,,the ,,dominion ,,of ,,the ,,air ,the ,story of ,aerial ,navigation by ,rev4 ,j4 ,m4 ,bacon ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,dawn ,,of ,,aeronautics4 ,he that would learn to fly must be brought up to the constant practice of it from his youth1 trying first only to use his wings as a tame goose will do1 so by degrees learning to rise higher till he attain unto skill and confidence4 ,so wrote ,wilkins1 ,bishop of ,chester1 who was reckoned a man of genius and learning in the days of the ,commonwealth4 ,but so soon as we come to inquire into the matter we find that this good ,bishop was borrowing from the ideas of others who had gone before him2 and1 look back as far as we will1 mankind is discovered to have entertained persistent and often plausible ideas of human flight4 ,and those ideas had in some sort of way1 for good or ill1 taken practical shape4 ,thus1 as long ago as the days when ,xenophon was leading back his warriors to the shores of the ,black ,sea1 and ere the ,gauls had first burned ,rome1 there was a philosopher1 ,archytas1 who invented a pigeon which could fly1 partly by means of mechanism1 and partly also1 it is said1 by aid of an aura or spirit4 ,and here arises a question4 ,was this aura a gas1 or did men use it as spiritualists do today1 as merely a word to conjure with8 ,four centuries later1 in the days of ,nero1 there was a man in ,rome who flew so well and high as to lose his life thereby4 ,here1 at any rate1 was an honest man1 or the story would not have ended thus2 but of the rest--and there are many who in early ages aspired to the attainment of flight--we have no more reason to credit their claims than those of charlatans who flourish in every age4 ,in medieval times we are seriously told by a saintly writer 7,st4 ,remigius7 of folks who created clouds which rose to heaven by means of an earthen pot in which a little imp had been enclosed4 ,we need no more4 ,that was an age of flying saints1 as also of flying dragons4 ,flying in those days of yore may have been real enough to the multitude1 but it was at best delusion4 ,in the good old times it did not need the genius of a ,maskelyne to do a levitation trick4 ,we can picture the scene at a flying seance4 ,on the one side the decidedly professional showman possessed of sufficient low cunning2 on the other the ignorant and highly superstitious audience1 eager to hear or see some new thing--the same audience that1 deceived by a simple trick of schoolboy science1 would listen to supernatural voices in their groves1 or oracular utterances in their temples1 or watch the urns of ,bacchus fill themselves with wine4 ,surely for their eyes it would need no more than the simplest phantasmagoria1 or maybe only a little black thread1 to make a pigeon rise and fly4 ,it is interesting to note1 however1 that in the case last cited there is unquestionably an allusion to some crude form of firework1 and what more likely or better calculated to impress the ignorant6 ,our firework makers still manufacture a little ,devil4 ,pyrotechnic is as old as history itself2 we have an excellent description of a rocket in a document at least as ancient as the ninth century4 ,and that a species of pyrotechny was resorted to by those who sought to imitate flight we have proof in the following recipe for a flying body given by a ,doctor1 eke a ,friar1 in ,paris in the days of our ,king ,john3-- ,take one pound of sulphur1 two pounds of willowcarbon1 six pounds of rock salt ground very fine in a marble mortar4 ,place1 when you please1 in a covering made of flying papyrus to produce thunder4 ,the covering in order to ascend and float away should be long1 graceful1 well filled with this fine powder2 but to produce thunder the covering should be short1 thick1 and half full4 ,nor does this recipe stand alone4 ,take another sample1 of which chapter and verse are to be found in the ,,mss4 of a ,jesuit1 ,gaspard ,schott1 of ,palermo and ,rome1 born three hundred years ago3-- ,the shells of hen-eggs1 if properly filled and well secured against the penetration of the air1 and exposed to solar rays1 will ascend to the skies and sometimes suffer a natural change4 ,and if the eggs of the larger description of swans1 or leather balls stitched with fine thongs1 be filled with nitre1 the purest sulphur quicksilver1 or kindred materials which rarify by their caloric energy1 and if they externally resemble pigeons1 they will easily be mistaken for flying animals4 ,thus it would seem that1 hunting back in history1 there were three main ideas on which would-be aeronauts of old exercised their ingenuity4 ,there was the last-mentioned method1 which1 by the way1 ,jules ,verne partly relies on when he takes his heroes to the moon1 and which in its highest practical development may be seen annually on the night of ,brock's ,benefit at the ,crystal ,palace4 ,there is1 again1 the tame goose method1 to which we must return presently2 and1 lastly1 there is a third method1 to which1 as also to the brilliant genius who conceived it1 we must without further delay be introduced4 ,this may be called the method of a hollow globe4 ,roger ,bacon1 ,melchisedeck-fashion1 came into existence at ,ilchester in #abad of parentage that is hard to trace4 ,he was1 however1 a born philosopher1 and possessed of intellect and penetration that placed him incalculably ahead of his generation4 ,a man of marvellous insight and research1 he grasped1 and as far as possible carried out1 ideas which dawned on other men only after centuries4 ,thus1 many of his utterances have been prophetic4 ,it is probable that among his chemical discoveries he re-invented gunpowder4 ,it is certain that he divined the properties of a lens1 and diving deep into experimental and mechanical sciences1 actually foresaw the time when1 in his own words1 men would construct engines to traverse land and water with great speed and carry with them persons and merchandise4 ,clearly in his dreams ,bacon saw the ,atlantic not merely explored1 but on its bosom the ,white ,star liners breaking records1 contemptuous of its angriest seas4 ,he saw1 too1 a future ,dumont circling in the air1 and not only in a dead calm1 but holding his own with the feathered race4 ,he tells his dream thus3 ,there may be made some flying instrument so that a man sitting in the middle of the instrument and turning some mechanism may put in motion some artificial wings which may beat the air like a bird flying4 ,but he lived too long before his time4 ,his ruin lay not only in his superior genius1 but also in his fearless outspokenness4 ,he presently fell under the ban of the ,church1 through which he lost alike his liberty and the means of pursuing investigation4 ,had it been otherwise we may fairly believe that the admirable ,doctor1 as he was called1 would have been the first to show mankind how to navigate the air4 ,his ideas are perfectly easy to grasp4 ,he conceived that the air was a true fluid1 and as such must have an upper limit1 and it would be on this upper surface1 he supposed1 as on the bosom of the ocean1 that man would sail his air-ship4 ,a fine1 bold guess truly4 ,he would watch the cirrus clouds sailing grandly ten miles above him on some stream that never approached nearer4 ,up there1 in his imagination1 would be tossing the waves of our ocean of air4 ,wait for some little better cylinders of oxygen and an improved foot-warmer1 and a future ,coxwell will go aloft and see2 but as to an upper sea1 it is truly there1 and we may visit and view its sun-lit tossing billows stretching out to a limitless horizon at such times as the nether world is shrouded in densest gloom4 ,bacon's method of reaching such an upper sea as he postulated was1 as we have said1 by a hollow globe4 ,the machine must be a large hollow globe1 of copper or other suitable metal1 wrought extremely thin so as to have it as light as possible1 and it must be filled with ethereal air or liquid fire4 ,this was written in the thirteenth century1 and it is scarcely edifying to find four hundred years after this the ,jesuit ,father ,lana1 who contrived to make his name live in history as a theoriser in aeronautics1 arrogating to himself the bold conception of the ,english ,friar1 with certain unfortunate differences1 however1 which in fairness we must here clearly point out4 ,lana proclaimed his speculations standing on a giant's shoulders4 ,torricelli1 with his closed bent tube1 had just shown the world how heavily the air lies above us4 ,it then required little mathematical skill to calculate what would be the lifting power of any vessel void of air on the earth's surface4 ,thus ,lana proposed the construction of an air ship which possibly because of its picturesquesness has won him notoriety4 ,but it was a fraud4 ,we have but to conceive a dainty boat in which the aeronaut would sit at ease handling a little rudder and a simple sail4 ,these1 though a schoolboy would have known better1 he thought would guide his vessel when in the air4 ,so much has been claimed for ,father ,lana and his mathematical and other attainments that it seems only right to insist on the weakness of his reasoning4 ,an air ship simply drifting with the wind is incapable of altering its course in the slightest degree by either sail or rudder4 ,it is simply like a log borne along in a torrent2 but to compare such a log properly with the air ship we must conceive it ,,wholly submerged in the water and having no sail or other appendage projecting into the air1 which would1 of course1 introduce other conditions4 ,if1 however1 a man were to sit astride of the log and begin to propel it so that it travels either faster or slower than the stream1 then in that case1 either by paddle or rudder1 the log could be guided1 and the same might be said of ,lana's air boat if only he had thought of some adequate paddle1 fan1 or other propeller4 ,but he did not4 ,one further explanatory sentence may here be needed2 for we hear of balloons which are capable of being guided to a small extent by sail and rudder4 ,in these cases1 however1 the rudder is a guide rope trailing on earth or sea1 so introducing a fresh element and fresh conditions which are easy to explain4 ,suppose a free balloon drifting down the wind to have a sail suddenly hoisted on one side1 what happens8 ,the balloon will simply swing till this sail is in front1 and thus continue its straightforward course4 ,suppose1 however1 that as soon as the side sail is hoisted a trail rope is also dropped aft from a spar in the rigging4 ,the tendency of the sail to fly round in front is now checked by the dragging rope1 and it is constrained to remain slanting at an angle on one side2 at the same time the rate of the balloon is reduced by the dragging rope1 so that it travels slower than the wind1 which1 now acting on its slant sail1 imparts a certain sidelong motion much as it does in the case of a sailing boat4 ,lana having in imagination built his ship1 proceeds to make it float up into space1 for which purpose he proposes four thin copper globes exhausted of air4 ,had this last been his own idea we might have pardoned him4 ,we have1 however1 pointed out that it was not1 and we must further point out that in copying his great predecessor he fails to see that he would lose enormous advantage by using four globes instead of one4 ,but1 beyond all1 he failed to see what the master genius of ,bacon saw clearly--that his thin globes when exhausted must infallibly collapse by virtue of that very pressure of the air which he sought to make use of4 ,it cannot be too strongly insisted on that if the too much belauded speculations of ,lana have any value at all it is that they throw into stronger contrast the wonderful insight of the philosopher who so long preceded him4 ,by sheer genius ,bacon had foreseen that the emptied globe must be filled with ,,something1 and for this something he suggests ethereal air or liquid fire1 neither of which1 we contend1 were empty terms4 ,with ,bacon's knowledge of experimental chemistry it is a question1 and a most interesting one1 whether he had not in his mind those two actual principles respectively of gas and air rarefied by heat on which we launch our balloons into space to-day4 ,early progress in any art or science is commonly intermittent4 ,it was so in the story of aeronautics4 ,advance was like that of the incoming tide1 throwing an occasional wave far in front of its rising flood4 ,it was a phenomenal wave that bore ,roger ,bacon and left his mark on the sand where none other approached for centuries4 ,in those centuries men were either too priest-ridden to lend an ear to ,science1 or1 like children1 followed only the ,will-o'-the-,wisp floating above the quagmire which held them fast4 ,they ran after the stone that was to turn all to gold1 or the elixir that should conquer death1 or the signs in the heavens that should foretell their destinies2 and the taint of this may be traced even when the dark period that followed was clearing away4 ,four hundred years after ,roger's death1 his illustrious namesake1 ,francis ,bacon1 was formulating his ,inductive ,philosophy1 and with complete cock-sureness was teaching mankind all about everything4 ,let us look at some of his utterances which may help to throw light on the way he regarded the problem we are dealing with4 ,it is reported1 ,francis ,bacon writes1 that the ,leucacians in ancient time did use to precipitate a man from a high cliffe into the sea2 tying about him1 with strings1 at some distance1 many great fowles2 and fixing unto his body divers feathers1 spread1 to breake the fall4 ,certainly many birds of good wing 7as ,kites and the like7 would beare up a good weight as they flie4 ,and spreading of feathers1 thin and close1 and in great breadth1 will likewise beare up a great weight1 being even laid without tilting upon the sides4 ,the further extension of this experiment of flying may be thought upon4 ,to say the least1 this is hardly mechanical4 ,but let us next follow the philosopher into the domain of ,physics4 ,referring to a strange assertion1 that salt water will dissolve salt put into it in less time than fresh water will dissolve it1 he is at once ready with an explanation to fit the case4 ,the salt1 he says1 in the precedent water doth by similitude of substance draw the salt new put in unto it4 ,again1 in his finding1 well water is warmer in winter than summer1 and the cause is the subterranean heat which shut close in 7as in winter7 is the more1 but if it perspire 7as it doth in summer7 it is the less4 ,this was ,bacon the ,lord4 ,what a falling off--from the experimentalist's point of view--from ,bacon the ,friar6 ,we can fancy him watching a falcon poised motionless in the sky1 and reflecting on that problem which to this day fairly puzzles our ablest scientists1 settling the matter in a sentence3 ,the cause is that feathers doe possess upward attractions4 ,during four hundred years preceding ,lord ,verulam philosophers would have flown by aid of a broomstick4 ,bacon himself would have merely parried the problem with a platitude6 ,at any rate1 physicists1 even in the brilliant seventeenth century1 made no material progress towards the navigation of the air1 and thus presently let the simple mechanic step in before them4 ,ere that century had closed something in the nature of flight had been accomplished4 ,it is exceedingly hard to arrive at actual fact1 but it seems pretty clear that more than one individual1 by starting from some eminence1 could let himself fall into space and waft himself away for some distance with fair success and safety1 ,it is stated that an ,english ,monk1 ,elmerus1 flew the space of a furlong from a tower in ,spain1 a feat of the same kind having been accomplished by another adventurer from the top of ,st4 ,mark's at ,venice4 ,in these attempts it would seem that the principle of the parachute was to some extent at least brought into play4 ,if also circumstantial accounts can be credited1 it would appear that a working model of a flying machine was publicly exhibited by one ,john ,muller before the ,emperor ,charles ,v4 at ,nuremberg4 ,whatever exaggeration or embellishment history may be guilty of it is pretty clear that some genuine attempts of a practical and not unsuccessful nature had been made here and there1 and these prompted the flowery and visionary ,bishop ,wilkins already quoted to predict confidently that the day was approaching when it would be as common for a man to call for his wings as for boots and spurs4 ,we have now to return to the tame goose method1 which found its best and boldest exponent in a humble craftsman1 by name ,besnier1 living at ,sable1 about the year #afgh4 ,this mechanical genius was by trade a locksmith1 and must have been possessed of sufficient skill to construct an efficient apparatus out of such materials as came to his hand1 of the simplest possible design4 ,it may be compared to the earliest type of bicycle1 the ancient bone shaker1 now almost forgotten save by those who1 like the writer1 had experience of it on its first appearance4 ,besnier's wings1 as it would appear1 were essentially a pair of double-bladed paddles and nothing more1 roughly resembling the double-paddle of an old-fashioned canoe1 only the blades were large1 roughly rectangular1 and curved or hollowed4 ,the operator would commence by standing erect and balancing these paddles1 one on each shoulder1 so that the hollows of the blades should be towards the ground4 ,the forward part of each paddle was then grasped by the hands1 while the hinder part of each was connected to the corresponding leg4 ,this1 presumably1 would be effected after the arms had been raised vertically1 the leg attachment being contrived in some way which experience would dictate4 ,the flyer was now fully equipped1 and nothing remained for him save to mount some eminence and1 throwing himself forward into space and assuming the position of a flying bird1 to commence flapping and beating the air with a reciprocal motion4 ,first1 he would buffet the air downwards with the left arm and right leg simultaneously1 and while these recovered their position would strike with the right hand and left leg1 and so on alternately4 ,with this crude method the enterprising inventor succeeded in raising himself by short stages from one height to another1 reaching thus the top of a house1 whence he could pass over others1 or cross a river or the like4 ,the perfecting of his system became then simply a question of practice and experience1 and had young athletes only been trained from early years to the new art it seems reasonable to suppose that some crude approach to human flight would have been effected4 ,modifications and improvements in construction would soon have suggested themselves1 as was the case with the bicycle1 which in its latest developments can scarcely be recognised as springing from the primitive bone-shaker of thirty-three years ago4 ,we would suggest the idea to the modern inventor4 ,he will in these days1 of course1 find lighter materials to hand4 ,then he will adopt some link motion for the legs in place of leather thongs1 and will hinge the paddle blades so that they open out with the forward stroke1 but collapse with the return4 ,then look on another thirty-three years--a fresh generation--and our youth of both sexes may find a popular recreation in graceful aerial exercise4 ,the pace is not likely to be excessive1 and molestations from disguised policemen--not physically adapted1 by the way1 to rapid flight--need not be apprehended4 ,one of the best tests of ,besnier's measure of success is supplied by the fact that he had pupils as well as imitators4 ,first on this list must be mentioned a ,mr4 ,baldwin1 a name which1 curiously enough1 twice over in modern times comes into the records of bold aerial exploits4 ,this individual1 it appears1 purchased a flying outfit of ,besnier himself1 and surpassed his master in achievement4 ,a little later one ,dante contrived some modification of the same apparatus1 with which he pursued the new mode of progress till he met with a fractured thigh4 ,but whatever the imitators of ,besnier may have accomplished1 to the honest smith must be accorded the full credit of their success1 and with his simple1 but brilliant1 record left at flood mark1 the tide of progress ebbed back again1 while mankind ruminated over the great problem in apparent inactivity4 ,but not for long4 ,the air-pump about this period was given to the world1 and chemists were already busy investigating the nature of gases4 ,cavallo was experimenting on kindred lines1 while in our own land the rival geniuses of ,priestley and ,cavendish were clearing the way to make with respect to the atmosphere the most important discovery yet dreamed of4 ,in recording this dawn of a new era1 however1 we should certainly not forget how1 across the ,atlantic1 had arisen a ,rumford and a ,franklin1 whose labours were destined to throw an all-important sidelight on the pages of progress which we have now to chronicle4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,invention ,,of ,,the ,,balloon4 ,it was a ,november night of the year #aghb1 in the little town of ,annonay1 near ,lyons4 ,two young men1 ,stephen and ,joseph ,montgolfier1 the representatives of a firm of paper makers1 were sitting together over their parlour fire4 ,while watching the smoke curling up the chimney one propounded an idea by way of a sudden inspiration3 ,why shouldn't smoke be made to raise bodies into the air8 ,the world was waiting for this utterance1 which1 it would seem1 was on the tip of the tongue with many others4 ,cavendish had already discovered what he designated inflammable air1 though no one had as yet given it its later title of hydrogen gas4 ,moreover1 in treating of this gas--,dr4 ,black of ,edinburgh1 as much as fifteen years before the date we have now arrived at1 had suggested that it should be made capable of raising a thin bladder in the air4 ,with a shade more of good fortune1 or maybe with a modicum more of leisure1 the learned ,doctor would have won the invention of the balloon for his own country4 ,cavallo came almost nearer1 and actually putting the same idea into practice1 had succeeded in the spring of #aghb in making soap bubbles blown with hydrogen gas float upwards4 ,but he had accomplished no more when1 as related1 in the autumn of the same year the brothers ,montgolfier conceived the notion of making bodies levitate by the simpler expedient of filling them with smoke4 ,this was the crude idea1 the application of which in their hands was soon marked with notable success4 ,their own trade supplied ready and suitable materials for a first experiment1 and1 making an oblong bag of thin paper a few feet in length1 they proceeded to introduce a cloud of smoke into it by holding crumpled paper kindled in a chafing dish beneath the open mouth4 ,what a subject is there here for an imaginative painter6 ,as the smoky cloud formed within1 the bag distended itself1 became buoyant1 and presently floated to the ceiling4 ,the simple trial proved a complete success1 due1 as it appeared to them1 to the ascensive power of a cloud of smoke4 ,an interesting and more detailed version of the story is extant4 ,while the experiment was in progress a neighbour1 the widow of a tradesman who had been connected in business with the firm1 seeing smoke escaping into the room1 entered and stood watching the proceedings1 which were not unattended with difficulties4 ,the bag1 half inflated1 was not easy to hold in position over the chafing dish1 and rapidly cooled and collapsed on being removed from it4 ,the widow noting this1 as also the perplexity of the young men1 suggested that they should try the result of tying the dish on at the bottom of the bag4 ,this was the one thing wanted to secure success1 and that good lady1 whose very name is unhappily lost1 deserves an honoured place in history4 ,it was unquestionably the adoption of her idea which launched the first balloon into space4 ,the same experiment repeated in the open air proving a yet more pronounced success1 more elaborate trials were quickly developed1 and the infant balloon grew fast4 ,one worthy of the name1 spherical in shape and of some #fjj cubic feet capacity1 was now made and treated as before1 with the result that ere it was fully inflated it broke the strings that held it and sailed away hundreds of feet into the air4 ,the infant was fast becoming a prodigy4 ,encouraged by their fresh success1 the inventors at once set about preparations for the construction of a much larger balloon some thirty-five feet diameter 7that is1 of about #bc1jjj cubic feet capacity71 to be made of linen lined with paper and this machine1 launched on a favourable day in the following spring1 rose with great swiftness to fully a thousand feet1 and travelled nearly a mile from its starting ground4 ,enough2 the time was already ripe for a public demonstration of the new invention1 and accordingly the #eth of the following ,june witnessed the ascent of the same balloon with due ceremony and advertisement4 ,special pains were taken with the inflation1 which was conducted over a pit above which the balloon envelope was slung2 and in accordance with the view that smoke was the chief lifting power1 the fuel was composed of straw largely mixed with wool4 ,it is recorded that the management of the furnace needed the attention of two men only1 while eight men could hardly hold the impatient balloon in restraint4 ,the inflation1 in spite of the fact that the fuel chosen was scarcely the best for the purpose1 was conducted remarkable expedition1 and on being released1 the craft travelled one and a half miles into the air1 attaining a height estimated at over #f1jjj feet4 ,from this time the tide of events in the aeronautical world rolls on in full flood1 almost every half-year marking a fresh epoch1 until a new departure in the infant art of ballooning was already on the point of being reached4 ,it had been erroneously supposed that the ascent of the ,montgolfier balloon had been due1 not to the rarefaction of the air within it--which was its true cause--but to the evolution of some light gas disengaged by the nature of the fuel used4 ,it followed1 therefore1 almost as a matter of course1 that chemists1 who1 as stated in the last chapter1 were already acquainted with so-called inflammable air1 or hydrogen gas1 grasped the fact that this gas would serve better than any other for the purposes of a balloon4 ,and no sooner had the news of the ,montgolfiers' success reached ,paris than a subscription was raised1 and ,m4 ,charles1 ,professor of ,experimental ,philosophy1 was appointed1 with the assistance of ,m4 ,roberts1 to superintend the construction of a suitable balloon and its inflation by the proposed new method4 ,the task was one of considerable difficulty1 owing partly to the necessity of procuring some material which would prevent the escape of the lightest and most subtle gas known1 and no less by reason of the difficulty of preparing under pressure a sufficient quantity of gas itself4 ,the experiment1 sound enough in theory1 was eventually carried through after several instructive failures4 ,a suitable material was found in lustring1 a glossy silk cloth varnished with a solution of caoutchouc1 and this being formed into a balloon only thirteen feet in diameter and fitted without other aperture than a stopcock1 was after several attempts filled with hydrogen gas prepared in the usual way by the action of dilute sulphuric acid on scrap iron4 ,the preparations completed1 one last and all-important mistake was made by closing the stop-cock before the balloon was dismissed1 the disastrous and unavoidable result of this being at the time overlooked4 ,on ,august #be1 #aghc1 the balloon was liberated on the ,champ de ,mars before an enormous concourse1 and in less than two minutes had reached an elevation of half a mile1 when it was temporarily lost in cloud1 through which1 however1 it penetrated1 climbing into yet higher cloud1 when1 disappearing from sight1 it presently burst and descended to earth after remaining in the air some three-quarters of an hour4 ,the bursting of this little craft taught the future balloonist his first great lesson1 namely1 that on leaving earth he must open the neck of his balloon2 and the reason of this is obvious4 ,while yet on earth the imprisoned gas of a properly filled balloon distends the silk by virtue of its expansive force1 and in spite of the enormous outside pressure which the weight of air exerts upon it4 ,then1 as the balloon rises high in the air and the outside pressure grows less1 the struggling gas within1 if allowed no vent1 stretches the balloon more and more until the slender fabric bursts under the strain4 ,at the risk of being tedious1 we have dwelt at some length on the initial experiments which in less than a single year had led to the discovery and development of two distinct methods--still employed and in competition with each other--of dismissing balloons into the heavens4 ,we are now prepared to enter fully into the romantic history of our subject which from this point rapidly unfolds itself4 ,some eleven months only after the two ,montgolfiers were discovered toying with their inflated paper bag1 the younger of the two brothers was engaged to make an exhibition of his new art before the ,king at ,versailles1 and this was destined to be the first occasion when a balloon was to carry a living freight into the sky4 ,the stately structure1 which was gorgeously decorated1 towered some seventy feet into the air1 and was furnished with a wicker car in which the passengers were duly installed4 ,these were three in number1 a sheep1 a cock1 and a duck1 and amid the acclamations of the multitude1 rose a few hundred feet and descended half a mile away4 ,the cock was found to have sustained an unexplained mishap3 its leg was broken2 but the sheep was feeding complacently1 and the duck was quacking with much apparent satisfaction4 ,now1 who among mortals will come forward and win the honour of being the first to sail the skies8 ,m4 ,pilitre de ,rozier at once volunteered1 and by the month of ,november a new air ship was built1 #gd feet high1 #dh feet in largest diameter1 and #ae feet across the neck1 outside which a wicker gallery was constructed1 while an iron brazier was slung below all4 ,but to trim the boat properly two passengers were needed1 and de ,rozier found a ready colleague in the ,marquis d',arlandes4 ,by way of precaution1 de ,rozier made a few preliminary ascents with the balloon held captive1 and then the two intrepid ,frenchmen took their stand on opposite sides of the gallery1 each furnished with bundles of fuel to feed the furnace1 each also carrying a large wet sponge with which to extinguish the flames whenever the machine might catch fire4 ,on casting off the balloon rose readily1 and reaching #c1jjj feet1 drifted away on an upper current4 ,the rest of the narrative1 much condensed from a letter of the ,marquis1 written a week later1 runs somewhat thus3 ,our departure was at fifty-four minutes past one1 and occasioned little stir among the spectators4 ,thinking they might be frightened and stand in need of encouragement1 ,i waved my arm4 ,m4 de ,rozier cried1 ',you are doing nothing1 and we are not rising6' ,i stirred the fire1 and then began to scan the river1 but ,pilitre cried again1 ',see the river2 we are dropping into it6' ,we again urged the fire1 but still clung to the river bed4 ,presently ,i heard a noise in the upper part of the balloon1 which gave a shock as though it had burst4 ,i called to my companion1 ',are you dancing8' ,the balloon by now had many holes burned in it1 and using my sponge ,i cried that we must descend4 ,my companion1 however1 explained that we were over ,paris1 and must now cross it4 ,therefore1 raising the fire once more1 we turned south till we passed the ,luxemburg1 when1 extinguishing the flame1 the balloon came down spent and empty4 ,daring as was this ascent1 it was in achievement eclipsed two months later at ,lyons1 when a mammoth balloon1 #acj feet in height and lifting #ah tons1 was inflated in seventeen minutes1 and ascended with no less than seven passengers4 ,when more than half a mile aloft this machine1 which was made of too slender material for its huge size1 suddenly developed a rent of half its length1 causing it to descend with immense velocity2 but without the smallest injury to any of the passengers4 ,this was a memorable performance1 and the account1 sensational as it may read1 is by no means unworthy of credit2 for1 as will be seen hereafter1 a balloon even when burst or badly torn in midair may1 on the principle of the parachute1 effect its own salvation4 ,in the meanwhile1 the rival balloon of hydrogen gas--the ,charliere1 as it has been called--had had its first innings4 ,before the close of the year ,,mm4 ,roberts and ,charles constructed and inflated a hydrogen balloon1 this time fitted with a practicable valve1 and in partnership accomplished an ascent beating all previous records4 ,the day1 ,december #ag1 was one of winter temperature2 yet the aeronauts quickly reached #f1jjj feet1 and when1 after remaining aloft for one and a half hours1 they descended1 ,roberts got out1 leaving ,charles in sole possession4 ,left to himself1 this young recruit seems to have met with experiences which are certainly unusual1 and which must be attributed largely to the novelty of his situation4 ,he declared that at #i1jjj feet1 or less than two miles1 all objects on the earth had disappeared from view1 a statement which can only be taken to mean that he had entered cloud4 ,further1 at this moderate elevation he not only became benumbed with cold1 but felt severe pain in his right ear and jaw4 ,he held on1 however1 ascending till #aj1ejj feet were reached1 when he descended1 having made a journey of thirty miles from the start4 ,ascents1 all on the ,continent1 now followed one another in rapid succession1 and shortly the ,,mm4 ,roberts essayed a venture on new lines4 ,they attempted the guidance of a balloon by means of oars1 and though they failed in this they were fortunate in making a fresh record4 ,they also encountered a thunderstorm1 and by adopting a perfectly scientific method--of which more hereafter--succeeded in eluding it4 ,the storm broke around them when they were #ad1jjj feet high1 and at this altitude1 noting that there were diverse currents aloft1 they managed to manoeuvre their balloon higher or lower at will and to suit their purpose1 and by this stratagem drew away from the storm centre4 ,after six and a half hours their voyage ended1 but not until #aej miles had been covered4 ,it must be freely granted that prodigious progress had been made in an art that as yet was little more than a year old2 but assuredly not enough to justify the absurdly inflated ideas that the ,continental public now began to indulge in4 ,men lost their mental balance1 allowing their imagination to run riot1 and speculation became extravagant in the extreme4 ,there was to be no limit henceforward to the attainment of fresh knowledge1 nor any bounds placed to where man might roam4 ,the universe was open to him3 he might voyage if he willed to the moon or elsewhere3 ,paris was to be the starting point for other worlds3 ,heaven itself had been taken by storm4 ,moderation had to be learned ere long by the discipline of more than one stern lesson4 ,hitherto a marvellous--call it a ,providential--good fortune had attended the first aerial travellers2 and even when mishaps presently came to be reckoned with1 it may fairly be questioned whether so many lives were sacrificed among those who sought to voyage through the sky as were lost among such as first attempted to navigate the sea4 ,it is in such ventures as we are now regarding that fortune seems readiest to favour the daring1 and if ,i may digress briefly to adduce experiences coming within my own knowledge1 ,i would say that it is to his very impulsiveness that the enthusiast often owes the safety of his neck4 ,it is the timid1 not the bold rider1 that comes to grief at the fence4 ,it is the man who draws back who is knocked over by a tramcar4 ,sheer impetus1 moral or physical1 often carries you through1 as in the case of a fall from horse-back4 ,to tumble off when your horse is standing still and receive a dead blow from the ground might easily break a limb4 ,but at full gallop immunity often lies in the fact that you strike the earth at an angle1 and being carried forward1 impact is less abrupt4 ,i can only say that ,i have on more than one occasion found the greatest safety in a balloon venture involving the element of risk to lie in complete abandonment to circumstances1 and in the increased life and activity which the delirium of excitement calls forth4 ,in comparing1 however1 man's first ventures by sky with those by sea1 we must remember what far greater demand the former must have made upon the spirit of enterprise and daring4 ,we can picture the earliest sea voyager taking his first lesson astride of a log with one foot on the bottom1 and thus proceeding by sure stages till he had built his coracle and learned to paddle it in shoal water4 ,but the case was wholly different when the first frail air ship stood at her moorings with straining gear and fiercely burning furnace1 and when the sky sailor knew that no course was left him but to dive boldly up into an element whence there was no stepping back1 and separated from earth by a gulf which man instinctively dreads to look down upon4 ,taking events in their due sequence1 we have now to record a voyage which the terrors of sky and sea together combined to make memorable4 ,winter had come--early ,january of #aghe--when1 in spite of short dark days and frosty air1 ,m4 ,blanchard1 accompanied by an ,american1 ,dr4 ,jeffries1 determined on an attempt to cross the ,channel4 ,they chose the ,english side1 and inflating their balloon with hydrogen at ,dover1 boldly cast off1 and immediately drifted out to sea4 ,probably they had not paid due thought to the effect of low sun and chilly atmosphere1 for their balloon rose sluggishly and began settling down ere little more than a quarter of their course was run4 ,thereupon they parted with a large portion of their ballast1 with the result that they crept on as far as mid-,channel1 when they began descending again1 and cast out the residue of their sand1 together with some books1 and this1 too1 with the uncomfortable feeling that even these measures would not suffice to secure their safety4 ,this was in reality the first time that a sea passage had been made by sky1 and the gravity of their situation must not be under-estimated4 ,we are so accustomed in a sea passage to the constant passing of other vessels that we allow ourselves to imagine that a frequented portion of the ocean1 such as the ,channel1 is thickly dotted over with shipping of some sort4 ,but in entertaining this idea we are forgetful of the fact that we are all the while on a steamer track4 ,the truth1 however1 is that anywhere outside such a track1 even from the commanding point of view of a high-flying balloon1 the ocean is seen to be more vast than we suppose1 and bears exceedingly little but the restless waves upon its surface4 ,once fairly in the water with a fallen balloon1 there is clearly no rising again1 and the life of the balloon in this its wrong element is not likely to be a long one4 ,the globe of gas may under favourable circumstances continue to float for some while1 but the open wicker car is the worst possible boat for the luckless voyagers1 while to leave it and cling to the rigging is but a forlorn hope1 owing to the mass of netting which surrounds the silk1 and which would prove a death-trap in the water4 ,there are many instances of lives having been lost in such a dilemma1 even when help was near at hand4 ,our voyagers1 whom we left in mid-air and stream1 were soon descending again1 and this time they threw out their tackle--anchor1 ropes1 and other gear1 still without adequately mending matters4 ,then their case grew desperate4 ,the ,french coast was1 indeed1 well in sight1 but there seemed but slender chance of reaching it1 when they began divesting themselves of clothing as a last resort4 ,the upshot of this was remarkable1 and deserves a moment's consideration4 ,when a balloon has been lightened almost to the utmost the discharge of a small weight sometimes has a magical effect1 as is not difficult to understand4 ,throwing out ten pounds at an early stage1 when there may be five hundred pounds more of superfluous weight1 will tell but little1 but when those five hundred pounds are expended then an extra ten pounds scraped together from somewhere and cast overboard may cause a balloon to make a giant stride into space by way of final effort2 and it was so with ,m4 ,blanchard4 ,his expiring balloon shot up and over the approaching land1 and came safely to earth near the ,forest of ,guiennes4 ,a magnificent feast was held at ,calais to celebrate the above event4 ,m4 ,blanchard was presented with the freedom of the city in a gold box1 and application was made to the ,ministry to have the balloon purchased and deposited as a memorial in the church4 ,on the testimony of the grandson of ,dr4 ,jeffries the car of this balloon is now in the museum of the same city4 ,a very noteworthy example of how a balloon may be made to take a fresh lease of life is supplied by a voyage of ,m4 ,testu about this date1 which must find brief mention in these pages4 ,in one aspect it is laughable1 in another it is sublime4 ,from every point of view it is romantic4 ,it was four o'clock on a threatening day in ,june when the solitary aeronaut took flight from ,paris in a small hydrogen balloon only partially filled1 but rigged with some contrivance of wings which were designed to render it self-propelling4 ,discovering1 however1 that this device was inoperative1 ,m4 ,testu1 after about an hour and a half1 allowed the balloon to descend to earth in a corn field1 when1 without quitting hold of the car1 he commenced collecting stones for ballast4 ,but as yet he knew not the ways of churlish proprietors of land1 and in consequence was presently surprised by a troublesome crowd1 who proceeded1 as they supposed1 to take him prisoner till he should pay heavy compensation1 dragging him off to the nearest village by the trail rope of his balloon4 ,m4 ,testu now had leisure to consider his situation1 and presently hit on a stratagem the like of which has often since been adopted by aeronauts in like predicament4 ,representing to his captors that without his wings he would be powerless1 he suffered them to remove these weighty appendages1 when also dropping a heavy cloak1 he suddenly cut the cord by which he was being dragged1 and1 regaining freedom1 soared away into the sky4 ,he was quickly high aloft1 and heard thunder below him1 soon after which1 the chill of evening beginning to bring him earthward1 he descried a hunt in full cry1 and succeeded in coming down near the huntsmen1 some of whom galloped up to him1 and for their benefit he ascended again1 passing this time into dense cloud with thunder and lightning4 ,he saw the sun go down and the lightning gather round1 yet with admirable courage he lived the night out aloft till the storms were spent and the midsummer sun rose once more4 ,with daylight restored1 his journey ended at a spot over sixty miles from ,paris4 ,we have1 of course1 recounted only a few of the more noteworthy early ballooning ventures4 ,in reality there had up to the present time been scores of ascents made in different localities and in all conditions of wind and weather1 yet not a life had been lost4 ,we have now1 however1 to record a casualty which cost the first and boldest aeronaut his life1 and which is all the more regrettable as being due to circumstances that should never have occurred4 ,m4 ,pilatre de ,rosier1 accompanied by ,m4 ,romain1 determined on crossing the ,channel from the ,french side2 and1 thinking to add to their buoyancy and avoid the risk of falling in the sea1 hit on the extraordinary idea of using a fire balloon beneath another filled with hydrogen gas6 ,with this deadly compound machine they actually ascended from ,boulogne1 and had not left the land when the inevitable catastrophe took place4 ,the balloons caught fire and blew up at a height of #c1jjj feet1 while the unfortunate voyagers were dashed to atoms4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,first ,,balloon ,,ascent ,,in ,,england4 ,as may be supposed1 it was not long before the balloon was introduced into ,england4 ,indeed1 the first successful ascent on record made in our own country took place in the summer of #aghd1 ten months previous to the fatal venture narrated at the close of the last chapter4 ,now1 it is a remarkable and equally regrettable circumstance that though the first ascent on ,british soil was undoubtedly made by one of our own countrymen1 the fact is almost universally forgotten1 or ignored1 and the credit is accorded to a foreigner4 ,let us in strict honesty examine into the case4 ,vincent ,lunardi1 an ,italian1 ,secretary to the ,neapolitan ,ambassador1 ,prince ,caramanico1 being in ,england in the year #aghd1 determined on organising and personally executing an ascent from ,london2 and his splendid enterprise1 which was presently carried to a successful issue1 will form the principal subject of the present chapter4 ,it will be seen that remarkable success crowned his efforts1 and that his first and ever memorable voyage was carried through on ,september #aeth of that year4 ,more than a month previously1 however1 attention had been called to the fact that a ,mr4 ,tytler was preparing to make an ascent from ,edinburgh in a hot air balloon1 and in the ,london ,chronicle of ,august #bgth occurs the following circumstantial and remarkable letter from a correspondent to that journal3 ,edinburgh1 ,aug4 #bg1 #aghd4 ,mr4 ,tytler has made several improvements upon his fire balloon4 ,the reason of its failure formerly was its being made of porous linen1 through which the air made its escape4 ,to remedy this defect1 ,mr4 ,tytler has got it covered with a varnish to retain the inflammable air after the balloon is filled4 ,early this morning this bold adventurer took his first aerial flight4 ,the balloon being filled at ,comely ,garden1 he seated himself in the basket1 and the ropes being cut he ascended very high and descended quite gradually on the road to ,restalrig1 about half a mile from the place where he rose1 to the great satisfaction of those spectators who were present4 ,mr4 ,tytler went up without the furnace this morning2 when that is added he will be able to feed the balloon with inflammable air1 and continue his aerial excursions as long as he chooses4 ,mr4 ,tytler is now in high spirits1 and in his turn laughs at those infidels who ridiculed his scheme as visionary and impracticable4 ,mr4 ,tytler is the first person in ,great ,britain who has navigated the air4 ,referring to this exploit1 ,tytler1 in a laudatory epistle addressed to ,lunardi1 tells of the difficulties he had had to contend with1 and artlessly reveals the cool1 confident courage he must have displayed4 ,no shelter being available for the inflation1 and a strong wind blowing1 his first misfortune was the setting fire to his wicker gallery4 ,the next was the capsizing and damaging of his balloon1 which he had lined with paper4 ,he now substituted a coat of varnish for the paper1 and his gallery being destroyed1 so that he could no longer attempt to take up a stove1 he resolved to ascend without one4 ,in the end the balloon was successfully inflated1 when he had the hardihood to entrust himself to a small basket 7used for carrying earthenware7 slung below1 and thus to launch himself into the sky4 ,he did so under the conviction that the risk he ran was greater than it really was1 for he argued that his craft was now only like a projectile1 and must undoubtedly come to the ground with the same velocity with which it ascended4 ,on this occasion the crowd tried for some time to hold him near the ground by one of the restraining ropes1 so that his flight was curtailed4 ,in a second experiment1 however1 he succeeded in rising some hundreds of feet1 and came to earth without mishap4 ,but little further information respecting ,mr4 ,tytler is apparently forthcoming1 and therefore beyond recording the fact that he was the first ,british aeronaut1 and also that he was the first to achieve a balloon ascent in ,great ,britain1 we are unable to make further mention of him in this history4 ,of his illustrious contemporary already mentioned there is1 on the contrary1 much to record1 and we would desire to give full credit to his admirable courage and perseverance4 ,it was with a certain national and pardonable pride that the young ,italian planned his bold exploit1 feeling with a sense of self-satisfaction1 which he is at no pains to hide1 that he aimed at winning honour for his country as well as for himself4 ,in a letter which he wrote to his guardian1 ,chevalier ,gherardo ,compagni1 he alludes to the stolid indifference of the ,english people and philosophers to the brilliant achievements in aeronautics which had been made and so much belauded on the ,continent4 ,he proclaims the rivalry as regards science and art existing between ,france and ,england1 attributing to the latter an attitude of sullen jealousy4 ,at the same time he is fully alive to the necessity of gaining ,english patronage1 and sets about securing this with tactful diplomacy4 ,first he casts about for a suitable spot where his enterprise would not fail to enlist general attention and perhaps powerful patrons1 and here he is struck by the attractions and facilities offered by ,chelsea ,hospital4 ,he therefore applies to ,sir ,george ,howard1 the ,governor1 asking for the use of the famous hospital1 to which1 on the occasion of his experiments1 he desires that admittance should only be granted to subscribers1 while any profits should be devoted to the pensioners of the hospital4 ,his application having been granted1 he assures his guardian that he still maintains his mental balance1 and his sleep is not banished by the magnitude of his enterprise1 which is destined to lead him through the path of danger to glory4 ,this letter was dated the #aeth of ,july1 and by the beginning of ,august his advertisement was already before the public1 inviting subscribers and announcing a private view of his balloon at the ,lyceum1 where it was in course of construction1 and was being fitted with contrivances of his own in the shape of oars and sails4 ,he had by this time not only enlisted the interest of ,sir ,george ,howard1 and of ,sir ,joseph ,banks1 but had secured the direct patronage of the ,king4 ,but within a fortnight a most unforeseen mishap had occurred1 which threatened to overwhelm ,lunardi in disappointment and ruin4 ,a ,frenchman of the name of ,moret1 designing to turn to his own advertisement the attention attracted by ,lunardi's approaching trials1 attempted to forestall the event by an enterprise of his own1 announcing that he would make an ascent with a hot air balloon in some gardens near ,chelsea ,hospital1 and at a date previous to that fixed upon by ,lunardi4 ,in attempting1 however1 to carry out this unworthy project the adventurer met with the discomfiture he deserved4 ,he failed to effect his inflation1 and when after fruitless attempts continued for three hours1 his balloon refused to rise1 a large crowd1 estimated at #fj1jjj1 assembled outside1 broke into the enclosure1 committing havoc on all sides1 not unattended with acts of violence and robbery4 ,the whole neighbourhood became alarmed1 and it followed as a matter of course that ,lunardi was peremptorily ordered to discontinue his preparations1 and to announce in the public press that his ascent from ,chelsea ,hospital was forbidden4 ,failure and ruin now stared the young enthusiast in the face1 and it was simply the generous feeling of the ,british public1 and the desire to see fair play1 that gave him another chance4 ,as it was1 he became the hero of the hour2 thousands flocked to the show rooms at the ,lyceum1 and he shortly obtained fresh grounds1 together with needful protection for his project1 at the hands of the ,hon4 ,artillery ,company4 ,by the #aeth of ,september all incidental difficulties1 the mere enumeration of which would unduly swell these pages1 had been overcome by sheer persistence1 and ,lunardi stood in the enclosure allotted him1 his preparations in due order1 with #aej1jjj souls1 who had formed for hours a dense mass of spectators1 watching intently and now confidently the issue of his bold endeavour4 ,but his anxieties were as yet far from over1 for a ,london crowd had never yet witnessed a balloon ascent1 while but a month ago they had seen and wreaked their wrath upon the failure of an adventurer4 ,they were not likely to be more tolerant now4 ,and when the advertised hour for departure had arrived1 and the balloon remained inadequately inflated1 matters began to take a more serious turn4 ,half an hour later they approached a crisis1 when it began to be known that the balloon still lacked buoyancy1 and that the supply of gas was manifestly insufficient4 ,the impatience of the mob indeed was kept in restraint by one man alone4 ,this man was the ,prince of ,wales who1 refusing to join the company within the building and careless of the attitude of the crowd1 remained near the balloon to check disorder and unfair treatment4 ,but an hour after time the balloon still rested inert and then1 with fine resolution1 ,lunardi tried one last expedient4 ,he bade his colleague1 ,mr4 ,biggen1 who was to have ascended with him1 remain behind1 and quietly substituting a smaller and lighter wicker car1 or rather gallery1 took his place within and severed the cords just as the last gun fired4 ,the ,prince of ,wales raised his hat1 imitated at once by all the bystanders1 and the first balloon that ever quitted ,english soil rose into the air amid the extravagant enthusiasm of the multitude4 ,the intrepid aeronaut1 pardonably excited1 and fearful lest he should not be seen within the gallery1 made frantic efforts to attract attention by waving his flag1 and worked his oars so vigorously that one of them broke and fell4 ,a pigeon also gained its freedom and escaped4 ,the voyager1 however1 still retained companions in his venture--a dog and a cat4 ,following his own account1 ,lunardi's first act on finding himself fairly above the town was to fortify himself with some glasses of wine1 and to devour the leg of a chicken4 ,he describes the city as a vast beehive1 ,st4 ,paul's and other churches standing out prominently2 the streets shrunk to lines1 and all humanity apparently transfixed and watching him4 ,a little later he is equally struck with the view of the open country1 and his ecstasy is pardonable in a novice4 ,the verdant pastures eclipsed the visions of his own lands4 ,the precision of boundaries impressed him with a sense of law and order1 and of good administration in the country where he was a sojourner4 ,by this time he found his balloon1 which had been only two-thirds full at starting1 to be so distended that he was obliged to untie the mouth to release the strain4 ,he also found that the condensed moisture round the neck had frozen4 ,these two statements point to his having reached a considerable altitude1 which is intelligible enough4 ,it is1 however1 difficult to believe his further assertion that by the use of his single oar he succeeded in working himself down to within a few hundred feet of the earth4 ,the descent of the balloon must1 in point of fact1 have been due to a copious outrush of gas at his former altitude4 ,had his oar really been effective in working the balloon down it would not have needed the discharge of ballast presently spoken of to cause it to reascend4 ,anyhow1 he found himself sufficiently near the earth to land a passenger who was anxious to get out4 ,his cat had not been comfortable in the cold upper regions1 and now at its urgent appeal was deposited in a corn field1 which was the point of first contact with the earth4 ,it was carefully received by a country-woman1 who promptly sold it to a gentleman on the other side of the hedge1 who had been pursuing the balloon4 ,the first ascent of a balloon in ,england was deserving of some record1 and an account alike circumstantial and picturesque is forthcoming4 ,the novel and astonishing sight was witnessed by a ,hertfordshire farmer1 whose testimony1 published by ,lunardi in the same year1 runs as follows3-- ,this deponent on his oath sayeth that1 being on ,wednesday1 the #aeth day of ,september instant1 between the hours of three and four in the afternoon1 in a certain field called ,etna1 in the parish of ,north ,mimms aforesaid1 he perceived a large machine sailing in the air1 near the place where he was on horseback2 that the machine continuing to approach the earth1 the part of it in which this deponent perceived a gentleman standing came to the ground and dragged a short way on the ground in a slanting direction2 that the time when this machine thus touched the earth was1 as near as this deponent could judge1 about a quarter before four in the afternoon4 ,that this deponent being on horseback1 and his horse restive1 he could not approach nearer to the machine than about four poles1 but that he could plainly perceive therein gentleman dressed in light coloured cloaths1 holding in his hand a trumpet1 which had the appearance of silver or bright tin4 ,that by this time several harvest men coming up from the other part of the field1 to the number of twelve men and thirteen women1 this deponent called to them to endeavour to stop the machine1 which the men attempted1 but the gentleman in the machine desiring them to desist1 and the machine moving with considerable rapidity1 and clearing the earth1 went off in a north direction and continued in sight at a very great height for near an hour afterwards4 ,and this deponent further saith that the part of the machine in the which the gentleman stood did not actually touch the ground for more than half a minute1 during which time the gentleman threw out a parcel of what appeared to this deponent as dry sand4 ,that after the machine had ascended again from the earth this deponent perceived a grapple with four hooks1 which hung from the bottom of the machine1 dragging along the ground1 which carried up with it into the air a small parcel of loose oats1 which the women were raking in the field4 ,and this deponent further on his oath sayeth that when the machine had risen clear from the ground about twenty yards the gentleman spoke to this deponent and to the rest of the people with his trumpet1 wishing them goodbye and saying that he should soon go out of sight4 ,and this deponent further on his oath sayeth that the machine in which the gentleman came down to earth appeared to consist of two distinct parts connected together by ropes1 namely that in which the gentleman appeared to be1 a stage boarded at the bottom1 and covered with netting and ropes on the sides about four feet and a half high1 and the other part of the machine appeared in the shape of an urn1 about thirty feet high and of about the same diameter1 made of canvas like oil skin1 with green1 red1 and yellow stripes4 ,,nathaniel ,,whitbread4 ,sworn before me this twentieth day of ,september1 #aghd1 ,,william ,,baker4 ,it was a curious fact1 pointed out to the brave ,italian by a resident1 that the field in which the temporary descent had been made was called indifferently ,etna or ,italy1 from the circumstance which attended the late enclosure of a large quantity of roots1 rubbish1 etc41 having been collected there1 and having continued burning for many days4 ,the common people having heard of a burning mountain in ,italy gave the field that name4 ,but the voyage did not end at ,etna4 ,the1 as yet1 inexperienced aeronaut now cast out all available ballast in the shape of sand1 as also his provisions1 and rising with great speed1 soon reached a greater altitude than before1 which he sought to still farther increase by throwing down his plates1 knives1 and forks4 ,in this somewhat reckless expenditure he thought himself justified by the reliance he placed on his oar1 and it is not surprising that in the end he owns that he owed his safety in his final descent to his good fortune4 ,the narrative condensed concludes thus3-- ,at twenty minutes past four ,i descended in a meadow near ,ware4 ,some labourers were at work in it4 ,i requested their assistance1 but they exclaimed they would have nothing to do with one who came on the ,devil's ,horse1 and no entreaties could prevail on them to approach me4 ,i at last owed my deliverance to a young woman in the field who took hold of a cord ,i had thrown out1 and1 calling to the men1 they yielded that assistance at her request which they had refused to mine4 ,as may be supposed1 ,lunardi's return to ,london resembled a royal progress4 ,indeed1 he was welcomed as a conqueror to whom the whole town sought to do honour1 and perhaps his greatest gratification came by way of the accounts he gathered of incidents which occurred during his eventful voyage4 ,at a dinner at which he was being entertained by the ,lord ,mayor and judges he learned that a lady seeing his falling oar1 and fancying that he himself was dashed to pieces1 received a shock thereby which caused her death4 ,commenting on this1 one of the judges bade him be reassured1 inasmuch as he had1 as if by compensation1 saved the life of a young man who might live to be reformed4 ,the young man was a criminal whose condemnation was regarded as certain at the hands of the jury before whom he was being arraigned1 when tidings reached the court that ,lunardi's balloon was in the air4 ,on this so much confusion arose that the jury were unable to give due deliberation to the case1 and1 fearing to miss the great sight1 actually agreed to acquit the prisoner1 that they themselves might be free to leave the court6 ,but he was flattered by a compliment of a yet higher order4 ,he was told that while he hovered over ,london the ,king was in conference with his principal ,ministers1 and his ,majesty1 learning that he was in the sky1 is reported to have said to his councillors1 ,we may resume our own deliberations at pleasure1 but we may never see poor ,lunardi again6 ,on this1 it is further stated that the conference broke up1 and the ,king1 attended by ,mr4 ,pitt and other chief officers of ,state1 continued to view ,lunardi through telescopes as long as he remained in the horizon4 ,the public ,press1 notably the ,morning ,post of ,september #af1 paid a worthy tribute to the hero of the hour1 and one last act of an exceptional character was carried out in his honour1 and remains in evidence to this hour4 ,in a meadow in the parish of ,standon1 near ,ware1 there stands a rough hewn stone1 now protected by an iron rail4 ,it marks the spot where ,lunardi landed1 and on it is cut a legend which runs thus3 ,let ,posterity know ,and knowing be astonished that ,on the #aeth day of ,september #aghd ,vincent ,lunardi of ,lusca in ,tuscany ,the first aerial traveller in ,britain ,mounting from the ,artillery ,ground ,in ,london ,and ,traversing the ,regions of the ,air ,for ,two ,hours and ,fifteen ,minutes ,in this ,spot ,revisited the ,earth4 ,on this rude monument ,for ages be recorded ,that ,wondrous ,enterprise ,successfully atchieved ,by the ,powers of ,chemistry ,and the ,fortitude of ,man ,that ,improvement in ,science ,which ,the ,great ,author of all ,knowledge ,patronyzing by ,his ,providence ,the ,invention of ,mankind ,hath graciously permitted ,to ,their ,benefit ,and ,his own ,eternal ,glory4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,balloon ,,philosophy4 ,in less than two years not only had the science of ballooning reached almost its highest development1 but the balloon itself1 as an aerostatic machine1 had been brought to a state of perfection which has been but little improved upon up to the present hour4 ,better or cheaper methods of inflation were yet to be discovered1 lighter and more suitable material remained to be manufactured2 but the navigation of the air1 which hitherto through all time had been beyond man's grasp1 had been attained1 as it were1 at a bound1 and at the hands of many different and independent experimentalists was being pursued with almost the same degree of success and safety as to-day4 ,nor was this all4 ,there was yet another triumph of the aeronautical art which1 within the same brief period1 had been to all intents and purposes achieved1 even if it had not been brought to the same state of perfection as at the present hour4 ,this was the ,parachute4 ,this fact is one which for a sufficient reason is not generally known4 ,it is very commonly supposed that the parachute1 in anything like its present form1 is a very modern device1 and that the art of successfully using it had not been introduced to the world even so lately as thirty years ago4 ,thus1 we find it stated in works of that date dealing with the subject that disastrous consequences almost necessarily attended the use of the parachute1 the defects of which had been attempted to be remedied in various ways1 but up to this time without success4 ,a more correct statement1 however1 would have been that the art of constructing and using a practicable parachute had through many years been lost or forgotten4 ,in actual fact1 it had been adopted with every assurance of complete success by the year #aghe1 when ,blanchard by its means lowered dogs and other animals with safety from a balloon4 ,a few years later he descended himself in a like apparatus from ,basle1 meeting1 however1 with the misadventure of a broken leg4 ,but we must go much further back for the actual conception of the parachute1 which1 we might suppose1 may originally have been suggested by the easy floating motion with which certain seeds or leaves will descend from lofty trees1 or by the mode adopted by birds of dropping softly to earth with out-stretched wings4 ,m4 de la ,loubere1 in his historical account of ,siam1 which he visited in #afhg-hh1 speaks of an ingenious athlete who exceedingly diverted the ,king and his court by leaping from a height and supporting himself in the air by two umbrellas1 the handles of which were affixed to his girdle4 ,in #aghc1 that is1 the same year as that in which the balloon was invented1 ,m4 le ,normand experimented with a like umbrella-shaped contrivance1 with a view to its adoption as a fire escape1 and he demonstrated the soundness of the principle by descending himself from the windows of a lofty house at ,lyons4 ,it was1 however1 reserved for ,m4 ,jacques ,garnerin in #agig to make the first parachute descent that attracted general attention4 ,garnerin had previously been detained as a ,state prisoner in the fortress of ,bade1 in ,hungary1 after the battle of ,marchiennes in #agic1 and during his confinement had pondered on the possibility of effecting his escape by a parachute4 ,his solitary cogitations and calculations resulted1 after his release1 in the invention and construction of an apparatus which he put to a practical test at ,paris before the court of ,france on ,october #bbnd1 #agig4 ,ascending in a hydrogen balloon to the height of about #b1jjj feet1 he unhesitatingly cut himself adrift1 when for some distance he dropped like a stone4 ,the folds of his apparatus1 however1 opening suddenly1 his fall became instantly checked4 ,the remainder of his descent1 though leisurely1 occupying1 in fact1 some twelve minutes1 appeared to the spectators to be attended with uncertainty1 owing to a swinging motion set up in the car to which he was clinging4 ,but the fact remains that he reached the earth with only slight impact1 and entirely without injury4 ,it appears that ,garnerin subsequently made many equally successful parachute descents in ,france1 and during the short peace of #ahjb visited ,london1 where he gave an exhibition of his art4 ,from the most reliable accounts of his exploit it would seem that his drop was from a very great height1 and that a strong ground wind was blowing at the time1 the result of which was that wild1 wide oscillations were set up in the car1 which narrowly escaped bringing him in contact with the house tops in ,st4 ,pancreas1 and eventually swung him down into a field1 not without some unpleasant scratches4 ,nor was ,garnerin the only successful parachutist at this period4 ,a ,polish aeronaut1 ,jordaki ,kuparento1 ascended from ,warsaw on the #bdth of ,july1 #ahjd in a hot air balloon1 taking up1 as was the custom1 an attached furnace1 which caused the balloon to take fire when at a great height4 ,kuparento1 however1 who was alone1 had as a precaution provided himself with a parachute1 and with this he seems to have found no difficulty in effecting a safe descent to earth4 ,it was many years after this that fresh experimentalists1 introducing parachutes on new lines and faulty in construction1 met with death or disaster4 ,enough1 however1 has already been said to show that in the early years we are now traversing in this history a perfectly practicable parachute had become an accomplished fact4 ,the early form is well described by ,mr4 ,monck ,mason in a letter to the ,morning ,herald in #ahcg1 written on the eve of an unrehearsed and fatal experiment made by ,mr4 ,cocking1 which must receive notice in due course4 ,the principle1 writes ,mr4 ,monck ,mason1 upon which all these parachutes were constructed is the same1 and consists simply of a flattened dome of silk or linen from #bd feet to #bh feet in diameter4 ,from the outer margin all around at stated intervals proceed a large number of cords1 in length about the diameter of the dome itself1 which1 being collected together in one point and made fast to another of superior dimensions attached to the apex of the machine1 serve to maintain it in its form when expanded in the progress of the descent4 ,to this centre cord likewise1 at a distance below the point of junction1 varying according to the fancy of the aeronaut1 is fixed the car or basket in which he is seated1 and the whole suspended from the network of the balloon in such a manner as to be capable of being detached in an instant at the will of the individual by cutting the rope by which it is made fast above4 ,it followed almost as a matter of course that so soon as the balloon had been made subject to something like due control1 and thus had become recognised as a new machine fairly reduced to the service of man1 it began to be regarded as an instrument which should be made capable of being devoted to scientific research4 ,indeed1 it may be claimed that1 among the very earliest aeronauts1 those who had sailed away into the skies and brought back intelligent observations or impressions of the realm of cloud-land1 or who had only described their own sensations at lofty altitudes1 had already contributed facts of value to science4 ,it is time then1 taking events in their due sequence1 that mention should be made of the endeavours of various savants1 who began about the commencement of the nineteenth century to gather fresh knowledge from the exploration of the air by balloon ascents organised with fitting equipment4 ,the time had now come for promoting the balloon to higher purposes than those of mere exhibition or amusement4 ,in point of fact1 it had already in one way been turned to serious practical account4 ,it had been used by the ,french during military operations in the revolutionary war as a mode of reconnoitring1 and not without success1 so that when after due trial the war balloon was judged of value a number of similar balloons were constructed for the use of the various divisions of the ,french army1 and1 as will be told in its proper place1 one1 at least1 of these was put to a positive test before the battle of ,fleurus4 ,but1 returning to more strictly scientific ascents1 which began to be mooted at this period1 we are at once impressed with the widespread influence which the balloon was exercising on thinking minds4 ,we note this from the fact that what must be claimed to be the first genuine ascent for scientific observation was made in altogether fresh ground1 and at so distant a spot as ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,it was now the year #ahjd1 and the ,russian ,academy had determined on attempting an examination of the physical condition of the higher atmosphere by means of the balloon4 ,the idea had probably been suggested by scientific observations which had already been made on mountain heights by such explorers as ,de ,luc1 ,saussure1 ,humboldt1 and others4 ,and now it was determined that their results should be tested alongside such observations as could be gathered in the free heaven far removed from any disturbing effects that might be caused by contiguity to earth4 ,the lines of enquiry to which special attention was required were such as would be naturally suggested by the scientific knowledge of the hour1 though they may read somewhat quaintly to-day4 ,would there be any change in the intensity of the magnetic force8 ,any change in the inclination of the magnetised needle8 ,would evaporation find a new law8 ,would solar rays increase in power8 ,what amount of electric matter would be found8 ,what change in the colours produced by the prism8 ,what would be the constitution of the higher and more attenuated air8 ,what physical effect would it have on human and bird life8 ,the ascent was made at #g4ae on a summer evening by ,m4 ,robertson and the ,academician1 ,m4 ,sacharof1 to whom we are indebted for the following resume of notes1 which have a special value as being the first of their class4 ,rising slowly1 a difference of atmosphere over the ,neva gave the balloon a downward motion1 necessitating the discharge of ballast4 ,as late as #h4de p4m4 a fine view was obtained of the ,newski ,islands1 and the whole course of the neighbouring river4 ,at #i4bj p4m41 when the barometer had fallen from #cj inches to #bc inches1 a canary and a dove were dismissed1 the former falling precipitately1 while the latter sailed down to a village below4 ,all available ballast was now thrown out1 including a spare great coat and the remains of supper1 with the result that at #i4cj the barometer had fallen to #bb inches1 and at this height they caught sight of the upper rim of the sun4 ,the action of heart and lungs remained normal4 ,no stars were seen1 though the sky was mainly clear1 such clouds as were visible appearing white and at a great height4 ,the echo of a speaking trumpet was heard after an interval of ten seconds4 ,this was substantially the outcome of the experiments4 ,the practical difficulties of carrying out prearranged observations amid the inconvenience of balloon travel were much felt4 ,their instruments were seriously damaged1 and their results1 despite most painstaking and praiseworthy efforts1 must be regarded as somewhat disappointing4 ,but ere the autumn of the same year two other scientific ascents1 admirably schemed and financed at the public expense1 had been successfully carried out at ,paris in a war balloon which1 as will be told1 had at this time been returned from military operations in ,egypt4 ,in the first of these1 ,gay ,lussac ascended in company with ,m4 ,biot1 with very complete equipment4 ,choosing ten o'clock in the morning for their hour of departure1 they quickly entered a region of thin1 but wet fog1 after which they shot up into denser cloud1 which they completely surmounted at a height of #f1ejj feet1 when they described the upper surface as bearing the resemblance1 familiar enough to aeronauts and mountaineers1 as of a white sea broken up into gently swelling billows1 or of an extended plain covered with snow4 ,a series of simple experiments now embarked upon showed the behaviour of magnetised iron1 as also of a galvanic pile or battery1 to remain unaltered4 ,as their altitude increased their pulses quickened1 though beyond feeling keenly the contrast of a colder air and of scorching rays of the sun they experienced no physical discomfort4 ,at #aa1jjj feet a linnet which they liberated fell to the earth almost helplessly1 while a pigeon with difficulty maintained an irregular and precipitate flight4 ,a carefully compiled record was made of variations of temperature and humidity1 and they succeeded in determining that the upper air was charged with negative electricity4 ,in all this these two accomplished physicists may be said to have carried out a brilliant achievement1 even though their actual results may seem somewhat meagre4 ,they not only were their own aeronauts1 but succeeded in arranging and carrying out continuous and systematic observations throughout the period of their remaining in the sky4 ,this voyage was regarded as such a pronounced success that three weeks later1 in mid-,september1 ,gay ,lussac was induced to ascend again1 this time alone1 and under circumstances that should enable him to reach an exceptionally high altitude4 ,experience had taught the advisability of certain modifications in his equipment4 ,a magnet was ingeniously slung with a view of testing its oscillation even in spite of accidental gyrations in the balloon4 ,thermometers and hygrometers were carefully sheltered from the direct action of the sun1 and exhausted flasks were supplied with the object of bringing down samples of upper air for subsequent analysis4 ,again it was an early morning ascent1 with a barometer on the ground standing at #cj4f inches1 and a slightly misty air4 ,lussac appears to have accomplished the exceedingly difficult task of counting the oscillations of his magnet with satisfaction to himself4 ,at #aj1jjj feet twenty vibrations occupied #hc seconds1 as compared with #hd4cc seconds at the earth's surface4 ,the variation of the compass remained unaltered1 as also the behaviour of magnetised iron at all altitudes4 ,keeping his balloon under perfect control1 and maintaining a uniform and steady ascent1 he at the same time succeeded in compiling an accurate table of readings recording atmospheric pressure1 temperature and humidity1 and it is interesting to find that he was confronted with an apparent anomaly which will commonly present itself to the aeronaut observer4 ,up to #ab1jjj feet the temperature had decreased consistently from #hb degrees to #dg degrees1 after which it increased #f degrees in the next #b1jjj feet4 ,this by no means uncommon experience shall be presently discussed4 ,the balloon was now steadily manoeuvred up to #ah1fcf feet1 at which height freezing point was practically reached4 ,then with a further climb #bj1jjj feet is recorded1 at which altitude the ardent philosopher could still attend to his magnetic observations1 nor is his arduous and unassisted task abandoned here1 but with marvellous pertinacity he yet struggled upwards till a height of no less than #bc1jjj feet is recorded1 and the thermometer had sunk to #ad degrees ,f4 ,four miles and a quarter above the level of the sea1 reached by a solitary aerial explorer1 whose legitimate training lay apart from aeronautics1 and whose main care was the observation of the philosophical instruments he carried6 ,the achievement of this ,french savant makes a brilliant record in the early pages of our history4 ,it is not surprising that ,lussac should own to having felt no inconsiderable personal discomfort before his venture was over4 ,in spite of warm clothing he suffered greatly from cold and benumbed fingers1 not less also from laboured breathing and a quickened pulse2 headache supervened1 and his throat became parched and unable to swallow food4 ,in spite of all1 he conducted the descent with the utmost skill1 climbing down quietly and gradually till he alighted with gentle ease at ,st4 ,gourgen1 near ,rouen4 ,it may be mentioned here that the analysis of the samples of air which he had brought down proved them to contain the normal proportion of oxygen1 and to be essentially identical1 as tested in the laboratory1 with the free air secured at the surface of the earth4 ,the sudden and apparently unaccountable variation in temperature recorded by ,lussac is a striking revelation to an aerial observer1 and becomes yet more marked when more sensitive instruments are used than those which were taken up on the occasion just related4 ,it will be recorded in a future chapter how more suitable instruments came in course of time to be devised4 ,it is only necessary to point out at this stage that instruments which lack due sensibility will unavoidably read too high in ascents1 and too low in descents where1 according to the general law1 the air is found to grow constantly colder with elevation above the earth's surface4 ,it is strong evidence of considerable efficiency in the instruments1 and of careful attention on the part of the observer1 that ,lussac was able to record the temporary inversion of the law of change of temperature above-mentioned4 ,had he possessed modern instrumental equipment he would have brought down a yet more remarkable account of the upper regions which he visited1 and learned that the variations of heat and cold were considerably more striking than he supposed4 ,with a specially devised instrument used with special precautions1 the writer1 as will be shown hereafter1 has been able to prove that the temperature of the air1 as traversed in the wayward course of a balloon1 is probably far more variable and complex than has been recorded by most observers4 ,the exceptional height claimed to have been reached by ,gay ,lassac need not for a moment be questioned1 and the fact that he did not experience the same personal inconvenience as has been complained of by mountain climbers at far less altitudes admits of ready explanation4 ,the physical exertion demanded of the mountaineer is entirely absent in the case of an aeronaut who is sailing at perfect ease in a free balloon4 ,moreover1 it must be remembered that--a most important consideration--the aerial voyager1 necessarily travelling with the wind1 is unconscious1 save at exceptional moments1 of any breeze whatever1 and it is a well-established fact that a degree of cold which might be insupportable when a breeze is stirring may be but little felt in dead calm4 ,it should also be remembered1 in duly regarding ,gay ,lussac's remarkable record1 that this was not his first experience of high altitudes1 and it is an acknowledged truth that an aeronaut1 especially if he be an enthusiast1 quickly becomes acclimatised to his new element1 and sufficiently inured to its occasional rigours4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,some ,,famous ,,early ,,voyagers4 ,during certain years which now follow it will possibly be thought that our history1 so far as incidents of special interest are concerned1 somewhat languishes4 ,yet it may be wrong to regard this period as one of stagnation or retrogression4 ,before passing on to later annals1 however1 we must duly chronicle certain exceptional achievements and endeavours as yet unmentioned1 which stand out prominently in the period we have been regarding as also in the advancing years of the new century ,among these must in justice be included those which come into the remarkable1 if somewhat pathetic subsequent career of the brilliant1 intrepid ,lunardi4 ,compelling everywhere unbounded admiration he readily secured the means necessary for carrying out further exploits wherever he desired while at the same time he met with a measure of good fortune in freedom from misadventure such as has generally been denied to less bold adventurers4 ,within a few months of the time when we left him1 the popular hero and happy recipient of civic and royal favours1 we find him in ,scotland attempting feats which a knowledge of practical difficulties bids us regard as extraordinary4 ,to begin with1 nothing appears more remarkable than the ease1 expedition1 and certainty with which in days when necessary facilities must have been far harder to come by than now1 he could always fill his balloon by the usually tedious and troublesome mode attending hydrogen inflation4 ,we see him at his first ,scottish ascent1 completing the operation in little more than two hours4 ,it is the same later at ,glasgow1 where1 commencing with only a portion of his apparatus1 he finds the inflation actually to proceed too rapidly for his purpose1 and has to hold the powers at his command strongly in check4 ,later1 in ,december weather1 having still further improved his apparatus1 he makes his balloon support itself after the inflation of only ten minutes4 ,then1 as if assured of impunity1 he treats recognised risks with a species of contempt4 ,at ,kelso he hails almost with joy the fact that the wind must carry him rapidly towards the sea1 which in the end he narrowly escapes4 ,at ,glasgow the chances of safe landing are still more against him1 yet he has no hesitation in starting1 and at last the catastrophe he seemed to court actually overtook him1 and he plumped into the sea near ,berwick1 where no sail was even in sight1 and a winter's night coming on4 ,from this predicament he was rescued by a special providence which once before had not deserted him1 when in a tumult of violent and contrary currents1 and at a great height to boot1 his gallery was almost completely carried away1 and he had to cling on to the hoop desperately with both hands4 ,then we lose sight of the dauntless1 light-hearted ,italian for one-and-twenty years1 when in the ,gentleman's ,magazine of ,july #ca1 #ahjf1 appears the brief line1 ,died in the convent of ,barbadinas1 of a decline1 ,mr4 ,vincent ,lunardi1 the celebrated aeronaut4 ,garnerin1 of whom mention has already been made1 accomplished in the summer of #ahjb two aerial voyages marked by extreme velocity in the rate of travel4 ,the first of these is also remarkable as having been the first to fairly cross the heart of ,london4 ,captain ,snowdon1 ,r4,n41 accompanied the aeronaut4 ,the ascent took place from ,chelsea ,gardens1 and proved so great an attraction that the crowd overflowed into the neighbouring parts of the town1 choking up the thoroughfares with vehicles1 and covering the river with boats4 ,on being liberated1 the balloon sped rapidly away1 taking a course midway between the river and the main highway of the ,strand1 ,fleet ,street1 and ,cheapside1 and so passed from view of the multitude4 ,such a departure could hardly fail to lead to subsequent adventures1 and this is pithily told in a letter written by ,garnerin himself3 ,i take the earliest opportunity of informing you that after a very pleasant journey1 but after the most dangerous descent ,i ever made1 on account of the boisterous weather and the vicinity of the sea1 we alighted at the distance of four miles from this place and sixty from ,ranelagh4 ,we were only three-quarters of an hour on the way4 ,to-night ,i intend to be in ,london with the balloon1 which is torn to pieces4 ,we ourselves are all over bruises4 ,only a week after the same aeronaut ascended again from ,marylebone1 when he attained almost the same velocity1 reaching ,chingford1 a distance of seventeen miles1 in fifteen minutes4 ,the chief danger attending a balloon journey in a high wind1 supposing no injury has been sustained in filling and launching1 results not so much from impact with the ground on alighting as from the subsequent almost inevitable dragging along the ground4 ,the grapnels1 spurning the open1 will often obtain no grip save in a hedge or tree1 and even then large boughs will be broken through or dragged away1 releasing the balloon on a fresh career which may1 for a while1 increase in mad impetuosity as the emptying silk offers a deeper hollow for the wind to catch4 ,the element of risk is of another nature in the case of a night ascent1 when the actual alighting ground cannot be duly chosen or foreseen4 ,among many record night ascents may here1 somewhat by anticipation of events1 be mentioned two embarked upon by the hero of our last adventure4 ,m4 ,garnerin was engaged to make a spectacular ascent from ,tivoli at ,paris1 leaving the grounds at night with attached lamps illuminating his balloon4 ,his first essay was on a night of early ,august1 when he ascended at #aa p4m41 reaching a height of nearly three miles4 ,remaining aloft through the hours of darkness1 he witnessed the sun rise at half-past two in the morning1 and eventually came to earth after a journey of some seven hours1 during which time he had covered considerably more than a hundred miles4 ,a like bold adventure carried out from the same grounds the following month was attended with graver peril4 ,a heavy thunderstorm appearing imminent1 ,garnerin elected to ascend with great rapidity1 with the result that his balloon1 under the diminished pressure1 quickly became distended to an alarming degree1 and he was reduced to the necessity of piercing a hole in the silk1 while for safety's sake he endeavoured to extinguish all lamps within reach4 ,he now lost all control over his balloon1 which became unmanageable in the conflict of the storm4 ,having exhausted his ballast1 he presently was rudely brought to earth and then borne against a mountain side1 finally losing consciousness until the balloon had found anchorage three hundred miles away from ,paris4 ,a night ascent1 which reads as yet more sensational and extraordinary1 is reported to have been made a year or two previously1 and when it is considered that the balloon used was of the ,montgolfier type the account as it is handed down will be allowed to be without parallel4 ,it runs thus3 ,count ,zambeccari1 ,dr4 ,grassati of ,rome1 and ,m4 ,pascal ,andreoli of ,antona ascended on a ,november night from ,bologna1 allowing their balloon to rise with excessive velocity4 ,in consequence of this rapid transition to an extreme altitude the ,count and the ,doctor became insensible1 leaving ,andreoli alone in possession of his faculties4 ,at two o'clock in the morning they found themselves descending over the ,adriatic1 at which time a lantern which they carried expired and was with difficulty re-lighted4 ,continuing to descend1 they presently pitched in to the sea and became drenched with salt water4 ,it may seem surprising that the balloon1 which could not be prevented falling in the water1 is yet enabled to ascend from the grip of the waves by the mere discharge of ballast4 7,it would be interesting to inquire what meanwhile happened to the fire which they presumably carried with them47 ,they now rose into regions of cloud1 where they became covered with hoar frost and also stone deaf4 ,at #c a4m4 they were off the coast of ,istria1 once more battling with the waves till picked up by a shore boat4 ,the balloon1 relieved of their weight1 then flew away into ,turkey4 ,however overdrawn this narrative may appear1 it must be read in the light of another account1 the bare1 hard facts of which can admit of no question4 ,it is five years later1 and once again ,count ,zambeccari is ascending from ,bologna1 this time in company with ,signor ,bonagna4 ,again it is a ,montgolfier or fire balloon1 and on nearing earth it becomes entangled in a tree and catches fire4 ,the aeronauts jump for their lives1 and the ,count is killed on the spot4 ,certainly1 when every allowance is made for pardonable or unintentional exaggeration1 it must be conceded that there were giants in those days4 ,giants in the conception and accomplishment of deeds of lofty daring4 ,men who came scathless through supreme danger by virtue of the calmness and courage with which they withstood it4 ,among other appalling disasters we have an example of a terrific descent from a vast height in which the adventurers yet escape with their lives4 ,it was the summer of #ahjh1 and the aeronauts1 ,,mm4 ,andreoli and ,brioschi1 ascending from ,padua1 reach a height at which a barometer sinks to eight inches1 indicating upwards of #cj1jjj feet4 ,at this point the balloon bursts1 and falls precipitately near ,petrarch's tomb4 ,commenting on this1 ,mr4 ,glaisher1 the value of whose opinion is second to none1 is not disposed to question the general truth of the narrative4 ,in regard to ,zambeccari's escape from the sea related above1 it should be stated that in the case of a gas-inflated balloon which has no more than dipped its car or gallery in the waves1 it is generally perfectly possible to raise it again from the water1 provided there is on board a store of ballast1 the discharge of which will sufficiently lighten the balloon4 ,a case in point occurred in a most romantic and perilous voyage accomplished by ,mr4 ,sadler on the #ast of ,october1 #ahab4 ,his adventure is one of extraordinary interest1 and of no little value to the practical aeronaut4 ,the following account is condensed from ,mr4 ,sadler's own narrative4 ,he started from the grounds of ,belvedere ,house1 ,dublin1 with the expressed intention of endeavouring to cross over the ,irish ,channel to ,liverpool4 ,there appear to have been two principal air drifts1 an upper and a lower1 by means of which he entertained fair hopes of steering his desired course4 ,but from the outset he was menaced with dangers and difficulties4 ,ere he had left the land he discovered a rent in his silk which1 occasioned by some accident before leaving1 showed signs of extending4 ,to reach this1 it was necessary to extemporise by means of a rope a species of ratlins by which he could climb the rigging4 ,he then contrived to close the rent with his neckcloth4 ,he was1 by this time1 over the sea1 and1 manoeuvring his craft by aid of the two currents at his disposal1 he was carried to the south shore of the ,isle of ,man1 whence he was confident of being able1 had he desired it1 of landing in ,cumberland4 ,this1 however1 being contrary to his intention1 he entrusted himself to the higher current1 and by it was carried to the north-west of ,holyhead4 ,here he dropped once again to the lower current1 drifting south of the ,skerry ,lighthouse across the ,isle of ,anglesea1 and at #d4cj p4m4 found himself abreast of the ,great ,orme's ,head4 ,evening now approaching1 he had determined to seek a landing1 but at this critical juncture the wind shifted to the southward1 and he became blown out to sea4 ,then1 for an hour1 he appears to have tried high and low for a more favourable current1 but without success2 and1 feeling the danger of his situation1 and1 moreover1 sighting no less than five vessels beating down the ,channel1 he boldly descended in the sea about a mile astern of them4 ,he must for certain have been observed by these vessels2 but each and all held on their course1 and1 thus deserted1 the aeronaut had no choice but to discharge ballast1 and1 quitting the waves1 to regain his legitimate element4 ,his experiences at this period of his extraordinary voyage are best told in his own words4 ,at the time ,i descended the sun was near setting ,already the shadows of evening had cast a dusky hue over the face of the ocean1 and a crimson glow purpled the tops of the waves as1 heaving in the evening breeze1 they died away in distance1 or broke in foam against the sides of the vessels1 and before ,i rose from the sea the orb had sunk below the horizon1 leaving only the twilight glimmer to light the vast expanse around me4 ,how great1 therefore1 was my astonishment1 and how incapable is expression to convey an adequate idea of my feelings when1 rising to the upper region of the air1 the sun1 whose parting beams ,i had already witnessed1 again burst on my view1 and encompassed me with the full blaze of day4 ,beneath me hung the shadows of even1 whilst the clear beams of the sun glittered on the floating vehicle which bore me along rapidly before the wind4 ,after a while he sights three more vessels1 which signify their willingness to stand by1 whereupon he promptly descends1 dropping beneath the two rear-most of them4 ,from this point the narrative of the sinking man1 and the gallant attempt at rescue1 will rival any like tale of the sea4 ,for the wind1 now fast rising1 caught the half empty balloon so soon as the car touched the sea1 and the vessel astern1 though in full pursuit1 was wholly unable to come up4 ,observing this1 ,mr4 ,sadler1 trusting more to the vessel ahead1 dropped his grappling iron by way of drag1 and shortly afterwards tried the further expedient of taking off his clothes and attaching them to the iron4 ,the vessels1 despite these endeavours1 failing to overhaul him1 he at last1 though with reasonable reluctance1 determined to further cripple the craft that bore him so rapidly by liberating a large quantity of gas1 a desperate1 though necessary1 expedient which nearly cost him his life4 ,for the car now instantly sank1 and the unfortunate man1 clutching at the hoop1 found he could not even so keep himself above the water1 and was reduced to clinging1 as a last hope1 to the netting4 ,the result of this could be foreseen1 for he was frequently plunged under water by the mere rolling of the balloon4 ,cold and exertion soon told on him1 as he clung frantically to the valve rope1 and when his strength failed him he actually risked the expedient of passing his head through the meshes of the net4 ,it was obvious that for avail help must soon come2 yet the pursuing vessel1 now close1 appeared to hold off1 fearing to become entangled in the net1 and in this desperate extremity1 fainting from exhaustion and scarcely able to cry aloud1 ,mr4 ,sadler himself seems to have divined the chance yet left2 for1 summoning his failing strength1 he shouted to the sailors to run their bowsprit through his balloon4 ,this was done1 and the drowning man was hauled on board with the life scarcely in him4 ,a fitting sequel to the above adventure followed five years afterwards4 ,the ,irish ,sea remained unconquered4 ,no balloonist had as yet ever crossed its waters4 ,who would attempt the feat once more8 ,who more worthy than the hero's own son1 ,mr4 ,windham ,sadler8 ,this aspiring aeronaut1 emulating his father's enterprising spirit1 chose the same starting ground at ,dublin1 and on the longest day of #ahag1 when winds seemed favourable1 left the ,porto ,bello barracks at #a4bj p4m4 ,his endeavour was to tack his course by such currents as he should find1 in the manner attempted by his father1 and at starting the ground current blew favourably from the ,w4,s4,w4 ,he1 however1 allowed his balloon to rise to too high an altitude1 where he must have been taken aback by a contrary drift2 for1 on descending again through a shower of snow1 he found himself no further than ,ben ,howth1 as yet only ten miles on his long journey4 ,profiting by his mistake1 he thenceforward1 by skilful regulation1 kept his balloon within due limits1 and successfully maintained a direct course across the sea1 reaching a spot in ,wales not far from ,holyhead an hour and a half before sundown4 ,the course taken was absolutely the shortest possible1 being little more than seventy miles1 which he traversed in five hours4 ,from this period of our story1 noteworthy events in aeronautical history grow few and far between4 ,as a mere exhibition the novelty of a balloon ascent had much worn off4 ,no experimentalist was ready with any new departure in the art4 ,no fresh adventure presented itself to the minds of the more enterprising spirits2 and1 whereas a few years previously ballooning exploits crowded into every summer season and were not neglected even in winter months1 there is now for a while little to chronicle1 either abroad or in our own country4 ,a certain revival of the sensational element in ballooning was occasionally witnessed1 and not without mishap1 as in the case of ,madame ,blanchard1 who1 in the summer of #ahai1 ascending at night with fireworks from the ,tivoli ,gardens1 ,paris1 managed to set fire to her balloon and lost her life in her terrific fall4 ,half a dozen years later a ,mr41 as also ,mrs41 ,graham figure before the public in some bold spectacular ascents4 ,but the fame of any aeronaut of that date must inevitably pale before the dawning light shed by two stars of the first magnitude that were arising in two opposite parts of the world--,mr4 ,john ,wise in ,america1 and ,mr4 ,charles ,green in our own country4 ,the latter of these1 who has been well styled the ,father of ,english ,aeronautics1 now entered on a long and honoured career of so great importance and success that we must reserve for him a separate and special chapter4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,charles ,,green ,,and ,,the ,,nassau ,,balloon4 ,the balloon1 which had gradually been dropping out of favour1 had now been virtually laid aside1 and1 to all appearance1 might have continued so1 when1 as if by chance concurrence of events1 there arrived both the hour and the man to restore it to the world1 and to invest it with a new practicability and importance4 ,the coronation of ,george the ,fourth was at hand1 and this became a befitting occasion for the rare genius mentioned at the end of the last chapter1 and now in his thirty-sixth year1 to put in practice a new method of balloon management and inflation1 the entire credit of which must be accorded to him alone4 ,from its very introduction and inception the gas balloon1 an expensive and fragile structure in itself1 had proved at all times exceedingly costly in actual use4 ,indeed1 we find that at the date at which we have now arrived the estimate for filling a balloon of #gj1jjj cubic feet--no extraordinary capacity--with hydrogen gas was about ,l#bej4 ,when1 then1 to this great outlay was added the difficulty and delay of producing a sufficient supply by what was at best a clumsy process1 as also the positive failure and consequent disappointment which not infrequently ensued1 it is easy to understand how through many years balloon ascents1 no longer a novelty1 had begun to be regarded with distrust1 and the profession of a balloonist was doomed to become unremunerative4 ,a simpler and cheaper mode of inflation was not only a desideratum1 but an absolute necessity4 ,the full truth of this may be gathered from the fact that we find there were not seldom instances where two or three days of continuous and anxious labour were expended in generating and passing hydrogen into a balloon1 through the fabric of which the subtle gas would escape almost as fast as it was produced4 ,it was at this juncture1 then1 that ,charles ,green conceived the happy idea of substituting for hydrogen gas the ordinary household gas1 which at this time was to be found ready to hand and in sufficient quantity in all towns of any consequence2 and by the day of the coronation all was in readiness for a public exhibition of this method of inflation1 which was carried out with complete success1 though not altogether without unrehearsed and amusing incident1 as must be told4 ,the day1 ,july #ah1 was one of summer heat1 and ,green at the conclusion of his preparations1 fatigued with anxious labour and oppressed by the crowding of the populace1 took refuge within the car of his balloon1 which was by that time already inflated1 and only awaiting the gun signal that was to announce the moment for its departure4 ,to allow of his gaining the refreshment of somewhat purer air he begged his friends who were holding the car of his balloon in restraint to keep it suspended at a few feet from the earth1 while he rested himself within1 and1 this being done1 it would appear that he fell into a doze1 from which he did not awake till he found that the balloon1 which had slipped from his friends' hold1 was already high above the crowd and requiring his prompt attention4 ,this was1 however1 by no means an untoward accident1 and ,green's triumph was complete4 ,by this one venture alone the success of the new method was entirely assured4 ,the cost of the inflation had been reduced ten-fold1 the labour and uncertainty a hundred-fold1 and1 over and above all1 the confidence of the public was restored4 ,it is little wonder1 then1 that in the years that now follow we find the balloon returning to all the favour it had enjoyed in its palmiest days4 ,but ,green proved himself something more than a practical balloonist of the first rank4 ,he brought to the aid of his profession ideas which were matured by due thought and scientifically sound4 ,it is true he still clung for a while to the antiquated notion that mechanical means could1 with advantage1 be used to cause a balloon to ascend or descend1 or to alter its direction in a tranquil atmosphere4 ,but he saw clearly that the true method of navigating a balloon should be by a study of upper currents1 and this he was able to put to practical proof on a memorable occasion1 and in a striking manner1 as we shall presently relate4 ,he learned the lesson early in his career while acquiring facts and experience1 unassisted1 in a number of solitary voyages made from different parts of the country4 ,among these he is careful to record an occasion when1 making a day-light ascent from ,boston1 ,lincolnshire1 he maintained a lofty course1 which promised to take him direct to ,grantham2 but1 presently descending to a lower level1 and his balloon diverging at an angle of some #de degrees1 he now headed for ,newark4 ,this experience he stored away4 ,a month later we find him making a night voyage from ,vauxhall ,gardens1 destined to be the scene of many memorable ascents in the near future2 and on this occasion he gave proof of his capability as a close and intelligent observer4 ,it was a ,july night1 near #aa p4m41 moonless and cloudy1 yet the earth was visible1 and under these circumstances his simple narrative becomes of scientific value4 ,he accurately distinguished the reflective properties of the face of the diversified country he traversed4 ,over ,battersea and ,wandsworth--this was in #ahbf--there were white sheets spread over the land1 which proved to be corn crops ready for the sickle4 ,where crops were not the ground was darker1 with1 here and there1 objects absolutely black--in other words1 trees and houses4 ,then he mentions the river in a memorandum1 which reads strangely to the aeronaut who has made the same night voyage in these latter days4 ,the stream was crossed in places with rows of lamps apparently resting on the water4 ,these were the lighted bridges2 but1 here and there1 were dark planks1 and these too were bridges--at ,battersea and ,putney--but without a light upon them6 ,in these and many other simple1 but graphic1 narratives ,green draws his own pictures of ,nature in her quieter moods4 ,but he was not without early experience of her horse play1 a highly instructive record of which should not be omitted here1 and which1 as coming from so careful and conscientious an observer1 is best gathered from his own words4 ,the ascent was from ,newbury1 and it can have been no mean feat to fill1 under ordinary circumstances1 a balloon carrying two passengers and a considerable weight of ballast at the small gas-holder which served the town eighty-five years ago4 ,but the circumstances were not ordinary1 for the wind was extremely squally2 a tremendous hail and thunderstorm blew up1 and a hurricane swept the balloon with such force that two tons weight of iron and a hundred men scarce sufficed to hold it in check4 ,green on this occasion had indeed a companion1 whose usefulness however at a pinch may be doubted when we learn that he was both deaf and dumb4 ,the rest of the narrative runs thus3 ,between #d and #e p4m4 the clouds dispersed1 but the wind continued to rage with unabated fury the whole of the evening4 ,at #f p4m4 ,i stepped into the car with ,mr4 ,simmons and gave the word ',away6' ,the moment the machine was disencumbered of its weights it was torn by the violence of the wind from the assistants1 bounded off with the velocity of lightning in a southeasterly direction1 and in a very short space of time attained an elevation of two miles4 ,at this altitude we perceived two immense bodies of clouds operated on by contrary currents of air until at length they became united1 and at that moment my ears were assailed by the most awful and longest continued peal of thunder ,i have ever heard4 ,these clouds were a full mile beneath us1 but perceiving other strata floating at the same elevation at which we were sailing1 which from their appearance ,i judged to be highly charged with electricity1 ,i considered it prudent to discharge twenty pounds of ballast1 and we rose half a mile above our former elevation1 where ,i considered we were perfectly safe and beyond their influence4 ,i observed1 amongst other phenomena1 that at every discharge of thunder all the detached pillars of clouds within the distance of a mile around became attracted and appeared to concentrate their force towards the first body of clouds alluded to1 leaving the atmosphere clear and calm beneath and around us4 ,with very trifling variations we continued the same course until #g4ae p4m41 when we descended to within #ejj feet of the earth2 but1 perceiving from the disturbed surface of the rivers and lakes that a strong wind existed near the earth1 we again ascended and continued our course till #g4cj p4m41 when a final descent was safely effected in a meadow field in the parish of ,crawley in ,surrey1 situated between ,guildford and ,horsham1 and fifty-eight miles from ,newbury4 ,this stormy voyage was performed in one hour and a half4 ,it was after ,green had followed his profession for fifteen years that he was called upon to undertake the management of an aerial venture1 which1 all things considered1 has never been surpassed in genuine enterprise and daring4 ,the conception of the project was due to ,mr4 ,robert ,hollond1 and it took shape in this way4 ,this gentleman1 fresh from ,cambridge1 possessed of all the ardour of early manhood1 as also of adequate means1 had begun to devote himself with the true zeal of the enthusiast to the pursuit of ballooning1 finding due opportunity for this in his friendship with ,mr4 ,green1 who enjoyed the management of the fine balloon made for ascents at the then popular ,vauxhall ,gardens4 ,in the autumn of #ahcf the proprietors of this balloon1 contemplating making an exhibition of an ascent from ,paris1 and requiring their somewhat fragile property to be conveyed to that city1 ,mr4 ,hollond boldly came forward and offered to transfer it thither1 and1 as nearly as this might be possible1 by passage through the sky4 ,the proposal was accepted1 and ,mr4 ,holland1 in conjunction with ,green1 set about the needful preparations4 ,these1 as will appear1 were on an extraordinary scale1 and no blame is to be imputed on that account1 as a little consideration will show4 ,for the venture proposed was not to be that of merely crossing the ,channel1 which1 as we have seen1 had been successfully effected no less than fifty years before4 ,the voyage in contemplation was to be from ,london2 it was1 moreover1 to be pursued through a long1 moonless winter's night1 and under conditions of which no living aeronaut had had actual experience4 ,calculation1 based on a sufficient knowledge of fast upper currents1 told that their course1 ere finished1 might be one of almost indefinite length1 and it is not too much to say that no one1 with the knowledge of that day1 could predict within a thousand miles where the dawn of the next day might find them4 ,the equipment1 therefore1 was commensurate with the possible task before them4 ,to begin with1 they limited their number to three in all--,mr4 ,hollond1 as chief and keeper of the log2 ,mr4 ,green1 as aeronaut2 and an enthusiastic colleague1 ,mr4 ,monck ,mason1 as the chronicler of the party4 ,next1 they provided themselves with passports to all parts of the ,continent2 and then came the fitting out and victualling of the aerial craft itself1 calculated to carry some #ij1jjj cubic feet of gas1 and a counterpoise of a ton of ballast1 which took the form partly of actual provisions in large quantity1 partly of gear and apparatus1 and for the rest of sand and also lime1 of which more anon4 ,across the middle of the car was fixed a bench to serve as table1 and also as a stage for the winding in and out of an enormous trail rope a thousand feet long1 designed by ,mr4 ,green to meet the special emergencies of the voyage4 ,at the bottom of the car was spread a large cushion to serve the purposes of rest4 ,when all was in readiness unfitness of weather baulked the travellers for some days1 but ,monday1 the #gth of ,november1 was judged a favourable day1 so that the inflation was rapidly proceeded with1 and at #a4cj p4m4 the ,monstre ,balloon1 as it was entitled in the ,ingoldsby ,legends1 left the earth on her eventful and ever memorable voyage4 ,the weather was fine and promising1 and1 rising with a moderate breeze from the ,n4,w41 they began to traverse the northern parts of ,kent1 while light1 drifting upper clouds gave indication of other possible currents4 ,mr4 ,hollond was precise in the determination of times and of all readings and we learn that at exactly #b4dh p4m4 they were crossing the ,medway1 six miles west of ,rochester1 while at #d4e p4m4 the lofty towers of ,canterbury were well in view1 two miles to the east1 and here a little function was well carried out4 ,green had twice ascended from this city under patronage of the authorities1 and the idea occurred to the party that it would be a graceful compliment to drop a message to the ,mayor as they passed4 ,a suitable note1 therefore1 quickly written1 was dismissed in a parachute1 and it may be mentioned that this1 as also a similar missive addressed later to the ,mayor of ,dover1 were duly received and acknowledged4 ,at a quarter past four they sighted the sea1 and here1 the air beginning to grow chill1 the balloon dropped earthward1 and for some miles they skimmed the ground1 disturbing the partridges1 scattering the rooks1 and keeping up a running conversation the while with labourers and passers below4 ,in this there was exercise of perfectly proper aerial seamanship1 such as moreover presently led to an exhibition of true science4 ,to save ballast is1 with a balloon1 to prolong life1 and this may often best be done by flying low1 which doubtless was ,green's present intention4 ,but soon his trained eye saw that the ground current which now carried them was leading them astray4 ,they were trending to the northward1 and so far out of their course that they would soon make the ,north ,foreland1 and so be carried out over the ,north ,sea far from their desired direction4 ,thereupon ,green attempted to put in practice his theory1 already spoken of1 of steering by upper currents1 and the event proved his judgment peculiarly correct4 ,nothing1 wrote ,mr4 ,monck ,mason1 could exceed the beauty of the manoeuvre1 to which the balloon at once responded1 regaining her due course1 and1 in a matter of a few minutes only1 bearing the voyagers almost vertically over the castle of ,dover in the exact line for crossing the straits between that town and ,calais4 ,so far all was well1 and success had been extraordinary2 but from this moment they became faced with new conditions1 and with the grave trouble of uncertainty4 ,light was failing1 the sea was before them1 and--what else thenceforth8 #d4dh p4m4 was recorded as the moment when the first line of breaking waves was seen directly below them1 and then the ,english coast line began rapidly to fade out from their view4 ,but1 ahead1 the obscurity was yet more intense1 for clouds1 banked up like a solid wall1 crowned along its frowning heights1 with parapets and turrets and batteries and bastions1 and1 plunging into this opposing barrier1 they were quickly buried in blackness1 losing at the same time over the sea all sound from earth soever4 ,so for a short hour's space1 when the sound of waves once again broke in upon them1 and immediately afterwards emerging from the dense cloud 7a sea-fog merely7 they found themselves immediately over the brilliantly lighted town of ,calais4 ,seeing this1 the travellers attempted to signal by igniting and lowering a ,bengal ,light1 which was directly followed by the beating of drums from below4 ,it adds a touch of reality1 as well as cheerfulness1 to the narrative to read that at this period of their long journey the travellers apply themselves to a fair1 square meal1 the first for twelve hours1 despite the day's excitement and toil4 ,we have an entry among the stores of the balloon of wine bottles and spirit flasks1 but there is no mention of these being requisitioned at this period4 ,the demand seems rather to have been for coffee--coffee hot2 and this by a novel device was soon prepared4 ,it goes without saying that a fire or flame of any kind1 except with special precautions1 is inadmissable in a balloon2 but a cooking heat1 sufficient for the present purpose1 was supplied from the store of lime1 a portion of which1 being placed in a suitably contrived vessel and slaked quickly1 procured the desired beverage4 ,this meal now indulged in seems to have been heartily and happily enjoyed2 and from this point1 for a while1 the narrative becomes that of enthusiastic and delighted travellers4 ,in the gloom below1 for leagues around1 they regarded the scattered fires of a watchful population1 with here and there the lights of larger towns1 and the contemplation begot romantic reveries4 ,were they not amid the vast solitudes of the skies1 in the dead of night1 unknown and unnoticed1 secretly and silently reviewing kingdoms1 exploring territories1 and surveying cities all clothed in the dark mantle of mystery8 ,presently they identified the blazing city of ,liege1 with the lurid lights of extensive outlying iron works1 and this was the last visible sign they caught of earth that night2 save1 at least1 when occasional glimpses of lightning momentarily and dimly outlined the world in the abyss below4 ,ere long1 they met with their first discomfort1 which they seem to have regarded as a most serious one1 namely1 the accidental dropping overboard of their cherished coffee-boiling apparatus4 ,with its loss their store of lime became useless1 save as ballast1 and for this it was forthwith utilised until nothing remained but the empty lime barrel itself1 which1 being regarded as an objectionable encumbrance1 it was desirable to get rid of1 were it not for the risk involved in rudely dropping it to earth4 ,but the difficulty was met4 ,they possessed a suitable small parachute1 and1 attached to this1 the barrel was allowed to float earthward4 ,as hours advanced1 the blackness of night increased1 and their impressions appear somewhat strange to anyone familiar with ordinary night travel in the sky4 ,mr4 ,monck ,mason compares their progress through the darkness to cleaving their way through an interminable mass of black marble4 ,then1 presently1 an unaccountable object puzzles and absorbs the attention of all the party for a long period4 ,they were gazing open-mouthed at a long narrow avenue of feeble light1 which1 though apparently belonging to earth1 was too long and regular for a river1 and too broad for a canal or road1 and it was only after many futile imaginings that they discovered they were simply looking at a stay rope of the balloon hanging far out over the side4 ,somewhat later still1 there was a more serious claim upon the imagination4 ,it was half-past three in the morning1 and the balloon1 which1 to escape from too low an altitude1 had been liberally lightened1 had now at high speed mounted to a vast height4 ,and then1 amid the black darkness and dead silence of that appalling region1 suddenly overhead came the sound of an explosion1 followed by the violent rustling of the silk1 while the car jerked violently1 as though suddenly detached from its hold4 ,this was the idea1 leading to the belief that the balloon had suddenly exploded1 and that they were falling headlong to earth4 ,their suspense1 however1 cannot have been long1 and the incident was intelligible enough1 being due to the sudden yielding of stiffened net and silk under rapid expansion caused by their speedy and lofty ascent4 ,the chief incidents of the night were now over1 until the dawn arrived and began to reveal a strange land1 with large tracts of snow1 giving place1 as the light strengthened1 to vast forests4 ,to their minds these suggested the plains of ,poland1 if not the steppes of ,russia1 and1 fearing that the country further forward might prove more inhospitable1 they decided to come to earth as speedily as possible4 ,this1 in spite of difficult landing1 they effected about the hour that the waking population were moving abroad1 and then1 and not till then1 they learned the land of their haven--the heart of the ,german forests4 ,five hundred miles had been covered in eighteen hours from start to finish6 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,charles ,,green--,,further ,,adventures4 ,all history is liable to repeat itself1 and that of aeronautics forms no exception to the rule4 ,the second year after the invention of the balloon the famous ,m4 ,blanchard1 ascending from ,frankfort1 landed near ,weilburg1 and1 in commemoration of the event1 the flag he bore was deposited among the archives in the ducal palace of that town4 ,fifty-one years passed by when1 outside the same city1 a yet more famous balloon effected its landing1 and with due ceremony its flag is presently laid beside that of ,blanchard in the same ducal palace4 ,the balloon of the ,immortal ,three1 whose splendid voyage has just been recounted1 will ever be known by the title of the ,great ,nassau ,balloon1 but the neighbourhood of its landing was that of the town of ,weilburg1 in the ,duchy of ,nassau1 whither the party betook themselves1 and where1 during many days1 they were entertained with extravagant hospitality and honour until business recalled ,mr4 ,hollond home4 ,green had now made upwards of two hundred ascents1 and1 though he lived to make a thousand1 it was impossible that he could ever eclipse this last record4 ,it is true that the same ,nassau balloon1 under his guidance1 made many other most memorable voyages1 some of which it will be necessary to dwell on4 ,but1 to preserve a better chronology1 we must first1 without further digression1 approach an event which fills a dark page in our annals2 and1 in so doing1 we have to transfer our attention from the balloon itself to its accessory1 the parachute4 ,twenty-three years before our present date1 that is to say in #ahad1 ,mr4 ,cocking delivered his views as to the proper form of the parachute before the ,society of ,arts1 who1 as a mark of approval1 awarded him a medal4 ,this parachute1 however1 having never taken practical shape1 and only existing1 figuratively speaking1 in the clouds1 seemed unlikely to find its way there in reality until the success of the ,nassau adventure stirred its inventor to strenuous efforts to give it an actual trial4 ,thus it came about that he obtained ,mr4 ,green's co-operation in the attempt he now undertook1 and1 though this ended disastrously1 for ,mr4 ,cocking1 the great professional aeronaut can in no way soever be blamed for the tragic event4 ,the date of the trial was in ,july1 #ahcg4 ,mr4 ,cocking's parachute was totally different in principle from that form which1 as we have seen1 had met with a fair measure of success at the hands of early experimenters2 and on the eve of its trial it was strongly denounced and condemned in the ,london ,press by the critic whom we have recently so freely quoted1 ,mr4 ,monck ,mason4 ,this able reasoner and aeronaut pointed out that the contrivance about to be tested aimed at obviating two principal drawbacks which the parachute had up to that time presented1 namely 7#a7 the length of time which elapses before it becomes sufficiently expanded1 and 7#b7 the oscillatory movement which accompanies the descent4 ,in this new endeavour the inventor caused his machine to be fixed rigidly open1 and to assume the shape of an inverted cone4 ,in other words1 instead of its being like an umbrella opened1 it rather resembled an umbrella blown inside out4 ,taking1 then1 the shape and dimensions of ,mr4 ,cocking's structure as a basis for mathematical calculation1 as also its weight1 which for required strength he put at #ejj lbs4 ,mr4 ,monck ,mason estimated that the adventurer and his machine must attain in falling a velocity of some twelve miles an hour4 ,in fact1 his positive prediction was that one of two events must inevitably take place4 ,either the parachute would come to the ground with a force incompatible with the safety of the individual1 or should it be attempted to make it sufficiently light to resist this conclusion1 it must give way beneath the forces which will develop in the descent4 ,this emphatic word of warning was neglected1 and the result of the terrible experiment can best be gathered from two principal sources4 ,first1 that of a special reporter writing from terra-firma1 and1 secondly1 that of ,mr4 ,green himself1 who gives his own observations as made from the balloon in which he took the unfortunate man and his invention into the sky4 ,the journalist1 who first speaks of the enormous concourse that gathered to see the ascent1 not only within ,vauxhall ,gardens1 but on every vantage ground without1 proceeds to tell of his interview with ,mr4 ,cocking himself1 who1 when questioned as to the danger involved1 remarked that none existed for him1 and that the greatest peril1 if any1 would attend the balloon when suddenly relieved of his weight4 ,the proprietors of the ,gardens1 as the hour approached1 did their best to dissuade the over-confident inventor1 offering1 themselves1 to take the consequences of any public disappointment4 ,this was again without avail1 and so1 towards #f p4m41 ,mr4 ,green1 accompanied by ,mr4 ,spencer1 a solicitor of whom this history will have more to tell1 entered the balloon1 which was then let up about #dj feet that the parachute might be affixed below4 ,a little later1 ,mr4 ,cocking1 casting aside his heavy coat and tossing off a glass of wine1 entered his car and1 amid deafening acclamations1 with the band playing the ,national ,anthem1 the balloon and aeronauts above1 and he himself in his parachute swinging below1 mounted into the heavens1 passing presently1 in the gathering dusk1 out of view of the ,gardens4 ,the sequel should be gathered from ,mr4 ,green's own narrative4 ,previous to starting1 #fej lbs4 of ballast had to be discarded to gain buoyancy sufficient to raise the massive machine4 ,this1 together with another #ajj lbs41 which was also required to be ejected owing to the cooling of the air1 was passed out through a canvas tube leading downwards through a hole in the parachute1 an ingenious contrivance which would prevent the sand thrown out from the balloon falling on the slender structure itself4 ,on quitting the earth1 however1 this latter set up such violent oscillations that the canvas tube was torn away1 and then it became the troublesome task of the aeronauts to make up their ballast into little parcels1 and1 as occasion required1 to throw these into space clear of the swinging parachute below4 ,despite all efforts1 however1 it was soon evident that the cumbersome nature of the huge parachute would prevent its being carried up quite so high as the inventor desired4 ,mr4 ,cocking had stipulated for an elevation of #g1jjj feet1 and1 as things were1 only #e1jjj feet could be reached1 at any rate1 before darkness set in4 ,this fact was communicated to ,mr4 ,cocking1 who promptly intimated his intention of leaving1 only requesting to know whereabouts he was1 to which query ,mr4 ,spencer replied that they were on a level with ,greenwich4 ,the brief colloquy that ensued is thus given by ,mr4 ,green3-- ,i asked him if he felt quite comfortable1 and if the practical trial bore out his calculation4 ,mr4 ,cocking replied1 ',yes1 ,i never felt more comfortable or more delighted in my life1' presently adding1 ',well1 now ,i think ,i shall leave you4' ,i answered1 ',i wish you a very ,good ,night6 and a safe descent if you are determined to make it and not use the tackle' 7a contrivance for enabling him to retreat up into the balloon if he desired74 ,mr4 ,cocking's only reply was1 ',good-night1 ,spencer2 ,good-night1 ,green6' ,mr4 ,cocking then pulled the rope that was to liberate himself1 but too feebly1 and a moment afterwards more violently1 and in an instant the balloon shot upwards with the velocity of a sky rocket4 ,the effect upon us at this moment was almost beyond description4 ,the immense machine which suspended us between heaven and earth1 whilst it appeared to be forced upwards with terrific violence and rapidity through unknown and untravelled regions amidst the howlings of a fearful hurricane1 rolled about as though revelling in a freedom for which it had long struggled1 but of which until that moment it had been kept in utter ignorance4 ,it1 at length1 as if somewhat fatigued by its exertions1 gradually assumed the motions of a snake working its way with extraordinary speed towards a given object4 ,during this frightful operation the gas was rushing in torrents from the upper and lower valve1 but more particularly from the latter1 as the density of the atmosphere through which we were forcing our progress pressed so heavily on the valve at the top of the balloon as to admit of but a comparatively small escape by this aperture4 ,at this juncture1 had it not been for the application to our mouths of two pipes leading into an air bag1 with which we had furnished ourselves previous to starting1 we must within a minute have been suffocated1 and so1 but by different means1 have shared the melancholy fate of our friend4 ,this bag was formed of silk1 sufficiently capacious to contain #ajj gallons of atmospheric air4 ,prior to our ascent1 the bag was inflated with the assistance of a pair of bellows with fifty gallons of air1 so allowing for any expansion which might be produced in the upper regions4 ,into the end of this bag were introduced two flexible tubes1 and the moment we felt ourselves to be going up in the manner just described1 ,mr4 ,spencer1 as well as myself1 placed either of them in our mouths4 ,by this simple contrivance we preserved ourselves from instantaneous suffocation1 a result which must have ensued from the apparently endless volume of gas with which the car was enveloped4 ,the gas1 notwithstanding all our precautions1 from the violence of its operation on the human frame1 almost immediately deprived us of sight1 and we were both1 as far as our visionary powers were concerned1 in a state of total darkness for four or five minutes4 ,messrs4 ,green and ,spencer eventually reached earth in safety near ,maidstone1 knowing nothing of the fate of their late companion4 ,but of this we are sufficiently informed through a ,mr4 ,r4 ,underwood1 who was on horseback near ,blackheath and watching the aeronauts at the moment when the parachute was separated from the balloon4 ,he noticed that the former descended with the utmost rapidity1 at the same time swaying fearfully from side to side1 until the basket and its occupant1 actually parting from the parachute1 fell together to earth through several hundred feet and were dashed to pieces4 ,it would appear that the liberation of the parachute from below the balloon had been carried out without hitch2 indeed1 all so far had worked well1 and the wind at the time was but a gentle breeze4 ,the misadventure1 therefore1 must be entirely attributed to the faulty manner in which the parachute was constructed4 ,there could1 of course1 be only one issue to the sheer drop from such a height1 which became the unfortunate ,mr4 ,cocking's fate1 but the very interesting question will have to be discussed as to the chances in favour of the aeronaut who1 within his wicker car1 while still duly attached to the balloon1 may meet with a precipitate descent4 ,we may here fitly mention an early perilous experience of ,mr4 ,green1 due simply to the malice of someone never discovered4 ,it appears that while ,green's balloon1 previous to an ascent1 was on the ground1 the cords attaching the car had been partly severed in such a way as to escape detection4 ,so that as soon as the balloon rose the car commenced breaking away1 and its occupants1 ,mr4 ,green and ,mr4 ,griffiths1 had to clutch at the ring1 to which with difficulty they continued to cling4 ,meanwhile1 the car remaining suspended by one cord only1 the balloon was caused to hang awry1 with the result that its upper netting began giving way1 allowing the balloon proper gradually to escape through the bursting meshes1 thus threatening the distracted voyagers with terrible disaster4 ,the disaster1 in fact1 actually came to pass ere the party completed their descent1 the balloon1 rushing through the opening in the net-work with a tremendous explosion1 and the two passengers clinging to the rest of the gear1 falling through a height said to be near a hundred feet4 ,both1 though only with much time and difficulty1 recovered from the shock4 ,in #ahdj1 three years after the tragic adventure connected with ,mr4 ,cocking's parachute trial1 we find ,charles ,green giving his views as to the practicability of carrying out a ballooning enterprise which should far excel all others that had hitherto been attempted4 ,this was nothing less than the crossing of the ,atlantic from ,america to ,england4 ,there is no shadow of doubt that the adventurous aeronaut was wholly in earnest in the readiness he expressed to embark on the undertaking should adequate funds be forthcoming2 and he discusses the possibilities with singular clearness and candour4 ,he maintains that the actual difficulties resolve themselves into two only3 first1 the maintenance of the balloon in the sky for the requisite period of time2 and1 secondly1 the adequate control of its direction in space4 ,with respect to the first difficulty1 he points out the fact to which we have already referred1 namely1 that it is impossible to avoid the fluctuations of level in a balloon's course1 by which it constantly becomes alternately subjected to escape of gas by expansion1 and consequent loss of ballast1 to furnish an equivalent diminution of weight4 ,taking his own balloon of #hj1jjj cubic feet by way of example1 he shows that this1 fully inflated on the earth1 would lose #h1jjj cubic feet of gas by expansion in ascending only #c1jjj feet4 ,moreover1 the approach of night or passage through cloud or falling rain would occasion chilling of the gas or accumulation of moisture on the silk1 in either case necessitating the loss of ballast1 the store of which is always the true measure of the balloon's life4 ,to combat the above difficulty ,green sanguinely relies on his favourite device of a trail or guide rope1 whose function1 being that of relieving the balloon of a material weight as it approaches the earth1 could1 he supposed1 be made to act yet more efficiently when over the sea in the following manner4 ,its length1 suspended from the ring1 being not less than #b1jjj feet1 it should have attached at its lower end at certain intervals a number of small1 stout waterproof canvas bags1 the apertures of which should be contrived to admit water1 but to oppose its return4 ,between these bags were to be conical floats1 to support any length of the rope that might descend on the sea4 ,now1 should the balloon commence descending1 it would simply deposit a certain portion of rope on the water until it regained equilibrium at no great decrease of altitude1 and would thus continue its course until alteration of conditions should cause it to recommence rising1 when the weight of water now collected in the bags would play its part in preventing the balloon from soaring up into space4 ,with such a contrivance ,green allowed himself to imagine that he could keep a properly made balloon at practically the same altitude for a period of three months if required4 ,the difficulty of maintaining a due course was next discussed1 and somewhat speedily disposed of4 ,here ,green relied on the results of his own observation1 gathered during #bge ascents1 and stated his conviction that there prevails a uniformity of upper wind currents that would enable him to carry out his bold projects successfully4 ,his contention is best given in his own words3 ,under whatever circumstances1 he says1 ,i made my ascent1 however contrary the direction of the winds below1 ,i uniformly found that at a certain elevation1 varying occasionally1 but always within #aj1jjj feet of the earth1 a current from the west or rather from the north of west1 invariably travailed1 nor do ,i recollect a single instance in which a different result ensued4 ,green's complete scheme is now sufficiently evident4 ,he was to cross the ,atlantic practically by the sole assistance of upper currents and his guide rope1 but on this latter expedient1 should adverse conditions prevail1 he yet further relied1 for he conceived that the rope could have attached to its floating end a water drag1 which would hold the balloon in check until favouring gales returned4 ,funds1 apparently1 were not forthcoming to allow of ,mr4 ,green's putting his bold method to the test2 but we find him still adhering with so much zeal to his project that1 five years later1 he made1 though again unsuccessfully1 a second proposal to cross the ,atlantic by balloon4 ,he still continued to make many and most enterprising ascents1 and one of a specially sensational nature must be briefly mentioned before we pass on to regard the exploits of other aeronauts4 ,it was in #ahda on the occasion of a fete at ,cremorne ,house1 when ,mr4 ,green1 using his famous ,nassau balloon1 ascended with a ,mr4 ,macdonnell4 ,the wind was blowing with such extreme violence that ,rainham1 in ,essex1 about twenty miles distant1 was reached in little more than a quarter of an hour1 and here1 on nearing the earth1 the grapnel1 finding good hold1 gave a wrench to the balloon that broke the ring and jerked the car completely upside down1 the aeronauts only escaping precipitation by holding hard to the ropes4 ,a terrific steeplechase ensued1 in which the travellers were dragged through stout fencing and other obstacles till the balloon1 fairly emptied of gas1 finally came to rest1 but not until some severe injuries had been received4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,john ,,wise--,,the ,,american ,,aeronaut4 ,by this period the domination of the air was being pursued in a fresh part of the world4 ,england and her ,continental neighbours had vied with each in adding to the roll of conquests1 and it could hardly other be supposed that ,america would stand by without taking part in the campaign which was now being revived with so much fresh energy in the skies4 ,the ,american champion who stepped forward was ,mr4 ,john ,wise1 of ,lancaster1 ,pa41 whose career1 commencing in the year #ahce1 we must now for a while follow4 ,few attempts at ballooning of any kind had up to that time been made in all ,america4 ,there is a record that in ,december1 #aghc1 ,messrs4 ,rittenhouse and ,hopkins1 ,members of the ,philosophical ,academy of ,philadelphia1 instituted experiments with an aerial machine consisting of a cage to which forty-seven small balloons were harnessed4 ,in this strange craft a carpenter1 by name ,wilcox1 was induced to ascend1 which1 it is said1 he did successfully1 remaining in the air for ten minutes1 when1 finding himself near a river1 he sought to come to earth again by opening several of his balloons4 ,this brought about an awkward descent1 attended1 however1 by no more serious accident than a dislocated wrist4 ,mr4 ,wise1 on the other hand1 states that ,blanchard had won the distinction of making the first ascent in the ,new ,world in #agic in ,philadelphia on which occasion ,washington was a spectator2 and a few years afterwards other ,frenchmen gave exhibitions1 which1 however1 led to no real development of the new art on this1 the further side of the ,atlantic4 ,thus the endeavours we are about to describe were those of an independent and1 at the same time1 highly1 practical experimentalist1 and on this account have a special value of their own4 ,the records that ,wise has left of his investigations begin at the earliest stage1 and possess the charm of an obvious and somewhat quaint reality4 ,they commence with certain crude calculations which would seem to place no limit to the capabilities of a balloon4 ,thus1 he points out that one of the very moderate size of #djj feet diameter would convey #ac1jjj men4 ,no wonder1 then1 he continues1 the citizens of ,london became alarmed during the ,french ,war1 when they mistook the appearance of a vast flock of birds coming towards the ,metropolis for ,napoleon's army apparently coming down upon them with this new contrivance4 ,proceeding to practical measures1 ,wise's first care was to procure some proper material of which to build an experimental balloon of sufficient size to lift and convey himself alone4 ,for this he chose ordinary long-cloth1 rendered gas-tight by coats of suitable varnish1 the preparation of which became with him1 as1 indeed1 it remains to this day1 a problem of chief importance and difficulty4 ,perhaps it hardly needs pointing out that the varnish of a balloon must not only be sufficiently elastic not to crack or scale off with folding or unavoidable rough usage1 but it must also be of a nature to resist the common tendency of such substances to become adherent or tacky4 ,wise determined on bird lime thinned with linseed oil and ordinary driers4 ,with this preparation he coated his material several times both before and after the making up1 and having procured a net1 of which he speaks with pride1 and a primitive sort of car1 of which he bitterly complains1 he thought himself sufficiently equipped to embark on an actual ascent1 which he found a task of much greater practical difficulty than the mere manufacture of his air ship4 ,for the inflation by hydrogen of so small a balloon as his was he made more than ample provision in procuring no less than fifteen casks of #acj gallons capacity each4 ,he also duly secured a suitable filling ground at the corner of ,ninth and ,green ,streets1 ,philadelphia1 but he made a miscalculation as to the time the inflation would demand1 and this led to unforeseen complications1 for as yet he knew not the way of a crowd which comes to witness a balloon ascent4 ,having all things in readiness1 and prudently waiting for fair weather1 he embarked on his grand experiment on the #bnd of ,may1 #ahce1 announcing #d p4m4 as the hour of departure4 ,but by that time the inflation1 having only proceeded for three hours1 the balloon was but half full1 and then the populace began to behave as in such circumstances they always will4 ,they were incredulous1 and presently grew troublesome4 ,in vain the harnessing of the car was proceeded with as though all were well4 ,for all was not well1 and when the aeronaut stepped into his car with only fifteen pounds of sand and a few instruments he must have done so with much misgiving4 ,still1 he had friends around who might have been useful had they been less eager to help4 ,but these simply crowded round him1 giving him no elbow room1 nor opportunity for trying the lift of his all-too-empty globe4 ,moreover1 some would endeavour to throw the machine upward1 while others as strenuously strove to keep it down1 and at last the former party prevailed1 and the balloon1 being fairly cast into the air1 grazed a neighbouring chimney and then plunged into an adjacent plot1 not1 however1 before the distracted traveller had flung away all his little stock of sand4 ,there now was brief opportunity for free action1 and to the first bystander who came running up ,wise gave the task of holding the car in check4 ,to the next he handed out his instruments1 his coat1 and also his boots1 hoping thus to get away2 but his chance had not yet come1 for once again the crowd swarmed round him1 keeping him prisoner with good-natured but mistaken interference1 and drowning his voice with excited shouting4 ,somehow1 by word and gesture1 he gave his persecutors to understand that he wished to speak1 and then he begged them only to give him a chance1 whereupon the crowd fell back1 forming a ring1 and leaving only one man holding the car4 ,it was a moment of suspense1 for ,wise calculated that he had only parted with some eighteen pounds since his first ineffectual start from the filling ground2 but it was enough1 and in another moment he was sailing up clear above the crowd4 ,so great1 as has been already shewn1 is often the effect of parting with the last few pounds of dead weight in a well-balanced balloon4 ,such was the first send off of the future great balloonist1 destined to become the pioneer in aeronautics on the far side of the ,atlantic4 ,the balloon ascended to upwards of a mile1 floating gradually away1 but at its highest point it reached a conflict of currents1 causing eddies from which ,wise escaped by a slight decrease of weight1 effected by merely cutting away the wreaths of flowers that were tied about his car4 ,a further small substitute for ballast he extemporised in the metal tube inserted in the neck of his fabric1 and this he cast out when over the breadth of the ,delaware1 and he describes it as falling with a rustling sound1 and striking the water with a splash plainly heard at more than a mile in the sky4 ,after an hour and a quarter the balloon spontaneously and steadily settled to earth4 ,an ascent carried out later in the same summer led to a mishap1 which taught the young aeronaut an all-important lesson4 ,using the same balloon and the same mode of inflation1 he got safely and satisfactorily away from his station in the town of ,lebanon1 ,pa41 and soon found himself over a toll gate in the open country1 where the gate keeper in banter called up to him for his due4 ,to this summons ,wise1 with heedless alacrity1 responded in a manner which might well have cost him dear4 ,he threw out a bag of sand to represent his toll1 and1 though he estimated this at only six pounds1 it so greatly accelerated his ascent that he shortly found himself at a greater altitude than he ever after attained4 ,he passed through mist into upper sunshine1 where he experienced extreme cold and ear-ache1 at which time1 seeking the natural escape from such trouble1 he found to his dismay that the valve rope was out of reach4 ,thus he was compelled to allow the balloon to ascend yet higher1 at its own will2 and then a terrible event happened4 ,by mischance the neck of his balloon1 which should have been open1 was out of reach and folded inwards in such a way as to prevent the free escape of the gas1 which1 at this great altitude1 struggled for egress with a loud humming noise1 giving him apprehensions of an accident which very shortly occurred1 namely1 the bursting of the lower part of his balloon with a loud report4 ,it happened1 however1 that no extreme loss of gas ensued1 and he commenced descending with a speed which1 though considerable1 was not very excessive4 ,still1 he was eager to alight in safety1 until a chance occurrence made him a second time that afternoon guilty of an act of boyish impetuosity4 ,a party of volunteers firing a salute in his honour as he neared the ground1 he instantly flung out papers1 ballast1 anything he could lay his hands on1 and once again soared to a great height with his damaged balloon4 ,he could then do no more1 and presently subsiding to earth again1 he acquired the welcome knowledge that even in such precarious circumstances a balloon may make a long fall with safety to its freight4 ,mr4 ,wise's zeal and indomitable spirit of enterprise led to speedy developments of the art which he had espoused2 the road to success being frequently pointed out by failure or mishap4 ,he quickly discarded the linen balloon for one of silk on which he tried a new varnish composed of linseed oil and india-rubber1 and1 dressing several gores with this1 he rolled them up and left them through a night in a drying loft1 with the result that the next day they were disintegrated and on the point of bursting into flame by spontaneous combustion4 ,fresh silk and other varnish were then tried1 but with indifferent success4 ,next he endeavoured to dispense with sewing1 and united the gores of yet another balloon by the mere adhesiveness of the varnish and application of a hot iron4 ,this led to a gaping seam developing at the moment of an ascent1 and then there followed a hasty and hazardous descent on a house-top and an exciting rescue by a gentleman who appeared opportunely at a third storey window4 ,further1 another balloon had been destroyed1 and ,wise badly burned1 at a descent1 owing to a naked light having been brought near the escaping gas4 ,it is then without wonder that we find him after this temporarily bankrupt1 and resorting to his skill in instrument-making to recover his fortunes4 ,only1 however1 for a few months1 after which he is before the public once more as a professional aeronaut4 ,he now adopts coal gas for inflation1 and incidents of an impressive nature crowd into his career1 forcing important facts upon him4 ,the special characteristics of his own country present peculiar difficulties2 broad rivers and vast forests become serious obstacles4 ,he is caught in the embrace of a whirlwind2 he narrowly escapes falling into a forest fire2 he is precipitated1 but harmlessly1 into a pine wood4 ,among other experiments1 he makes a small copy of ,mr4 ,cocking's parachute1 and drops it to earth with a cat as passenger1 proving thereby that that unfortunate gentleman's principle was really less in fault than the actual slenderness of the material used in his machine4 ,we now approach one of ,wise's boldest1 and at the same time most valuable1 experiments4 ,it was the summer of #ahci1 and once again the old trouble of spontaneous combustion had destroyed a silk balloon which was to have ascended at ,easton1 ,pa4 ,undeterred1 however1 ,wise resolutely advertised a fresh attempt1 and1 with only a clear month before the engagement1 determined on hastily rigging up a cambric muslin balloon1 soaking it in linseed oil and essaying the best exhibition that this improvised experiment could afford4 ,it was intended to become a memorable one1 inasmuch as1 should he meet with no hindrance1 his determination was nothing less than that of bursting this balloon at a great height1 having firmly convinced himself that the machine in these circumstances would form itself into a natural parachute1 and bring him to earth with every chance in favour of safety4 ,in his own words1 ,scientific calculations were on his side with a certainty as great and principles as comprehensive as that a pocket-handkerchief will not fall as rapidly to the ground when thrown out of a third storey window as will a brick4 ,his balloon was specially contrived for the experiment in hand1 having cords sewn to the upper parts of its seams1 and then led down through the neck1 where they were secured within reach1 their office being that of rending the whole head of the balloon should this be desired4 ,on this occasion a cat and a dog were taken up1 one of these being let fall from a height of #b1jjj feet in a ,cocking's parachute1 and landing in safety1 the other being similarly dismissed at an altitude of #d1jjj feet in an oiled silk balloon made in the form of a collapsed balloon1 which1 after falling a little distance1 expanded sufficiently to allow of its descending with a safe though somewhat vibratory motion4 ,its behaviour1 at any rate1 fully determined ,wise on carrying out his own experiment4 ,being constructed entirely for the main object in view1 the balloon had no true opening in the neck beyond an orifice of about an inch1 and by the time a height of #ac1jjj feet had been reached the gas was streaming violently through this small hole1 the entire globe being expanded nearly to bursting point1 and the cords designed for rending the balloon very tense4 ,at this critical period ,wise owns to having experienced considerable nervous excitement1 and observing far down a thunderstorm in progress he began to waver in his mind1 and inclined towards relieving the balloon of its strain1 and so abandoning his experiment1 at least for the present4 ,he remembers pulling out his watch to make a note of the hour1 and1 while thus occupied1 the straining cords1 growing tenser every moment1 suddenly took charge of the experiment and burst the balloon of their own accord4 ,the gas now rushed from the huge rent above tumultuously and in some ten seconds had entirely escaped1 causing the balloon to descend rapidly1 until the lower part of the muslin1 doubling in upwards1 formed a species of parachute after the manner intended4 ,the balloon now came down with zig-zag descent1 and finally the car1 striking the earth obliquely1 tossed its occupant out into a field unharmed4 ,shortly after this ,wise experimented with further success with an exploded balloon4 ,it is not a little remarkable that this pioneer of aeronautics in ,american--a contemporary of ,charles ,green in ,england1 but working and investigating single-handed on perfectly independent lines--should have arrived at the same conclusions as did ,green himself as to the possibility1 which1 in his opinion1 amounted to a certainty1 of being able to cross the ,atlantic by balloon if only adequate funds were forth-coming4 ,so intent was he on his bold scheme that1 in the summer of #ahdc1 he handed to the ,lancaster ,intelligencer a proclamation1 which he desired might be conveyed to all publishers of newspapers on the globe4 ,it contained1 among other clauses1 the following3-- ,having from a long experience in aeronautics been convinced that a constant and regular current of air is blowing at all times from west to east1 with a velocity of from twenty to forty and even sixty miles per hour1 according to its height from the earth1 and having discovered a composition which renders silk or muslin impervious to hydrogen gas1 so that a balloon may be kept afloat for many weeks1 ,i feel confident with these advantages that a trip across the ,atlantic will not be attended with as much real danger as by the common mode of transition4 ,the balloon is to be #ajj feet in diameter1 giving it a net ascending power of #be1jjj lbs4 ,it was further stated that the crew would consist of three persons1 including a sea navigator1 and a scientific landsman4 ,the specifications for the transatlantic vessel were also to include a seaworthy boat in place of the ordinary car4 ,the sum requisite for this enterprise was1 at the time1 not realised2 but it should be mentioned that several years later a sufficient sum of money was actually subscribed4 ,in the summer of #ahgc the proprietors of the ,new ,york ,daily ,graphic provided for the construction of a balloon of no less than #djj1jjj cubic feet capacity1 and calculated to lift #ad1jjj lbs4 ,it was1 however1 made of bad material2 and1 becoming torn in inflation1 ,wise condemned and declined to use it4 ,a few months later1 when it had been repaired1 one ,donaldson and two other adventurers1 attempting a voyage with this ill-formed monster1 ascended from ,new ,york1 and were fortunate in coming down safely1 though not without peril1 somewhere in ,connecticut4 ,failing in his grand endeavour1 ,wise continued to follow the career of a professional aeronaut for some years longer1 of which he has left a full record1 terminating with the spring of #ahdh4 ,his ascents were always marked by carefulness of detail1 and a coolness and courage in trying circumstances that secured him uniform success and universal regard4 ,he was1 moreover1 always a close and intelligent observer1 and many of his memoranda are of scientific value4 ,his description of an encounter with a storm-cloud in the ,june of #ahdc has an interest of its own1 and may not be considered overdrawn4 ,it was an ascent from ,carlisle1 ,pa41 to celebrate the anniversary of ,bunker's ,hill1 and ,wise was anxious to gratify the large concourse of people assembled1 and thus was tempted1 soon after leaving the ground1 to dive up into a huge black cloud of peculiarly forbidding aspect4 ,this cloud appeared to remain stationary while he swept beneath it1 and1 having reached its central position1 he observed that its under surface was concave towards the earth1 and at that moment he became swept upwards in a vortex that set his balloon spinning and swinging violently1 while he himself was afflicted with violent nausea and a feeling of suffocation4 ,the cold experienced now became intense1 and the cordage became glazed with ice1 yet this had no effect in checking the upward whirling of the balloon4 ,sunshine was beyond the upper limits of the cloud2 but this was no sooner reached than the balloon1 escaping from the uprush1 plunged down several hundred feet1 only to be whirled up again1 and this reciprocal motion was repeated eight or ten times during an interval of twenty minutes1 in all of which time no expenditure of gas or discharge of ballast enabled the aeronaut to regain any control over his vessel4 ,statements concerning a thunderstorm witnessed at short range by ,wise will compare with other accounts4 ,the thunder rattled without any reverberations1 and when the storm was passing1 and some dense clouds moving in the upper currents1 the surface of the lower stratum swelled up suddenly like a boiling cauldron1 which was immediately followed by the most brilliant ebullition of sparkling coruscations4 ,green1 in his stormy ascent from ,newbury1 ,england1 witnessed a thunderstorm below him1 as will be remembered1 while an upper cloud stratum lay at his own level4 ,it was then that ,green observed that at every discharge of thunder all the detached pillars of clouds within the distance of a mile around became attracted4 ,the author will have occasion1 in due place1 to give personal experiences of an encounter with a thunderstorm which will compare with the foregoing description4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,early ,,methods ,,and ,,ideas4 ,before proceeding to introduce the chief actors and their achievements in the period next before us1 it will be instructive to glance at some of the principal ideas and methods in favour with aeronauts up to the date now reached4 ,it will be seen that ,wise in ,america1 contrary to the practice of ,green in our own country1 had a strong attachment to the antique mode of inflation with hydrogen prepared by the vitriolic process2 and his balloons were specially made and varnished for the use of this gas4 ,the advantage which he thus bought at the expense of much trouble and the providing of cumbersome equipment was obvious enough1 and may be well expressed by a formula which holds good to-day1 namely1 that whereas #a1jjj cubic feet of hydrogen is capable of lifting #g lbs41 the same quantity of coal gas of ordinary quality will raise but #ce lbs4 ,the lighter gas came into all ,wise's calculations for bolder schemes4 ,thus1 when he discusses the possibility of using a metal balloon1 his figures work out as follows3 ,if a balloon of #bjj feet diameter were constructed out of copper1 weighing one pound to the square foot2 if1 moreover1 some six tons were allowed for the weight of car and fastenings1 an available lifting power would remain capable of raising #de tons to an altitude of two miles4 ,this calculation may appear somewhat startling1 yet it is not only substantially correct1 but ,wise entertained no doubt as to the practicability of such a machine4 ,for its inflation he suggests inserting a muslin balloon filled with air within the copper globe1 and then passing hydrogen gas between the muslin and copper surfaces1 which would exclude the inner balloon as the copper one filled up4 ,his method of preparing hydrogen was practically that still adopted in the field1 and seems in his hands to have been seldom attended with difficulty4 ,with eight common #acj-;gallon rum puncheons he could reckon on evolving #e1jjj cubic feet of gas in an hour1 using his elements in the following proportions3 water1 #efj lbs42 sulphuric acid 7sp4 g4 #a4he71 #add lbs42 iron turnings1 #abe lbs4 ,the gas1 as given off1 was cooled and purified by being passed through a head of water kept cool and containing lime in solution4 ,contrasted with this1 we find it estimated1 according to the practice of this time1 that a ton of good bituminous coal should yield #aj1jjj cubic feet of carburetted hydrogen fit for lighting purposes1 and a further quantity which1 though useless as an illuminant1 is still of excellent quality for the aeronaut4 ,it would even seem from a statement of ,mr4 ,monck ,mason that the value of coke in his day largely compensated for the cost of producing coal gas1 so that in a large number of ,green's ascents no charge whatever was made for gas by the companies that supplied him4 ,some1 at least1 of the methods formerly recommended for the management of free balloons must in these days be modified4 ,green1 as we have seen1 was in favour of a trail rope of inordinate length1 which he recommended both as an aid to steering and for a saving of ballast4 ,in special circumstances1 and more particularly over the sea1 this may be reckoned a serviceable adjunct1 but over land its use1 in this country at least1 would be open to serious objection4 ,the writer has seen the consternation1 not to say havoc1 that a trail rope may occasion when crossing a town1 or even private grounds1 and the actual damage done to a garden of hops1 or to telegraph or telephone wires1 may be very serious indeed4 ,moreover1 the statement made by some early practitioners that a trail rope will not catch so as to hold fast in a wood or the like1 is not to be relied on1 for an instance could be mentioned coming under the writer's knowledge where such a rope was the source of so much trouble in a high wind that it had to be cut away4 ,the trouble arose in this way4 ,the rope dragged harmlessly enough along the open ground4 ,it would1 likewise1 negotiate exceedingly well a single tree or a whole plantation1 catching and releasing itself with only such moderate tugs at the car as were not disturbing2 but1 presently1 its end1 which had been caught and again released by one tree1 swung free in air through a considerable gap to another tree1 where1 striking a horizontal bough1 it coiled itself several times around1 and thus held the balloon fast1 which now1 with the strength of the wind1 was borne to the earth again and again1 rebounding high in air after each impact1 until freedom was gained only by the sacrifice of a portion of the rope4 ,wise recommends a pendant line of #fjj or #hjj feet1 capable of bearing a strain of #ajj lbs41 and with characteristic ingenuity suggests a special use which can be made of it1 namely1 that of having light ribbons tied on at every hundred feet1 by means of which the drifts of lower currents may be detected4 ,in this suggestion there is1 indeed1 a great deal of sound sense2 for there is1 as will be shown hereafter1 very much value to be attached to a knowledge of those air rivers that are flowing1 often wholly unsuspected1 at various heights4 ,small parachutes1 crumpled paper1 and other such-like bodies as are commonly thrown out and relied on to declare the lower drifts1 are not wholly trustworthy1 for this reason--that air-streams are often very slender1 mere filaments1 as they are sometimes called1 and these1 though setting in some definite direction1 and capable of entrapping and wafting away some small body which may come within their influence1 may not affect the travel of so big an object as a balloon1 which can only partake of some more general air movement4 ,wise1 by his expedient of tying ribbons at different points to his trail rope1 would obtain much more correct and constant information respecting those general streams through which the pendant rope was moving4 ,a similar expedient adopted by the same ingenious aeronaut is worthy of imitation1 namely1 that of tying ribbons on to a rod projecting laterally from the car4 ,these form a handy and constant telltale as to the flight of the balloon1 for should they be fluttering upwards the sky sailor at once knows that his craft is descending1 and that he must act accordingly4 ,the material1 pure silk1 which was universally adopted up to and after the period we are now regarding1 is not on every account to be reckoned the most desirable4 ,in the first place1 its cost alone is prohibitive1 and next1 although lighter than any kind of linen1 strength for strength1 it requires a greater weight of varnish1 which1 moreover1 it does not take so kindly as does fabric made of vegetable tissue4 ,further1 paradoxical as it may appear1 its great strength is not entirely an advantage4 ,there are occasions which must come into the experience of every zealous aeronaut when his balloon has descended in a rough wind1 and in awkward country4 ,this may1 indeed1 happen even when the ascent has been made in calm4 ,squalls of wind may spring up at short notice1 or after traversing only two or three counties a strong gale may be found on the earth1 though such was absent in the starting ground4 ,this is more particularly the case when the landing chances to be on high ground in the neighbourhood of the sea4 ,in these circumstances1 the careful balloonist1 who will generally be forewarned by the ruffle on any water he may pass1 or by the drift of smoke1 the tossing of trees1 or by their very rustling or singing wafted upwards to him1 will1 if possible1 seek for his landing place the lee of a wood or some other sheltered spot4 ,but1 even with all his care1 he will sometimes find himself1 on reaching earth1 being dragged violently across country on a mad course which the anchor cannot check4 ,now1 the country through which he is making an unwilling steeplechase may be difficult1 or even dangerous4 ,rivers1 railway cuttings1 or other undesirable obstacles may lie ahead1 or1 worse yet1 such a death trap as in such circumstances almost any part of ,derbyshire affords1 with its stone walls1 its precipitous cliffs1 and deep rocky dells4 ,to be dragged at the speed of an express train through territory of this description will presently mean damage to something1 perhaps to telegraph poles1 to roofs1 or crops1 and if not1 then to the balloon itself4 ,something appertaining to it must be victimised1 and it is in all ways best that this should be the fabric of the balloon itself4 ,if made of some form1 or at least some proportion of linen1 this will probably rend ere long1 and1 allowing the gas to escape1 will soon bring itself to rest4 ,on the other hand1 if the balloon proper is a silk one1 with sound net and in good condition1 it is probable that something else will give way first1 and that something may prove to be the hapless passenger or passengers4 ,and here be it laid down as one first and all-important principle1 that in any such awkward predicament as that just described1 if there be more than one passenger aboard1 let none attempt to get out4 ,in the first place1 he may very probably break a limb in so doing1 inasmuch as the tangle of the ropes will not allow of his getting cut readily2 or1 when actually on the ground1 he may be caught and impaled by the anchor charging and leaping behind4 ,but1 worse than all1 he may1 in any case1 jeopardise the lives of his companions1 who stand in need of all the available weight and help that the car contains up to the moment ,of coming to final rest4 ,we have already touched on the early notions as to the means of steering a balloon4 ,oars had been tested without satisfactory result1 and the conception of a rotary screw found favour among theorists at this time1 the principle being actually tried with success in working models1 which1 by mechanical means1 could be made to flit about in the still air of the lecture room2 but the only feasible method advocated was that already alluded to1 which depended on the undesirable action of a trail rope dragging over the ground or through water4 ,the idea was1 of course1 perfectly practical1 and was simply analogous to the method adopted by sailors1 who1 when floating with the stream but without wind1 are desirous of gaining steerage way4 ,while simply drifting with the flood1 they are unable to guide their vessel in any way1 and this1 in practice1 is commonly effected by simply propelling the vessel faster than the stream1 in which case the rudder at once becomes available4 ,but the same result is equally well obtained by slowing the vessel1 and this is easily accomplished by a cable1 with a small anchor or other weight attached1 dragging below the vessel4 ,this cable is essentially the same as the guide-rope of the older aeronauts4 ,it is when we come to consider the impressions and sensations described by sky voyagers of bygone times that we find them curiously at variance with our own4 ,as an instance1 we may state that the earth1 as seen from a highflying balloon1 used to be almost always described as appearing concave1 or like a huge basin1 and ingenious attempts were made to prove mathematically that this must be so4 ,the laws of refraction are brought in to prove the fact2 or1 again1 the case is stated thus3 ,supposing the extreme horizon to be seen when the balloon is little more than a mile high1 the range of view on all sides will then be1 roughly1 some eighty miles4 ,if1 then1 a line were drawn from the aerial observer to this remote distance1 that line would be almost horizontal2 so nearly so that he cannot persuade himself that his horizon is otherwise than still on a level with his eye2 yet the earth below him lies1 as it seems1 at the bottom of a huge gulf4 ,thus the whole visible earth appears as a vast bowl or basin4 ,this is extremely ingenious reasoning1 and not to be disregarded2 but the fact remains that in the experience of the writer and of many others whom he has consulted1 there is no such optical illusion as ,i have just discussed1 and to their vision it is impossible to regard the earth as anything but uniformly flat4 ,another impression invariably insisted on by early balloonists is that the earth1 on quitting it1 appears to drop away into an abyss1 leaving the voyagers motionless1 and this illusion must1 indeed1 be probably universal4 ,it is the same illusion as the apparent gliding backwards of objects to a traveller in a railway carriage2 only in this latter case the rattling and shaking of the carriage helps the mind to grasp the real fact that the motion belongs to the train itself2 whereas it is otherwise with a balloon1 whose motion is so perfectly smooth as to be quite imperceptible4 ,old ideas1 formed upon insufficient observations1 even if erroneous1 were slow to die4 ,thus it used to be stated that an upper cloud floor adapted itself to the contour of the land over which it rested1 giving what ,mr4 ,monck ,mason has called a phrenological estimate of the character of the earth below2 the clouds1 even when under the influence of rapid motion1 seeming to accommodate themselves to all variations of form in the surface of the subjacent soil1 rising with its prominences and sinking with its depressions4 ,probably few aeronauts of the present time will accept the statement4 ,it used commonly to be asserted1 and is so often to this day1 that a feeling as of sea-sickness is experienced in balloon travel1 and the notion has undoubtedly arisen from the circumstances attending an ascent in a captive balloon4 ,it were well1 now that ballooning bids fair to become popular1 to disabuse the public mind of such a wholly false idea4 ,the truth is that a balloon let up with a lengthy rope and held captive will1 with a fitful breeze1 pitch and sway in a manner which may induce all the unpleasant feelings attending a rough passage at sea4 ,it may do worse1 and even be borne to earth with a puff of wind which may come unexpectedly1 and considerably unsettle the nerves of any holiday passenger4 ,i could tell of a captive that had been behaving itself creditably on a not very settled day suddenly swooping over a roadway and down into public gardens1 where it lay incontinently along the ground1 and then1 before the astonished passengers could attempt to alight1 it was seized with another mood1 and1 mounting once again majestically skyward1 submitted to be hauled down with all becoming grace and ease4 ,it is owing to their vagaries and want of manageability that1 as will be shown1 captives are of uncertain use in war4 ,on the other hand1 a free balloon is exempt from such disadvantages1 and at moderate heights not the smallest feeling of nausea is ever experienced4 ,the only unpleasant sensation1 and that not of any gravity1 ever complained of1 is a peculiar tension in the ears experienced in a rapid ascent1 or more often1 perhaps1 in a descent4 ,the cause1 which is trivial and easily removed1 should be properly understood1 and cannot be given in clearer language than that used by ,professor ,tyndall3--,behind the tympanic membrane exists a cavity--the drum of the ear--in part crossed by a series of bones1 and in part occupied by air4 ,this cavity communicates with the mouth by means of a duct called the ,eustachian tube4 ,this tube is generally closed1 the air space behind the tympanic membrane being thus cut off from the external air4 ,if1 under these circumstances1 the external air becomes denser1 it will press the tympanic membrane inwards2 if1 on the other hand1 the air on the other side becomes rarer1 while the ,eustachian tube becomes closed1 the membrane will be pressed outwards4 ,pain is felt in both cases1 and partial deafness is experienced4444 ,by the act of swallowing the ,eustachian tube is opened1 and thus equilibrium is established between the external and internal pressure4 ,founded on physical facts more or less correct in themselves1 come a number of tales of olden days1 which are at least more marvellous than credible1 the following serving as an example4 ,the scientific truth underlying the story is the well-known expedient of placing a shrivelled apple under the receiver of an air pump4 ,as the air becomes rarefied the apple swells1 smooths itself out1 and presently becomes round and rosy as it was in the summer time4 ,it is recorded that on one occasion a man of mature years made an ascent1 accompanied by his son1 and1 after reaching some height1 the youth remarked on how young his father was looking4 ,they still continued to ascend1 and the same remark was repeated more than once4 ,and at last1 having now reached attenuated regions1 the son cried in astonishment1 ,why1 dad1 you ought to be at school6 ,the cause of this remark was that in the rarefied air all the wrinkles had come out of the old man's face1 and his cheeks were as chubby as his son's4 ,this discussion of old ideas should not be closed without mention of a plausible plea for the balloon made by ,wise and others on the score of its value to health4 ,lofty ascents have proved a strain on even robust constitutions--the heart may begin to suffer1 or ills akin to mountain sickness may intervene before a height equal to that of our loftiest mountain is reached4 ,but many have spoken of an exhilaration of spirits not inferior to that of the mountaineer1 which is experienced1 and without fatigue1 in sky voyages reasonably indulged in--of a light-heartedness1 a glow of health1 a sharpened appetite1 and the keen enjoyment of mere existence4 ,nay1 it has been seriously affirmed that more good may be got by the invalid in an hour or two while two miles up on a fine summer's day than is to be gained in an entire voyage from ,new ,york to ,madeira by sea4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,commencement ,,of ,a ,,new ,,era4 ,resuming the roll of progressive aeronauts in ,england whose labours were devoted to the practical conquest of the air1 and whose methods and mechanical achievements mark the road of advance by which the successes of to-day have been obtained1 there stand out prominently two individuals1 of whom one has already received mention in these pages4 ,the period of a single life is seldom sufficient to allow within its span the full development of any new departure in art or science1 and it cannot1 therefore1 be wondered at if ,charles ,green1 though reviving and re-modelling the art of ballooning in our own country1 even after an exceptionally long and successful career1 left that pursuit to which he had given new birth virtually still in its infancy4 ,the year following that in which ,green conducted the famous ,nassau voyage we find him experimenting in the same balloon with his chosen friend and colleague1 ,edward ,spencer1 solicitor1 of ,barnsbury1 who1 only nine years later1 compiles memoranda of thirty-four ascents1 made under every variety of circumstance1 many being of a highly enterprising nature4 ,we find him writing enthusiastically of the raptures he experienced when sailing over ,london in night hours1 of lofty ascents and extremely low temperatures1 of speeding twenty-eight miles in twenty minutes1 of grapnel ropes breaking1 and of a cross-country race of four miles through woods and hedges4 ,such was ,mr4 ,spencer the elder1 and if further evidence were needed of his practical acquaintance with1 as well as personal devotion to1 his adopted profession of aeronautics1 we have it in the store of working calculations and other minutiae of the craft1 most carefully compiled in manuscript by his own hand2 these memoranda being to this day constantly consulted by his grandsons1 the present eminent aeronauts1 ,messrs4 ,spencer ,brothers1 as supplying a manual of reliable data for the execution of much of the most important parts of their work4 ,in the terrific ordeal and risk entailed by the daring and fatal parachute descent of ,cocking1 ,green required an assistant of exceptional nerve and reliability1 and1 as has been recorded1 his choice at once fell on ,edward ,spencer4 ,in this choice it has already been shown that he was well justified1 and in the trying circumstances that ensued ,green frankly owns that it was his competent companion who was the first to recover himself4 ,a few years later1 when a distinguished company1 among whom were ,albert ,smith and ,shirley ,brooks1 made a memorable ascent from ,cremorne1 ,edward ,spencer is one of the select party4 ,some account of this voyage should be given1 and it need not be said that no more graphic account is to be found than that given by the facile pen of ,albert ,smith himself4 ,his personal narrative also forms an instructive contrast to another which he had occasion to give to the world shortly afterwards1 and which shall be duly noticed4 ,the enthusiastic writer first describes1 with apparent pride1 the company that ascended with him4 ,besides ,mr4 ,shirley ,brooks1 there were ,messrs4 ,davidson1 of the ,garrick ,club2 ,mr4 ,john ,lee1 well known in theatrical circles2 ,mr4 ,p4 ,thompson1 of ,guy's ,hospital1 and others--ten in all1 including ,charles ,green as skipper1 and ,edward ,spencer1 who1 sitting in the rigging1 was entrusted with the all-important management of the valve rope4 ,the first sensation experienced1 ,albert ,smith continues1 was not that we were rising1 but that the balloon remained fixed1 whilst all the world below was rapidly falling away2 while the cheers with which they greeted our departure grew fainter1 and the cheerers themselves began to look like the inmates of many sixpenny ,noah's ,arks grouped upon a billiard table4444 ,our hats would have held millions4444 ,and most strange is the roar of the city as it comes surging into the welkin as though the whole metropolis cheered you with one voice4444 ,yet none beyond the ordinary passengers are to be seen4 ,the noise is as inexplicable as the murmur in the air at hot summer noontide4 ,the significance of this last remark will be insisted on when the writer has to tell his own experiences aloft over ,london1 as also a note to the effect that there were seen large enclosed fields and gardens and pleasure grounds where none were supposed to exist by ordinary passengers4 ,another interesting note1 having reference to a once familiar feature on the river1 now disappearing1 related to the paddle boats of those days1 the steamers making a very beautiful effect1 leaving two long wings of foam behind them similar to the train of a table rocket4 ,highly suggestive1 too1 of the experiences of railway travellers in the year #ahdg is the account of the alighting1 which1 by the way1 was obviously of no very rude nature4 ,every time1 says the writer1 the grapnel catches in the ground the balloon is pulled up suddenly with a shock that would soon send anybody from his seat1 a jerk like that which occurs when fresh carriages are brought up to a railway train4 ,but the concluding paragraph in this rosy narrative affords another and a very notable contrast to the story which that same writer had occasion to put on record before that same year had passed4 ,we counsel everybody to go up in a balloon444 ,in spite of the apparent frightful fragility of cane and network nothing can in reality be more secure444 ,the stories of pressure on the ears1 intense cold1 and the danger of coming down are all fictions4444 ,indeed1 we almost wanted a few perils to give a little excitement to the trip1 and have some notion1 if possible1 of going up the next time at midnight with fireworks in a thunderstorm1 throwing away all the ballast1 fastening down the valve1 and seeing where the wind will send us4 ,the fireworks1 the thunderstorm1 and the throwing away of ballast1 all came off on the #aeth of the following ,october1 when ,albert ,smith made his second ascent1 this time from ,vauxhall ,gardens1 under the guidance of ,mr4 ,gypson1 and accompanied by two fellow-passengers4 ,fireworks1 which were to be displayed when aloft1 were suspended on a framework forty feet below the car4 ,lightning was also playing around as they cast off4 ,the description which ,albert ,smith gives of ,london by night as seen from an estimated elevation of #d1jjj feet1 should be compared with other descriptions that will be given in these pages3-- ,in the obscurity all traces of houses and enclosures are lost sight of4 ,i can compare it to nothing else than floating over dark blue and boundless sea spangled with hundreds of thousands of stars4 ,these stars were the lamps4 ,we could see them stretching over the river at the bridges1 edging its banks1 forming squares and long parallel lines of light in the streets and solitary parks4 ,further and further apart until they were altogether lost in the suburbs4 ,the effect was bewildering4 ,at #g1jjj feet1 one of the passengers1 sitting in the ring1 remarked that the balloon was getting very tense1 and the order was given to ease her by opening the top valve4 ,the valve line was accordingly pulled1 and immediately afterwards we heard a noise similar to the escape of steam in a locomotive1 and the lower part of the balloon collapsed rapidly1 and appeared to fly up into the upper portion4 ,at the same instant the balloon began to fall with appalling velocity1 the immense mass of loose silk surging and rustling frightfully over our heads4444 retreating up away from us more and more into the head of the balloon4 ,the suggestion was made to throw everything over that might lighten the balloon4 ,i had two sandbags in my lap1 which were cast away directly4444 ,there were several large bags of ballast1 and some bottles of wine1 and these were instantly thrown away1 but no effect was perceptible4 ,the wind still appeared to be rushing up past us at a fearful rate1 and1 to add to the horror1 we came among the still expiring discharge of the fireworks which floated in the air1 so that little bits of exploded cases and touch-paper1 still incandescent1 attached themselves to the cordage of the balloon and were blown into sparks4444 ,i presume we must have been upwards of a mile from the earth4444 ,how long we were descending ,i have not the slightest idea1 but two minutes must have been the outside4444 ,we now saw the houses1 the roofs of which appeared advancing to meet us1 and the next instant1 as we dashed by their summits1 the words1 ',hold hard6' burst simultaneously from all the party4444 ,we were all directly thrown out of the car along the ground1 and1 incomprehensible as it now appears to me1 nobody was seriously hurt4 ,but not so incomprehensible1 after all1 will be the verdict of all who compare the above narrative with the ascents given in a foregoing account of how ,wise had fared more than once when his balloon had burst4 ,for1 as will be readily guessed1 the balloon had in this case also burst1 owing to the release of the upper valve being delayed too long1 and the balloon had in the natural way transformed itself into a true parachute4 ,moreover1 the fall1 which1 by ,albert ,smith's own showing1 was that of about a mile in two minutes1 was not more excessive than one which will presently be recorded of ,mr4 ,glaisher1 who escaped with no material injury beyond a few bruises4 ,one fact has till now been omitted with regard to the above sensational voyage1 namely1 the name of the passenger who1 sitting in the ring1 was the first to point out the imminent danger of the balloon4 ,this individual was none other than ,mr4 ,henry ,coxwell1 the second1 indeed1 of the two who were mentioned in the opening paragraph of this chapter as marking the road of progress which it is the scope of these pages to trace1 and to whom we must now formally introduce our readers4 ,this justly famous sky pilot1 whose practical acquaintance with ballooning extends over more than forty years1 was the son of a naval officer residing near ,chatham1 and in his autobiography he describes enthusiastically how1 a lad of nine years old1 he watched through a sea telescope a balloon1 piloted by ,charles ,green1 ascend from ,rochester and1 crossing the ,thames1 disappear in distance over the ,essex flats4 ,he goes on to describe how the incident started him in those early days on boyish endeavours to construct fire balloons and paper parachutes4 ,some years later his home1 on the death of his father1 being transferred to ,eltham1 he came within frequent view of such balloons as1 starting from the neighbourhood of ,london1 will through the summer drift with the prevailing winds over that part of ,kent4 ,and it was here that1 ere long1 he came in at the death of another balloon of which ,green was in charge4 ,and from this time onwards the schoolboy with the strange hobby was constantly able to witness the flights and even the inflations of those ships of the air1 which1 his family associations notwithstanding took precedence of all boyish diversions4 ,his elder brother1 now a naval officer1 entirely failed to divert his aspirations into other channels1 and it was when the boy had completed sixteen summers that an aeronautic enterprise attracted not only his own1 but public attention also4 ,it was the building of a mammoth balloon at ,vauxhall under the superintendence of ,mr4 ,green4 ,the launching of this huge craft when completed was regarded as so great an occasion that the young ,coxwell1 who had by this time obtained a commercial opening abroad1 was allowed1 at his earnest entreaty1 to stay till the event had come off1 and fifty years after the hardened sky sailor is found describing with a boyish enthusiasm how thirty-six policemen were needed round that balloon2 how enormous weights were attached to the cordage1 only to be lifted feet above the ground2 while the police were compelled to pass their staves through the meshes to prevent the cords cutting their hands4 ,at this ascent ,mr4 ,hollond was a passenger1 and by the middle of the following ,november all ,europe was ringing with the great ,nassau venture4 ,commercial business did not suit the young ,coxwell1 and at the age of one-and-twenty we find him trying his hand at the profession of surgeon-dentist1 not1 however1 with any prospect of its keeping him from the longing of his soul1 which grew stronger and stronger upon him4 ,it was not till the summer of #ahdd that ,mr4 ,hampton1 giving an exhibition from the ,white ,conduit ,gardens1 ,pentonville1 offered the young man1 then twenty-five years old1 his first ascent4 ,in after years ,coxwell referred to his first sensations in characteristic language1 contrasting them with the experiences of the mountaineer4 ,in ,alpine travels1 he says1 the process is so slow1 and contact with the crust of the earth so palpable1 that the traveller is gradually prepared for each successive phase of view as it presents itself4 ,but in the balloon survey1 cities1 villages1 and vast tracts for observation spring almost magically before the eye1 and change in aspect and size so pleasingly that bewilderment first and then unbounded admiration is sure to follow4 ,the ice was now fairly broken1 and1 not suffering professional duties to be any hindrance1 ,coxwell began to make a series of ascents under the leadership of two rival balloonists1 ,gale and ,gypson4 ,one voyage made with the latter he describes as leading to the most perilous descent in the annals of aerostation4 ,this was the occasion1 given above1 on which ,albert ,smith was a passenger1 and which that talented writer describes in his own fashion4 ,he does not1 however1 add the fact1 worthy of being chronicled1 that exactly a week after the appalling adventure ,gypson and ,coxwell1 accompanied by a ,captain whose name does not transpire1 and loaded with twice the previous weight of fireworks1 made a perfectly successful night ascent and descent in the same balloon4 ,it is very shortly after this that we find ,coxwell seduced into undertaking for its owners the actual management of a balloon1 the property of ,gale1 and now to be known as the ,sylph4 ,with this craft he practically began his career as a professional balloonist1 and after a few preliminary ascents made in ,england1 was told off to carry on engagements in ,belgium4 ,a long series of ascents was now made on the ,continent1 and in the troubled state of affairs some stirring scenes were visited1 not without some real adventure4 ,one occasion attended with imminent risk occurred at ,berlin in #ahea4 ,coxwell relates that a ,prussian labourer whom he had dismissed for bad conduct1 and who almost too manifestly harboured revenge1 nevertheless begged hard for a re-engagement1 which1 as the man was a handy fellow1 ,coxwell at length assented to4 ,he took up three passengers beside himself1 and at an elevation of some #c1jjj feet found it necessary to open the valve1 when1 on pulling the cord1 one of the top shutters broke and remained open1 leaving a free aperture of #bf inches by #ab inches1 and occasioning such a copious discharge of gas that nothing short of a providential landing could save disaster4 ,but the providential landing came1 the party falling into the embrace of a fruit tree in an orchard4 ,it transpired afterwards that the labourer had been seen to tamper with the valve1 the connecting lines of which he had partially severed4 ,returning to ,england in #aheb ,coxwell1 through the accidents inseparable from his profession1 found himself virtually in possession of the field4 ,green1 now advanced in years1 was retiring from the public life in which he had won so much fame and honour4 ,gale was dead1 killed in an ascent at ,bordeaux4 ,only one aspirant contested the place of public aeronaut--one ,goulston1 who had been ,gale's patron4 ,before many months1 however1 he too met with a balloonist's death1 being dashed against some stone walls when ascending near ,manchester4 ,it will not be difficult to form an estimate of how entirely the popularity of the balloon was now reestablished in ,england1 from the mere fact that before the expiration of the year ,coxwell had been called upon to make thirty-six voyages4 ,some of these were from ,glasgow1 and here a certain coincidence took place which is too curious to be omitted4 ,a descent effected near ,milngavie took place in the same field in which ,sadler1 twenty-nine years before1 had also descended1 and the same man who caught the rope of ,mr4 ,sadler's balloon performed the same service once again for a fresh visitor from the skies4 ,the following autumn ,coxwell1 in fulfilling one out of many engagements1 found himself in a dilemma which bore resemblance in a slight degree to a far more serious predicament in which the writer became involved1 and which must be told in due place4 ,the preparations for the ascent1 which was from the ,mile ,end ,road1 had been hurried1 and after finally getting away at a late hour in the evening1 it was found that the valve line had got caught in a fold of the silk1 and could not be operated4 ,in consequence1 the balloon was1 of necessity1 left to take its own chance through the night1 and1 after rising to a considerable height1 it slowly lost buoyancy during the chilly hours1 and1 gradually settling1 came to earth near ,basingstoke1 where the voyager1 failing to get help or shelter1 made his bed within his own car1 lying in an open field1 as other aeronauts have had to do in like circumstances4 ,coxwell tells of a striking phenomenon seen during that voyage4 ,a splendid meteor was below the car1 and apparently about #fjj feet distant4 ,it was blue and yellow1 moving rapidly in a ,n4,e4 direction1 and became extinguished without noise or sparks4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,the ,,balloon ,,in ,,the ,,service ,,of ,,science4 ,at this point we must1 for a brief while1 drop the history of the famous aeronaut whose early career we have been briefly sketching in the last chapter1 and turn our attention to a new feature of ,english ballooning4 ,we have1 at last1 to record some genuinely scientific ascents1 which our country now1 all too tardily1 instituted4 ,it was the ,british ,association that took the initiative1 and the two men they chose for their purpose were both exceptionally qualified for the task they had in hand4 ,the practical balloonist was none other than the veteran ,charles ,green1 now in his sixty-seventh year1 but destined yet to enjoy nearly twenty years more of life4 ,the scientific expert was ,mr4 ,john ,welsh1 well fitted for the projected work by long training at ,kew ,observatory4 ,the balloon which they used is itself worthy of mention1 being the great ,nassau ,balloon of olden fame4 ,welsh was quick to realise more clearly than any former experimentalist that on account of the absence of breeze in a free balloon1 as also on account of great solar radiation1 the indications of thermometers would1 without special precautions1 be falsified4 ,he therefore invented a form of aspirating thermometer1 the earliest to be met with1 and far in advance of any that were subsequently used by other scientists4 ,it consisted of a polished tube1 in which thermometers were enclosed1 and through which a stream of air was forced by bellows4 ,the difficulty of obtaining really accurate readings where thermometers are being quickly transported through varying temperatures is generally not duly appreciated4 ,in the case of instruments carried m a balloon it should be remembered that the balloon itself conveys1 clinging about it1 no inconsiderable quantity of air1 brought from other levels1 while the temperature of its own mass will be liable to affect any thermometer in close neighbourhood4 ,moreover1 any ordinary form of thermometer is necessarily sluggish in action1 as may be readily noticed4 ,if1 for example1 one be carried from a warm room to a cold passage1 or vice versa it will be seen that the column moves very deliberately1 and quite a long interval will elapse before it reaches its final position1 the cause being that the entire instrument1 with any stand or mounting that it may have1 will have to adapt itself to the change of temperature before a true record will be obtained4 ,this difficulty applies unavoidably to all thermometers in some degree1 and the skill of instrument makers has been taxed to reduce the errors to a minimum4 ,it is necessary1 in any case1 that a constant stream of surrounding air should play upon the instrument1 and though this is most readily effected when instruments are carried aloft by kites1 yet even thus it is thought that an interval of some minutes has to elapse before any form of thermometer will faithfully record any definite change of temperature4 ,it is on this account that some allowance must be made for observations which will1 in due place1 be recorded of scientific explorers2 the point to be borne in mind being that1 as was mentioned in a former chapter1 such observations will have to be regarded as giving readings which are somewhat too high in ascents and too low in descents4 ,two forms of thermometers at extremely simple construction1 yet possessed of great sensibility1 will be discussed in later chapters4 ,the thermometers that ,welsh used were undoubtedly far superior to any that were devised before his time and it is much to be regretted that they were allowed to fall into disuse4 ,perhaps the most important stricture on the observations that will have to be recorded is that the observers were not provided with a base station1 on which account the value of results was impaired4 ,it was not realised that it was necessary to make observations on the ground to compare with those that were being made at high altitudes4 ,welsh made1 in all1 four ascents in the summer and autumn of #aheb and in his report he is careful to give the highest praise to his colleague1 ,green1 whose control over his balloon he describes as so complete that none who accompanied him can be otherwise than relieved from all apprehension1 and free to devote attention calmly to the work before him4 ,the first ascent was made at #c4di p4m4 on ,august the #agth1 under a south wind and with clouds covering some three-quarters of the sky4 ,welsh's first remark significant1 and will be appreciated by anyone who has attempted observational work in a balloon4 ,he states naively that a short time was lost at first in an attempt to put the instruments into more convenient order1 and also from the novelty of the situation4 ,then he mentions an observation which1 in the experience of the writer1 is a common one4 ,the lowest clouds1 which were about #b1ejj feet high and not near the balloon1 were passed without being noticed2 other clouds were passed at different heights2 and1 finally1 a few star-shaped crystals of snow2 but the sun shone almost constantly4 ,little variation occurred in the direction of travel1 which averaged thirty-eight miles an hour1 and the descent took place at #e4bj p4m4 at ,swavesey1 near ,cambridge4 ,the second ascent took place at #d4dc p4m4 on ,august #bfth1 under a gentle east wind and a partially obscured sky4 ,the clouds were again passed without being perceived4 ,this was at the height of #c1jjj feet1 beyond which was very clear sky of deep blue4 ,the air currents up to the limits of #ab1jjj feet set from varying directions4 ,the descent occurred near ,chesham at #g4de p4m4 ,the third ascent1 at #b4ce p4m4 on ,october the #bast was made into a sky covered with dense cloud masses lying within #c1jjj and #c1gjj feet4 ,the sun was then seen shining through cirrus far up4 ,the shadow of the balloon was also seen on the cloud1 fringed with a glory1 and about this time there was seen stretching for a considerable length in a serpentine course1 over the surface of the cloud1 a well-defined belt1 having the appearance of a broad road4 ,being now at #ab1jjj feet1 ,green thought it prudent to reconnoitre his position1 and1 finding they were near the sea1 descended at #d4bj p4m4 at ,rayleigh1 in ,essex4 ,some important notes on the polarisation of the clouds were made4 ,the fourth and final voyage was made in a fast wind averaging fifty knots from the north-east4 ,thin scud was met at #a1ijj feet1 and an upper stratum at #d1ejj feet1 beyond which was bright sun4 ,the main shift of wind took place just as the upper surface of the first stratum was reached4 ,in this ascent ,welsh reached his greatest elevation1 #bb1icj feet1 when both ,green and himself experienced considerable difficulty in respiration and much fatigue4 ,the sea being now perceived rapidly approaching1 a hasty descent was made1 and many of the instruments were broken4 ,in summarising his results ,welsh states that the temperature of the air decreases uniformly with height above the earth's surface until at a certain elevation1 varying on different days1 decrease is arrested1 and for the space of #b1jjj or #c1jjj feet the temperature remains nearly constant1 or even increases1 the regular diminution being again resumed and generally maintained at a rate slightly less rapid than in the lower part of the atmosphere1 and commencing from a higher temperature than would have existed but for the interruption noticed4 ,the analysis of the upper air showed the proportion of oxygen and nitrogen to vary scarcely more than at different spots on the earth4 ,as it is necessary at this point to take leave of the veteran ,green as a practical aeronaut1 we may here refer to one or two noteworthy facts and incidents relating to his eventful career4 ,in #ahej ,m4 ,poitevin is said to have attracted #adj1jjj people to ,paris to look at an exhibition of himself ascending in a balloon seated on horseback1 after which ,madame ,poitevin ascended from ,cremorne ,gardens in the same manner1 the exhibition being intended as a representation of ,europa on a ,bull4 ,this1 however1 was discountenanced by the authorities and withdrawn4 ,the feats were1 in reality1 merely the repetitions of one that had been conceived and extremely well carried out by ,green many years before--as long ago1 in fact1 as #ahbh1 when he arranged to make an ascent from the ,eagle ,tavern1 ,city ,road1 seated on a pony4 ,to carry out his intention1 he discarded the ordinary car1 replacing it with a small platform1 which was provided with places to receive the pony's feet2 while straps attached to the hoop were passed under the animal's body1 preventing it from lying down or from making any violent movement4 ,this the creature seemed in no way disposed to attempt1 and when all had been successfully carried out and an easy descent effected at ,beckenham1 the pony was discovered eating a meal of beans with which it had been supplied4 ,several interesting observations have been recorded by ,green on different occasions1 some of which are highly instructive from a practical or scientific point of view4 ,on an ascent from ,vauxhall1 in which he was accompanied by his friend ,spencer and ,mr4 ,rush1 he recorded how1 as he constantly and somewhat rapidly rose1 the wind changed its direction from ,n4,w4 through ,n4 to ,n4,e41 while he remained over the metropolis1 the balloon all the while rotating on its axis4 ,this continual swinging or revolving of the balloon ,green considers an accompaniment of either a rapid ascent or descent1 but it may be questioned whether it is not merely a consequence of changing currents1 or1 sometimes1 of an initial spin given inadvertently to the balloon at the moment of its being liberated4 ,the phenomenon of marked change which he describes in the upper currents is highly interesting1 and tallies with what the writer has frequently experienced over ,london proper4 ,such higher currents may be due to natural environment1 and to conditions necessarily prevailing over so vast and varied a city1 and they may be able to play an all-important part in the dispersal of ,london smoke or fog4 ,this point will be touched on later4 ,in this particular voyage ,green records that as he was rising at the moment when his barometer reached #ai inches1 the thermometer he carried registered #df degrees1 while on coming down1 when the barometer again marked #ai inches1 the same thermometer recorded only #bb degrees4 ,it will not fail to be recognised that there is doubtless here an example of the errors alluded to above1 inseparable from readings taken in ascent and descent4 ,a calculation made by ,green in his earlier years has a certain value4 ,by the time he had accomplished #bjj ascents he was at pains to compute that he had travelled across country some #f1jjj miles1 which had been traversed in #bdj hours4 ,from this it would follow that the mean rate of travel in aerial voyages will be about twenty-five miles per hour4 ,towards the end of his career we find it stated by ,lieutenant ,g4 ,grover1 ,r4,e41 that the ,messrs4 ,green1 ,father and ,son1 have made between them some #icj ascents1 in none of which have they met with any material accident or failure4 ,this is wonderful testimony1 indeed1 and we may here add the fact that the father took up his own father1 then at the age of eighty-three1 in a balloon ascent of #ahde1 without any serious consequences4 ,but it is time that some account should be given of a particular occasion which at least provided the famous aeronaut with an adventure spiced with no small amount of risk4 ,it was on the #eth of ,july1 #ahej1 that ,green ascended1 with ,rush as his companion1 from ,vauxhall1 at the somewhat late hour of #g4ej p4m41 using1 as always1 the great ,nassau balloon4 ,the rate of rise must have been very considerable1 and they presently record an altitude of no less than #bj1jjj feet1 and a temperature of #ab degrees below freezing4 ,they were now above the clouds1 where all view of earth was lost1 and1 not venturing to remain long in this situation1 they commenced a rapid descent1 and on emerging below found themselves sailing down ,sea ,reach in the direction of ,nore ,sands1 when they observed a vessel4 ,their chance of making land was1 to say the least1 uncertain1 and ,green1 considering that his safety lay in bespeaking the vessel's assistance1 opened the valve and brought the car down in the water some two miles north of ,sheerness1 the hour being #h4de1 and only fifty-five minutes since the start4 ,the wind was blowing stiffly1 and1 catching the hollow of the half-inflated balloon1 carried the voyagers rapidly down the river1 too fast1 indeed1 to allow of the vessel's overtaking them4 ,this being soon apparent1 ,green cast out his anchor1 and not without result1 for it shortly became entangled in a sunken wreck1 and the balloon was promptly brought up1 though struggling and tossing in the broken water4 ,a neighbouring barge at once put off a boat to the rescue1 and other boats were despatched by ,h4,m4 cutter ,fly1 under ,commander ,gurling4 ,green and ,rush were speedily rescued1 but the balloon itself was too restive and dangerous an object to approach with safety4 ,at ,green's suggestion1 therefore1 a volley of musketry was fired into the silk' after which it became possible to pass a rope around it and expel the gas4 ,green subsequently relates how it took a fortnight to restore the damage1 consisting of sixty-two bullet rents and nineteen torn gores4 ,green's name will always be famous1 if only for the fact that it was he who first adopted the use of coal gas in his calling4 ,this1 it will be remembered1 was in #ahba1 and it should be borne in mind that at that time household gas had only recently been introduced4 ,in point of fact1 it first lighted ,pall ,mall in #ahje1 and it was not used for the general lighting of ,london till #ahad4 ,we are not surprised to find that the great aeronaut at one time turned his attention to the construction of models1 and this with no inconsiderable success4 ,a model of his was exhibited in #ahdj at the ,polytechnic ,institution1 and is described in the ,times as consisting of a miniature balloon of three feet diameter1 inflated with coal gas4 ,it was acted on by fans1 which were operated by mechanism placed in the car4 ,a series of three experiments was exhibited4 ,first1 the balloon being weighted so as to remain poised in the still air of the building1 the mechanism was started1 and the machine rose steadily to the ceiling4 ,the fans were then reversed1 when the model1 equally gracefully1 descended to the floor4 ,lastly1 the balloon1 with a weighted trail rope1 being once more balanced in mid-air1 the fans were applied laterally1 when the machine would take a horizontal flight1 pulling the trail rope after it1 with an attached weight dragging along the floor until the mechanism had run down1 when it again remained stationary4 ,the correspondent of the ,times continues1 ,mr4 ,green states that by these simple means a voyage across the ,atlantic may be performed in three or four days1 as easily as from ,vauxhall ,gardens to ,nassau4 ,we can hardly attribute this statement seriously to one who knew as well as did ,green how fickle are the winds1 and how utterly different are the conditions between the still air of a room and those of the open sky4 ,his insight into the difficulties of the problem cannot have been less than that of his successor1 ,coxwell1 who1 as the result of his own equally wide experience1 states positively1 ,i could never imagine a motive power of sufficient force to direct and guide a balloon1 much less to enable a man or a machine to fly4 ,even when modern invention had produced a motive power undreamed of in the days we are now considering1 ,coxwell declares his conviction that inherent difficulties would not be overcome unless the air should invariably remain in a calm state4 ,it would be tedious and scarcely instructive to inquire into the various forms of flying machines that were elaborated at this period2 but one that was designed in ,america by ,mr4 ,henson1 and with which it was seriously contemplated to attempt to cross the ,atlantic1 may be briefly described4 ,in theory it was supposed to be capable of being sustained in the air by virtue of the speed mechanically imparted to it1 and of the angle at which its advancing under surface would meet the air4 ,the inventor claimed to have produced a steam engine of extreme lightness as well as efficiency1 and for the rest his machine consisted of a huge aero-plane propelled by fans with oblique vanes1 while a tail somewhat resembling that of a bird was added1 as also a rudder1 the functions of which were to direct the craft vertically and horizontally respectively4 ,be it here recorded that the machine did not cross the ,atlantic4 ,one word as to the instruments used up to this time for determining altitudes4 ,these were1 in general1 ordinary mercurial barometers1 protected in various ways4 ,green encased his instrument in a simple metal tube1 which admitted of the column of mercury being easily read4 ,this instrument1 which is generally to be seen held in his hand in ,green's old portraits1 might be mistaken for a mariner's telescope4 ,it is now in the possession of the family of ,spencers1 the grandchildren of his old aeronautical friend and colleague1 and it is stated that with all his care the glass was not infrequently broken in a descent4 ,wise1 with characteristic ingenuity1 devised a rough-and-ready height instrument1 which he claims to have answered well4 ,it consisted simply of a common porter bottle1 to the neck of which was joined a bladder of the same capacity4 ,the bottle being filled with air of the density of that on the ground1 and the bladder tied on in a collapsed state1 the expansion of the air in the bottle would gradually fill the bladder as it rose into the rarer regions of the atmosphere4 ,experience would then be trusted to enable the aeronaut to judge his height from the amount of inflation noticeable in the bladder4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,henry ,,coxwell ,,and ,,his ,,contemporaries4 ,mention should be made in these pages of a night sail of a hundred miles1 boldly carried out in #ahdi by ,m4 ,arban1 which took the voyager from ,marseilles to ,turin fairly over the ,alps4 ,the main summit was reached at #aa p4m41 when the snow1 cascades1 and rivers were all sparkling under the moon1 and the ravines and rocks produced masses of darkness which served as shadows to the gigantic picture4 ,arban was at one time on a level with the highest point of ,mont ,blanc1 the top of which1 standing out well above the clouds1 resembled an immense block of crystal sparkling with a thousand fires4 ,in ,london1 in the year of the ,great ,exhibition1 and while the building was still standing in ,hyde ,park1 there occurred a balloon incident small in itself1 but sufficient to cause much sensation at the crowded spot where it took place4 ,the ascent was made from the ,hippodrome by ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,graham in very boisterous weather1 and1 on being liberated1 the balloon seems to have fouled a mast1 suffering a considerable rent4 ,after this the aeronauts succeeded in clearing the trees in ,kensington ,gardens1 and in descending fairly in the ,park1 but1 still at the mercy of the winds1 they were carried on to the roof of a house in ,arlington ,street1 and thence on to another in ,park ,place1 where1 becoming lodged against a stack of chimneys1 they were eventually rescued by the police without any material damage having been done4 ,but this same summer saw the return to ,england of ,henry ,coxwell1 and for some years the story of the conquest of the air is best told by following his stirring career1 and his own comments on aeronautical events of this date4 ,we find him shortly setting about carrying out some reconnoitring and signalling experiments1 designed to be of use in time of war4 ,this was an old idea of his1 and one which had1 of course1 been long entertained by others1 having1 indeed1 been put to some practical test in time of warfare4 ,it will be well to make note of what attention the matter had already received1 and of what progress had been made both in theory and practice4 ,we have already made some mention in ,chapter ,,iv4 of the use which the ,french had made of balloons in their military operations at the end of the eighteenth and beginning of nineteenth the century4 ,it was1 indeed1 within the first ten years after the first invention of the balloon that1 under the superintendence of the savants of the ,french ,academy1 a practical school of aeronautics was established at ,meudon4 ,the names of ,guyton1 ,de ,morveau 7a distinguished ,french chemist71 and ,colonel ,coutelle are chiefly associated with the movement1 and under them some fifty students received necessary training4 ,the practising balloon had a capacity of #ag1jjj cubic feet1 and was inflated with pure hydrogen1 made by what was then a new process as applied to ballooning1 and which will be described in a future chapter4 ,it appears that the balloon was kept always full1 so that any opportunity of calm weather would be taken advantage of for practice4 ,and it is further stated that a balloon was constructed so sound and impervious that after the lapse of two months it was still capable1 without being replenished1 of raising into the air two men1 with necessary ballast and equipment4 ,the practical trial for the balloon in real service came off in ,june1 #agid1 when ,coutelle in person1 accompanied by two staff officers1 in one of the four balloons which the ,french ,army had provided1 made an ascent to reconnoitre the ,austrian forces at ,fleurus4 ,they ascended twice in one day1 remaining aloft for some four hours1 and1 on their second ascent being sighted1 drew a brisk fire from the enemy4 ,they were unharmed1 however1 and the successful termination of the battle of ,fleurus has been claimed as due in large measure to the service rendered by that balloon4 ,the extraordinary fact that the use of the balloon was for many years discontinued in the ,french ,army is attributed to a strangely superstitious prejudice entertained by ,napoleon4 ,las ,cases 7in his ,private ,life of ,napoleon at ,st4 ,helena 7 relates an almost miraculous story of ,napoleon's coronation4 ,it appears that a sum of #bc1ejj francs was given to ,m4 ,garnerin to provide a balloon ascent to aid in the celebrations1 and1 in consequence1 a colossal machine was made to ascend at #aa p4m4 on ,december #afth from the front of ,notre ,dame1 carrying #c1jjj lights4 ,this balloon was unmanned1 and at its departure apparently behaved extremely well1 causing universal delight4 ,during the hours of darkness1 however1 it seems to have acquitted itself in a strange and well-nigh preternatural manner1 for at daybreak it is sighted on the horizon by the inhabitants of ,rome1 and seen to be coming towards their city4 ,so true was its course that1 as though with predetermined purpose1 it sails on till it is positively over ,st4 ,peter's and the ,vatican1 when1 its mission being apparently fulfilled1 it settles to earth1 and finally ends its career in the ,lake ,bracciano4 ,regarded from whatever point of view1 the flight was certainly extraordinary1 and it is not surprising that in that age it was regarded as nothing less than a portent4 ,moreover1 little details of the wonderful story were quickly endowed with grave significance4 ,the balloon on reaching the ground rent itself4 ,next1 ere it plunged into the water1 it carefully deposited a portion of its crown on the tomb of ,nero4 ,napoleon1 on learning the facts1 forbade that they should ever be referred to4 ,further1 he thenceforward discountenanced the balloon in his army1 and the establishment at ,meudon was abandoned4 ,there is record of an attempt of some sort that was made to revive the ,french military ballooning school in the ,african campaign of #ahcj1 but it was barren of results4 ,again1 it has been stated that the ,austrians used balloons for reconnaissance1 before ,venice in #ahdi1 and yet again the same thing is related of the ,russians at the time of the siege of ,sebastopol1 though ,kinglake does not mention the circumstance4 ,in #ahdf ,wise drew up and laid before the ,american ,war ,office an elaborate scheme for the reduction of ,vera ,cruz4 ,this will be discussed in its due place1 though it will be doubtless considered as chimerical4 ,on the other hand1 eminently practical were the experiments co-ordinated and begun to be put to an actual test by ,mr4 ,coxwell1 who1 before he could duly impress his project upon the military authorities1 had to make preliminary trials in private ventures4 ,the earliest of these was at the ,surrey ,zoological ,gardens in the autumn of #ahed1 and it will be granted that much ingenuity and originality were displayed when it is considered that at that date neither wireless telegraphy1 electric flashlight1 nor even ,morse ,code signalling was in vogue4 ,according to his announcement1 the spectators were to regard his balloon1 captive or free1 as floating at a certain altitude over a beleaguered fortress1 the authorities in communication with it having the key of the signals and seeking to obtain through these means information as to the approach of an enemy4 ,it was to be supposed that1 by the aid of glasses1 a vast distance around could be subjected to careful scrutiny1 and a constant communication kept up with the authorities in the fortress4 ,further1 the flags or other signals were supposed preconcerted and unknown to the enemy1 being formed by variations of shape and colour4 ,pigeons were also despatched from a considerable height to test their efficiency under novel conditions4 ,the public press commented favourably on the performance and result of this initial experiment4 ,mr4 ,coxwell's account of an occasion when he had to try conclusions with a very boisterous wind1 and of the way in which he negotiated a very trying and dangerous landing1 will be found alike interesting and instructive4 ,it was an ascent from the ,crystal ,palace1 and the morning was fair and of bright promise outwardly2 but ,coxwell confesses to have disregarded a falling glass4 ,the inflation having been progressing satisfactorily1 he retired to partake of luncheon1 entirely free from apprehensions2 but while thus occupied1 he was presently sought out and summoned by a gardener1 who told him that his balloon had torn away1 and was now completely out of control1 dragging his men about the bushes4 ,on reaching the scene1 the men1 in great strength1 were about to attempt a more strenuous effort to drag the balloon back against the wind1 which ,coxwell promptly forbade1 warning them that so they would tear all to pieces4 ,he then commenced1 as it were1 to take in a reef1 by gathering in the slack of the silk1 which chiefly was catching the wind1 and by drawing in the net1 mesh by mesh1 until the more inflated portion of the balloon was left snug and offering but little resistance to the gale1 when he got her dragged in a direction slanting to the wind and under the lee of trees4 ,eventually a hazardous and difficult departure was effected1 ,mr4 ,chandler1 a passenger already booked1 insisting on accompanying the aeronaut1 in spite of the latter's strongest protestations4 ,and their first peril came quickly1 in a near shave of fouling the balcony of the ,north ,tower1 which they avoided only by a prompt discharge of sand1 the crowd cheering loudly as they saw how the crisis was avoided4 ,the car1 adds ,mr4 ,coxwell in his memoirs1 was apparently trailing behind the balloon with a pendulous swing1 which is not often the case444 ,in less than two minutes we entered the lower clouds1 passing through them quickly1 and noticing that their tops1 which are usually of white1 rounded conformation1 were torn into shreds and crests of vapour4 ,above1 there was a second wild-looking stratum of another order4 ,we could hear1 as we hastened on1 the hum of the ,west ,end of ,london2 but we were bowling along1 having little time to look about us1 though some extra sandbags were turned to good account by making a bed of them at the bottom ends of the car1 which we occupied in anticipation of a rough landing4 ,as it came on to rain hard the voyagers agreed to descend1 and ,coxwell1 choosing open ground1 succeeded in the oft-attempted endeavour to drop his grapnel in front of a bank or hedge-row4 ,the balloon pulled up with such a shock as inevitably follows when flying at sixty miles an hour1 and ,mr4 ,coxwell continues3--,we were at this time suspended like a kite1 and it was not so much the quantity of gas which kept us up as the hollow surface of loose silk1 which acted like a falling kite1 and the obvious game of skill consisted in not letting out too much gas to make the balloon pitch heavily with a thud that would have been awfully unpleasant2 but to jockey our final touch in a gradual manner1 and yet to do it as quickly as possible for fear of the machine getting adrift1 since1 under the peculiar circumstances in which we were placed1 it would have inevitably fallen with a crushing blow1 which might have proved fatal4 ,i never remember to have been in a situation when more coolness and nicety were required to overcome the peril which here beset us2 while on that day the strong wind was1 strange as it may sound1 helping us to alight easily1 that is to say as long as the grapnel held fast and the balloon did not turn over like an unsteady kite4 ,such peril as there was soon terminated without injury to either voyager4 ,the same remark will apply to an occasion when ,coxwell was caught in a thunderstorm1 which he thus describes in brief3--,on a second ascent from ,chesterfield we were carried into the midst of gathering clouds1 which began to flash vividly1 and in the end culminated in a storm4 ,there were indications1 before we left the earth1 as to what might be expected4 ,the lower breeze took us in another direction as we rose1 but a gentle1 whirling current higher up got us into the vortex of a highly charged cloud4444 ,we had to prove by absolute experience whether the balloon was insulated and a non-conductor4 ,beyond a drenching1 no untoward incident occurred during a voyage lasting in all three-quarters of an hour4 ,a voyage which ,coxwell 7referring1 doubtless1 to aerial travel over ,english soil only7 describes as being so very much in excess of accustomary trips in balloons will be seen to fall short of one memorable voyage of which the writer will have to give his own experiences4 ,some account1 however1 of what the famous aeronaut has to tell will find a fitting place here4 ,it was an ascent on a summer night from ,north ,woolwich1 and on this occasion ,coxwell was accompanied by two friends1 one being ,henry ,youens1 who subsequently became a professional balloonist of considerable repute1 and who at this time was an ardent amateur4 ,it was half an hour before midnight when the party took their places1 and1 getting smartly away from the crowd in the gala grounds1 shot over the river1 and shortly were over the town of ,greenwich with the lights of ,london well ahead4 ,then their course took them over ,kennington ,oval1 ,vauxhall ,bridge1 and ,battersea1 when they presently heard the strains of a ,scotch polka4 ,this came up from the then famous ,gardens of ,cremorne1 and1 the breeze freshening1 it was but a few minutes later when they stood over ,kingston1 by which time it became a question whether1 being now clear of ,london1 they should descend or else live out the night and take what thus might come their way4 ,this course1 as the most prudent1 as well as the most fascinating1 was that which commended itself1 and at that moment the hour of midnight was heard striking1 showing that a fairly long distance had been covered in a short interval of time4 ,from this period they would seem to have lost their way1 and though scattered lights were sighted ahead1 they were soon in doubt as to whether they might not already be nearing the sea1 a doubt that was strengthened by their hearing the cry of sea-fowl4 ,after a pause1 lights were seen looming under the haze to sea-ward1 which at times resembled water2 and a tail like that of a comet was discerned1 beyond which was a black patch of considerable size4 ,the patch was the ,isle of ,wight1 and the tail the ,water from ,southampton4 ,they were thus wearing more south and towards danger4 ,they had no ,davy lamp with which to read their aneroid1 and could only tell from the upward flight of fragments of paper that they were descending4 ,another deficiency in their equipment was the lack of a trail rope to break their fall1 and for some time they were under unpleasant apprehension of an unexpected and rude impact with the ground1 or collision with some undesirable object4 ,this induced them to discharge sand and to risk the consequences of another rise into space1 and as they mounted they were not reassured by sighting to the south a ridge of lighter colour1 which strongly suggested the coast line4 ,but it was midsummer1 and it was not long before bird life awakening was heard below1 and then a streak of dawn revealed their locality1 which was over the ,exe1 with ,sidmouth and ,tor ,bay hard by on their left4 ,then from here1 the land jutting seawards1 they confidently traversed ,dartmoor1 and effected a safe1 if somewhat unseasonable1 descent near ,tavistock4 ,the distance travelled was considerable1 but the duration1 on the aeronaut's own showing1 was less than five hours4 ,in the year #ahei the ,times commented on the usefulness of military balloons in language that fully justified all that ,coxwell had previously claimed for them4 ,a war correspondent1 who had accompanied the ,austrian ,army during that year1 asks pertinently how it had happened that the ,french had been ready at six o'clock to make a combined attack against the ,austrians1 who1 on their part1 had but just taken up positions on the previous evening4 ,the correspondent goes on to supply the answer thus3--,no sooner was the first ,austrian battalion out of ,vallegio than a balloon was observed to rise in the air from the vicinity of ,monsambano--a signal1 no doubt1 for the ,french in ,castiglione4 ,i have a full conviction that the ,emperor of the ,french knew overnight the exact position of every ,austrian corps1 while the ,emperor of ,austria was unable to ascertain the number or distribution of the forces of the allies4 ,it appears that ,m4 ,godard was the aeronaut employed to observe the enemy1 and that fresh balloons for the ,french ,army were proceeded with4 ,the date was now near at hand when ,coxwell1 in partnership with ,mr4 ,glaisher1 was to take part in the classical work which has rendered their names famous throughout the world4 ,before proceeding to tell of that period1 however1 ,mr4 ,coxwell has done well to record one aerial adventure1 which1 while but narrowly missing the most serious consequences1 gives a very practical illustration of the chances in favour of the aeronaut under extreme circumstances4 ,it was an ascent at ,congleton in a gale of wind1 a and the company of two passengers--,messrs4 ,pearson1 of ,lawton ,hall--was pressed upon him4 ,everything foretold a rough landing1 and some time after the start was made the outlook was not improved by the fact that the dreaded county of ,derbyshire was seen approaching2 and it was presently apparent that the spot on which they had decided to descend was faced by rocks and a formidable gorge4 ,on this1 ,coxwell attempted to drop his grapnel in front of a stone wall1 and so far with success2 but the wall went down1 as also another and another1 the wicker car passing1 with its great impetus1 clean through the solid obstacles1 till at last the balloon slit from top to bottom4 ,very serious injuries to heads and limbs were sustained1 but no lives were lost1 and ,coxwell himself1 after being laid up at ,buxton1 got home on crutches4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,some ,,noteworthy ,,ascents4 ,it was the year #ahfb1 and the scientific world in ,england determined once again on attempting observational work in connection with balloons4 ,there had been a meeting of the ,british ,association at ,wolverhampton1 and1 under their auspices1 and with the professional services of ,thomas ,lythgoe1 ,mr4 ,creswick1 of ,greenwich ,observatory1 was commissioned to make a lofty scientific ascent with a ,cremorne balloon4 ,the attempt1 however1 was unsatisfactory2 and the balloon being condemned1 an application was made to ,mr4 ,coxwell to provide a suitable craft1 and to undertake its management4 ,the principals of the working committee were ,colonel ,sykes1 ,m4,p41 ,dr4 ,lee1 and ,mr4 ,james ,glaisher1 ,f4,r4,s41 and a short conference between these gentlemen and the experienced aeronaut soon made it clear that a mammoth balloon far larger than any in existence was needed for the work in hand4 ,but here a fatal obstacle presented itself in lack of funds1 for it transpired that the grant voted was only to be devoted to trial ascents4 ,it was then that ,mr4 ,coxwell1 with characteristic enterprise1 undertook1 at his own cost1 to build a suitable balloon1 and1 moreover1 to have it ready by ,midsummer ,day4 ,it was a bold1 as well as a generous1 offer2 for it was now ,march1 and1 according to ,mr4 ,coxwell's statement1 if silk were employed1 the preparation and manufacture would occupy six months and cost not less than ,l#b1jjj4 ,the fabric chosen was a sort of ,american cloth1 and by unremitting efforts the task was performed to time1 and the balloon forwarded to ,wolverhampton1 its dimensions being #ee feet in diameter1 #hj feet in height from the ground1 with a capacity of #ic1jjj cubic feet4 ,but the best feature in connection with it was the fact that ,mr4 ,glaisher himself was to make the ascents as scientific observer4 ,no time was lost in getting to work1 but twice over the chosen days were unsuitable1 and it was not till ,july #agth that the two colleagues1 of whom so much is to be told1 got away at #i4cj a4m4 with their balloon only two-thirds full1 to allow of expansion to take place in such a lofty ascent as was contemplated4 ,and1 when it is considered that an altitude of five miles was reached1 it will be granted that the scientific gentleman who was making his maiden ascent that day showed remarkable endurance and tenacity of purpose--the all-important essential for the onerous and trying work before him4 ,at #i4ef the balloon had disappeared from sight1 climbing far into the sky in the ,e4,n4,e4 ,the story of the voyage we must leave in ,mr4 ,glaisher's hands4 ,certain events1 however1 associated with other aeronauts1 which had already happened1 and which should be considered in connection with the new drama now to be introduced1 may fittingly here meet with brief mention4 ,the trouble arising from the coasting across country of a fallen and still half-inflated balloon has already been sufficiently illustrated1 and needs little further discussion4 ,it is common enough to see a balloon1 when full and round1 struggling restively under a moderate breeze with a score of men1 and dragging them1 and near a ton of sand-bags as well1 about the starting ground4 ,but1 as has already been pointed out1 the power of the wind on the globe is vastly increased when the silk becomes slack and forms a hollow to hold the wind1 like a bellying sail4 ,various means to deal with this difficulty have been devised1 one of these being an emergency1 or ripping valve1 in addition to the ordinary valve1 consisting of an arrangement for tearing a large opening in the upper part of one of the gores1 so that on reaching earth the balloon may be immediately crippled and emptied of so large a quantity of gas as to render dragging impossible4 ,such a method is not altogether without drawbacks1 one of these being the confusion liable to arise from there being more than one valve line to reckon with4 ,to obviate this1 it has been suggested that the emergency line should be of a distinctive colour4 ,but an experiment with a safeguard to somewhat of this nature was attended with fatal consequence in the year #ahbd4 ,a ,mr4 ,harris1 a lieutenant in the ,british ,navy1 ascended from the ,eagle ,tavern1 ,city ,road1 with a balloon fitted with a contrivance of his own invention1 consisting of a large hinged upper valve1 having within it a smaller valve of the same description1 the idea being that1 should the operation of the smaller outlet not suffice for any occasion1 then the shutter of the larger opening might be resorted to1 to effect a more liberal discharge of gas4 ,mr4 ,harris took with him a young lady1 ,miss ,stocks by name1 and apparently the afternoon--it being late ,may--was favourable for an aerial voyage2 for1 with full reliance on his apparatus1 he left his grapnel behind1 and was content with such assistance as the girl might be able to render him4 ,it was not long before the balloon was found descending1 and with a rapidity that seemed somewhat to disturb the aeronaut2 and when1 after a re-ascent1 effected by a discharge of ballast1 another decided downward tendency ensued1 ,mr4 ,harris clearly realised that something was wrong1 without1 however1 divining the cause4 ,the story subsequently told by the girl was to the effect that when the balloon was descending the second time she was spoken to by her unfortunate companion in an anxious manner4 ,i then heard the balloon go ',clap6 clap6' and ,mr4 ,harris said he was afraid it was bursting1 at which ,i fainted1 and knew no more until ,i found myself in bed4 ,a gamekeeper tells the sequel1 relating that he observed the balloon1 which was descending with great velocity1 strike and break the head of an oak tree1 after which it also struck the ground4 ,hurrying up1 he found the girl insensible1 and ,mr4 ,harris already dead1 with his breast bone and several ribs broken4 ,the explanation of the accident given by ,mr4 ,edward ,spencer is alike convincing and instructive4 ,this eminently practical authority points out that the valve lines must have been made taut to the hoop at the time that the balloon was full and globular4 ,thus1 subsequently1 when from diminution of gas the balloon's shape elongated1 the valve line would become strained and begin to open the valve1 but in such a gradual manner as to escape the notice of the aeronaut4 ,miss ,stocks1 far from being unnerved by the terrible experience1 actually made three subsequent ascents in company with ,mr4 ,green4 ,it deserves mention that another disaster1 equally instructive1 but happily not attended with loss of life1 occurred in ,dublin in #ahdd to ,mr4 ,hampton1 who about this time made several public and enterprising voyages4 ,he evidently was possessed of admirable nerve and decision1 and did not hesitate to make an ascent from the ,porto-,bello ,gardens in face of strong wind blowing sea-wards1 and in spite of many protestations from the onlookers that he was placing himself in danger4 ,this danger he fully realised1 more particularly when he recognised that the headland on which he hoped to alight was not in the direction of the wind's course4 ,resolved1 however1 on gratifying the crowd1 ,mr4 ,hampton ascended rapidly1 and then with equal expedition commenced a precipitate descent1 which he accomplished with skill and without mishap4 ,but the wind was still boisterous1 and the balloon sped onward along the ground towards fresh danger unforeseen1 and perhaps not duly reckoned with4 ,ahead was a cottage1 the chimney of which was on fire4 ,a balloonist in these circumstances is apt to think little of a single small object in his way1 knowing how many are the chances of missing or of successfully negotiating any such obstacle4 ,the writer on one occasion was1 in the judgment of onlookers below1 drifting in dangerous proximity to the awful ,cwmavon stack in ,glamorganshire1 then in full blast2 yet it was a fact that that vast vent of flame and smoke passed almost unheeded by the party in the descending car4 ,it may have been thus1 also1 with ,mr4 ,hampton1 who only fully realised his danger when his balloon blew up with an awfully grand explosion1 and he was reduced to the extremity of jumping for his life1 happily escaping the mass of burning silk and ropes4 ,the awful predicament of falling into the sea1 which has been illustrated already1 and which will recur again in these pages1 was ably and successfully met by ,mr4 ,cunningham1 who made an afternoon ascent from the ,artillery ,barracks at ,clevedon1 reaching ,snake ,island at nightfall1 where1 owing to the gathering darkness1 he felt constrained to open his valve4 ,he quickly commenced descending into the sea1 and when within ten feet of the water1 turned the detaching screw which connected the car with the balloon4 ,the effect of this was at once to launch him on the waves1 but1 being still able to keep control over the valve1 he allowed just enough gas to remain within the silk to hold the balloon above water4 ,he then betook himself to the paddles with which his craft was provided1 and reached ,snake ,island with the balloon in tow4 ,here he seems to have found good use for a further portion of his very complete equipment2 for1 lighting a signal rocket1 he presently brought a four-oared gig to his succour from ,portsmouth ,harbour4 ,the teaching of the above incident is manifest enough4 ,if it should be contemplated to use the balloon for serious or lengthened travel anywhere within possible reach of the sea-board--and this must apply to all parts of the ,british ,isles--it must become a wise precaution1 if not an absolute necessity1 to adopt some form of car that would be of avail in the event of a fall taking place in the sea4 ,sufficient confirmation of this statement will be shortly afforded by a memorable voyage accomplished during the partnership of ,messrs4 ,glaisher and ,coxwell1 one which would certainly have found the travellers in far less jeopardy had their car been convertible into a boat4 ,we have already seen how essential ,wise considered this expedient in his own bolder schemes1 and it may further be mentioned here that modern air ships have been designed with the intention of making the water a perfectly safe landing4 ,the ballooning exploits which1 however1 we have now to recount had quite another and more special object consistently in view--that of scientific investigation2 and we would here premise that the proper appreciation of these investigations will depend on a due understanding of the attendant circumstances1 as also of the constant characteristic behaviour of balloons1 whether despatched for mere travel or research4 ,first let us regard the actual path of a balloon in space when being manoeuvred in the way we read of in ,mr4 ,glaisher's own accounts4 ,this part is in most cases approximately indicated in that most attractive volume of his entitled1 ,travels in the ,air1 by diagrams giving a sectional presentment of his more important voyages2 but a little commonplace consideration may take the place of diagrams4 ,it has been common to assert that a balloon poised in space is the most delicate balance conceivable4 ,its intrinsic weight must be exactly equal to the weight of the air it displaces1 and since the density of the air decreases according to a fixed law1 amounting1 approximately1 to a difference in barometric reading of #j4a inch for every #ij feet1 it follows1 theoretically1 that if a balloon is poised at #a1jjj feet above sea level1 then it would not be in equilibrium at any other height1 so long as its weight and volume remain the same4 ,if it were #ej feet higher it must commence descending1 and1 if lower1 then it must ascend till it reaches its true level2 and1 more than that1 in the event of either such excursion mere impetus would carry it beyond this level1 about which it would oscillate for a short time1 after the manner of the pendulum4 ,this is substantially true1 but it must be taken in connection with other facts which have a far greater influence on a balloon's position or motion4 ,for instance1 in the volume just referred to it is stated by ,m4 ,gaston ,tissandier that on one occasion when aloft he threw overboard a chicken bone1 and1 immediately consulting a barometer1 had to admit on clearest evidence that the bone had caused a rise of from twenty to thirty yards1 so delicately is a balloon equipoised in the air4 ,here1 without pausing to calculate whether the discharge of an ounce or so would suffice to cause a large balloon to ascend through ninety feet1 it may be pointed out that the record cannot be trustworthy1 from the mere fact that a free balloon is from moment to moment being subjected to other potent influences1 which necessarily affect its position in space4 ,in daytime the sun's influence is an all-important factor1 and whether shining brightly or partially hidden by clouds1 a slight difference in obscuration will have a ready and marked effect on the balloon's altitude4 ,again1 a balloon in transit may pass almost momentarily from a warmer layer of air to a colder1 or vice versa1 the plane of demarcation between the two being very definite and abrupt1 and in this case altitude is at once affected2 or1 yet again1 there are the descending and ascending currents1 met with constantly and unexpectedly1 which have to be reckoned with4 ,thus it becomes a fact that a balloon's vertical course is subjected to constant checks and vicissitudes from a variety of causes1 and these will have to be duly borne in mind when we are confronted with the often surprising results and readings which are supplied by scientific observers4 ,with regard to the close proximity1 without appreciable intermingling1 of widely differing currents1 it should be mentioned that explorers have found in regions where winds of different directions pass each other that one air stream appears actually to drag against the surface of the other1 as though admitting no interspace where the streams might mingle4 ,indeed1 trustworthy observers have stated that even a hurricane can rage over a tranquil atmosphere with a sharply defined surface of demarcation between calm and storm4 ,thus1 to quote the actual words of ,charles ,darwin1 than whom it is impossible to adduce a more careful witness1 we find him recording how on mountain heights he met with winds turbulent and unconfined1 yet holding courses like rivers within their beds4 ,it is in tracing the trend of upper air streams1 to whose wayward courses and ever varying conditions we are now to be introduced1 that much of our most valuable information has come1 affecting the possibility of forecasting ,british wind and weather4 ,it should need no insisting on that the data required by meteorologists are not sufficiently supplied by the readings of instruments placed on or near the ground1 or by the set of the wind as determined by a vane planted on the top of a pole or roof of a building4 ,the chief factors in our meteorology are rather those broader and deeper conditions which obtain in higher regions necessarily beyond our ken1 until those regions are duly and diligently explored4 ,mr4 ,glaisher's estimate of the utility of the balloon as an instrument of research1 formed at the conclusion of his aeronautical labours1 has a special value and significance4 ,speaking with all the weight attaching to so trained and eminent an observer1 he declares1 ,the balloon1 considered as an instrument for vertical exploration1 presents itself to us under a variety of aspects1 each of which is fertile in suggestions4 ,regarding the atmosphere as the great laboratory of changes which contain the germ of future dis discoveries1 to belong respectively1 as they unfold1 to the chemist and meteorologist1 the physical relation to animal life of different heights1 the form of death which at certain elevations waits to accomplish its destruction1 the effect of diminished pressure upon individuals similarly placed1 the comparison of mountain ascents with the experiences of aeronauts1 are some of the questions which suggest themselves and faintly indicate enquiries which naturally ally themselves to the course of balloon experiments4 ,sufficiently varied and important1 they will be seen to rank the balloon as a valuable aid to the uses of philosophy1 and rescue it from the impending degradation of continuing a toy fit only to be exhibited or to administer to the pleasures of the curious and lovers of adventure4 ,the words of the same authority as to the possible practical development of the balloon as an aerial machine should likewise be quoted1 and will appear almost prophetic4 ,in ,england the subject of aero-station has made but little progress1 and no valuable invention has arisen to facilitate travelling in the air4 ,in all my ascents ,i used the balloon as ,i found it4 ,the desire which influenced me was to ascend to the higher regions and travel by its means in furtherance of a better knowledge of atmospheric phenomena4 ,neither its management nor its improvement formed a part of my plan4 ,i soon found that balloon travelling was at the mercy of the wind1 and ,i saw no probability of any method of steering balloons being obtained4 ,it even appeared to me that the balloon itself1 admirable for vertical ascents1 was not necessarily a first step in aerial navigation1 and might possibly have no share in the solution of the problem4 ,it was this conviction that led to the formation of the ,aeronautical ,society a few years since under the presidency of the ,duke of ,argyll4 ,in the number of communications made to this society it is evident that many minds are taxing their ingenuity to discover a mode of navigating the air2 all kinds of imaginary projects have been suggested1 some showing great mechanical ingenuity1 but all indicating the want of more knowledge of the atmosphere itself4 ,the first great aim of this society is the connecting the velocity of the air with its pressure on plane surfaces at various inclinations4 ,there seems no prospect of obtaining this relation otherwise than by a careful series of experiments4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,highest ,,ascent ,,on ,,record4 ,mr4 ,glaisher's instrumental outfit was on an elaborate and costly scale1 and the programme of experimental work drawn up for him by the ,committee of the ,british ,association did not err on the side of too much modesty4 ,in the first place the temperature and moisture of the atmosphere were to be examined4 ,observations on mountain sides had determined that thermometers showed a decrease of #a degree ,f4 for every #cjj feet1 and the accuracy of this law was particularly to be tested4 ,also1 investigations were to be made as to the distribution of vapour below the clouds1 in them1 and above them4 ,then careful observations respecting the dew point were to be undertaken at all accessible heights1 and1 more particularly1 up to those heights where man may be resident or troops may be located4 ,the comparatively new instrument1 the aneroid barometer1 extremely valuable1 if only trustworthy1 by reason of its sensibility1 portability and safety1 was to be tested and compared with the behaviour of a reliable mercurial barometer4 ,electrical conditions were to be examined2 the presence of ozone tested2 the vibration of a magnet was again to be resorted to to determine how far the magnetism of the earth might be affected by height4 ,the solar spectrum was to be observed2 air was to be collected at different heights for analysis2 clouds1 also upper currents1 were to be reported on4 ,further observations were to be made on sound1 on solar radiation1 on the actinic action of the sun1 and on atmospheric phenomena in general4 ,all this must be regarded as a large order where only a very limited number of ascents were contemplated1 and it may be mentioned that some of the methods of investigation1 as1 for instance1 the use of ozone papers1 would now be generally considered obsolete2 while the mechanical aspiration of thermometers by a stream of air1 which1 as we have pointed out1 was introduced by ,welsh1 and which is strongly insisted on at the present day1 was considered unnecessary by ,mr4 ,glaisher in the case of wet and dry bulb hygrometers4 ,the entire list of instruments1 as minutely described by the talented observer1 numbered twenty-two articles1 among which were such irreproachable items as a bottle of water and a pair of scissors4 ,the following is a condensed account1 gathered from ,mr4 ,glaisher's own narrative1 of his first ascent1 which has been already briefly sketched in these pages by the hand of ,mr4 ,coxwell4 ,very great difficulties were experienced in the inflation1 which operation appeared as if it would never be completed1 for a terrible ,w4,s4,w4 wind was constantly blowing1 and the movements of the balloon were so great and so rapid that it was impossible to fix a single instrument in its position before quitting the earth1 a position of affairs which1 says ,mr4 ,glaisher1 was by no means cheering to a novice who had never before put his foot in the car of a balloon1 and when1 at last1 at #i4db a4m41 ,mr4 ,coxwell cast off1 there was no upward motion1 the car simply dragging on its side till the expiration of a whole minute1 when the balloon lifted1 and in six minutes reached the first cloud at an altitude of #d1dfg feet4 ,this cloud was passed at #e1hjb feet1 and further cloud encountered at #b1jjj feet further aloft4 ,four minutes later1 the ascent proceeding1 the sun shone out brightly1 expanding the balloon into a perfect globe and displaying a magnificent view1 which1 however1 the incipient voyager did not allow himself to enjoy until the instruments were arranged in due order1 by which time a height of #aj1jjj feet was recorded4 ,mr4 ,glaisher apparently now had opportunity for observing the clouds1 which he describes as very beautiful1 and he records the hearing of a band of music at a height of #ab1gji feet1 which was attained in exactly twenty minutes from the start4 ,a minute later the earth was sighted through a break in the clouds1 and at #af1iad feet the clouds were far below1 the sky above being perfectly cloudless1 and of an intense ,prussian blue4 ,by this time ,mr4 ,glaisher had received his first surprise1 as imparted by the record of his instruments4 ,at starting1 the temperature of the air had stood at #ei degrees4 ,then at #d1jjj feet this was reduced to #de degrees2 and1 further1 to #bf degrees at #aj1jjj feet1 when it remained stationary through an ascent of #c1jjj feet more1 during which period both travellers added to their clothing1 anticipating much accession of cold4 ,however1 at #ae1ejj feet the temperature had actually risen to #ca degrees1 increasing to no less than #db degrees at #ai1ejj feet4 ,astonishing as this discovery was1 it was not the end of the wonder1 for two minutes later1 on somewhat descending1 the temperature commenced decreasing so rapidly as to show a fall of #bg degrees in #bf minutes4 ,as to personal experiences1 ,mr4 ,glaisher should be left to tell his own story4 ,at the height of #ah1hdd feet #ah vibrations of a horizontal magnet occupied #bf4h seconds1 and at the same height my pulse beat at the rate of #ajj pulsations per minute4 ,at #ai1dae feet palpitation of the heart became perceptible1 the beating of the chronometer seemed very loud1 and my breathing became affected4 ,at #ai1dce feet my pulse had accelerated1 and it was with increasing difficulty that ,i could read the instruments2 the palpitation of the heart was very perceptible2 the hands and lips assumed a dark bluish colour1 but not the face4 ,at #bj1bch feet #bh vibrations of a horizontal magnet occupied #dc seconds4 ,at #ba1gib feet ,i experienced a feeling analogous to sea-sickness1 though there was neither pitching nor rolling in the balloon1 and through this illness ,i was unable to watch the instrument long enough to lower the temperature to get a deposit of dew4 ,the sky at this elevation was of a very deep blue colour1 and the clouds were far below us4 ,at #bb1ceg feet ,i endeavoured to make the magnet vibrate1 but could not2 it moved through arcs of about #bj degrees1 and then settled suddenly4 ,our descent began a little after #aa a4m41 ,mr4 ,coxwell experiencing considerable uneasiness at our too close vicinity to the ,wash4 ,we came down quickly from a height of #af1cjj feet to one of #ab1djj feet in one minute2 at this elevation we entered into a dense cloud which proved to be no less than #h1jjj feet in thickness and whilst passing through this the balloon was invisible from the car4 ,from the rapidity of the descent the balloon assumed the shape of a parachute1 and though ,mr4 ,coxwell had reserved a large amount of ballast1 which he discharged as quickly as possible1 we collected so much weight by the condensation of the immense amount of vapour through which we passed that1 notwithstanding all his exertions1 we came to the earth with a very considerable shock1 which broke nearly all the instruments4444 ,the descent took place at ,langham1 near ,oakham4 ,just a month later ,mr4 ,glaisher1 bent on a yet loftier climb1 made his second ascent1 again under ,mr4 ,coxwell's guidance1 and again from ,wolverhampton4 ,besides attending to his instruments he found leisure to make other chance notes by the way4 ,he was particularly struck by the beauty of masses of cloud1 which1 by the time #ab1jjj feet were reached1 were far below1 presenting at times mountain scenes of endless variety and grandeur1 while fine dome-like clouds dazzled and charmed the eye with alternations and brilliant effects of light and shade4 ,when a height of about #bj1jjj feet had been reached thunder was heard twice over1 coming from below1 though no clouds could be seen4 ,a height of #d1jjj feet more was attained1 and shortly after this ,mr4 ,glaisher speaks of feeling unwell4 ,it was difficult to obtain a deposit of dew on the hygrometer1 and the working of the aspirator became troublesome4 ,while in this region a sound like that of loud thunder came from the sky4 ,observations were practically completed at this point1 and a speedy and safe return to earth was effected1 the landing being at ,solihull1 seven miles from ,birmingham4 ,it was on the #eth of ,september following that the same two colleagues carried out an exploit which will always stand alone in the history of aeronautics1 namely1 that of ascending to an altitude which1 based on the best estimate they were able to make1 they calculated to be no less than seven miles4 ,whatever error may have unavoidably come into the actual estimate1 which is to some extent conjectural1 is in reality a small matter1 not the least affecting the fact that the feat in itself will probably remain without a parallel of its kind4 ,in these days1 when aeronauts attempt to reach an exceptionally lofty altitude1 they invariably provide themselves with a cylinder of oxygen gas to meet the special emergencies of the situation1 so that when regions of such attenuated air are reached that the action of heart and lungs becomes seriously affected1 it is still within their power to inhale the life-giving gas which affords the greatest available restorative to their energies4 ,forty years ago1 however1 cylinders of compressed oxygen gas were not available1 and on this account alone we may state without hesitation that the enterprise which follows stands unparalleled at the present hour4 ,the filling station at ,wolverhampton was quitted at #a4c p4m41 the temperature of the air being #ei degrees on the ground1 and falling to #da degrees at an altitude of #e1jjj feet1 directly after which a dense cloud was entered1 which brought the temperature down to #cf degrees4 ,at this elevation the report of a gun was heard4 ,here ,mr4 ,glaisher attempted 7probably for the first time in history7 to take a cloud-scape photograph1 the illumination being brilliant1 and the plates with which he was furnished being considered extremely sensitive4 ,the attempt1 however1 was unsuccessful4 ,the height of two miles was reached in #ai minutes1 and here the temperature was at freezing point4 ,in six minutes later three miles was reached1 and the thermometer was down to #ah degrees4 ,in another twelve minutes four miles was attained1 with the thermometer recording #h degrees1 and by further discharge of sand the fifth aerial milestone was passed at #a4ej p4m41 i4e4 in #dg minutes from the start1 with the thermometer #b degrees below zero4 ,mr4 ,glaisher relates that up to this point he had taken observations with comfort1 and experienced no trouble in respiration1 whilst ,mr4 ,coxwell1 in consequence of the exertions he had to make1 was breathing with difficulty4 ,more sand was now thrown out1 and as the balloon rose higher ,mr4 ,glaisher states that he found some difficulty in seeing clearly4 ,but from this point his experiences should be gathered from his own words3-- ,about #a4eb p4m41 or later1 ,i read the dry bulb thermometer as minus five2 after this ,i could not see the column of mercury in the wet bulb thermometer1 nor the hands of the watch1 nor the fine divisions on any instrument4 ,i asked ,mr4 ,coxwell to help me to read the instruments4 ,in consequence1 however1 of the rotatory motion of the balloon1 which had continued without ceasing since leaving the earth1 the valve line had become entangled1 and he had to leave the car and mount into the ring to readjust it4 ,i then looked at the barometer1 and found its reading to be #i #c_/d inches1 still decreasing fast1 implying a height exceeding #bi1jjj feet4 ,shortly after1 ,i laid my arm upon the table1 possessed of its full vigour2 but on being desirous of using it ,i found it powerless--it must have lost its power momentarily4 ,trying to move the other arm1 ,i found it powerless also4 ,then ,i tried to shake myself1 and succeeded1 but ,i seemed to have no limbs4 ,in looking at the barometer my head fell over my left shoulder4 ,i struggled and shook my body again1 but could not move my arms4 ,getting my head upright for an instant only1 it fell on my right shoulder2 then ,i fell backwards1 my back resting against the side of the car and my head on its edge4 ,in this position my eyes were directed to ,mr4 ,coxwell in the ring4 ,when ,i shook my body ,i seemed to have full power over the muscles of the back1 and considerably so over those of the neck1 but none over either my arms or my legs4 ,as in the case of the arms1 so all muscular power was lost in an instant from my back and neck4 ,i dimly saw ,mr4 ,coxwell1 and endeavoured to speak1 but could not4 ,in an instant intense darkness overcame me1 so that the optic nerve lost power suddenly2 but ,i was still conscious1 with as active a brain as at the present moment whilst writing this4 ,i thought ,i had been seized with asphyxia1 and believed ,i should experience nothing more1 as death would come unless we speedily descended4 ,other thoughts were entering my mind when ,i suddenly became unconscious1 as on going to sleep4 ,i cannot tell anything of the sense of hearing1 as no sound reaches the ear to break the perfect stillness and silence of the regions between six and seven miles above the earth4 ,my last observation was made at #a4ed p4m41 above #bi1jjj feet4 ,i suppose two or three minutes to have elapsed between my eyes becoming insensible to seeing fine divisions and #a4ed p4m41 and then two or three minutes more to have passed till ,i was insensible1 which ,i think1 therefore1 took place about #a4ef p4m4 or #a4eg p4m4 ,whilst powerless1 ,i heard the words ',temperature' and ',observation1' and ,i knew ,mr4 ,coxwell was in the car speaking to and endeavouring to rouse me--therefore consciousness and hearing had returned4 ,i then heard him speak more emphatically1 but could not see1 speak1 or move4 ,i heard him again say1 ',do try1 now do6' ,then the instruments became dimly visible1 then ,mr4 ,coxwell1 and very shortly ,i saw clearly4 ,next1 ,i arose in my seat and looked around1 as though waking from sleep1 though not refreshed1 and said to ,mr4 ,coxwell1 ',i have been insensible4' ,he said1 ',you have1 and ,i too1 very nearly4' ,i then drew up my legs1 which had been extended1 and took a pencil in my hand to begin observations4 ,mr4 ,coxwell told me that he had lost the use of his hands1 which were black1 and ,i poured brandy over them4 ,mr4 ,glaisher considers that he must have been totally insensible for a period of about seven minutes1 at the end of which time the water reserved for the wet bulb thermometer1 which he had carefully kept from freezing1 had become a solid block of ice4 ,mr4 ,coxwell's hands had become frostbitten1 so that1 being in the ring and desirous of coming to his friend's assistance1 he was forced to rest his arms on the ring and drop down4 ,even then1 the table being in the way1 he was unable to approach1 and1 feeling insensibility stealing over himself1 he became anxious to open the valve4 ,but in consequence of having lost the use of his hands he could not do this4 ,ultimately he succeeded by seizing the cord in his teeth and dipping his head two or three times until the balloon took a decided turn downwards4 ,mr4 ,glaisher adds that no inconvenience followed his insensibility1 and presently dropping in a country where no conveyance of any kind could be obtained1 he was able to walk between seven and eight miles4 ,the interesting question of the actual height attained is thus discussed by ,mr4 ,glaisher3--,i have already said that my last observation was made at a height of #bi1jjj feet4 ,at this time1 #a4ed p4m41 we were ascending at the rate of #a1jjj feet per minute1 and when ,i resumed observations we were descending at the rate of #b1jjj feet per minute4 ,these two positions must be connected1 taking into account the interval of time between1 namely1 thirteen minutes2 and on these considerations the balloon must have attained the altitude of #cf1jjj or #cg1jjj feet4 ,again1 a very delicate minimum thermometer read minus #aa4i1 and this would give a height of #cg1jjj feet4 ,mr4 ,coxwell1 on coming from the ring1 noticed that the centre of the aneroid barometer1 its blue hand1 and a rope attached to the car1 were all in the same straight line1 and this gave a reading of seven inches1 and leads to the same result4 ,therefore1 these independent means all lead to about the same elevation1 namely1 fully seven miles4 ,so far we have followed ,mr4 ,glaisher's account only1 but ,mr4 ,coxwell has added testimony of his own to this remarkable adventure1 which renders the narrative more complete4 ,he speaks of the continued rotation of the balloon and the necessity for mounting into the ring to get possession of the valve line4 ,i had previously1 he adds1 taken off a thick pair of gloves so as to be the better able to manipulate the sand-bags1 and the moment my unprotected hands rested on the ring1 which retained the temperature of the air1 ,i found that they were frost-bitten2 but ,i did manage to bring down with me the valve line1 after noticing the hand of the aneroid barometer1 and it was not long before ,i succeeded in opening the shutters in the way described by ,mr4 ,glaisher4444 ,again1 on letting off more gas1 ,i perceived that the lower part of the balloon was rapidly shrinking1 and ,i heard a sighing1 as if it were in the network and the ruffled surface of the cloth4 ,i then looked round1 although it seemed advisable to let off more gas1 to see if ,i could in any way assist ,mr4 ,glaisher1 but the table of instruments blocked the way1 and ,i could not1 with disabled hands1 pass beneath4 ,my last hope1 then1 was in seeking the restorative effects of a warmer stratum of atmosphere4444 ,again ,i tugged at the valve line1 taking stock1 meanwhile1 of the reserve ballast in store1 and this1 happily1 was ample4 ,never shall ,i forget those painful moments of doubt and suspense as to ,mr4 ,glaisher's fate1 when no response came to my questions4 ,i began to fear that he would never take any more readings4 ,i could feel the reviving effects of a warmer temperature1 and wondered that no signs of animation were noticeable4 ,the hand of the aneroid that ,i had looked at was fast moving1 while the under part of the balloon had risen high above the car4 ,i had looked towards the earth1 and felt the rush of air as it passed upwards1 but was still in despair when ,mr4 ,glaisher gasped with a sigh1 and the next moment he drew himself up and looked at me rather in confusion1 and said he had been insensible1 but did not seem to have any clear idea of how long until he caught up his pencil and noted the time and the reading of the instruments4 ,the descent1 which was at first very rapid1 was effected without difficulty at ,cold ,weston4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,further ,,scientific ,,voyages ,,of ,,glaisher ,,and ,,coxwell4 ,early in the following spring we find the same two aeronauts going aloft again on a scientific excursion which had a termination nearly as sensational as the last4 ,the ascent was from the ,crystal ,palace1 and the intention being to make a very early start the balloon for this purpose had been partially filled overnight2 but by the morning the wind blew strongly1 and1 though the ground current would have carried the voyagers in comparative safety to the southwest1 several pilots which were dismissed became1 at no great height1 carried away due south4 ,on this account the start was delayed till #a p4m41 by which time the sky had nearly filled in1 with only occasional gleams of sun between the clouds4 ,it seemed as if the travellers would have to face the chance of crossing the ,channel1 and while1 already in the car1 they were actually discussing this point1 their restraining rope broke1 and they were launched unceremoniously into the skies4 ,this occasioned an unexpected lurch to the car1 which threw ,mr4 ,glaisher among his instruments1 to the immediate destruction of some of them4 ,another result of this abrupt departure was a very rapid rise1 which took the balloon a height of #c1jjj feet in three minutes' space1 and another #d1jjj feet higher in six minutes more4 ,seven thousand feet vertically in nine minutes is fast pace2 but the voyagers were to know higher speed yet that day when the vertical motion was to be in the reverse and wrong direction4 ,at the height now reached they were in cloud1 and while thus enveloped the temperature1 as often happens1 remained practically stationary at about #cb degrees1 while that of the dew point increased several degrees4 ,but1 on passing out of the cloud1 the two temperatures were very suddenly separated1 the latter decreasing rapidly under a deep blue upper sky that was now without a cloud4 ,shortly after this the temperature dropped suddenly some #h degrees1 and then1 during the next #ab1jjj feet1 crept slowly down by small stages4 ,presently the balloon1 reaching more than twenty thousand feet1 or1 roughly1 four miles1 and still ascending1 the thermometer was taken with small fits of rising and falling alternately till an altitude of #bd1jjj feet was recorded1 at which point other and more serious matters intruded themselves4 ,the earth had been for a considerable time lost to view1 and the rate and direction of recent progress had become merely conjectural4 ,what might be taking place in these obscured and lofty regions8 ,it would be as well to discover4 ,so the valve was opened rather freely1 with the result that the balloon dropped a mile in three minutes4 ,then another mile slower1 by a shade4 ,then at #ab1jjj feet a cloud layer was reached1 and shortly after the voyagers broke through into the clear below4 ,at that moment ,mr4 ,glaisher1 who was busy with his instruments1 heard ,mr4 ,coxwell make an exclamation which caused him to look over the car1 and he writes1 ,the sea seemed to be under us4 ,mr4 ,coxwell again exclaimed1 ',there's not a moment to spare3 we must save the land at all risks4 ,leave the instruments4' ,mr4 ,coxwell almost hung to the valve line1 and told me to do the same1 and not to mind its cutting my hand4 ,it was a bold decision opening the valve in this way1 and it was boldly carried out4 ,as may be supposed1 the bold decision ended with a crash4 ,the whole time of descending the four and a quarter miles was a quarter of an hour1 the last two miles taking four minutes only4 ,for all that1 there was no penalty beyond a few bruises and the wrecking of the instruments1 and when land was reached there was no rebound2 the balloon simply lay inert hard by the margin of the sea4 ,this terrific experience in its salient details is strangely similar to that already recorded by ,albert ,smith4 ,in further experimental labours conducted during the summer of this year1 many interesting facts stand out prominently among a voluminous mass of observations4 ,in an ascent in an east wind from the ,crystal ,palace in early ,july it was found that the upper limit of that wind was reached at #b1djj feet1 at which level an air-stream from the north was encountered2 but at #c1jjj feet higher the wind again changed to a current from the ,n4,n4,w4 ,at the height1 then1 of little more than half a mile1 these upper currents were travelling leisurely2 but what was more noteworthy was their humidity1 which greatly increased with altitude1 and a fact which may often be noted here obtruded itself1 namely1 when the aeronauts were at the upperlimits of the east wind1 flat-bottomed cumulus clouds were floating at their level4 ,these clouds were entirely within the influence of the upper or north wind1 so that their under sides were in contact with the east wind1 i4e4 with a much drier air1 which at once dissipated all vapour in contact with it1 and thus presented the appearance of flat-bottomed clouds4 ,it is a common experience to find the lower surface of a cloud mowed off flat by an east wind blowing beneath it4 ,at the end of ,june a voyage from ,wolverton was accomplished1 which yielded remarkable results of much real value and interest4 ,the previous night had been perfectly calm1 and through nearly the whole morning the sun shone in a clear blue sky1 without a symptom of wind or coming change4 ,shortly before noon1 however1 clouds appeared aloft1 and the sky assumed an altered aspect4 ,then the state of things quickly changed4 ,wind currents reached the earth blowing strongly1 and the half-filled balloon began to lurch to such an extent that the inflation could only with difficulty be proceeded with4 ,fifty men were unable to hold it in sufficient restraint to prevent rude bumping of the car on the ground1 and when1 at length1 arrangements were complete and release effected1 rapid discharge of ballast alone saved collision with neighbouring buildings4 ,it was now that the disturbance overhead came under investigation2 and1 considering the short period it had been in progress1 proved most remarkable1 the more so the further it was explored4 ,at #d1jjj feet they plunged into the cloud canopy1 through which as it was painfully cold1 they1 sought to penetrate into the clear above1 feeling confident of finding themselves1 according to their usual experience1 in bright blue sky1 with the sun brilliantly shining4 ,on the contrary1 however1 the region they now entered was further obscured with another canopy of cloud far up4 ,it was while they were traversing this clear interval that a sound unwonted in balloon travel assailed their ears4 ,this was the sighing1 or rather moaning1 of the wind as preceding a storm4 ,rustling of the silk within the cordage is often heard aloft1 being due to expansion of gas or similar cause2 but the aeronauts soon convinced themselves that what they heard was attributable to nothing else than the actual conflict of air currents beneath4 ,then they reached fog--a dry fog--and1 passing through it1 entered a further fog1 but wetting this time1 and within the next #a1jjj feet they were once again in fog that was dry2 and then1 reaching three miles high and seeing struggling sunbeams1 they looked around and saw cloud everywhere1 below1 above1 and far clouds on their own level4 ,the whole sky had filled in most completely since the hours but recently passed1 when they had been expatiating on the perfect serenity of the empty heavens4 ,still they climbed upwards1 and in the next #b1jjj feet had entered further fog1 dry at first1 but turning wetter as they rose4 ,at four miles high they found themselves on a level with clouds1 whose dark masses and fringed edges proved them to be veritable rain clouds2 and1 while still observing them1 the fog surged up again and shut out the view1 and by the time they had surmounted it they were no less than #bc1jjj feet up1 or higher than the loftiest of the ,andes4 ,even here1 with cloud masses still piling high overhead1 the eager observer1 bent on further quests1 was for pursuing the voyage2 but ,mr4 ,coxwell interposed with an emphatic1 ,too short of sand6 and the downward journey had to be commenced4 ,then phenomena similar to those already described were experienced again--fog banks 7sometimes wet1 sometimes dry71 rain showers1 and cloud strata of piercing cold4 ,presently1 too1 a new wonder for a midsummer afternoon--a snow scene all around1 and spicules of ice settling and remaining frozen on the coatsleeve4 ,finally dropping to earth helplessly through the last #e1jjj feet1 with all ballast spent1 ,ely ,cathedral was passed at close quarters2 yet even that vast pile was hidden in the gloom that now lay over all the land4 ,it was just a month later1 and day broke with thoroughly dirty weather1 a heavy sky1 and falling showers4 ,this was the day of all others that ,mr4 ,glaisher was waiting for1 having determined on making special investigations concerning the formation of rain in the clouds themselves4 ,it had long been noticed that1 in an ordinary way1 if there be two rain gauges placed1 one near the surface of the ground1 and another at a somewhat higher elevation1 then the lower gauge will collect most water4 ,does1 then1 rain condense in some appreciable quantity out of the lowest level8 ,again1 during rain1 is the air saturated completely1 and what regulates the quality of rainfall1 for rain sometimes falls in large drops and sometimes in minute particles8 ,these were questions which ,mr4 ,glaisher sought to solve1 and there was another4 ,charles ,green had stated as his conviction that whenever rain was falling from an overcast sky there would always be found a higher canopy of cloud over-hanging the lower stratum4 ,on the day1 then1 which we are now describing1 ,mr4 ,glaisher wished to put this his theory to the test2 and1 if correct1 then he desired to measure the space between the cloud layers1 to gauge their thickness1 and to see if above the second stratum the sun was shining4 ,the main details of the ascent read thus3-- ,in ten seconds they were in mist1 and in ten seconds more were level with the cloud4 ,at #a1bjj feet they were out of the rain1 though not yet out of the cloud4 ,emerging from the lower cloud at #b1cjj feet1 they saw1 what ,green would have foretold1 an upper stratum of dark cloud above4 ,then they made excursions up and down1 trying high and low to verify these conditions1 and passing through fogs both wet and dry1 at last drifting earthward1 through squalls of wind and rain with drops as large as fourpenny pieces1 to find that on the ground heavy wet had been ceaselessly falling4 ,a day trip over the eastern suburbs of ,london in the same year seems greatly to have impressed ,mr4 ,glaisher4 ,the noise of ,london streets as heard from above has much diminished during the last fifteen years' probably owing to the introduction of wood paving4 ,but1 forty years ago1 ,mr4 ,glaisher describes the deep sound of ,london as resembling the roar of the sea1 when at a mile high2 while at greater elevations it was heard at a murmuring noise4 ,but the view must have been yet more striking than the hearing1 for in one direction the white cliffs from ,margate to ,dover were visible1 while ,brighton and the sea beyond were sighted1 and again all the coast line up to ,yarmouth yet the atmosphere that day1 one might have thought1 should have been in turmoil1 by reason of a conflict of aircurrents2 for1 within two miles of the earth1 the wind was from the east2 between two and three miles high it was exactly opposite1 being from the west2 but at three miles it was ,n4,e42 while1 higher1 it was again directly opposite1 or ,s4,w4 ,during his researches so far ,mr4 ,glaisher had found much that was anomalous in the way of the winds1 and in other elements of weather4 ,he was destined to find much more4 ,it had been commonly accepted that the temperature of the air decreases at the average rate of #aj degrees for every #cjj feet of elevation1 and various computations1 as1 for example1 those which relate to the co-efficient of refraction1 have been founded on this basis2 but ,mr4 ,glaisher soon established that the above generalisation had to be much modified4 ,the following1 gathered from his notes is a typical example of such surprises as the aeronaut with due instrumental equipment may not unfrequently meet with4 ,it was the #abth of ,january1 #ahfd1 with an air-current on the ground from the ,s4,e41 of temperature #da degrees11 which very slowly decreased up to #a1fjj feet when a warm ,s4,w4 current was met with1 and at #c1jjj feet the temperature was #c #a_/b degrees higher than on the earth4 ,above the ,s4,w4 stream the air became dry1 and here the temperature decreased reasonably and consistently with altitude2 while fine snow was found falling out of this upper space into the warmer stream below4 ,mr4 ,glaisher discusses the peculiarity and formation of this stream in terms which will repay consideration4 ,the meeting with this ,s4,w4 current is of the highest importance1 for it goes far to explain why ,england possesses a winter temperature so much higher than is due to her northern latitude4 ,our high winter temperature has hitherto been mostly referred to the influence of the ,gulf ,stream4 ,without doubting the influence of this natural agent1 it is necessary to add the effect of a parallel atmospheric current to the oceanic current coming from the same region--a true aerial ,gulf ,stream4 ,this great energetic current meets with no obstruction in coming to us1 or to ,norway1 but passes over the level ,atlantic without interruption from mountains4 ,it cannot1 however1 reach ,france without crossing ,spain and the lofty range of the ,pyrenees1 and the effect of these cold mountains in reducing its temperature is so great that the former country derives but little warmth from it4 ,an ascent from ,woolwich1 arranged as near the equinox of that year as could be managed1 supplied some further remarkable results4 ,the temperature1 which was #de degrees to begin with1 at #d4g p4m41 crept down fairly steadily till #d1jjj feet altitude was registered1 when1 in a region of warm fog1 it commenced rising abruptly1 and at #g1ejj feet1 in blue sky1 stood at the same reading as when the balloon had risen only #a1ejj feet4 ,then1 amid many anomalous vicissitudes1 the most curious1 perhaps1 was that recorded late in the afternoon1 when1 at #aj1jjj feet1 the air was actually warmer than when the ascent began4 ,that the temperature of the upper air commonly commences to rise after nightfall as the warmth radiated through day hours off the earth collects aloft1 is a fact well known to the balloonist1 and ,mr4 ,glaisher carried out with considerable success a well-arranged programme for investigating the facts of the case4 ,starting from ,windsor on an afternoon of late ,may1 he so arranged matters that his departure from earth took place about an hour and three quarters before sunset1 his intention being to rise to a definite height1 and with as uniform a speed as possible to time his descent so as to reach earth at the moment of sundown2 and then to re-ascend and descend again m a precisely similar manner during an hour and three-quarters after sunset1 taking observations all the way4 ,ascending for the first flight1 he left a temperature of #eh degrees on the earth1 and found it #ee degrees at #a1bjj feet1 then #dc degrees at #c1fjj feet1 and #bi #a_/b degrees at the culminating point of #f1bjj feet4 ,then1 during the descent1 the temperature increased1 though not uniformly1 till he was nearly brushing the tops of the trees1 where it was some #c degrees colder than at starting4 ,it was now that the balloon1 showing a little waywardness1 slightly upset a portion of the experiment1 for1 instead of getting to the neighbourhood of earth just at the moment of sunset1 the travellers found themselves at that epoch #fjj feet above the ground1 and over the ridge of a hill1 on passing which the balloon became sucked down with a down draught1 necessitating a liberal discharge of sand to prevent contact with the ground4 ,this circumstance1 slight in itself1 caused the lowest point of the descent to be reached some minutes late1 and1 still more unfortunate1 occasioned the ascent which immediately followed to be a rapid one1 too rapid1 doubtless1 to give the registering instruments a fair chance2 but one principal record aimed at was obtained at least with sufficient truth1 namely1 that at the culminating point1 which again was #f1bjj feet1 the temperature read #ce degrees1 or about #f degrees warmer than when the balloon was at the same altitude a little more than an hour before4 ,this comparatively warm temperature was practically maintained for a considerable portion of the descent4 ,we may summarise the principal of ,mr4 ,glaisher's generalisations thus1 using as nearly as possible his own words3-- ,the decrease of temperature1 with increase of elevation1 has a diurnal range1 and depends upon the hour of the day1 the changes being the greatest at mid-day and the early part of the afternoon1 and decreasing to about sunset1 when1 with a clear sky1 there is little or no change of temperature for several hundred feet from the earth2 whilst1 with a cloudy sky1 the change decreases from the mid-day hours at a less rapid rate to about sunset1 when the decrease is nearly uniform and at the rate of #a degree in #b1jjj feet4 ,air currents differing in direction are almost always to be met with4 ,the thicknesses of these were found to vary greatly4 ,the direction of the wind on the earth was sometimes that of the whole mass of air up to #bj1jjj feet nearly1 whilst at other times the direction changed within #ejj feet of the earth ,sometimes directly opposite currents were met with4 ,with regard to the velocity of upper currents1 as shown by the travel of balloons1 when the distances between the places of ascent and descent are measured1 it was always found that these distances were very much greater than the horizontal movement of the air1 as measured by anemometers near the ground4 ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,some ,,famous ,,french ,,aeronauts4 ,by this period a revival of aeronautics in the land of its birth had fairly set in4 ,since the last ascents of ,gay ,lussac1 in #ahjd1 already recorded1 there had been a lull in ballooning enterprise in ,france1 and no serious scientific expeditions are recorded until the year #ahej1 when ,,mm4 ,baral and ,bixio undertook some investigations respecting the upper air1 which were to deal with its laws of temperature and humidity1 with the proportion of carbonic acid present in it1 with solar heat at different altitudes1 with radiation and the polarisation of light1 and certain other interesting enquiries4 ,the first ascent1 made in ,june from the ,paris ,observatory1 though a lofty one1 was attended with so much danger and confusion as to be barren of results4 ,the departure1 owing to stormy weather1 was hurried and illordered1 so that the velocity in rising was excessive1 the net constricted the rapidly-swelling globe1 and the volumes of out-rushing gas half-suffocated the voyagers4 ,then a large rent occurred1 which caused an alarmingly rapid fall1 and the two philosophers were reduced to the necessity of flinging away all they possessed1 their instruments only excepted4 ,the landing1 in a vineyard1 was happily not attended with disaster1 and within a month the same two colleagues attempted a second aerial excursion1 again in wet weather4 ,it would seem as if on this occasion1 as on the former one1 there was some lack of due management1 for the car1 suspended at a long distance from the balloon proper1 acquired violent oscillations on leaving the ground1 and dashing first against a tree1 and then against a mast1 broke some of the instruments4 ,a little later there occurred a repetition on a minor scale of the aeronauts' previous mishap1 for a rent appeared in the silk1 though1 luckily1 so low down in the balloon as to be of small consequence1 and eventually an altitude of some #ai1jjj feet was attained4 ,at one time needles of ice were encountered settling abundantly with a crackling sound upon their notebooks4 ,but the most remarkable observation made during this voyage related to an extraordinary fall of temperature which1 as recorded1 is without parallel4 ,it took place in a cloud mass1 #ae1jjj feet thick1 and amounted to a drop of from #ae degrees to -#ci degrees4 ,in #ahfg ,m4 ,c4 ,flammarion made a few balloon ascents1 ostensibly for scientific research4 ,his account of these1 translated by ,dr4 ,t4 ,l4 ,phipson1 is edited by ,mr4 ,glaisher1 and many of the experiences he relates will be found to contrast with those of others4 ,his physical symptoms alone were remarkable1 for on one occasion1 at an altitude of apparently little over #aj1jjj feet1 he became unwell being affected with a sensation of drowsiness1 palpitation1 shortness of breath1 and singing in the ears1 which1 after landing gave place to a fit of incessant gaping while he states that in later voyages1 at but slightly greater altitudes1 his throat and lungs became affected1 and he was troubled with presence of blood upon the lips4 ,this draws forth a footnote from ,mr4 ,glaisher1 which should be commended to all would-be sky voyagers4 ,it runs thus3--,i have never experienced any of these effects till ,i had long passed the heights reached by ,m4 ,flammarion1 and at no elevation was there the presence of blood4 ,however1 ,m4 ,flammarion adduces1 at least1 one reassuring fact1 which will be read with interest4 ,once1 having1 against the entreaties of his friends1 ascended with an attack of influenza upon him1 he came down to earth again an hour or two afterwards with this troublesome complaint completely cured4 ,it would seem as if the soil of ,france supplied the aeronaut with certain phenomena not known in ,england1 one of these apparently being the occasional presence of butterflies hovering round the car when at considerable heights4 ,m4 ,flammarion mentions more than one occasion when he thus saw them1 and found them to be without sense of alarm at the balloon or its passengers4 ,again1 the ,french observer seems seldom to have detected those opposite airstreams which ,english balloonists may frequently observe1 and have such cause to be wary of4 ,his words1 as translated1 are3--,it appears to me that two or more currents1 flowing in different directions1 are very rarely met with as we rise in the air1 and when two layers of cloud appear to travel in opposite directions the effect is generally caused by the motion of one layer being more rapid than the other1 when the latter appears to be moving in a contrary direction4 ,in continuation of these experiences1 he speaks of an occasion when1 speeding through the air at the rate of an ordinary express train1 he was drawn towards a tempest by a species of attraction4 ,the ,french aeronaut's estimate of what constitutes a terrific rate of fall differs somewhat from that of others whose testimony we have been recording4 ,in one descent1 falling 7without reaching earth1 however7 a distance of #b1acj feet in two minutes1 he describes the earth rising up with frightful rapidity1 though1 as will be observed1 this is not nearly half the speed at which either ,mr4 ,glaisher or ,albert ,smith and his companions were precipitated on to bare ground4 ,very many cases which we have cited go to show that the knowledge of the great elasticity of a well-made wicker car may rob a fall otherwise alarming of its terrors1 while the practical certainty that a balloon descending headlong will form itself into a natural parachute1 if properly managed1 reduces enormously the risk attending any mere impact with earth4 ,it will be allowed by all experienced aeronauts that far worse chances lie in some awkward alighting ground1 or in the dragging against dangerous obstacles after the balloon has fallen4 ,many of ,m4 ,flammarion's experiments are remarkable for their simplicity4 ,indeed1 in some cases he would seem to have applied himself to making trials the result of which could not have been seriously questioned4 ,the following1 quoting from ,dr4 ,phipson's translation1 will serve as an example3-- ,another mechanical experiment was made in the evening1 and renewed next day4 ,i wished to verify ,galileo's principle of the independence of simultaneous motions4 ,according to this principle1 a body which is allowed to fall from another body in motion participates in the motion of the latter2 thus1 if we drop a marble from the masthead of a ship1 it preserves during its fall the rate of motion of the vessel1 and falls at the foot of the mast as if the ship were still4 ,now1 if a body falls from a balloon1 does it also follow the motion of the latter1 or does it fall directly to the earth in a line which is perpendicular to the point at which we let it fall8 ,in the first case its fall would be described by an oblique line4 ,the latter was found to be the fact1 as we proved by letting a bottle fall4 ,during its descent it partakes of the balloon's motion1 and until it reaches the earth is always seen perpendicularly below the car4 ,an interesting phenomenon1 relating to the formation of fog was witnessed by ,m4 ,flammarion in one of his voyages4 ,he was flying low with a fast wind1 and while traversing a forest he noticed here and there patches of light clouds1 which1 remaining motionless in defiance of the strong wind1 continued to hang above the summits of the trees4 ,the explanation of this can hardly be doubtful1 being analogous to the formation of a night-cap on a mountain peak where warm moist air-currents become chilled against the cold rock surface1 forming1 momentarily1 a patch of cloud which1 though constantly being blown away1 is as constantly re-formed1 and thus is made to appear as if stationary4 ,the above instructive phenomenon could hardly have been noticed save by an aeronaut1 and the same may be said of the following4 ,passing in a clear sky over the spot where the ,marne flows into the ,seine1 ,m4 ,flammarion notes that the water of the ,marne1 which1 as he says1 is as yellow now as it was in the time of ,julius ,caesar1 does not mix with the green water of the ,seine1 which flows to the left of the current1 nor with the blue water of the canal1 which flows to the right4 ,thus1 a yellow river was seen flowing between two distinct brooks1 green and blue respectively4 ,here was optical evidence of the way in which streams of water which actually unite may continue to maintain independent courses4 ,we have seen that the same is true of streams of air1 and1 where these traverse one another in a copious and complex manner1 we find1 as will be shown1 conditions produced that cause a great deadening of sound2 thus1 great differences in the travel of sound in the silent upper air can be noticed on different days1 and1 indeed1 in different periods of the same aerial voyage4 ,m4 ,flammarion bears undeniable testimony to the manner in which the equable condition of the atmosphere attending fog enhances1 to the aeronaut1 the hearing of sounds from below4 ,but when he gives definite heights as the range limits of definite sounds it must be understood that these ranges will be found to vary greatly according to circumstances4 ,thus1 where it is stated that a man's voice may make itself heard at #c1bee feet1 it might be added that sometimes it cannot be heard at a considerably less altitude2 and1 again1 the statement that the whistle of a locomotive rises to near #aj1jjj feet1 and the noise of a railway train to #h1bjj feet1 should be qualified an additional note to the effect that both may be occasionally heard at distances vastly greater4 ,but perhaps the most curious observation of ,m4 ,flammarion respecting sounds aloft relates to that of echo4 ,to his fancy1 this had a vague depth1 appearing also to rise from the horizon with a curious tone1 as if it came from another world4 ,to the writer1 on the contrary1 and to many fellow observers who have specially experimented with this test of sound1 the echo has always appeared to come very much from the right place--the spot nearly immediately below--and if this suggested its coming from another world then the same would have to be said of all echoes generally4 ,about the same period when ,m4 ,flammarion was conducting his early ascents1 ,,mm4 de ,fonvielle and ,tissandier embarked on experimental voyages1 which deserve some particular notice4 ,interest in the new revival of the art of aeronautics was manifestly be coming reestablished in ,france1 and though we find enthusiasts more than once bitterly complaining of the lack of financial assistance1 still ballooning exhibitions1 wherever accomplished1 never failed to arouse popular appreciation4 ,but enthusiasm was by no means the universal attitude with which the world regarded aerial enterprise4 ,a remarkable and instructive instance is given to the contrary by ,m4 ,w4 de ,fonvielle himself4 ,he records an original ballooning exploit1 organised at ,algiers1 which one might have supposed would have caused a great sensation1 and to which he himself had called public attention in the local journals4 ,the brothers ,braguet were to make an ascent from the ,mustapha ,plain in a small fire balloon heated with burning straw1 and this risky performance was successfully carried out by the enterprising aeronauts4 ,but1 to the onlooker1 the most striking feature of the proceeding was the fact that while the ,europeans present regarded the spectacle with curiosity and pleasure1 the native ,mussulmans did not appear to take the slightest interest in it2 ,and this1 remarked de ,fonvielle1 was not the first time that ignorant and fanatic people have been noted as manifesting complete indifference to balloon ascents4 ,after the taking of ,cairo1 when ,general ,buonaparte wished to produce an effect upon the inhabitants1 he not only made them a speech1 but supplemented it with the ascent of a fire balloon4 ,the attempt was a complete failure1 for the ,french alone looked up to the clouds to see what became of the balloon4 ,in the summer of #ahfg an attempt was made to revive the long extinct ,aeronautic ,company of ,france1 established by ,de ,guyton4 ,the undertaking was worked with considerable energy4 ,some forty or fifty active recruits were pressed into the service1 a suitable captive balloon was obtained1 thousands of spectators came to watch the evolutions2 and many were found to pay the handsome fee of #ajj francs for a short excursion in the air4 ,for all this1 the effort was entirely abortive1 and the ballooning corps1 as such1 dropped out of existence4 ,a little while after this de ,fonvielle1 on a visit to ,england1 had a most pathetic interview with the veteran ,charles ,green1 who was living in comfortable retirement at ,upper ,holloway4 ,the grand old man pointed to a well-filled portfolio in the corner of his room1 in which1 he said1 were accounts of all his travels1 that would require a lifetime to peruse and put in order4 ,green then took his visitor to the end of the narrow court1 and1 opening the door of an outhouse1 showed him the old ,nassau balloon4 ,here is my car1 he said1 touching it with a kind of solemn respect1 which1 like its old pilot1 now reposes quietly after a long and active career4 ,here is the guide rope which ,i imagined in former years1 and which has been found very useful to aeronauts4444 ,now my life has past and my time has gone by4444 ,though my hair is white and my body too weak to help you1 ,i can still give you my advice1 and you have my hearty wishes for your future4 ,it was but shortly after this1 on ,march #bf1 #ahgj1 that ,charles ,green passed away in the #heth year of his age4 ,de ,fonvielle's colleague1 ,m4 ,gaston ,tissandier1 was on one occasion accidentally brought to visit the resting place of the earliest among aeronauts1 whose tragic death occurred while ,charles ,green himself was yet a boy4 ,in a stormy and hazardous descent ,tissandier1 under the guidance of ,m4 ,duruof1 landed with difficulty on the sea coast of ,france1 when one of the first to render help was a lightkeeper of the ,griz-nez lighthouse1 who gave the information that on the other side of the hills1 a few hundred yards from the spot where they had landed1 was the tomb of ,pilatre de ,rozier1 whose tragical death has been recorded in an early chapter4 ,a visit to the actual locality the next day revealed the fact that a humble stone still marked the spot4 ,certain scientific facts and memoranda collected by the talented ,french aeronaut whom we are following are too interesting to be omitted4 ,in the same journey to which we have just referred the voyagers1 when nearly over ,calais1 were witnesses from their commanding standpoint of a very striking phenomenon of mirage4 ,looking in the direction of ,england1 the far coast line was hidden by an immense veil of leaden-coloured cloud1 and1 following this cloud wall upward to detect where it terminated1 the travellers saw above it a greenish layer like that of the surface of the sea1 on which was detected a little black point suggesting a walnut shell4 ,fixing their eyes on this black spot1 they presently discerned it to be a ship sailing upside down upon an aerial ocean4 ,soon after1 a steamer blowing smoke1 and then other vessels1 added themselves to the illusory spectacle4 ,another wonder detected1 equally striking though less uncommon1 was of an acoustical nature1 the locality this time being over ,paris4 ,the height of the balloon at this moment was not great1 and1 moreover1 was diminishing as it settled down4 ,suddenly there broke in upon the voyagers a sound as of a confused kind of murmur4 ,it was not unlike the distant breaking of waves against a sandy coast1 and scarcely less monotonous4 ,it was the noise of ,paris that reached them1 as soon as they sank to within #b1fjj feet of the ground1 but it disappeared at once when they threw out just sufficient ballast to rise above that altitude4 ,it might appear to many that so strange and sudden a shutting out of a vast sound occurring abruptly in the free upper air must have been more imaginary than real1 yet the phenomenon is almost precisely similar to one coming within the experience the writer1 and vouched for by his son and daughter1 as also by ,mr4 ,percival ,spencer1 all of whom were joint observers at the time1 the main point of difference in the two cases being the fact that the region of silence was recorded by the ,french observers as occurring at a somewhat lower level4 ,in both cases there is little doubt that the phenomenon can be referred to a stratum of disturbed or non-homogeneous air1 which may have been very far spread1 and which is capable of acting as a most opaque sound barrier4 ,attention has often been called in these pages to the fact that the action of the sun on an inflated balloon1 even when the solar rays may be partially obscured and only operative for a few passing moments1 is to give sudden and great buoyancy to the balloon4 ,an admirable opportunity for fairly estimating the dynamic effect of the sun's rays on a silk globe1 whose fabric was half translucent1 was offered to the ,french aeronauts when their balloon was spread on the grass under repair1 and for this purpose inflated with the circumambient air by means of a simple rotatory fan4 ,the sun coming out1 the interior of the globe quickly became suffocating1 and it was found that1 while the external temperature recorded #gg degrees1 that of the interior was in excess of #ia degrees4 ,,chapter ,,xvii4 ,,adventure ,,and ,,enterprise4 ,a balloon which has become famous in history was frequently used in the researches of the ,french aeronauts mentioned in our last chapter4 ,this was known as ,the ,giant1 the creation of ,m4 ,nadar1 a progressive and practical aeronaut1 who had always entertained ambitious ideas about aerial travel4 ,m4 ,nadar had been editor of ,l',aeronaut1 a ,french journal devoted to the advancement of aerostation generally4 ,he had also strongly expressed his own views respecting the possibility of constructing air ships that should be subject to control and guidance when winds were blowing4 ,his great contention was that the dirigible air ship would1 like a bird1 have to be made heavier than the medium in which it was to fly4 ,as he put it1 a balloon could never properly become a vessel4 ,it would only be a buoy4 ,in spite of any number of accessories1 paddles1 wings1 fans1 sails1 it could not possibly prevent the wind from bodily carrying away the whole concern4 ,after this strong expression of opinion1 it may appear somewhat strange that such a bold theoriser should at once have set himself to construct the largest gas balloon on record4 ,such1 however1 was the case and the reason urged was not otherwise than plausible4 ,for1 seeing that a vast sum of money would be needed to put his theories into practice1 ,m4 ,nadar conceived the idea of first constructing a balloon so unique and unrivalled that it should compel public attention in a way that no other balloon had done before1 and so by popular exhibitions bring to his hand such sums as he required4 ,a proper idea of the scale of this huge machine can be easily gathered4 ,the largest balloons at present exhibited in this country are seldom much in excess of #ej1jjj cubic feet capacity4 ,compared with these the ,great ,nassau ,balloon1 built by ,charles ,green1 which has been already sufficiently described1 was a true leviathan2 while ,coxwell's ,mammoth was larger yet1 possessing a content1 when fully inflated1 of no less than #ic1jjj cubic feet1 and measuring over #ee feet in diameter4 ,this1 however1 as will be seen1 was but a mere pigmy when compared with ,the ,giant1 which1 measuring some #gd feet in diameter1 possessed the prodigious capacity of #bae1jjj cubic feet4 ,but the huge craft possessed another novelty besides that of exceptional size4 ,it was provided with a subsidiary balloon1 called the ,compensator1 and properly the idea of ,m4 ,l4 ,godard1 the function of which was to receive any expulsion of gas in ascending1 and thus to prevent loss during any voyage4 ,the specification of this really remarkable structure may be taken from ,m4 ,nadar's own description4 ,the globe in itself was for greater strength virtually double1 consisting of two identical balloons1 one within the other1 each made of white silk of the finest quality1 and costing about #es4 #d;d4 per yard4 ,no less than #bb1jjj yards of this silk were required1 and the sewing up of the gores was entirely done by hand4 ,the small compensating balloon was constructed to have a capacity of about #c1ejj cubic feet1 and the whole machine1 when fully inflated1 was calculated to lift #d #a_/b tons4 ,with this enormous margin of buoyancy1 ,m4 ,nadar determined on making the car of proportionate and unparalleled dimensions1 and of most elaborate design4 ,it contained two floors1 of which the upper one was open1 the height of all being nearly #g feet1 with a width of about #ac feet4 ,then what was thought to be due provision was made for possible emergencies4 ,it might descend far from help or habitations1 therefore means were provided for attaching wheels and axles4 ,again1 the chance of rough impact had to be considered1 and so canes1 to act as springs1 were fitted around and below4 ,once again1 there was the contingency of immersion to be reckoned with2 therefore there were provided buoys and water-tight compartments4 ,further than this1 unusual luxuries were added1 for there were cabins1 one for the captain at one end1 and another with three berths for passengers at the other4 ,nor was this all1 for there was1 in addition1 a larder1 a lavatory1 a photographic room1 and a printing office4 ,it remains now only to tell the tale of how this leviathan of the air acquitted itself4 ,the first ascent was made on the #dth of ,october1 #ahec1 from the ,champ de ,mars1 and no fewer than fifteen living souls were launched together into the sky4 ,of these ,nadar was captain1 with the brothers ,godard lieutenants4 ,there was the ,prince de ,sayn-,wittgenstein2 there was the ,count de ,st4 ,martin2 above all1 there was a lady1 the ,princess de la ,tour d',auvergne4 ,the balloon came to earth at #i o'clock at night near ,meaux1 and1 considering all the provision which had been made to guard against rough landing1 it can hardly be said that the descent was a happy one4 ,it appears that the car dragged on its side for nearly a mile1 and the passengers1 far from finding security in the seclusion of the inner chambers1 were glad to clamber out above and cling1 as best they might1 to the ropes4 ,many of the party were bruised more or less severely1 though no one was seriously injured1 and it was reported that such fragile articles as crockery1 cakes1 confectionery1 and wine bottles to the number of no less than thirty-seven1 were afterwards discovered to be intact1 and received due attention4 ,it is further stated that the descent was decided on contrary to the wishes of the captain1 but in deference to the judgment of the experienced ,,mm4 ,godard1 it being apparently their conviction that the balloon was heading out to sea1 whereas1 in reality1 they were going due east1 with no sea at all before them nearer than the ,caspian4 ,this was certainly an unpropitious trial trip for the vessel that had so ambitiously sought dominion over the air1 and the next trial1 which was embarked upon a fortnight later1 ,sunday1 ,october #ahth1 was hardly less unfortunate4 ,again the ascent was from the ,champ de ,mars1 and the send-off lacked nothing in the way of splendour and circumstance4 ,the ,emperor was present1 for two hours an interested observer of the proceedings2 the ,king of ,greece also attended1 and even entered the car1 while another famous spectator was the popular ,meyerbeer4 ,the ,giant first gave a preliminary demonstration of his power by taking up1 for a cable's length1 a living freight of some thirty individuals1 and then1 at #e4aj p4m41 started on its second free voyage1 with nine souls on board1 among them again being a lady1 in the person of ,madame ,nadar4 ,for nearly twenty-four hours no tidings of the voyage were forthcoming1 when a telegram was received stating that the balloon had passed over ,compiegne1 more than seventy miles from ,paris1 at #h4cj on the previous evening1 and that ,nadar had dropped the simple message1 ,all goes well6 ,a later telegram the same evening stated that the balloon had at midnight on ,sunday passed the ,belgian frontier over ,erquelines1 where the ,custom ,house officials had challenged the travellers without receiving an answer4 ,but eight-and-forty hours since the start went by without further news1 and excitement in ,paris grew intense4 ,when the news came at last it was from ,bremen1 to say that ,nadar's balloon had descended at ,eystrup1 ,hanover1 with five of the passengers injured1 three seriously4 ,these three were ,m4 ,nadar1 his wife1 and ,m4 ,st4 ,felix4 ,m4 ,nadar1 in communicating this intelligence1 added1 ,we owe our lives to the courage of ,jules ,godard4 ,the following signed testimony of ,m4 ,louis ,godard is forthcoming1 and as it refers to an occasion which is among the most thrilling in aerial adventure1 it may well be given without abridgment4 ,it is here transcribed almost literatim from ,mr4 ,h4 ,turner's valuable work1 ,astra ,castra4 ,the ,giant1 after passing ,lisle1 proceeded in the direction of ,belgium1 where a fresh current1 coming from the ,channel1 drove it over the marshes of ,holland4 ,it was there that ,m4 ,louis ,godard proposed to descend to await the break of day1 in order to recognise the situation and again to depart4 ,it was one in the morning1 the night was dark1 but the weather calm4 ,unfortunately1 this advice1 supported by long experience1 was not listened to4 ,the ,giant went on its way1 and then ,louis ,godard no longer considered himself responsible for the consequences of the voyage4 ,the balloon coasted the ,zuyder ,zee1 and then entered ,hanover4 ,the sun began to appear1 drying the netting and sides of the balloon1 wet from its passage through the clouds1 and produced a dilatation which elevated the aeronauts to #ae1jjj feet4 ,at eight o'clock the wind1 blowing suddenly from the west1 drove the balloon in a right line towards the ,north ,sea4 ,it was necessary1 at all hazards1 to effect a descent4 ,this was a perilous affair1 as the wind was blowing with extreme violence4 ,the brothers ,godard assisted1 by ,m4 ,gabriel1 opened the valve and got out the anchors2 but1 unfortunately1 the horizontal progress of the balloon augmented from second to second4 ,the first obstacle which the anchors encountered was a tree2 it was instantly uprooted1 and dragged along to a second obstacle1 a house1 whose roof was carried off4 ,at this moment the two cables of the anchors were broken without the voyagers being aware of it4 ,foreseeing the successive shocks that were about to ensue--the moment was critical--the least forgetfulness might cause death4 ,to add to the difficulty1 the balloon's inclined position did not permit of operating the valve1 except on the hoop4 ,at the request of his brother1 ,jules ,godard attempted the difficult work of climbing to this hoop1 and1 in spite of his known agility1 he was obliged several times to renew the effort4 ,alone1 and not being able to detach the cord1 ,m4 ,louis ,godard begged ,m4 ,yon to join his brother on the hoop4 ,the two made themselves masters of the rope1 which they passed to ,louis ,godard4 ,the latter secured it firmly1 in spite of the shocks he received4 ,a violent impact shook the car and ,m4 de ,st4 ,felix became entangled under the car as it was ploughing the ground4 ,it was impossible to render him any assistance2 notwithstanding1 ,jules ,godard1 stimulated by his brother1 leapt out to attempt mooring the balloon to the trees by means of the ropes4 ,m4 ,montgolfier1 entangled in the same manner1 was re-seated in time and saved by ,louis ,godard4 ,at this moment others leapt out and escaped with a few contusions4 ,the car1 dragged along by the balloon1 broke trees more than half a yard in diameter and overthrew everything that opposed it4 ,louis ,godard made ,m4 ,yon leap out of the car to assist ,madame ,nadar2 but a terrible shock threw out ,,mm4 ,nadar1 ,louis ,godard1 and ,montgolfier1 the two first against the ground1 the third into the water4 ,madame ,nadar1 in spite of the efforts of the voyagers1 remained the last1 and found herself squeezed between the ground and the car1 which had fallen upon her4 ,more than twenty minutes elapsed before it was possible to disentangle her1 in spite of the most vigorous efforts on the part of everyone4 ,it was at this moment the balloon burst and1 like a furious monster1 destroyed everything around it4 ,immediately afterwards they ran to the assistance of ,m4 de ,st4 ,felix1 who had been left behind1 and whose face was one ghastly wound1 and covered with blood and mire4 ,he had an arm broken1 his chest grazed and bruised4 ,after this accident1 though a creditable future lay in store for ,the ,giant1 its monstrous and unwieldy car was condemned1 and presently removed to the ,crystal ,palace1 where it was daily visited by large crowds4 ,it is impossible to dismiss this brief sketch of ,french balloonists of this period without paying some due tribute to ,m4 ,depuis ,delcourt1 equally well known in the literary and scientific world1 and regarded in his own country as a father among aeronauts4 ,born in #ahjb1 his recollection went back to the time of ,montgolfier and ,charles1 to the feats of ,garnerin1 and the death of ,madame ,blanchard4 ,he established the ,aerostatic and ,meteorological ,society of ,france1 and was the author of many works1 as well as of a journal dealing with aerial navigation4 ,he closed a life devoted to the pursuit and advancement of aerostation in ,april1 #ahfd4 ,before very long1 events began shaping themselves in the political world which were destined to bring the balloon in ,france into yet greater prominence4 ,but we should mention that already its capabilities in time of war to meet the requirements of military operations had been scientifically and systematically tested1 and of these trials it will be necessary to speak without further delay4 ,reference has already been made in these pages to a valuable article contributed in #ahfb by ,lieutenant ,g4 ,grover1 ,r4,e41 to the ,royal ,engineers' papers4 ,from this report it would appear that the balloon1 as a means of reconnoitring1 was employed with somewhat uncertain success at the battle of ,solferino1 the brothers ,godard being engaged as aeronauts4 ,the balloon used was a ,montgolfier1 or fire balloon1 and1 in spite of its ready inflation1 ,,mm4 ,godard considered it1 from the difficulty of maintaining within it the necessary degree of buoyancy1 far inferior to the gas inflated balloon4 ,on the other hand1 the ,austrian ,engineer ,committee were of a contrary opinion4 ,it would seem that no very definite conclusions had been arrived at with respect to the use and value of the military balloon up to the time of the commencement of the ,american ,war in #ahfb4 ,it was now that the practice of ballooning became a recognised department of military manoeuvres1 and a valuable report appears in the above-mentioned papers from the pen of ,captain ,f4 ,beaumont1 ,r4,e4 ,according to this officer1 the ,americans made trial of two different balloons1 both hydrogen inflated1 one having a capacity of about #ac1jjj cubic feet1 and the other about twice as large4 ,it was this latter that the ,americans used almost exclusively1 it being found to afford more steadiness and safety1 and to be the means1 sometimes desirable1 of taking up more than two persons4 ,the difficulty of sufficient gas supply seems to have been well met4 ,two generators sufficed1 these being nothing more than large tanks of wood1 acid-proof inside1 and of sufficient strength to resist the expansive action of the gas2 they were provided with suitable stopcocks for regulating the admission of the gas1 and with manhole covers for introducing the necessary materials4 ,the gas1 as evolved1 being made to pass successively through two vessels containing lime water1 was delivered cool and purified into the balloon1 and as the sulphuric acid needed for the process was found sufficiently cheap1 and scrap iron also required was readily come by1 it would seem that practical difficulties in the field were reduced to a minimum4 ,according to ,captain ,beaumont1 the difficulties which might have been expected from windy weather were not considerable1 and twenty-five or thirty men sufficed to convey the balloon easily1 when inflated1 over all obstacles4 ,the transport of the bulk of the rest of the apparatus does not read1 on paper1 a very serious matter4 ,the two generators required four horses each1 and the acid and balloon carts as many more4 ,arrived on the scene of action1 the drill itself was a simple matter4 ,a squad of thirty men under an officer sufficed to get the balloon into position1 and to arrange the ballast so that1 with all in1 there was a lifting power of some thirty pounds4 ,then1 at the word of command1 the men together drop the car1 and seize the three guy ropes1 of which one is made to pass through a snatch block firmly secured4 ,the guy ropes are then payed out according to the directions of the aeronaut1 as conveyed through the officer4 ,the balloon accompanied the army's advance where its services could be turned to the greatest advantage4 ,it was employed in making continual ascents1 and furnishing daily reports to ,general ,m',clellan1 and it was supposed that by constant observation the aeronaut could1 at a glance1 assure himself that no change had taken place in the occupation of the country4 ,captain ,beaumont1 speaking1 be it remembered1 of the military operations and manoeuvres then in vogue1 declared that earthworks could be seen even at the distance of eight miles1 though their character could not be distinctly stated4 ,wooded country was unfitted for balloon reconnaissance1 and only in a plain could any considerable body of troops be made known4 ,then follows such a description as one would be expecting to find3-- ,during the battle of ,hanover ,court ,house1 which was the first engagement of importance before ,richmond1 ,i happened to be close to the balloon when the heavy firing began4 ,the wind was rather high2 but ,i was anxious to see1 if possible1 what was going on1 and ,i went up with the father of the aeronaut4 ,the balloon was1 however1 short of gas1 and as the wind was high we were obliged to come down4 ,i then went up by myself1 the diminished weight giving increased steadiness2 but it was not considered safe to go more than #ejj feet1 on account of the unsettled state of the weather4 ,the balloon was very unsteady1 so much so that it was difficult to fix my sight on any particular object4 ,at that distance ,i could see nothing of the fight4 ,following this is another significant sentence3-- ,in the case of a siege1 ,i am inclined to think that a balloon reconnaissance would be of less value than in almost any other case where a reconnaissance can be required2 but1 even here1 if useless1 it is1 at any rate1 also harmless4 ,i once saw the fire of artillery directed from the balloon2 this became necessary1 as it was only in this way that the picket which it was desired to dislodge could be seen4 ,however1 ,i cannot say that ,i thought the fire of artillery was of much effect against the unseen object2 not that this was the fault of the balloon1 for had it not told the artillerists which way the shots were falling their fire would have been more useless still4 ,it will be observed that at this time photography had not been adopted as an adjunct to military ballooning4 ,full details have been given in this chapter of the monster balloon constructed by ,m4 ,nadar2 but in #ahfd ,eugene ,godard built one larger yet of the ,montgolfier type4 ,its capacity was nearly half a million cubic feet1 while the stove which inflated it stood #ah feet high1 and weighed nearly #a1jjj pounds4 ,two free ascents were made without mishap from ,cremorne ,gardens4 ,five years later ,ashburnham ,park was the scene of captive ascents made with another mammoth balloon1 containing no less than #cej1jjj cubic feet of pure hydrogen1 and capable of lifting #aa tons4 ,it was built at a cost of #bh1jjj francs by ,m4 ,giffard1 the well-known engineer and inventor of the injector for feeding steam engines4 ,these aerial leviathans do not appear to have been1 in any true sense successful4 ,,chapter ,,xviii4 ,,the ,,balloon ,,in ,,the ,,siege ,,of ,,paris4 ,within a few months of the completion of the period covered by the records of the last chapter1 ,france was destined to receive a more urgent stimulus than ever before to develop the resources of ballooning1 and1 in hot haste1 to turn to the most serious and practical account all the best resources of aerial locomotion4 ,the stern necessity of war was upon her1 and during four months the sole mode of exit from ,paris--nay1 the only possible means of conveying a simple message beyond the boundary of her fortifications--was by balloon4 ,hitherto1 from the very inception of the art from the earliest ,montgolfier with its blazing furnace1 the balloon had gone up from the gay capital under every variety of circumstance--for pleasure1 for exhibition1 for scientific research4 ,it was now put in requisition to mitigate the emergency occasioned by the long and close investment of the city by the ,prussian forces4 ,recognising1 at an early stage1 the possibilities of the balloon1 an enquiry was at once made by the military authorities as to the existing resources of the city1 when it was quickly discovered that1 with certain exceptions to be presently mentioned1 such balloons as were in existence within the walls were either unserviceable or inadequate for the work that was demanded of them4 ,thereupon1 with admirable promptness and enterprise1 it was forthwith determined to organise the building and equipment of a regular fleet of balloons of sufficient size and strength4 ,it chanced that there were in ,paris at the time two professional aeronauts of proved experience and skill1 both of whom had become well known in ,london only the season before in connection with ,m4 ,giffard's huge captive balloon at ,ashburnham ,park4 ,these were ,,mm4 ,godard and ,yon1 and to them was entrusted the establishment of two separate factories in spacious buildings1 which were at once available and admirably adapted for the purpose4 ,these were at the ,orleans and the ,northern ,railway stations respectively1 where spacious roofs and abundant elbow room1 the chief requisites1 were to be found4 ,the first-mentioned station was presided over ,godard1 the latter by ,m4 ,yon1 assisted by ,m4 ,dartois4 ,it was not doubted that the resources of the city would be able to supply the large demand that would be made for suitable material2 but silk as a fabric was at once barred on the score of expense alone4 ,a single journey was all that needed to be calculated on for each craft1 and thus calico would serve the purpose1 and would admit of speedy making up4 ,slight differences in manufacture were adopted at the two factories4 ,at the ,northern station plain white calico was used1 sewn with a sewing machine1 whereas at the ,orleans station the material was coloured and entrusted only to hand stitching4 ,the allimportant detail of varnish was supplied by a mixture of linseed oil and the active principle of ordinary driers1 and this1 laid on with a rubber1 rendered the material gas-tight and quickly dry enough for use4 ,hundreds of hands1 men and women1 were employed at the two factories1 at which some sixty balloons were produced before the end of the siege4 ,much of the more important work was entrusted to sailors1 who showed special aptness1 not only in fitting out and rigging the balloons1 but also in their management when entrusted to the winds4 ,it must have been an impressive sight for friend or foe to witness the departure of each aerial vessel on its venturesome mission4 ,the bold plunge into space above the roofs of the imprisoned city2 the rapid climb into the sky and1 later1 the pearl drop high in air floating away to its uncertain and hazardous haven1 running the gauntlet of the enemy's fire by day or braving what at first appeared to be equal danger1 attending the darkness of night4 ,it will be seen1 however1 that1 of the two evils1 that of the darkness was considered the less1 even though1 with strange and unreasonable excess of caution1 the aeronauts would not suffer the use of the perfectly safe and almost indispensable ,davy lamp4 ,before any free ascents were ventured on1 two old balloons were put to some practical trial as stationary observatories4 ,one of these was moored at ,montmartre1 the other at ,mont-souris4 ,from these centres daily1 when the weather permitted1 captive ascents were made--four by day and two by night--to watch and locate the movements of the enemy4 ,the system1 as far as it went1 was well planned4 ,it was safe1 and1 to favour expedition1 messages were written in the car of the balloon and slid down the cable to the attendants below4 ,the net result1 however1 from a strategic point of view1 does not appear to have been of great value4 ,ere yet the balloons were ready1 certain bold and eventful escapes were ventured on4 ,m4 ,duruof1 already introduced in these pages1 trusting himself to the old craft1 ,le ,neptune1 in unskyworthy condition1 made a fast plunge into space1 and1 catching the upper winds1 was borne away for as long a period as could be maintained at the cost of a prodigal expenditure of ballast4 ,the balloon is said to have described a visible parabola1 like the trajectory of a projectile1 and fell at ,evreux in safety and beyond the range of the enemy's fire1 though not far from their lines4 ,this was on the #bcrd of ,september4 ,two days afterwards the first practical trial was made with homing pigeons1 with the idea of using them in connection with balloons for the establishment of an officially sanctioned post4 ,,mm4 ,maugin and ,grandchamp conducted this voyage in the ,ville de ,florence1 and descended near ,vernouillet1 not far beyond ,le ,foret de ,st4 ,germain1 and less than twenty miles from ,paris4 ,the serviceability of the pigeon1 however1 was clearly established1 and a note contributed by ,mr4 ,glaisher1 relating to the breeding and choice of these birds1 may be considered of interest4 ,mr4 ,r4 ,w4 ,aldridge1 of ,charlton1 as quoted by ,mr4 ,glaisher1 stated that his experience went to show that these birds can be produced with different powers of orientation to meet the requirements of particular cases4 ,the bird required to make journeys under fifty miles would materially differ in its pedigree from one capable of flying #ajj or #fjj miles4 ,attention1 in particular1 must be given to the colour of the eye2 if wanted for broad daylight the bird known as the ',pearl ,eye1' from its colour1 should be selected2 but if for foggy weather or for twilight flying the black- or blue-eyed bird should receive the preference4 ,only a small minority1 amounting to about sixty out of #cfj birds taken up1 returned to ,paris1 but these are calculated to have conveyed among them some #ajj1jjj messages4 ,to reduce these pigeon messages to the smallest possible compass a method of reduction by photography was employed with much success4 ,a long letter might1 in this way1 be faithfully recorded on a surface of thinnest photographic paper1 not exceeding the dimensions of a postage stamp1 and1 when received1 no more was necessary than to subject it to magnification1 and then to transcribe it and send a fair copy to the addressee4 ,the third voyage from ,paris1 on ,september #bith was undertaken by ,louis ,godard in two small balloons1 united together1 carrying both despatches and pigeons1 and a safe landing was effected at ,mantes ,this successful feat was rival led the next day by ,m4 ,tissandier1 who ascended alone in a balloon of only some #bf1jjj cubic feet capacity and reached earth at ,dreux1 in ,normandy4 ,these voyages exhausted the store of ready-made balloons1 but by a week later the first of those being specially manufactured was ready1 and conveyed in safety from the city no less a personage than ,m4 ,gambetta4 ,the courageous resolve of the great man caused much sensation in ,paris1 the more so because1 owing to contrary winds1 the departure had to be postponed from day to day4 ,and when1 at length1 on ,october #gth1 ,gambetta and his secretary1 with the aeronaut ,trichet1 actually got away1 in company with another balloon1 they were vigorously fired at with shot and shell before they had cleared ,st4 ,denis4 ,farther out over the ,german posts they were again under fire1 and escaped by discharging ballast1 not1 however1 before ,gambetta had been grazed by a bullet4 ,yet once more they were assailed by ,german volleys before1 about #c p4m41 they found a haven near ,montdidier4 ,the usual dimensions of the new balloons gave a capacity of #gj1jjj cubic feet1 and each of these1 when inflated with coal gas1 was calculated to convey a freight of passengers1 ballast1 and despatches amounting to some #b1jjj pounds4 ,their despatch became frequent1 sometimes two in the same twenty-four hours4 ,in less than a single week in ,october as many as four balloons had fallen in ,belgium1 and as many more elsewhere4 ,up till now some sixteen ventures had ended well1 but presently there came trouble4 ,on ,october #bbnd ,,mm4 ,iglesia and ,jouvencel fell at ,meaux1 occupied by the ,prussians2 their despatches1 however1 were saved in a dung cart4 ,the twenty-third voyage ended more unhappily4 ,on this occasion a sailor acted as aeronaut1 accompanied by an engineer1 ,etienne ,antonin1 and carrying nearly #a1jjj pounds of letters4 ,it chanced that they descended near ,orleans on the very day when that town was re-occupied by the enemy1 and both voyagers were made prisoners4 ,the engineer1 however1 subsequently escaped4 ,three days later another sailor1 also accompanied by an engineer1 fell at the town of ,ferrieres1 then occupied by the ,prussians1 when both were made prisoners4 ,in this case1 also1 the engineer succeeded in making his escape2 while the despatches were rescued by a forester and forwarded in safety4 ,at about this date ,w4 de ,fonvielle1 acting as aeronaut1 and taking passengers1 made a successful escape1 of which he has given a graphic account4 ,he had been baulked by more than one serious contretemps4 ,it had been determined that the departure should be by night1 and ,november #aith being fixed upon1 the balloon was in process of inflation under a gentle wind that threatened a travel towards ,prussian soil1 when1 as the moment of departure approached1 a large hole was accidentally made in the fabric by the end of the metal pipe1 and it was then too late to effect repairs4 ,the next and following days the weather was foul1 and the departure was not effected till the #beth1 when he sailed away over the familiar but desolated country4 ,he and his companions were fired at1 but only when they were well beyond range1 and in less than two hours the party reached ,louvain1 beyond ,brussels1 some #ahj ,english miles in a direct line from their starting point4 ,this was the day after the ,ville d',orleans balloon had made the record voyage and distance of all the siege1 falling in ,norway1 #fjj miles north of ,christiania1 after a flight of fifteen hours4 ,at the end of ,november1 when over thirty escape voyages had been made1 two fatal disasters occurred4 ,a sailor of the name of ,prince ascended alone on a moonless night1 and at dawn1 away on the north coast of ,scotland1 some fishermen sighted a balloon in the sky dropping to the westward in the ocean4 ,the only subsequent trace of this balloon was a bag of despatches picked up in the ,channel4 ,curiously enough1 two days later almost the same story was repeated4 ,two aeronauts1 this time in charge of despatches and pigeons1 were carried out to sea and never traced4 ,undeterred by these disasters1 a notable escape was now attempted4 ,an important total eclipse of the sun was to occur in a track crossing southern ,spain and ,algeria on ,december #bbnd4 ,an enthusiastic astronomer1 ,janssen1 was commissioned by the ,academy of ,sciences to attend and make observations of this eclipse4 ,but ,m4 ,janssen was in ,paris1 as were also his instruments1 and the eclipse track lay nearly a thousand miles away4 ,the one and only possible mode of fulfilling his commission was to try the off-chance afforded by balloon1 and this chance he resorted to only twenty days before the eclipse was due4 ,taking with him the essential parts of a reflecting telescope1 and an active young sailor as assistant1 he left ,paris at #f a4m4 and rose at once to #c1fjj feet1 dipping again somewhat at sunrise 7owing1 as he supposed1 to loss of heat through radiation71 but subsequently ascending again rapidly under the increased altitude of the sun till his balloon attained its highest level of #g1bjj feet4 ,from this elevation1 shortly after #aa a4m41 he sighted the sea1 when he commenced a descent which brought him to earth at the mouth of the ,loire4 ,it had been fast travelling--some #cjj miles in little more than three hours--and the ground wind was strong4 ,nevertheless1 neither passengers nor instruments were injured1 and ,m4 ,janssen was fully established by the day of eclipse on his observing ground at ,oran1 on the ,algerian coast4 ,it is distressing to add that the phenomenon was hidden by cloud4 ,in the month that followed this splendid venture no fewer than fifteen balloons escaped from ,paris1 of which four fell into the hands of the enemy1 although for greater security all ascents were now being made by night4 ,on ,january #acth1 #ahga1 a new device for the return post was tried1 and1 in addition to pigeons1 sheep dogs were taken up1 with the idea of their being returned to the city with messages concealed within their collars4 ,there is apparently no record of any message having been returned to the town by this ingenious method4 ,on ,january #bdth a balloon1 piloted by a sailor1 and containing a large freight of letters1 fell within the ,prussian lines1 but the patriotism of the country was strong enough to secure the despatches being saved and entrusted to the safe conveyance of the ,post ,office4 ,then followed the total loss of a balloon at sea2 but this was destined to be the last1 save one1 that was to attempt the dangerous mission4 ,the next day1 ,january #bhth1 the last official balloon left the town1 manned by a single sailor1 carrying but a small weight of despatches1 but ordering the ships to proceed to ,dieppe for the revictualling of ,paris4 ,five additional balloons at that time in readiness were never required for the risky service for which they were designed4 ,there can be little doubt that had the siege continued a more elaborate use of balloons would have been developed4 ,schemes were being mooted to attempt the vastly more difficult task of conveying balloons into ,paris from outside4 ,when hostilities terminated there were actually six balloons in readiness for this venture at ,lisle1 and waiting only for a northerly wind4 ,m4 de ,fonvielle1 possessed of both courage and experience1 was prepared to put in practice a method of guiding by a small propelling force a balloon that was being carried by sufficiently favouring winds within a few degrees of its desired goal--and in the case of ,paris the goal was an area of some twenty miles in diameter4 ,within the invested area several attempts were actually made to control balloons by methods of steering4 ,the names of ,vert and ,dupuy de ,lome must here be specially mentioned4 ,the former had elaborated an invention which received much assistance1 and was subsequently exhibited at the ,crystal ,palace4 ,the latter received a grant of ,l#a1fjj to perfect a complex machine1 having within its gas envelope an air chamber1 suggested by the swimming bladder of a fish1 having also a sail helm and a propelling screw1 to be operated by manual labour4 ,the relation of this invention to others of similar purpose will be further discussed later on4 ,but an actual trial of a dirigible craft1 the design of ,admiral ,labrousse1 was made from the ,orleans railway station on ,january #ith4 ,this machine consisted of a balloon of about the standard capacity of the siege balloons1 namely some #gj1jjj cubic feet1 fitted with two screws of about #ab feet diameter1 but capable of being readily worked at moderate speed4 ,it was not a success4 ,m4 ,richard1 with three sailors1 made a tentative ascent1 and used their best endeavours to control their vessel1 but practically without avail1 and the machine presently coming to earth clumsily1 a portion of the gear caught in the ground and the travellers were thrown over and roughly dragged for a long distance4 ,fairly looked at1 the aerial post of the siege of ,paris must be regarded as an ambitious and1 on the whole1 successful enterprise4 ,some two million and a half of letters1 amounting in weight to some ten tons1 were conveyed through the four months1 in addition to which at least an equal weight of other freight was taken up1 exclusive of actual passengers1 of whom no fewer than two hundred were transported from the beleaguered city4 ,of these only one returned1 seven or eight were drowned1 twice this number were taken prisoners1 and as many again more or less injured in descents4 ,from a purely financial point of view the undertaking was no failure1 as the cost1 great as it necessarily became1 was1 it is said1 fairly covered by the postage1 which it was possible and by no means unreasonable to levy4 ,the recognised tariff seems to have been #bj centimes for #d grammes1 or at the rate of not greatly more than a shilling per ,english ounce4 ,surely hardly on a par with fame in prices in a time of siege4 ,it has already been stated that the defenders of ,paris did not derive substantial assistance from the services of such a reconnoitring balloon as is generally used in warfare at every available opportunity4 ,it is possible that the peculiar circumstances of the investment of the town rendered such reconnaissance of comparatively small value4 ,but1 at any rate1 it seems clear that due opportunity was not given to this strategic method4 ,m4 ,giffard1 who at the commencement of the siege was in ,paris1 and whose experience with a captive balloon was second to none1 made early overtures to the ,government1 offering to build for ,l#dj1jjj a suitable balloon1 capable of raising forty persons to a height of #c1jjj feet4 ,forty aerial scouts1 it may be said1 are hardly needed for purposes of outlook at one time2 but it appears that this was not the consideration which stood in the way of ,m4 ,giffard's offer being accepted4 ,according to ,m4 de ,fonvielle1 the ,government refused the experienced aeronaut's proposal on the ground that he required a place in the ,champs ,elysees1 which it would be necessary to clear of a few shrubs6 ,,chapter ,,xix4 ,,the ,,tragedy ,,of ,,the ,,zenith--,,the ,,navigable ,,balloon ,the mechanical air ship had1 by this time1 as may be inferred1 begun seriously to occupy the attention of both theoretical and practical aeronauts4 ,one of the earliest machines deserving of special mention was designed by ,m4 ,giffard1 and consisted of an elongated balloon1 #ajd feet in length and #ci feet in greatest diameter1 furnished with a triangular rudder1 and a steam engine operating a screw4 ,the fire of the engine1 which burned coke1 was skilfully protected1 and the fuel and water required were taken into calculation as so much ballast to be gradually expended4 ,in this vessel1 inflated only with coal gas1 and somewhat unmanageable and difficult to balance1 the enthusiastic inventor ascended alone from the ,hippodrome and executed sundry desired movements1 not unsuccessfully4 ,but the trial was not of long duration1 and the descent proved both rapid and perilous4 ,had the trial been made in such a perfect calm as that which prevailed when certain subsequent inventions were tested1 it was considered that ,m4 ,giffard's vessel would have been as navigable as a boat in the water4 ,this unrivalled mechanician1 after having made great advances in the direction of high speed engines of sufficient lightness1 proceeded to design a vastly improved dirigible balloon1 when his endeavours were frustrated by blindness4 ,as has been already stated1 ,m4 ,dupuy de ,lome1 at the end of the siege of ,paris1 was engaged in building a navigable balloon1 which1 owing to the unsettled state of affairs in ,france1 did not receive its trial till two years later4 ,this balloon1 which was inflated with pure hydrogen1 was of greater capacity than that of ,m4 ,giffard1 being cigar shaped and measuring #aah feet by #dh feet4 ,it was also provided with an ingenious arrangement consisting of an internal air bag1 capable of being either inflated or discharged1 for the purpose of keeping the principal envelope always distended1 and thus offering the least possible resistance to the wind4 ,the propelling power was the manual labour of eight men working the screw1 and the steerage was provided for by a triangular rudder4 ,the trial1 which was carried out without mishap1 took place in ,february1 #ahgb1 in the ,fort of ,vincennes1 under the personal direction of the inventor1 when it was found that the vessel readily obeyed the helm1 and was capable of a speed exceeding six miles an hour4 ,it was not till nine years after this that the next important trial with air ships was made4 ,the brothers ,tissandier will then be found taking the lead1 and an appalling incident in the aeronautical career of one of these has now to be recorded4 ,in the spring of #ahge1 and with the co-operation of ,french scientific societies1 it was determined to make two experimental voyages in a balloon called the ,zenith1 one of these to be of long duration1 the other of great height4 ,the first of these had been successfully accomplished in a flight of twenty-four hours' duration from ,paris to ,bordeaux4 ,it was now ,april the #aeth1 and the lofty flight was embarked upon by ,m4 ,gaston ,tissandier1 accompanied by ,,mm4 ,croce-,spinelli and ,sivel4 ,under competent advice1 provision for respiration on emergency was provided in three small balloons1 filled with a mixture of air and oxygen1 and fitted with indiarubber hose pipes1 which would allow the mixture1 when inhaled1 to pass first through a wash bottle containing aromatic fluid4 ,the experiments determined on included an analysis of the proportion of carbonic acid gas at different heights by means of special apparatus2 spectroscopic observations1 and the readings registered by certain barometers and thermometers4 ,a novel and valuable experiment1 also arranged1 was that of testing the internal temperature of the balloon as compared with that of the external air4 ,ascending at #aa4cj a4m4 under a warm sun1 the balloon had by #a p4m4 reached an altitude of #af1jjj feet1 when the external air was at freezing point1 the gas high in the balloon being #gb degrees1 and at the centre #ff degrees4 ,ere this height had been fully reached1 however1 the voyagers had begun to breathe oxygen4 ,at #aa4eg1 an hour previously1 ,spinelli had written in his notebook1 ,slight pain in the ears--somewhat oppressed--it is the gas4 ,at #bc1jjj feet ,sivel wrote in his notebook1 ,i am inhaling oxygen--the effect is excellent1 after which he proceeded to urge the balloon higher by a discharge of ballast4 ,the rest of the terrible narrative has now to be taken from the notes of ,m4 ,tissandier1 and as these constitute one of the most thrilling narratives in aeronautical records we transcribe them nearly in full1 as given by ,mr4 ,glaisher3-- ,at #bc1jjj feet we were standing up in the car4 ,sivel1 who had given up for a moment1 is re-invigorated4 ,croce-,spinelli is motionless in front of me4444 ,i felt stupefied and frozen4 ,i wished to put on my fur gloves1 but1 without being conscious of it1 the action of taking them from my pocket necessitated an effort that ,i could no longer make4444 ,i copy1 verbatim1 the following lines which were written by me1 although ,i have no very distinct remembrance of doing so4 ,they are traced in a hardly legible manner by a hand trembling with cold3 ',my hands are frozen4 ,i am all right4 ,we are all all right4 ,fog in the horizon1 with little rounded cirrus4 ,we are ascending4 ,croce pants2 he inhales oxygen4 ,sivel closes his eyes4 ,croce also closes his eyes4444 ,sivel throws out ballast'--these last words are hardly readable4 ,sivel seized his knife and cut successively three cords1 and the three bags emptied themselves and we ascended rapidly4 ,the last remembrance of this ascent which remains clear to me relates to a moment earlier4 ,croce-,spinelli was seated1 holding in one hand a wash bottle of oxygen gas4 ,his head was slightly inclined and he seemed oppressed4 ,i had still strength to tap the aneroid barometer to facilitate the movement of the needle4 ,sivel had just raised his hand towards the sky4 ,as for myself1 ,i remained perfectly still1 without suspecting that ,i had1 perhaps1 already lost the power of moving4 ,about the height of #be1jjj feet the condition of stupefaction which ensues is extraordinary4 ,the mind and body weaken by degrees1 and imperceptibly1 without consciousness of it4 ,no suffering is then experienced2 on the contrary1 an inner joy is felt like an irradiation from the surrounding flood of light4 ,one becomes indifferent4 ,one thinks no more of the perilous position or of danger4 ,one ascends1 and is happy to ascend4 ,the vertigo of the upper regions is not an idle word2 but1 so far as ,i can judge from my personal impression1 vertigo appears at the last moment2 it immediately precedes annihilation1 sudden1 unexpected1 and irresistible4 ,when ,sivel cut away the bags of ballast at the height of about #bd1jjj feet1 ,i seemed to remember that he was sitting at the bottom of the car1 and nearly in the same position as ,croce-,spinelli4 ,for my part1 ,i was in the angle of the car1 thanks to which support ,i was able to hold up2 but ,i soon felt too weak even to turn my head to look at my companions4 ,soon ,i wished to take hold of the tube of oxygen1 but it was impossible to raise my arm4 ,my mind1 nevertheless1 was quite clear4 ,i wished to explain1 ',we are #h1jjj metres high'2 but my tongue was1 as it were1 paralysed4 ,all at once ,i closed my eyes1 and1 sinking down inert1 became insensible4 ,this was about #a4cj p4m4 ,at #b4h p4m4 ,i awoke for a moment1 and found the balloon rapidly descending4 ,i was able to cut away a bag of ballast to check the speed and write in my notebook the following lines1 which ,i copy3 ',we are descending4 ,temperature1 #c degrees4 ,i throw out ballast4 ,barometer1 #ab4d inches4 ,we are descending4 ,sivel and ,croce still in a fainting state at the bottom of the car4 ,descending very rapidly4' ,hardly had ,i written these lines when a kind of trembling seized me1 and ,i fell back weakened again4 ,there was a violent wind from below1 upwards1 denoting a very rapid descent4 ,after some minutes ,i felt myself shaken by the arm1 and ,i recognised ,croce1 who had revived4 ',throw out ballast1' he said to me1 'we are descending '2 but ,i could hardly open my eyes1 and did not see whether ,sivel was awake4 ,i called to mind that ,croce unfastened the aspirator1 which he then threw overboard1 and then he threw out ballast1 rugs1 etc4 ,all this is an extremely confused remembrance1 quickly extinguished1 for again ,i fell back inert more completely than before1 and it seemed to me that ,i was dying4 ,what happened8 ,it is certain that the balloon1 relieved of a great weight of ballast1 at once ascended to the higher regions4 ,at #c4cj p4m4 ,i opened my eyes again4 ,i felt dreadfully giddy and oppressed1 but gradually came to myself4 ,the balloon was descending with frightful speed and making great oscillations4 ,i crept along on my knees1 and ,i pulled ,sivel and ,croce by the arm4 ',sivel6 ,croce6' ,i exclaimed1 ',wake up6' ,my two companions were huddled up motionless in the car1 covered by their cloaks4 ,i collected all my strength1 and endeavoured to raise them up4 ,sivel's face was black1 his eyes dull1 and his mouth was open and full of blood4 ,croce's eyes were half closed and his mouth was bloody4 ,to relate what happened afterwards is quite impossible4 ,i felt a frightful wind2 we were still #i1gjj feet high4 ,there remained in the car two bags of ballast1 which ,i threw out4 ,i was drawing near the earth4 ,i looked for my knife to cut the small rope which held the anchor1 but could not find it4 ,i was like a madman1 and continued to call ',sivel6 ,sivel6' ,by good fortune ,i was able to put my hand upon my knife and detach the anchor at the right moment4 ,the shock on coming to the ground was dreadful4 ,the balloon seemed as if it were being flattened4 ,i thought it was going to remain where it had fallen1 but the wind was high1 and it was dragged across fields1 the anchor not catching4 ,the bodies of my unfortunate friends were shaken about in the car1 and ,i thought every moment they would be jerked out4 ,at length1 however1 ,i seized the valve line1 and the gas soon escaped from the balloon1 which lodged against a tree4 ,it was then four o'clock4 ,on stepping out1 ,i was seized with a feverish attack1 and sank down and thought for a moment that ,i was going to join my friends in the next world2 but ,i came to4 ,i found the bodies of my friends cold and stiff4 ,i had them put under shelter in an adjacent barn4 ,the descent of the ',zenith' took place in the plains #aee miles from ,paris as the crow flies4 ,the greatest height attained in this ascent is estimated at #bh1jjj feet4 ,it was in #ahhd that the brothers ,tissandier commenced experiments with a screw-propelled air ship resembling in shape those constructed by ,giffard and ,dupuy de ,lome1 but smaller1 measuring only #ia feet by #cj feet1 and operated by an electric motor placed in circuit with a powerful battery of bichromate cells4 ,two trials were made with this vessel in ,october1 #ahhc1 and again in the following ,september1 when it proved itself capable of holding its course in calm air and of being readily controlled by the rudder4 ,but1 ere this1 a number of somewhat similar experiments1 on behalf of the ,french ,government1 had been entered upon by ,captains ,renard and ,krebs at ,chalais-,meudon4 ,their balloon may be described as fish-shaped1 #afe feet long1 and #bg4e feet in principal diameter4 ,it was operated by an electric motor1 which was capable of driving a screw of large dimensions at forty-eight revolutions per minute4 ,at its first trial1 in ,august1 #ahhd1 in dead calm1 it attained a velocity of over twelve miles per hour1 travelling some two and a half miles in a forward direction1 when1 by application of the rudder and judicious management1 it was manoeuvred homewards1 and practically brought to earth at the point of departure4 ,a more important trial was made on the #abth of the following month1 and was witnessed by ,m4 ,tissandier1 according to whom the aerostat conveying the inventors ascended gently and steadily1 drifting with an appreciable breeze until the screw was set in motion and the helm put down1 when the vessel was brought round to the wind and held its own until the motor1 by an accident1 ceased working4 ,a little later the same air ship met with more signal success4 ,on one occasion1 starting from ,chalais-,meudon1 it took a direct course to the ,n4,e41 crossing the railway and the ,seine1 where the aeronauts1 stopping the screw1 ascertained the velocity of the wind to be approximately five miles an hour4 ,the screw being again put in motion1 the balloon was steered to the right1 and1 following a path parallel to its first1 returned to its point of departure4 ,starting again the same afternoon1 it was caused to perform a variety of aerial evolutions1 and after thirty-five minutes returned once more to its starting place4 ,a tabular comparison of the four navigable balloons which we have now described has been given as follows3-- ,date4 ,name4 ,motor4 ,vel4 p4 ,sec4 #aheb ,m4 ,henri ,giffard ,steam engine #ac4ab ft4 #ahgb ,m4 ,dupuy de ,lome ,muscular force #i4ah ft4 #ahhc ,,mm4 ,tissandier ,electric motor #i4hd ft4 #ahhd ,,mm4 ,renard ,krebs ,electric motor #ah4jd ft4 ,about this period1 that is in #ahhc1 and really prior to the ,meudon experiments1 there were other attempts at aerial locomotion not to be altogether passed over1 which were made also in ,france1 but financed by ,english money4 ,the experiments were performed by ,mr4 ,f4 ,a4 ,gower1 who1 writing to ,professor ,tyndall1 claims to have succeeded in driving a large balloon fairly against the wind by steam power4 ,a melancholy interest will always belong to these trials from the fact that ,mr4 ,gower was subsequently blown out to sea with his balloon1 leaving no trace behind4 ,at this stage it will be well to glance at some of the more important theories which were being mooted as to the possibility of aerial locomotion properly so called4 ,broadly1 there were two rival schools at this time4 ,we will call them the lighter-than-air-ites and the heavier-than-air-ites1 respectively4 ,the former were the advocates of the air vessel of which the balloon is a type4 ,the latter school maintained that1 as birds are heavier than air1 so the air locomotive of the future would be a machine itself heavier than air1 but capable of being navigated by a motor yet to be discovered1 which would develop proportionate power4 ,sir ,h4 ,maxim's words may be aptly quoted here4 ,in all ,nature1 he says1 we do not find a single balloon4 ,all ,nature's flying machines are heavier than the air1 and depend altogether upon the development of dynamic energy4 ,the faculty of soaring1 possessed by many birds1 of which the albatross may be considered a type1 led to numerous speculations as to what would constitute the ideal principle of the air motor4 ,sir ,g4 ,cayley1 as far back as #ahji1 wrote a classical article on this subject1 without1 however1 adding much to its elucidation4 ,others after his time conceived that the bird1 by sheer habit and practice1 could perform1 as it were1 a trick in balancing by making use of the complex air streams varying in speed and direction that were supposed to intermingle above4 ,mr4 ,r4 ,a4 ,proctor discusses the matter with his usual clear-sightedness4 ,he premises that the bird may1 in actual fact1 only poise itself for some ten minutes--an interval which many will consider far too small--without flap of the wings1 and1 while contending that the problem must be simply a mechanical one1 is ready to admit that the sustaining power of the air on bodies of a particular form travelling swiftly through it may be much greater or very different in character from what is supposed4 ,in his opinion1 it is a fact that a flat body travelling swiftly and horizontally will sink towards the ground much more slowly than a similar body moving similarly but with less speed4 ,in proof of this he gives the homely illustration of a flat stone caused to make ducks and drakes4 ,thus he contends that the bird accomplishes its floating feat simply by occasional powerful propulsive efforts1 combined with perfect balance4 ,from which he deduces the corollary that if ever the art of flying1 or rather of making flying machines1 is attained by man1 it will be by combining rapid motion with the power of perfect balancing4 ,it will now appear as a natural and certain consequence that a feature to be introduced by experimentalists into flying machines should be the ,aeroplane1 or1 in other words1 a plane which1 at a desired angle1 should be driven at speed through the air4 ,most notable attempts with this expedient were now shortly made by ,hiram ,maxim1 ,langley1 and others4 ,but1 contemporaneously with these attempts1 certain feats with the rival aerostat--the balloon--were accomplished1 which will be most fittingly told in this place4 ,,chapter ,,xx4 ,a ,,chapter ,,of ,,accidents4 ,it will have been gathered from what has been already stated that the balloonist is commonly in much uncertainty as to his precise course when he is above the clouds1 or when unable from darkness to see the earth beneath him4 ,with a view of overcoming this disadvantage some original experiments were suggested by a distinguished officer1 who during the seventies had begun to interest himself in aeronautics4 ,this was ,captain ,burnaby4 ,his method was to employ two small silk parachutes1 which1 if required1 might carry burning magnesium wires1 and which were to be attached to each other by a length of silk thread4 ,on dropping one parachute1 it would first partake of the motion of the balloon1 but would presently drop below1 when the second parachute would be dismissed1 and then an imaginary line drawn between the two bodies was supposed to betray the balloon's course4 ,it should be mentioned1 however1 that if a careful study is made of the course of many descending parachutes it will be found that their behaviour is too uncertain to be relied upon for such a purpose as the above4 ,they will often float behind the balloon's wake1 but sometimes again will be found in front1 and sometimes striking off in some side direction1 so wayward and complex are the currents which control such small bodies4 ,mr4 ,glaisher has stated that a balloon's course above the clouds may be detected by observing the grapnel1 supposed to be hanging below the car1 as this would be seen to be out of the vertical as the balloon drifted1 and thus serve to indicate the course4 ,however this may be1 the most experienced sky sailors will be found to be in perplexity as to their direction1 as also their speed1 when view of the earth is obscured4 ,but ,captain ,burnaby is associated notably with the adventurous side of ballooning1 the most famous of his aerial exploits being1 perhaps1 that of crossing the ,english ,channel alone from ,dover on ,march #bcrd1 #ahhb4 ,outwardly1 he made presence of sailing to ,paris by sky to dine there that evening2 inwardly1 he had determined to start simply with a wind which bid fair for a cross-,channel trip1 and to take whatever chances it might bring him4 ,thus1 at #aj4cj a4m41 just as the mail packet left the pier1 he cast off with a lifting power which rapidly carried him to a height of #b1jjj feet1 when he found his course to be towards ,folkestone4 ,but by shortly after #aa o'clock he had decided that he was changing his direction1 and when1 as he judged1 some seven miles from ,boulogne1 the wind was carrying him not across1 but down the ,channel4 ,then1 for nearly four hours1 the balloon shifted about with no improvement in the outlook1 after which the wind fell calm1 and the balloon remained motionless at #b1jjj feet above the sea4 ,this state of things continuing for an hour1 the ,captain resolved on the heroic expedient of casting out all his ballast and philosophically abiding the issue4 ,the manoeuvre turned out a happy one1 for the balloon1 shooting up to #aa1jjj feet1 caught a current1 on which it was rapidly carried towards and over the main land2 and1 when twelve miles beyond ,dieppe1 it became easy to descend to a lower level by manipulation of the valve1 and finally to make a successful landing in open country beyond4 ,a few years before1 an attempt to cross the ,channel from the other side ended far more disastrously4 ,jules ,duruof1 already mentioned as having piloted the first runaway balloon from beleaguered ,paris1 had determined on an attempt to cross over to ,england from ,calais2 and1 duly advertising the event1 a large concourse assembled on the day announced1 clamouring loudly for the ascent4 ,but the wind proved unsuitable1 setting out over the ,north ,sea1 and the mayor thought fit to interfere1 and had the car removed so as to prevent proceedings4 ,on this the crowd grew impatient1 and ,duruof1 determining to keep faith with them1 succeeded by an artifice in regaining his car1 which he hastily carried back to the balloon1 and immediately taking his seat1 and accompanied by his wife1 the intrepid pair commenced their bold flight just as the shades of evening were settling down4 ,shortly the balloon disappeared into the gathering darkness1 and then for three days ,calais knew no more of balloon or balloonists4 ,neither could the voyagers see aught for certain of their own course1 and thus through the long night hours their attention was wholly needed1 without chance of sleep1 in closely watching their situation1 lest unawares they should be borne down on the waves4 ,when morning broke they discovered that they were still being carried out over the sea on a furious gale1 being apparently off the ,danish coast1 with the distant mountains of ,norway dimly visible on the starboard bow4 ,it was at this point1 and possibly owing to the chill commonly experienced aloft soon after dawn1 that the balloon suddenly took a downward course and plunged into the sea1 happily1 however1 fairly in the track of vessels4 ,presently a ship came in sight1 but cruelly kept on its course1 leaving the castaways in despair1 with their car fast succumbing to the waves4 ,help1 nevertheless1 was really at hand4 ,the captain of an ,english fishing smack1 the ,grand ,charge1 had sighted the sinking balloon1 and was already bearing down to the rescue4 ,it is said that when1 at length1 a boat came alongside as near as it was possible1 ,madame ,duruof was unable to make the necessary effort to jump on board1 and her husband had to throw her into the arms of the sailors4 ,a fitting sequel to the story comes from ,paris1 where the heroic couple1 after a sojourn in ,england1 were given a splendid reception and a purse of money1 with which ,m4 ,duruof forthwith constructed a new balloon1 named the ,ville de ,calais4 ,on the #dth of ,march1 #ahhb1 the ardent amateur balloonist1 ,mr4 ,simmons1 had a narrow escape in circumstances somewhat similar to the above4 ,he was attempting1 in company with ,colonel ,brine1 to cross the ,channel from ,canterbury1 when a change of wind carried them out towards the ,north ,sea4 ,falling in the water1 they abandoned their balloon1 but were rescued by the mail packet ,foam4 ,the same amateur aeronaut met with an exciting experience not long after1 when in company with ,sir ,claude ,c4 de ,crespigny4 ,the two adventurers left ,maldon1 in ,essex1 at #aa p4m41 on an ,august night1 and1 sailing at a great height out to sea1 lost all sight of land till #f a4m4 the next morning1 when1 at #ag1jjj feet altitude1 they sighted the opposite coast and descended in safety near ,flushing4 ,yet another adventure at sea1 and one which proved fatal and unspeakably regrettable1 occurred about this time1 namely1 on the #ajth of ,december1 #ahha1 when ,captain ,templer1 ,mr4 ,w4 ,powell1 ,m4,p41 and ,mr4 ,agg-,gardner ascended from ,bath4 ,we prefer to give the account as it appears in a leading article in the ,times for ,december #acth of that year4 ,after sailing over ,glastonbury1 ,crewkerne was presently sighted1 then ,beaminster4 ,the roar of the sea gave the next indication of the locality to which the balloon had drifted and the first hint of the possible perils of the voyage4 ,a descent was now effected to within a few hundred feet of earth1 and an endeavour was made to ascertain the exact position they had reached4 ,the course taken by the balloon between ,beaminster and the sea is not stated in ,captain ,templer's letter4 ,the wind1 as far as we can gather1 must have shifted1 or different currents of air must have been found at the different altitudes4 ,what ,captain ,templer says is that they coasted along to ,symonsbury1 passing1 it would seem1 in an easterly direction and keeping still very near to the earth4 ,soon after they had left ,symonsbury1 ,captain ,templer shouted to a man below to tell them how far they were from ,bridport1 and he received for answer that ,bridport was about a mile off4 ,the pace at which the balloon was moving had now increased to thirty-five miles an hour4 ,the sea was dangerously close1 and a few minutes in a southerly current of air would have been enough to carry them over it4 ,they seem1 however1 to have been confident in their own powers of management4 ,they threw out ballast1 and rose to a height of #a1ejj feet1 and thence came down again only just in time1 touching the ground at a distance of about #aej yards from the cliff4 ,the balloon here dragged for a few feet1 and ,captain ,templer1 who had been letting off the gas1 rolled out of the car1 still holding the valve line in his hand4 ,this was the last chance of a safe escape for anybody4 ,the balloon1 with its weight lightened1 went up about eight feet4 ,mr4 ,agg-,gardner dropped out and broke his leg4 ,mr4 ,powell now remained as the sole occupant of the car4 ,captain ,templer1 who had still hold of the rope1 shouted to ,mr4 ,powell to come down the line4 ,this he attempted to do1 but in a few seconds1 and before he could commence his perilous descent1 the line was torn out of ,captain ,templer's hands4 ,all communication with the earth was cut off1 and the balloon rose rapidly1 taking ,mr4 ,powell with it in a south-easterly direction out to sea4 ,it was a few seasons previous to this1 namely1 on the #hth of ,july1 #ahgd1 when ,mr4 ,simmons was concerned in a balloon fatality of a peculiarly distressing nature4 ,a ,belgian1 ,vincent de ,groof1 styling himself the ,flying ,man1 announced his intention of descending in a parachute from a balloon piloted by ,mr4 ,simmons1 who was to start from ,cremorne ,gardens4 ,the balloon duly ascended1 with ,de ,groof in his machine suspended below1 and when over ,st4 ,luke's ,church1 and at a height estimated at #hj feet1 it is thought that the unfortunate man overbalanced himself after detaching his apparatus1 and fell forward1 clinging to the ropes4 ,the machine failed to open1 and ,de ,groof was precipitated into ,robert ,street1 ,chelsea1 expiring almost immediately4 ,the porter of ,chelsea ,infirmary1 who was watching the balloon1 asserted that he fancied the falling man called out twice1 ,drop into the churchyard2 look out6 ,mr4 ,simmons1 shooting upwards in his balloon1 thus suddenly lightened1 to a great height1 became insensible1 and when he recovered consciousness found himself over ,victoria ,park4 ,he made a descent1 without mishap1 on a line of railway in ,essex4 ,on the #aith of ,august1 #ahhg1 occurred an important total eclipse of the sun1 the track of which lay across ,germany1 ,russia1 ,western ,siberia1 and ,japan4 ,at all suitable stations along the shadow track astronomers from all parts of the world established themselves2 but at many eclipses observers had had bad fortune owing to the phenomenon at the critical moment being obscured4 ,and on this account one astronomer determined on measures which should render his chances of a clear view a practical certainty4 ,professor ,mendeleef1 in ,russia1 resolved to engage a balloon1 and by rising above the cloud barrier1 should there be one1 to have the eclipse all to himself4 ,it was an example of fine enthusiasm1 which1 moreover1 was presently put to a severe and unexpected test1 for the balloon1 when inflated1 proved unable to take up both the aeronaut and the astronomer1 whereupon the latter1 though wholly inexperienced1 had no alternative but to ascend alone1 which1 either by accident or choice1 he actually did4 ,shooting up into space1 he soon reached an altitude of #aa1ejj feet1 where he obtained1 even if he did not enjoy1 an unobstructed view of the ,corona4 ,it may be supposed1 however1 that1 owing to the novelty of his situation1 his scientific observations may not have been so complete as they would have been on terra firma4 ,in the same month an attempt to reach a record height was made by ,,mm4 ,jovis and ,mallet at ,paris1 with the net result that an elevation of #bc1jjj feet was reached4 ,it will have been noted that the difficulty through physical exhaustion of inhaling oxygen from either a bag or cylinder is a serious matter not easily overcome1 and it has been suggested that the helmet invented by ,m4 ,fleuss might prove of value4 ,this contrivance1 which has scarcely attracted the attention it has merited1 provides a receptacle for respiration1 containing oxygen and certain purifying media1 by means of which the inventor was able to remain for hours under water without any communication with the outward air4 ,about the period at which we have now arrived two fatal accidents befel ,english aeronauts4 ,we have related how ,maldon1 in ,essex1 was associated with one of the more adventurous exploits in ,mr4 ,simmons's career4 ,it was fated also to be associated with the voyage with which his career closed4 ,on ,august #bgth1 #ahhh1 he ascended from ,olympia in company with ,mr4 ,field1 of ,west ,brighton1 and ,mr4 ,myers1 of the ,natural ,history ,museum1 with the intention1 if practicable1 of crossing to ,flanders2 and the voyage proceeded happily until the neighbourhood of ,maldon was reached1 when1 as the sea coast was in sight1 and it was already past five o'clock1 it appeared prudent to ,mr4 ,simmons to descend and moor the balloon for the night4 ,some labourers some three miles from ,maldon sighted the balloon coming up at speed1 and at the same time descending until its grapnel commenced tearing through a field of barley1 when ballast was thrown out1 causing the balloon to rise again towards and over some tall elms1 which became the cause of the disaster which followed4 ,the grapnel1 catching in the upper boughs of one of these trees1 held fast1 while the balloon1 borne by the force of a strong wind1 was repeatedly blown down to earth with violence1 rebounding each time to a considerable height1 only to be flung down again on the same spot4 ,after three or four impacts the balloon is reported to have burst with a loud noise1 when high in the air1 the silk being blown about over the field1 and the car and its occupants dashed to the ground4 ,help was unavailing till this final catastrophe1 and when1 at length1 the labourers were able to extricate the party1 ,mr4 ,simmons was found with a fractured skull and both companions badly injured4 ,four summers later1 ,june #cjth1 #ahib1 ,captain ,dale1 the aeronaut to the ,crystal ,palace1 was announced to make an ascent from the usual balloon grounds1 weather permitting4 ,through the night and morning a violent storm prevailed1 and it was contemplated that the exhibition would be withdrawn2 but the wind abating in the afternoon1 the inflation was proceeded with1 and the ascent took place shortly before #f p4m41 not1 however1 before a large rent had been discovered and repaired as far as possible by ,mrs4 ,dale4 ,as passengers1 there ascended the ,captain's son ,william1 aged nineteen1 ,mr4 ,j4 ,macintosh1 and ,mr4 ,cecil ,shadbolt4 ,when the balloon had reached an altitude estimated at #fjj feet the onlookers were horrified to see it suddenly collapse1 a large rent having developed near the top part of the silk1 from which the gas rushed out in a dense mass1 allowing the balloon to fall like a rag4 ,the occupants of the car were seen to be throwing out everything madly1 even wrenching the buttons from their clothing4 ,all1 however1 with little avail1 for the balloon fell with a sickening thud1 midway between the ,maze and lower lake4 ,all were found alive2 but ,captain ,dale1 who had alighted on his back1 died in a few minutes2 ,mr4 ,shadbolt succumbed later1 and both remaining passengers sustained terrible injuries4 ,few balloon mishaps1 unattended with fatal results1 have proved more exciting than the following4 ,a large party had ascended from ,belfast1 in a monster balloon1 under the guidance of ,mr4 ,coxwell1 on a day which was very unfit for the purpose by reason of stormy weather4 ,a more serious trouble than the wind1 however1 lay in several of the passengers themselves1 who seem to have been highly excitable ,irishmen1 incapable at the critical moment of quietly obeying orders4 ,the principal hero of the story1 a ,german4 ,mr4 ,runge1 in writing afterwards to the ,ulster ,observer1 entirely exonerates ,mr4 ,coxwell from any blame1 attributing his mischances solely to the reprehensible conduct of his companions4 ,on approaching the ground1 ,mr4 ,coxwell gave clear instructions4 ,the passengers were to sit down in an unconstrained position facing each other1 and be prepared for some heavy shocks4 ,above all things they were to be careful to get out one by one1 and on no account to leave hold of the car4 ,many of the passengers1 however1 refused to sit down1 and1 according to ,mr4 ,runge1 behaved in the wildest manner1 losing completely their self-control4 ,seizing the valve rope themselves1 they tore it away from its attachment1 the stronger pushing back the weaker1 and refusing to lend help when they had got out4 ,in consequence of this the car1 relieved of their weight1 tore away from the grasp of ,mr4 ,coxwell and those who still clung to it1 and rose above the trees1 with ,mr4 ,runge and one other passenger1 ,mr4 ,halferty1 alone within4 ,as the balloon came earthwards again1 they shouted to the countrymen for succour1 but without the slightest avail1 and presently1 the anchor catching1 the car struck the earth with a shock which threw ,mr4 ,halferty out on the ground1 leaving ,mr4 ,runge to rise again into the air1 this time alone4 ,he thus continues the story3-- ,the balloon moved on1 very soon1 in a horizontal direction straight towards the sea1 which we were then rapidly nearing4 ,coming to a farm1 ,i shouted out to the people standing there4 ,some women1 with their quick humane instincts1 were the first to perceive my danger1 and exhorted the men to hurry to my assistance1 they themselves running as fast as they could to tender what little help they might be able to give me4 ,the anchor stuck in a willow tree4 ,i shouted out to the people below to secure the cable and anchor by ropes1 which they did4 ,the evening was now beautifully still1 the breeze had died away1 and the balloon was swinging calmly at her moorings above the farmhouse4 ,one of the men asked me whether ,i had a rope with me1 and how ,i intended to get out4 ,i told them only to take care of the cable1 because the balloon would settle down by herself before long4 ,i was congratulating myself on a speedy escape from my dangerous position4 ,i had not counted on the wind4 ,a breeze in about six or eight minutes sprang up1 tossed the balloon about like a large sail1 then a crash1 and--the anchor was loose again4 ,it tore through the trees1 flinging limbs and branches about like matches4 ,it struck the roof of the farmhouse1 splintering the chimneys and tiles like glass4 ,on ,i went2 ,i came near another farm2 shouted out for help1 and told the men to secure the anchor to the foot of a large tree close by4 ,the anchor was soon made fast1 but this was only a momentary relief4 ,the breeze again filled the half-empty balloon like a sail1 there was a severe strain on the cable1 then a dull sound1 and a severe concussion of the basket--the cable1 strange fatality1 had broken1 and the anchor1 my last and only hope1 was gone4 ,i was now carried on in a straight direction towards the sea1 which was but a short distance ahead4 ,the anchor being lost ,i gave up all hope4 ,i sat down resigned in the car1 and prepared for the end4 ,all at once ,i discovered that a side current was drifting me towards the mountain2 the car struck the ground1 and was dashing along at a fearful rate1 knocking down stone fences and breaking everything it came in contact with in its wild career4 ,by-and-by the knocks became less frequent4 ,we were passing over a cultivated country1 and the car was1 as it were skimming the surface and grazing the top of the hedges4 ,i saw a thick hawthorn hedge at some distance before me1 and the balloon rapidly sweeping towards it4 ,that was my only chance4 ,i rushed to the edge of the car and flung myself down upon the hedge4 ,,chapter ,,xxi4 ,,the ,,coming ,,of ,,the ,,flying ,,machine4 ,in the early nineties the air ship was engaging the attention of many inventors1 and was making important strides in the hands of ,mr4 ,maxim4 ,this unrivalled mechanician1 in stating the case1 premises that a motive power has to be discovered which can develop at least as much power in proportion to its weight as a bird is able to develop4 ,he asserts that a heavy bird1 with relatively small wings--such as a goose--carries about #aej lb4 to the horse power1 while the albatross or the vulture1 possessed of proportionately greater winged surface1 can carry about #bej lbs4 per horse power4 ,professor ,langley1 of ,washington1 working contemporaneously1 but independently of ,mr4 ,maxim1 had tried exhaustive experiments on a rotating arm 7characteristically designated by ,mr4 ,maxim a merry-go-round71 thirty feet long1 applying screw propellers4 ,he used1 for the most part1 small planes1 carrying loads of only two or three pounds1 and1 under these circumstances1 the weight carried was at the rate of #bej lbs4 per horse power4 ,his important statements with regard to these trials are that one-horse power will transport a larger weight at twenty miles an hour than at ten1 and a still larger at forty miles than at twenty1 and so on2 that the sustaining pressure of the air on a plane moving at a small angle of inclination to a horizontal path is many times greater than would result from the formula implicitly given by ,newton1 while1 whereas in land or marine transport increased speed is maintained only by a disproportionate expenditure of power within the limits of experiment1 in aerial horizontal transport the higher speeds are more economical of power than the lower ones4 ,this ,mr4 ,maxim is evidently ready to endorse1 stating1 in his own words1 that birds obtain the greater part of their support by moving forward with sufficient velocity so as to be constantly resting on new air1 the inertia of which has not been disturbed4 ,mr4 ,maxim's trials were on a scale comparable with all his mechanical achievements4 ,he employed for his experiments a rotating arm1 sweeping out a circle1 the circumference of which was #bjj feet4 ,to the end of this arm he attached a cigar-shaped apparatus1 driven by a screw1 and arranged in such a manner that aero-planes could be attached to it at any angle4 ,these planes were on a large scale1 carrying weights of from #bj lbs4 to #ajj lbs4 ,with this contrivance he found that1 whatever push the screw communicated to the aero-plane1 the plane would lift in a vertical direction from ten to fifteen times as much as the horizontal push that it received from the screw1 and which depended upon the angle at which the plane was set1 and the speed at which the apparatus was travelling through the air4 ,next1 having determined by experiment the power required to perform artificial flight1 ,mr4 ,maxim applied himself to designing the requisite motor4 ,i constructed1 he states1 two sets of compound engines of tempered steel1 all the parts being made very light and strong1 and a steam generator of peculiar construction1 the greater part of the heating surface consisting of small and thin copper tubes4 ,for fuel ,i employed naphtha4 ,this ,mr4 ,maxim wrote in #ahib1 adding that he was then experimenting with a large machine1 having a spread of over #ajj feet4 ,labour1 skill1 and money were lavishly devoted henceforward to the great task undertaken1 and it was not long before the giant flying machine1 the outcome of so much patient experimenting1 was completed and put to a practical trial4 ,its weight was #g1ejj lbs4 ,the screw propellers were nearly #ah feet in diameter1 each with two blades1 while the engines were capable of being run up to #cfj horse power4 ,the entire machine was mounted on an inner railway track of #i feet and an outer of #ce feet gauge1 while above there was a reversed rail along which the machine would begin to run so soon as with increase of speed it commenced to lift itself off the inner track4 ,in one of the latest experiments it was found that when a speed of #db miles an hour was attained all the wheels were running on the upper track1 and revolving in the opposite direction from those on the lower track4 ,however1 after running about #a1jjj feet1 an axle tree doubled up1 and immediately afterwards the upper track broke away1 and the machine1 becoming liberated1 floated in the air1 giving those on board a sensation of being in a boat4 ,the experiment proved conclusively to the inventor that a machine could be made on a large scale1 in which the lifting effect should be considerably greater than the weight of the machine1 and this1 too1 when a steam engine was the motor4 ,when1 therefore1 in the years shortly following1 the steam engine was for the purposes of aerial locomotion superseded by the lighter and more suitable petrol engine1 the construction of a navigable air ship became vastly more practicable4 ,still1 in ,sir ,h4 ,maxim's opinion1 lately expressed1 those who seek to navigate the air by machines lighter than the air have come1 practically1 to the end of their tether1 while1 on the other hand1 those who seek to navigate the air with machines heavier than the air have not even made a start as yet1 and the possibilities before them are very great indeed4 ,as to the assertion that the aerial navigators last mentioned have not even made a start as yet1 we can only say that ,sir ,h4 ,maxim speaks with far too much modesty4 ,his own colossal labours in the direction of that mode of aerial flight1 which he considers to be alone feasible1 are of the first importance and value1 and1 as far as they have gone1 exhaustive4 ,had his experiments been simply confined to his classical investigations of the proper form of the screw propeller his name would still have been handed down as a true pioneer in aeronautics4 ,his work1 however1 covers far wider ground1 and he has1 in a variety of ways1 furnished practical and reliable data1 which must always be an indispensable guide to every future worker in the same field4 ,professor ,langley1 in attacking the same problem1 first studied the principle and behaviour of a well-known toy--the model invented by ,penaud1 which1 driven by the tension of india-rubber1 sustains itself in the air for a few seconds4 ,he constructed over thirty modifications of this model1 and spent many months in trying from these to as certain what he terms the laws of balancing leading to horizontal flight4 ,his best endeavours at first1 however1 showed that he needed three or four feet of sustaining surface to a pound of weight1 whereas he calculated that a bird could soar with a surface of less than half a foot to the pound4 ,he next proceeded to steam-driven models in which for a time he found an insuperable difficulty in keeping down the weight1 which1 in practice1 always exceeded his calculation2 and it was not till the end of #ahic that he felt himself prepared for a fair trial4 ,at this time he had prepared a model weighing between nine and ten pounds1 and he needed only a suitable launching apparatus to be used over water4 ,the model would1 like a bird1 require an initial velocity imparted to it1 and the discovery of a suitable apparatus gave him great trouble4 ,for the rest the facilities for launching were supplied by a houseboat moored on the ,potomac4 ,foiled again and again by many difficulties1 it was not till after repeated failures and the lapse of many months1 when1 as the ,professor himself puts it1 hope was low1 that success finally came4 ,it was in the early part of #ahif that a successful flight was accomplished in the presence of ,dr4 ,bell1 of telephone fame1 and the following is a brief epitome of the account that this accomplished scientist contributed to the columns of ,nature3-- ,the flying machine1 built1 apparently1 almost entirely of metal1 was driven by an engine said to weigh1 with fuel and water1 about #be lbs41 the supporting surface from tip to tip being #ab or #ad feet4 ,starting from a platform about #bj feet high1 the machine rose at first directly in the face of the wind1 moving with great steadiness1 and subsequently wheeling in large curves until steam was exhausted1 when1 from a height of #hj or #ajj feet1 it shortly settled down4 ,the experiment was then repeated with similar results4 ,its motion was so steady that a glass of water might have remained unspilled4 ,the actual length of flight each time1 which lasted for a minute and a half1 exceeded half a mile1 while the velocity was between twenty and twenty-five miles an hour in a course that was constantly taking it 'up hill4' ,a yet more successful flight was subsequently made4 ,but flight of another nature was being courageously attempted at this time4 ,otto ,lilienthal1 of ,berlin1 in imitation of the motion of birds1 constructed a flying apparatus which he operated himself1 and with which he could float down from considerable elevations4 ,the feat1 he warns tyros1 requires practice4 ,in the beginning the height should be moderate1 and the wings not too large1 or the wind will soon show that it is not to be trifled with4 ,the inventor commenced with all due caution1 making his first attempt over a grass plot from a spring board one metre high1 and subsequently increasing this height to two and a half metres1 from which elevation he could safely cross the entire grass plot4 ,later he launched himself from the lower ridges of a hill #bej feet high1 when he sailed to a distance of over #bej yards1 and this time he writes enthusiastically of his self-taught accomplishment3-- ,to those who1 from a modest beginning and with gradually increased extent and elevation of flight have gained full control over the apparatus1 it is not in the least dangerous to cross deep and broad ravines4 ,it is a difficult task to convey to one who has never enjoyed aerial flight a clear perception of the exhilarating pleasure of this elastic motion4 ,the elevation above the ground loses its terrors1 because we have learned by experience what sure dependence may be placed upon the buoyancy of the air4 ,as a commentary to the above we extract the following3--,we have to record the death of ,otto ,lilienthal1 whose soaring machine1 during a gliding flight1 suddenly tilted over at a height of about #fj feet1 by which mishap he met an untimely death on ,august #ith1 #ahif4 ,mr4 ,o4 ,chanute1 ,c4,e4 of ,chicago1 took up the study of gliding flight at the point where ,lilienthal left it1 and1 later1 ,professor ,fitzgerald and others4 ,besides that invented by ,penaud1 other aero-plane models demanding mention had been produced by ,tatin1 ,moy1 ,stringfellow1 and ,lawrence ,hargrave1 of ,australia1 the subsequent inventor of the well-known cellular kite4 ,these models1 for the most part1 aim at the mechanical solution of the problem connected with the soaring flight of a bird4 ,the theoretical solution of the same problem had been attacked by ,professor ,langley in a masterly monograph1 entitled ,the ,internal ,work of the ,wind4 ,by painstaking experiment with delicate instruments1 specially constructed1 the ,professor shows that wind in general1 so far from being1 as was commonly assumed1 mere air put in motion with an approximately uniform velocity in the same strata1 is1 in reality1 variable and irregular in its movements beyond anything which had been anticipated1 being made up1 in fact1 of a succession of brief pulsations in different directions1 and of great complexity4 ,these pulsations1 he argues1 if of sufficient amplitude and frequency1 would be capable1 by reason of their own internal work1 of sustaining or even raising a suitably curved surface which was being carried along by the main mean air stream4 ,this would account for the phenomenon of soaring4 ,lord ,rayleigh1 discussing the same problem1 premises that when a bird is soaring the air cannot be moving uniformly and horizontally4 ,then comes the natural question1 ,is it moving in ascending currents8 ,lord ,rayleigh has frequently noticed such currents1 particularly above a cliff facing the wind4 ,again1 to quote another eminent authority1 ,major ,baden-,powell1 on an occasion when flying one of his own kites1 found it getting to so high an angle that it presently rose absolutely overhead1 with the string perpendicular4 ,he then took up a heavy piece of wood1 which1 when tied to the string1 began to rise in the air4 ,he satisfied himself that this curious result was solely due to a strong uptake of the air4 ,but1 again1 ,lord ,rayleigh1 lending support to ,professor ,langley's argument1 points out that the apparent cause of soaring may be the non-uniformity of the wind4 ,the upper currents are generally stronger than the lower1 and it is mechanically possible for a bird1 taking advantage of two adjacent air streams1 different in velocity1 to maintain itself in air without effort on its own part4 ,lord ,rayleigh1 proceeding to give his views on artificial flight1 declares the main problem of the flying machine to be the problem of the aerial plane4 ,he states the case thus3--,supposing a plane surface to be falling vertically at the rate of four miles an hour1 and also moving horizontally at the rate of twenty miles an hour1 it might have been supposed that the horizontal motion would make no difference to the pressure on its under surface which the falling plane must experience4 ,we are told1 however1 that in actual trial the horizontal motion much increases the pressure under the falling plane1 and it is this fact on which the possibility of natural and artificial flight depends4 ,ere this opinion had been stated by ,lord ,rayleigh in his discourse on ,flight1 at the ,royal ,institution1 there were already at work upon the aero-plane a small army of inventors1 of whom it will be only possible in a future chapter to mention some4 ,due reference1 however1 should here be made to ,mr4 ,w4 ,f4 ,wenham1 of ,boston1 ,u4,s4,a41 who had been at work on artificial flight for many years1 and to whose labours in determining whether man's power is sufficient to raise his own weight ,lord ,rayleigh paid a high tribute4 ,as far back as #ahff ,mr4 ,wenham had published a paper on aerial locomotion1 in which he shows that any imitation by man of the far-extended wings of a bird might be impracticable1 the alternative being to arrange the necessary length of wing as a series of aero-planes1 a conception far in advance of many theorists of his time4 ,but there had been developments in aerostation in other lines1 and it is time to turn from the somewhat tedious technicalities of mechanical flight and the theory or practice of soaring1 to another important means for traversing the air--the parachute4 ,this aerial machine1 long laid aside1 was to lend its aid to the navigation of the air with a reliability never before realised4 ,professor ,baldwin1 as he was termed1 an ,american aeronaut1 arrived in ,england in the summer of #ahhh1 and commenced giving a series of exhibitions from the ,alexandra ,palace with a parachute of his own invention1 which1 in actual performance1 seems to have been the most perfect instrument of the kind up to that time devised4 ,it was said to be about #ah feet in diameter1 whereas that of ,garnerin1 already mentioned1 had a diameter of some #cj feet1 and was distinctly top-heavy1 owing to its being thus inadequately ballasted2 for it was calculated that its enormous size would have served for the safe descent1 not of one man1 but of four or five4 ,baldwin's parachute1 on the contrary1 was reckoned to give safe descent to #bej lbs41 which would include weight of man and apparatus1 and reduce the ultimate fall to one not exceeding #h feet4 ,the parachute was attached to the ring of a small balloon of #ab1jjj cubic feet1 and the ,professor ascended1 sitting on a mere sling of rope1 which did duty for a car4 ,mr4 ,thomas ,moy1 who investigated the mechanics of the contrivance1 estimated that after a drop of #af feet1 the upward pressure1 amounting to over #b lb4 per square foot1 would act on a surface of not less than #bed square feet4 ,there was1 at the time1 much foolish comment on the great distance which the parachute fell before it opened1 a complete delusion due to the fact that observers failed to see that at the moment of separation the balloon itself sprang upward4 ,,chapter ,,xxii4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,spencers4 ,it has been in the hands of the ,spencers that the parachute1 as also many other practical details of aeronautics1 has been perfected1 and some due sketch of the career of this family of eminent aeronauts must be no longer delayed4 ,charles ,green had stood godfather to the youngest son of his friend and colleague1 ,mr4 ,edward ,spencer1 and in later years1 as though to vindicate the fact1 this same son took up the science of aeronautics at the point where his father had left it4 ,we find his name in the records of the ,patent ,office of #ahfh as the inventor of a manumetric flying machine1 and there are accounts of the flying leaps of several hundred feet which he was enabled to take by means of the machine he constructed4 ,again1 in #ahhb we find him an inventor1 this time of the patent asbestos fire balloon1 by means of which the principal danger to such balloons was overcome4 ,at this point it is needful to make mention of the third generation--the several sons who early showed their zeal and aptitude for perpetuating the family tradition4 ,it was from his school playground that the eldest son1 ,percival1 witnessed with intense interest what appeared like a drop floating in the sky at an immense altitude4 ,this proved to be ,simmons's balloon1 which had just risen to a vast elevation over ,cremorne ,gardens1 after having liberated the unfortunate ,de ,groof1 as mentioned in a former chapter4 ,and one may be sure that the terrible reality of the disaster that had happened was not lost on the young schoolboy4 ,but his wish was to become an aeronauts1 and from this desire nothing deterred him1 so that school days were scarcely over before he began to accompany his father aloft1 and in a very few years1 i4e4 in #ahhh1 he had assumed the full responsibilities of a professional balloonist4 ,it was in this year that ,professor ,baldwin appeared in ,england1 and it is easy to understand that the parachute became an object of interest to the young ,spencer1 who commenced on his own account a series of trials at the ,alexandra ,palace1 and it was now1 also1 that chance good fortune came his way4 ,an ,indian gentleman1 who was witness of his experiments1 and convinced that a favourable field for their further development existed in his own country1 proposed to the young aspirant that he should accompany him to ,india1 with equipment suited for the making of a successful campaign4 ,thus it came about that in the early days of #ahhi1 in the height of the season1 ,mr4 ,percival ,spencer arrived at ,bombay1 and at once commenced professional business in earnest4 ,coal gas being here available1 a maiden ascent was quickly arranged1 and duly announced to take place at the ,government ,house1 ,paral1 the chief attraction being the parachute descent1 the first ever attempted in ,india4 ,this preliminary exhibition proving in all ways a complete success1 ,mr4 ,spencer1 after a few repetitions of his performance1 repaired to ,calcutta2 but here great difficulties were experienced in the matter of gas4 ,the coal gas available was inadequate1 and when recourse was had to pure hydrogen the supply proved too sluggish4 ,at the advertised hour of departure the balloon was not sufficiently inflated1 while the spectators were growing impatient4 ,it was at this critical moment that ,mr4 ,spencer resolved on a surprise4 ,suddenly casting off the parachute1 and seated on a mere sling below the half-inflated balloon1 without ballast1 without grapnel1 and unprovided with a valve1 he sailed away over the heads of the multitude4 ,the afternoon was already far advanced1 and the short tropical twilight soon gave way to darkness1 when the intrepid voyager disappeared completely from sight4 ,excitement was intense that night in ,calcutta1 and greater still the next day when1 as hour after hour went by1 no news save a series of wild and false reports reached the city4 ,trains arriving from the country brought no intelligence1 and telegraphic enquiries sent in all directions proved fruitless4 ,the ,great ,eastern ,hotel1 where the young man had been staying1 was literally besieged for hours by a large crowd eager for any tidings4 ,then the ,press gave expression to the gloomiest forebodings1 and the town was in a fever of unrest4 ,from the direction the balloon had taken it was thought that1 even if the aeronaut had descended in safety1 he could only have been landed in the jungle of the ,sunderbunds1 beset with perils1 and without a chance of succour4 ,a large reward was offered for reliable information1 and orders were issued to every likely station to organise a search4 ,but ere this was fully carried into effect messages were telegraphed to ,england definitely asserting that ,mr4 ,spencer had lost his life4 ,for all this1 after three days he returned to ,calcutta1 none the worse for the exploit4 ,then the true tale was unravelled4 ,the balloon had changed its course from ,s4,e4 to ,e4 after passing out of sight of ,calcutta1 and eventually came to earth the same evening in the neighbourhood of ,hossainabad1 thirty-six miles distant4 ,during his aerial flight the voyager's main trouble had been caused by his cramped position1 the galling of his sling seat1 and the numbing effect of cold as he reached high altitudes2 but1 as twilight darkened into gloom1 his real anxiety was with respect to his place of landing1 for he could with difficulty see the earth underneath4 ,he heard the distant roll of the waters1 caused by the numerous creeks which intersect the delta of the ,ganges1 and when darkness completely shut out the view it was impossible to tell whether he was over land or sea4 ,fortune favoured him1 however1 and reaching dry ground1 he sprang from his seat1 relinquishing at the same moment his hold of the balloon1 which instantly disappeared into the darkness4 ,then his wanderings began4 ,he was in an unknown country1 without knowledge of the language1 and with only a few rupees in his pocket4 ,presently1 however1 seeing a light1 he proceeded towards it1 but only to find himself stopped by a creek4 ,foiled more than once in this way1 he at length arrived at the dwelling of a family of natives1 who promptly fled in terror4 ,to inspire confidence and prove that he was mortal1 ,mr4 ,spencer threw his coat over the mud wall of the compound1 with the result that1 after examination of the garment1 he was received and cared for in true native fashion1 fed with rice and goat's milk1 and allowed the use of the verandah to sleep in4 ,he succeeded in communing with the natives by dint of lead pencil sketches and dumb show1 and learned1 among other things1 that he had descended in a little clearing surrounded by woods1 and bounded by tidal creeks1 which were infested with alligators4 ,yet1 in the end1 the waterways befriended him2 for1 as he was being ferried across1 he chanced on his balloon sailing down on the tide1 recovered it1 and used the tidal waters for the return journey4 ,the greeting upon his arrival in ,calcutta was enthusiastic beyond description from both ,europeans and natives4 ,the hero of the adventure was visited by rajahs and notables1 who vied with each other in expressions of welcome1 in making presents1 even inviting him to visit the sacred precincts of their zenanas4 ,the promised parachute descent was subsequently successfully made at ,cossipore1 and then followed a busy1 brilliant season1 after which the wanderer returned to ,england4 ,by ,september he is in ,dublin1 and makes the first parachute descent ever witnessed in ,ireland2 but by ,november he is in ,bombay again1 whence1 proceeding to ,calcutta1 he repeats his success of the year before4 ,next he visits ,allahabad1 where the same fortune attends him1 though his balloon flies away in a temporary escape into the ,jumna4 ,by ,may he is ascending at ,singapore1 armed here1 however1 with a cork jacket4 ,hence1 flushed with success1 he repairs to the ,dutch ,indies1 and demonstrates to the ,dutch officers the use of the balloon in war4 ,as a natural consequence1 he is moved up to the seat of the ,achinese ,war in ,sumatra1 where1 his balloon being moored to the rear of an armoured train1 an immediate move is made to the front1 and orders are forthwith telephoned from various centres to open fire on the enemy4 ,mr4 ,spencer1 the while accompanied by an officer1 makes a captive ascent1 in which for some time he is actually under the enemy's fire4 ,the result of this plucky experiment is a most flattering official report4 ,in all the above-mentioned ascents he made his own gas without a hitch4 ,thence he travels on with the same trusty little #ab1jjj cubic feet balloon1 the same programme1 and the same success4 ,this is slightly varied1 however1 at ,kobe1 ,japan1 where his impatient craft fairly breaks away with him1 and1 soaring high1 flies overhead of a man-of-war1 and plumps into the water a mile out at sea4 ,but ,smartly was the word4 ,the ship's crew was beat to quarters1 and within one minute a boat was to the rescue4 ,an ascent at ,cairo1 where he made a parachute descent in sight of the ,pyramids and landed in the desert1 completed this oriental tour1 and home duties necessitated his return to ,england4 ,among exploits far too many to enumerate may be mentioned four several occasions when ,mr4 ,percival ,spencer has crossed the ,english ,channel4 ,it fell to the lot of the second son1 ,arthur1 to carry fame into fresh fields4 ,in the year #ahig he visited ,australia1 taking with him two balloons1 one of these being a noble craft of #hj1jjj cubic feet1 considerably larger than any balloon used in ,england1 and the singular fate of this aerial monster is deserving of mention4 ,its trial trip in the new country was arranged to take place on ,boxing ,day in the ,melbourne ,exhibition ground1 and for the lengthy and critical work of inflation the able assistance of ,british bluejackets was secured4 ,to all appearance1 the main difficulties to be provided against were likely to arise simply from a somewhat inadequate supply of gas1 and on this account filling commenced as early as #aj a4m4 on the morning of the day previous to the exhibition1 and was continued till #f o'clock in the afternoon1 by which time the balloon1 being about half full1 was staved down with sandbags through the night till #d o'clock the next morning1 when the inflation was again proceeded with without hindrance and apparently under favourable conditions4 ,the morning was beautifully fine1 warm1 brilliant1 and still1 and so remained until half-past six1 when1 with startling rapidity1 there blew up a sudden squall known in the country as a ,hot ,buster1 and in two or three minutes' space a terrific wind storm was sweeping the ground4 ,a dozen men1 aiding a dead weight of #bbj sandbags1 endeavoured to control the plunging balloon1 but wholly without avail4 ,men and bags together were lifted clean up in the air on the windward side1 and the silk envelope1 not yet completely filled1 at once escaped from the net and1 flying upwards to a height estimated at #aj1jjj feet1 came to earth again ninety miles away in a score of fragments4 ,nothing daunted1 however1 ,mr4 ,spencer at once endeavoured to retrieve his fortunes1 and started straightway for the gold-mining districts of ,ballarat and ,bendigo with a hot-air balloon1 with which he successfully gave a series of popular exhibitions of parachute descents4 ,few aeronauts are more consistently reliable than ,mr4 ,arthur ,spencer4 ,a few summers ago in this country he was suddenly called upon to give proof of his prowess and presence of mind in a very remarkable manner4 ,it was at an engagement at ,reading1 where he had been conducting captive ascents throughout the afternoon1 and was requested to conclude the evening with a right away1 in which two passengers had agreed to accompany him4 ,the balloon had been hauled down for the last time1 when1 by some mistake1 the engine used for the purpose proceeded to work its pump without previously disconnecting the hauling gear4 ,the consequence of this was that the cable instantly snapped1 and in a moment the large balloon1 devoid of ballast1 grapnel1 or other appliances1 and with neck still tied1 was free1 and started skyward4 ,the inevitable result of this accident must have been that the balloon in a few seconds would rise to a height where the expansion of the imprisoned gas would burst and destroy it4 ,mr4 ,spencer1 however1 was standing near1 and1 grasping the situation in a moment1 caught at the car as it swung upwards1 and1 getting hold1 succeeded in drawing himself up and so climbing into the ring4 ,quickly as this was done1 the balloon was already distended to the point of bursting1 and only the promptest release of gas averted catastrophe4 ,mr4 ,stanley ,spencer made himself early known to the world by a series of parachute descents1 performed from the roof of ,olympia4 ,it was a bold and sensational exhibition1 and on the expiration of his engagement the young athlete1 profiting by home training1 felt fully qualified to attempt any aerial feat connected with the profession of an aeronaut4 ,and at this juncture an eminent ,american cyclist1 visiting the father's factory1 suggested to ,stanley a business tour in ,south ,america4 ,as an extra attraction it was proposed that a young lady parachutist should be one of the company2 so1 after a few satisfactory trial exhibitions in ,england1 the party made their way to ,rio1 ,brazil4 ,here an ascent was arranged1 and by the day and hour appointed the balloon was successfully inflated with hydrogen1 an enormous concourse collected1 and the lady performer already seated in the sling4 ,then a strange mischance happened4 ,by some means1 never satisfactorily explained1 the young woman1 at the moment of release1 slipped from her seat1 and the balloon1 escaping into the air1 turned over and fell among the people1 who vindictively destroyed it4 ,then the crowd grew ungovernable1 and threatened the lives of the aeronauts1 who eventually were1 with difficulty1 rescued by the soldiery4 ,this was a bad start2 but with a spare balloon a fresh attempt at an ascent was arranged1 though1 from another cause1 with no better success4 ,this time a furious storm arose1 before the inflation was completed1 and the balloon1 carrying away1 was torn to ribbons4 ,yet a third time1 with a hot air balloon now1 a performance was advertised and successfully carried out2 but1 immediately after1 ,mr4 ,spencer's ,american friend succumbed to yellow fever1 and the young man1 being thrown on his own resources1 had to fight his own way until his fortunes had been sufficiently restored to return to ,england4 ,a few months later he set sail for ,canada1 where for several months he had a most profitable career1 on one occasion only meeting with some difficulty4 ,he was giving an exhibition on ,prince ,edward's ,island1 not far from the sea1 but on a day so calm that he did not hesitate to ascend4 ,on reaching #c1jjj feet1 however1 he was suddenly caught by a strong land breeze1 which1 ere he could reach the water1 had carried him a mile out to sea1 and here he was only rescued after a long interval1 during which he had become much exhausted in his attempts to save his parachute from sinking4 ,early in #ahib our traveller visited ,south ,africa with a hot air balloon1 and1 fortune continuing to favour him1 he subsequently returned to ,canada1 and proceeded thence to the ,united ,states and ,cuba4 ,it was at ,havannah that popular enthusiasm in his favour ran so high that he was presented with a medal by the townsfolk4 ,it was from here also that1 a little while after1 tidings of his own death reached him1 together with most gratifying obituary notices4 ,it would seem that1 after his departure1 an adventurer1 attempting to personate him1 met with his death4 ,in ,november1 #ahig1 he followed his elder brother's footsteps to the ,east1 and exhibited in ,calcutta1 ,singapore1 ,canton1 and also ,hong-,kong1 where1 for the first and only time in his experience1 he met with serious accident4 ,he was about to ascend for the ordinary parachute performance with a hot air balloon1 which was being held down by about thirty men1 one among them being a ,chinaman possessed of much excitability and very long finger nails4 ,by means of these latter the man contrived to gouge a considerable hole in the fabric of the balloon4 ,mr4 ,spencer1 to avoid a disappointment1 risked an ascent1 and it was not till the balloon had reached #fjj feet that the rent developed into a long slit1 and so brought about a sudden fall to earth4 ,alighting on the side of a mountain1 ,mr4 ,spencer lay helpless with a broken leg till the arrival of some ,british bluejackets1 who conveyed him to the nearest surgeon1 when1 after due attention1 he was sent home4 ,other remarkable exploits1 which ,mr4 ,stanley ,spencer shared with ,dr4 ,berson and with the writer and his daughter1 will be recorded later4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii4 ,,new ,,departures ,,in ,,aerostation4 ,after ,mr4 ,coxwell's experiments at ,aldershot in #ahfb the military balloon1 as far as ,england was concerned1 remained in abeyance for nine long years1 when the ,government appointed a ,commission to enquire into its utility1 and to conduct further experiments4 ,the members of this committee were ,colonel ,noble1 ,r4,e41 ,sir ,f4 ,abel1 ,captain ,lee1 ,r4,e41 assisted by ,captain ,elsdale1 ,r4,e41 and ,captain 7now ,colonel7 ,templer4 ,yet another nine years1 however1 elapsed before much more was heard of this modernised military engine4 ,but about the beginning of the eighties the ,government had become fully alive to the importance of the subject1 and ,royal ,engineers at ,woolwich grew busy with balloon manufacture and experiment4 ,soon the sky around ,london became speckled with balloons4 ,the method of making so-called pure hydrogen by passing steam over red-hot iron was fully tested1 and for a time gained favour4 ,the apparatus1 weighing some three tons1 was calculated to be not beyond the carrying powers of three service waggons1 while it was capable of generating enough gas to inflate two balloons in twenty-four hours1 a single inflation holding good1 under favourable circumstances1 for a long period4 ,at the ,brighton ,volunteer ,review of #ahhj1 ,captain ,templer1 with nine men1 conducted the operations of a captive reconnoitring balloon4 ,this was inflated at the ,lewes gas works1 and then towed two and a half miles across a river1 a railway1 and a line of telegraph wires1 after which it was let up to a height of #a1ejj feet1 whence1 it was stated1 that so good a view was obtained that every man was clearly seen4 ,be it remembered1 however1 that the country was not the ,south ,african veldt1 and every man was in the striking ,english uniform of that date4 ,just at this juncture came the ,egyptian ,war1 and it will be recalled that in the beginning of that war balloons were conspicuous by their absence4 ,the difficulties of reconnaissance were keenly felt and commented on1 and among other statements we find the following in the war intelligence of the ,times3-- ,as the want of a balloon equipment has been mentioned in letters from ,egypt1 it may be stated that all the ,war ,department balloons remain in store at the ,royal ,dockyard at ,woolwich1 but have been recently examined and found perfectly serviceable4 ,an assertion had been made to the effect that the nature of the sand in ,egypt would impede the transport of the heavy material necessary for inflation4 ,at last1 however1 the order came for the despatch of the balloon equipment to the front1 and though this arrived long after ,tel-el-,kebir1 yet it is recorded that the first ascent in real active service in the ,british ,army took place on the #beth of ,march1 #ahhe1 at ,suakin1 and balloons becoming regarded as an all-important part of the equipment of war1 they were sent out in the ,bechuanaland ,expedition under ,sir ,charles ,warren1 the supply of gas being shipped to ,cape ,town in cylinders4 ,it was at this period that1 according to ,mr4 ,coxwell1 ,lord ,wolseley made ascents at home in a war balloon to form his own personal opinion of their capabilities1 and1 expressing this opinion to one of his staff1 said that had he been able to employ balloons in the earlier stages of the ,soudan campaign the affair would not have lasted as many months as it did years4 ,this statement1 however1 should be read in conjunction with another of the same officer in the ,soldier's ,pocket ,book1 that in a windy country balloons are useless4 ,in the ,boer ,war the usefulness of the balloon was frequently tested1 more particularly during the siege of ,ladysmith1 when it was deemed of great value in directing the fire of the ,british artillery1 and again in ,buller's advance1 where the balloon is credited with having located a death-trap of the enemy at ,spion ,kop4 ,other all-important service was rendered at ,magersfontein4 ,the ,service balloon principally used was made of goldbeaters' skin1 containing about #aj1jjj cubic feet of hydrogen1 which had been produced by the action of sulphuric acid on zinc1 and compressed in steel cylinders4 ,a special gas factory was1 for the purpose of the campaign1 established at ,cape ,town4 ,it is here that reference must be made to some of the special work undertaken by ,mr4 ,eric ,s4 ,bruce1 which dealt with the management of captive balloons under different conditions1 and with a system of signalling thus rendered feasible4 ,mr4 ,bruce1 who1 since ,major ,baden-,powell's retirement from the office1 has devoted his best energies as secretary to the advancement of the ,british ,aeronautical ,society1 was the inventor of the system of electric balloon signalling which he supplied to the ,british ,government1 as well as to the ,belgian and ,italian ,governments4 ,this system requires but a very small balloon1 made of three or four thicknesses of goldbeaters' skin1 measuring from #g to #aj feet in diameter1 and needing only two or three gas cylinders for inflation4 ,within the balloon1 which is sufficiently translucent1 are placed several incandescent lamps in metallic circuit1 with a source of electricity on the ground4 ,this source of electricity may consist of batteries of moderate size or a portable hand dynamo4 ,in the circuit is placed an apparatus for making and breaking contact rapidly1 and by varying the duration of the flashes in the balloon telegraphic messages may be easily transmitted4 ,to overcome the difficulty of unsteadiness1 under circumstances of rough weather1 in the captive balloon which carried the glow lamps1 ,mr4 ,bruce experimented with guy ropes1 and gave a most successful exhibition of their efficiency before military experts at ,stamford ,bridge grounds1 though a stiff wind was blowing at the time4 ,it must be perfectly obvious1 however1 that a captive balloon in a wind is greatly at a disadvantage1 and to counteract this1 attempts have been made in the direction of a combination between the balloon and a kite4 ,this endeavour has been attended with some measure of success in the ,german army4 ,mr4 ,douglas ,archibald1 in ,england1 was one of the first to advocate the kite balloon4 ,in #ahhh he called attention to the unsatisfactory behaviour of captive balloons in variable winds1 dropping with every gust and rising again with a lull4 ,in proof he described an expedient of ,major ,templer's1 where an attempt was being made to operate a photographic camera hoisted by two tandem kites4 ,the balloon1 he writes1 went up majestically1 and all seemed very satisfactory until a mile of cable had been run out1 and the winder locked4 ,it was then that troubles began which threatened the wreckage of the apparatus1 and ,mr4 ,archibald1 in consequence1 strongly recommended a kite balloon at that time4 ,twelve years later the same able experimentalist1 impressed with the splendid work done by kites alone for meteorological purposes at least1 allowed that he was quite content to let the kite balloon go by4 ,but the ,german school of aeronauts were doing bigger things than making trials with kite balloons4 ,the ,german ,society for the ,promotion of ,aerial ,navigation1 assisted by the ,army ,balloon ,corps1 were busy in #ahhh1 when a series of important ascents were commenced4 ,under the direction of ,dr4 ,assmann1 the energetic president of the aeronautical society above named1 captive ascents were arranged in connection with free ascents for meteorological purposes1 and it was thus practicable to make simultaneous observations at different levels4 ,these experiments1 which were largely taken up on the ,continent1 led to others of yet higher importance1 in which the unmanned balloon took a part4 ,but the ,continental annals of this date contain one unhappy record of another nature1 the recounting of which will1 at least1 break the monotony attending mere experimental details4 ,in ,october1 #ahic1 ,captain ,charbonnet1 an enthusiastic ,french aeronaut1 resolved on spending his honeymoon1 with the full consent of his bride1 in a prolonged balloon excursion4 ,the start was to be made from ,turin1 and1 the direction of travel lying across the ,alps1 it was the hope of the voyagers eventually to reach ,french territory4 ,the ascent was made in perfect safety1 as was also the first descent1 at the little village of ,piobesi1 ten miles away4 ,here a halt was made for the night1 and the next morning1 when a fresh start was determined on1 two young ,italians1 ,signori ,botto and ,durando1 were taken on board as assistants1 for the exploit began to assume an appearance of some gravity1 and this the more so when storm clouds began brewing4 ,at an altitude of #aj1jjj feet cross-currents were encountered1 and the course becoming obscured the captain descended to near the earth1 where he discovered himself to be in dangerous proximity to gaunt mountain peaks4 ,on observing this1 he promptly cast out sand so liberally that the balloon rose to a height approaching #bj1jjj feet1 when a rapid descent presently began1 and refused to be checked1 even with the expenditure of all available ballast4 ,all the while the earth remained obscured1 but1 anticipating a fall among the mountains1 ,captain ,charbonnet bade his companions lie down in the car while he endeavoured to catch sight of some landmark2 but1 quite suddenly1 the balloon struck some mountain slope with such force as to throw the captain back into the car with a heavy blow over the eye2 then1 bounding across a gulley1 it struck again and yet again1 falling and rebounding between rocky walls1 till it settled on a steep and snowy ridge4 ,darkness was now closing in1 and the party1 without food or proper shelter1 had to pass the night as best they might on the bare spot where they fell1 hoping for encouragement with the return of day4 ,but dawn showed them to be on a dangerous peak1 #aj1jjj feet high1 whence they must descend by their own unassisted efforts4 ,after a little clambering the captain1 who was in a very exhausted state1 fell through a hidden crevasse1 fracturing his skull sixty feet below4 ,the remaining three struggled on throughout the day1 and had to pass a second night on the mountain1 this time without covering4 ,on the third day they met with a shepherd1 who conducted them with difficulty to the little village of ,balme4 ,this story1 by virtue of its romance1 finds a place in these pages2 but1 save for its tragic ending1 it hardly stands alone4 ,ballooning enterprise and adventure were growing every year more and more common on the ,continent4 ,in ,scandinavia we find the names of ,andree1 ,fraenkal1 and ,strindberg2 in ,denmark that of ,captain ,rambusch4 ,berlin and ,paris had virtually become the chief centres of the development of ballooning as a science4 ,in the former city a chief among aeronauts had arisen in ,dr4 ,a4 ,berson1 who1 in ,december1 #ahid1 not only reached #cj1jjj feet1 ascending alone1 but at that height sustained himself sufficiently1 by inhaling oxygen1 to take systematic observations throughout the entire voyage of five hours4 ,the year before1 in company with ,lieutenant ,gross1 he barely escaped with his life1 owing to tangled ropes getting foul of the valve4 ,toulet and those who accompanied him lost their lives near ,brussels4 ,later ,wolfert and his engineer were killed near ,berlin1 while ,johannsen and ,loyal fell into the ,sound4 ,thus ever fresh and more extended enterprise was embarked upon with good fortune and ill4 ,in fact1 it had become evident to all that the ,continent afforded facilities for the advancement of aerial exploration which could be met with in no other parts of the world1 ,america only excepted4 ,and it was at this period that the expedient of the ballon sonde1 or unmanned balloon1 was happily thought of4 ,one of these balloons1 the ,cirrus1 among several trials1 rose to a height1 self-registered1 of #fa1jjj feet1 while a possible greater height has been accorded to it4 ,on one occasion1 ascending from ,berlin1 it fell in ,western ,russia1 on another in ,bosnia4 ,then1 in #ahif1 at the ,meteorological ,conference at ,paris1 with ,mascart as ,president1 ,gustave ,hermite1 with characteristic ardour1 introduced a scheme of national ascents with balloons manned and unmanned1 and this scheme was soon put in effect under a commission of famous names--,andree1 ,assmann1 ,berson1 ,besancon1 ,cailletet1 ,erk1 de ,fonvielle1 ,hergesell1 ,hermite1 ,jaubert1 ,pomotzew 7of ,st4 ,petersburg71 and ,rotch 7of ,boston1 ,mass474 ,in ,november1 #ahif1 five manned balloons and three unmanned ascended simultaneously from ,france1 ,germany1 and ,russia4 ,the next year saw1 with the enterprise of these nations1 the co-operation of ,austria and ,belgium4 ,messrs4 ,hermite and ,besancon1 both ,french aeronauts1 were the first to make practical trial of the method of sounding the upper air by unmanned balloons1 and1 as a preliminary attempt1 dismissed from ,paris a number of small balloons1 a large proportion of which were recovered1 having returned to earth after less than #ajj miles' flight4 ,larger paper balloons were now constructed1 capable of carrying simple self-recording instruments1 also postcards1 which became detached at regular intervals by the burning away of slow match1 and thus indicated the path of the balloon4 ,the next attempt was more ambitious1 made with a goldbeaters' skin balloon containing #d1jjj cubic feet of gas1 and carrying automatic instruments of precision4 ,this balloon fell in the ,department of the ,yonne1 and was returned to ,paris with the instruments1 which remained uninjured1 and which indicated that an altitude of #di1jjj feet had been reached1 and a minimum temperature of -#fj degrees encountered4 ,yet larger balloons of the same nature were then experimented with in ,germany1 as well as ,france4 ,a lack of public support has crippled the attempts of experimentalists in this country1 but abroad this method of aerial exploration continues to gain favour4 ,distinct from1 and supplementing1 the records obtained by free balloons1 manned or unmanned1 are those to be gathered from an aerostat moored to earth4 ,it is here that the captive balloon has done good service to meteorology1 as we have shown1 but still more so has the high-flying kite4 ,it must long have been recognised that instruments placed on or near the ground are insufficient for meteorological purposes1 and1 as far back as #agdi1 we find ,dr4 ,wilson1 of ,glasgow1 employing kites to determine the upper currents1 and to carry thermometers into higher strata of the air4 ,franklin's kite and its application is matter of history4 ,many since that period made experiments more or less in earnest to obtain atmospheric observations by means of kites1 but probably the first in ,england1 at least to obtain satisfactory results1 was ,mr4 ,douglas ,archibald1 who1 during the eighties1 was successful in obtaining valuable wind measurements1 as also other results1 including aerial photographs1 at varying altitudes up to #a1jjj or #a1bjj feet4 ,from that period the records of serious and systematic kite flying must be sought in ,america4 ,mr4 ,w4 ,a4 ,eddy was one of the pioneers1 and a very serviceable tailless kite1 in which the cross-bar is bowed away from the wind1 is his invention1 and has been much in use4 ,mr4 ,eddy established his kite at ,blue ,hill--the now famous kite observatory--and succeeded in lifting self-recording meteorological instruments to considerable heights4 ,the superiority of readings thus obtained is obvious from the fact that fresh air-streams are constantly playing on the instruments4 ,a year or two later a totally dissimilar kite was introduced by ,mr4 ,lawrence ,hargrave1 of ,sydney1 ,australia4 ,this invention1 which has proved of the greatest utility and efficiency1 would1 from its appearance1 upset all conventional ideas of what a kite should be1 resembling in its simplest form a mere box1 minus the back and front4 ,nevertheless1 these kites1 in their present form1 have carried instruments to heights of upwards of two miles1 the restraining line being fine steel piano wire4 ,but another and most efficient kite1 admirably adapted for many most important purposes1 is that invented by ,major ,baden-,powell4 ,the main objects originally aimed at in the construction of this kite related to military operations1 such as signalling1 photography1 and the raising of a man to an elevation for observational purposes4 ,in the opinion of the inventor1 who is a practiced aeronaut1 a wind of over thirty miles an hour renders a captive balloon useless1 while a kite under such conditions should be capable of taking its place in the field4 ,describing his early experiments1 ,major1 then ,captain1 ,baden-,powell1 stated that in #ahid1 after a number of failures1 he succeeded with a hexagonal structure of cambric1 stretched on a bamboo framework #cf feet high1 in lifting a man--not far1 but far enough to prove that his theories were right4 ,later on1 substituting a number of small kites for one big one1 he was1 on several occasions1 raised to a height of #ajj feet1 and had sent up sand bags1 weighing #i stone1 to #cjj feet1 at which height they remained suspended nearly a whole day4 ,this form of kite1 which has been further developed1 has been used in the ,south ,african campaign in connection with wireless telegraphy for the taking of photographs at great heights1 notably at ,modder ,river1 and for other purposes4 ,it has been claimed that the first well-authenticated occasion of a man being raised by a kite was when at ,pirbright ,camp a ,baden-,powell kite1 #cj feet high1 flown by two lines1 from which a basket was suspended1 took a man up to a height of #aj feet4 ,it is only fair1 however1 to state that it is related that more than fifty years ago a lady was lifted some hundred feet by a great kite constructed by one ,george ,pocock1 whose machine was designed for an observatory in war1 and also for drawing carriages along highways4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv4 ,,andree ,,and ,,his ,,voyages ,among many suggestions1 alike important and original1 due to ,major ,baden-,powell1 and coming within the field of aeronautics1 is one having reference to the use of balloons for geographical research generally and more particularly for the exploration of ,egypt1 which1 in his opinion1 is a country possessing many most desirable qualifications on the score of prevailing winds1 of suitable base1 and of ground adapted for such steering as may be effected with a trail rope4 ,at the ,bristol meeting of the ,british ,association the ,major thus propounded his method3 ,i should suggest several balloons1 one of about #fj1jjj cubic feet1 and1 say1 six smaller ones of about #g1jjj cubic feet2 then1 if one gets torn or damaged1 the others might remain intact4 ,after a time1 when gas is lost1 one of the smaller ones could be emptied into the others1 and the exhausted envelope discharged as ballast2 the smaller balloons would be easier to transport by porters than one big one1 and they could be more easily secured on the earth during contrary winds4 ,over the main balloon a light awning might be rigged to neutralise1 as far as possible1 the changes of temperature4 ,a lightning conductor to the top of the balloon might be desirable4 ,a large sail would be arranged1 and a bifurcated guide rope attached to the end of a horizontal pole would form an efficient means of steering4 ,the car would be boat-shaped and waterproof1 so that it could be used for a return journey down a river4 ,water tanks would be fitted4 ,the reasonableness of such a scheme is beyond question1 even without the working calculations with which it is accompanied2 but1 ere these words were spoken1 one of the most daring explorers that the world has known had begun to put in practice a yet bolder and rasher scheme of his own4 ,the idea of reaching the ,north ,pole by means of balloons appears to have been entertained many years ago4 ,in a curious work1 published in ,paris in #ahfc by ,delaville ,dedreux1 there is a suggestion for reaching the ,north ,pole by an aerostat which should be launched from the nearest accessible point1 the calculation being that the distance from such a starting place to the ,pole and back again would be only some #a1bjj miles1 which could be covered in two days1 supposing only that there could be found a moderate and favourable wind in each direction4 ,mr4 ,c4 ,g4 ,spencer also wrote on the subject1 and subsequently ,commander ,cheyne proposed a method of reaching the ,pole by means of triple balloons4 ,a similar scheme was advocated in yet more serious earnest by ,m4 ,hermite in the early eighties4 ,some ten years later than this ,m4 ,s4 ,a4 ,andree1 having obtained sufficient assistance1 took up the idea with the determined intention of pushing it to a practical issue4 ,he had already won his spurs as an aeronaut1 as may be briefly told4 ,in ,october1 #ahic1 when making an ascent for scientific purposes1 his balloon got carried out over the ,baltic4 ,it may have been the strength of the wind that had taken him by surprise2 but1 there being now no remedy1 it was clearly the speed and persistence of the wind that alone could save him4 ,if a chance vessel could not1 or would not1 stand by1 he must make the coast of ,finland or fall in the sea1 and several times the fall in the sea seemed imminent as his balloon commenced dropping4 ,this threatened danger induced him to cast away his anchor1 after which the verge of the ,finland shore was nearly reached1 when a change of wind began to carry him along the rocky coast1 just as night was setting in4 ,recognising his extreme danger1 ,andree stood on the edge of the car1 with a bag of ballast ready for emergencies4 ,he actually passed over an island1 on which was a building with a light2 but failed to effect a landing1 and so fell in the sea on the farther side2 but1 the balloon presently righting itself1 ,andree1 now greatly exhausted1 made his last effort1 and as he rose over the next cliff jumped for his life4 ,it was past #g p4m4 when he found himself once again on firm ground1 but with a sprained leg and with no one within call4 ,seeking what shelter he could1 he lived out the long night1 and1 being now scarce able to stand1 took off his clothes and waved them for a signal4 ,this signal was not seen1 yet shortly a boat put off from an island--the same that he had passed the evening before--and rowed towards him4 ,the boatman overnight had seen a strange sail sweeping over land and sea1 and he had come in quest of it1 bringing timely succour to the castaway4 ,briefly stated1 ,andree's grand scheme was to convey a suitable balloon1 with means for inflating it1 as also all necessary equipment1 as far towards the ,pole as a ship could proceed1 and thence1 waiting for a favourable wind1 to sail by sky until the region of the ,pole should be crossed1 and some inhabited country reached beyond4 ,the balloon was to be kept near the earth1 and steered1 as far as this might be practicable1 by means of a trail rope4 ,the balloon1 which had a capacity of nearly #afb1jjj cubic feet1 was made in ,paris1 and was provided with a rudder sail and an arrangement whereby the hang of the trail rope could be readily shifted to different positions on the ring4 ,further1 to obviate unnecessary diffusion and loss of gas at the mouth1 the balloon was fitted with a lower valve1 which would only open at a moderate pressure1 namely1 that of four inches of water4 ,all preparations were completed by the summer of #ahif1 and on ,june #gth the party embarked at ,gothenburg with all necessaries on board1 arriving at ,spitzbergen on ,june #bast4 ,andree1 who was to be accompanied on his aerial voyage by two companions1 ,m4 ,nils ,strindberg and ,dr4 ,ekholm1 spent some time in selecting a spot that would seem suitable for their momentous start1 and this was finally found on ,dane's ,island1 where their cargo was accordingly landed4 ,the first operation was the erection of a wooden shed1 the materials for which they had brought with them1 as a protection from the wind4 ,it was a work which entailed some loss of time1 after which the gas apparatus had to be got into order1 so that1 in spite of all efforts1 it was the #bgth of ,july before the balloon was inflated and in readiness4 ,a member of an advance party of an eclipse expedition arriving in ,spitzbergen at this period1 and paying a visit to ,andree for the purpose of taking him letters1 wrote3--,we watched him deal out the letters to his men4 ,they are all volunteers and include seven sea captains1 a lawyer1 and other people some forty in all4 ,andree chaffed each man to whom he gave a letter1 and all were as merry as crickets over the business4444 ,we spent our time in watching preparations4 ,the vaseline 7for soaking the guide ropes7 caught fire to-day1 but1 luckily no rope was in the pot4 ,but the wind as yet was contrary1 and day after day passed without any shift to a favourable quarter1 until the captain of the ship which had conveyed them was compelled to bring matters to an issue by saying that they must return home without delay if he was to avoid getting frozen in for the winter4 ,the balloon had now remained inflated for twenty-one days1 and ,dr4 ,ekholm1 calculating that the leakage of gas amounted to nearly #a per cent4 per day1 became distrustful of the capability of such a vessel to cope with such a voyage as had been aimed at4 ,the party had now no choice but to return home with their balloon1 leaving1 however1 the shed and gas-generating apparatus for another occasion4 ,this occasion came the following summer1 when the dauntless explorers returned to their task1 leaving ,gothenburg on ,may #bhth1 #ahig1 in a vessel lent by the ,king of ,sweden1 and reaching ,dane's ,island on the #cjth of the same month4 ,dr4 ,ekholm had retired from the enterprise1 but in his place were two volunteers1 ,messrs4 ,frankel and ,svedenborg1 the latter as odd man1 to fill the place of any of the other three who might be prevented from making the final venture4 ,it was found that the shed had suffered during the winter1 and some time was spent in making the repairs and needful preparation1 so that the month of ,june was half over before all was in readiness for the inflation4 ,this operation was then accomplished in four days1 and by midnight of ,june #bbnd the balloon was at her moorings1 full and in readiness2 but1 as in the previous year1 the wind was contrary1 and remained so for nearly three weeks4 ,this1 of course1 was a less serious matter1 inasmuch as the voyagers were a month earlier with their preparation1 but so long a delay must needs have told prejudicially against the buoyancy of the balloon1 and ,andree is hardly to be blamed for having1 in the end1 committed himself to a wind that was not wholly favourable4 ,the wind1 if entirely from the right direction1 should have been due south1 but on ,july #aath it had veered to a direction somewhat west of south1 and ,andree1 tolerating no further delay1 seized this as his best opportunity1 and with a wind whistling through the woodwork of the shed and flapping the canvas1 accompanied by ,frankel and ,svedenborg1 started on his ill-fated voyage4 ,a telegram which ,andree wrote for the ,press at that epoch ran thus3-- ,at this moment1 #b4cj p4m41 we are ready to start4 ,we shall probably be driven in a north-north-easterly direction4 ,on ,july #bbnd a carrier pigeon was recovered by the fishing boat ,alken between ,north ,cape1 ,spitzbergen1 and ,seven ,islands1 bearing a message1 ,july #acth1 #ab4cj p4m41 #hb degrees #b minutes north lat41 #ae degrees #e minutes east long4 ,good journey eastward4 ,all goes well on board4 ,andree4 ,not till ,august #cast was there picked up in the ,arctic zone a buoy1 which is preserved in the ,museum of ,stockholm4 ,it bears the message1 ,buoy ,no4 #d4 ,first to be thrown out4 #aath ,july1 #aj p4m41 ,greenwich mean time4 ,all well up till now4 ,we are pursuing our course at an altitude of about #bej metres ,direction at first northerly #aj degrees east2 later2 northerly #de degrees east4 ,four carrier pigeons were despatched at #e4dj p4m4 ,they flew westwards4 ,we are now above the ice1 which is very cut up in all directions4 ,weather splendid4 ,in excellent spirits4--,andree1 ,svedenborg1 ,frankel4 7,postscript later on47 ,above the clouds1 #g4de1 ,greenwich mean time4 ,according to ,reuter1 the ,anthropological and ,geological ,society at ,stockholm received the following telegram from a ship owner at ,mandal3--,captain ,hueland1 of the steamship ,vaagen who arrived there on ,monday morning1 reports that when off ,kola ,fjord1 ,iceland1 in #fe degrees #cd minutes north lat41 #ba degrees #bh minutes west long41 on ,may #adth he found a drifting buoy1 marked ',no4 #g4' ,inside the buoy was a capsule marked ',andree's ,polar ,expedition1' containing a slip of paper1 on which was given the following3 ',drifting ,buoy ,no4 #g4 ,this buoy was thrown out from ,andree's balloon on ,july #aath #ahig1 #aj4ee p4m41 ,greenwich mean time1 #hb degrees north lat41 #be degrees east lon4 ,we are at an altitude of #fjj metres4 ,all well4--,andree1 ,svedenborg1 ,frankel4' ,commenting on the first message1 ,mr4 ,percival ,spencer says3--,i cannot place reliance upon the accuracy of either the date or else the lat4 and long4 given1 as ,i am confident that the balloon would have travelled a greater distance in two days4 ,it should be noted that ,dane's ,island lies in #gi degrees #cj minutes north lat4 and #aj degrees #aj minutes east long4 ,mr4 ,spencer's opinion1 carefully considered and expressed eighteen months afterwards1 will be read with real interest3-- ,the distance from ,dane's ,island to the ,pole is about #gej miles1 and to ,alaska on the other side about #a1ejj miles4 ,the course of the balloon1 however1 was not direct to the ,pole1 but towards ,franz ,josef ,land 7about #fjj miles7 and to the ,siberian coast 7another #hjj miles74 ,judging from the description of the wind at the start1 and comparing it with my own ballooning experience1 ,i estimate its speed as #dj miles per hour1 and it will1 therefore1 be evident that a distance of #b1jjj miles would be covered in #ej hours1 that is two days and two hours after the start4 ,i regard all theories as to the balloon being capable of remaining in the air for a month as illusory4 ,no free balloon has ever remained aloft for more than #cf hours1 but with the favourable conditions at the northern regions 7where the sun does not set and where the temperature remains equable7 a balloon might remain in the air for double the length of time which ,i consider ample for the purpose of ,polar exploration4 ,a record of the direction of the wind was made after ,andree's departure1 and proved that there was a fluctuation in direction from ,s4,w4 to ,n4,w41 indicating that the voyagers may have been borne across towards ,siberia4 ,this1 however1 can be but surmise4 ,all aeronauts of experience know that it is an exceedingly difficult manoeuvre to keep a trail rope dragging on the ground if it is desirable to prevent contact with the earth on the one hand1 or on the other to avoid loss of gas4 ,a slight increase of temperature or drying off of condensed moisture may--indeed1 is sure to after a while--lift the rope off the ground1 in which case the balloon1 rising into upper levels1 may be borne away on currents which may be of almost any direction1 and of which the observer below may know nothing4 ,as to the actual divergence from the wind's direction which a trail rope and side sail might be hoped to effect1 it may be confidently stated that1 notwithstanding some wonderful accounts that have gone abroad1 it must not be relied on as commonly amounting to much more than one or1 at the most1 two points4 ,although it is to be feared that trustworthy information as to the ultimate destination of ,andree's balloon may never be gained1 yet we may safely state that his ever famous1 though regrettable1 voyage was the longest in duration ever attained4 ,at the end of #dh hours his vessel would seem to have been still well up and going strong4 ,the only other previous voyage that had in duration of travel approached this record was that made by ,m4 ,mallet1 in #ahib1 and maintained for #cf hours4 ,next we may mention that of ,m4 ,herve1 in #ahhf1 occupying #bd #a_/b hours1 which feat1 however1 was almost equal led by the great ,leipzig balloon in #ahig1 which1 with eight people in the car1 remained up for #bd #a_/d hours1 and did not touch earth till #a1jcb miles had been traversed4 ,the fabric of ,andree's balloon may not be considered to have been the best for such an exceptional purpose4 ,dismissing considerations of cost1 goldbeaters' skin would doubtless have been more suitable4 ,the military balloons at ,aldershot are made of this1 and one such balloon has been known to remain inflated for three months with very little loss4 ,it is conceivable1 therefore1 that the chances of the voyagers1 whose ultimate safety depended so largely upon the staying power of their aerial vessel1 might have been considerably increased4 ,one other expedient1 wholly impracticable1 but often seriously discussed1 may be briefly referred to1 namely1 the idea of taking up apparatus for pumping gas into metal receivers as the voyage proceeds1 in order to raise or lower a balloon1 and in this way to prolong its life4 ,mr4 ,wenham has investigated the point with his usual painstaking care1 and reduced its absurdity to a simple calculation1 which should serve to banish for good such a mere extravagant theory4 ,suppose1 he says1 the gas were compressed to one-twentieth part of its bulk1 which would mean a pressure within its receiver of #cjj lbs4 per square inch1 and that each receiver had a capacity of #a cubic foot1 while for safety sake it was made of steel plates one-twentieth of an inch thick1 then each receiver would weigh #aj lbs41 and to liberate #a1jjj feet clearly a weight of #ejj lbs4 would have to be taken up4 ,now1 when it is considered that #a1jjj cubic feet of hydrogen will only lift #gb lbs41 the scheme begins to look hope less enough4 ,but when the question of the pumping apparatus1 to be worked by hand1 is contemplated the difficulties introduced become yet more insuperable4 ,the only feasible suggestion with respect the use of compressed gas is that of taking on board charged cylinders under high pressure1 which1 after being discharged to supply the leakage of the balloon could1 in an uninhabited country1 be cast out as ballast last4 ,it will need no pointing out1 however1 that such an idea would be practically as futile as another which has gravely been recommended1 namely1 that of heating the gas of the balloon by a ,davy lamp1 so as to increase its buoyancy at will4 ,major ,baden-,powell has aptly described this as resembling an attempt to warm a large hall with a small spirit lamp4 ,in any future attempt to reach the ,pole by balloon it is not unreasonable to suppose that wireless telegraphy will be put in practice to maintain communication with the base4 ,the writer's personal experience of the possibilities afforded by this mode of communication1 yet in its infancy1 will be given4 ,,chapter ,,xxv4 ,,the ,,modern ,,airship--,,in ,,search ,,of ,,the ,,leonids4 ,in the autumn of #ahih the aeronautical world was interested to hear that a young ,brazilian1 ,m4 ,santos ,dumont1 had completed a somewhat novel dirigible balloon1 cylindrical in shape1 with conical ends1 #hc feet long by #ab feet in diameter1 holding #f1ejj cubic feet of gas1 and having a small compensating balloon of #hhj cubic feet capacity4 ,for a net was substituted a simple contrivance1 consisting of two side pockets1 running the length of the balloon1 and containing battens of wood1 to which were affixed the suspension cords1 bands being also sewn over the upper part of the balloon connecting the two pockets4 ,the most important novelty1 however1 was the introduction of a small petroleum motor similar to those used for motor tricycles4 ,the inventor ascended in this balloon1 inflated with pure hydrogen1 from the ,jardin d',acclimatation1 ,paris1 and circled several times round the large captive balloon in the ,gardens1 after which1 moving towards the ,bois de ,boulogne1 he made several sweeps of #ajj yards radius4 ,then the pump of the compensator caused the engine to stop1 and the machine1 partially collapsing1 fell to the ground4 ,santos ,dumont was somewhat shaken1 but announced his intention of making other trials4 ,in this bold and successful attempt there was clear indication of a fresh phase in the construction of the airship1 consisting in the happy adoption of the modern type of petroleum motor4 ,two other hying machines were heard of about this date1 one by ,professor ,giampietre1 of ,pavia1 cigar-shaped1 driven by screws1 and rigged with masts and sails4 ,the other1 which had been constructed and tested in strict privacy1 was the invention of a ,french engineer1 ,m4 ,ader1 and was imagined to imitate the essential structure of a bird4 ,two steam motors of #bj-;horse power supplied the power4 ,it was started by being run on the ground on small wheels attached to it1 and it was claimed that before a breakdown occurred the machine had actually raised itself into the air4 ,of ,santos ,dumont the world was presently to know more1 and the same must be said of another inventor1 ,dr4 ,barton1 of ,beckenham1 who shortly completed an airship model carrying aeroplanes and operated by clockwork4 ,in an early experiment this model travelled four miles in twenty-three minutes4 ,but another airship1 a true leviathan1 had been growing into stately and graceful proportions on the shores of the ,bodenzee in ,wurtemberg1 and was already on the eve of completion4 ,count ,zeppelin1 a lieut4-general in the ,german ,army1 who had seen service in the ,franco-,german ,war1 had for some years devoted his fortune and energy to the practical study of aerial navigation1 and had prosecuted experiments on a large scale4 ,eventually1 having formed a company with a large capital1 he was enabled to construct an airship which in size has been compared to a ,british man-of-war4 ,cigar-shaped1 its length was no less than #dbj feet1 and diameter #dj feet1 while its weight amounted to no more than #g1bej lbs4 ,the framework1 which for lightness had been made of aluminium1 was1 with the object of preventing all the gas collecting at one end of its elongated form1 subdivided into seventeen compartments1 each of these compartments containing a completely fitted gas balloon1 made of oiled cotton and marvellously gas tight4 ,a steering apparatus was placed both fore and aft1 and at a safe distance below the main structure were fixed1 also forward and aft1 on aluminium platforms1 two ,daimler motor engines of #af-;horse power1 working aluminium propellers of four blades at the rate of #a1jjj revolutions a minute4 ,finally1 firmly attached to the inner framework by rods of aluminium1 were two cars of the same metal1 furnished with buffer springs to break the force of a fall4 ,the trial trip was not made till the summer following--,june1 #aijj--;and1 in the meanwhile1 experiments had gone forward with another mode of flight1 terminating1 unhappily1 in the death of one of the most expert and ingenious of mechanical aeronauts4 ,mr4 ,percy ,s4 ,pilcher1 now thirty-three years of age1 having received his early training in the ,navy1 retired from the ,service to become a civil engineer1 and had been for some time a partner in the firm of ,wilson and ,pilcher4 ,for four or five years he had been experimenting in soaring flight1 using a ,lilienthal machine1 which he improved to suit his own methods4 ,among these was the device of rising off the ground by being rapidly towed by a line against the wind4 ,at the end of ,september he gave an exhibition at ,stamford ,park before ,lord ,bray and a select party of friends--this in spite of an unsuitable afternoon of unsteady wind and occasional showers4 ,a long towing line was provided1 which1 being passed round pulley blocks and dragged by a couple of horses1 was capable of being hauled in at high speed4 ,the first trial1 though ending in an accident1 was eminently satisfactory4 ,the apparatus1 running against the wind1 had risen some distance1 when the line broke1 yet the inventor descended slowly and safely with outstretched wings4 ,the next trial also commenced well1 with an easy rise to a height of some thirty feet4 ,at that point1 however1 the tail broke with a snap1 and the machine1 pitching over1 fell a complete wreck4 ,mr4 ,pilcher was found insensible1 with his thigh broken1 and though no other serious injury was apparent1 he succumbed two days afterwards without recovering consciousness4 ,it was surmised that shrinkage of the canvas of the tail1 through getting wet1 had strained and broken its bamboo stretcher4 ,this autumn died ,gaston ,tissandier1 at the age of fifty-six2 and in the month of ,december1 at a ripe old age1 while still in full possession of intellectual vigour1 ,mr4 ,coxwell somewhat suddenly passed away4 ,always keenly interested in the progress of aeronautics2 he had but recently1 in a letter to the ,standard1 proposed a well-considered and practical method of employing ,montgolfier reconnoitring balloons1 portable1 readily inflated1 and especially suited to the war in ,south ,africa4 ,perhaps the last letters of a private nature penned by ,mr4 ,coxwell were to the writer and his daughter1 full of friendly and valuable suggestion1 and more particularly commenting on a recent scientific aerial voyage1 which proved to be not only sensational1 but established a record in ,english ballooning4 ,the great train of the ,november meteors1 known as the ,leonids1 which at regular periods of thirty-three years had in the past encountered the earth's atmosphere1 was due1 and over-due4 ,the cause of this1 and of their finally eluding observation1 need only be very briefly touched on here4 ,the actual meteoric train is known to travel in an elongated ellipse1 the far end of which lies near the confines of the solar system1 while at a point near the hither end the earth's orbit runs slantingly athwart it1 forming1 as it were1 a level crossing common to the two orbits1 the earth taking some five or six hours in transit4 ,calculation shows that the meteor train is to be expected at this crossing every thirty-three and a third years1 while the train is extended to such an enormous length--taking more than a year to draw clear--that the earth must needs encounter it ere it gets by1 possibly even two years running4 ,there could be no absolute certainty about the exact year1 nor the exact night when the earth and the meteors would foregather1 owing to the uncertain disturbance which the latter must suffer from the pull of the planetary bodies in the long journey out and home again among them4 ,as is now known1 this disturbing effect had actually dispersed the train4 ,the shower1 which was well seen in #ahff1 was pretty confidently expected in #ahii1 and to guard against the mischance of cloudy weather1 it was arranged that the writer should1 on behalf of the ,times newspaper1 make an ascent on the right night to secure observations4 ,moreover1 it was arranged that he should have1 as chief assistant1 his own daughter1 an enthusiastic lady aeronaut1 who had also taken part in previous astronomical work4 ,unfortunately there were two nights1 those of ,november #adth and #aeth1 when the expected shower seemed equally probable1 and1 taking counsel with the best authorities in the astronomical world1 it seemed that the only course to avoid disappointment would be to have a balloon filled and moored in readiness for an immediate start1 either on the first night or on the second4 ,this settled the matter from the astronomical side1 but there was the aeronautical side also to be considered4 ,a balloon of #ef1jjj cubic feet capacity was the largest available for the occasion1 and a night ascent with three passengers and instruments would need plenty of lifting power to meet chance emergencies4 ,thus it seemed that a possible delay of forty-eight hours might entail a greater leakage of gas than could be afforded4 ,the leakage might be expected chiefly to occur at the valve in the head of the balloon1 it being extremely difficult to render any form of mechanical valve gas tight1 however carefully its joints be stopped with luting4 ,on this account1 therefore1 it was determined that the balloon should be fitted with what is known as a solid or rending valve1 consisting simply of balloon fabric tied hard and fast over the entire upper outlet1 after the fashion of a jam pot cover4 ,the outlet itself was a gaping hole of over #b feet across2 but by the time its covering had been carefully varnished over all leakage was sufficiently prevented1 the one drawback to this method being the fact that the liberation of gas now admitted of no regulation4 ,pulling the valve line would simply mean opening the entire wide aperture1 which could in no way be closed again4 ,the management of such a valve consists in allowing the balloon to sink spontaneously earthwards1 and when it has settled near the ground1 having chosen a desirable landing place1 to tear open the so-called valve once and for all4 ,this expedient1 dictated by necessity1 seeming sufficient for the purpose at hand1 preparations were proceeded with1 and1 under the management of ,mr4 ,stanley ,spencer1 who agreed to act as aeronaut1 a large balloon1 with solid valve1 was brought down to ,newbury gas works on ,november #adth1 and1 being inflated during the afternoon1 was full and made snug by sundown4 ,but as the meteor radiant would not be well above the horizon till after midnight1 the aeronautical party retired for refreshment1 and subsequently for rest1 when1 as the night wore on1 it became evident that1 though the sky remained clear1 there would be no meteor display that night4 ,the next day was overcast1 and by nightfall hopelessly so1 the clouds ever thickening1 with absence of wind or any indication which might give promise of a change4 ,thus by midnight it became impossible to tell whether any display were in progress or not4 ,under these circumstances1 it might have been difficult to decide when to make the start with the best show of reason4 ,clearly too early a start could not subsequently be rectified2 the balloon1 once off1 could not come back again2 while1 once liberated1 it would be highly unwise for it to remain aloft and hidden by clouds for more than some two hours1 lest it should be carried out to sea4 ,happily the right decision under these circumstances was perfectly clear4 ,other things being equal1 the best time would be about #d a4m41 by which period the moon1 then near the full1 would be getting low1 and the two hours of darkness left would afford the best seeing4 ,leaving1 then1 an efficient outlook on the balloon ground1 the party enjoyed for some hours the entertainment offered them by the ,newbury ,guildhall ,club1 and at #d a4m4 taking their seats in the car1 sailed up into the calm chilly air of the ,november night4 ,but the chilliness did not last for long4 ,a height of #a1ejj feet was read by the ,davy lamp1 and then we entered fog--warm1 wetting fog1 through which the balloon would make no progress in spite of a prodigal discharge of sand4 ,the fact was that the balloon1 which had become chilled through the night hours1 was gathering a great weight of moisture from condensation on its surface1 and when1 at last1 the whole depth of the cloud1 #a1ejj feet1 had been penetrated1 the chill of the upper air crippled the balloon and sent her plunging down again into the mist1 necessitating yet further expenditure of sand1 which by this time had amounted to no less than #c #a_/b cwt4 in twenty minutes4 ,and then at last we reached our level1 a region on the upper margin of the cloud floor1 where evaporation reduced the temperature1 that had recently been that of greenhouse warmth1 to intense cold4 ,that evaporation was going on around us on a gigantic scale was made very manifest4 ,the surface of the vast cloud floor below us was in a perfect turmoil1 like that of a troubled sea4 ,if the cloud surface could be compared to anything on earth it most resembled sea where waves are running mountains high4 ,at one moment we should be sailing over a trough1 wide and deep below us1 the next a mighty billow would toss itself aloft and vanish utterly into space4 ,everywhere wreaths of mist with ragged fringes were withering away into empty air1 and1 more remarkable yet1 was the conflict of wind which sent the cloud wrack flying simply in all directions4 ,for two hours now there was opportunity for observing at leisure all that could be made of the falling meteors4 ,there were a few1 and these1 owing to our clear1 elevated region1 were exceptionally bright4 ,the majority1 too1 were true ,leonids1 issuing from the radiant point in the ,sickle1 but these were not more numerous than may be counted on that night in any year1 and served to emphasise the fact that no real display was in progress4 ,the outlook was maintained1 and careful notes made for two hours1 at the end of which time the dawn began to break1 the stars went in1 and we were ready to pack up and come down4 ,but the point was that we were not coming down4 ,we were at that time1 #f a4m41 #d1jjj feet high1 and it needs no pointing out that at such an altitude it would have been madness to tear open our huge rending valve1 thus emptying the balloon of gas4 ,it may also be unnecessary to point out that in an ordinary afternoon ascent such a valve would be perfectly satisfactory1 for under these circumstances the sun presently must go down1 the air must grow chill1 and the balloon must come earthward1 allowing of an easy descent until a safe and suitable opportunity for rending the valve occurred2 but now we knew that conditions were reversed1 and that the sun was just going to rise4 ,and then it was we realised that we were caught in a trap4 ,from that moment it was painfully evident that we were powerless to act1 and were at the mercy of circumstances4 ,by this time the light was strong1 and1 being well above the tossing billows of mist1 we commanded an extended view on every side1 which revealed1 however1 only the upper unbroken surface of the dense cloud canopy that lay over all the ,british ,isles4 ,we could only make a rough guess as to our probable locality4 ,we knew that our course at starting lay towards the west1 and if we were maintaining that course a travel of scarcely more than sixty miles would carry us out to the open sea4 ,we had already been aloft for two hours1 and as we were at an altitude at which fast upper currents are commonly met with1 it was high time that1 for safety1 we should be coming down2 yet it was morally certain that it would be now many hours before our balloon would commence to descend of its own accord by sheer slow leakage of gas1 by which time1 beyond all reasonable doubt1 we must be carried far out over the ,atlantic4 ,all we could do was to listen intently for any sounds that might reach us from earth1 and assure us that we were still over the land2 and for a length of time such sounds were vouchsafed us--the bark of a dog1 the lowing of cattle1 the ringing trot of a horse on some hard road far down4 ,and then1 as we were expecting1 the sun climbed up into an unsullied sky1 and1 mounting by leaps and bounds1 we watched the cloud floor receding beneath us4 ,the effect was extremely beautiful4 ,a description written to the ,times the next morning1 while the impression was still fresh1 and from notes made at this period1 ran thus3--,away to an infinitely distant horizon stretched rolling billows of snowy whiteness1 broken up here and there into seeming icefields1 with huge fantastic hummocks4 ,elsewhere domes and spires reared themselves above the general surface1 or an isolated ,matterhorn towered into space4 ,in some quarters it was impossible to look without the conviction that we actually beheld the outline of lofty cliffs overhanging a none too distant sea4 ,shortly we began to hear loud reports overhead1 resembling small explosions1 and we knew what these were--the moist1 shrunken netting was giving out under the hot sun and yielding now and again with sudden release to the rapidly expanding gas4 ,it was1 therefore1 with grave concern1 but with no surprise1 that when we next turned to the aneroid we found the index pointing to #i1jjj feet1 and still moving upwards4 ,hour after hour passed by1 and1 sounds having ceased to reach us1 it remains uncertain whether or no we were actually carried out to sea and headed back again by contrary currents1 an experience with which aeronauts1 including the writer1 have been familiar2 but1 at length1 there was borne up to us the distant sound of heavy hammers and of frequent trains1 from which we gathered that we were probably over ,bristol1 and it was then that the thought occurred to my daughter that we might possibly communicate with those below with a view to succour4 ,this led to our writing the following message many times over on blank telegraph forms and casting them down3--,urgent4 ,large balloon from ,newbury travelling overhead above the clouds4 ,cannot descend4 ,telegraph to sea coast 7coast-guards7 to be ready to rescue4--,bacon and ,spencer4 ,while thus occupied we caught the sound of waves1 and the shriek of a ship's siren4 ,we were crossing a reach of the ,severn1 and most of our missives probably fell in the sea4 ,but over the estuary there must have been a cold upper current blowing1 which crippled our balloon1 for the aneroid presently told of a fall of #b1jjj feet4 ,it was now past noon1 and to us the turn of the tide was come4 ,very slowly1 and with strange fluctuations1 the balloon crept down till it reached and became enveloped in the cloud below1 and then the end was near4 ,the actual descent occupied nearly two hours1 and affords a curious study in aerostation4 ,the details of the balloon's dying struggles and of our own rough descent1 entailing the fracture of my daughter's arm1 are told in another volume499 ,we fell near ,neath1 ,glamorganshire1 only one and a half miles short of the sea1 completing a voyage which is a record in ,english ballooning--ten hours from start to finish4 99 ,by ,land and ,sky1 by the ,author4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi4 ,,recent ,,aeronautical ,,events4 ,the first trial of the ,zeppelin air ship was arranged to take place on ,june #cjth1 #aijj1 a day which1 from absence of wind1 was eminently well suited for the purpose2 but the inflation proved too slow a process1 and operations were postponed to the morrow4 ,the morrow1 however1 was somewhat windy1 causing delay1 and by the time all was in readiness darkness had set in and the start was once more postponed4 ,on the evening of the third day the monster craft was skilfully and successfully manoeuvred1 and1 rising with a very light wind1 got fairly away1 carrying ,count ,zeppelin and four other persons in the two cars4 ,drifting with the wind1 it attained a height of some #hjj or #ijj feet1 at which point the steering apparatus being brought into play it circled round and faced the wind1 when it remained stationary4 ,but not for long4 ,shortly it began to descend and1 sinking gradually1 gracefully1 and in perfect safety1 in about nine minutes it reached and rested on the water1 when it was towed home4 ,a little later in the month1 ,july1 another trial was made1 when a wind was blowing estimated at sixteen miles an hour4 ,as on the previous occasion1 the direct influence of the sun was avoided by waiting till evening hours4 ,it ascended at #h p4m41 and the engines getting to work it made a slow progress of about two miles an hour against the wind for about #c #a_/b miles1 when one of the rudders gave way1 and the machine was obliged to descend4 ,on the evening of ,october #bdth of the same year1 in very calm weather and with better hope1 another ascent was made4 ,on this occasion1 however1 success was frustrated by one of the rear rudders getting foul of the gear1 followed by the escape of gas from one of the balloons4 ,another and more successful trial took place in the same month1 again in calm atmosphere4 ,inferior gas was employed1 and it would appear that the vessel had not sufficient buoyancy4 ,it remained aloft for a period of twenty minutes1 during which it proved perfectly manageable1 making a graceful journey out and home1 and returning close to its point of departure4 ,this magnificent air ship1 the result of twenty years of experiment1 has since been abandoned and broken up2 yet the sacrifice has not been without result4 ,over and above the stimulus which ,count ,zeppelin's great endeavour has given to the aeronautical world1 two special triumphs are his4 ,he has shown balloonists how to make a perfectly gas-tight material1 and has raised powerful petroleum motors in a balloon with safety4 ,in the early part of #aijj it was announced that a member of the ,paris ,aero ,club1 who at the time withheld his name 7,m4 ,deutsch7 offered a prize of #ajj1jjj francs to the aeronaut who1 either in a balloon or flying machine1 starting from the grounds of the ,aero ,club at ,longchamps1 would make a journey round the ,eiffel ,tower1 returning to the starting place within half an hour4 ,the donor would withdraw his prize if not won within five years1 and in the meanwhile would pay #d1jjj francs annually towards the encouragement of worthy experimenters4 ,it was from this time that flying machines in great variety and goodly number began to be heard of1 if not actually seen4 ,one of the earliest to be announced in the ,press was a machine invented by the ,russian1 ,feedoroff1 and the ,frenchman1 ,dupont4 ,dr4 ,danilewsky came forward with a flying machine combining balloon and aeroplane1 the steering of which would be worked like a velocipede by the feet of the aeronaut4 ,mr4 ,p4 ,y4 ,alexander1 of ,bath1 who had long been an enthusiastic balloonist1 and who had devoted a vast amount of pains1 originality1 and engineering skill to the pursuit of aeronautics1 was at this time giving much attention to the flying machine1 and was1 indeed1 one of the assistants in the first successful launching of the ,zeppelin airship4 ,in concert with ,mr4 ,w4 ,g4 ,walker1 ,a4,m4,i4,c4,e41 ,mr4 ,alexander carried out some valuable and exhaustive experiments on the lifting power of air propellers1 #cj feet in diameter1 driven by a portable engine4 ,the results1 which were of a purely technical nature1 have been embodied in a carefully compiled memoir4 ,an air ship now appeared1 invented by ,m4 ,rose1 consisting of two elongated vessels filled with gas1 and carrying the working gear and car between them4 ,the machine was intentionally made heavier than air1 and was operated by a petrol motor of #ab-;horse power4 ,it was now that announcements began to be made to the effect that1 next to the ,zeppelin air ship1 ,m4 ,santos ,dumont's balloon was probably attracting most of the attention of experts4 ,the account given of this air vessel by the ,daily ,express was somewhat startling4 ,the balloon proper was compared to a large torpedo4 ,three feet beneath this hangs the gasoline motor which is to supply the power4 ,the propeller is #ab feet in diameter1 and is revolved so rapidly by the motor that the engine frequently gets red hot4 ,the only accommodation for the traveller is a little bicycle seat1 from which the aeronaut will direct his motor and steering gear by means of treadles4 ,then the inclination or declination of his machine must be noted on the spirit level at his side1 and the #bjj odd pounds of ballast must be regulated as the course requires4 ,a more detailed account of this navigable balloon was furnished by a member of the ,paris ,aero ,club4 ,from this authority we learn that the capacity of the balloon was #aj1gjj cubic feet4 ,it contained an inner balloon and an air fan1 the function of which was to maintain the shape of the balloon when meeting the wind1 and the whole was operated by a #aj-;horse power motor capable of working the screw at #ajj revolutions per minute4 ,but before the aerial exploits of ,santos ,dumont had become famous1 balloons had again claimed public attention4 ,on ,august #ast ,captain ,spelterini1 with two companions1 taking a balloon and #ahj cylinders of hydrogen to the top of the ,rigi and ascending thence1 pursued a north-east course1 across extensive and beautiful tracts of icefield and mountain fastnesses unvisited by men4 ,the descent1 which was difficult and critical1 was happily manoeuvred4 ,this took place on the ,gnuetseven1 a peak over #e1jjj feet high1 the plateau on which the voyagers landed being described as only #ej yards square1 surrounded by precipices4 ,on the #ajth of ,september following the writer was fortunate in carrying out some wireless telegraphy experiments in a balloon1 the success of which is entirely due to the unrivalled skill of ,mr4 ,nevil ,maskelyne1 ,f4,r4,a4,s41 and to his clever adaptation of the special apparatus of his own invention to the exigencies of a free balloon4 ,the occasion was the garden party at the ,bradford meeting of the ,british ,association1 ,admiral ,sir ,edmund ,fremantle taking part in the voyage1 with ,mr4 ,percival ,spencer in charge4 ,the experiment was to include the firing of a mine in the grounds two minutes after the balloon had left1 and this item was entirely successful4 ,the main idea was to attempt to establish communication between a base and a free balloon retreating through space at a height beyond practicable gun shot4 ,the wind was fast and squally1 and the unavoidable rough jolting which the car received at the start put the transmitting instrument out of action4 ,the messages1 however1 which were sent from the grounds at ,lister ,park were received and watched by the occupants of the car up to a distance of twenty miles1 at which point the voyage terminated4 ,on ,september #cjth1 and also on ,october #ith1 of this year1 took place two principal balloon races from ,vincennes in connection with the ,paris ,exposition4 ,in the first race1 among those who competed were ,m4 ,jacques ,faure1 the ,count de la ,vaulx1 and ,m4 ,jacques ,balsan4 ,the ,count was the winner1 reaching ,wocawek1 in ,russian ,poland1 a travel of #gjf miles1 in #ba hours #cd minutes4 ,m4 ,balsan was second1 descending near ,dantzig in ,east ,prussia1 #geg miles1 in #bb hours4 ,m4 ,jacques ,faure reached ,mamlitz1 in ,east ,prussia1 a distance of #gec miles4 ,in the final race the ,count de la ,vaulx made a record voyage of #a1aic miles1 reaching ,korosticheff1 in ,russia1 in #ce hours #de minutes1 attaining a maximum altitude of #ah1haj feet4 ,m4 ,j4 ,balsan reached a greater height1 namely1 #ba1ehb feet1 travelling to ,rodom1 in ,russia1 a distance of #hdc miles1 in #bg hours #be minutes4 ,some phenomenal altitudes were attained at this time4 ,in ,september1 #ahih1 ,dr4 ,berson1 of ,berlin1 ascended from the ,crystal ,palace in a balloon inflated with hydrogen1 under the management of ,mr4 ,stanley ,spencer1 oxygen being an essential part of the equipment4 ,the start was made at #e p4m41 and the balloon at first drifted south-east1 out over the mouth of the ,thames1 until at an altitude of #aj1jjj feet an upper current changed the course to southwest1 the balloon mounting rapidly till #bc1jjj feet was reached1 at which height the coast of ,france was plainly seen4 ,at #be1jjj feet both voyagers were gasping1 and compelled to inhale oxygen4 ,at #bg1ejj feet1 only four bags of ballast being left1 the descent was commenced1 and a safe landing was effected at ,romford4 ,subsequently ,dr4 ,berson1 in company with ,dr4 ,suring1 ascending from ,berlin1 attained an altitude of #cd1jjj feet4 ,at #cj1jjj feet the aeronauts were inhaling oxygen1 and before reaching their highest point both had for a considerable time remained unconscious4 ,in #aija a new aeroplane flying machine began to attract attention1 the invention of ,herr ,kress4 ,a novel feature of the machine was a device to render it of avail for ,arctic travel4 ,in shape it might be compared to an iceboat with two keels and a long stem1 the keels being adapted to run on ice or snow1 while the boat would float on water4 ,power was to be derived from a petrol motor4 ,at the same period ,m4 ,henry ,sutor was busy on ,lake ,constance with an air ship designed also to float on water4 ,then ,mr4 ,buchanan followed with a fish-shaped vessel1 one of the most important specialities of which consisted in side propellers1 the surfaces of which were roughened with minute diagonal grooves to effect a greater grip on the air4 ,no less original was the air ship1 #ajj feet long1 and carrying #ah1jjj cubic feet of gas1 which ,mr4 ,w4 ,beedle was engaged upon4 ,in this machine1 besides the propellers for controlling the horizontal motion1 there was one to regulate vertical motion1 with a view of obviating expenditure of gas or ballast4 ,but by this time ,m4 ,santos ,dumont1 pursuing his hobby with unparalleled perseverance1 had built in succession no less than six air ships1 meeting with no mean success1 profiting by every lesson taught by failures1 and making light of all accidents1 great or small4 ,on ,july #aeth1 #aija1 he made a famous try for the ,deutsch prize in a cigar-shaped balloon1 #aaj feet long1 #ai1jjj cubic feet capacity1 carrying a ,daimler oil motor of #ae-;horse power4 ,the day was not favourable1 but1 starting from the ,parc d',aerostation1 he was abreast of the ,eiffel ,tower in thirteen minutes1 circling round which1 and battling against a head wind1 he reached the grounds of the ,aero ,club in #da minutes from the start1 or #aa minutes late by the conditions of the prize4 ,a cylinder had broken down1 and the balance of the vessel had become upset4 ,within a fortnight--,july #bith--in favourable weather1 he made another flight1 lasting fifteen minutes1 at the end of which he had returned to his starting ground4 ,then on ,august #hth a more momentous attempt came off4 ,sailing up with a rapid ascent1 and flying with the wind1 ,santos ,dumont covered the distance to the ,tower in five minutes only1 and gracefully swung round2 but1 immediately after1 the wind played havoc1 slowing down the motor1 at the same time damaging the balloon1 and causing an escape of gas4 ,on this ,santos ,dumont1 ascending higher into the sky1 quitted the car1 and climbed along the keel to inspect1 and1 if possible1 rectify the motor1 but with little success4 ,the balloon was emptying1 and the machine pitched badly1 till a further rent occurred1 when it commenced falling hopelessly and with a speed momentarily increasing4 ,slanting over a roof1 the balloon caught a chimney and tore asunder2 but the wreck1 also catching1 held fast1 while the car hung helplessly down a blank wall4 ,in this perilous predicament great coolness and agility alone averted disaster1 till firemen were able to come to the rescue4 ,the air ship was damaged beyond repair1 but by ,september #fth another was completed1 and on trial appeared to work well until1 while travelling at speed1 it was brought up and badly strained by the trail rope catching in trees4 ,early in the next month the young ,brazilian was aloft again1 with weather conditions entirely in his favour2 but again certain minor mishaps prevented his next struggle for the prize1 which did not take place till the #aith4 ,on this day a light cross wind was blowing1 not sufficient1 however1 seriously to influence the first stage of the time race1 and the outward journey was accomplished with a direct flight in nine minutes4 ,on rounding the tower1 however1 the wind began to tell prejudicially1 and the propeller became deranged4 ,on this1 letting his vessel fall off from the wind1 ,santos ,dumont crawled along the framework till he reached the motor1 which he succeeded in again setting in working order1 though not without a delay of several minutes and some loss of ground4 ,from that point the return journey was accomplished in eight minutes1 and the race was1 at the time1 declared lost by #dj seconds only4 ,the most important and novel feature in the air ships constructed by ,santos ,dumont was the internal ballonet1 inflated automatically by a ventilator1 the expedient being designed to preserve the shape of the main balloon itself while meeting the wind4 ,on the whole1 it answered well1 and took the place of the heavy wire cage used by ,zeppelin4 ,m4 de ,fonvielle1 commenting on the achievements of ,santos ,dumont1 wrote3--,it does not appear that he has navigated his balloon against more than very light winds1 but in his machinery he has shown such attention to detail that it may reasonably be expected that if he continues to increase his motive power he will1 ere long1 exceed past performances4 ,mr4 ,chanute has a further word to say about the possibility of making balloons navigable4 ,he considers that their size will have to be great to the verge of impracticability and the power of the motor enormous in proportion to its weight4 ,as to flying machines1 properly so called1 he calculates the best that has been done to be the sustaining of from #bg lbs4 to #ee lbs4 per horse power by impact upon the air4 ,but ,mr4 ,chanute also argues that the equilibrium is of prime importance1 and on this point there could scarcely be a greater authority4 ,no one of living men has given more attention to the problem of soaring1 and it is stated that he has had about a thousand slides made by assistants1 with different types of machine1 and all without the slightest accident4 ,many other aerial vessels might be mentioned4 ,mr4 ,t4 ,h4 ,bastin1 of ,clapham1 has been engaged for many years on a machine which should imitate bird flight as nearly as this may be practicable4 ,baron ,bradsky aims at a navigable balloon on an ambitious scale4 ,m4 ,tatin is another candidate for the ,deutsch prize4 ,of ,dr4 ,barton's air ship more is looked for1 as being designed for the ,war ,office4 ,it is understood that the official requirements demand a machine which1 while capable of transporting a man through the air at a speed of #ac miles an hour1 can remain fully inflated for #dh hours4 ,one of the most sanguine1 as well as enterprising1 imitators of ,santos ,dumont was a fellow countryman1 ,auguste ,severo4 ,of his machine during construction little could be gathered1 and still less seen1 from the fact that the various parts were being manufactured at different workshops1 but it was known to be of large size and to be fitted with powerful motors4 ,this was an ill-fated vessel4 ,at an early hour on ,may #abth of this year1 #aijb1 all ,paris was startled by a report that ,m4 ,severo and his assistant1 ,m4 ,sachet had been killed while making a trial excursion4 ,it appears that at daybreak it had been decided that the favourable moment for trial had arrived4 ,the machinery was got ready1 and with little delay the air vessel was dismissed and rose quietly and steadily into the calm sky4 ,the ,daily ,mail gives the following account of what ensued3-- ,for the first few minutes all went well1 and the motor seemed to be working satisfactorily4 ,the air ship answered the helm readily1 and admiring exclamations rose from the crowd4444 ,but as the vessel rose higher she was seen to fall off from the wind1 while the aeronauts could be seen vainly endeavouring to keep her head on4 ,then ,m4 ,severo commenced throwing out ballast4444 ,all this time the ship was gradually soaring higher and higher until1 just as it was over the ,montparnasse ,cemetery1 at the height of #b1jjj feet1 a sheet of flame was seen to shoot up from one of the motors1 and instantly the immense silk envelope containing #i1jjj cubic feet of hydrogen was enveloped in leaping tongues of fire4444 ,as soon as the flames came in contact with the gas a tremendous explosion followed1 and in an instant all that was left of the air ship fell to the earth4 ,both aeronauts were dashed to pieces4 ,it was thought that the fatality was caused through faulty construction1 the escape valve for the gas being situated only about nine feet from the motor4 ,it was announced by ,count de la ,vaulx that during the summer of #aija he would attempt to cross the ,mediterranean by a balloon1 provisioned for three weeks1 maintaining communication with the coast during his voyage by wireless telegraphy and other methods of signalling4 ,he was to make use of the ,herve ,deviator1 or steering apparatus1 which may be described as a series of cupshaped plates dipping in the water at the end of a trail rope4 ,by means of controlling cords worked from the car1 the whole series of plates could be turned at an angle to the direction of the wind1 by which the balloon's course would be altered4 ,count de la ,vaulx attempted this grand journey on ,october #abth1 starting from ,toulon with the intention of reaching ,algiers1 taking the precaution1 however1 of having a cruiser in attendance4 ,when fifty miles out from ,marseilles a passing steamer received from the balloon the signal1 ,all's well2 but the wind had veered round to the east1 and1 remaining persistently in this quarter1 the ,count abandoned his venture1 and1 signalling to the cruiser1 succeeded in alighting on her deck1 not1 however1 before he had completed the splendid and record voyage of #da hours' duration4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii4 ,,the ,,possibilities ,,of ,,balloons ,,in ,,warfare4 ,clearly the time has not yet arrived when the flying machine will be serviceable in war4 ,yet we are not without those theorisers who1 at the present moment1 would seriously propose schemes for conveying dynamite and other explosives by air ship1 or dropping them over hostile forces or fortresses1 or even fleets at sea4 ,they go yet further1 and gravely discuss the point whether such warfare would be legitimate4 ,we1 however1 may say at once1 emphatically1 that any such scheme is simply impracticable4 ,it must be abundantly evident that1 so far1 no form of dirigible air ship exists which could be relied on to carry out any required manoeuvre in such atmospheric conditions as generally prevail4 ,if1 even in calm and favourable weather1 more often than not motors break down1 or gear carries away1 what hope is there for any aerial craft which would attempt to battle with such wind currents as commonly blow aloft8 ,and when we turn to the balloon proper1 are chances greatly improved8 ,the eminently practical aeronaut1 ,john ,wise1 as was told in ,chapter ,,xii41 prepared a scheme for the reduction of ,vera ,cruz by the agency of a balloon4 ,let us glance at it4 ,a single balloon was to suffice1 measuring #ajj feet in diameter1 and capable of raising in the gross #cj1jjj lbs4 ,to manoeuvre this monstrous engine he calculates he would require a cable five miles long1 by means of which he hoped1 in some manner1 to work his way directly over the fortress1 and to remain poised at that point at the height of a mile in the sky4 ,once granted that he could arrive and maintain himself at that position1 the throwing out of combustibles would be simple1 though even then the spot where they would alight after the drop of a mile would be by no means certain4 ,it is also obvious that a vast amount of gas would have to be sacrificed to compensate for the prodigal discharge of ballast in the form of missiles4 ,the idea of manoeuvring a balloon in a wind1 and poising it in the manner suggested1 is1 of course1 preposterous2 and when one considers the attempt to aim bombs from a moving balloon high in air the case becomes yet more absurd4 ,any such missile would partake of the motion of the balloon itself1 and it would be impossible to tell where it would strike the earth4 ,to give an example which is often enough tried in balloon travel when the ground below is clear4 ,a glass bottle 7presumably empty7 is cast overboard and its fall watched4 ,it is seen not to be left behind1 but to keep pace with the balloon1 shrinking gradually to an object too small to be discerned1 except when every now and then a ray of sunlight reflected off it reveals it for a moment as it continues to plunge downwards4 ,after a very few seconds the impression is that it is about to reach the earth1 and the eye forms a guess at some spot which it will strike2 but the spot is quickly passed1 and the bottle travels far beyond across a field1 over the further fence1 and vastly further yet2 indeed1 inasmuch as to fall a mile in air a heavy body may take over twenty seconds--and twenty seconds is long to those who watch--it is often impossible to tell to two or three fields where it will finally settle4 ,all this while the risk that a balloon would run of being riddled by bullets1 shrapnel1 or pom-poms has not been taken into account1 and as to the estimate of this risk there is some difference of opinion4 ,the balloon corps and the artillery apparently approach the question with different bias4 ,on the one hand1 it is stated with perfect truth that a free balloon1 which is generally either rising or falling1 as well as moving across country1 is a hard object to hit1 and a marksman would only strike it with a chance or blundering shot2 but1 on the other hand let us take the following report of three years ago4 ,the ,german artillery had been testing the efficiency of a quick-firing gun when used against a balloon1 and they decided that the latter would have no chance of escape except at night4 ,a ,german kite-balloon was kept moving at an altitude of #fjj metres1 and the guns trained upon it were distant #c1jjj metres4 ,it was then stated that after the third discharge of the rapid firing battery the range was found1 when all was at once over with the balloon2 for1 not only was it hit with every discharge1 but it was presently set on fire and annihilated4 ,but1 in any case1 the antique mode of keeping a balloon moored at any spot as a post of observation must be abandoned in modern warfare4 ,major ,baden-,powell1 speaking from personal experience in ,south ,africa1 has shown how dangerous1 or else how useless1 such a form of reconnaissance has become4 ,i remember1 he says1 at the battle of ,magersfontein my company was lying down in extended order towards the left of our line4 ,we were perfectly safe from musketry fire1 as we lay1 perhaps1 two miles from the ,boer trenches1 which were being shelled by some of our guns close by4 ,the enemy's artillery was practically silent4 ,presently1 on looking round1 ,i descried our balloon away out behind us about two miles off4 ,then she steadily rose and made several trips to a good height1 but what could be seen from that distance8 ,when a large number of our troops were ranged up within #hjj yards of the trenches1 and many more at all points behind them1 what useful information could be obtained by means of the balloon four miles off8 ,the same eminent authority insists on the necessity of an observing war balloon making short ascents4 ,the balloon1 in his opinion1 should be allowed to ascend rapidly to its full height1 and with as little delay as possible be hauled down again4 ,under these conditions it may then be well worth testing whether the primitive form of balloon1 the ,montgolfier1 might not be the most valuable4 ,instead of being made1 as the war balloon is now1 of fragile material1 and filled with costly gas difficult to procure1 and which has to be conveyed in heavy and cumbersome cylinders1 a hot air balloon could be rapidly carried by hand anywhere where a few men could push their way4 ,it is of strong material1 readily mended if torn1 and could be inflated for short ascents1 if not by mere brush wood1 then by a portable blast furnace and petroleum4 ,but there is a further use for balloons in warfare not yet exploited4 ,the ,siege of ,paris showed the utility of free balloons1 and occasions arise when their use might be still further extended4 ,the writer pointed out that it might have been very possible for an aeronaut of experience1 by choosing the right weather and the right position along the ,british lines1 to have skilfully manoeuvred a free balloon by means of upper currents1 so as to convey all-important intelligence to besieged ,mafeking1 and he proved that it would have sufficed if the balloon could have been tacked across the sky to within some fifteen miles of the desired goal4 ,the mode of signalling which he proposed was by means of a collapsing drum1 an instrument of occasional use in the ,navy4 ,a modification of this instrument1 as employed by the writer1 consisted of a light1 spherical1 drum-shaped frame of large size1 which1 when covered with dark material and hung in the clear below the car of a lofty balloon1 could be well seen either against blue sky or grey at a great distance4 ,the so-called drum could1 by a very simple contrivance1 readily worked from the car1 be made to collapse into a very inconspicuous object1 and thus be capable of displaying ,morse ,code signals4 ,a long pause with the drum extended--like the long wave of a signalling flag--would denote a dash1 and a short pause a dot1 and these motions would be at once intelligible to anyone acquainted with the now universal ,morse ,code system4 ,provided with an apparatus of the kind1 the writer made an ascent from ,newbury at a time when the military camps were lying on ,salisbury ,plain at a distance of nearly twenty miles to the south-west4 ,the ground wind up to #b1ejj feet on starting was nearly due north1 and would have defeated the attempt2 again1 the air stream blowing above that height was nearly due east1 which again would have proved unsuitable4 ,but it was manifestly possible to utilise the two currents1 and with good luck to zig-zag one's course so as to come within easy signalling distance of the various camps2 and1 as a matter of fact1 we actually passed immediately over ,bulford ,camp1 with which we exchanged signals1 while two other camps lay close to right and left of us4 ,fortune favouring us1 we had actually hit our mark1 though it would have been sufficient for the experiment had our course lain within ten miles right or left4 ,yet a further use for the balloon in warfare remains untried in this country4 ,acting under the advice of experts in the ,service1 the writer1 in the early part of the present year1 suggested to the ,admiralty the desirability of experimenting with balloons as a means of detecting submarine engines of war4 ,it is well known that reefs and shoals can generally be seen from a cliff or mast head far more clearly than from the deck or other position near the surface of the water4 ,would not1 then1 a balloon1 if skilfully manoeuvred1 serve as a valuable post of observation8 ,the ,admiralty1 in acknowledging the communication1 promised to give the matter their attention2 but by the month of ,june the ,press had announcements of how the self-same experiments had been successfully carried through by ,french authorities1 while a few days later the ,admiralty wrote1 ,for the present no need is seen for the use of a captive balloon to detect submarines4 ,among many and varied ballooning incidents which have occurred to the writer1 there are some which may not unprofitably be compared with certain experiences already recorded of other aeronauts4 ,thunderstorms1 as witnessed from a balloon1 have already been casually described1 and it may reasonably be hoped that the observations which have1 under varying circumstances1 been made at high altitudes may throw some additional light on this familiar1 though somewhat perplexing1 phenomenon4 ,to begin with1 it seems a moot point whether a balloon caught in a thunderstorm is1 or is not1 in any special danger of being struck4 ,it has been argued that immunity under such circumstances must depend upon whether a sufficiently long time has elapsed since the balloon left the earth to allow of its becoming positively electrified by induction from the clouds or by rain falling upon its surface4 ,but there are many other points to be considered4 ,there is the constant escape of gas from the mouth2 there is the mass of pointed metal in the anchor2 and1 again1 it is conceivable that a balloon rapidly descending out of a thunderstorm might carry with it a charge residing on its moistened surface which might manifest itself disastrously as the balloon reached the earth4 ,instances seem to have been not infrequent of balloons encountering thunderstorms2 but1 unfortunately1 in most cases the observers have not had any scientific training1 or the accounts which are to hand are those of the type of journalist who is chiefly in quest of sensational copy4 ,thus there is an account from ,america of a ,professor ,king who made an ascent from ,burlington1 ,iowa1 just as a thunderstorm was approaching1 with the result that1 instead of scudding away with the wind before the storm1 he was actually1 as if by some attraction1 drawn into it4 ,on this his aim was to pierce through the cloud above1 and then follows a description which it is hard to realise3--,there came down in front of him1 and apparently not more than #ej feet distant1 a grand discharge of electricity4 ,then he feels the car lifted1 the gas suddenly expands to overflowing1 and the balloon is hurled through the cloud with inconceivable velocity1 this happening several times1 with tremendous oscillations of the car1 until the balloon is borne to earth in a torrent of rain4 ,we fancy that many practical balloonists will hardly endorse this description4 ,but we have another1 relating to one of the most distinguished aeronauts1 ,m4 ,eugene ,godard1 who1 in an ascent with local journalists1 was caught in a thunderstorm4 ,here we are told--presumably by the journalists--that twice the lightning flashed within a few yards of the terror-stricken crew4 ,once again1 in an ascent at ,derby1 a spectator writes3--,the lightning played upon the sphere of the balloon1 lighting it up and making things visible through it4 ,this1 however1 one must suppose1 can hardly apply to the balloon when liberated4 ,but a graphic description of a very different character given in the ,quarterly ,journal of the ,royal ,meteorological ,society for ,january1 #aija1 is of real value4 ,it appears that three lieutenants of the ,prussian ,balloon ,corps took charge of a balloon that ascended at ,berlin1 and1 when at a height of #b1cjj feet1 became enveloped in the mist1 through which only occasional glimpses of earth were seen4 ,at this point a sharp1 crackling sound was heard at the ring1 like the sparking of a huge electrical machine1 and1 looking up1 the voyagers beheld sparks apparently some half-inch thick1 and over two feet in length1 playing from the ring4 ,thunder was heard1 but--and this may have significance--only before and after the above phenomenon4 ,another instructive experience is recorded of the younger ,green in an ascent which he made from ,frankfort-on-the-,maine4 ,on this occasion he relates that he encountered a thunderstorm1 and at a height of #d1djj feet found himself at the level where the storm clouds were discharging themselves in a deluge4 ,he seems to have had no difficulty in ascending through the storm into the clear sky above1 where a breeze from another quarter quickly carried him away from the storm centre4 ,this co-existence1 or conflict of opposite currents1 is held to be the common characteristic1 if not the main cause1 of thunderstorms1 and tallies with the following personal experience4 ,it was in typical ,july weather of #aijj that the writer and his son1 accompanied by ,admiral ,sir ,edmund ,fremantle and ,mr4 ,percival ,spencer1 made an evening ascent from ,newbury4 ,it had been a day of storms1 but about #e p4m41 after what appeared to be a clearing shower1 the sky brightened1 and we sailed up into a cloudless heaven4 ,the wind1 at #c1jjj feet1 was travelling at some thirty miles an hour1 and ere the distance of ten miles had been covered a formidable thunder pack was seen approaching and coming up dead against the wind4 ,nothing could be more evident than that the balloon was travelling rapidly with a lower wind1 while the storm was being borne equally rapidly on an upper and diametrically opposite current4 ,it proved one of the most severe thunderstorms remembered in the country4 ,it brooded for five hours over ,devizes1 a few miles ahead4 ,a homestead on our right was struck and burned to the ground1 while on our left two soldiers were killed on ,salisbury ,plain4 ,the sky immediately overhead was1 of course1 hidden by the large globe of the balloon1 but around and beneath us the storm seemed to gather in a blue grey mist1 which quickly broadened and deepened till1 almost before we could realise it1 we found ourselves in the very heart of the storm1 the lightning playing all around us1 and the sharp hail stinging our faces4 ,the countrymen below described the balloon as apparently enveloped by the lightning1 but with ourselves1 though the flashes were incessant1 and on all sides1 the reverberations of the thunder were not remarkable1 being rather brief explosions in which they resembled the thunder claps not infrequently described by travellers on mountain heights4 ,the balloon was now descending from a double cause3 the weight of moisture suddenly accumulated on its surface1 and the very obvious downrush of cold air that accompanied the storm of pelting hail4 ,with a very limited store of ballast1 it seemed impossible to make a further ascent1 nor was this desirable4 ,the signalling experiments on which we were intent could not be carried on in such weather4 ,the only course was to descend1 and though this was not at once practicable1 owing to ,savernake ,forest being beneath us1 we effected a safe landing in the first available clearing4 ,as has been mentioned1 ,mr4 ,glaisher and other observers have recorded several remarkable instances of opposite wind currents being met with at moderate altitudes4 ,none1 however1 can have been more noteworthy or surprising than the following experience ,of the writer on ,whit ,monday of #ahii4 ,the ascent was under an overcast sky1 from the ,crystal ,palace at #c p4m41 at which hour a cold drizzle was settling in with a moderate breeze from the east4 ,thus1 starting from the usual filling ground near the north tower1 the balloon sailed over the body of the ,palace1 and thence over the suburbs towards the west till lost in the mist4 ,we then ascended through #a1ejj feet of dense1 wetting cloud1 and1 emerging in bright sunshine1 continued to drift for two hours at an average altitude of some #c1jjj feet2 #a1jjj feet below us was the ill-defined1 ever changing upper surface of the dense cloud floor1 and it was no longer possible to determine our course1 which we therefore assumed to have remained unchanged4 ,at length1 however1 as a measure of prudence1 we determined to descend through the clouds sufficiently to learn something of our whereabouts1 which we reasonably expected to be somewhere in ,surrey or ,berks4 ,on emerging1 however1 below the cloud1 the first object that loomed out of the mist immediately below us was a cargo vessel1 in the rigging of which our trail rope was entangling itself4 ,only by degrees the fact dawned upon us that we were in the estuary of the ,thames1 and beating up towards ,london once again with an cast wind4 ,thus it became evident that at the higher level1 unknown to ourselves1 we had been headed back on our course1 for two hours1 by a wind diametrically opposed to that blowing on the ground4 ,two recent developments of the hot-air war balloon suggest great possibilities in the near future4 ,one takes the form of a small captive1 carrying aloft a photographic camera directed and operated electrically from the ground4 ,the other is a self-contained passenger balloon of large dimensions1 carrying in complete safety a special petroleum burner of great power4 ,these new and important departures are mainly due to the mechanical genius of ,mr4 ,j4 ,n4 ,maskelyne1 who has patented and perfected them in conjunction with the writer4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii4 ,,the ,,constitution ,,of ,,the ,,air4 ,some fair idea of the conditions prevailing in the upper air may have been gathered from the many and various observations already recorded4 ,stating the case broadly1 we may assert that the same atmospheric changes with which we are familiar at the level of the earth are to be found also at all accessible heights1 equally extensive and equally sudden4 ,standing on an open heath on a gusty day1 we may often note the rhythmic buffeting of the wind1 resembling the assault of rolling billows of air4 ,the evidence of these billows has been actually traced far aloft in balloon travel1 when aeronauts1 looking down on a wind-swept surface of cloud1 have observed this surface to be thrown into a series of rolls of vapour1 which were but vast and veritable waves of air4 ,the interval between successive crests of these waves has on one occasion been estimated at approximately half a mile4 ,we have seen how these air streams sometimes hold wide and independent sway at different levels4 ,we have seen1 too1 how they sometimes meet and mingle1 not infrequently attended with electrical disturbance ,through broad drifts of air minor air streams would seem often literally to thread their way1 breaking up into filaments or wandering rills of air4 ,in the voyage across ,salisbury ,plain lately described1 while the balloon was being carried with the more sluggish current1 a number of small parachutes were dropped out at frequent intervals and carefully watched4 ,these would commonly attend the balloon for a little while1 until1 getting into some minor air stream1 they would suddenly and rapidly diverge at such wide angles as to suggest that crossing our actual course there were side paths1 down which the smaller bodies became wafted4 ,on another occasion the writer met with strongly marked and altogether exceptional evidence of the vehemence and persistence of these minor aerial streamlets4 ,it was on an occasion in ,april weather1 when a heavy overcast sky blotted out the upper heavens4 ,in the cloud levels the wind was somewhat sluggish1 and for an hour we travelled at an average speed of a little over twenty miles an hour1 never higher than #c1jjj feet4 ,at this point1 while flying over ,hertfordshire1 we threw out sufficient ballast to cause the balloon to rise clear of the hazy lower air1 and coming under the full influence of the sun1 then in the meridian1 we shot upwards at considerable speed1 and soon attained an altitude of three miles4 ,but for a considerable portion of this climb--while1 in fact1 we were ascending through little less than a mile of our upward course--we were assailed by impetuous cross currents1 which whistled through car and rigging and smote us fairly on the cheek4 ,it was altogether a novel experience1 and the more remarkable from the fact that our main onward course was not appreciably diverted4 ,then we got above these currents1 and remained at our maximum level1 while we floated1 still at only a moderate speed1 the length of a county4 ,the descent then began1 and once again1 while we dropped through the same disturbed region1 the same far-reaching and obtrusive cross-current assailed us4 ,it was quite obvious that the vehement currents were too slender to tell largely upon the huge surface of the balloon1 as it was being swept steadily onwards by the main wind1 which never varied in direction from ground levels up to the greatest height attained4 ,this experience is but confirmation of the story of the wind told by the wind gauges on the ,forth ,bridge4 ,here the maximum pressure measured on the large gauge of #cjj square feet is commonly considerably less than that on the smaller gauge1 suggesting that the latter must be due to threads of air of limited area and high velocity4 ,further and very valuable light is thrown on the peculiar ways of the wind1 now being considered1 by ,professor ,langley in the special researches of his to which reference has already been made4 ,this eminent observer and mathematician1 suspecting that the old-fashioned instruments1 which only told what the wind had been doing every hour1 or at best every minute1 gave but a most imperfect record1 constructed delicate gauges1 which would respond to every impulse and give readings from second to second4 ,in this way he established the fact that the wind1 far from being a body of even approximate uniformity1 is under most ordinary conditions irregular almost beyond conception4 ,further1 that the greater the speed the greater the fluctuations1 so that a high wind has to be regarded as air moving in a tumultuous mass1 the velocity at one moment perhaps forty miles an hour1 then diminishing to an almost instantaneous calm1 and then resuming4 ,in fact1 in the very nature of the case1 wind is not the result of one simple cause1 but of an infinite number of impulses and changes1 perhaps long passed1 which are preserved in it1 and which die only slowly away4 ,when we come to take observations of temperature we find the conditions in the atmosphere above us to be at first sight not a little complex1 and altogether different in day and night hours4 ,from observations already recorded in this volume--notably those of ,gay ,lussac1 ,welsh1 and ,glaisher--it has been made to appear that1 in ascending into the sky in daytime1 the temperature usually falls according to a general law2 but there are found regions where the fall of temperature becomes arrested1 such regions being commonly1 though by no means invariably1 associated with visible cloud4 ,it is probable1 however1 that it would be more correct not to interpret the presence of cloud as causing manifestation of cold1 but rather to regard the meeting of warm and cold currents as the cause of cloud4 ,the writer has experimented in the upper regions with a special form of air thermometer of great sensibility1 designed to respond rapidly to slight variations of temperature4 ,testing this instrument on one occasion in a room of equable warmth1 and without draughts1 he was puzzled by seeing the index in a capillary tube suddenly mounting rapidly1 due to some cause which was not apparent1 till it was noticed that the parlour cat1 attracted by the proceedings1 had approached near the apparatus4 ,the behaviour of this instrument when slung in the clear some distance over the side of the balloon car1 and carefully watched1 suggests by its fitful1 sudden1 and rapid changes that warmer currents are often making their way in such slender wandering rills as have been already pictured as permeating the broader air streams4 ,during night hours conditions are reversed4 ,the warmer air radiated off the earth through the day has then ascended4 ,it will be found at different heights1 lying in pools or strata1 possibly resembling in form1 could they be seen1 masses of visible cloud4 ,the writer has gathered from night voyages instructive and suggestive facts with reference to the ascent of air streams1 due to differences of temperature1 particularly over ,london and the suburbs1 and it is conceivable that in such ascending streams may lie a means of dealing successfully with visitations of smoke and fog4 ,one lesson taught by balloon travel has been that fog or haze will come or go in obedience to temperature variations at low levels4 ,thus thick haze has lain over ,london1 more particularly over the lower parts1 at sundown4 ,then through night hours1 as the temperature of the lower air has become equalised1 the haze has completely disappeared1 but only to reassert itself at dawn4 ,a description of the very impressive experience of a night sail over ,london has been reserved1 but should not be altogether omitted4 ,glaisher1 writing of the spectacle as he observed it nearly forty years ago1 describes ,london seen at night from a balloon at a distance as resembling a vast conflagration4 ,when actually over the town1 a main thoroughfare like the ,commercial ,road shone up like a line of brilliant fire2 but1 travelling westward1 ,oxford ,street presented an appearance which puzzled him4 ,here the two thickly studded rows of brilliant lights were seen on either side of the street1 with a narrow1 dark space between1 and this dark space was bounded1 as it were1 on both sides by a bright fringe like frosted silver4 ,presently he discovered that this rich effect was caused by the bright illumination of the shop lights on the pavements4 ,london1 as seen from a balloon on a clear moonlight night in ,august a year ago 7#aija71 wore a somewhat altered appearance4 ,there were the fairy lamps tracing out the streets1 which1 though dark centred1 wore their silver lining2 but in irregular patches a whiter light from electric arc lamps broadened and brightened and shone out like some pyrotechnic display above the black housetops4 ,through the vast town ran a blank1 black channel1 the river1 winding on into distance1 crossed here and there by bridges showing as bright bands1 and with bright spots occasionally to mark where lay the river craft4 ,but what was most striking was the silence4 ,though the noise of ,london traffic as heard from a balloon has diminished of late years owing to the better paving1 yet in day hours the roar of the streets is heard up to a great height as a hard1 harsh1 grinding din4 ,but at night1 after the last 'bus has ceased to ply1 and before the market carts begin lumbering in1 the balloonist1 as he sails over the town1 might imagine that he was traversing a ,city of the ,dead4 ,it is at such times that a shout through a speaking trumpet has a most startling effect1 and more particularly a blast on a horn4 ,in this case after an interval of some seconds a wild note will be flung back from the house-tops below1 answered and re-answered on all sides as it echoes from roof to roof--a wild1 weird uproar that awakes suddenly1 and then dies out slowly far away4 ,experiments with echoes from a balloon have proved instructive4 ,if1 when riding at a height1 say1 of #b1jjj feet1 a charge of gun-cotton be fired electrically #ajj feet below the car1 the report1 though really as loud as a cannon1 sounds no more than a mere pistol shot1 possibly partly owing to the greater rarity of the air1 but chiefly because the sound1 having no background to reflect it1 simply spends itself in the air4 ,then1 always and under all conditions of atmosphere soever1 there ensues absolute silence until the time for the echo back from earth has fully elapsed1 when a deafening outburst of thunder rises from below1 rolling on often for more than half a minute4 ,two noteworthy facts1 at least1 the writer has established from a very large number of trials3 first1 that the theory of aerial echoes thrown back from empty space1 which physicists have held to exist constantly1 and to be part of the cause of thunder1 will have to be abandoned2 and1 secondly1 that from some cause yet to be fully explained the echo back from the earth is always behind its time4 ,but balloons have revealed further suggestive facts with regard to sound1 and more particularly with regard to the varying acoustic properties of the air4 ,it is a familiar experience how distant sounds will come and go1 rising and falling1 often being wafted over extraordinary distances1 and again failing altogether1 or sometimes being lost at near range1 but appearing in strength further away4 ,a free balloon1 moving in the profound silence of the upper air1 becomes an admirable sound observatory4 ,it may be clearly detected that in certain conditions of atmosphere1 at least1 there are what may be conceived to be aerial sound channels1 through which sounds are momentarily conveyed with abnormal intensity4 ,this phenomenon does but serve to give an intelligible presentment of the unseen conditions existing in the realm of air4 ,it would be reasonable to suppose that were an eye so constituted as to be able to see1 say1 cumulus masses of warmer air1 strata mottled with traces of other gases1 and beds of invisible matter in suspension1 one might suppose that what we deem the clearest sky would then appear flecked with forms as many and various as the clouds that adorn our summer heavens4 ,but there is matter in suspension in the atmosphere which is very far from invisible1 and which in the case of large towns is very commonly lying in thick strata overhead1 stopping back the sunlight1 and forming the nucleus round which noisome fogs may form4 ,experimenting with suitable apparatus1 the writer has found on a still afternoon in ,may1 at #b1jjj feet above ,kingston in ,surrey1 that the air was charged far more heavily with dust than that of the ,london streets the next day2 and1 again1 at half a mile above the city in the month of ,august last dust1 much of it being of a gross and even fibrous nature1 was far more abundant than on grass enclosures in the town during the forenoon of the day following4 ,an attempt has been made to include ,england in a series of international balloon ascents arranged expressly for the purpose of taking simultaneous observations at a large number of stations over ,europe1 by which means it is hoped that much fresh knowledge will be forthcoming with respect to the constitution of the atmosphere up to the highest levels accessible by balloons manned and unmanned4 ,it is very much to be regretted that in the case of ,england the attempt here spoken of has rested entirely on private enterprise4 ,first and foremost in personal liberality and the work of organisation must be mentioned ,mr4 ,p4 ,y4 ,alexander1 whose zeal in the progress of aeronautics is second to none in this country4 ,twice through his efforts ,england has been represented in the important work for which ,continental nations have no difficulty in obtaining public grants4 ,the first occasion was on ,november #hth1 #aijj1 when the writer was privileged to occupy a seat in the balloon furnished by ,mr4 ,alexander1 and equipped with the most modern type of instruments4 ,it was a stormy and fast voyage from the ,crystal ,palace to ,halstead1 in ,essex1 #dh miles in #dj minutes4 ,simultaneously with this1 ,mr4 ,alexander dismissed an unmanned balloon from ,bath1 which ascended #h1jjj feet1 and landed at ,cricklade4 ,other balloons which took part in the combined experiment were two from ,paris1 three from ,chalais ,meudon1 three from ,strasburg1 two from ,vienna1 two from ,berlin1 and two from ,st4 ,petersburg4 ,the section of our countrymen specially interested in aeronautics--a growing community--is represented by the ,aeronautical ,society1 formed in #ahfe1 with the ,duke of ,argyll for president1 and for thirty years under the most energetic management of ,mr4 ,f4 ,w4 ,brearey1 succeeding whom as hon4 secs4 have been ,major ,baden-,powell and ,mr4 ,eric ,s4 ,bruce4 ,mr4 ,brearey was one of the most successful inventors of flying models4 ,mr4 ,chanute1 speaking as ,president of the ,american ,society of ,civil ,engineers1 paid him a high and well-deserved compliment in saying that it was through his influence that aerial navigation had been cleared of much rubbish and placed upon a scientific and firm basis4 ,another community devoting itself to the pursuit of balloon trips and matters aeronautical generally is the newly-formed ,aero ,club1 of whom one of the most prominent and energetic members is the ,hon4 ,c4 ,s4 ,rolls4 ,it had been announced that ,m4 ,santos-,dumont would bring an air ship to ,england1 and during the summer of the present year would give exhibitions of its capability4 ,it was even rumoured that he might circle round ,st4 ,paul's and accomplish other aerial feats unknown in ,england4 ,the promise was fulfilled so far as bringing the air ship to ,england was concerned1 for one of his vessels which had seen service was deposited at the ,crystal ,palace4 ,in some mysterious manner1 however1 never sufficiently made clear to the public1 this machine was one morning found damaged1 and ,m4 ,santos-,dumont has withdrawn from his proposed engagements4 ,in thus doing he left the field open to one of our own countrymen1 who1 in his first attempt at flight with an air ship of his own invention and construction1 has proved himself no unworthy rival of the wealthy young ,brazilian4 ,mr4 ,stanley ,spencer1 in a very brief space of time1 designed and built completely in the workshops of the firm an elongated motor balloon1 #ge feet long by #bj feet diameter1 worked by a screw and petrol motor4 ,this motor is placed in the prow1 #be feet away from1 and in front of1 the safety valve1 by which precaution any danger of igniting the escaping gas is avoided4 ,should1 however1 a collapse of the machine arise from any cause1 there is an arrangement for throwing the balloon into the form of a parachute4 ,further1 there is provided means for admitting air at will into the balloon1 by which the necessity for much ballast is obviated4 ,mr4 ,spencer having filled the balloon with pure hydrogen1 made his first trial with this machine late in an evening at the end of ,june4 ,the performance of the vessel is thus described in the ,westminster ,gazette3--,the huge balloon filled slowly1 so that the light was rapidly failing when at last the doors of the big shed slid open and the ship was brought carefully out1 her motor started1 and her maiden voyage commenced4 ,with ,mr4 ,stanley ,spencer in the car1 she sailed gracefully down the football field1 wheeled round in a circle--a small circle1 too--and for perhaps a quarter of an hour sailed a tortuous course over the heads of a small but enthusiastic crowd of spectators4 ,the ship was handicapped to some extent by the fact that in their anxiety to make the trial the aeronauts had not waited to inflate it fully1 but still it did its work well1 answered its helm readily1 showed no signs of rolling1 and1 in short1 appeared to give entire satisfaction to everybody concerned--so much so1 indeed1 that ,mr4 ,stanley ,spencer informed the crowd after the ascent that he was quite ready to take up any challenge that ,m4 ,santos ,dumont might throw down4 ,within a few weeks of this his first success ,mr4 ,spencer was able to prove to the world that he had only claimed for his machine what its powers fully justified4 ,on a still ,september afternoon1 ascending alone1 he steered his aerial ship in an easy and graceful flight over ,london1 from the ,crystal ,palace to ,harrow4 ,,chapter ,,xxix4 ,,conclusion4 ,the future development of aerostation is necessarily difficult to forecast4 ,having reviewed its history from its inception we have to allow that the balloon in itself1 as an instrument of aerial locomotion1 remains practically only where it was #abj years ago4 ,nor1 in the nature of the case1 is this to be wondered at4 ,the wind1 which alone guides the balloon1 is beyond man's control1 while1 as a source of lifting power1 a lighter and therefore more suitable gas than hydrogen is not to be found in nature4 ,it is1 however1 conceivable that a superior mode of inflation may yet be discovered4 ,now that the liquefaction of gases has become an accomplished fact1 it seems almost theoretically possible that a balloonist may presently be able to provide himself with an unlimited reserve of potential energy so as to be fitted for travel of indefinite duration4 ,endowed with increased powers of this nature1 the aeronaut could utilise a balloon for voyages of discovery over regions of the earth which bar man's progress by any other mode of travel4 ,a future ,andree1 provided with a means of maintaining his gas supply for six weeks1 need have no hesitation in laying his course towards the ,north ,pole1 being confident that the winds must ultimately waft him to some safe haven4 ,he could1 indeed1 well afford1 having reached the ,pole1 to descend and build his cairn1 or even to stop a week1 if he so desired1 before continuing on his way4 ,but it may fairly be claimed for the balloon1 even as it now is1 that a great and important future is open to it as a means for exploring inaccessible country4 ,it may1 indeed1 be urged that ,andree's task was1 in the very nature of the case1 well nigh impracticable1 and his unfortunate miscarriage will be used as argument against such a method of exploration4 ,but it must always be remembered that in ,andree's case the rigours of climate which he was compelled to face were the most serious of all obstacles to balloon travel4 ,the extreme cold would not only cause constant shrinkage of the gas1 but would entail the deposition of a weight of moisture1 if not of snow1 upon the surface of the balloon1 which must greatly shorten its life4 ,it would be entirely otherwise if the country it were sought to explore were in lower latitudes1 in ,australia1 or within the vast unknown belt of earth lying nearer the equator4 ,the writer's scheme for exploring the wholly unknown regions of ,arabia is already before the public4 ,the fact1 thought to be established by the most experienced aeronauts of old times1 and already referred to in these pages1 that at some height a strong west wind is to be found blowing with great constancy all round the globe1 is in accordance with the view entertained by modern meteorologists4 ,such a wind1 too1 may be expected to be a fairly fast wind1 the calculation being that1 as a general rule1 the velocity of currents increases from the ground at the rate of about three miles per hour for each thousand feet of height2 thus the chance of a balloon drifting speedily across the breadth of ,arabia is a strong one1 and1 regarded in this light1 the distance to be traversed is certainly not excessive1 being probably well within the lasting power of such a balloon as that employed by ,andree4 ,if1 for the sake of gas supply1 ,aden were chosen for the starting ground1 then #a1bjj miles ,e4,n4,e4 would carry the voyager to ,muscat2 #a1ajj miles ,n4,e4 by ,e4 would land him at ,sohar2 while some #hjj miles would suffice to take him to the seaboard if his course lay ,n4,e4 ,it must also be borne in mind that the ,arabian sun by day1 and the heat radiated off the desert by night1 would be all in favour of the buoyancy of the balloon4 ,but there are other persistent winds that1 for purposes of exploration1 would prove equally serviceable and sure4 ,from time immemorial the dweller on the ,nile has been led to regard his river in the light of a benignant deity4 ,if he wished to travel down its course he had but to entrust his vessel to the stream1 and this would carry him4 ,if1 again1 he wished to retrace his course1 he had but to raise a sail1 and the prevalent wind1 conquering the flood1 would bear him against the stream4 ,this constant north wind1 following the ,nile valley1 and thence trending still southward towards ,uganda1 has been regarded as a means to hand well adapted for the exploration of important unsurveyed country by balloon4 ,this scheme has been conceived and elaborated by ,major ,b4,f4,s4 ,baden-,powell1 and1 so far1 the only apparent obstacle in the way has proved the lack of necessary funds4 ,it will be urged1 however1 that for purposes of exploration some form of dirigible balloon is desirable1 and we have already had proof that where it is not sought to combat winds strongly opposed to their course such air ships as ,santos-,dumont or ,messrs4 ,spencer have already constructed acquit themselves well2 and it requires no stretch of imagination to conceive that before the present century is closed many great gaps in the map of the world will have been filled in by aerial survey4 ,but1 leaving the balloon to its proper function1 we turn to the flying machine properly so called with more sanguine hopes of seeing the real conquest of the air achieved4 ,it was as it were but yesterday when the air ship1 unhampered by huge globes of gas1 and controlled by mechanical means alone1 was first fairly tried1 yet it is already considered by those best able to judge that its ultimate success is assured4 ,this success rests now solely in the hands of the mechanical engineer4 ,he must1 and surely can1 build the ship of such strength that some essential part does not at the critical moment break down or carry away4 ,he may have to improve his motive power1 and here1 again1 we do not doubt his cunning4 ,motor engines1 self-contained and burning liquid fuel1 are yet in their infancy1 and the extraordinary emulation now existing in their production puts it beyond doubt that every year will see rapid improvement in their efficiency4 ,we do not expect1 nor do we desire1 that the world may see the fulfilment of the poet's dream1 ,argosies of magic sails or ,airy navies grappling in the central blue4 ,we would not befog our vision of the future with any wild imaginings1 seeking1 as some have done1 to see in the electricity or other hidden power of heaven the means for its subjugation by man2 but it is far from unreasonable to hope that but a little while shall pass1 and we shall have more perfect and reliable knowledge of the tides and currents in the vast ocean of air1 and when that day may have come then it may be claimed that the grand problem of aerial navigation will be already solved4