,,the ,,origin ,,and ,,permanent ,,value ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,by ,,charles ,,foster ,,kent1 ,,ph4,d4 ,,woolsey ,,professor ,,of ,,biblical ,,literature ,,in ,,yale ,,university ,ye shall know the ,truth and the ,truth shall make you free ,,preface ,during the past generation the ,old ,testament has commanded equally with the ,new the enthusiastic and devoted study of the great body of biblical scholars throughout the world4 ,two out of every three graduate students in our universities who specialize in the general field of biblical literature choose the ,old as the special centre of their work4 ,at the same time the tendency of the rank and file of the ,christian church within the past decade has undoubtedly been to neglect the older ,testament4 ,preachers as a rule select less than a fourth of their texts from it2 the prevailing courses of ,bible study devote proportionately less time to it2 and teachers and scholars in the great majority of cases turn to the ,old ,testament with much less enthusiasm than they do to the ,new4 ,why are these two great currents setting in opposite directions1 and what are the causes of the present popular neglect of the ,old ,testament8 ,if the ,old ,testament should be relegated to a second place in our working canon of the ,bible1 let us frankly and carefully define our reasons4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the prevailing apathy and neglect are due to ignorance of the real character and value of the ,old ,testament1 let as lose no time in setting ourselves right4 ,the present volume has been suggested by repeated calls from ministerial bodies1 popular assemblies1 and groups of college students for addresses on the themes here treated4 ,the aim has been to give in concise1 popular form answers to some of the many questions thus raised1 with the conviction that they are in the mind of every thoughtful man and woman to-day1 and especially on the lips of earnest pastors1 missionaries1 and ,sunday-school teachers4 ,there are indications on every side of a deepening and far more intelligent interest in the needs and possibilities of religious education4 ,its vital importance to the life of the ,church and the nation is being understood as never before4 ,earnest and fruitful efforts are being put forth to improve the methods and courses of instruction4 ,the first essential1 however1 is a true understanding and appreciation of that ,book of ,books1 which will forever continue to be the chief manual for teaching1 for reproof1 for correction1 for instruction1 in righteousness1 that the man of ,god may be perfect1 completely fitted for every good work4 ,the supreme importance and practical value of the ,new ,testament are recognized by all1 but we usually forget when we quote the familiar words of ,paul that he had in mind simply the ,scriptures of the ,old ,testament4 ,in divine ,providence mighty forces have been quietly at work during the past century removing false rabbinical traditions and misconceptions that had gathered about these ancient ,scriptures1 while from other sources has come new light to illumine their pages4 ,the result is that in the ,old ,testament the ,christian world is discerning a new heritage1 the beauty and value of which is still only half suspected even by intelligent people4 ,this fact is so significant and yet so little recognized that one feels impelled to go out and proclaim it on the housetops4 ,the ,old ,testament can never be properly presented from the pulpit or in the class-room while the attitude of preacher and teacher is apathetic and the motive a sense of duty rather than an intelligent acquaintance with its real character and genuine admiration and enthusiasm for its vital truths4 ,the irresistible fascination which has drawn many of the most brilliant scholars into the ,old ,testament field is a proof that it has lost nothing1 of its power and attractiveness4 ,already the circle of those who have rediscovered the ,old ,testament is rapidly broadening4 ,observation and experience confirm the conviction that all that is lacking to make that devotion universal is a right attitude toward it and an intelligent familiarity with its real origin1 contents1 and teachings4 ,the sooner this is realized the sooner some of the most difficult problems of the ,church1 of the ,sunday-school1 and of popular religious education will be solved4 ,as the repository of a great and varied literature1 as a record of many of the most important events in human history1 and as a concrete revelation of ,god's character and will through the life and experiences of a race and the hearts of inspired men1 the ,old ,testament has a vital message marvellously adapted to the intellectual1 moral1 social1 and spiritual needs of to-day and supremely fitted to appeal to the thought and imagination of the present age4 ,this little volume is intended to be simply a very informal introduction to it4 ,since of the two ,testaments the ,new is by far the more easily understood and the better known1 it is made the point of departure in the approach to the more complex field represented by the ,old4 ,many unexpected analogies will aid in understanding the intricate literary history of the older ,scriptures4 ,the point of view assumed throughout is that of the busy pastor1 missionary1 ,sunday-school teacher1 and scholar1 who have little time for technical study1 but who are not afraid of truth because it is new and who firmly believe that ,god is ever revealing himself more fully to men and that his truth shall make us free4 ,it is hoped that this general survey will prove for them but an introduction to a far deeper and more profitable study4 ,to the ,reverend ,j4,f4 ,mc,farland1 ,d4,d41 of the ,bible ,study ,union1 to the ,reverend ,s4,a4 ,cooke1 ,d4,d41 of the ,methodist ,book ,concern1 to ,mr4 ,john ,h4 ,scribner of the ,presbyterian ,board of ,publication and ,sunday-school ,work1 to the ,reverend ,m4,c4 ,hazard1 ,d4,d41 of the ,pilgrim ,press1 and to the ,reverend ,f4,k4 ,sanders1 ,ph4,d41 of the ,congregational ,sunday-school and ,publishing ,society1 who have generously read the manuscript of this book1 ,i am deeply indebted1 not only for their valuable suggestions1 but also for their strong expressions of personal interest in the practical ends which it seeks to conserve1 ,i am also under great obligation to the ,reverend ,morgan ,miller1 of ,yale1 for his untiring vigilance in revising the proof of a volume written within the all too brief limits of a ,christmas vacation4 ,c4,f4,k4 ,,yale ,,university1 ,january1 #aijf4 ,,contents ,i4 ,,the ,,eclipse ,,and ,,rediscovery ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,ii4 ,,the ,,real ,,nature ,,and ,,purpose ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,iii4 ,,the ,,earliest ,,chapters ,,in ,,divine ,,revelation ,,iv4 ,,the ,,place ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,in ,,divine ,,revelation ,v4 ,,the ,,influences ,,that ,,produced ,,the ,,new ,,testament ,,vi4 ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,prophetic ,,histories ,,vii4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,prophetic ,,sermons1 ,,epistles1 ,,and ,,apocalypses ,,viii4 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,earlier ,,old ,,testament ,,laws ,,ix4 ,,influences ,,that ,,gave ,,rise ,,to ,,the ,,priestly ,,laws ,,and ,,histories ,x4 ,,the ,,hebrew ,,sages ,,and ,,their ,,proverbs ,,xl ,,the ,,writings ,,of ,,israel',s ,,philosophers ,,xii4 ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,psalter ,,xiii4 ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,canon ,,xiv4 ,,the ,,interpretation ,,of ,,the ,,early ,,narratives ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,xv4 ,,practical ,,methods ,,of ,,studying ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,xvi4 ,,religious ,,education--,,the ,,fundamental ,,problem ,,of ,,to-,,day ,i ,,the ,,eclipse ,,and ,,rediscovery ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,sidenote3 ,jesus' study of the ,old ,testament ,the opening chapters of the ,gospels record only three or four meagre facts regarding the first thirty years of ,jesus' life4 ,the real history of those significant years ran so far beneath the surface of external events that it completely escaped the historian4 ,the history of the mental and spiritual life of the ,master is recorded in his mature character and teachings4 ,the fugitive hints1 however1 vividly illustrate the supreme fact that he ever grew stronger1 becoming filled with wisdom2--and the grace of ,god was upon him 7,luke ii4 #dj74 ,they reveal a soul not only in closest touch with ,god and with human life1 but also in eager quest for the vital truth regarding ,god and man recorded in the ,scriptures of his race4 ,it requires no imagination to picture the young ,jew of ,nazareth eagerly studying in the synagogue1 at the temple1 and alone by himself the sacred writings found in our ,old ,testament1 for this fact is clearly recorded on every page of the ,gospels4 ,sidenote3 ,his familiarity with all parts of it ,the events of ,hebrew history1 and its heroes --,abraham1 ,david1 ,elijah-- were all familiar to him4 ,the ,old ,testament was the background of a large portion of the ,sermon on the ,mount4 ,from ,deuteronomy vi4 #d1 #e1 and ,leviticus xix4 #ah he drew his marvellous epitome of all law and duty4 ,in the wisdom literature1 and especially in the book of ,proverbs1 he found many of those practical truths which he applied to life with new authority and power4 ,from the same storehouse of crystallized experience he derived certain of those figures which he expanded into his inimitable parables2 he adopted also1 and put to new use1 the effective gnomic form of teaching of the wisdom school4 ,as in the mouth of his herald1 ,john the ,baptist1 the great moral and spiritual truths1 first proclaimed by the ancient prophets1 live again on the lips of ,jesus4 ,at every point in his teachings one recognizes the thought and language of the older ,scriptures4 ,at the moments of his greatest temptation and distress1 even in the last agony1 the words of the ancient law and psalms were on his lips and their consoling and inspiring messages in his mind4 ,sidenote3 ,attitude of the apostles ,what is so strikingly true of ,jesus is equally true of the apostles and disciples who have given us the ,new ,testament books3 the atmosphere in which they lived1 the thoughts which they thought1 and the language in which they spoke1 were those of the ,old ,testament4 ,not bowing slavishly before it1 as did their ,jewish contemporaries1 but with true reverence1 singling out that which was vital and eternal1 they made it the basis of their own more personal and perfect message to humanity4 ,but for them1 and for the early ,church1 until at least the middle of the second ,christian century1 the only scriptures regarded as authoritative were those of the ,old ,testament4 ,even then1 only gradually1 and under the pressure of real needs1 were different groups of ,christian writings added and ascribed an authority equal to that of the older ,scriptures4 ,sidenote3 ,attitude of the later ,church1 and especially ,puritanism ,throughout the ,middle ,ages and in the eyes of the ,protestant reformers the two great divisions of the ,bible continued to command equal respect and attention4 ,from the ,old ,testament and its reflection in the teachings of ,paul1 ,puritanism and the theology of the past three centuries derived most of that which revealed their strength as well as their weakness4 ,from the law1 the prophets1 and the book of ,proverbs they drew their stern spirit of justice1 their zeal for righteousness1 and their uncompromising condemnation of everything that seemed to them wrong4 ,their preachers nobly echoed the thunders of ,sinai and the denunciations of an ,elijah1 an ,amos1 and an ,hosea4 ,they often failed1 however1 to recognize the divine love which prompted the stern words of the prophets1 and to see that these denunciations and warnings were simply intended to arouse the conscience of the people and to make them worthy of the rich blessings that ,god was eager to bestow4 ,misinterpretation of the spirit of the later ,old ,testament reformers1 who dramatically portrayed ,jehovah's hatred for the abominable heathen cults in the form of commands to slaughter the peoples practising them1 frequently led the ,puritan fathers to treat their foes in a manner neither biblical nor ,christian4 ,to this narrow interpretation of the letter rather than the spirit of the ,old ,testament1 and the emphasis placed upon its more primitive and imperfect teachings can be directly traced the worst faults of that courageous band who lived and died fighting for what they conceived to be truth and right4 ,sidenote3 ,reaction against the ,bible of ,puritanism ,it is undoubtedly true that during the past two decades the ,old ,testament has in fact1 if not in theory1 been assigned to a secondary place in the life and thought of ,christendom4 ,this is not due to the fact that the ,christ has been exalted to his rightful position of commanding authority and prestige4 ,all that truly exalts him likewise exalts the record of the work of his forerunners which he came to bring to complete fulfilment and upon which he placed his eternal seal of approval4 ,rather1 the present eclipse of the ,old ,testament appears to be due to three distinct causes4 ,the first is connected with the reaction from ,puritanism1 and especially from its false interpretation of the ,bible4 ,against intolerance and persecution the heart of man naturally rebelled4 ,these rang true neither with life nor the teaching of ,jesus4 ,refuge from the merciless and seemingly flawless logic of the earlier theologians was found in the simple1 reassuring words of the ,gospels4 ,the result was that1 with the exception of a very few books like the ,psalter1 the ,old ,testament1 which was the arsenal of the old militant theology1 has been unconsciously1 if not deliberately1 shunned by the present generation4 ,sidenote3 ,doubts aroused by the work of the ,higher ,critics ,within the past decade this tendency has been greatly accelerated by the work of the so-called ,higher ,critics4 ,because it presents more literary and historical problems1 and because it was thought1 at first1 to be farther away from the ,new ,testament1 the citadel of the ,christian faith1 the ,old ,testament has been the scene of their greatest activity4 ,with what seemed to the onlooker to be a supreme disregard for the traditions long accepted as established by the ,church1 they have persistently applied to the ancient ,scriptures the generally accepted canons and methods of modern historical and literary study4 ,in their scientific zeal they have repeatedly overturned what were once regarded as fundamental dogmas4 ,unfortunately the first reports of their work suggested that it was only destructive4 ,the very foundations of faith seemed to be shaking4 ,sinai appeared to be enveloped in a murky fog1 instead of the effulgence of the divine glory2 ,moses seemed to become a vague1 unreal figure on the distant horizon of history2 ,david's voice only faintly echoed through the ,psalter2 and the noblest messages of prophet1 sage1 and psalmist were anonymous4 ,sidenote3 ,the mistakes of the critics ,little wonder that many who heard only from afar the ominous reports of the digging and delving1 and vague rumors1--all the more terrifying because vague1--either leaped to the conclusion that the authority of the ,old ,testament had been undermined or else rallied in a frantic effort to put a stop1 by shouting or compulsion1 to the seemingly sacrilegious work of destruction4 ,when the history of the ,higher ,criticism of the ,old ,testament is finally written1 it will be declared most unfortunate that the results first presented to the rank and file of the ,christian ,church were1 as a rule1 largely negative and in many cases relatively unimportant4 ,in their initial enthusiasm for scientific research scholars1 alas6 sometimes lost the true perspective and failed to recognize relative values4 ,the date1 for example1 of ,isaiah xl4-lv4 is important for the right understanding and interpretation of these wonderful chapters1 but its value is insignificant compared with the divine messages contained in these chapters and their direct application to life4 ,moreover1 instead of presenting first the testimony and then patiently pointing out the reasonableness and vital significance of the newer conclusions1 scholars sometimes1 under the influence of their convictions1 made the fatal mistake of enunciating those conclusions simply as dogmas4 ,sidenote3 ,resulting loss of faith in the ,old ,testament ,history demonstrates that established religions and churches always hold tenaciously to old doctrines1 and therefore regard new conclusions with suspicion4 ,this tendency is clearly illustrated in the experience of ,jesus2 for with all his divine tact and convincing authority1 he was not able to win the leaders of ,judaism to the acceptance of his revolutionizing teachings4 ,yet one cannot escape the conviction that if in this age of enlightenment and open-mindedness1 the positive results of modern scholarship had been presented first1 this latest chapter in ,god's revelation of himself to man would have been better understood and appreciated by the leaders of the ,church1 and its fruits appropriated by those whose interests are fixed on that which is of practical rather than theoretical import4 ,at least many open-minded people might have been saved from the supreme error of writing1 either consciously or unconsciously1 ,ichabod across the pages of their ,old ,testament4 ,sidenote3 ,difficulties in understanding it ,the third reason why the ,old ,testament has suffered temporary eclipse in so many minds is more fundamental2 it is because of the difficulties in understanding it4 ,the background of the ,new ,testament is the ,roman world and a brief century with which we ,western readers are well acquainted2 but the background of the ,old is the ancient ,east--the age and land of wonder1 mystery1 and intuition1 far removed from the logical1 rushing world in which we live4 ,the ,old ,testament contains a vast and complex literature1 filled with the thoughts and figures and cast in the quaint language of the ,semitic past4 ,between us and that past there lie not merely long centuries1 but the wide gulf that is fixed between the ,east and the ,west4 ,sidenote3,the new light from the monuments ,with three such distinct and powerful currents--reaction1 suspicion1 and misunderstand--bearing us from the ,old ,testament1 it might be predicted that in a decade or two it would lie far behind our range of vision4 ,other forces however are1 in divine providence1 rapidly bringing it back to us again1 so that we are able to understand and appreciate it as never before since the beginning of the ,christian era4 ,the chasm between us and it is really being bridged rather than broadened4 ,the long centuries that lie back of the ,old ,testament have suddenly been illuminated by great search-lights1 so that today we are almost as well acquainted with them as with the beginning of the ,christian era4 ,from ancient monuments have arisen1 as from the dead1 an army of contemporary witnesses1 sometimes confirming1 sometimes correcting1 but at all times marvellously supplementing the biblical data4 ,now the events and characters of ,old ,testament history no longer stand alone in mysterious isolation1 but we can study in detail their setting and real significance4 ,at every point the biblical narrative and thought are brought into touch with real life and history4 ,the biographies and policies1 for example1 of ,sennacherib and ,cyrus1 are almost as well known as those of ,napoleon and ,washington4 ,the prophets are not merely voices1 but men with a living message for all times1 because they primarily dealt with the conditions and needs of their own day4 ,the vital relation and at the same time the infinite superiority of the religious teachings of the ,old ,testament to those of earlier ages and peoples are clearly revealed4 ,sidenote3 ,modern aids in interpreting the ,old ,testament ,interpreted in the light of contemporary literature and language1 most of the obscurities of the ,old ,testament melt away4 ,modern research in the fields of ,semitic philology and syntax and the discovery of older texts and versions have put into the hands of translators new and valuable tools for making clear to all the thoughts in the minds of the original writers of the ,old ,testament4 ,studies in comparative religion1 geography1 and modern ,oriental life and customs have illuminated and illustrated at every point the pages of the ancient writings4 ,to utilize all these requires time and devotion1 but he who is willing to study may know his ,old ,testament to-day as well as he does the ,new4 ,sidenote3 ,rejection of rabinical traditions ,fully commensurate with the great light that has been shed upon it from without1 is that which has come from a careful study of the testimony of the ,old ,testament itself4 ,until recent times the ,church has been content to accept blindly the traditions of the late ,jewish rabbis regarding the origin1 history1 and interpretation of their scriptures4 ,handed down through the ,church ,fathers and interwoven with creeds and popular beliefs1 they have been identified in many minds with the teaching of the ,bible itself4 ,yet1 when we analyze their origin and true character1 we find that many of them have absolutely no support in the ,scriptures1 and in many cases are directly contradictory to the plain biblical teachings4 ,too often they are but the fanciful conjectures of the rabbis4 ,developed in an uncritical age1 and based upon the unreliable methods of interpretation current among the ,jews in the early ,christian centuries1 they are often sadly misleading4 ,a close analogy is found in the traditional identifications of most of the ,palestinian sacred sites4 ,to-day the ,oriental guide shows the skull of ,adam beneath the spot where tradition places the cross of ,christ4 ,if the traveller desires1 he will point out the very stones which ,jesus declared ,god could raise up to be children of ,abraham4 ,every question which curiosity or genuine interest has raised is answered by the seemingly authoritative voice of tradition4 ,investigation1 however1 proves that almost all of these thousand identifications are probably incorrect4 ,the discovery is a shock to the pious imagination2 but to the healthy mind uncertainty is always better than error4 ,furthermore1 uncertainty often proves the door which leads to established truth4 ,sidenote3 ,acceptance of the testimony of the ,old ,testament regarding its origin and history4 ,even so the modern historical and critical spirit has led men to turn from the generally accepted but exceedingly doubtful rabbinical traditions regarding1 for example1 the date and authorship of many of the ,old ,testament books1 to the authoritative evidence found in those writings themselves4 ,in this they are but following the example of the ,great ,teacher1 who repeatedly appealed from the same rabbis and their misleading traditions to the same ancient ,scriptures4 ,the saddest fact is that many of his followers1 even to-day1 hesitate to follow his inspired leadership4 ,fortunately1 as the varied1 strata and formations of the rocks tell the story of the earth's early history1 so these early writings furnish the data for reconstructing the illuminating history of their origin1 growth1 and transmission4 ,often the testimony of the facts differs as widely from the familiar inherited traditions as the conclusions of modern science from the vague guesses of primitive man regarding the riddles of existence4 ,neither may represent absolute and final truth1 and yet no serious-minded man can question which is really the more authoritative4 ,to-day one of the most vital issues before the ,christian4 ,church is whether it will follow the guidance of its ,founder and accept the testimony of the ,bible itself or cling blindly to the traditions of the rabbis and ,church ,fathers4 ,sidenote3 ,historical significance of the modern movement ,the student of history at once recognizes in the modern movement1 of which the watchword is1 ,back to the testimony of the ,bible1 the direct sequel to the ,protestant ,reformation4 ,the early reformers took the chains off the ,bible and put it into the hands of men1 with full permission to study and search4 ,vested interests and dogmatism soon began to dictate how it should be studied and interpreted1 and thus it was again placed practically under lock and key4 ,it is an interesting fact that a young ,zulu chief1 a pupil of ,bishop ,colenso of ,south ,africa1 first aroused the ,anglo-,saxon world to the careful1 fearless1 and therefore truly reverential study of its ,old ,testament4 ,with this new impetus1 the task of the ,reformers was again taken up1 and in the same open1 earnest spirit4 ,for two generations it has commanded the consecrated energies of the most thorough scholars of ,christendom4 ,those of ,england1 ,scotland1 ,ireland1 ,france1 ,germany1 ,austria1 ,switzerland1 ,norway1 ,sweden1 ,america1 and ,canada have worked shoulder to shoulder1 dividing the work1 carefully collecting and classifying the minutest data1 comparing results1 and1 on the basis of all this work1 formulating conclusions1 some assured and some hypothetical1 which best explain the facts4 ,sidenote3 ,the unveiling of the ,old ,testament ,often1 to those who have not followed the detailed steps1 these conclusions have seemed only destructive4 ,many of them are assuredly so2 but the vital question which every honest man should ask is1 ,do they destroy the ,bible1 or simply the false traditions that have gathered about it8 ,fortunately1 most of the leaders of the ,church and most intelligent laymen have already discerned the only emphatic answer to this question4 ,the ,church is undoubtedly passing quietly through a revolution in its conception and attitude toward the ,bible1 more fundamental and far-reaching than that represented by its precursor the ,protestant ,reformation2 but its real significance is daily becoming more apparent4 ,not a grain of truth which the ,bible contains has been destroyed or permanently obscured4 ,instead1 the dbris of time-honored traditions and dogmas have been cleared away1 and the true ,scriptures at last stand forth again in their pristine splendor4 ,sidenote3 ,the true ,old ,testament ,freed from the misconceptions and false traditions which have gathered about it1 the true ,old ,testament rises from amidst the dust and din of the much digging and delving4 ,to those who have known only the old it is a fresh revelation4 ,its literary beauty1 its naturalness1 its dignity1 its majestic authority are a surprise to those who have not followed its unveiling4 ,the old vagueness and mystery have in part disappeared1 and instead it is found to contain a thousand vital1 living messages for to- day4 ,its human as well as its divine qualities command our interest and attention4 ,through it all ,god speaks with a new clearness and authority4 ,thus1 that which we thought was dead has risen1 and lives again to inspire us to noble thought and deed and service4 ,,ii ,,the ,,real ,,nature ,,and ,,purpose ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,sidenote3 ,a large and complex library ,turning from the ,jewish and medival traditions and theories which so easily beset us1 we ask1 ,what is the real nature of the ,old ,testament as it is revealed in this new and clearer light8 ,the first conclusion is that it is a library containing a large and complex literature1 recording the varied experiences1 political1 social1 ethical1 and religious1 of the ,israelitish race4 ,the fact that it is a library consisting of many different books is recognized by the common designation of the two testaments4 ,as is well known1 our ,english word ,bible came originally from the ,papyrus or ,byblus reed1 the pith of which was widely used in antiquity as the material from which books were made4 ,it was natural1 therefore1 that in the ,greek a little book should be designated as a biblion4 ,about the middle of the second ,christian century the ,greek ,christians 7first in the so-called ,second ,epistle of ,clement xlv4 #b7 began to call their sacred scriptures1 ,ta ,biblia1 the books4 ,when this title was transferred to the ,latin it was1 by reason of a natural and yet significant error1 treated as a feminine singular1 ,biblia1 which1 reappears ,in ,english as ,bible4 ,this most appropriate name emphasizes the fact that the books thus described are a unit and yet a collection of little books1 selected from a larger literature and given their present position of preeminent authority4 ,sidenote3 ,the record of ,god's vital1 personal relations to the ,israelitish race ,the term ,testament suggests not the form and authority of the books1 but their theme4 ,it is the ,english translation1 through the ,latin and ,greek1 of the ,hebrew word1 berth1 usually rendered1 covenant4 ,it means a bond or basis of agreement4 ,it implies a close and binding contract between two parties1 and defines the terms to which each subscribes and the obligations which they thus assume4 ,the ,old ,covenant or ,testament1 therefore1 is primarily the written record of the origin1 terms1 and history of the solemn agreement which existed between the ,israelitish nation and ,jehovah4 ,the early narratives preserve the traditions of its origin2 the lawgivers endeavored to define its terms and the obligations that rested upon the people2 the prophets interpreted them in the life of the nation1 and the sages into the life of the individual2 and the historical books recorded its practical working4 ,the significant fact is that back of the ,old ,testament records exists something greater and deeper than pen can fully describe3 it is a vital1 living connection between ,jehovah and his people that makes possible the unique relation which finds expression in the remarkable history of the race and in the experiences and souls of its spiritual leaders4 ,thus through life1 and in the concrete terms of life1 ,god reveals himself to the life of humanity4 ,sidenote3 ,written in history and human minds and hearts ,in the light of this truth the ,jewish and medieval dogma that every word1 and even every letter of ,scripture1 was directly dictated by ,god himself1 seems sadly mechanical and bears the marks of the narrow schools of thought in which it took form4 ,hebrew was not1 and probably will never be1 the language of heaven6 ,not on skins and papyrus rolls1 but in the life of the ,israelitish race and on the minds and consciences of enlightened men1 ,god wrote his revelation4 ,history and the character and consciousness of the human race are its imperishable records4 ,fortunately he also aroused certain men of old1 not by word and act only1 but by the pen as well1 to record the revelation that was being perfected in the life of their nation and in their own minds and hearts4 ,he did not1 however1 dictate to them the form of their writings nor vouch for their verbal inerrancy4 ,in time1 out of their writings were gradually collected and combined the most significant passages and books1 and to these was finally attributed the authority that they now rightfully enjoy4 ,sidenote3 ,secondary sources of its authority ,the ultimate basis of that authority1 however1 is not their presence in the canon of the ,old ,testament4 ,at the same time their presence there is deeply significant1 for it represents the indorsement of many ages and of countless thousands who1 from the most varied points of view and amid the most diverse experiences1 have tested and found these ancient scriptures worthy of the exalted position that has gradually been assigned to them4 ,it is not the support of the ,church1 although this also for the same reason is exceedingly significant4 ,it is not the calm assumption1 of authority that appears at every point throughout the ,old ,testament1 although this is richly suggestive2 the sacred writings of other religions make even more pretentious claims4 ,it is not that its commands and doctrines come from the mouths of great prophets and priests1 like ,moses1 ,samuel1 ,isaiah1 and ,jeremiah4 ,this fact undoubtedly had great weight with those who formed the final canon of the ,old ,testament1 and the authority of a strong1 noble personality is supremely impressive2 but divine authority never emanates primarily from a man1 however great be his sanctity4 ,furthermore1 to establish the authority derived from a ,moses or a ,samuel it is necessary in every case to prove that the books attributed to them by late tradition actually came from their pens4 ,even if this could in every case be done1 some of the noblest passages in the ,old ,testament remain avowedly anonymous2 for the tendency of the great majority of its authors was clearly to send forth their messages without any attempt to associate their own names with them4 ,sidenote3 ,its ultimate basis of authority ,the ultimate authority of the ,old ,testament1 therefore1 is not dependent upon devoted canon-makers1 nor the weighty testimony of the ,church1 nor upon its own claims1 nor the reputation of the inspired men who have written it1 nor the estimate of any age4 ,its seat of authority is more fundamental4 ,it contains the word of ,god because it faithfully records and interprets the most important events in the early religious history of man1 and simply and effectively presents ,god's revelation of himself and of his will in the minds and hearts of the great pre-,christian heralds of ethical and spiritual truth4 ,back of the ,old ,testament is a vast variety of vital experiences1 national and individual1 political and spiritual1 social and ethical1 pleasurable and painful4 ,back of all these deeply significant experiences is ,god himself1 through them making known his character and laws and purpose to man4 ,sidenote3 ,its authority ethical and religious1 not scientific ,students of the rediscovered ,old ,testament also recognize1 in the light of a broader and more careful study1 the fact1 so often and so fatally overlooked in the past1 that its authority lies not in the field of natural science1 nor even of history in the limited sense4 ,time and patience were destined to increase man's knowledge in these great departments and also to develop his mind in attaining it4 ,the teaching of the ,old ,testament is authoritative only in the far more important realm of ethics and religion4 ,paul truly voiced its supreme claim when he said that it was profitable for teaching1 for reproof1 for correction1 for instruction in righteousness1 that the man of ,god may be perfect1 completely fitted for every good work 7,,ii ,tim4 iii4 #af1 #ag74 ,the assertion by the ,church in the past of claims nowhere made or implied by the ,old ,testament itself is unfortunately still a fertile source of perplexity and dissension to many faithful souls4 ,their salvation is to be found in a clear and intelligent appreciation of the real nature and claim of these ancient writings4 ,sidenote3 ,its dominant purpose to teach spiritual truth ,one dominant aim determines the form of each book and the selection of individual passages and binds together the whole3 it is effectively to set forth spiritual truth and to mould in accordance with ,god's will the characters and beliefs of men4 ,it was the supreme bond that bound together prophets1 priests1 sages1 and psalmists1 although the means by which they accomplished their common purpose differed widely4 ,many a current tradition1 and the crude conceptions of the ancients regarding the natural world1 are recorded in the ,old ,testament2 but they are not there merely to perpetuate history nor to increase the total of scientific knowledge1 but rather because they concretely illustrate and impress some vital ethical and spiritual truth4 ,such singleness of religious purpose is paralleled nowhere else except in the work and teachings of ,jesus and his apostles4 ,sidenote3 ,its present fruits the proof of its inspired authority ,the ever-present evidence of the divine authority back of the spiritual teachings of the ,old ,testament as a whole is that they ring true to life and meet its needs4 ,by their fruits we know them4 ,it is the demonstration of the laboratory4 ,we know that they are inspired because they inspire4 ,the principles underlying the social sermons of ,amos are as applicable to present conditions as when first uttered4 ,the sooner they are practically applied the sooner our capitalistic civilization can raise its head now bowed ,in shame4 ,the faith that breathes through the ,psalms is the faith that upholds men to-day in the midst of temptation and trial4 ,the standards of justice1 tempered by love1 which are maintained in the ,old ,testament laws make good citizens both of earth and heaven4 ,as long as men continue to test the teachings of the ,old ,testament scriptures in the laboratory of experience and to know them by their fruits1 nothing can permanently endanger their position in the ,christian ,church or in the life of humanity4 ,neglect and indifference1 not ,higher ,criticism1 alone permanently threaten the authority of the ,old ,testament as well as that of the ,new4 ,sidenote3 ,significance of the variations and inconsistencies ,recognizing the real nature and purpose of these ancient records1 the true student neither denies nor is disturbed by the marks of their human authorship4 ,as in the case of the ,gospels1 the variations between the parallel narratives are all evidence of their genuineness and of the sincerity of their purpose4 ,they demonstrate that ,god's revelation is adapted to the needs of life and the comprehension of man1 because it was through life and expressed in the terms of life4 ,their individual peculiarities and minor errors often introduce us more intimately to the biblical writers and help us to understand more clearly and sympathetically their visions of truth and of ,god4 ,above all1 they teach us to look ever through and beyond all these written records to the greater revelation1 which they reflect1 and to the infinite ,source of all knowledge and truth4 ,sidenote3 ,the record of a gradual revelation ,the inconsistencies and imperfect teachings which are revealed by a critical study of the ,old ,testament are also but a few of the many indices that it is the record of a gradually unfolding revelation4 ,late ,jewish tradition1 which is traceable even in the ,old ,testament itself1 was inclined to assign the origin of everything which it held dear to the very beginnings of ,hebrew history1 and in so doing it has done much to obscure its true genesis4 ,fortunately1 however1 the history of ,god's gradual training of the race was writ too plainly in the earlier ,old ,testament scriptures to be completely obscured by later traditions4 ,the recognition that ,god's all-wise method of revealing spiritual as well as scientific truth was progressive1 adapted to the unfolding consciousness of each succeeding age1 at once sweeps away many of the greatest difficulties that have hitherto obscured the true ,old ,testament4 ,jesus with his divine intuition appreciated this principle of growth4 ,unhesitatingly he abrogated certain time-honored ,old ,testament laws with the words1 ,ye have heard that it was said 444 but ,i say to you4 ,his own interpretation of his relation to the sacred writings of his race was that he came to bring them to complete fulfilment4 ,rearranged in their approximately chronological order1 the ,old ,testament books become the harmonious and many-sided record of ten centuries of strenuous human endeavor to know and to do the will of ,god and of his full and gracious response to that effort4 ,the beatitude of those who hunger and thirst after righteousness was as true in the days of ,moses as it was when ,jesus proclaimed it4 ,sidenote3 ,its different books of very different values ,finally1 the right and normal attitude toward the ,old ,testament leads to the wholesome conclusion that its different books are of very different values4 ,the great critic of ,nazareth again set the example4 ,as we have just seen1 certain of the ,old ,testament laws he distinctly abrogated2 others he quietly ignored2 others1 as1 for example1 the law of love 7,deut4 vi4 #e1 and ,lev4 xix4 #ai7 he singled out and gave its rightful place of central authority4 ,a careful study of the ,gospels1 in the light of the ,old ,testament1 demonstrates that a very important element in his work1 as the ,saviour of men1 was in thus separating the dross in the older teachings from the gold1 and then in giving to the vital truth a clearer1 more personal1 and yet more universal application4 ,for the intelligent student and teacher of to-day the ,old ,testament still remains a great mine of historical1 ethical1 and religious truth4 ,some parts1 like ,genesis1 ,deuteronomy1 ,hosea1 ,jeremiah1 ,isaiah xl4-lv41 and the ,psalter1 are richly productive4 ,others1 like ,numbers1 ,chronicles1 and ,esther1 are comparatively barren4 ,sidenote3 ,application of this truth ,since the ,old ,testament is the record of a progressively unfolding revelation1 it is obvious that all parts do not possess an equal authority4 ,to place the example of the patriarchs or of ,david1 who lived when ethical standards and religious beliefs were only partially developed1 on an equality with the exalted ideals of the later prophets1 is to misinterpret those ancient ,scriptures and to reject the leadership of the ,great ,teacher4 ,at the same time1 studied from the newer point of view1 the examples of those early heroes are found to illustrate vital principles in human life and to inspire and warn the child of to-day as effectively as they did far back in the childhood of the race4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,old ,testament not a fetish but a spiritual guidebook ,in these later days ,god has taken the ,bible from the throne of infallibility on which ,protestantism sought to place it4 ,by a gradual yet benign process1 which we were nevertheless at first inclined bitterly to resent1 he has opened our eyes to its true character and purpose4 ,again1 he has pronounced his ,thou shall not to the natural and yet selfish human desire to transfer moral and intellectual responsibility from the individual conscience to some external authority4 ,again1 he has told us that only in the sanctuary of the human soul is the ,infallible ,one to be found4 ,yet in order that we each may find him there1 the cumulative religious experience of the countless thousands who have already found him is of inestimable value4 ,the ,old ,testament contains not merely the word of ,god1 but1 together with its complement the ,new1 is the great guide-book in finding and knowing him1 ,it blazes the way which1 the pilgrim of to-day1 as in the past1 must follow from his cradle to the throne of ,god4 ,at each point it is richly illustrated by the actual religious experiences of real men and women4 ,their mistakes and their victories1 are equally instructive4 ,from many vantage-points reached by prophets and priests and psalmists1 we are able to catch new and glorious visions of ,god's character and purpose for mankind4 ,through its pages--sometimes dimly1 sometimes brightly1 ,but growing ever clearer--shines the giving light of ,god's truth and revelation1 culminating in the ,christ1 the perfected revelation and the supreme demonstration that man1 though beset by temptation1 baffled by obstacles1 deserted by friends1 and maligned by foes1 can nevertheless1 by the invincible sword of love and self-sacrifice1 conquer the world and become one with ,god1 as did the peerless ,knight of ,nazareth4 ,,iii ,,the ,,earliest ,,chapters ,,in ,,divine ,,revelation ,sidenote3 ,the nature of inspiration ,since the days of the ,greek philosophers the subject of inspiration and revelation has been fertile theme for discussion and dispute among scholars and theologians4 ,many different theories have been advanced1 and ultimately abandoned as untenable4 ,in its simplest meaning and use1 inspiration describes the personal influence of one individual upon the mind and spirit of another4 ,thus we often say1 ,that man inspired me4 ,what we are or do under the influence of that intellectual or spiritual impulse is the effect and evidence of the inspiration4 ,similarly1 divine inspiration is the influence of ,god's spirit or personality upon the mind and spirit of man4 ,it may find expression in an exalted emotional state1 in an heightened clarity of mental perception1 in noble deeds1 in the development of character1 indeed in a great variety of ways2 but its seat is always the mind of man and its ultimate cause the ,deity himself4 ,sidenote3 ,in the ,old ,testament ,the early ,old ,testament expression most commonly used to describe inspiration was that the ,spirit of ,god rushed upon the man1 as it did upon ,saul1 causing him to burst forth into religious ecstasy or frenzy 7,i ,sam4 x4 #f1 #aj71 and upon ,samson1 giving him great bodily strength or prowess in war 7,judg4 xiv4 #f1 #ai1 xv4 #ad74 ,skill in interpreting dreams and in ruling was also regarded as evidence that the ,spirit of ,god was in a man like ,joseph 7,gen4 xli4 #ch72 but above all the prophetic gift was looked upon as the supreme evidence of the presence of the ,spirit of ,jehovah 7,hos4 ix4 #a2 ,micah ii4 #g1 iii4 #h74 ,the word spirit as thus used in the ,old ,testament is exceedingly suggestive4 ,it means primarily the breath1 that comes from the nostrils4 ,though invisible to the eye1 the breath was in the thought of primitive man the symbol of the active life of the individual4 ,in the full vigor of bodily strength or in violent exercise it came quick and strong2 in times of weakness it was faint2 when it disappeared1 death ensued2 the living personality was gone1 and only the play remained4 ,the same ,hebrew word1 rach1 described the wind--unseen1 intangible1 and yet one of the most real and irresistible forces in all the universe4 ,thus it was a supremely appropriate term to describe the activity of ,god1 as it produced visible effects in the minds and lives of men4 ,in the later ,old ,testament literature its use was extended1 so that to the ,spirit of ,god was ascribed activity in the natural world and in human history4 ,sidenote3 ,nature of revelation ,of the two terms1 revelation is broader than inspiration4 ,sometimes it is used collectively1 to designate the truth revealed1 but it more properly describes the means or process whereby it is made apparent to the human mind4 ,it implies that truth is always existent1 but only gradually recognized4 ,inspiration is one of the chief means whereby the human vision is clarified so as to perceive it4 ,natural phenomena1 environment1 and above all experience1 are also mighty agents in making the divine character and truth clear to the mind of man4 ,the author of the ,epistle to the ,hebrews declares1 with true insight1 that ,god spoke in divers manners4 ,all the universe1 all history1 and all life reveal him and his ultimate truths1 for each is effective in opening the mental and spiritual eye of man to see the realm long awaiting him as conqueror4 ,sidenote3 ,man's role in the process of revelation ,for countless ages electricity has inscribed its magic tracery on the storm-cloud and performed its all-important functions in organic life1 but not until men's eyes were opened by experience and trained observation to recognize its laws1 was it practically applied to the needs of civilization4 ,similarly1 unchanging moral and spiritual laws have existed through all time1 but they have not become operative in human life until the eye of some seer is opened by a great experience1 or under the direct influence of the ,spirit of ,god he is led to see and proclaim them4 ,thus ,god is in all and reveals himself through all nature and life1 but it is only through the mind and on the lips of his highest creature1 man1 that truth is fully appreciated1 formulated1 and applied4 ,sidenote3 ,the revelation recorded in the ,bible ,in the broader sense all revelation is divine1 for it reveals ,god and his laws2 and yet it is obvious that there is a real difference between the revelation recorded in a scientific book and that of the ,bible4 ,it is a difference both in subject-matter and in the ends to which the truth thus made manifest shall be applied4 ,the one relates to the objective world1 the world of things2 the other relates to human beliefs1 emotions1 and acts4 ,sidenote3 ,its breadth and gradualness ,moreover1 it is evident that the spiritual revelation which is in part recorded in the ,bible was not limited to the ,israelitish race or to the twelve centuries represented by the ,old and ,new ,testaments4 ,the biblical writers themselves assume this fact4 ,according to the early ,judean prophetic narratives1 ,enoch1 who lived ages before ,abraham and ,moses1 was a worshipper of ,jehovah 7,gen4 iv4 #bf74 ,cain and ,abel are both represented in the familiar story of ,genesis iv41 as bringing their offerings to ,jehovah4 ,one of the chief teachings of the earliest stories in the ,old ,testament is that men from the first knew and worshipped ,god and were held responsible for their acts according to their moral enlightenment4 ,history1 science1 and the ,bible unite in testifying that the revelation of spiritual truth to mankind was something gradual1 progressive1 and cumulative2 also that it is dependent upon the ability of men to receive it4 ,this capacity of the individual to receive is1 after all1 the determining factor in the process of divine revelation2 for ,god's truth and his desire to impart it are always the same4 ,hence1 whenever conditions favor1 or national or private experiences clarify the vision of a race or group of men1 a revelation is assured4 ,sidenote3 ,antiquity of human civilization and religion ,in the light of ancient history and the result of recent excavations it is possible1 now as never before1 to study the varied influences and forces employed by ,god in the past to open the spiritual eyes of mankind to see him and his truth4 ,the geological evidence suggests that man1 as man1 has lived on this earth1 fifty1 perhaps one hundred thousand years4 ,anthropology1 going farther back than history or primitive tradition1 traces the slow and painful stages by which early man learned his first lessons in civilization and religion4 ,from the beginning1 man's instincts as a religious being have asserted themselves1 crude though their expression was4 ,the oldest mounds of ,babylonia and ,egypt contain ruins of ancient temples1 altars1 and abundant evidence of the religious zeal of the peoples who once inhabited these lauds4 ,the earliest examples of human literature thus far discovered are largely religious in theme and spirit4 ,sidenote3 ,primitive unfolding of the innate religious instinct ,all these testify that early man believed in a power or powers outside himself1 and that his chief passion was to know and do the will of his god or gods4 ,jesus himself bore witness in the opening words of the prayer which he taught his disciples1 that this is the essence of religion4 ,it was natural and inevitable that primitive man1 with his naive view of the universe1 should believe not in one but in many forces or spirits1 and that he should first enthrone the physical above the ethical and spiritual4 ,it is the instinctive tendency of the child to-day4 ,the later identification of the divine powers with the sun1 that gave light and fertility to the soil1 or with the moon1 that guided the caravans by night over the arid deserts1 or with the other heavenly bodies1 that moved in majestic array across the midnight sky1 was likewise a natural step in the evolution of primitive belief4 ,sidenote3 ,reasons why ,babylonia developed an early civilization ,civilization and religion in antiquity developed1 as a rule1 side by side4 ,the two great rivers1 the ,tigris and the ,euphrates1 commanding the trade of the north and the south2 proximity to the desert with its caravans of traders going back and forth from the ,euphrates to the ,nile2 the rich alluvial soil1 which supported a dense population when properly drained and cultivated2 and the necessity of developing in a higher degree the arts of defence in order to maintain the much contested territory1--these were a few of the many conditions that made ancient ,babylonia one of the two earliest if not the oldest centre of human civilization4 ,the commercial habits and the abundance of the plastic clay1 which could easily be moulded into tablets for the use of the scribe1 also fostered the early development of the literary art4 ,the durability of the clay tablets and the enveloping and protecting qualities of the ruined mounds of ancient ,babylonia have preserved in a marvellous way its early literature4 ,the result is that we can now study1 on the basis of contemporary documents1 this early and yet advanced chapter in that divine revelation1 the later culmination of which is recorded in the ,bible4 ,sidenote3 ,progress during the period of city states ,it begins as far back of ,moses as he is removed from us in point of time4 ,its political background at first is the little city states of ,babylonia1 each with its independent organization and its local schools of artists1 whose products in many respects surpass anything that comes from the hands of later ,semitic craftsmen4 ,each city had its temple1 at which the patron god of the local tribe and district was worshipped4 ,in some places it was the moon god ,sin1 as at ,haran and ,ur beside the desert2 elsewhere1 as at ,nippur1 ,bel1 or at ,eridu near the ,persian ,gulf1 ,ea1 the god of the great deep1 was revered4 ,in the name of the local deity offerings were brought1 hymns were sung1 and traditions were treasured1 which extolled his might4 ,the life of these little city states centred about the temple and its cult4 ,to make it more glorious the artisans vied with each other1 and the kings made campaigns that they might dedicate the spoils to the deity4 ,sidenote3 ,the growth of extensive empires ,in time1 perhaps as early as #djjj ,b4,c41 certain more energetic and ambitious kings succeeded in conquering neighboring cities2 they even broadened their boundaries until they ruled over great empires extending to the ,mediterranean on the west and the mountains of ,elam on the east4 ,in the name of the local god1 each went forth to fight1 and to him was attributed the glory of the victory4 ,naturally1 when the territory of a city state grew into an empire1 the god of that city was proclaimed and acknowledged as supreme throughout all the conquered territory4 ,at the same time the local deities of the conquered cities continued to be worshipped at their ancient sanctuaries1 and many a conquering king won the loyalty of his subjects by making a rich offering to the god and at the temple of a vanquished foe4 ,sidenote3 ,its effect in developing the pantheon and popular theology ,the logical and inevitable result of political union was the development of a pantheon1 modelled after the imperial court1 with the god of the victorious city at its head and the leading deities of the other cities in subordinate positions4 ,when1 during the latter part of the third millennium before ,christ1 ,babylon's supremacy was permanently established under the rule of ,hammurabi4 ,marduk1 the god of that city1 was thus placed at the head of the ,babylonian pantheon4 ,the theologians of the day also recast and combined the ancient legends1 as1 for example1 those of the creation1 so as to explain why he1 one of the later gods1 was acknowledged by all as supreme4 ,a relationship was also traced between the leading gods1 and their respective functions were clearly defined4 ,corresponding to each male deity was a female deity3 thus1 the consort of ,marduk was ,ishtar1 while that of ,bel was ,belit4 ,furthermore1 the ancient myths appear to have been1 cordinated1 so that from this time on ,babylonian1 theology presents a certain unity and symmetry1 although one is constantly reminded of the very different elements out of which it had been built up4 ,sidenote3 ,development of ethical standards and laws ,parallel to the evolution of ,babylonian religion was that unfolding of ethical ideals and laws which finds its noblest record and expression in the remarkable code of ,hammurabi 7about #bbej ,b4,c474 ,in its high sense of justice2 in its regard for the rights of property and of individuals2 in its attitude toward women1 even though it comes from the ancient ,east2 and above all in its protection of widows and orphans1 this code marks almost as high a stage in the revelation of what is right as the primitive ,old ,testament laws1 with which it has points of striking resemblance4 ,sidenote3 ,a general comparison between the religions and laws of ,egypt and ,babylonia ,the evolution of ancient ,egyptian civilization and religion was parallel at almost every stage with that of ,babylonia1 only in the dreamy land of the ,nile the pantheon and the vast body of variant myths were never so thoroughly cordinated4 ,the result is that its religion forever remains a labyrinth4 ,since all interest centred about the future life1 instead of commercial pursuits1 there is no evidence that the ,egyptians ever produced a legal code at all comparable with that of ,hammurabi4 ,they did1 however1 develop a doctrine of sin which anticipates that of the ,hebrew prophets4 ,while the ,babylonians conceived of sin as simply the failure to bring offerings1 or to observe the demands of the ritual1 or1 in general1 to pay proper homage to the gods1 the ,egyptians held that each individual was answerable1 not only to the state1 but also to the gods1 for his every act and thought4 ,sidenote3 ,significance of this early religious progress ,if they admitted of a comparison1 it would be safe to say that the ,babylonian religion and law in the days of ,hammurabi were as far removed from the crude belief in spirits and the barbarous cults and practices of primitive man as the teachings of ,jesus were from those of the kingly ,babylonian lawgiver and his priestly advisers4 ,humanity's debt is exceedingly great to the thousands of devoted souls who1 in ancient ,babylonia and ,egypt1 according to their dim light1 groped for ,god and the right4 ,in part they found what they sought1 although they never ceased to look through1 a glass darkly4 ,sidenote3 ,its arrest and decline ,the sad and significant fact is that from the days of ,hammurabi to those of ,nebuchadrezzar1 ,babylonian religion1 law1 and ethics almost entirely ceased to develop4 ,no other great kings with prophetic insight appear to have arisen to hold up before the nation the principles of justice and mercy and true piety1 ,the old superstitions and magic also continued in ,babylonia as in ,egypt to exercise more and more their baneful influence4 ,saddest of all the priesthood and ceremonialism1 which had already reached a point of development commensurate and strikingly analogous to that of later ,judaism1 became the dominant power in the state1 and defined religion not in terms of life and action1 but of the ritual1 and so constricted it that all true growth was impossible4 ,hence the religions of the ,babylonians and ,egyptians perished1 like many others1 because they ceased to grow1 and therefore degenerated into a mere worship of the letter rather than the spirit4 ,,iv ,,the ,,place ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,in ,,divine ,,revelation ,sidenote3 ,advent of the ,hebrews ,modern discovery and research have demonstrated that the truth revealed through the ,babylonians and with less definiteness through the people of the ,nile was never entirely lost4 ,such a sad waste was out of accord with the obvious principles of divine economy4 ,as the icy chill of ceremonialism seized decadent ,babylonia and ,egypt1 there emerged from the steppes south and east of ,palestine a virile1 ambitious group of nomads1 who not only fell heir to that which was best in the revelation of the past1 but also quickly took their place as the real spiritual leaders of the human race4 ,possibly their ancestors1 like those of ,hammurabi1 belonged to that wave of nomadic emigration which swept out of overpopulated northern ,arabia about #bejj ,b4,c41 part of it to settle finally in ,babylonia and part in ,palestine4 ,sidenote3 ,why were they the chosen people8 ,whatever be the exact date of their advent1 the much mooted and more fundamental question at once presents itself1 ,why were the ,hebrews the chosen people8 ,it is safe to assert at once that this was not arbitrary nor without reason4 ,moreover1 the choice was not that of a moment1 but gradual4 ,rather the real question is1 ,by what divine process were the ,israelites prepared to be the chosen people that their later prophets and the event of history declare them to be8 ,certain definite historical reasons at once suggest themselves2 and these in turn throw new light upon the true relation of the ,old ,testament to divine revelation as a whole4 ,sidenote3 ,their preparation to be the chosen people3 genius for religion ,there is undoubtedly a basis for what ,renan was pleased to call1 the ,semitic genius for religion4 ,it is a truly significant fact that the three great conquering religions of the world1 ,judaism1 ,christianity1 and ,mohammedanism1 sprang from ,semitic soil4 ,to this might be added the religion of ,babylonia1 which1 was unquestionably the noblest of early antiquity4 ,in general the ,semitic mind is keen1 alert1 receptive1 and intuitional rather than logical4 ,restless energy and the tendency to acquire have also tended to make them leaders in the widely different fields of commerce and religion4 ,the patriarch ,jacob is a remarkable example of these combined qualities and results4 ,by day he got the better of his kinsmen1 and by night he wrestled with ,god4 ,these combined and highly developed characteristics of mind and nature at least suggest why the ,semites have furnished the greatest prophets and prophet nations for the moulding of the faith of the world4 ,sidenote3 ,inheritance through their ,arabian antecedents ,in contrast with contemporary ,semitic nations1 and especially the highly civilized ,babylonians1 the ,hebrews were fortunate in their immediate inheritances through ,arabian or ,aramean ancestors4 ,the wandering1 nomadic life leaves no place for established sanctuaries1 with their elaborate ceremonial customs and debasing institutions inherited from more primitive ages4 ,instead1 that life imposes limitations that make for simplicity4 ,the mysteries and constant dangers of the wild desert existence also emphasize the constant necessity of divine help4 ,the long marches by night under the silent stars inspire awe and enforce contemplation4 ,the close unity of the tribe suggests the worship of one tribal god rather than many4 ,from the desert the ancestors of the ,hebrews brought strong bodies1 inured to hardship1 and a grim austerity that found frequent expression on the lips of their prophets and a response in the minds of the people1 when luxury threatened to engulf them4 ,they also inherited from their desert days those democratic ideas and high ideals of individual liberty which1 enabled ,elijah and ,isaiah to stand up add champion the rights of the people even though it involved a public denunciation of their kings4 ,sidenote3 ,contact with ,babylonian civilization ,on the other hand1 the ,israelites undoubtedly became in time the inheritors of the best in religion and law that had been attained by the older ,semitic races4 ,their late traditions trace back their ancestry to ancient ,babylonia4 ,already for long centuries1 by conquest and by commerce1 the dominant civilization of the ,euphrates valley had been regnant in the land of ,canaan1 ,the ,tell-el-,amarna letters1 written from ,palestine in the fourteenth century1 employ the ,babylonian language and system of writing1 and reveal a high ,semitic civilization1 closely patterned after that of ,babylonia4 ,when the ,israelites settled in ,canaan and began to intermarry and assimilate with the older inhabitants1 as the earliest ,hebrew records plainly state 7cf4 ,judg4 ,i471 they found there1 among the ,canaanites1 established civil and religious institutions and traditions which were largely a reflection of those of ,babylonia4 ,also1 when in the eighth and seventh centuries ,assyrian armies conquered ,palestine1 they brought ,babylonian institutions1 traditions1 and religious ideas4 ,we know that during the reigns of ,ahaz and ,manasseh these threatened to displace those peculiar to the ,hebrews4 ,again1 during the ,babylonian exile the influence of the same powerful civilization upon the thought and religion of ,israel was also strongly felt4 ,thus the opportunities1 direct and indirect1 for receiving from ,babylonia much of the rich heritage that it held were many and varied4 ,sidenote3 ,heirs of the older ,semitic civilizations ,certain parts of the ,old ,testament itself testify that the wealth of tradition1 of institutions1 of laws1 and religious ideas1 gradually committed to the ,semitic ancestors of the ,hebrews and best preserved by the ,babylonians1 was not lost1 but1 enriched and purified1 has been transmitted to us through its pages4 ,a careful comparison of the biblical and ,babylonian accounts of the creation and the flood leaves little doubt that there is a close historical connection between these accounts4 ,investigation reveals in language1 spirit1 and form many analogies between the laws of ,hammurabi and those of the ,old ,testament which suggest at least an indirect influence4 ,many of the ceremonial institutions of later ,judaism are almost identical with those of ,babylonia4 ,while it is exceedingly easy to over or under estimate this influence1 it is a mistake to deny or ignore its deep significance4 ,sidenote3 ,recipients of all that was best in earlier revelation ,thus one of the chief elements in the providential training of the ,hebrews as the heralds and exponents of the most exalted religious and ethical truths revealed before the advent of the ,prophet of ,nazareth was the fact that they were the heirs and interpreters of the best that had been hitherto attained4 ,babylonia1 ,egypt1 and later1 ,persia and ,greece1 each contributed their noblest beliefs and ideals4 ,in the ,israelites the diverse streams of divine revelation converged4 ,the result is that1 instead of many little rivulets1 befouled by errors and superstitions1 through their history there flowed a mighty stream1 ever becoming broader and deeper and clearer as it received fresh contributions from the new fountains of purest revelation that opened in ,hebrew soil4 ,sidenote3 ,in close geographical relations to the earlier civilizations ,clear evidences of the divine purpose to be realized through the obscure peasant people who lived among the uplands of central ,canaan are found in a study of the characteristics of the ,old ,testament world4 ,it is indeed the earliest and one of the most significant chapters in divine revelation4 ,most of its area is a barren wilderness1 supporting only a small nomadic population4 ,the three fertile spots are ,babylonia1 ,canaan1 and ,egypt4 ,the first and last are fitted by nature and situation to be the seats of powerful civilizations1 destined to reach out in every direction4 ,canaan1 on the contrary1 is shut in1 with no good harbors along the ,mediterranean2 and its largest river system leads to the ,dead ,sea1 far below the surface of the ocean1--an effective negation to all commerce4 ,although thus shut in by itself1 ,canaan lies on the isthmus of fertile land that connects the great empires of the ,nile and the ,euphrates4 ,on the east and south it is always subject to the influences and waves of immigration1 that come from the ,arabian desert4 ,it attracted from their nomadic life the ancestors of the ,israelites1 and during their early period of development gave them a secluded home4 ,when they were ready to learn the larger lessons in the stream of life1 ,egypt and the great empires of the ,tigris and ,euphrates valley contended for them1 conquered and ultimately scattered them throughout the then known world4 ,while their conquerors1 ,egypt1 ,assyria1 ,babylonia1 ,persia1 ,greece1 and ,rome1 the greatest powers of the ancient world1 took from them their gold and their freedom1 from the same conquerors they appear to have received the infinitely more precious treasures of tradition and thought4 ,sidenote3 ,trained by remarkable national experience ,great as was their heritage from the past1 the truth that came through the ,hebrews themselves constitutes by far the greatest and most significant part of that revelation which the ,old ,testament records4 ,their history suggests the ways in which1 ,jehovah opened the spiritual eyes of the people4 ,from the beginning to the present day it has been characterized by a series of crises unparalleled in the life of any other race4 ,experiences1 intense and often superlatively painful1 have come to them in rapid succession1 forcing them to think and develop4 ,the little street ,arab1 alert1 resourceful1 uncanny in his prematurity1 is a modern illustration of what grim necessity and experience can produce4 ,it was in the school supremely adapted to divine ends that ,jehovah1 trained his people to be his spokesmen to the world4 ,sidenote3 ,guided by unique spiritual teachers ,other peoples1 however1 had their crises and yet had no such message as did the ,israelites4 ,what made the crises in the history of the ,israelites richly fruitful in ethical and spiritual truth was the presence within their midst of certain devoted1 responsive teachers1 and especially the prophets1 who guided them in their time of peril1 interpreted its significance1 and appealed to the awakened conscience of the nation4 ,like begets like4 ,at the beginning of ,israel's history stands the great prophet ,moses1 and during the long centuries that followed the voice of the prophets was rarely hushed4 ,sidenote3 ,taught by inspired prophets ,in seeking the ultimate answer to our question1 ,how were the ,israelites prepared to be the chosen people1 we are confronted by a miracle that baffles our power to analyze3 it is the supreme fact that the ,spirit of the ,almighty touched the spirit of certain men in ancient ,israel so that they became seers and prophets4 ,this is their own testimony1 and their deeds and words amply confirm it4 ,the experiences of men to-day also demonstrate its possibility4 ,indeed it is not surprising1 but most natural1 that the one supreme ,personality in the universe should reveal himself to and through human minds1 and that the most enlightened men of the most spiritually enlightened race should be the recipients of the fullest and most perfect revelation4 ,it is the truth that they thus perceived1 and then proclaimed by word and deed and pen1 that completed the preparation of the chosen people1 for it was none other than the possession of a unique spiritual message that constituted the essence of their choice4 ,furthermore1 as the greatest of the later prophets declares 7,is4 xl4-lv471 that divine choice did not mean that they were to be the recipients of exceptional favors1 but rather that they were called to service4 ,by the patient enduring of suffering and by voluntary self-sacrifice they were to perfect the revelation of ,god's character and will in the life of humanity4 ,sidenote3 ,jesus' relation to the ,old ,testament ,the ,old ,testament1 therefore1 is the final record of a revelation extending through thousands of years1 finding at last its most exalted expression in the messages of the ,hebrew prophets1 and its clearest reflection in the thoughts and experiences of the priests1 sages1 and psalmists of ancient ,israel4 ,in varied literary forms and by many different writers the best fruits of that revelation have been preserved4 ,ancient traditions1 songs1 proverbs1 laws1 historical narratives1 prophecies1 and psalms1 each present their precious truth4 ,the ,israelitish race1 however1 never fully completed the work to which it was called4 ,a master was needed to distinguish between the essential and the non-essential1 to simplify and unify the teachings of the ,old ,testament as a whole1 and to apply them personally to individual life1 ,a man was demanded to realize fully in his own character the highest ideals of this ancient revelation4 ,a divinely gifted prophet was required to perfect man's knowledge1 and to bring him into natural1 harmonious relations with his ,eternal ,father4 ,the world awaited the advent of a ,messiah who would establish1 on the everlasting foundations of justice and truth and love1 the universal kingdom of ,god4 ,these supreme needs were met in fullest measure by the ,master1 the perfect ,man1 the ,prophet1 and the ,messiah1 whose work the ,new ,testament records4 ,sidenote3 ,points of likeness and contact between the two ,testaments ,while there are many superficial points of difference in language1 literary form1 background1 and point of view between the ,old and the ,new ,testaments1 these are insignificant in comparison with the essential points of likeness and contact4 ,each ,testament is but a different chapter in the history of the same divine revelation4 ,the one is the foundation on which the other is built4 ,the writers of the ,new constantly assume the historical facts1 the institutions1 and the teachings of the ,old4 ,although in ,greek garb1 their language and idioms are also those of the ,old4 ,on many themes1 as1 for example1 man's duty to society1 ,jesus said little1 for the teachers of his race had fully developed them and there was little to add4 ,repeatedly by word and act he declared that he came not to destroy the older teachings1 but simply to bring them to full perfection4 ,the ,old ,testament also tells of the long years of preparation and of the earnest expectations of the ,israelitish race2 the ,new records a fulfilment far transcending the most exalted hopes of ,hebrew seers4 ,the same ,god reveals himself through both ,testaments4 ,one progressively unfolding system of religious teachings1 one message of love1 and one divine purpose bind both together with bonds that no generation or church can break4 ,v ,,the ,,influences ,,that ,,produced ,,the ,,new ,,testament ,sidenote3 ,importance of the study of origins ,the present age is supremely interested in origins4 ,not until we have traced the genesis and earliest unfolding of an institution or an idea or a literature do we feel that we really understand and appreciate it4 ,familiarity with that which is noble breeds not contempt but reverence1 and intelligent devotion4 ,acquaintance with the origin and history of a book is essential to its true interpretation4 ,therefore it is fortunate that modern discovery and research have thrown so much light upon the origin of both the ,old and the ,new ,testaments4 ,sidenote3 ,the growing recognition that the natural is divine ,equally fortunate is it that we are also learning to appreciate the sublimity and divinity of the natural4 ,the universe and organic life are no less wonderful and awe-inspiring because1 distinguishing some of the natural laws that govern their evolution1 we have abandoned the grotesque theories held by primitive men4 ,similarly we do not to-day demand1 as did our forefathers1 a supernatural origin for our sacred books before we are ready to revere and obey their commands4 ,with greater insight we now can heartily sing1 ,god moves in a natural way his wonders to perform4 ,our ability to trace the historical influences through which he brought into being and shaped the two ,testaments and gave them their present position in the life of humanity does not in a thoughtful mind obscure1 but rather reveals the more clearly1 their divine origin and authority4 ,sidenote3 ,value of the comparative study of the origin of both ,testaments ,through contemporary writings and the results of modern biblical research it is possible to study definitely the origin of the various ,new ,testament books and to follow the different stages in their growth into a canon4 ,this familiar chapter in the history of the ,bible is richly suggestive1 because of the clear light which it sheds upon the more complex and obscure genesis and later development of the ,old ,testament4 ,it will be profitable1 therefore1 to review it in outline1 not only because of its own importance1 but also as an introduction to the study of the influences that produced the older ,scriptures2 for almost every fact that will be noted in connection with the origin and literary history of the ,new has its close analogy in the growth of the ,old ,testament4 ,sidenote3 ,the threefold grouping of the ,new ,testament books ,we find that as they are at present arranged1 the books of the ,new ,testament are divided into three distinct classes4 ,the first group includes the historical books3 the ,gospels and ,acts2 the second1 the ,epistles--the longer1 like the letters to the ,romans and ,corinthians1 being placed first and the shorter at the end2 while the third group contains but one book1 known as the ,apocalypse or ,revelation4 ,the general arrangement is clearly according to subject-matter1 not according to date of authorship2 the order of the groups represent different stages in the process of canonization4 ,sidenote3 ,why the ,gospels are not the earliest ,their position as well as the themes which they treat suggest that the ,gospels were the first to be written4 ,it is1 however1 a self-evident fact that a book was not written--at least not in antiquity1 when the making of books was both laborious and expensive--unless a real need for it was felt4 ,if we go back1 and live for a moment in imagination among the band of followers which ,jesus left behind at his death1 we see clearly that while the early ,christian ,church was limited to ,palestine1 and a large company of disciples1 who had often themselves seen and heard the ,christ1 lived to tell by word of mouth the story of his life and teachings1 no one desired a written record4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that the oldest books in the ,new ,testament are not the ,gospels4 ,the exigencies of time and space and the burning zeal of the apostles for the churches of their planting apparently produced the earliest ,christian writings4 ,sidenote3 ,origin of the earliest epistles ,in his second missionary journey ,paul preached for a time at ,thessalonica1 winning to faith in the ,christ a small mixed company of ,jews and proselyte ,greeks4 ,his success aroused the bitter opposition of the narrower ,jews1 who raised a mob and drove him from the city before his work was completed4 ,but the seed which he had planted continued to grow4 ,naturally he was eager to return to the infant church4 ,twice he planned to visit it1 but was prevented4 ,in his intense desire to help the brave ,christians of ,thessalonica1 he sent ,timothy to inquire regarding their welfare and to encourage them4 ,when about #ej ,a4,d4 ,timothy reported to ,paul at ,corinth1 the apostle wrote at once to the little church at ,thessalonica a letter of commendation1 encouragement1 and counsel1 which we know to-day as ,first ,thessalonians and which is probably one of the oldest writings in our ,new ,testament1 ,galatians perhaps being the earliest4 ,sidenote3 ,paul's later epistles ,another letter 7,,ii ,thess47 soon followed1 giving more detailed advice4 ,as the field of ,paul's activity broadened1 he was obliged more and more to depend upon letters1 since he could not in person visit the churches which he had planted4 ,questions of doctrine as well as of practice which perplexed the different churches were treated in these epistles4 ,to certain of his assistants1 like ,timothy1 he wrote dealing with their personal problems4 ,frankly1 forcibly1 and feelingly ,paul poured out in these letters the wealth of his personal and soul life4 ,they reveal his faith in the making as well as his mature teachings4 ,since he was dealing with definite conditions in the communities to which he wrote1 his letters are also invaluable contemporary records of the growth and history of the early ,christian church4 ,thus between #cj and #fj ,a4,d41 during the period of his greatest activity1 certainly ten1 and probably thirteen1 of our twenty-seven ,new ,testament books came from the burning heart of the apostle to the ,gentiles4 ,sidenote3 ,growth of the other epistles ,similar needs impelled other apostles and early ,christian teachers to write on the same themes with the same immediate purpose as did ,paul4 ,the result is a series of epistles1 associated with the names of ,james1 ,peter1 ,john1 and ,jude4 ,in some1 like ,third ,john1 the personal element is predominant2 in others1 the didactic1 as1 for example1 the ,epistle of ,james4 ,sidenote3 ,purpose of the ,epistle to the ,hebrews ,a somewhat different type of literature is represented by the ,epistle to the ,hebrews4 ,its form is that of a letter1 and it was without doubt originally addressed to a local church or churches by a writer whose name has ever since been a fertile source of conjecture4 ,the only fact definitely established is that ,paul did not write it4 ,it is essentially a combination of argument1 doctrine1 and exhortation4 ,the aim is apologetic as well as practical4 ,most of ,paul's letters were written as the thoughts1 which he wished to communicate to those to whom he wrote1 came to his mind2 but in the ,epistle to the ,hebrews the author evidently follows a carefully elaborated plan4 ,the argument is cumulative4 ,the thesis is that ,christ1 superior to all earlier teachers of his race1 is the perfect ,mediator of ,salvation4 ,sidenote3 ,value of the ,epistles ,thus the ,epistles1 originally personal notes of encouragement and warning1 growing sometimes into more elaborate treatises1 were made the means whereby the early ,christian teachers imparted their doctrines to constantly widening groups of readers4 ,at best they were regarded simply as inferior substitutes for the personal presence and spoken words of their authors4 ,like the ,old ,testament books1 their authority lies in the fact that they faithfully reflect1 in part at least1 the greater revelation coming through the lives and minds of the early apostles4 ,sidenote3 ,the larger group ,as is well known1 the twenty-one letters in our ,new ,testament were selected from a far larger collection of epistles1 some of which were early lost1 while others1 like the ,epistles of ,barnabas and ,polycarp and ,clement1 were preserved to share with those later accepted as canonical1 the study and veneration of the primitive ,church4 ,sidenote3 ,influences that gave rise to the earliest ,gospels ,the influences which originally produced the ,gospels and ,acts were very different from those which called forth the ,epistles4 ,the natural preference of the early ,christians for the spoken word explains why we do not possess to-day a single written sentence in the ,gospels which we can with absolute assurance assign to the first quarter-century following the death of ,jesus4 ,two influences1 however1 in time led certain writers to record his early life and teachings4 ,the one was that death was rapidly thinning the ranks of those who could say1 ,i saw and heard2 the other was the spread of ,christianity beyond the bounds of ,judaism and ,palestine1 and the resulting need for detailed records felt by those ,christians who had never visited ,palestine and who had learned from the lips of apostles only the barest facts regarding the life of the ,christ4 ,sidenote3 ,testimony of ,luke's ,gospel ,the opening verses of ,luke's ,gospel are richly suggestive of the origin and growth of the historical books of the ,new ,testament3 ,forasmuch as many have taken in hand to draw up a narrative concerning those matters which have been fulfilled among us1 even as they delivered them unto us1--they who from the beginning were eye-witnesses and ministers of the word1 it seemed good to me also1 having traced the course of all things accurately from the first1 to write unto thee in order1 most excellent ,theophilus1 that thou mightest know the certainty concerning the things wherein thou wast instructed4 ,this prologue states that many shorter ,gospels had previously been written1 not by eye-witnesses1 but by men who had listened to those who had themselves seen4 ,luke leaves his readers to infer that he also drew a large number of his facts from these earlier sources as well as from the testimony of eye-witnesses4 ,the implication of the prologue is that he himself was entirely dependent upon written and oral sources for his data4 ,this is confirmed by the testimony of the ,muratorian ,fragment3 ,luke the physician1 after the ascension of ,christ1 when ,paul had taken him1 as it were1 as a follower zealous of the right1 wrote the gospel book according to ,luke in his own name1 as is believed4 ,nevertheless he had not himself seen the ,lord in the flesh1 and1 accordingly1 going back as far as he could obtain information1 he began his narrative with the birth of ,john4 ,his many literal quotations from it and the fact that he makes it the framework of his own1 indicate that ,mark's ,gospel was one of those earlier attempts to which he refers4 ,sidenote3 ,luke's motive in writing ,the motive which influenced ,luke to write is clearly stated4 ,it was to prepare a comprehensive1 accurate1 and orderly account of the facts in regard to the life of ,jesus for his ,greek friend ,theophilus1 who had already been partially instructed in the same4 ,his ,gospel confirms the implications of the prologue4 ,it is the longest and most carefully arranged of all the ,gospels4 ,the distinctively ,jewish ideas or institutions which are prominent in ,matthew are omitted or else explained2 hence there is nothing which would prove unintelligible to a ,greek4 ,the book of the ,acts of the ,apostles1 dedicated to the same patron1 is virtually a continuation of the third ,gospel1 tracing1 in a more or less fragmentary manner1 the history and growth1 of the early ,christian ,church1 and especially the work of ,paul4 ,sidenote3 ,purpose of ,mark's ,gospel ,very similar influences called forth the shortest and undoubtedly the oldest of the four ,gospels1 the book of ,mark4 ,the testimony of the contents confirms in general the early statement of ,papias and other ,christian ,fathers that it was written at ,rome by ,john ,mark1 the disciple and interpreter of the apostle ,peter1 after the death of his teacher4 ,the absence of many ,old ,testament quotations1 the careful explanation of all ,jewish and ,palestinian references which would not be intelligible to a foreigner1 the presence of certain ,latin words1 and many other indications1 all tend to establish the conclusion that it was written for the ,gentile and ,jewish ,christians1 probably at ,rome1 and that its purpose was simply historical4 ,sidenote3 ,the two-fold purpose of the ,gospel of ,matthew ,the memoir of ,jesus1 which we know as the ,gospel of ,matthew1 is from the hand of a ,jewish ,christian and1 as is shown by the amount of material drawn from ,mark's ,gospel1 must be placed at a later date4 ,the great number of quotations from the ,old ,testament1 the interest in tracing the fulfilment of the ,messianic predictions1 and the distinctively ,jewish- ,christian point of view and method of interpretation1 indicate clearly that he wrote not with ,gentile but ,jewish ,christians in mind4 ,nevertheless1 like that of ,mark and ,luke1 his purpose was primarily to present a faithful and1 as far as his sources permitted1 detailed picture of the life and teachings of ,jesus4 ,his arrangement of his material appears1 however1 to be logical rather than purely chronological4 ,the different sections and the individual incidents and teachings each contribute to the great argument of the book1 namely1 that ,jesus was the true ,messiah of the ,jews2 that the ,jews1 since they rejected him1 forfeited their birthright2 and that his kingdom1 fulfilling and inheriting the ,old ,testament promises1 has become a universal kingdom1 open to all races and freed from all ,jewish bonds4 ,footnote3 ,cf4 e4g41 x4 #e1 #f2 xv4 #bd2 viii4 #aa1 #ab2 xii4 #ch-de2 xxi4 #db1 #dc2 xxii4 #g2 xxiii4 #ac1 #cf1 #ch2 xxiv4 #b2 xxviii4 #ai ,this suggests that the ,first ,gospel represents a more mature stage in the thought of the early ,church than ,mark and ,luke4 ,sidenote3 ,origin of ,matthew's ,sayings of ,jesus ,its title and the fact that the ,church ,fathers constantly connect it with ,matthew1 the publican1 and later apostle is explained by the statement of ,papias1 quoted by ,eusebius3 ,matthew accordingly composed the oracles in the ,hebrew dialect1 and each one interpreted them as he was able 7,h4,e41 iii4 #ci74 ,these oracles evidently consisted of a written collection of the sayings of ,jesus4 ,since they were largely if not entirely included in our ,first ,gospel1 ,it was therefore known as ,the ,gospel of ,matthew4 ,there is no evidence that the original ,matthew's ,sayings of ,jesus contained definite narrative material4 ,the fact that the ,first ,gospel draws so largely from ,mark for its historical data would indicate that this was not supplied by its main source4 ,the ,sayings of ,jesus was probably the oldest written record of the work of ,jesus1 for1 while oral tradition1 easily remembers incidents1 disconnected teachings are not so readily preserved by the memory4 ,their transcendent importance would also furnish a strong incentive to use the pen4 ,it was natural also that1 of all the disciples1 the ex-customs officer of ,capernaum should be the one to undertake this transcendently important task4 ,sidenote3 ,aim of the ,the ,fourth ,gospel ,the ,fourth is clearly the latest of the ,gospels1 for it does not attempt fully to reproduce the facts presented in the other three1 but assumes their existence4 ,its doctrines are also more fully developed1 and its aim is not simply the giving of historical facts and teachings1 but also1 as it clearly states1 that those reading it might believe that ,jesus was the ,christ1 the son of ,god1 and that believing they might have life in his name 7xx4 #ca74 ,the motive that produced it was1 therefore1 apologetic and evangelical rather than merely historical4 ,sidenote3 ,review of growth of the ,gospels ,a detailed comparison of the differences between the ,gospels1 as well as of their many points of likeness which often extend to exact verbal agreement1 furnishes the data for reconstructing their history4 ,in general the resulting conclusions are in perfect harmony with the testimony of the ,church ,fathers4 ,mark1 the shortest and more distinctively narrative ,gospel1 is clearly the oldest of the four4 ,possibly it was originally intended to be the supplement of the other early source1 ,matthew's ,sayings of ,jesus1 now known only through quotations4 ,these two earliest known ,christian records of the work of the ,master in their original form were the chief sources quoted in the ,first and ,third ,gospels4 ,so largely is ,mark thus reproduced that1 if lost1 it would be possible from these to restore the book with the exception of only a few verses4 ,but in addition1 ,matthew and ,luke each have material peculiar to themselves1 suggesting other independent written as well as oral sources4 ,to such shorter written ,gospels1 and also to the oral testimony of eyewitnesses1 ,luke refers in his prologue4 ,in the ,fourth ,gospel1 the doctrinal motive already apparent in ,matthew1 and prominent in the ,church at the beginning of the second ,christian century1 takes the precedence of the merely historical4 ,a distinct source1 the personal observation of the beloved disciple1 probably also furnishes the majority of the illustrations which are here so effectively arrayed4 ,sidenote3 ,influences that produced the apocalypses ,more complex were the influences which produced the single example of the third type of ,new ,testament literature1--the ,apocalypse1 or ,book of ,revelation4 ,the so-called apocalyptic type of literature was a characteristic product of later ,judaism4 ,the ,book of ,daniel is the most familiar example4 ,although in the age of scribism the voice of the prophets was regarded as silent1 and the only authority recognized was that of the past1 the popular ,messianic hopes of the people continued to find expression anonymously in the form of apocalypses4 ,in the periods of their greatest distress ,jews and ,christians found encouragement and inspiration in the pictures of the future4 ,since the present situation was so hopeless1 they looked for a supernatural transformation1 which would result in the triumph of the right and the establishment of the rule of the ,messiah4 ,underlying all the apocalypses is the eternal truth voiced by the poet3 ,god's in his heaven and all's right with the world4 ,sidenote3 ,origin of the ,book of ,revelation ,the immediate historical background of the ,apocalypse is the bitter struggle between ,christianity and heathenism4 ,rome has become drunk with the blood of the saints and the blood of the martyrs of ,jesus 7xvii4 #f74 ,the contest centres about the worship of the beast1--that is1 ,caesar4 ,the book possibly includes older apocalypses which reflect earlier conflicts1 but in its present form it apparently comes from the closing years of ,domitian's reign4 ,the obvious aim of its ,jewish ,christian writer was to encourage his readers by glowing pictures of the coming victory of the ,lamb1 and thus to steel them for unfaltering resistance to the assaults of heathenism4 ,the purpose which actuated the writer was therefore in certain respects the same as that which led ,paul to write his letter to the persecuted church of ,thessalonica1 although the form in which that purpose was realized was fundamentally different4 ,sidenote3 ,the literary activity of the first four centuries ,many other apocalypses were written by the early ,christians4 ,the one recently discovered and associated with the name of ,peter is perhaps the most important4 ,thus1 the second half of the first century after the death of ,jesus witnessed the birth of a large ,christian literature1 consisting of epistles1 gospels1 and apocalypses4 ,the work of the next three centuries was the appreciation and the selection of the books which1 to-day constitute our ,new ,testament4 ,the influences which led to this consummation may be followed almost as clearly as those which produced the individual books4 ,sidenote3 ,influences that led to the canonization of the ,gospels ,early in the second century the motives which had originally led certain ,christians to write the four ,gospels induced the ,church to regard those books as the most authentic1 and therefore authoritative1 records of the life and teachings of the ,master4 ,we have no distinctive history of the process4 ,it was gradual1 and probably almost unconscious4 ,the fact that three of the ,gospels were associated with the names of apostles and the other with ,luke1 the faithful companion of ,paul1 undoubtedly tended to establish their authority2 but the chief canonizing influence was the need of such records for private and public reading4 ,the production1 early in the second century1 of spurious gospels1 like the ,gospel of ,marcion1 written to furnish a literary basis for certain heretical doctrines1 also the desire of the ,church ,fathers to have records to which they could appeal as authoritative hastened the formation of the first ,new ,testament canon4 ,the use of the ,gospels in the services of the church1 which probably began before the close of the first ,christian century1 by degrees gave them an authority equal to that of the ,old ,testament ,scriptures4 ,the earliest canon consisted simply of these four books4 ,they seem to have been universally accepted by the ,western ,church by the middle of the second century4 ,about #aeb ,a4,d4 ,justin ,martyr1 in proving his positions1 refers to the ,memoirs of the ,apostles compiled by ,christ's apostles and those who associated with them1 and during the same decade his pupil ,tatian made his ,diatessaron by combining our present four ,gospels4 ,sidenote3 ,the second edition of the ,new ,testament ,meantime the natural desire to supplement the teachings of ,jesus by those of the ,apostles led the ,church to single out certain of the epistles and associate them with the ,gospels4 ,already in the first century the apostolic epistles and traditions were cherished by the individual churches to which they had been first directed4 ,in time1 however1 the need for a written record of the apostolic teachings and work became widely felt4 ,hence1 by the end of the second century1 ,acts and the thirteen ,pauline epistles1 ,first ,peter1 ,first ,john1 and the ,apocalypse1 were by common consent placed side by side with the ,gospels1 at least by the leaders of the ,western ,church4 ,sidenote3 ,the disputed books ,regarding the authority of the remaining ,new ,testament books1 ,hebrews1 ,james1 ,first and ,second ,john1 and ,jude1 opinion long remained undecided4 ,concerning them an earnest discussion was carried on for the next two centuries4 ,by certain leaders in the ,church they were regarded as authoritative1 while elsewhere and at different periods1 other books1 like the ,gospel to the ,hebrews1 the ,epistle of ,barnabas1 ,clement's ,epistle to the ,corinthians1 the ,shepherd of ,hermas1 and the ,apocalypse of ,peter1 were included in the canon and even given the priority over the disputed books later included in our ,new ,testament4 ,sidenote3 ,final completion of the ,new ,testament canon ,the final decision represents the result of an open and prolonged and yet quiet consideration of the merits of each book and of its claims to apostolic authority4 ,the ablest scholars of the early ,christian ,church devoted their best energies to the problem4 ,gradually1 thoughtfully1 prayerfully1 and by testing them in the laboratory of experience1 the ,christian world separated the twenty-seven books which we find to-day in our ,new ,testament from the much larger heritage of kindred writings which come from the early ,christian centuries4 ,time and later consideration have fully approved the selection and confirmed the belief that through the minds of consecrated men ,god was realizing his purpose for mankind4 ,as is well known1 at the ,council of ,carthage1 in #cig ,a4,d41 the ,western world at last formally accepted them1 although the ,syrian churches continued for centuries to retain a somewhat different canon4 ,sidenote3 ,conclusions from this study of the influences that produced the ,new ,testament ,this brief historical study of the origin of our ,new ,testament has demonstrated twelve significant facts3 7#a7 ,that the original authors of the different books never suspected that their writings would have the universal value and authority which they now rightfully enjoy4 7#b7 ,that they at first regarded them as merely an imperfect substitute for verbal teaching and personal testimony4 7#c7 ,that in each case they had definite individuals and conditions in mind4 7#d7 ,that the needs of the rapidly growing ,church and the varied and trying experiences through which it passed were all potent factors in influencing the authors of the ,new ,testament to write4 7#e7 ,that certain books1 especially the historical1 like ,luke and ,matthew1 are composite1 consisting of material taken bodily from older documents1 like ,matthew's ,sayings of ,jesus and the original narrative of ,mark4 7#f7 ,that our ,new ,testament books are only a part of a much larger early ,christian literature4 7#g7 ,that they are unquestionably1 however1 the most valuable and representative writings of that larger literature4 7#h7 ,that they were only gradually selected and ascribed a value and authority equal to that of the ,old ,testament writings4 7#i7 ,that there were three distinct stages in the formation of the ,new ,testament canon3 the gospels were first recognized as authorative2 then ,acts1 the ,apostolic ,epistles1 and the ,apocalypse2 and last of all1 the complete canon4 7#aj7 ,that the canon was formed as a result of the need felt by later generations1 in connection with their study and worship1 for reliable records of the history and teachings of ,christianity4 7#aa7 ,that the principles of selection depended ultimately upon the intrinsic character of the books themselves and the authority ascribed to their reputed authors4 7#ab7 ,that the process of selection continued for fully three centuries1 and that the results represent the thoughtful1 enlightened judgment of thousands of devoted ,christians4 ,thus through definite historical forces and the minds and wills of men1 the ,eternal ,father gradually perfected the record of his supreme revelation1 to humanity4 ,,vi ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,prophetic ,,histories ,sidenote3 ,analogies between the influences that produced the two ,testaments ,very similar influences were at work in producing and shaping both the ,old and the ,new ,testaments2 only in the history of the older ,scriptures still other forces can be distinguished4 ,moreover1 the ,old ,testament contains a much greater variety of literature4 ,it is also significant that1 while some of the ,new ,testament books began to be canonized less than a century after they were written1 there is clear evidence that many of the ,old ,testament writings were in existence several centuries before they were gathered together into a canon and thus crystallized into their final form4 ,the inevitable result is that they bear the marks of much more elaborate editorial revision than those of the ,new4 ,it is1 however1 not the aim of the present work to trace this complex process of revision in detail1 nor to give the cumulative evidence and the many data and reasons that lead to each conclusion4 ,these can be studied in any modern ,old ,testament introduction or in the volumes of the present writer's ,student's ,old ,testament4 ,sidenote3 ,the present classification of the ,old ,testament books ,in their present form1 the books of the ,old ,testament1 like those of the ,new1 fall into three classes4 ,the first includes the historical books4 ,in the ,old1 corresponding to the four ,gospels and ,acts of the ,new1 are found the books from ,genesis through ,esther4 ,next in order1 in the ,old1 stand the poetical books1 from ,job through the ,song of ,songs1 with which the ,new ,testament has no analogy except the liturgical hymns connected with the nativity1 preserved in the opening chapters of ,matthew and ,luke4 ,the third group in the ,old ,testament includes the prophecies from ,isaiah through ,malachi4 ,sidenote3 ,close correspondence between the ,old ,testament prophecies and the ,new ,testament apocalypses and epistles ,one book in this group1 ,daniel1 and portions of ,ezekiel and ,joel1 are analogous to the ,new ,testament ,apocalypse1 but otherwise the prophetic books correspond closely in character and contents to the epistles of the ,new4 ,both are direct messages to contemporaries of the prophets and apostles1 and both deal with then existing conditions4 ,both consist of practical warnings1 exhortations1 advice1 and encouragement4 ,the form is simply incidental4 ,the prophets of ,jehovah preached1 and then they or their disciples wrote down the words which they had addressed to their countrymen4 ,when they could not reach with their voices all in whom they were interested1 the prophets1 like the apostles1 committed their teachings to writing and sent them forth as tracts 7cf4 ,jer4 xxxvi474 ,at other times1 when they could not go in person1 they wrote letters4 ,thus1 for example1 the twenty-ninth chapter of the prophecy of ,jeremiah opens with the interesting superscription3 ,now these are the words of the letter that ,jeremiah the prophet sent from ,jerusalem unto the residue of the elders of the captivity1 and to the priests1 and to the prophets1 and to all the people1 whom ,nebuchadrezzar had carried away captive from ,jerusalem to ,babylon2 by the hand of ,elasah the son of ,shaphan1 and ,gemariah the son of ,hilkiah1 whom ,zedekiah king of ,judah sent unto ,babylon to ,nebuchadrezzar4 ,if it were not for this superscription1 no one would suspect from the nature of the letter which follows that it was anything other than a regular spoken or written prophecy4 ,its contents and spirit are exactly parallel to those of ,paul's epistles4 ,undoubtedly many prophecies were never delivered orally1 but were originally written like ,paul's ,epistle to the ,ephesians1 and sent out as circular letters4 ,the ,babylonian exile scattered the ,jews so widely that the exilic and post-exilic prophets depended almost entirely upon this method of reaching their countrymen and thus became writers of epistles4 ,sidenote3 ,the oldest literature poetry ,like the ,epistles in the ,new1 certain of the prophecies1--as1 for example1 those of ,amos1 ,hosea1 and ,isaiah1--are among the earliest writings of the ,old ,testament4 ,but in the light of modern biblical study1 it has become apparent that prose was not the earliest form of expression among the ,hebrews1 ,in this respect their literary history is parallel with that of other early peoples2 for first they treasured their thought in heroic song and ballad4 ,while they were nomads1 wandering in the desert1 and also while they were struggling for the possession of ,canaan1 they had little time or motive for cultivating the literary art4 ,the popular songs which were sung beside the camp-fires1 at the recurring festivals1 and as the ,hebrews advanced in battle against their foes1 were the earliest records of their past4 ,there is evidence that many of the primitive narratives now found in the opening chapters of ,genesis were also once current in poetical form4 ,in some cases the poetic structure has been preserved4 ,sidenote3 ,israel's early song-books ,the earliest collections of writings referred to in the ,old ,testament bear the suggestive titles1 ,the ,book of the ,upright 7i4e41 ,israel71 and1 ,the ,book of the ,wars of ,jehovah4 ,from the quotations which we have from them it is clear that they consisted of collections of songs1 recounting the exploits of ,israel's heroes and the signal victories of the race4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,song of ,deborah ,that stirring paean of victory known as the ,song of ,deborah was perhaps once found in the ,book of the ,wars of ,jehovah4 ,it is one of the oldest pieces of literature in the ,old ,testament1 and breathes the heroic spirit of the primitive age from which it comes4 ,through the eyes of the poet one views the different scenes in the mighty conflict4 ,footnote3 ,the translation is from ,the ,student's ,old ,testament1 ,vol4 ,i41 pp4 #cbj-cbc4 ,sidenote3 ,exordium ,that the leaders took the lead in ,israel1 ,that the people volunteered readily1 ,bless ,jehovah6 ,hear1 ,o kings1 ,give ear1 ,o rulers4 ,i myself will sing to ,jehovah1 ,i will sing praise to ,jehovah1 the ,god of ,israel4 ,sidenote3 ,advent of ,jehovah ,jehovah1 when thou wentest forth from ,seir1 ,when thou marchest from the land of ,edom1 ,the earth trembled1 the heavens also dripped1 ,yea1 the clouds dropped water4 ,the mountains quaked before ,jehovah1 ,yon ,sinai before ,jehovah1 the ,god of ,israel4 ,sidenote3 ,conditions before the war ,in the days of ,shamgar the son of ,anath1 ,in the days of ,jael1 the highways ceased to be used1 ,and travellers walked by round-about paths4 ,the rulers ceased in ,israel1 they ceased1 ,until than didst arise1 ,deborah1 ,until thou didst arise a mother in ,israel4 99 99 99 99 99 ,sidenote3 ,the rally about ,deborah and ,barak ,then the people of ,jehovah went down to the gates1 crying1 ,arise1 arise1 ,deborah1 ,arise1 arise1 strike up the song6 ,arise ,barak1 and take thy captives1 thou son of ,abinoam6 ,so a remnant went down against the powerful1 ,the people of ,jehovah went down against the mighty1 ,from ,ephraim they rushed forth into the valley1 ,thy brother ,benjamin among thy peoples1 ,from ,machir went down1 commanders1 ,and from ,zebulun those who carry the marshal's staff4 ,and the princes of ,issachar were with ,deborah2 ,and ,napthali was even so with ,barak1 ,into the valley they rushed forth at his back4 ,sidenote3 ,the cowards who remained at home ,by the brooks of ,reuben great were the resolves6 ,why didst they sit among the sheepfolds1 ,listening to the pipings for the flocks8 ,by the brooks of ,reuben there were great questionings6 ,gilead remained beyond the ,jordan2 ,and ,dan1 why does he stay by the ships as an alien8 ,asher sits still by the shore of the sea1 ,and remains by its landings4 ,sidenote3 ,the battle and defeat of the ,canaanites ,zebulun was a people who exposed their lives to deadly peril1 ,and ,napthali on the heights of the open field4 ,bless ,jehovah6 ,kings came1 they fought2 ,then fought the kings of ,canaan1 ,at ,taanach by the waters of ,megiddo2 ,they took no booty of silver4 ,from heaven fought the stars1 ,from their courses fought against ,sisera4 ,the river ,kishon swept them away1 ,the ancient river1 the river ,kishon4 ,o my soul1 march on with strength6 ,then did the horse-hoofs resound ,with the galloping1 galloping of the powerful steeds4 ,sidenote3 ,david's dirge over ,saul and ,jonathan ,in the ,book of the ,upright is included that touching elegy which ,david sang after the death of ,saul and ,jonathan1 and which stands next to the ,song of ,deborah as one of the earliest surviving examples of ,old ,testament literature4 ,footnote3 ,student's ,old ,testament1 ,vol4 ,,ii41 pp4 #aac1aad4 ,sidenote3 ,the greatness of the calamity ,weep1 ,o ,judah6 ,grieve1 ,o ,israel6 ,on thy heights are the slain6 ,how have the mighty fallen6 ,tell it not in ,gath1 ,declare it not in the streets of ,askelon2 ,lest the daughters of the ,philistines rejoice1 ,lest the daughters of the uncircumcised exult4 ,ye mountains of ,gilboa1 may no dew descend1 ,nor rain upon you1 ,o ye fields of death6 ,for there was the shield of the mighty cast away1 ,the shield of ,saul1 not anointed with oil4 ,sidenote3 ,bravery and attractiveness of the fallen ,from the blood of the slain1 ,from the fat of the mighty1 ,the bow of ,jonathan turned not back1 ,the sword of ,saul returned not empty4 ,saul and ,jonathan1 the beloved and the lovely6 ,in life and in death they were not parted2 ,they were swifter than eagles1 ,they were stronger than lions4 ,sidenote3 ,saul's services to ,israel ,daughters of ,israel1 weep over ,saul1 ,who clothed you daintily in fine linen1 ,who put golden ornaments on your garments1 and say3 ,how have the mighty fallen in the midst of battle6 ,sidenote3 ,david's love for ,jonathan ,jonathan1 in thy death hast thou wounded me6 ,i am distressed for thee1 my brother ,jonathan6 ,thou wert surpassingly dear to me1 ,thy love to me was far more than the love of woman6 ,how have the mighty fallen1 ,and the weapons of war perished6 ,sidenote3 ,the blessing of ,jacob ,the so-called ,blessing of ,jacob 7,gen4 xlix1 #b-bg7 is a poetical delineation of the strength and weakness of the different tribes of ,israel with references to specific events in their history4 ,these historical allusions suggest that it probably comes from the reigns of ,david and ,solomon1 when the tribes were for the first time all united under a common rule and had passed through certain of the experiences alluded to in the poem4 ,sidenote3 ,israel's heritage of oral traditions ,the ,israelitish race was supremely rich in possessing not only many ancient songs1 but also a large body of oral traditions which had long been handed down from father to son or else treasured by the story-tellers and by the priests of the ancient sanctuaries4 ,many of these traditions were inherited from their ,semitic ancestors1 and1 in the light of recently discovered ,babylonian literature1 can be traced back far beyond the days of ,abraham and ,moses4 ,some were originally the possessions of certain nomadic tribes2 others recorded the early experiences of their ancestors or told of the achievements of early heroes4 ,in the process of continuous retelling1 all unnecessary details had been eliminated and the really dramatic and essential elements emphasized1 until they attained their present simple1 graphic form1 which fascinates young and old alike4 ,sidenote3 ,value of these oral traditions ,the superlative value of these varied traditions is apparent4 ,they were the links which bound later generations to their prehistoric past4 ,incidentally1 in the characteristic language of ,semitic tradition1 they preserved the memory of many important events in their early tribal history4 ,they are also the illuminating record of the primitive beliefs1 customs1 and aspirations of their ,semitic ancestors4 ,subject as they inevitably were to the idealizing tendency1 they became in time the concrete embodiment of the noblest ideals of later generations4 ,thus they presented before the kindled imagination of each succeeding age1 in the character and achievements of their traditional ancestors1 those ideals of courage1 perseverance1 and piety which contributed much toward making the ,israelites the chosen people that they were4 ,sidenote3 ,influences that led to the writing of history ,in time this growing heritage of traditions became too great for even the remarkable ,oriental memory to retain4 ,meantime the ,hebrews had also acquired that system of writing which they learned from their more civilized neighbors the ,canaanites and ,phoenicians4 ,from1 the days of ,solomon1 scribes were to be found in court and temple1 and probably among the prophetic guilds2 although the common people1 as in the same land to-day1 doubtless had little knowledge of the literary art4 ,while the nation was struggling for the soil of ,canaan1 or enjoying the full tide of victory and achievement that came under the leadership of ,david1 there was no time or incentive to write history4 ,but with the quieter days of ,solomon's reign1 and the contrasting period of national decline that followed his death1 the incentive to take up the pen and record the departed glories became strong4 ,with a large body of definite oral traditions dealing with all the important men and events of the earlier periods1 the task of the historian was chiefly that of writing down and coordinating what was already at hand4 ,sidenote3 ,the early ,judean prophetic history ,the oldest ,hebrew history that has been preserved in the ,old ,testament was the work of an unknown ,judean prophet or group of prophets who lived and labored probably during the latter part of the ninth century before ,christ4 ,this history corresponds closely in relative age and aim to ,mark's graphic narrative of the chief facts in the life of ,jesus4 ,the motive which influenced the earliest historians both of the ,old and ,new ,testaments to write was primarily the religious significance of the events which they thus recorded4 ,this early ,judean prophetic history 7technically known as ,j7 begins with the account of the creation of man from the dust by the hand of ,jehovah1 and tells of the first sin and its dire consequences 7,gen4 ii4 #d to iii4 #bd72 then it gives an ancient list of those who stood as the fathers of nomads1 of musicians and workers in metal 7,gen4 iv4 #a1 l#f;b-#bf74 ,this is followed by the primitive stories of the sons of ,god and the daughters of men 7,gen4 vi4 #a-d71 of ,noah the first vineyard-keeper 7ix4 #bj-bg71 and of the tower of ,babel and the origin of different languages 7xi4 #a-i74 ,in a series of more or less closely connected narratives the character and experiences of the patriarchs1 the life of the ,hebrews in ,egypt and the wilderness1 and the settlement in ,canaan are presented4 ,its basis for the history of the united kingdom was for the most part the wonderfully graphic group of ,saul and ,david stories which occupy the bulk of the books of ,samuel4 ,thus this remarkable early ,judean prophetic history begins with the creation of the universe and man and concludes with the creation of the ,hebrew empire4 ,sidenote3 ,its unity and characteristics ,in its present ,old ,testament form it has been closely combined with other histories1 just as ,mark's narrative is largely reproduced in ,matthew and ,luke2 but when1 it is separated from the later narratives its unity and completeness are astounding4 ,almost without a break it presents the chief characters and events of ,israel's history in their relations to each other4 ,the same peculiar vocabulary1 the use of ,jehovah as the designation of the ,deity1 the same vivid1 flowing narrative style1 the same simple1 nave1 primitive conception of ,jehovah1 the same patriotic interest in the history of the race1 and the same emphasis upon the vital religious significance of men and facts1 characterize every section of this narrative and make comparatively easy the task of separating it from the other histories with which it has been joined4 ,sidenote3 ,the early ,ephraimite prophetic history ,a little later1 sometime about the middle of the eighth century before ,christ1 a prophet or group of prophets in ,northern ,israel devoted themselves to the similar task of writing the history of ,israel from the point of view of the northern kingdom4 ,since this state is called ,ephraim by ,hosea and other writers of the ,north1 its history may be designated as the early ,ephraimite prophetic 7technically known as ,e74 ,naturally its author or authors utilized as the basis of their work the oral traditions current in the ,north4 ,sometimes these are closely parallel1 and sometimes they vary widely in order and representation from the ,judean versions4 ,in general the variations are similar1 although somewhat greater than those between the parallel narratives of ,matthew and ,luke4 ,sidenote3 ,its characteristics ,marked peculiarities in vocabulary and literary style distinguish this northern history from the ,judean4 ,since ,elohim or ,god is consistently used to describe the ,deity1 it has sometimes been called the ,elohistic history4 ,interest inclines to the sanctuaries and heroes and events prominent in the life of the ,north4 ,in that land which produced a ,samuel1 an ,elijah1 an ,elisha1 and an ,hosea1 it was natural that especial emphasis should be placed on the role of the prophet4 ,throughout these narratives he is portrayed as the dominant figure1 moulding the history as ,god's representative4 ,abraham and ,moses are here conceived of as prophets1 and the ,ephraimite history of their age is largely devoted to a portrayal of their prophetic activity4 ,sidenote3 ,its scope ,the interests of later editors who combined these early prophetic histories1 as we now find them in the ,old ,testament1 were centred in the ,judean1 and hence they have introduced citations from the ,ephraimite narratives chiefly to supplement the older history4 ,possibly it never was as complete as that of the ,south4 ,at present it begins with ,abraham and traces the parallel history of the patriarchs and the life of the ,hebrews in ,egypt and the wilderness4 ,its account of the conquest1 is somewhat fuller1 probably because ,joshua was a northern leader4 ,it also preserves many of the stories of the heroes in the book of ,judges4 ,with these the citations from the early ,ephraimite prophetic history seem to disappear1 but the opening stories in the book of ,samuel1 regarding the great prophet whose name was given to the book1 apparently come from the pen of later disciples of this same ,ephraimite group of prophets4 ,sidenote3 ,later editorial supplementing and combination of the two histories ,the eighth and seventh centuries before ,christ were periods of intense prophetic activity both in the ,north and the ,south4 ,it was natural1 therefore1 that these early prophetic histories should be supplemented by the disciples of the original historians4 ,traditions that possessed a permanent historical or religious value1 as1 for example1 the familiar story of ,cain and ,abel 7,gen4 iv4 #b-af71 and the earlier of the two accounts of the flood1 were thus added4 ,also when in #gbb ,b4,c4 the northern kingdom fell and its literary heritage passed to ,judah1 it was most natural that a prophetic editor1 recognizing the valuable elements in each1 and the difficulties presented by the existence of the two variant versions of the same events1 should combine the two1 and furthermore that1 in the days of few manuscripts1 the older originals should be lost and only the combined history survive4 ,to-day we find this in turn incorporated in the still later composite history extending from ,genesis through ,samuel4 ,sidenote3 ,method of combining ,the later editor's method of uniting his sources is exceedingly interesting1 and is analogous in many ways to the methods followed in the citations in ,matthew and ,luke from their common sources1 the original ,mark and ,matthew's ,sayings of ,jesus4 ,where the two versions were closely parallel1 as in the account of ,jacob's deception of his father ,isaac1 or the story of the spies1 the two are completely amalgamated2 short passages1 verses1 and parts of verses are taken in turn from each4 ,in other cases the editor introduced the different versions--as1 for example1 the two accounts of the flight of ,hagar--into different settings4 ,from subsequent allusions to two versions1 of which only one survives in the ,old ,testament1 it is to be inferred that sometimes he simply preserved the fuller1 usually the ,judean4 ,as a rule1 however1 there is clear evidence that he made every effort to retain all that he found in his original sources1 even though the resulting composite narrative contained many inconsistencies4 ,sidenote3 ,practical value of the rediscovery of the original histories ,to the careful student1 seeking to recover the original narratives in their primal unity1 these inconsistencies are guides as valuable as the fossils and stratification of the earth are to the geologist intent upon tracing the earth's past history4 ,guided by these variations and the distinctive peculiarities in vocabulary1 literary style1 point of view1 religious conceptions1 and purpose of each of the groups of narratives1 ,old ,testament scholars have rediscovered these two original histories2 and with their recovery the great majority of seeming inconsistencies and many perplexing problems fade into insignificance4 ,supplementing each other1 as do the earliest ,gospels1 these two independent histories present with new definiteness and authority the essential facts in ,israel's early political1 social and religious life4 ,like eye-witnesses1 they testify to the still more significant fact that from the first ,god was revealing his character and will through a unique race4 ,sidenote3 ,the brief late prophetic history ,a third survey of the period beginning with the sojourn in ,egypt and concluding with the conquest of the east-,jordan land is found in the introduction to the book of ,deuteronomy4 ,it is the prologue to the laws that follow1 appropriately and effectively placed in the mouth of the pioneer prophet ,moses4 ,a comparison quickly demonstrates that it is in reality a brief summary of the older histories1 and especially of the early ,ephraimite prophetic4 ,like the ,gospel of ,matthew1 its aim is not merely to present historical facts1 but to illustrate and establish a thesis4 ,the thesis is that ,jehovah has personally led his people1 and that when they have been faithful to him they have prospered1 but when they have disobeyed calamity has overtaken1 them4 ,the message is distinctly prophetic2 and to distinguish this third history1 which was probably written near the close of the seventh century before ,christ1 from the earlier1 it may be designated as the late prophetic or ,deuteronomic history 7technically represented by ,d74 ,sidenote3 ,comparison of the ,old with the ,new ,testament histories ,these three prophetic histories correspond strikingly to the three synoptic ,gospels3 ,mark1 ,luke and ,matthew4 ,the essential differences in their literary history are that they come1 not from a single limited group of writers and a brief quarter century1 but represent the work of many hands and at least two hundred and fifty years of literary activity4 ,two1 at least1 of these histories1 are no longer extant in their original form1 but only as they have been quoted verbatim by later historians and closely amalgamated4 ,similarly1 as is well known1 ,tatian1 the pupil of ,justin ,martyr1 in the middle of the second ,christian century1 did for the four ,gospels precisely what an ,old ,testament editor did for the two early prophetic histories1--he combined them into one composite1 continuous narrative4 ,by joining passages and verses and parts of verses taken from the different ,gospels1 by omitting verbal duplicates1 by rearranging in some cases and by occasionally adding a word or phrase to join dissimilar parts1 ,tatian produced a marvellous mosaic gospel1 known as the ,diatessaron4 ,all of the ,fourth ,gospel is thus preserved1 and most of the first three4 ,so successfully was the work done that the volume was widely used throughout the ,eastern ,church4 ,if1 as once seemed possible1 it had completely supplanted the original four ,gospels1 the literary history of these would have been a repetition of that of the earliest ,old ,testament records4 ,sidenote3 ,the dominant motive of the prophetic historians4 ,it is very important to note that the motive which led the prophetic historians to commit to writing the earlier traditions of their race was not primarily historical4 ,like the author of the ,fourth ,gospel1 they selected their material chiefly with a view to enforcing certain important religious truths4 ,if an ancient ,semitic tradition illustrated their point1 they divested it of its heathen clothing and1 irrespective of its origin1 pressed it into service4 ,for example1 it seems clear that the elements which enter into the story of the ,garden of ,eden and man's fall were current1 with variations1 among the ancient ,babylonians centuries before the ,hebrews inherited them from their ,semitic ancestors4 ,the early prophet who wrote the second and third chapters of ,genesis appreciated their value as illustrations1 and made them the medium for imparting some of the most important spiritual truths ever conveyed to mankind4 ,like the preachers or moral teachers of to-day1 the first question the prophets asked about a popular story was not1 ,is it absolutely historical or scientifically exact8 but1 ,does it illustrate the vital point to be impressed8 ,undoubtedly ,israel's heritage of oral traditions was far greater than is suggested by the narratives of the ,old ,testament2 but only those which individually and collectively enforced some important religious truth1 were utilized4 ,just as ,jesus drew his illustrations from nature and human life about him1 so these earlier spiritual teachers1 with equal tact1 took their illustrations from the familiar atmosphere of song and story and national tradition in which their readers lived4 ,a secondary purpose1 which they obviously had in view1 was also to remove from certain of the popular tales the immoral implications which still clung to them from their heathen past1 and to reconsecrate them to a diviner end4 ,sidenote3 ,the permanent and vital value of these narratives ,questions of relative date and historical accuracy concern the historian1 but they should not obscure the greater value of these narratives4 ,to the majority of us1 who turn to the ,old ,testament simply as the record of divine revelation and as a guide to life1 the essential thing is to put ourselves into touch with these ancient prophets1 who taught by illustration as well as by direct address1 and ask1 ,what was the ethical or spiritual truth that illumined their souls and finds concrete expression and illustration through these primitive stories8 ,to discuss the literal historicity of the story of the ,garden of ,eden is as absurd as to seek to discover who was the sower who went forth to sow or the ,samaritan who went down to ,jericho4 ,even1 if no member of the despised ,samaritan race ever followed in the footsteps of an hypocritical ,levite along the rocky road to ,jericho and succored a needy human being1 the vital truth abides4 ,not until we cease to focus our gaze on the comparatively unimportant1 can we discern the great spiritual messages of these early narratives4 ,sidenote3 ,the sequel to the early prophetic histories ,the sequel to the great prophetic histories which underlie the ,old ,testament books1 from ,genesis through ,samuel1 is in the books of ,kings4 ,these carry the record of ,israel's life down to the ,babylonian exile4 ,the opening chapters of ,first ,kings contain the conclusion of the ,judean prophetic ,david stories4 ,fortunately the rest of the biblical history to the exile was largely compiled from much earlier sources4 ,as in most of the historical writings1 the later editors1 also1 quoted verbatim from these earlier records and histories1 so that in many cases we have the testimony of almost contemporary witnesses4 ,the titles of certain of these earlier books are given3 ,the ,book of the ,acts of ,solomon1 ,the ,chronicles of the ,kings of ,israel1 and ,the ,chronicles of the ,kings of ,judah4 ,sidenote3 ,earlier sources quoted by the editor of ,kings ,a careful study of the books of ,kings suggests many other ancient sources4 ,for the reign of ,solomon1 state annals1 temple records1 and popular ,solomon traditions appear to have been utilized4 ,the graphic account of the division of the ,hebrew empire was probably drawn from an early ,jeroboam history4 ,in the latter part of ,first ,kings appear citations from an early ,ahab history and a group of ,ephraimite ,elijah stories4 ,the political data throughout ,first and ,second ,kings were probably drawn from the annals of the northern and southern kingdoms4 ,furthermore1 in ,,ii ,kings ii4-viii4 appear long quotations from two cycles of ,elisha stories1 centring1 respectively1 about the ancient northern sanctuary of ,gilgal1 near ,shiloh1 and about ,samaria4 ,the rest of the book includes citations from sources which may be designated as a prophetic ,jehu history1 temple records1 a ,hezekiah history1 and a group of ,isaiah stories4 ,sidenote3 ,influences that produced this later prophetic history ,these valuable quotations the late prophetic editor of ,kings has arranged in chronological order and fitted into a framework which gives the length of each reign and the date of accession of the different kings1 according to the chronology of the other ,hebrew kingdom4 ,to this data he adds a personal judgment upon the policy of each ruler1 thereby revealing his prophetic spirit4 ,history is to him1 as to every true prophet1 a supreme illustration of fundamental spiritual principles4 ,clearly the influence that led him to compile and edit his great work was his recognition of the fact that the record of ,israel's national experience as a whole was of deep religious import4 ,the same motive undoubtedly guided him in the selection of material from his great variety of sources4 ,only that which was essential was presented4 ,thus he1 or a later editor of his book1 traced ,israel's remarkable history down to the middle of the ,babylonian exile 7#efj ,b4,c471 and completed that wonderful chain of prophetic narratives which record and interpret the first great chapter of divine revelation through the chosen race4 ,,vii ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,prophetic ,,sermons1 ,,epistles1 ,,and ,,apocalypses ,sidenote3 ,real character and aims of the prophets ,to understand and rightly interpret the prophetic writings of the ,old ,testament it is necessary to cast aside a false impression as to the character of the prophets which is widely prevalent4 ,they were not foretellers1 but forth-tellers4 ,instead of being vague dreamers1 in imagination living far in the distant future1 they were most emphatically men of their own times1 enlightened and devoted patriots1 social and ethical reformers1 and spiritual teachers4 ,their characteristic note of conviction and authority was due to the fact that1 on the one hand1 they knew personally and distinctly the evils and needs of their nation1 and that1 on the other hand1 their minds and hearts1 ever open to receive the truth1 were in vital touch with the ,infinite4 ,thus1 just as ,aaron became ,moses' prophet to the people1 publicly proclaiming what the great leader imparted to him in private 7,ex4 vii4 #a1 #b71 so the ,hebrew prophets became ,jehovah's heralds and ambassadors1 announcing by word and life and act the divine will4 ,sidenote3 ,influences that led the prophets to write down their sermons ,while the historians were perfecting their histories certain prophets also were beginning to commit their sermons to writing4 ,the oldest recorded address in the ,old ,testament is probably that of ,amos at ,bethel4 ,his banishment from the northern kingdom under strict injunction not to prophesy there 7,am4 vii4 #aj-ag7 may well explain why he resorted to writing to give currency to his prophetic message1 though1 like ,paul in later days1 he undoubtedly regarded writing as an inferior substitute for the spoken word4 ,jeremiah appears to have preached twenty years before he dictated a line to his scribe ,baruch1 and then it was because he could not personally speak in the temple 7xxxvi4 #a-e74 ,sometimes complete sermons of the prophets are preserved1 but more often we seem to have only extracts and epitomes4 ,in some of the prophetic books1 like that of ,jeremiah1 there are also popular reports of a prophetic address1 and narrative sections1 telling of the prophet's experience4 ,sidenote3 ,the editing of the earlier prophecies ,evidences of editing are very apparent in the earlier prophecies4 ,sudden interruptions1 and verses or clauses1 in which appear ideas and literary style very different from that of the immediate context1 indicate that many of the prophecies have been supplemented by later notes1 some explanatory and some hortatory4 ,other longer passages are intended to adjust the earlier teaching to later conditions and beliefs and so to adapt them to universal human needs that they are not limited to the hour and occasion of their first delivery4 ,some of these passages come from the hands of disciples of the prophets and often contain valuable additional data2 others are from later prophetic editors and scribes4 ,a detailed comparison1 for example1 of the ,hebrew and ,greek versions of ,jeremiah quickly discloses wide variations of words1 verses1 and even long passages1 added in one or the other text by later hands4 ,all these additions testify to the deep interest felt by later generations in the earlier writings1 even before they were assigned a final place in the canon4 ,it is one of the important tasks of biblical scholars to distinguish the original from the additions and thus determine what were the teachings of each prophet and what are the contributions of later generations4 ,sidenote3 ,the background of ,isaiah xl4-lv4 ,many of the later additions possess a value and authority entirely independent of that possessed by the prophet with whose writings they have been joined by their original authors or later editors4 ,thus the sublime chapters appended to the original sermons of ,isaiah contain some of the noblest teachings in the ,old ,testament4 ,the different themes and literary style2 the frequent references to the ,babylonians1 not as distant allies1 as in the days of ,isaiah the son of ,amoz1 but as the hated oppressors of the ,jews2 the evidence that the prophet's readers are not exiles far from ,judah2 the many allusions to the conquests of ,cyrus1--all these leave little doubt that chapters xl4-lv4 were written in the latter part of the ,babylonian or the first of the ,persian period4 ,interpreted in the light of this background1 their thought and teachings become clear and luminous4 ,similarly1 the varied evidence within the chapters themselves seems to indicate that ,isaiah lvi4-lxvi4 contain sermons directed to the struggling ,jewish community in ,palestine during the days following the rebuilding of the temple in #ebj ,b4,c4 ,sidenote3 ,the order and date of the prophetic books ,the prophetic sermons1 epistles1 and apocalypses fall naturally into five great groups4 ,the books prophets of the ,assyrian period were ,amos and ,hosea1 who between #gej and #gcd ,b4,c4 preached to ,northern ,israel2 also ,isaiah and ,micah1 whose work lies between #gdj and #fhj ,b4,c4 ,nahum's little prophecy1 although much later1 echoes the death-knell of the great ,assyrian kingdom1 which for two or three centuries dominated southwestern ,asia4 ,the prophets of ,judah's decline were ,zephaniah 7about #fbh ,b4,c471 ,jeremiah 7#fbh-fij71 and ,habakkuk 7#fji-fje74 ,to the same period belong ,ezekiel's earlier sermons1 delivered between #eib and #ehf1 just before the final destruction of ,jerusalem4 ,the prophets of the ,babylonian exile were ,obadiah1 whose original oracle belongs to its opening years2 ,ezekiel 7xxv4-xlviii471 who continued to preach until #egb ,b4,c41 and the great prophet whose deathless messages ring through ,isaiah xl4-lv4 ,the prophets of the ,persian period were ,haggai and ,zechariah1 whose inspiring sermons kept alive the flagging zeal of those who rebuilt the second temple2 the authors of ,isaiah lvi4-lxvi42 the author of the little book of ,malachi2 and ,joel4 ,to this list we may perhaps add the prophet who has given us that noble protest1 found in the much misunderstood book of ,jonah1 against the narrow and intolerant attitude of later ,judaism toward foreigners4 ,sidenote3 ,growth of anonymous and apocalyptic literature ,with the exception of ,ezekiel1 ,haggai1 ,zechariah1 and ,joel1 all the prophecies which come from the centuries following the fall of ,jerusalem in #ehf ,b4,c4 are anonymous4 ,the worship of the authority of the past had begun1 and there is evidence that the belief was gaining currency that the days of the prophets were past4 ,hence the natural tendency to resort to anonymous authorship or else to append a later message to an earlier prophecy4 ,chapters ix4-xiv4 of the book of ,zechariah illustrate this custom1--chapters which apparently come from the last ,old ,testament period1 the ,greek or ,maccabean4 ,the habit of presenting prophetic truth in the highly figurative1 symbolic form1 of the apocalypse also became prominent in later ,judaism4 ,this has already been noted in the study of the growth of the ,new ,testament1 and is illustrated by the book of ,revelation4 ,it was especially adapted to periods of religious persecution1 for it enabled the prophet to convey his message of encouragement and consolation in language impressive and clear to his people1 yet unintelligible to their foreign masters4 ,sidenote3 ,the historical background of the book of ,daniel ,to the mind of one who has carefully studied the book of ,daniel in the light of the great crisis that came to the ,jews as a result of the relentless persecutions of ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 between the years #afi and #afe ,b4,c41 there remains little doubt that it is in this period the wonderful apocalypse finds its true setting and interpretation4 ,the familiar examples of the heroic fidelity of ,daniel and his friends to the demands of their religion and ritual were supremely well adapted to arouse a similar resistance toward the demands of a tyrant who was attempting to stamp out the ,jewish1 religion and transform the chosen people into a race of apostates4 ,the visions found in the book trace rapidly1 in succession1 the history of the ,babylonian1 ,median1 ,persian1 and1 last of all1 the ,greek kingdoms4 ,the culmination is a minute description of the character and reign1 of the tyrant ,antiochus ,epiphanes 7xi4 #ba-de74 ,he is clearly the little horn of chapter viii4 ,but suddenly1 in the midst of the account of the persecutions1 the descriptions become vague and general4 ,nor is there any reference to the success of the ,maccabean uprising2 instead1 the prediction is made that ,jehovah himself will soon come to establish his ,messiah's kingdom4 ,sidenote3 ,date of the book ,the inference is1 therefore1 that the prophecy was written a short time before the rededication of the temple in #afe ,b4,c4 ,this conclusion is confirmed by many other indications4 ,for example the language1 in part ,aramaic1 is that of the ,greek period4 ,the mistakes regarding the final overthrow of the ,babylonian empire1 which was by ,cyrus1 not ,darius1 and brought about not by strategy1 but as a result of the voluntary submission of the ,babylonians1 are identical with the errors current in ,greek tradition of the same late period4 ,here1 as in the early narratives of ,genesis1 a true prophet has utilized earlier stories as effective illustrations4 ,he has also given in the common apocalyptic form an interpretation of the preceding four centuries of human history1 and showed how through it all ,god's purpose was being realized1 ,the book concludes with the firm assurance that those who now prove faithful are to be richly rewarded and to have a part in ,ms coming ,messianic kingdom4 ,sidenote3 ,the common motive actuating the prophets and the authors of the ,new ,testament ,thus1 from the minds of the prophets come the earliest writings of the ,old ,testament4 ,they consist of exhortations1 warnings1 messages of encouragement1 or else stories intended to illustrate a religious principle or to present1 in concrete form1 a prophetic ideal4 ,the fundamental motive which produced them all was identical with that which led the disciples and apostles to write the ,gospels and ,epistles of the ,new4 ,in the case of the historico-prophetic writings1 like ,samuel and ,kings1 the desire to inspire and mould the minds and wills of their readers was combined with the desire to preserve in permanent form a record of the events which1 in their national history1 revealed most clearly ,jehovah's character and purpose4 ,in this respect they correspond perfectly to the ,gospels and ,acts of the ,new ,testament4 ,it is easy to see1 therefore1 that kindred aims and ideals actuated these unknown prophetic writers and their later successors1 ,matthew1 ,mark1 and ,luke4 ,their literary products differ only because their subject-matter is different4 ,the one group records ,jehovah's revelation of himself through the life of the ,messianic nation1 the other through the life of the perfect ,messiah4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,new ,testament the sequel of the prophetic writings ,it is interesting to note1 in conclusion1 that from the point of view of the ,old1 all the literature of the ,new may be designated as prophetic4 ,the three distinct groups of writings found in the ,new1 namely1 the ,gospels and ,acts1 the ,epistles1 and the ,apocalypse1 correspond exactly to the three types of prophetic literature found in the ,old3 the historico-prophetical writings1 direct written prophecies1 and apocalypses4 ,if the final canon of the ,old ,testament had been completed before the days of ,josiah1 there is every reason to believe that it also would have contained little beside prophetic writings4 ,in divine providence it was not closed until seven centuries later1 so that1 as it has come to us1 it is a comprehensive library1 representing every stage and every side of ,israel's development4 ,it is1 however1 in perfect keeping with the spirit of the ,master that the ,new ,testament should contain significant facts and broad principles rather than detailed laws or even the songs of worship4 ,he whose ideals1 teachings1 and methods were in closest harmony with those of the ,hebrew prophets1 naturally begat1 through his immediate followers1 a group of distinctively prophetic writings4 ,,viii ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,earlier ,,old ,,testament ,,laws ,sidenote3 ,first the principle1 and then the detailed laws ,if the canon of the ,new ,testament had remained open as long as did that of the ,old1 there is little doubt that it also would have contained many laws1 legal precedents1 and ecclesiastical histories4 ,from the writings of the ,church ,fathers and the records of the ,catholic ,church it is possible to conjecture what these in general would have been4 ,the early history of ,christianity illustrates the universal fact that the broad principles are first enunciated by a great prophetic leader or leaders1 and that in succeeding centuries these new principles are gradually embodied in detailed laws and ceremonials4 ,also the principles must be accepted1 partially at least1 by the majority of the people before the enactments based upon them can be enforced4 ,this important fact1 stated in ,old ,testament terms1 is that the prophet must and always does precede the lawgiver4 ,sidenote3 ,meaning of the ,hebrew word for law ,torah1 the common ,hebrew word for law1 comes from a ,hebrew word meaning to point out or direct4 ,it is probably also connected with the older root signifying1 to cast the sacred lot4 ,the torah1 therefore1 was originally the decision1 rendered in connection with specific questions of dispute1 and referred to ,jehovah by means of the sacred lot4 ,thus the early priests were also judges because they were the custodians of the divine oracle4 ,sidenote3 ,origin of this ,hebrew belief in the divine origin of law ,here we are able to trace1 in its earliest ,hebrew form1 the universal belief in the divine origin of the law4 ,in the primitive laws of ,exodus xxi4-xxiii41 in connection with a case of disputed responsibility for injury to property1 the command is given3 the cause of both parties shall come before ,god2 he whom ,god shall condemn shall pay double to his neighbor 7xxii4 #h1 #i74 ,in ancient times all cases of dispute were thus laid before ,god and decided by the lot or by ,god's representatives1 usually the priests4 ,when1 in time1 customs and oral laws grew up on the basis of these decisions1 a similar divine origin and authority were naturally attributed to them4 ,individually and collectively they were designated by the same suggestive term1 torah4 ,when they were ultimately committed to writing1 the legal literature bore this title4 ,in the ,hebrew text it still remains as the designation of the first group of ,old ,testament books which contain the bulk of ,israel's laws4 ,sidenote3 ,its ultimate basis in fact ,a belief in the divine origin of law was held by most ancient peoples4 ,in connection with the tablet which records the laws of ,hammurabi1 we have a picture of ,shamash the sun-god giving the laws to the king4 ,in the epilogue to these laws he states that by the command of ,shamash1 the judge supreme of heaven and earth1 he has set them up that judgment may shine in the land4 ,the statements in the ,old ,testament that ,jehovah talked face to face with ,moses or wrote the ten words with his finger on tablets of stone reflect the primitive belief which pictured ,god as a man with hands and voice and physical body2 still they are the early concrete statement of a vital1 eternal truth4 ,not on perishable stone1 but in the minds of the ancient judges1 and in the developing ethical consciousness of the ,israelitish race1 he inscribed the principles of which the laws are the practical expression4 ,if he had not revealed them1 there would have been no progress in the knowledge of justice and mercy4 ,the thesis of the ,old ,testament1 and of ,hammurabi also1 is fundamentally true4 ,the vivid forms in which both expressed that thesis were admirably fitted to impress it upon the mind of early man4 ,sidenote3 ,method in which ,hebrew law grew ,the early ,israelitish theory of the origin1 of law provided fully for expansion and development to meet the new and changed conditions of later periods4 ,whenever a new question presented itself1 it could be referred to ,jehovah's representatives1 the priests and prophets2 and their torah1 or response1 would forthwith become the basis for the new law4 ,malachi ii4 #f1g clearly defines this significant element in the growth1 of ,israel's legal codes3 the torah of truth was in the mouth of the priest444 and the people should seek the torah at his mouth4 ,similarly ,haggai commands the people to ask a torah from the priests in regard to a certain question of ceremonial cleanliness 7ii1 #aa74 ,until a very late period in ,israelitish history1 the belief was universal that ,jehovah was ever giving new decisions and laws through his priests and prophets1 and therefore that the law itself was constantly being expanded and developed4 ,this belief is in perfect accord with all historical analogies and with the testimony of the ,old ,testament histories and laws themselves4 ,not until the days of the latest editors did the tendency to project the ,old ,testament laws back to the beginning of ,israel's history gain the ascendency and leave its impression upon the ,pentateuch4 ,even then there was no thought of attributing the literary authorship of all of these laws to ,moses4 ,this was the work of still later ,jewish tradition4 ,sidenote3 ,moses' relation to ,israelitish law ,the earliest ,old ,testament narratives indicate clearly the real historical basis of the familiar later tradition1 and vindicate and help us in the effort to define the title1 ,law of ,moses4 ,the early ,ephraimite narratives describe ,moses as a prophet rather than as a mere lawgiver4 ,in ,exodus xviii4 they give us a vivid picture of his activity as judge4 ,to him the people came in crowds1 with their cases1 to inquire of ,god 7#ae74 ,in #af1 to his father-in-law ,jethro1 he states3 whenever they have a matter of dispute they come to me1 that ,i may decide which of the two is right1 and make known the statutes of ,god and his decisions 7trth74 ,jethro then advises him to appoint reliable men1 gifted with a high sense of justice1 to decide minor cases1 while he reserves for himself the difficult questions involving new principles4 ,the origin and theory of ,israel's early laws are vividly presented in ,jethro's words to ,moses in verses #ai1 #bj3 ,you be the people's advocate with ,god1 and bring the cases to ,god1 and you make known to them the statutes and the decisions1 and show them the way wherein they must walk1 and the work that they must do4 ,sidenote3 ,historical basis of the tradition of ,mosaic authorship ,it appears from these and other passages that ,moses' traditional title as the father of ,israelitish legislation is well established4 ,as a prophet1 he proclaimed certain fundamental principles that became the basis of all later codes4 ,as a judge1 he rendered decisions that soon grew into customary laws4 ,as a leader and organizer1 he laid the foundations of the later political and institutional growth of the nation4 ,furthermore1 it is probable that he taught the people certain simple commands which became the nucleus of all later legislation4 ,naturally and properly1 as oral laws subsequently grew up and were finally committed to writing1 they were attributed to him4 ,later1 when these laws were collected and codified1 they were still designated as ,mosaic1 even1 though the authors of these codes added many contemporary enactments to the earlier laws4 ,thus the traditions1 as well as the theory1 of ,israelitish law fortunately raised no barrier against its normal growth4 ,it was not until the late ,jewish period1 when the tradition became rigid and unnatural1 that the rabbis1 in order to establish the authority of contemporary laws1 were forced to resort to the grotesque legal fictions which appear in the ,talmud4 ,sidenote3 ,evidences that the earliest laws were oral ,the earliest ,hebrew laws1 like the traditions1 were apparently long transmitted in oral form4 ,the simple life of the desert and early ,canaan required no written records4 ,custom and memory preserved all the laws that were needed4 ,also1 as we have seen1 before the ,hebrews came into contact with the ,canaanites and ,phoenicians1 they do not seem to have developed the literary art4 ,instead1 they cast their important commands and laws into the form of pentads and decalogues4 ,the practical aim seems to have been to aid the memory by associating a brief law with each finger of the two hands4 ,the system was both simple and effective4 ,it also points clearly to a period of oral rather than written transmission4 ,sidenote3 ,the earliest ,hebrew laws ,the nucleus of all ,israelitish law appears to have been a simple decalogue1 which gave the terms of the original covenant between ,jehovah and his people1 and definitely stated the obligations they must discharge if they would retain his favor4 ,the oldest version of this decalogue is now embedded in the early ,judean narrative of ,exodus xxxiv4 ,there is considerable evidence1 however1 that it once stood immediately after the ,judean account of ,jehovah's revelation of himself at ,sinai1 and was transposed to its present position in order to give place for the later and nobler prophetic decalogue of ,exodus xx4 #a-ag4 ,its antiquity and importance are also evidenced by the fact that it has received many later introductory1 explanatory1 and hortatory notes4 ,exodus xxxiy4 #bh preserves the memory that it originally consisted of simply ten words4 ,the slightly variant version of these original ten words ,is also found in ,exodus xx4 #bc1 xxiii4 #ab1 #ae1 #af1 #ah1 #bi1 #cj4 ,furthermore1 it probably once occupied a central position in the corresponding ,northern ,israelltish account of the covenant at ,sinai4 ,sidenote3 ,the oldest decalogue ,with the aid of these two different versions1 that of the ,north and that of the ,south1 it is possible to restore approximately the common original3 ,i4 ,thou shalt worship no other ,god4 ,,ii4 ,thou shalt make no molten gods1 ,,iii4 ,thou shalt observe the feast of unleaven bread4 ,,iv4 ,every first-born is mine4 ,v4 ,six days shalt thou toil1 but on the seventh thou shalt rest4 ,,vi4 ,thou shalt observe the feast of weeks and ingathering at the end of the year1 ,,vii4 ,thou shalt not offer the blood of my sacrifice with leaven4 ,,viii4 ,the fat of my feast shall not be left until morning4 ,,ix4 ,the best of the first-fruits of thy land shalt thou bring to the house of ,jehovah4 ,x4 ,thou shalt not seethe a kid in its mother's milk4 ,sidenote3 ,its date ,these laws bear on their face the evidence of their primitive date and origin4 ,they define religion not in the terms of life1 as does the familiar prophetic decalogue of ,exodus xx41 but1 like the old ,babylonian religion1 in the terms of the ritual4 ,loyalty to ,jehovah1 as the ,god of the nation1 and fidelity to the demands of the cult is their watchword4 ,their antiquity and the central position they occupy in ,old ,testament legislation are shown further by the fact that all of them are again quoted in other codes1 and most of them four or five times in the ,old ,testament4 ,three of them apply to agricultural life2 but agriculture is not entirely unknown to the nomadic life of the wilderness4 ,possibly in their present form certain of these commands have been adapted to conditions in ,canaan1 but the majority reflect the earliest stages in ,hebrew history4 ,in all probability the decalogue in its original form came from ,moses1 as the earliest traditions assert1 although comparative ,semitic religion demonstrates that many of the institutions here reflected long antedated the days of the great leader4 ,sidenote3 ,the ,judgements of ,exodus xxi41 xxii ,although in part contemporary1 the next stage in the development of ,israelitish law is represented by the civil1 social1 and humane decalogues in ,exodus xx4 #bh to xxiii4 #ai4 ,the best preserved group is found in xxi4#a to xxii4#bj1 and bears the title ,judgments1 which recalls ,hammurabi's title to his code1 ,the ,judgments of ,righteousness4 ,like this great ,babylonian code1 the ,hebrew ,judgments deal with civil and social cases1 and are usually introduced by the formula1 ,if so and so1 followed by the penalty or decision to be rendered4 ,they are evidently intended primarily for the guidance of judges4 ,the parallels with the code of ,hammurabi are many1 both in theme1 form1 and penalty1 although there is no conclusive evidence that the ,hebrew borrowed directly from the older ,babylonian4 ,undoubtedly many of the striking points of resemblance are due simply to common ,semitic ideas and institutions and to the recurrence of similar questions4 ,but on the whole1 the ,hebrew laws place a higher estimate on life and less on property4 ,they reflect also a simpler type of civilization than the ,babylonian4 ,sidenote3 ,their arrangement and contents ,when three or four obviously later additions have been removed1 the ,judgments are found to consist of five decalogues1 each divided into two pentads which deal with different phases of the same general subject4 ,they are as follows3 ,first ,decalogue3 ,the ,rights of ,slaves4 ,first ,pentad3 ,males1 ,ex4 xxi4 #b1c;a1 #c;b1 #d1e-f4 ,second ,pentad3 ,females1 xxi4 #g1 #h1 #i1aj1 #aa4 ,second ,decalogue3 ,assaults4 ,first ,pentad3 ,capital ,offences1 xxi4 #ab1 #ac1ad1 #ae1 #af4 ,second ,pentad3 ,minor ,offences1 xxi4 #ah-ai1 #bj1 #ba1 #bf1 #bg4 ,third ,decalogue3 ,laws regarding ,domestic ,animals4 ,first ,pentad3 ,injuries by ,animals1 xxi4 #bh1 #bi1 #cj1 #ca1 #cb4 ,second ,pentad3 ,injuries to ,animals1 xxi4 #cc-cd1 #ce1 #cf2 xxii4 #a1d4 ,fourth ,decalogue3 ,responsibility for ,property4 ,first ,pentad3 ,in ,general1 xxii4 #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i4 ,second ,pentad3 ,in ,cattle1 xxii4 #aj-aa1 #ac1 #ad1 l#e;a1 ,i#e;b4 ,fifth ,decalogue3 ,social ,purity4 ,first ,pentad3 ,adultery1 ,deut4 xxii4 #ac-ai1 #bj-ba1 #bb1 #bc-bd1 #be-bg4 ,second ,pentad3 ,fornication and ,apostasy1 ,ex4 xxii4 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #ai1 #bj4 ,sidenote3 ,their date ,many of these laws anticipate the settled agricultural conditions of ,palestine4 ,society1 however1 is very simple4 ,the decalogue and peatad form also points clearly to an early period1 when the laws were transmitted orally4 ,many of the laws probably came from the days of the wilderness wandering1 and therefore go back to the age of ,moses1 in some cases much earlier1 as is shown by close analogies with the code of ,hammurabi4 ,although in their present written form these oral ,judgments bear the marks of the ,northern ,israelitish prophetic writers who have preserved them1 the majority1 if not all1 may with confidence be assigned to the days of ,david and ,solomon4 ,sidenote3 ,the early humane and ceremonial laws ,the remaining verses of ,exodus xx4 #bc to xxiii4 #ai1 contain1 groups of humane and ceremonial laws4 ,in the process of transmission they have been somewhat disarranged1 but1 with the aid of the fuller duplicate versions in ,deuteronomy1 four complete decalogues can be restored and part of a fifth4 ,the following analysis will suggest their general character and contents3 ,,humane ,,and ,,ceremonial ,,laws ,first ,decalogue3 ,kindness4 ,first ,pentad3 ,towards ,men1 ,ex4 xxii4 #bla1 #bb-bc1 #be;a1 #be;b1 #bf-bg4 ,second ,pentad2 ,towards ,animals1 ,ex1 xxiii4 #d ,deut4 xxii4 #a1 ,deut4 xxii4 #b1 #c2 ,ex4 xxiii4 #e ,deut4 xxii4 #d1 ,deut4 xxii4 #f-g4 ,second ,decalogue3 ,justice4 ,first ,pentad3 ,among ,equals1 ,ex4 xxiii4 #a;a1 #a;b1 #b;a1 #b;b1 #c4 ,second ,pentad3 ,on the ,part of those in ,authority1 xxiii1 #f1 #g;a1 #g;b1 #g;c1 #h4 ,third ,decalogue3 ,duties to ,god4 ,first ,pentad3 ,worship1 ,ex4 xx4 #bc;a1 #bc;b1 #bd1 #be1 #bf4 ,second ,pentad3 ,loyalty1 ,ex4 xxii4 #bh1 #bi;a1 #bi;b1 #cj1 #ca4 ,fourth ,decalogue3 ,sacred ,seasons4 ,first ,pentad3 ,command to ,observe them1 xxiii4 #aj-aa1 #ab1 l#e;a1 #af;a1 #af;b4 ,second ,pentad3 ,method of ,observing them1 xxiii1 #ag1 #ah;a1 #ah;b1 #ai;a1 #ai;b4 ,sidenote3 ,period represented by the primitive codes ,here the primitive ceremonial decalogue has been expanded into the third and fourth group given above4 ,like the ,judgments1 these decalogues bear testimony to their northern origin1 and probably they also have had much the same history1 although their relation to the primitive decalogue and the fact that they are prefixed and added to the solid group of ,judgments1 would seem to indicate that they were somewhat later4 ,these two collections1 together with their older prototype1 the ancient decalogue1 represent the growth of ,israel's laws during the four centuries beginning with ,moses and extending to about #hjj ,b4 ,c4 ,to distinguish them from later collections they may be designated as the ,primitive ,codes4 ,sidenote3 ,the need for new laws ,the eighth and seventh centuries before ,christ which brought to the ,hebrews great crises and revolutionary changes in both their political and religious life1 witnessed the epoch-making work of ,amos1 ,hosea1 ,isaiah1 and ,micah4 ,this remarkable group of prophets proclaimed so many new principles that a fundamental revision and expansion of ,israel's primitive codes became necessary in order to adapt the latter to the new needs of the age4 ,the reactionary reign of ,manasseh had also brought out plainly the contrast between the older heathen cults1 still cherished by the people1 and the exalted ideals of the true prophets4 ,if the prophetic teachings were to become operative in the life of the nation1 it was also seen that they must be expressed in concrete legal enactments1 which could be universally understood and definitely enforced4 ,sidenote3 ,application of prophetic principles in the life of the people ,accordingly1 a group of prophets1 disciples of the older masters1 and inspired by the spirit of reform1 devoted themselves to this all-important task4 ,the results of their work are represented by the prophetic law-book of ,deuteronomy4 ,through its pages glow the new ethical teachings of the prophets of the ,assyrian period4 ,the elements of ,hosea's doctrine1 love to ,god and love to men and kindness to the needy and oppressed1 in their new setting and application1 make it one of the evangels of the ,old ,testament4 ,its lofty standards of justice and social responsibility reflect the impassioned addresses of ,amos and ,hosea4 ,since the new laws1 as a whole1 represented the practical application of the messages of the prophets to life1 they were justly and appropriately placed in the mouth of ,moses1 the real and traditional head of the nation and of the prophetic order4 ,sidenote3 ,relation to the older laws ,a comparison of this prophetic law-book with the older primitive laws shows that the latter were made the basis of the new codes1 since most of them1 in revised form1 are also found in ,deuteronomy4 ,the prophetic lawmakers1 however1 in the same spirit that actuated ,jesus in his attitude toward the ancient law1 freely modified1 supplemented1 and in some cases substituted for the primitive enactments1 laws that more perfectly embodied the later revelation4 ,sidenote3 ,promulgation and date of the prophetic codes ,the nature of the reforms instituted by ,josiah1 according to ,,ii ,kings xxii41 clearly prove that the laws which inspired them were those of ,deuteronomy1 and that this was the law-book discovered in the temple by ,hilkiah the priest and publicly read and promulgated by the king in #fba ,b4,c4 ,originally it was probably prepared by the prophetic reformers as a basis for their work2 but it incorporates not only most of the primitive codes1 but also many other ancient laws and groups of laws1 some doubtless coming from the earliest periods of ,israel's history4 ,it also appears to have been further supplemented after the reformation of ,josiah4 ,in general it represents the second great stage in ,old ,testament law1 as it rapidly developed between #hjj and #fjj ,b4,c4 under the inspiring preaching of the remarkable prophets of the ,assyrian period4 ,sidenote3 ,their historical and permanent value ,these laws represent1 in many ways1 the high-water mark of ,old ,testament legislation4 ,every effort is made to eliminate that which experience had proved to be imperfect in the older laws and customs4 ,the chief aim is to protect the rights of the wronged and dependent4 ,the appeal throughout is not to the fear of punishment--in a large number of laws no penalty is suggested--but to the individual conscience4 ,not merely formal worship is demanded1 but a love to ,god so personal that it dominates the individual heart and soul and finds expression through energies completely devoted to his service4 ,these laws required strict justice1 but more than that1 mercy and practical charity toward the weak and needy and afflicted4 ,even the toiling ox and the helpless mother-bird and her young are not beyond the kin of these wonderful laws4 ,under their benign influence the divine principles of the prophets began to mould directly the character and life of the ,israelitish race4 ,the man who lives in accord with their spirit and injunctions to-day finds himself on the straight and narrow way1 hallowed by the feet of the ,master4 ,,ix ,,influences ,,that ,,gave ,,rise ,,to ,,the ,,priestly ,,laws ,,and ,,histories ,sidenote3 ,influences in the exile that produced written ceremonial laws ,the ,babylonian exile gave a great opportunity and incentive to the further development of written law4 ,while the temple stood1 the ceremonial rites and customs received constant illustration1 and were transmitted directly from father to son in the priestly families4 ,hence1 there was little need of writing them down4 ,but when most of the priests were carried captive to ,babylonia1 as in #eig ,b4,c41 and ten years later the temple was laid in ruins and all sacrifice and ceremonial worship suddenly ceased1 written records at once became indispensable1 if the customs and rules of ,israel's ritual were to be preserved4 ,the integrity and future of the scattered ,israelitish race also largely depended upon keeping alive their distinctive traditions4 ,torn from their altars1 the exiled priests not only had a strong incentive1 but likewise the leisure1 to write4 ,the ritualistic zeal of their ,babylonian masters doubtless further inspired them4 ,the result was1 that during the ,babylonian exile and the following century most of the ceremonial laws in the ,old ,testament appear to have been first committed to writing4 ,sidenote3 ,ezekiel's ,code ,even ,ezekiel1 the prophet of the early exile1 yielded to the influence of his early priestly training and the needs of the situation4 ,in #egb he issued the unique code found in chapters xl4-xlviii4 of his prophecy4 ,it provides for the rebuilding of the temple1 and defines the duties of its different officials and the form of ritual that is to be observed4 ,the whole is intended primarily to emphasize1 through the arrangement of the sanctuary and the forms of the ceremonial1 the transcendent holiness of ,jehovah4 ,ezekiel also proclaims1 through this elaborate program for the restored community1 the certainty that the exiles would be allowed to return and rebuild the temple4 ,he evidently reproduces many of the proportions and regulations of the first temple1 but1 with the same freedom that characterizes the authors of the ,deuteronomic codes1 he unhesitatingly sets aside earlier usages where something better has been revealed4 ,sidenote3 ,genesis and character of the ,holiness ,code ,ezekiel's code was never fully adopted by the later ,jews1 for much of it was symbolic rather than practical2 but it powerfully influenced subsequent lawmakers1 and was indicative of the dominant tendency of the day4 ,even before he issued his code1 some like-minded priest had collected and arranged an important group of laws1 which appear to have been familiar to ,ezekiel himself4 ,they are found in ,leviticus xvii4-xxvi41 and have felicitously been designated as the ,holiness ,code1 because they constantly emphasize the holiness of ,jehovah and the necessity of the people's being holy in thought and act4 ,in chapters xvii4-xix4 most of the original laws are still arranged in the decalogue and pentad form4 ,this strong evidence that they had been transmitted by word of mouth from a much earlier period is supported by their contents4 ,they resemble and supplement the primitive laws of ,exodus xx4 #bc to xxiii4 #ai4 ,many of them probably came from the early periods of ,israelitish history4 ,most of the laws1 like those of the prophetic codes in ,deuteronomy1 are ethical and humane rather than ceremonial4 ,the code1 as a whole1 is a remarkable combination of prophetic and priestly teaching4 ,it marks the transition from the age of the prophets1 represented by ,deuteronomy1 to that of the priests and ritual1 represented by the priestly codes proper4 ,like every important early collection of laws1 ,it also has been much supplemented by later editors2 the original ,holiness ,code1 however1 may be given a date soon after the first captivity in #eig ,b4,c4 ,sidenote3 ,the priestly codes ,the influences represented by ,ezekiel and the ,holiness ,code have given us the remaining laws of the ,old ,testament4 ,these are found in ,leviticus i-xvi41 xxviii41 and1 excepting ,exodus xx4-xxiii41 xxxiv41 in the legal sections of ,exodus and ,numbers4 ,they deal almost entirely with such ceremonial subjects1 as the forms and rules of sacrifice1 the observation of the annual religious festivals1 and the rights and duties of priests4 ,many of them incorporated laws and customs as old or older than the days of ,moses4 ,an early and important group1 technically known as the ,priestly teaching 7,lev4 i4-iii41 v4-vii41 xi4-xv42 ,num4 v41 vi41 xv41 xix4 #ad-bb71 is repeatedly designated as the torah of the burnt-offering 7,lev4 vi4 #i71 or the torah of the meal-offering 7vi1 #ad71 or the torah of the unclean and clean beast or bird 7xi4 #df1 #dg74 ,it is evidently based upon the toroth1 or decisions1 rendered by the priests concerning the various ceremonial questions thus treated4 ,the recurring phrase1 according to the ordinance1 probably refers to the fixed usage observed in connection with the first temple4 ,sidenote3 ,their date ,the atmosphere and point of view of these priestly laws as a whole are the exilic and post-exilic periods4 ,the ritual has become much more elaborate1 the position of the priests much more prominent1 and their income far greater than before the exile4 ,the distinction between priest and ,levite1 which was not recognized before the exile1 is clearly defined4 ,the annual feasts have increased1 and their old joyous character has largely disappeared under the dark shadow of the exile4 ,sin-offerings1 guilt-offerings1 trespass-offerings1 and the day of atonement 7practically unknown before the fall of ,jerusalem in #ehf ,b4,c47 reflect the spirit of the later ,judaism which sought to win ,jehovah's favor by its many sacrifices4 ,within these priestly codes there is also evidence of development4 ,the older collections1 such as the priestly teachings1 were probably made early in the ,babylonian exile4 ,others represent the gradual expansion and supplementing of these older groups1 the process apparently continuing until the days of ,nehemiah and ,ezra4 ,the whole1 therefore1 is the fruit of the remarkable priestly literary activity between #fjj and #djj ,b4,c41 and possibly extending even later4 ,sidenote3 ,adoption of the priestly law about #djj ,b4,c4 ,the ,jewish community which ,nehemiah found in ,palestine was still living under the ,deuteronomic law1 and apparently knew nothing of the very different demands of the priestly codes4 ,his reform measures recorded in ,nehemiah v4 and xiii41 as well as his effective work in repairing the walls1 prepared the way for the sweeping innovations which followed the public acceptance of the new law-book1 brought according to tradition by ,ezra4 ,five out of the eight regulations specified by the oath then taken by the leaders of the nation 7,neh4 x4 #cj-ci7 are found only in the priestly codes2 one of them1 indeed1 is not presented elsewhere in the ,old ,testament4 ,henceforth the life of the ,jewish race is moulded by these later codes4 ,it is1 therefore1 safe to conclude that they constituted the essence of the new law-book solemnly adopted by the ,jewish community as its guide somewhere about #djj ,b4,c4 ,sidenote3 ,aim and characteristics of the priestly narratives ,inasmuch as the interest of the priests centred in ceremonial institutions and the history of the law rather than about individuals and politics1 it was natural that they also should write their own history of the race4 ,their general purpose was to give an introduction and setting to their laws4 ,as might be anticipated1 this priestly history incorporates the traditions of the late priestly school1 and therefore those current long centuries after the events recorded transpired4 ,as in the case of the prophetic narratives1 the aim is not primarily historical1 but doctrinal4 ,the peculiar vocabulary1 language1 and theological conceptions are those which distinguish the post-exilic priestly editors of the latest ,old ,testament laws4 ,sidenote3 ,their sketch of the earlier history ,their history begins with the majestic account of creation in ,genesis i4 #a to ii4 #d;a4 ,god does not form man from the dust1 as in the primitive prophetic account1 but by a simple word of command2 and by progressive acts of creation he realizes his perfect plan1 which culminates in the creation of mankind4 ,the literary style is that of a legalist3 formal1 precise1 repetitious1 and generic4 ,the ultimate aim of the narrative is to trace the origin of the institution of the ,sabbath back to the creation4 ,the genealogical history of ,genesis v4 connects this account of creation with the priestly version of the flood story which leads up to the covenant with ,noah4 ,the priestly genealogical histories of ,genesis x4 and xi4 #aj-bg trace the ancestry of the ,hebrews through ,abraham4 ,regarding this patriarch these later historians present only a brief sketch2 in ,genesis xvii41 however1 they expand their narrative to give in detail the origin of the rite of circumcision1 which they associate with him4 ,jacob is to them chiefly of interest as the father of the ten tribes4 ,sidenote3 from ,egypt to ,canaan ,the history of the experiences of the ,hebrews in ,egypt is briefly outlined as the prelude to the traditional institution of the feast of the passover4 ,sinai1 however1 is the great goal of the priestly narratives1 for about it they group all their laws4 ,it is their concrete method of proclaiming the antiquity and divine origin of ,israelitish legislation4 ,the period of the wilderness wandering is also made the background of many important legal precedents4 ,the priestly history concludes with an account of the conquest of ,canaan and the allotment of the territory to the different tribes4 ,sidenote3 ,the lack of historical perspective ,in these late priestly narratives the historical perspective is sometimes considerably shortened and sometimes lengthened4 ,moreover1 their representation often differs widely from that of the parallel but much earlier prophetic histories4 ,the original traditions have also assumed larger proportions1 and the supernatural element is much more prominent4 ,this is evidently the result of long transmission1 in an age that had largely lost the historic sense1 and among the priestly exiles1 who were far removed from the real life of ,palestine4 ,sidenote3 ,variations between the older and later narratives4 ,the wide variations between the older prophetic and late priestly accounts of the same events might be illustrated by scores of examples4 ,the following parallel account of the exodus will suffice3 ,sidenote3 ,early ,judean ,prophetic ,account ,ex4 xiv4 l#i;b4 ,then the pillar of cloud changed its position from before them and stood behind them4 7#bj;b7 ,and the cloud lighted up the night2 yet throughout the entire night the one army did not come near the other4 7#ba;b7 ,and ,jehovah caused the sea to go back by a strong east wind all the night1 and made the bed of the sea dry4 7#bd;b7 ,and it came to pass in the watch before the dawn that ,jehovah looked forth through the pillar of fire and of cloud upon the host of the ,egyptians1 7#be7 and he bound their horsemen4 ,sidenote3 ,late ,priestly ,account of the ,exodus 7#ba;a1 c7 ,then ,moses stretched out his hand over the sea1 and the waters were divided1 7#bb7 so that the ,israelites went into the midst of the sea on the dry ground2 and the waters were a wall to them on their right hand and on their left4 7#bc;b7 ,and the ,egyptians went in after them into the midst of the sea1 all ,pharaoh's horses1 his chariots1 and his horsemen4 7#bf7 ,then ,jehovah said to ,moses1 ,stretch out thy hand over the sea1 that the waters may come again upon the ,egyptians1 upon their chariots and their chariot wheels1 so that they proceeded with difficulty4 ,then the ,egyptians said1 ,let us flee from before ,israel2 for ,jehovah fighteth for them against the ,egyptians4 7#bg;b7 ,but the sea returned to its ordinary level toward morning1 while the ,egyptians were flying before it4 ,and ,jehovah shook off the ,egyptians into the midst of the sea1 7#bh;b7 so that not one of them remained4 7#cj7 ,thus ,jehovah saved ,israel that day out of the power of the ,egyptians2 and ,israel saw the ,egyptians dead upon the sea-shore4 7#bg;a7 ,so ,moses stretched forth his hand over the sea1 7#bh;a7 and the waters returned and covered the chariots1 and the horsemen1 even all the host of ,pharaoh that went in after them into the sea4 7#bi7 ,but the ,israelites walked upon dry land in the midst of the sea1 the waters being a wall to them on their right hand1 and on their left4 ,footnote3 ,student's ,old ,testament1 ,vol4 ,i41 #age1 #agf4 ,sidenote3 ,inferior historical value of the priestly narratives ,no one can doubt for a moment that the older1 simpler1 and more natural version is1 from the historical point of view1 the more accurate4 ,the normal man to-day has outgrown the craving for the grotesquely supernatural4 ,the omnipotent1 omniscient1 loving ,creator1 who reveals himself through the growing flower1 commands our admiration as fully as a ,god who speaks through the unusual and extraordinary4 ,everything is possible with ,god1 and the man is blind indeed who would deny the ,infinite ,being1 who is all and in all1 the ability to pass beyond the bounds of that which we1 with our extremely limited vision1 have designated as natural4 ,the real question is1 ,how did ,god see fit to accomplish his ends8 ,our judicial and historical sense unhesitatingly inclines to the older and simpler narratives as containing the true answer4 ,in distinguishing these different strands of narrative1 it must be acknowledged that modern biblical scholarship has performed a service invaluable alike to the student of literature1 of history1 and of revelation4 ,sidenote3 ,recognition of their defects and real value ,in passing1 it is instructive to note that1 almost without exception1 ,ingersoll's once famous examples of the mistakes of ,moses were drawn from the priestly narratives4 ,it is safe to predict that had that learned jurist been introduced1 when a boy1 to the ,old ,testament1 as revealed in modern light1 he would have enjoyed a very different popular fame4 ,in the divine economy1 however1 even the sledge-hammer of ridicule may play an important rle in shattering false claims and the untenable theories which obscure the real truth4 ,it is wholesome to apply the principle of relative values to the ,bible1 since one cannot fully appreciate the best without recognizing that which is inferior4 ,these priestly narratives come from a school which1 in its reverence for the form and the letter1 had began to lose sight of the vital and spiritual4 ,its still later product is that ritualistic ,judaism which stands in such unfavorable contrast to the perfected spiritual revelation which came through ,jesus4 ,at the same time1 the recognition of the defects of the late priestly school should not deter us from appreciating the rich religious teaching of a narrative like the first chapter of ,genesis1 nor from accepting its great message1 namely1 that through all natural phenomena and history ,god is revealing and perfecting his gracious purpose4 ,sidenote3 ,the ecclesiastical history of ,chronicles and ,ezra-,nehemiah ,the long ecclesiastical history found in ,i and ,,ii ,chronicles and the original sequel of these books1 ,ezra and ,nehemiah1 were written from the same general point of view as the late priestly narratives1 but in a much later period4 ,the same peculiar literary style and conceptions1 which recur throughout these four books1 show clearly that they are from one author and age4 ,since they trace the history to the beginning of the ,greek period and speak of the kings and events of the ,persian period as if they belonged to the distant past1 it is evident that the anonymous author1 who is usually designated as the ,chronicler1 lived after the conquests of ,alexander4 ,the internal evidence all points to the middle of the third century before ,christ as the date of their composition4 ,sidenote3 ,its general point of view ,from the author's evident interest in the ritual of the temple1 and especially its song service1 it would appear that he belonged to one of the guilds of temple singers that became prominent in the post-exilic period4 ,his history centres about the sanctuary and its services4 ,since ,judah1 not ,israel1 is the land of the temple1 ,northern ,israel is almost completely ignored4 ,like the late priestly historians1 his chief aim is to trace the origin of the ceremonial institutions back to the beginnings of ,hebrew history4 ,thus he represents the song service and the guilds of singers as having been established in the days of ,david4 ,living as he did under the glamour of the great ,persian and ,greek empires1 he1 in common with his contemporaries1 idealized the past glories of his race4 ,as we compare his versions of early events with the older parallel accounts of ,samuel and ,kings1 we find that iron has become gold1 and hundreds have become thousands1 and defeats are transformed into victories4 ,no mention is made of the crimes of such kings as ,david and ,solomon1 since they are venerated profoundly as the founders of the temple4 ,sidenote3 ,sources of ,i and ,,ii ,chronicles ,the basis of ,i and ,,ii ,chronicles is the prophetic history of ,samuel and ,kings2 from these the author quotes verbatim chapter after chapter1 according as their contents are adapted to his purpose4 ,this groundwork he supplements by introducing the priestly traditions current in his own day4 ,possibly he quotes also from certain somewhat earlier written collections of traditions1 for to those1 following the example of the author of ,kings1 he frequently refers his readers for further information4 ,in some cases these later traditions may have preserved authentic1 supplemental data2 but when the representation of ,chronicles differs1 as it frequently does1 from that of ,samuel and ,kings1 the older and more sober prophetic history is undoubtedly to be followed4 ,sidenote3 ,the older sources quoted in ,ezra-,nehemiah ,in ,ezra and ,nehemiah the author has preserved some exceedingly valuable historical material1 for he has quoted1 fortunately1 long sections from two or three older sources4 ,oae is the document in ,ezra iv4 #g to vi4 #ad1 the original ,aramaic of which is retained4 ,this appears to have been a temple record1 dating from the middle or latter part of the ,persian period1 and tells of the interruption of the temple building in the days of ,darius and the finding of the original decree of ,cyrus sanctioning the restoration of the shrine of ,jerusalem4 ,still more important is the wonderful memoir of ,nehemiah quoted in ,nehemiah i41 ii41 iv4 to vii4 #e1 xii4 #ca1 #cb1 #cg-dj1 and xiii4 #d-ca4 ,here we are able to study the events of an exceedingly important period through the eyes of the man who1 by his able and self-sacrificing efforts1 did more than any one else to develop and shape later ,judaism4 ,less important1 yet suggestive1 citations are taken from the priestly traditions regarding the work of ,ezra4 ,the final editor has apparently rearranged this material in order to give to the work of ,ezra the scribe such precedence over that of ,nehemiah the layman1 as1 from his later ,levitical point of view1 he deemed proper4 ,restoring what seems to have been the original order 7i4e41 ,ezra vii4 viii41 ,neh4 vii4 #gj to viii4 #ah2 ,ezra ix41 x42 ,neh4 ix41 x47 and studying it as the sequel of ,nehemiah's essential pioneer work1 the obscurities of this period begin to disappear and its significant facts to stand out in clear relief4 ,sidenote3 ,value of the writings of the priestly school ,thus we find that1 quoting largely as he does1 from much older sources1 the author of this great ecclesiastical history of ,judah and the temple has given us1 in ,ezra and ,nehemiah1 some exceedingly important historical data4 ,his writings also clearly reveal the ideas and institutions of his own day2 but otherwise it is not as history that his work is of permanent value4 ,rather it is because1 in common with all the great teachers who speak to us through the ,old ,testament1 he believed firmly in the moral order of the universe1 and that back of all events and all history is an infinitely powerful yet just and merciful ,god who is constantly revealing himself to mankind4 ,while these later priestly writers were not in such close touch with fact and life as were the prophets1 and while they were subject to the defects of all extreme ritualists and theologians1 they were faithful heralds of truth to their own and later generations4 ,behind their symbolism and traditions lie certain great universal principles which amply reward an earnest quest4 ,x ,,the ,,hebrew ,,sages ,,and ,,their ,,proverbs ,sidenote3 ,rle of the sages in ,israel's life ,in the days of ,jeremiah and ,ezekiel 7,jer4 xviii4 #ah2 ,ezek4 vii4 #bf7 three distinct classes of religious teachers were recognized by the people3 the prophets1 the priests1 and the wise men or sages4 ,from their lips and pens have come practically all the writings of the ,old ,testament4 ,of these three classes the wise men or sages are far less prominent or well known4 ,they wrote no history of ,israel1 they preached no public sermons1 nor do they appear to have been connected with any sanctuaries4 ,quietly1 as private teachers1 they appealed to the nation through the consciences and wills of individuals4 ,proverbs viii4 #a-e reveals their methods3 ,doth not wisdom cry1 ,and understanding put forth her voice8 ,on the top of high places by the way1 ,where the paths meet1 she standeth2 ,beside the gates1 at the entry of the city1 ,at the coining in at the doors1 she crieth aloud3 ,unto you1 ,o men1 ,i call2 ,and my voice is to the sons of men4 ,o ye simple1 understand prudence2 ,and ye fools1 be of an understanding heart4 ,at the open spaces beside the city gates1 where legal cases were tried1 at the intersections of the streets1 wherever men congregated1 the sages of ancient ,israel could be found1 ready and eager to instruct or advise the inexperienced and foolish4 ,sidenote3 ,their functions ,the wise man or sage is a characteristic ,oriental figure4 ,first ,kings iv4 #cj speaks of the far-famed wisdom of the nomadic tribes of northern ,arabia and of the wisdom of ,egypt4 ,the sage appears to have been the product of the early nomadic ,semitic life1 in which books were unknown and the practical wisdom gained by experience was treasured in the minds of certain men who were called the wise or sages4 ,in our more complex western life such functions have been distributed among the members of the legal1 medical1 and clerical professions1 but even now1 in smaller towns1 may be found an ,uncle ,toby who is the counterpart of the ancient ,hebrew sage4 ,to men of this type young and old resort with their private problems1 and rarely return without receiving real help and light4 ,in the ,east1 sages are still to be found1 usually gray-bearded elders1 honored and influential in the tribe or town4 ,sidenote3 ,source of their knowledge and inspiration ,of the three classes of ,israel's teachers the sages stood in closest touch with the people4 ,they were naturally the father-confessors of the community4 ,observation was their guide1 enlightened common sense their interpreter1 and experience their teacher4 ,the great book of human life1 which is one of the most important chapters of divine revelation1 was thrown open wide before them4 ,the truths that they read there1 as their eyes were divinely opened to see it1 are recorded in the wisdom books of the ,old ,testament1--,proverbs1 ,job1 ,the ,song of ,songs1 and ,ecclesiastes4 ,sidenote3 ,the objects of their attention ,it is significant that neither ,israel nor the nation is mentioned in all the wisdom literature1 and that man is spoken of thirty-three times in the book of ,proverbs alone4 ,man was the object of their study and teaching2 the nation1 only as it was made up of individuals4 ,in this respect the sages stand in contrast with the prophets1 whose message usually is to the nation4 ,they also have little to say about the ritual or the forms of religion4 ,to them the fear and knowledge of ,god is the beginning of wisdom1 and its end a normal relation to ,god1 to one's fellowmen1 and to life4 ,their message is directed equally to all mankind4 ,the subjects that command1 their attention are of universal interest3 the nature and tendencies of man1 and his relations and duties to ,god1 to society1 to the family1 and to himself4 ,everything that concerns man1 whether it be the tilling of the soil1 the choice of a wife1 the conduct of a lawsuit1 or the proper deportment in the presence of a ruler1 commands their earnest consideration4 ,sidenote3 ,their aims not theoretical but practical ,the ,hebrew sages1 however1 were not mere students of human nature or philosophers4 ,knowledge to them was not an end in itself1 but only a means4 ,their contribution to ,israel's life was counsel 7,jer4 xviii4 #ah74 ,their aim was1 by the aid of their tried maxims1 to so advise the inexperienced1 the foolish1 indeed1 all who needed advice1 that they might live the fullest and best lives and successfully attain all worthy ends4 ,while their teaching was distinctively ethical and religious1 it was also very practical and utilitarian4 ,as pastors and advisers of the people1 they drew their principles and ideals from ,israel's prophets1 and applied them to the practical1 every-day problems of life4 ,it is obvious that without their patient1 devoted instruction the preparation of the chosen people for their mission would have been imperfect1 and that without a record of their teachings the ,old ,testament would have been incomplete4 ,sidenote3 ,their teachings preserved in proverbs ,the proverb was the most characteristic literary form in which the sages treasured and imparted their teachings4 ,poetical in structure1 terse1 often figurative or epigrammatic1 the proverb was well calculated to arouse individual thought and make a deep impression on the mind4 ,transmitted from mouth to mouth for many generations1 like the popular tradition or law1 it lost by attrition all its unnecessary elements1 so that1 'like an arrow1' it shot straight to the mark4 ,based on common human experience1 it found a ready response in the heart of man4 ,in this way crystallized experience was transmitted1 gathering effectiveness and volume in each succeeding generation4 ,job viii4 #h-aj speaks of this accumulated wisdom handed down from the former age1 that which the fathers have searched out4 ,they shall teach man and inform him1 and utter words out of their heart4 ,job xv4 #ah also refers to that which wise men have told from their fathers and have not hid it4 ,a proverb thus orally transmitted not only gains in beauty of form but also in authority1 for it is constantly being tested in the laboratory of real life and receives the silent attestation of thousands of men and of many different generations4 ,sidenote3 ,expansion of the proverb ,when the sages desired to treat a many-sided subject1 as1 for example1 intemperance1 they still used proverbs1 but combined them into brief gnomic essays 7e4 g41 xxiii4 #bi-he1 xxvi4 #a-ag74 ,sometimes1 to fix the attention of their hearers1 they combined two proverbs1 so as to produce a paradox1 as in ,proverbs xxvi4 #d1 #e3 ,answer not a fool according to his folly1 ,lest them also be like unto him4 ,answer a fool according to his folly1 ,lest he be wise in his own conceit4 ,later they developed the simple gnomic essay into a philosophical drama1 of which ,job is the classic example1 or into a homily1 like ,ecclesiastes4 ,sidenote3 ,use of fables and riddles ,side by side with the proverb1 the sages appear from the earliest times to have used the fable also2 this is illustrated by the fable of ,jotham in ,judges ix4 #f-ba4 ,of the riddle a famous examples is that of ,samson in ,judges xiv4 #ad1 #ah1 which combines rhythm of sound with rhythm of thought and well illustrates the form of the earliest popular ,hebrew poetry3 ,out of the eater came something to eat1 ,and out of the strong came something sweet1 ,and its answer3 ,if with my heifer you did not plow1 ,you had not solved my riddle now4 ,proverbs xxx4 #ae-ca contains a collection of numerical riddles1 combined with their answers4 ,sidenote3 ,traces of proverbs and the work of sages in the ,hebrew history ,proverbs are found in the oldest ,hebrew literature4 ,the ,midianite kings1 awaiting death at the hand of ,gideon1 cite a popular proverb1 ,for as the man1 so is his strength4 ,david in his conversation with ,saul says1 ,as runs the proverb1 ,out of the wicked cometh forth wickedness 7,i ,sam4 xxiv4 #ac74 ,frequent references are also found to wise men and women1 and examples are given of their prudence and insight ,thus ,joab1 ,david's iron-hearted commander1 brings a wise woman from ,tekoa1 the later home of the prophet ,amos1 to aid him in securing the recall of the banished ,absalom4 ,by her feigned story she succeeds in working upon the sympathy of the king to such a degree that he commits himself finally to a principle which she at once asks him to apply to the case of his own son 7,,ii ,sam4 xiv4 #a-bd74 ,sidenote3 ,basis of ,solomon's reputation for wisdom ,the stories told in ,i ,kings iii4 #af-bh1 to illustrate the wisdom of ,solomon1 suggest the historical basis of the reputation which he enjoyed in the thought of succeeding generations4 ,such stories also indicate1 as do the other early examples of the work of the wise1 the conception of wisdom held in that more primitive age4 ,such wisdom does not necessarily include ethical righteousness or even practical executive ability1 for the true ,solomon of history was lacking in both2 but rather a certain4 shrewdness1 versatility1 and keenness of insight which enable its possessor to discern what is not clearly apparent4 ,first ,kings iv4 #bi-cd contains the later popular tradition of ,solomon's wisdom3 7#bi7 ,and ,god gave ,solomon wisdom and insight in plentiful measure1 and breadth of mind1 even as the sand that is on the seashore1 7#cj7 so that ,solomon's wisdom surpassed the wisdom of all the eastern ,arabians and all the wisdom of ,egypt4 7#ca7 ,for he was wiser than all men3 than ,ethan the ,ezrahite1 and ,heman1 ,calcol1 ,darda1 the sons of ,mahol1 and his fame was in all the surrounding nations4 7#cb7 ,and he uttered three thousand proverbs1 and his songs were five thousand4 7#cc7 ,and he spoke of different varieties of trees1 from the cedar that is in ,lebanon even to the hyssop that springs out of the wall2 he spoke also of beasts1 of birds1 of creeping things1 and of fishes4 7#cd7 ,and there came some from among all peoples to hear the wisdom of ,solomon1 deputed by all kings of the earth1 who had heard of his wisdom4 ,sidenote3 ,reason why all ancient proverbs were attributed to him ,a popular proverb1 like a primitive oral law1 usually grows out of common human experience1 and is gradually formulated and moulded into its final literary form by successive generations4 ,no one man can claim it as his own1 and even if he could1 the ancient ,semitic ,east1 which cared so little about authors' titles1 would have quickly forgotten his name4 ,that ,solomon did utter certain brilliant aphorisms1 embellished by illustrations drawn from animal and plant life1 cannot be doubted2 and that some of them have been preserved in the book of ,proverbs is probable4 ,these facts and the popular tradition that tended to exalt his wisdom clearly explain why all ,hebrew proverbs were attributed to him 7,prov4 i4 #a71 in the days of the final editing of the book of ,proverbs4 ,sidenote3 ,evidence that ,proverbs comes from many different writers ,that our present book of ,proverbs is the work of many unknown sages1 and consists of a collection of smaller groups coming from different periods1 is demonstrated by the superscriptions which recur throughout the book1 such as1 ,these are the proverbs of ,solomon 7x4 #a71 ,these also are the sayings of the wise 7xxiv4 #bc71 ,these are the proverbs of ,solomon which the men of ,hezekiah king of ,judah copied out 7xxv4 #e71 ,the words of ,king ,lemuel 7xxxi4 #a71 ,the same proverbs also recur ,in different groups1 indicating that originally they were independent collections1 gleaned from the same field4 ,when the first collection was made1 the title ,proverb of ,solomon evidently meant a popular maxim handed down from antiquity and therefore naturally attributed to the most famous wise man in ,israel's early history4 ,it is an instructive fact that later proverbs1 the immediate superscriptions to which plainly state that they come from many different sages1 are still called ,proverbs of ,solomon2 it betrays an exact parallel to the similar tendency1 apparent in the legal and prophetic literature1 to attribute late anonymous writings to earlier authors4 ,this is also further illustrated by such late ,jewish books as ,the ,wisdom of ,solomon or the ,psalms of ,solomon4 ,sidenote3 ,testimony of the individual proverbs ,the individual proverbs confirm the general conclusion that they come from many different authors4 ,those which commend fidelity to one wife and kingly consideration for the rights of subjects1 qualities in which ,solomon was sadly lacking1 do not fit in his mouth4 ,many are written from the point of view of a subject1 and describe what a man should do in the presence of a ruler4 ,furthermore1 the ethical standards upheld are those of prophets who lived and taught long after the days of the ,grand ,monarch who fascinated his own and succeeding generations by his brilliant wit rather than by his sterling virtues4 ,sidenote3 ,real nature of ,proverbs ,the book of ,proverbs is far more than an epitome of his versatile sayings3 it represents at least ten centuries of experience divinely guided1 but won often through mistakes and bitter disappointments4 ,it contains the many index hands1 set up before the eyes of men to point them from error to truth1 from folly to right1 and from failure to success4 ,like most of the ,old ,testament books1 it embodies the contributions of many different teachers writing from many different ages and points of view4 ,their common aim is well expressed by the sage who appended to ,proverbs the preface3 ,to acquire wisdom and training1 ,to understand rational discourse1 ,to receive training in wise conduct1 ,in uprightness1 justice1 and rectitude1 ,to impart discretion to the inexperienced1 ,to the young knowledge and insight2 ,that the wise man may hear and add to his learning1 ,and the man of intelligence gain education1 ,to understand a proverb and a parable1 ,the words of sages and their aphorisms4 ,sidenote3 ,the first edition of ,proverbs ,the structure and contents of the book suggest its literary history4 ,like the ,new ,testament1 it appears to have passed through different stages1 and to have been supplemented repeatedly by the addition of new collections4 ,the original nucleus is probably found in x4 #a to xxii4 #af2 this is introduced by the simple superscription1 ,the ,proverbs of ,solomon4 ,the form of the proverb is simple2 the atmosphere is joyous1 prosperity prevails1 virtue is rewarded2 a king who loves justice and righteousness is on the throne 7xiv4 #ce1 xvi4 #aj1 #ab1 #ac1 xx4 #h1 xxii4 #aa72 the rich1 and poor stand in the same relation to each other as in the days of the pre-exile prophets2 and the teaching of their prophets--righteousness is more acceptable than sacrifice--is frequently reiterated 7xv4 #h1 xvi4 #f1 xxi4 #c1 #bg74 ,while this long collection doubtless contains many proverbs antedating even the beginnings of ,israel's history and possibly some added later1 the indications are that they represent the original edition of the book which the ,jews carried with them into the ,babylonian exile4 ,this early collection was perhaps made under the inspiring influence of the reign of ,josiah4 ,sidenote3 ,dates of the other collections ,undoubtedly the remaining collections also contain many very ancient proverbs1 but as a whole their literary form and thought is more complex4 ,the descriptions of the kings suggest the ,persian and ,greek tyrants who ruled over the ,jews during the long centuries after the exile 7cf4 xxv4 #a-g1 xxviii4 #b1 #ab1 #ae1 #bh1 xxix4 #b1 #d1 #af1 xix4 #ad71 ,the age of the prophets has apparently been succeeded by that of the priest and the law 7xxix4 #ah74 ,already the ,jews have tasted the bitterness of exile 7xxvii4 #h74 ,there are also certain points of close contact with proverbs of ,ben ,sira1 written about #aij ,b4,c4 ,the sages as a class are very prominent1 as in the later centuries before ,christ4 ,these and many other indications lead to the conclusion that the different collections were probably made after the exile1 and that the noble introduction1 i4-ix41 and the two chapters in the appendix were not added until some time in the ,greek period1--not long before #bjj ,b4,c4 ,the date1 however1 when these proverbs arose and were committed to writing is comparatively unimportant1 save as a knowledge of their background aids in their interpretation1 and as they1 in turn1 reveal the life and thought of the persecuted1 tempted ,jews1 whose religious life centred in the second temple4 ,sidenote3 ,teaching of the ,song of ,songs ,probably in the ,greek period also a poet-sage collected and wove together certain love and wedding songs of his race4 ,the result was called the ,song of ,songs1 that is1 the ,peerless ,song4 ,according to one interpretation1 it presents1 in a series of scenes1 the heart struggle of a simple country maiden with the promptings of a true1 pure love for a shepherd lover and the bewildering attractions of a royal marriage2 and true love in the end triumphs4 ,whatever be the interpretation1 it is clear that this exquisite little book1 so filled with pictures of nature and simple country life1 was intended to emphasize the duty and beauty of fidelity to nature and the promptings of the human heart4 ,this thought is expressed in the powerful passage which seems to voice the central teaching of the poem3 ,love is strong as death2 ,jealousy is as cruel as ,sheol2 ,its flashes are flashes of fire1 ,a very flame of ,jehovah4 ,many waters cannot quench love1 ,neither can floods drown it3 ,if a man would give all the substance of his house for love1 ,he would utterly be condemned4 ,,xi ,,the ,,writings ,,of ,,israel',s ,,philosophers ,sidenote3 ,discussions the problem of evil ,an intense interest in man led certain of ,israel's sages in time to devote their attention to more general philosophical problems1 such as the moral order of the universe4 ,in the earlier proverbs1 prophetic histories1 and laws1 the doctrine that sin was always punished by suffering or misfortune1 and conversely that calamity and misfortune were sure evidence of the guilt of the one affected1 had been reiterated until it had become a dogma4 ,in nine out of ten cases this doctrine was true1 but in time experience proved that the tenth case might be an exception4 ,while most of the teachers of the race denied or ignored this exception1 certain wise men1 faithful and unflinching in their analysis of human life1 faced the fact that the innocent as well as the guilty sometimes suffer4 ,their quest for the answer to the eternal question1 ,why8 is recorded in the books of ,job and ,ecclesiastes4 ,sidenote3 ,the primitive story of ,job ,the basis of the book of ,job ,is undoubtedly a primitive story4 ,traces of a tradition somewhat similar have recently been discovered in the ,babylonian-,assyrian literature4 ,the ,babylonian treatment of the moral problem that it presents is even more strikingly similar4 ,ezekiel also refers to a well-known popular ,hebrew version of the story of ,job 7xiv4 #ad73 though these three men1 ,noah1 ,daniel1 and ,job1 were in it 7the guilty land71 they would deliver simply their own lives their righteousness1 saith the ,lord ,jehovah 7cf4 also xiv4 #bj74 ,evidently in ,ezekiel's day these names represented three ancient worthies1 each conspicuous for his superlative piety4 ,the ,hebrew word here used also indicates that the righteousness attributed to them was conformity to the demands of the ritual4 ,this agrees closely with the representation of the prose version of the story found in ,job i4 ii4 and xlii4 #g-ag2 here the supreme illustration of ,job's piety is that he repeatedly sacrifices burnt-offerings1 whenever there is the least possibility that his sons have sinned 7i4 #d1 #e74 ,also in describing his perfection 7i4 #a71 the same unusual term is employed as in the priestly narrative of ,genesis vi4 #i1 where ,noah's righteousness is portrayed4 ,sidenote3 ,original teaching and application of the prose story ,it seems probable1 therefore1 that the ancient story of ,job was committed to writing by some priest during the ,babylonian exile4 ,since ,job and his friends live out on the borders of the ,arabian desert to the east or southeast of ,palestine1 it seems clear that the tradition came to the ,hebrews originally from some foreign source2 but in the prose form in which we find it in ,job1 it has been thoroughly naturalized1 for ,job is a faithful servant of ,jehovah and the law4 ,ignoring for the moment the poetical sections 7iii4 #a to xlii4 #f71 we find that the prose story has a direct1 practical message for the broken-hearted exiles1 crushed beneath an overpowering calamity4 ,jehovah is testing his servant people1 as he tests ,job in the story1 to prove whether or not they fear ,god for nought 7i1 #i74 ,if they bear the test without complaint1 as did ,job1 all their former possessions will be restored to them in double measure 7xlii4 #g-ag74 ,sidenote3 ,the problem of the poetical sections of ,job ,this prose story has apparently been utilized and given a very different interpretation by a later poet-sage in whose ears rang ,jeremiah's words of anguish1 found in chapter xx4 #ad-ah of his prophecy 7cf4 ,job iii471 and to whose ears came also the cry of the pious voiced in ,malachi ii4 #ag3 ,every one who does evil is good in the sight of ,jehovah1 and he delighteth in them4 ,where is the ,god of justice8 ,the old solutions of the problem of evil were being openly discarded4 ,they who feared ,jehovah were saying 7iii1 #ac1 #ad71 ,it is vain to serve ,god2 and what profit is it to have kept his charge or to have walked in funeral garb before ,jehovah of hosts8 ,even now we must congratulate the arrogant2 yea1 they who work wickedness are entrenched2 yea1 they tempt ,god and escape6 ,with a boldness and thoroughness that must have seemed to his contemporaries dangerous and heretical1 the great poet-sage presents the problem in all its intensity4 ,sidenote3 ,the role of ,job and his friends in presenting the problem ,he adopts the popular story1 utilizing it as his prologue and epilogue3 but as we pass to chapter iii1 the simple1 pure ,hebrew yields to sublime poetry1 shot through with the words and idioms and ideas of a much later age4 ,the designation of ,god is no longer ,jehovah but ,el or ,eloah or ,shaddai4 ,the character of ,job suddenly changes2 instead of being the patient1 submissive servant of the law1 he boldly1 almost defiantly1 charges ,god with injustice4 ,the role of the friends also changes1 and they figure as champions of the ,deity4 ,in their successive speeches they present in detail the current dogmas and the popular explanations of suffering4 ,in his replies ,job points out their inapplicability to the supreme problem of which he is the embodiment4 ,the action and progress in this great drama is within the mind of ,job himself4 ,by degrees he rises to a clear perception of the fact that he is innocent of any crime commensurate with the overwhelming series of calamities which have overtaken him2 and he thus throws off the shackles of the ancient dogma4 ,from the seemingly cruel and unjust ,god who has brought this undeserved calamity upon him1 he then appeals to the ,infinite ,being who is back of all phenomena4 ,sidenote3 ,the message of the book ,the reply to this appeal1 and the author's contribution to the eternal problem of evil1 are found in xxxviii4 ,i to xlii4 #f4 ,it is not a solution1 but through the wonders of the natural world1 it is a fuller revelation to the mind of ,job1 of the omnipotence1 the omniscience1 the wisdom1 and the goodness of ,god4 ,even though he cannot discern the reason of his own suffering1 he learns to know and to trust the wisdom and love of the ,divine ,ruler4 ,i had heard of this by the hearing of the ear2 ,but now mine eye seeth thee 7xlii4 #e74 ,sidenote3 ,teaching the ,elihu passage xxxii-xxxvii ,faith triumphs over doubt1 and the problem1 though unsolved1 sinks into comparative insignificance4 ,apparently another poet-sage has added1 out of the depths of his own experience1 his contribution to the problem of suffering in the speeches of ,elihu 7chapters xxxii-xxxvii74 ,it is that suffering rightly borne becomes a blessing because it is one of ,god's ways of training his servants4 ,this indeed is an expansion of the explanation urged by ,eliphaz in v4 #ag1 ,behold1 happy is the man whom ,god correcteth4 ,while these speeches of ,elihu are written in a different literary style and have1 in fact1 no vital connection with the original poem of ,job1 they nevertheless contain a great and intensely practical truth2 they have rightly found a place in this marvellous book4 ,similarly the sublime description of wisdom in chapter xxviii4 makes good its title2 it can1 however1 be studied best by itself apart from ,job's impassioned protestations of his innocence 7chapter xxix474 ,sidenote3 ,probable history of the book of ,job ,thus the book of ,job1 like so many other ,old ,testament writings1 has its own literary history4 ,somewhere and sometime1 back in an early ,semitic period1 there doubtless lived a man1 conspicuous for his virtue and prosperity4 ,upon him fell a misfortune so great and apparently undeserved that it made a deep impression1 not only upon his contemporaries1 but also upon the minds of later generations4 ,thus there grew up a common ,semitic story of ,job which was in time thoroughly naturalized in ,israel4 ,probably a ,jewish priest in the exile first committed it to writing in order to assure his fellow-sufferers that could they but be patient and submissive ,jehovah would soon restore them to their former prosperity4 ,the painful experiences that came to the ,jews1 especially to the pious1 during the middle and latter part of the ,persian period 7sometime between #dej and #cdj ,b4,c471 convinced a poet- sage that the old interpretations of the meaning of suffering did not suffice4 ,accordingly into the heart of the familiar story of ,job he injected his powerful1 impassioned message4 ,later writers1 inspired by his inspiring genius1 added their contributions to the solution of the perennial problem4 ,hence by #bjj ,b4,c41 at least1 the book of ,job was probably current in its present form4 ,sidenote3 ,age and point of view of ,ecclesiastes ,the same ever-recurring1 insistent questions regarding the moral value and meaning of life led another later wise man to embody the results of his observation and experience in what we now know as the book of ,ecclesiastes4 ,although i4 #af and ii4 #g1 #i clearly imply that many kings had already reigned in ,jerusalem1 the author seems to put his observations in the mouth of ,solomon1 the acknowledged patron of wisdom teaching4 ,the evidence1 however1 that the book is one of the latest in the ,old ,testament is overwhelmingly conclusive4 ,the language is that of an age when ,hebrew had long ceased to be spoken4 ,the life mirrored throughout is that of the luxurious1 corrupt ,greek period4 ,if not directly1 at least indirectly1 it reflects the doctrines of the ,stoics and the ,epicureans4 ,it was a crooked1 sordid1 weary world upon which its author looked4 ,it is not strange that a vein of materialism and pessimism runs through his observations and maxims4 ,all is vanity is the dominant note1 and yet light alternates with shadow4 ,he loses faith in human nature2 yet he does not give up his faith in ,god1 though that faith is darkened by the desolateness of the outlook4 ,while the book has practical religious teachings1 perhaps its chief mission1 after all1 is vividly to portray the darkness just before the dawn of the belief in a future life and before the glorious rising of the ,sun of ,righteousness4 ,sidenote3 ,significance of the later additions ,its teachings naturally called forth many protests1 explanations1 and supplements1 and these have found the permanent place in the book that they rightfully deserve4 ,its fragmentary structure and abrupt transitions also made later insertions exceedingly easy4 ,these are the simplest and the most natural explanation of the sharp contradictions that abound in the book 7cf4 e4g41 ii4 #bb and iii4 #bb1 or iv4 #b and ix4 #d1 or iii4 #af and iii4 #ag1 or viii4 #ad and ix4 #b1 or iii4 #a-i and iii4 #aa74 ,the preacher1 whose painful experiences and prevailingly pessimistic teachings are the original basis of the book1 appears to have been consistent throughout4 ,he ends in xii4 #h with the same refrain1 ,vanity of vanities2 all is vanity6 ,in a divine library like the ,old ,testament1 reflecting every side of human thought and experience1 such a book is not inappropriate4 ,its contradictions provoke thought2 they beget also a true appreciation of the positive notes thus brought into dramatic contrast with the ground tones of pessimism which resound through all literature and history4 ,,xii ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,psalter ,sidenote3 ,nature of the ,psalter ,corresponding to the book of ,proverbs1 itself a select library containing ,israel's best gnomic literature1 is the ,psalter1 the compendium of the nation's lyrical songs and hymns and prayers4 ,it is the record of the soul experiences of the race4 ,its language is that of the heart1 and its thoughts of common interest to worshipful humanity4 ,it reflects almost every phase of religious feeling3 penitence1 doubt1 remorse1 confession1 fear1 faith1 hope1 adoration1 and praise4 ,even the unlovely emotion of hatred is frankly expressed in certain of the imprecatory psalms4 ,the ,psalms appeal to mankind in every age and land because1 being so divine and yet so human1 they rest on the foundations of universal experience4 ,whenever a heart is breaking with sorrow or pulsating with thanksgiving and adoration1 its strongest emotions find adequate expression in the simple and yet sublime language of the ,psalter4 ,sidenote3 ,influence of the prophets upon it ,in the familiar doings of ,mary and ,zacharias1 found in the opening chapters of ,luke1 we may trace the beginnings of the hymn literature of the early ,christian ,church1 a literature which later became one of the ,church's most valued possessions4 ,if the canon of the ,new ,testament had been closed in #ajjj instead of #djj ,a4,d41 its books would doubtless have included a hymnal which would have corresponded closely to the ,psalter of the ,old4 ,just as the ,psalms represent the application of the great doctrines of the ,hebrew prophets in the spiritual life of the community1 so this new hymnal would represent the personal application of the teachings of ,jesus and the apostles to the religious life of the ,church and the individual4 ,the ,psalter is also what it is because its background is a period of stress and severe trial4 ,in the hot furnace of affliction and persecution the psalmists learned to appreciate the truths which they so confidently and effectively proclaim4 ,then the spiritual teachings of the earlier prophets1 which were contemptuously rejected by their contemporaries1 were at last appropriated by the community4 ,the ,psalter as a whole appears1 therefore1 to be one of the latest and most precious fruits of the divine revelation recorded in the ,old ,testament4 ,sidenote3 ,evidence of distinct collections of psalms ,in its present form1 the ,psalter is divided into five books or collections4 ,at the end of each collection there is a concluding doxology 7xli41 lxxii41 lxxxix41 cvi74 ,the last psalm 7cl47 serves as a concluding doxology1 not only to the fifth collection1 but also to the ,psalter as a whole4 ,certain psalms are also reproduced in two different collections with only slight variations4 ,for example1 xiv4 is practically identical with liii41 except that in the first ,jehovah is always used as the designation of the ,deity1 and in liii4 ,elohim or ,god2 again ,psalm xl4 #ac-ag is reproduced in lxx42 lvii4 #g-aa and lx4 #e-ab are together practically equivalent to cviii4 ,these and kindred facts indicate that the ,psalter1 like the book of ,proverbs1 is made up of collections originally distinct4 ,the division into exactly five groups appears to be comparatively late1 and to be in imitation of the fivefold division of the ,pentateuch4 ,sidenote3 ,the oldest collection ,the genesis of the book of ,proverbs is exceedingly helpful in tracing the closely analogous growth of the ,psalter4 ,the prevailing form of the superscriptions and the predominant use of the name ,jehovah or ,elohim also aid in this difficult task4 ,psalms i4 and ii4 are introductory to the entire book4 ,psalms iii-xli4 all bear the ,davidic superscription and use the designation ,jehovah two hundred and seventy-two times1 but ,elohim only fifteen4 ,the form and contents of these psalms1 as well as their position1 suggest that they are the oldest collection in the book4 ,in the ,greek version all the psalms of the collection found in li-lxxii41 excepting ,psalm lxvi41 which is anonymous1 and lxxii41 which is attributed to ,solomon1 have also the ,davidic superscription4 ,although certain subsequent psalms are ascribed to ,david1 as1 for example1 lxxxvi41 ci41 and ciii41 the close of the collection1 is the significant epilogue 7lxxii4 #bj71 the prayers of ,david the son of ,jesse are ended4 ,sidenote3 ,meaning and value of the superscriptions ,before the approximate date of these collections can be determined the significance of the ,davidic title needs interpretation4 ,in the ,hebrew version1 this title is borne by seventy-three psalms4 ,two are ascribed to ,solomon 7lxxii4 and cxxvii471 one to ,moses 7xc471 and twenty-four to the members of the post-exilic guilds of temple singers4 ,the superscriptions of the ,greek and ,syrian versions contain many variations from those in the ,hebrew4 ,this is probably due to the fact that superscriptions are usually added by later scribes in whose minds the question of authorship first became prominent4 ,in earlier ,hebrew the phrase commonly translated ,psalm of ,david would more naturally mean a psalm for ,david or dedicated or attributed to ,david4 ,the latter appears to have been its original significance4 ,like the title1 ,proverbs of ,solomon1 it was used to distinguish an ancient poem1 which1 being a psalm1 was naturally ascribed to ,david1 and to him later ,judaism1 in common with the ,new ,testament writers1 attributed all psalm literature4 ,a detailed study of the superscriptions soon demonstrates that the majority of them represent only the conjectures of scribes who were guided by current traditions or suggestions embodied in the psalms themselves4 ,in this manner1 to ,solomon1 the builder of the temple1 is ascribed ,psalm cxxvii41 because it refers to the building of the house in its opening verse4 ,the ,greek version even attributes to ,david ,psalm xcvi41 which1 it states1 was written when the temple was being built after the captivity4 ,sidenote3 ,david's relation to the psalter ,since the superscriptions to the ,psalter were only very late additions1 the question still remains1 ,what was the basis of the late ,jewish tradition that makes ,david the father of the psalm literature1 as was ,solomon of the wisdom1 ,moses of the legal1 and ,enoch of the apocalyptical8 ,the other ,old ,testament books give no direct answer4 ,they tell us1 however1 that the warrior king was skilled in playing the lyre1 and we are aware that to this1 in antiquity1 an improvised accompaniment was usually sung4 ,we also have the account of ,david's touching elegies over the death of ,saul and ,jonathan and of ,abner 7,,ii ,sam4 i41 iii4 #cc1 #cd74 ,moreover1 the early historical books vividly portray the faults of ,david1 the limitations which he shared in common with his contemporaries1 and his deeply religious spirit2 but they leave the question of his relation to the ,psalter to be settled by the testimony of the individual psalms4 ,here the evidence is not conclusive4 ,it is clear that many of the psalms attributed by tradition to him were written in the clearer light of later prophetic teaching and amid very different circumstances from those which surrounded ,israel's early king4 ,still it would be dogmatic to assert that nothing from his lips is to be found in the ,psalter2 and to point out with assurance those passages and psalms which must be ,davidic is quite as unwarrantable4 ,sidenote3 ,evidence of pre-exilic elements in the ,psalter ,the ,psalter is clearly the repository of that which was best in the earlier spiritual life and thought of the race4 ,while there are no direct references to songs in connection with the pre-exilic ,jewish temple1 ,amos 7v4 #bc7 found them in use at the sanctuary at ,bethel2 and from ,psalm cxxxvii4 #c1 #d it would appear that the exiles in ,babylonia were acquainted with certain songs of ,zion or songs of ,jehovah4 ,treasured in the hearts of the people1 and attributed1 perhaps even by the time of the exile1 as a whole to ,david1 they constituted the basis of the earliest collections of psalms1 which1 as we have noted1 practically without exception bear the ,davidic superscription4 ,the date of each individual psalm1 however1 must be determined independently on the basis of its own testimony1 although the historical allusions are few and the data in many cases are far from decisive4 ,sidenote3 ,approximate date of the earliest collections ,just when the earliest collections1 found in iii4-xli4 and li4-lxxii41 were made is a comparatively unimportant yet difficult question to decide4 ,probably the rebuilding of the temple in #eaf ,b4,c4 was one of the great incentives4 ,the example of the ,babylonians1 who possessed a large and rich psalm literature1 may also have exerted an indirect influence4 ,at least it is certain that the guilds of temple singers and the song service became increasingly prominent in the religious life of the ,jewish community which grew up about the restored temple4 ,the presence of alphabetical psalms1 as1 for example1 ix41 x41 xxv41 xxxiv41 xxxvii41 in the earliest collection suggests also the leisure of the exile4 ,the historical background of many of these psalms is clearly the exile and the long period of distress that followed4 ,they voice the experiences of the poor1 struggling band of the pious1 who1 living in the midst of oppressors1 found in ,jehovah alone their refuge and their joy4 ,some of these psalms also reflect the prophetic teachings of ,jeremiah 7e4g41 xvi41 xxxix7 and of ,isaiah xl4-lxvi4 ,in general their attitude toward sacrifice is that of the prophets3 ,for thou desirest not sacrifice2 ,else would ,i give it4 ,thou delightest not in burnt offering4 ,the sacrifices of ,god are a broken spirit2 ,a broken and a contrite heart1 ,o ,god1 thou wilt not despise4 ,religion is defined in the terms of life and acts4 ,ceremonialism has not yet cast its chilling influence over the heart of the nation4 ,therefore the earliest collections may1 with considerable assurance1 be assigned to a date not later than the days of ,nehemiah 7about #djj ,b4,c474 ,sidenote3 ,later collections ,psalms xlii4-l4 and lxxiii-lxxxiii4 constitute a collection of ,levitical hymns4 ,if we may follow the indications of their superscriptions1 they consist of two originally distinct groups1 the one1 xlii4-xlix41 associated with and possibly at first collected and preserved by the post-exilic guild of temple singers1 known as the sons of ,korah1 and the other1 l41 lxxiii4-lxxxiii41 similarly attributed to ,asaph1 the guild of temple singers1 mentioned first in the writings of the ,greek period4 ,in these two groups the priests and ,levites and the liturgy are prominent4 ,psalms lxxxiv4-lxxxix4 constitute a short ,levitical supplement4 ,the remainder of the ,psalter is also made up of originally smaller collections1 as1 for example1 the ,psalms of ,ascent or the ,pilgrim ,psalms 7cxx4-cxxxiv471 and the ,hallelujah ,psalms 7cxi4-cxiii4 and cxlvi4-cl474 ,some of the latter come perhaps from the ,jews of the dispersion4 ,each collection appears to represent a fresh gleaning of the same or slightly different fields1 incorporating ancient with contemporary psalms1 and1 as has been noted1 not infrequently including some already found in earlier collections4 ,sidenote3 ,completion of the ,psalter ,certain of the psalms1 such as lxxiv41 lxxix41 lxxxiii41 seem clearly to reflect the horrors of the ,maccabean struggle 7#afi-afe ,b4,c474 ,later ,jewish literature bears testimony that in the last two centuries before ,christ psalm writing increased rather than decreased 7cf4 e4g41 ,psalms of ,solomon74 ,certainly the experiences through which the ,jews passed during the middle of the second century were of a nature to evoke psalms similar to those in the ,psalter4 ,the probabilities1 therefore1 are that the ,psalter1 in its final form1 is1 like the book of ,daniel1 one of the latest writings in the ,old ,testament4 ,it was possibly during the prosperous reign of ,simon1 when the temple service was enriched and established on a new basis1 that its canon was finally closed4 ,sidenote3 ,the book of ,lamentations ,the fact that they all gather about a definite event in ,israel's history1 and probably antedate the majority of the psalms in the ,psalter1 explains why the little collection of lyrical poems1 known as the book of ,lamentations1 never found a place beside the kindred psalms 7e4g41 ,pss4 xlii41 xliii7 in the larger book4 ,their theme is the ,babylonian exile and the horrors and distress that it brought to the scattered members of the ,jewish race4 ,their aim is prophetic1 that is1 to point out and confess the guilt of the nation and its dire consequences4 ,they reflect the teachings of both ,jeremiah and ,ezekiel4 ,while it is not strange that later tradition attributed the collection to the first of these prophets1 its contents do not support the conjecture4 ,four out of the five poems are alphabetical1 and distinctly different points of view are represented4 ,chapters ii4 and iv4 probably come from the middle of the ,babylonian exile1 and to the remainder must be assigned a still later period4 ,sidenote3 ,the national and individual element in the ,psalter ,the ,psalter1 with its natural appendix1 the book of ,lamentations1 was the song and prayer book of the ,jewish community4 ,a majority of the psalms1 and especially those in the latter part of the book1 were doubtless originally intended for liturgical use4 ,many1 particularly where the first person singular is used1 are to be interpreted collectively1 for here1 as often in the book of ,lamentations1 the psalmist is speaking in behalf of the community4 ,others have been adapted to liturgical ends4 ,but in the final analysis it is the experience and emotions of the individual soul that find expression throughout all the psalms4 ,since these experiences and emotions were shared in common by all right-minded members of the community1 it was natural that they should in time be employed in the liturgy4 ,sidenote3 ,e pluribus unum ,again1 as we review the history of the ,psalter1 we are impressed with the many sides of ,israel's life and human experience that it represents4 ,not one1 but perhaps fifty or a hundred1 inspired souls1 laymen1 prophets1 priests1 sages1 kings1 and warriors1 have each clothed the divine truth that came to them or to their generation in exquisite language and imagery1 and given it thus to their race and humanity4 ,successive editors have collected and combined the noblest of these psalms1 and the ,psalter is the result4 ,the exact date of each psalmist and editor is comparatively unimportant1 for though differing widely in origin and theme1 they are all bound together by a common purpose and a common belief in the reality and the immediate presence of ,god4 ,all nature and history and life are to them but the manifestation of his justice and mercy and love4 ,in direct communion with the ,god whom they personally knew1 they found the consolation and peace and joy that passeth all understanding1 even though the heathen raged and their foes plundered and taunted them4 ,to that same haven of rest they still pilot the world's storm-tossed mariners4 ,,xiii ,,the ,,formation ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,,canon ,sidenote3 ,israel's literature at the beginning of the fourth century before ,christ ,could we have studied the scriptures of the ,israelitish race about #djj ,b4,c41 we should have classified them under four great divisions3 7#a7 ,the prophetic writings1 represented by the combined early ,judean1 ,ephraimite1 and late prophetic or ,deuteronomic narratives1 and their continuation in ,samuel and ,kings1 together with the earlier and exilic prophecies2 7#b7 the legal1 represented by the majority of the ,old ,testament laws1 combined with the late priestly history2 7#c7 the wisdom1 represented by the older small collections of proverbs2 7#d7 the devotional or liturgical1 represented by ,lamentations and the earlier collections of psalms4 ,sidenote3 ,the combining of the prophetic and priestly histories ,even before all the ,old ,testament books were written1 the work of canonization began2 before the first large canon was adopted1 the prophetic and priestly narratives1 and with them the earlier and later laws1 were combined4 ,this amalgamation was the work of a late priestly editor4 ,the ,pentateuch and its immediate sequel1 ,joshua1 is the result4 ,sidenote3 ,the method of combining ,a study of these books makes clear the editor's method4 ,naturally he gave the late priestly versions the precedence4 ,he placed1 therefore1 its version of the creation first1--a position that it well deserves4 ,probably as a result of this arrangement the older and more primitive prophetic version of ,genesis ii4 #d;a-#be was somewhat abridged1 for it begins with the picture of a level plain1 watered by a daily mist1 and is immediately followed by the account of the creation of man4 ,genesis iii4 and iv4 are taken entirely from the prophetic1 and practically all of v4 from the priestly1 group of narratives4 ,confronted by two variant versions of the flood1 he joined them together into a closely knit narrative2 but all the elements of both versions are so faithfully preserved that when they are again separated1 behold6 the two originally complete and self-consistent versions reappear4 ,the story of ,noah1 the first vineyard-keeper1 in ix4 #bj-bg1 is taken entirely from the prophetic history1 but in x4 two distinct lists of the nations are joined together4 ,all the story of the tower of ,babel in xi4 #a-i is from the prophetic1 while the genealogical list in the remainder of the chapter is from the priestly history4 ,the patriarchal and subsequent narratives are likewise combined with1 the same remarkable skill4 ,sidenote3 ,later biblical analogies ,thus the first six ,old ,testament books were given their final form4 ,the method in general was the same as that followed by the authors of the ,first and ,third ,gospels in their use of ,matthew's ,sayings of ,jesus and the original ,mark narrative1 or by the authors of ,samuel1 ,kings1 and ,chronicles in their citations from the older sources4 ,in his close fusion of three or four parallel narratives the editor's work resembled most closely that of ,tatian1 who thus combined the four ,gospels in his ,diatessaron4 ,so far as we are able to observe1 the final editor of the ,hexateuch preserved1 like ,tatian1 most of the material in his older sources1 except where a parallel version verbally duplicated another4 ,the prophetic and priestly narratives also followed lines so distinctly different that cases of duplication were comparatively few4 ,sidenote3 ,deep significance of the work of the later editors ,to the latest editor of the early narratives we owe the preservation of some or the oldest and most valuable sections of the ,old ,testament4 ,in that age and land of perishable writing materials1 the prevailing method of compilation was one of the effective means whereby the important portions of primitive records were handed down in practically their original form4 ,it is well that we are beginning to understand its significance in the realization of the divine purpose4 ,important beyond words1 although often overlooked1 were the services of the faithful editors who without the slightest desire for personal glory or reward1 other than the perpetuation of truth1 carefully selected1 condensed1 and combined material gleaned from earlier and fuller sources4 ,to them is due the marvellous preservation of our ,old ,testament1 ,to the honored rle of the prophets and apostles1 therefore1 let us add the anonymous redactors4 ,sidenote3 ,date of the beginning of the cannonization of the ,law ,the final editors were the immediate precursors of those who formed the successive canons of the ,old ,testament4 ,indeed1 between the work of the former and the latter there is no clear line of demarcation4 ,a period shortly after #djj ,b4 c4 is the date usually accepted for the work of the final editor of the ,pentateuch2 the canonization of the law1 which included these five books1 is dated between #djj and #cjj ,b4,c4 ,the real canonization of ,israel's laws had1 however1 begun much earlier4 ,the primitive decalogue1 represented by ,exodus xxxiv41 and probably from the first associated with ,moses1 appears1 in the earliest periods of ,israel's history1 to have enjoyed a canonical authority4 ,the primitive accounts1 in ,exodus xix41 of the establishment of the covenant by ,jehovah with his people mark the real beginning of the process of canonization1--a process1 that is1 of attributing to certain laws a unique and commanding authority4 ,sidenote3 ,popular acceptance and promulgation of the earlier codes ,likewise the successive civil1 humane1 and ceremonial decalogues appear from the days of the united kingdom to have occupied a similar position4 ,primarily this was probably due to the fact that each was based upon a divine torah or decision1 received from ,jehovah through the priestly oracle4 ,the public reading and promulgation of the ,deuteronomic laws in the days of ,josiah1 with the attestation of the prophets and the solemn adoption by the people1 was an act of canonization far more formal than the final acceptance of the ,new ,testament writings by the ,council of ,carthage4 ,sidenote3 ,adoption of the late priestly law ,the next great stage in the canonization of the law is recorded in ,nehemiah x4 ,then the representatives of the ,jewish community entered into a solemn obligation and took oath to walk in ,god's law1 which was given by ,moses the servant of ,god1 and to observe to do all the commands of ,jehovah our ,lord and his ordinances and his statutes 7v4 #bi47 ,this action appears to be the historical basis of the fanciful and incredible ,jewish traditions concerning the work of the ,great ,synagogue and the authority of ,ezra4 ,the new law thus adopted was evidently the one gradually developed and finally formulated by the ,jewish priests in ,babylonia4 ,it was accepted1 as was the earlier ,deuteronomic code1 because it met the needs and appealed to the moral and religions sense of those by whom it was adopted4 ,sidenote3 ,acceptance of the completed ,torah ,to set completely aside the ,deuteronomic lawbook and the primitive decalogue of ,exodus xx4-xxiii41 already in force among the ,jews of ,palestine1 was impossible and unnecessary4 ,hence1 as we have noted1 it was the task of some editor of the next generation to combine these and the earlier prophetic histories with the late priestly law and its accompanying history4 ,naturally this whole collection was still called the ,torah or ,law and was at once accepted as canonical by the ,jews4 ,this step was also most natural because their interests all centred about the ritual1 and for two centuries the dominant tendency had been to exalt the sanctity of the written law4 ,sidenote3 ,date of the final canonization of the ,law ,it is possible to fix approximately the date of this first edition of the ,old ,testament writings1 since the ,samaritans adopted and still retain simply the ,pentateuch and an abbreviated edition of ,joshua as their scriptures4 ,although ,josephus1 following a late ,jewish tradition1 dates the ,samaritan schism at about #ccj ,b4,c41 the contemporary evidence of ,nehemiah xiii4 #bh suggests that it was not long after #djj4 ,it is therefore safe to conclude that by #cej ,b4,c4 the first five books of our ,old ,testament had not only been singled out of the larger literature of the race1 but were regarded as possessing a unique sanctity and authority4 ,sidenote3 ,principles of canonization ,as the name ,law suggests1 the chief reason for this was the fact that these five books embodied laws long since accepted as binding4 ,the second reason was probably because they were by current tradition ascribed to ,moses4 ,the third1 and not the least1 was1 doubtless1 because they met the need felt by the community for a unified and authoritative system of laws and for an authentic record of the earlier history of their race1 especially that concerning the origin of their beloved institutions4 ,sidenote3 ,evidence that the ,law was first canonized ,the priority of the canon of the law is also proved by the fact that1 although it contains some of the later ,old ,testament writings1 it stands first1 not only in position but in the esteem of the ,jewish race4 ,furthermore1 it became in time the designation of all the ,old ,testament canonical writings4 ,the term ,law is thus used in the ,new ,testament 7e4g41 ,john x4 #cd1 xii4 #cd2 ,i ,cor4 xiv4 #ba71 in the ,talmud1 and by the rabbis1 indicating that the later groups of historical1 prophetic1 and poetical books were simply regarded as supplements4 ,sidenote3 ,canonization of the prophetic writings ,the history of the canonization of the next group1 known as the ,prophets1 is very obscurely recorded1 and this largely because it reached its culmination in the ,greek period1 concerning which we have only the most meagre information4 ,here analogy with the history of the ,new ,testament is helpful4 ,the same influences which led the early ,christians to add the ,epistles and ,acts undoubtedly operated upon the minds of the ,jews4 ,the ,law represented only a limited period in their national and religious history4 ,but the addition of the early prophetic and legal histories to the detailed laws prepared the way for the expansion of the canon4 ,this included first1 the four historical books1 ,joshua1 ,judges1 ,samuel1 and ,kings1 with the exception of ,ruth4 ,these were designated as the ,former ,prophets4 ,thus even the later ,jews recognized their true character and authorship4 ,the second division of the ,prophets included ,isaiah1 ,jeremiah1 ,ezekiel1 and the ,book of the ,twelve1 which contained the minor prophets4 ,sidenote3 ,evidence that the historico-prophetic books were first added to the ,law ,the order of the book and the probabilities of the situation suggest that the ,former ,prophets1 since they were the immediate sequel of the prophetic histories of the ,pentateuch1 and recorded the deeds of such heroes as ,david1 ,solomon1 and ,isaiah1 were added first4 ,that they also bear the marks of late priestly revision1 is direct evidence of the esteem in which they were held by the late priestly school that completed the canon of the ,law4 ,they therefore may have been added as early as #cjj ,b4,c4 ,they were certainly known to the author of ,chronicles1 as his many quotations from them show1 although it is difficult to see how he would have felt as free as he does to substitute the testimony of later tradition1 if they were regarded as equally sacred with the ,law4 ,sidenote3 ,reverence for the prophetic word ,the reference to the prediction of ,jeremiah1 in the opening verse of ,ezra1 suggests the reverence with which the author of ,chronicles regarded the words of this prophet4 ,the post-exilic ,jews never ceased to revere the prophetic word4 ,the popular belief1 current in the ,greek period1 that the prophets had ceased to speak only deepened their reverence for the teachings of ,moses' successors 7,deut4 xviii4 #ae-ai74 ,the devotion of the later scribes is evinced by the scores of glosses which they have added to the older prophecies4 ,it is manifest1 therefore1 how strong was the tendency1 even in priestly circles1 to add the ,prophets to the ,law4 ,sidenote3 ,date of completion of the prophetic canon ,the process was probably gradual and perhaps not complete until the ,jews had learned fully to appreciate the value of their ancient ,scriptures1 after martyrs had died for the sacred writings during the ,maccabean struggle4 ,aside from supplements made to older books1 as1 for example1 ,zechariah ix4-xiv41 the canon of the prophets was probably closed not later than #bjj ,b4,c4 ,from direct evidence it is clear that the book of ,daniel 7written about #afe ,b4,c47 did not find a place in this canon4 ,it is also significant that in the prologue to the ,greek version of ,ben ,sira or ,ecclesiasticus 7#acb ,b4,c47 the translator refers repeatedly--as though they were then regarded as of equal authority--to the ,law and the ,prophets and the rest of the books1 or to the other books of the fathers4 ,but most significant of all1 ,ben ,sira1 who wrote about #aij ,b4,c41 includes in his list of ,israel's heroes 7xliv4-l47 not only those mentioned in the ,torah1 but also ,david1 ,solomon1 ,hezekiah1 and the chief characters in the ,former ,prophets4 ,furthermore1 ,isaiah and ,jeremiah and ,ezekiel are introduced in their proper settings1 and the panegyric closes with a reference to the twelve prophets collectively1 indicating that ,ben ,sira was also acquainted with the ,latter ,prophets as a group4 ,sidenote3 ,the beginning of the last stage in the canonization of the ,old ,testament ,the reference to the rest of the books in the prologue to ,ben ,sira indicates that even before #acj ,b4,c4 certain other writings had been joined to the canon of the ,law4 ,ben ,sira himself1 to judge from his description of ,david 7cf4 xlvii4 #h1 #i1 and ,i ,chron4 #be71 ,zerubbabel1 ,joshua1 and ,nehemiah1 was acquainted with the books of ,chronicles1 ,ezra1 and ,nehemiah4 ,chapter xlvii4 #h apparently contains an allusion to a hymn-book attributed to ,david4 ,evidently he was also familiar with the book of ,proverbs1 including its introductory chapters4 ,thus we have a glimpse of the beginning of that third stage in the canonization of the ,old ,testament which1 as in the case of the ,new1 continued for fully three centuries4 ,sidenote3 ,canonization of the ,psalter and ,lamentations ,the ,psalter doubtless passed through different stages of canonization1 as did the ,old ,testament itself4 ,the earliest collection was1 in the beginning1 probably made for liturgical purposes1 and its adoption in the service of the temple was practically equivalent to canonization4 ,when successive collections were added1 they too were thus canonized4 ,the result was that the ,psalter1 when complete1 enjoyed a position somewhat similar to that of the ,law and the ,prophets1 although the authority of each rested upon a different basis4 ,that the ,psalter was early canonized is further demonstrated by a quotation in ,i ,maccabees vii4 #ag 7about #abe ,b4,c47 from ,psalm lxxix4 #b1 #c1 introduced by the words1 as it is written in the ,scriptures4 ,this conclusion is also supported by the significant reference in the ,new ,testament to the ,law1 the ,prophets1 and the ,psalms 7,lk4 xxiv4 #dd74 ,jesus' use of the ,psalter indicates that in his day its canonicity was already thoroughly established4 ,lamentations1 by a late tradition attributed to ,jeremiah1 was probably also canonized contemporaneously with the ,psalms4 ,sidenote3 ,the other books of the fathers ,the canonization of the book of ,proverbs1 like that of the ,psalter1 was undoubtedly by successive stages4 ,the ,jews of the ,greek and ,maccabean period were especially appreciative of this type of literature1 and it was doubtless accorded its position of authority primarily because it rang true to human experience4 ,that it was attributed to ,solomon also told in its favor4 ,ben ,sira's indirect testimony suggests that it and the books of ,chronicles1 ,ezra1 and ,nehemiah1 which were in close accord with the point of view of later ,judaism1 were already in his day associated with the ,law and the ,prophets4 ,the book of ,ruth was probably at this time added to the other historical books4 ,sidenote3 ,canonization of the book of ,daniel ,the absence of any reference in ,ben ,sira to ,daniel is significant4 ,the first allusion to it comes from the last half of the second century before ,christ4 ,first ,maccabees i4 #ed appears to quote the prediction of ,daniel ix4 #bg1 and in ,i ,maccabees ii4 #ei1 #fj1 ,daniel and his three friends are held up as noble examples of virtue4 ,thus it would seem that within a half century after the book of ,daniel was written its authority was recognized4 ,in ,new ,testament times its canonicity is fully established 7e4g41 cf4 ,i ,cor4 vi4 #b1 and ,dan4 vii4 #bb74 ,sidenote3 ,date of the completion of the ,hebrew ,old ,testament canon ,concerning the canonicity of two books1 ,ecclesiastes and the ,song of ,songs or ,canticles1 the opinions of the rabbis continued to differ until the close of the first ,christian century4 ,from the ,mishna we learn that the school of ,shammai accepted ,ecclesiastes1 while that of ,hillel rejected it4 ,finally1 in a conference in ,jamnia1 about #ajj ,a4,d41 the two schools finally agreed to accept both books as canonical4 ,from ,second ,esdras and ,josephus1 however1 we learn that the present ,hebrew and ,protestant canon of the ,old ,testament had already for some time been practically adopted by common consent4 ,sidenote3 ,contents of the last group of writings ,the last collection1 which includes eleven books known as the ,hagiographa or ,sacred ,writings1 constitutes the third general division of the ,hebrew ,scriptures4 ,it is a heterogeneous group of histories1 prophecies1 stories1 and wisdom books4 ,some1 like the ,psalter1 were1 as we have seen1 probably canonized as early as the ,prophets2 although the final canon of the ,old ,testament was not closed until #ajj ,a4,d4 ,even later the canonicity of ,ecclesiastes1 the ,song of ,songs1 and ,esther was sometimes questioned2 most of them were regarded as authoritative as early as #ajj ,b4,c4 ,here1 as in the case of the ,new ,testament1 the real decision was not the work of any school or council2 but gradually1 on the basis of their intrinsic merit1 the twenty-four books of the ,hebrew ,bible were singled out of a much larger literature and recognized1 at least by the ,jews of ,palestine1 as the authoritative record of ,god's revelation through their race4 ,sidenote3 ,differences between the ,palestinian and ,alexandrian canons ,jewish tradition1 represented by ,second ,esdras xiv4 and the ,talmudic treatise ,baba ,bathra xv4 a1 states that all the canonical books were in existence in the time of ,ezra4 ,while the tradition is refuted by the historical facts1 it appears to have influenced the ,jews of ,palestine in shaping their canon2 since no books purporting to come from a later date or author are found in it4 ,the broader-minded ,jews of the dispersion1 and especially ,alexandria and the early ,christian ,church1 refused to be bound by the narrow principle that divine revelation ceased with ,ezra4 ,accordingly we find them adopting a larger canon1 that included many other later writings known in time as the apocryphal or hidden books4 ,sidenote3 ,additional books in the ,greek and ,christian canon ,these consisted of three genuine works1--,i and ,,ii ,maccabees and ,ben ,sira or ,ecclesiasticus2 two didactic stories1--,tobit and ,judith2 four books wrongly ascribed to earlier authors1--the ,wisdom of ,solomon1 ,baruch1 the ,epistle of ,jeremy1 and ,second ,esdras 7,gk4 ,,iv ,esdras72 and four additions to the ,hebrew canonical books1--,first ,esdras1 an expansion of the book of ,ezra1 the ,prayer of ,manasses1 and additions to ,esther and ,daniel4 ,sidenote3 ,history of the ,apocryphal books in the ,christian ,church ,as is well known1 these books were retained by the ,christian ,church1 as they still are by the ,roman ,catholic and ,greek churches1 until the ,protestant reformers relegated them1 as a whole1 to a secondary place4 ,ultimately the ,bible societies1 during the first part of the last century1 ceased to print them in the ordinary editions of the ,bible4 ,the result is that the present generation has almost forgotten their existence4 ,the last decade or two1 however1 has witnessed a significant revival of interest among the scholars of ,christendom1 and the wholesome tendency to restore certain of the ,apocrypha to the working ,old ,testament canon is very marked4 ,this is only a correction of the error of the ,protestant reformers in estimating the ,apocryphal books1 not by the intrinsic merit of each individual writing but of the group as a whole4 ,sidenote3 ,great value of these later ,jewish writings ,some of the ,apocrypha and kindred books like the apocalypse of ,enoch1 were quoted and recognized by ,new ,testament scholars as having authority equal to that of the other ,old ,testament ,scriptures4 ,the rejection of ,i and ,,ii ,maccabees and ,ben ,sira from the ,palestinian canon because they were written after the days of ,ezra and not associated with the names of any early ,old ,testament worthies1 was due to a narrow conception of divine revelation1 directly contrary to that of ,christianity which recognized the latest as the noblest4 ,these later ,jewish writings also bridge the two centuries which otherwise yawn between the two ,testaments--two centuries of superlative importance both historically and religiously1 witnessing as they do the final development of the life and thought of ,judaism and the rise of those conditions and beliefs which loom so large in the ,new ,testament4 ,sidenote3 ,the larger working canon of the ,old ,testament ,while they will always be of great value in the study of later ,jewish history1 literature1 and religion1 the majority of the apocryphal books undoubtedly belong in the secondary group to which the ,palestinian ,jews and the ,protestant reformers assigned them4 ,three or four1 however1 tested by the ultimate principles of canonicity1 are equal1 if not superior1 to certain books like ,chronicles1 ,esther1 and ,ecclesiastes4 ,first ,maccabees records one of the most important crises in ,israelish history4 ,as a faithful historical writing1 it is hardly equalled in ancient literature4 ,its spirit is also genuinely religious4 ,the later but parallel history of ,,ii ,maccabees is not the equal of the first1 although its religious purpose is more pronounced4 ,its historical character1 style1 aim1 and point of view are strikingly similar to those of the book of ,chronicles4 ,the proverbs of ,ben ,sira1 while not all of the same value1 yet abound in noble and practical teachings1 very similar to those in the book of ,proverbs4 ,not only does the ,wisdom of ,solomon contain many exalted and spiritual passages1 but it is also of unique importance because it represents that wonderful fusion of the best elements in ,hebrew and ,hellenic thought which formed the background of ,christianity4 ,probably the ,church1 will ultimately restore to its larger working ,old ,testament canon the beautiful ,prayer of ,manasses1 already largely adopted in the prayer-book of the ,anglican ,church4 ,sidenote3 ,conclusion ,our rapid historical study has revealed the unity and the variety of teaching reflected in the ,old ,testament1 and has suggested its real place in the revelation of the past and its true place in the life of to-day4 ,this older testament is the record of ,god's gradual revelation of himself through the history of the ,israelitish race and the experiences and minds of countless men and women whose spiritual eyes were open and whose ears were attentive to divine truth4 ,the same benign ,father who has always spoken to his children has influenced them also to recognize the writings that most faithfully and fully record the spiritual truth thus revealed4 ,had the task been entrusted to our own or later generations1 it is not probable that the result would have differed in any important essential4 ,for a few brief centuries false theories and traditions may partially obscure the truth1 but these1 like the mists of morning1 are sure in time to melt away and reveal the eternal verities in their sublime beauty and grandeur4 ,,xiv ,,the ,,interpretation ,,of ,,the ,,early ,,narratives ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,sidenote3 ,importance of regarding each story as a unit ,of all the different groups of writings in the ,old ,testament1 undoubtedly the early narratives found in the first seven books present the most perplexing problems4 ,this is primarily due to the fact that they have been subject to a long process of editorial revision by which stories1 some very old and others very late and written from a very different point of view1 have been closely joined together4 ,while there is a distinct aim and unity in the whole1 in approaching them it is simplest to study each story as a unit in itself4 ,not only is this practical1 but it is justified by the fact that almost every story was once current in independent form4 ,often1 as in the case of the accounts of creation and the flood1 it is possible to recover the older versions and even to trace their origin and earlier history4 ,sidenote3 ,classification necessary to determine the point of view ,the first essential1 however1 is to determine to the point of view and purpose of the biblical writer1 who has taken the given story from the lips of his contemporaries and incorporated it in the cycle of stories in which it is now found1 ,here the language1 literary style1 theme1 and conceptions of ,god and religion are the chief guides4 ,if1 as in the first chapter of ,genesis1 the ,deity is always designated as ,god or ,elohim2 if the literary style is formal1 repetitious1 and generic2 if the theme is the origin of an institution like the ,sabbath2 and if the ,deity is conceived of as a spirit1 accomplishing his purpose by progressive stages through the agency of natural forces1--it is not difficult to recognize at once the work of a late priestly writer4 ,if1 on the contrary1 as in ,genesis ii4 #d;b to iii4 #bd1 ,jehovah is the name of the ,deity2 if the style is vivid1 picturesque1 and flowing2 if the interest centres in certain individuals instead of species2 if the themes vitally concern the spiritual life of man2 if the ,deity is conceived of after human analogies1 as intimately associating with men1 and as revealing himself directly to them by word and visible presence1--the work of an early prophetic writer is evidently before us4 ,the identification of the point of view of the author at once puts us into appreciative sympathy with him4 ,sidenote3 ,value of knowing an author's point of view ,it also enables us intelligently to interpret his words and figures4 ,knowing1 for example1 that the first chapter of ,genesis was written by a priest who lived long after his race had ceased to think of ,god as having a body like a man1 we cannot make the common mistake of interpreting verse #bf as implying physical likeness4 ,rather1 as his conception of ,god as a spirit demands and the latter part of the verse proves1 his sublime teaching is that man1 the end and culmination of the entire work of creation1 is like his ,creator1 a spiritual being1 endowed with a mind and a will1 and as ,god's viceregent1 is divinely commanded to rule over all created things4 ,sidenote3 ,practical value of the critical analysis ,where two distinct versions of the same narrative have been amalgamated in the process of editorial revision1 the analysis of the original sources is indispensable to a true understanding and interpretation of the thought of the prophet and priest who have each utilized the ancient story1--as1 for example1 that of the flood1--to illustrate the inevitable consequences of sin and ,god's personal interest in mankind4 ,here the culminating purpose of the prophet1 however1 is to proclaim ,jehovah's gracious promise that he will never thus again destroy man or living things2 that 7viii4 #ba1 #bb73 ,while the earth remains1 ,seedtime and harvest1 ,cold and heat1 ,summer and winter1 ,day and night ,shall not cease4 ,the priest1 on the other hand1 is interested in the renewal of the covenant which insures man's dominion over the natural world1 and in the sanctity of blood1 and in the primitive1 divine origin of the command1 ,thou shalt not kill 7ix4 #a-f74 ,sidenote3 ,the necessary basis for intelligent interpretation ,fortunately the work of analysis has been so thoroughly carried out during the last century that there is practical agreement among the ,christian scholars of the world on the essential questions4 ,these results are now also available in popular form1 so that1 without wasting time on technicalities1 the pastor and teacher of to-day can utilize them as the basis for more important study and teaching4 ,the origin1 the literary form1 and the scientific and historical accuracy of each narrative all suggest definite and interesting lines of study1 but1 as has been noted 7p4 #ajf71 these are of secondary value compared with the religious truths that each story is intended to illustrate4 ,sidenote3 ,principles of religious interpretation ,since these stories were preserved because they conserve this higher purpose1 it is always safe to ask1 ,what are their distinctive contributions to the grand total of ethical and spiritual teaching found in the ,old ,testament8 ,at the same time it is exceedingly important always to be sure to read the teachings out of1 and not into1 a given narrative4 ,by unnatural and fanciful interpretation of these simple stories the friends of the ,bible in the past have often wronged it more than have its avowed foes4 ,each story1 like the parables of ,jesus1 had its one or two central teachings1 usually conveyed to the mind by implication rather than by direct statement4 ,the characters who figure in them by their words and deeds proclaim the practical truths and embody the ideals in the minds of the ancient prophets and priests4 ,sidenote3 ,theme of ,genesis ii4 and iii4 ,the heterogeneous group of stories found in ,genesis i4-xi4 constitute the general introduction to the succeeding narratives which gather about the names of the traditional ancestors of the ,hebrews4 ,each of these originally independent stories illustrates its own peculiar religious teachings4 ,none has taken a deeper hold on the imagination and made a deeper impression on the thought and literature of the world than that which is found in the second and third chapters of ,genesis4 ,its theme-- the origin and nature and consequences of sin--is of vital1 personal interest to every man of every age4 ,sidenote3 ,the problem of presenting it in a form intelligible to early man ,the problem that confronted the early ,judean prophet was to present in form intelligible to the minds of his primitive readers a subject that has taxed to the utmost the resources of the world's greatest philosophers and theologians4 ,the task was comparable to that which fell to the ,master when he sought to make clear to his untutored disciples the real nature of the mighty tempest of temptation that raged in his soul at the beginning1 and1 indeed1 later in his ministry4 ,the method adopted was strikingly similar in each case4 ,if the language of modern philosophy and psychology had been at the command of these great religious teachers1 it would have but obscured the great truths4 ,these truths must be made objective2 they must be expressed in the familiar language of the people4 ,even the inner struggle of conflicting motives must be presented in words so simple that a child could understand4 ,sidenote3 ,pictorial elements drawn from popular tradition ,the second and third chapters of ,genesis record the effective way in which a great early prophet dealt with his difficult problem4 ,from the lips of the people he took fragments of ancient ,semitic traditions4 ,almost all of the elements which enter into the story of man's fall have been traced to far earlier sources2 but the narrative in its present unity and suggestiveness never has and never will be found outside the ,bible4 ,how far the prophet adapted to his higher purpose the current ,hebrew version can not be absolutely determined4 ,the fact alone remains that it is one of the truest bits of history in the ,old ,testament1 and this not because it is a leaf from the diary of ,adam and ,eve1 but because it concretely and faithfully portrays universal human experience4 ,sidenote3 ,creation of man and the elements necessary for his development ,in the simple language of popular tradition it proclaims1 among other truths1 that ,jehovah1 ,israel's ,god1 created man1 breathing into him from his own nostrils the vital principle of life and making him the commanding figure in the universe2 then that the ,creator graciously provided all that was needful and best for his true physical and spiritual development4 ,incidentally the prophet calls attention to that innate and divine basis of the marriage bond which ,jesus re-emphasizes 7,matt4 xix4 #d-f74 ,physical death1 according to the story in its present form1 was not a necessary part of ,jehovah's plan2 the implication is that man would not die while he remained in the garden and ate of the life-giving tree4 ,temptation is not in itself evil1 but necessary1 if man is to develop positive virtue1 for beside the tree of life grows the tree of the knowledge of good and evil1 with its attractive1 alluring fruit guarded by the divine prohibition4 ,sidenote3 ,the struggle in the woman's heart ,the elements of the temptation are all presented in chapter ii41 but the serpent1 the craftiest of animals1 in his conversation with the woman is required to make clear and objective the real nature of the conflict within her mind4 ,the rle of the serpent is the opposite of that of ,balaam's ass1 which figures in a story which comes from the same early ,judean prophetic school4 ,in the conversation between the woman and the serpent the true character of all temptation is revealed3 it is the necessity of choosing between two courses of conduct neither of which is altogether bad4 ,curiosity1 which is the guide to all knowledge1 the beauty of the apple1 which appeals to the aesthetic sense1 and physical appetite1 not in itself bad1--all these powerfully attracted the ,oriental woman of the ancient story4 ,on the other side she felt the compelling power of love and gratitude and the definite divine command4 ,sidenote3 ,the essence of all temptation ,the prophet saw clearly that all the elements of temptation are within man--a truth sometimes obscured in later ,jewish thought4 ,milton has also led us astray in identifying the crafty serpent with the ,satan of later ,judaism4 ,the prophet graphically presents another great fact of human experience1 namely1 that what is one man's temptation is not another's1 that the temptation to be real must appeal to the one tested4 ,the crafty serpent is not represented as speaking to the man2 he would probably have turned away in loathing4 ,his wife1 she who had already sinned1 the one whom ,jehovah had given him as a helpmeet1 herself appeals to the sense of chivalry within him4 ,hence the conflict rages in his soul between love and obligation to ,jehovah and his natural affection and apparent duty to his wife4 ,thus in all temptation the diviner impulses struggle with those which are not in themselves necessarily wrong but only baser by contrast4 ,duty is the call of the diviner1 sin is the yielding to the baser1 motives4 ,sidenote3 ,the real nature of sin ,the ,hebrew word for sin1 which means the missing of the mark set up before each individual1 is the only altogether satisfactory definition of sin ever devised1 for it absolutely fits the facts of human experience4 ,deflection from the moral standard set up by each man's conscience1 even though his resulting act seem in itself noble1 is for him a sin4 ,although the influences which led the man and woman of the story to disobey were exceedingly strong1 the higher standard had been set up1 and in falling short of it they sinned4 ,thus sin is not ,god's but man's creation1 and results from the deliberate choice of what the sinner knows to be wrong4 ,sidenote3 ,the effects of sin ,in the same simple yet powerful way the prophet depicts the inevitable consequences of sin4 ,at every point the picture is true to universal experience4 ,the most appalling effect of a wrong act is that it destroys peace and purity of mind4 ,it also makes cowards of brave men1 and the presence and tender affection of the one wronged suddenly become intolerable4 ,sin also begets sin4 ,to the cowering fugitives ,jehovah comes1 as he always does1 with a message intended to evoke a frank confession which would tear down the hideous barrier that their sin had reared between himself and them2 but1 like most foolish1 blind ,adams and ,eves1 they hug their crime to their breasts and raise the barrier heaven high by trying to excuse their guilt4 ,thus they pronounce their own doom4 ,for ,god himself only one course of action remains3 it is to send them forth from his presence and from the life-giving tree1 out into the school of hardship and bitter pain1 that there they may learn the lessons which are necessary before they can again become citizens of the true ,garden of ,eden4 ,sidenote3 ,the sequel to the story of man's fall ,two simple yet exceedingly significant touches lighten the gloom of this universal tragedy of human life4 ,the one is that for the guilty1 unrepentant pair1 ,jehovah himself made tunics of skins to protect them from the inclemency of their new life1--evidence that his love and care still went with them4 ,the other is the implication that the true garden of ,eden was still to be found on earth1 and was closed simply to the guilty and unrepentant4 ,the ,bible is the record of how men learned the all-important lessons in the painful school of experience4 ,israel's teachers1 each in his characteristic way1 led their race on toward the common goal4 ,the ,gospels tell of how a man1 tempted in all points as we are in a distant day and land found his way again into the abiding presence of ,god4 ,he was one with the ,father1 not because he did not meet temptation in all its power1 but because1 unlike the actors in the primitive story1 and all other participants in the drama of life1 he yielded only to the guidance of divine impulses4 ,not content with achieving the goal himself1 he gave his energies and his life to showing others how they also might overcome the baser impulses within them and find their way to ,god's presence and become one with him4 ,thus1 because of what he did and said and was1 he forever vindicated his title of ,saviour of ,mankind4 ,sidenote3 ,the religious teachings of other early stories ,no other early ,old ,testament narrative is perhaps so full of rich spiritual suggestion as the one just considered1 and yet each has its valuable contribution4 ,even such a story as that of the killing of ,abel by ,cain forcibly teaches the great prophetic truth that it is not the form of the offering1 but the character and deeds back of the sacrifice1 that determine ,jehovah's favor or disfavor 7iv4 #g74 ,graphically it sets forth the spirit that prompts the greatest of crimes4 ,in contrast to ,cain1 defiant yet pursued by haunting fear of vengeance1 it also presents the divine tenderness and mercy in granting him a tribal mark to protect him from the hand of man4 ,the similar story of ,noah1 the first vineyard-keeper1 preaches the first temperance sermon in all literature1 and also suggests the inevitable consequences of moral depravity so forcibly illustrated in the history of the ancient ,canaanites4 ,even the prosaic table of the nations in ,genesis x4 emphasizes the conception of the unity of the human family which was destined in time to become the basis of ,israel's belated missionary activity4 ,sidenote3 ,ideals presented in the early prophetic portrait of ,abraham ,when we pass to the twelfth chapter of ,genesis the independent stories coalesce into cycles1 and each cycle1 as well as each narrative1 has its own religious purpose4 ,in definite outlines each successive group of teachers painted the character of ,abraham1 the traditional father of the ,israelitish race1 and held it up before their own and succeeding generations as a perpetual example and inspiration4 ,in the early ,judean prophetic narratives he is pictured as the friend of ,jehovah4 ,his own material interests are entirely secondary1 as illustrated in his dealing with ,lot4 ,without hesitation he leaves home and kindred behind1 for his dominating purpose in life is simply to know and do the will of ,jehovah4 ,to this end he rears altars throughout the land of ,canaan4 ,his chief joy is in communion with ,god and in the promises to be realized in his descendants4 ,through warring1 hostile ,canaan he passes unscathed1 for his eyes are fixed on things heavenly4 ,sidenote3 ,its significance ,it matters little whether or not1 far back in the primitive days of ,israel's history1 a ,bedouin sheik anticipated in actual character and life all that was gradually revealed to the prophets of a much later age4 ,the supremely significant fact is that the noble ideal of ,israel's earliest teachers was thus vividly and concretely embodied in the portrait of him whom the ,hebrews regarded with pride and adoration as the founder of their race4 ,in ,hosea and ,jeremiah1 and less imperfectly in the nation as a whole1 the ideal in time became an historical reality4 ,sidenote3 ,later portraits of ,abraham ,the early ,ephraimite school of writers picture ,abraham as a prophet 7,gen4 xx4 #g71 and therefore as an exemplification of their highest ideal4 ,in the remarkable fourteenth chapter of ,genesis he is a courageous1 chivalrous knight1 attacking with a handful of followers the allied armies of the most powerful kings of his day4 ,returning victorious1 he restores the spoil to the plundered and gives a princely gift to the priest of the local sanctuary4 ,in the later priestly narratives the picture suddenly changes1 and ,abraham figures as the faithful servant of the law1 with whom originates the rite of circumcision1 the seal of a new covenant 7xvii74 ,later ,jewish and ,moslem traditions each have their characteristic portrait4 ,one1 which pictures him as in heaven the protector of the faithful1 is reflected in the ,new ,testament 7,luke xvi4 #bc-cj71 ,thus each succeeding age and group of teachers made him the embodiment and supreme illustration of its noblest ideals1 and it is this ideal element that gives the ,old ,testament stories their permanently practical value4 ,sidenote3 ,practical teachings of the ,abraham stories ,having noted the teachings that each individual story and the cycle as a whole conveyed to the minds of their first readers1 it only remains for the teacher of to-day to translate them into modern terms4 ,some of the most important implications of the ,abraham stories thus interpreted are1 for example3 7#a7 ,god calls each man to a high mission4 7#b7 ,he will guide and care for those who are responsive4 7#c7 ,to those who seek to know him intimately1 and to do his will1 he will reveal himself in fullest measure1 and for such he has in store his richest blessings4 7#d7 ,he that findeth his life 7,lot7 shall lose it1 and he that loseth his life 7,abraham7 shall find it4 ,sidenote3 ,significance of the character of ,esau ,the ,jacob and ,esau stories contain marvellously exact and realistic portraits of the two races 7the ,israelites and the ,edomites7 that they respectively represent4 ,of the two brothers1 ,esau is in many ways the more attractive4 ,he suggests the open air and the fields1 where he loved to hunt4 ,he is easy-going1 ingenuous1 and impulsive4 ,his faults are those of not being or doing4 ,as long as he had enough to eat and was comfortable1 he was contented4 ,he is the type of the world's drifters4 ,since ,aram was far distant he disregards the wishes of his parents and marries one of the daughters of the land4 ,no ambition stirred him and no devotion to ,jehovah or to the ideals of his race gave content and direction to his life4 ,thus he remained a laggard1 and the half-nomadic1 robber people that he represented became but a stagnant pool1 compared with the onrushing stream of ,israel's life4 ,sidenote3 ,jacob's faults ,jacob's faults are also presented by the early prophets with an astonishing fidelity4 ,rarely does a race early in its history have a portrait of its weaknesses as well as its strength held up thus prominently before its eyes4 ,jacob is the antithesis of ,esau4 ,while his brother was hunting care-free in the fields1 he was at home plotting how he could farther his own interests4 ,when the opportunity offers1 he manifests a cold1 calculating shrewdness4 ,to make good the title to the birthright thus acquired he does not hesitate to resort to fraud and lying4 ,then he flees1 pursued by his own guilty conscience1 and1 tricked by ,laban1 he serves as a slave fourteen years to win the wife whom he loves4 ,at last1 again a fugitive from the consequences of his own questionable dealing1 he returns with quaking heart to face the brother that he had wronged4 ,sidenote3 ,the elements of strength in ,israel's character ,the character is far from a perfect one1 and yet the ancient stories suggest its elements of strength4 ,by nature he was selfish and crafty2 and yet he has what ,esau fatally lacks3 energy1 persistency1 and a commanding ambition4 ,from the first his ambition looks beyond himself to the future of his descendants4 ,measured by our modern standards1 his religious professions seem only hypocrisy2 but as we analyze his character we find that a faith in ,jehovah1 narrow and selfish though it be1 was ever his guiding star4 ,out of the tortuous windings of his earlier years it ultimately led him to a calm old age4 ,imperfect though his character was1 like that of the race which he represented1 the significant fact is that ,god ever cared for him and was able to utilize him as an agent in divine revelation4 ,sidenote3 ,the noble teachings of the ,joseph stories ,even more obvious and universal are the practical lessons illustrated by the ,joseph stories4 ,in the early prophetic narratives1 ,abraham is the perfect servant of ,god1 ,jacob the type of the ,israelitish race1 but ,joseph is the ideal man of affairs4 ,graphically the successive stories picture the man in his making and reveal his true character4 ,he is simple1 affectionate1 and yet strongly ambitious4 ,his day-dreams make him odious1 as in the case of many a boy to-day1 to his unimaginative brothers4 ,a seemingly hard fate rudely snatches him from the enervating influences of his childhood home and places him in the severe school of experience1 where he is tested and trained4 ,it also opens wide the door of opportunity4 ,fidelity to every interest and an unselfish response to every opportunity for service soon bring him into the presence of the ,pharaoh4 ,his judicious counsels1 diplomacy1 and organizing ability win for him the highest honors ,egypt can confer4 ,with modesty and fidelity he endures this supreme test--success4 ,toward his brothers1 who had bitterly wronged him1 he is nobly magnanimous1 and to his kinsmen1 who belong to the shepherd class especially despised as boors by the cultured ,egyptians1 he is loyal and considerate4 ,above all1 not by professions1 but by deeds1 he reveals the true source of his strength1-- a natural faith in the ,god of his race and an unfailing loyalty to him4 ,sidenote3 ,conclusion ,in the same way ,moses1 the exodus1 and the great men and events of ,israel's dramatic history1 all have a religious importance and significance far surpassing the merely historical4 ,at the same time the methods of modern literary and historical investigation reveal rather than conceal the deeper spiritual truths that they illustrate4 ,the more light that can be turned upon them the more clearly will their essential teachings stand forth4 ,like the ,old ,testament as a whole1 they grew up out of real life and truly reflect and interpret it1 and therefore have a living1 vital message to life to-day4 ,any interpretation that does not ring true to life may well be questioned4 ,finally1 the authority of these ancient narratives depends not upon the historical or scientific accuracy of the individual story that is used as an illustration1 but upon the fact that through the experiences and hearts of those who employed them ,god was seeking to make men free by the knowledge of the truth4 ,,xv ,,practical ,,methods ,,of ,,studying ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,sidenote3 ,the various methods of approach ,the ,old ,testament may be studied as literature1 as history1 as the record of an important stage in the evolution of religion1 as the revelation of ,god to the race1 or as a practical aid to the individual in living the true life4 ,each angle of approach calls for different methods and yields its correspondingly rich results4 ,studied in accordance with the canons of modern literary investigation1 a literature is disclosed of surpassing variety1 beauty1 and fascination4 ,after the principles of historical criticism have been vigorously applied1 the ,old ,testament is found to contain some of the most important and authentic historical data that have come down to us from antiquity4 ,to the general student of religion there is no group of writings that equals in value those included in these ancient ,scriptures4 ,as a simple1 clear revelation of the character and will of the ,divine ,ruler1 present and regnant in all life1 the ,old ,testament is surpassed by only one other volume1 and that is its complement1 the ,new4 ,sidenote3 ,the supreme aim of ,old ,testament study ,it is1 however1 as the guide to right thinking1 and being1 and acting1 that the man of ,god may be perfect1 completely equipped for every good work1 that the ,old ,testament is and always will be studied by the majority of people4 ,in so doing they will be realizing its primary and supreme purpose4 ,like true religion1 it is not an end in itself1 but simply an effective force1 drawing and binding individual men to ,god and to the right4 ,any method of study that fails to attain this definite and practical end does not achieve the chief aim of the ,old ,testament writings4 ,sidenote3 ,necessity of studying the ,old ,testament as an organic whole ,this practical and personal end1 however1 cannot be attained at a leap4 ,it is impossible to achieve the best results by taking a truth or a passage here and there and applying it at once to the individual4 ,both the ,old ,testament and the individual are something organic4 ,each book has a unity and a history that must be understood1 if a given passage is to be fairly interpreted or its truths intelligently applied1 ,individual books are also related to others and to their historical background4 ,also1 as has already been shown1 to appreciate fully the vital message of a given writer it is necessary1 not to know his name1 but his place in history1 his point of view1 his method of expression1 and his purpose4 ,the ,old ,testament and ,israelitish history as a whole are the best and most essential interpreters of individual books and passages4 ,the most serious handicap to the ordinary ,bible teacher and scholar is the lack of this broader1 systematic1 constructive knowledge4 ,much earnest1 devoted study1 especially in the ,old ,testament fields1 is deficient in inspiration and results1 because it is simply groping in an unknown land4 ,it is all important1 therefore1 to ascend some height and spy out the land as a whole1 to note the relation of different books and events to each other1 and to view broadly the great stream of divine revelation which flows out of the prehistoric past on through the ,old and ,new ,testaments to the present4 ,sidenote3 ,remarkable adaptation of the ,old ,testament to different ages and degrees of moral culture4 ,in order effectively to apply the truths of the ,old ,testament to life1 it is also necessary to regard the point of view of the individual to be taught4 ,this fundamental principle of all education was fully appreciated and applied by ,israel's great spiritual teachers4 ,the result is that the ,old ,testament contains truths marvellously adapted to every age and type of mind4 ,the importance of the religious culture of the child is emphasized by the comparatively large proportion1 of writings especially fitted to hold the attention and arouse the imagination and shape the ideals even of the youngest4 ,nearly half of the ,old ,testament consists simply of narratives4 ,those inimitable stories1 which come from the childhood of the race1 have a perennial fascination for the child of to-day4 ,they find him on his own mental and moral plane1 as they did the primitive child1 and by natural stages lead him on and up to the higher standards and broader faith of ,israel's later prophets and sages1 and thus prepare him to understand and appreciate the perfected life and teachings of ,jesus4 ,sidenote3 ,the prophetic stories the children's ,bible ,in the modern use of the ,old ,testament1 the faithful application of this fundamental principle also leads to a most practical conclusion2 the stories peculiarly adapted to children are not the mature1 legalistic narratives of the late priestly writers1 but the early prophetic stories1 which begin in the second chapter of ,genesis4 ,if children are taught only these1 they will not be disconcerted by widely variant versions of the same events4 ,above all1 they will be delivered from the inconsistencies and erroneous impressions which are often the cause of stumbling to the child4 ,the later process of unlearning1 which is always dangerous1 will be avoided4 ,if the problems presented by the priestly narratives be reserved until they can be studied from the broader and truer point of view1 they will be readily solved1 and the great positive teachings of these later didactic stories will be fully appreciated4 ,sidenote3 ,the prophets the best story-tellers ,the subject-matter1 therefore1 supremely suitable for the earliest moral and spiritual culture of the child1 is clearly the simple and yet profound prophetic stories of the ,old ,testament4 ,it is very questionable whether the many excellent paraphrases now current are a gain or a hindrance4 ,the ancient prophets and the generations who have retold them were inimitable story-tellers4 ,to attempt to improve upon their work is futile4 ,a simple1 clear translation is all that is required4 ,footnote3 ,a ,children's ,bible is now being prepared according to the plan suggested above4 ,the interpretation and application of their practical teachings can best be left to the intuition of the child and the direction of the intelligent parent and teacher4 ,sidenote3 ,their effective methods of presenting truths ,it is also astonishing how readily even a little child appreciates the essential lessons1 as1 for example1 those regarding the nature and consequences of sin1 presented by the story of the ,garden of ,eden4 ,under the charm of the attractive personalities that figure in them1 and the stirring achievements1 so dramatically presented that they command breathless attention1 the early prophetic narrations unconsciously and1 therefore1 all the more effectively1 instil into the mind of the child the most essential truths regarding ,god and life and duty4 ,at the same time1 as they study in order the deeds of the heroes and makers of ,israel's history1 they are becoming familiar with the real background of the earlier revelation recorded in the ,old ,testament4 ,sidenote3 ,the present position of these stories ,therefore scattered throughout ,genesis1 ,exodus1 ,numbers1 ,joshua1 ,judges1 ,ruth1 ,samuel1 ,kings1 and the older sections of ,ezra1 ,nehemiah1 and ,i ,maccabees1 are to be found in rich profusion the material for the earliest years of ,bible study4 ,these should naturally be supplemented by the stories of the prophets1 found in such books as ,isaiah1 ,jeremiah1 and ,haggai4 ,their sequel and culmination are the corresponding stories in the ,gospels and ,acts4 ,sidenote3 ,study of the direct personal teachings of the ,old ,testament ,in connection with the earliest study of the achievements of ,israel's heroes and spiritual leaders1 many of their greatest teachings would be appropriated and applied1 but when the years of early adolescence are reached1 the prophets in their sermons1 the priests in their laws1 the usages in their proverbs1 and the psalmists in their psalms1 each have certain personal messages1 superbly adapted to the critical1 formative years1 when childhood begins to unfold into maturity4 ,to make this material available1 judicious selection and interpretation are required4 ,the organism of each book and of the child must both be carefully regarded to make the adjustment perfect4 ,naturally this most vital line of study would be the introduction to a corresponding study of the direct1 personal teachings of ,jesus and the apostles4 ,sidenote3 ,study of the origin and growth of the ,old ,testament ,this intensely practical work could profitably be preceded or followed by a study of the origin and growth of the different books and groups of ,old ,testament writings and the gradual stages whereby these ,scriptures attained their present form and authority4 ,the guides in this investigation should not be the ,jewish rabbis or even the traditions of the ,church ,fathers4 ,we have been misled too long by the pious guesses of the medival saints2 but rather the testimony of the ,bible itself and the evidence of contemporary writings should be the guides4 ,the spirit should also be frank and constructive4 ,the results cannot fail to be practically helpful in a great variety of ways4 ,thus on the basis of facts1 in the light of history1 and by the use of those methods of research which alone command respect and acceptance in other kindred lines of investigation1 the questions which come to every thoughtful boy and girl will be fairly and truly answered4 ,in this way those experiences which are inevitable in this critical age will deepen and broaden rather than destroy the foundations of individual faith4 ,sidenote3 ,the historical method of approach ,with this general introduction1 many students and classes will find it profitable to approach the ,old and ,new ,testaments from the distinctively historical point of view4 ,beginning with the unfolding of the civilization and religion of ancient ,babylonia1 they will study in conjunction the history1 the strong personalities1 the literature1 and the thought of each successive period4 ,the advantages of this method of study are many4 ,each book will be read and its messages interpreted in the light of the conditions and forces that constitute its true background4 ,the different characters will live again1 and the significance of their work and words will be fully appreciated as they are viewed in the clear perspective of history4 ,sidenote3 ,its practical aims and results ,above all1 such a synthetic study of the unfolding of the supreme truths of revelation lays a foundation for the individual faith as broad as human experience4 ,this is to attain one of the chief aims of all study1 which is to put the individual into practical possession of all that is vital and best in the experiences and achievements of the past1 that1 thus equipped1 he may go forth to fight the battle of life1 valiantly and successfully4 ,sidenote3 ,its natural sequel ,this last course of study would call for several years1 and1 more than that1 for enthusiasm1 devotion1 and real work4 ,it would also take the student in time through the ,new ,testament period1 with its literature and commanding personalities and events1 and perhaps beyond to the great epochs of ,church history4 ,many would not stop until they had studied the latest chapter in ,church history1 the noble missionary activity and achievement of the past and present century4 ,sidenote3 ,advances courses of study ,when the ,bible had thus been studied1 the scholars in our schools would not be ready to graduate1 but rather to enter upon that still deeper and more fundamental study which would mean an ultimate conquest of the broad field that it represents4 ,then it might be safe and profitable to adopt the topical method and study some one of the vital themes that are treated from many different points of view in the various parts of the ,bible4 ,sidenote3 ,study of ,old ,testament history ,it will1 however1 probably be found easier and more natural next to take up in succeeding years the detailed study of the nine or ten great groups of writings which are found in the ,bible4 ,the natural and easiest method of approach to those of the ,old ,testament would be through a careful1 constructive study of the history of the ,israelitish race1 perhaps beginning with the definite historical period of ,saul and ,samuel and concluding with the advent of ,rome4 ,far better than any modern history of ,israel is that marvellous history written by its own historians1 which begins with the book of ,samuel and ends with ,i ,maccabees4 ,analyzed and arranged in their chronological order1 these narratives tell the story with rare fascination and suggestiveness4 ,footnote3 ,volume ,,ii of the ,student's ,old ,testament3 contains the narratives from ,samuel through ,i ,maccabees1 thus arranged4 ,sidenote3 ,study of the prophecies and earlier narratives ,on the basis of this detailed study of the historical background1 the work and teachings of the prophets could next be traced in their true and chronological order4 ,no ,old ,testament field is more neglected and none is more intensely interesting1 when once the student understands the problems and aims of each great prophet4 ,none has a more practical message for to-day1 provided its supreme truths are interpreted into modern terms and conditions4 ,after becoming intimately acquainted with the ,hebrew prophets1 it would be possible to go back and study with a new understanding and appreciation the early narratives which gather about the beginnings of ,hebrew history4 ,then the intricate problems of the first eight books of the ,bible would vanish in the light of a fuller knowledge4 ,above all1 that which is essential and permanent would stand out in clear relief4 ,sidenote3 ,study of the devotional literature ,from the earliest fruits of prophetic activity it would then be profitable to turn to the later1 represented by ,lamentations and the ,psalter4 ,here the best results require a classification of the different psalms according to their themes1 so that their teachings can be studied systematically and as a whole4 ,in this field of study the student comes very close to the heart of the ,old ,testament and the heart of the ,god who speaks through it4 ,sidenote3 ,study of the wisdom literature ,less spiritual and yet intensely interesting and practical is the great department of the ,old ,testament known as the wisdom literature4 ,he that walketh with the wise shall be wise 7,prov4 xiii4 #bj7 is as true to-day as when first uttered4 ,this literature is a great mine of truth1 almost entirely neglected by the ,christian world4 ,systematic classification is the first requisite for the profitable study of the ,proverbs and the later ,wisdom of ,ben ,sira4 ,from these the student may pass on to the fuller treatment of the omnipresent human problem1 so sublimely presented in the book of ,job1 and to the many fundamental questions raised by ,eccleslastes and the ,wisdom of ,solomon4 ,sidenote3 ,study of the ,old ,testament laws and institutions ,last of all a year might well be spent in the study of the unfolding and concrete application and illustration of ,israel's ethical and religious principles in the legal codes and institutions of the ,old ,testament4 ,many of these have found a higher expression1 some are but symbolic1 but others still have permanent authority and value4 ,studied as a whole and on the basis of a logical classification1 this little understood field would also cease to be a jungle1 and ,instead would yield its own practical spiritual fruits4 ,,xvi ,,religious ,,education--,,the ,,fundamental ,,problem ,,of ,,to-,,day ,sidenote3 ,the practical realization of these possibilities ,this very brief and fragmentary outline of methods and possibilities of ,old ,testament study is not an impossible dream4 ,in colleges and in a few ,bible schools it is already being tried with the gratifying results that might be anticipated4 ,to put it at once into force in most of our ,sunday-schools would be absolutely impracticable4 ,it is presented simply as a suggestion of a definite and practical goal toward which to work4 ,with careful adjustment1 these courses1 adapted to different ages1 could be arranged so that at least the intermediate grades in the ,sunday-school would be studying in the same field at the same time4 ,this plan provides for no graduation from the school of the ,bible4 ,it assumes that the ,christian world is at last awakening to the real significance of religious education and to a recognition of the fact that the ultimate solution of our gravest national and social problems is to be found only in the inculcation of the true ethical ideals in the mind of the individual4 ,it also assumes the fundamental principle that no worthy ends can be attained without real work1 enthusiastic devotion1 systematic methods1 and above all a definite and worthy goal4 ,it rests on the belief that the sense of gradual conquest and the attainment of practical results will alone inspire permanent devotion and evoke faithful work1 and in the end prepare the individual scholar for the intelligent and loyal service of ,god4 ,sidenote3 ,the overwhelming responsibility of the ,sunday-schools ,frank confessions are good for a cause as well as for the soul4 ,we must admit that most of our ,sunday-schools1 with their vast resources in opportunity1 in financial support1 and in the devotion of the teachers and officers1 do not permanently hold their scholars1 and in the great majority of cases do not give them a thorough or systematic knowledge1 even of the most vital teachings of the ,bible4 ,the ignorance of its literature and history on the part of even1 the more intelligent students who enter college1 is almost past belief1 as many of us can testify from personal observation4 ,the limitations in time and equipment of the ,sunday-schools are undoubtedly great in comparison with those of the secular schools2 and yet the responsibility now thrown upon the ,bible schools is even greater than upon the latter4 ,parents have ceased to instruct their children in spelling and the multiplication-table because they have found that the teachers can do this better4 ,without justification1 but by analogy and because they are themselves often unacquainted with the ,bible1 or uncertain regarding its interpretation1 they are more and more leaving the religious education of their sons and daughters to the ,church and the ,sunday-school4 ,sidenote3 ,the transcendent importance of religious education ,it is safe to say1 and this without reservation1 the most fundamental problem in ,england and ,america to-day is the problem of religious education1 because this lies at the roots of all else--political1 social1 and theological4 ,when the ,christian world awakens to its profound significance1 and when its ideals and methods are raised1 even to a level with those of the public schools1 the other grave problems will be near their solution4 ,if the individual is thoroughly taught during the impressionable years of childhood and youth1 the fundamental principles of ethics and religion1 society and the state will have no difficulty in meeting their problems2 but if not1 these will perforce continue to remain unsolved4 ,sidenote3 ,important that the ,old ,testament be taught in the public schools ,it is a time for all earnest men of every denomination or creed to unite in meeting this need4 ,in the ,old ,testament1 ,jew and ,christian1 ,catholic and ,protestant1 stand on common ground4 ,the modern inductive historical methods of study have prepared the way for union2 for they aim to support no denominational interpretation1 but simply to attain the truth4 ,the last reasons1 therefore1 why the literature1 history1 geography1 and ethical teachings of the ,old ,testament should not be taught in our public schools are rapidly disappearing1 and the hundreds of reasons why any system of secular education is incomplete without it are coming to the front4 ,with this fundamental basis of knowledge and instruction1 the work of the ,sunday-schools could also at once be placed on a far more effective plane4 ,it is a consummation for which every intelligent citizen should earnestly work4 ,sidenote3 ,the task of the ,church in the present century ,the achievement of the last century was to complete the work of the ,protestant ,reformation and rediscover the ,bible4 ,the task of the present century is to instil its essential teachings1 thus revealed1 into the mind of the individual1 so that they will become controlling factors in human life4 ,here lies the great responsibility and opportunity of the ,christian ,church4 ,if it is to renew its hold on modern men1 it will be through the mind as well as the heart1 and its most efficient method will be--as it always has in reality been--religious education4 ,horace ,bushnell proclaimed the watchword of the ,church triumphant3 ,christian culture4 ,sidenote3 ,the examples of the prophets and ,jesus ,his1 however1 was no new discovery4 ,the ,hebrew prophets1 priests1 and sages were not primarily preachers1 but teachers4 ,the prophetic messages which fell on deaf ears1 instilled into the minds of a few humble disciples1 in time won acceptance from the nation4 ,jesus himself was not so much the preacher as the ,great ,teacher4 ,his earliest public preaching was but the net cast to catch the few faithful disciples4 ,when these had been secured1 he turned his back upon a popular preaching ministry1 and devoted the best part of his brief public work to instructing a little group of disciples4 ,history completely vindicates the wisdom of his method4 ,only by following closely on his footsteps can the ,church hope to realize its true mission1 especially in this age1 when the heart and will must be reached through the mind4 ,in this respect1 it must also be confessed that the ,catholic are far in advance of the ,protestant churches and ,sunday-schools1 where the preaching still overshadows the teaching4 ,sidenote3 ,the call for a teaching ministry ,to inspire and direct thorough religious instruction1 carefully trained leaders are needed4 ,the demand to-day is for a teaching as well as a preaching ministry1 with an apostolic sense of a mission and a message4 ,men with natural gifts and the most thorough preparation are wanted to raise the standards and to organize and transform1 as they alone can1 by personal contact1 the teaching corps of our ,sunday-schools into effective forces4 ,such men and women certainly can be found4 ,it is a conviction1 based on a wide experience1 that many of the ablest students in our colleges and universities1 who for many valid reasons do not feel the call to a preaching mission1 would gladly and enthusiastically devote themselves to the work of religious instruction1 could they be sure of a field1 when their preparation was complete4 ,our universities and seminaries already have the facilities and could readily assume this important responsibility4 ,as soon as our large city churches and the federated churches in our smaller towns1 demand a teaching pastor as the permanent director of their ,sunday-schools1 and of the religious educational work under their charge1 they will enter upon a new career of permanent conquest4 ,the needs are undoubtedly great1 the volunteers are at hand1 thorough preparation can be assured2 but the call must come from the ,church1 united and awake to its supreme opportunity and responsibility4 ,sidenote3 ,the antiquated methods of our ,sunday-schools ,it must also be confessed that our religious systems--if such they may be called--are still in the experimental stage4 ,they are far inferior in every respect1 except in the self-sacrificing devotion of the teachers and officers1 to those of the secular schools4 ,what is most vital to our national and individual life is most neglected4 ,instead of the latest and best pedagogical methods1 the most antiquated largely prevail4 ,saddest of all1 the ,bible which is being taught in the majority of our schools is the ,bible of later ,judaism and the ,middle ,ages1 not the ,book of ,books which stands forth in the light of ,god's latest revelation1 as a message of beauty and life to the present age4 ,it is not strange that there is a growing distrust of the ,sunday-school among many intelligent people1 and an appalling apathy or distaste for ,bible study in the mind of the rising generation4 ,sidenote3 ,the crying need for improved courses of study ,if we shut our eyes to these facts1 they will remain2 but if we frankly face them1 a decade of intelligent and devoted work will effect a great transformation4 ,the first step is obviously along the line of improved courses and methods of study4 ,many different courses are at present in the field4 ,all have their merits1 and to those who have developed them highest praise and credit is due4 ,some have been prepared to meet immediate and practical needs1 but ignore the larger unities and the historical background1 and in general neglect the results of modern educational and biblical knowledge4 ,some have been worked out in the study and have a strong academic flavor1 but do not meet the needs of the average scholar or teacher4 ,others are models of pedagogical perfection1 but lack content4 ,progressive ,sunday-schools are trying one system after another1 and meantime the note of discontent is rapidly rising4 ,the crisis is too serious to admit of personal rivalries or prejudices4 ,sidenote3 ,how to meet this need ,the moral of the situation is simple3 that which will fully meet the needs of the present must be a combination of all that is good in existing courses1 and embody what is best in the scholarship and methods of to-day4 ,like the most effective systems in the past1 it must be wrought out in the laboratory of practical experience4 ,it must be planned from the point of view of actual needs and conditions4 ,it must also have a worthy and definite goal and a high ideal4 ,it should emphasize the importance of fundamental religious instruction1 as well as preaching4 ,all that is practical and permanent in modern educational methods should be utilized4 ,it should preserve the existing superb ,sunday-school organization1 and1 as far as possible1 the unity of the splendid system now under the direction of the ,international ,committee4 ,finally1 it should incorporate the positive and illuminating results of modern constructive biblical research4 ,the task cannot be accomplished in a moment1 nor by one man nor a small group of men4 ,it is certainly important enough to command the best experience1 the ripest scholarship1 and the most unselfish devotion4 ,sidenote3 ,the advent of a new era in the history of the kingdom of ,god ,when this task has been thoroughly performed1 and the ablest of our educated men and women have been enlisted in our ,bible schools1 the cause of religious education will command the respect of the world1 not merely because of the fundamental need which it aims to meet1 but also because it is effectually meeting it4 ,the ,christian ,church will also find itself in sympathy and touch with that which is best and most significant in modern life and thought4 ,religious teachers and scientific investigators will work shoulder to shoulder in a common study and interpretation of ,god's many-sided revelation4 ,pastors will feel the solid foundations of historical truth beneath their feet4 ,leaving behind the din and distractions of the transitional period1 the disciples of the ,great ,teacher will go forth with fresh zeal to make the eternal truths of the ,bible regnant in the lives of men1 and the kingdom of ,god a reality in human history4