,illustration     ,,scientific          
,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #cdd      
,,new ,,york1 ,august #e1 #ahhb         
,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4
 ,,xiv1 ,no4 #cdd4  ,scientific         
,american established #ahde  ,scientific
 ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4      
,scientific ,american and ,supplement1  
#g a year4          99       99       99
       99       99  ,,table ,,of        
,,contents4  ,i4   ,,engineering ,,and  
,,mechanics4--,the ,panama ,canal4 ,by  
,,manuel ,,eissler4 ,i4--,historical    
notes4--,spanish ,discoveries      in   
,central ,america4--,early              
explorations4--,nicaragua               
projects4--,panama railway1 etc4        
,improved ,averaging ,machine4          
,compound ,beam ,engine4 #d             
figures4--,borsig's improved            
compound beam engine4       ,power      
,hammers with ,movable ,fulcrum4--,by   
,,daniel      ,,longworth4 #e figures4  
,the ,bicheroux ,system of ,furnaces    
,applied to the ,puddling of      ,iron4

 #b figures4       ,gessner's           
,continuous ,cloth ,pressing ,machine4  
#c figures4       ,novelties in ,ring   
,spindles4 #d figures4                  
,improvements in ,woolen ,carding       
,engines4  ,,ii4  ,,natural             
,,history4--,metamorphosis of the       
,deer's      ,antlers4--,annual changes4
 #i figures4       ,monkeys4 ,by ,a4,r4 
,,wallace4--,comparison of skeletons of 
man1      orang outang1 and             
chimpanzee4--,other anatomical          
resemblances      and diversities4--,the
 different kinds of monkeys and the     
countries they inhabit4--,american      
monkeys4--,lemurs4      --,distribution1
 affinities1 and zoological rank of     
monkeys4       ,silk ,producing         
,bombyces and other ,lepidoptera reared 
in      #ahha4 ,by ,,alfred ,,wailly1   
,member ,lauriat de la ,societe         
d',acclimatation de ,france4--,an       
extended and important      ,european1  
,asiatic1 and ,american silk worms1 and 
other      silk producers4  ,,iii4      

,,mineralogy1 ,,metallurgy1 ,,etc4--,the
 ,mineralogical      ,localities ,in and
 ,around ,new ,york ,city and the       
,minerals      ,occurring ,therein4--,by
 ,,nelson ,h4 ,,darton4--,chances for   
collecting within one hour's ride of    
,new ,york4--,methods      of collecting
 and testing4--,localities on ,bergen   
,hill4--,the ,weehawken                 
,tunnel4--,minerals and modes of        
occurrence4--,calcite4--,natrolite4--,pe
ctolite4--,datholite4                   
--,apopholite4--,phrenite4--,iron and   
copper pyrites4                         
--,stilbite4--,laumonite4--,heulandite4 
,antiseptics4       ,crystallization and
 its ,effects ,upon ,iron4 ,by ,n4,b4   
,,wood4--      ,beauty of               
,crystals4--,nature of                  
cohesion4--,cleavage4--,growth      of  
crystals4--,some large crystals4--,cast 
iron4--,influence      of phosphorus and
 sulphur4--,nature of steel4--,burnt    
steel4--,effect of annealing4  ,,iv4    
,,architecture1 ,,art1 ,,etc4--,the     

,cathedral of ,burgos1 ,spain4          
--,full page illustration from          
photograph4       ,description of       
,burgos ,cathedral4                     
,photo-,engraving on ,zinc and ,copper4 
,by ,,leon ,,vidal4       ,meridian     
,line4--,a surveyor's method of finding 
the true      meridian4--,by ,r4,w4     
,,mcfarland4  ,v4   ,,electricity1      
,,etc4--,electro ,mania4 ,by ,w4        
,,mattieu      ,,williams4--,example of 
electrical exaggeration and             
delusion4--,early scientific attempts at
 electro-motors1      electric lamps1   
etc4       ,action of ,magnets ,upon the
 ,voltaic ,arc4 ,by ,,th4 ,,du          
,,moncel4 #b figures4       ,volckmar's 
,secondary ,batteries4         99       
99       99       99       99           
,,metamorphosis ,,of ,,the ,,deer',s    
,,antlers4   ,every year in ,march the  
deer loses its antlers1 and fresh ones  
immediately begin to grow1 which exceed 
in size those that have just been lost4 
,few persons probably have been able to 

watch and observe the habits of the     
animal after it has lost its antlers4   
,it will1 therefore1 be of interest to  
examine the accompanying drawings1 by   
,mr4 ,l4 ,beckmann1 one of them showing 
a deer while shedding its antlers1 and  
the other as the animal appears after   
losing them4 ,in the first illustration 
the animal has just lost one of its     
antlers1 and fright and pain cause it to
 throw its head upward and become       
disturbed and uneasy4 ,the remaining    
antler draws down one side of the head  
and is very inconvenient for the animal4
 ,the remaining antler becomes soon     
detached from its base1 and the deer    
turns--as if ashamed of having lost its 
ornament and weapon--lowers its head1   
and sorrowfully moves to the adjoining  
thicket1 where it hides4 ,a friend once 
observed a deer losing its antlers1 but 
the circumstances were somewhat         
different4 ,the animal was jumping over 
a ditch1 and as soon as it touched the  
further bank it jumped high in the air1 

arched its back1 bent its head to one   
side in the manner of an animal that has
 been wounded1 and then sadly approached
 the nearest thicket1 in the same manner
 as the artist has represented in the   
accompanying picture4 ,both antlers     
dropped off and fell into the ditch4    
,illustration3 ,,metamorphosis ,,of     
,,deer',s ,,antlers4--,,first ,,stage4  
,strong antlers are generally found     
together1 but weak ones are lost at     
intervals of two or three days4 ,a few  
days after this loss the stumps upon    
which the antlers rested are covered    
with a skin1 which grows upward very    
rapidly1 and under which the fresh      
antlers are formed1 so that by the end  
of ,july the bucks have new and strong  
antlers1 from which they remove the fine
 hairy covering by rubbing them against 
young trees4 ,it is peculiar that the   
huntsman1 who knows everything in regard
 to deer1 and has seventy-two signs by  
which he can tell whether a male or     
female deer passes through the woods1   

does not know at what age the deer gets 
its first antlers and how the antlers   
indicate the age of the animal4 ,prof4  
,altum1 in ,eberswalde1 has given some  
valuable information in regard to the   
relation between the age of the deer and
 the forms of their antlers1 but in some
 respects he has not expressed himself  
very clearly1 and ,i think that my      
observations given in addition to his   
may be of importance4 ,when the animal  
is a year old--that is1 in ,june--the   
burrs of the antlers begin to form1 and 
in ,july the animal has two             
protuberances of the size of walnuts1   
from which the first branches of the    
antlers rise2 these branches having the 
length of a finger only1 or being even  
shorter1 as shown at #a1 in diagram1 on 
p4 #edha4 ,after the second year more   
branches are formed1 which are          
considerably longer and much rougher at 
the lower ends than the first4 ,the     
third pair of antlers is different from 
its predecessors1 inasmuch as it has    

roses1 that is1 annular ridges around   
the bases of the horn1 which latter are 
now bent in the shape of a crescent4    
,either the antler has a single branch  
7,fig4 #c1 a71 or besides the point it  
has another short end1 which is a most  
rare shape1 and is known as a fork      
7,fig4 #c1 b71 or it has two forks      
7,fig4 #c1 c74 ,in the following year   
the antlers take the form shown in ,fig4
 #d1 and then follows the antler shown  
in ,fig4 #e1 a1 which generally has     
forks in place of points1 and is known  
as forked antler in contradistinction to
 the point antler shown in ,fig4 #e1 b1 
which retains the shape of the antler1  
,fig4 #d1 but has additional or         
intermediate prongs or branches4 ,the   
huntsmen designate the antlers by the   
number of ends or points on the two     
antlers4 ,for instance1 ,fig4 #d is a   
six-ender2 ,fig4 #e shows an            
eight-ender1 etc42 and antlers have been
 known to have as many as twenty-two    
ends4 ,if the two antlers do not have   

the same number of ends the number of   
ends on the larger antler is multiplied 
by two and the word odd is placed before
 the word designating the number of     
ends4 ,for instance1 if one antler has  
three ends and the other four1 the      
antler would be termed an odd           
eight-ender4 ,the sixth antler shown in 
,fig4 #f is a ten-ender1 and appears in 
two different forms1 either with a fork 
at the upper end1 as shown in ,fig4 #f1 
a1 or with a crown1 as shown in ,fig4   
#f1 b4 ,in ,fig4 #g an antler is shown  
which the animal carries from its       
seventh year until the month of ,march  
of its eighth year4 ,from that time on  
the crowns only increase and change4    
,the increase in the number of points is
 not always as regular as ,i have       
described it1 for in years when food is 
scarce and poor the antlers are weak and
 small1 and when food is plentiful and  
rich the antlers grow exceedingly large1
 and sometimes skip an entire year's    
growth4--,karl ,brandt1 in ,leipziger   

lllustrirte ,zeitung4  ,illustration3   
,,metamorphosis ,,of ,,deer',s          
,,antlers4--,,second ,,stage4           
,illustration         99       99       
99       99       99     ,,monkeys4  ,by
 ,,alfred ,r4 ,,wallace4   ,if the      
skeleton of an orang-outang and a       
chimpanzee be compared with that of a   
man1 there will be found to be the most 
wonderful resemblance1 together with a  
very marked diversity4 ,bone for bone1  
throughout the whole structure1 will be 
found to agree in general form1         
position1 and function1 the only        
absolute differences being that the     
orang has nine wrist bones1 whereas man 
and the chimpanzee have but eight2 and  
the chimpanzee has thirteen pairs of    
ribs1 whereas the orang1 like man1 has  
but twelve4 ,with these two exceptions1 
the differences are those of shape1     
proportion1 and direction only1 though  
the resulting differences in the        
external form and motions are very      
considerable4 ,the greatest of these    

are1 that the feet of the anthropoid or 
man-like apes1 as well as those of all  
monkeys1 are formed like hands1 with    
large opposable thumbs fitted to grasp  
the branches of trees1 but unsuitable   
for erect walking1 while the hands have 
weak1 small thumbs1 but very long and   
powerful fingers1 forming a hook1 rather
 than a hand1 adapted for climbing up   
trees and suspending the whole weight   
from horizontal branches4 ,the almost   
complete identity of the skeleton1      
however1 and the close similarity of the
 muscles and of all the internal organs1
 have produced that striking and        
ludicrous resemblance to man1 which     
every one recognizes in these higher    
apes1 and1 in a less degree1 in the     
whole monkey tribe2 the face and        
features1 the motions1 attitudes1 and   
gestures being often a strange          
caricature of humanity4 ,let us1 then1  
examine a little more closely in what   
the resemblance consists1 and how far1  
and to what extent1 these animals really

 differ from us4  ,besides the face1    
which is often wonderfully              
human--although the absence of any      
protuberant nose gives it often a       
curiously infantile aspect1 monkeys1 and
 especially apes1 resemble us most      
closely in the hand and arm4 ,the hand  
has well-formed fingers1 with nails1 and
 the skin of the palm is lined and      
furrowed like our own4 ,the thumb is1   
however1 smaller and weaker than ours1  
and is not so much used in taking hold  
of anything4 ,the monkey's hand is1     
therefore1 not so well adapted as that  
of man for a variety of purposes1 and   
cannot be applied with such precision in
 holding small objects1 while it is     
unsuitable for performing delicate      
operations1 such as tying a knot or     
writing with a pen4 ,a monkey does not  
take hold of a nut with its forefinger  
and thumb1 as we do1 but grasps it      
between the fingers and the palm in a   
clumsy way1 just as a baby does before  
it has acquired the proper use of its   

hand4 ,two groups of monkeys--one in    
,africa and one in ,south ,america--have
 no thumbs on their hands1 and yet they 
do not seem to be in any respect        
inferior to other kinds which possess   
it4 ,in most of the ,american monkeys   
the thumb bends in the same direction as
 the fingers1 and in none is it so      
perfectly opposed to the fingers as our 
thumbs are2 and all these circumstances 
show that the hand of the monkey is1    
both structurally and functionally1 a   
very different and very inferior organ  
to that of man1 since it is not applied 
to similar purposes1 nor is it capable  
of being so applied4  ,when we look at  
the feet of monkeys we find a still     
greater difference1 for these have much 
larger and more opposable thumbs1 and   
are therefore more like our hands2 and  
this is the case with all monkeys1 so   
that even those which have no thumbs on 
their hands1 or have them small and weak
 and parallel to the fingers1 have      
always large and well-formed thumbs on  

their feet4 ,it was on account of this  
peculiarity that the great ,french      
naturalist ,cuvier named the whole group
 of monkeys ,quadrumana1 or four-handed 
animals1 because1 besides the two hands 
on their fore-limbs1 they have also two 
hands in place of feet on their         
hind-limbs4 ,modern naturalists have    
given up the use of this term1 because  
they say that the hind extremities of   
all monkeys are really feet1 only these 
feet are shaped like hands2 but this is 
a point of anatomy1 or rather of        
nomenclature1 which we need not here    
discuss4  ,let us1 however1 before going
 further1 inquire into the purpose and  
use of this peculiarity1 and we shall   
then see that it is simply an adaptation
 to the mode of life of the animals     
which possess it4 ,monkeys1 as a rule1  
live in trees1 and are especially       
abundant in the great tropical forests4 
,they feed chiefly upon fruits1 and     
occasionally eat insects and            
birds'-eggs1 as well as young birds1 all

 of which they find in the trees2 and1  
as they have no occasion to come down to
 the ground1 they travel from tree to   
tree by jumping or swinging1 and thus   
pass the greater part of their lives    
entirely among the leafy branches of    
lofty trees4 ,for such a mode of        
existence1 they require to be able to   
move with perfect ease upon large or    
small branches1 and to climb up rapidly 
from one bough to another4 ,as they use 
their hands for gathering fruit and     
catching insects or birds1 they require 
some means of holding on with their     
feet1 otherwise they would be liable to 
continual falls1 and they are able to do
 this by means of their long finger-like
 toes and large opposable thumbs1 which 
grasp a branch almost as securely as a  
bird grasps its perch4 ,the true hands1 
on the contrary1 are used chiefly to    
climb with1 and to swing the whole      
weight of the body from one branch or   
one tree to another1 and for this       
purpose the fingers are very long and   

strong1 and in many species they are    
further strengthened by being partially 
joined together1 as if the skin of our  
fingers grew together as far as the     
knuckles4 ,this shows that the separate 
action of the fingers1 which is so      
important to us1 is little required by  
monkeys1 whose hand is really an organ  
for climbing and seizing food1 while    
their foot is required to support them  
firmly in any position on the branches  
of trees1 and for this purpose it has   
become modified into a large and        
powerful grasping hand4  ,another       
striking difference between monkeys and 
men is that the former never walk with  
ease in an erect posture1 but always use
 their arms in climbing or in walking on
 all-fours like most quadrupeds4 ,the   
monkeys that we see in the streets      
dressed up and walking erect1 only do so
 after much drilling and teaching1 just 
as dogs may be taught to walk in the    
same way2 and the posture is almost as  
unnatural to the one animal as it is to 

the other4 ,the largest and most        
man-like of the apes--the gorilla1      
chimpanzee1 and orang-outang--also walk 
usually on all-fours2 but in these the  
arms are so long and the legs so short  
that the body appears half erect when   
walking2 and they have the habit of     
resting on the knuckles of the hands1   
not on the palms like the smaller       
monkeys1 whose arms and legs are more   
nearly of an equal length1 which tends  
still further to give them a semi-erect 
position4 ,still they are never known to
 walk of their own accord on their hind 
legs only1 though they can do so for    
short distances1 and the story of their 
using a stick and walking erect by its  
help in the wild state is not true4     
,monkeys1 then1 are both four-handed and
 four-footed beasts2 they possess four  
hands formed very much like our hands1  
and capable of picking up or holding any
 small object in the same manner2 but   
they are also four-footed1 because they 
use all four limbs for the purpose of   

walking1 running1 or climbing2 and1     
being adapted to this double purpose1   
the hands want the delicacy of touch and
 the freedom as well as the precision of
 movement which ours possess4 ,man alone
 is so constructed that he walks erect  
with perfect ease1 and has his hands    
free for any use to which he wishes to  
apply them2 and this is the great and   
essential bodily distinction between    
monkeys and men4  ,we will now give some
 account of the different kinds of      
monkeys and the countries they inhabit4 
,,the ,,different ,,kinds ,,of ,,monkeys
 ,,and ,,the ,,countries ,,they         
,,inhabit4  ,monkeys are usually divided
 into three kinds--apes1 monkeys1 and   
baboons2 but these do not include the   
,american monkeys1 which are really more
 different from all those of the ,old   
,world than any of the latter are from  
each other4 ,naturalists1 therefore1    
divide the whole monkey-tribe into two  
great families1 inhabiting the ,old and 
the ,new ,world respectively2 and1 if we

 learn to remember the kind of          
differences by which these several      
groups are distinguished1 we shall be   
able to understand something of the     
classification of animals1 and the      
difference between important and        
unimportant characters4  ,taking first  
the ,old ,world groups1 they may be thus
 defined3 apes have no tails2 monkeys   
have tails1 which are usually long2     
while baboons have short tails1 and     
their faces1 instead of being round and 
with a man-like expression as in apes   
and monkeys1 are long and more dog-like4
 ,these differences are1 however1 by no 
means constant1 and it is often         
difficult to tell whether an animal     
should be classed as an ape1 a monkey1  
or a baboon4 ,the ,gibraltar ape1 for   
example1 though it has no tail1 is      
really a monkey1 because it has         
callosities1 or hard pads of bare skin  
on which it sits1 and cheek pouches in  
which it can stow away food2 the latter 
character being always absent in the    

true apes1 while both are present in    
most monkeys and baboons4 ,all these    
animals1 however1 from the largest ape  
to the smallest monkey1 have the same   
number of teeth as we have1 and they are
 arranged in a similar manner1 although 
the tusks or canine teeth of the males  
are often large1 like those of a dog4   
,the ,american monkeys1 on the other    
hand1 with the exception of the         
marmosets1 have four additional grinding
 teeth 7one in each jaw on either side71
 and none of them have callosities1 or  
cheek pouches4 ,they never have         
prominent snouts like the baboons2 their
 nostrils are placed wide apart and open
 sideways on the face2 the tail1 though 
sometimes short1 is never quite absent2 
and the thumb bends the same way as the 
fingers1 is generally very short and    
weak1 and is often quite wanting4 ,we   
thus see that these ,american monkeys   
differ in a great number of characters  
from those of the ,eastern hemisphere2  
and they have this further peculiarity1 

that many of them have prehensile or    
grasping tails1 which are never found in
 the monkeys of any other country4 ,this
 curious organ serves the purpose of a  
fifth hand4 ,it has so much muscular    
power that the animal can hang by it    
easily with the tip curled round a      
branch1 while it can also be used to    
pick up small objects with almost as    
much ease and exactness as an elephant's
 trunk4 ,in those species which have it 
most perfectly formed it is very long   
and powerful1 and the end has the       
underside covered with bare skin1       
exactly resembling that of the finger or
 palm of the hand and apparently equally
 sensitive4 ,one of the common kinds of 
monkeys that accompany street           
organ-players has a prehensile tail1 but
 not of the most perfect kind2 since in 
this species the tail is entirely clad  
with hair to the tip1 and seems to be   
used chiefly to steady the animal when  
sitting on a branch by being twisted    
round another branch near it4 ,the      

statement is often erroneously made that
 all ,american monkeys have prehensile  
tails2 but the fact is that rather less 
than half the known kinds have them so1 
the remainder having this organ either  
short and bushy1 or long and slender1   
but entirely without any power of       
grasping4 ,all prehensile-tailed monkeys
 are ,american1 but all ,american       
monkeys are not prehensile-tailed4  ,by 
remembering these characters it is easy1
 with a little observation1 to tell     
whether any strange monkey comes from   
,america or from the ,old ,world4 ,if it
 has bare seat-pads1 or if when eating  
it fills its mouth till its cheeks swell
 out like little bags1 we may be sure it
 comes from some part of ,africa or     
,asia2 while if it can curl up the end  
of its tail so as to take hold of       
anything1 it is certainly ,american4 ,as
 all the tailed monkeys of the ,old     
,world have seat-pads 7or ischial       
callosities as they are called in       
scientific language71 and as all the    

,american monkeys have tails1 but no    
seat-pads1 this is the most constant    
external character by which to          
distinguish them2 and having done so we 
can look for the other peculiarities of 
the ,american monkeys1 especially the   
distance apart of the nostrils and their
 lateral position4  ,the whole          
monkey-tribe is especially tropical1    
only a few kinds being found in the     
warmer parts of the temperate zone4 ,one
 inhabits the ,rock of ,gibraltar1 and  
there is one very like it in ,japan1 and
 these are the two monkeys which live   
furthest from the equator4 ,in the      
tropics they become very abundant and   
increase in numbers and variety as we   
approach the equator1 where the climate 
is hot1 moist1 and equable1 and where   
flowers1 fruits1 and insects are to be  
found throughout the year4 ,africa has  
about #ee different kinds1 ,asia and its
 islands about #fj1 while ,america has  
#aad1 or almost exactly the same as     
,asia and ,africa together4 ,australia  

and its islands have no monkeys1 nor has
 the great and luxuriant island of ,new 
,guinea1 whose magnificent forests seem 
so well adapted for them4 ,we will now  
give a short account of the different   
kinds of monkeys inhabiting each of the 
tropical continents4  ,africa possesses 
two of the great man-like apes--the     
gorilla and the chimpanzee1 the former  
being the largest ape known1 and the one
 which1 on the whole1 perhaps most      
resembles man1 though its countenance is
 less human than that of the chimpanzee4
 ,both are found in ,west ,africa1 near 
the equator1 but they also inhabit the  
interior wherever there are great       
forests2 and ,dr4 ,schweinfurth states  
that the chimpanzee inhabits the country
 about the sources of the ,shari ,river 
in #bh ,e4 long4 and #d ,n4 lat4  ,the  
long-tailed monkeys of ,africa are very 
numerous and varied4 ,one group has no  
cheek pouches and no thumb on the hand1 
and many of these have long soft fur of 
varied colors4 ,the most numerous group 

are the ,guenons1 rather small          
long-tailed monkeys1 very active and    
lively1 and often having their faces    
curiously marked with white or black1 or
 ornamented with whiskers or other tufts
 of hair2 and they all have large cheek 
pouches and good sized thumbs4 ,many of 
them are called green monkeys1 from the 
greenish yellow tint of their fur1 and  
most of them are well formed1 pleasing  
animals4 ,they are found only in        
tropical ,africa4  ,the baboons are     
larger but less numerous4 ,they resemble
 dogs in the general form and the length
 of the face or snout1 but they have    
hands with well-developed thumbs on both
 the fore and hind limbs2 and this1 with
 something in the expression of the face
 and their habit of sitting up and using
 their hands in a very human fashion1 at
 once shows that they belong to the     
monkey tribe4 ,many of them are very    
ugly1 and in their wild state they are  
the fiercest and most dangerous of      
monkeys4 ,some have the tail very long1 

others of medium length1 while it is    
sometimes reduced to a mere stump1 and  
all have large cheek pouches and bare   
seat pads4 ,they are found all over     
,africa1 from ,egypt to the ,cape of    
,good ,hope2 while one species1 called  
the hamadryas1 extends from ,abyssinia  
across the ,red ,sea into ,arabia1 and  
is the only baboon found out of ,africa4
 ,this species was known to the         
ancients1 and it is often represented in
 ,egyptian sculptures1 while mummies of 
it have been found in the catacombs4    
,the largest and most remarkable of all 
the baboons is the mandrill of ,west    
,africa1 whose swollen and hog-like face
 is ornamented with stripes of vivid    
blue and scarlet4 ,this animal has a    
tail scarcely two inches long1 while in 
size and strength it is not much        
inferior to the gorilla4 ,the large     
baboons go in bands1 and are said to be 
a match for any other animals in the    
,african forests1 and even to attack and
 drive away the elephants from the      

districts they inhabit4  ,turning now to
 ,asia1 we have first one of the best   
known of the large man-like apes--the   
orang-outang1 found only in the two     
large islands1 ,borneo and ,sumatra4    
,the name is ,malay1 signifying man of  
the woods1 and it should be pronounced  
rang-otan1 the accent being on the first
 syllable of both words4 ,it is a very  
curious circumstance that1 whereas the  
gorilla and chimpanzee are both black1  
like the negroes of the same country1   
the orang-outang is red or reddish      
brown1 closely resembling the color of  
the ,malays and ,dyaks who live in the  
,bornean forests4 ,though very large and
 powerful1 it is a harmless creature1   
feeding on fruit1 and never attacking   
any other animal except in self-defense4
 ,a full-grown male orang-outang is     
rather more than four feet high1 but    
with a body as large as that of a stout 
man1 and with enormously long and       
powerful arms4  ,another group of true  
apes inhabit ,asia and the larger       

,asiatic islands1 and are in some       
respects the most remarkable of the     
whole family4 ,these are the ,gibbons1  
or long-armed apes1 which are generally 
of small size and of a gentle           
disposition1 but possessing the most    
wonderful agility4 ,in these creatures  
the arms are as long as the body and    
legs together1 and are so powerful that 
a gibbon will hang for hours suspended  
from a branch1 or swing to and fro and  
then throw itself a great distance      
through the air4 ,the arms1 in fact1    
completely take the place of the legs   
for traveling4 ,instead of jumping from 
bough to bough and running on the       
branches1 like other apes and monkeys1  
the gibbons move along while hanging    
suspended in the air1 stretching their  
arms from bough to bough1 and thus going
 hand over hand as a very active sailor 
will climb along a rope4 ,the strength  
of their arms is1 however1 so           
prodigious1 and their hold so sure1 that
 they often loose one hand before they  

have caught a bough with the other1 thus
 seeming almost to fly through the air  
by a series of swinging leaps2 and they 
travel among the network of interlacing 
boughs a hundred feet above the earth   
with as much ease and certainty as we   
walk or run upon level ground1 and with 
even greater speed4 ,these little       
animals scarcely ever come down to the  
ground of their own accord2 but when    
obliged to do so they run along almost  
erect1 with their long arms swinging    
round and round1 as if trying to find   
some tree or other object to climb upon4
 ,they are the only apes who naturally  
walk without using their hands as well  
as their feet2 but this does not make   
them more like men1 for it is evident   
that the attitude is not an easy one1   
and is only adopted because the arms are
 habitually used to swing by1 and are   
therefore naturally held upward1 instead
 of downward1 as they must be when      
walking on them4  ,the tailed monkeys of
 ,asia consist of two groups1 the first 

of which have no cheek pouches1 but     
always have very long tails1 ,they are  
true forest monkeys1 very active and of 
a shy disposition4 ,the most remarkable 
of these is the long-nosed monkey of    
,borneo1 which is very large1 of a pale 
brown color1 and distinguished by       
possessing a long1 pointed1 fleshy nose1
 totally unlike that of all other       
monkeys4 ,another interesting species is
 the black and white entellus monkey of 
,india1 called the ,hanuman1 by the     
,hindoos1 and considered sacred by them4
 ,these animals are petted and fed1 and 
at some of the temples numbers of them  
come every day for the food which the   
priests1 as well as the people1 provide 
for them4  ,the next group of ,eastern  
monkeys are the ,macaques1 which are    
more like baboons1 and often run upon   
the ground4 ,they are more bold and     
vicious than the others4 ,all have cheek
 pouches1 and though some have long     
tails1 in others the tail is short1 or  
reduced to a mere stump4 ,in some few   

this stump is so very short that there  
appears to be no tail1 as in the magot  
of ,north ,africa and ,gibraltar1 and in
 an allied species that inhabits ,japan4
   ,,american ,,monkeys4  ,the monkeys  
which inhabit ,america form three very  
distinct groups3 #ast1 the ,sapajous1   
which have prehensile or grasping tails2
 #bnd1 the ,sagouins1 which have        
ordinary tails1 either long or short2   
and1 #crd1 the ,marmosets1 very small   
creatures1 with sharp claws1 long tails 
which are not prehensile1 and a smaller 
number of teeth than all other ,american
 monkeys4 ,each of these three groups   
contain several sub-groups1 or genera1  
which often differ remarkably from each 
other1 and from all the monkeys of the  
,old ,world4  ,we will begin with the   
howling monkeys1 which are the largest  
found in ,america1 and are celebrated   
for the loud voice of the males4 ,often 
in the great forests of the ,amazon or  
,oronooko a tremendous noise is heard in
 the night or early morning1 as if a    

great assemblage of wild beasts were all
 roaring and screaming together4 ,the   
noise may be heard for miles1 and it is 
louder and more piercing than that of   
any other animals1 yet it is all        
produced by a single male howler1       
sitting on the branches of some lofty   
tree4 ,they are enabled to make this    
extraordinary noise by means of an organ
 that is possessed by no other animal4  
,the lower jaw is unusually deep1 and   
this makes room for a hollow bony vessel
 about the size of a large walnut1      
situated under the root of the tongue1  
and having an opening into the windpipe 
by which the animal can force air into  
it4 ,this increases the power of its    
voice1 acting something like the hollow 
case of a violin1 and producing those   
marvelous rolling and reverberating     
sounds which caused the celebrated      
traveler ,waterton to declare that they 
were such as might have had their origin
 in the infernal regions4 ,the howlers  
are large and stout bodied monkeys1 with

 bearded faces1 and very strong and     
powerfully grasping tails4 ,they inhabit
 the wildest forests2 they are very shy1
 and are seldom taken captive1 though   
they are less active than many other    
,american monkeys4  ,next come the      
spider monkeys1 so called from their    
slender bodies and enormously long limbs
 and tail4 ,in these monkeys the tail is
 so long1 strong1 and perfect1 that it  
completely takes the place of a fifth   
hand4 ,by twisting the end of it round a
 branch the animal can swing freely in  
the air with complete safety2 and this  
gives them a wonderful power of climbing
 end passing from tree to tree1 because 
the distance they can stretch is that of
 the tail1 body1 and arm added together1
 and these are all unusually long4 ,they
 can also swing themselves through the  
air for great distances1 and are thus   
able to pass rapidly from tree to tree  
without ever descending to the ground1  
just like the gibbons in the ,malayan   
forests4 ,although capable of feats of  

wonderful agility1 the spider monkeys   
are usually slow and deliberate in their
 motions1 and have a timid1 melancholy  
expression1 very different from that of 
most monkeys4 ,their hands are very     
long1 but have only four fingers1 being 
adapted for hanging on to branches      
rather than for getting hold of small   
objects4 ,it is said that when they have
 to cross a river the trees on the      
opposite banks of which do not approach 
near enough for a leap1 several of them 
form a chain1 one hanging by its tail   
from a lofty overhanging branch and     
seizing hold of the tail of the one     
below it1 then gradually swinging       
themselves backward and forward till the
 lower one is able to seize hold of a   
branch on the opposite side4 ,he then   
climbs up the tree1 and1 when           
sufficiently high1 the first one lets   
go1 and the swing either carries him    
across to a bough on the opposite side  
or he climbs up over his companions4    
,closely allied to the last are the     

woolly monkeys1 which have an equally   
well developed prehensile tail1 but     
better proportioned limbs1 and a thick  
woolly fur of a uniform gray or brownish
 color4 ,they have well formed fingers  
and thumbs1 both on the hands and feet1 
and are rather deliberate in their      
motions1 and exceedingly tame and       
affectionate in captivity4 ,they are    
great eaters1 and are usually very fat4 
,they are found only in the far interior
 of the ,amazon valley1 and1 having a   
delicate constitution1 seldom live long 
in ,europe4 ,these monkeys are not so   
fond of swinging themselves about by    
their tails as are the spider monkeys1  
and offer more opportunities of         
observing how completely this organ     
takes the place of a fifth hand4 ,when  
walking about a house1 or on the deck of
 a ship1 the partially curled tail is   
carried in a horizontal position on the 
ground1 and the moment it touches       
anything it twists round it and brings  
it forward1 when1 if eatable1 it is at  

once appropriated2 and when fastened up 
the animal will obtain any food that may
 be out of reach of its hands with the  
greatest facility1 picking up small bits
 of biscuit1 nuts1 etc41 much as an     
elephant does with the tip of his trunk4
  ,we now come to a group of monkeys    
whose prehensile tail is of a less      
perfect character1 since it is covered  
with hair to the tip1 and is of no use  
to pick up objects4 ,it can1 however1   
curl round a branch1 and serves to      
steady the animal while sitting or      
feeding1 but is never used to hang and  
swing by in the manner so common with   
the spider monkeys and their allies4    
,these are rather small-sized animals1  
with round heads and with moderately    
long tails4 ,they are very active and   
intelligent1 their limbs are not so long
 as in the preceding group1 and though  
they have five fingers on each hand and 
foot1 the hands have weak and hardly    
opposable thumbs4 ,some species of these
 monkeys are often carried about by     

itinerant organ men1 and are taught to  
walk erect and perform many amusing     
tricks4 ,they form the genus ,cebus of  
naturalists4  ,the remainder of the     
,american monkeys have non-prehensile   
tails1 like those of the monkeys of the 
,eastern hemisphere2 but they consist of
 several distinct groups1 and differ    
very much in appearance and habits4     
,first we have the ,sakis1 which have a 
bushy tail and usually very long and    
thick hair1 something like that of a    
bear4 ,sometimes the tail is very short1
 appearing like a rounded tuft of hair2 
many of the species have fine bushy     
whiskers1 which meet under the chin1 and
 appear as if they had been dressed and 
trimmed by a barber1 and the head is    
often covered with thick curly hair1    
looking like a wig4 ,others1 again1 have
 the face quite red1 and one has the    
head nearly bald1 a most remarkable     
peculiarity among monkeys4 ,this latter 
species was met with by ,mr4 ,bates on  
the ,upper ,amazon1 and he describes the

 face as being of a vivid scarlet1 the  
body clothed from neck to tail with very
 long1 straight1 and shining white hair1
 while the head was nearly bald1 owing  
to the very short crop of thin gray     
hairs4 ,as a finish to their striking   
physiognomy these monkeys have bushy    
whiskers of a sandy color meeting under 
the chin1 and yellowish gray eyes4 ,the 
color of the face is so vivid that it   
looks as if covered with a thick coat of
 bright scarlet paint4 ,these creatures 
are very delicate1 and have never       
reached ,europe alive1 although several 
of the allied forms have lived some time
 in our ,zoological ,gardens4  ,an      
allied group consists of the elegant    
squirrel monkeys1 with long1 straight1  
hairy tails1 and often adorned with     
pretty variegated colors4 ,they are     
usually small animals2 some have the    
face marked with black and white1 others
 have curious whiskers1 and their nails 
are rather sharp and claw like4 ,they   
have large round heads1 and their fur is

 more glossy and smooth than in most    
other ,american monkeys1 so that they   
more resemble some of the smaller       
monkeys of ,africa4 ,these little       
creatures are very active1 running about
 the trees like squirrels1 and feeding  
largely on insects as well as on fruit4 
,closely allied to these are the small  
group of night monkeys1 which have large
 eyes1 and a round face surrounded by a 
kind of ruff of whitish fur1 so as to   
give it an owl like appearance1 whence  
they are sometimes called owl-faced     
monkeys4 ,they are covered with soft    
gray fur1 like that of a rabbit1 and    
sleep all day long concealed in hollow  
trees4 ,the face is also marked with    
white patches and stripes1 giving it a  
rather carnivorous or cat like aspect1  
which1 perhaps1 serves as a protection1 
by causing the defenseless creature to  
be taken for an arboreal tiger cat or   
some such beast of prey4  ,this finishes
 the series of such of the ,american    
monkeys as have a larger number of teeth

 than those of the ,old ,world4 ,but    
there is another group1 the ,marmosets1 
which have the same number of teeth as  
,eastern monkeys1 but differently       
distributed in the jaws1 a premolar     
being substituted for a molar tooth4 ,in
 other particulars they resemble the    
rest of the ,american monkeys4 ,they are
 very small and delicate creatures some 
having the body only seven inches long4 
,the thumb of the hands is#a not        
opposable1 and instead of nails they    
have sharp compressed claws4 ,these     
diminutive monkeys have long1           
non-prehensile tails1 and they have a   
silky fur often of varied and beautiful 
colors4 ,some are striped with gray and 
white1 or are of rich brown or golden   
brown tints1 varied by having the head  
or shoulders white or black1 while in   
many there are crests1 frills1 manes1 or
 long ear tufts1 adding greatly to their
 variety and beauty4 ,these little      
animals are timid and restless2 their   
motions are more like those of a        

squirrel than a monkey4 ,their sharp    
claws enable them to run quickly along  
the branches1 but they seldom leap from 
bough to bough like the larger monkeys4 
,they live on fruits and insects1 but   
are much afraid of wasps1 which they are
 said to recognize even in a picture4   
,transcribers note #a3 ,changed from    
'444 it not opposable'1 444  ,this      
completes our sketch of the ,american   
monkeys1 and we see that1 although they 
possess no such remarkable forms as the 
gorilla or the baboons1 yet they exhibit
 a wonderful diversity of external      
characters1 considering that all seem   
equally adapted to a purely arboreal    
life4 ,in the howlers we have a         
specially developed voice organ1 which  
is altogether peculiar2 in the spider   
monkeys we find the adaptation to active
 motion among the topmost branches of   
the forest trees carried to an extreme  
point of development2 while the singular
 nocturnal monkeys1 the active squirrel 
monkeys1 and the exquisite little       

marmosets1 show how distinct are the    
forms under which the same general type1
 may be exhibited1 and in how many      
varied ways existence may be sustained  
under almost identical conditions4      
,,lemurs4  ,in the general term1        
monkeys1 considered as equivalent to the
 order ,primates1 or the ,quadrumana of 
naturalists1 we have to include another 
sub-type1 that of the ,lemurs4 ,these   
animals are of a lower grade than the   
true monkeys1 from which they differ in 
so many points of structure that they   
are considered to form a distinct       
sub-order1 or1 by some naturalists1 even
 a separate order4 ,they have usually a 
much larger head and more pointed muzzle
 than monkeys2 they vary considerably in
 the number1 form1 and arrangement of   
the teeth2 their thumbs are always well 
developed1 but their fingers vary much  
in size and length2 their tails are     
usually long1 but several species have  
no tail whatever1 and they are clothed  
with a more or less woolly fur1 often   

prettily variegated with white and      
black4 ,they inhabit the deep forests of
 ,africa1 ,madagascar1 and ,southern    
,asia1 and are more sluggish in their   
movements than true monkeys1 most of    
them being of nocturnal and crepuscular 
habits4 ,they feed largely on insects1  
eating also fruits and the eggs or young
 of birds4  ,the most curious species   
are--the slow lemurs of ,south ,india1  
small tailless nocturnal animals1       
somewhat resembling sloths in           
appearance1 and almost as deliberate in 
their movements1 except when in the act 
of seizing their insect prey2 the       
,tarsier1 or specter lemur1 of the      
,malay islands1 a small1 long tailed    
nocturnal lemur1 remarkable for the     
curious development of the hind feet1   
which have two of the toes very short1  
and with sharp claws1 while the others  
have nails1 the third toe being         
exceedingly long and slender1 though the
 thumb is very large1 giving the feet a 
very irregular and outr appearance2 and1

 lastly1 the ,aye-aye1 of ,madagascar1  
the most remarkable of all4 ,this animal
 has very large ears and a squirrel like
 tail1 with long spreading hair4 ,it has
 large curved incisor teeth1 which add  
to its squirrel like appearance1 and    
caused the early naturalists to class it
 among the rodents4 ,but its most       
remarkable character is found in its    
fore feet or hands1 the fingers of which
 are all very long and armed with sharp 
curved claws1 but one of them1 the      
second1 is wonderfully slender1 being   
not half the thickness of the others4   
,this curious combination of characters 
shows that the aye-aye is a very        
specialized form--that is1 one whose    
organization has been slowly modified to
 fit it for a peculiar mode of life4    
,from information received from its     
native country1 and from a profound     
study of its organization1 ,professor   
,owen believes that it is adapted for   
the one purpose of feeding on small     
wood-boring insects4 ,its large feet and

 sharp claws enable it to cling firmly  
to the branches of trees in almost any  
position2 by means of its large delicate
 ears it listens for the sound of the   
insect gnawing within the branch1 and is
 thus able to fix its exact position2   
with its powerful curved gnawing teeth  
it rapidly cuts away the bark and wood  
till it exposes the burrow of the       
insect1 most probably the soft larva of 
some beetle1 and then comes into play   
the extraordinary long wire-like finger1
 which enters the small cylindrical     
burrow1 and with the sharp bent claw    
hooks out the grub4 ,here we have a most
 complex adaptation of different parts  
and organs1 all converging to one       
special end1 that end being the same as 
is reached by a group of birds1 the     
woodpeckers1 in a different way2 and it 
is a most interesting fact that1        
although woodpeckers abound in all the  
great continents1 and are especially    
common in the tropical forests of ,asia1
 ,africa1 and ,america1 they are quite  

absent from ,madagascar4 ,we may1       
therefore1 consider that the aye-aye    
really occupies the same place in nature
 in the forests of this tropical island1
 as do the woodpeckers in other parts of
 the world4   ,,distribution1           
,,affinities1 ,,and ,,zoological ,,rank 
,,of ,,monkeys4  ,having thus sketched  
an outline of the monkey tribe as       
regards their more prominent external   
characters and habits1 we must say a few
 words on their general relations as a  
distinct order of mammalia4 ,no other   
group so extensive and so varied as     
this1 is so exclusively tropical in its 
distribution1 a circumstance no doubt   
due to the fact that monkeys depend so  
largely on fruit and insects for their  
subsistence4 ,a very few species extend 
into the warmer parts of the temperate  
zones1 their extreme limits in the      
northern hemisphere being ,gibraltar1   
the ,western ,himalayas at #aa1jjj feet 
elevation1 ,east ,thibet1 and ,japan4   
,in ,america they are found in ,mexico1 

but do not appear to pass beyond the    
tropic4 ,in the ,southern hemisphere    
they are limited by the extent of the   
forests in ,south ,brazil1 which reach  
about #cj south latitude4 ,in the ,east1
 owing to their entire absence from     
,australia1 they do not reach the       
tropic2 but in ,africa1 some baboons    
range to the southern extremity of the  
continent4  ,but this extreme           
restriction of the order to almost      
tropical lands is only recent4 ,directly
 we go back to the ,pliocene period of  
geology1 we find the remains of monkeys 
in ,france1 and even in ,england4 ,in   
the earlier ,miocene1 several kinds1    
some of large size1 lived in ,france1   
,germany1 and ,greece1 all more or less 
closely allied to living forms of ,asia 
and ,africa4 ,about the same period     
monkeys of the ,south ,american type    
inhabited the ,united ,states4 ,in the  
remote ,eocene period the same temperate
 lands were inhabited by lemurs in the  
,east1 and by curious animals believed  

to be intermediate between lemurs and   
marmosets in the ,west4 ,we know from a 
variety of other evidence that          
throughout these vast periods a mild and
 almost sub-tropical climate extended   
over all ,central ,europe and parts of  
,north ,america1 while one of a         
temperate character prevailed as far    
north as the ,arctic circle4 ,the monkey
 tribe then enjoyed a far greater range 
over the earth1 and perhaps filled a    
more important place in nature than it  
does now4 ,its restriction to the       
comparatively narrow limits of the      
tropics is no doubt mainly due to the   
great alteration of climate which       
occurred at the close of the ,tertiary  
period1 but it may have been aided by   
the continuous development of varied    
forms of mammalian life better fitted   
for the contrasted seasons and deciduous
 vegetation of the north temperate      
regions4 ,the more extensive area       
formerly inhabited by the monkey tribe1 
would have favored their development    

into a number of divergent forms1 in    
distant regions1 and adapted to distinct
 modes of life4 ,as these retreated     
southward and became concentrated in a  
more limited area1 such as were able to 
maintain themselves became mingled      
together as we now find them1 the       
ancient and lowly marmosets and lemurs  
subsisting side by side with the more   
recent and more highly developed howlers
 and anthropoid apes4  ,throughout the  
long ages of the ,tertiary period       
monkeys must have been very abundant and
 very varied1 yet it is but rarely that 
their fossil remains are found4 ,this1  
however1 is not difficult to explain4   
,the deposits in which mammalian remains
 most abound are those formed in lakes  
or in caverns4 ,in the former the bodies
 of large numbers of terrestrial animals
 were annually deposited1 owing to their
 having been caught by floods in the    
tributary streams1 swallowed up in      
marginal bogs or quicksands1 or drowned 
by the giving way of ice4 ,caverns were 

the haunts of hyenas1 tigers1 bears1 and
 other beasts of prey1 which dragged    
into them the bodies of their victims1  
and left many of their bones to become  
embedded in stalagmite or in the muddy  
deposit left by floods1 while           
herbivorous animals were often carried  
into them by these floods1 or by falling
 down the swallow-holes which often open
 into caverns from above4 ,but1 owing to
 their arboreal habits1 monkeys were to 
a great extent freed from all these     
dangers4 ,whether devoured by beasts or 
birds of prey1 or dying a natural death1
 their bones would usually be left on   
dry land1 where they would slowly decay 
under atmospheric influences4 ,only     
under very exceptional circumstances    
would they become embedded in aqueous   
deposits2 and instead of being surprised
 at their rarity we should rather wonder
 that so many have been discovered in a 
fossil state4  ,monkeys1 as a whole1    
form a very isolated group1 having no   
near relations to any other mammalia4   

,this is undoubtedly an indication of   
great antiquity4 ,the peculiar type     
which has since reached so high a       
development must have branched off the  
great mammalian stock at a very remote  
epoch1 certainly far back in the        
,secondary period1 since in the ,eocene 
we find lemurs and lemurine monkeys     
already specialized4 ,at this remoter   
period they were probably not separable 
from the insectivora1 or 7perhaps7 from 
the ancestral marsupials4 ,even now we  
have one living form1 the curious       
,galeopithecus or flying lemur1 which   
has only recently been separated from   
the lemurs1 with which it was formerly  
united1 to be classed as one of the     
insectivora2 and it is only among the   
,opossums and some other marsupials that
 we again find hand-like feet with      
opposable thumbs1 which are such a      
curious and constant feature of the     
monkey tribe4  ,this relationship to the
 lowest of the mammalian tribes seems   
inconsistent with the place usually     

accorded to these animals at the head of
 the entire mammalian series1 and opens 
up the question whether this is a real  
superiority or whether it depends merely
 on the obvious relationship to         
ourselves4 ,if we could suppose a being 
gifted with high intelligence1 but with 
a form totally unlike that of man1 to   
have visited the earth before man       
existed in order to study the various   
forms of animal life that were found    
there1 we can hardly think he would have
 placed the monkey tribe so high as we  
do4 ,he would observe that their whole  
organization was specially adapted to an
 arboreal life1 and this specialization 
would be rather against their claiming  
the first rank among terrestrial        
creatures4 ,neither in size1 nor        
strength1 nor beauty1 would they compare
 with many other forms1 while in        
intelligence they would not surpass1    
even if they equaled1 the horse or the  
beaver4 ,the carnivora1 as a whole1     
would certainly be held to surpass them 

in the exquisite perfection of their    
physical structure1 while the flexible  
trunk of the elephant1 combined with his
 vast strength and admirable sagacity1  
would probably gain for him the first   
rank in the animal creation4  ,but if   
this would have been a true estimate1   
the mere fact that the ape is our       
nearest relation does not necessarily   
oblige us to come to any other          
conclusion4 ,man is undoubtedly the most
 perfect of all animals1 but he is so   
solely in respect of characters in which
 he differs from all the monkey         
tribe--the easily erect posture1 the    
perfect freedom of the hands from all   
part in locomotion1 the large size and  
complete opposability of the thumb1 and 
the well developed brain1 which enables 
him fully to utilize these combined     
physical advantages4 ,the monkeys have  
none of these2 and without them the     
amount of resemblance they have to us is
 no advantage1 and confers no rank4 ,we 
are biased by the too exclusive         

consideration of the man-like apes4 ,if 
these did not exist the remaining       
monkeys could not be thereby            
deteriorated as to their organization or
 lowered in their zoological position1  
but it is doubtful if we should then    
class them so high as we now do4 ,we    
might then dwell more on their          
resemblances to lower types--to rodents1
 to insectivora1 and to marsupials1 and 
should hardly rank the hideous baboon   
above the graceful leopard or stately   
stag4 ,the true conclusion appears to   
be1 that the combination of external    
characters and internal structure which 
exists in the monkeys1 is that which1   
when greatly improved1 refined1 and     
beautified1 was best calculated to      
become the perfect instrument of the    
human intellect and to aid in the       
development of man's higher nature2     
while1 on the other hand1 in the rude1  
inharmonious1 and undeveloped state     
which it has reached in the quadrumana1 
it is by no means worthy of the highest 

place1 or can be held to exhibit the    
most perfect development of existing    
animal life4--,contemporary ,review4    
99       99       99       99       99  
,,journal ,,of ,,the ,,society ,,of     
,,arts4     ,,silk-,,producing          
,,bombyces ,,and ,,other ,,lepidoptera  
,,reared ,,in #ahha4  ,by ,,alfred      
,,wailly1 ,membre ,laurat de la ,socit  
d',acclimatation de ,france4   ,by      
referring to my reports for the years   
#ahgi and #ahhj1 which appeared in the  
,journal of the ,society of ,arts1      
,february #ac and ,march #e1 #ahhj1     
,february #be and ,march #d1 #ahha1 it  
will be seen that the bad weather       
prevented the successful rearing in the 
open air of most species of             
silk-producing larv4 ,in #ahha1 the     
weather was extremely favorable up to   
the end of ,july1 but the incessant and 
heavy rains of the month of ,august and 
beginning of ,september1 proved fatal to
 most of the larv when they were in     
their last stages4 ,however1 in spite of

 my many difficulties1 ,i had the       
satisfaction of seeing them to their    
last stage4 ,larv of all the            
silk-producing bombyces were preserved  
in their different stages1 and can be   
seen in the ,bethnal-green ,museum4 ,in 
,july1 when the weather was magnificent1
 the little trees in my garden were     
literally covered with larv of more     
species than ,i ever had before1 and two
 or three more weeks of fair weather    
would have given me a good crop of      
cocoons1 instead of which ,i only       
obtained a very small number4 ,the      
sparrows1 as usual1 also destroyed a    
quantity of worms1 in spite of wire or  
fish-netting placed over some of the    
trees4  ,on the trees were to be        
seen--,attacus cynthia 7the ,ailantus   
silkworm71 the rearing of which was1 as 
usual1 most successful2 ,samia cecropia 
and ,samia gloveri1 from ,america2 also 
hybrids of ,gloveri cecropia and        
,cecropia gloveri2 ,samia promethea and 
,telea polyphemus2 ,attacus pernyi1 and 

a new hybrid1 which ,i obtained this    
last season by the crossing of ,pernyi  
with ,royle4 ,for the first time ,i     
reared ,actias selene1 from ,india1 on a
 nut-tree in the garden1 and ,attacus   
atlas1 on the ailantus4 ,the ,selene    
larv reached their fifth and last stage4
 ,the ,atlas larv only reached the third
 stage1 and were destroyed by the heavy 
rains2 only two remained on the tree    
till about the #hth or #ith of          
,september1 when they had to be removed4
 ,i shall now reproduce the notes ,i    
took on some of the various species ,i  
reared4  ,actias ,selene4--,with sixty  
cocoons ,i only obtained one pairing4   
,the moths emerged from the beginning of
 ,march till the #acth of ,august1 at   
intervals of some duration1 or in       
batches of males or females4 ,i obtained
 a pairing of ,selene on the #cjtoh of  
,june1 #ahha1 and the worms commenced to
 hatch on the #acth of ,july4 ,the larv 
in first stage are of a fine brown-red1 
with a broad black band in the middle of

 the body4 ,the second stage commenced  
on the #bjth of ,july2 larv1 of a       
lighter reddish color1 without the black
 band2 tubercles black4 ,third stage    
commenced on the #bhth of ,july2 larv   
green2 the first four tubercles yellow1 
with a black ring at the base2 other    
tubercles1 orange yellow4 ,fourth stage 
commenced on the #fth of ,august2 larv  
green2 first four tubercles             
golden-yellow1 the others orange-red4   
,fifth stage commenced on the #aith of  
,august2 first four tubercles yellow1   
with a black ring at the base2 other    
tubercles yellow1 slightly tinged with  
orange-red2 lateral band brown and      
greenish yellow2 head and forelegs      
dark-brown4 ,as stated before1 the larv 
were reared on a nut-tree in the garden1
 till the last stage4 ,selene feeds on  
various trees--walnut1 wild cherry1 wild
 pear1 etc4 ,in ,ceylon 7at ,kandy71 it 
is found on the wild olive tree4 ,as far
 as ,i am informed by correspondents in 
,ceylon1 this species is not found--or  

is seldom found--on the coasts1 but     
,attacus atlas and ,mylitta are commonly
 found there4  ,attacus 7antheroea7     
roylei 7with sixty cocoons72 three      
pairings only were obtained1 and this   
species ,i found the most difficult to  
pair in captivity4 ,two moths emerged on
 the #eth of ,march1 a male and a       
female1 and a pairing was obtained2 but 
the weather being then too cold1 the ova
 were not fertile1 the female moth1     
after laying about two hundred eggs1    
lived till the #bb;d of ,march1 which is
 a very long time2 this was owing to the
 low temperature4 ,the moths emerged    
afterward from the #hth of ,april till  
the #beth of ,june4 ,a pairing took     
place on the #b;d of ,june1 and another 
on the #fth of ,june4  ,roylei 7the     
,himalaya oak silkworm7 is very closely 
allied to ,pernyi1 the ,chinese oak     
silkworm2 the ,roylei moths are of a    
lighter color1 but the larv of both     
species can hardly be distinguished from
 one another4 ,the principal difference 

between the two species is in the       
cocoon4 ,the ,roylei cocoon is within a 
very large and tough envelope1 while    
that of ,pernyi has no outer envelope at
 all4 ,the larv of ,roylei ,i reared did
 not thrive1 and the small number ,i had
 only went to the fourth stage1 owing to
 several causes4 ,i bred them under     
glass1 in a green-house4 ,a certain     
number of the larv were unable to cut   
the shell of the egg4  ,here are a few  
notes ,i find in my book3 ,ova of       
,roylei commenced to hatch on the #bith 
of ,june2 second stage commenced on the 
#ith of ,july4 ,the larv in the first   
two stages seemed to me similar to those
 of ,pernyi1 as far as ,i could see4 ,in
 second stage1 the tubercles were of a  
brilliant orange-red2 on anal segment1  
blue dot on each side4 ,third stage1    
four rows of orange-yellow tubercles1   
two blue dots on anal segment1 brilliant
 gold metallic spots at the base of the 
tubercles on the back1 and silver       
metallic spots at the base of the       

tubercles on the sides4 ,no further     
notes taken4  ,one of my correspondents 
in ,vienna 7,austria7 obtained a        
remarkable success in the rearing of    
,roylei4 ,from the twenty-five eggs he  
had twenty-three larv hatched1 which    
produced twenty-three fine cocoons4 ,the
 same correspondent1 with thirty-five   
eggs of ,samia gloveri1 obtained twenty 
cocoons4 ,my other correspondents did   
not obtain any success in rearing these 
two species1 as far as ,i know4  ,hybrid
 ,roylei-,pernyi4--,i have said that it 
is extremely difficult to obtain the    
pairing of ,roylei moths in captivity4  
,but the male ,pernyi paired readily    
with the female ,roylei4 ,i obtained six
 such pairings1 and a large quantity of 
fertile ova4 ,the pairings of ,roylei   
7female7 with ,pernyi 7male7 took place 
as follows3 two on the #bast of ,may1   
one on the #c;d of ,june1 two on the    
#dth of ,june1 and one on the #fth4     
,the larv of this new hybrid1           
,roylei-,pernyi1 contrary to what might 

have been expected1 were much easier to 
rear than those of ,roylei1 and the     
cocoons obtained are far superior to    
those of ,roylei1 in size1 weight1 and  
richness of silk4 ,the cocoon of my new 
hybrid has1 like ,roylei1 an envelope1  
but there is no space between this      
envelope and the true cocoon inside4    
,therefore1 this time1 the crossing of  
two different species 7but1 it must be  
added1 two very closely allied species7 
has produced a hybrid very superior1 at 
least to one of the types1 that of      
,roylei4 ,the cocoons of the hybrid     
,roylei-,pernyi seem to me larger and   
heavier than any ,pernyi cocoons ,i have
 as yet seen4  ,the larv of this new    
hybrid have been successfully reared in 
,france1 in ,germany1 in ,austria1 and  
in the ,united ,states of ,north        
,america4 ,the cocoons obtained by ,herr
 ,l4 ,huessman1 one of my ,german       
correspondents1 are remarkable for their
 size and beauty4 ,the silk is silvery  
white4  ,i have seventeen cocoons of    

this hybrid species1 which number may be
 sufficient for its reproduction4 ,but  
the question arises1 ,will the moths    
obtained from these cocoons be          
susceptible of reproduction8  ,in my    
report on ,lepidoptera for the year     
#ahgi1 ,i stated1 with respect to       
hybrids and degeneracy1 that hybrids had
 been obtained by the crossing of       
,attacus pernyi and ,attacus yama-ma1   
but that1 although the moths 7some of   
which may be seen in the ,bethnal-green 
,museum7 are large and apparently       
perfect in every respect1 yet these     
hybrids could not be reproduced4 ,it    
must be stated that these two species   
differ essentially in one particular    
point4 ,yama-ma hibernates in the ovum  
state1 while ,pernyi hibernates in the  
pupa state4 ,the hybrids hibernated in  
the pupa state4 ,roylei1 as ,pernyi1    
hibernates in the pupa state4  ,in the  
,november number1 #ahha1 of ,the        
,entomologist1 ,mr4 ,w4,f4 ,kirby1 of   
the ,british ,museum1 wrote an article  

having for its title1                   
,hermaphrodite-hybrid ,sphingid1 in     
which1 referring to hybrids of          
,smerinthus ocellatus and populi1 he    
says that hermaphroditism is the usual  
character of such hybrids4  ,i extract  
the following passage from his article3 
,i was under the impression that        
hermaphroditism was the usual character 
of these hybrids2 and it has suggested  
itself to my mind as a possibility1     
which ,i have not1 at present1          
sufficient data either to prove or to   
disprove1 that the sterility of hybrids 
in general 7still a somewhat obscure    
subject7 may perhaps be partly due to   
hybridism having a tendency to produce  
hermaphroditism4  ,now1 will the moths  
of new hybrid ,roylei pernyi 7which ,i  
expect will emerge in ,may or ,june1    
#ahhb7 have the same tendency to        
hermaphroditism as has been observed    
with the hybrids obtained by the        
crossing of ,smerinthus populi with ,sm4
 ocellatus8 ,i do not think that such   

will be the case with the moths of the  
hybrid ,roylei-pernyi1 on account of the
 close relationship of ,roylei with     
,pernyi1 but nothing certain can be     
known till the moths have emerged4 ,here
 are the few notes taken on the hybrid  
,roylei-pernyi3 ,ova commenced to hatch 
on the #abth of ,june2 these were from  
the pairing which had taken place on the
 #bast of ,may4 ,larv1 black1 with long 
white hairs4 ,second stage commenced on 
the #bast of ,june4 ,larva1 of a        
beautiful green2 tubercles              
orange-yellow2 head dark brown4 ,third  
stage commenced on the #ast of ,july2   
fourth stage on the #gth4 ,larva of same
 color in those stages2 tubercles on the
 back1 violet-blue or mauve2 tubercles  
on the sides1 blue4 ,fifth stage        
commenced on the #ahth of ,july4 ,larva1
 with tubercles on back and sides1 blue1
 or violet-blue4 ,first cocoon commenced
 on the #ajth of ,august4 ,want of time 
prevented me from taking fuller and more
 accurate notes4  ,attacus ,atlas4--,for

 the first time1 as stated before1 ,i   
attempted the rearing of a small number 
of ,atlas larv in the open air on the   
ailantus tree1 but had to remove the    
last two remaining larv in ,september2  
the others had all disappeared in       
consequence of the heavy and incessant  
rains4 ,these larv were from eggs sent  
to me by one of my ,german              
correspondents4 ,the pairing of the     
moths had taken place on the #agth of   
,july1 and the eggs had commenced to    
hatch on the #dth of ,august4  ,i had   
about eighty cocoons of another and     
larger race of ,atlas imported from the 
,province of ,kumaon1 but only eight    
moths emerged at intervals from the     
#cast of ,july to the #cjth of          
,september4 ,not only did the moths     
emerge too late in the season1 but there
 never was a chance of obtaining a      
pairing4 ,in my report on ,indian       
silkworms1 published in the ,november   
number of the ,bulletin de la ,societe  
d',acclimatation1 for the year #ahha1   

compiled from the work of ,mr4 ,j4      
,geoghegan1 ,i reproduce the first      
appendix of ,captain ,thomas ,hutton to 
,mr4 ,geoghegan's work1 in which are    
given the names of all the ,indian      
silkworms known by him up to the year   
#ahga4  ,of ,attacus atlas1 ,captain    
,hutton says3 ,it is common at #e1ejj   
feet at ,mussoorie1 and in the ,dehra   
,doon2 it is also found in some of the  
deep warm glens of the outer hills4 ,it 
is also common at ,almorah1 where the   
larva feeds almost exclusively upon the 
',kilmorah' bush or ,berberis asiatica2 
while at ,mussoorie it will not touch   
that plant1 but feeds exclusively upon  
the large milky leaves of ,falconeria   
insignis4 ,the worm is1 perhaps1 more   
easily reared than any other of the wild
 bombycid4  ,i will now quote from      
letters received from one of my         
correspondents in ,ceylon1 a gentleman  
of great experience and knowledge in    
sericulture4  ,in a letter dated #bdth  
,august1 #ahha1 my correspondent says3  

,the ,atlas moth seems to be a near     
relation of the ,cynthia1 and would     
probably feed on the ,ailantus4 ,here it
 feeds on the cinnamon and a great      
number of other trees of widely         
different species2 but the tree on which
 ,i have kept it most successfully in a 
domestic state is the ,milnea           
roxburghiana1 a handsome tree1 with     
dark-green ternate leaves1 which keep   
fresh long after being detached from the
 tree4 ,i do not think the cocoon can   
ever be reeled1 as the thread usually   
breaks when it comes to the open end4 ,i
 have tried to reel a great many ,atlas 
cocoons1 but always found the process   
too tedious and troublesome for         
practical use4  ,the ,mylitta 7,tusser7 
is a more hardy species than the ,atlas1
 and ,i have had no difficulty in       
domesticating it4 ,here it feeds on the 
cashew-nut tree1 on the so-called almond
 of this country 7,terminalia catappa71 
which is a large tree entirely different
 from the ,european almond1 and on many 

other trees4 ,most of the trees whose   
leaves turn red when about to fall seem 
to suit it1 but it is not confined to   
these4 ,in the case of the ,atlas moth1 
,i discovered one thing which may be    
well worth knowing1 and that was1 that  
with cocoons brought to the seaside     
after the larv had been reared in the   
,central ,provinces1 in a temperature   
ten or twelve degrees colder1 the moths 
emerged in from ten to twenty days after
 the formation of the cocoon4 ,the      
duration of the pupa stage in this1 and 
probably in other species1 therefore1   
depends upon the temperature in which   
the larv have lived1 as well as the     
degree of heat in which the cocoons are 
kept2 and in transporting cocoons from  
,india to ,europe1 ,i think it will be  
found that the moths are less liable to 
be prematurely forced out by the heat of
 the ,red ,sea when the larv have been  
reared in a warm climate than when they 
have been reared in a cold one4  ,i do  
not agree with the opinion expressed in 

one of your reports1 that the short     
duration of the larva stage1 caused by a
 high temperature1 has the effect of    
diminishing the size of the cocoons1    
because the ,atlas and ,tusser cocoons  
produced at the sea-level here are quite
 as large as those found in the ,central
 ,provinces at elevations of three      
thousand feet or more4 ,according to the
 treatise on the ,silk ,manufacture1 in 
,lardner's ,cyclopedia1 the ,chinese are
 of opinion that one drachm of mulberry 
silkworms' eggs will produce #be ounces 
of silk if the caterpillars attain      
maturity within twenty-five days2 #bj   
ounces if the commencement of the       
cocoons be delayed until the            
twenty-eighth day2 and only #aj ounces  
if it be delayed until between the      
thirtieth and fortieth day4 ,if this is 
correct1 a short-lived larva stage must1
 instead of causing small cocoons1      
produce just the contrary effect4  ,in  
another letter1 dated ,november #be1    
#ahha1 my correspondent says3 ,i am     

sorry that you have not had better      
success in the rearing of your larv1 but
 you should not despair4 ,it is possible
 that the choice of an improper         
food-plant may have as much to do with  
failures as the coldness and dampness of
 the ,english climate4 ,i lost many     
thousands of ,atlas caterpillars before 
,i found out the proper tree to keep    
them on in a domesticated state2 and    
when ,i did attain partial success1 ,i  
could not keep them for more than one   
generation1 till ,i found the ,milnea   
roxburghiana to be their proper food    
plant4 ,i do not know the proper        
food-plant of the ,mylitta 7,tusser71   
but ,i have succeeded very well with it1
 as it is a more hardy species than the 
,atlas4 ,though a ,bombyx be polyphagous
 in a state of nature1 yet ,i think most
 species have a tree proper to          
themselves1 on which they are more at   
home than on any other plant4 ,i should 
like1 if you could find out from some   
your correspondents in ,india1 on what  

species of tree ,mylitta cocoons are    
found in the largest numbers1 and what  
is about the greatest number found on a 
single tree4 ,the ,mylitta is common    
enough here1 but there does not seem to 
be any kind of tree here on which the   
cocoons are to be found in greater      
numbers than twos and threes2 and there 
must be some tree in ,india on which the
 cocoons are to be found in much greater
 plenty1 because they could not         
otherwise be collected in sufficient    
quantity for manufacturing purposes4    
,the ,atlas is here found on twenty or  
more different kinds of trees1 but a    
hundred or a hundred and fifty cocoons  
or larv may be found on a single tree of
 ,milnea roxburghiana1 while they are to
 be found only singly1 or in twos and   
threes1 on any other tree that ,i know  
of4 ,the ,atlas and ,mylitta seem to be 
respectively the ,indian relations of   
the ,cynthia and ,pernyi4 ,it is1       
therefore1 probable that the ,ailantus  
would be the most suitable ,european    

tree for the ,atlas1 and the oak for the
 ,mylitta4  ,attacus mylitta 7,anthera  
paphia74--,i did not receive a single   
cocoon of this species for the season   
#ahha4 ,my stock consisted of seven     
cocoons1 from the lot received from     
,calcutta at the end of ,february1      
#ahhj4 ,five were female1 and two male  
cocoons2 one of the latter died1 thus   
reducing the number to six4 ,the moths  
emerged as follows3 ,one female on the  
#bast of ,june1 one female on the #bfth1
 one female on the #bhth1 one female on 
the #ast of ,july1 and one male on the  
#c;d of ,august2 the latter emerging    
thirty-four days too late to be of any  
use for rearing purposes4 ,the last     
female moth emerged1 ,i think1 about the
 end of ,september4 ,these cocoons had  
hibernated twice1 as has been the case  
with other ,indian species4 ,i had      
,indian cocoons which hibernated even   
three times4  ,attacus cynthia1 from the
 province of ,kumaon4--,with the ,atlas 
cocoons1 a large quantity of ,cynthia   

cocoons were collected in the province  
of ,kumaon4 ,both species had1 no doubt1
 fed on the same trees2 as the ,cynthia1
 like the ,atlas cocoons1 were all      
inclosed in leaves of the ,berberis     
vulgaris1 which shows that ,cynthia is  
also a polyphagous species4 ,it is      
already known that it feeds on several  
species of trees1 besides the ailantus1 
such as the laburnum1 lilac1 cherry1    
and1 ,i think1 also on the castor-oil   
plant2 the common barberry has1         
therefore1 to be added to the above food
 plants4  ,these ,kumaon ,cynthia       
cocoons were somewhat smaller and much  
darker in color than those of the       
acclimatized ,cynthia reared on the     
ailantus4 ,the moths of this wild       
,indian ,cynthia were also of a richer  
color than those of the cultivated      
species in ,europe4  ,during the summer 
#ahha1 ,i saw cocoons of my own ,cynthia
 race obtained from worms which had been
 reared on the laburnum tree4 ,these    
cocoons were1 as far as ,i can remember1

 of a yellowish or saffron color2 which 
,i had never seen before4 ,this         
difference in the color of the cocoon   
was very likely produced by the change  
of food1 although it has been stated1   
and ,i think it may be quite correct1   
that with many species of native        
lepidoptera the change of food-plants   
does not produce any difference of color
 in the insects obtained4 ,with respect 
to the ,cynthia worms reared on the     
laburnum instead of the ailantus1 it may
 be that the moths1 which will emerge   
from the yellow cocoons1 will be similar
 to those obtained from cocoons spun by 
worms bred on the ailantus1 and that the
 only difference will be in the color of
 the cocoons4  ,the ,kumaon ,cynthia    
cocoons1 as ,i found it to be the case  
with ,indian species introduced for the 
first time into ,europe1 did not produce
 moths at the same time1 nor as         
regularly as the acclimatized species4  
,the moths emerged as follows3 ,one     
female on the #bb;d of ,july2 one female

 on the #beth2 one male on the #c;d     
,august2 one female on the #aith2 one   
male on the #bhth of ,august2 one male  
on the #b;d ,september2 one female on   
the #c;d4 ,a pairing was obtained with  
the latter two4 ,two males emerged on   
the #dth of ,september2 one male on the 
#fth2 one male and one female on the    
#bb;d2 one female on the #bc;d2 and one 
female on the #beth of ,september4 ,five
 cocoons1 which did not produce any     
moths1 contain pup1 which are still in  
perfect condition2 and the moths will no
 doubt emerge next summer 7#ahhb74 ,as  
seen in my note1 a pairing of this wild 
,indian ,cynthia took place2 this was   
from the evening of the #dth to the #eth
 of ,september4 ,the eggs laid by the   
female moth were deposited in a most    
curious way1 in smaller or larger       
quantities1 but all forming perfect     
triangles4 ,these eggs ,i gave to a     
florist who has been very successful in 
the rearing of silk-producing and other 
larv2 telling him to rear the ,cynthia  

on lilacs grown in pots and placed in a 
hot-house1 which was done4 ,the worms1  
which hatched in a few days1 as they    
were placed in a hot-house1 thrived     
wonderfully well1 and ,i might say they 
thrived too well1 as they grew so fast  
and became so voracious that the growth 
of the lilac trees could not keep pace  
with the growth of the worms4 ,these1 at
 the fourth stage1 became so large that 
the foliage was entirely devoured1 and1 
of course1 the consequence was that all 
the worms were starved4 ,i only heard of
 the result of that experiment long     
after the death of the larv2 otherwise  
,i should have suggested the use of     
another plant after the destruction of  
the foliage of the lilacs2 the privet   
7,ligustrum vulgare7 might have been    
tried1 and success obtained with it4    
,of such species as ,attacus pyri1 of   
,central ,europe1 and ,attacus pernyi1  
the ,north ,chinese oak silkworm1 which 
,i have mentioned in my previous        
reports1 and bred every season for      

several years1 ,i shall only say that ,i
 never could rear ,pyri in the open air 
in ,london1 up to the formation of the  
cocoon4 ,as to ,pernyi1 ,i had1 in      
#ahha1 an immense quantity of splendid  
moths1 from which ,i obtained the       
largest quantity of ova ,i ever had of  
this species4 ,i had many thousands of  
fertile ova of ,pernyi1 which ,i was    
unable to distribute4 ,many schoolboys  
reared ,pernyi worms1 but with what     
success ,i do not yet know4 ,the number 
of fertile ova obtained from ,pyri moths
 was also more considerable than in     
former years1 which was due partly to   
the good quality of the pup1 and partly 
to the very favorable weather in ,june1 
at the time the pairings of the moths   
took place4  ,leaving these1 ,i now come
 to the ,north ,american species4       
,telea polyphemus4--,as ,i have stated  
in former years1 this is the best ,north
 ,american silkworm1 producing a closed 
cocoon1 somewhat smaller than that of   
,pernyi1 but the silk seems as good as  

that of ,pernyi4  ,the cocoons of       
,polyphemus ,i had in #ahha were smaller
 and inferior in quality to those ,i had
 before4 ,those received in #ahgh and   
#ahgi were considerably finer and larger
 than those which were sent in #ahhj and
 #ahha2 besides1 they were sent in much 
larger quantities4 ,the cocoons received
 this year 7#ahhb7 are finer than those 
of #ahha1 but yet they cannot be        
compared with those of #ahgh and #ahgi4 
,with about sixty cocoons of ,telea     
polyphemus ,i only obtained three       
pairings1 which ,i attribute solely to  
the weakness of the moths1 as the       
weather was all that could be desired   
for the pairings4 ,the moths emerged    
from the #ast of ,june to the #bjth of  
,july4 ,one male moth emerged on the    
#gth ,september4 ,this latter was one   
from a small number of cocoons received 
from ,alabama2 the other cocoons of the 
same race had emerged at the same time  
as the cocoons from the ,northern       
,states4 ,in the ,northern ,states the  

species is single-brooded2 in the       
,southern ,states it is double-brooded4 
,the larv of ,polyphemus can be bred in 
the open air in ,england1 almost as     
easily as those of ,pernyi1 and even    
,cynthia2 they will pass through their  
five stages and spin their cocoons on   
the trees1 unless the weather should be 
unexceptionally cold and wet1 as was the
 case during the month of ,august1      
#ahha1 when the larv had reached their  
full size2 they were reared this year on
 the nut-tree1 and some on the oak4 ,the
 species is extremely polyphagous1 and  
will feed well on oak1 birch1 chestnut1 
beech1 willow1 nut1 etc4  ,the moth of  
,polyphemus is very beautiful1 and1 as  
in some other species1 varies in its    
shades of color4 ,the larva is of a     
transparent green1 of extreme beauty2   
the head is light brown2 without any    
black dots1 as in ,pernyi2 the spines   
are pink1 and at the base of each of    
them there is a brilliant metallic spot4
 ,when the sun shines on them the larv  

seem to be covered with diamonds4 ,these
 metallic spots at the base of the      
spines are also seen on ,pernyi1 ,yama  
mai1 ,mylitta1 and other species of the 
genus ,anthera1 all having a closed     
cocoon1 but none of these have so many  
as ,polyphemus4  ,the cocoons of the    
species of the genus ,actias are closed1
 but the larv have not the metallic     
spots of the species of the genus       
,anthera4  ,samia ,gloveri4--,three     
,north ,american silk-producing         
bombyces1 very closely allied1 have been
 mentioned in my previous reports2 they 
are2 ,samia ceanothi1 from ,california2 
,samia gloveri1 from ,utah and ,arizona2
 and ,samia cecropia1 commonly found in 
most of the ,northern ,states--the      
latter is the best and largest silk     
producer4 ,crossings of these species   
took places in #ahhj1 and1 as ,i stated 
before1 the ova obtained from a long    
pairing between a ,ceanothi female with 
a ,gloveri male1 were the only ones     
which were fertile4 ,the ,gloveri       

cocoons received in #ahhj were of a very
 inferior quality1 and produced moths   
from which no pairings could be         
obtained1 although some crossings took  
place4 ,in #ahha1 the ,gloveri cocoons1 
on the contrary1 produced fine1 healthy 
moths2 yet only five pairings could be  
obtained1 with about one hundred        
cocoons4 ,besides these five pairings1 a
 quantity of fertile ova were obtained  
by the crossings of ,s4 gloveri 7female7
 with ,s4 cecropia 7male71 and ,cecropia
 7female7 with ,gloveri 7male74 ,no     
success1 so far as ,i know1 was obtained
 with the rearing of the hybrid larv2   
the rearings of the larv of pure        
,gloveri were also1 ,i think1 a failure1
 only one correspondent having been     
successful2 but some correspondents have
 not yet made the result of their       
experiments known to me4 ,the larv of   
,samia cecropia1 ,s4 gloveri1 and ,s4   
ceanothi1 are very much alike2 and      
hardly any difference can be observed in
 the first two stages4 ,in the third and

 fourth stages1 the larv of ,s4 cecropia
 and ,s4 gloveri are also nearly alike2 
the principal difference between these  
two species and ,s4 cecropia being that 
the tubercles on the back are of a      
uniform color--orange-red1 or           
yellow--while on ,cecropia the first    
four dorsal tubercles are red1 and the  
rest yellow4 ,the tubercles on the sides
 are blue on the three species4  ,the   
larv of the hybrids ,gloveri-cecropia   
were1 as far as ,i could observe1 like  
those of ,cecropia1 but ,i noticed some 
with six red tubercles on the back      
instead of four1 as on ,cecropia4 ,they 
were reared on plum1 apple1 and ,salix  
caprea2 in the open air4  ,the larv of  
,samia gloveri were reared1 during the  
first four stages on a wild plum-tree1  
then on ,salix1 caprea1 and ,i reproduce
 the notes taken on this species1 which 
,i bred this year 7#ahha7 for the first 
time4  ,gloveri moths emerged from the  
#aeth of ,may to the end of ,june2 five 
pairings took place as follows3 #ast1   

#dth1 #ith1 #bdth1 and #bfth of ,june4  
,first stage--larv quite black4 ,second 
stage--larv orange1 with black spines4  
,third stage--dorsal spines1 orange-red2
 spines on sides blue4 ,fourth          
stage--dorsal spines1 orange or yellow1 
spines on the sides blue2 body light    
blue on the back1 and greenish yellow on
 the sides2 head1 green2 legs1 yellow4  
,fifth and sixth stage--larv nearly the 
same2 tubercles on the back yellow1 the 
first four having a black ring at the   
base2 side tubercles ivory-white1 with a
 dark-blue base4  ,the above-mentioned  
,american species1 like most other      
silk-producing bombyces1 were bred in   
the open air2 but besides these1 ,i     
reared three other species of ,american 
bombyces in the house1 under glass1 and 
with the greatest success4 ,these are3  
,hyperchiria io1 a beautiful species    
mentioned in my report for the year     
#ahgi2 ,orgyia leucostigma1 from ova    
received on ,december #bi1 #ahhj1 from  
,madison1 ,wis41 which hatched on the   

#bgth of ,may1 #ahha4  ,the third       
,american species reared under glass is 
the following very interesting bombyx3  
,ceratocampa 7,eacles7 imperialis4 ,the 
pup of this species are rough1 and armed
 with small1 sharp points at all the    
segments2 the last segment having a     
thick1 straight1 and bifid tail4 ,the   
moths1 which measure from four to about 
six inches in expanse of wings1 are     
bright yellow1 with large patches and   
round spots of reddish-brown1 with a    
purple gloss2 besides these patches and 
round spots1 the wings are covered with 
small dark dots4 ,the male moth is much 
more blotched than the female1 and      
although of a smaller size1 is much more
 showy than the female4  ,with          
twenty-four pup of ,imperialis ,i       
obtained nineteen moths from the #bast  
of ,june to the #aith of ,july2 five pup
 died4 ,two pairings took place2 the    
first from the evening of the #acth to  
the morning of the #adth2 the second    
from the evening of the #aeth to the    

morning of the #afth of ,july4  ,the    
ova1 which are about the size of those  
of ,yama-mai1 ,pernyi1 or ,mylitta1 are 
rather flat and concave on one side1 of 
an amber-yellow color and transparent1  
like those of sphingid4 ,when the larv  
have absorbed the yellow liquid in the  
egg1 and are fully developed2 they can  
be seen through the shell of the egg1   
which is white or colorless when the    
larva has come out4  ,the larv of       
,imperialis1 which have six stages1     
commenced to hatch on the #cast of      
,july2 the second stage commenced on the
 #gth of ,august2 the third1 on the     
#agth2 the fourth1 on the #bith of      
,august2 the fifth1 on the #ahth of     
,september2 and the sixth1 on the #ast  
of ,october4 ,the larv commenced to     
pupate on #acth of ,october4  ,the larv 
of this curious species vary            
considerably in color4 ,some are of a   
yellowish color1 others are brown and   
tawny1 others are black or nearly black4
 ,my correspondent in ,georgia1 who bred

 this species the same season as ,i did1
 in #ahha1 had some of the larv that    
were green4 ,in all the stages the larv 
have five conspicuous spines or horns2  
two on the third segment1 two on the    
fourth1 and one on the last segment but 
one2 this is taking the head as the     
first segment with regard to the first  
four spines ,these spines are rough and 
covered with sharp points all round1 and
 their extremities are fork-like4 ,in   
the first three stages they are horny2  
in the last three stages these spines   
are fleshy1 and much shorter in         
proportion than they are in the first   
three stages4 ,the color of the spines  
in the last three stages is coral-red1  
yellowish1 or black4 ,in the fifth and  
sixth stages the spine on the last      
segment but one is very short4  ,here   
are a few and short notes from my book3 
#ast stage4 ,larv1 about one-third of an
 inch2 head1 brown1 shiny1 and          
globulous4  #b;d stage4 ,larv1          
dark-brown1 almost black2 spines1 white 

at the base1 and black at the           
extremities2 head shiny and light brown4
  #c;d stage4 ,larve1 fine black2 head  
black2 white hairs on the back2 spines1 
whitish1 buff1 or yellowish at the base1
 and black at the extremities2 other    
larv of a brown color4  #dth stage4     
,larv1 black granulated with white2 long
 white hairs2 horns1 brown-orange with  
white tips2 on each segment two brown   
spots4 ,spiracles well marked with outer
 circle1 brown1 then black2 white and   
black dot in the center4 ,anal segment  
with brown ribs1 the intervals black    
with white dots2 head shining1 black    
with two brown bands on the face1       
forming a triangle4 ,other larv in      
fourth stage1 velvety black1 with       
coral-red spines2 others with black     
spines4  #eth stage4 ,larv1 entirely    
black1 with showy eye-like spiracles1   
polished black head2 other larv having  
the head brown and black4 ,larv covered 
with long white hair2 spines black or   
red4 ,no difference noticed between the 

fifth and sixth stages4  ,one larva on  
fourth stage was different from all     
others1 and was described at the        
,british ,museum by ,mr4 ,w4 ,f4 ,kirby 
as follows3 ,larva reddish-brown1       
sparingly clothed with long slender     
white hairs1 with four reddish stripes  
on the face1 two rows of red spots on   
the back1 spiracles surrounded with     
yellow1 black and red rings2 legs red1  
prolegs black1 spotted with red4 ,on    
segments three and four are four long   
coral-red fleshy-branched spines1 two on
 each segment1 below which1 on each     
side1 are two rudimentary ones just     
behind the head2 in front of segment two
 are four similar rudimentary orange    
spines or tubercles2 last segment black1
 strongly granulated and edges          
triangularly above and at the sides1    
with coral-red2 several short           
rudimentary fleshy spines rising from   
the red portion2 the last segment but   
one is reddish above1 with a short red  
spine in the middle1 and the one before 

it has a long coral-red spine in the    
middle similar to those of segments     
three and four1 but shorter  ,as soon as
 my ,imperialis larv had hatched1 ,i    
gave them various kinds of foliage1     
plane-tree1 oak1 pine1 sallow1 etc4 ,at 
first they did not touch any kind of    
foliage1 or they did not seem to touch  
any2 and ,i was afraid ,i should be     
unable to rear them2 but on the second  
or third day of their existence1 they   
made up their minds and decided upon    
eating the foliage of some of the       
,european trees ,i had offered them4    
,they attacked oak1 sallow1 and pine1   
but did not touch the plane-tree leaves4
 ,in ,america1 the larv of ,imperialis  
feed on button-wood1 which is the       
,american plane-tree 7,platanus         
occidentalis71 yet they did not take to 
,platanus orientalis4 ,after a little   
time ,i reduced the foliage to oak and  
sallow branches1 and ultimately gave    
them the sallow 7,salix caprea7 only1 on
 which they thrived very well4 ,i was   

pleased with this success2 as ,i had    
previously read in a volume of the      
,naturalist's ,library a description of 
,ceratocampa imperialis1 which ends as  
follows3 ,the caterpillars are not      
common1 and are the most difficult to   
bring to perfection in confinement1 as  
they will not eat in that situation2    
and1 even if they change into a         
chrysalis1 they die afterward4  ,before 
,i finish with ,c4 imperialis1 ,i must  
mention a peculiar fact4 ,during the    
first stage1 and1 ,i think1 also during 
the second1 several larv disappeared    
without leaving any traces4 ,i also saw 
two smaller larv held tight by the hind 
claspers of two larger ones4 ,the larv  
thus held and pressed were perfectly    
dead when ,i observed them1 and ,i      
removed them4 ,my impression then was   
that these larvae were carnivorous1 not 
from this last fact alone1 as ,i had    
previously observed it with larv of     
,catocal when they are too crowded1 but 
from the fact that some had disappeared 

entirely from the glass under which they
 were confined4 ,i began to reduce their
 numbers1 and put six only under each   
glass1 so as to be able to watch them   
better4 ,whether ,i had made a mistake  
or not previously to this ,i do not     
exactly know2 but from this moment the  
larvae behaved in a most exemplary      
manner1 especially when they became     
larger4 ,they crawled over each other's 
backs without the least sign of spite or
 animosity1 even when they were in      
sleep1 in which case larv are generally 
very sensitive and irritable1 all were  
of a most pacific nature4 ,it is1       
therefore1 with the greatest pleasure   
that1 for want of sufficient evidence1  
,i withdraw this serious charge of      
cannibalism which ,i first intended to  
bring against them4  ,from what has been
 said respecting the rearing of exotic  
silk-producing bombyces1 especially     
tropical species1 it must have been     
observed that several difficulties1     
standing in the way of success1 have to 

be overcome4 ,the moths of ,north       
,american species emerge regularly      
enough during the months of ,may1 ,june1
 or ,july1 but ,indian and other        
tropical species may emerge at any time 
of the year1 if the weather is mild1 as 
has been the case during this unusually 
mild winter of #ahha-ahhb4 ,from the end
 of ,december to the present time       
7,march #ad1 #ahhb7 moths of four       
species of ,indian silk-producers1      
especially ,anthera roylei and ,actias  
selene1 have constantly emerged1 but    
only one or two at a time4 ,these moths 
emerged from cocoons received in        
,december and ,january last4  ,it is    
only when these tropical species shall  
have been already reared in ,europe that
 the emergence of the moths will be     
regular2 then they will be              
single-brooded in ,northern or ,central 
,europe1 and some will very likely      
become double-brooded in ,southern      
,europe4 ,but when just imported the    
moths of these tropical species will    

always be uncertain and irregular in    
their emergence2 hence the importance of
 having a sufficient number of cocoons  
so as to meet this difficulty1 i4e41 the
 loss of the moths that emerge          
prematurely or irregularly4  ,before ,i 
conclude1 ,i shall repeat what ,i       
already stated in a previous report1    
that the sending of live cocoons and pup
 from ,india and other distant countries
 to ,europe1 can easily be done1 so that
 they will arrive alive and in good     
condition1 if care be taken that the    
boxes containing these live cocoons and 
pup should not be left in the sun or    
near a fire 7which has been the case    
before71 and that they should at once be
 put in a cool place or in the ice-room 
of the steamer4 ,the cocoons and pup    
should be sent from ,october to ,march  
or ,april1 according to distance1 and it
 is most important to write on the      
cases1 ,living silkworm cocoons or pup1 
the case to be placed in the ice room4  
,by taking this simple precaution1 live 

cocoons and pup1 when newly formed1 can 
be safely sent from very distant        
countries of ,europe4  ,to continue     
these interesting and useful studies1 ,i
 shall always be glad to buy any number 
of live cocoons1 or exchange them for   
other species1 if preferable4  ,,alfred 
,,wailly4  #aaj ,clapham ,road1 ,london1
 ,s4,w4         99       99       99    
99       99     ,,mosquito ,,oil4   ,a  
correspondent from ,sheepshead ,bay1 a  
place celebrated for the size of its    
mosquitoes and the number of its amateur
 fishermen1 recommends the following as 
a very good mixture for anointing the   
face and hands while fishing3    ,oil of
 tar4           #a ounce4   ,olive oil4 
#a ounce4   ,oil of pennyroyal4         
ounce4   ,spirit of camphor4     ounce4 
,glycerine4             ounce4          
,carbolic acid4        #b drachms4      
,mix4 ,shake well before using4--,drug4 
,circular4         99       99       99 
99       99     ,,the ,,cathedral ,,of  
,,burgos4   ,this most remarkable       

structure1 in the province of the same  
name1 adorns the city of ,burgos1 #acj  
miles north of ,madrid4 ,the corner     
stone was laid ,july #bj1 ,a4,d4 #abba1 
by ,fernando ,,iii41 and his ,queen     
,beatrice1 assisted by ,archbishop      
,mauricio4 ,the world is indebted to    
,mauricio for the selection of the site1
 and for the general idea and planning  
of what he intended should be1 and in   
fact now is1 the finest temple of       
worship in the world4 ,this immense     
stone structure1 embellished with airy  
columns1 pointed arches1 statues1       
inscriptions1 delicate crestings1 and   
flanked by two needles or aerial arrows1
 rises toward the heavens1 a sublime    
invocation of ,christian genius4        
,illuminated by the morning sun it      
appears1 at a certain distance1 as if   
the pyramids were floating in space2    
further on is seen the marvelous dome of
 the transept1 crowned with eight towers
 of chiseled lace-work1 over the center 
of the church4  ,pubic worship was held 

in a portion of the edifice nine years  
after the work was begun2 from that time
 onward for three hundred years1 various
 additional portions were completed4 ,on
 ,march #d1 #aeci1 the great transept1  
built fifty years previous1 fell down2  
but was soon restored4 ,august #af1     
#afdb1 at #f o'clock1 ,p4,m41 a furious 
hurricane overthrew the eight little    
towers that form the exterior corner of 
the dome2 but in two years they were    
replaced1 namely ,july #ai1 #afdd3 the  
same night the great bells sounded an   
alarm of fire1 the transept having in   
some way become ignited4 ,the activity  
of the populace1 however1 prevented the 
loss of the edifice1 which for a time   
was in great danger4  ,the first        
architect publicly mentioned in the     
archives of the edifice was the ,master 
,enrique4 ,he also directed the work of 
the ,cathedral of ,leon4 ,he died ,july 
#aj1 #abgg4 ,the second architect was   
,juan ,perez1 who died in #abif1 and was
 buried in the cloister1 under the      

cathedral4 ,he is believed to have been 
either the son or brother of the        
celebrated ,master ,pedro ,perez1 who   
designed the ,cathedral of ,toledo1 and 
who died in #abii4 ,the third architect 
of the ,cathedral of ,burgos was ,pedro 
,sanchez1 who directed the work in      
#achd2 after him followed ,juan ,sanchez
 de ,molina1 ,martin ,fernandez1 the    
three ,colonias1 ,juan de ,vallejo1     
,diego de ,siloe1 the elder ,nicolas de 
,vergara1 ,matienzo1 ,pieredonda1 ,gil1 
,regines1 and others4 ,it is worthy of  
note that a number of ,moorish          
architects were employed on the work    
during the #adth and #aeth centuries1   
such as ,mohomad1 ,yunce1 the ,master   
,hali1 the ,master ,mahomet de ,aranda1 
the ,master ,yunza de ,carrion1 the     
,master ,carpenter ,brahen4 ,among the  
figure sculptors employed were ,juan    
,sanchez de ,fromesta1 the ,masters ,gil
 and ,copin1 the famous ,felipe de      
,vigardi1 ,juan de ,lancre1 ,anton de   
,soto1 ,juan de ,villareal1 ,pedro de   

,colindres1 and many others4 ,our       
engraving is from a recent number of ,la
 ,ilustracion ,espanola y ,americana4   
,illustration3 ,,the ,,cathedral ,,of   
,,burgos1 ,,spain4--,,photograph ,,by   
,,de ,,laurent4--,,drwawing ,,by ,m4    
,,hebert4         99       99       99  
99       99     ,,the ,,panama ,,canal4 
,by ,,manuel ,,eissler1 ,m4,e41 of ,san 
,francisco1 ,cal4  ,i4  ,,historical    
,,notes4   ,when ,cortez1 in the year   
#aecj1 made the observation that the two
 great oceans could be seen from the    
peaks of mountains1 he1 in those remote 
days1 preoccupied himself with the      
question to cut through the             
,cordilleras4  ,therefore1 the idea of  
an interoceanic canal is by no means a  
modern one1 as travelers and navigators 
observed that there was a great         
depression among the hills of the       
,isthmus of ,panama4 ,as ,professor     
,t4,e4 ,nurse1 of the ,u4,s4,n41 says in
 his memoirs3  ,this problem of         
interoceanic communication has been     

justly said to possess not only         
practical value1 but historical         
grandeur4 ,it clearly links itself back 
to the era of the conquest of ,cortez1  
three and a half centuries4 #a ,it is a 
problem which has been left for our     
modern era to solve1 but nevertheless   
its history is thereby rendered still   
more interesting1 having needed so many 
centuries to bring it to an issue4      
,footnote #a3 ,from ,prof4 ,nurse's     
historical essay4 ,see ,survey of       
,nicaragua ,canal1 by ,com4 ,lull4      
,spain1 which acquired through her      
,columbus a new empire1 lying near1 as  
it was supposed1 to the riches of ,asia1
 could not be indifferent1 from the     
moment of her discoveries1 to the means 
of crossing these lands to yet richer   
ones beyond4  ,india1 from the days of  
,alexander and of the geographers1      
,mela1 ,strabo1 and ,ptolemy1 was the   
land of promise1 the home of the spices1
 the inexhaustible fountain of wealth4  
,the old routes of commerce thither had 

been closed one by one to the           
,christians2 the overland trade had     
fallen into the hands of the ,arabs2 and
 at the fall of ,constantinople1 #adec1 
the commerce of the ,black ,sea and of  
the ,bosphorus1 the last of the old     
routes to the ,east1 finally failed the 
,christian world4 ,yet even beyond the  
fame of the ,east1 which tradition had  
brought down from ,greek and ,roman1    
much more had the crusaders kindled for 
,asia 7,cathay7 and its riches an ardor 
not easily suppressed in men's minds4   
,the error of the ,spanish ,admiral in  
supposing that the eastern shores of    
,asia extended #bdj degrees east of     
,spain1 or to the meridian of the modern
 ,san ,diego1 in ,california--this      
error1 insisted on in his dispatches and
 adopted and continued by his followers1
 still further animated the earlier     
,spanish sovereigns and the men whom    
they sent into the ,new ,world to reach 
,asia by a short and easy route4        
,nobody in ,europe dreamt that ,columbus

 had discovered a new continent1 and    
when ,balbao1 in #aeac1 discovered the  
,south ,sea1 then it was known that     
,asia lay beyond1 and navigators        
directed their course there4 ,on his    
deathbed1 in #aejf1 ,columbus still held
 to his delusion that he had reached    
,zipanga1 ,japan4 ,in #aeja he was      
exploring the coast of ,veragua1 in     
,central ,america1 still looking for the
 ,ganges1 and announcing his being      
informed on this coast of a sea which   
would bear ships to the mouth of that   
river1 while about the same time the    
,cabots1 under ,henry ,,vii41 were      
taking possession of ,newfoundland1     
believing it to be part of the island   
coast of ,china4  ,although these were  
grave blunders in geography and in      
navigation1 the discoveries really made 
in the rich tropical zones1 the         
acquirement of a new world1 and the rich
 products continually reaching ,europe  
from it1 for a time aroused ,spain from 
her lethargy4 ,the world opened east and

 west4 ,the new routes poured their     
spices1 silks1 and drugs through new    
channels into all the ,teutonic         
countries4 ,the strong purposes of      
having near access to the ,east were    
deepened and perpetuated doubly strong1 
by the certainties before men's eyes of 
what had been attained4  ,balbao1 in    
#aeac1 gained from a height on the      
,isthmus of ,panama the first proof of  
its separation from ,asia2 and ,magellan
 enters the ,south ,sea at the southern 
extremity of the country1 now first     
proven to be thus separate and a        
continent4 ,men in those days began to  
think that creation was doubled1 and    
that such discovered lands must be      
separate from ,india1 ,china1 and       
,japan4 ,and the very successes of the  
,portuguese under ,vasco da ,gama1      
bringing from their eastern course the  
expectancy of ,asia's wealth1 intensely 
excited the ,spaniards to renew their   
western search4  ,the ,portuguese1 led  
around the ,cape of ,good ,hope1 had    

brought home vast treasures from the    
,east1 while the ,spanish discoverers1  
as yet1 had not reached the countries   
either of ,montezuma or of the ,inca4   
,their success troubled the sleep of the
 ,spaniards4  ,everything1 then1 of     
personal ambition and national pride1   
the thirst for gold1 the zeal of        
religious proselytism1 and the cold     
calculations of state policy1 now       
concurred in the disposition to         
sacrifice what ,spain already had of    
most value on the ,american shores in   
order to seize upon a greater good1 the 
,indies1 still supposed to be near at   
hand4 ,and since it was now certain that
 the new lands were not themselves      
,asia1 the next aim was to find the     
secret of the narrow passage across them
 which must lead thither4 ,the very     
configuration of the isthmus            
strengthened the belief in the existence
 of such a passage by the number of its 
openings1 which seemed to invite        
entrance in the expectancy that some one

 of them must extend across the narrow  
breadth of land4  ,for this the ,spanish
 government1 in #aead1 gave secret      
orders to ,d',avilla1 ,governor of      
,castila del ,oro1 and to ,juan de      
,solis1 the navigator1 to determine     
whether ,castila del ,oro were an       
island1 and to send to ,cuba a chart of 
the coast1 if any strait were possible4 
,for this1 ,de ,solis visited ,nicaragua
 and ,honduras2 and later1 led far to   
the south1 perished in the ,la ,plata4  
,for this1 ,magellan entered the        
straits1 which1 strangely enough1 he    
affirmed before setting out1 that he    
would enter1 since he had seen them     
marked out on the geographer ,martin    
,behaim's globe4 ,for this1 ,cortez sent
 out his expeditions on both coasts1    
exposing his own life and treasure1 and 
sending home to the emperor1 in his     
second relation1 a map of the entire    
,gulf of ,mexico 7,dispatch from ,cortez
 to ,charles ,v41 ,october #ae1 #aebd74 
,for this great purpose1 and in full    

expectancy of success in it1 the whole  
coast of the ,new ,world on each side1  
from ,newfoundland on the northeast1    
curving westward on the south1 around   
the whole sweep of the ,gulf of ,mexico1
 thence to ,magellan's ,straits1 and    
thence through them up the ,pacific to  
the ,straits of ,behring1 was searched  
and researched with diligence4 ,men     
could not get accustomed1 says          
,humboldt1 to the idea that the         
continent extended uninterruptedly both 
so far north and south4 ,hence all these
 large1 numerous1 and persevering       
expeditions by the ,european powers4    
,among them1 by priority of right and by
 her energy1 was ,spain4 ,the great     
emperor was urgent on the conqueror of  
,mexico1 and on all in subordinate      
positions in ,new ,spain1 to solve the  
secret of the strait4 ,all ,spain was   
awakened to it4 ,how majestic and fair  
was she1 says ,chevalier1 in the        
sixteenth century2 what daring1 what    
heroism and perseverance6 ,never had the

 world seen such energy1 activity1 or   
good fortune4 ,hers was a will that     
regarded no obstacles4 ,neither rivers1 
deserts1 nor mountains far higher than  
those in ,europe1 arrested her people4  
,they built grand cities1 they drew     
their fleets1 as in a twinkling of the  
eye1 from the very forests4 ,a handful  
of men conquered empires4 ,they seemed a
 race of giants or demi-gods4 ,one would
 have supposed that all the work        
necessary to bind together climates and 
oceans would have been done at the word 
of the ,spaniards as by enchantment1 and
 since nature had not left a passage    
through the center of ,america1 no      
matter1 so much the better for the glory
 of the human race2 they would make it  
up by artificial communication4 ,what1  
indeed1 was that for men like them8 ,it 
were done at a word4 ,nothing else was  
left for them to conquer1 and the world 
was becoming too small for them4        
,certainly1 had ,spain remained what she
 then was1 what had been in vain sought 

from nature would have been supplied by 
man4 ,a canal or several canals would   
have been built to take the place of the
 long-desired strait4 ,her men of       
science urged it4 ,in #aeea1 ,gomara1   
the author of the ,history of the       
,indies1 proposed the union of the      
oceans by three of the very same lines  
toward which1 to this hour1 the eye     
turns with hope4  ,it is true1 said     
,gomara1 that mountains obstruct these  
passes1 but if there are mountains there
 are also hands2 let but the resolve be 
made1 there will be no want of means2   
the ,indies1 to which the passage will  
be made1 will supply them4 ,to a king of
 ,spain1 with the wealth of the ,indies 
at his command1 when the object to be   
obtained is the spice trade1 what is    
possible is easy4  ,but the sacred fire 
suddenly burned itself out in ,spain4   
,the peninsula had for its ruler a      
prince who sought his glory in          
smothering free thought among his own   
people1 and in wasting his immense      

resources in vain efforts to repress it 
also outside of his own dominions       
through all ,europe4 ,from that hour1   
,spain became benumbed and estranged    
from all the advances of science and    
art1 by means of which other nations1   
and especially ,england1 developed their
 true greatness4  ,even after ,france   
had shown1 by her canal of the south1   
that boats could ascend and pass the    
mountain crests1 it does not appear that
 the ,spanish government seriously      
wished to avail itself of a like means  
of establishing any communication       
between her sea of the ,antilles and the
 ,south ,sea4 ,the mystery enveloping   
the deliberations of the council of the 
,indies has not always remained so      
profound that we could not know what was
 going on in that body4 ,the ,spanish   
government afterward opened up to       
,humboldt free access to its archives1  
and in these he found several memoirs on
 the possibility of a union between the 
two oceans2 but he says that in no one  

of them did he find the main point1 the 
height of the elevations on the isthmus1
 sufficiently cleared up1 and he could  
not fail to remark that the memoirs were
 exclusively ,french or ,english4 ,spain
 herself gave it no thought4 ,since the 
glorious age of ,balbao among the       
people1 indeed1 the project of a canal  
was in every one's thoughts4 ,in the    
very wayside talks1 in the inns of      
,spain1 when a traveler from the ,new   
,world chanced to pass1 after making him
 tell of the wonders of ,lima and       
,mexico1 of the death of the ,inca1     
,atahualpa1 and the bloody defeat of the
 ,aztecs1 and after asking his opinion  
of ,el ,dorado1 the question was always 
about the two oceans1 and what great    
things would happen if they could       
succeed in joining them4  ,during the   
whole of the seventeenth and eighteenth 
centuries1 ,spain had need of the best  
mode of conveyance for her treasures    
across the isthmus4 ,yet those from     
,peru came by the miserable route from  

,panama to the deadliest of climates4   
,porto ,bello and her ,european wares   
for her colonies toiled up the ,chagres 
river1 while the roughest of            
communication farther north connected   
the ,chimalapa and the ,guasacoalcos in 
,mexico1 and the trade there was limited
 sternly to but one port on each side4  
,as late as ,humboldt's visit1 in #ahjb1
 when remarking upon the unnatural modes
 of communication by which1 through     
painful delays1 the immense treasures of
 the ,new ,world passed from ,acapulco1 
,guayaquil1 and ,lima1 to ,spain1 he    
says3 ,these will soon cease whenever an
 active government1 willing to protect  
commerce1 shall construct a good road   
from ,panama to ,porto ,bello4 ,the     
aristocratic nonchalance of ,spain1 and 
her fear to open to strangers the way to
 the countries explored for her own     
profit1 only kept those countries       
closed4 ,the court forbade1 on pain of  
death1 the use of plans at different    
times proposed4 ,they wronged their own 

colonies by representing the coasts as  
dangerous and the rivers impassable4 ,on
 the presentation of a memoir for       
improving the route through             
,tehuantepec1 by citizens of ,oaxaca1 as
 late as #agge1 an order was issued     
forbidding the subject to be mentioned4 
,the memorialists were censured as      
intermeddlers1 and the viceroy fell     
under the sovereign's displeasure for   
having seemed to favor the plans4  ,the 
great isthmus was1 however1 further     
explored by the ,spanish government for 
its own purposes2 the recesses were     
traversed1 and the lines of             
communication which we know to-day were 
then noted4  ,in addition to the fact   
that comparatively little was explored  
north or south of that which early      
became the main highway1 the ,panama    
route1 there is confirmation here of the
 truth that ,spain concealed and even   
falsified much of her generally         
accurately made surveys4 ,no stronger   
proof of this need be asked than that   

which ,alcedo gives in connection with  
the proposal by ,gogueneche1 the        
,biscayan pilot1 to open communication  
by the ,atrato and the ,napipi4 ,the    
,atrato1 says the historian1 is         
navigable for many leagues1 but the     
navigation of it is prohibited under    
pain of death1 without the exception of 
any person whatever4  ,the ,isthmus of  
,nicaragua has always invited serious   
consideration for a ship canal route by 
its very marked physical                
characteristics1 among which is chiefly 
its great depression between two nearly 
parallel ranges of hills1 which         
depression is the basin of its large    
lake1 a natural and all-sufficient      
feeder for such a canal4  ,in #aebd a   
squadron of discovery sent out by       
,cortez on the coast of the ,south ,sea1
 announced the existence of a fresh     
water sea at only three leagues from the
 coast2 a sea which1 they said1 rose and
 fell alternately1 communicating1 it was
 believed1 with the ,sea of the ,north4 

,various reconnoissances were therefore 
made1 under the idea that here the easy 
transit would be established between    
,spain and the spice lands beyond4  ,it 
was even laid down on some of the old   
maps1 that this open communication by   
water existed from sea to sea2 while    
later maps represented a river1 under   
the name of ,rio ,partido1 as giving one
 of its branches to the ,pacific ,ocean 
and the other to ,lake ,nicaragua4 ,an  
exploration by the engineer1 ,bautista  
,antonelli1 under the orders of ,philip 
,,ii41 corrected the false idea of an   
open strait4  ,in the eighteenth century
 a new cause arose for jealousy of her  
neighbors and for keeping her northern  
part of the isthmus from their view4 ,in
 the years #aggi and #aghj the serious  
purposes of the ,english government for 
the occupancy of ,nicaragua1 awakened   
the solicitudes of the ,spanish         
government for this section4 ,the       
,english colonels1 ,hodgson and ,lee1   
had secretly surveyed the lake and      

portions of the country1 forwarding     
their plans to ,london1 as the basis of 
an armed incursion1 to renew such as had
 already been made by the superintendent
 of the ,mosquito coast1 forty years    
before1 when1 crossing the isthmus1 he  
took possession of ,realejo1 on the     
,pacific1 seeking to change its name to 
,port ,edward4 ,in #aghj1 ,captain1     
afterward ,lord ,nelson1 under orders   
from ,admiral ,sir ,peter ,parker1      
convoyed a force of two thousand men to 
,san ,juan de ,nicaragua1 for the       
conquest of the country4  ,in his       
dispatches1 ,nelson said3 ,in order to  
give facility to the great object of    
government1 ,i intend to possess the    
lake of ,nicaragua1 which1 for the      
present1 may be looked upon as the      
inland ,gibraltar of ,spanish ,america4 
,as it commands the only water pass     
between the oceans1 its situation must  
ever render it a principal post to      
insure passage to the ,southern ,ocean1 
and by our possession of it ,spanish    

,america is severed into two4  ,the     
passage of ,san ,juan was found to be   
exceedingly difficult2 for the seamen1  
although assisted by the ,indians from  
,bluetown1 scarcely forced their boats  
up the shoals4 ,nelson bitterly         
regretted that the expedition had not   
arrived in ,january1 in place of the    
close of the dry season4 ,it was a      
disastrous failure1 costing the ,english
 the lives of one thousand five hundred 
men1 and nearly losing to them their    
,nelson4  ,at this period1 ,charles     
,,iii41 of ,spain1 sent a commission to 
explore the country4 ,these             
commissioners reported unfavorably as   
regarded the route2 but fearing further 
intrusion from ,england1 forbade all    
access to the coast2 even falsifying and
 suppressing its charts and permanently 
injuring the navigation of the ,san     
,juan and the ,colorado by obstructions 
in their beds4  ,it is1 however1 a      
relief here to learn that when ,humboldt
 visited the ,new ,world1 he could say3 

,the time is passed when ,spain1 through
 a jealous policy1 refused to other     
nations a thoroughfare across the       
possessions of which they kept the whole
 world so long in ignorance4 ,accurate  
maps of the coasts1 and even minute     
plans of military positions1 are        
published4 ,it is also true that the    
,spanish ,cortes1 in #ahad1 decreed the 
opening of a canal1 a decree deferred   
and never executed4  ,it was reserved   
for our century to see this great       
project carried into execution1 and it  
is but just that as a chronicler of     
events ,i should connect with the ,canal
 of ,panama the name of a family who    
have done much to bring the scheme1 so  
to say1 into practical execution4  ,as  
early as the year #ahcf1 ,mr4 ,joly de  
,sabla turned his views toward the      
cutting of a canal across the ,isthmus  
of ,panama4 ,he resided at the time on  
the ,island of ,guadeloupe1 one of the  
,french ,west ,india ,islands1 where he 
possessed large estates4 ,of a high     

social position1 the representative of  
one of ,france's ancient and noble      
families1 with large means at his       
disposal and of an enterprising spirit  
much in advance of his time1 he was well
 calculated to carry out such a grand   
scheme4  ,he soon set about procuring   
from the ,government of ,new ,granada   
7now ,colombia7 the necessary grants and
 concessions1 but much time and many    
efforts were spent before these could be
 brought to a satisfactory condition1   
and it was not until the year #ahda that
 he could again visit the ,isthmus1     
bringing with him this time1 on a vessel
 chartered by him for the purpose1 a    
corps of engineers and employes1 medical
 staff1 etc41 etc4 ,after two years     
spent in exploring and surveying a      
country at that time very imperfectly   
known1 he returned to ,guadeloupe to    
find his residence and most of his      
estates destroyed by the terrible       
earthquake that visited the island in   
,february1 #ahdc4  ,undaunted by this   

unexpected and severe blow1 ,mr4 ,de    
,sabla persisted in his efforts1 and in 
the same year obtained from the ,french 
government the establishment of a       
,consulate at ,panama to insure         
protection to the future canal company1 
and also the sending of two government  
engineers of high repute 7,messrs4      
,garella and ,courtines71 to verify the 
surveys already made and complete them4 
,after receiving the respective reports 
of ,garella and ,courtines1 ,mr4 ,de    
,sabla decided upon first constructing a
 railway across the ,isthmus1 postponing
 the cutting of the canal until this    
indispensable auxiliary should have     
rendered it practicable and profitable4 
,he then presented the scheme in that   
shape to his friends in ,paris and      
,london1 and formed a syndicate of      
thirteen members1 among whom we may     
recall the names of the well known      
,bankers ,caillard of ,paris1 and       
,baimbridge of ,london1 of ,sir ,john   
,campbell1 then ,vice ,president of the 

,oriental ,steamship ,company1 of       
,viscount ,chabrol de ,chameane1 and of 
,courtines1 the exploring engineer4  ,a 
new contract was then entered upon with 
,new ,granada in ,june1 #ahdg1 and early
 in #ahdh1 the ,syndicate was about to  
forward to the ,isthmus the expedition  
which was to execute the preliminary    
works1 while the company was being      
finally organized in ,paris1 and its    
stock placed4  ,the success of the      
undertaking seemed to be assured beyond 
peradventure1 when the unexpected       
breaking out of the ,french revolution  
in ,february1 #ahdh1 dashed all hopes to
 the ground4 ,several of the prominent  
financiers engaged in the affair1 taken 
by surprise by the suddenness of the    
revolution1 had to suspend their        
payments and of course to withdraw from 
the ,panama ,canal and railroad scheme4 
,others withdrew from contagious fear   
and timidity4 ,finally the term fixed   
for carrying out certain obligations of 
the contract expired without their      

fulfillment by the company1 and the     
concession was forfeited4 ,another      
contract was almost immediately applied 
for and granted with unseemly haste by  
the ,president of ,new ,granada to      
,messrs4 ,aspinwall1 ,stephens and      
,chauncey1 which resulted in the        
construction of the actual ,panama      
,railroad4  ,these gentlemen acted      
fairly in the matter1 and in #ahdi1     
calling ,mr4 ,de ,sabla to ,new ,york1  
offered him to join them in the new     
scheme4 ,unfortunately they had decided 
upon placing the ,atlantic terminus of  
the railroad upon the low and swampy mud
 ,island of ,manzanillo1 while ,mr4 ,de 
,sabla insisted on having it on the     
mainland on the dry and healthy northern
 shore of the ,bay of ,limon4 ,they     
could not come to an understanding on   
this point1 and ,mr4 ,de ,sabla1 whose  
experience and foresight taught him the 
dangers that would result to the        
shipping from the unprotected situation 
of the projected part 7now              

,colon--,aspinwall71 and who well knew  
the insalubrity of the malarial swamp   
constituting the ,island of ,manzanillo1
 withdrew forever from the undertaking1 
after having devoted to it without any  
benefit to himself1 the best years of   
his life and a large portion of his     
private means4  ,one of his sons1 ,mr4  
,theodore ,j4 de ,sabla1 after having   
actively co-operated with ,lieutenant   
,commander ,wyse1 in the original scheme
 of the present canal company1 is now   
one of ,count de ,lesseps's             
representatives in the ,city of ,new    
,york1 and a director of the ,panama    
,railroad ,company4         99       99 
99       99       99     ,,improved     
,,averaging ,,machine4   ,at the recent 
meeting of the ,american ,society of    
,civil ,engineers1 in this city1 a paper
 on an improved form of the averaging   
machine was read by its inventor1 ,mr4  
,wm4 ,s4 ,auchincloss4  ,the ingenious  
method by which the weight of the       
platform is eliminated from the result  

of the work of the machine was exhibited
 and explained4 ,this is accomplished by
 counterweights sliding automatically in
 tubes1 so that in any position the     
unloaded platform is always in          
equilibrium4 ,any combination of        
representative weights can then be      
placed on this platform at the proper   
points of the scale4 ,by then drawing   
the platform to its balancing point1 the
 location of the center of gravity will 
at once be indicated on the scale by the
 pointer over the central trunnion4     
,the weights may be arranged on a       
decimal system1 with intermediate       
weights for closer working1 or they may 
be made so as to express multiples or   
factors4  ,each machine is provided with
 a number of differing scales1 divided  
suitably for various purposes4 ,when the
 problem is one of time1 the scale      
represents months and days2 for problems
 of proportion1 the zero of the scale is
 at the center of its length2 for       
problems for the location of center of  

gravity of a system from a fixed point1 
the zero is at the extremity of the     
scale1 etc4  ,the machine exhibited has 
sixty-three transverse grooves1 which1  
by arrangement of weights1 can be made  
to serve the purposes of two hundred and
 fifty-two grooves4  ,the machine is #bi
 inches in length1 #i inches in width1  
and weighs about #ac pounds4  ,with the 
machine can be found average dates1 as1 
for instance1 of purchases and of       
payments extending over irregular       
periods2 also average prices1 as for    
futures1 in comman use among cotton     
brokers4 ,the problem of average haul1  
so often presented to the engineer1 can 
be solved with ease and great celerity4 
,practical examples of the solution of  
these and a number of other problems    
involving proportions or averages were  
given by the author4         99       99
       99       99       99             
,,compound ,,beam ,,engine4   ,the      
engine represented in ,figs4 #a to #d   
herewith is intended for a mill1 and is 

of #ecj to #hjj indicated horse-power1  
the pressure being seven atmospheres1   
and the number of revolutions forty-five
 per minute4 ,as will be seen by the    
drawing each cylinder is placed in a    
separate foundation plate1 the two      
connecting rods acting upon cranks keyed
 at right angles upon the shaft1 ,w1    
which carries the drum1 ,t4 ,the        
high-pressure cylinder1 ,c1 is #gfj mm  
diameter1 the low pressure cylinder     
being #a1bbj mm4 diameter1 and the      
piston speed #b4bh m4 ,the drum1 which  
also fulfills the purpose of a fly      
wheel1 is provided with twenty-eight    
grooves for ropes of #ej mm4 diameter4  
,with the exception of the cylinders1   
pistons1 valves1 and valve chests1 the  
engines are of the same size1           
corresponding to the equal maximum      
pressures which come into action in each
 cylinder1 and in this respect alone the
 engine differs in principle from an    
ordinary twin machine4  ,illustration3  
,,borsig',s ,,improved ,,copound ,,beam 

,,engine4 ,,fig4 #a  ,the steam passes  
from the stop-valve1 ,a1 ,fig4 #d1      
through the steam pipe1 ,d1 to the high 
pressure cylinder1 ,c1 and having done  
its work1 goes into the receiver1 ,r1   
where it is heated4 ,from the receiver  
it is led into the low-pressure         
cylinder1 ,c#a1 and thence into the     
condenser4 ,provision is made for       
working both engines independently with 
direct steam when desired1 suitable gear
 being provided for supplying steam of  
the proper pressure to the condensing   
engine1 so that each engine shall       
perform exactly the same amount of work4
 ,the starting gear consists of a       
hand-wheel1 ,h1 which controls the stop 
valve1 ,a1 and of another h1 which opens
 the valves for the jackets of the      
cylinders and receiver4 ,the hand-wheel1
 h#a and h#b1 govern the valves1 which  
turn the steam direct into the two      
cylinders4 ,there are also lever1 g1    
which opens the principal injection     
cock1 ,h#a1 and the auxiliary injection 

cock1 ,h#b1 the function of which is to 
assist in forming a speedy vacuum1 when 
the engine has been standing for some   
time4  ,illustration3 ,,borsig',s       
,,improved ,,copound ,,beam ,,engine4   
,,fig4 #b  ,the drum is #f4jh m4        
diameter1 the breadth being #b4jd m41   
with a total weight of #cc1jjj kilos4   
,the beams are of cast iron with balance
 weights cast on4 ,the connecting rods  
and cross beams are of wrought iron1 and
 the cranks1 crank shaft1 piston rods1  
valve rods1 etc41 of steel4 ,the        
bed-plate for the main shaft bearings   
are cast in one piece with the standards
 for the beam1 which are connected      
firmly together by the center bearing1  
,m ,m#a1 which is cast in one piece1 and
 also by the diagonal bracing piece1 ,n 
,n#a4 ,the construction of the cylinder 
and valve chests is shown in ,fig4 #a4  
,the working cylinder is in the form of 
a liner to the cylinder1 thus forming   
the steam jacket1 with a view to future 
renewal4 ,this lining has a flange at   

the lower part for bolting it down1     
being made steam-tight by the           
intervention of a copper packing ring4  
,there is a similar ring at the upper   
part which is pressed down by the       
cylinder cover4 ,the latter is cast     
hollow and strengthened by ribs4 ,the   
pistons are provided with cast iron     
double self-expanding packing rings4    
,for preventing accidents by condensed  
water1 spring safety valves1 ss and s#a 
s#a1 are connected to the valve chests4 
,the valve gear1 which is arranged in   
the same manner for both cylinders1 is  
actuated by shafts1 w and w#a1 rotated  
by toothed wheels as shown4 ,motion is  
communicated from the way-shafts1 w and 
w#a1 by the eccentrics1 and the         
eccentric rods1 e#a e#b e#c e#d1 and the
 levers and rods belonging thereto1 to  
the short steam valve rocking shafts    
levers1 f#a f#b f#c f#d1 and the exhaust
 valve rocking shafts1 k#a k#b k#c k#d1 
the bearings of which are carried on    
brackets above the valve chests1 which1 

being furnished with tappet levers1     
raise and lower the valves4             
,illustration3 ,,borsig',s ,,improved   
,,copound ,,beam ,,engine4 ,,fig4 #c    
,the valves are conical1 double-seated1 
and of cast iron1 and the inlet and     
outlet valves are placed the one above  
the other1 the seats being also         
conically ground and inserted through   
the cover of the valve chest4 ,both     
inlet and outlet valves are actuated    
from above1 and are removable upward1 an
 arrangement which admits of the valves 
being more easily examined than when the
 two are actuated from different sides  
of the valve chest4 ,to carry out this  
idea the inlet valves are furnished with
 two guides1 which1 passing upward      
through the stuffing-box1 are attached  
to a hard steel cross piece1 which      
receives the action of a bent catch     
turning on a pin attached to the levers1
 t#a1 t#b1 t#c1 t#d4 ,the exhaust       
valves1 on the contrary1 have only one  
guide each1 which passes upward through 

the seat of the admission valve1 through
 the valve itself by means of a collar1 
and through the stuffing-box4 ,it is    
furnished with hard steel armatures1    
through which the levers1 z#a z#b1 ,fig4
 #c1 act upon the exhaust valves4       
,illustration3 ,,borsig',s ,,improved   
,,copound ,,beam ,,engine4 ,,fig4 #d    
,the governor effects the acceleration  
or retardation of the loosening of the  
catch actuating the steam valve by means
 of hard steel projections on the shaft1
 v#a1 the position of which1 by means of
 levers1 is regulated by the governor1  
which in its highest position does not  
allow the lifting of the inlet valve at 
all4 ,the regulation of the expansion by
 the governor from #j to #j4de takes    
place generally only in the case of the 
high-pressure cylinder1 while the       
low-pressure cylinder has a fixed rate  
of expansion4 ,only when the            
low-pressure cylinder is required to    
work with steam direct from the boiler  
is the governor applied to regulate the 

expansion in it4 ,an exact action in the
 valve guides and a regular descent is  
secured by furnishing them with small   
dash pot pistons working in cylinders4  
,into them the air is readily admitted  
by a small ,india-rubber valve1 but the 
passage out again is controlled at      
pleasure4--,the ,engineer4         99   
99       99       99       99  ,,to     
,,detect ,,alkalies ,,in ,,nitrate ,,of 
,,silver--,stolba recommends the salt to
 be dissolved in the smallest quantity  
of water1 and to add to the filtered    
solution hydrofluosilicic acid1 drop by 
drop4 ,should a turbidity appear an     
alkaline salt is present4 ,but should   
the liquid remain limpid1 an equal      
volume of alcohol is to be added1 which 
will cause a precipitate in case the    
slightest trace of an alkali be present4
         99       99       99       99  
99     ,,power ,,hammers ,,with         
,,movable ,,fulcrum4  ,footnote3 ,paper 
read before the ,institution of         
,mechanical ,engineers4--,engineering4  

,by ,,daniel ,,longworth1 of ,london4   
,the movable-fulcrum power hammer was   
designed by the writer about five and a 
half years ago1 to meet a want in the   
market for a power hammer which1 while  
under the complete control of only one  
workman1 could produce blows of varying 
forces without alteration in the        
rapidity with which they were given4 ,it
 was also necessary that the vibration  
and shock of the hammer head should not 
be transmitted to the driving mechanism1
 and that the latter should be free from
 noise and liability to derangement4    
,the various uses to which the movable  
fulcrum hammers have been put1 and their
 success in working#a--;as well as the  
importance of the general subject which 
includes them1 namely1 the substitution 
of stored power for human effort--form  
the author's excuse for now occupying   
the time of the meeting4  ,footnote #a3 
,the hammers have been for some years   
used by ,a4 ,bamlett1 of ,thirsk2 the   
,american ,tool ,company1 of ,antwerp2  

,messrs4 ,w4,t4 ,avery1 of ,birmingham2 
,pullar  ,sons1 of ,perth2 ,salter      
,co41 of ,west ,bromwich2 ,vernon ,hope 
,co41 of ,wednesbury1 etc42 and also for
 stamps by ,messrs4 ,collins  ,co41 of  
,birmingham1 etc4  ,until these hammers 
were introduced1 no satisfactory method 
had been devised for altering the force 
of the blow4 ,the plan generally adopted
 was to have either a tightening pulley 
acting on the driving belt1 a friction  
driving clutch1 or a simple brake on the
 driving pulley1 put in action by the   
hand or foot of the workman4 ,heavy     
blows were produced by simply increasing
 the number of blows per minute 7and    
therefore the velocity71 and light blows
 by diminishing it--a plan which was    
quite contrary to the true requirements 
of the case4 ,to prevent the shock of   
the hammer head being communicated to   
the driving gear1 an elastic connection 
was usually formed between them1        
consisting of a steel spring or a       
cushion of compressed air4 ,with the    

steel spring1 the variation which could 
be given in the thickness of the work   
under the hammer was very limited1 owing
 to the risk of breaking the spring2 but
 with the compressed air or pneumatic   
connection the work might vary          
considerably in thickness1 say from #j  
to #h in4 with a hammer weighing #djjlb4
 ,the pneumatic hammers had a crank1    
with a connecting rod or a slotted      
crossbar on the piston-rod1 a piston and
 a cylinder which formed the            
hammer-head4 ,the piston-rod was packed 
with a cup leather1 or with ordinary    
packing1 the latter required to be      
adjusted with the greatest nicety1      
otherwise the piston struck the hammer  
before lifting it1 or else the force of 
the blow was considerably diminished4   
,as the piston moved with the same      
velocity during its upward and downward 
strokes1 and1 in the latter1 had to     
overtake and outrun the hammer falling  
under the action of gravity1 the air was
 not compressed sufficiently to give a  

sharp blow at ordinary working speeds1  
and a much heavier hammer was required  
than if the velocity of the piston had  
been accelerated to a greater degree4   
,as it is impossible in the limits of   
this paper to describe all the forms in 
which the movable fulcrum hammers have  
been arranged1 two types only will be   
selected taken from actual work2 namely1
 a small planishing hammer1 and a       
medium-sized forging hammer4#a          
,footnote #a3 ,to the makers1 ,messrs4  
,j4 ,scott ,rawlings  ,co1 of           
,birmingham1 the author is indebted for 
the working drawings of these hammers4  
,the small planishing hammer1 ,figs4 #a 
to #c1 next page1 is used for copper1   
tin1 electro1 and iron plate1 for       
scythes1 and other thin work1 for which 
it is sufficient to adjust the force of 
the blow once for all by hand1 according
 to the thickness and quality of the    
material before commencing to hammer it4
 ,the hammer weighs #ae lb41 and has a  
stroke variable from #b in4 to #i in41  

and makes #bej blows per minute4 ,the   
driving shaft1 ,a1 is fitted with fast  
and loose belt pulleys1 the belt fork   
being connected to the pedal1 ,p1 which 
when pressed down by the foot of the    
workman1 slides the driving belt on to  
the fast pulley and starts the hammer2  
when the foot is taken off the pedal1   
the weight on the latter moves the belt 
quickly on to the loose pulley1 and the 
hammer is stopped4 ,the flywheel on the 
shaft1 ,a1 is weighted on one side1 so  
that it causes the hammer to stop at the
 top of its stroke after working2 thus  
enabling the material to be placed on   
the anvil before starting the hammer4   
,the movable fulcrum1 ,b1 consists of a 
stud1 free to slide in a slot1 ,c1 in   
the framing1 and held in position by a  
nut and toothed washer4 ,on the fulcrum 
is mounted the socket1 ,d1 through which
 passes freely a round bar or rocking   
lever1 ,e1 attached at one end to the   
main piston1 ,f1 of the hammer1 ,g1 and 
having at the other extremity a long    

slide1 ,h1 mounted upon it4 ,this slide 
is carried on the crank-pin1 ,i1        
fastened to the disk1 ,j1 attached to   
the driving shaft1 ,a4 ,the crank-pin1  
in revolving1 reciprocates the rocking  
lever1 ,e1 and main piston1 ,f1 and     
through the medium of the pneumatic     
connection1 the hammer1 ,g4 ,the slide1 
,h1 in revolving with the crank-pin1    
also moves backward and forward along   
the rocking lever1 approaching the      
fulcrum1 ,b1 during the down-stroke of  
the hammer1 and receding from it during 
the up-stroke4 ,by this means the       
velocity of the hammer is considerably  
accelerated in its downward stroke1     
causing a sharp blow to be given while  
it is gently raised during its upward   
stroke4  ,to alter the force of the     
blow1 the hammer1 ,g1 is made to rise   
and fall through a greater or less      
distance1 as may be required1 from the  
fixed anvil block1 ,k1 after the manner 
of the smith giving heavy or light blows
 on his anvil4 ,it is evident that this 

special alteration of the stroke could  
not be obtained by altering the throw of
 a simple crank and connecting rod2 but 
by placing the slot1 ,c1 parallel with  
the direction of the rocking lever1 ,e1 
when the latter is in its lowest        
position1 with the hammer resting on the
 anvil1 and with the crank at the top of
 its stroke1 this lowest position of the
 rocking lever and hammer is made       
constant1 no matter what position the   
fulcrum1 ,b1 may have in the slot1 ,c4  
,to obtain a short stroke1 and          
consequently a light blow1 the fulcrum  
is moved in the slot toward the hammer1 
,g2 and to produce a long stroke and    
heavy blow the fulcrum is moved in the  
opposite direction4  ,fig4 #c gives the 
details of the pneumatic connection     
between the main piston and the hammer1 
in which packing and packing glands are 
dispensed with4 ,the hammer1 ,g1 is of  
cast steel1 bored out to fit the main   
piston1 ,f1 the latter being also bored 
out to receive an internal piston1 ,l4  

,a pin1 ,m1 passing freely through slots
 in the main piston1 ,f1 connects       
rigidly the internal piston1 ,l1 with   
the hammer1 ,g4 ,when the main piston is
 raised by the rocking lever1 the air in
 the space1 ,x1 between the main and    
internal pistons1 is compressed1 and    
forms an elastic medium for lifting the 
hammer2 when the main piston is moved   
down1 the air in the space1 ,y1 is      
compressed in its turn1 and the hammer  
forced down to give the blow4 ,two holes
 drilled in the side of the hammer renew
 the air automatically in the spaces1 ,x
 and ,y1 at each blow of the hammer4    
,figs4 #d to #f1 on the next page1      
represent the medium size forging       
hammer1 for making forgings in dies1    
swaging and tilting bars1 and plating   
edged tools1 etc4  ,the hammer weighs #a
 cwt41 has a stroke variable from #d in4
 to #ad in41 and gives #bjj blows per   
minute2 the compressed air space between
 the main piston and the hammer is      
sufficiently long to admit forgings up  

to #c in4 thick under the hammer4  ,to  
make forgings economically1 it is       
necessary to bring them into the desired
 form by a few heavy blows1 while the   
material is still in a highly plastic   
condition1 and then to finish them by a 
succession of lighter blows4 ,the heavy 
blows should be given at a slower rate  
than the lighter ones1 to allow time for
 turning the work in the dies or on the 
anvil1 and so to avoid the risk of      
spoiling it4 ,in forging with the steam 
hammer the workman requires an          
assistant1 who1 with the lever of the   
valve motion in hand1 obeys his         
directions as to starting and stopping1 
heavy or light blows1 slow or quick     
blows1 etc2 the quickest speed          
attainable depending on the speed of the
 arm of the assistant4 ,in the          
movable-fulcrum forging hammer the      
operations of starting and stopping1 and
 the giving of heavy or light blows1 are
 under the complete control of one foot 
of the workman1 who requires therefore  

no assistant2 and by properly           
proportioning the diameter of the       
driving pulley and size of belt to the  
hammer1 the heavy blows are given at a  
slower rate than the light ones1 owing  
to the greater resistance which they    
offer to the driving belt4  ,in this    
hammer the pneumatic connection1 the    
arrangements for the starting1 stopping1
 and holding up of the hammer1 as well  
as those for communicating the motion of
 the crank-pin to the hammer by means of
 a rocking lever and movable fulcrum1   
are similar to those in the planishing  
hammer1 differing only in the details1  
which provide double guides and bearings
 for the principal working parts4       
,illustration3 ,,longworth',s ,,power   
,,hammer ,,with ,,movable ,,fulcrum4    
,the movable fulcrum1 ,b1 ,figs4 #d and 
#e1 consists of two adjustable steel    
pins1 attached to the fulcrum lever1 ,q1
 and turned conical where they fit in   
the socket1 ,d4 ,the fulcrum lever is   
pivoted on a pin1 ,r1 fixed in the      

framing of the machine1 and is connected
 at its lower extremity to the nut1 ,s1 
in gear with the regulating screw1 ,t4  
,the to-and-fro movement of the fulcrum 
lever1 ,q1 by which heavy or light blows
 are given by the hammer1 is placed     
under the control of the foot of the    
workman1 in the following manner3 ,u is 
a double-ended forked lever1 pivoted in 
the center1 and having one end embracing
 the starting pedal1 ,p1 and the other  
end the small belt which connects the   
fast pulley on the driving shaft1 ,a1   
with the loose pulley1 ,v1 or the       
reversing pulleys1 ,w and ,x4 ,these are
 respectivly connected with the bevel   
wheels1 ,w#a1 and ,x#a1 gearing into and
 placed at opposite sides of the bevel  
wheel1 ,z1 on the regulating screw in   
connection with the fulcrum lever4 ,when
 the workman places his foot on the     
pedal1 ,p1 to start the hammer1 he finds
 his foot within the fork of the lever1 
,u2 and by slightly turning his foot    
round on his heel he can readily move   

the forked lever to right or left1 so   
shifting the small belt on to either of 
the reversing pulleys1 ,w or ,x1 and    
causing the regulating screw1 ,t1 to    
revolve in either direction4 ,the       
fulcrum lever is thus caused to move    
forward or backward1 to give light or   
heavy blows4 ,by moving the forked lever
 into mid position1 the small belt is   
shifted into its usual place on the     
loose pulley1 ,v1 and the fulcrum       
remains at rest4 ,to fix the lightest   
and heaviest blow required for each kind
 of work1 adjustable stops are provided1
 and are mounted on a rod1 ,y1 connected
 to an arm of the forked lever4 ,when   
the nut of the regulating screw comes in
 contact with either of the stops1 the  
forked lever is forced into mid         
position1 in spite of the pressure of   
the foot of the workman1 and thus       
further movement of the fulcrum lever1  
in the direction which it was taking1 is
 prevented4 ,the movable fulcrum can    
also be adjusted by hand to any required

 blow1 when the hammer is stopped1 by   
means of a handle in connection with the
 regulating screw4  ,in conclusion the  
author wishes to direct attention to the
 fact1 that in many of our largest      
manufactories1 particularly in the      
midland counties1 foot and hand labor   
for forging and stamping is still       
employed to an enormous extent4         
,hundreds of ,olivers1 with hammers up  
to #fj lb4 in weight1 are laboriously   
put in motion by the foot of the        
workman1 at a speed averaging fifty     
blows per minute2 while large numbers of
 stamps1 worked by hand and foot1 and   
weighing up to #abj lb41 are also       
employed4 ,the low first cost of the    
foot hammers and stamps1 combined with  
the system of piece work1 and the desire
 of manufacturers to keep their methods 
of working secret1 have no doubt much to
 do with the small amount of progress   
that has been made2 although in a few   
cases competition1 particularly with the
 ,united ,states of ,america1 has forced

 the manufacturer to throw the ,oliver  
and hand-stamp aside1 and to employ     
steam power hammers and stamps4 ,the    
writer believes that in connection with 
forging and stamping processes there is 
still a wide and profitable field for   
the ingenuity and capital of engineers1 
who choose to occupy themselves with    
this minor1 but not the less useful1    
branch of mechanics4         99       99
       99       99       99     ,,the   
,,bicheroux ,,system ,,of ,,furnaces    
,,applied ,,to ,,the ,,puddling ,,of    
,,iron4   ,since the year #ahgb1 the    
large iron works at ,ougre1 near ,liege1
 have applied the ,bicheroux system of  
furnaces to heating1 and1 since the year
 #ahgg1 to puddling4 ,the results that  
have been obtained in this last-named   
application are so satisfactory that it 
appears to us to be of interest to speak
 of the matter in some detail4  ,the    
apparatus1 which is shown in the        
opposite page1 consists of three        
distinct parts3 7#a7 a gas generator2   

7#b7 a mixing chamber into which the    
gases and air are drawn by the natural  
draught1 and wherein the combustion of  
the gases begins2 and 7#c7 a furnace1 or
 laboratory 7not represented in the     
figure71 wherein the combustion is      
nearly finished1 and wherein take place 
the different reactions of puddling4    
,these three parts are given dimensions 
that vary according to the composition  
of the different coals1 and they may be 
made to use any sort of coal1 even the  
fine and schistose kinds which would not
 be suitable for ordinary puddling4 ,the
 gases and the air necessary for the    
combustion of these being brought       
together at different temperatures1 and 
being drawn into the mixing chamber     
through the same chimney1 it will be    
seen that the dimensions of the flues   
that conduct them should vary with the  
kind of coal used2 and the manner in    
which the gases are brought together is 
not a matter of indifference4           
,illustration3 ,,the ,,bicheroux        

,,system ,,of ,,furnace4  ,vertical     
,section1 and ,horizontal ,section      
through ,,mnopqr  ,the gas generator    
consists of a hopper1 ,a1 into which    
drops1 through small apertures a1 the   
coal piled up on the platform1 ,d4      
,these apertures are closed with coal or
 bricks4 ,the bottom of the generator is
 formed of a small standing grate4 ,the 
coal1 on falling upon a mass in a state 
of ignition1 distills and becomes       
transformed into coke1 which gradually  
slides down over a grate to produce     
afterward1 through its own combustion1 a
 distillation of the coal following it4 
,but as these are features found in all 
generators we will not dwell upon them4 
,the gases that are produced flow       
through a long horizontal flue1 ,b1 into
 a vertical conduit1 ,e1 into which     
there debouches at the upper part a     
series of small orifices1 ,f1 that      
conduct the air that has been heated4   
,the gases are inflamed1 and traverse   
the furnace c 7not shown in the cut71   

from whence they go to the chimney4     
,before the air is allowed to reach the 
intervening chamber it is made to pass  
into the sole of the furnace and into   
the walls of the chamber1 so that to the
 advantage of having the air heated     
there is joined the additional one of   
having those portions of the furnace    
cooled that cannot be heated with       
impunity4  ,the incompletely burned     
gases that escape from the furnace are  
utilized in heating the boilers of the  
establishment4 ,the dimensions given    
these furnaces vary greatly according to
 the charge to be used4 ,all the results
 at ,ougre have been obtained with #djj 
kilogramme charges1 and the dimensions  
of the gas generators have been         
calculated for ,six-,bonniers coal1     
which does not yield over #bj per cent4 
of gas4  ,the advantages of this system1
 which permits of expediting all the    
operations of puddling1 are as follows3 
#a4 ,a notable economy in fuel1 both as 
regards quantity and quality4  #b4      

,economy resulting from diminution in   
the waste of metal1 with a consequent   
improvement in the quality of the       
products obtained4  #c4 ,diminution in  
cost of repairs4  #d4 ,less rapid wear  
in the grates4  #e4 ,improvement in the 
conditions of the work of puddling4  ,as
 regards the first of these advantages1 
it may be stated that the puddling of   
ordinary ,ougre forge iron1 which       
required with other furnaces #ijj to    
#a1jjj kilogrammes of coal1 is now      
performed with less than #fjj           
kilogrammes per ton of the iron         
produced4 ,the puddling of fine grained 
iron which required #a1cjj to #a1ejj    
kilogrammes of coal is now done with    
#hjj4 ,so much for quantity2 as for     
quality the system presents also a very 
marked advantage in that it requires no 
rolling coal--the operation of the      
furnace being just as regular with fine 
coal1 even that sifted through screens  
of #j4jb meter4  ,the second class of   
advantages naturally results from the   

almost complete prevention of access of 
cold air4 ,the saving in wastage amounts
 to #c or #d per cent41 that is to say1 
#ajj kilogrammes of iron produced is    
accompanied by a loss of only #i to #aj 
kilogrammes1 instead of #ac to #ae as   
ordinarily reckoned4  ,the diminution in
 the cost of repairs is due to the fact 
that the furnace doors1 of which there  
are two1 permit of easy access to all   
parts of the sole2 moreover1 the coal   
never coming in contact with the        
fire-bridges1 the latter last much      
longer than those in other styles of    
furnaces1 and can be used for several   
weeks without the necessity of the least
 repair4 ,the reduced wear of the grates
 results from the low temperature that  
can be used in the furnace1 and the     
quantity of clinker that can be left    
therein without interfering with its    
operation1 thus permitting of having the
 grates always black4 ,these latter in  
no wise change1 and after five months of
 work the square bars still preserve    

their sharpness of edges4  ,as for the  
improvements in the conditions of the   
work of puddling1 it may be stated that 
with a uniform price per #ajj           
kilogrammes for all the furnaces1 the   
laborers working at the gas furnaces can
 earn #be to #cj per cent4 more than    
those working at ordinary furnaces4     
99       99       99       99       99  
,,gessner',s ,,continuous               
,,cloth-,,pressing ,,machine4   ,it is  
well known that there are several       
serious drawbacks in the usual plan of  
pressing woolen or worsted cloths and   
felts with press plates1 press papers1  
and presses4 ,three objections of great 
weight may be mentioned1 and events in  
,leeds give emphasis to a fourth4 ,the  
three objections are--the labor required
 in setting or folding the cloth1 the   
expense of the press papers1 and the    
time required4 ,the fourth objection1   
about which a dispute has occurred      
between the press-setters and the master
 finishers in ,leeds1 refers to the     

inapplicability of the common system to 
long lengths4 ,the men object to these  
on account of the great labor involved  
in shifting the heavy mass of cloth and 
press plates to and from the presses4 ,a
 minor drawback of this system is that  
it involves the presence of a fold up   
the middle of the piece4 ,on account of 
these drawbacks it has long been        
understood to be desirable to expedite  
the process1 and also to dispense with  
the press papers4 ,this is the main     
purpose of the machine we now illustrate
 in section1 in which the pressing is   
done continuously by what may be termed 
a species of ironing4 ,the machine      
consists of a central hollow cylinder1  
,c1 three-quarters of the circumference 
of which is covered by the hollow boxes1
 ,m1 heated by steam through the pipes  
shown1 and which are mounted upon the   
levers1 ,,bb'1 whose fulcra are at bb4  
,by means of the hand-wheel1 ,t1 and    
worm-wheel1 n1 which closes or opens the
 levers1 ,,bb'1 the pressure of the     

boxes upon the central roller may be    
adjusted at will1 the spring-bolt1 ,f1  
allowing a certain amount of yield4 ,the
 faces of the press-boxes1 ,,mm1 are    
covered by a curved sheet of ,german    
silver attached to the point1 ,y4 ,this 
sheet takes the place of the press      
papers in the ordinary process4 ,the    
course of the cloth through the machine 
is as follows1 and is shown by the      
arrows3 ,it is placed on the bottom     
board in front1 and in its travel it    
passes over the rails1 ,o1 after which  
it is operated on by the brush1 ,z1     
leaving which it is conveyed over the   
rails1 ,v and ,i1 the rollers1 ,k and   
,p1 and thence between the pressing     
roller1 ,c1 and the ,german silver press
 plate covering the heated boxes1 ,m4   
,leaving these the piece passes over the
 roller1 ,p1 and is cuttled down in the 
bottom board by the cuttling motion1 ,f1
 or a rolling-up motion may be applied4 
,the maker states that arrangements for 
brushing and steaming may also be       

attached1 so that in one passage through
 the machine a piece may be pressed1    
brushed1 and steamed4 ,the speed of the 
cylinder may be adjusted according to   
the quality or requirements of the goods
 that are under treatment4 ,at the time 
of our visit1 says the ,textile         
,manufacturer1 printed woolen pieces    
were being pressed at the rate of about 
four yards a minute1 but higher speeds  
are often obtained4 ,messrs4 ,taylor1   
,wordsworth  ,co41 who have erected many
 of these machines in ,leeds1 ,bradford1
 and ,batley1 inform us that they find  
they are adapted for the pressing of a  
wide variety of cloths1 from ,bradford  
goods and thin serges to the heavy      
pieces of ,dewsbury and ,batley4 ,the   
inventor1 ,ernst ,gessner1 of ,aue1     
,saxony1 adopts an ingenious expedient  
for pressing goods with thick lists4 ,he
 provides an arrangement for moving the 
cylinder endwise1 according to the      
different widths of the pieces to be    
treated4 ,one list is left outside at   

the end of the cylinder1 and the other  
at the opposite end of the pressing     
boxes4 ,the machine we saw was #hj in4  
wide on the roller1 and it was one the  
design and construction of which        
undoubtedly do credit to ,mr4 ,gessner4 
,illustration         99       99       
99       99       99     ,,improvements 
,,in ,,woolen ,,carding ,,engines4      
,mr4 ,bolette1 who has made a name for  
himself in connection with strap        
dividers1 has experimented in another   
direction on the carding engine1 and as 
his ideas contain some points of novelty
 we herewith give the necessary         
illustrations1 so that our readers can  
judge for themselves as to the merit of 
these inventions4  ,illustration3 ,fig4 
#a4  ,fig4 #a represents the feeding    
arrangement4 ,here the wool is delivered
 by the feed rollers1 ,a ,a1 in the     
usual manner4 ,the longer fibers are    
then taken off by a comb1 ,b1 and       
brought forward to the stripper1 ,e1    
which transfers them to the roller1 ,h1 

and thence to the cylinder4 ,the shorter
 fibers which are not seized by the comb
 fall down1 but as they drop they meet a
 blast of air created by a fan1 which   
throws the lighter and cleaner parts in 
a kind of spray upon the roller1 ,l1    
whence they pass on to the cylinder1    
while the dirt and other heavier parts  
fall downwards into a box1 and are by   
this means kept off the cylinder4 ,it is
 evident that in this arrangement it is 
not intended to keep the long and the   
short fibers separate1 but to utilize   
them all in the formation of the yarn4  
,the arrangement shown in ,fig4 #b      
refers to the delivery end4 ,instead of 
the sliver being wound upon the roller  
in the usual way1 it runs upon a sheet  
of linen1 ,p1 as in the case of carding 
for felt1 with a to-and-fro motion in   
the direction of the axis of the        
rollers4 ,in this way one or more layers
 of the fleece can be placed on the     
sheet1 which in that case passes        
backwards and forwards from roller ,s to

 ,r1 and vice versa4 ,it is1 in fact1   
the bat arrangement used for felt1 only 
with this difference1 that the bat is at
 once rolled up instead of going through
 the bat frame4 ,in the manufacture of  
felt it is of course of importance to   
have many very thin layers of fleece    
superposed over each other in order to  
equalize it1 and if the same is applied 
to the manufacture of cloth it will no  
doubt give satisfactory results1 but may
 be rather costly4  ,illustration3 ,fig4
 #b4         99       99       99       
99       99     ,,novelties ,,in ,,ring 
,,spindles4   ,one of the drawbacks of  
ring spinning is the uneven pull of the 
traveler1 which is the more difficult to
 counteract as it is exerted in jerks at
 irregular intervals4 ,it is argued that
 with spindles and bearings as usually  
made the spindle is supported firmly in 
its bearing1 and cannot give in case of 
such a lateral pull when exerted through
 the yarn by the traveler1 and the      
consequence is either a breakage of the 

yarn or an uneven thread4 ,impressed    
with this idea1 and in order to remedy  
this defect1 an eminent ,swiss firm has 
hit upon the notion of driving the      
spindle by friction1 and to make it more
 or less loose in the bearings1 so that 
in case of an extra pull by the traveler
 the spindle can give way a little1 and 
thus prevent the breakage of the yarn4  
,this idea has been carried out in four 
different ways1 and as this seems to be 
an entirely new departure in ring       
spinning1 we give the illustrations of  
their construction in detail4           
,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,fig4 #b4 ,fig4
 #c4 ,fig4 #d4  ,fig4 #a represents     
,bourcart's recent arrangement of       
attaching the thread guide to the       
spindle rail and the adjustable spindle4
 ,the spindle is held by the sleeve1 g1 
which latter is screwed into the spindle
 rail1 ,s1 this being moved by the      
pinion1 a2 the collar is elongated      
upwards in a cuplike form1 c1 the better
 to hold the oil1 and keep it from      

flying2 d is the wharf1 which has       
attached to it the sleeve1 m1 and which 
is situated loosely in the space between
 the spindle and the footstep1 e4 ,above
 the wharf the spindle is hexagonal in  
shape1 and to this part is attached the 
friction plate1 a4 ,between the latter  
and the upper surface of the wharf a    
cloth or felt washer is inserted1 to act
 as a brake4 ,the footstep1 e1 is filled
 with oil1 in which run the foot of the 
spindle and the sleeve m1 the latter    
turning upon a steel ring situated on   
the bottom of the footstep4 ,as1 thus1  
the foot of the spindle is quite free1  
the upper part of the spindle can give  
sideways in the direction of any sudden 
pull1 and the foot of the spindle can   
follow this motion in the opposite      
direction1 the collar forming the       
fulcrum for the spindle4 ,by this       
alteration of the vertical position of  
the spindle into an inclined one 7though
 ever so trifling71 the contact of the  
friction plate1 a1 and the wharf is     

interrupted1 and thus the speed of the  
spindle reduced4 ,this will cause less  
yarn to be wound on1 and the pull thus  
to be neutralized2 but as the wharf     
keeps turning at the same speed1 its    
centrifugal force will act again upon   
the friction plate1 and thus bring the  
spindle back to its vertical position as
 soon as the extra drag has been        
removed4  ,in ,fig4 #b the footstep1 e1 
has the foot of the spindle more closely
 fitting at the bottom1 but the upper   
part of the step opens out gradually1   
and forms a conical cavity of a little  
larger diameter than the spindle1 so    
that the latter has a considerable play 
sideways4 ,the wharf carries in its     
lower part the sleeve1 g1 which runs    
upon a steel ring as above4 ,the upper  
surface of the wharf is arched1 and upon
 this is fitted the correspondingly     
arched friction plate1 a1 which latter  
is attached to the spindle by a screw4  
,the position of the spindle is         
maintained by the collar1 m4 ,this      

collar is loose in the spindle rail1 and
 only held by the spring1 m'4 ,if now1 a
 lateral drag is exerted upon the upper 
part of the spindle1 the collar car     
follows the direction of this drag1 and 
the spindle thus be brought out of the  
vertical position1 the friction plate   
slipping at the same time4 ,the force of
 the spring conjointly with the         
centrifugal force will then bring back  
the spindle into its normal position as 
soon as the drag is again even4  ,fig4  
#c shows a spindle with a very long     
conical oil vessel1 ,b1 resting upon a  
disk1 e1 in cup1 e'1 with a cover1 e'4  
,the wharf1 d1 is here situated high up 
the spindle1 has the same sleeve as in  
the preceding case1 and runs round the  
bush1 g1 upon the ring1 z4 ,the friction
 plate resting upon the wharf is joined 
to the collar1 a1 running out into a cup
 shape1 which is fixed to the spindle1  
which here has a hexagonal form4 ,in    
this case the collar gives with the     
spindle1 which latter has the necessary 

play in the long footstep2 and as the   
collar and friction-plate are one1 it is
 brought back to its normal place by    
centrifugal force4  ,a peculiar         
arrangement is shown in ,fig4 #d4 ,here 
the ring and traveler1 f1 are placed as 
usual1 but the spindle carries at the   
same time an inverted flier1 t4 ,the    
spindle turns loosely in the footstep1  
e1 the oil chamber being carried up to  
the middle of its height4 ,the wharf is 
placed in the same position as in the   
previous case1 having also a sleeve     
running in the oil chamber1 c1 upon a   
steel ring1 z4 ,the friction-plate a1 on
 the top of the wharf carries the flier1
 and on its upper surface is in contact 
with the inverted cup1 a1 which is      
attached to the spindle by a pin or     
screw4 ,in order to limit at will the   
lateral motion of the spindle there is  
attached to the latter1 between the     
footstep and the collar1 a split ring1  
i1 which can be closed more or less by a
 small set screw4 ,the spindle is thus  

only held in the perpendicular position 
by its own velocity1 which will         
facilitate a high degree of speed1      
through the entire absence of all       
friction in the bearings1 this vertical 
position being assisted by the friction 
motion whenever the spindle has been    
drawn on one side4 ,although the notion 
of mounting spindles so that they can   
yield in order to center themselves is  
not new1 it is evident that considerable
 ingenuity has been brought to bear upon
 the arrangement of the spindles we have
 described1 but we are not in a position
 to say to what extent practice has in  
this case coincided with                
theory4--,textile ,manufacturer4        
99       99       99       99       99  
,,photo-,,engraving ,,on ,,zinc ,,or    
,,copper4  ,by ,,leon ,,vidal4   ,this  
process is similar in many respects to  
the one which was some time ago         
communicated to the ,photographic       
,society of ,france by ,m4 ,stronbinsky1
 of ,st4 ,petersburg1 but in a much     

improved and complete form4 ,an account 
of it was given by ,m4 ,gobert1 at the  
meeting of the same society1 on the #b;d
 ,december1 #ahhb4 ,the following are   
the details1 as demonstrated by me at   
the meeting of the #ith of ,may last3   
,sheets of zinc or of copper of a       
convenient size are carefully planished 
and polished with powdered pumice stone4
 ,the sensitive mixture is composed of3 
,the whites of four fresh eggs beaten   
to a froth4444444444444444444444444 #ajj
    parts   ,pure bichromate of         
ammonia444444444   #b4ej                
,water444444444444444444444444444444    
#ej        ,after this mixture has been 
carefully filtered through a paper      
filter1 a few drops of ammonia are      
added4 ,it will keep good for some time 
if well corked and preserved from       
exposure to the light4 ,even two months 
after being prepared ,i have found it to
 be still good2 but too large a quantity
 should not be prepared at a time1 as it
 does not improve with keeping4  ,i find

 that the dry albumen of commerce will  
answer as well as the fresh4 ,in that   
case ,i employ the following formula3   
,dry albumen from eggs44444444444444 #ae
 to #bj    parts                        
,water444444444444444444444444444444    
#ajj         ,ammonia                   
bichromate44444444444444444        #b4ej
     ,always add some drops of ammonia1 
and keep this mixture in a well corked  
bottle and in a dark place4  ,to coat   
the metal plate1 place it on a turning  
table1 to which it is made fast at the  
center by a pneumatic holder2 to assure 
the perfect adhesion of this holder1 it 
is as well to wet the circular elastic  
ring of the holder before applying it to
 the metallic surface4 ,when this is    
done1 the table may be made to rotate   
quickly without fear of detaching the   
plate by the rapidity of the movement4  
,the plate is placed in a perfectly     
horizontal position1 where no dust can  
settle on it2 the mixture is then poured
 on it1 and distributed by means of a   

triangular piece of soft paper1 so as to
 cover equally all the parts of the     
plate4 ,care should be taken not to flow
 too much liquid over the plate1 and    
when the latter is everywhere coated1   
the excess is poured off into a         
different vessel from that which        
contains the filtered mixture1 or else  
into a filter resting on that vessel4   
,the turning table should now be        
inverted so that the sensitive surface  
may be downwards1 and it is made to     
rotate at first slowly1 afterwards more 
rapidly1 so as to make the film1 which  
should be very thin1 quite smooth and   
even4 ,the whole operation should be    
carried out in a subdued light1 as too  
strong a light would render insoluble   
the film of bichromated albumen4  ,when 
the film is equalized the plate must be 
detached from the turning table and     
placed on a cast iron or tin plate      
heated to not more than #dj or #ej ,c4  
,a gentle heat is quite sufficient to   
dry the albumen quickly2 a greater heat 

would spoil it1 as it would produce     
coagulation4 ,so soon as the film is    
dry1 which will be seen by the          
iridescent aspect it assumes1 the plate 
is allowed to cool to the ordinary      
temperature1 and is then at once exposed
 either beneath a positive1 or beneath  
an original drawing the lines of which  
have been drawn in opaque ink1 so as to 
completely prevent the luminous rays    
from passing through them2 the light    
should only penetrate through the white 
or transparent ground of the drawing4   
,i say a positive because ,i wish to    
obtain an engraved plate2 if ,i wanted  
to have a plate for typographic         
printing1 ,i should have to take a      
negative4 ,after exposure the plate must
 be at once developed1 which is effected
 by dissolving in water those parts of  
the bichromated gelatine which have been
 protected from the action of light by  
the dark spaces of the clich2 these     
parts remain soluble1 while the others  
have been rendered completely insoluble4

 ,if the plate were dipped in clear     
water it would be difficult to observe  
the picture coming out1 especially on   
copper4 ,to overcome this difficulty the
 water must be tinged with some aniline 
color2 aniline red or violet1 which are 
soluble in water1 answers the purpose   
very well4 ,enough of the dye must be   
dissolved in the water to give it a     
tolerably deep color4 ,so soon as the   
plate is plunged into this liquid the   
albumen not acted on by light is        
dissolved1 while the insoluble parts are
 colored by absorbing the dye1 so that  
the metal is exposed in the lines       
against a red or violet ground1         
according to the color of the dye used4 
,when the drawing comes out quite       
perfect1 and a complete copy of the     
original1 the plate with the image on it
 is allowed to dry either of its own    
accord1 or by submitting it to a gentle 
heat4 ,so soon as it is dry it is       
etched1 and this is done by means of a  
solution of perchloride of iron in      

alcohol4 ,both alcohol and iron         
perchloride will coagulate albumen2     
their action1 therefore1 on the image   
will not be injurious1 since they will  
harden the remaining albumen still      
further4 ,but to get the full benefit of
 this1 the alcohol and the iron         
perchloride must both be free from      
water2 it is therefore advisable to use 
the salt in crystals which have been    
thoroughly dried1 and the alcohol of a  
strength of #ie4  ,the following is the 
formula3    ,perchloride of iron1 well  
dried     #ej gr4   ,alcohol at #ie     
#ajj   ,this solution must be carefully 
filtered so as to get rid of any deposit
 which may form1 and must be preserved  
in a well-corked bottle1 when it will   
keep for a long time4 ,the plate is     
first coated with a varnish of bitumen  
of ,judea on the edges 7if those parts  
are not already covered with albumen7   
and on the back1 so that the etching    
liquid can only act on the lines to be  
engraved4 ,it is then placed1 with the  

side to be engraved downwards1 in a     
porcelain basin1 into which a sufficient
 quantity of the solution of perchloride
 of iron is poured1 and the liquid is   
kept stirred so as to renew the portion 
which touches the plate2 but care must  
be taken not to touch with the brush the
 parts where there is albumen remaining4
 ,the length of time that the etching   
must be continued depends on the depth  
required to be given to the engraving2  
generally a quarter of an hour will be  
found to be sufficient4 ,should it be   
thought desirable to extend the action  
over half an hour1 the lines will be    
found to have been very deeply engraved4
 ,when the etching is considered to have
 been pushed far enough1 the plate must 
be withdrawn from the solution1 and     
washed in plenty of water2 it must then 
be forcibly rubbed with a cloth so as to
 remove all the albumen1 and after it   
has been polished with a little pumice1 
the engraving is complete4  ,it will be 
seen that this process may be used with 

advantage instead of that of            
photo-engraving with bitumen1 in cases  
where it is not advisable to use acids4 
,one of my friends1 ,mr4 ,fisch1        
suggests the plan--which seems to       
deserve a careful investigation--of     
combining this process with that where  
bitumen is employed2 it would be done   
somewhat in the following way4 ,the     
plate of metal would be first coated    
evenly with bitumen of ,judea on the    
turning table1 and when the bitumen is  
quite dry1 it should be again coated    
with albumen in the manner as described 
above4 ,in full sunlight the exposure   
need not exceed a minute in length2 then
 the plate would be laid in colored     
water1 dried1 and immersed in spirits of
 turpentine4 ,the latter will dissolve  
the bitumen in all the parts where it   
has been exposed by the removal of the  
albumen not rendered insoluble by the   
action of light4 ,but it remains to be  
seen whether the albumen will not be    
undermined in this method2 therefore1   

before recommending the process1 it     
ought to be thoroughly studied4 ,the    
metal is now exposed in all the parts   
that have to be etched1 while all the   
other parts are protected by a layer of 
bitumen coated with coagulated albumen4 
,hence we may employ as mordant water   
acidulated with #c1 #d1 or #e per cent4 
of nitric acid1 according as it is      
required to have the plate etched with  
greater or less vigor4  ,by following   
the directions above given1 any one     
wishing to adopt the process cannot fail
 of obtaining good results1 ,one of its 
greatest advantages is that it is within
 the reach of every one engaged in      
printing operations4--,photo ,news4     
99       99       99       99       99  
,,meridian ,,line4  ,footnote3 ,from    
,proceedings of the ,association of     
,county ,surveyors of ,ohio1 ,columbus1 
,january1 #ahhb4   ,the following       
process has been used by the undersigned
 for many years4 ,the true meridian can 
thus be found within one minute of arc3 

,directions4--,nail a slat to the north 
side of an upper window--the higher the 
better4 ,let it be #be feet from the    
ground or more4 ,let it project #c feet4
 ,kear the end suspend a plumb-bob1 and 
have it swing in a bucket of water4 ,a  
lamp set in the window will render the  
upper part of the string visible4 ,place
 a small table or stand about #bj feet  
south of the plumb-bob1 and on its south
 edge stick the small blade of a pocket 
knife2 place the eye close to the blade1
 and move the stand so as to bring the  
blade1 string1 and polar star into line4
 ,place the table so that the star shall
 be seen very near the slat in the      
window4 ,let this be done half an hour  
before the greatest elongation of the   
star4 ,within four or five minutes after
 the first alignment the star will have 
moved to the east or west of the string4
 ,slip the table or the knife a little  
to one side1 and align carefully as     
before4 ,after a few alignments the star
 will move along the string--down1 if   

the elongation is west2 up1 if east4 ,on
 the first of ,june the eastern         
elongation occurs about half-past two in
 the morning1 and as daylight comes on  
shortly after the observation is        
completed1 ,i prefer that time of year4 
,the time of meridian passage or of the 
elongation can be found in almost any   
work on surveying4 ,of course the       
observer should choose a calm night4    
,in the morning the transit can be      
ranged with the knife blade and string1 
and the proper angle turned off to the  
left1 if the elongation is east2 to the 
right1 if west4  ,instead of turning off
 the angle1 as above described1 ,i      
measure #bjj or #cjj feet northtward1 in
 the direction of the string1 and       
compute the offset in feet and inches1  
set a stake in the ground1 and drive a  
tack in the usual way4  ,suppose the    
distance is #bej feet and the angle #a  
#dj'1 then the offset will be #g1bga    
feet1 or #g feet #c inches4 ,a minute of
 arc at the distance of #bej feet is    

seven-eighths of an inch2 and this is   
the most accurate way1 for the vernier  
will not mark so small a space          
accurately4   ,,angle ,,of ,,elongation4
  ,this should be computed by the       
surveyor for each observation4 ,the     
distance between the star and the pole  
is continually diminishing1 and on      
,january #a1 #ahhb1 was #a #ah' #dh4    
,there is a slight annual variation in  
the distance4 ,july #a1 #ahhb1 it will  
be #a #ai' #bj4 ,if from this latter    
quantity the observer will subtract #af 
for #ahhc1 and the same quantity for    
each succeeding year for the next four  
or five years1 no error so great as     
one-quarter of a minute will be made in 
the position of the meridian as         
determined in the summer months4 ,if    
winter observations are made1 the       
distance in ,january should be used4    
,the formula for computing the angle of 
elongation is easily made by any one    
understanding spherical trigonometry1   
and is this3     ,r x sin4 ,polar dist4 

---------------------  sin4 of angle of 
elongation4         cos4 lat4  ,as an   
example1 suppose the time is ,july1     
#ahhb1 and the latitude #dj4 ,then the  
computation being made1 the angle will  
be found to be #a #dc' #cd4 ,a          
difference of six minutes in the        
latitude will make less than #aj        
difference in the angle1 as one can see 
by trial4 ,any good ,state or county map
 will give the latitude to within one or
 two miles--or minutes4  ,the facts     
being as here stated1 the absurdity of  
the ,ohio law1 concerning the           
establishment of county meridians1      
becomes apparent4 ,the longitude has    
nothing at all to do ,with the meridian2
 and a difference of six miles in       
latitude makes no appreciable error in  
the meridian established as here        
suggested1 whereas the statute requires 
the latitude within one half a second1  
which is fifty feet4 ,there are some    
other things1 besides the ways of       
,providence1 which may be said to be    

past finding out4 ,it is not probable   
that a surveyor would err so much as    
three miles in his latitude1 but should 
he do so1 then the error in his meridian
 line1 resulting from the mistake1 will 
be five seconds1 and a line one mile    
long1 run on a course #e out of the way1
 will vary but an inch and a half from  
the true position4 ,surveyors well know 
that no such accuracy is attainable4 ,r4
 ,w4 ,mc,f,a,r,l,a,n,d1         99      
99       99       99       99           
,,electro-,,mania4  ,by ,w4 ,,mattieu   
,,williams4   ,a history of electricity1
 in order to be complete1 must include  
two distinct and very different         
subjects3 the history of electrical     
science1 and a history of electrical    
exaggerations and delusions4 ,the       
progress of the first has been followed 
by a crop of the second from the time   
when ,kleist1 ,muschenbroek1 and ,cuneus
 endeavored to bottle the supposed      
fluid1 and in the course of these       
attempts stumbled upon the ,leyden jar4 

,dr4 ,lieberkuhn1 of ,berlin1 describes 
the startling results which he obtained1
 or imagined1 when a nail or a piece of 
brass wire is put into a small          
apothecary's phial and electrified4 ,he 
says that if1 while it is electrifying1 
,i put my finger or a piece of gold     
which ,i hold in my hand to the nail1 ,i
 receive a shock which stuns my arms and
 shoulders4 ,at about the same date 7the
 middle of the last century71           
,muschenbroek stated1 in a letter to    
,raumur1 that1 on taking a shock from a 
thin glass bowl1 he felt himself struck 
in his arms1 shoulders1 and breast1 so  
that he lost his breath1 and was two    
days before he recovered from the       
effects of the blow and the terror and  
that he would not take a second shock   
for the kingdom of ,france4 ,from the   
description ,of the apparatus1 it is    
evident that this dreadful shock was no 
stronger than many of us have taken     
scores of times for fun1 and have given 
to our school-follows when we became the

 proud possessors of our first          
electrical machine4  ,conjurers1        
mountebanks1 itinerant quacks1 and other
 adventurers operated throughout        
,europe1 and were found at every country
 fair and fete displaying the wonders of
 the invisible agent by giving shocks   
and professing to cure all imaginable   
ailments4  ,then came the discoveries of
 ,galvani and ,volta1 followed by the   
demonstrations of ,galvani's nephew     
,aldini1 whereby dead animals were made 
to display the movements of life1 not   
only by the electricity of the ,voltaic 
pile1 but1 as ,aldini especially showed1
 by a transfer of this mysterious agency
 from one animal to another4  ,according
 to his experiments 7that seem to be    
forgotten by modern electricians7 the   
galvanometer of the period1 a prepared  
frog1 could be made to kick by          
connecting its nerve and muscle with    
muscle and nerve of a recently killed   
ox1 with1 or without metallic           
intervention4  ,thus arose the dogma    

which still survives in the             
advertisements of electrical quacks1    
that electricity is life1 and the       
possibility of reviving the dead was    
believed by many4 ,executed criminals   
were in active demand2 their bodies were
 expeditiously transferred from the     
gallows or scaffold to the operating    
table1 and their dead limbs were made to
 struggle and plunge1 their eyeballs to 
roll1 and their features to perpetrate  
the most horrible contortions by        
connecting nerves with one pole1 and    
muscles with the opposite pole of a     
battery4  ,the heart was made to beat1  
and many men of eminence supposed that  
if this could be combined with          
artificial respiration1 and kept up for 
awhile1 the victim of the hangman might 
be restored1 provided the neck was not  
broken4 ,curious tales were loudly      
whispered concerning gentle hangings and
 strange doings at ,dr4 ,brookes's1 in  
,leicester ,square1 and at the          
,hunterian ,museum1 in ,windmill        

,street1 now flourishing as ,the ,caf de
 l',etoile4 ,when a child1 ,i lived     
about midway between these celebrated   
schools of practical anatomy1 and well  
remember the tales of horror that were  
recounted concerning them4 ,when ,bishop
 and ,williams 7no relation to the      
writer7 were hanged for burking1 i4e41  
murdering people in order to provide    
subjects for dissection1 their bodies   
were sent to ,windmill ,street1 and the 
popular notion was that1 being old and  
faithful servants of the doctors1 they  
were galvanized to life1 and again set  
up in their old business4  ,it is       
amusing to read some of the treatises on
 medical galvanism that were published  
at about this period1 and contrast their
 positive statements of cures effected  
and results anticipated with the        
position now attained by electricity as 
a curative agent4  ,then came the       
brilliant discoveries of ,faraday1      
,ampre1 etc41 demonstrating the         
relations between electricity and       

magnetism1 and immediately following    
them a multitude of patents for         
electro-motors1 and wild dreams of      
superseding steam-engines by            
magneto-electric machinery4  ,the       
following1 which ,i copy from the ,penny
 ,mechanic1 of ,june #aj1 #ahcg1 is     
curious1 and very instructive to those  
who think of investing in any of the    
electric power companies of to-day3 ,mr4
 ,thomas ,davenport1 a ,vermont         
blacksmith1 has discovered a mode of    
applying magnetic and electro-magnetic  
power1 which we have good ground for    
believing will be of immense importance 
to the world4 ,this announcement is     
followed by reference to ,professor     
,silliman's ,american ,journal of       
,science and the ,arts1 for ,april1     
#ahcg1 and extracts from ,american      
papers1 of which the following is a     
specimen3 #a4 ,we saw a small           
cylindrical battery1 about nine inches  
in length1 three or four in diameter1   
produce a magnetic power of about #cjj  

lb41 and which1 therefore1 we could not 
move with our utmost strength4 #b4 ,we  
saw a small wheel1 five-and-a-half      
inches in diameter1 performing more than
 #fjj revolutions in a minute1 and lift 
a weight of #bd lb4 one foot per minute1
 from the power of a battery of still   
smaller dimensions4 #c4 ,we saw a model 
of a locomotive engine traveling on a   
circular railroad with immense velocity1
 and rapidly ascending an inclined plane
 of far greater elevation than any      
hitherto ascended by steam-power4 ,and  
these and various other experiments     
which we saw1 convinced us of the truth 
of the opinion expressed by ,professors 
,silliman1 ,renwick1 and others1 that   
the power of machinery may be increased 
from this source beyond any assignable  
limit4 ,it is computed by these learned 
men that a circular galvanic battery    
about three feet in diameter1 with      
magnets of a proportionable surface1    
would produce at least a hundred        
horse-power2 and therefore that two such

 batteries would be sufficient to propel
 ships of the largest class across the  
,atlantic4 ,the only materials required 
to generate and continue this power for 
such a voyage would be a few thin sheets
 of copper and zinc1 and a few gallons  
of mineral water4  ,the ,faure          
accumulator is but a very weak affair   
compared with this1 ,sir ,william       
,thomson notwithstanding4 ,to render the
 date of the above fully appreciable1 ,i
 may note that three months later the   
magazine from which it is quoted was    
illustrated with a picture of the       
,london and ,birmingham ,railway        
,station displaying a first-class       
passenger with a box seat on the roof of
 the carriage1 and followed by an       
account of the trip to ,boxmoor1 the    
first installment of the ,london and    
,north-,western ,railway4 ,it tells us  
that1 the time of starting having       
arrived1 the doors of the carriages are 
closed1 and1 by the assistance of the   
conductors1 the train is moved on a     

short distance toward the first bridge1 
where it is met by an engine1 which     
conducts it up the inclined plane as far
 as ,chalk ,farm4 ,between the canal and
 this spot stands the station-house for 
the engines2 here1 also1 are fixed the  
engines which are to be employed in     
drawing the carriages up the inclined   
plane from ,euston ,square1 by a rope   
upwards of a mile in length1 the cost of
 which was upwards of #djj4 ,after      
describing the next change of engines1  
in the same matter of course way as the 
changing of stage-coach horses1 the     
narrative proceeds to say that entering 
the tunnel from broad daylight to       
perfect darkness has an exceedingly     
novel effect4  ,i make these parallel   
quotations for the benefit of those who 
imagine that electricity is making such 
vastly greater strides than other       
sources of power4 ,i well remember      
making this journey to ,boxmoor1 and    
four or five years later traveling on a 
circular electro-magnetic railway4      

,comparing that electric railway with   
those now exhibiting1 and comparing the 
,boxmoor trip with the present work of  
the ,london and ,north-,western         
,railway1 ,i have no hesitation in      
affirming that the rate of progress in  
electro-locomotion during the last forty
 years has been far smaller than that of
 steam4  ,the leading fallacy which is  
urging the electro-maniacs of the       
present time to their ruinous           
investments is the idea that            
electro-motors are novelties1 and that  
electric-lighting is in its infancy2    
while gas-lighting is regarded as an    
old1 or mature middle-aged business1 and
 therefore we are to expect a marvelous 
growth of the infant and no further     
progress of the adult4  ,these excited  
speculators do not appear to be aware of
 the fact that electric-lighting is     
older than gas-lighting2 that ,sir      
,humphry ,davy exhibited the electric   
light in ,albemarle ,street1 while      
,london was still dimly lighted by      

oil-lamps1 and long before gas-lighting 
was attempted anywhere4 ,the lamp used  
by ,sir ,humphry ,davy at the ,royal    
,institution1 at the beginning of the   
present century1 was an arrangement of  
two carbon pencils1 between which was   
formed the electric arc by the          
intensely-vivid incandescence and       
combustion of the particles of carbon   
passing between the solid carbon        
electrodes4 ,the light exhibited by     
,davy was incomparably more brilliant   
than anything that has been lately shown
 either in ,london1 or ,paris1 or at    
,sydenham4 ,his arc was four inches in  
length1 the carbon pencils were four    
inches apart1 and a broad1 dazzling arch
 of light bridged the whole space       
between4 ,the modern arc lights are but 
pygmies1 mere specks1 compared with     
this2 a leap of #a_/c or #a_/d inch     
constituting their maximum achievement4 
,comparing the actual progress of gas   
and electric lighting1 the gas has      
achieved by far the greater strides2 and

 this is the case even when we compare  
very recent progress4  ,the improvements
 connected with gas-making have been    
steadily progressive2 scarcely a year   
has passed from the date of ,murdoch's  
efforts to the present time1 without    
some or many decided steps having been  
made4 ,the progress of electric-lighting
 has been a series of spasmodic leaps1  
backward as well as forward4  ,as an    
example of stepping backward1 ,i may    
refer to what the newspapers have       
described as the discoveries of ,mr4    
,edison1 or the use of an incandescent  
wire1 or stick1 or sheet of platinum1 or
 platino-iridium2 or a thread of carbon1
 of which the ,swan and other modern    
lights are rival modifications4  ,as far
 back as #ahdf ,i was engaged in making 
apparatus and experiments for the       
purpose of turning to practical account 
,king's patent electric light1 the      
actual inventor of which was a young    
,american1 named ,starr1 who died in    
#ahdg1 when about #be years of age1 a   

victim of overwork and disappointment in
 his efforts to perfect this invention  
and a magneto-electric machine1 intended
 to supply the power in accordance with 
some of the latest improvements of #ahha
 and #ahhb4  ,i had a share in this     
venture1 and was very enthusiastic until
 after ,i had become practically        
acquainted with the subject4 ,we had no 
difficulty in obtaining a splendid and  
perfectly steady light1 better than any 
that are shown at the ,crystal ,palace4 
,we used platinum1 and alloys of        
platinum and iridium1 abandoned them as 
,edison did more than thirty years      
later1 and then tried a multitude of    
forms of carbon1 including that which   
constitutes the last discovery of ,mr4  
,edison1 viz41 burnt cane4 ,starr tried 
this on theoretical grounds1 because    
cane being coated with silica1 he       
predicted that by charring it we should 
obtain a more compact stick or thread1  
as the fusion of the silica would hold  
the carbon particles together4 ,he      

finally abandoned this and all the rest 
in favor of the hard deposit of carbon  
which lines the inside of gas-retorts1  
some specimens of which we found to be  
so hard that we required a lapidary's   
wheel to cut them into the thin sticks4 
,our final wick was a piece of this of  
square section1 and about #a_/h of an   
inch across each way4 ,it was mounted   
between two forceps--one holding each   
end1 and thus leaving a clear half-inch 
between4 ,the forceps were soldered to  
platinum wires1 one of which passed     
upward through the top of the barometer 
tube1 expanded into a lamp glass at its 
upper part4 ,this wire was sealed to the
 glass as it passed through4 ,the lower 
wire passed down the middle of the tube4
  ,the tube was filled with mercury and 
inverted over a cup of mercury4 ,being  
#cj inches long up to the bottom of the 
expanded portion1 or lamp globe1 the    
mercury fell below this and left a      
,torricellian vacuum there4 ,one pole of
 the battery1 or dynamo-machine1 was    

connected with the mercury in the cup1  
and the other with the upper wire4 ,the 
stick of carbon glowed brilliantly1 and 
with perfect steadiness4  ,i            
subsequently exhibited this apparatus in
 the ,town-hall of ,birmingham1 and many
 times at the ,midland ,institute4 ,the 
only scientific difficulty connected    
with this arrangement was that due to a 
slight volatilization of the carbon1 and
 its deposition as a brown film upon the
 lamp glass2 but this difficulty is not 
insuperable4--,knowledge4         99    
99       99       99       99           
,,action ,,of ,,magnets ,,upon ,,the    
,,voltaic ,,arc4   ,the action of       
magnets upon the voltaic arc has been   
known for a long time past4 ,davy even  
succeeded in influencing the latter     
powerfully enough in this way to divide 
it1 and since his time ,messrs4 ,grove  
and ,quet have studied the effect under 
different conditions4 ,in #ahei1 ,i     
myself undertook numerous researches on 
this subject1 and experimented on the   

induction spark of the ,ruhmkorff coil1 
the results of these researches having  
been published in the last two editions 
of my notes on the ,ruhmkorff apparatus4
  ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a  ,these      
researches were summed up in the journal
 ,la ,lumire ,electrique for ,june #ae1 
#ahgi4 ,recently1 ,mr4 ,pilleux has     
addressed to us some new experiments on 
the same subject1 made on the voltaic   
arc produced by a ,de ,meritens         
alternating current machine4 ,naturally1
 he has found the same phenomena that ,i
 had made known2 but he thinks that     
these new researches are worthy of      
interest by reason of the nature of the 
arc in which he experimented1 and which1
 according to him1 is of a different    
nature from all those on which1 up to   
the present time1 experiments have been 
made4 ,such a distinction as this1      
however1 merits a discussion4  ,with the
 induction spark1 magnets have an action
 only on the aureola which accompanies  
the line of fire of the static          

discharge2 and this aureola1 being only 
a sort of sheath of heated air          
containing many particles of metal      
derived from the rheophores1 represents 
exactly the voltaic arc4  ,illustration3
 ,,fig4 #b  ,moreover1 although the     
induced currents developed in the bobbin
 are alternately of opposite direction1 
the galvanometer shows that the currents
 that traverse the break are of the same
 direction1 and that these are direct   
ones4 ,the reversed currents are1 then1 
arrested during their passage2 and1 in  
order to collect them1 it becomes       
necessary to considerably diminish the  
gaseous pressure of the aeriform        
conductor interposed in the discharge2  
to increase its conductivity2 or to open
 to the current a very resistant        
metallic derivation4 ,by this latter    
means1 ,i have succeeded in isolating1  
one from the other1 in two different    
circuits1 the direct induced currents   
and the reversed induced ones4 ,as only 
direct currents can1 in air at a normal 

pressure1 traverse the break through    
which the induction spark passes1 the   
aureola that surrounds it may be        
considered as being exactly in the same 
conditions as a voltaic arc1 and1       
consequently1 as representing an        
extensible conductor traversed by a     
current flowing in a definite direction4
 ,such a conductor is consequently      
susceptible of being influenced by all  
the external reactions that can be      
exerted upon a current2 only1 by reason 
of its mobility1 the conductor may      
possibly give way to the action exerted 
upon the current traversing it1 and     
undergo deformations that are in        
relation with the laws of ,ampre4 ,it is
 in this manner that ,i have explained  
the different forms that the aureola of 
the induction spark assumes when it is  
submitted to the action of a magnet in  
the direction of its axial line1 or in  
that of its equatorial line1 or         
perpendicular to these latter1 or upon  
the magnetic poles themselves4          

,experiments of a very definite kind    
have not yet been made as to the nature 
of the arc produced by induced currents 
developed in alternating current        
machines2 but1 from the experiments made
 with electric candles1 we are forced to
 admit that the current reacts as if it 
were alternately reversed through the   
arc1 since the carbons are used up to an
 equal degree2 and1 moreover1 ,mr4      
,pilleux's experiments show that effects
 analogous to those of induction coils  
are produced by the reaction of magnets 
upon the arc4 ,there is1 then1 here a   
doubtful point that it would be         
interesting to clear up2 and we believe 
that it is consequently proper to       
introduce in this place ,mr4 ,pilleux's 
note3  ,having at my disposal1 says he1 
a powerful vertical voltaic arc of #ab  
centimeters in length1 kept up by       
alternately reversed currents1 and one  
of the most powerful permanent magnets  
that ,mr4 ,de ,meritens employs for     
magneto-electric machines1 ,i have been 

enabled to make the following           
experiments3  #a4 ,when ,i caused one of
 the poles of my magnet to slowly       
approach the voltaic arc1 ,i ascertained
 that1 at a distance of #aj centimeters1
 the arc became flattened so as to      
assume the appearance of those gas jets 
called 'butterfly4' ,the plane of the   
'butterfly' was parallel with the pole  
that ,i presented1 or1 in other words1  
with the section of the magnet4 ,at the 
same time1 the arc began to emit a      
strident noise1 which became deafening  
when the pole of the magnet was brought 
to within a distance of about #b        
millimeters4 ,at this moment1 the       
butterfly form produced by the arc was  
greatly spread out1 and reduced to the  
thickness of a sheet of paper2 and then 
it burst with violence1 and projected to
 a distance a great number of particles 
of incandescent carbon4  #b4 ,the magnet
 employed being a horseshoe one1 when ,i
 directed it laterally so as to present 
successively1 now the north and then the

 south pole to the arc1 the 'butterfly' 
pivoted upon itself so as not to present
 the same surface to each pole of the   
magnet4  ,by referring to the           
accompanying figure1 which we extract   
from our note on the ,ruhmkorff         
apparatus1 it will be seen that the     
aureola which developed as a circular   
film from right to left at ,d1 on the   
north pole of the magnet1 ,n4,s4 7,fig4 
#a71 projected itself in an opposite    
direction at ,c1 upon the south pole1   
,s1 of the same magnet2 but1 between the
 two poles1 these two contrary actions  
being obliged to unite1 they gave rise  
in doing so to a very characteristic    
helicoid spiral whose direction depended
 upon that of the current of discharge  
through the aureola1 or upon the        
polarity of the magnetic poles4 ,on the 
contrary1 when the discharge took place 
in the direction of the equatorial line1
 as in ,fig4 #b1 the circular film      
developed itself in the plane of the    
neutral line above or below the line of 

discharge1 according to the direction of
 the current and the magnetic polarity  
of the magnet4  ,there is1 then1 between
 ,mr4 ,pilleux's experiments and my own 
so great an analogy that we might draw  
the deduction therefrom that induced    
currents in alternating machines have1  
like those of the ,ruhmkorff coil1 a    
definite direction1 which would be that 
of currents having the greatest tension1
 that is to say1 that of direct         
currents4 ,this hypothesis seems to us  
the more plausible in that ,mr4 ,j4 ,van
 ,malderem has demonstrated that the    
attraction of solenoids with the        
currents1 not straight1 of              
magneto-electric machines is almost as  
great as that of the same solenoids with
 straight currents2 and it is very      
likely that the difference which may    
then exist should be so much the less in
 proportion as the induced currents have
 more tension4 ,we might1 then1 perhaps 
explain the different effects of the    
wear of the carbons serving as          

rheophores1 according as the currents   
are continuous or alternating1 by the   
different calorific effects produced on 
these carbons1 and by the effects of    
electric conveyance which are a         
consequence of the passage of the       
current through the arc4  ,we know that 
with continuous currents the positive   
carbon possesses a much higher          
temperature than the negative1 and that 
its wear is about twice greater than    
that of the latter4 ,but such greater   
wear of the positive carbon is          
especially due to the fact that         
combustion is greater on it than on the 
negative1 and also to the fact that the 
carbonaceous particles carried along by 
the current to the positive pole are    
deposited in part upon the other pole4  
,supposing that these polarities of the 
carbons were being constantly           
alternately reversed1 the effects might 
be symmetrical from all quarters1       
although the only current traversing the
 break were of the same direction2 for1 

admitting that the reverse currents     
could not traverse the break1 they would
 exist none the less for all that1 and  
they might give rise 7as has been       
demonstrated by ,mr4 ,gaugain with      
regard to the discharges of the         
induction spark intercepted by the      
insulating plate of a condenser7 to     
return discharges through the generator1
 which would then have1 in the metallic 
part of the circuit1 the same direction 
as the direct currents succeeding1      
although they had momentarily brought   
about opposite polarities in the        
electrodes4 ,what might make us suppose 
such an interpretation of the phenomenon
 to have its raison d'etre1 is that with
 the induced currents of the ,ruhmkorff 
coil1 it is not the positive pole that  
is the hottest1 but rather the negative2
 from whence we might draw the deduction
 that it is not so much the direction of
 the current that determines the        
calorific effect in the electrodes1 as  
the conditions of such current with     

respect to the generator4 ,i should not 
be surprised1 then1 if1 in the arc      
formed by the alternating currents of   
magneto-electric machines1 there should 
pass only one current of the same       
direction1 and which would be the one   
formed by the superposition of direct   
currents1 and if the reverse currents   
should cause return discharges in the   
midst of the generating bobbins at the  
moment the direct currents were         
generated4--,th4 ,du ,moncel4         99
       99       99       99       99    
,,volckmar',s ,,secondary ,,batteries4  
,the inventive genius of the country is 
now directed to these important         
accessories of electric enterprise1 and 
no wonder1 for as far as can at present 
be seen1 the secret of electric motion  
lies in these secondary batteries4      
,among other contributions of this kind 
is the following1 by ,ernest ,volckmar1 
electrician1 ,paris3  ,the object of    
this invention is to render unnecessary 
the use in secondary batteries of a     

porous pot which creates useless        
resistance to the electric current1 and 
to store in an apparatus of             
comparatively small weight and bulk     
considerable electric force4 ,to this   
end two reticulated or perforated plates
 of lead of similar proportions are     
prepared1 and their interstices are     
filled with granules or filaments of    
lead1 by preference chemically pure4    
,these plates are then submitted to     
pressure1 and placed together1 with     
strips of nonconducting material        
interposed between them1 in a suitable  
vessel containing a bath of acidulated  
water4 ,the plates being connected with 
wires from an electric generator are    
brought for a while under the action of 
the current1 to peroxidize and reduce   
the whole of the finely divided lead    
exposed to the acidulated water4 ,the   
secondary battery is then complete4 ,it 
will be understood that any number of   
these pairs of plates may be combined to
 form a secondary battery1 their number 

being determined by the amount of       
storage required4 ,the perforated plates
 of lead may be prepared by drilling1   
casting1 or in other convenient manner1 
but the apertures1 of whatever form1    
should be placed as closely together as 
possible1 and the finely divided lead to
 be peroxidized is pressed into the     
cells or cavities so as to fill their   
interiors only4         99       99     
99       99       99     ,,the          
,,mineralogical ,,localities ,,in ,,and 
,,around ,,new ,,york ,,city1 ,,and     
,,the ,,minerals ,,occurring ,,therein4 
,by ,,nelson ,h4 ,,darton4   ,there will
 be many persons in the city of ,new    
,york and its suburbs who will not have 
the time or facilities for leaving town 
during the summer1 to spend a part of   
their time enjoying the country1 but    
would have sufficient time to take      
occasional recreation for short periods4
 ,i have sought by this paper to show a 
pleasurable1 and at the same time very  
instructive use for the time of this    

latter class1 and that is in mineralogy4
 ,in the surrounding parts of ,new ,york
 are many mineralogical localities1     
known to no others than a few           
professional mineralogists1 etc41 and   
from which an excellent assortment of   
minerals may be obtained1 which would   
well grace a cabinet and afford         
considerable instruction and            
entertainment to their owner and        
friends1 besides acting as an incentive 
to a further study of this and the other
 sciences4 ,these localities which ,i   
will discuss are all within an hour's   
ride from ,new ,york1 and the expenses  
inside of a half dollar1 and generally  
very much less4 ,i could detail many    
other places further off1 but will      
reserve that for another paper4  ,the   
course which ,i will pursue in my       
explanations ,i have purposely made very
 simple1 avoiding--or when using1       
explaining--all technical terms4 ,the   
apparatus and tests noticed are of the  
most rudimentary style consistent with  

that which is necessary to attain the   
simple purpose of distinguishment1 and  
altogether ,i have prepared this paper  
for those having at the present time    
little or no knowledge or practice in   
mineralogy1 while those having it can be
 led perhaps by the details of the      
localities noticed4 ,another reason why 
,i have written so in detail of this    
last subject is1 because the experiences
 of most amateur mineralogists are      
generally so very discouraging in their 
endeavors to find the minerals1 and     
there is everything in giving a good    
start to properly fix the interest on   
the subject4 ,the reason of these       
discouragements is simple1 and generally
 because they do not know the portion of
 the locality1 say1 for instance1 a     
certain township1 in which the minerals 
occur4 ,and if they do succeed in       
finding this1 it is seldom that the     
portion in which the mineral occurs1    
which is generally some small           
inconspicuous vein or fissure1 is found2

 and even in this it is generally       
difficult to recognize and isolate the  
mineral from the extraneous matter      
holding it4 ,as an instance of this ,i  
might cite thus3 ,dana1 in his text book
 on mineralogy1 will mention the        
locality for a certain species1 as      
,bergen ,hill--say for this instance1   
dogtooth calespar4 ,when we consider    
that ,bergen ,hill1 in the limited sense
 of the expression1 is ten miles long   
and fully one mile wide1 and as the rock
 outcrops nearly all over it1 and it is 
also covered with quarries1 cuttings1   
etc41 it may be seen that this direction
 is rather indefinite4 ,to the          
professional mineralogist it is but an  
index1 however1 and he may consult the  
authority it is quoted from--the        
,american ,journal of ,science1         
etc4--and thus find the part referred   
to1 or by consulting other mineralogists
 who happen to know4 ,again1 the person 
having found by inquiry that the part   
referred to is the ,pennsylvania        

,railroad1 and as this is fully a mile  
long and interspersed with various      
prominent looking1 but veins of a       
mineral of little value1 at any rate not
 the one in question1 they are few who  
could suppose that it occurred in that4 
,apparently a vein of it would not be   
noticed at all from the surrounding rock
 of gravelly earth1 but there it is1 and
 in a vein of chlorite4 ,this is so     
throughout the long and more or less    
complete stated lists of mineralogical  
localities4 ,thus ,i will1 in describing
 the mineral1 after explaining the      
conditions under which it occurs1 give  
almost the exact spot where ,i have     
found the same mineral myself1 and have 
left sufficiently fine specimens to     
carry away1 and thus no time will be    
lost in going over fruitless ground1 and
 further1 this paper is written up to   
the date given at its end1 insuring a   
necessary presence of them4  ,in order  
that one not familiar with mineral      
specimens should not carry off from the 

various localities a variety of         
worthless stones1 etc41 which are       
frequently more or less attractive to an
 inexperienced eye1 the following hints 
may be salutary4  ,there are the        
varieties of three minerals1 which are  
very commonly met with in greater or    
less abundance in mineralogical trips3  
they are of calcite1 steatite1 and      
quartz4 ,they occur in so many          
modifications of form1 color1 and       
condition that one might speedily form a
 cabinet of these1 if they were taken   
when met with1 and imagine it to be of  
great value4 ,the first of these is     
calcite4 ,it occurs as marble1          
limestone2 calcspar1 dogtooth spar1 nail
 head spar1 stalactites1 and a number of
 other forms1 which are only valuable   
when occurring in perfect crystals or   
uniquely set upon the rock holding it4  
,the calcspar is extremely abundant at  
,bergen ,hill1 where it might be        
mistaken for many of the other minerals 
which ,i describe as occurring there1   

and even in preference to them1 to one's
 great chagrin upon arriving home and   
testing it1 to find that it is nothing  
but calcite4 ,in order to avoid this and
 distinguish this mineral on the field1 
it should be tested with a single drop  
of acid1 which on coming in contact with
 it bubbles up or effervesces like soda 
water1 seidlitz powder1 etc41 while it  
does not do so with any of the minerals 
occurring in the same locality4 ,this   
acid is prepared for use as follows3    
about twenty drops of muriatic acid are 
procured from a druggist in a half-ounce
 bottle1 which is then filled up with   
water and kept tightly corked4 ,it is   
applied by taking a drop out on a wisp  
of broom or a small minim dropper1 which
 may be obtained at the druggist's also4
 ,i do not say that in every case this  
mineral should be rejected1 because it  
is frequently very beautiful and worthy 
of place in a cabinet1 but should be    
kept only under the conditions mentioned
 further on in this paper1 under the    

head of ,calcite in ,weehawken ,tunnel4 
,the next mineral abundant in so many   
forms is quartz1 and is not so readily  
distinguished as calcite4 ,it is found  
of every color1 shape1 etc41 possible1  
and that which is found in any of the   
localities ,i am about to describe1 with
 the exception of fine crystals on      
,staten ,island1 are of no value and may
 be rejected1 unless answering in detail
 to the description given under ,staten 
,island4 ,the method of distinguishing  
the quartz is by its hardness1 which is 
generally so great that it cannot be    
scratched by the point of a knife1 or at
 least with great difficulty1 and a     
fragment of it will scratch glass       
readily2 thus it is distinguished from  
the other minerals occurring in the     
localities discussed in this paper4     
,the other minerals so common are the   
varieties of steatite4 ,this is         
especially so at ,bergen ,hill and      
,staten ,island4 ,they occur in         
amorphous masses generally1 and may be  

distinguished by being so soft as to be 
readily cut by the finger nail4 ,i will 
detail further upon the soapstone forms 
in discussing the localities on ,staten 
,island1 and the chloritic form under   
the head of ,weehawken ,tunnel4 ,the    
surest method of avoiding these and     
recognizing the others by their         
appearance1 which is generally the only 
guide used by a professional            
mineralogist1 is to copy off the lists  
of the various minerals ,i describe1    
and1 by visiting the ,american ,museum  
of ,natural ,history on any week day    
except ,mondays and ,tuesdays1 one may  
see and become familiar with the        
minerals they are going in quest of1    
besides others in the cases4 ,this      
method is much more satisfactory than   
printed descriptions1 and saves the     
labor of many of the distinguishing     
manipulations ,i am about to describe1  
besides saving the trouble of bringing  
inferior specimens of the minerals home4
  ,in going forth on a trip one should  

be provided with a mineralogical hammer1
 or one answering its purpose1 and a    
cold chisel with which to detach or trim
 the minerals from adhering rocks1 the  
bottle of acid before referred to1 and a
 three cornered file for testing        
hardness1 as explained further on4 ,as  
,i noticed before1 the better plan of   
distinguishing a mineral is by being    
familiar with its appearance1 but as    
this is generally impracticable1 ,i will
 detail the modes used in lieu of this  
to be applied on bringing the minerals  
home4 ,these distinguishments depend on 
difference in specific gravity1         
hardness1 solubility in hot acids1 and  
the action of high heat4 ,i will explain
 the application of each one separately1
 commencing with--  ,the ,specific      
,gravity4--,in ascertaining the specific
 gravity the following apparatus is     
necessary3 a small pair of hand scales  
with a set of weights1 from one grain to
 one ounce4 ,these can be procured from 
the apparatus maker1 the scales for     

about fifty cents1 and the weights for  
not much over the same amount4 ,the     
scales are prepared for this work by    
cutting two small holes in one of the   
scale pans1 near together1 with a       
pointed piece of metal1 and tying a     
piece of silk thread about eight inches 
long into these4 ,in a loop at the end  
of this thread the mineral to be        
examined is suspended4 ,it should be a  
pure representative of the mineral it is
 taken from1 should weigh about from one
 hundred grains to an ounce1 and be     
quite dry and free from dirt4 ,if the   
piece of mineral obtained is very large1
 this sized portion may be often taken  
from it without injury2 but it will not 
do to mar the beauty of a mineral to    
ascertain its specific gravity1 and it  
is generally only applicable when a     
small piece is at hand4 ,with more      
weights1 however1 a piece of a quarter  
pound weight may be taken if necessary4 
,the mineral is tied into the loop and  
weighed1 the weight being set down in   

the note book1 either in grains or      
decimal parts of an ounce4 ,call this   
result ,a4 ,it is then weighed in some  
water held in a vessel containing about 
a quart1 taking care while weighing it  
that it is entirely immersed1 but at the
 same time does not touch either the    
sides or bottom4 ,both weighings should 
be accurate to a grain4 ,this result we 
call ,b4 ,the specific gravity is found 
by subtracting ,b from ,a1 and dividing 
,a by the remainder4 ,for instance1 if  
the mineral weighed eight hundred grains
 when weighed in the air1 and in the    
water six hundred1 giving us the        
equation3 #hjj _/ 7#hjj - #fjj7  sp4    
gr41 or #d1 which is the specific       
gravity of the mineral4 ,if the mineral 
whose specific gravity is sought is an  
incrustation on a rock1 or a mixture of 
a number of minerals1 or would break to 
pieces in the water1 the specific       
gravity is by this method of course     
unattainable1 and other data must be    
used4  ,the ,comparative                

,hardness4--,the next characteristic of 
the mineral to be ascertained is the    
comparative hardness4 ,in mineralogy    
there is a scale fixed for comparison1  
from #a to #aj1 #aj being the hardest1  
the diamond1 and ,number #a the soft    
soapstone4 ,these and the intermediate  
minerals fixed upon the scale are       
generally inaccessible to those who may 
use the contents of this paper1 and ,i  
will give some more familiar materials  
for comparison4 #h1 #i1 and #aj are the 
topaz1 sapphire1 and diamond            
respectively1 and as these and minerals 
of similar hardness will probably not be
 found in any of the localities of which
 ,i make mention1 we need not become    
accustomed to them for the present4 #g  
is of sufficient hardness to scratch    
glass1 and is also not to be cut with   
the file before mentioned1 which is used
 for these determinations4 #f is of the 
hardness of ordinary ,french glass4 #e  
is about the hardness of horse-shoe or  
similar iron2 #d of the brown stone     

7sandstone7 of which the fronts of many 
city buildings1 etc41 are built2 #c of  
marble2 #b of alabaster2 and #a as      
,french chalk1 or so soft as to be      
readily cut with the finger nail4 ,the  
method of using and applying these      
comparisons is by having the above      
matters at hand1 and compare them by the
 relative ease with which they can be   
cut by running the edge of the file over
 their surface4 ,one will soon become   
familiar with the scale1 and it may of  
course then be discarded4 ,as it is one 
of the most important characteristics of
 some of the minerals1 it should be     
carefully executed1 and the result      
carefully considered4 ,it is of course  
inapplicable under those conditions with
 minerals that are in very small        
crystals or in a fibrous condition4     
,action of ,hot ,acids4--,this very     
important test is never1 like the above1
 applicable upon the field1 but applied 
when home is reached4 ,from the body of 
the mineral as pure and clean as        

possible a portion is chipped1 about the
 size of a small pea2 this is wrapped in
 a piece of stiff wrapping paper1 and   
after placing it in contact with a solid
 body1 crushed finally by a blow from   
the hammer4 ,a pinch of the powder so   
obtained is taken up on the point of a  
penknife1 and transferred into a test   
tube4 ,two or more of these should be   
provided1 about six inches long4 ,they  
may be obtained in the apparatus shop   
for a trifle4 ,some hydrochloric1 or1 as
 it is generally called1 muriatic acid1 
is poured upon it to the depth of about 
three quarters of an inch2 the tube is  
then placed in some boiling water heated
 over a lamp in a tinned or other       
vessel1 and allowed to boil for from ten
 to fifteen minutes2 the tube is then   
removed and its contents allowed to     
cool1 and then examined4 ,if the powder 
has all disappeared1 we term the mineral
 soluble2 if more or less is dissolved1 
partly soluble2 if none1 insoluble2 and 
if the contents of the tube are of a    

solid transparent mass like jelly1      
gelatinous2 while if transparent        
gelatinous flakes are left1 it is so    
termed4 ,as this method of              
distinguishment is always applicable1 it
 is very important1 and its detail and  
result should be carefully noticed4     
,care should be taken that only a small 
portion of the mineral is used1 and also
 but little acid2 the action should be  
observed1 and is frequently a           
characteristic1 in the case with        
calcspar1 which effervesces while       
dissolving4 ,the acid used is           
hydrochloric at first1 and then1 if the 
mineral cannot he recognized1 the same  
treatment may be repeated using nitric  
acid4 ,both of these acids should be at 
hand and two ounces are generally       
sufficient4  ,action of ,heat4--,this   
is1 perhaps1 the most important         
characteristic1 and1 when taken with the
 preceding data1 will identify any of   
the minerals found in any one locality1 
which ,i will describe1 from each other4

 ,the heat is applied to the mineral by 
means of a candle and blowpipe4 ,a thick
 wax candle answers well1 and an        
ordinary japanned tin blowpipe1 costing 
twenty cents1 will serve the purpose4   
,the substance to be examined is held on
 a loop of platinum wire about one inch 
to the left and just below the top of   
the wick1 which is bent toward it4 ,here
 it is steadily held1 as is shown in    
,fig4 #a1 and the flame of the candle   
bent over upon it1 and the heat         
intensified by blowing a steady and     
strong current of air across it by means
 of the blowpipe held in the mouth and  
supported by the right hand1 whose elbow
 is resting upon the table4 ,the current
 of air is difficult to keep up by one  
unaccustomed to the blowpipe1 the skill 
of using which is readily obtained2 it  
consists in breathing through the       
nostrils1 while the air is forced out by
 pressure on the air held by the        
inflated cheeks1 and not from the lungs4
 ,this can be practiced while not using 

the blow-pipe1 and may readily be       
accomplished by one's keeping his cheeks
 distended with air and breathing at the
 same time4  ,this heat is steadily     
applied until the splinter of mineral   
has been kept at a high red heat for a  
sufficient length of time to convince   
one of what it may do1 as fuse or not1  
or on the edges4 ,the first two are     
evident1 as when it fuses it runs into a
 globule2 the last1 by inspecting it    
before and after the heating with a     
magnifying glass2 sometimes it froths up
 when heated1 and is then said to       
intumesce2 or1 if it flies to fragments1
 decrepitates4 ,upon the first it is    
further heated2 but in the latter case1 
a new splinter of mineral must be broken
 off from the mass and heated upon the  
wire very cautiously until quite hot1   
when it may then be readily heated      
further without fear of loss4 ,for      
holding the splinter of mineral1 which  
should well represent the mass and be   
quite small1 is a three-inch length of  

platinum wire of the thickness of a     
cambric-needle2 this may be bought for  
about ten cents at the apparatus shop4  
,the ends should be looped1 as is shown 
in ,fig4 #b1 and the mineral placed in  
the loop4  ,sometimes a mineral has to  
be fused with borax1 as ,i mention      
further on in my tables4 ,this is done  
by heating the wire-loop to redness1 and
 plunging it into some borax2 what      
adheres is fused upon it by heating4    
,some more is accumulated in the same   
manner1 until the loop is filled with a 
fair-sized globule4 ,a small quantity of
 the mineral1 which had been crushed as 
for the acid test1 is caused to adhere  
to it while it is molten1 and then the  
heat of the blast directed upon it for  
some time until either the small        
fragments of mineral dissolve1 or       
positively refuse to do so4 ,after      
cooling1 the aspect of the globule is   
noticed as to color1 transparency1 etc4 
,care must be taken that too large an   
amount of the mineral is not taken1 a   

very minute amount being sufficient4  ,i
 trust by the use of these              
distinguishing reactions one will be    
able to recognize by the tables to be   
given the name of the mineral in hand1  
especially as they are from certain     
parts1 where all the minerals occurring 
therein are known to us2 and ,i have    
worded the characteristics so that they 
will serve to isolate from all that     
possibly could be found in that         
locality4  ,the first general locality  
is ,bergen ,hill1 ,new ,jersey4 ,this   
comprises the range of bluffs of trap   
rock commencing at ,bergen ,point and   
running up behind ,jersey ,city and     
,hoboken1 etc41 to the part opposite    
about ,thirtieth ,street1 ,new ,york1   
where it comes close to the river1 and  
from there along the river to the north 
for a long distance1 known as the       
,palisades4 ,it is about a mile wide on 
an average1 and from a few feet to about
 two hundred feet in height4 ,the       
mineralogical localities in and upon it 

are at the following parts1 commencing  
at the south3 ,first ,pennsylvania      
,railroad cuts where the mining         
operations are just about completed2    
then the ,erie ,tunnel1 in which the    
specimens that first made ,bergen ,hill 
noted as a mineralogical locality1 and  
whose equals have not since been        
procured1 were found1 but which is now  
inaccessible to the general public4     
,further north is the ,morris and ,essex
 ,tunnel1 in which many fine specimens  
were secured1 and is also inaccessible2 
and last1 but far from being least1 is  
the ,ontario ,tunnel at ,weehawken2 and1
 as it is the only practicable part     
besides the ,pennsylvania ,railroad and 
a number of surface outcrops which ,i   
will mention1 ,i will commence with     
that4  ,the ,weehawken ,tunnel--,this   
tunnel is now being cut through the     
trap-rock for the ,new ,york1 ,ontario1 
and ,western ,railroad1 and will be     
completed in a few months1 but will1    
probably1 be available as a             

mineralogical locality for a year to    
come4 ,it is located about half a mile  
south of the ,weehawken ,ferry from     
,forty-second ,street1 ,new ,york city1 
and the place where to climb upon the   
hill to get to the shafts leading to it 
is made prominent by the large body of  
light-colored rock on the dump1 a few   
rods north of where the east entrance is
 to be4 ,the western end is in the      
village of ,new ,durham1 on the ,new    
,jersey ,northern ,railroad1 and        
recognized by the immense earth         
excavations4 ,a pass is necessary to    
gain admittance down the shafts1 and    
this can be procured from the office of 
the company1 between the third and      
fourth shafts to the tunnel1 in the     
grocery and provision store just to the 
north of the tramway connecting the     
shafts on the surface4 ,as it will not  
be necessary to go down in any of the   
shafts besides the first and second in  
order to fulfill the objects of this    
paper1 no difficulty need be encountered

 in procuring the pass if this is       
stated4  ,these two shafts are about    
eight hundred feet apart and one hundred
 and seventy feet deep4 ,a platform     
elevator is the mode of access to the   
tunneled portion below1 and a free      
shower-bath is included in the descent2 
consequently1 a rubber-coat and water   
tight boots are necessary4 ,a pair of   
overalls should be worn if one is to    
engage in any active exploration below2 
candles should also be provided1 as the 
electric lights1 at the face of the     
headings1 give but little light1 and    
remind one very forcibly of a dim flash 
light with a foliaged tree in front of  
it4 ,the electric wires for supplying   
these arrangements run along the north  
side of the tunnel for those on the east
 headings1 and on the south side for the
 west4 ,they are excellent things to    
keep clear of1 as they have sufficient  
current passing through them to knock   
one down2 thus their position can be    
readily ascertained4  ,modes of         

,occurrence of the ,minerals4--,in      
general1 the greater number of the      
specimens which are to be found in the  
tunnel occur in veins generally         
perpendicular1 and with other minerals  
of little or no value1 as calcite1      
chlorite1 and imperfect crystals of the 
same mineral4 ,a few occur in nodules   
inclosed in the solid body of rock1 and 
in which condition they are seldom of   
value4 ,the greater abundance are in the
 veins of the dark-green soft chlorite1 
and some few in horizontal beds4 ,the   
minerals are found in the first         
condition by examining all the veins    
running from floor to ceiling of the    
tunnel4 ,the ores of calcite first      
mentioned are very conspicuous1 they    
being white in the dense black rock4    
,they may be chipped from1 as there are 
about thirty or forty of them exposed in
 each shaft1 and the character of the   
minerals examined to see if anything but
 calcite is in it4 ,this is ascertained 
by a drop of acid1 as explained before1 

and by the descriptions given further   
on4 ,the veins of chlorite are not so   
conspicuous1 being of a dark-green      
color2 but by probing along the walls   
with a stick or hammer1 they may be     
recognized by their softness1 or by its 
dull glistening appearance4 ,they are   
comparatively few1 but from an inch to  
three feet wide2 and minerals are found 
by digging it out with a stick or a     
three-foot drill1 to be had at the      
headings4 ,where the most minerals occur
 in the chlorite is when plenty of veins
 of calcite are in its vicinity1 and its
 edges near the trap are dry and        
crumbly4 ,it is here where the minerals 
are found in this crumbly chlorite1 and 
generally in geodes--that is1 the faces 
of the minerals all point inward1       
formerly a spherical mass--rough and    
uncouth on the outside1 and from half an
 inch to nearly a foot in diameter4     
,these are valuable finds1 and well     
worth digging for4 ,the beds of minerals
 generally are of but one species1 and  

will be mentioned under the head of the 
minerals occurring in them4 ,besides1 in
 the tunnel there are generally more or 
less perfect minerals upon the main dump
 over the edge of the bluff toward the  
river4 ,here many specimens that have   
escaped the eyes of the miners may be   
found among the loose rock1 being       
constantly strewn out by the incline of 
the bed2 in fact1 this is the only place
 in which quite a number of the incident
 minerals may be found2 but ,i will not 
linger longer on this1 as ,i shall refer
 to it under the minerals individually4 
,the minerals occurring at the tunnel   
are as follows1 with their descriptions 
and locations in the order of their     
greatest abundance3  ,calcite4--,this   
mineral occurs in great abundance in and
 about the tunnel1 and from all the     
shafts4 ,there are two forms occurring  
there1 the most abundant of which is the
 rhombohedral1 after ,fig4 #c4 ,it can  
generally be obtained1 however1 in      
excellent crystals1 which1 although     

perfect in form1 are opaque1 but often  
large and beautiful4 ,it is always      
packed with a thousand or its multiple  
of other crystals into veins of a few   
inches thick2 and crystals are obtained 
by carefully breaking with edge of the  
cold chisel these masses down to the    
fundamental form shown4 ,as the masses  
are never secured by the miners1 they   
can always be picked from the piles of  
dbris around the shafts and the dumps1  
and afford some little instruction as to
 the manner in which a mineral is built 
up by crystallization1 and may be       
subdivided by cleavage to a crystal of  
the same shape exactly1 but             
infinitesimally small4 ,a crystal to be 
worth preserving should be about an inch
 in diameter1 and as transparent as is  
attainable4  ,another form of calcite   
which is to be sparingly found is what  
is called dogtooth spar1 having the form
 shown in ,fig4 #d4 ,they occur in clear
 wine-yellow-colored crystals1 from a   
quarter to half an inch in length2 they 

occur in the chlorite in geodes of      
variable sizes1 but generally two and a 
half inches in diameter1 and which1 when
 carefully broken in half1 showed       
beautiful grottoes of these crystals4   
,the few of these that ,i have found    
were in the four-foot vein of chlorite  
down the ,shaft ,no4 #a1 to the west of 
the shaft about one hundred and fifty   
feet1 and on the south wall2 it may be  
readily found by probing for it1 and    
then the geodes by digging in4 ,there   
need be no difficulty in finding this   
vein if these conditions are carefully  
considered1 or if one of the miners be  
asked as to the soft vein4 ,both these  
forms of calcite may be distinguished   
from the other minerals by first        
effervescing on coming in contact with  
the acids2 second1 by glowing with an   
intense 7almost unbearably so7 light    
when heated with the blowpipe1 but not  
fusing4 ,their specific gravity is #b4f1
 or near it1 and hardness about #c1 or  
equal to ordinary unpolished white      

marble4  ,natrolite4--,the finest       
specimens of this mineral that have ever
 been found in ,bergen ,hill were taken 
from a bed of it in this tunnel1 having 
in its original form1 before it was cut 
out by the tunnel passing through1 over 
one hundred square feet1 and from       
one-half to two and a half and even     
three inches in thickness2 it was in all
 possible shapes and forms--all         
extremely rare and beautiful4 ,a large  
part of one end of this bed still       
remains1 and1 by careful cutting1 fine  
masses may be obtained4 ,this bed may be
 readily found2 it is nearly horizontal1
 and in its center about four feet from 
the floor of the tunnel1 and about half 
an inch thick4 ,it is down ,shaft ,no4  
#b1 on the north wall1 and commences    
about eighty feet from the shaft4 ,it is
 cut into in some places1 but there is  
plenty more left1 and can be obtained by
 cutting the rock above it and easing it
 out by means of the blade of a knife or
 similar instrument4 ,this natrolite is 

a grouping of very small but perfect    
crystals1 having the forms shown in     
,fig4 #e2 they are from a quarter to an 
inch long1 and1 if not perfectly        
transparent1 are of a pure white color2 
they may be readily recognized by their 
form1 and occurring in this bed4 ,its   
hardness1 which is seldom to be         
ascertained owing to the delicacy of the
 crystals1 is about #e1 and the specific
 gravity #b4b4 ,this is readily found1  
but is no distinction2 its reaction     
before the blowpipe1 however1 is        
characteristic1 it readily fusing to a  
transparent globule1 clear and glassy1  
and by forming a jelly when heated with 
acids4 ,the bed holding the upright     
crystals is also natrolite in confused  
matted masses4 ,this mineral has also   
been found in other parts of the shaft1 
but only in small druses4 ,there is a   
prospect at present that another bed    
will be uncovered soon1 and some more   
fine specimens to be easily obtained4   
,pectolite1 or as it is termed by the   

miners1 silky spar4--,this mineral is   
quite abundant and in fine masses1 not  
of the great beauty and size of those   
taken from the ,erie ,tunnel1 but still 
of great uniqueness4 ,the mineral is    
recognized by its peculiar appearance1  
as is shown in ,fig4 #f1 where it may be
 seen that it is in groups of fine      
delicate fibers about an inch long1     
diverging from a point into fan-shaped  
groups4 ,the fibers are very tightly    
packed together1 as are also the groups2
 they are very tough individually1 and  
have a hardness of #d1 and a specific   
gravity of about #b4e4 ,it gelatinizes  
on boiling with acid1 and a fragment may
 be readily fused in the blowpipe flame1
 yielding a transparent globule4 ,the   
appearance is the most striking         
characteristic1 and at once             
distinguishes this mineral from any of  
the others occurring in this locality4  
,considerable quantities of pectolite   
may generally be found on the dump1 but 
also in ,shaft ,no4 #a1 and especially  

,no4 #b4 ,the veins of it are difficult 
to distinguish from the calcite1 as they
 are almost identical in color1 and many
 of the calcite veins are partly of     
pectolite--in fact1 every third or      
fourth vein will contain more or less of
 it4 ,there is1 however1 a very fine    
vein of pectolite about twenty-five feet
 further east from the natrolite bed2 it
 runs from the floor to ceiling1 and is 
about two inches in thickness2 some     
specimens of which ,i took from these   
were unusually unique in both size and  
appearance4 ,it makes a very handsome   
specimen for the cabinet1 and should be 
carefully trimmed to show the           
characteristics of the mineral4         
,datholite4--,this mineral has been     
found very frequently in the tunnel1 it 
occurring in pockets in the softer trap 
near the chlorite1 and also in the      
latter1 generally at a depth of one     
hundred and fifty feet from the surface1
 and consequently near the ceiling of   
the tunnel4 ,all that has been found of 

any great beauty has been in the western
 end of the ,shaft ,no4 #a and the      
eastern of ,shaft ,no4 #b1 where the    
trap is quite soft2 here it is found    
nearly every day in greater or less     
quantity1 and from this some may        
generally be found on the dump1 or1 in  
the vein of chlorite which ,i mentioned 
as a locality for the dogtooth spar1    
considerable may be obtained in it and  
on its western edge near the ceiling4 ,a
 ladder about thirteen feet long is used
 for attending the lights1 and may      
generally be borrowed1 and access to the
 remainder of this pocket thus gained4  
,datholite is also very characteristic  
in appearance1 and can only be          
confounded with some forms of calcite   
occurring near it4 ,it occurs in small  
glassy1 nearly globular crystals2 they  
are generally not over three-sixteenths 
of an inch in diameter1 and generally   
pure and perfectly transparent1 having a
 hardness of a little over #e1 and      
specific gravity of #c2 as it generally 

occurs as a druse upon the trap1 or an  
apopholite1 calcite1 etc41 this is      
seldom attainable1 however1 and we have 
a very distinctive characteristic in    
another test3 this is the blowpipe1     
under which it at first intumesces and  
then fuses to a transparent globule1 and
 the flame1 after playing upon it1 is of
 a deep green color4 ,nitric acid must  
be used to boil it up with1 and with it 
it may be readily gelatinized4 ,this    
last test will seldom be necessary1     
however1 and may be dispensed with if   
the hardness and blowpipe reactions may 
be ascertained4  ,apopholite4--,this    
beautiful mineral has been found in fair
 abundance at times in ,shafts ,no4 #a  
and #b in pockets1 and seldom in place1 
most of it being taken from the loose   
stone at the mouth of the shaft1 and it 
may generally be found on the dump4 ,it 
is readily mistaken for calcite by the  
miners and those unskilled in           
mineralogy1 but a drop of acid will     
quickly show the difference4 ,the sizes 

of the crystals are very various1 from  
an eighth of an inch long or thick1 to1 
in one case1 an inch and a half4 ,the   
colors have been varied from white to   
nearly all tints1 including pink1       
purple1 blue1 and green2 the white      
variety is1 however1 the most abundant1 
and makes a handsome cabinet specimen4  
,the crystals are generally packed      
together in a mass1 but are frequently  
set apart as heavy druses of crystals   
having the form shown in ,fig4 #g4      
,sometimes1 as in the former grouping1  
the crystals are without the pyramidal  
terminations1 and are then right square 
prisms4 ,the fracture being at perfect  
right angles1 distinguishes it from     
calcite4 ,its hardness is generally     
fully #e1 the specific gravity between  
#b4d and #b4e2 it is difficult to fuse  
before the blowpipe1 but is finally     
fused into an opaque globule4 ,upon     
heating with nitric acid it partly      
dissolves1 and the remainder becomes    
flaky and gelatinous4 ,apopholite1      

although quite rare1 now may be bought  
from the men1 or at least one of the    
engineers of ,shaft ,no4 #b's elevator1 
and generally at low terms4             
,phrenite4--,this mineral is quite      
abundant in ,shafts ,no4 #a and #b1 in  
very small masses1 incrustations1 and   
even in small crystals4 ,it occurs      
embedded in or incrusting the trap1 and 
also with calcite and apopholite4 ,the  
only sure place to find it is at the    
southwest side of an opening through the
 pile of drift rock under the trestle   
work of the tramway1 between shaft ,no4 
#a and the dump1 and within a few feet  
of a number of wooden vats sunk into the
 ground seen just before descending the 
hills and near the edge4 ,here on a     
number of blocks of trap it may be      
found1 a greenish white incrustation    
about as thick as a knife blade2 it also
 may be found on the main dump1 and is  
sometimes found in plates one-eighth of 
an inch thick1 of a darker green color1 
upon calcite4 ,its easiest              

distinguishment from the other minerals 
of this locality1 with which it might be
 confounded1 is its great hardness of   
from #f to #g4 ,it is very fragile and  
brittle1 however1 and is never perfectly
 transparent1 but quite opaque2 its     
specific gravity is #b4i1 and it is     
readily fused before the blowpipe after 
intumescing4 ,it partly dissolves in    
acid without gelatinizing1 leaving a    
flaky residue2 it is a beautiful mineral
 when in masses or crystals of a dark   
green color1 but the best place in the  
vicinity to secure specimens of this    
kind is1 as ,i will detail hereafter1 at
 ,paterson1 ,n4 ,j4  ,iron and ,copper  
,pyrites4--,both of these common but    
frequently beautiful minerals occur in  
the tunnel and adjacent rocks in great  
abundance4 ,the crystals are generally  
about one-fourth of an inch in diameter1
 and groups of these may be frequently  
obtained on the dump in the shafts1     
especially ,no4 #a and #b1 and where the
 rock is being cleared away for the     

eastern entrance to the tunnel4 ,they   
resemble each other very much2 the iron 
pyrites1 however1 is in cubical forms   
and having the great hardness of from #f
 to #g1 while the copper pyrites1 less  
abundant and in forms having triangles  
for bases1 but having sometimes other   
forms and a hardness of but #c to #d4   
,both are similar in aspect to a piece  
of brass1 and cannot be mistaken for any
 other mineral4 ,the form of the copper 
pyrites is shown in ,fig4 #h2 the iron  
is1 as before noted1 in cubes1 more or  
less modified4  ,stilbite4--,small      
quantities of this beautiful mineral    
have been found in ,shaft ,no4 #b1 in a 
small bed of but a few square feet in   
area1 but quite thick and appearing much
 like natrolite4 ,this bed was about one
 hundred feet east from ,shaft ,no4 #b1 
and in the center of the heading when it
 was at that point4 ,it has been        
encountered since in small quantities1  
and it would do well to look out for it 
in the fresh tunneled portion after the 

date appended to this paper4 ,it        
generally occurs in the form shown in   
,fig4 #i1 grouped very similarly to     
natrolite1 and being right upon the rock
 or a thin bed of itself4 ,the crystals 
are generally half an inch long1 but    
often less4 ,the modifications of the   
above form1 which are frequent in this  
species1 strike one forcibly of the     
resemblance they bear to a broad stone  
spear head on a diminutive scale1 with a
 blunted edge2 their hardness is about  
#d1 specific gravity #b4b1 the color    
generally a pearly white or grayish4    
,after a long boiling with nitric acid  
it gelatinizes1 but it foams up and     
fuses to a transparent glass before the 
blowpipe4 ,a little stilbite may often  
be found on the dumps4  ,laumonite      
occurs in very small quantities on      
calcite or apopholite1 and can hardly be
 expected to be found on the trip2 but  
as it might be found1 ,i will detail    
some of its characteristics4 ,hardness  
#d1 specific gravity #b4c2 it generally 

occurs in small crystals1 but more      
frequently in a crumbly1 chalky mass1   
which it becomes upon exposure to the   
air4 ,the crystals are generally        
transparent and frequently tinged yellow
 in color4 ,it gelatinizes by boiling   
with acid1 and after intumescing before 
the blowpipe1 fuses to a frothy mass4   
,to keep this mineral when in crystals  
from crumbling upon exposure it may be  
dipped in a thin mastic varnish or in a 
gum-arabic solution4                    
,heulandite4--,this rare mineral has    
been found under the same conditions as 
laumonite in ,shaft ,no4 #b1 but it is  
seldom to be met with1 and then in small
 crystals4 ,it is of a pure white color1
 sometimes transparent4 ,it intumesces  
and readily fuses before the blowpipe1  
and dissolves in acid without           
gelatinizing4 ,hardness #d1 specific    
gravity #b4b4  ,the few other minerals  
occurring in the tunnel are so extremly 
rare as not to be met with by any other 
than an expert1 and it is impossible to 

detail the localities1 as they generally
 occur as minute druses or incrustations
 upon other minerals with which they may
 be confounded1 and have been removed as
 soon as discovered4 ,the minerals      
referred to are analcime1 chabazite1    
,thompsonite1 and finally1 the mineral  
which ,i first found in this formation1 
,hayesine1 which is extremely rare1 and 
of which ,i only obtained sufficient to 
cover a square inch4 ,the particulars in
 regard to its locality1 etc41 maybe    
found in the ,american ,journal of      
,sciences for ,june1 page #deh4 ,i will 
now sum up the characteristics of these 
several minerals of this locality in the
 table3                                 
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------------- 
,name4    ,h4 ,sp4,action of            
,action of        ,color4,appearance4   
,gr4,blowpipe4        hot acid4         
----------------------------------------
---------------------------------       
,calcite     #c  #b4f;,infusible1       

,soluble with     ,white ,like ,fig4    
but glows        effervescence          
#c and #d4                              
,natrolite   #e  #b4b,readily fused     
,forms a jelly      do4 ,like ,fig #e4  
to clear globule                        
,pectolite   #d  #b4e      do4          
do4  do4         do4 ,divergent         
fibers1 ,fig4 #f4                       
,datholite   #e  #c4j;,intumesces1      
fused,forms a jelly    ,color-,small1   
nearly                   to clear       
globule1                 less           
spherical1 etc4                   gives 
green flame                 white       
,apopholite  #e  #b4e;,difficult1 fused 
,partly soluble   ,tinted,like ,fig4 #g4
                   to opaque globulein  
nitric acid                             
,phrenite    #f  #b4i;,intomesces1      
fused,partly soluble   ,green-,in tables
 and           to #g    to clear globule
 in nitric acid1  ish   incrustations4  
leaving flakes                          
,iron        #f  #e4j;,burns and yields 

,brass ,cubical4 pyrites   to #g    a   
black globule1                          
decrepitates                            
,copper      #c  #d4b    do4     do4    
do4 ,tetrahedronal4 pyrites   to #d     
,stilbite    #d  #b4b;,intumesces and   
,difficult2 jelly ,white ,like ,fig4 #h4
                   fuses readily    on  
long boiling                            
with nitric acid4                       
,laumonite   #d  #b4c;,intumesces and   
,readily            do4 ,generally      
to #j    fuses to frothy  gelatinizes   
chalky4                   mass          
,heulandite  #d  #b4b;,intumesces and   
,soluble1 no        do4 ,in right       
readily fuses    jelly                  
rhomboidal                              
prisms4                                 
----------------------------------------
--------------------------------------- 
,to ,distinguish the ,minerals together 
the one from the other4--,calcite by    
effervescing on placing a drop of acid  
upon it4 ,natrolite resembles stilbite1 

but may be distinguished by gelatinizing
 readily with hydrochloric acid and by  
not intumescing when heated before the  
blowpipe2 from the other minerals by the
 form of the crystals and their setting1
 also the locality in the tunnel in     
which it was found4  ,pectolite         
sometimes resembles some of the others1 
but may be readily distinguished by its 
tough long fibers1 not brittle like     
natrolite4 ,datholite may generally be  
distinguished by the form of its        
crystals and their glassy appearance1   
with great hardness1 and by tingeing the
 flame from the blowpipe of a true green
 color4 ,apopholite is distinguished    
from calcite1 as noticed under that     
species1 and from the others by its     
form1 difficult fusibility1 and part    
solubility4  ,phrenite is characterized 
by its hardness1 greenish color1        
occurrence1 and action of acid4 ,iron   
pyrites is always known by its brassy   
metallic aspect and great hardness4     
,copper pyrites1 by its aspect from the 

other minerals1 and from iron pyrites by
 its inferior hardness and less gravity4
  ,stilbite is characterized by its     
form1 difficult gelatinizing1 and       
intumescence before the blowpipe2 from  
natrolite as mentioned under that       
species4  ,laumonite is known by its    
generally chalky appearance and a       
probable failure in finding it4         
,heulandite is distinguished from       
stilbite by its crystals and perfect    
solubility2 from apopholite by form of  
crystals4  ,in the next part of this    
paper ,i will commence with ,staten     
,island4  ,july #a1 #ahhb4 7,to be      
continued47         99       99       99
       99       99     ,,antiseptics4   
,the author has endeavored to ascertain 
what agents are able to destroy the     
spores of bacilli1 how they behave      
toward the microphytes most easily      
destroyed1 such as the moulds1 ferments1
 and micrococci1 and if they suffice at 
least to arrest the development of these
 organisms in liquids favorable to their

 multiplication4 ,his results with      
phenol1 thymol1 and salicylic acid have 
been unfavorable4 ,sulphurous acid and  
zinc chloride also failed to destroy all
 the germs of infection4 ,chlorine1     
bromine1 and mercuric chloride gave the 
best results2 solutions of mercuric     
chloride1 nitrate1 or sulphate diluted  
to #a part in #a1jjj destroy spores in  
ten minutes4--,r4 ,koch4         99     
99       99       99       99           
,,crystallization ,,and ,,its ,,effects 
,,upon ,,iron4  ,by ,n4,b4 ,,wood1      
,member of the ,civil ,engineers' ,club1
 of ,cleveland4  ,footnote3 ,read       
,january #ajth4 #ahhb4   ,the question  
has been asked1 ,what is the chemically 
scientific definition of                
crystallization8 ,now as the study of   
crystallization and its effect upon     
matter1 physically as well as           
chemically1 will be of interest1        
considering the subject matter for      
discussion1 ,i shall not only endeavor  
to answer the question1 as ,i understand

 it1 but try to treat it somewhat       
technologically4  ,having this object in
 view1 ,i have prepared or brought about
 the conditions necessary to the        
formation of a few crystals of various  
chemical substances1 which for various  
reasons1 such as lack of time and bad   
weather1 are not as perfect as could be 
desired1 but will perhaps subserve the  
purpose for which they were designed4 ,i
 think you will agree with me that they 
are beautiful1 if they are imperfect1   
and ,i can assure you that the pleasure 
of watching their formation fully repays
 one for the trouble1 if for no other   
reason than the mere gratification of   
the senses4 ,from the earliest times and
 by all races of men1 the crystal has   
been admired and imitated1 or improved  
by cutting and polishing into faces of  
various substances4 ,i have also        
procured specimens of steel and iron    
which show the effect of                
crystallization1 which was produced     
7perhaps7 under known conditions1 so    

that the conclusions which we arrive at 
from their study will have a fair chance
 of being logical1 at least1 and perhaps
 of some practical value4  ,when we     
examine inanimate nature we find two    
grand divisions of matter1 fluid and    
solid4 ,these two divisions may be      
subdivided into1 the former gaseous and 
liquid1 the latter amorphous and        
crystalline2 but whether one or the     
other of these divisions be considered1 
their ultimate and common division will 
be the ,,atom4 ,by the atom we          
understand that portion of matter which 
admits of no further division1 which1   
though as inconceivable for minuteness  
as space is for extent1 has still       
definite weight1 form1 and volume2 which
 under favorable circumstances1 has that
 power or force called cohesion1 the    
intensity of which constitutes strength 
of material1 which every engineer is    
supposed to understand1 but which lies  
far beyond the powers of the human mind 
for comprehension or analysis4 ,when we 

apply a magnet to a mass of iron        
filings1 we observe the particles       
arrange themselves in regular order1    
having considerable strength in one     
direction1 and very little or none in   
any other4 ,now1 although we understand 
very little about the force which holds 
these particles in position1 we do know 
that it is actual force applied from    
without and maintained at the expense of
 some of the known sources of force4    
,but the force or power or property of  
cohesion seems to be a quality stored   
within the atom itself1 in many cases   
similar to magnetism1 having powerful   
attraction in some directions and very  
little or none in others4 ,a crystal of 
mica1 for instance1 or gypsum may be    
divided to any degree of thinness1 but  
is very difficult to even break4 ,this  
property of crystals is termed cleavage4
 ,cohesion and crystallization are      
affected variously by various           
circumstances1 such as heat or its      
absence1 motion or its absence1 etc4 ,in

 fact1 almost every phenomenon of nature
 within the range of ordinary           
temperatures has effects which may be   
favorable to the crystallization of some
 substances1 and at the same time       
unfavorable to others2 so it will be    
seen that it is impossible to lay down  
any rule for it except for named        
substances1 like substances requiring   
like conditions1 to bring its atoms into
 that state of equilibrium where        
crystallization can occur4 ,if we       
examine crystals carefully we find1 not 
only that nature has here provided      
geometric forms of marvelous beauty and 
exactness1 with faces of polish and     
quoins of acuteness equal to the work of
 the most skillful lapidist1 but that in
 whatever manner or under whatever      
circumstances a crystal may have been   
formed1 whether in the laboratory of the
 chemist or the workshop of nature1 in  
the bodies of animals or the tissues of 
plants1 up in the sky or in the depths  
of the earth1 whether so rapidly that we

 may literally see its growth1 or by the
 slow aggregation of its molecules      
during perhaps thousands of years1 we   
always find that the arrangement of the 
faces is subject to fixed and definite  
laws4 ,we find also that a crystal is   
always finished and has its form as     
perfectly developed when it is the      
minutest point discernible by the       
microscope as when it has attained its  
ultimate growth4 ,i might add           
parenthetically that crystals are       
sometimes of immense size1 one at ,milan
 of quartz being #c feet #c inches long 
and #e feet #f inches in circumference1 
and is estimated to weigh over #hjj     
pounds2 and a gigantic beryl at         
,grafton1 ,n4 ,h41 is over #d feet in   
length and #cb inches in diameter1 and  
weighs not less than #e1jjj pounds2 but 
the most perfect specimens are of small 
size1 as some accident is sure to       
overtake the larger ones before they    
acquire their growth1 to interfere with 
their symmetry or transparency4 ,this   

you will see abundantly illustrated by  
the examples which ,i have prepared1 as 
also the constancy of the angles of like
 faces4 ,chemically speaking1 the       
crystal is always a perfect chemical    
body1 and can never be a mechanical     
mixture4 ,this fact has been of great   
value to the science of chemistry in    
developing the atomic theory1 which has 
demonstrated that a body can only exist 
chemically combined when a definite     
number of atoms of each element is      
present1 and that there is no certainty 
of such proportions existing except in  
the crystal4 ,i hold before you a       
crystal of common alum4 ,its chemical   
symbol would be                         
,al#b,o#c1c,,so#c,,ko1,,so#cbd;,h#b,o4  
,if we knew its weight and wished to    
know its ultimate component parts1 we   
could calculate them more readily than  
we could acquire that knowledge by any  
other means4 ,but the elements of this  
quantity of uncrystallized alum could   
not be computed4 ,then we may define    

crystallization to be the operation of  
nature wherein the chemical atoms or    
molecules of a substance have sufficient
 polarized force to arrange themselves  
about a central attracting point in     
definite geometrical forms4  ,fresenius 
defines it thus3 ,every operation1 or   
process1 whereby bodies are made to pass
 from the fluid to the solid state1 and 
to assume certain fixed1 mathematically 
definable1 regular forms4 ,it would be  
folly for me to attempt to criticise    
,fresenius1 but ,i give you both        
definitions1 and you can take your      
choice4 ,the definition of ,fresenius1  
however1 will not suit our present      
purpose1 because the crystallization of 
wrought iron occurs1 or seems to1 after 
the iron has acquired a solid state4    
,iron1 as you all know1 is known to the 
arts in three forms3 cast or crude1     
steel1 and wrought or malleable4 ,cast  
iron varies much in chemical            
composition1 being a mixture of iron and
 carbon chiefly1 as constant factors1   

with which silicium in small quantities 
7from #a to #e per cent471 phosphorus1  
sulphur1 and sometimes manganese 7e4g4  
spiegeleisen7 and various other elements
 are combined4 ,all of these have some  
effect upon the crystalline structure of
 the mass1 but whatever crystallization 
takes place occurs at the moment of     
solidification1 or between that and a   
red heat1 and varies much1 according to 
the time occupied in cooling1 as to its 
composition4 ,my own experience leads me
 to think that a cast iron having about 
#c per cent4 of carbon1 a small per     
centage of phosphorus1 say about  of #a 
per cent41 and very small quantities of 
silicium1 the less the better1 and      
traces of manganese 7the two latter     
substances slagging out almost entirely 
during the process of remelting for     
casting71 makes a metal best adapted to 
the general use of the founder4 ,such   
proportions will make a soft1 even      
grained1 dark gray iron1 whose crystals 
are small and bright1 and whose fracture

 will be uneven and sharp to the touch4 
,the phosphorus in this instance gives  
the metal liquidity at a low            
temperature1 but does not seem to       
influence the crystallization to any    
appreciable extent4 ,the two elements to
 be avoided by the founder are silicium 
and sulphur4 ,these give to iron a      
peculiar crystalline appearance easily  
recognized by an experienced person4    
,silicium seems to obliterate the       
sparkling brilliancy of the crystalline 
faces of good iron1 and replace them    
with very fine dull ones only           
discernible with a lens1 and the iron   
breaks more like stoneware than metal1  
while sulphur in appreciable quantities 
gives a striated crystalline texture    
similar to chilled iron1 and very       
brittle4 ,phosphorus in very large      
quantities acts similarly4 ,the form of 
the crystal in cast iron is the         
octahedron1 so that right angles with   
sharp corners should be avoided as much 
as possible in castings1 as the most    

likely position for a crystal to take   
would be with its faces along the line  
of the angle4 ,steel1 to be of any value
 as such1 must be made of the purest    
material4 ,phosphorus and sulphur must  
not exist1 except in the most minute    
quantities1 or the metal is worthless4  
,if either of these substances be       
present in a bar of steel1 its structure
 will be coarse1 crystalline and weak4  
,the reason of this is unknown1 but     
probably their presence reduces the     
power of cohesion2 and1 that being      
reduced1 gives the molecules of steel   
greater freedom to arrange themselves in
 conformity with their polarity1 and    
this in its turn again weakens the mass 
by the tendency of the crystals to      
cleavage in certain directions4 ,carbon 
is a constant element in steel1 as it is
 in cast iron1 but is frequently        
replaced by chromium1 titanium1 etc41 or
 is said to be1 though it is not quite  
clear to me how it can be so if steel is
 a chemical compound4 ,however this may 

be1 we know that a piece of good soft   
steel breaks with a fine crystalline    
fracture1 and the same piece hardened   
when broken shows either an amorphous   
structure or one very finely            
crystalline1 which would indicate that  
the crystals had been broken up by the  
action of heat1 and that they had not   
had sufficient time to return to their  
original position on account of the     
sudden cooling4 ,the tendency of the    
molecules of steel after hardening to   
assume their natural position when cold 
seems to be very great1 for we have     
often seen large pieces of steel burst  
asunder after hardening1 though lying   
untouched1 and sometimes with such force
 as to hurl the fragments to some       
distance4 ,if a piece of steel be       
subjected to a bright yellow or white   
heat its nature is entirely changed1 and
 the workman says it is burnt4 ,though  
this is not actually a fact1 it does    
well enough to express that condition of
 the metal4 ,steel cannot be burnt      

unless some portion of it has been      
oxidized4 ,the carbon would of course be
 attacked first1 its affinity for oxygen
 being greatest2 but we find nothing    
wanting in a piece of burnt steel4 ,it  
can1 by careful heating1 hammering and  
hardening1 be returned to its former    
excellence4 ,then what change has taken 
place8 ,i should say that two           
modifications have been made1 one       
physical1 the other chemical4 ,the      
change chemically is that of a chemical 
compound to a mixture of carbon and     
iron1 so that in a chemical sense it    
resembles cast iron4 ,the change        
physically is that of crystallization1  
being due partly to chemical change and 
partly to the effect of heat4 ,i have   
procured a specimen of steel showing    
beautifully the effect of overheating4  
,the specimen is labeled ,no4 #a1 and is
 a piece of ,park ,brothers' steel 7one 
of the best brands made in ,america74   
,it has been heated at one end to proper
 heat for hardening1 and at the other is

 what is technically called burnt4 ,it  
has been broken at intervals of about #a
 inches1 showing the transition from    
amorphous or proper hardening to highly 
crystalline or burnt4 ,malleable or     
wrought iron is or should be pure iron4 
,of course in practice it is seldom     
such1 but generally nearly so1 being    
usually #ih1 #ii1 or even more per cent4
 ,it is exceedingly prone to            
crystallization1 the purer varieties    
being as much subject to it as others1  
except those contaminated with          
phosphorus1 which affects it similarly  
with steel1 and makes it very weak to   
cross and tensile strains4 ,i have never
 estimated the quantity present in any  
except one specimen1 a bar of #a round1 
which literally fell to pieces when     
dropped across a block of iron4 ,it had 
#a4cb per cent4 of phosphorus and was   
very crystalline1 though the crystals   
were not very large4 ,iron which has    
been1 when first made1 quite fibrous1   
when subjected to a series of shocks for

 a greater or less period1 according to 
their intensity1 when subjected to      
intense currents of electricity1 or when
 subjected to high temperatures1 or has 
by mechanical force been pushed         
together1 or1 as it is called1 upset1   
becomes extremely crystalline4 ,under   
all of these circumstances it is        
subjected to one physical phenomenon1   
that of motion4 ,it would seem that if a
 bar of iron were struck1 the blow would
 shake the whole mass1 and consequently 
the relative position of the particles  
remain unchanged1 but this is not the   
case4 ,when the blow is struck it takes 
an appreciable length of time for the   
effect to be communicated to the other  
end so as to be heard1 if the distance  
is great4 ,this shows that a small force
 is communicated from particle to       
particle independently along the whole  
mass1 and that each atom actually moves 
independently of its neighbor4 ,then1 if
 there be any attraction at the time    
tending to arrange it differently1 it   

will conform to it4 ,so much for theory 
with regard to this important matter4   
,it looks well on paper1 but do the     
facts of the case correspond8 ,if       
practically demonstrated and            
systematically executed1 experiments    
fail to corroborate the theory1 and if1 
furthermore1 we find there is no        
necessity for the theory1 we naturally  
conclude that it is all wrong1 or1 at   
least1 imperfectly understood4 ,now     
there is one other quality imparted to  
iron by successive shocks1 which1 ,i    
think1 is independent of                
crystallization1 and this quality is    
hardness and consequent brittleness4    
,one noticeable feature about this also 
is1 that as absolute cohesion or tensile
 strength diminishes1 relative cohesion 
or strength to resist crushing          
increases4 ,specimens ,nos4 #b1 #c1 and 
#d are pieces of ,swedish iron1 probably
 from the celebrated mines of           
,dannemora4 ,nos4 #b and #c are parts of
 the same bolt1 which1 after some       

months' use on a heading machine in a   
bolt and nut works1 where it was        
subjected to numerous and violent       
shocks1 7perhaps #ej1jjj or #fj1jjj per 
day71 it broke short off1 as you see in 
,no #b1 showing a highly crystalline    
fracture4 ,to test whether this         
structure continued through the bolt1 ,i
 had it nicked by a blacksmith's cold   
chisel and broken4 ,the specimen shows  
that it is still stronger at that point 
than at the point where it is actually  
broken1 but the resulting fracture shows
 the same crystalline appearance4 ,i    
next had specimen ,no4 #d cut from a    
fresh bar of iron which had never been  
used for anything4 ,it also shows a     
crystalline fracture1 indicating that   
this peculiarity had existed in the iron
 of both from the beginning4  ,i next   
took specimen ,no4 #c and subjected it  
to a careful annealing1 taking perhaps  
two hours in the operation4 ,although it
 is a #a-a_/h bolt and has ,v threads   
cut upon it we were unable to break it1 

although bent cold through an arc of    
#ij1 and probably would have doubled    
upon itself if we had had the means to  
have forced it4 ,now what does this     
show8 ,have the crystals been           
obliterated by the process of annealing1
 or has only their cleavage been        
destroyed1 so that when they break1     
instead of showing brilliant1 sparkling 
faces1 they are drawn into a fibrous    
looking mass8 ,the latter seems to be   
the most plausible theory1 to which ,i  
admit objections may be raised4 ,for my 
own part1 ,i am inclined to the belief  
that the crystal exists in all iron     
which is finished above a bright red    
heat1 and that between that and black   
heat they are formed and have whatever  
characteristics circumstances may confer
 upon them1 modified by the action of   
agencies heretofore mentioned4          
99       99       99       99       99  
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