,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #cfb ,,new ,,york1 ,,december #i1 #ahhb ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xiv1 ,no4 #cfb4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,engineering ,,and ,,mechanics--,recent ,improvements in ,textile ,machinery4--,harris's revolving ring spinning frame4-- ,new electric stop motion4--,new positive motion loom4 #f figures4 ,spinning ,without a ,mule4--,harris's improvements in ring spinning4 ,new ,binding ,machines4 #c figures4 ,flumes and their construction4 #a figure4 ,chuwab's ,rolling ,mill for ,dressing and ,rounding ,bar ,iron4 #i figures4 ,burning of ,town ,refuse at ,leeds4 #f figures4--,sections and elevations of destructor and carbonizer4 ,,ii4 ,,technology ,,and ,,chemistry4--,friedrich ,wohler4--,his labors and discoveries4 ,new ,gas ,burner4 #c figures4--,grimstone's improved gas burner4 ,defty's ,improvements in ,gas ,burners and ,heaters4 #d figures4 ,the ,collotype in ,practice4 ,determination of ,potassa in ,manures4--,by ,m4 ,e4 ,,dreyfus4 ,,iii4 ,,hygiene1 ,,medicine1 ,,etc4--,the ,air in ,relation to ,health4 ,by ,prof4 ,c4 ,f4 ,,chandler4 ,the ,plantain as a ,styptic4 ,bacteria4 ,,iv4 ,,electricity1 ,,etc4--,gustavo ,trouv and his ,electrical ,inventions4 --,portrait of ,gustave ,trouv4--,trouv's electric boat competing in the regatta at ,troyes4 ,domestic ,electricity4--,loiseau's electric naphtha and gas lighters4--,ranque's new form of lighter with extinguisher4 ,theiler's ,telephone ,receiver4 #b figures4 ,an ,electric ,power ,hammer4 ,by ,,marcel ,,depretz4 #a figure4 ,solignac's ,new ,electric ,lamp4 #c figures4 ,mondos's ,electric ,lamp4 #b figures4 ,v4 ,,metallurgy ,,and ,,mineralogy4--,aluminum4--,its properties1 cost1 and uses4 ,the ,origin and ,relations of the ,carbon ,minerals4 ,by ,j4,s4 ,,newberry4--,an elaborate and extremely valuable review of the genesis of carbon minerals1 and the modes and conditions of their occurrence4 ,estimation of ,sulphur in ,iron and ,steel4 ,by ,,george ,,craig4 #a figure4 ,,vi4 ,,architecture1 ,,etc4--,the ,armitage ,house4 ,suggestions in ,architecture4--,an ,english country residence4 ,,vii4 ,,botany1 ,,horticulture1 ,,etc4--,the ,soy ,bean4 #a figure4-- ,the ,soy bean 7,soja hispida74 ,erica ,cavendishiana4 #a figure4 ,philesia ,buxifolia4 #a figure4 ,mahogany4 ,,viii4 ,,miscellaneous4--,our ,hebrew ,population4 ,the ,mysteries of ,lake ,baikal4 ,traveling ,sand ,hills on ,lake ,ontario4 ,animals in the ,arts4--,corals4--,the conch shell4--,living beetles1 etc4--,pearls4--,sepia and silk4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,gustave ,,trouv4 ,the accompanying portrait of ,m4 ,gustave ,trouv is taken from a small volume devoted to an account of his labors recently published by ,m4 ,georges ,dary4 ,m4 ,trouv1 who may be said to have had no ancestors from an electric point of view1 was born in #ahci in the little village of ,haye-,descartes4 ,he was sent by his parents to the ,college of ,chinon1 whence he entered the cole des ,arts et ,metiers1 and afterward went to ,paris to work in the shop of a clock-maker4 ,this was an excellent apprenticeship for our future electrician1 since it is in small works that electricity excels2 and1 if its domain is to be increased1 it is only on condition that the electric mechanician shall never lose sight of the fact that he should be a clock-maker1 and that his fingers1 to use ,m4 ,dumas's apt words1 should possess at once the strength of those of the ,titans and the delicacy of those of fairies4 ,it was not long ere ,trouv set up a shop of his own1 whither inventors flocked in crowds2 and the work he did for these soon gave up to him the secrets of the art of creating4 ,the first applications that he attempted related to the use of electricity in surgery1 a wonderfully fecund branch1 but one whose importance was scarcely suspected1 notwithstanding the results already obtained through the application of the insufflation pile to galvano-cautery4 ,what the surgeon needed was to see plainly into the cavities of the human body4 ,trouv found a means of lighting these up with lamps whose illuminating power was fitted for that sort of exploration4 ,this new mode of illumination having been adopted1 it was but natural that it should afterward find an application in dangerous mines1 powder mills1 and for a host of different purposes4 ,but the perfection of this sort of instruments was the wound explorer1 by the aid of which a great surgeon sounded the wounds that ,italian balls had made in ,garibaldi's foot4 ,illustration3 ,,gustave ,,trouve4 ,the misfortunes of ,france afterward directed ,trouv's attention to military electricity1 and led him to devise a perfect system of portable telegraphy1 in which his hermetic pile lends itself perfectly to all maneuvers and withstands all sorts of moving about4 ,the small volume of which we have spoken is devoted more particularly to electric navigation1 for which ,m4 ,trouv specially designed the motor of his invention1 and by the aid of which he performed numerous experiments on the ocean1 on the ,seine at ,paris1 and before ,rouen and at ,troyes4 ,in this latter case ,m4 ,trouv gained a medal of honor on the occasion of a regatta4 ,our engraving represents him competing with the rowers of whom he kept ahead with so distinguished success4 ,we could not undertake to enumerate all the inventions which we owe to ,m4 ,trouv2 but we cannot1 however1 omit mention of the pendulum escapement that beats the second or half second without any variation in the length of the balance2 of the electric gyroscope constructed at the request of ,m4 ,louis ,foucault2 of the electro-medical pocket-case2 of the apparatus for determining the most advantageous inclination to give a helix2 of the electric bit for stopping unruly horses2 and of the universal caustic-holder4 ,he has given the electric polyscope features such that every cavity in the human body may be explored by its aid4 ,as for his electric motor1 he has given that a form that makes the rotation regular and suppresses dead-centers--a result that he has obtained by utilizing the eccentrization of the ,siemens bobbin4 ,although devoting himself mainly to improving his motor 7which1 by the way1 he has applied to the tricycle71 ,m4 ,trouv does not disdain telephony1 but has introduced into the manufacture of magnets for the purpose many valuable improvements4--,electricit4 ,illustration3 ,,trouve',s ,,electric ,,boat ,,competing ,,in ,,the ,,regatta ,,at ,,troyes1 ,,aug4 #f1 #ahhb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,friedrich ,w,,hler4 ,at the age of eighty-two years1 and full of honor1 after a life actively devoted to scientific work of the highest and most accurate kind1 which has contributed more than that of any other contemporary to establish the principles on which an exact science like chemistry is founded1 the illustrious ,whler has gone to his rest4 ,after he had worked for some time with ,berzelius in ,sweden1 he taught chemistry from #ahbe to #ahca at the ,polytechnic ,school in ,berlin2 then till #ahcf he was stationed at the ,higher ,polytechnic ,school at ,cassel1 and then he became ,ordinary ,professor of ,chemistry in the ,university of ,gttingen1 where he remained till his death4 ,he was born1 ,july #ca1 #ahjj1 at ,eschersheim1 near ,frankfort-on-the-,main4 ,until the year #ahbh it was believed that organic substances could only be formed under the influence of the vital force in the bodies of animals and plants4 ,it was ,whler who proved by the artificial preparation of urea from inorganic materials that this view could not be maintained4 ,this discovery has always been considered as one of the most important contributions to our scientific knowledge4 ,by showing that ammonium cyanate can become urea by an internal arrangement of its atoms1 without gaining or losing in weight1 ,whler furnished one of the first and best examples of isomerism1 which helped to demolish the old view that equality of composition could not coexist in two bodies1 ,a and ,b1 with differences in their respective physical and chemical properties4 ,two years later1 in #ahcj1 ,whler published1 jointly with ,liebig1 the results of a research on cyanic and cyanuric acid and on urea4 ,berzelius1 in his report to the ,swedish ,academy of ,sciences1 called it the most important of all researches in physics1 chemistry1 and mineralogy published in that year4 ,the results obtained were quite unexpected1 and furnished additional and most important evidence in favor of the doctrine of isomerism4 ,in the year #ahcd1 ,whler and ,liebig published an investigation of the oil of bitter almonds4 ,they prove by their experiments that a group of carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen atoms can behave like an element1 take the place of an element1 and can be exchanged for elements in chemical compounds4 ,thus the foundation was laid of the doctrine of compound radicals1 a doctrine which has had and has still the most profound influence on the development of chemistry--so much so that its importance can hardly be exaggerated4 ,since the discovery of potassium by ,davy1 it was assumed that alumina also1 the basis of clay1 contained a metal in combination with oxygen4 ,davy1 ,oerstedt1 and ,berzelius attempted the extraction of this metal1 but could not succeed4 ,whler then worked on the same subject1 and discovered the metal aluminum4 ,to him also is due the isolation of the elements yttrium1 beryllium1 and titanium1 the observation that silicium can be obtained in crystals1 and that some meteoric stones contain organic matter4 ,he analyzed a number of meteorites1 and for many years wrote the digest on the literature of meteorites in the ,jahresbericht der ,chemie2 he possessed1 perhaps1 the best private collection of meteoric stones and irons existing4 ,whler and ,sainte ,claire ,deville discovered the crystalline form of boron1 and ,whler and ,buff the hydrogen compounds of silicium and a lower oxide of the same element4 ,this is by no means a full statement of ,whler's scientific work2 it even does not mention all the discoveries which have had great influence on the theory of chemistry4 ,the mere titles of the papers would fill several closely-printed pages4 ,the journals of every year from #ahbj to #ahha contain contributions from his pen1 and even his minor publications are always interesting4 ,as was truly remarked ten years ago1 when it was proposed by a ,fellow of the ,royal ,society that a ,copley medal should be conferred upon him1 for two or three of his researches he deserves the highest honor a scientific man can obtain1 but the sum of his work is absolutely overwhelming4 ,had he never lived1 the aspect of chemistry would be very different from that it is now4 ,while sojourning at ,cassel1 ,whler made1 among other chemical discoveries1 one for obtaining the metal nickel in a state of purity1 and with two attached friends he founded a factory there for the preparation of the metal4 ,among the works which he published were ,grundriss der ,anorganischen ,chemie1 ,berlin1 #ahcj1 and the ,grundriss der ,organischen ,chemie1 ,berlin1 #ahdj4 ,nor must we omit to mention ,praktischen ,uebringen der ,chemischen ,analyse1 ,berlin1 #ahed1 and the ,lehrbuch der ,chemie1 ,dresden1 #ahbe1 #d vols4 ,at a sitting of the ,academy1 held on ,october #b1 #ahhb1 ,m4 ,jean ,baptiste ,dumas1 the permanent secretary1 with profound regret1 made known the intelligence of the death of the illustrious foreign associate1 ,friedrich ,whler1 professor in the ,university of ,gttingen4 ,he said3 ,m4 ,friedrich ,whler1 the favorite pupil of ,berzelius1 had followed in the lines and methods of work of his master4 ,from #ahba till his last year he has continuously published memoirs or simple notes1 always remarkable for their exactness1 and often of such a nature that they took among contemporaneous production the first rank by their importance1 their novelty1 or their fullness4 ,employed chiefly1 during his sojourn in ,sweden1 in work on mineral chemistry1 he has remained all his life the undisputed chief in this branch of science in ,german universities4 ,this preparation and preoccupation1 which one might have thought sufficient to occupy his time1 did not1 however1 prevent him from taking the chief part in the development of organic chemistry1 and of filling one of the most elevated positions in it4 ,his contemporaries have not forgotten the unusual sensation produced by the unexpected discovery by which he was enabled to make artificially1 and by a purely chemical method1 urea1 the most nitrogenous of animal substances4 ,other transformations or combinations giving birth to substances which1 until then1 had only been met with in animals or plants1 have since been obtained1 but the artificial formation of urea still remains the neatest and most elegant example of this order of creation4 ,all chemists know and admire the classical memoir in which ,whler and ,liebig some time after made known the nature of the benzoic series1 and connected them with the radicals of which we may consider them as being the derivatives comparable with products of a mineral nature4 ,their memoirs on the derivatives of uric acid1 a prolific source of new and remarkable substances1 has been an inexhaustible mine in the hands of their successors4 ,this is not a moment when we should pretend to review the work which ,m4 ,whler has done in mineral chemistry4 ,among the #bdj papers which he has published in scientific journals1 there are few which the treatises of chemistry have not immediately turned to account4 ,we need only confine ourselves to the discovery of aluminum1 to which the energy and inventive genius of our confrre1 ,henry ,deville1 soon gave a place near the noble metals4 ,united by a rivalry which would have divided less noble minds1 these two great chemists carried on together their researches in chemistry1 and joined their forces to clear up points still obscure in the history of boron1 silicium1 and the metals of the platinum group1 and remained closely united1 which each year only strengthened4 ,the reader will pardon me a souvenir entirely personal4 ,we were born1 ,m4 ,whler and ,i1 in #ahjj4 ,i am his senior by a few days4 ,our scientific life began at the same date1 and during sixty years everything has combined to bind more closely the links of brotherhood which has existed for so long a time4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,our ,,hebrew ,,population4 ,the ,united ,jewish ,association has made a canvass of the denomination in this country1 finding #bgh congregations1 and a total ,jewish population of #bcj1ihd4 ,new ,york has the largest number--#hj1efe4 ,then follows ,pennsylvania1 with #bj1jjj2 ,california1 with #ah1ehj2 ,ohio with #ad1eha2 ,illinois1 with #ab1fbe1 and ,maryland1 with #aj1ceg4 ,the ,jewish population in the largest cities is as follows3 ,new ,york #fj1jjj ,san ,francisco #af1jjj ,brooklyn #ad1jjj ,philadelphia #ac1jjj ,chicago #ab1jjj ,baltimore #aj1jjj ,cincinnati #h1jjj ,boston #g1jjj ,st4 ,louis #f1ejj ,new ,orleans #e1jjj ,cleveland #c1ejj ,newark #c1ejj ,milwaukee #c1ejj ,louisville #b1ejj ,pittsburg #b1jjj ,detroit #b1jjj ,washington #a1ejj ,new ,haven #a1jjj ,rochester #a1jjj ,this total ,jewish population of #bcj1ihd has six hospitals1 eleven orphan asylums and homes1 fourteen free colleges and schools1 and #fjb benevolent lodges4 ,of the free schools maintained by the ,hebrews1 five are in ,new ,york1 four in ,philadelphia1 and one each in ,cincinnati1 ,st4 ,louis1 ,chicago1 and ,san ,francisco4 ,their hospitals are in ,new ,york1 ,philadelphia1 ,baltimore1 ,cincinnati1 ,new ,orleans1 and ,chicago1 while their orphan asylums1 homes1 and other benevolent institutions are scattered all over the country4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,mysteries ,,of ,,the ,,baikal4 ,the ,angara is cold as ice all the summer through1 so cold1 indeed1 that to bathe in it is to court inevitable illness1 and in winter a sled drive over its frozen surface is made in a temperature some degrees lower than that prevailing on the banks4 ,this comes from the fact that its waters are fresh from the yet unfathomed depths of the ,baikal1 which during the five short months of summer has scarcely time to properly unfreeze4 ,in winter the lake resembles in all respects a miniature ,arctic ,ocean1 having its great ice hummocks and immense leads1 over which the caravan sleds have to be ferried on large pieces of ice1 just as in the frozen ,north4 ,in winter1 too1 the air is so cold in the region above the lake that birds flying across its icy bosom sometimes drop down dead on the surface4 ,some authors say that seals have been caught in the lake of the same character as those found in the ,arctic seas2 for this assertion ,i have no proof4 ,an immense caravan traffic is carried across the frozen lake every season between ,russia and ,china4 ,to accommodate this the ,russian postal authorities once established a post house on the middle of the lake1 where horses were kept for travelers4 ,but this was discontinued after one winter1 when an early thaw suddenly set in1 and horses1 yemschliks and post house all disappeared beneath the ice1 and were never seen more4 ,in summer the lake is navigated by an antiquated steamer called the ,general ,korsakoff1 which ventures out in calm weather1 but cannot face the violent storms and squalls that sometimes rise with sudden impetuosity4 ,irkutskians say1 indeed1 that it is only upon ,lake ,baikal and upon this old hull that a man really learns to pray from his heart4 ,the lake is held in superstitious reverence by the natives4 ,it is called by them ,svyatoe ,more1 or the ,holy ,lake1 and they believe that no ,christian was ever lost in its waters1 for even when a person is drowned in it the waves always take the trouble to cast the body on shore4 ,its length is #djj miles1 its width an average of #ce miles1 covers an area of #ad1jjj square miles and has a circumference of nearly #a1bjj miles1 being the largest fresh water lake in the ,old ,world1 and1 next to the ,caspian and the ,aral1 the largest inland sheet of water in ,asia4 ,its shores are bold and rugged and very picturesque1 in some places #a1jjj feet high4 ,in the surrounding forests are found game of the largest description1 bears1 deer1 foxes1 wolves1 elk and these afford capital sport for the sportsmen of ,irkutsk4 ,around the coasts are many mineral springs1 hot and cold1 which have a great reputation among the ,irkutskians4 ,the hot springs of ,yurka1 on the ,selenga1 #bjj versts from ,verchore ,udevisk and not many miles from the eastern shore of the ,baikal1 which have a temperature of #dh degrees ,raumur and whose waters are strongly impregnated with sulphur1 are a favorite watering place for natives as well as ,russians and ,buriats4--,herald ,correspondent with the ,jeannette ,search ,expedition4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,traveling ,,sand ,,hills ,,on ,,lake ,,ontario4 ,an interesting example of sand-drift occurs near ,wellington ,bay1 on ,lake ,ontario1 ten miles from ,pictou4 ,the lake shore near the sand banks is indented with a succession of rock-paved bays1 whose gradually shoaling margins afford rare bathing grounds4 ,east and ,west ,lakes1 each five miles long1 and the latter dotted with islands1 are separated from ,lake ,ontario by narrow strips of beach4 ,over the two mile-wide isthmus separating the little lakes1 the sand banks1 whose glistening heights are visible miles away1 are approached4 ,on near approach they are hidden by the cedar woods1 till the roadway in front is barred by the advancing bank1 to avoid which a roadway through the woods has been constructed up to the eastern end of the sand range4 ,the sand banks stretch like a crescent along the shore1 the concave side turned to the lake1 along which it leaves a pebbly beach4 ,the length of the crescent is over two miles1 the width #fjj to #c1jjj or #d1jjj feet4 ,clambering up the steep end of the range among trees and grapevines1 the wooded summit is gained1 at an elevation of nearly #aej feet4 ,passing along the top1 the woods soon disappear1 and the visitor emerges on a wild waste of delicately tinted saffron1 rising from the slate-colored beach in gentle undulation1 and sleepily falling on the other side down to green pastures and into the cedar woods4 ,the whole surface of this gradually undulating mountain desert is ribbed by little wavelets a few inches apart1 but the general aspect is one of perfect smoothness4 ,the sand is almost as fine as flour1 and contains no admixture of dust ,the foot sinks only an inch or two in walking over it2 children roll about on it and down its slopes1 and1 rising1 shake themselves till their clothing loses every trace of sand4 ,occasionally gusts stream over the wild waste1 raising a dense drift to a height of a foot or two only1 and streaming like a fringe over the steep northern edge4 ,though the sun is blazing down on the glistening wilderness there is little sensation of heat1 for the cool lake breeze is ever blowing4 ,on the landward side1 the insidious approach of the devouring sand is well marked4 ,one hundred and fifty feet below1 the foot of this moving mountain is sharply defined against the vivid green of the pastures1 on which the grass grows luxuriantly to within an inch of the sand wall4 ,the ferns of the cedar woods almost droop against the sandy slope4 ,the roots of the trees are bare along the white edge2 a foot or two nearer the sand buries the feet of the cedars3 a few yards nearer still the bare trunks disappear2 still nearer only the withered topmast twigs of the submerged forest are seen1 and then far over the tree tops stands the sand range4 ,perpetual ice is found under the foot of this steep slope1 the sand covering and consolidating the snows drifted over the hill during the winter months4 ,there is something awe-inspiring1 says the correspondent of the ,toronto ,globe1 in the slow1 quiet1 but resistless advance of the mountain front4 ,field and forest alike become completely submerged4 ,ten years ago a farm-house was swallowed up1 not to emerge in light until the huge sand wave has passed over4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,recent ,,improvements ,,in ,,textile ,,machinery4 ,at the recent exhibition at ,boston of the ,new ,england ,institute1 several interesting novelties were shown which have a promise of considerable economic and industrial value4 ,fig4 #a represents the general plan and pulley connections of the ,harris ,revolving-,ring ,spinning ,frame4 ,the purpose of the improvements which it embodies is to avoid the uneven draught of the yarn in spinning and winding incident to the use of a fixed ring4 ,with the non-revolving ring the strain upon the yarn varies greatly1 owing to the difference in diameter of the full and empty bobbin4 ,at the base of the cone1 especially in spinning weft1 or filling1 the diameter of the cop is five or six times that of the quill at the tip4 ,as the yarn is wound upon the cone1 the line of draught upon the traveler varies continually1 the pull being almost direct where the bobbin is full1 and nearly at right angles where it is empty4 ,with the increasing angle the drag upon the traveler increases1 not only causing frequent breakages of the yarn1 but also an unequal stretching of the yarn1 so that the yarn perceptibly varies in fineness4 ,the unequal strain further causes the yarn to be more tightly wound upon the outside than upon the inside of the bobbin1 giving rise to snarls and wastage4 ,illustration3 ,,recent ,,improvements ,,in ,,textile ,,machinery4--#a1 #b4--,,spinning ,,without ,a ,,mule--,,the ,,harris ,,revolving ,,ring ,,spinning ,,frame4 #c1 #d1 #e4--,,new ,,electric ,,stop ,,motion ,,for ,,drawing ,,frames4 #f4--,,new ,,positive ,,motion ,,loom4 ,these difficulties have hitherto prevented the application of ring spinning to the finer grades of yarn4 ,they are overcome in the new spinning frame by an ingenious device by which a revolving motion is given to the ring in the same direction as the motion of the traveler1 thereby reducing its friction upon the ring1 the speed of the ring being variable1 and so controlled as to secure a uniform tension upon the yarn at all stages of the winding4 ,the construction of the revolving ring is shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,c is the revolving ring2 ,d1 the hollow axis support2 ,h1 a section of the ring frame2 ,e1 the traveler4 ,to give the required variable speed to the revolving ring there is placed directly over the drum1 ,fig4 #a1 ,a1 for driving the spindle a smaller drum1 ,b1 from which bands drive each ring separately4 ,the shaft1 which is attached by cross girts to the ring rail1 and moves up and down with it1 is driven by a pair of conical drums from the main cylinder shaft2 and is so arranged with a loose pulley on the large end of the receiving cone as to remain stationary while the wind is on or near the base of the bobbin4 ,when the cone of the bobbin diminishes so as to materially increase the pull on the traveler1 the conical drums are started by a belt shipper attached to the lilt motion4 ,by the movement of the belt on these drums a continually accelerated motion is given to the rings1 their maximum speed being about one-twentieth the number of revolutions per minute as the spindle has at the same moment4 ,this action is reversed when the lift falls4 ,the tension of the wind upon the bobbin is thus kept uniform1 the desired hardness of the wind being secured by the use of a heavier or lighter traveler according to the compactness of cop required4 ,the model frame shown at the fair did its work admirably well1 spinning yarns as high as ,no4 #djj1 a fineness hitherto unattainable on ring frames4 ,it is claimed that this invention can do whatever can be done with the mule1 and without the skilled labor which mule spinning demands4 ,this invention is exhibited by ,e4 ,a4 ,w4 ,harris1 ,providence1 ,r4,i4 ,,new ,,electric ,,stop ,,motion4 ,figs4 #c1 #d1 and #e illustrate some of the applications of the electric stop motion in connection with cotton machinery4 ,the merit of this invention lies in simplifying the means by which machinery may be stopped automatically the instant1 its work1 from accident or otherwise1 begins to be improperly done4 ,the use of electricity for this purpose is made possible by the fact that comparatively dry cotton is a nonconductor of electricity4 ,in the process of carding1 drawing or spinning1 the cotton is made to pass between rollers or other pieces forming parts of an electric circuit4 ,so long as the machine is properly fed and in proper working condition1 the stopping apparatus rests2 the moment the continuity of the cotton is broken or any irregularity occurs1 electric contact results1 completing the circuit and causing an electro magnet to act upon a lever or other device1 and the machine is stopped4 ,the current is supplied by a small magneto-electric machine driven by a band from the main driving shaft1 and is always available while the engine is running4 ,fig4 #c shows the general arrangement of the apparatus as applied to a drawing frame4 ,in the process of drawing down the roll of cotton--the sliver--four things may happen making it necessary to stop the machine4 ,a sliver may break on the way from the can to the drawing rollers1 or the supply of cotton may become exhausted2 the cotton may lap or accumulate on the drawing rollers2 the sliver may break between the drawing rollers and the calender rollers2 or the front can may overflow4 ,in each and all of these cases the electric circuit is instantly completed2 the parts between which the cotton flows either come together1 as when breakage occurs1 or1 if there is lapping1 they are separated so as to make contact above4 ,in any case1 the current causes the electro-magnet1 ,s1 against the side of the machine to move its armature and set the stop motion in play4 ,figs4 #d and #e represent in detail the manner in which electric connection is made in two cases requiring the intervention of the stop motion4 ,in ,fig4 #d the upper part of a receiving can is shown4 ,when the can is full the cotton lifts the tube wheel1 ,j1 until it makes an electrical connection1 and the stop motion is brought into instant action4 ,in ,fig4 #e1 the traction upon the yarn holds the hook borne by the spring1 ,f1 away from ,g1 and the electric circuit is interrupted4 ,a breakage of the yarn allows this spring to act2 contact is made1 and the stop motion operates as before4 ,this simple and efficient device is exhibited by ,howard ,bullough ,riley1 of ,boston4 ,,new ,,positive ,,motion ,,loom4 ,fig4 #f shows the essential features of a positive motion loom1 intended for weaving narrow fabrics1 exhibited by ,knowles1 of ,worcester1 ,mass4 ,the engraving shows so clearly how1 by a right and left movement of the rack1 the shuttle is thrown by the action of the intermediate cogwheels1 that further description is unnecessary4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,spinning ,,without ,a ,,mule4 ,at the recent semi-annual meeting of the ,new ,england ,cotton ,manufacturers' ,association1 held at the ,institute of ,technology1 ,boston1 the following paper on the ,harris system of revolving ring spinning was read by ,col4 ,webber for the author3 ,it is well known that one of the most serious difficulties in ring spinning is the variable pull upon the traveler1 caused by the difference in diameter of the full and empty bobbins1 and this is especially noticeable in spinning weft1 or filling1 when the diameter of the quill at the tip is not over #c-af of an inch1 while that of the base of the cone1 or full bobbin1 is from an inch to an inch and one-eighth4 ,this variation in diameter causes the line of draught upon the traveler1 which1 with the full bobbin1 forms nearly a tangent to the interior circle of the ring1 to be nearly radial to it with an empty one1 and this increased drag upon the traveler not only causes frequent breakage in spinning1 but also stretches the yarn1 so that it is perceptibly finer when it is spun on the nose of the bobbin than when it is spun on the bottom of the cone4 ,endeavors have been made to compensate for this difficulty by making a less draught at that period of the operation2 but we believe the principle of curing one error by adding another to be wrong1 and aim by our improvement to avoid the cause of the trouble1 which we do by giving a revolving motion to the ring itself in the same direction as that of the traveler1 at a variable speed1 so as to aid its slip1 and reduce its friction on the ring4 ,this we accomplish by means of a shaft with whorls on it1 located directly over the drum for driving the spindle1 from which bands drive each ring separately2 and attached by cross-girts to the ring-rail1 and moving up and down with it4 ,this shaft is driven by a pair of conical drums from the main cylinder shaft1 and is so arranged with a loose pulley on the large end of the receiving cone as to remain stationary while the wind is on or near the base of the bobbin1 or nearly parallel to the path of the traveler4 ,when the cone of the bobbin begins to diminish to such a point as to materially increase the radial pull on the traveler1 these conical drums are put in operation by a belt shipper attached to the lift motion1 which moves the belt on to the cones1 and gives a continually accelerated motion to the rings1 so that when the wind reaches the top of the bobbin the rings will have their maximum speed of about #cjj revolutions per minute1 or about one-twentieth the number of revolutions of the spindle at this point1 if the latter make #fjjj revolutions per minute1 and this we find in actual practice to produce results which are highly satisfactory4 ,as the lift falls again1 the belt is moved back on the cones1 giving a retarding motion to the rings1 until it reaches the point at which it began to operate1 and is then either moved on to the loose pulley1 and the rings remain stationary1 or for very fine yarn are kept in motion at a slow speed4 ,we are often asked if this does not affect the twist1 but answer that it does not in the least1 as the relative speeds of the rolls and spindles remain the same1 and the only thing that can be affected is the hardness of the wind upon the bobbin1 and this is adjustable by the use of a heavier or lighter traveler1 according to the compactness of cop required4 ,we claim by means of this improvement the ability to use a much smaller quill or bobbin1 and consequently holding as much yarn in a less outside diameter1 enabling us to use a smaller ring1 thus saving power both in the weight of bobbin to be carried and in the distance to be moved by the traveler2 and we believe the power to be saved in this manner and by the diminution of the dead pull on the traveler1 when the wind is at the tip of the bobbin1 to be more than sufficient to give the necessary motion to the revolving rings4 ,we are as yet unable to answer this question of power fully1 as we have not yet tested a full size frame1 but we propose to do this in season to answer all questions at the next meeting of your association4 ,the same invention is also applicable to warp spinning1 by giving the ring a continuous accelerating and retarding motion1 in which the maximum speed is given to the ring at the first start of the frame when the bobbin is empty1 sufficient to diminish the strain on the yarn1 and gradually reducing the motion at each traverse of the rail1 as the bobbin is filled2 but we claim the great advantage of our invention to be the capability of spinning any grade of yarn on the ring frame that can be spun on the hand or self-operating mule1 and in proof of this we call your attention to the model frame now in operation at the fair of the ,new ,england ,manufacturers' and ,mechanics' ,institute1 where we are spinning on a quill only #e-cb inches diameter at top1 and where we can show you samples of yarn from ,no4 #hj to ,no4 #djj spun on this frame from combed roving from the ,conant ,thread ,company and ,willimantic ,linen ,company1 which we believe has never before been accomplished on any ring frame4 ,we invite you to examine this invention at the fair1 and also call your attention to the adjustable roller beam1 by means of which the rolls can be adjusted at any desirable angle or pitch1 so as to throw the twist more or less directly spinning1 and an improvement in the quality of the yarn from the same cause1 which will increase the production from the loom1 and finally eradicate other objectionable features of the labor question1 which so often disturb the peaceful harmony between labor and capital4 ,mr1 ,goulding asked if it had been demonstrated whether more or less power was required for the same numbers than effect of running the machine a little out of true1 and the reply was that the advantage of the new method over the old would be more apparent in such a case than with a perfect frame4 ,in regard to speed1 the inventor proposed as a maximum rate1 when the wind was at the tip of the bobbin1 #cjj revolutions per minute1 but from this point the speed would diminish4 ,conant ,thread ,company and ,willimantic ,linen ,company1 which we believe has never before been accomplished on any ring frame4 ,we invite you to examine this invention at the fair1 and also call your attention to the adjustable roller beam1 by means of which the rolls can be adjusted at any desirable angle or pitch1 so as to throw the twist more or less directly into the bite of the rolls1 according to the character of the yarn desired1 or the quality of the stock used4 ,finally1 we claim1 by the use of this invention1 to be able to spin any fibrous material which can be drawn by draught-rolls1 of any required degree of softness of twist1 such as can be spun by any mule whatever1 and to do this with the attention only of children of from twelve to fourteen years of age4 ,we also claim an increased production1 owing to less breakage of ends1 from the yarn not being overstrained in spinning1 and an improvement in the quality of the yarn from the same cause1 which will increase the production from the loom1 and finally eradicate other objectionable features of the labor question1 which so often disturb the peaceful harmony between labor and capital4 ,mr4 ,goulding asked if it had been demonstrated whether more or less power was required for the same numbers than by other methods1 and ,col4 ,webber replied that no more power was required to move the rings than was saved by friction on the ring and the saving of weight of the bobbins4 ,he thought it required no more power than the old way4 ,the method of lubricating the ring4--,the inventor1 who was present1 stated1 in response to a query1 that he claimed an advantage for his ring in spinning all numbers from the very coarsest up1 both in quality and quantity1 and especially the former4 ,mr4 ,garsed inquired of ,col ,webber what would be the effect of running the machine a little out of true1 and the reply was that the advantage of the new method over the old would be more apparent in such a case than with a perfect frame4 ,in regard to speed1 the inventor proposed as a maximum rate1 when the wind was at the tip of the bobbin1 #cjj revolutions per minute1 but from this point the speed would diminish4 ,it was suggested by a member that the only advantage of a revolving ring was to relieve the strain on the traveler just to the extent of the ring's revolutions4 ,if the ring were making #cjj revolutions per minute1 and the traveler #f1jjj1 the strain on the latter would be equal to #e1gjj revolutions on a stationary ring4 ,col4 ,webber1 however1 thought that the motion of the ring gave the traveler a lift that prevented its stopping at any particular point1 and cited the fact that all numbers up to #djj could be spun with this ring as proof of its superiority over the old method4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,new ,,gas ,,burner4 ,speaking at the last meeting of the ,gaslight and ,coke ,company1 ,mr4 ,george ,livesey said many things with a view to inspire confidence of the future in the minds of timid gas proprietors4 ,among others he mentioned the advances now being made by invention in regard to improved appliances for developing the illuminating power of coal gas1 with especial reference to a new burner just patented by ,mr4 ,grimston4 ,mr4 ,livesey passed a very high encomium upon the burner1 and this expression of opinion by such an authority is sufficient to arouse deep interest in the apparatus in question4 ,it is therefore with much pleasure that we present our readers with the following early account of ,mr4 ,grimston's burner1 for which we are indebted to the inventor and ,mr4 ,george ,bower1 of ,st4 ,neots1 in whose manufactory the burners are now being made in all sizes4 ,it should be premised1 to save disappointment1 that the invention is yet so fresh that its ultimate capabilities are unknown4 ,the accompanying illustration1 therefore1 represents the bare skeleton of one of the first models2 and the actual performance of only the very earliest burner1 made in great part by ,mr4 ,grimston himself1 has been fully tested4 ,before proceeding to describe the invention1 a brief history may be interesting of how it happened that ,mr4 ,grimston1 an electric lighting engineer1 became a gas burner maker4 ,the story will undoubtedly help to explain the reasons for many of the characteristics of the new burner4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,gas ,,burner4 ,,fig4 #a4--,sectional ,elevation4 ,it appears1 then1 that ,mr4 ,grimston1 who was connected with the electrical engineering establishment of ,siemens ,bros4 ,co41 ,limited1 was some months ago shown the construction and working of the ,siemens regenerative gas burner1 which is now sufficiently well known to render a description unnecessary here4 ,in common with most spectators of this very ingeniously and philosophically designed appliance1 ,mr4 ,grimston was struck with its bulk and the superficial clumsiness of the arrangement whereby the air and gas supply are heated in it by the products of combustion4 ,these lamps have1 of course1 materially improved of late2 but when ,mr4 ,grimston first saw them1 perhaps #ah months ago1 they certainly could not be called neat and compact in design4 ,he at once grasped the idea embodied in these lamps1 and set about constructing an arrangement which should be based on a similar principle1 but at the same time avoid the inconveniences complained of4 ,it is not too much to say that he has succeeded in both these aims1 and the burner which now bears his name strikes the observer at once by the brilliant light which it produces by the simplest and most obvious means4 ,we may now describe1 by reference to the accompanying illustrations1 how ,mr4 ,grimston produces the regenerative effect which is likewise the central idea of the ,siemens burner4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,gas ,,burner4 ,,fig4 #b4--,section through ,a ,b4 ,the light is simply that produced by an arrangement of a kind of ,argand burner turned upside down4 ,the central gas-pipe1 a 7,figs4 #a and #c71 is connected to a distributing chamber1 whence the annular cluster of brass tubes1 a'1 a1 7,figs4 #a and #b71 are prolonged downward1 forming the burner4 ,the burner is inclosed in an iron or brass annular casing1 b1 b1 which forms the main framework of the apparatus4 ,the annular space which it affords is the outlet chimney or flue for the products of combustion of the burner beneath1 and is crossed by a number of thin brass tubes1 c1 c1 which lead from the outer air into the inner space containing the burner tubes1 a'1 a'1 already described4 ,the upper openings of the annular body1 b1 are shown at e1 e 7,fig4 #c71 which communicate direct with the chimney proper1 e'1 e'4 ,the burner is lighted by opening the hinged glass cover1 d1 which fits practically air-tight on the bottom of the body1 so that the air needed to support combustion must all pass through the tubes1 c1 c1 the outer ends of which are protected by the casing1 k1 k4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,gas ,,burner4 ,,fig4 #c4--,section through ,c ,d4 ,when the gas is lighted at the burner1 and the glass closed1 the burner begins to act at once1 although some minutes are necessarily required to elapse before its full brilliancy is gained4 ,the cold air passes in through the tubes provided for it1 and when these are heated to the fullest extent on their outside1 by the hot fumes from the burner1 they so readily part with their heat to the air that a temperature of #a1jjj to #a1bjj ,fahr4 is easily obtained in the air when it arrives inside1 and commences in turn to heat the burner-tubes4 ,the air-tubes are placed so as to intercept the hot gases as completely as possible2 and also1 of course1 obtain heat by conduction from the sides of the annular body4 ,it is evident that the number and dimensions of these tubes might be increased so as to abstract almost all the heat from the escaping fumes1 but for the limitations imposed1 first1 by a consideration of the actual quantity of air required to support combustion1 and1 secondly1 by the obligation to let sufficient ascensional power remain in the gases which are left to pass out through the upper chimney4 ,if the gases are cooled too much1 they will either fall back into the lamp and extinguish the flame1 or will be removable only by the draught of a long chimney4 ,it will probably be the aim of the inventor to balance these requirements1 and so to produce burners with very short or longer chimneys1 according as appearance is to be consulted or the highest possible effect produced4 ,the burner is a ring of brass tubes of considerable diameter1 in proportion to the quantity of gas consumed1 and thus provides for the delivery of gas expanded by heat4 ,in connection with this device an explanation may be found of the failure of the ,british ,association ,committee on ,gas ,burners to find any advantage from previously heating the air and gas consumed4 ,the ,committee did not make the necessary provision for the increased bulk of the combustible and its air supply1 caused by their heightened temperature2 and the same quantity of gas measured cold 7at the meter7 could only be driven through the ordinary small burner holes at a velocity destructive of good results4 ,herr ,frederick ,siemens perceived this in his early experiments1 and not only increased the orifices of his burners1 but provided for the closer contact of the more rarefied gas and air by the use of notched deflectors1 which are now an essential part of his apparatus4 ,mr4 ,grimston also uses separate tubes of large area for his hot gas1 but dispenses with deflectors1 save in so far as the same duty may be performed by the plain lower edge of the inner cylinder of the lamp body1 and the indentation of the glass beneath1 which1 as will be noticed1 is made to follow the shape of the flame4 ,it only remains now to speak of the flame and its qualities4 ,it is1 in the first place1 a flame of hot gas1 burning at an extremly small velocity of flow1 and wholly exposed to view from the exact point which it is required to light4 ,in this latter respect it differs materially1 and with advantage1 from the ,siemens burner1 which1 while presenting an extremely brilliant and beautiful ball of flame outside its central tube of porcelain1 may yet be tailing smokily downward inside this opaque screen1 and thereby causing unperceived waste4 ,the flame of the ,grimston burner1 on the other hand1 is quite exposed1 and all its light1 from the ends of the burner-tubes to the point where visible combustion ceases1 is made available for use4 ,as a perfect ,argand flame in the usual position has been likened in form to a tulip flower1 so the flame of this burner presents the appearance of an inverted convolvulus4 ,so far as he has already gone1 ,mr4 ,grimston prefers to keep the tubes of the burner at such a distance from each other that the several jets part at the point where they turn upward1 so that the convolvulus figure is not maintained to the edge of the flame4 ,from its peculiar position the light is1 of course1 completely shadowless as regards the lamp which affords it2 and this1 of itself1 is no small recommendation for a pendant4 ,it shows well for the simplicity and effectiveness of the perfected burners that ,mr4 ,grimston's experimental example1 although necessarily imperfect ,in many ways1 burns with a remarkably steady light1 of great brilliancy1 which is assured by the fact that the products of combustion are robbed of all their heat to magnify the useful effect1 so that the hand may be borne with ease over the outlet of the chimney4 ,with respect to the endurance of the apparatus1 it will be sufficient to remark that there is nothing in the gas or air heating arrangements to get out of order1 and they are all easily accessible while the burner is in action4 ,the glass is not liable to breakage1 although it is in close proximity to the flame1 as may be gathered from the testimony of the inventor1 who has never broken one1 notwithstanding the severity of some of his experimental studies upon his first lamp4 ,the consumption of gas in the first working-model burner made by ,mr4 ,grimston was #aj cubic feet per hour1 and its illuminating power averaged #fj candles4 ,the diameter of this burner was #a inches across the tubes4 ,it is scarcely necessary to state that if this high duty1 which was obtained with the ordinary #af-;candle gas of the ,gaslight and ,coke ,company1 can be maintained1 to say nothing of being exceeded1 in the commercial article1 the ,grimston burner1 with its other advantages over all existing methods of obtaining equal results1 has a great future before it4 ,for example1 it does not require a separate air supply under high pressure1 or any extra material to render incandescent1 and it may be turned on full immediately upon lighting4 ,it throws a shadowless light1 and lends itself to ventilating arrangements2 and it is not by any means cumbersome1 delicate in construction1 or costly in manufacture4 ,one of the greatest advantages to which it lays claim is1 however1 the power of yielding almost as good results in a small burner as in a large one4 ,this is a consideration of great moment1 when it is remembered that the tendency of most of the high power burners hitherto introduced is to benefit the lighting of streets1 large interiors1 and1 generally speaking1 points of great consumption4 ,meanwhile1 the private user of burners1 consuming from #c to #e cubic feet of gas per hour1 has been left to attain as best he might1 by the use of burners excellent of their kind1 to the maximum effect of the standard ,argand4 ,now1 however1 ,mr4 ,grimston seeks to make the small consumer partake of the advantages erstwhile reserved for the wholesale user of large and costly ,siemens and other lamps1 and he even looks to this class of patrons with particular care4 ,the example which we now illustrate1 in ,fig4 #a1 is a sectional presentment precisely half the actual size of a #e-;foot burner1 which it is intended to prepare for the market before all others4 ,another simple form of the burner1 with vertical tubes1 will1 we understand1 be introduced as soon as possible4 ,it will be readily understood that the principle is capable of being embodied in many shapes2 and it is satisfactory to learn that the inventor is quite alive to the necessity of producing a cheap as well as a good burner4 ,gas companies1 as ,mr4 ,livesey has expressed it1 will be well content with a slower relative growth of consumption1 if their consumers are at the same time making their gas go as far again as formerly1 by the use of burners which turn nominal #af-;candle gas into gas of #cj-;candle actual illuminating power4 ,how far ,mr4 ,grimston's invention may succeed in this work it is not for us to say4 ,it is sufficient for the present that he has done excellently well in showing how ,herr ,frederick ,siemens' scientific principles of regenerative gas burner construction may be carried out yet in another way4 ,there is nothing more common in industrial annals than for one man to begin a work which another is destined to bring to greater perfection4 ,whether this natural process is to be repeated in the present instance must be left for the future to decide4 ,in any case1 ,mr4 ,grimston's success1 if success is to be his reward1 though it will be well merited by his ingenuity and perseverance in solving a difficult problem1 will never cause us to forget the prior claims of ,herr ,frederick ,siemens1 of ,dresden1 to the palm of the discoverer4 ,mr4 ,grimston may or may not be the happy inventor of the best gas-burner of the day2 but there is the consolation of knowing that in the same field in which he will find his recompense there is room for any number and variety of useful improvements of a like character and object4--,journal of ,gas ,lighting4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,defty',s ,,improvements ,,in ,,gas ,,burners ,,and ,,heaters4 ,among other inventors who have turned their attention to gas consumption is to be found ,mr4 ,h4 ,defty1 who has made several forms both of heating and lighting burners4 ,mr4 ,defty has sought in the latter to apply the principle of heating the air and gas in a simple manner1 with the object of obtaining improved photometrical results4 ,the double-chimney ,argand1 as tried many years since by ,dr4 ,frankland and others1 makes a reappearance in one of ,mr4 ,defty's models1 illustrated in the accompanying diagram 7,fig4 #a74 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,here we have the double-chimney1 a and b1 for heating the air supplied to an ordinary ,argand1 by causing it to pass downward between the two chimneys1 and inward to the point of combustion through a wire-gauze screen1 c1 under the inner chimney2 but1 in addition thereto1 ,mr4 ,defty hopes to gain an improved result by causing the gas to pass through the internal tube1 s1 which rises up in the middle of the flame4 ,the gas1 which enters at e1 is made to pass up through the inner tube and down through the annular space to the burner4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,a more important form of lantern is the subject of the next diagram 7,fig4 #b71 which shows a suspended globe lantern in which there is an attempt made to heat the air by the waste heat of the products of combustion4 ,it will be perceived by the diagram that a globe lantern is furnished with a double chimney2 the annular space1 ,c1 between the inner and outer chimneys allowing for the access of air in a downward direction4 ,at the lower of this annular channel are the tubes ,d1 protected by the graduated mesh1 ,e1 and which admit the air to the burner below4 ,the products of combustion of the flame rise through the inner chimney1 passing around the tubes1 and thereby giving up some of their heat to the incoming air4 ,farther up1 the chimney is partly filled with the convoluted gas-pipe1 ,a1 which also takes up some of the waste heat1 and delivers the gas to the burner at a correspondingly high temperature4 ,a very simple method of lighting this burner1 which in itself does not present anything remarkable1 is arranged at the lower part of the globe1 where a hole is cut and a loose conical glass plug 7which can1 of course1 be made to partake of the general ornamentation of the globe7 may be pushed up to allow of the passage of the lighting agent1 and is then dropped in its place again4 ,formal tests of the performances of these burners are not available2 and the same may be said of the heating burners which are shown in the following diagrams4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,the first of these 7,fig4 #c7 is called by ,mr4 ,defty a pyramid heater1 and is designed to heat the mixture of air and gas before ignition1 by conduction from its own flame4 ,the inventor claims to effect a perfect combustion in this manner with considerable economy of fuel4 ,it is evident1 however1 that a good deal of the gas consumed goes to heat the burner itself4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,the next and last of ,mr4 ,defty's productions to be at present described is the so-called crater burner1 shown herewith 7,fig4 #d74 ,this is an atmospheric burner which is purposely made to fire back1 as well as to burn on the top of the apparatus4 ,the body of the burner1 like the pyramid heater just described1 is full of fire-clay balls1 which become very hot from the lower flame1 and thus1 after the burner has been for some time in action1 a pale1 lambent blaze crowns the top1 apparently greater in volume than when it is first lighted4 ,here1 again1 there is a lamentable absence of reliable data as to economic results1 which will1 perhaps1 be afforded when the apparatus in question is ready to be offered to the public4 ,whether one inventor or another succeeds in distancing his rivals1 it is matter1 says ,the ,journal of ,gas ,lighting1 for sincere congratulation among the friends of gas lighting that so much attention is being concentrated upon the improvement of gas burners for all purposes4 ,this is an open field which affords scope for more workers than have yet entered upon it1 and there is the certainty of substantial reward to whoever can realize a worthy advance upon the established practice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,new ,,binding ,,machines4 ,the accompanying cuts represent two new machines for binding together books and pamphlets4 ,they are the invention of ,messrs4 ,brehmer ,co41 and are now much used in ,england and ,germany4 ,the material used for binding is galvanized iron wire4 ,machine ,operated by ,hand 7,fig4 #a74--,this machine serves for fastening together the pages of pamphlets through the middle of the fold1 or for binding together several sheets to form books up to a thickness of about half an inch4 ,it consists of a small cast-iron frame1 with which is articulated a lever1 i1 maneuvered by a handle1 h4 ,this lever is provided at its extremity with a curved slat1 in which engages a stud1 fixed to the lower part of a movable arm1 c1 whose extremity1 d1 rises and descends when the lever handle1 h1 is acted upon4 ,this maneuver can be likewise performed by the foot1 if the handle1 h1 be connected with a pedal1 ,x1 placed at the foot of the table that supports the machine1 as shown in ,fig4 #b4 ,the lever1 i1 is always drawn back to its first position1 when left to itself1 by means of the spring1 z4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,binding ,,machine4 ,the staples for binding have nearly the form of the letter ,u1 and are placed1 to the number of #bej or #cjj1 on small blocks of wood1 m4 ,to prepare the machine for work1 the catch1 a1 is shoved back1 and the whole upper part of the piece1 b1 is removed4 ,the rod1 e1 with its spring1 is then drawn back until a small hole in e is perceived1 and into this there is introduced the hook1 f1 which then holds the spring4 ,the block of wood1 m1 filled with staples1 is then rested against a rectangular horizontal rod1 and into this latter the staples are slipped by hand4 ,the upper part of the piece1 b1 is next put in place and fastened with the catch1 a4 ,finally1 the spring is freed from the hook1 f4 ,when it is desired to bind the pages of a pamphlet1 the latter is placed open on the support1 g1 which1 as will be noticed1 is angular above1 so that the staple may enter exactly on the line of the fold4 ,then the handle1 h1 is shoved down so as to act on the arm1 c1 and cause the descent of the extremity1 d1 as well as the vertical piece1 b1 with which it engages4 ,this latter1 in its downward travel1 takes up one of the staples1 which are continually thrust forward by the rod and spring1 and causes it to penetrate the paper4 ,at this moment1 the handle1 h1 makes the lever1 n1 oscillate1 and this raises1 through its other extremity1 a vertical slide whose head bends the two points of the staple toward each other4 ,the handle1 h1 is afterward lifted1 the position of the pamphlet is changed1 and the same operation is repeated4 ,when it is desired to form a book from a number of sheets1 the table1 l1 is mounted on the support1 g1 its two movable registers are regulated1 and the sheets are spread out flat on it4 ,the machine1 in operating1 drives the staples in along the edge of the sheets1 and the points are bent over1 as above indicated4 ,the axis on which the lever1 i1 is articulated is eccentric1 and is provided on the side opposite the lever with a needle1 k1 revolving on a dial4 ,the object of this arrangement is to regulate the machine according to the thickness of the book4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,machine to be ,operated by a ,motor 7,fig4 #c74--,this machine1 although working on the same principle1 is of an entirely different construction4 ,it is designed for binding books of all dimensions4 ,it consists of a frame1 a1 in two pieces1 connected by cross-pieces1 and carries a table1 u1 designed to receive the sheets before being bound together4 ,motion is transmitted by means of a cone1 c1 mounted loose on the shaft1 b4 ,to start the machine1 the foot is pressed on the pedal1 m1 which1 through the intermedium of links and arms1 brings together the friction plates1 d1 one of which is connected with the shaft1 b1 and the other with the cone1 c4 ,when it is desired to stop the machine1 the pedal is left free to itself1 while the counterpoise1 s1 ungears the friction plates4 ,the machine fastens the paper with galvanized iron wire wound round bobbins placed at the side of the apparatus4 ,this wire it cuts1 and forms into staples4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,the book to be bound is placed on the support1 h1 and the arms1 k1 that carry the fasteners cause it to move backward and forward4 ,it also undergoes a second motion--that is1 it moves downward according to the number and thickness of its pages4 ,this motion1 which takes place every time the operator adds a new sheet1 is regulated by a cog-wheel register1 l1 which is divided1 and provided with a needle4 ,the iron wires pass from the bobbins on a support to the left of the machine by means of feed rollers1 which thrust them through the eight clips4 ,in the interior of these latter there is a double knife1 which1 actuated by one of the cams of the wheel1 e1 cuts the wire and bends it thus ,inline ,illustration4 ,the extremities of the staples are thrust through the back of the half opened leaves1 and then bent toward each other thus ,inline ,illustration1 by the front fastener4 ,this motion is effected by means of two levers1 p 7moved by the cams1 e71 whose extremities at every revolution of the machine seize by the two ends a link that maneuvers the fasteners4 ,the binding of one sheet finished1 the lower arms of the machine again take their position1 the wires move forward the length necessary to form new staples1 a new sheet is laid1 and the same operation is proceeded with4 ,the number of staples and their distance are changed1 according to the size of the book1 by introducing into the machine as much wire as will be necessary for the staples4 ,to prevent their number from increasing the thickness of the back of the book 7as would happen were they superposed71 the support1 h1 moves laterally at every blow1 so as to cause the third staple to be driven over the first1 the second over the fourth1 etc4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,flumes ,,and ,,their ,,construction4 ,in crossing ravines in this ,state1 flumes or wrought iron pipes are used4 ,many miners object to flumes on account of their continual cost and danger of destruction by fire4 ,where used and practicable1 they are set on heavier grades than ditches1 #cj to #ce ft4 per mile1 and1 consequently1 are proportionately of smaller area than the ditches4 ,in their construction a straight line is the most desirable4 ,curves1 where required1 should be carefully set1 so that the flume may discharge its maximum quantity4 ,many ditches in ,california have miles of fluming4 ,the annexed sketch1 drawn by ,a4 ,j4 ,bowie1 ,jr41 will show the ordinary style of construction4 ,illustration3 ,,sketch ,,of ,,flume4 ,the planking ordinarily used is of heart sugar pine1 one and a half to two inches thick1 and #ab to #ah inches wide4 ,where the boards join1 pine battens three inches wide by one and a half thick cover the seam4 ,sills1 posts1 and caps support and strengthen the flume every four feet4 ,the posts are mortised into the caps and sills4 ,the sills extend about #bj inches beyond the posts1 and to them side braces are nailed to strengthen the structure4 ,this extension of the sill timbers affords a place for the accumulation of snow and ice1 and in the mountains such accumulations frequently break them off1 and occasionally destroy a flume4 ,to avoid damage from slides1 snow1 and wind storms1 the flumes are set in as close as possible to the bank1 and rest1 wholly or partially1 on a solid bed1 as the general topography and costs will admit4 ,stringers running the entire length of the flume are placed beneath the sills just outside of the posts4 ,they are not absolutely necessary1 but in point of economy are most valuable1 as they preserve the timbers4 ,as occasion may demand1 the flume is trestled1 the main supports being placed every eight feet4 ,the scantling and struts used are in accordance with the requirements of the work4--,min4 and ,sci4 ,press4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,chuwab',s ,,rolling ,,mill ,,for ,,dressing ,,and ,,rounding ,,bar ,,iron4 ,this new forge apparatus has been devised for the purpose of finishing up round irons of all diameters while hot1 as they come out of the ordinary rolling mill1 by rendering them perfectly circular1 cylindrical1 straight1 smooth1 and level at the extremities1 as if they had passed through a slide lathe4 ,such a high degree of external finish is a very valuable feature in those round irons that are employed in so great quantity for shafting1 cylindrical axles1 etc41 as well as in the manufacture of bolts and locks4 ,figs4 #a1 #b1 #c1 and #d of the opposite engraving will allow it to be seen that this apparatus which is usually installed at the side of the finishing cylinder is1 in part1 beneath the general level of the forge floor4 ,it may be placed parallel with or perpendicular to the apparatus that it does duty for1 this depending upon the site at disposal or the mode of transmission4 ,the apparatus consists essentially of two tempered iron cylinders1 ,a1 #j4e of a meter in diameter by #a4e meters in length1 revolving in the same direction 7contrary to what takes place in ordinary rolling mills7 between two frames1 ,b1 that are open on one side to allow of the entrance of the finishing bar4 ,this latter is held between the cylinders1 ,a1 which roll it so much the faster in proportion as its diameter is smaller1 and by a scraper guide1 ,c1 of the same length as the cylinder table1 and which may be regulated at will by bolts1 c1 fixed to the frame1 ,b4 ,the bottom cylinder remains always in the same position1 while the axle1 ,d1 which carries the intermediate wheels1 ,e1 moves about to gear in all the relative positions of the cylinders4 ,the displacement of the upper cylinder is effected through the clamping screws1 b1 which are actuated by toothed disks that gear with two endless screws keyed at the extremities of one shaft in common1 d1 which is set in motion by hand through the winches1 m m4 ,the scraper guards1 e e1 take up and throw aside all scales that might become attached to the cylinders1 which are constantly moistened by small streams of water coming from an ordinary conduit4 ,illustration3 ,,chuwab',s ,,dressing ,,and ,,rounding ,,rolling ,,mill4 ,fig4 #a--;,elevation and ,longitudinal ,section4 ,fig4 #b--,side ,view4 ,fig4 #c--,transvers ,section4 ,fig4 #d--,plan ,view4 ,figs4 #e #f--,saws for ,dressing the ,extremities of the ,bars4 ,fig4 #g--;,diagram ,showing the ,motion of the ,wheels and ,guide4 ,figs4 #h #i--;,apparatus for ,shifting tha ,bars4 ,as the driving belts are mounted on pulleys1 ,g1 of a diameter proportioned to the velocity of the shafting1 the iron pinions1 h1 in order to produce #fj revolutions per minute in the first shaft1 ,h1 gear on each side with the intermediate wheels1 ,e1 and these actuate the two bronze pinions1 a a1 that are mounted on the extremities of the cylinders1 ,a ,a4 ,the axle1 ,d1 of the intermediate wheels does not revolve with them1 but is capable of rising and descending in the elongated aperture that traverses the frames1 ,b4 ,the displacement of this axle is secured through the arms1 ,l ,l1 whose extremities articulate on the one hand with the cylinders1 ,a ,a1 and on the other with ,d4 ,the result of this is that every displacement upward of the top cylinder corresponds to a different position of the intermediate shaft1 and one that is always equidistant from the centers of the cylinders1 ,a ,a1 thus securing a constant gearing of the wheels in all the positions of the cylinders1 ,a ,a4 ,the diagram in ,fig4 #g shows the relative displacements of all these parts1 as well as those of the scraper guide1 ,c4 ,the diameter to be obtained is determined beforehand by the two contact screws1 ,p4 ,the whole thus regulated1 the bar of iron1 still very hot1 coming from the ordinary rollers1 is straightened up1 if need be1 by a few blows of a hammer1 so that it may roll forward over the pavement1 ,n1 between the rounding cylinders1 ,a ,a2 these being held apart sufficiently to allow of its easy introduction4 ,next1 a few revolutions of the winches that control the screws suffice to lower the upper cylinder to the exact position limited by the contact screws1 ,p1 and the bar is rolled between the two cylinder tables with a constant velocity in the generatrices4 ,as a consequence1 the number of revolutions made is so much the greater in proportion as the diameter of the shaft is smaller with respect to that of the cylinders4 ,it should be remarked that the bar1 during its rotation under pressure1 is held by the guide1 ,c1 so that its diagrammatic axis 7,fig4 #g7 exceeds the line1 ,a ,a1 joining the centers of the cylinders just enough to prevent its escape to the opposite1 and so that the pressure upon the said guide 7which performs the role of scraper7 is merely sufficient to detach the scales which form during the operation4 ,under such conditions1 and at a velocity of #cj revolutions per minute in the two cylinders1 it will take but a fraction of a minute to finish a bar the length of the table1 that is to say1 #a4e meters4 ,then1 by loosening the upper cylinder1 the bar may be easily shoved along in one direction or the other1 so as to continue the finishing operation on successive lengths4 ,this moving of the bar forward is further facilitated by the aid of a clamp with rollers and a movable socket1 ,v 7,figs4 #h and #i74 ,for large diameters 7#aej millimeters and beyond7 traction is employed by the aid of two small windlasses placed opposite each other1 and at a distance apart twice the greatest length of the bars to be finished4 ,the chains of these windlasses are attached to the extremities by clamps that lock by the pulling exerted4 ,the details of the arrangement of the saws 7,figs4 #e and #f7 show that to make a section of the ends or of any other part of the bar1 it is only necessary to lower the lever of one them4 ,by reason of the contrary rotation of the bar1 the effective stress on the lever will be very moderate1 while the cut produced will be a clean and quickly performed one4 ,it should be remarked that1 as a consequence of the cone on the projecting extremity of the cylinder journals 7,fig4 #e71 and on the rollers that control the saws1 it is only necessary to move the lever to the right or left in order to stop the motion of each of the saws4 ,these latter1 to prevent all possibility of accident1 are inclosed within semicircular guards4 ,finally1 the controlling rollers are made of a material which is quite elastic 7compressed cardboard1 for example71 so that they may roll smoothly and adhere well4 ,from what precedes1 it will be seen that round iron bars of any diameter will come from this apparatus completely finished4 ,it will be seen also that with cylinders of suitable profile1 there might likewise be finished axles1 or pieces that are more or less conical as well as those provided with shoulders4 ,the apparatus may1 if preferred1 be driven by small special motors affixed to the frame4 ,such an arrangement1 which is more costly than the preceding1 is1 nevertheless1 indicated in cases where shafting would be in the way4 ,the weight of the materials entering into the construction of this machine1 proposed by ,mr4 ,chuwab1 includes about #ae tons of metal1 of which #e1jjj kilogrammes are for the two tempered cylinders2 #bej kilogrammes of iron screws1 and #cej of bolts2 and #ejj kilogrammes of bronze1 #ij of which are for nuts4--,revue ,industrielle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,burning ,,of ,,town ,,refuse ,,at ,,leeds4 ,footnote3 ,from selected papers of the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 ,london1 by ,charles ,slagg1 ,assoc4 ,memb4 ,inst4 ,c4,e4 ,in large towns it is necessary to adopt some regular system of removal and disposal of the cinders and ashes of house fires1 and of the animal and vegetable refuse of the houses1 and1 in short1 of everything thrown away which cannot be admitted into the sewers4 ,in towns where the excreta are separated by means of water closets1 the disposal of the other refuse presents less difficulty1 but still a considerable one1 because the animal and vegetable refuse is not kept separate from the cinders and ashes1 all being thrown together into the ash pit or dust bin4 ,the contents1 therefore1 cannot be deposited upon ground which may afterward be built upon1 although that custom obtained generally in former times4 ,hence the refuse has been removed to a depot where that wretched industry is created of picking out the other parts from the cinders and ashes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,destructor4 ,elevation4 ,section through feeding-holes of cells4 ,section through air-passages of cells4 ,but in towns unprovided with water closets1 or so far as they are not adopted in any town1 where the privies are connected with the ash pits1 and where1 consequently1 the excreta of the population are added to the other contents of ash pits1 the difficulties of removal and disposal of the refuse are much increased4 ,where the privy-ashpit system is in use--as it still is to a large extent--as much of the contents of the ash pits as can be sold at any price1 however small1 are collected separately from the drier portions1 and sent out of town as manure2 but what remains is still too offensive to be deposited on ground near the town2 and when it is attempted to collect the excreta separately by the pail system1 the process is no less unsatisfactory4 ,these difficulties led to the adoption1 under the advice of the late ,mr4 ,a4,w4 ,morant1 ,m4 ,inst4 ,c4,e41 the ,borough ,engineer at ,leeds1 of ,fryer's method of destruction by burning--that is1 of the dry ashes and cinders and the animal and vegetable refuse4 ,the author was ,mr4 ,morant's assistant4 ,the first kiln was constructed at ,burmantofts1 #a miles from the center of the town in a northeasterly direction1 and has been in use since the beginning of the year #ahgh4 ,in #ahgi another kiln was constructed at ,armley ,road1 a mile from the center of the town in a west-southwesterly direction1 which has been in use since the beginning of #ahhj4 ,each destructor kiln has six cells1 three in each face of a block of brick work #bb feet long1 #bd feet through from face to face1 and #ab feet high4 ,each cell is #h feet long and #e feet wide1 arched over1 the height being #c feet #d inches1 and both the bottom and arch of the cell slope down to the furnace doors with an inclination of #a in #c4 ,the lower end of each cell has about #bf square feet of wrought-iron firebars1 the hearth being #d feet above the ground4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,,carbonizer4 ,section through furnaces4 ,longitudinal section4 ,cross section4 ,there are two floors1 one on the ground level1 a few feet only above the outlet for drainage1 the other floor1 or raised platform1 being #ae feet above it4 ,the refuse is taken in carts up an incline of #a in #ad on cast-iron tram plates to the upper floor1 and deposited upon and alongside of the destructor1 and is shoveled into a row of hoppers at the head of the cells4 ,these hoppers are in the middle of the width of the destructor1 and each communicates with a cell on each side of it4 ,the refuse is always damp1 and often wet1 and after being put into the cells is gradually dried by the heat reflected upon it from the firebrick arch of the cell1 before it descends to the furnace4 ,this distinguishes the system from the common furnace1 and enables the wet material to be burned without other fuel4 ,no fresh fuel is used after the fires are once lighted4 ,the vapor passes off with the gases of combustion into a horizontal flue between the two rows of cells1 through an opening at the head of each cell1 alongside that through which the refuse is fed into it1 the two openings being separated by a firebrick wall4 ,the refuse is prevented from falling into the flue by a bridge wall across the outlet opening1 over which the gases pass into the flue4 ,between the destructor and the chimney a multitubular boiler is placed1 which makes steam enough for grinding into sand the clinkers which are the solid residue of the burnt refuse4 ,at ,burmantofts an old chimney was made use of1 which is but #hd feet high2 but at ,armley ,road a new chimney was built1 #f feet square inside and #abj feet high4 ,it is necessary to make the horizontal flue large2 that at ,armley ,road is #i feet high and #d feet wide4 ,a large quantity of dust escapes from the cells--about #g cwt4 a month--and unless the velocity of the air in the flue between the destructor and the chimney were checked1 the dust would be carried up the chimney and might cause complaints2 as1 indeed1 it has done with the #abj-;foot chimney1 but whether with any substantial grounds is uncertain4 ,the dust is removed from the horizontal flue or dust chamber once a month4 ,experience seems to indicate that there should be some sort of guard or grating to prevent the entry into the chimney of charred paper and similar light substances which do not fall to dust1 and which are sometimes carried up with the draught4 ,a six-celled destructor kiln burns about #db tons of refuse in twenty-four hours1 leaving about one-fourth of its bulk of clinkers and ashes4 ,the clinkers are withdrawn from the furnaces five times each day and night1 or about every two-and-a-half hours1 into iron barrows1 and wheeled outside the shed which covers the destructor1 and when cold are wheeled back to the mortar mills1 of which there are two at each depot1 each having a revolving pan #h feet in diameter1 with #bg-;cwt4 rollers1 the pan making twenty two revolutions a minute4 ,forty shovelfuls of clinkers and twelve of slaked lime make #g cwt4 of mortar in thirty-five minutes in each pan1 which is sold at #es4 #f;d4 per ton4 ,the engine driving the two mortar mills has a #ad inch cylinder1 #cj inches length of stroke1 and makes sixty revolutions per minute with #de pounds steam pressure per square inch in the boiler1 when both mortar mills are running4 ,the boiler is #aa feet long1 #h feet in diameter1 and has #acb tubes #d inches in external diameter1 which1 together with the external flues1 are cleaned out once a month4 ,at first sight it would probably appear that no good mortar could be made from such refuse as has been described1 but having passed through the furnace1 the clinkers are1 of course1 perfectly clean1 and with good lime make a really strong and excellent mortar4 ,they are also largely used for the foundation of roadways4 ,the number of men employed is as follows3 ,two furnace men in the daytime and two at night4 ,they work from midnight on ,sundays to #b ,p4,m4 on ,saturdays1 the fires being fully charged and left to burn through the ,sundays4 ,one foreman1 who attends also to the running of the engine1 and one mortar man4 ,a watchman attends while the workmen are off4 ,in addition to a destructor1 there is at the ,burmautofts depot a carbonizer kiln1 in which the sweepings of the vegetable markets are burned into charcoal4 ,the carbonizer consists of eight vertical cells1 in two sets or stacks of four1 separated by a space containing two double furnaces1 back to back1 there being a double furnace also at each end of the eight cells4 ,each of the stacks of four cells is #ae feet #f inches high2 the ends and middle parts1 forming the tops of the furnaces1 being #f feet high4 ,the block of brick work containing the eight cells and furnaces is #bf feet #f inches long and #ab feet #d inches wide at the floor level4 ,each cell is #c feet #f inches by #b feet1 and about #aj feet deep1 with a chamber below about #c feet deep1 into which the charred material falls and is completely burned4 ,the top of the cells is level with the upper platform1 and they are fed through a loose cover1 which is immediately replaced4 ,inside the cells cast-iron sloping shelves are hung upon the walls so that their upper edges touch the walls1 but the lower edges are some inches off1 so that the hot air of the furnaces passes upward behind the shelves round the four sides of the cell in a spiral manner1 and out near the top into a vertical flue1 which conducts it down to the horizontal flue at the bottom1 which leads to the chimney4 ,the charcoal is withdrawn from the bottom of the heating chamber through a sliding plate #b feet above the floor1 and is wheeled red hot to the charcoal cooler1 which is a revolving cylinder1 nearly horizontal1 kept cool by water falling upon it1 and delivers the charcoal in two degrees of fineness at the end4 ,it is worked by a small attached engine1 supplied with steam from the boiler before mentioned4 ,each cell of the carbonizer can reduce to charcoal #ej cwt4 of vegetable refuse in twenty four hours1 but at ,leeds not quite so much is put through4 ,the quantity of market refuse passed through six cells of the carbonizer varies from #c to #aj tons a day1 and averages about #d tons1 from which #ae cwt4 of charcoal is obtained4 ,the fuel for burning the charcoal is derived from the ash pit refuse1 some selected loads being for that purpose passed over a sloping screen fixed between the upper platform and the furnace floor1 the fine ashes which pass through the screen being taken away to the manure heaps1 and the combustible parts to the furnaces of the carbonizer4 ,in this way a good deal of the ash pit refuse is got rid of2 it is often one-twelfth part of the whole quantity4 ,the carbonizer and the destructor are set #cc feet apart1 to allow room for drawing the furnaces and for the mortar mills1 but the space is hardly sufficient4 ,one man is employed in attending to the carbonizer4 ,besides the openings at the top of the destructor through which the ash pit refuse is fed into the cells1 there is a larger opening in each cell1 kept covered usually1 through which bed mattresses ordered by the medical sanitary office to be destroyed can be put into the cells4 ,these openings are midway between the central openings and the furnace doors1 and whatever is put into the cells through these comes into immediate contact with the fire4 ,advantage is taken of these openings for the destruction of dead animals and diseased meat1 and as much as #bj tons in a year have been passed through the destructor4 ,the whole works are roofed over4 ,the lower floor is open on two sides1 but the upper one is closed in1 with weather boarding at ,burmantofts and with corrugated iron at ,armley ,road4 ,at the former place the works were in some measure experimental1 and the platform was constructed of timber1 but at ,armley ,road it is of plate-iron girders1 with brick arching1 weight being considered advantageous in reducing the vibration of carting heavy loads over it4 ,the cost of each depot has been #d1ejj1 exclusive of land1 of which about an acre is required for the destructor1 carbonizer1 inclined road1 weigh office1 and space4 ,a supply of water is necessary1 a good deal being required for cooling the clinkers4 ,the population of the two districts belonging to these works is about #afj1jjj4 ,the author has no longer any connection with the works described1 and for the recent experience of their working he is indebted to ,mr4 ,john ,newhouse1 the superintendent of the sanitary department of the corporation4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,green ,,wood4 ,the specific volume of the different constituents of green woods has been estimated by ,m4 ,hartig to be as follows1 per #a1jjj parts3 ,hard green wood1 fiber stuff1 #dda2 water1 #bdg2 air1 #cab4 ,soft green wood1 fiber stuff1 #bgi2 water1 #cag1 air1 #djd4 ,evergreen wood1 fiber stuff1 #bgj2 water1 #cce2 air1 #cie4 ,a certain amount of water--#g or #h per cent in all--is included with the fiber stuff1 showing that about one-third only of the mass of the wood is solid stuff2 the remainder is either water or air space4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,armitage ,,house4 ,this house is now in course of erection under the superintendence of ,messrs4 ,salomons and ,ely1 in the ,claremont road1 ,pendleton1 near ,manchester4 ,the walls are faced in the lower part with red bricks1 and red stone1 from the neighborhood of ,liverpool1 is used for the window-dressings1 etc4 ,the upper part of walls will be faced with red tiles and half-timber work1 and the roof will be covered with ,staffordshire tiles4 ,lead lights will be largely used in the windows4 ,internally1 the finish will be almost entirely in real woods1 including walnut for the dining-room and vestibule1 pitch-pine for the large hall1 staircase1 and billiard-room1 ash for the morning-room1 and oak for ,mr4 ,armitage's own room4 ,in all these the ceilings and dados are to be in wood4 ,the contract for the whole of the above work1 amounting to #f1ejg1 is let to ,mr4 ,james ,herd1 of ,manchester4--,building ,news4 ,illustration3 ,,suggestions ,,in ,,architecture4--,,an ,,english ,,country ,,residence4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,collotype ,,process ,,in ,,practice4 ,that theory and practice are two very different things holds good in photography especially1 and perhaps in no other branch of our art have so many theoretical formul been promulgated as in the collotype or ,lichtdruck process4 ,as our readers are aware1 we have had an opportunity of seeing collotype printing in operation in several ,european establishments of note1 and have1 from time to time1 published in these columns our experiences4 ,but requests still come to us so frequently for information on the process that we have deemed it well to make a practical summary for the benefit of those who are working--or desire to work--the method4 ,the formul and manipulations here set down are those of ,lwy1 ,albert1 ,allgeyer1 and ,obernetter1 four of the best authorities on the subject1 and we can assure our readers there is nothing described but what is actually practiced4 ,glass ,plate for the ,printing ,block4--,herr ,albert1 of ,munich1 uses patent plate of nearly half an inch in thickness1 as most of his work is printed upon the ,schnell press 7machine press74 ,herr ,obernetter1 of ,vienna1 since he only employs the slower and more careful hand press1 prefers plate glass of ordinary thickness as being handier in manipulation and better adapted to the common printing-frame4 ,herr ,lwy1 of ,vienna1 again1 uses plate glass a quarter of an inch thick1 as his productions range from the finest to the roughest4 ,preliminary ,coating of the ,glass ,plate4--,herr ,albert's original plan was to apply a preliminary coating of bichromated gelatine to the thick glass plate1 the film being exposed to light through the back of the glass1 and thus rendered insoluble and tightly cemented to the surface2 this film serving as a basis for the second sensitive coating1 that was afterward impressed by the negative4 ,this double treatment is now definitely abandoned in most ,lichtdruck establishments1 and1 instead1 a preliminary coating of soluble silicate and albumen dissolved in water is used4 ,herr ,lwy's method and formula are as follows3 ,the glass plate is cleaned1 and coated with-- ,soluble glass4 #c parts4 ,white of egg4 #g ,water4 #i to #aj ,the soluble glass must be free from caustic potash4 ,the mixture1 which must be used fresh1 is carefully filtered1 and spread evenly over the previously cleaned glass plate4 ,the superfluous liquid is flowed off1 and the film dried either spontaneously or by slightly warming4 ,the film is generally dry in a few minutes1 when it is rinsed with water1 and again dried2 at this stage the plate bears an open1 porous film1 slightly opalescent--so slight1 however1 as only to be observed by an experienced eye4 ,application of the ,sensitive ,film4--,we now come to the second stage of the process1 the application of a film of bichromated gelatine to the plate4 ,herr ,lwy's formula is as follows3 ,bichromate of potash4 #af grammes4 ,gelatine4 #b ounces4 ,water4 #bj to #bb ,according to the weather1 the amount of water must be varied2 but in any case the solution is a very fluid one4 ,an ounce is about #ce grammes1 as most of our readers know4 ,a practical collotypist sees at a glance the quality of the prepared plate1 without any preliminary testing4 ,a good preliminary film is a glass that is transparent1 yet slightly dull2 the film is so thin1 you can scarcely believe it is there4 ,the plate is slightly warmed upon a slate slab1 underneath which is a water bath2 it is then flooded with the above mixture of bichromated gelatine1 leaving only sufficient to make a very thin film4 ,when coated1 the plate is placed in the drying chamber4 ,drying the ,sensitive ,film4--,much depends upon the drying4 ,a water bath with gas burner underneath is used for heating1 and a slate slab1 perfectly level1 receives the glass plate4 ,the drying chamber is kept at an even temperature of #ej ,c4 ,the object to be attained is a fine grain throughout the surface of the gelatine1 and unless this grain is satisfactory the finished printing block never will be4 ,if the gelatine film be too thick1 then the grain will be coarse2 or1 again1 if the temperature in drying be too high1 there will be no grain at all4 ,the drying is complete in two or three hours1 and should not take longer4 ,the ,negative to be ,printed from4--,the sensitive film being upon the surface of a thick glass plate1 it is necessary that the clich or negative employed should be upon patent plate1 or not upon glass at all1 so as to insure perfect contact4 ,best of all1 is to employ a stripped negative1 in which case absolute contact is insured in printing4 ,it is only in these circumstances that the most perfect impression can be secured4 ,if the negative is otherwise satisfactory1 and only requires stripping1 it must be upon a leveling stand1 and fluid gelatine of a tolerable consistence is poured over it4 ,when dry1 a pen-knife is run around the margin1 and the film leaves the glass without any trouble4 ,herr ,obernetter says that many of the negatives he receives have to be reproduced before they can be transformed into ,lichtdruck plates1 and he employs either the wet collodion process or the graphite method1 according to circumstances4 ,if the copy is desired to be softer than the original1 collodion is employed2 if vigor be desired1 graphite is used1 and here is his formula3 ,dextrine4 #fb grains4 ,ordinary white sugar4 #gg ,bichromate of ammonia4 #cj4h ,water4 #c4ba ounces4 ,glycerine4 #b to #h drops4 ,the film is dried at a temperature of #acj to #adj ,f4 in about ten minutes1 and while still warm is printed under a negative in diffused light for a period of five to fifteen minutes4 ,in a well-timed print the image is slightly visible2 the plate is again warmed a little above atmospheric temperature in a darkened room1 and then fine levigated graphite is applied with a fine dusting brush1 a sheet of white paper being held underneath to judge of the effect4 ,breathing upon the film renders it more capable of attracting the powder4 ,when the desired vigor has been attained1 the superfluous powder is dusted off1 and the plate coated with normal collodion4 ,afterward the film is cut through at the margins of the plate by means of a sharp knife1 and put into water4 ,in a little while--from two to five minutes--the collodion1 with the image1 will be detached from the glass2 the film is at once turned over in the water1 and brought out upon the glass plate4 ,under a soft jet of water any air-bubbles that may exist between the collodion and the glass are removed1 and then a solution of gum arabic 7two grammes of gum dissolved in one hundred grammes of water7 is poured over1 and the film is allowed to dry spontaneously4 ,exposure of the ,printing ,block under the ,negative4--,the exposure is very rapid4 ,any one conversant with photolithographic work will understand this4 ,at any rate1 every photographer knows that bichromated gelatine is much more rapid than the chloride of silver he generally has to do with4 ,there is no other way of measuring the exposure than by the photometer or personal experience1 and the latter is by far the best4 ,after leaving the printing frame1 the plate is immersed in cold water4 ,here it remains at discretion for half an hour1 or an hour2 the purpose1 of course1 being to wash out the soluble bichromate4 ,it is when the print comes out of this bath that judgment is passed upon it4 ,an experienced eye tells at once what it is fit for4 ,if it is yellow1 the yellowness must be of the slightest2 indeed1 ,herr ,furkl 7the manager of ,herr ,lwy's ,lichtdruck department7 will not admit that a good plate is yellow at all4 ,a yellow tint means that it will take up too much ink when the roller is passed over it4 ,the plates of ,herr ,obernetter1 however1 are rather more yellow than ,herr ,lwy's--certainly only a tinge1 but still yellow2 and ,herr ,obernetter's work proves1 at any rate1 that the yellowish tinge is by no means inseparable from good results4 ,the washed and dried plate should appear like a design of ground and polished glass4 ,the ground glass appearance is given by the grain4 ,if there are pure high-lights 7almost transparent7 and opalescent shadows1 the plate is a good one4 ,printing from the ,block4--,we have now a printing-block ready for the press4 ,if it is to be printed by machinery--that is to say1 upon a ,schnell press--the surface is etched2 if it has to be more carefully handled in a hand press1 etching is rarely resorted to2 it is moistened only with glycerine and water4 ,to etch a plate for a ,schnell press1 it is placed upon a leveling stand1 and the following solution is poured upon it3 ,glycerine44444444444444444444444444444 #aej parts4 ,ammonia44444444444444444444444444444444 #ej ,nitrate of potash 7saltpeter74444444444 #e ,water4444444444444444444444444444444444 #be ,another equally good formula1 recommended by ,allgeyer1 who managed ,herr ,albert's ,lichtdruck printing for some years1 is3 ,glycerine44444444444444444444444444444 #ejj parts4 ,water444444444444444444444444444444444 #ejj ,chloride of sodium 7common salt7444444 #ae ,in lieu of common salt1 #ae parts of hyposulphite of soda1 or other hygroscopic salt1 such as chloride of calcium1 may be employed4 ,the etching fluid is permitted to remain upon the image for half an hour4 ,during this time1 by gently moving the finger to and fro over the surface1 the swelling or relief of the image can be distinctly felt4 ,the plate is not washed1 but the etching fluid simply poured off1 so that the film remains impregnated with the glycerine and water2 at the most1 a piece of bibulous paper is used to absorb any superfluous quantity of the etching fluid4 ,after etching1 the plate is taken straight to the printing press4 ,the inking up and printing are done very much as in lithography4 ,if it requires a practiced hand to produce a good lithographic print1 it stands to reason that in dealing with a gelatine printing block1 instead of a stone1 skill and practice are more necessary still4 ,therefore at this point the photographer should hand over the work to the lithographer1 or rather the ,lichtdruck printer4 ,it is only by coaxing judiciously1 with roller and sponge1 that a good printing block can be obtained1 and no amount of teaching theoretically can beget a good printer4 ,to appreciate how skillful a printer must be1 it is only necessary to see the imperfect proofs that first result1 and to watch how these are gradually improved by dint of rolling1 rubbing1 etching1 cleaning1 etc4 ,in all ,lichldruck establishments1 two kinds of rollers are used1 viz41 of leather and glue4 ,in some establishments1 too1 they employ two kinds of ink2 but ,herr ,lwy manages to secure delicacy and vigor at the same time by using one ink1 but rolling up with two kinds of roller4 ,collotype printing is not merely done by hand presses1 but is also done by machinery4 ,at ,herr ,albert's a gas engine of six-horse power is employed to drive the machines1 and each machine requires the attention of a skilled mechanic and a girl4 ,the press is very like the lithographic quick press4 ,upon a big steel bed lies the little collotype block4 ,the glass printing block1 with its brownish film of gelatine1 moves horizontally to and fro1 and1 as it does so1 passes under half a dozen rollers1 which not only supply ink1 but disperse it4 ,some of the rollers are of leather and others of glue1 and1 whenever the printing block retires from underneath them1 an ink slab takes the place of the block1 and imparts more ink to the rollers2 sometimes as many as eight rollers are used1 for the difficulty of machine printing is to apply the ink as delicately and equally as possible4 ,it is necessary at intervals to damp the block1 and when the printer in charge finds this to be the case1 he stops the press1 and applies a little glycerine and water with a cloth or sponge2 then a leather roller is passed over to remove superfluous moisture1 and the press is again started4 ,herr ,obernetter relies upon the ,star or ,stern press--a small lithographic press--one man sufficing to manage it1 who turns a wheel with large spokes1 reminding one of the steering wheel of a ship4 ,the ,lichtdruck plate1 gelatine film upward1 is laid upon a sheet of plate glass by way of a bed1 the plate having first been treated with a solution of glycerine and water2 it is then inked up as previously described1 except that ,herr ,obernetter uses two kinds of ink--a thick one and a thin--applied by two rollers of glue4 ,in the first place1 a moist sponge is rubbed over the surface2 then a soft roller covered with wash-leather1 and of the appearance of crpe1 is passed over two or three times to remove surplus moisture2 then a roller charged with thick ink is put on1 and then another with thin is applied4 ,it takes fully five minutes to sponge and roll up a plate1 the rolling being done gently and firmly4 ,a sheet of paper is now laid upon the plate1 the tympan is lowered1 and the scraper adjusted with due pressure2 a revolution of the wheel completes the printing1 the well-known scraping action of the lithographic press being used in the operation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,ordinary ,,naphtha ,,lighter ,,of ,,mr4 ,,loiseau4 ,some ,lichtdruck prints are printed upon thick plate-paper1 and are ready for binding without further ado1 these being for book illustrations4 ,other pictures1 that are to pass muster among silver photographs1 are1 on the other hand1 printed upon fine thin paper1 and then sized by dipping in a thin solution of gelatine2 after drying1 they are further dipped in a solution of shellac and spirit4--,photo4 ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,domestic ,,electricity4 ,among the most valuable1 and1 up to the present time1 the least generally appreciated services that electricity can render for domestic purposes is that of its application in lighters4 ,at the present epoch of indifferent matches1 to have1 instantaneously1 a light by pulling a cord1 pressing on a button1 or turning a cock1 is a thing worthy of being taken into serious consideration2 and our own personal experience permits us to assert that1 regarded from this point of view1 electricity is capable of daily rendering inappreciable services4 ,according to the nature of the application that is to be made of them1 the places in which they are to be put1 and the combustible that they are to inflame1 etc41 electric lighters vary greatly in form and arrangement4 ,we shall limit ourselves here to pointing out the simplest and most practical of the numerous models of such apparatus that have been constructed up to the present time4 ,all those that we shall describe are based on the incandescence of a platinum wire4 ,a few have been constructed based on the induction spark1 but they are more complicated and expensive1 and have not entered into practical use4 ,before commencing to describe these apparatus1 we shall make a remark in regard to the piles for working them1 and that is that we prefer for this purpose ,leclanch elements with agglomerated plates and a large surface of zinc4 ,in order to bring about combustion in any given substance1 it is necessary to bring near it an incandescent body raised to a certain temperature1 which varies with the nature of the said substance1 and which is quite low for illuminating gas1 higher for petroleum1 and a white heat for a wax taper or a candle4 ,we have said that we make use exclusively of a platinum wire raised momentarily to incandescence by the passage of an electric current4 ,the temperature of such wire will depend especially upon the intensity of the current traversing it2 and1 if this is too great1 the platinum 7chosen because of its inoxidizability and its elevated melting point7 will rapidly melt2 while1 if the intensity is too little1 the temperature reached by the wire will itself be too low1 and no inflammation will be brought about4 ,practice soon indicates a means of obviating these two inconveniences1 and teaches how each apparatus may be placed under such conditions that the wire will hardly ever melt1 and that the lighting will always be effected4 ,for the same intensity of current that traverses the wire1 the temperature of the latter might be made to vary by diminishing or increasing its diameter4 ,a very fine wire will attain a red heat through a very weak current1 but it would be very brittle1 and subject to break at the least accident4 ,for this reason it becomes necessary to employ wires a little stronger1 and varying generally from one to two-tenths of a millimeter in diameter4 ,the current then requires to be a little intenser4 ,the requisite intensity is easily obtained with elements of large surface1 which have a much feebler internal resistance than porous-cup elements2 and since1 for a given number of elements1 the intensity of the current decreases in measure as the internal resistance of the elements increases1 it becomes of interest to diminish such internal resistance as much as possible4 ,the platinum wires are usually rolled spirally1 with the object in view of concentrating the heat into a small space1 in order to raise the temperature of the wire as much as possible4 ,there is thus need of a less intense current to produce the inflammation than with a wire simply stretched out4 ,in fact1 the same wire traversed by a current of constant intensity scarcely reaches a red heat when it is straight1 while it attains a white heat when it is wound spirally1 because1 in the latter case1 the cooling surface is less4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b--,,ranque',s ,,new ,,form ,,of ,,lighter ,,with ,,extinguisher4 ,we shall now proceed to the examination of a few practical forms of electric lighters4 ,in ,fig4 #a will be seen quite a convenient spirit or naphtha lighter1 which has been devised more especially for the use of smokers4 ,by pushing the lamp toward the wall1 the wick is brought into proximity with the spiral1 and the lamp1 acting on a button behind it1 closes the current4 ,pressure on the lamp being removed1 the latter moves back slightly1 through the pressure of a small spring which thrusts on the button4 ,owing to this latter simple arrangement1 the spiral never comes in contact with the flame1 and may thus last for a long time4 ,mr4 ,loiseau1 the proprietor of this apparatus1 employs a very fine platinum wire1 flattened into the form of a ribbon1 and it takes only the current from a single element to effect the inflammation of the wick4 ,the system is so arranged that any one can easily replace in a moment the spiral that has accidentally got out of order2 and1 in order that this may be done1 the maker has placed the spiral on a small1 distinct piece that he styles the conflagrator4 ,the latter consists of two small1 thin tubes of brass1 held parallel and firmly by means of a brass cross-piece4 ,a small bit of paper wound round each tube in front of the cross-brace insures insulation4 ,the outer extremity of the two tubes supports the platinum spiral1 which is fixed to them very simply by the aid of two small brass needles of conical form1 which pinch the wire in the tube and hold it in place4 ,there is nothing easier to do than replace the wire4 ,all that is necessary is to remove the two little rods with a pair of pincers2 to make a spiral of suitable length by rolling the wire round a pin2 and to fix it into the tubes1 as we have just explained4 ,with two or three extra conflagrators on hand1 there need never any trouble occur4 ,in ,fig4 #b we show a new and simple form of ,mr4 ,ranque's lighter1 in which an electro-magnet concealed in the base brings the spiral and the wick into juxtaposition4 ,the extinguisher1 which is balanced by a counterpoise1 oscillates about a horizontal axis1 and its support carries two small pins1 against which act successively two notches in a piece of oval form1 fixed on the side of the movable rods4 ,in the position shown in the cut1 on the first emission of a current the upper notch acts so as to depress the extinguisher1 but the travel of the rods that carry the spiral is so limited that the latter does not strike against the extinguisher4 ,on the next emission1 the lower notch acts so as to raise the extinguisher1 while the spiral approaches the wick and lights it4 ,it is well to actuate these extinguishing-lighters1 which may be located at a distance1 not by a contact button1 but by some pulling arrangement1 which is always much more easy to find in the dark without much groping about4 ,there might be used for such a purpose the very motion of the front door1 when opened1 for lighting the hall2 but that would offer the inconvenience of operating likewise in the daytime1 and of thus needlessly using up the pile and the naphtha4 ,in all these spirit or naphtha lighters it is important that the spiral shall not touch the wick1 but that it shall be placed a little above and on the side1 in the mixture of air and combustible vapor4 ,several apparatus have likewise been devised for lighting gas by electricity1 and a few of these we shall describe4 ,the simplest form of these is ,mr4 ,barbier's lighter for the use of smokers1 for lighting candles1 sealing letters1 etc4 ,it consists of a small gas-burner affixed to a round box1 seven to eight centimeters in diameter1 and connected to the gas-pipe by a rubber tube4 ,by maneuvering the handle1 the cock is opened and an electric contact set up of sufficient duration to raise to a red heat the spiral1 and to light the gas4 ,it is well in this case1 for the sake of economizing in wire1 to utilize the lead gas-pipe as a return wire1 especially if the pile is located at some little distance from the lighter4 ,in the arrangement generally in use the key is provided with a special spring1 which tends to cause it to turn in such a way as to assume a vertical position1 and with a tooth1 which1 on engaging with a piece moving on a joint1 holds it in a horizontal position as soon as it has been brought thereto4 ,in order to extinguish the burner1 it is only necessary to depress the lever1 and thus allow the key to assume again the vertical position1 that is to say1 the position that closes the aperture through which the gas flows out4 ,in a new arrangement1 the notch1 spring1 and the lever are done away with1 the cock alone taking the two positions open or closed4 ,another very ingenious system is that of ,mr4 ,loiseau1 consisting of an ordinary gas-burner 7fish-tail1 bat's-wing1 etc471 carrying at its side a conflagrator1 analogous to that of the spirit-lighter 7,fig4 #a71 but arranged vertically4 ,one of the rods of the conflagrator is connected with the positive of the pile1 and the other with the little horizontal brass rod which is placed at the bottom of the burner4 ,on turning the cock so as to open it1 a small flow of gas occurs opposite the platinum spiral1 while at the same time a rigid projecting piece affixed to the cock bears against a small1 vertical metallic piece1 and brings it in contact with the brass rod4 ,the circuit is thus closed for an instant1 the spiral is raised to a red heat1 and lights the gas1 and the flame rises and finally lights the burner4 ,it goes without saying that on continuing the motion the contact is broken1 so as not uselessly to waste the pile and so as to stop the escape of gas4 ,for gas furnaces1 ,mr4 ,loiseau is constructing a handle-lighter which is connected with the side of the furnace by flexible cords4 ,the contact button is on the sleeve itself1 and the spiral is protected against shocks by a metallic covering which is cleft at the extremity and the points bent over at a right angle4 ,all the lighters here described work well1 and are rendering valuable services4 ,they may be considered as the natural and indispensable auxiliaries of electric call bells1 and their use has most certainly been rendered practical through the ,leclanche pile4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,theiler',s ,,telephone ,,receiver4 ,this telephone receiver differs from its predecessors in dispensing with an armature1 the lateral vibration of the electro-magnet itself being utilized4 ,in previous systems in which an electro-magnet is used1 the sonorous vibrations are due either to the motion of an iron diaphragm or armature placed close to the poles of the electro-magnet1 or to the expansion and contraction of the magnet itself4 ,in ,theiler's telephone the electro-magnet may be of the usual ,u-shape1 and may consist either of soft iron or of hardened steel permanently magnetized1 wound with a suitable number of turns of insulated wire4 ,this electro magnet is fixed in such a manner that the vibration of either one or of both its limbs is communicated to a diaphragm or diaphragms ,the patentees also employ two or more electro-magnets in the same circuit1 and utilize the vibration of both magnets in the manner described4 ,by attaching a light disk or disks to the vibrating limbs1 the diaphragm may be dispensed with4 ,fig4 #a represents one of the telephone receivers provided with two diaphragms or sounding boards1 connected to the two limbs or cores of the ,u-shaped electro-magnet by short tongues4 ,these tongues are firmly inserted in the diaphragms and fixed to the magnet1 as shown4 ,the poles of the electro-magnet are brought very close together by being shaped as shown1 and the middle part of the magnet is firmly screwed to the case of the instrument4 ,the ends of the helix surrounding the magnet cores may be attached as usual to two terminals1 or soldered to a flexible conductor communicating with the other parts of the telephone apparatus4 ,when a vibratory current is sent through the helix of the electro-magnet1 the extremities are rapidly attracted and repelled1 and this vibratory motion of the magnet cores being communicated to the diaphragms or sounding boards1 the latter are set in vibration of varying amplitude produced by a current of varying strength1 as in all other telephones4 ,instead of making the electro-magnet of one continuous piece of iron1 as represented in ,fig4 #a1 the patentees find it more practicable to make it of the form shown in ,fig4 #b1 where the electro-magnet represented consists of two limbs or cores1 a sole piece1 and pole extensions1 the whole being screwed together1 and practically constituting one continuous piece of iron carrying the two coils4 ,in ,fig4 #b only one of the limbs or cores of the electro-magnet is attached to the diaphragm1 the other limb being held fixed by a screw4 ,sometimes the patentees hinge one of the magnet cores1 or both1 in the sole piece1 in which case the diaphragms or sounding boards can be made much thicker than when the cores are rigidly fixed to the sole piece1 because the magnetic attraction of the poles has then only to overcome the resistance of the diaphragm4 ,instead of using a diaphragm1 they sometimes fix a stem to one of the cores of the electro-magnet1 and mount thereon a light disk of vulcanite1 wood1 ivory1 gutta-percha1 or any other substance which it is capable of vibrating4 ,when using this telephone receiver1 the disk is pressed to the ear in such a manner that its surface covers the aperture of the ear4 ,when these telephone receivers are used on a line of some considerable length1 the patentees prefer to magnetize the electro-magnet by a constant current from a local battery1 and to effect the variation of this constant magnetization inductively and not directly4 ,the electro-magnet is1 then1 not inserted in the line at all1 but in the primary circuit of an induction coil1 and connected with a local battery4 ,the line is connected to the secondry circuit of the induction coil4 ,this device possesses the advantage that the electro-magnet can be powerfully magnetized with very little battery power1 no matter how long the line may be1 and that steel magnets are entirely dispensed with4 ,it is not necessary to have a separate battery for this purpose1 as the microphone battery may also be used for the telephone receiver4 ,the shape of the vibrating electro-magnets is immaterial1 as they may be made of a variety of forms4--,eng4 ,mechanic4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,fig4 #b 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,an ,,electric ,,power ,,hammer4 ,by ,,marcel ,,deprez4 ,footnote3 ,la ,lumire ,electrique4 ,in a lecture delivered by me on the #aeth of last ,june in the amphitheater of the ,conservatoire des ,arts et ,metiers1 on the application of electricity to the production1 transmission1 and division of power1 ,i operated for the first time an electric power hammer that ,i shall here describe4 ,its essential part is a sectional solenoid that ,i have likewise made an application of in an electric motor which ,i presented in ,july1 #ahcj1 to the ,societ de ,physique4 ,let us suppose we superpose1 one on the other1 a hundred flat bobbins of a centimeter in thickness in such a way as to form a single solenoid one meter in height1 and that the incoming and outgoing wires of each of them be connected with the contiguous bobbins exactly in the same way as they are in the consecutive sections or a dynamo-electric machine ring4 ,finally1 let us complete the resemblance by causing each junction of the wire of one of the bobbins with the wire of its neighbor to end in a metallic plate set into an insulating piece containing as many plates as there are bobbins1 plus one4 ,over this species of collector1 which maybe rectilinear or wound around a cylinder1 let us pass two brushes fixed to an insulating piece that may be moved by hand4 ,now1 if we place these two brushes at a distance such that the number of the plates of the collector included between them be1 for example1 equal to ten1 and we give them any degree of displacement whatever1 after rendering them interdependent1 the current entering through one of these brushes and making its exit through the other will always traverse #aj bobbins4 ,everything will occur1 then1 as if we caused the ten-bobbin solenoid to move instead of the brushes4 ,this granted1 and the brushes being in any position whatever1 let us send a current into the apparatus1 and place therein a soft iron cylinder4 ,by virtue of a well known law1 such cylinder will remain suspended in the interior of the solenoid1 and its longitudinal center will place itself at so much the greater distance from that of the solenoid the more the current increases in intensity4 ,it would even fall entirely if the current had not an intensity above a minimum value dependent upon many elements concerning which we have not now to occupy ourselves4 ,we will suppose the current intense enough to keep the distance of the two centers much below that which would bring about a fall of the cylinder4 ,when such a condition is fulfilled1 it is found that if we try to remove the iron cylinder from the equilibrium that it is in1 we must apply a pressure that increases with the amount of separation1 just exactly as if it were suspended from a spring4 ,it results from this fact that if we displace the brushes a distance equal to the thickness of one plate of the collector1 the active solenoid will undergo the same displacement1 and its longitudinal center will move away from that of the iron cylinder1 and that the attraction exerted upon the latter will increase4 ,it will not be able to assume its first value1 and equilibrium cannot be re-established unless the cylinder undergoes a displacement identical with that of the solenoid4 ,now1 as this latter depends upon the motion communicated to the system of brushes1 we see that1 definitively1 the cylinder will faithfully reproduce the motion communicated to the brushes by the hand of the operator4 ,this apparatus1 then1 constitutes a genuine electric servo-motor in which the current is never interrupted nor modified in quantity or direction1 no more indeed than the magnetization developed in the soft iron cylinder4 ,everything takes place as if the iron cylinder were suspended in a solenoid ten centimeters in length that was caused to rise and fall2 with the difference that the weight of the cylinder exerts no action on the hand of the operator4 ,illustration3 ,,electric ,,power ,,hammer4 ,these explanations being understood1 there remain but few things to be said to cause the operation of the hammer to be thoroughly comprehended4 ,the elementary sections constituting the electric cylinder1 ,a ,b1 of the hammer are #hj in number1 and form a total length of one meter4 ,their ingoing and outcoming wires end in a collector of circular form shown at ,f ,g4 ,the brushes are replaced by two strips1 ,c ,e and ,c ,d1 fixed to the double winch1 ,h ,c ,i1 which is movable around the fixed center1 ,c4 ,they can make any angle whatever with each other1 so that by trial there maybe given the active solenoid the most suitable length4 ,when such angle has been determined1 the angle1 ,e ,c ,d1 is rendered invariable by means of a set screw1 and the apparatus is maneuvered by imparting to the double winch1 ,h ,c ,i1 an alternating circular motion4 ,the iron cylinder weighs #bc kilogrammes2 but1 when the current has an intensity of #dc amperes and traverses #ae sections1 the stress developed may reach #gj kilogrammes2 that is to say1 three times the weight of the hammer4 ,so this latter obeys with absolute docility the motions of the operator's hands1 as those who were present at the lecture were enabled to see4 ,i will incidentally add that this power hammer was placed on a circuit derived from one that served likewise to supply three ,hefner-,alteneck machines 7,siemens ,d#e model7 and a ,gramme machine 7,breguet model ,p4,l474 ,each of these machines was making #a1ejj revolutions per minute and developing #be kilogrammeters per second1 measured by means of a ,carpentier brake4 ,all these apparatus were operating with absolute independence1 and had for generator the double excitation machine that figured at the ,exhibition of ,electricity4 ,in an experiment made since then1 ,i have succeeded in developing in each of these four machines #ej kilogrammeters per second1 whatever was the number of those that were running2 and ,i found it possible to add the hammer on a derived circuit without notably affecting the operation of the receivers4 ,it results from this that with my system of double excitation machine ,i have been enabled to easily run with absolute independence six machines1 each giving a two-third horse-power4 ,the economic performance1 e_/,e1 moreover1 slightly exceeded #j4ej4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,solignac',s ,,new ,,electric ,,lamp4 ,when it becomes a question of practical lighting1 it is very certain that the best electric lamp will be the one that is most simple and requires the fewest mechanical parts4 ,it is to such simplicity that is due all the success of the ,jablochkoff candle and the ,reynier-,werdermann lamp4 ,yet1 in the former of these lamps1 it is to be regretted that the somewhat great and variable resistance opposed to the current in its passage through two carbons that keep diminishing in length1 in measure as they burn1 proves a cause of loss of light and of variation in it4 ,and it is also to be regretted that the duration of combustion of the carbons is not longer2 and1 finally1 it is allowable to believe that the power employed in volatilizing the insulator placed between the carbons is prejudicial to the economical use of this system4 ,in order to obviate this latter inconvenience1 an endeavor has been made in the ,wilde candle to do away with the insulator1 but the results obtained have scarcely been encouraging4 ,an endeavor has also been made to render the duration of the carbons greater by employing quite long ones1 and causing these to move forward successively through the intermedium of a species of rollers1 or of counterpoises1 as in the lamps of ,mersanne and ,werdermann2 but then the system becomes more complicated4 ,finally1 in order to keep the resistance of the carbons at a minimum and constant1 their contact with the rheophores of the circuit has been established at a short distance from the arc1 and this is one of the principal advantages possessed by the ,reynier-,werdermann system4 ,at a certain epoch it was thought that the problem might be simply solved by arranging in front of each other two carbons actuated by a spiral spring1 as in car lamps1 and kept at a proper distance apart for forming the electric arc by two funnel-shaped pieces of calcined magnesia1 into which they entered like a wedge in measure as their conical point were away through combustion4 ,this was the system of ,mr4 ,de ,baillehache1 and the trials that were made therewith were very satisfactory4 ,but1 unfortunately1 the magnesia was not able to resist very long the temperature to which it was submitted4 ,the problem found a better solution in the sun-lamp but has been solved in another manner1 and just as simply1 by ,mr4 ,solignac1 and the results obtained by him have been very satisfactory as regarded from the standpoint of steadiness of the luminous point4 ,in this system1 a general view of which is given in ,fig4 #a1 and the arrangement in ,figs4 #b and #c1 the carbons1 ,f ,f1 which are horizontal and about fifty centimeters in length1 are thrust toward each other by two barrels1 ,k1 ,k1 which wind up two chains1 ,e1 ,e1 passing around the pulleys1 ,d1 ,d1 fitted to the extremities of the carbons4 ,these latter are provided beneath with small glass rods1 ,g1 ,g1 whose extremities toward the arc abut at a short distance from the latter against a nickel stop1 ,l 7,fig4 #c71 which supports them1 moreover1 at ,m1 by means of a tappet whose position is regulated by a screw4 ,the current is transmitted to the carbons by two friction rollers1 ,i1 ,i1 which serve at the same time as a guide for them1 and which give the electric flux a passage of only one or two centimeters over the front of the carbon to form the arc4 ,finally1 the whole is held by a support1 ,a1 and two pieces1 ,,cb1 ,,cb1 which at the same time lead the current to the friction rollers through projections1 ,j4 ,the two systems are made to approach or recede from each other1 in order to form the arc1 by means of a regulating screw1 ,h4 ,at present1 the lighting of these lamps is effected by means of this screw1 ,h1 but ,mr4 ,solignac is now constructing a model in which the lighting will be performed automatically by means of a solenoid that will react upon a carbon lighter1 as in several already well known systems4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a ,if the preceding description has been well-understood1 it will be seen that the carbons are arrested in their movement toward each other only by the glass rods1 ,g1 abutting against ,l2 but1 as the stops1 ,l1 are not far from the arc1 and as the heat to which they are exposed is so much the greater in proportion as the incandescent part of the carbons is nearer them1 it results that for a certain elongation of the arc the temperature becomes sufficient to soften the glass of the rods1 ,g1 ,g1 so that they bend as shown at ,o 7,fig4 #c71 and allow the carbons to move onward until the heat has sufficiently diminished to prevent any further softening of the glass4 ,in measure as the wearing away progresses1 the preceding effects are reproduced2 and1 as these are produced in an imperceptible and continuous manner1 there is perceived no jumping nor inconstancy in the light of the arc4 ,under such conditions1 then1 the regulation of the arc is effected under the very influence of the effect produced2 and not under that of an action of a different nature 7electro-magnetism71 as happens in other regulators4 ,it is certain that this idea is new and original1 and the results that we have witnessed from it have been very satisfactory4 ,there is but one regulation to perform1 and that at the beginning1 but this once done the apparatus operates with certainty1 and for a long time4 ,with a ,meritens machine of the first model it has been found possible to light five lamps of this kind placed in the same circuit4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b ,according to the inventor1 this lamp will give a light of #ajj carcels per one horse-power1 and with a three horse-power six lamps may be lighted2 but we have made no experiments to ascertain the correctness of these figures4 ,as for the cost of the glass rods1 that amounts to one franc per two hundred meters length4 ,they can1 then1 be considered only as an insignificant expense in the cost of the carbons4 ,we consequently believe that it will be possible to employ this system advantageously in practice4--,th4 du ,moncel4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c 99 99 99 99 99 ,,mondos',s ,,electric ,,lamp4 ,since the month of ,may last1 the concert at the ,champs ,elyses has been lighted by sixteen voltaic arc lamps on a new and very simple system1 which gives excellent results in the installation under consideration4 ,the sixteen lamps are on the divisible system1 and their regulation is based upon the principle of derivation4 ,they are supplied by a ,siemens alternating current machine and arranged in four circuits1 on each of which are mounted four lamps in series4 ,the accompanying figures will allow the reader to readily understand the system1 which is as simple as it is ingenious1 and which has been combined by ,mr4 ,mondos so as to obtain a continuous and independent regulation of each lamp4 ,in this system the lower carbon is stationary1 the luminous point descending in measure as the carbons wear away through combustion4 ,the upper carbon descends by its own weight1 and imperceptibly1 so as to keep the arc at its normal length4 ,the mechanism that controls the motions of the upper rod that supports the carbon-holder consists of two bobbins of fine wire1 ,e 7,fig4 #b71 mounted on a derived circuit on the terminals of the lamp2 of a lever1 ,l1 articulated at ,o1 and supporting a tube1 ,,tt'1 and the whole movable part balanced by a counterpoise1 ,p4 ,this lever1 ,p1 carries two soft iron cores1 ,f1 which enter the bobbins1 ,e1 and become magnetized under the influence of the current that passes through them4 ,the upper part of the tube1 ,t1 carries a square upon which is articulated at ,o' a second lever1 ,l'1 balanced by a second counterpoise1 ,p'1 and carrying a flat armature1 p1 opposite the cores1 ,f'1 that are fixed to the first horizontal lever1 ,l4 ,the carbon-holder rod1 ,,cc'1 slides freely in the tube1 ,,tt'1 and is wedged therein by a small piece1 a m l1 fixed to the lever1 ,l'4 ,for this reason the tube1 ,,tt'1 is provided with a notch opposite the piece a m l1 and the two arms1 a and m1 of the latter are shaped like a ,v1 as may be seen in part in the plan in ,fig4 #b4 ,it is now easy to understand how the system operates2 when the current is not traversing the circuit1 the carbons are separated2 but1 at the moment the circuit is closed for lighting a series of lamps1 it traverses the electro-magnet1 which then becomes very powerful1 and draws down the cores1 ,f1 along with the lever1 ,l1 the tube1 ,,tt'1 and the carbon-holder1 ,,cc'1 and brings the carbons in contact4 ,the arc then forms1 and the current divides between the arc and the bobbins1 ,e4 ,its action upon the cores1 ,f1 becomes weak1 and it can no longer balance the counterpoise1 ,p1 which falls back1 and raises the system again4 ,the arc thus becomes primed4 ,the cores1 ,f1 however1 preserve a certain amount of magnetization2 the armature1 p1 is attracted1 and the lever1 ,l'1 assumes a position of equilibrium such that the piece1 a m l1 wedges the rod1 ,,cc'1 in the tube1 ,,tt'1 and holds it suspended4 ,when1 through wear of the carbons1 the arc elongates1 a greater portion of the current passes into the bobbins1 ,e1 the armature1 p1 is attracted with more force1 and the lever1 ,l'1 swings around the point1 ,o'4 ,the rotation of ,l' separates the piece1 a m l1 from the rod1 ,,cc'1 which1 being thus set free1 slides by its own weight and shortens the arc4 ,the current then becomes weak in ,e1 the armature1 p1 is not so strongly attracted1 the lever1 ,l'1 pivots slightly around ,o' under the action of the weight1 ,p'1 and the brake or wedge enters the notch anew1 and stops the descent of the carbon4 ,in practice1 the motions that we have just described are exceedingly slight2 the carbon moves imperceptibly1 and the length of the arc remains invariable4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a--,,mondos',s ,,electric ,,lamp4 ,it will be seen1 then1 that the lever1 ,l1 and the tube1 ,,tt'1 serve exclusively for lighting1 and the lever1 ,l'1 exclusively for regulating the distance of the carbons4 ,this lamp exhibits great elasticity1 and can operate1 without a change of any part of its mechanism1 with currents of very different intensities4 ,it suffices for obtaining a proper working of the apparatus in each case1 to regulate the distance from the weight1 ,p'1 to the point of suspension1 ,o'1 and the distance from the armature1 p1 to the cores1 ,f4 ,at the ,champs ,elyses concerts the lamps are operating with alternating currents2 but they are capable of operating with continuous ones also1 although the slight tremor of the electro-magnetic system1 due to the use of alternating currents and as a consequence of rapid changes of magnetization1 seems in principle very favorable to systems in which the descent of the carbon is based upon friction instead of a clutch4 ,at the ,champs ,elyses concerts the lamps burn crayons of #i to #aj millimeters with a current of #i to #aj amperes and an effective electro-motive power of #fj volts per lamp4 ,the light is very steady1 and the effect produced is most satisfactory4 ,the dispensing with all clock-work movement and regulating springs makes this electric lamp of ,mr4 ,mondos a simple and plain apparatus1 capable of numerous applications in the industries1 in wide1 open spaces1 in all cases where foci of medium intensity have to be employed1 and where it is desired to arrange several lamps in the same circuit4--,la ,nature4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b--,,regulating ,,mechanism4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,american ,,pottery ,,and ,,glassware ,,reporter4 ,,aluminum--,,its ,,properties1 ,,cost1 ,,and ,,uses4 ,aluminum is a shining1 white1 sonorous metal1 having a shade between silver and platinum4 ,it is a very light metal1 being lighter than glass and only about one-fourth as heavy as silver of the same bulk4 ,it is very malleable and ductile1 and is remarkable for its resistance to oxidation1 being unaffected by moist or dry air1 or by hot or cold water4 ,sulphureted hydrogen gas1 which so readily tarnishes silver1 forming a black film on the surface1 has no action on this metal4 ,next to silica1 the oxide of aluminum 7alumina7 forms1 in combination1 the most abundant constituent of the crust of the earth 7hydrated silicate of alumina1 clay74 ,common alum is sulphate of alumina combined with another sulphate1 as potash1 soda1 etc4 ,it is much used as a mordant in dyeing and calico printing1 also in tanning4 ,aluminum is of great value in mechanical dentistry1 as1 in addition to its lightness and strength1 it is not affected by the presence of sulphur in the food--as by eggs1 for instance4 ,dr4 ,fowler1 of ,yarmouthport1 ,mass41 obtained patents for its combination with vulcanite as applied to dentistry and other uses4 ,it resists sulphur in the process of vulcanization in a manner which renders it an efficient and economical substitute for platinum or gold4 ,aluminum is derived from the oxide alumina1 which is the principal constituent of common clay4 ,lavoissier1 a celebrated ,french chemist1 first suggested the existence of the metallic bases of the earths and alkalies1 which fact was demonstrated twenty years thereafter by ,sir ,humphry ,davy1 by eliminating potassium and sodium from their combinations2 and afterward by the discovery of the metallic bases of baryta1 strontium1 and lime4 ,the earth alumina resisting the action of the voltaic pile and the other agents then used to induce decomposition1 twenty years more passed before the chloride was obtained by ,oerstadt1 by subjecting alumina to the action of potassium in a crucible heated over a spirit lamp4 ,the discovery of aluminum was at last made by ,wohler in #ahbg1 who succeeded in #ahdf in obtaining minute globules or beads of this metal by heating a mixture of chloride of alumina and sodium4 ,deville afterward conducted some experiments in obtaining this metal at the expense of ,napoleon ,,iii41 who subscribed #a1ejj1 and was rewarded by the presentation of two bars of aluminum4 ,the process of manufacture was afterward so simplified that in #aheg its price at ,paris was about two dollars an ounce4 ,it was at first manufactured from common clay1 which contains about one-fourth its weight of aluminum1 but in #ahee ,rose announced to the scientific world that it could be obtained from a material called cryolite1 found in ,greenland in large quantities1 imported into ,germany under the name of mineral soda1 and used as a washing soda and in the manufacture of soap4 ,it consists of a double fluoride of aluminum1 and only requires to be mixed with an excess of sodium and heated1 when the mineral aluminum at once separates4 ,its cost of manufacture is given in this estimate for one pound of metal3 #af lb4 of cryolite at #h cents per pound1 #a4bh3 #b lb4 metallic sodium at about #bf cents per pound1 #gj cents2 flux and cost of reduction1 #b4jb2 total1 #d4 ,aluminum is used largely in the manufacture of cheap jewelry by making a hard1 gold-colored alloy with copper1 called aluminum bronze1 consisting of #ij per cent4 of copper and #aj per cent4 of aluminum4 ,like iron1 it does not amalgamate directly with mercury1 nor is it readily alloyed with lead1 but many alloys with other metals1 as copper1 iron1 gold1 etc41 have been made with it and found to be valuable combinations4 ,one part of it to #ajj parts of gold gives a hard1 malleable alloy of a greenish gold color1 and an alloy of iron and aluminum does not oxidize when exposed to a moist atmosphere4 ,it has also been used to form a metallic coating upon other metals1 as copper1 brass1 and ,german silver1 by the electro-galvanic process4 ,copper has also been deposited1 by the same process1 upon aluminum plates to facilitate their being rolled very thin2 for unless the metal be pure1 it requires to be annealed at each passage through the rolls1 and it is found that its flexibility is greatly increased by rolling4 ,to avoid the bluish white appearance1 like zinc1 ,dr4 ,stevenson ,mc,adam recommends immersing the article made from aluminum in a heated solution of potash1 which will give a beautiful white frosted appearance1 like that of frosted silver4 ,f4,w4 ,gerhard obtained a patent in #ahef1 in ,england1 for an improved means of obtaining aluminum metal1 and the adaptation thereof to the manufacture of certain useful articles4 ,powdered fluoride of aluminum is placed alone or in combination with other fluorides in a closed furnace1 heated to a red heat1 and exposed to the action of hydrogen gas1 which is used as a reagent in the place of sodium4 ,a reverberating furnace is used by preference4 ,the fluoride of aluminum is placed in shallow trays or dishes1 each dish being surrounded by clean iron filings placed in suitable receptacles2 dry hydrogen gas is forced in1 and suitable entry and exit pipes and stop-cocks are provided4 ,the hydrogen gas1 combining with the fluoride1 forms hydrofluoric acid1 which is taken up by the iron and is thereby converted into fluoride of iron4 ,the resulting aluminum remains in a metallic state in the bottom of the trays containing the fluoride1 and may be used for a variety of manufacturing and ornamental purposes4 ,the most important alloy of aluminum is composed of aluminum #aj1 copper #ij4 ,it possesses a pale gold color1 a hardness surpassing that of bronze1 and is susceptible of taking a fine polish4 ,this alloy has found a ready market1 and1 if less costly1 would replace red and yellow brass4 ,its hardness and tenacity render it peculiarly adapted for journals and bearings4 ,its tensile strength is #ajj1jjj lb41 and when drawn into wire1 #abh1jjj lb41 and its elasticity is one-half that of wrought iron4 ,general ,morin believes this alloy to be a perfect chemical combination1 as it exhibits1 unlike the gun metal1 a most complete homogeneousness1 its preparation being also attended by a great development of heat1 not seen in the manufacture of most other alloys4 ,the specific gravity of this alloy is #g4g4 ,it is malleable and ductile1 may be forged cold as well as hot1 but is not susceptible of rolling2 it may1 however1 be drawn into tubes4 ,it is extremely tough and fibrous4 ,aluminum bronze1 when exposed to the air1 tarnishes less quickly than either silver1 brass1 or common bronze1 and less1 of course1 than iron or steel4 ,the contact of fatty matters or the juice of fruits does not result in the production of any soluble metallic salt1 an immunity which highly recommends it for various articles for table use4 ,the uses to which aluminum bronze is applicable are various4 ,spoons1 forks1 knives1 candle-sticks1 locks1 knobs1 door-handles1 window fastenings1 harness trimmings1 and pistols are made from it2 also objects of art1 such as busts1 statuettes1 vases1 and groups4 ,in ,france1 aluminum bronze is used for the eagles or military standards1 for armor1 for the works of watches1 as also watch chains and ornaments4 ,for certain parts1 such as journals of engines1 lathe-head boxes1 pinions1 and running gear1 it has proved itself superior to all other metals4 ,hulot1 director of the ,imperial postage stamp manufactory in ,paris1 uses it in the construction of a punching machine4 ,it is well known that the best edges of tempered steel become very generally blunted by paper4 ,this is even more the case when the paper is coated with a solution of gum arabic and then dried1 as in the instance of postage stamp sheets4 ,the sheets are punched by a machine the upper part of which moves vertically and is armed with #cjj needles of tempered steel1 sharpened in a right angle4 ,at every blow of the machine they pass through the holes in the lower fixed piece1 which correspond with the needles1 and perforate five sheets at every blow4 ,hulot now substitutes this piece by aluminum bronze4 ,each machine makes daily #abj1jjj blows1 or #ahj1jjj1jjj perforations1 and it has been found that a cushion of the aluminum alloy was unaffected after some months' use1 while one of brass is useless after one day4 ,various formul are given for the production of alloys of aluminum1 but they are too numerous and intricate to enter into here4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,determination ,,of ,,potassa ,,in ,,manures4 ,by ,m4,e4 ,,dreyfus4 ,the method generally adopted for the determination of potassa in manures1 i4 e41 the direct incineration of the sample1 may in certain cases occasion considerable errors in consequence of the volatilization of a portion of the potassium products4 ,to avoid this inconvenience1 the author proposes a preliminary treatment of the manure with sulphuric acid at #a4hde sp4 gr41 to convert potassium nitrate and chloride into the fixed sulphate4 ,the sulphuric acid attacks the manure energetically1 and much facilitates the incineration1 which may be effected at a dark red heat4 ,the ignited portion 7#aj grms47 is exhausted with boiling distilled water acidulated with hydrochloric acid1 and the filtrate1 when cold1 is made up to #ejj c4 c4 ,of this solution #ej c c41 representing #a grm4 of the sample1 are taken1 and1 after being heated until close upon ebullition1 baryta-water is added until a strong alkaline reaction is obtained4 ,the sulphuric and phosphoric acids1 alumina1 magnesia1 etc1 are thus precipitated4 ,the filtrate is heated to a boil1 and mixed with ammonia and ammonium carbonate1 to precipitate the excess of baryta in solution4 ,the last traces of lime are eliminated by means of a few drops of ammonium oxalate4 ,the filtrate is evaporated down on the water-bath1 and the ammoniacal salts are expelled by carefully raising the temperature to dull redness4 ,after having taken up the residue in distilled water it is treated with platinum chloride1 and the potassium chloro-platinate obtained is reduced with oxalic acid4 ,the quantity of potassa present in the manure can be calculated from the weight of platinum obtained4--,bull4 de la ,soc4 ,chim4 de ,paris4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,origin ,,and ,,relations ,,of ,,the ,,carbon ,,minerals4 ,footnote3 ,read before the ,new ,york ,academy of ,sciences1 ,february #f1 #ahhb4 ,by ,j4,s4 ,,newberry4 ,what are called the carbon minerals--peat1 lignite1 coal1 graphite1 asphalt1 petroleum1 etc4--are1 properly speaking1 not minerals at all1 as they are organic substances1 and have no definite chemical composition or crystalline forms4 ,they are1 in fact1 chiefly the products or phases of a progressive and inevitable change in plant-tissue1 which1 like all organic matter1 is an unstable compound and destined to decomposition4 ,in virtue of a mysterious and inscrutable force which resides in the microscopic embryo of the seed1 a tree begins its growth4 ,for a brief interval1 this growth is maintained by the prepared food stored in the cotyledons1 and this suffices to produce and to bring into functional activity--some root-fibrils below and leaves above1 with which the independent and self-sustained life of the individual begins4 ,henceforward1 perhaps for a thousand years1 this life goes on1 active in summer and dormant in winter1 absorbing the sunlight as a motive power which it controls and guides4 ,its instruments are the discriminating cells at the extremities of the root-fibrils1 which search for1 select1 and absorb the crude aliment adapted to the needs of the plant to which they belong1 and the chlorophyl cells--the lungs and stomach of the tree--in the leaves4 ,during all the years of the growth of the plant1 these organs are mainly occupied in breaking the strongly riveted bonds that unite oxygen and carbon in carbonic acid2 appropriating the carbon and driving off most of the oxygen4 ,in the end1 if the tree is1 e4 g41 a ,sequoia1 some hundreds of tons of solid1 organized tissue have been raised into a column hundreds of feet in height1 in opposition to the force of gravitation and to the affinities of inorganic chemistry4 ,the time comes1 however1 sooner or later1 when the power which has created and the life that has pervaded this wonderful structure abandon it4 ,the affinities of inorganic chemistry immediately reassert themselves1 in ordinary circumstances rapidly tearing down the ephemeral fabric4 ,the disintegration of organic tissue1 when deserted by the force which has animated and preserved it1 gives rise to the phenomena which form the theme of this paper4 ,most animal-tissue decomposes with great rapidity1 and plant tissue1 when not protected1 soon decays4 ,this decay is essentially oxidation1 since its final result is the restoration to the atmosphere of carbonic acid1 which is broken up in plant-growth by the appropriation of its carbon4 ,hence it is a kind of combustion1 although this term is more generally applied to very rapid oxidation1 with the evolution of sensible light and heat4 ,but1 whether the process goes on rapidly or slowly1 the same force is evolved that is absorbed in the growth of plant-tissue2 and by accelerating and guiding its evolution1 we are able to utilize this force in the production at will of heat1 light1 and their correlatives1 chemical affinity1 motive power1 electricity1 and magnetism4 ,the decomposition of plants may1 however1 be more or less retarded1 and it then takes the form of a destructive distillation1 the constituents reacting upon each other1 and forming temporary combinations1 part of which are evolved1 and part remain behind4 ,water is the great extinguisher of this as of the more rapid oxidation that we call combustion2 and the decomposition of plant-tissue under water is extremely slow1 from the partial exclusion of oxygen4 ,buried under thick and nearly impervious masses of clay1 where the exclusion of oxygen is still more nearly complete1 the decomposition is so far retarded that plant-tissue1 which is destroyed by combustion almost instantaneously1 and if exposed to the elements--moisture with a free access of oxygen--decays in a year or two1 may be but partially consumed when millions of years have passed4 ,the final result is1 however1 inevitable1 and always the same1 viz41 the oxidation and escape of the organic mutter1 and the concentration of the inorganic matter woven into its composition--in it1 but not of it--forming what we call the ash of the plant4 ,since the decomposition of organic matter commences the instant it is abandoned by the creative and conservative vital force1 and proceeds uninterruptedly1 whether slowly or rapidly1 to the final result1 it is evident that each moment in the progress of this decomposition presents us with a phase of structure and composition different from that which preceded and from that which follows it4 ,hence the succession of these phases forms a complete sliding scale1 which is graphically shown in the following diagram1 where the organic constituents of plant tissue--carbon1 hydrogen1 oxygen1 and nitrogen--appear gradually diminishing to extinction1 while the ash remains nearly constant1 but relatively increasing1 till it is the sole representative of the fabric4 ,illustration3 ,,diagram ,,showing ,,the ,,genetic ,,relations ,,of ,,the ,,carbon ,,minerals4 ,we may cut this triangle of residual products where we please1 and by careful analysis determine accurately the chemical composition of a section at this point1 and we may please ourselves with the illusion1 as many chemists have done1 that the definite proportions found represent the formula of a specific compound2 but an adjacent section above or below would show a different composition1 and so in the entire triangle we should find an infinite series of formulae1 or rather no constant formulae at all4 ,we should also find that the slice1 taken at any point while lying in the laboratory or undergoing chemical treatment1 would change in composition1 and become a different substance4 ,in the same way we can snatch a brand from the fire at any stage of its decomposition1 or analyze a decaying tree trunk during any month of its existence1 and thus manufacture as many chemical formulae as we like1 and give them specific names2 but it is evident that this is child's play1 not science4 ,the truth is1 the slowly decomposing tissue of the plants of past ages has given us a series of phases which we have grouped under distinct names1 and we have called one group peat1 one lignite1 another coal1 another anthracite1 and another graphite4 ,we have spaced off the scale1 and called all within certain lines by a common name2 but this does not give us a common composition for all the material within these lines4 ,hence we see that any effort to define or describe coal1 lignite1 or anthracite accurately must be a failure1 because neither has a fixed composition1 neither is a distinct substance1 but simply a conventional group of substances which form part of an infinite and indivisible series4 ,but this sliding scale of solid compounds1 which we designate by the names given above1 is not the only product of the natural and spontaneous distillation of plant tissue4 ,part of the original organic mass remains1 though constantly wasting1 to represent it2 another part escapes1 either completely oxidized as carbonic acid and water1 or in a volatile or liquid form1 still retaining its organic character1 and destined to future oxidation1 known as carbureted hydrogen1 olefiant gas1 petroleum1 etc4 ,hence1 in the decomposition of vegetable tissue1 two classes of resultant compounds are formed1 one residual and the other evolved2 and the genesis and relation of the carbon minerals may be accurately shown by the following diagram3 ,,plant ,,tissue ,residual ,products ,evolved ,products ,peat4 ,lignite4 ,carbonic ,acid4 ,bitumious ,coal4 ,carbonic ,oxide4 ,carbureted ,hydrogen1 etc4 ,semi-bitumious ,water4 ,maltha4 ,anthracite4 ,asphalt etc4 ,graphitie ,anthracite4 ,petro- leum ,asphaltic ,coal4 ,graphite4 ,asphaltic ,anthracite4 ,ash4 ,graphite4 ,,note4--,in this diagram1 the vertical line connecting the names of the residual products 7and of the derivatives of petroleum7 indicates that each succeeding one is produced by further alteration from that which precedes it1 and not independently4 ,also1 the arrangement of the braces is designed to show that any or all of the evolved products are given off at each stage of alteration4 ,the theory here proposed has not been evolved from my inner consciousness1 but has grown from careful study1 through many years1 of facts in the field4 ,a brief sketch of the evidence in favor of it is all that we have space for here4 ,,residual ,,products4 ,peat4--,dry plant-tissue consists of about #ej per cent1 of carbon1 #dd per cent1 of oxygen1 with a little nitrogen1 and #f per cent4 of hydrogen4 ,in a peat-bog1 we find the upper part of the scale represented above very well shown3 plants are growing on the surface with the normal composition of cellulose4 ,the first stratum of peat consists of browned and partially decomposed plant-tissue1 which is found to have lost perhaps #bj per cent4 of the components of wood1 and to have acquired an increasing percentage of carbon4 ,as we descend in the peat1 it becomes more homogeneous and darker until at the bottom of the marsh ten or twenty feet from the surface1 we have a black1 carbonaceous paste1 which1 when dried1 resembles some varieties of coal1 and approaches them in composition4 ,it has lost half the substance of the original plant1 and shows a marked increase in the relative proportion of carbon4 ,lignite4--,each inch in vertical thickness of the peat-bog represents a phase in the progressive change from wood-tissue to lignite1 using this term with its common signification to indicate1 not necessarily carbonized ligneous tissue1 but plant-tissue that belongs to a past though modern geological age--i4e41 ,tertiary1 ,cretaceous1 ,jurassic1 or ,triassic4 ,these lignites or modern coals are only peat beds which have been buried for a longer or shorter time under clay1 sand1 or solidified rock1 and have progressed farther or less far on the road to coal4 ,as with peats1 so with lignites1 we find that at different geological levels they exhibit different stages of this distillation--the ,tertiary lignites being usually distinguished without difficulty by the presence of a larger quantity of combined water and oxygen1 and a less quantity of carbon1 than the ,cretaceous coals1 and these in turn differ in the same respects from the ,triassic4 ,all the coals of the ,tertiary and ,mesozoic ages are grouped under one name2 but it is evident that they are as different from each other as the new and spongy from the old and well-rotted peat in the peat-bog4 ,coal4--,by mere convention1 we call the peat which accumulated in the ,carboniferous age by the name of bituminous coal2 and an examination of the ,carboniferous strata in different countries has shown that the peat-beds formed in the ,carboniferous age1 though varying somewhat1 like others1 with the kind of vegetation from which they were derived1 have a common character by which they may be distinguished from the more modern coals2 containing less water1 less oxygen1 and more carbon1 and usually exhibiting the property of coking1 which is rare in coals of later date4 ,though there is great diversity in the ,carboniferous coals1 and it would be absurd to express their composition by a single formula1 it may be said that1 over the whole world1 these coals have characteristics1 as a group1 by which they can be recognized1 the result of the slow decomposition of the tissue of plants which lived in the ,carboniferous age1 and which have1 by a broad and general change1 approximated to a certain phase in the spontaneous distillation of plant-tissue4 ,an experienced geologist will not fail to refer to their proper horizon a group of coals of ,carboniferous age any more than those of the ,cretaceous or ,tertiary4 ,anthracite--,in the ages anterior to the ,carboniferous1 the quantity of land vegetation was apparently not sufficient to form thick and extensive beds of peat2 but the remains of plant-tissue are contained in all the older formations1 though there only as anthracite or graphite--the last two groups of residual products4 ,of these we have examples in the beds of graphite in the ,laurentian rocks of ,canada1 and of anthracite of the lower ,silurian strata of ,upper ,church and ,kilnaleck1 ,ireland4 ,from these facts it is apparent that the carbon series is graded geologically1 that is1 by the lapse of time during which plant-tissue has been subjected to this natural and spontaneous distillation4 ,but we have better evidence than this of the derivation of one from another of the groups of residual products which have been enumerated4 ,in many localities1 the coals and lignites of different ages have been exposed to local influences--such as the outbursts of trap-rock1 or the metamorphism of mountain chains--which have hastened the distillation1 and out of known earlier groups have produced the last4 ,for example1 trap outbursts have converted ,tertiary lignites in ,alaska into good bituminous coals2 on ,queen ,charlotte's ,island1 on ,anthracite ,creek1 in southwestern ,colorado1 and at the ,placer ,mountains1 near ,santa ,fe1 ,new ,mexico1 ,cretaceous lignites into anthracite2 those from ,queen ,charlotte's ,island and southwestern ,colorado are as bright1 hard1 and valuable as any from ,pennsylvania4 ,at a little distance from the focus of volcanic action1 the ,cretaceous coals of southwestern ,colorado have been made bituminous and coking1 while at the ,placer ,mountains the same stratum may be seen in its anthracitic and lignitic stages4 ,a still better series1 illustrating the derivation of one form of carbon solids from another1 is furnished by the coals of ,ohio1 ,pennsylvania1 and ,rhode ,island4 ,these are of the same age2 in ,ohio1 presenting the normal composition and physical characters of bituminous coals1 that is1 of plant tissue generally and uniformly descending the scale in the lapse of time from the ,carboniferous age to the present4 ,in the mountains of ,pennsylvania the same coal beds1 somewhat affected by the metamorphism which all the rocks of the ,alleghanies have shared1 have reached the stage of semi-bituminous coals1 where half the volatile constituents have been driven off2 again1 in the anthracite basins of eastern ,pennsylvania1 the distillation further effected has formed from these coals anthracite1 containing only from three to ten per cent4 of volatile matter2 while in the focus of metamorphic action1 at ,newport1 ,rhode ,island1 the ,carboniferous coals have been changed to graphitic anthracite1 that is1 are half anthracite and half graphite4 ,here1 traveling from west to east1 a progressive change is noted1 similar to that which may be observed in making a vertical section of a peat bog1 or in comparing the coals of ,tertiary1 ,mesozoic1 and ,carboniferous age1 only the latter is the continuation and natural sequence of the former series of changes4 ,in the ,laurentian rocks of ,canada are large accumulations of carbonaceous matter1 all of which is graphite1 and that which is universally conceded to be derived from plant-tissue4 ,the oxidation of graphite is artificially difficult1 and in nature's laboratory slow2 but it is inevitable1 as we see in the decomposition of its outcrops and the blanching of exposed surfaces of clouded marbles1 where the coloring is graphite4 ,thus the end is reached1 and by observations in the field1 the origin and relationship of the different carbon solids derived from organic tissue are demonstrated4 ,it only remains to be said1 in regard to them1 that all the changes enumerated may be imitated artificially1 and that the stages of decomposition which we have designated by the names graphite1 anthracite1 coal1 lignite1 are not necessary results of the decomposition of plant-tissue4 ,a fallen tree may slowly consume away1 and all its carbonaceous matter may be oxidized and dissipated without exhibiting the phases of lignite1 coal1 etc42 and lignite and coal1 when exposed to air and moisture1 are burned away to ashes in the same manner1 simply because in these cases complete oxidation of the carbon takes place1 particle by particle1 and the mass is not affected as a whole in such a way as to assume the intermediate stages referred to4 ,chemical analysis1 however1 proves that the process is essentially the same1 although the physical results are different4 ,,evolved ,,products4 ,the gradual wasting of plant-tissue in the formation of peat1 lignite1 coal1 etc41 may be estimated as averaging for peat1 #bj to #cj per cent42 lignite1 #cj to #ej per cent42 coal1 #ej to #gj per cent42 anthracite1 #gj to #hj2 and graphite1 #ij per cent4 of the original mass4 ,the evolved products ultimately represent the entire organic portion of the wood--the mineral matter1 or ash1 being the only residuum4 ,these evolved products include both liquids and gases1 and by subsequent changes1 solids are produced from some of them4 ,carbonic acid1 carbonic oxide1 nitrogenous and hydrocarbon gases1 water1 and petroleum1 are mentioned above as the substances which escape from wood-tissue during its decomposition4 ,that all these are eliminated in the decay of vegetable and animal structures is now generally conceded by chemists and geologists1 although there is a wide difference of opinion as to the nature of the process4 ,it has been claimed that the evolved products enumerated above are the results of the primary decomposition of organic matter1 and never of further changes in the residual products2 i4e41 that in the breaking-up of organic tissue1 variable quantities of coal1 anthracite1 petroleum1 marsh gas1 etc41 are formed1 but that these are never derived1 the one from the other4 ,this opinion is1 however1 certainly erroneous1 and the formation of any or all the evolved products may take place throughout the entire progress of the decomposition4 ,marsh gas and carbonic acid are seen escaping from the surface of pools where recent vegetable matter is submerged1 and they are also eliminated in the further decomposition of peat1 lignite1 coal1 and carbonaceous shale4 ,fire damp and choke-damp1 common names for the gases mentioned above1 are produced in large quantities in the mines where ,tertiary or ,cretaceous lignites1 or ,carboniferous coals or anthracites are mined4 ,it has been said that these gases are simply locked up in the interstices of the carbonaceous matter and are liberated in its excavation2 but all who have worked coal mines know that such accumulations are not sufficient to supply the enormous and continuous flow which comes from all parts of the mass penetrated4 ,we have ample proof1 moreover1 that coal1 when exposed to the air1 undergoes a kind of distillation1 in which the evolution of carbonic acid and hydrocarbon gases is a necessary and prominent feature4 ,the gas makers know that if their coal is permitted to lie for months or years after being mined1 it suffers serious deterioration1 yielding a less and less quantity of illuminating gas with the lapse of time4 ,so coking coals are rendered dry1 non-caking1 and valueless for this purpose by long exposure4 ,carbureted hydrogen1 olefiant gas1 etc41 are constant associates of the petroleum of springs or wells1 and this escape of gas and oil has been going on in some localities1 without apparent diminution1 for two or three thousand years4 ,we can only account for the persistence of this flow by supposing that it is maintained by the gradual distillation of the carbonaceous masses with which such evolutions of gas or of liquid hydro-carbons are always connected4 ,if it were true that carbureted hydrogen and petroleum are produced only from the primary decomposition of organic tissue1 it would be inevitable that at least the elastic gases would have escaped long since4 ,oil wells which have been nominally exhausted--that is1 from which the accumulations of centuries in rock reservoirs have been pumped--and therefore have been abandoned1 have in all cases been found to be slowly replenished by a current and constant secretion1 apparently the product of an unceasing distillation4 ,in the valley of the ,cumberland1 about ,burkesville1 one of the oil regions of the country1 the gases escaping from the equivalent of the ,utica shale accumulate under the plates of impervious limestone above until masses of rock and earth1 hundreds of tons in weight1 are sometimes thrown out with great violence4 ,unless these gases had been produced by comparatively recent distillation1 such explosions could not occur4 ,in opening a coal mine on a hillside1 the first traces of the coal seam are found in a dark stain in the superficial clay2 then a substance like rotten wood is reached1 from which all the volatile constituents have escaped4 ,these appear1 however1 later1 and continue to increase as the mine is deepened1 until under water or a heavy covering of rock the coal attains its normal physical and chemical characters4 ,here it is evident that the coal has undergone a long-continued distillation1 which must have resulted in the constant production of carbonic acid and carbureted hydrogen4 ,a line of perennial oil and gas springs marks the outcrop of every great stratum of carbonaceous matter in the country4 ,of these1 the most considerable and remarkable are the bituminous shales of the ,silurian 7,utica shale71 of the ,devonian 7,hamilton and ,huron shales71 the ,carboniferous1 etc4 ,here the carbonaceous constituent 7#aj to #bj per cent47 is disseminated through a great proportion of inorganic material1 clay and sand1 and seems1 both from the nature of the materials which furnished it--cellular plants and minute animal organisms--and its dissemination1 to be specially prone to spontaneous distillation4 ,the ,utica shale is the lowest of these great sheets of carbonaceous matter1 and that supplies the hydro-carbon gases and liquids which issue from the earth at ,collingwood1 ,canada1 and in the valley of the ,cumberland4 ,the next carbonaceous sheet is formed by the great bituminous shale beds of the upper ,devonian1 which underlie and supply the oil wells in western ,pennsylvania4 ,in some places the shale is several hundred feet in thickness1 and contains more carbonaceous matter than all the overlying coal strata4 ,the outcrop of this formation1 from central ,new ,york to ,tennessee1 is conspicuously marked by gas springs1 the flow from which is apparently unfailing4 ,petroleum is scarcely less constant in its connection with these carbonaceous rocks than carbureted hydrogen1 and it only escapes notice from the little space it occupies4 ,the two substances are so closely allied that they must have a common origin1 and they are1 in fact1 generated simultaneously in thousands of localities4 ,during the oil excitement of some years since1 when the whole country was hunted over for oil sign1 in many lagoons1 from which bubbles of marsh-gas were constantly escaping1 films of genuine petroleum were found on the surface2 and as the underlying strata were barren of oil1 this could only have been derived from the decaying vegetable tissue below4 ,in the ,bay of ,marquette1 two or three miles north of the town1 where the shore is a peat bog underlain by ,archan rocks1 ,i have seen bubbles of carbureted hydrogen rising in great numbers attended by drops of petroleum which spread as iridescent films on the surface4 ,the remarks which have been made in regard to the heterogeneous nature of the solid hydrocarbons apply with scarcely less force to the gaseous and liquid products of vegetable decomposition4 ,the gases which escape from marshes contain carbonic acid1 a number of hydrocarbon gases 7or the materials out of which they may be composed in the process of analysis71 and finally a larger or smaller volume of nitrogenous gas4 ,it is possible that the elimination of these gases takes the form of fractional distillation1 and definite compounds may be formed directly from the wood-tissue or its derivatives1 and mingle as they escape4 ,this is1 however1 not certain1 for the gases1 as we find them1 are always mixtures and never pure4 ,in the liquid evolved products1 the petroleums1 this is emphatically true1 for we combine under this name fluids which vary greatly in both their physical and chemical characters2 some are light and ethereal1 others are thick and tarry2 some are transparent1 some opaque2 some red1 some brown1 others green2 some have an offensive and others an agreeable odor2 some contain asphalt in large quantity1 others paraffine1 etc4 ,thus they form a heterogeneous assemblage of liquid hydrocarbons1 of which naphtha and maltha may be said to form the extremes1 and which have little in common1 except their undefinable name4 ,the causes of these differences are but imperfectly understood1 but we know that they are in part dependent on the nature of the organic material that has furnished the petroleums1 and in part upon influences affecting them after their formation4 ,for example1 the oil which saturates the ,niagara limestone at ,chicago1 and--which is undoubtedly indigenous in this rock1 and probably of animal origin1 is black and thick2 that from ,enniskillen1 ,canada1 is also black1 has a vile odor1 probably in virtue of sulphur compounds1 and1 we have reason to believe1 is derived from animal matter4 ,the oils of northwestern ,pennsylvania are mostly brown1 sometimes green by reflected light1 and have a pungent and characteristic odor4 ,these are undoubtedly derived from the ,hamilton shales1 which contain ten or twenty per cent1 of carbonaceous matter1 apparently produced from the decomposition of sea-weeds1 since these are in places exceedingly abundant1 and nearly all other fossils are absent4 ,the oils of ,italy1 though varying much in appearance1 have usually an ethereal odor that is rather agreeable2 they are of ,tertiary age4 ,the oils of ,japan1 differing much among themselves1 have as1 a common character an odor quite different from the ,pennsylvania oils4 ,so the petroleums of the ,caspian1 of ,india1 ,california1 etc41 occurring at different geological horizons1 exhibit a diversity of physical and chemical characters which may be fairly supposed to depend upon the material from which they have been distilled4 ,the oils in the same region1 however1 are found to exhibit a series of differences which are plainly the result of causes operating upon them after their production4 ,near the surface1 they are thicker and darker2 below1 and near the carbonaceous mass from which they have been generated1 they are of lighter gravity and color4 ,we find1 in limited quantity1 oils which are nearly white and may be used in lamps without refining--which have been refined1 in fact1 in ,nature's laboratory4 ,others1 that are reddish yellow by transmitted light1 sometimes green by reflected light1 are called amber oils2 these also occur in small quantity1 and1 as ,i am led to believe1 have acquired their characteristics by filtration through masses of sandstone4 ,whatever the variety of petroleum may be1 if exposed for a long time to the air it undergoes a spontaneous distillation1 in which gases and vapors1 existing or formed1 escape1 and solid residues are left4 ,the nature of these solids varies with the petroleums from which they come1 some producing asphaltum1 others paraffine1 others ozokerite1 and so on through a long list of substances1 which have received distinct names as mineral species1 though rarely1 if ever1 possessing a definite and invariable composition4 ,the change of petroleum to asphalt may be witnessed at a great number of localities4 ,in ,canada1 the black asphaltic oil forms by its evaporation great sheets of hard or tarry asphalt1 called gum beds1 around the oil-springs4 ,in the far ,west are numerous springs of petroleum1 which are known to the hunters as tar springs1 because of the accumulations about them of the products of the evaporation and oxidation of petroleum to tar or asphalt4 ,certain less common oils yield ozokerite as a solid1 and considerable accumulations of this are known in ,galicia and ,utah4 ,natural paraffine is less abundant1 and yet in places it occurs in considerable quantity4 ,asphalt is the common name for the solid residue from the evaporation and oxidation of petroleum2 and large accumulations of this substance are known in many parts of the world1 perhaps the most noted of all being that of the ,pitch ,lake4 of the ,island of ,trinidad2 there1 as everywhere else1 the derivation of asphalt from petroleum is obvious1 and traceable in all stages4 ,the asphalts1 then1 have a common history in this1 that they are produced by the evaporation and oxidation of petroleum4 ,but it should also be said that they share the diversity of character of petroleums1 and the term asphalt represents a group of substances of which the physical characters and chemical composition differ greatly in virtue of their derivation1 and also differ from changes which they are constantly undergoing4 ,thus at the ,pitch ,lake in ,trinidad1 the central portion is a tarry petroleum1 near the sides a plastic asphalt1 and finally that which is of almost rock-like solidity4 ,hence we see that the solid residues from petroleum are unstable compounds like the coals and lignites1 and in virtue of their organic nature are constantly undergoing a series of changes of which the final term is combustion or oxidation4 ,from these facts we might fairly infer that asphalts formed in geological ages anterior to the present would exhibit characters resulting from still further distillation2 that they would be harder and drier1 i4e41 containing less volatile ingredients and more fixed carbon4 ,such is1 in fact1 the case2 and these older asphalts are represented by ,grahamite1 ,albertite1 etc41 which ,i have designated as asphaltic coals4 ,these are found in fissures and cavities in rocks of various ages1 which have been more or less disturbed1 and usually in regions where springs of petroleum now exist4 ,the ,albertite fills fissures in ,carboniferous rocks in ,new ,brunswick1 on a line of disturbance and near oil-springs4 ,precisely the same may be said of the ,grahamite of ,west ,virginia4 ,it fills a vertical fissure1 which was cut through the sandstones and shales of the coal-measures2 in the sandstones it remained open1 in the shales it has been closed by the yielding of the rock4 ,the ,grahamite fills the open fissure in the sandstone1 and was plainly introduced when in a liquid state4 ,in the vicinity are oil springs1 and it is on an axis of disturbance4 ,from near ,tampico1 ,mexico1 ,i have received a hydrocarbon solid--essentially ,grahamite1 asphalt1 and petroleum4 ,these are described as occurring near together1 and evidently represent phases of different dates in the same substance4 ,i have collected asphaltic coals1 very similar to ,grahamite and ,albertite in appearance and chemical composition1 in ,colorado and ,utah1 where they occur with the game associates as at ,tampico4 ,i have found at ,canajoharie1 ,new ,york1 in cavities in the lead-veins which rut the ,utica shale1 a hydrocarbon solid which must have infiltrated into these cavities as petroleum1 but which1 since the remote period when the fissures were formed1 has been distilled until it is now anthracite4 ,similar anthracitic asphalt or asphaltic anthracite is common in the ,calciferous sand-rock in ,herkimer ,county1 ,new ,york1 where it is associated with1 and often contained in1 the beautiful crystals of quartz for which the locality is famous4 ,here the same phase of distillation is reached as in the coke residuum of the petroleum stills4 ,again1 in some crystalline limestones1 detached scales or crystals of graphite occur1 which are undoubtedly the product of the complete distillation of liquid hydrocarbons with which the rock was once impregnated4 ,the remarkable purity of such graphite is the natural result of its mode of formation1 and such cases resemble the occurrence of graphite in cast iron and basalt4 ,the black clouds and bands which stain many otherwise white marbles are generally due to specks of graphite1 the residue of hydrocarbons which once saturated the rock4 ,some limestones are quite black from the carbonaceous matter they contain 7,lycoming ,valley1 ,pa41 ,glenn's ,falls1 ,n4 ,y41 and ,collingwood1 ,canada71 and these are sold as black marbles1 but if exposed to heat1 such limestones are blanched by the expulsion of the contained carbon2 usually a residue of anthracite or graphite is left1 forming dark spots or streaks1 as we find in the clouded and banded marbles4 ,finally1 the great work going on in ,nature's laboratory may be closely imitated by art2 the differences in the results being simply the consequence of differing conditions in the experiments4 ,vegetable tissue has been converted artificially into the equivalents of lignite1 coal1 anthracite1 and graphite1 with the emission of vapors1 gases1 and oils closely resembling those evolved in natural processes4 ,so petroleum may be distilled to form asphalt1 and this in turn converted into ,albertite and coke 7i4e41 anthracite74 ,grahamite has been artificially produced from petroleum by ,mr4 ,w4 ,p4 ,jenney4 ,in the preceding remarks1 no effort has been made even to enumerate all the so-called carbon minerals which have been described4 ,this was unnecessary in a discussion of the relations of the more important groups1 and would have extended this article much beyond its prescribed length4 ,those who care to gain a fuller knowledge of the different members of the various groups are referred to the admirable chapter on the ,hydrocarbon ,compounds in ,dana's ,mineralogy4 ,it will1 however1 add to the value of this paper1 if brief mention be made of a few carbon minerals of which the genesis and relations are not generally known1 and in regard to which special interest is felt1 such as the diamond1 jet1 the hydrocarbon jellies1 ,dopplerite1 etc4 ,the diamond is found in the dbris of metamorphic rocks in many countries1 and is probably one of the evolved products of the distillation of organic matter they once contained4 ,under peculiar circumstances it has apparently been formed by precipitation from sulphide of carbon or some other volatile carbon compound by elective affinity4 ,laboratory experiments have proved the possibility of producing it by such a process1 but the artificial crystals are microscopic1 perhaps only because a long time is required to build up those of larger size4 ,jet is a carbonaceous solid which in most cases is a true lignite1 and generally retains more or less of the structure of wood4 ,masses are sometimes found that show no structure1 and these are probably formed from bitumen which has separated from the wood of which it once formed part1 and which it generally saturates or invests4 ,in some cases1 however1 these masses of jet-like substance are plainly the residuum of excrementitious matter voided by fishes or reptiles4 ,these latter are often found in the ,triassic fish-beds of ,connecticut and ,new ,jersey1 and in the ,cretaceous marls of the latter ,state4 ,the discovery of a quantity of hydrocarbon jelly1 recently1 in a peat-bed at ,scranton1 ,pa41 has caused some wonder1 but similar substances 7,dopplerite1 etc47 have been met with in the peat-beds of other countries2 and while the history of the formation of this singular group of hydrocarbons is not yet well understood1 and offers an interesting subject for future research1 we have reason to believe that these jellies have been of common occurrence among the evolved products of the decomposition of vegetable tissue in all ages4 ,the fossil resins--often erroneously called gums--amber1 kauri1 copal1 etc41 though interestingly related to the hydro-carbons enumerated on the preceding pages1 form no essential part of the series1 and demand only the briefest notice here4 ,amber is the resin which exuded from certain coniferous trees that1 in ,tertiary times1 grew abundantly in northern ,europe4 ,the leaves and trunks of these trees have generally perished2 but masses of their resin1 more enduring1 buried in the earth on the shores of the ,baltic1 have in the lapse of time changed physically and chemically1 and have become fitted for the ornamental purposes for which they have been used by all civilized nations4 ,kauri is the resin of ,dammara australis1 a living coniferous tree of ,new ,zealand1 and the gum is dug from the earth on the sites of forests which have now disappeared4 ,copal is a commercial name given to the resins of several different trees1 but the most esteemed1 and indeed the only true copal1 is the product of ,trachylobium ,mozambicense1 a tree which grows along the ,zanzibar coast1 and has left its resin buried in the sands of old raised beaches which it has abandoned4 ,the diversity of character which the fossil resins exhibit shows the complexity of the vital processes in operation in the vegetable kingdom1 and gives probability to the theory that some of the differences we find in the carbon minerals are due to differences in the plants from which they have been derived4 ,the variations in the physical and chemical characters of different coals from the same basin1 and from different parts of the same stratum1 have been sometimes credited to the same cause2 but they are probably in greater degree due to the differences in the conditions under which these varieties have been formed4 ,cannel coal1 as ,i have shown elsewhere 7,amer4 ,jour4 ,science1 ,march1 #aheg71 is completely macerated vegetable tissue which was deposited as carbonaceous mud at the bottom of lagoons in the coal-marshes4 ,caking coals were probably peat1 which accumulated under somewhat uniform conditions1 was constantly saturated with moisture1 and became a comparatively homogeneous and partially gelatinous carbonaceous mass2 while the open-burning coals which show a distinctly laminated structure and consist of layers of pitch-coal1 alternating with bands of mineral charcoal or cannel1 seem to have been formed in alternating conditions1 of more or less moisture1 and the bituminous portions are inclosed in cells or are separated by partitions1 so that the mass does not melt down1 but more or less perfectly holds its form when exposed to heat4 ,the generalities of the origin and relations of the carbon minerals have now been briefly considered2 but a review of the subject would be incomplete without some reference to the theories which have been advanced by others1 that are in conflict with the views now presented4 ,there have always been some who denied the organic nature of the mineral hydrocarbons1 but it has been regarded as a sufficient answer to their theories1 that chemists and geologists are generally agreed in saying that no instances are known of the occurrence in nature of hydrocarbons1 solid1 liquid1 or gaseous1 in which the evidence was not satisfactory that they had been derived from animal or vegetable tissue4 ,a few exceptional cases1 however1 in which chemists and geologists of deserved distinction have claimed the possibility and even probability of the production of marsh gas1 petroleum1 etc41 through inorganic agencies1 require notice4 ,in a paper published in the ,annales de ,chimie et de ,physique1 ,vol4 ,,ix41 p4#dha1 ,m4 ,berthelot attempts to show that the formation of petroleum and carbureted hydrogen from inorganic substances is possible1 if it be true1 as suggested by ,daubre1 that there are vast masses of the alkaline metals--potassium1 sodium1 etc4--deeply buried in the earth1 and at a high temperature1 to which carbonic acid should gain access2 and he demonstrates that1 these premises being granted1 the formation of hydrocarbons would necessarily follow4 ,but it should be said that no satisfactory evidence has ever been offered of the existence of zones or masses of the unoxidized alkaline metals in the earth1 and it is not claimed by ,berthelot that there are any facts in the occurrence of petroleum and carbureted hydrogen in nature which seem to exemplify the chemical action which he simply claims is theoretically possible4 ,berthelot also says that1 in most cases1 there can be no doubt of the organic origin of the hydrocarbons4 ,mendeleeff1 in the ,revue ,scientifique1 #ahgg1 p4 #dji1 discusses at considerable length the genesis of petroleum1 and attempts to sustain the view that it is of inorganic origin4 ,his arguments and illustrations are chiefly drawn from the oil wells of ,pennsylvania and ,canada1 and for the petroleum of these two districts he claims an inorganic origin1 because1 as he says1 there are no accumulations of organic matter below the horizons at which the oils and gases occur4 ,he then goes into a lengthy discussion of the possible and probable source of petroleum1 where1 as in the instances cited1 an organic origin is not possible4 ,it is a sufficient answer to ,m4 ,mendeleeff to say1 that beneath the oil bearing strata of western ,pennsylvania are sheets of bituminous shale1 from one hundred to five hundred feet in thickness1 which afford an adequate1 and it may be proved the true source1 of the petroleum1 and that no petroleum has been found below these shales2 also that the oil-fields of ,canada are all underlain by the ,collingwood shales1 the equivalent of the ,utica carbonaceous shales of ,new ,york1 and that from the out-crops of these shales petroleum and hydrocarbon gases are constantly escaping4 ,with a better knowledge of the geology of the districts he refers to1 he would have seen that the facts in the cases he cites afford the strongest evidence of the organic origin of petroleum4 ,among those who are agreed as to the organic origin of the hydrocarbons1 there is yet some diversity of opinion in regard to the nature of the process by which they have been produced4 ,prof4 ,j4 ,p4 ,lesley has at various times advocated the theory that petroleum is indigenous in the sand-rocks which hold it1 and has been derived from plants buried in them4 7,proc4 ,amer4 ,philos4 ,soc41 ,vol4 ,x41 pp4 #cc1 #ahg1 etc47 ,my own observations do not sanction this view1 as the limited number of plants buried in the sandstones which are now reservoirs of petroleum must always have borne a small proportion in volume to the mass of inorganic matter2 and some of those which are saturated with petroleum are almost completely destitute of the impressions of plants4 ,in all cases where sandstones contain petroleum in quantity1 ,i think it will be found that there are sheets of carbonaceous matter below1 from which carbureted hydrogen and petroleum are constantly issuing4 ,a more probable explanation of the occurrence of petrolem in the sandstones is that they have1 from their porosity1 become convenient receptacles for that which flowed from some organic stratum below4 ,dr4 ,t4 ,sterry ,hunt has regarded limestones1 and especially the ,niagara and corniferous1 as the principal sources of our petroleum2 but1 as ,i have elsewhere suggested1 no considerable flow of petroleum has ever been obtained from the ,niagara limestone1 though at ,chicago and ,niagara ,falls it contains a large quantity of bituminous matter2 also1 that the corniferous limestone which ,dr4 ,hunt has regarded as the source of the oil of ,canada and ,pennsylvania is too thin1 and too barren of petroleum1 or the material out of which it is made1 to justify the inference4 ,the corniferous limestone is never more than fifty or sixty feet thick1 and does not contain even one per cent4 of hydrocarbons2 and in southern ,kentucky1 where oil is produced in large quantity1 this limestone does not exist4 ,that many limestones are more or less charged with petroleum is well known2 and in addition to those mentioned above1 the ,silurian limestone at ,collingwood1 ,canada1 may be cited as an example4 ,as ,i have elsewhere shown1 we have reason to believe that the petroleum here is indigenous1 and has been derived1 in part1 at least1 from animal organisms2 but the limestones are generally compact1 and if cellular1 their cavities are closed1 and the amount of petroleum which1 under any circumstances1 flows from or can be extracted from limestone rock is small4 ,on the other hand1 the bituminous shales which underlie the different oil regions afford an abundant source of supply1 holding the proper relations with the reservoirs that contain the oil1 and are spontaneously and constantly evolving gas and oil1 as may be observed in a great number of localities4 ,for this reason1 while confessing the occurrence of petroleum and asphaltum in many limestones1 ,i am thoroughly convinced that little or none of the petroleum of commerce is derived from them4 ,prof4 ,s4,f4 ,peckham1 who has studied the petroleum field of southern ,california1 attributes the abundant hydrocarbon emanations in that locality to microscopic animals4 ,it is quite possible that this is true in this and other localities1 but the bituminous shales which are evidently the sources of the petroleum of ,pennsylvania1 ,ohio1 ,kentucky1 etc41 generally contain abundant impressions of sea weeds1 and indeed these are almost the only organisms which have left any traces in them4 ,i am inclined1 therefore1 now1 as in my report on the rock oils of ,ohio1 published in #ahfj1 to ascribe the carbonaceous matter of the bituminous shales of ,pennsylvania and ,ohio1 and hence the petroleum derived from them1 to the easily decomposed cellular tissue of alg which have in their decomposition contributed a large percentage of diffused carbonaceous matter to the sediments accumulating at the bottom of the water where they grew4 ,in a recent communication to the ,national ,academy of ,sciences1 ,dr4 ,t4 ,sterry ,hunt has proposed the theory that anthracite is the result of the decomposition of vegetable tissue when buried in porous strata like sandstone2 but an examination of even a few of the important deposits of anthracite in the world will show that no such relationship as he suggests obtains4 ,anthracite may and does occur in sedimentary rocks of varied character1 but1 so far as my observation has extended1 never in quantity in sandstone4 ,in the ,lower ,silurian rocks anthracite occurs1 both in the ,old ,world and in the ,new1 where no metamorphism has affected it1 and where it is simply the normal result of the long continued distillation of plant tissue2 but the anthracite beds which are known and mined in so many countries are the results of the metamorphism of coal-beds of one or another age1 by local outbursts of trap1 or the steaming and baking of the disturbed strata in mountain chains1 numerous instances of which are given on a preceding page4 ,m4 ,mendeleeff1 in his article already referred to1 misled by a want of knowledge of the geology of our oil-fields1 and ascribing the petroleum to an inorganic cause1 connects the production of oil in ,pennsylvania and ,caucasia with the neighboring mountain chains of the ,alleghanies and the ,caucasus2 but in these localities a sufficient amount of organic matter can be found to supply a source for the petroleum1 while the upheaval and loosening of the strata along lines parallel with the axes of elevation has favored the decomposition 7spontaneous distillation7 of the carbonaceous strata4 ,it should be distinctly stated1 also1 that no igneous rocks are found in the vicinity of productive oil-wells1 here or elsewhere1 and there are no facts to sustain the view that petroleum is a volcanic product4 ,in the valley of the ,mississippi1 in ,ohio1 ,illinois1 and ,kentucky1 are great deposits of petroleum1 far removed from any mountain chain or volcanic vent1 and the cases which have been cited of the limited production of hydrocarbons in the vicinity of1 and probably in connection with1 volcanic centers may be explained by supposing that in these cases the petroleum is distilled from sedimentary strata containing organic matter by the proximity of melted rock1 or steam4 ,everything indicates that the distillation which has produced the greatest quantities of petroleum known was effected at a low temperature1 and the constant escape of petroleum and carbureted hydrogen from the outcrops of bituminous shales1 as well as the result of weathering on the shales1 depriving them of all their carbon1 shows that the distillation and complete elimination of the organic matter they contain may take place at the ordinary temperature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,estimation ,,of ,,sulphur ,,in ,,iron ,,and ,,steel4 ,by ,,george ,,craig4 ,for wellnigh two years ,i have been estimating sulphur in iron and steel by a modification of the evolution process1 which consists in passing the evolved gases through an ammoniacal solution of peroxide of hydrogen1 which oxidizes the sulphureted hydrogen to sulphuric acid1 which latter is estimated as usual4 ,the modus operandi is as follows3 ,illustration #ajj grains of the iron or steel are placed in the #aj oz4 flask1 a1 along with oz4 water2 #a oz4 hydrochloric acid are added from the stoppered funnel1 b1 in such quantities at a time as to produce a moderate evolution of gas through the nitrogen bulb1 c1 which contains #a_/h oz4 7#bj vols47 peroxide of hydrogen and oz4 ammonia4 ,the tube1 d1 is to condense the bulk of the hydrochloric acid which distills over during the operation4 ,when all the acid has been added and the evolution of gas becomes sluggish1 heat is applied and the liquid boiled till all action ceases4 ,air is blown through the aparatus for a few minutes and the contents of c and d washed into a small beaker and acidified with hydrochloric acid1 boiled1 barium chloride added1 and the barium sulphate filtered off after standing a short time4 ,a blank experiment must be done with each new lot of peroxide of hydrogen obtained1 which always gives under #j4a barium sulphate with me4 ,the whole operation is finished within two hours1 the usual oxidation process occupying nearly two days2 and the results obtained are invariably slightly higher than by the oxidation processes4 ,until lately ,i have always added excess of chlorate of potash to the residue left in a1 evaporated it nearly to dryness1 diluted1 filtered1 and added chloride of barium to the diluted filtrate1 but only once have ,i obtained a trace of precipitate after standing #dh hours1 and the pig-iron in that case contained #h per cent4 of silicon1 so that all the sulphur is evolved during the process4 ,it has been objected to the evolution process that when the iron contains copper all the sulphur is not evolved1 but theoretically it ought to be evolved whether copper is present or not2 and to test the point ,i fused #c lb4 of ordinary ,scotch pig-iron with some copper for half an hour in a ,fletcher's gas furnace4 ,no copper could be detected in the iron by mere observation with a microscope1 but it gave on analysis #j4bbe per cent4 of copper1 and on estimating the sulphur in it by the above process and by oxidation with chlorate of potash and hydrochloric acid1 using #ajj grains in each case1 and performing blank experiments1 ,i found3 ,by peroxide of hydrogen process #j4jceg per cent4 ,by oxidation 7,k,cl,o#c and ,h,cl7 process1 #j4jcjb so that even in highly cupriferous pig-iron all the sulphur is evolved on treatment with strong hydrochloric acid4--,chem4 ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,air ,,in ,,relation ,,to ,,health4 ,footnote3 ,abstract of a lecture before the ,master ,plumbers' ,association1 ,new ,york1 ,nov4 #b4 #ahhb4 ,by ,prof4 ,c4 ,f4 ,,chandler4 ,it is only about one hundred years since the first important facts were discovered which threw light upon the chemistry of atmosphere4 ,it was in #aggd that ,dr4 ,priestley1 in ,london1 and ,scheele1 in ,sweden1 discovered the vital constituents of the atmosphere--the oxygen gas which supports life4 ,the inert gas1 nitrogen1 had been discovered a year or two before4 ,when we examine our atmosphere1 we find it is composed of oxygen and nitrogen4 ,the nitrogen constitutes no less than #hj per cent1 of the atmosphere2 the remaining #bj percent1 consists of oxygen1 so that the atmosphere consists almost entirely of these two gases1 odorless and colorless and invisible4 ,the atmosphere is1 however1 never free from moisture2 a certain amount of aqueous vapor is always present4 ,the quantity can hardly be stated1 as it varies from day to day and month to month2 it depends upon the temperature and other conditions4 ,then we have the gas commonly called carbonic acid in extremely minute quantities1 about one part in #b1ejj1 or four one-hundredths of one per cent4 ,a small quantity of ammonia and a small quantity of ozone are also present4 ,besides these gases which have been enumerated1 and which play an important part in supporting life in both the kingdoms of nature1 we find a great many solids4 ,every housewife knows how dust settles upon everything about the house4 ,this dust has recently been the subject of most active study1 and it proves to be quite as important as the vital oxygen that actually supports life4 ,when we examine this dust--and it falls everywhere1 not only in the city streets1 but upon the tops of mountains1 upon the deck of the ocean steamer1 and the ,arctic snow--we find some of it does not belong to the earth1 and1 as it is not terrestrial1 we call it cosmical4 ,and when it falls in large pieces we call it a meteorite or shooting star4 ,when the ,challenger crossed the ,atlantic1 and soundings were made in the deep sea1 in the mud that was brought up and examined there were found various little particles that were not terrestrial4 ,they were dust particles that were dropped into the atmosphere of the earth from outer space4 ,then we have terrestrial dust1 and we divide that into mineral and organic4 ,the mineral consists chiefly of clay1 sand1 and1 near the ocean1 salt4 ,then we have organic matter4 ,some of this is dead leaves which have been ground to powder4 ,animal matter has also become dry and reduced to powder1 and we actually find the remains of animals and plants floating upon the atmosphere1 especially in the city4 ,examinations of the dust which had collected upon the basement and higher windows of a ,fifth avenue residence showed that the dust upon the basement floor was chiefly composed of sand4 ,and the higher up ,i went1 the smaller proportion of sand and a larger proportion of animal matter1 so that the dust that blows into our faces is largely decomposing animal substance4 ,but we have a living matter in the atmosphere4 ,we often notice in the summer1 after a rain1 that the ground is yellow4 ,on gathering up the yellow powder and examining it under the microscope1 we find that it consists of pollen4 ,the pollen of rag weed and other plants is supposed to be the cause of hay fever4 ,but we also have something far more important in the germs of certain classes of vegetation4 ,the effects are familiar4 ,if food is put away1 it becomes mouldy4 ,this mould is a peculiar kind of vegetation which is called a fungus1 and the plants fungi4 ,in order for this mould to develop a certain temperature and a certain degree of moisture are necessary4 ,our food1 we say1 decays4 ,now1 what we call decay is really the growth of these fungi4 ,animal and vegetable substances which these fungi seize upon are destroyed4 ,all ordinary fermentations and putrefactions are due to mould fungi1 yeast plants1 or bacteria1 and liquids undergoing these processes carry these fungi and their germs wherever they go4 ,the refuse of the city pollutes the air4 ,you have only to pass along any street to find more or less rubbish4 ,that furnishes the nidus for the growth and development of these germs1 and until we adopt better methods of getting rid of that refuse1 we never shall have the air of this city in the condition that it should be4 ,one of the most constant sources of the pollution of the air in inhabited localities is the decomposition that takes place in the ground4 ,refuse of every kind gets into it4 ,our sewers are leaky1 and putrefaction is constantly going on4 ,the soil down to the limit of the ground water contains a large amount of air4 ,this air1 when the atmospheric pressure in the house is diminished1 is drawn in with such organic impurities as it contains4 ,a cement floor in the cellar is not a protection against this entrance of the ground air1 for the cement is porous to the passage of air1 but a remedy may be found by laying on the cement a covering of coal tar pitch1 in which bricks are set on edge1 the spaces between the bricks are filled with the melted pitch1 and the bricks then covered with coal tar pitch4 ,when the house is building1 the foundation walls should also be similarly coated1 outside as well as inside4 ,such a cellar floor was considered to be absolutely impervious to ground air and moisture4 ,the lecturer had recently laid this floor in his own house with the greatest success4 ,the atmosphere of the entire house is improved1 and the expense is very moderate4 ,another source of the contamination of the air of houses is the heating apparatus4 ,stoves and furnaces1 however well constructed at first1 will1 from the contraction and expansion of the metal1 soon allow the escape of coal gas1 and this danger is greatly increased by the use of dampers in the stove-pipe4 ,when1 to regulate the fire1 the damper in the pipe is closed1 the gases1 having their passage to the chimney cut off1 will escape through any cracks or openings in the stove into the room4 ,prof4 ,chandler1 having kept a record of accidents from this cause1 had accumulated a formidable list of suffocations due to the use of the damper4 ,the danger was now somewhat lessened by providing dampers with perforations in the center1 which allowed the gases to escape when the damper was closed4 ,as regards the maintenance of pure air in houses1 the preference was given to the open fire-place4 ,the hot-air furnace deriving a supply of pure air from out of doors was1 when properly constructed1 a very satisfactory method of heating1 but in city houses the mistake was often made of carrying the cold air duct of the furnace to the front of the house1 where it was exposed to the dust of the streets4 ,it should be taken from the rear end of the house1 and carried some distance above the surface of the yard4 ,it was an excellent expedient to insert in the cold air duct a wire screen to hold a layer of cotton to retain the floating impurities which might enter the air-box4 ,this could be removed from time to time1 and the cotton replaced4 ,steam heating has been objected to by many for reasons in no wise due to the apparatus1 but to neglect in the use of it4 ,the complaint of closeness where steam is used is due to the fact that a room containing a steam radiator can be heated with every door and window closed1 and no fresh air admitted1 while with stoves and open fire-places a certain quantity of fresh air must be admitted to maintain the fire4 ,where radiators are used1 the ventilation of the rooms should1 therefore1 be looked after4 ,again1 the complaint that steam apparatus has an unpleasant odor is due to the fact that the radiators are allowed to become covered with dust1 which is cooked1 and gives rise to the smells complained of4 ,the radiator should be from time to time cleaned4 ,when these precautions are taken1 no means of heating is more satisfactory than steam4 ,sewer gas is another source of contamination2 this is a very indefinite term1 to which formerly many false and exaggerated properties of causing specific diseases were attributed4 ,it is now1 however1 recognized to mean simply the air of sewers1 generally not differing very greatly from common air1 containing a certain proportion of marsh gas1 carbonic acid1 and sulphureted hydrogen1 etc4 ,no one of these gases1 however1 is capable of producing the diseases attributed to sewer gas4 ,careful research has shown that it is the sewage itself1 containing germs of specific disease1 which is added to the air in the sewer by the breaking of bubbles of gas on its surface1 which is the cause of the diseases associated with sewers4 ,an intimate connection is believed to exist between the germs of sewer air and diphtheria1 and probably also between sewer air and scarlet fever4 ,this sewer gas is to be excluded from our houses by proper systems of plumbing1 and to such an extent have these now been perfected1 that there is no objection to having plumbing fixtures in all parts of the house4 ,this opinion has lately been objected to in the ,popular ,science ,monthly1 as it was at a meeting of the ,academy of ,medicine last spring1 but on wholly insufficient grounds4 ,the objectors all insist that a trap will allow sewer gas to pass through it1 and the experiments made at the ,academy of ,medicine showed that sulphureted hydrogen gas1 etc41 would so pass4 ,the advocates of the trap have never denied that the water seal would absorb gases on one side and give them off on the other1 but they do deny that1 in the conditions existing in good plumbing1 such gases will be given off in quantities to do any damage1 and they confidently assert that the germ which is the dangerous element will not pass the seal at all4 ,pumpelly investigated the matter for the ,national ,board of ,health1 and in no instance was he able to make the germ pass the seal of the trap4 ,it is now proposed to set up against the weight of this scientific testimony the results of an investigator in ,chicago1 whose work was at once appropriated as an advertisement by stock jobbing disinfectant companies in a manner which raises a suspicion that the investigation was made in their interest4 ,he described tersely the essentials of good plumbing1 the necessity of a trap on the house drain1 the ventilation of the soil-pipe1 and the ventilation of the trap against siphonage4 ,of the first1 he said that it offered protection to each householder against the entrance into his house of the germs of a contagious disease which passed into the common sewer from the house of a neighbor4 ,were the trap dispensed with1 the contagion in the sewer would have free entrance into the houses connecting with it4 ,prof4 ,chandler1 in conclusion1 alluded to the cordial relations now existing between the ,board of ,health and the majority of the master plumbers of the city4 ,he said that for himself his opinion of the craft had greatly risen during his intimate connection with plumbers the last two years4 ,he thought the majority of the jobs now done in the city are well executed4 ,he believed that the ,board of ,health had not been obliged to proceed against more than eight master plumbers since the new law went into force4 ,he called upon the ,association to adopt a code of ethics1 which should define what an honest plumber can do and cannot do1 and he illustrated his meaning by citing an extraordinary case of fraudulent workmanship which had been recently reported to him4 ,his remarks on this point were greeted with frequent outbursts of applause4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,plantain ,,as ,a ,,styptic4 ,the following abstract of a paper read by ,dr4 ,quinlan at the recent ,british ,pharmaceutical ,congress1 may prove of interest to medical readers in this country1 where the plant mentioned is a common weed3 ,about a year ago ,dr4 ,quinlan had seen the chewed leaves of the ,plantago lanceolata successfully used to stop a dangerous hemorrhage from leech bites in a situation where pressure could not be employed4 ,he had searched out the literature of the subject1 and found that1 although this herb is highly spoken of by ,culpepper and other old writers as a styptic1 and alluded to as such in the plays of ,shakespeare1 its employment seems to have died out4 ,professor ,quinlan described the suitable varieties of plantain1 and exhibited preparations which had been made for him by ,dr4 ,j4 ,evans1 of ,dublin1 ,state apothecary4 ,they dried leaves and powdered leaves1 conserved with glycerine1 for external use2 the juice preserved by alcohol1 as also by glycerine1 for internal use2 and a green extract4 ,he gave an account of the chemistry of the juice1 from which it appeared that it was not a member of the tannin series2 and also described its physiological effect in causing a tendency to stasia in the capillaries of the tail of a goldfish1 examined with a microscopic power of #djj ,x4 ,he regarded its styptic power as partly mechanical and partly physiological4 ,the juice1 in large doses1 he had found useful in internal hemorrhages4 ,the knowledge of the properties of this plant he thought would be useful in cases of emergency1 because it could be obtained in any field and by the most uninstructed persons4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,bacteria4 ,bacteria1 whether significant of disease or decline of health1 are found more or less numerous in everything we eat and drink4 ,the germs or spores of many kinds1 known as termo1 lineola1 tenue1 spirillum1 vibriones1 etc1 exist in almost infinite numbers2 some of the smallest are too small to be seen by the highest powers1 which1 being lodged in all vegetable and animal substances1 spring into life and develop very rapidly under favorable circumstances4 ,they develop most rapidly when decomposition commences1 and seem to indicate the degree or activity of that decomposition1 also hastening the same4 ,they are found most numerous in the feces1 and usually fully developed in the fresh evacuations of persons of all ages4 ,they may be seen plainly under a thin glass with high powers with strong or clear light1 when the material is much diluted with water4 ,these bacteria appear almost as numerously1 yet more slowly1 in urine1 either upon exposure to air or when freshly evacuated1 when the general health of the individual is declining1 or any tendency to decomposition4 ,a diagnosis can be aided very greatly by a study of these bacteria1 as they indicate or determine the vitality1 vigor1 and purity of the system1 whether more or less subject to disease1 even before any signs of disease appear4 ,they seem to preindicate the hold of the life force on the material1 and always appear when that force is broken4 ,their relative quantity found in feces is as a barometric indication of the general health or some particular disturbance1 and it is surprising how very fast they multiply while simply passing the intestines under circumstances favorable for their growth4 ,these forms1 so small1 are important1 because so very numerous1 and their study has been1 perhaps1 avoided by many2 yet they certainly mean something and effect something1 even the non-malignant varieties as mentioned above1 and it is certainly worth while to continue to study their meaning1 even beyond what has already been written by others on the subject4--,j4,m4 ,adams1 in ,the ,microscope4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,soy ,,bean 7,soja hispida47 ,a good deal of attention has lately been directed to this plant in consequence of the enormous extent to which it is cultivated in ,china for the sake of the small seeds which it produces1 and which are known as soy beans4 ,these vary considerably in size1 shape1 and color1 according to the variety of the plant which produces them4 ,they are for the most part about the size and shape of an ordinary field pea1 and1 like the pea1 are of a yellow color2 some1 however1 are of a greenish tint4 ,these seeds contain a large quantity of oil1 which is expressed from them in ,china and used for a variety of purposes4 ,the residue is moulded with a considerable amount of pressure into large circular cakes1 two feet or more across1 and six inches or eight inches thick4 ,this cake is used either for feeding cattle or for manuring the land2 indeed1 a very large trade is done in ,china with bean cake 7as it is always called7 for these purposes4 ,the well-known sauce called soy is also prepared from seeds of this bean4 ,the plant generally known as ,soja hispida is by modern botanists referred to ,glycine soja4 ,it is an erect1 hairy1 herbaceous plant4 ,the leaves are three-parted and the papilionaceous flowers are born in axillary racemes4 ,it is too tender for outdoor cultivation in this country1 but1 has been recommended for extended growth in our colonies as a commercial plant4 ,the plants are readily used from seed4--,j4,r4,f41 in ,the ,garden4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,soy ,,bean4 7,soja ,lispida7 99 99 99 99 99 ,,erica ,,cavendishiana4 ,the plant of which the illustration is given is one of those fine specimens which has made the collection of ,j4 ,lawless1 ,esq41 ,the ,cottage1 ,exeter1 famous all over the south and west of ,england4 ,it is only one specimen among a considerable collection of hard-wooded plants which are cultivated and trained in first rate style by ,mr4 ,george ,cole1 the gardener1 one of the most successful plant growers of the day4 ,the plant was in the winning collection of ,mr4 ,cole exhibited at the late spring show held at ,plymouth4--,the ,gardeners' ,chronicle4 ,illustration3 ,,erica ,,cavendishiana4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,philesia ,,buxifolia4 ,we figure this plant1 not as a novelty1 but for the purpose of showing what a fine thing it is when grown under propitious circumstances4 ,generally1 we see it more or less starved in the greenhouse1 and even when planted out in the winter garden its flowers lack the size and richness of color they attain out-of-doors4 ,it comes from the extreme south of ,south ,america1 which accounts for its hardihood1 and is a near ally of the ,lapageria3 the latter is remarkable for withstanding even the noxious fumes of the copper smelting works in ,chili1 and as the ,philesia has similar tough leaves1 it is probable that it would support the vitiated atmosphere of a town better than most evergreens4 ,in any case1 there is no reasonable doubt but that1 if cultivators would take the necessary pains1 they might select perfectly hardy varieties both of the ,lapageria and of the ,philesia4 ,as it is1 we can only call the ,philesea half-hardy north of the ,thames1 while the ,lapageria is not even that4 ,the curious ,philageria1 raised in ,messrs4 ,veitch's nursery and described and figured in our columns in #ahgb1 p4 #ceh1 is a hybrid raised between the two genera4 ,for the specimen of ,philesia figured we are indebted to ,mr4 ,dartnall4--,the ,gardeners' ,chronicle4 ,illustration3 ,,philesia ,,buxifolia--,,hardy ,,shrub--,,flowers1 ,,rose ,,pink4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,mahogany4 ,the mahogany tree1 says the ,lumber ,world1 is a native of the ,west ,indies1 the ,bahamas1 and that portion of ,central ,america that lies adjacent to the ,bay of ,honduras1 and has also been found in ,florida4 ,it is stated to be of moderately rapid growth1 reaching its full maturity in about two hundred years4 ,full grown1 it is one of the monarchs of tropical ,america4 ,its trunk1 which often exceeds forty feet in length and six in diameter1 and massive arms1 rising to a lofty height1 and spreading with graceful sweep over immense spaces1 covered with beautiful foliage1 bright1 glossy1 light1 and airy1 clinging so long to the spray as to make it almost an evergreen1 present a rare combination of loveliness and grandeur4 ,the leaves are small1 delicate1 and polished like those of the laurel4 ,the flowers are small and white1 or greenish yellow4 ,the fruit is a hard1 woody capsule1 oval1 not unlike the head of a turkey in size and shape1 and contains five cells1 in each of which are inclosed about fifteen seeds4 ,the mahogany tree was not discovered till the end of the sixteenth century1 and was not brought into ,european use till nearly a century later4 ,the first mention of it is that it was used in the repair of some of ,sir ,walter ,raleigh's ships1 at ,trinidad1 in #aeig4 ,its finely variegated tints were admired1 but in that age the dream of ,el ,dorado caused matters of more value to be neglected4 ,the first that was brought to ,england was about #agbd1 a few planks having been sent to ,dr4 ,gibbons1 of ,london1 by a brother who was a ,west ,indian captain4 ,the doctor was erecting a house1 and gave the planks to the workmen1 who rejected them as being too hard4 ,the doctor then had a candle-box made of the wood1 his cabinet-maker also complaining of the hardness of the timber4 ,but1 when finished1 the box became an object of general curiosity and admiration4 ,he had one bureau1 and her ,grace of ,buckingham had another1 made of this beautiful wood1 and the despised mahogany now became a prominent article of luxury1 and at the same time raised the fortunes of the cabinet-maker by whom it had been so little regarded4 ,since that lime it has taken a leading rank among the ornamental woods1 having come to be considered indispensable where luxury is intended to be indicated4 ,a few facts will furnish a tolerably distinct idea of the size of this splendid tree4 ,the mahogany lumbermen1 having selected a tree1 surround it with a platform about twelve feet above the ground1 and cut it above the platform4 ,some twelve or fifteen feet of the largest part of the trunk are thus lost4 ,yet a single log not unfrequently weighs from six or seven to fifteen tons1 and sometimes measures as much as seventeen feet in length and four and a half to five and a half feet in diameter1 one tree furnishing two1 three1 or four such logs4 ,some trees have yielded #ab1jjj superficial feet1 and at average price pieces have sold for #ae1jjj4 ,messrs4 ,broadwood ,london1 pianoforte manufacturers1 paid #c1jjj for three logs1 all cut from one tree1 and each about fifteen feet long and more than three feet square4 ,the tree is cut at two seasons of the year--in the autumn and about ,christmas time4 ,the trunk1 of course1 furnishes timber of the largest dimensions1 but that from the branches is preferred for ornamental purposes1 owing to its closer grain and more variegated color4 ,in low and damp soil its growth is rapid2 but the most valuable trees grow slowly among rocks on sterile soil1 and seem to gather compactness and beauty from the very struggle which they make for an existence4 ,in the ,bahamas1 in the most desolate regions1 once flourished that curiously veined and much esteemed variety once known in ,europe as ,madeira wood1 but which has long since been exterminated4 ,jamaica1 also1 which used to be a fruitful source of mahogany1 and whence in #agec not less than #eba1jjj feet were shipped1 is now almost depleted4 ,that which is now furnished from there is very inferior1 pale1 and porous1 and is less esteemed than that of ,cuba1 ,san ,domingo1 or ,honduras4 ,in a dry state mahogany ,is very durable1 and not liable to the attack of worms1 but1 when exposed to the weather it does not last long4 ,it would therefore make excellent material for floors1 roofs1 etc41 but its costliness limits its utility in this direction1 and it is chiefly employed for furniture1 doors1 and a few other articles of joinery1 for which it is among the best materials known4 ,it has been used for sashes and window frames1 but is not desirable for this purpose on account of the ease with which it is affected by the weather4 ,it has also been used in ,england to some extent for the framing of machinery in cotton-mills4 ,its color is a reddish brown of different shades and luster1 sometimes becoming a yellowish brown1 and often much veined and mottled with darker shades of the same color4 ,its texture is uniform1 and the rings indicating its annual growth are not very distinct4 ,the larger medullary rays are absent1 but the smaller ones are often very distinct1 with pores between them4 ,in the ,jamaica woods these pores are often filled with a white substance1 but in that brought from ,central ,america they are generally empty4 ,it has neither taste nor odor1 shrinks very slightly1 and warps1 it is said1 less than any other wood4 ,the variety called ,spanish mahogany comes from the ,west ,indies1 and is in smaller logs than the ,honduras mahogany1 being generally about two feet square and ten feet long4 ,it is close grained and hard1 generally darker than the ,honduras1 free from black specks1 and sometimes strongly marked2 the pores appear as though chalk had been rubbed into them4 ,the ,honduras mahogany comes in logs from two to four feet square and twelve to fourteen long2 planks have been obtained seven feet wide4 ,its grain is very open and often irregular1 with black or gray specks4 ,the veins and figures are often very distinct and handsome1 and that of a fine golden color and free from gray specks is considered the best4 ,it holds the glue better than any other wood4 ,the weight of a cubic foot of mahogany varies from thirty-five to fifty-three pounds4 ,its strength is between sixty-seven and ninety-six1 stiffness seventy-three to ninety-three1 and toughness sixty-one to ninety-nine--oak being considered as one hundred in each case4 ,there are three other species of the genus ,swietania besides the mahogany tree1 two of them natives of the ,east ,indies4 ,one is a very large tree1 growing in the mountainous parts of central ,hindostan1 and rises to a great height1 throwing out many branches toward the top4 ,the head is spreading and the leaves bear some resemblance to those of the ,american species4 ,the wood is a dull red1 not so beautiful as that known to commerce1 but harder1 heavier1 and more durable4 ,the natives of ,india consider it the most durable timber which their forests afford1 and consequently use it1 when it can be procured1 wherever strength and durability are particularly desired4 ,the other ,east ,indian species is found in the mountains of ,sircars1 which run parallel to the ,bay of ,bengal4 ,the tree is not so large as any of the other species described1 and the wood is of much different appearance1 being of a deep yellow1 considerably resembling box4 ,the grain is close1 and the wood both heavy and durable4 ,the third species1 known as ,african mahogany1 is brought from ,sierra ,leone4 ,it is hard and durable1 and used for purposes requiring these properties in an eminent degree4 ,if1 however1 the heart of the tree be exposed or crossed in cutting or trimming the timber1 it is very liable to premature and rapid decay4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,animals ,,and ,,the ,,arts4 ,in many of the museums efforts are made to perfect economic collections of animals1 so as to show how they can be applied to advantage in the arts and sciences4 ,the collection and preparation of the corals1 for example1 form an important industry4 ,the fossil corals are richly polished and set in studs and sleeve-buttons1 forming rich and ornamental objects4 ,the fossil coral that resembles a delicate chain has been often copied by designers1 while the red and black corals have long been used4 ,the best fisheries are along the coasts of ,tunis1 ,algeria1 and ,morocco1 from #b to #aj miles from shore1 in from #cj to #aej fathoms4 ,good coral is also common at ,naples1 near ,leghorn and ,genoa1 and on various parts of the sea1 as ,sardinia1 ,corsica1 ,catalonia1 ,provence1 etc4 ,it ranges in color from pure white through all the shades of pink1 red1 and crimson4 ,the rose pink is most valued4 ,for a long time ,marseilles was the market1 but now ,italy is the great center of the trade1 the greater number of boats hailing from ,torre del ,greco1 while outside persons are forced to pay a heavy tax4 ,the vessels are schooners1 lateen-rigged1 from three to fourteen tons4 ,large nets are used1 which1 during the months between ,march and ,october1 are dragged1 dredge-like1 over the rocks4 ,a large crew will haul in a season from #fjj to #ijj pounds4 ,to prevent the destruction of the industry1 the reef is divided into ten parts1 only one being worked a year1 and by the time the tenth is reached the first is overgrown again with a new growth4 ,in #ahgc the ,algerian fisheries alone1 employing #c1aej men1 realized half a million of dollars4 ,the choice grades are always valuable1 the finest tints bringing over #e per ounce1 while the small pieces1 used for necklaces1 and called collette1 are worth only #a4ej per ounce4 ,the large oval pieces are sent to ,china1 where they are used as buttons of office by the mandarins4 ,,the ,,conch-,,shell4 ,somewhat similar in appearance to coral is the conch jewelry1 sets of which have been sold for #cjj4 ,the tint is exquisite1 but liable to fade when exposed to the sun4 ,it is made from the great conch1 common in ,southern ,florida and the ,west ,indies4 ,the shells are imported into ,europe by thousands1 and cut up into studs1 sleeve-buttons1 and various articles of ornament4 ,these conches are supposed to be the producers of pink pearls1 but ,i have opened hundreds of them and failed to find a single pearl4 ,the conch shell is used by the cameo cutter4 ,rome and ,paris are the principal seats of the trade1 and immense numbers of shell cameos are imported by ,england and ,america1 and mounted in rings1 brooches1 etc4 ,the one showing a pale salmon-color upon an orange ground is much used4 ,in #ahdg1 #cjj persons worked upon these shells in ,paris alone1 the number of shells used being immense4 ,in ,paris #cjj1jjj helmet-shells were used in one year1 valued at #dj1jjj of the bull's mouth1 #hj1jjj1 averaging a little over a shilling apiece1 equal to #cd1jjj4 ,eight thousand black helmets were used1 valued at #i1jjj4 ,the value of the large cameos produced in ,paris in the year #ahdg was about #afj1jjj1 and the small ones #dj1jjj4 ,in the ,wolfe collection of shells at the ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,central ,park1 is a fine specimen of the queen conch from the ,florida reef1 with a fine head cut into the outer surface1 showing how it is done4 ,the tools of the worker in cameos are of the most delicate description4 ,fine files1 knitting-needle like implements1 triangular-shaped steel cutters1 are arranged in a seemingly endless confusion before the worker4 ,the shell or piece of shell to be cut is either lashed or glued to a heavy block or held in the hand1 and the face1 animal1 or other object outlined first with a delicate lead2 having thus laid the foundation1 the lines are gone over with a delicate needle first1 then various kinds1 the work gradually growing before the eye1 reminding one of the work of the engraver on wood4 ,,living ,,beetles1 ,,etc4 ,insects have always been used more or less in decoration1 especially in ,brazil1 where the richly-colored beetles of the country are affected as articles of personal adornment4 ,recently in a ,union ,square jewelry store a monster beetle was on exhibition1 having been sent there for repairs4 ,it was alive1 and about its body was a delicate gold band1 locked with a minute padlock2 a gold chain attached it to the shawl of the owner4 ,sometimes they are worn upon the headgear1 their slow1 cumbersome movements preventing them from attracting great attention4 ,they are valued at from #ej to #ajj apiece4 ,snakes1 the rich green variety so common in ,new ,england1 are worn by some ladies as bracelets1 while the gorgeous reptiles are often imitated in gold and silver1 with eyes of diamonds1 rubies1 or black pearls4 ,gold bears are the proper thing now for pins4 ,in the ,east the chameleon is often worn as a head ornament1 the animal rarely moving1 and forming at least a picturesque decoration1 with its odd shape and sculptured outlines4 ,various other reptiles1 as small turtles1 alligators1 etc41 are pressed into service4 ,the curious soldier-crab has been used as a pin4 ,placed in a box with a rich pearly shell prepared for the purpose1 it will change houses1 and then1 secured by a gold or silver chain1 roams about the wearer1 waving its red and blue claws in a warlike manner4 ,birds are1 perhaps1 more commonly used as natural ornaments than any other1 and a cloak of the skins of humming birds is one of the most magnificent objects to be imagined4 ,one1 of a rare species1 was once sold in ,europe for #e1jjj4 ,single birds are often worth #gjj or #hjj4 ,a cloak of the skin of the great auk would bring #h1jjj or #aj1jjj4 ,some of the most beautiful pheasants are extremely valuable--worth their weight in gold4 ,tiger claws are used in the decoration of hats1 and are extremely valuable and hard to obtain4 ,within ten years the alligator has become an important factor to the artistic manufacturer4 ,the hide1 by a new process1 is tanned to an agreeable softness and used in innumerable ways4 ,the most costly bags and trunks are made from it2 pocket-books1 card-cases1 dining-room chairs are covered with it1 and it has been used as a dado on the library wall of a well-known naturalist4 ,it makes an excellent binding for certain books4 ,among fishes the shark provides a skin used in a variety of ways4 ,the shagreen of the shark's ray is of great value4 ,canes are made of the shark's backbone1 the interstices being filled with silver or shell plates4 ,shark's teeth are used to decorate the weapons of various nations4 ,the magnificent scales1 nearly four inches across and tipped with seemingly solid silver1 of the giant herring1 are used1 while scales of many of the tribe have long been used in the manufacture of artificial pearls4 ,,pearls4 ,the latter are perhaps the most valuable of all the offerings of animate nature1 and are the results of the efforts of the bivalve to protect itself from injury4 ,a parasite bores into the shell of the pearl bearer1 and when felt by the animal it immediately fortifies itself by covering up the spot with its pearly secretion2 the parasite pushes on1 the oyster piling up until an imperfect pearl attached to the shell is the result4 ,the clear oval pearls are formed in a similar way1 only in this case a bit of sand has become lodged in the folds of the creature1 and in its efforts to protect itself from the sharp edges1 the bit becomes covered1 layer by layer1 and assumes naturally an oval shape4 ,this growth of the pearl1 as it is incorrectly termed1 can be seen by breaking open a #ejj gem1 when the nacre will be seen in layers1 resembling the section of an onion4 ,the ,romans were particularly fond of pearls1 and1 according to ,pliny1 the wife of ,caius ,caligula possessed a collection valued at over #h1jjj1jjj of our money4 ,julius ,caesar presented a jewel to the mother of ,brutus valued at #bej1jjj1 while the pearl drank by ,cleopatra was estimated at #djj1jjj4 ,tavernier1 the famous traveler1 sold a pearl to the ,shah of ,persia for #eej1jjj4 ,a twenty-thousand-dollar pearl was taken from ,american waters in the time of ,philip ,,ii4 ,it was pear-shaped1 and as large as a pigeon's egg4 ,another1 taken from the same locality1 is now owned by a lady in ,madrid who values it at #cj1jjj4 ,fresh water pearls are often of great value4 ,the streams of ,st4 ,clair ,county4 ,ill41 and ,rutherford ,county1 ,tenn41 produce large quantities1 but the largest one was found near ,salem1 ,n4 ,j4 ,it was about an inch across1 and brought #b1jjj in ,paris4 ,the pearls from the ,tay1 ,doon1 and ,isla rivers1 in ,scotland1 are preferred by many to the ,oriental1 and in one summer #ej1jjj worth of pearls have been taken from these localities by men and children4 ,mother-of-pearl used in the arts is sold by the ton1 from #ej to #gjj being average prices4 ,the last year's pearl fisheries in ,ceylon alone realized #hj1jjj1 to obtain which more than #g1jjj1jjj pearl oysters were brought up4 ,,sepia ,,and ,,silk4 ,the sepia of the artist comes from a mollusk1 and is the fossil or extant ink-bag of a cephalopod or squid1 while the cuttle-fish bone is used for a variety of purposes4 ,in the islands of the ,pacific the young of the pearly nautilus are strung upon strings and sold for #be and #bj as necklaces4 ,the tritons are in fair demand1 and many tons of cowries are sent to ,europe yearly1 while the shipment of a thick-lipped strombus in one year to ,liverpool amounted to #cjj1jjj4 ,the rich coloring of the haliotis is used for inlaying art furniture4 ,from the pinna1 silk of a peculiar quality is obtained4 ,it is the byssus or cable of the animal4 ,the threads are extremely fine1 and equal in diameter throughout their entire length4 ,it is first cleaned with soap and water1 and dried by rubbing through the hands1 and finally passed through combs of bone1 iron1 or wood1 of different sizes1 so that a pound of the material in the rough gives only about three ounces of pure thread4 ,it is mixed with a third of real silk and spun into gloves1 stockings1 etc41 having a beautiful yellow hue4 ,the articles made from it are1 however1 not in general use4 ,a pair of gloves from pinna silk would cost #a4ej1 and stockings about #c4 ,fine specimens of such work can be seen in the ,british ,museum4 ,though not of animal origin1 amber is one of the choicest vegetable productions used in the arts4 ,it is the fossil gum of pines4 ,great beds of it occur at various points in ,europe4 ,on the ,prussian seaboard it is mined1 and often washes ashore4 ,in #aegf a piece of amber was found that weighed thirteen pounds1 and for which #e1jjj was refused4 ,in the cabinet of the ,berlin ,museum there is a piece weighing eighteen pounds4 ,ambergris1 from which perfumery is made1 is a secretion taken from the intestines of the whale1 and a piece purchased from the ,king of ,tydore by the ,east ,india ,company is reported to have cost #ah1jjj4 ,whales' teeth1 the tusks of elephants1 and those of the walrus and narwhal1 are all used4 ,elephants' feet are cut off at a convenient length1 richly upholstered1 and used as seats2 the great toe-nails1 when finely polished1 giving the novel article of furniture an attractive and unique appearance4 ,it is probably not generally known that the web of certain spiders has been used4 ,over #aej years ago1 ,le ,bon1 of ,france1 succeeded in weaving the web material into delicate gloves4 ,prof4 ,b4,g4 ,wilder investigated the question thoroughly1 and was a firm believer that the web of the spider had a commercial value1 but as yet this has not been realized4 ,it would be difficult to find an animal that does not in some way contribute to the useful or decorative arts4--,c4,f4,h41 in ,n4,y4 ,post4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a catalogue1 containing brief notices of many important scientific papers heretofore published in the ,,supplement1 may be had gratis at this office4 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