #bd #df4hhea #ae4fbhcef 4#jdfhhea 4#jjhhgih 4#jbacbhgd 4#jfcihfbb #ba4cbhgd #aab4faf #be #ch4gdh #ab4iaf 4#jchgdh 4#jjgcchf 4#jbehjh 4#jggdbd #be4hjh #acf4bfe #bf #ca4chei #aj4dfaiff 4#jcachei 4#jjeiddc 4#jcahfadd 4#jieehdcb #ca4hfadd #afh4bbi #bg #bd4gihgc #h4bffbdc 4#jbdgihgc 4#jjdfifg 4#jdjcbdf 4#abjigch #dj4cbdf #bab4iad #bh #ah4ihfec #f4cbhhdc 4#jahihfec 4#jjceiei 4#jebffhib 4#aehjjfgf #eb4ffhib #bgh4jib #bi #af4cgaj #e4degj 4#jafcgaj 4#jjcajjf 4#jfajhcd 4#ahcbejb #fa4jhcd #cbb4eba #cj #ac4idic #d4fdigff 4#jacidic 4#jjbfdai 4#jgafhhbe 4#baejfdge #ga4fhhbe #cgh4ead ,,resistance ,,weight ,b4,w4,g ,ohms ,lbs4 ,no4 per lb4 per ,ohm4 #jjjj 4#jjjjhjbgb #abdeg4e #jjj 4#jjjajdebi #ieff4g #jj 4#jjjafceec #faad4bd #j 4#jjjbeeaif #ciah4eh #a 4#jjjdbajb #bcge4ah #b 4#jjjebdbb #aijg4ei #c 4#jjjgeghf #acai4ej #d 4#jjajfbi #idj4hdd #e 4#jjadeeh #fhf4iaa #f 4#jjbjjhb #dig4if #g 4#jjcbdhfc #cjg4hbb #h 4#jjdfjaja #bag4cdc #i 4#jjgajgia #adj4fhi #aj 4#jajeggb #id4edc #aa 4#jafddfb #fj4hdb #ab 4#jbdaeic #da4cib #ac 4#jdahfib #bc4hhci #ad 4#jgahehc #ac4iafc #ae 4#abfghh #g4hhgb #af 4#aiajde #e4bcdd #ag 4#cjacee #c4cahce #ah 4#eiaeg #a4fijd #ai #a4jieif 4#iabdde #bj #b4bgbed 4#ddjjc #ba #c4bebbi 4#cjgdh #bb #e4edhdc 4#ahjbc #bc #h4gcjce 4#aaded #bd #ad4eegi 4#jfhfia #be #ba4cadb 4#jdfiag #bf #cb4dhfc 4#jcjghb #bg #eb4jcfg 4#jaibag #bh #hh4ggbd 4#jaabfe #bi #aai4djd 4#jjhcge #cj #afd4dgfb 4#jjfjhjd ,,pure ,,copper weighs #eee lbs4 per cubic foot4 ,the ,resistance of #a mil4 foot at #fj ,fahr4 is1 according to ,dr4 ,matthiessen1 #aj4cbcaa ohms4 ,upon these data the above ,table has been calculated4 ,the ,resistance of ,copper varies with the temperature about #j4ch per cent4 per degree ,centigrade1 or #j4ba per cent4 per degree ,fahrenheit4 ,,stranded ,,wires4--,with a conductor of a definite lenght1 made of ,stranded ,wires1 the total weight is greater1 and the ,resistance less than is a similar length of ,conductor with ,wires not ,stranded4 ,to convert--,inches to ,millimetres multiply by #be4ciid ,feet to ,metres 4#cjdh ,yards to ,metres 4#iadd ,miles to ,kilometres 4#fbad ,pounds to ,kilogrammes 4#decei ,,pepared ,,by ,,walter ,t4 ,,glover ,,co41 ,,electrical ,,wire ,,and ,,cable ,,makers1 #be1 ,,booth ,,street ,,manchester4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,iron ,,frame ,,gang ,,mills4 ,the gang mill is regarded as possessing material advantages in the rapid and economical manufacture of lumber4 ,among the recent improvements tending to perfect such mills1 those which are shown in the iron frame stock gang1 manufactured by ,wickes ,bros41 ,east ,saginaw1 ,mich41 are eminently valuable4 ,our large engraving represents one of these mills1 constructed to be driven by belt1 friction1 or direct engine1 as may be desired4 ,the important requisite in this class of mills is such design and proportion of parts as will insure durability and continued movement at the highest speed1 safely increasing the quantity and improving the quality of work done at a lesser feed1 and admitting the use of thinner saws than is practical in the slower moving sash4 ,these are among the advantages gained in the iron frame machine1 overcoming the necessity of an expensive mill frame1 saving time and expense in setting up1 and avoiding the liability of decay or change of position4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,iron ,,frame ,,gang ,,saw ,,mill4 ,many improvements have been made in the mechanism of oscillation1 and from these the builders of this mill have adopted what is known as the ,wilkin movement1 which oscillates the top and bottom slides4 ,the top slides are pivoted at the top end1 and the bottom ones from the bottom end1 both being operated by one rock shaft from the center4 ,this movement when properly adjusted gives an easy clearance and the easiest cut yet obtained4 ,it adds no extra weight to the sash1 and avoids the cumbrous rock shaft and its attendant joints1 usually weighing from three hundred to five hundred pounds1 which have been found so objectionable in many other movements4 ,the feed is continuous1 and is made variable from to #a inch to each stroke1 controllable by the sawyer4 ,power is applied to the press rolls in the double screw form with pivot point1 also operated by the same hand4 ,a special feature of this machine is the spreading of the lower frame so that its base rests upon an independent portion of the foundation from the main pillow block or crank shaft4 ,the solidity of the whole structure is thus increased1 both by the increased width at the base and the prevention of connecting vibrations1 which necessarily communicate when resting upon the same part1 as in other forms of such machines heretofore in use4 ,the mill shown in the perspective view is one of twenty-six saws #d feet long1 sash #ch inches wide in the clear1 and stroke #bj inches1 capable of making #bcj strokes per minute4 ,the crank shaft is nine inches in diameter1 of the best forged iron4 ,the main pillow block has a base #f feet long by #ba inches bearing1 weighing #b1hjj pounds4 ,the cap is secured by two forged bolts #c inches in diameter1 and by this arrangement no unequal strain upon the cap is possible4 ,a disk crank is used with suitable counterbalance1 expressly adapted to the weight and speed of sash2 a hammered steel wrist pin five inches in diameter1 and a forged pitman of the most approved pattern1 with best composition boxes4 ,the iron drive pulley is #d to #d feet in diameter and #bd inches face2 the fly-wheel six feet in diameter1 and weighing #d1gjj pounds1 turned off at rim4 ,when a wider and heavier sash is required1 a proportionate increase is made in all these parts4 ,in the construction of the sash the stiles are made of steel2 the lower girt and upper heads are made in one solid piece1 without rivets1 giving the greatest strength possible1 with the least weight4 ,the outfit also includes eight iron rollers for the floor1 #h inches in diameter1 with iron stands1 and geared as live rolls when desired1 a full set of ,lippencott's steel saw hangings1 and gauges for one-inch lumber4 ,the weight of the machine here shown is #ah tons4 ,they are1 however1 built in larger or smaller sizes1 adapted to any locality1 quality or quantity of work desired4 99 99 99 99 99 ,it is said that the ,st4 ,gothard ,tunnel is diverting the bulk of the ,italian trade into the hands of the ,belgians1 ,germans1 and ,hollanders with startling rapidity4 ,without breaking bulk1 early fruits are taken from all parts of ,italy to ,ostend1 ,antwerp1 and ,rotterdam1 whence they are carried by fast steamers to ,london and other ,english ports4 ,but1 on the other hand1 ,germany is sending into ,italy large quantities of coal1 iron1 machinery1 copper1 and other articles of which the latter received nothing before4 ,in two months alone1 the ,italians imported #a1ddf tons of paper4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,heat ,,regenerative ,,system ,,of ,,firing ,,gas ,,retorts4 ,the system of heat regeneration in the firing of gas retorts1 in accordance with the principle which ,dr4 ,c4,w4 ,siemens has worked out in such a variety of ways in the industrial arts1 has lately been applied with very marked success at the ,dalmarnock ,station of the ,glasgow ,corporation ,gas ,works4 ,notwithstanding the fact that a period of about twenty years has elapsed since ,dr4 ,siemens successfully adapted his system to the firing of retorts at the ,paris ,gas ,works1 it seems to have made but little progress up to the present time2 for what reasons it is perhaps difficult to explain4 ,it is certain1 however1 that so-called regenerator furnaces of various forms have1 from time to time1 been brought into use at gas works for the purpose in question both on the ,continent and in this country2 and in recent years the subject has received much attention from gas engineers1 the general opinion eventually being that the adoption of such a system of working would be certain to result in so great an amount of economy as to put gas as an illuminating agent on a more secure footing to compete successfully with its modern and somewhat aggressive rival1 the electric light4 ,of course1 it is now admitted that the mode of adapting the heat regenerative principle at the ,paris ,gas ,works was attended with a degree of complexity in the structural arrangements that was so great and so expensive as to place it practically beyond the reach of gas companies and gas corporations generally1 when the expense as well as the scientific beauty and practical efficiency of the new mode of applying and utilizing heat had to be considered4 ,fortunately1 however1 ,dr4 ,siemens was enabled two or three years ago to demonstrate that there was no such thing as finality in that department of invention which he had made almost exclusively his own4 ,about the time mentioned he placed his most advanced views on gas producers and on the regeneration and utilization of heat before the world1 and within that period a most decided step in advance has been made1 the structural arrangements now required for gas producers and regenerator furnaces having been immensely simplified and cheapened1 while their practical utility has in no way been interfered with4 ,scarcely had ,dr4 ,siemens announced his new form of gas producer and regenerator than communication was opened with him by ,mr4 ,w4 ,foulis1 the general manager to the ,glasgow ,corporation ,gas ,trust1 with the view of entering into arrangements for its adoption on an experimental scale at one of the stations under his charge4 ,encouraged by the hearty co-operation of the gas committee1 two or three of whose members were well known engineers1 ,mr4 ,foulis very soon came to an understanding with ,dr4 ,siemens to have the regenerative system put to a thorough test at the ,dalmarnock ,gas ,works1 situated in the extreme east end of the city1 and the largest establishment of the kind in ,scotland1 the total number of retorts erected being about #gej4 ,the system in its most recent shape was applied to four ovens1 each of which had seven retorts1 but which number has since been increased to eight1 owing to the space occupied by the furnace in the ordinary settings being rendered available for an additional retort in the new or ,siemens setting4 ,for each oven or chamber of eight retorts there was erected a separate gas-producer1 so that even one set of eight retorts might alone be used if thought necessary4 ,illustration3 ,,gas ,,retorts ,,with ,,regenerative ,,furnaces 4--,,glasgow ,,corporation ,,gas ,,works4 ,in ,figs4 #a and #b of our illustrations1 the general arrangement and the relationship of the gas producer1 the regenerators1 and the retorts to each other are clearly shown4 ,it was a sort of sine qua non of the new method of firing the retorts that the producer should be in as close proximity as possible to the place where the gaseous fuel was to be used1 and it was concluded that the most convenient situation would be immediately in front of its own set of eight retorts1 and with its top on a level with the working floor of the retort house4 ,to place it in such a position meant a good deal of excavation1 which was also required1 however1 for the regenerator flues4 ,the excavation was carried down to a depth of #aj ft4 below the level of the retort house floor1 and as a matter of course the operation of underpinning had to be resorted to for the purpose of carrying down the foundations of the division walls1 which1 together with the main arches and the hydraulic main1 were in no way otherwise disturbed4 ,as in most new inventions1 a good deal of difficulty was experienced at first in connection with these gas producers and heat regenerator furnaces2 but by dint of application and by the adoption of modifications made here and there in the arrangements from time to time1 as also by a determination not to be beaten1 although often disheartened1 ,mr4 ,foulis was ultimately rewarded with complete success4 ,the new system of firing being made so simple that there was scarcely any possibility of failure likely to arise in ordinary practice if it was superintended with but a moderate amount of care4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,the results which were obtained in course of time with four ovens1 or a total of #cb retorts1 were so exceedingly promising that it was forthwith resolved to extend the new mode of firing to the whole of a double bench of twelve ovens1 now containing #if retorts2 and all the improvements which had suggested themselves during the working experiments with the four ovens were adopted from the first in the reconstruction of the remaining eight ovens in the bench4 ,more recently the regenerator system has been applied to other #bb ovens1 or #agf additional retorts1 being the whole of one of the main divisions of the retort house2 and during the very depth of the present winter1 when the demand for gas was at its greatest height1 all the retorts of the converted or ,siemens settings1 amounting to #bgb1 were in full working activity1 in which condition they still remain4 ,it is intended to make another very considerable extension of the heat regenerative system of firing during the ensuing spring and summer4 ,the reconstruction of the present year will extend to the ovens of seven retorts each1 giving in this case eighty gas fired retorts2 and to twenty ovens of five retorts each1 which will become sixteen ovens1 each having eight retorts1 making #abh retorts in this division1 and the total being #bjh retorts in place of #agj in the same amount of space4 ,it is confidently anticipated1 therefore1 that by the month of ,august of the present year1 #dhj full sized retorts will be available for working out the new method at the ,dalmarnock ,gas ,works4 ,furthermore1 the confidence which has been inspired in the minds of the members of the ,glasgow ,corporation ,gas ,committee and their engineer regarding the actualities and possibilities of the ,siemens system of firing gas retorts1 in its most improved state1 is such that arrangements are being made for starting shortly to apply it throughout at the ,dawsholm ,station1 which is situated in the suburban burgh of ,maryhill1 and some four or five miles distant from the ,dalmarnock ,works in a northwestern direction4 ,the station just named1 which is also a very large one1 will probably require two years for its conversion4 ,we shall now give some account of the structural arrangements adopted for producing cheap gaseous fuel1 and for turning that fuel to the greatest advantage in firing the retorts for the purpose of carbonizing the cannel coal used as the source of the gas4 ,the gas producer1 which is represented in vertical section in ,fig4 #b1 is a cylinder of brickwork inclosed in a casing of malleable iron4 ,it is #g ft4 #f in4 deep1 and #c ft4 in diameter1 which becomes reduced to #bj in4 above1 where it is closed by means of a cast-iron lid1 which is continuous with the floor of the retort house4 ,there are no firebars at the bottom1 so that the fuel rests on a floor of firebrick4 ,at the bottom of the walls of the producer there are several holes about #a ft4 in length by #f in4 in height4 ,by means of these openings any clinker that may form and the ashes of the spent fuel can readily be withdrawn4 ,they also allow of the admission of air to maintain the combustion in the lower portion of the mass of fuel2 and at each opening there is a malleable iron tube for delivering a jet of steam direct from a steam boiler4 ,we shall subsequently explain the functions performed by the steam4 ,the fuel employed is the coke or char resulting from cannel coal when it has yielded up its hydrocarbons and other gases during the process of carbonization in the gas retorts4 ,being entirely made from ,scotch cannel the coke is very poor in quality1 as it contains a large percentage of mineral matter or ash relatively to its fixed carbon4 ,the retorts are worked with three-hour charges1 but the producer is only charged once in every six hours ,for each set of eight retorts the charge of raw cannel is about #ah cwt41 and it is found in practice that the coke drawn from five of the retorts is quite sufficient to fill up the producer to the top4 ,formerly a set of seven retorts fired in the ordinary way from a furnace underneath1 required from #fj to #ge per cent4 of the coke made1 but now1 with eight retorts in each oven1 the quantity has been reduced to about #cj per cent41 or less than one-half of what it formerly was4 ,before the retorts are drawn the lid is removed from the top of the producer1 and any fuel still remaining unconsumed is touched up a bit by way of leveling it on the surface1 and as soon as it has been filled up to the constricted portion a shovelful of soft luting is spread over the top of the coke1 and the lid is laid upon it and driven home1 thereby making a perfectly air-tight joint4 ,the contents of the other three retorts1 as also the contents of the whole of the retorts at each alternate drawing1 are taken to the coke heap in the yard4 ,we have already spoken of a charge of cannel as being about #ah cwt4 for each set of eight retorts1 but in connection with that matter we should mention that it was formerly about #ac cwt4 per oven containing seven retorts1 and that there is every prospect of it being increased without increasing the length of time occupied in carbonizing the cannel of each charge4 ,it may be worth while now to notice briefly what takes place among the mass of coke in the gas producer4 ,the atmospheric air admitted at the several openings previously spoken of ascends through the lower layers of the incandescent coke1 the carbon of which burns to carbonic acid gas at the expense of the oxygen of the air4 ,among the middle and upper layers of the incandescent coke the carbonic acid gas takes up a further quantity of the fixed carbon1 and becomes transformed into carbonic oxide gas 7,,co#b;,c#b;,,co71 which is an inflammable body1 and possesses considerable calorific power4 ,unless the carbonic acid gas is very completely baffled in its ascent through the coke in the producer1 a quantity of it passes into the furnace along with the carbonic oxide1 the efficiency of which is diminished in proportion as the former increases in quantity4 ,of course1 also1 the nitrogen associated with the oxygen in the air admitted to the gas generator passes on with the carbonic oxide gas1 this nitrogen acting as a dilutant and being of course absolutely useless as a generator of heat4 ,the steam which we previously spoke of serves two good purposes4 ,in contact with incandescent coke it suffers decomposition1 its oxygen uniting with some of the fixed carbon to form carbonic oxide1 while the hydrogen which is set free passes onward1 and mixes with the other gases to be subsequently consumed with them4 ,the admission of the steam thus causes the absorption of heat in the gas generator where the decomposition takes place1 this heat being again evolved on the subsequent combustion of the hydrogen4 ,then1 again1 as the steam is delivered in among the coke in a jet1 or a series of jets1 it has the effect of almost entirely preventing any clinkering or slagging of the earthy and silicious materials1 which form such a large portion of the substance of the coke obtained from ,scotch cannels1 sometimes as much as from #ae to #bj per cent4 ,it is scarcely necessary for the stokers to go down below to the bottom of the producers to remove the ash above once in every six hours4 ,referring to the composition of the gaseous fuel obtained from cannel coke in one of these gas producers1 we give the following typical analysis on the authority of ,dr4 ,william ,wallace1 ,f4,r4,s4,e41 gas examiner1 and one of the public analysts for the city of ,glasgow3 ,per cent4 ,hydrogen #h4g ,carbonic oxide #bh4a ,carbonic acid #c4e ,oxygen #j4d ,nitrogen #ei4c ----- #ajj4j ,by again referring to ,fig4 #b1 it will be observed that an opening is provided for the passage of the gaseous matter as it is formed into the mass of brickwork1 the upper half of which is occupied by the retorts of the setting and the lower by the regenerators4 ,before following the gas we may first direct attention to the arrangements for dealing with it1 and with the air that has to be admitted for the combustion of so much of it as is of a combustible nature4 ,it will be seen by reference to ,fig4 #a that the oven proper is occupied by eight ,inline ,illustration shaped retorts4 ,these are #i ft4 long 7set back to back7 by #ah in4 by #ac in41 and they are placed on arches which are #h ft4 #f in4 wide4 ,underneath the level of the retort oven there are two regenerators or regenerator chambers1 which differ very materially in form from the regenerators formerly applied by ,dr4 ,siemens to gas retort ovens1 and which are still employed for high temperature furnaces like those used for steel and glass melting4 ,in the case of these latter the regenerators are on the alternating system--that is to say1 a mass of brickwork is heated by the waste heat of the effluent gases1 and when that is made sufficiently hot1 the current of waste gases is turned into a second mass of brickwork1 while air is admitted to pass through the brickwork already heated4 ,the system thus briefly described entails a certain amount of attention on the part of the workmen in the altering of the valves or dampers to reverse the currents4 ,the regenerator now adopted consists of an arrangement of six zigzag flues1 three on each side of the setting4 ,these flues run the whole length of the setting4 ,as indicated by the arrows pointing downward in ,fig4 #c1 the waste gases on their way to the chimney stack pass to and fro through the side flues1 thus giving up a large portion of their contained heat by the process of conduction or contact to the central flue through which the incoming air passes4 ,the air necessary for combustion is first admitted into a large chamber in the center1 and then it is divided into two currents1 which pass right and left into the central passages of the two regenerators4 ,as the air flue is at a very bright heat for a considerable distance before the air leaves it1 the temperature of the air must be equally great1 or nearly so4 ,in its most improved form one of these heat regenerative furnaces provides an amount of heating surface extending to #bcd square ft41 which is exposed to the air on its way to the combustion chamber4 ,passing from the producer through the flue provided for it1 the gas enters the retort setting underneath the side retorts1 where it meets the air coming from the regenerator4 ,it enters the setting1 not by a number of small openings1 but by one large opening on each side1 and meets the air entering also by a large opening1 the effect of which is to avoid the localization of intense heat1 as all the retorts of the setting become enveloped in an intensely heating flame1 due to the combustion of the carbonic oxide and hydrogen gases4 ,there are various advantages attending this system of firing gas retorts4 ,first of all1 there is already a saving of fuel to the extent of one-half1 and not unlikely there will soon be a further very decided increase in the saving of fuel to record1 inasmuch as it has been experimentally determined within the past two or three weeks that1 by increasing its diameter to #c ft4 #d in41 one producer can be made to provide a sufficient amount of gaseous fuel to fire two sets of eight retorts4 ,by the arrangement just hinted at the relative amount of fuel used will be still further reduced4 ,then1 again1 an additional retort can well be placed in each oven1 as it occupies the position of the fire in ordinary settings4 ,in the third place1 by the greater heat which is obtained1 the charges can be more rapidly distilled2 or heavier charges can be carbonized in a given space of time4 ,when all the gains are put together1 the amount of coal carbonized is increased by about #dj per cent4 over any specified time4 ,of course1 in the new or regenerator settings there is much greater regularity of heat2 and as the gaseous fuel is perfectly free from all solid matter1 and burns without any trace of smoke1 there is a total absence of deposit on the outside of the retorts4 ,from these two circumstances combined it is but natural to expect that there should be greater durability of the retorts--which is really the case4 ,another advantage is that1 as the fuel used in the furnaces is wholly gaseous1 choking of the flues cannot by any possibility arise4 ,it is the confident opinion of ,mr4 ,foulis that the system in question can be applied with advantage to all sizes of gas works1 and that it is certainly well adapted for all works where the summer consumption of gas is sufficiently large to give employment to eight retorts4 ,as this is the first instance of the new form of gas producer and regenerator having been adopted in any gas works1 a very great amount of scientific and practical interest attaches to it4 ,many persons have visited the ,dalmarnock ,gas ,works during their reconstruction1 in order to see the system in operation1 and doubtless many more will go and do likewise when they learn of the numerous advantages which it possesses1 and which are likely to increase rather than diminish4--,engineering4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,gas-,,heated ,,baker',s ,,oven4 ,during the past few weeks1 a highly interesting experiment--and one1 moreover1 destined to materially influence the development of the uses of gas in a fresh field--has been in progress1 under the guidance of ,mr4 ,booer1 at a baker's shop in the ,blackfriars ,road1 ,london4 ,the experiment in question is nothing less than the application of gas for heating bakers' ovens1 in a manner not hitherto attempted1 and such as to bring the system within the means of the poorest tradesman in all but the smallest towns4 ,it will be remembered that the success of the gas-heated muffles for burning tiles and glass led to the attempted construction of a model baker's oven1 heated by the same fuel1 which was shown in action at the ,smoke ,abatement ,exhibition at ,south ,kensington in the winter of #ahha-hb4 ,this model attained considerable success2 but its design demanded either a new structure in every case1 or considerable alteration of any existing oven4 ,in the proposed system1 moreover1 the oven was heated wholly from without--a condition supposed to be necessary to meet the objections of the bakers4 ,it is evident1 however1 that there must be considerable waste of gas in heating a mass of tiles and brickwork1 such as go to the construction of a common baker's oven1 from the outside2 and the objection to handicapping such a costly fuel as gas in this manner becomes more apparent when it is remembered that in the usual way the oven is always heated by an internal coal fire4 ,when it is further considered that the coal commonly used by bakers is of the most ordinary quality1 full of dirt that would condemn it in the estimation of a gas manager1 the sentimental objection to allowing a purified gas flame to burn in a place which this rubbish is permitted to fill with foul smoke becomes supremely ridiculous4 ,consequently1 when ,mr4 ,booer1 whose work in connection with the gas muffle is well known in ,england and ,america1 seriously addressed himself to construct1 upon altogether new lines1 a cheap and practical baker's oven1 he wisely put the gas inside4 ,there are many other conditions which ,mr4 ,booer1 after consultation with practical bakers and others1 set himself to fulfill1 the observance of which lends to the present ,blackfriars experiment much of its interesting character4 ,thus it was observed that1 while it is not difficult to build an oven in a given spot1 and bake bread in it1 this cannot truly be called a baker's oven4 ,by this term must be understood in particular an oven in an ordinary bakehouse1 set in the usual style and worked by a man with his living to get by it4 ,before the problem of extending gas to bakers' ovens could be considered solved1 it had to be attacked from this aspect4 ,mr4 ,booer1 to do him full credit1 seems to have early appreciated this fact in all its bearings4 ,he not only saw that it was necessary to save gas1 as much as possible1 by putting it inside the oven2 but he was told that1 in order to meet with any general success1 the cost of converting an oven to the gas system must be rigidly kept down to about ten or twelve guineas4 ,the latter seems a particularly hard condition1 when it is remembered that the only improved baker's oven in practical use at the present day is the steam oven invented by ,mr4 ,perkins1 which costs two or three hundred pounds to erect4 ,mr4 ,booer also had in mind the necessity that everything possible for a coal oven must likewise be performed by a gas oven2 and in this respect he set himself to surpass the costly ,perkins oven1 which will not bake the common batch or household bread1 generally the principal article of sale1 more especially in populous and poor neighborhoods4 ,the peculiar efficacy of the common coal fire in this respect proceeds from the essential principle of action of a brick oven1 which is found simply in the fact that the work is done entirely by heat previously imparted to the tile bottom1 roof1 and sides of the oven1 and thence radiated to the bread4 ,no other kind of heat will bake batch-bread--i4e41 loaves packed in contact with one another--which requires to be thoroughly soaked by a radiant heat in a close atmosphere of its own steam4 ,now1 as a coal fire is eminently qualified to impart1 by radiation and otherwise1 this necessary store of heat to the brickwork1 it is plainly a difficulty to effect the same purpose with a fuel which1 of itself1 can scarcely radiate heat at all4 ,the system of the gas cooking-oven--the utilization of the heat of the combustion products as formed--is clearly inapplicable here2 for a different kind of heat is needed1 under conditions that would not sustain continuous combustion4 ,therefore1 there is nothing for it but to heat the bottom and sides of the brick oven by the direct contact of powerful gas-flames2 thus supplanting the coal fire1 but leaving the actual work of baking to be done afterward by stored-up heat in the regular way4 ,having settled the general principles of a system of this kind1 there still remain a number of scarcely less important details1 in the dealing with which lies the difference between practical success and failure4 ,thus it is not merely sufficient to heat an oven for bread baking2 it is also necessary to heat it within the times and according to the habits of work to which the baker has been accustomed4 ,work in town bakeries begins at about midnight1 or shortly after1 and the condition of the oven must conform to the requirements of the dough1 which vary from day to day and from season to season4 ,in order to master all these niceties1 as far as a knowledge of them is necessary to his purpose1 ,mr4 ,booer has spent many nights in the bakehouse in the ,blackfriars ,road2 and has thereby obtained a command over the technicalities of the work which has served him in good stead1 not merely for adjusting his gas heat1 but in answering the innumerable objections always raised when a revolution in an immemorial trade is threatened4 ,it is with considerable satisfaction that we are enabled to declare1 after duly weighing all the conditions as to first cost and otherwise imposed by himself and others1 that ,mr4 ,booer has succeeded1 upon these terms1 in vindicating the claims of gas to be a cheap1 efficient1 and cleanly fuel for heating ovens under the control and according to the methods of working of the baker himself4 ,the oven with which this success has been achieved is one of two in the bakehouse of ,mr4 ,loeber1 of #afa ,blackfriars ,road4 ,it measures #g feet by #f feet internally2 being what is technically termed a #f bushel oven4 ,the alterations made by ,mr4 ,booer consist in the first place in the removal of the flooring tiles1 and the laying down of a new bottom1 under which run a number of flues radiating from the side furnace4 ,the throat of the furnace1 where it enters the angle of the oven1 is bricked up1 and eight pieces of -inch gun-barrel tubing project above this dwarf wall1 and radiate fan-shaped under the dome of the roof4 ,these are the gas-burners1 which are supplied from a #a-;inch pipe led into the old furnace4 ,the same pipe supplies the similar burners which are inserted in the flues under the oven bottom4 ,this is really all the plant required4 ,it should be remarked that these bottom flues are carried to different points of the side walls1 and the products of combustion are allowed to rise upward into the oven through gaps left for the purpose4 ,a supplementary supply of heated air is provided to help the combustion of the gas in these flues1 which would otherwise be languid4 ,when the gas is turned on from the main cock in the furnace either to the top or the bottom set of burners1 a long match is used to light them from the same point4 ,this is effected without risk of firing back1 by the adoption of a specially constructed atmospheric nipple and shield1 the pattern of which is registered4 ,the flame from the top burners unites in a sheet of fire1 which spreads out all over the crown of the oven1 at the same time that the burners below are doing their work1 and the products of combustion flow together through the oven to the chimney1 which is the same that was used for coal4 ,at first1 as might be expected1 there was considerable difficulty in finding the most suitable position of the chimney damper1 aggravated in this case by the fact that the other oven worked with a coal fire into the same shaft4 ,finally1 however1 the two flues were disconnected with the happiest results4 ,during the past fortnight the oven has been in regular use1 and the bread has been sold over the counter in the ordinary course of trade4 ,two and three batches of bread have been baked in one day in this oven2 the economy of its use1 of course1 increasing with the number of loaves turned out4 ,as a rule the gas is lighted for about an hour before the oven is wanted1 and about #bej cubic feet are used4 ,then the cocks are shut and the oven is allowed to stand closed up for ten minutes1 in which time it ventilates itself1 and the heat spreads over it4 ,then the batch is set1 and the baking occupies from an hour to an hour and a half1 according to the different classes of loaves4 ,two batches are baked with a consumption of about #fbj cubic feet of gas2 costing1 at #bs4 #aj;d4 per #ajjj cubic feet1 just #aa;d4 each batch for fuel4 ,this cannot be considered costly4 ,but the system possesses many other advantages4 ,in the first place1 it is much more cleanly than coal2 for the oven never requires wiping out1 which is usually done with a bundle of old rope called a scuffle and the operation is attended with a most unpleasant odor4 ,then there is no smoke--a great advantage from the point of view of the ,smoke ,abatement ,institution4 ,more to the purpose of the journeyman baker1 however1 is the fact that there is no stoking to be done1 and he can therefore take his repose at night without having to attend to the furnace4 ,besides this the master has the satisfaction of knowing that the oven will always be hot enough if he simply attends to the time of lighting the gas--a consideration of no small moment4 ,it is no mean testimony to the reality of ,mr4 ,booer's success that ,mr4 ,loeber1 having seen his difficulties and troubles from the beginning1 and marked how they have been overcome1 is content to acknowledge that even this first example is capable of turning out bread in a condition to be sold over the counter4 ,there is a good opening in this direction1 for there are #f1jjj bakeries in ,london alone1 to every one of which ,mr4 ,booer's system might be applied with advantage to the tradesman and his customers4 ,and what may be done with gas at about #cs4 per #a1jjj cubic feet may certainly be done to still greater advantage in many towns where the price is lower4 ,mr4 ,booer has entered upon his work in a proper spirit4 ,he has begun at the beginning1 with the necessities of the baker2 and has gone plodding on quietly1 until he has achieved a noteworthy success4 ,it may be hoped he will receive the reward which his perseverance merits4--,jour4 of ,gas ,lighting4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,captain ,,matthew ,,webb4 ,who was drowned on ,july #bd in attempting to swim through the whirlpool and rapids at the foot of the ,falls of ,niagara1 was born at ,irongate1 near ,dawley1 in ,shropshire1 ,january #ah1 #ahdh4 ,he was #e feet #h inches in height1 measured #dc inches round the chest1 and weighed about #ad stone4 ,he learnt to swim when about seven years old1 and was trained as a sailor on board the ,conway training-ship in the ,mersey1 where he saved the life of a fellow seaman4 ,in #ahgj he dived under his ship in the ,suez ,canal and cleared a foul hawser2 and1 on ,april #bc1 #ahgc1 when serving on board the ,cunard steamer ,russia1 he jumped overboard to save the life of a hand who had fallen from aloft1 but failed1 and it was an hour before he was picked up almost exhausted4 ,for this he received a gold and other medals4 ,he became captain of a merchant ship1 but soon after he relinquished the sea and devoted himself to the sport of swimming4 ,at long distance swimming in salt water he was facile princeps1 but he did not show to such advantage in fresh water4 ,in ,june1 #ahgd1 he swam from ,dover to the ,north-,east ,varne ,buoy1 a distance of #aa statute miles4 ,on ,july #c1 #ahge1 he swam from ,blackwall ,pier to ,gravesend ,town ,pier1 nearly #ah statute miles1 in #d hours #eb minutes4 ,on the #aith of the same month he swam from ,dover to ,ramsgate1 #ai statute miles1 in #h hours #de minutes4 ,on ,august #ab1 #ahge1 he tried to cross from ,england to ,france1 and although he failed1 owing to the heavy sea1 he compassed the distance from ,dover to the ,south ,sand ,head1 #ae statute miles1 in #f hours #dh minutes4 ,on the #bdth of the same month he made another attempt1 which rendered his name famous all over the ,english-speaking world4 ,starting from ,dover1 he reached the ,french coast at ,calais1 after being immersed in the water for #ba hours #dd minutes4 ,he had swum over #ci miles1 or1 according to another calculation1 #de miles1 without having touched a boat or artificial support of any kind4 ,subsequently he swam at the ,lambeth ,baths1 and the ,westminster ,aquarium1 and last year1 at ,boston1 ,u4,s41 he remained in a tank nearly #abh hours4 ,latterly he had suffered from congestion of the lungs1 and his health had become much impaired4 ,illustration3 ,,capt4 ,,matthew ,,webb4 ,the story of his final and fatal effort needs here but a brief description4 ,at two minutes past four1 on ,july #bd1 ,webb dived from the boat opposite the ,maid of the ,mist landing1 and1 amid the shouts and applause of the crowd1 struck the water4 ,he swam leisurely down the river1 but made good progress4 ,he passed along the rapids at a great pace1 and six minutes after making the first plunge passed under the ,suspension ,bridge4 ,immediately below the bridge the river becomes exceedingly violent1 and as the water was clear every movement of ,webb could be seen4 ,at one moment he was lifted high on the crest of a wave1 and the next he sank into the awful hollow created4 ,as the river became narrower1 and still more impetuous1 ,webb would sometimes be struck by a wave1 and for a few moments would sink out of sight4 ,he1 however1 rose to the surface without apparent effort4 ,but his speed momentarily increased1 and he was hurried along at a frightful pace4 ,at length he was swept into the neck of the whirlpool4 ,rising on the crest of the highest wave1 he lifted his hands once1 and then was precipitated into the yawning gulf4 ,for one moment his head appeared above the angry waters1 but he was motionless1 and evidently at the mercy of the waves4 ,he was again drawn under the water1 and was seen no more alive4 ,some days later his body was found four miles below the fatal ,rapids4 ,it bore tokens of the fearful violence of the struggle which he had undergone4 ,his bathing drawers were torn to fragments1 and there was a deep wound in his head4 ,an inquest was held1 and the jury returned a verdict of ,found drowned4 ,captain ,webb was married about three years ago1 and leaves a widow and two children4 ,it is understood that he risked his life in this last fatal attempt to obtain money for the support of his family4--,london ,graphic4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,semi-,,detached ,,villas1 ,,bromfield ,,crescent1 ,,headingley4 ,these houses are situated in a pleasant part of ,headingley1 which is the favorite residential suburb in the locality of ,leeds4 ,as regards accommodation1 the ground-floor of each house comprises good-sized drawing and dining rooms1 each with bay windows2 well-lighted entrance halls1 opening upon wooden verandas2 kitchen1 pantry1 and scullery2 on first floor are three good bedrooms1 a bathroom1 and other necessary accommodation2 on second floor are two additional bedrooms4 ,the basement contains coal-place and larder4 ,in these houses an attempt has been made to produce conveniently-planned and well-arranged habitations1 combined with a pleasing and picturesque exterior1 without involving a large outlay of money4 ,the materials used are brick of a deep red color for facings1 red terra-cotta from ,messrs4 ,wilcock ,co41 of ,burmantofts1 for moulded strings1 sills1 etc41 and a very sparing use of stone from the ,harehills ,quarries4 ,the front gables are constructed of timber in solid scantlings1 well framed1 and pinned together with oak pegs1 filled in and well backed behind with brickwork2 the panels faced with cement1 which1 together with the cored cornice1 are finished in vellum color4 ,the whole of the woodwork of exterior is painted a neutral shade of peacock blue1 forming an admirable contrast with the deep red of the bricks1 the sashes and casements only being finished in cream color4 ,the whole of the chimneypieces in the interior are carried out from the architect's special design2 those in the drawing-rooms being of mahogany1 finished in rosewood color1 and those in dining-rooms of oak1 stained with ammonia and dull wax polished4 ,illustration3 ,,suggestions ,,in ,,architecture4--,,semi-,,detached ,,villas1 ,,bromfield ,,crescent1 ,,headingley1 ,,leeds4 ,the houses1 with outbuildings and boundary walls1 which have been erected for ,mr4 ,john ,hall ,thorp1 of ,bromfield1 ,headingley1 have cost #a1dej1 or thereabouts1 this amount not including the price of land4 ,they have been carried out from the designs and under the superintendence of ,mr4 ,william ,h4 ,thorp1 ,a4,r4,i4,b4,a41 architect1 of ,st4 ,andrew's ,chambers1 ,park ,row1 ,leeds4--,the ,architect4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,dwellings ,,of ,,the ,,poor ,,in ,,paris4 ,in view of the possible approach of cholera1 and the sanitary precautions that even the most neglectful of authorities are constrained to take1 it is of some interest to us1 says the ,building ,news1 to know how the poor are housed in the city of ,paris1 which contains1 more than any city in the world1 the opposite poles of luxurious magnificence and of sordid1 bestial poverty4 ,the statistics of the ,parisian working classes in the way of lodgings are not of an encouraging nature1 and reflect great discredit on the powers that be1 who can be stern enough in the case of any political question1 but are blind to the spectacle of fellow creatures living the life of beasts under their very eyes4 ,in #ahhj1 the ,prefect of ,police gave licenses to #ba1bai arrivals in the city of ,french origin1 and to #g1cdd foreigners4 ,in the succeeding year1 the former had increased to #bb1jfa1 while the latter had somewhat diminished1 being only #e1dic4 ,there was a census taken in #ahha1 from which it appeared that ,paris contained #fgg1bec operatives and #bee1fjd employes and clerks1 while out of every #a1jjj inhabitants1 #cbb only were born in the city1 and #efe came from the departments or the ,french colonies4 ,the foreign element in the working classes has increased very rapidly1 numbering #aai1cdi in #ahgf1 to which by #ahha there was an addition of #dd1fhi4 ,to every #a1jjj inhabitants1 ,paris now numbers #ge foreigners1 though in #ahgf the proportion was only #fj4 ,it may not be amiss to state that the annual increase of the ,paris population is at the rate of #ef1jdc persons1 and that in the five years #ahgf-ha1 the city received #bhj1bag additional mouths4 ,the total population of the capital is #b1bci1ibh1 of whom #a1aac1cbf are males4 ,returning to the poorer classes1 we find that in #ahgb they were estimated at #ajj1jjj2 but that in #ahgc they had risen to #aac1gcc1 and in #ahhj to #abc1gce4 ,it is unfortunate to be obliged to say that the majority of these people are housed worse in ,paris than in almost any other great city in the world4 ,there are two classes of lodgings for the poor--the one where the workman rents one or more rooms for his family1 and1 perhaps1 owns a little furniture2 the other1 a single room tenanted for the night only by the unmarried man who pays for his bed in the morning and gets his meals anywhere that he can4 ,readers will remember how1 under the auspices of ,m4 ,haussmann1 western ,paris was almost pulled down and transformed into a series of palatial boulevards and avenues4 ,while the work lasted the ,paris workman was well pleased2 but he did not like it quite so much when the demon of restoration and renovation invaded his own quarters1 such as the ,butte des ,moulins1 and all that densely populated district through which the splendid ,avenue de l',opera now runs4 ,the effect of all this was to drive the workman into the already crowded quarters at the barriers1 such as ,la ,gare1 ,st4 ,lambert1 ,javel1 and ,charonne1 where1 according to the last statistics of the ,annuaire1 the increase was at the rate of #dae per #a1jjj4 ,of course the ill health that always pervaded these quarters increased also2 and1 from the reports of ,dr4 ,brouardel and ,m4 ,muller1 the number of deaths from typhoid and diphtheria were doubled in ten years4 ,dr4 ,du ,mesnil1 in making his returns for #ahha of convalescents from typhoid1 remarked that the most unsanitary arrondissements were the #dth1 #aath1 #aeth1 #ahth1 and #aith--precisely those to which the principal migrations of laborers had taken place4 ,the #ahth arrondissement1 which in #ahgf had only #fja lodging houses with #h1icc lodgers1 had1 in #ahhb1 over #hej1 with #bj1haf inmates4 ,in the #aith arrondissement there were #eag houses in #ahgf1 with #i1jgd lodgers1 and #geb in #ahhb1 with #ag1ffb inhabitants4 ,it is not only the crowded condition of the poor quarters that is such a standing menace to the health of the city1 but also the shocking state of the rooms1 which the unhappy lodgers are obliged to put up with4 ,the owners of the property are1 as happens in other places besides ,paris1 unscrupulous and grasping to the last degree1 and have not only divided and subdivided the accommodation wherever possible1 but have even raised the rental in nearly all cases4 ,whole families are crowded into a small apartment1 icy cold in winter1 an oven in summer1 the only air and daylight which reaches the interior coming from a window which looks on to a dirty staircase or a still fouler court reeking with sewage4 ,there are at the present time in ,paris #c1jjj lodgings which have neither stove nor chimney2 over #e1jjj lighted only by a skylight2 while in #d1bhb rooms there are four children in each below #ad years of age2 #g1aii with three children2 and #a1jdi with four beds in each4 ,the ,parisian population has augmented only #ae per cent4 in seven years2 but the district of poor lodging houses has increased by twenty per cent41 and the number of lodgings by about #hj per cent4 ,it is true that a law was passed in #ahej to provide for the sanitary supervision of this class of property2 but in ,paris the law is a dead letter1 and1 although it is now active in the provinces and in places like ,marseilles1 ,lyons1 ,bordeaux1 and ,nantes1 it is applied1 even there1 in a jerky and intermittent manner4 ,perhaps the worst of the abominable dogkennels called houses was the group known as the ,cit des ,kroumirs1 in the #acth arrondissement1 which1 by a strange irony1 was built on land belonging to the ,department of ,public ,assistance1 which was let out by that body to a rich tenant1 who sublet it to these lodging-house owners4 ,this veritable den of infection and misery has now been demolished2 but there are plenty of others quite as bad4 ,notably1 there is the ,cite ,jeanne d',arc 7a poor compliment to have named it after that sturdy heroine71 an enormous barrack of five stories1 which contains #a1bjj lodgings and #b1dhf lodgers4 ,no wonder that it was decimated in #ahgi by smallpox1 which committed terrible ravages here4 ,the ,cit ,dore is grimly known by the poor-law doctors as the ,cemetery ,gateway4 ,the ,cite ,gard1 in the ,rue de ,meaux1 is inhabited by #a1gjj lodgers1 although it is almost in ruins4 ,the ,cite ,philippe is tenanted by #gj chiffonniers1 and anybody who knows what are the contents of the chiffonnier's basket1 or hotte1 may easily guess at the effluvia of that particular group of houses4 ,a large lodging-house in the ,rue des ,boulangers is tenanted by #baj ,italians1 who get their living as models or itinerant musicians4 ,both house and tenants are declared to be unapproachable from the vermin4 ,it is some satisfaction to know that these houses have lately awakened the apathy of some of the public bodies1 and that more than one scheme is being put forward with a view of erecting proper industrial dwellings4 ,the ,municipal ,council is negotiating with the ,credit ,foncier for the erection of a certain number of cheap houses1 which1 for the space of twenty years1 will be exempt from all taxes1 such as octroi1 highway1 door and window tax1 etc4 ,there are also one or two semi-private companies1 which are occupying themselves with the question1 and it is to be hoped that the rumors of the pestilence in ,egypt may hasten the much-needed reform4 99 99 99 99 99 ,there can be no doubt1 says the ,engineer1 that the inventor who could supply in a really portable form a machine or apparatus that could give out two or three horse power for a day would reap an enormous fortune4 ,up to the present time1 however1 nothing of the kind has been placed in the market4 ,gas is laid on to most houses now1 and gas engines are plenty enough1 yet they do not meet the want which a storage battery may be made yet perhaps to supply4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,recent ,,experiments ,,affecting ,,the ,,received ,,theory ,,of ,,music4 ,to prove the incorrectness of ,helmholtz's statement that beats do not colesce into musical sounds1 but that the ear will distinguish them as a rumbling noise1 even when their number rises as high as #acb vibrations per second1 ,rudolph ,koenig has constructed a series of tuning forks1 recently presented by ,president ,morton to the ,stevens ,institute of ,technology4 ,the following table exhibits the number of vibrations per second of these forks1 the ratios of their vibrations when two are sounded together1 the number of beats produced1 and the resultant sound3 ,vibrations per second4 ,ratio4 ,beats4 ,sounds4 #chdj 3#djif #ae3af #abh ,ut#b #cijd 3 #fa3fd #if ,sol#a #cicf 3 #abc3abh #hj ,mi#a #cifh 3 #ca3cb #fd ,ut#a #cigf 3 #dig3eab #fj ,si-#a #cihi4c 3 #ahg3aib #ec4c ,la-#a #djjj 3 #abe3abh #dh ,sol#a #djaj4g 3 #dg3dh #db4g ,fa-#a #djaf 3 #bea3bef #dj ,mi-#a #djbd 3 #ejc3eab #cf ,re-#a #gicf 3 #haib #ca3cb #abh ,ut#b #hjfd 3 #fc3fd #fd ,ut#a #hjif 3 #bec3bef #dh ,sol-#a #hajf4g 3 #ie3if #db4g ,fa-#a #haab 3 #ejg3eab #dj ,mi-#a #habj 3 #ajae3ajbd #cf ,re-#d #habh 3 #abg3abh #cb ,ut-#d ,on sounding two forks nearly in unison1 the sound heard corresponds to a number of vibrations equal to the difference of the numbers of vibrations of the forks4 ,on sounding two forks1 one of which is nearly the octave of the other1 the ear perceives a sound1 which is that given by vibrations whose number equals the difference in the number of vibrations of the higher fork and the upper octave of the lower fork4 ,koenig has also found out the laws of the resultant sounds produced by other intervals than the octave1 and has extended his researces to intervals differing by any number of vibrations1 as may be seen from the above table4 ,his conclusion is that beats and resultant sounds are one and the same phenomenon4 ,thus1 for example1 the lowest number of vibrations capable of producing a musical sound is #cb per second2 in like manner1 a clear musical sound is produced by two simple notes of sufficient intensity which produce #cb beats per second4 ,koenig also made a very ingenious modification of the siren for the purpose of enabling ,seebeck to sound simultaneously notes whose vibrations had any given ratio4 ,it is furnished for this purpose with eight disks1 each of which contains a given number of circles of holes arranged at different angular distances4 ,a description of this instrument1 which is also the property of the ,stevens ,institute1 and of ,seebeck's experiments is thus given in a letter by ,koenig himself4 ,i4 ,effects produced when the isochronism of the shocks is not perfect4 ,a4 ,in order to produce a note1 the succession of shocks must not deviate much from isochronism4 ,if the isochronism is but little impaired1 we obtain a note corresponding to the mean interval of the shocks4 ,if the intervals between the shocks are alternately t and t'1 and if the difference between t and t' is slight1 we obtain the two notes tt' and 7tt'7_/#b4 ,if the intervals between the shocks are alternately t1 t'1 and t''1 we obtain the two notes tt't'' and 7tt't7_/#c4 ,disk ,no4 #a has-- ,on circle ,no4 #a #ab holes1 angular distances t#cj #b #bd #ae #c #cf #aj #d #cf at irregular distances4 #e #cf distances t #aj1 t'l#j1t''#i #f #cf #aa #aj #i #g #cf #af #ad #h #cf #af #ac ,circle ,no4 #h produces the two notes of circles #a and #b2 circle ,no4 #g the same1 but the low note is stronger than in #h4 ,circle #f produces the notes of circles #a and #c1 and so does circle #e1 but in the latter the low note is stronger than in #f4 ,circle #d produces a noise approximating only to the note of circle #c4 ,by pulling out one of the buttons of the wind chest1 we admit the air through eleven holes at a time1 having an angular distance of #cj and directing it against the corresponding circle of holes on the turning disk4 ,if the arrangement of holes is not repeated identically twelve times on the same circle1 we cannot1 of course1 make use of the above arrangements of holes of the wind tube1 and we must then employ one of the movable brass tubes1 which communicate with the interior of the wind chest by means of rubber tubes and stopcocks4 ,the experiment with disk #a1 circle #d1 for example1 requires the use of one of these two tubes1 while the perforated wind tube of the wind chest may be used with all the other circles of the same disk4 ,b4 ,if t is much less than t'1 while t' is a multiple of t1 the note 7tt'7_/#b disappears1 and the notes tt' and t are heard4 ,disk ,no4 #b has-- ,on circle ,no4 #a #ab holes1 distances #cj #b #cf #aj #c #dh #g #d #fj #f #e #bd t #e1 t'#be #f #bd #f #bd #g #bd #g #bb #h #bd #aj #bj ,circle #h produces the notes of circles #a and #b2 circle #g1 those of #a and #c2 circle #f1 those of #a and #d2 and circle #e1 the note of circle #a and of its sixth harmonic4 ,c4 ,if the same circular arc is divided into m and n equal parts2 that is to say1 if mtnt'1 we obtain the notes m and n4 ,disk ,no4 #c has-- ,distances4 ,on circle ,no4 #a #bd holes1 distances #ae #b #bd #ae #bg holes1 #ac-a_/c #c #bd #ae #cj #ab #d #bd #ae #cb #aa-a_/d #e #bd #ae #cf #aj #f #bd #ae #dj #i #g #bd #ae #de #h #h #bd #ae #cj1 #cf1 #dh holes ,circle #a produces a single note1 circle #b a second1 circle #c a third1 circle #d a fourth1 #e a fifth1 #f a sixth1 #g a seventh1 and #h a perfect chord4 ,,ii4 ,experiments to prove that the shocks may proceed from two or several different places to conspire in the formation of a note1 provided that the isochronism of the shocks is sufficiently exact1 and that the shocks are produced in the same direction4 ,disk ,no4 #d has-- ,on circle #a #bd holes4 #b #cf #c #bc #d #ab at an angular distance of #aj from the holes of circle #c4 #e #ab holes at an ang4 dist4 of #bj from those of circle #c #f #ab #j #g #ab #ae #h #ab #ae #a4 ,if from the same side two currents of air at an angular distance of #ae are directed against circle ,no4 #h of #ab holes1 we obtain the octave of the note produced by the same circle if only one current is used4 ,the wind-chest is provided with a special arrangement for this experiment4 ,by pulling out button #h1 we give vent to #ab currents of air spaced like the twelve holes of the disk2 on pulling out button #i we also produce #ab currents1 but they are situated just between the first4 ,each of these two buttons pulled out alone will produce the same note corresponding to #ab holes1 but drawn together they produce the octave1 or the note of circle #a4 #b4 ,if two currents of air are directed against two similar circles whose holes are situated on the same radii1 we obtain the same result4 ,in this experiment1 circles #g and #h are sounded by pulling out buttons #g and #i4 #c4 ,when two currents of air are directed on the same radius against two circles of similar holes arranged alternately1 these circles sounded simultaneously will produce the octave of the note which one of them would give alone4 ,this experiment is performed by sounding circles #f and #g and pulling out buttons #f and #g4 #d4 ,if we direct three currents of air on the same radius against three similar circles having holes alternating by a third of the distance between two holes of the same circle1 the three circles together produce the fifth of the octave 7,note #c7 of a single circle4 ,circles #c1 #d1 and #e sounded together emit the note of circle #b4 7,by sounding only two circles1 #c and #d1 or #d and #e1 we make the same experiment with two circles as disk ,no4 #b enabled us to make with circle #h alone2 also1 by sounding circle #c alone1 we obtain the note corresponding to #ab holes2 then pulling out button #d1 the notes corresponding to #ab and #cf holes are heard suddenly and very strongly2 but as soon as circle #e is sounded also1 the note of #ab disappears completely1 and we have left only that corresponding to #cf holes47 ,,iii4 ,effects of interference produced by shocks in opposite directions4 #a4 ,if we direct against a circle of holes two currents of air in opposite directions1 the note obtained with a single current is very much weakened1 if the two currents reach the holes simultaneously4 ,if the impulses are not isochronous1 the intensity of the note is increased4 #b4 ,if the two currents are directed against two circles of the same number of holes1 the effect is the same as for the two preceding cases4 #c4 ,if two currents of air are directed against two circles1 one of which has twice as many holes as the other1 we obtain only the low note if every shock of one is isochronous with every shock of the other4 ,we obtain the notes of both circles1 one of which is the octave of the other1 if there is no isochronism between the shocks4 ,disk ,no4 #e has three circles of #cf1 #cf1 and #gb holes4 ,the air currents are directed against the circles of holes through the movable tubes1 made so that they can be detached at pleasure4 ,all these experiments require great precision in the arrangement of these wind tubes4 ,to make sure that the tubes are simultaneously before two holes of the disk1 it is well to put little rods through the holes1 reaching into the wind tubes1 and to remove them only when the tubes are firmly attached4 ,the experimenter should be careful also to place the two tubes exactly at the same distance from the turning disk4 ,it is clear that notwithstanding all these precautions we never obtain perfect interference1 but only the weakening of notes that ought to disappear entirely if all the arrangements were made with mathematical exactness1 and also if the ear could have absolutely the same position with regard to impulses produced in opposite directions4 ,,iv4 ,beats4 ,disk ,no4 #f has-- #h circles of holes to the number of #a1 #b1 #bc1 #bd1 #be1 #dg1 #dh1 #di4 ,circles #c and #d1 #d and #e1 #f and #g1 and #g and #h ought to produce as many beats as circle #a produces simple shocks2 and circles #c and #e1 #f and #h1 as many beats as circle #b produces simple shocks2 but we must content ourselves in these experiments with a much less perfect result1 for the following reasons3 ,the disk never being rigorously plane1 alternately approaches the single wind pipe and recedes from it4 ,no matter how slight this deviation is1 every sound given by a single circle is heard with periodical intensities which complicate the phenomenon4 ,this inconvenience could be avoided by placing several wind-pipes around the circle2 but while we can extend the period of the holes in two circles 7whose difference is #a7 around the whole circle by blowing through a single wind tube1 we would be compelled to limit it to the distance between two wind tubes1 and it would become too short2 for1 when the disk rotates with a velocity sufficient to produce notes high enough and intense enough1 the beats become too numerous to be easily perceived4 ,besides these provisions1 which sufficiently illustrate the points to which we desire to call especial attention1 ,koenig also furnishes two more disks4 ,the seventh contains #h circles having #dh1 #ed1 #fj1 #fd1 #gb1 #hj1 #ij1 and #if holes respectively4 ,the #ast1 #c;d1 #eth1 and #hth will produce a perfect chord when the air is admitted through the #aa holes in the wind chest2 with one wind tube the entire gamut may be obtained4 ,finally the eighth disk contains #h circles of holes1 whose numbers are in the ratio of #a3b3c3d1 etc41 and which may be used to illustrate harmonics4 ,c4 ,f4 ,k4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,motions ,,of ,,camphor ,,upon ,,the ,,surface ,,of ,,water4 ,footnote3 ,continued from ,,supplement ,no4 #cia1 page #fbdj4 ,to have these movements occur in a constant and invariable manner upon the surface of water1 and especially upon mercury1 it is necessary to take precautions in regard to cleanliness1 this being something that we have purposely neglected to mention to our readers4 ,for we wished1 through this voluntary omission1 to stimulate their sagacity by bringing them face to face with difficulties that they will perhaps have succeeded in overcoming1 with causes of error that they will have perceived1 and the principal one of which is the want of absolute cleanliness in the water1 vessels1 and instruments that they may have used for the experiments4 ,thus1 very probably1 they will have more than once seen the camphor remain immovable when placed in vessels in which they had hoped to be able to see it undergo its gyratory and other motions4 ,their astonishment will have been no less than our own was when we noticed the sudden cessation of the camphor's motions under the influence of vitreous or metallic objects1 such as glass rods or tubes1 pieces of gold1 silver1 or copper coin1 table knives1 etc41 dipped into the liquid in which such motions were taking place before the immersion of the objects under consideration4 ,the instantaneously sedative power of the human fingers1 or of a hair1 will have1 perhaps1 reminded them of some sort of sorcery1 or of some diabolic art worthy of the great ,albert4 ,illustration3 ,,apparatus ,,for ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,motions ,,of ,,camphor4 ,as for ourself1 we confess that1 after repeating the curious experiments of ,mr4 ,dutrochet day after day1 and scrupulously following his directions1 we have1 in the presence of our results1 that were exactly identical with his1 almost been tempted to believe ourself to be the victim of some occult power1 or at least of some optical illusion1 the true cause of which remained a mystery to us4 ,finally1 after many fruitless attempts to find a key to the enigma that engaged our attention1 the light finally dawned upon us1 and then shone straight in our eyes4 ,in comparing the last results of our experiments with those that we had obtained previously1 we saw1 for example1 that the camphor moved in the test glasses at a level that was notably higher than that at which its gyration took place the day before1 or the day before that4 ,and yet we had always used the same vessels1 the same water1 and particles detached from the same lump of camphor4 ,to what1 then1 could be due the difference observed between the two levels at which we had1 in the first and last place1 seen the camphor execute its movements8 ,in the absence of any answer that was satisfactory1 we finally suspected that the difference that we had noticed was ascribable to the fact that1 after the numerous washings that the apparatus had been submitted to in having water poured into them to repeat the experiments1 they had gradually been freed from impurities of whatever nature they might have been1 and which1 unbeknown to us1 might have soiled their sides4 ,starting with this idea1 which was as yet a hyphothetical one1 we began to wash our hands1 glasses1 etc41 at first with very dilute sulphuric acid1 and then with ammonia4 ,afterward we rinsed them with quantities of water and dried them carefully with white linen rags that had been used for no other purpose2 and finally we plunged them again into very clean water4 ,we thus cut the ,gordian knot1 and were on the right track4 ,in fact1 on again repeating ,mr4 ,dutrochet's experiments1 with that minute care as to cleanliness that we had observed to be absolutely necessary1 we saw crumble away1 one after another1 all the pieces of the scaffolding that this master had with so much trouble built up4 ,the camphor moved in all our vessels1 of glass or metal1 and of every form1 at all heights4 ,the immersed bodies1 such as glass tubes1 table knives1 pieces of money1 etc41 had lost their pretended sedative effect on a pretended activity of the water1 and on the vessels that contained it4 ,the so-called phenomenon of habit transported from physiology into physics1 no longer existed4 ,the likening of the apparatus employed to obtain motions of camphor upon water1 with the entirely physiological apparatus by means of which nature effects a circulation of the liquid contained in the internodes of ,chara vulgaris1 had proved a grave error that was to be erased from the science into which it had been introduced by its author with entire good faith4 ,the true cause of life had not then been unveiled1 and the new agent designated as diluo-electricity vanished before the very simple and authentic fact that camphor moves rapidly upon the surface of very pure mercury1 in which no one would assuredly suppose that that volatile substance could dissolve4 ,mr4 ,dutrochet attaches great importance to the manner in which the water is poured 7with or without agitation7 into the vessel with which the experiment is performed4 ,the matter is in fact of little or no importance1 and to prove this1 it is only necessary to employ a test glass 7see figure7 provided with a lateral tube1 ,a1 that terminates in a lower tubulure1 ,b1 above which there is a contraction1 ,c4 ,upon pouring water into the lateral tube until the level reaches ,d1 and placing a particle of camphor on its surface1 the camphor will be seen to continually move about1 even when the liquid has reached the upper edge of the vessel4 ,to reduce the level to various heights1 it is only necessary to revolve the tube in the cork through which it is fitted to the tubulure4 ,in proceeding thus1 agitation or collision of the water is avoided2 and yet if the test glass is very clean1 the camphor will continue to move at every level of the water4 ,but1 some one will doubtless say1 how do you explain the stoppage in the motions of the camphor on the surface of water contained in vessels that are not perfectly clean8 ,before answering this question1 let us say in the first place that the cause of the motions under consideration is due to nothing else but the evaporation of this concrete oil--to effluvia that escape from all parts and that exert upon the body whence they emanate a recoiling action exactly like that which manifests itself in an lopile mounted upon a brasier1 or1 better yet1 in the explosion of a sky-rocket4 ,a portion of these camphory vapors1 as well as a small portion of the camphor itself1 dissolves in the water and forms upon its surface an oily layer which is at first very slight1 but the thickness of which may increase in time until it becomes 7especially if the vessel is narrow7 a mechanical obstacle to the gyration of the small fragments of camphor that it imprisons1 and whose evaporation it prevents4 ,now1 as this layer of volatile oil may and does evaporate1 in fact1 after a certain length of time1 the camphor then resumes its gyratory motions2 but there is not the least reason in the world for saying on that account that it has habituated itself to the cause which had at first influenced it1 and that1 too1 in modifying itself in such a way as to render null the influence of a cause that has not ceased to be present 7,dutrochet1 l4c441 p4 #ej74 ,we have been enabled to convince ourself of the existence of this oily layer of camphor when it was of a certain thickness by introducing under the water on which it1 had formed1 a few drops of sulphuric ether whose sudden evaporation produced sufficient cold to instantaneously congeal the layer in question and thus render it perfectly visible to the eye4 ,the slight layer of greasy matter that habitually lines the sides of vessels from whence no effort has been made to remove it1 produces effects exactly like those of the oil of camphor1 that is to say1 that in measure as it becomes thicker it likewise arrests the motions of the concrete volatile essence4 ,this is precisely what happens in a test-glass in which we see the camphor in motion become immovable if the level of the water be raised a few centimeters1 and1 more especially1 if it be raised to the upper edge of the apparatus4 ,in its slow ascent the liquid licks up1 so to speak1 the oily layer that lines the inner surface of the vessel1 and this material spreads over the surface of the water and forms thereupon a layer which1 in spreading over the bit of camphor itself1 prevents its evaporation1 and1 consequently1 its motions4 ,the existence of the layer under consideration cannot be doubted1 since it is made to disappear by causing the water to-overflow from the edges of the vessel1 and1 more easily still1 by spreading a piece of filtering paper over the liquid in which the camphor is in a state of rest4 ,as soon as the paper is removed 7without the water being touched by the fingers1 it should be understood71 the camphor resumes its motions and afterward continues them at all levels4 ,the fingers themselves1 provided they are very clean1 have no power to stop the gyration4 ,the following experiment1 which is easy to repeat1 is an unquestionable proof of this4 ,wash carefully the middle finger with aqua ammonia1 and afterward with plenty of water1 and then dip it into a drinking glass in which a fragment of camphor is rapidly moving1 and the gyration will not be stopped4 ,but it will be made to stop instantly if the finger in its natural state 7that is1 covered with the fatty substances that ordinarily soil the fingers1 especially in summer7 be dipped into this same glass4 ,movements of ,camphor upon ,mercury4--,in order to study the motions of camphor1 mercury possesses1 as compared with water1 a great advantage1 and that is that we can easily assure ourselves of the degree of cleanliness of this metal by means of the condensed breath4 ,the vapory-deposits thereon in a uniform manner if the mercury is perfectly clean1 but forms variously shaded and more persistent spots if it is soiled by foreign bodies ,but it is extremely difficult to clean mercury completely4 ,to do so ,mr4 ,boisgiraud and ,i take distilled mercury and leave it for a long time in contact with concentrated sulphuric acid1 taking care to often shake the mixture4 ,then1 after removing the greater part of the acid1 we throw the metal into a vessel containing quick lime in powder1 and finally pass it through a filter containing a few holes in its lower part4 ,purified by this process1 mercury not only permits of the motions of camphor on its surface1 but renders visible the traces of the vapors that escape from it1 and which resemble small tadpoles with a long tail that are endowed with very great agility4 ,nothing is more curious than to see the particle of camphor successively ascend and descend the strongly pronounced curves presented by the mercury near the sides of the vessel that contains it4 ,on raising the temperature of the metal slightly1 the motions of the camphor on its surface are accelerated1 and the same effects occur with water that has been slightly heated4 ,the experiments that we have just called attention to show what importance slight impurities may have upon certain results4 ,they prove1 says our learned colleague ,mr4 ,daquin1 that there exists upon polished substances an imperceptible coating of those fatty matters which serve to-day to explain ,moser's images4 ,we find therein also a manifest proof and a rational explanation of those grave errors into which the presence of these fatty matters1 that have hitherto been scarcely suspected1 led so clever and so distinguished a scientist as the illustrious discoverer of endosmosis4--,n4 ,joly1 in ,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,carbonic ,,acid ,,in ,,beer4 ,we present a diagram1 on exposition at the last ,brewers' ,convention in ,detroit1 of the racking device1 devised by ,j4 ,e4 ,siebel in #ahgb1 and used at that time in the brewery of ,messrs4 ,bartholomae ,roesing1 in ,chicago4 ,the object of the apparatus is to retain as much carbonic acid in the beer as possible while racking the same off into smaller packages from the storage vats4 ,the importance of this measure is apparent to every one who knows what pains are taken to preserve the presence of this constituent in all the former stages of the brewing process4 ,in the method of racking off which is in present use in most breweries1 the beer is forced through a rubber hose from the cask in the store vault to the barrels1 kegs1 and smaller packages in the fill room4 ,owing to the excess of pressure in the beer as it enters the keg1 it is evident that a large amount of the carbonic acid gas must escape4 ,the escape of carbonic acid during the process of racking off is indeed so large that even a small difference in the pressure of the atmosphere causes a remarkable difference in this respect4 ,it is1 therefore1 evident that if a larger pressure can be maintained while racking off1 a larger amount of carbonic acid gas will remain in the beer4 ,it is true that the racking off will take a little longer time if done under pressure1 but this inconvenience is certainly insignificantly small1 when compared with the other labors and troubles daily undergone in a brewery1 for the sole purpose to preserve in the beer the carbonic acid in that form in which it has been formed during the fermentation1 and in which form it has far more refreshing and other valuable properties than in any other form in which it may be subsequently introduced into the beer by artificial means4 ,the apparatus designed in the accompanying cut is calculated to artificially produce a higher pressure of the atmosphere1 at least within the keg which is to be filled with beer4 ,for this purpose1 the beer from the store cask running through the pipe1 ,b1 enters the keg through a hollow copper bung1 fitting light into the bung hole by means of a rubber washer4 ,the air contained in the keg1 being replaced by the beer1 is forced out by means of the hollow copper bung1 taking its course through the pipe1 inscribed ,glass ,gauge1 until it is allowed to escape in the standpipe1 ,c1 containing a column of water1 the height of which designates the pressure within the keg1 and a consequently increased retention of carbonic acid gas4 ,if the keg or barrel is filled with beer1 the same becomes apparent from the beer showing itself in the glass gauge2 then the faucet1 ,b1 is closed1 the copper bung is lifted out of the bung hole1 and the beer contained in the pipe is just sufficient to completely fill the keg1 which is then bunged up1 while the apparatus is transferred to the next keg4 ,should the attendant carelessly neglect to close the faucet in proper time1 the surplus beer will not necessarily be wasted1 but will be collected in the vessel1 ,d1 whence it can be drawn off through e4--,chemical ,review4 ,illustration 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,different ,,modifications ,,of ,,silver ,,bromide ,,and ,,silver ,,chloride4 ,hermann ,w4 ,vogel has made a comparative study of the properties of silver bromide1 obtained by precipitation in an aqueous solution of gelatin1 and those of the same compound prepared by precipitation in an alcoholic solution of collodion4 ,in #ahgd ,stas called attention to six modifications of silver bromide4 ,one of these1 granular bromide of silver1 obtained by boiling the flocculent precipitate for several days with water1 he stated1 was the most sensitive to light of all substances known2 exposure for two or three seconds to the pale blue flame of a ,bunsen burner being sufficient to blacken it4 ,important as this fact was for photographers it was not applied for years1 and it was only in #ahgh1 when1 it having been found that silver bromide precipitated in a gelatine solution and boiled for several hours becomes much more sensitive to light1 that the remarks of ,stas was recalled4 ,today these observations have become of the greatest importance to practical photography4 ,they have led to the preparation of the silver bromide gelatin emulsion and the silver bromide gelatin plates1 which are twenty times more sensitive than the silver iodide collodion plates1 and have become indispensable when impressions are to be taken in a dim light4 ,the extraordinary sensitiveness of silver bromide in gelatin seemed the more remarkable since it was known that silver bromide in collodion is only moderately sensitive4 ,the explanation was sought for in various directions1 but as the result of numerous investigations it appears that the chief cause of the difference is the presence of different modifications of silver bromide4 ,from a consideration of the work already done on the subject1 ,vogel suspected that silver bromide precipitated in an aqueous colloidal liquid would have notably different properties from silver bromide precipitated in an alcoholic colloidal solution4 ,silver bromide was prepared in many different ways4 ,emulsions were made in bromide solutions containing gelatin or collodion 7the former aqueous1 the latter alcoholic71 some with the aid of heat1 others without4 ,part of the emulsion was then poured upon plates kept at a moderate temperature and dried4 ,the remainder was boiled or treated with ammonia before being applied to the plates4 ,he also precipitated silver bromide in dilute gelatin or collodion solutions1 allowed it to settle completely1 washed the precipitate1 and mixed it with a new portion of gelatin or collodion before applying it to the plates4 ,finally he precipitated pure silver bromide1 in the absence of all colloids1 by means of pure aqueous or alcoholic solutions of bromides and attempted to bring this upon plates1 using gelatin or collodion as a cement4 ,the result of all these experiments is that there are essentially two modifications of silver bromide1 the one being obtained by precipitation in aqueous1 the other in alcoholic solutions4 ,the first1 on account of the position of the maximum of sensitiveness for the solar spectrum1 he calls blue sensitive1 the other1 for the same reason1 indigo sensitive4 ,it is of no consequence whether the aqueous or alcoholic solution in which the silver bromide is formed contains gelatin or collodion1 or whether the precipitation is effected with excess of bromide or of silver nitrate4 ,it makes no difference whether the solution is hot or cold1 or whether the silver bromide is treated with ammonia or whether it is boiled or not4 ,the only necessary condition is that in precipitating indigo sensitive silver bromide the solutions must contain at least #if per cent of alcohol4 ,from aqueous alcoholic solutions blue sensitive silver bromide is precipitated4 ,besides the difference of sensitiveness toward the solar spectrum1 these modifications of silver bromide exhibit other characteristic differences in properties which indicate beyond a doubt that they are two essentially different modifications of the same substance4 ,among these are1 #ast4 ,their unequal divisibility in gelatin or collodion solutions4 ,the indigo sensitive silver bromide cannot be distributed through a gelatin solution1 while the blue sensitive modification does so very readily4 #b;d4 ,their unequal reducibility2 the blue sensitive silver bromide being reduced with much greater difficulty than the indigo sensitive variety4 #c;d4 ,their different action toward chemical and physical sensitizers4 #dth4 ,their different action toward photographic developers4 #eth4 ,their different action under the influence of heat4 ,the blue sensitive variety if heated under water has its sensitiveness perceptibly increased1 while the other is not changed by such treatment4 ,a direct transformation of one modification into the other has not yet been accomplished4 ,the effect of the light upon these substances is incipient reduction1 and we might hence suppose that the more reducible indigo sensitive variety would be the more sensitive to light4 ,but this is not the case1 because it is not chemical reducibility1 but the absorption power for light that is of the greatest importance4 ,now the blue sensitive silver bromide has a greater absorption power than the indigo sensitive variety1 and hence its greater sensitiveness4 ,silver chloride prepared by methods similar to those used in making the two forms of bromides was also found to exist in two modifications4 ,one is designated as ultra violet sensitive1 the other as violet sensitive silver chloride4--,amer4 ,chem4 ,jour4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,analysis ,,of ,a ,,sample ,,of ,,new ,,zealand ,,coal4 ,footnote3 ,read before the ,society of ,public ,analysts on the #bhth ,june1 #ahhc4 ,by ,,otto ,,hehner ,some discussion having recently taken place as to the value of ,new ,zealand coal as a fuel1 the following results of a somewhat full analysis may be worthy of being placed on record4 ,the sample to which the results refer consisted of large brownish black lumps1 many of which showed woody structure2 the fractures were conchyloid1 the surface shiny and highly reflecting4 ,it was interspersed with a considerable amount of an amber colored resin4 ,when powdered it appeared chocolate brown4 ,it burned readily1 the flame being bright and very smoky4 ,its ash was light and reddish brown4 ,it consisted of-- ,water 7loss at #bab ,f47 #bj4ji ,organic and volatile matter #ge4ai ,ash #d4gb ------ #ajj4jj ,the organic and volatile constituents had the following percentage composition-- ,carbon #ga4bf ,hydrogen #e4fb ,oxygen #ba4eh ,nitrogen #a4jf ,sulphur #j4dh ------ #ajj4jj ,the ash was composed of-- ,silica #bg4bf ,alumina #bf4dh ,oxide of iron #ab4ih ,lime #bj4ai ,magnesia #c4db ,sulphuric acid #i4dg ,alkalies and loss #j4bj ------ #ajj4jj ,from these figures the composition of the coal itself calculates as under-- ,water #bj4ji ,carbon #ec4eh ,hydrogen #d4bc ,oxygen #af4bc ,nitrogen #j4hj ,sulphur #j4cf ,silica #a4bi ,alumina #a4be ,oxide of iron #j4fa ,lime #j4ie ,magnesia #j4af ,sulphuric acid #j4dd ,alkalies #j4ja ------ #ajj4jj ,one ton furnished #h1deh cubic feet of gas and #h cwt4 of coke4 ,the very high proportion of water contained in the sample is very remarkable4 ,it was so loosely combined1 that even at ordinary temperature it gradually escaped1 the coal crumbling to small pieces4 ,the large amount as well as the high percentage of oxygen characterize the so called coal as a lignite1 with which conclusion the physical characters of the sample are in perfect harmony4 ,the resin to which ,i have referred has not been further analyzed4 ,it was found to be insoluble in all ordinary menstrua1 such as alcohol1 ether1 carbon disulphide1 benzene1 or chloroform1 and neither attacked by boiling alcoholic potash nor by fusing alkali4 ,on heating it swells up considerably and undergoes decomposition1 but does not fuse4 ,the coal may be valuable as a gas coal and for local consumption1 but the large proportions of water and of oxygen militate against its use as a steam producer1 only #eh per cent4 of it being really combustible4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,determining ,,manganese ,,in ,,steel1 ,,cast ,,iron1 ,,ferro-,,manganese1 ,,etc4 ,by ,e4 ,,raymond4 ,the method in question is recommended as easy1 expeditious1 and accurate4 ,it consists in precipitating all the manganese in the state of peroxide1 dissolving it in a ferrous solution so as to bring back the manganese to the manganous slate1 and determining volumetrically1 by means of potassium permanganate1 the quantity of ferrous salt which has been converted into ferric4 ,the method of rapidly precipitating manganese peroxide is peculiar4 ,if we act upon cast-iron or steel with nitric acid and potassium chlorate in certain proportions1 and boil the mixture1 the manganese is completely precipitated in the state of peroxide insoluble in nitric acid1 but retaining a small quantity of ferric oxide4 ,suppose that we have a sample of steel or manganiferous cast-iron containing less than #g per cent of manganese4 ,three grammes are treated in a small flask with #dj c4 c4 of nitric acid1 of sp4 gr4 #a4bj1 added little by little4 ,the liquid is stirred1 and ultimately heated to complete solution4 ,it is withdrawn from the fire1 and #ae grammes potassium chlorate are added1 and then #bj c4 c4 of nitric acid at sp4 gr4 #a4dj4 ,it is boiled for about fifteen minutes1 until the escape of chlorine ceases2 all the manganese is found thrown down as peroxide2 hot water is added1 the mixture is filtered1 and the precipitate washed with boiling water4 ,to dissolve the manganese peroxide thus obtained we measure exactly #ej c4 c4 of an acid solution of ferrous sulphate1 made up with #dj grammes ferrous sulphate to #gej c4 c4 water and #bcj c4 c4 sulphuric acid 7full strength74 ,the #ej c4 c4 are poured into the flask in which the sample has been dissolved1 and to which a little peroxide adheres1 and it is then poured upon the precipitate and the filter in a ,berlin-ware capsule4 ,the manganese peroxide dissolves very readily1 transforming its equivalent of ferrous sulphate into ferric sulphate4 ,the liquid is then diluted to #ajj or #aej c4 c4 for the next operation4 ,we then take a solution of permanganate formed by the same proportions as are used in determining iron by the process of ,margueritte 7#e4fe grammes of the crystalline salt per liter of water71 and determine its standard exactly4 ,by means of this liquid we determine volumetrically the quantity of ferrous sulphate remaining in the solution of manganese4 ,we take then #ej c4 c4 of the original solution of ferrous sulphate diluted as above1 and determine the total ferrous salt4 ,the difference between the two determinations corresponds to the ferrous salt which has been peroxidized by the manganese peroxide4 ,the quantity of iron thus peroxidized multiplied by #j4dia gives the quantity of manganese contained in the portion operated upon4 ,in the case of a steel or cast iron containing but little manganese it is convenient to dissolve the peroxide in #be c4 c4 only of the ferrous solution4 ,small ,gay-,lussac burettes may then be used in the titration of only #j4jaj meter internal diameter1 and graduated into one-twentieth c4 c41 which allows of great exactitude in the determination4 ,for a spiegeleisen not more than #a gramme of the sample should be taken1 and for a ferro-manganese #j4c gramme4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,manganese ,,and ,,its ,,uses4 ,manganese is one of the heavy metals of which iron may he taken as the representative4 ,it is of a grayish white color1 presents a metallic brilliancy1 and is capable of a high degree of polish1 is so hard as to scratch glass and steel1 is non-magnetic1 and is only fused at a white heat4 ,as it oxidizes rapidly on exposure to the atmosphere1 it should be preserved under naphtha4 ,it occurs in small quantity in association with iron in meteoric stones2 with this exception it is not found native4 ,the metal may be obtained by the reduction of its sesquioxide by carbon at an extreme heat4 ,manganese forms no less than six different oxides--viz41 protoxide1 sesquioxide the red oxide1 the binoxide or peroxide1 manganic acid1 and permanganic acid4 ,the protoxide occurs as olive-green powder1 and is obtained by igniting carbonate of manganese in a current of hydrogen4 ,its salts are colorless1 or of a pale rose color1 and have a strong tendency to form double salts with the salts of ammonia4 ,the carbonate forms the mineral known as manganese spar4 ,the sulphate is obtained by heating the peroxide with sulphuric acid till there is faint ignition1 dissolving the residue in water and crystallizing4 ,it is employed largely in calico printing4 ,the silicate occurs in various minerals4 ,the sesquioxide is found crystallized in an anhydrous form in braunite1 and hydrated in manganite4 ,it is obtained artificially as a black powder by exposing the peroxide to a prolonged heat4 ,when ignited it loses oxygen1 and is converted into red oxide4 ,its salts are isomorphous with those of alumina and sesquioxide of iron4 ,it imparts a violet color to glass1 and gives the amethyst its characteristic tint4 ,its sulphate is a powerful oxidizing agent4 ,the red oxide corresponds to the black oxide of iron4 ,it occurs native in hausmannite1 and may be obtained artificially by igniting the sesquioxide or peroxide in the open air4 ,it is a compound of the two preceding oxides4 ,the binoxide1 or peroxide1 is the black manganese of commerce1 and the pyrolusite of mineralogists1 and is by far the most abundant of the manganese ores4 ,it occurs in a hydrated form in varvicite and wad4 ,its commercial value depends upon the proportion of chlorine which a given weight of it will liberate when it is heated with hydrochloric acid1 the quantity of chlorine being proportional to the excess of oxygen which this oxide contains over that contained in the same weight of protoxide4 ,when mixed with chloride of sodium and sulphuric acid it causes an evolution of chlorine1 the other resulting products being sulphate of soda and sulphate of protoxide of manganese4 ,when mixed with acids1 it is a valuable oxidizing agent4 ,it is much used for the preparation of oxygen1 either by simply heating it1 when it yields #ab per cent4 of gas1 or by heating it with sulphuric acid1 when it yields #ah per cent4 ,besides its many uses in the laboratory1 it is employed in the manufacture of glass1 porcelain1 and kindred wares4 ,manganic acid is not known in a free state4 ,manganate of potash is formed by fusing together hydrated potash and binoxide of manganese4 ,the black mass which results from this operation is soluble in water1 to which it communicates a green color1 due to the presence of the manganate4 ,from this water the salt is obtained in vacuo in beautiful green crystals4 ,on allowing the solution to stand exposed to the air1 it rapidly becomes blue1 violet1 purple1 and finally red1 by the gradual conversion of the manganate into the permanganate of potash2 and on account of these changes of color the black mass has received the name of mineral chameleon4 ,permanganic acid is only known in solution or in a state of combination4 ,its solution is of a splendid red color1 but appears of a dark violet tint when seen by transmitted light4 ,it is obtained by treating a solution of permanganate of baryta with sulphuric acid1 when sulphate of baryta falls1 and the permanganic acid remains dissolved in the water4 ,permanganate of potash1 which crystallizes in reddish purple prisms1 is the most important of its salts4 ,it is largely employed in analytical chemistry1 and is the basis of ,condy's ,disinfectant ,fluid4 ,manganese is a constituent of many mineral waters1 and is found in small quantities in the ash of most vegetables and animal substances4 ,it is always associated with iron4 ,various preparations of manganese have been employed in medicine4 ,the sulphate of the protoxide in doses of one or two drachms produces purgative effects1 and is supposed to increase the excretion of bile2 and in small doses1 both this salt and the carbonate have been given with the intention of improving the condition of the blood in cases of anmia4 ,manganic acid and permanganate of potash are of great use when applied in lotions 7as in ,condy's ,fluid diluted7 to foul and fetid ulcers4 ,in connection with the medicinal applications of manganese it may be mentioned that manganic acid is the agent employed in ,dr4 ,angus ,smith's celebrated test for the impurity of the air4 ,it is the glass maker's soap of glass manufacture1 and is used to correct the green color of glass1 which is owing to the presence of protoxide of iron4 ,this it converts into the comparatively colorless peroxide4 ,it is also used in the ,bessemer and similar processes1 to decompose the oxide of iron4 ,spiegeleisen1 an iron which contains a natural alloy of from #aj to #ab per cent4 of manganese1 is used for this purpose when conveniently attainable4--,glassware ,reporter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ozokerite1 ,,or ,,earth-,,wax4 ,by ,,william ,l4 ,,lay4 ,,on ,,the ,,deposits ,,of ,,earth ,,wax 7,,ozokerite7 ,,in ,,europe ,,and ,,america4 ,footnote3 ,abstract from a paper read before the ,new ,york ,academy of ,sciences4 ,there exists a large mining and manufacturing industry in ,austria1 that of ozokerite1 or earth-wax1 which has nothing like it in any other part of the known world1 an industry that supplies ,europe with a part of its beeswax1 without the aid of the bees4 ,it may not be generally known that the mining of petroleum was a profitable industry in ,austria long before it was in this country4 ,in #aheb1 a druggist near ,tarnow distilled the oil and had an exhibit of it in the first ,world's ,fair in ,london4 ,in ,america1 the first borings were made in #ahei4 ,indeed1 the use of petroleum as an illuminator was common at a very early age in the world's history4 ,in ,persia at ,baku1 in ,india on the ,irawada1 also in the ,crimea1 and on the river ,kuban in ,russia1 petroleum has been used in lamps for thousands of years4 ,at ,baku the fire worshipers have a never-ceasing flame1 which has burned from time immemorial4 ,the mines of ozokerite are located in ,austrian ,poland1 now known as ,galicia4 ,near the city of ,drohabich1 on the railway line running from ,cracow to ,lemberg1 is a town of six thousand inhabitants1 called ,borislau1 which is entirely supported by the ozokerite industry4 ,it lies at the foot of the ,carpathian ,mountains4 ,about the year #ahfb1 a shaft was sunk for petroleum at that place4 ,after descending about one hundred and eighty feet1 the miners found all the cracks in the clay or rock filled with a brown substance1 resembling beeswax4 ,at first1 the layers were not thicker than writing paper2 but they grew thicker gradually below1 until at a depth of three hundred feet they attained a thickness of three or four inches4 ,upon examination1 it was found that a yellow wax could be made of a portion of this substance1 and at once a substitute for wax was manufactured4 ,the discovery caused an excitement like the oil fever of #ahfe in ,america4 ,a large number of leases were made4 ,when ,i saw the wells of ,pennsylvania1 in #ahgi1 there were more than two thousand4 ,the owner of the land received one-fourth of the product1 and the miners three-fourths4 ,in the petroleum region1 the leases at first were whole farms1 then they were reduced to #bj1 then #aj1 then #e1 and at last to #a acre1 which is a square of #bji feet4 ,but in the ozokerite region of ,poland1 where everything is done on a small scale1 when compared with like enterprises in this country1 the leases were on tracts thirty-two feet square4 ,these were so small that the surface was not large enough to contain the earth that had to be raised to sink the shaft2 consequently the earth had to be transported to a distance1 and1 when ,i saw it1 there was a mound sixty or seventy feet high4 ,its weight had become so great that it caused a sinking of the earth1 and endangered the shafts to such an extent that the government ordered its removal to a distance and its deposit on ground that was not undermined4 ,the shafts are four feet square1 and the sides are supported by timbers six inches through1 which leaves a shaft three feet square4 ,the miner digs the well or shaft just as we dig our water wells1 and the dirt and rock are hoisted up in a bucket by a rope and windlass4 ,but one man can work in the shaft at a time4 ,for many years no water was found2 but1 as there is a deposit of petroleum under the ozokerite1 at a depth of six hundred feet from the surface1 the miners were troubled with gas4 ,this is got rid of by blowing a current of fresh air from a rotary fan through a pipe extending down the shaft as fast as the curbing of timber is put in place4 ,the ozokerite is embedded in a very stiff blue clay for a depth of several hundred feet2 below1 it is interlaid with rock4 ,specimens of crude and manufactured ozokerite were on exhibition1 through the kindness of ,dr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,newberry4 ,that part of the earth's surface has more miners' shafts to the acre than any other part of the globe4 ,as wages are very low in ,poland1 averaging not more than forty cents a day for men and ten cents for children1 a very small quantity of ozokerite pays for the working4 ,if thirty or forty pounds a day is obtained1 it remunerates the two men and one or two children required to work each lease4 ,when the bucket1 containing the earth1 rock1 and wax1 is dumped in the little shed covering the shaft1 it is picked over by the children1 who detach the wax from the clay or rock with knives4 ,the miners use galvanized wire ropes and wooden buckets4 ,when preparing to descend1 they invariably cross themselves and utter a short prayer4 ,the business is not free from danger1 carelessness on the part of the boy supplying the fresh air1 or the caving in of the unsupported roof1 causing a large number of deaths4 ,one of the government inspectors of the mines informed me that in one week there had been eight deaths from accidents4 ,the ozokerite is taken to a crude furnace1 and put into a common cast iron kettle1 and melted4 ,this allows the dirt to sink to the bottom1 and the ozokerite1 freed from all other solids1 is skimmed off with a ladle1 poured into conical moulds1 and allowed to cool1 in which form it is sold to the refiners1 for about six cents per pound4 ,the quantity produced is uncertain1 as the miners take care to understate it1 for the reason that the government lays a tax upon all incomes1 and the landowner demands his one-fourth of the quantity mined4 ,the best authority is ,leo ,strippelman1 who states the quantity produced in fifteen years at from #cge1jjj1jjj to #djj1jjj1jjj pounds1 worth twenty-four millions of dollars4 ,as the owners of the land get one-fourth of the sum1 they received six millions4 ,this is at the rate of four hundred thousand a year1 a rather valuable crop from some two hundred acres of land4 ,the miners do not support the earth by timber or pillars1 as they should2 the result is that the whole plot of about two hundred acres is gradually sinking1 and this will eventually ruin the industry in that part of the deposit4 ,in another part of the same field1 a ,french company has purchased forty acres1 and it is mining the whole tract and hoisting through one shaft by steam power4 ,in that shaft they have sunk to a depth of six hundred feet1 and are troubled with water and petroleum4 ,these they pump out very much the same way as in coal and other mines1 worked in a scientific manner4 ,the thickest layer of ozokerite found is about eighteen inches1 and this layer or pocket was a great curiosity4 ,when first removed at the bottom of the shaft1 it was found to be so soft that it was shoveled out like putty4 ,during the night it oozed into the space that had been emptied the day before2 this continued for weeks1 or until the pressure of the gas had become too weak to force it out4 ,i have been occupied in the petroleum region of ,pennsylvania since #ahfj1 have seen all the wonderful development of the oil wells1 and was very much interested in contrasting the ,austrian ozokerite and petroleum industry with the ,american4 ,it is a good illustration of the difference between the lower class of ,poles and ,jews and the ,yankee4 ,borislau1 after twenty years' work1 was unimproved1 dirty1 squalid1 and brutal4 ,it contained one school house1 but no church nor printing office4 ,none of its streets were paved1 and1 in the main road through the town1 the mud came up to the hubs of the wagon wheels for over a mile of its length4 ,in places1 plank had to be set up on edge to keep the mud out of the houses1 which were lower than the road4 ,it contained numerous shops1 where potato whisky was sold to men1 women1 and children4 ,it depends on a dirty1 muddy creek for its supply of water4 ,its houses were generally one-story1 built of logs and mud4 ,on the other hand1 ,oil ,city1 a town of the same age and size1 contained eight school houses 7one a high school building71 twelve churches1 and two printing offices4 ,it has paved streets1 which1 in #ahfc1 were as deep with mud as those in ,borislau in #ahgi4 ,it has no whisky shops where women and children can drink4 ,many of its houses are of brick1 two1 three1 four1 and five stories high4 ,its water works cost one hundred and fifty thousand dollars4 ,all this has been done since #ahfj1 when it did not contain forty houses4 ,i saw in the market place of ,borislau women standing ankle deep in the mud1 selling vegetables4 ,one woman really had to build a platform of straw1 on which to place a bushel of potatoes2 if the straw foundation had not been there1 the potatoes would have sunk out of sight4 ,borislau is three miles from ,drohobich1 a city of thirty thousand inhabitants2 between the two places1 in wet weather1 the road was impassable4 ,for a third of the way1 it was in the bed of the creek2 and ,i had to wait a day for the water to fall so as to navigate it in a wagon4 ,on inquiring why they did not improve the road1 ,i found the same difficulty as the ,arkansas settler encountered with his leaky roof2 when it rained he could not repair it1 and when it was dry it did not need repair3 so with the road to ,borislau4 ,ozokerite 7from the ,greek words1 ,ozein1 to smell1 and ,keros1 wax7 is found in ,turkistan1 east of the ,caspian ,sea2 in the ,caucasian ,mountains1 in ,russia2 in the ,carpathian ,mountains1 in ,austria2 in the ,apennines1 in ,italy2 in ,texas1 ,california1 and in the ,wahsatch ,mountains1 in the ,united ,states4 ,commercially1 it is not worked anywhere but in ,austria2 although1 ,i believe1 we have in ,utah a larger deposit than in any other place4 ,i made two journeys to examine the deposits in the ,wahsatch ,mountains4 ,for a distance of forty miles1 it crops out in many places1 and on the ,minnie ,maud1 a stream emptying into the ,colorado1 ,i found a stratum of sand rock1 from ten to twelve feet thick1 filled with ozokerite4 ,no systematic effort has been made to ascertain the quantity of ozokerite in ,utah4 ,i saw a drift of some fourteen feet at one place1 and a shaft twenty-three feet deep at another4 ,in this shaft1 the vein was about ten inches wide2 and it could be traced along the slope of the hill1 for several hundred feet4 ,the largest vein of pure ozokerite is seen on ,soldiers' ,fork of ,spanish ,caon1 which enters ,salt ,lake ,valley near the town of ,provo4 ,this vein is very much like the ozokerite of ,austria1 and contains between thirty and forty per cent4 of white ceresin 7which resembles bleached beeswax71 about thirty per cent4 of yellow ceresin 7which resembles yellow wax71 and twenty per cent4 of black petroleum2 the residue is dirt4 ,dr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,newberry1 of ,columbia ,college1 and ,prof4 ,s4 ,b4 ,newberry1 of ,cornell ,university1 made examinations of the ozokerite found in ,utah2 those who are interested in the subject will find the papers published in the ,engineering and ,mining ,journal for the year #ahgi4 ,a deposit of white ozokerite occurs on the top of the ,apennine ,mountains1 in ,italy1 of which a specimen is here exhibited4 ,an interesting story is told of its discovery4 ,a church at ,modena was robbed2 among other articles taken was a quantity of wax candles4 ,a short time afterward1 a woman brought to a druggist a quantity of wax and offered it for sale4 ,the druggist bought it and afterward suspected it consisted of the stolen candles melted down4 ,soon after ward she brought another lot4 ,he had her arrested4 ,when questioned by the magistrate1 she said she found the wax in the clay on her farm1 about twenty miles from the city4 ,this story confirmed him in the belief that she had stolen the candles1 or was the receiver of the stolen goods2 for such a thing as a deposit of wax in the soil was unheard of4 ,she was therefore remanded to jail4 ,on three several days1 she was brought before the court1 and1 when questioned1 told the same story4 ,she was a member of the church1 and requested the priest to be sent for4 ,he came1 and1 after an interview between them1 he said it was easy to disprove her story1 if it was a lie1 by sending her home1 in company with an officer1 to investigate4 ,the court sent the priest1 who was the only one who believed her4 ,on coming to her house1 she took her pick and shovel1 and going to the place at the top of the hill1 she dug out of the clay a quantity of while ozokerite1 proved her case1 and was at once set at liberty4 ,she performed the same service for me1 and ,i saw her dig the specimen and heard her tell the story as ,i have told it to you4 ,the hill was composed of loose clay and stones4 ,it appeared as if it had been forced up by gas or some power from below the surface4 ,the quantity that could be gathered1 by one person1 laboring constantly for a week1 was only twenty-five or thirty pounds4 ,an attempt had been made to sink a shaft2 but1 at a depth of fourteen feet1 the pressure of the clay was sufficient to break the boards that held up the sides4 ,the earth caved in1 and the shaft was abandoned4 ,it is not necessary here to describe the various processes of manufacture2 it will be sufficient to enumerate some of the forms of ozokerite1 and the uses to which it is put4 ,at ,borislau1 there are several refineries1 where candles1 tapers1 and lubricating oils are made4 ,in ,vienna1 there are five factories2 in one of these1 they make white wax1 wax candles1 matches1 yellow beeswax1 black heel-ball1 colored tapers1 and crayon pencils4 ,in ,europe1 large quantities of the yellow wax are used to wax the floors of the houses1 many of the finer ones being waxed every day4 ,it is a curious fact that the ,catholic ,church does not allow the use of paraffine1 sperm1 or stearine candles2 at the same time nearly all the candles used in the churches in ,europe are made from ozokerite1 which is a natural paraffine1 made from petroleum in nature's laboratory4 ,in the ,united ,states1 the only uses made of ozokerite1 so far as ,i know1 are chewing gum and the adulteration of beeswax4 ,in this the ,yankee gives another illustration of the ruling passion strong in money making1 which gives us wooden nutmegs1 wooden hams1 shoddy cloth1 glucose candy1 chiccory coffee1 oleomargarine butter1 mineral sperm oil made from petroleum1 and beeswax made without bees4 ,after this paper was written1 the following translation from a pamphlet1 published by the ,first ,hungarian ,galician ,railway ,company1 in #ahgi1 came to my notice4 ,the writer's name is not published3 ,mineral wax1 in the condition in which it is taken from the shafts1 is not well adapted for exportation1 since it occurs with much earthy matter2 and1 at any rate1 an expensive packing in sacks would be necessary4 ,it is therefore first freed from all foreign substances by melting1 and cooled in conical cakes of about #be kilos4 weight1 and these cakes are exported4 ,there are now1 in ,borislau1 #be melting works1 which1 in #ahgg1 with #a steam and #fj fire kettles1 produced #ie1jjj metric centners 7#i1ejj1jjj lb474 ,the melted earth wax is sent from ,borislau to almost all ,european countries1 to be further refined4 ,outside of ,austro-,hungary1 we may specially mention ,germany1 ,england1 ,italy1 ,france1 ,belgium1 and ,russia as large purchasers of this article of commerce4 ,,products ,,and ,,their ,,applications4 ,the products of mineral wax1 are3 7a47 ,ceresine1 also called ozocerotine or refined ozokerite1 a product which possesses a striking resemblance to ordinarily refined beeswax4 ,it replaces this in almost all its uses1 and1 by its cheapness1 is employed for many purposes for which beeswax is too dear4 ,it is much used for wax candles1 for waxing floors1 and for dressing linen and colored papers4 ,wax crayons must be mentioned among these products4 ,the house of ,offenheim ,ziffer1 in ,elbeteinitz1 makes them of many colors4 ,these crayons are especially adapted to marking wood1 stone1 and iron2 also1 for marking linen and paper1 as well as for writing and drawing4 ,the writings and drawings made with these crayons can be effaced neither by water1 by acids1 nor by rubbing4 ,concerning the technical process for the production of ceresine1 it should be said that1 when the industry was new 7the production of ceresine has been known only about eight years1 since #ahgd71 it was controlled by patents1 which are kept secret4 ,this much is known1 that the color and odor are removed by fuming sulphuric acid4 ,from mineral wax of good quality about #gj per cent4 of white ceresine is obtained4 ,the yellow ceresine is tinted by the addition of coloring matter 7annatto74 7b47 ,paraffine1 a firm1 white1 translucent substance1 without odor4 ,it is used1 chiefly1 in the manufacture of candles1 and also as a protection against the action of acids1 and to make casks and other wooden vessels water-tight1 for coating corks1 etc41 for air-tight wrappings1 and1 finally1 for the preparation of tracing paper4 ,there are several methods of obtaining paraffine from ozokerite 7see the ,encyclopedic ,handbook of ,chemistry1 by ,benno ,karl and ,f4 ,strohmann1 vol4 iv41 ,brunswick1 #ahgg74 ,the details of the technical process consists1 in every case1 in the distillation of the crude material1 pressure of the distillate by hydraulic presses1 melting1 and treating by sulphuric acid4 ,in the manufacture of paraffine from ozokerite1 there are produced from #b to #h per cent4 of benzine1 from #ae to #bj per cent4 of naphtha1 #cf to #ej per cent4 of paraffine1 #ae to #bj per cent4 of heavy oil for lubricating1 and #aj to #bj per cent4 of coke1 as a residue4 7c47 ,mineral oils1 which are obtained at the same time with paraffine1 and are the same as those produced from crude petroleum1 described above4 ,the process consists1 as in the natural rock oils1 besides the distillation1 in the treatment of the incidental products with acids and alkalies4 ,of the products of ozokerite1 manufactured in ,galicia1 the greater part goes to ,russia1 ,roumania1 ,turkey1 ,italy1 and ,upper ,hungary4 ,the common paraffine candles made in ,galicia--which are of various sizes1 from #bh to #afj per kilo--are used by the ,jews in all ,galicia1 ,bukowuina1 ,roumania1 ,upper ,hungary1 and ,southern ,russia1 and form an important article of commerce4 ,ceresine is exported to all the ports of the world4 ,of late a considerable quantity is said to have been sent to the ,east ,indies1 where it is used in the printing of cotton4 ,the ,president1 ,dr4 ,j4 ,s4 ,newberry1 stated that ozokerite was undoubtedly a product of petroleum4 ,little was known by the public concerning its use and value4 ,he exhibited specimens of natural brown ozokerite1 of yellow ozokerite1 sold as beeswax1 and of a white purified form1 which had been treated by sulphuric acid4 ,specimens from ,utah had already been shown before the ,academy4 ,there was no mystery as to its genesis in either region1 as it had been shown to be the result of inspissation of a thick and viscid variety of petroleum4 ,the term petroleum includes a great variety of substances1 from a limpid liquid1 too light to burn1 to one that is thick and tarry4 ,these differ widely also in chemical composition3 some yielding much asphalt by distillation1 resembling a solution of asphalt in turpentine2 some containing so much paraffine that a considerable quantity can be strained out in cold weather4 ,the asphalt in its natural form is a solid rock1 to which the term gum beds has been applied in ,canada4 ,these differences in constitution have originated in the differences in the bituminous shales from which the petroleum1 ozokerite1 etc41 have been derived4 ,in ,canada1 as excavations are sunk through the asphalt1 this becomes softer and softer1 and finally passes into petroleum4 ,this is also the case in ,utah4 99 99 99 99 99 ,concluded from ,,supplement ,no4 #djj1 page #fcij4 ,,kansas ,,city ,,review4 ,,the ,,solar ,,eclipse ,,of ,,may #f1 #ahhc4 ,professor ,c4 ,s4 ,hastings1 of the ,johns ,hopkins ,university1 also includes many interesting details in his account of the trip3 ,the voyage from ,new ,york to ,panama was pleasant with the exception of a few hot days near ,aspinwall4 ,somewhat further south the wind changed1 obliging them to call their overcoats from the bottom of their trunks to keep out the cold when crossing the equator4 ,during a short stop in ,lima the party had an opportunity of studying ,south ,american life4 ,the products of this country are fruits and photographs of the young women4 ,the party enjoyed both eating the former and bringing the latter home for the admiration of their friends4 ,the expedition really began at ,callao1 where the party embarked on the ,united ,states man-of-war ,hartford4 ,few circumstances contributed more to the enjoyment of the trip than the lucky chance which threw this vessel in their way4 ,the ,hartford was fitted out last ,august as flag ship of the ,south ,pacific squadron4 ,the admiral had not yet removed his flag to the vessel1 but the extra accommodations provided for him and his train condoned the dignity lost by his absence4 ,on ,march #bb they weighed anchor for a sail of more than four thousand miles over the blue ocean which stretches between ,callao and their destination1 ,caroline ,island4 ,the southeast trade winds favored them1 and from the first day there was actually no necessity for altering the position of a sail4444 ,the inhabitants--five men1 one woman and two children1 according to the eclipse census--are natives of ,tahiti4 ,the houses are one story structures with clapboard sides1 probably cut out in ,california and brought out in ships1 to be erected on this island4 ,the island on which they are built is about three-fourths of a mile in diameter and nearly circular in outline4 ,the edge1 which rises from five to twenty inches from the water1 according to the tide's phase1 goes down under the water to an even table of coral running out many feet into the sea2 and is impossible to step on it with bare feet4 ,at the end of this table the reef goes down perpendicularly1 a sheer precipice1 into the unfathomable sea4 ,no vessel can anchor here1 and to make a landing was an exciting matter4 ,the island was approached in small boats on the side sheltered from the wind1 and here1 with the luck which characterized the trip1 was found the only opening in this barrier of coral4 ,a long cleft1 perhaps eight feet wide1 at the outer edge of the reef1 ran in1 narrowing to a mere crack near the shore4 ,watching a favorable chance1 the boats were guided through the surf into a cleft as far as shoal water1 when the men jumped on to the reef and carried baggage and instruments ashore as quickly as possible4 ,the boats1 which were new when they entered the surf1 came out much the worse for wear1 and the boat in which ,dr4 ,hastings landed was stove in4 ,once on shore1 life became a succession of wonders1 rivaling the tales of ,gulliver1 and needing the conscientious descriptions of exact scientists to make them credible4 ,the members of the observing party took up their abode in the larger of the three houses1 sleeping in swinging cots slung from the verandas1 which afforded shade on three sides of the building4 ,the second house was occupied by the sailors1 while the third was left to the natives4 ,these latter were sufficiently conversant with ,english to serve as excellent guides4 ,each day the party bathed in a lagoon in the center of the island4 ,this lagoon was bordered by a beach of dazzling white coral sand1 and all through its water extended reefs of living coral of the more delicate and elaborate kinds4 ,these corals gave the lake a wonderful variety of colors1 forming a picture impossible to paint or describe1 and with the least ripple from a passing breeze the whole scene changed to new groups of color4 ,the water was very clear1 and in some places deep2 in others so filled with coral that a boat could barely skim over the surface without scraping the keel4 ,after crossing a long reef1 one day1 they entered on a sheet of water so deep that their longest line would not reach the bottom1 plainly visible beneath4 ,fish swarmed here1 and it was characteristic of them that every species1 if not brilliantly colored1 was marked in the most peculiar manner4 ,one variety which frequented the shallow water1 where it was heated to the degree uncomfortable to the touch1 was a pure milky white1 with black eyes1 fins1 and tail4 ,the ,french party arrived two days after the ,americans4 ,they had steamed directly from ,panama with the hope of anticipating the ,americans4 ,it rained on the morning of the eclipse1 but cleared off in good time1 and the definition was particularly good4 ,photographs occupied the time of the ,english and ,french observers4 ,professor ,holden and ,dr4 ,dickson searched for intra-mercurial planets2 ,mr4 ,preston took the times of contact2 ,dr4 ,hastings and ,mr4 ,rockwell devoted their attention to spectroscopic observations of the corona4 ,dr4 ,hastings' observations have led to the production of a new theory of the corona4 ,briefly stated1 the theory is that the light seen around the sun during a total eclipse is not due to a material substance enveloping the sun1 but is a phenomenon of diffraction4 ,from his observation during the eclipse of #ahgh1 made at ,central ,city1 ,dr4 ,hastings conceived the first idea of this explanation of the solar corona4 ,further study served to convince him of the truth of this theory1 but he had no means of proving it4 ,before the present eclipse1 however1 he devised a crucial test of his theory4 ,this test is based on the following already known phenomena3 ,when the moon covers the face of the sun1 an envelope of light is seen all round it2 the envelope is not visible when the sun is shining1 on account of the sun's greater brightness2 this light is called the corona2 it is extremely irregular in outline4 ,according to the drawing of ,mr4 ,j4 ,e4 ,keeler at the eclipse of #ahgh1 it enveloped the sun as a hazy glow1 extending for a distance of several minutes of arc from the sun's limb and at two nearly opposite points is extended out in two long streamers feathering off into space4 ,the opinion has been that this light was due to an atmosphere extending millions of miles from the sun4 ,according to ,dr4 ,hastings' view1 it must be light from the sun which has undergone refraction1 i4e41 which has been bent from its regular course by the interposition of an opaque body like the moon4 ,in order to make this perfectly plain1 suppose the front of a surface of waves of any sort to be striking an object which resists them4 ,if an organ of sense is placed in the resisting object1 it will judge the direction of the waves or the direction of the object producing them by a line at right angles with the wave front4 ,now suppose a body is placed between the body producing the waves and the sensitive organ4 ,the waves must go around this body and will produce an eddy behind it1 so that the wave front will have a different direction1 and the organ of sense will conceive the origin of the waves to lie in a direction different from that before the body was interposed4 ,now consider the waves to be waves of light1 and their origin the sun4 ,the organ of sense is the retina of the eye4 ,the moon is the opaque body interposed in the course of the waves1 and they1 being bent1 make the impression on the eye that the light comes from beyond the edge of the sun4 ,the moon covers the sun during the eclipse and a little more1 so that it can move for about five minutes and still cover the sun entirely4 ,this movement is very slight1 and if the corona consists of light from a solar atmosphere1 it should not change at all during this movement of the moon4 ,but if diffraction is the cause of the light1 then the slightest change in the relative positions of the sun and the moon should change the configuration of the corona1 i4e41 the corona should not remain exactly the same during a total eclipse4 ,the character of the light as shown by a spectrum analysis should change4 ,to determine this point ,dr4 ,hastings invented the following instrument3 ,two lozenge-shaped prisms of glass were fastened in the form of a letter ,v1 and so arranged that all the light falling within the aperture of the ,v was lost1 and that falling on the ends of the glass prisms was transmitted by a series of reflections to the apex of the ,v1 where the prisms touched2 here was placed a refracting prism1 so that the light could be analyzed4 ,this instrument was attached to the eye piece of the telescope1 and the image of the eclipse reduced to such a size that the moon just fitted into the aperture of the ,v1 while opposite sides of the corona were reflected through the prisms to the place where they came together4 ,in this way both sides of the corona were seen through the eye-piece at the same time4 ,on looking at the eclipse this is what ,dr4 ,hastings saw3 ,the light of the corona was divided into its constituents4 ,prominent among them was a bright green line1 which is designated by the number #a1dgd2 to this line attention was directed4 ,its presence in the spectrum has been an argument in favor of the view that the corona is a solar atmosphere4 ,if this is the case1 the line should remain fixed during the eclipse2 but if the corona is due to diffraction1 this line should change4 ,it should grow shorter in the light from one side of the corona1 and longer on the other4 ,the observation was now reduced to watching for a change in the relative length of two green lines4 ,at the beginning of totality the line from the west side was much the longer1 but as the eclipse progressed it shortened notably1 while the line from the east side1 shorter by about one-third at the beginning of the eclipse1 grew longer4 ,when the eclipse ended1 the proportions of the lines were exactly reversed4 ,there had been a change equal to two-thirds the length of the lines1 while the sun and moon had only changed their relative positions by an extremely small amount4 ,the only way in which this phenomenon can be accounted for is on the diffraction theory4 ,the material view of the corona will not answer for it4 ,but there are other discrepancies in the older view which have been known for some time4 ,the principal ones are3 #a4 ,it is known from study of the sun that the gaseous pressure at the surface must be less than an inch of mercury1 and is probably less than one-tenth of an inch1 but an atmosphere extending to the supposed limits would cause an enormous pressure at the sun's surface1 especially since the force of gravity on the sun is very much greater than on the earth4 #b4 ,the laws of gravitation would require a solar atmosphere to be distributed symmetrically around the sun1 while the corona is enormously irregular in form4 ,the sun is irregular in outline1 which would make its diffracted phenomena show the observed irregularity1 but it is symmetrical as regards density4 #c4 ,the most interesting discrepancy of the theory of the solar atmosphere is the fact that while it is supposed to extend for millions of miles from the sun1 the recent comet passed within two hundred thousand miles of the sun1 and yet its orbit was not affected in the least1 as it would have been if it had plowed its way through a material substance4 ,in taking photographs of the corona it is seen to be larger as the time of exposure is longer4 ,this shows that the corona extends indefinitely1 and it decreases in brilliancy in exact accordance with the mathematical laws of diffraction4 ,these laws involve very complicated mathematics1 but by them alone ,dr4 ,hastings has proved that there must be diffraction where the corona is1 and that it must follow the same laws as those observed4 ,there is a small envelope around the sun1 but in the opinion of ,dr4 ,hastings it does not extend beyond what is known as the chromosphere4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the question seems to be settled1 with considerable certainty1 that nothing exists inside of ,mercury large enough to be dignified by the name of planet4 ,there may be1 and there probably are1 for the perturbations of ,mercury indicate it1 multitudes of small masses circulating around the sun like the planets1 being fragments of comets or condensations of primitive matter1 whose combined luster is seen in the zodiacal light4 ,the other results of the work of the ,commission1 so far as now known1 are connected with the structure of the corona1 the solar appendage which extends out for millions of miles from the sun's disk4 ,in the photographs of the ,egyptian eclipse of last summer these streamers can be traced back of each other where they cross2 no better proof of their extreme tenuity could be given4 ,the duration of an eclipse of the sun depends on three things1 the distance of the sun from the earth1 the distance of the moon from the earth1 and the distance of the station from the equator4 ,all of these were favorable to a long eclipse in the case of the recent one1 and the six minutes of totality gave opportunities for deliberate work not often enjoyed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,buried ,,city ,,of ,,the ,,exodus4 ,the excavations at ,tell-el-,maskhutah1 of which illustrations are given1 have resulted in some of the most interesting and important discoveries that have ever rewarded the labors of archologists4 ,the idea of founding an ,english society for the purpose of exploring the buried cities of the ,delta originated with ,miss ,a4 ,b4 ,edwards1 the well-known authoress of ,one ,thousand ,miles up the ,nile1 and was carried into effect mainly by her own efforts and the energy and zeal of ,mr4 ,reginald ,stuart ,poole1 of the ,british ,museum1 aided by the substantial support of ,sir ,erasmus ,wilson1 without whose munificent donations the work could never have been accomplished4 ,the ,egypt ,exploration ,fund1 thus founded and maintained1 was fortunate in securing the co-operation of ,m4 ,naville1 the distinguished ,swiss ,egyptologist1 who set out for ,egypt in ,january of this year with the object of conducting the explorations contemplated by the society4 ,after a consultation with ,m4 ,maspero1 the ,director of ,archology in ,egypt1 who has throughout acted a friendly part toward the society's enterprise1 ,m4 ,naville decided to begin his campaign by attacking the mounds at ,tell-el-,maskhutah1 on the ,freshwater ,canal1 a few miles from ,ismailia4 ,the mounds of earth here were known to cover some ancient city1 for some sphinxes and statues had already been found2 but what city it could be1 archologists were at a loss to determine2 though some1 with ,professor ,lepsius at their head1 believed it to be none other than the ,rameses or ,raamses1 which the ,children of ,israel built for ,pharaoh1 and whence they started on their final ,exodus4 ,any identification1 however1 of the sites of the ,biblical cities in ,egypt was so far merely speculative4 ,practically nothing definite was known as to the geography of the ,israelite sojourn1 except that the ,land of ,goshen was undoubtedly in the eastern part of the ,delta1 and that ,zoan was ,tanis1 whose immense mounds are to form the next subject of the society's operations4 ,the route of the ,exodus was as uncertain as everything else connected with ,israel's sojourn in ,egypt4 ,what sea they crossed1 and where1 and by what direction they journeyed to it1 remained vexed questions1 although ,dr4 ,brugsch had set up a plausible theory1 in which the ,serbonian ,bog played an important part4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,excavations ,,pithom-,,succoth ,six weeks of steady digging at ,tell-el-,maskhutah1 under ,m4 ,naville's skillful direction1 placed all these speculations in quite a new light4 ,the city under the mounds proved to be none other than ,pithom1 the store or treasure city which the ,children of ,israel built for ,pharaoh 7,exod4 i4 #aa74 ,its character as a store place or granary is seen in its construction2 for the greater part of the area is covered with strongly built chambers1 without doors1 suitable for the storing of grain1 which would be introduced through trap doors in the floor above1 of which the ends of the beams are still visible4 ,these curious chambers1 unique in their appearance1 are constructed of large1 well made bricks1 sometimes mixed with straw1 sometimes without it1 dried in the sun1 and laid with mortar1 with great regularity and precision4 ,the walls are #aj ft4 thick1 and the thickness of the inclosing wall which runs round the whole city is more than #bj ft4 ,in one corner was the temple1 dedicated to the god ,tum1 and hence called ,pe-tum or ,pithom1 the ,abode of ,tum4 ,only a few statues1 groups1 and tablets 7some of which have been presented to the ,british ,museum7 remained to testify to its name and purpose2 the temple itself was finally destroyed when the ,romans turned ,pithom into a camp1 as is shown by the position of the limestone fragments and of the ,roman bricks4 ,the statues1 however1 and especially a large stele1 are extremely valuable1 since they tell the history of the city during eighteen centuries4 ,from a study of these monuments1 ,m4 ,naville has learned that ,pithom was its sacred1 and ,thukut 7,succoth7 its civil1 name2 that it was founded by ,rameses ,,ii41 restored by ,shishak and others of the twenty-second dynasty2 was an important place under the ,ptolemies1 who set up a great stele to commemorate the founding of the city of ,arsino in the neighborhood2 was called ,hero or ,heropolis by the ,greeks 7a name derived from the hieroglyphic ara1 meaning a store house71 and ,ero ,castra by the ,romans1 who occupied it at all events as late as ,a4,d4 #cjf4 ,indications are also found of the position of ,pihahiroth1 where the ,israelites encamped before the passage of the ,reedy ,sea1 and of ,clysma4 ,all these data are directly contradictory to preconceived theories3 ,pithom1 ,succoth1 ,heropolis1 ,pihahiroth1 and ,clysma had all been hypothetically placed in totally different positions4 ,the identification of ,pithom with ,succoth gives us the first absolutely certain point as yet established in the route of the ,exodus1 and completely overthrows ,dr4 ,brugsch's theory4 ,it is now certain that the ,israelites passed along the valley of the ,freshwater ,canal and not near the ,mediterranean and ,lake ,serbonis4 ,the first definite geographical fact in connection with the sojourn in the ,land of ,egypt has been established by the excavations at ,pithom4 ,the historical identification of ,rameses ,,ii4 with ,pharaoh the oppressor also results from the monumental evidence4 ,one short exploration has upset a hundred theories and furnished a wonderful illustration of the historical character of the ,book of ,exodus4 ,the finding of ,pithom 7,succoth7 is1 however1 only the beginning1 we hope1 of a series of important discoveries4 ,when enough money has been collected for the proposed exploration of ,zoan 7,tanis71 results of the highest interest to students alike of the ,bible and of ,egyptian antiquities may1 with certainty1 be predicted4 ,the uppermost view shows a portion of the diggings2 a workman is bringing up a barrow-load of soil from one of the deep store chambers which the ,children of ,israel built more than three thousand years ago4 ,in the foreground lie the fragments of a fallen granite statue1 the head and face of which are intact4 ,the other illustration is taken from the temple end of the excavations4 ,the sculptured group of ,rameses the ,great seated between divinities is one of a pair that adorned the entrance2 its companion and the sphinxes that guarded the pylon are at ,ismailia4 ,beyond this group1 and a little to the left1 is seen the great ,stele of ,pithom1 set up by ,ptolemy ,philadelphus and ,arsino1 and containing a mass of important information in its long hieroglyphic inscriptions4 ,behind this1 and on either side1 the massive brick walls of the store chambers and the inclosing wall of the temple can be traced2 while on the right hand1 in the middle distance1 is a heap of limestone blocks1 already collected by ,rameses ,,ii4 for the completion or enlargement of the temple4 ,the excavations were photographed for ,m4 ,naville1 by ,herr ,emil ,brugsch1 of the ,boulak ,museum1 and our illustrations are taken from these photographs1 supplemented by sketches4--,s4,l4,p41 in ,illustrated ,london ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,moabite ,,manuscripts4 ,the surprises of archology are magnificent and apparently inexhaustible4 ,it is continually bringing forth things new and old1 and often it happens that the newest are the oldest of all4 ,whether this or the exact converse is the case in regard to the latest discovery of ,biblical archology is a question not to be determined offhand2 but the interest and importance of the question can hardly be overrated4 ,there are now deposited in the ,british ,museum fifteen leather slips1 on the forty folds of which are written portions of the ,book of ,deuteronomy in a recension entirely different from that of the received text4 ,the character employed in the manuscript is similar to that of the famous ,moabite stone and of the ,siloam inscription1 and1 therefore1 the mere palographical indication should give the probable date of the slips as the ninth century ,b4 ,c41 or sixteen centuries earlier than any other clearly authenticated manuscript of any portion of the ,old ,testament4 ,the sheepskin slips are literally black with age1 and are impregnated with a faint odor as of funeral spices2 the folds are from #f to #g inches long and about #c inches wide1 containing each about ten lines1 written only on one side4 ,so far as they have yet been deciphered1 they exhibit two distinct handwritings1 though the same archaic character is used throughout4 ,in some cases the same passages of ,deuteronomy occur in duplicate on distinct slips1 as though the fragments belonged to two contemporary transcriptions made by different scribes from the same original text4 ,at first sight no writing whatever is perceptible2 the surface seems to be covered with an oily or glutinous substance1 which so completely obscures the writing beneath that a photograph of some of the slips--which we have had an opportunity of examining side by side with the slips themselves--exhibits no trace of the text4 ,but when the leather is moistened with spirits of wine the letters become momentarily visible beneath the glossy surface4 ,these extraordinary fragments were brought to ,england by ,mr4 ,shapira1 of ,jerusalem1 a well known bookseller and dealer in antiquities4 ,mr4 ,shapira's name will be remembered in connection with certain archological problems which have been solved by some scholars in a manner not altogether creditable to his sagacity4 ,the ,moabite pottery which reached ,europe through ,mr4 ,shapira's agency and is deposited in the ,museum at ,berlin is now commonly regarded as a modern forgery2 but of this forgery1 if it be one1 it is asserted that ,mr4 ,shapira was the dupe and not the accomplice4 ,the leathern fragments now produced by ,mr4 ,shapira were1 as he alleges1 obtained by him from certain ,arabs near ,dibon1 the neighborhood where the ,moabite stone was discovered4 ,the agent employed by him in their purchase was an ,arab who would steal his mother-in-law for a few piastres1 and who would probably be even less scrupulous about a few blackened slips of ancient or modern sheepskin4 ,the value placed by ,mr4 ,shapira on the fragments is1 however1 a cool million sterling1 and at this price they are offered to the ,british ,museum1 where they have been temporarily deposited for examination4 ,dr4 ,ginsburg1 the well-known ,semitic scholar--whose receipt of a grant of #ejj from the ,prime ,minister toward the production of his important work on the ,massorah we announced with much satisfaction yesterday--is now busily engaged in deciphering the contents of the fragments and examining their genuineness4 ,on this latter question we refrain from pronouncing an opinion4 ,when ,dr4 ,ginsburg's report appears1 we shall be able to judge whether these extraordinary fragments are really #b1ejj years old1 or have been compiled within the last few years4 ,no complete account of the contents of the fragments can yet be given4 ,to decipher them is a work of time and of infinite patience and skill1 as will readily be inferred from the account we have given above of the appearance and condition of the slips4 ,but enough has been deciphered to show that the text employed in them exhibits discrepancies of the most remarkable and important character as compared with that of the received version of the ,mosaic books4 ,in the first verse of the ninth chapter of ,deuteronomy1 where the received version reads1 ,thou art to pass over ,jordan this day1 to go in to possess nations greater and mightier than thyself1 the corresponding passage of the fragments substitutes the plural for the singular1 ,ye for ',thou1 while for g'dlm1 the word translated greater1 it reads rabbm4 ,but a far more complete idea of the variations of text and signification may be obtained from a comparison of the text of the ,decalogue as it appears in the received version in the sixth chapter of ,deuteronomy with that contained in the fragments so far as they have yet been deciphered4 ,the version of the fragments1 literally rendered1 runs as follows3 ,i am ,god1 thy ,god1 which liberated thee from the land of ,egypt1 from the house of bondage4 ,ye shall have no other gods4 ,ye shall not make to yourselves any graven image1 nor any likeness that is in heaven above or that is in the earth beneath1 or that is in the waters under the earth4 ,ye shall not bow down to them nor serve them4 ,i am ,god1 your ,god4 ,sanctify 444 in six days ,i have made the heaven and the earth1 and all that is therein1 and rested on the seventh day1 therefore rest thou also1 thou and thy cattle and all that thou hast3 ,i am ,god1 thy ,god4 ,honor thy father and thy mother 4443 ,i am ,god1 thy ,god4 ,thou shall not kill the person of thy brother3 ,i am ,god1 thy ,god4 ,thou shalt not commit adultery with the wife of thy neighbor3 ,i am ,god1 thy ,god4 ,thou shalt not steal the property of thy brother3 ,i am ,god1 thy ,god4 ,thou shalt not swear by my name falsely1 for ,i visit the iniquity of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation of those who take my name in vain3 ,i am ,god1 thy ,god4 ,thou shalt not bear false witness against thy brother3 ,i am ,god1 thy ,god4 ,thou shalt not covet the wife 444 or his manservant1 or his maidservant1 or anything that is his3 ,i am ,god1 thy ,god4 ,thou shalt not hate thy brother in thy heart3 ,i am ,god1 thy ,god4 ,these ten words 7or commandments7 ,god spake4 ,several points may be noted in this version4 ,the singular refrain ,i am ,god1 thy ,god--which does not appear at all in the received version--occurs ten times1 being1 as it were1 a solemn ratification of the ,divine sanction given at the end of each separate precept4 ,if this be so1 the first two commandments1 as they are commonly reckoned1 are here fused into one1 and the tenth place is taken by a commandment which does not appear in the received version of the ,decalogue4 ,it will further be observed that the distinctive ,jewish name for the ,almighty1 ,jehovah1 or the ,lord1 does not appear at all1 the familiar phrase of the received version1 the ,lord thy ,god1 being replaced throughout by ,god1 thy ,god4 ,on the many variations in arrangement and detail we need not dwell2 they speak for themselves4 ,but we have quoted enough to show that these fragments present problems of the utmost importance and interest both to criticism and exegesis1 unless1 indeed1 they are to be regarded as the ingenious fabrications of some ,oriental ,ireland1 who1 knowing the interest felt by scholars in variations of the ,sacred ,text1 has set himself1 with infinite pains and skill1 to forestall a growing demand4 ,until this preliminary question is resolved to the satisfaction of all competent scholars1 no further questions need be raised4 ,in any case the prim facie presumption must be held to be enormously against the genuineness of the fragments4 ,such a presumption rests on the improbability of finding manuscripts older by at least sixteen centuries than any extant manuscripts of the same text1 on the comparative ease with which such fragments can be forged1 and on the powerful motives to such forgery attested by the price placed by ,mr4 ,shapira on his property4 ,all that we know of the provenance of the fragments is that ,mr4 ,shapira obtained them from an ,arab of doubtful character2 and that ,arabs of doubtful character have driven a splendid trade in ,moabite antiquities ever since the discovery of the ,moabite stone4 ,on the other hand1 the forger1 if forgery there be1 is assuredly no clumsy and ignorant bungler1 as the makers of the ,moabite pottery were confidently alleged to be by those who disputed its genuineness4 ,it is1 of course1 part of his craft1 and not1 perhaps1 much more than the 'prentice part1 to give to the sheepskins on which the text is inscribed an appearance of immemorial antiquity4 ,but a good deal more than the skill required to make a new sheepskin look like an old one has gone to the production of ,mr4 ,shapira's fragments4 ,if they are forged1 the fabricator must have known what scholars would be likely to expect in genuine fragments1 and have set himself to fulfill their expectations4 ,in these days of scientific palography and minute textual scholarship no forger of ancient manuscripts could hope to take in scholars unless he were a scholar himself4 ,variations of text would be looked for as a matter of course2 palographical accuracy would be exacted to the minutest turn of a letter4 ,now1 to vary a text so as to furnish a different recension without betraying ignorance or solecism requires scholarship of no mean order1 while it is very far from an easy thing to write currently in an archaic and unfamiliar character in such a manner as to deceive experts in palography4 ,but the fabricator of these fragments1 if fabricated they are1 has attempted and accomplished a good deal more than this4 ,he has in some cases produced two identical texts written in different hands1 both preserving unimpaired the archaic character of the letters4 ,this implies either the employment of two scribes or else an almost incredible skill in the single scribe employed1 and in either case it doubles the probability of detection4 ,if1 moreover1 the supposed fabricator is also himself the scribe1 it is evident that he is not only a very ingenious artist1 but also a very accomplished scholar1 and one can only regret that he has engaged in an industry which has placed him at the mercy of an ,arab who would steal his mother-in-law for a few piastres1 and is likely1 therefore1 to enrich no one but ,mr4 ,shapira4 ,we should expect to find1 however1 that his extraordinary ingenuity has at some point or another overreached itself4 ,familiar as he must be with the labors of modern ,biblical critics--for otherwise he would hardly have ventured to impose upon them--it would be strange if he were not betrayed into some more or less suspicious coincidences with them4 ,in any case1 the problem presented by the fragments is one of profound interest1 and the whole world of letters will resound with the controversy they are certain to excite4--,london ,times4 99 99 99 99 99 ,illustration3 ,,specimens ,,of ,,old ,,knocking ,,devices ,,for ,,doors4--,from the ,building ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,shipping ,,ostriches ,,from ,,cape ,,town ,,to ,,australia4 ,since the failure last ,august of the ,cape ,commercial ,bank there has been much depression in ,south ,africa4 ,ostrich farming1 in common with other enterprises1 has suffered4 ,before the crisis a pair of breeding ostriches have been sold for #cej l41 now they would not realize #ej l4 ,the resolution of the ,government of ,south ,australia to encourage ostrich breeding came in very opportunely for the ,cape dealers1 and one or two cargoes of birds have been shipped for ,adelaide4 ,the climate of the two colonies is very similar1 and the locality selected for the imported birds 7the ,musgrave ,ranges7 resembles in dryness and temperature their native habitat4 ,the first sketch opposite represents the ostriches bidding farewell to their ,south ,african home4 ,the dear old farm where we were reared1 good-by6 ,one of the boxes1 while being slung from the cart to the hold1 got into a slanting position4 ,this frightened one of the two inmates1 a fine cock4 ,he kicked so hard that he burst open the door of his cage1 which was1 of course1 instantly lowered on deck4 ,fortunately there was there a gentleman who understood how to handle ostriches4 ,he instantly seized him before he could do himself or the bystanders any injury1 and after a brief struggle prevailed on him to re-enter his box4 ,when released in the hold he became quite quiet1 and ate his first meal on board ship with a relish4 ,after being taken out of their boxes the birds are allowed to take a little exercise just to make themselves at home1 and are then arranged in wooden kraals1 of which there are two hundred on board the vessel4 ,the ostriches are induced to move from one place to another by catching hold of their bodies1 and using a little gentle force4 ,the last sketch represents their first meal on board after a fast of thirty hours4 ,apple melons were chopped up for them by their steward1 who was to accompany them to ,australia4 ,it was curious to see a bird swallow a great lump and then to watch the lump working slowly down the animal's long neck4 ,on the voyage they would be fed with maize or mealies1 onions1 apple melons1 and barley4 ,they require very little water2 however1 there were five large iron tanks on board in case they would feel thirsty4 ,our engravings are from sketches by ,mr4 ,dennis ,edwards1 of ,hoff ,street1 ,capetown1 ,illustration3 ,,shipping ,,ostriches ,,from ,,cape ,,town ,,to ,,australia4 #a4 ,ostriches on the ,south ,african ,farm ,where ,they ,were ,reared4--#b4 ,attempted ,escape and ,recapture of an ,ostrich on ,board ,ship4--#c4 ,lowering the ,birds ,into the ,hold4--#d4;,a ,queer ,dinner ,party--,ostriches ,eating ,apple ,melons4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,new ,,weathercock4 ,an ordinary weathercock provided with datum points may1 in the majority of cases1 suffice for the observation of the wind during the day2 but recourse has to be had to different means to obtain an automatic transmission of the indications of the vane to the inside of a building4 ,the different systems employed for such a purpose consist of gearings1 or are accompanied by a friction that notably diminishes the sensitiveness of the apparatus1 especially when the rod has to traverse several stories4 ,mr4 ,emile ,richard1 inspector of the ,versailles waterworks1 has just devised an ingenious system which1 while considerably reducing the weight of the movable part1 allows the weathercock to preserve all its sensitiveness4 ,this apparatus consists of two principal parts--one fixed and the other movable4 ,the stationary part is designated in the accompanying figure by the letters ,a and ,b and by cross-hatchings4 ,this forms the rod or support4 ,an iron tube1 ,t1 with clamps1 ,p1 at its lower extremity forms the base of the apparatus1 and is hidden1 after the mounting of the apparatus1 by the ornamental zinc covering1 ,z4 ,the upper part of the tube carries a shoulder-piece1 upon which rests a bronze platform1 ,e1 and which is slightly inclined outwardly to prevent the accumulation of water on it4 ,over the platform there move three crystal balls1 which are held and guided by a horizontal disk movable around the stationary tube4 ,the movable portion1 designed to receive the action of the wind and to indicate its direction1 is designated by the letters ,c ,d and coarse lines4 ,it consists of 7#a7 a zinc tube1 ,k1 provided at intervals with copper rings1 and entering the rod1 ,a ,b1 which serves as a guide for it2 7#b7 of a bronze disk covered by an external ornament1 ,o1 fixed to the tube and resting on the balls2 7#c7 of the vane1 ,g1 properly so called2 and 7#d7 of the cap1 ,c1 provided with bayonet catch1 crowning the tube and covering the point of attachment of the wire of transmission4 ,this latter consists of a simple brass or galvanized iron wire1 f f1 perfectly taut1 and made fast in the top of the tube4 ,after traversing as many stories as necessary this wire terminates1 in the interior of the room where the observations are made1 in a copper rod to which is fastened a horizontal arrow1 ,f4 ,the wire traverses the floorings through small zinc tubes2 and1 in the rooms through which it passes1 it is protected by iron tubes4 ,to the ceiling of the observing room there is affixed a wind-rose1 ,r1 on which the arrow reproduces all the motions of the vane4 ,illustration3 ,,richard',s ,,weathercock4 ,this apparatus is now in operation in the different stations that the ,versailles waterworks has established near the reservoirs of the plateau of ,trappes1 and it is also installed in several primary normal schools1 where it is giving very good results4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,charred ,,clover4 ,a correspondent of the ,ohio ,farmer reports an experiment in curing clover1 showing how he just missed breeding fire in his barn1 and illustrating the importance of ventilating hay mows3 ,in #ahfa ,i used a horse fork for the first time4 ,the haying season was not a bright one1 and our clover was drawn a little greener than usual1 and went into the mow in large and compact forkfuls4 ,the result was intense heating1 and consequently very rapid evaporation and sweating of the mow4 ,on a bay holding ordinarily twenty tons we put at least thirty tons1 as every load at the top seemed to make room for another4 ,the barn was rather open1 which allowed quite free evaporation on all sides as well as at the top4 ,the result was that ,i had very bright and excellent hay at the bottom1 top1 and sides of that mow1 but severals tons in the center were as completely charred as though burned in a coal pit4 ,what prevented combustion has always been a mystery to me4 ,since that escape from a conflagration1 ,i have not deemed it prudent to put clover in so green as to cause intense heating1 or to fill a mow too rapidly4 ,if we haul six loads per day to one mow1 weighing thirty hundred each1 which will shrink during the sweating process to one ton each1 we have three tons of water to be thrown off by evaporation4 ,if we continue to put on six loads per day until the mow is full1 the principal part of that moisture must rise through the entire mass4 ,to relieve the hay of moisture1 ,i deem it best to have several places of storage1 and change daily or semi-daily from one to the other1 thus giving time for a share of the moisture to pass off4 ,to facilitate this evaporation and prevent the hay from reabsorbing it and becoming musty1 the best of ventilation is necessary4 ,ventilation above a clover mow is as necessary as it is above a sugar or fruit evaporator4 ,if there is not open space and draught sufficient to carry away the moisture1 it is returned to the mow1 and mould is the inevitable result4 ,no ordinary amount of drying will prevent hay from becoming musty if ventilation is shut off during the sweating process4 ,if a hole is cut through the floor at the bottom of the mow near the center and under a ventilator in the roof and a barrel placed over it and drawn up as the hay is mowed in1 thus leaving a hole from bottom to top1 evaporation will be facilitated and the quality of the hay improved4 ,salt thrown on1 as the clover is put in1 to the amount of two or three quarts to the ton1 will make it a relish with stock4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,queen ,,victoria ,,century ,,plant4 7,agave victori-regin47 ,this beautiful ,agave is now in blossom in the garden here1 and ,i am happy to be able to send you photographs of it4 ,this is the first time it has ever blossomed in cultivation1 and it has never been seen in flower in a wild state4 ,it is a mature native-grown specimen1 dense in habit1 and perfectly semi-spherical in form1 and the leaves are arranged in spiral fashion with as much regularity as those of a screw pine4 ,the circumference of the plant is #e ft4 #a in41 and it has #bfh leaves4 ,its flower-stem appeared about the middle of ,june1 grew rather fast till it was #g ft4 high1 then rather slowly till it reached its full development4 ,the scape is now #aj ft4 #d in4 high above the plant1 #f in4 in circumference at the base1 or #e in4 at a foot above the base2 from there it tapers very gradually till near the apex4 ,the flower-spike is exceedingly dense1 and #e ft4 #h in4 long2 the lower or naked portion1 #d ft4 #h in4 long1 is prominently marked by abortive flower buds1 with1 near the base1 some bristle-like scales #c in4 to #d in4 long4 ,the flowers are regularly arranged in parcels of three1 all the three being equal in size and opening together2 they are greenish white in color1 #a in4 long1 or1 including the stamens1 some #b in4 to #c in4 long4 ,illustration3 ,,agave ,,victori-,,regin4 ,the first flowers opened on ,august #c1 and they have continued to open in succession1 a belt about #c in4 wide opening each day4 ,they remain in good condition for two days2 on the third day the stamens wilt and drop down1 but the pistil remains erect till the fourth day4 ,on the first day of opening the pistil is not so long as the stamens by in42 on the second it has grown to be as long as the stamens1 but it is not in condition to receive the pollen till after noon of the second day4 ,although the flowers on some eighteen inches of the spike have already blossomed1 none of the ovaries have been fertilized2 they are dropping off1 but ,i am rather sanguine regarding those about the middle of the spike4 ,so great is the superfluity of nectar contained in the flowers1 that on the afternoon of the second day it often drops from the cups1 and the least shake to the scape brings it down in a shower4 ,the main beauty of the inflorescence consists in the dense bottle-brush-like mass of bright yellow anthers4 ,this plant1 together with several smaller ones1 was contributed to this garden by ,dr4 ,edward ,palmer1 who collected them in their native wilds--the mountains of ,northern ,mexico--some three years ago4 ,he found them growing in a limited and rather inaccessible locality in gravelly and rocky soil some miles from ,monterey4 ,in addition to those he sent here he also sent a quantity to the garden of the ,agricultural ,department at ,washington1 and some to ,dr4 ,engelmann1 the eminent botanist at ,st4 ,louis4 ,to ,dr4 ,engelmann he also sent a piece of an old flower stem and some dried capsules which he found upon an old plant1 and it was from these specimens in #ahhj that the doctor was enabled to describe for the first time the inflorescence of this ,agave4--,the ,garden4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,the ,,constitution ,,of ,,the ,,natural ,,fats4 ,by ,j4 ,,alfred ,,wanklyn and ,,william ,,fox4 ,in the course of an investigation in which we are at present engaged we have arrived at some results which appear to us to be very interesting4 ,we find that the generally received view that the fats are ethers of glycerin is partially correct1 and that instances of a different kind of structure occur among the natural oils and fats4 ,ethers of iso-glycerin1 or of homologues of iso-glycerin1 appear to occur4 ,iso-glycerin has this structure3 ,c7,,oh7#b ,,ch ,,ch#c ,it exists in its ethers1 but cannot be isolated1 and should be resolved into3 ,,cooh ,h#b,o ,,ch#b ,,ch#c ,ethers of iso-glycerin1 or ethers of homologues of iso-glycerin1 yield no glycerin when saponified4--,chemical ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a catalogue1 containing brief notices of many important scientific papers heretofore published in the ,,supplement1 may be had gratis at this office4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement4 ,,published ,,weekly4 ,,terms ,,of ,,subscription1 #e ,a ,,year4 ,sent by mail1 postage prepaid1 to subscribers in any part of the ,united ,states or ,canada4 ,six dollars a year1 sent1 prepaid1 to any foreign country4 ,all the back numbers of ,,the ,,supplement1 from the commencement1 ,january #a1 #ahgf1 can be had4 ,price1 #aj cents each4 ,all the back volumes of ,,the ,,supplement can likewise be supplied4 ,two volumes are issued yearly4 ,price of each volume1 #b4ej1 stitched in paper1 or #c4ej1 bound in stiff covers4 ,,combined ,,rates--,one copy of ,,scientific ,,american and one copy of ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement1 one year1 postpaid1 #g4jj4 ,a liberal discount to booksellers1 news agents1 and canvassers4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,,publishers1 #bfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york1 ,n4 ,y4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,patents4 ,in connection with the ,,scientific ,,american1 ,messrs4 ,,munn ,co4 are ,solicitors of ,american and ,foreign ,patents1 have had #ch years' experience1 and now have the largest establishment in the world4 ,patents are obtained on the best terms4 ,a special notice is made in the ,,scientific ,,american of all ,inventions patented through this ,agency1 with the name and residence of the ,patentee4 ,by the immense circulation thus given1 public attention is directed to the merits of the new patent1 and sales or introduction often easily effected4 ,any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain1 free of charge1 whether a patent can probably be obtained1 by writing to ,,munn ,co4 ,we also send free our ,hand ,book about the ,patent ,laws1 ,patents1 ,caveats4 ,trade ,marks1 their costs1 and how procured1 with hints for procuring advances on inventions4 ,address ,,munn ,,co41 #bfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york4 ,branch ,office1 cor4 ,f and #gth ,sts41 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4