,illustration ,,scientific ,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #cfj ,,new ,,york1 ,,november #be1 #ahhb ,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4 ,,xiv1 ,no4 #cfj4 ,scientific ,american established #ahde ,scientific ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4 ,scientific ,american and ,supplement1 #g a year4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,of ,,contents4 ,i4 ,,engineering ,,and ,,mechanics4--,soaking ,pits for ,steel ,ingots4 --,on the successful rolling of steel ingots with their own initial heat by means of the soaking pit process4 ,by ,,john ,,gjers4 #f figures4--,gjers' soaking pits for steel ingots4 ,tempering by compression4--,l4 ,clemandot's process4 ,economical ,steam ,power4 ,by ,,william ,,barnet ,,le ,,van4 ,mississippi ,river ,improvements near ,st4 ,louis1 ,mo4 ,bunte's ,burette for the ,analysis of ,furnace ,gases4 #b figures4 ,the ,universal ,gas ,engine4 #h figures4--,improved gas engine4 ,gas ,furnace for ,baking ,refractory ,products4 #a figure4 ,the ,efficiency of ,fans4 #e figures4 ,machine for ,compressing ,coal ,refuse into ,fuel4 #a figure4-- ,bilan's machine4 ,hank ,sizing and ,wringing ,machine4 #a figure4 ,improved ,coke ,breaker4 #b figures4 ,improvements in ,printing ,machinery4 #b figures4 ,,ii4 ,,technology ,,and ,,chemistry4--,apparatus for ,obtaining ,pure ,water for ,photographic ,use4 #c figures4 ,black ,phosphorus4--,by ,p ,,thenard4 ,composition of ,steep ,water ,schreiber's ,apparatus for ,revivifying ,bone ,black4 #e figures4-- ,plant3 elevation and plan4--,views of elevation4--,continuous furnace4 ,soap and its ,manufacture from a ,consumer's ,point of ,view4 7,continued from ,,supplement1 ,no4 #ccj74 ,cotton seed ,oil4--,by ,s4 ,s4 ,,bradford4 ,on some ,apparatus that ,permit of ,entering ,flames4--,chevalier ,aldini's wire gauze and asbestos protectors4--,brewster's account of test experiments4 ,,iii4 ,,electricity1 ,,light4 ,,etc4--,on a ,new ,arc ,electric ,lamp4 ,by ,w4 ,h4 ,,preece4 #f figures--,the ,abdank system4--,the lamp4-- ,the ,electro-magnet4--,the ,cut-off4--,the electrical arrangement4 ,utilization of ,solar ,heat4 ,,iv4 ,,natural ,,history4--,the ,ocellated ,pheasant4 #a figure4 ,the ,maidenhair ,tree in the ,gardens at ,broadlands1 ,hants1 ,england4 #a figure4 ,the ,woods of ,america4--,the ,jessup collection in the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history1 ,central ,park1 and the characteristics of the specimens4 ,v4 ,,agriculture1 ,,etc4--,an ,industrial ,revolution4--,increase in the number of farms4 ,a ,farmer's ,lime ,kiln4 #c figures4 ,the ,manufacture of ,apple ,jelly4 ,improved ,grape ,bags4 #d figures4 ,,vi4 ,,architecture1 ,,etc4--,the ,building ,stone ,supply4--,granite and its sources4--,sandstone4--,blue and gray limestone4--,marble4-- ,slate4--,other stones4--,a valuable summary of the sources and uses of quarry products4 ,,vii4 ,,astronomy4 ,,etc4--,how to ,establish a ,true ,meridian4 ,by ,prof4 ,l4 ,m4 ,,haupt4--,introduction4--,definitions4- -,to find the azemuth of ,polaris4--,applications1 etc4 ,,viii4 ,,miscellaneous4--,a ,characteristic ,mining ,rush4--,the ,prospective ,mining ,center of ,southern ,new ,mexico4 ,the ,food and ,energy of ,man4 ,by ,prof4 ,,de ,,chaumont4--,original food of man4--,function of food4--,classes of alimentary substances4--,quantity of food4--,importance of varied diet4 ,rattlesnake ,poison4--,its ,antidotes4 ,by ,h4 ,h4 ,,croft4 ,the ,chinese ,sign ,manual4--,the ethnic bearing of skin furrows on the hand4 ,lucidity4--,matthew ,arnold's remarks at the reopening of the ,liverpool ,university ,college and ,school of ,medicine4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,soaking ,,pits ,,for ,,steel ,,ingots4 ,,on ,,the ,,successful ,,rolling ,,of ,,steel ,,ingots ,,with ,,their ,,own ,,initial ,,heat ,,by ,,means ,,of ,,the ,,soaking ,,pit ,,process4 ,by ,mr4 ,,john ,,gjers1 ,middlesbrough4 ,footnote3 ,paper read before the ,iron and ,steel ,institute at ,vienna4 ,when ,sir ,henry ,bessemer1 in #ahef1 made public his great invention1 and announced to the world that he was able to produce malleable steel from cast iron without the expenditure of any fuel except that which already existed in the fluid metal imparted to it in the blast furnace1 his statement was received with doubt and surprise4 ,if he at that time had been able to add that it was also possible to roll such steel into a finished bar with no further expenditure of fuel1 then undoubtedly the surprise would have been much greater4 ,even this1 however1 has come to pass2 and the author of this paper is now pleased to be able to inform this meeting that it is not only possible1 but that it is extremely easy and practical1 by the means to be described1 to roll a steel ingot into1 say1 a bloom1 a rail1 or other finished article with its own initial heat1 without the aid of the hitherto universally adopted heating furnace4 ,it is well understood that in the fluid steel poured into the mould there is a larger store of heat than is required for the purpose of rolling or hammering4 ,not only is there the mere apparent high temperature of fluid steel1 but there is the store of latent heat in this fluid metal which is given out when solidification takes place4 ,it has1 no doubt1 suggested itself to many that this heat of the ingot ought to be utilized1 and as a matter of fact1 there have been1 at various times and in different places1 attempts made to do so2 but hitherto all such attempts have proved failures1 and a kind of settled conviction has been established in the steel trade that the theory could not possibly be carried out in practice4 ,the difficulty arose from the fact that a steel ingot when newly stripped is far too hot in the interior for the purpose of rolling1 and if it be kept long enough for the interior to become in a fit state1 then the exterior gets far too cold to enable it to be rolled successfully4 ,it has been attempted to overcome this difficulty by putting the hot ingots under shields or hoods1 lined with non-heat-conducting material1 and to bury them in non-heat-conducting material in a pulverized state1 for the purpose of retaining and equalizing the heat2 but all these attempts have proved futile in practice1 and the fact remains1 that the universal practice in steel works at the present day all over the world is to employ a heating furnace of some description requiring fuel4 ,the author introduced his new mode of treating ingots at the ,darlington ,steel and ,iron ,company's ,works1 in ,darlington1 early in ,june this year1 and they are now blooming the whole of their make1 about #abe tons a shift1 or about #cjj ingots every twelve hours1 by such means4 ,the machinery at ,darlington is not adapted for rolling off in one heat2 nevertheless they have rolled off direct from the ingot treated in the soaking pits a considerable number of double-head rails2 and the experience so gained proves conclusively that with proper machinery there will be no difficulty in doing so regularly4 ,the quality of the rails so rolled off has been everything that could be desired2 and as many of the defects in rails originate in the heating furnace1 the author ventures to predict that even in this respect the new process will stand the test4 ,many eminently practical men have witnessed the operation at ,darlington1 and they one and all have expressed their great surprise at the result1 and at the simple and original means by which it is accomplished4 ,the process is in course of adoption in several works1 both in ,england and abroad1 and the author hopes that by the time this paper is being read1 there may be some who will from personal experience be able to testify to the practicability and economy of the process1 which is carried out in the manner now to be described4 ,a number of upright pits 7the number1 say1 of the ingots in a cast7 are built in a mass of brickwork sunk in the ground below the level of the floor1 such pits in cross-section being made slightly larger than that of the ingot1 just enough to allow for any fins at the bottom1 and somewhat deeper than the longest ingot likely to be used4 ,in practice the cross section of the pit is made about #c in4 larger than the large end of the ingot1 and the top of the ingot may be anything from #f in4 to #ah in4 below the top of the pit4 ,these pits are commanded by an ingot crane1 by preference so placed in relation to the blooming mill that the crane also commands the live rollers of the mill4 ,each pit is covered with a separate lid at the floor level1 and after having been well dried and brought to a red heat by the insertion of hot ingots1 they are ready for operation4 ,as soon as the ingots are stripped 7and they should be stripped as early as practicable71 they are transferred one by one1 and placed separately by means of the crane into these previously heated pits 7which the author calls soaking pits7 and forthwith covered over with the lid1 which practically excludes the air4 ,in these pits1 thus covered1 the ingots are allowed to stand and soak2 that is1 the excessive molten heat of the interior1 and any additional heat rendered sensible during complete solidification1 but which was latent at the time of placing the ingots into the pit1 becomes uniformly distributed1 or nearly so1 throughout the metallic mass4 ,no1 or comparatively little1 heat being able to escape1 as the ingot is surrounded by brick walls as hot as itself1 it follows that the surface heat of the ingot is greatly increased2 and after the space of from twenty to thirty minutes1 according to circumstances1 the ingot is lifted out of the pit apparently much hotter than it went in1 and is now swung round to the rolls1 by means of the crane1 in a perfect state of heat for rolling1 with this additional advantage to the mill over an ingot heated in an ordinary furnace from a comparatively cold1 that it is always certain to be at least as hot in the center as it is on the surface4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b ,every ingot1 when cast1 contains within itself a considerably larger store of heat than is necessary for the rolling operation4 ,some of this heat is1 of course1 lost by passing into the mould1 some is lost by radiation before the ingot enters into the soaking pit1 and some is lost after it enters1 by being conducted away by the brickwork2 but in the ordinary course of working1 when there is no undue loss of time in transferring the ingots1 after allowing for this loss1 there remains a surplus1 which goes into the brickwork of the soaking pits1 so that this surplus of heat from successive ingots tends continually to keep the pits at the intense heat of the ingot itself4 ,thus1 occasionally it happens that inadvertently an ingot is delayed so long on its way to the pit as to arrive there somewhat short of heat1 its temperature will be raised by heat from the walls of the pit itself2 the refractory mass wherein the pit is formed1 in fact1 acting as an accumulator of heat1 giving and taking heat as required to carry on the operation in a continuous and practical manner4 ,illustration3 ,,gjers' ,,soaking ,,pits ,,for ,,steel ,,ingots4 ,during the soaking operation a quantity of gas exudes from the ingot and fills the pit1 thus entirely excluding atmospheric air from entering2 this is seen escaping round the lid1 and when the lid is removed combustion takes place4 ,it will be seen by analyses given hereinafter that this gas is entirely composed of hydrogen1 nitrogen1 and carbonic oxide1 so that the ingots soak in a perfectly non-oxidizing medium4 ,hence loss of steel by oxidation does not take place1 and consequently the great loss of yield which always occurs in the ordinary heating furnace is entirely obviated4 ,the author does not think it necessary to dilate upon the economical advantages of his process1 as they are apparent to every practical man connected with the manufacture of steel4 ,the operation of steel making on a large scale will by this process be very much simplified4 ,it will help to dispense with a large number of men1 some of them highly paid1 directly and indirectly connected with the heating department2 it will do away with costly heating furnaces and gas generators1 and their costly maintenance2 it will save all the coal used in heating2 and what is perhaps of still more importance1 it will save the loss in yield of steel2 and there will be no more steel spoiled by overheating in the furnaces4 ,the process has been in operation too short a time to give precise and reliable figures1 but it is hoped that by the next meeting of the ,institute these will be forthcoming from various quarters4 ,referring to the illustrations annexed1 ,fig4 #a shows sectional elevation1 and ,fig4 #b plan of a set of eight soaking pits 7marked ,a74 ,these pits are built in a mass of brickwork1 ,b1 on a concrete foundation1 ,c2 the ingots1 ,d1 standing upright in the pits4 ,the pits are lined with firebrick lumps1 #f in4 thick1 forming an independent lining1 ,e1 which at any time can be readily renewed4 ,f is a cast iron plate1 made to take in four pits1 and dropped loosely within the large plate1 ,g1 which surrounds the pits4 ,h is the cover1 with a firebrick lining2 and ,i is a false cover of firebrick1 #a in4 smaller than the cross section of the pit1 put in to rest on the top of the ingot4 ,this false cover need not necessarily be used1 but is useful to keep the extreme top of the ingot extra hot4 ,j is the bottom of the pit1 composed of broken brick and silver sand1 forming a good hard bottom at any desired level4 ,figs4 #d and #e show outline plan of two sets of soaking pits1 ,k ,k1 eight each1 placed under a #be ft4 sweep crane1 ,l4 ,this crane1 if a good one1 could handle any ordinary make--up to #b1jjj tons per week1 and ought to have hydraulic racking out and swinging round gear4 ,this crane places the ingots into the pits1 and1 when they are ready1 picks them out and swings them round to blooming mill1 ,m4 ,with such a crane1 four men and a boy at the handles are able to pass the whole of that make through the pits4 ,the author recommends two sets of pits as shown1 although one set of eight pits is quite able to deal with any ordinary output from one ,bessemer pit4 ,in case of an extraordinarily large output1 the author recommends a second crane1 ,f1 for the purpose of placing the ingots in the pits only1 the crane1 ,l1 being entirely used for picking the ingots out and swinging them round to the live rollers of the mill4 ,the relative position of the cranes1 soaking pits1 and blooming mill may of course be variously arranged according to circumstances1 and the soaking pits may be arranged in single or more rows1 or concentrically with the crane at pleasure4 ,figs4 #d and #e also show outline plan and elevation of a ,bessemer plant1 conveniently arranged for working on the soaking pit system4 ,a ,a are the converters1 with a transfer crane1 ,b4 ,c is the casting pit with its crane1 ,d4 ,e ,e are the two ingot cranes4 ,f is a leading crane which transfers the ingots from the ingot cranes to the soaking pits1 ,k ,k1 commanded by the crane1 ,l1 which transfers the prepared ingots to the mill1 ,m4 as before described4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,tempering ,,by ,,compression4 ,l4 ,clemandot has devised a new method of treating metals1 especially steel1 which consists in heating to a cherry red1 compressing strongly and keeping up the pressure until the metal is completely cooled4 ,the results are so much like those of tempering that he calls his process tempering by compression4 ,the compressed metal becomes exceedingly hard1 acquiring a molecular contraction and a fineness of grain such that polishing gives it the appearance of polished nickel4 ,compressed steel1 like tempered steel1 acquires the coercitive force which enables it to absorb magnetism4 ,this property should be studied in connection with its durability2 experiments have already shown that there is no loss of magnetism at the expiration of three months4 ,this compression has no analogue but tempering4 ,hammering and hardening modify the molecular state of metals1 especially when they are practiced upon metal that is nearly cold1 but the effect of hydraulic pressure is much greater4 ,the phenomena which are produced in both methods of tempering may be interpreted in different ways1 but it seems likely that there is a molecular approximation1 an amorphism from which results the homogeneity that is due to the absence of crystallization4 ,being an operation which can be measured1 it may be graduated and kept within limits which are prescribed in advance2 directions may be given to temper at a specified pressure1 as readily as to work under a given pressure of steam4--,chron4 ,industr4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,economical ,,steam ,,power4 ,footnote3 ,a paper read by title at a recent stated meeting of the ,franklin ,institute ,by ,,william ,,barnet ,,le ,,van4 ,the most economical application of steam power can be realized only by a judicious arrangement of the plant3 namely1 the engines1 boilers1 and their accessories for transmission4 ,this may appear a somewhat broad assertion2 but it is nevertheless one which is amply justified by facts open to the consideration of all those who choose to seek for them4 ,while it is true that occasionally a factory1 mill1 or a water-works may be found in which the whole arrangements have been planned by a competent engineer1 yet such is the exception and not the rule1 and such examples form but a very small percentage of the whole4 ,the fact is that but few users of steam power are aware of the numerous items which compose the cost of economical steam power1 while a yet smaller number give sufficient consideration to the relations which these items bear to each other1 or the manner in which the economy of any given boiler or engine is affected by the circumstances under which it is run4 ,a large number of persons--and they are those who should know better1 too--take for granted that a boiler or engine which is good for one situation is good for all2 a greater error than such an assumption can scarcely be imagined4 ,it is true that there are certain classes of engines and boilers which may be relied upon to give moderately good results in almost any situation--and the best results should always be desired in arrangement of a mill--there are a considerable number of details which must be taken into consideration in making a choice of boilers and engines4 ,take the case of a mill in which it has been supposed that the motive power could be best exerted by a single engine4 ,the question now is whether or not it would be best to divide the total power required among a number of engines4 ,first4--,a division of the motive power presents the following advantages1 namely1 a saving of expense on lines of shafting of large diameter4 ,second4--,dispensing with the large driving belt or gearing1 the first named of which1 in one instance under the writer's observation1 absorbed sixty horse-power out of about #dhj1 or about seven per cent4 ,third4--,the general convenience of subdividing the work to be done1 so that in case of a stoppage of one portion of the work by reason of a loose coupling or the changing of a pulley1 etc41 that portion only would need to be stopped4 ,this last is of itself a most important point1 and demands careful consideration4 ,for example1 ,i was at a mill a short time ago when the governor belt broke4 ,the result was a stoppage of the whole mill4 ,had the motive power of this mill been subdivided into a number of small engines only one department would have been stopped4 ,during the stoppage in this case the windows of the mill were a sea of heads of men and women 7the operatives71 and considerable excitement was caused by the violent blowing off of steam from the safety-valves1 due to the stoppage of the steam supply to the engine2 and this excitement continued until the cause of the stoppage was understood4 ,had the power in this mill been subdivided the stoppage of one of a number of engines would scarcely have been noticed1 and the blowing off of surplus steam would not have occurred4 ,in building a mill the first item to be considered is the interest on the first cost of the engine1 boilers1 etc4 ,this item can be subdivided with advantage into the amounts of interest on the respective costs of1 ,first4 ,the engine or engines2 ,second ,the boiler or boilers2 ,third4 ,the engine and boiler house4 ,in the same connection the form of engine to be used must be considered4 ,in some few cases--as1 for instance1 where engines have to be placed in confined situations--the form is practically fixed by the space available1 it being perhaps possible only to erect a vertical or a horizontal engine1 as the case may be4 ,these1 however1 are exceptional instances1 and in most cases--at all events where large powers are required--the engineer may have a free choice in the matter4 ,under these circumstances the best form1 in the vast majority of cases where machinery must be driven1 is undoubtedly the horizontal engine1 and the worst the beam engine4 ,when properly constructed1 the horizontal engine is more durable than the beam engine1 while1 its first cost being less1 it can be driven at a higher speed1 and it involves a much smaller outlay for engine house and foundations than the latter4 ,in many respects the horizontal engine is undoubtedly closely approached in advantages by the best forms of vertical engines2 but on the whole we consider that where machinery is to be driven the balance of advantages is decidedly in favor of the former class1 and particularly so in the case of large powers4 ,the next point to be decided is1 whether a condensing or non-condensing engine should be employed4 ,in settling this question not only the respective first costs of the two classes of engines must be taken into consideration1 but also the cost of water and fuel4 ,excepting1 perhaps1 in cases of very small powers1 and in those instances where the exhaust steam from a non-condensing engine can be turned to good account for heating or drying purpose1 it may safely be asserted that in all instances where a sufficient supply of condensing water is available at a moderate cost1 the extra economy of a well-constructed condensing engine will fully warrant the additional outlay involved in its purchase4 ,in these days of high steam pressures1 a well constructed non-condensing engine can1 no doubt1 be made to approximate closely to the economy of a condensing engine1 but in such a case the extra cost of the stronger boiler required will go far to balance the additional cost of the condensing engine4 ,having decided on the form1 the next question is1 what class of engine shall it be2 and by the term class ,i mean the relative excellence of the engine as a power-producing machine4 ,an automatic engine costs more than a plain slide-valve engine1 but it will depend upon the cost of fuel at the location where the engine is to be placed1 and the number of hours per day it is kept running1 to decide which class of machine can be adopted with the greatest economy to the proprietor4 ,the cost of lubricating materials1 fuel1 repairs1 and percentage of cost to be put aside for depreciation1 will be less in case of the high-class than in the low-class engine1 while the former will also require less boiler power4 ,against these advantages are to be set the greater first cost of the automatic engine1 and the consequent annual charge due to capital sunk4 ,these several items should all be fairly estimated when an engine is to be bought1 and the kind chosen accordingly4 ,let us take the item of fuel1 for instance1 and let us suppose this fuel to cost four dollars per ton at the place where the engine is run4 ,suppose the engine to be capable of developing one hundred horse-power1 and that it consumes five pounds of coal per hour per horse-power1 and runs ten hours per day3 this would necessitate the supply of two and one-half tons per day at a cost of ten dollars per day4 ,to be really economical1 therefore1 any improvement which would effect a saving of one pound of coal per hour per horse-power must not cost a greater sum per horse-power than that on which the cost of the difference of the coal saved 7one pound of coal per hour per horse-power1 which would be #a1jjj pounds per day7 for1 say1 three hundred days1 three hundred thousand 7#cjj1jjj7 pounds1 or one hundred and fifty tons 7or six hundred dollars71 would pay a fair interest4 ,assuming that the mill owner estimates his capital as worth to him ten per cent1 per annum1 then the improvement which would effect the above mentioned saving must not cost more than six thousand dollars1 and so on4 ,if1 instead of being run only ten hours per day1 the engine is run night and day1 then the outlay which it would be justifiable to make to effect a certain saving per hour would be doubled2 while1 on the other hand1 if an engine is run less than the usual time per day a given saving per hour would justify a correspondingly less outlay4 ,it has been found that for grain and other elevators1 which are not run constantly1 gas engines1 although costing more for the same power1 are cheaper than steam engines for elevating purposes where only occasionally used4 ,for this reason it is impossible without considerable investigation to say what is really the most economical engine to adopt in any particular case2 and as comparatively few users of steam power care to make this investigation a vast amount of wasteful expenditure results4 ,although1 however1 no absolute rule can be given1 we may state that the number of instances in which an engine which is wasteful of fuel can be used profitably is exceedingly small4 ,as a rule1 in fact1 it may generally be assumed that an engine employed for driving a manufactory of any kind cannot be of too high a class1 the saving effected by the economical working of such engines in the vast majority of cases enormously outweighing the interest on their extra first cost4 ,so few people appear to have a clear idea of the vast importance of economy of fuel in mills and factories that ,i perhaps cannot better conclude than by giving an example showing the saving to be effected in a large establishment by an economical engine4 ,i will take the case of a flouring mill in this city which employed two engines that required forty pounds of water to be converted into steam per hour per indicated horse-power4 ,this1 at the time1 was considered a moderate amount and the engines were considered good4 ,these engines indicated seventy horse power each1 and ran twenty-four hours per day on an average of three hundred days each year1 requiring as per indicator diagrams forty million three hundred and twenty thousand pounds 7#dj x #gj x #bd x #cjj x #b #dj1cbj1jjj7 of feed water to be evaporated per annum1 which1 in ,philadelphia1 costs three dollars per horse-power per annum1 amounting to 7#gj x #b x #cjj #dbj4jj7 four hundred and twenty dollars4 ,the coal consumed averaged five and one-half pounds per hour per horse-power1 which1 at four dollars per ton1 costs 77#gj x #b x #e4e x #bd x #cjj7 _/ #b1jjj7 x #d4jj #aa1jhh ,eleven thousand and eighty-eight dollars4 ,cost of coal for #cjj days4 #aa1jhh ,cost of water for #cjj days4 #dbj ------- ,total cost of coal and water4 #aa1ejc ,these engines were replaced by one first-class automatic engine1 which developed one hundred and forty-two horse-power per hour with a consumption of three pounds of coal per hour per horse-power1 and the indicator diagrams showed a consumption of thirty pounds of water per hour per horse-power4 ,coal cost 77#adb x #c x #bd x #cjj7 _/ #b1jjj7 x #d4jj #f1acd ,six thousand one hundred and thirty-four dollars4 ,water cost 7#adb x #c4jj #dbf4jj7 four hundred and twenty-six dollars4 ,cost of coal for #cjj days4 #f1acd ,cost of water for #cjj days4 #dbf ------ ,total cost of coal and water4 #f1efj ,the water evaporated in the latter case to perform the same work was 7#adb x #cj x #bd x #cjj #cj1fgb1jjj7 thirty million six hundred and seventy-two thousand pounds of feed water against 7#dj1cbj1jjj7 forty million three hundred and twenty thousand pounds in the former1 a saving of 7#i1fdh1jjj7 nine million six hundred and forty-eight thousand pounds per annum2 or1 7#dj1cbj1jjj - #cj1fgb1jjj7 _/ #i1fdh1jjj #ca4d per cent4 --thirty-one and four-tenths per cent4 ,and a saving in coal consumption of 7#aa1jhh - #f1acd7 _/ #d1ied #hg4e per cent4 --eighty-seven and one-half per cent41 or a saving in dollars and cents of four thousand nine hundred and fifty-four dollars 7#d1ied74 ,in this city1 ,philadelphia1 no allowance for the consumption of water is made in the case of first class engines1 such engines being charged the same rate per annum per horse-power as an inferior engine1 while1 as shown by the above example1 a saving in water of thirty-one and four-tenths per cent4 has been attained by the employment of a first-class engine4 ,the builders of such engines will always give a guarantee of their consumption of water1 so that the purchaser can be able in advance to estimate this as accurately as he can the amount of fuel he will use4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,river ,,improvements ,,near ,,st4 ,,louis4 ,the improvement of the ,mississippi ,river near ,st4 ,louis progresses satisfactorily4 ,the efficacy of the jetty system is illustrated in the lines of mattresses which showed accumulations of sand deposits ranging from the surface of the river to nearly sixteen feet in height4 ,at ,twin ,hollow1 thirteen miles from ,st4 ,louis and six miles from ,horse-,tail ,bar1 there was found a sand bar extending over the widest portion of the river on which the engineering forces were engaged4 ,hurdles are built out from the shore to concentrate the stream on the obstruction1 and then to protect the river from widening willows are interwoven between the piles4 ,at ,carroll's ,island mattresses #abe feet wide have been placed1 and the banks revetted with stone from ordinary low water to a #af foot stage4 ,there is plenty of water over the bar1 and at the most shallow points the lead showed a depth of twelve feet4 ,beard's ,island1 a short distance further1 is also being improved1 the largest force of men at any one place being here engaged4 ,four thousand feet of mattresses have been begun1 and in placing them work will be vigorously prosecuted until operations are suspended by floating ice4 ,the different sections are under the direction of ,w4 ,f4 ,fries1 resident engineer1 and ,e4 ,m4 ,currie1 superintending engineer4 ,there are now employed about #a1bjj men1 thirty barges and scows1 two steam launches1 and the stern-wheel steamer ,a4 ,a4 ,humphreys4 ,the improvements have cost1 in actual money expended1 about #bjj1jjj1 and as the appropriation for the ensuing year approximates #fjj1jjj1 the prospect of a clear channel is gratifying to those interested in the river4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,bunte',s ,,burette ,,for ,,the ,,analysis ,,of ,,furnace ,,gases4 ,for analyzing the gases of blast-furnaces the various apparatus of ,orsat have long been employed2 but1 by reason of its simplicity1 the burette devised by ,dr4 ,bnte1 and shown in the accompanying figures1 is much easier to use4 ,besides1 it permits of a much better and more rapid absorption of the oxide of carbon2 and yet1 for the lost fractions of the latter1 it is necessary to replace a part of the absorbing liquid three or four times4 ,the absorbing liquid is prepared by making a saturated solution of chloride of copper in hydrochloric acid1 and adding thereto a small quantity of dissolved chloride of tin4 ,afterward1 there are added to the decanted mixture a few spirals of red copper1 and the mixture is then carefully kept from contact with the air4 ,to fill the burette with gas1 the three-way cock1 a1 is so placed that the axial aperture shall be in communication with the graduated part1 ,a1 of the burette4 ,after this1 water is poured into the funnel1 t1 and the burette is put in communication with the gas reservoir by means of a rubber tube4 ,the lower point of the burette is put in communication with a rubber pump1 ,v 7,fig4 #b71 on an aspirator 7the cock1 b1 being left open71 and the gas is sucked in until all the air that was in the apparatus has been expelled from it4 ,the cocks1 a and b1 are turned #ij degrees4 ,the water in the funnel prevents the gases communicating with the top4 ,the point of the three-way cock is afterward closed with a rubber tube and glass rod4 ,if the gas happens to be in the reservoir of an aspirator1 it is made to pass into the apparatus in the following manner3 ,the burette is completely filled with water1 and the point of the three-way cock is put in communication with a reservoir4 ,if the gas is under pressure1 a portion of it is allowed to escape through the capillary tube into the water in the funnel1 by turning the cock1 a1 properly1 and thus all the water in the conduit is entirely expelled4 ,afterward a is turned #ahj1 and the lower cock1 b1 is opened4 ,while the water is flowing through b1 the burette becomes filled with gas4 ,mode of ,measuring the ,gases and ,absorption4--,the tube that communicates with the vessel1 ,f1 is put in communication1 after the latter has been completely filled with water1 with the point of the cock1 b 7,fig4 #b74 ,then the latter is opened1 as is also the pinch cock on the rubber tubing1 and water is allowed to enter the burette through the bottom until the level is at the zero of the graduation4 ,there are then #ajj cubic centimeters in the burette4 ,the superfluous gas has escaped through the cock1 a1 and passed through the water in the funnel4 ,the cock1 a1 is afterward closed by turning it #ij4 ,to cause the absorbing liquid to pass into the burette1 the water in the graduated cylinder is made to flow by connecting the rubber tube1 s1 of the bottle1 ,s1 with the point of the burette4 ,the cock is opened1 and suction is effected with the mouth of the tube1 r4 ,when the water has flowed out to nearly the last drop1 b is closed and the suction bottle is removed4 ,the absorbing liquid 7caustic potassa or pyrogallate of potassa7 is poured into a porcelain capsule1 ,p1 and the point of the burette is dipped into the liquid4 ,if the cock1 b1 be opened1 the absorbing liquid will be sucked into the burette4 ,in order to hasten the absorption1 the cock1 b1 is closed1 and the burette is shaken horizontally1 the aperture of the funnel being closed by the hand during the operation4 ,if not enough absorbing liquid has entered1 there may be sucked into the burette1 by the process described above1 a new quantity of liquid4 ,the reaction finished1 the graduated cylinder is put in communication with the funnel by turning the cock1 a4 ,the water is allowed to run from the funnel1 and the latter is filled again with water up to the mark4 ,the gas is then again under the same pressure as at the beginning4 ,after the level has become constant1 the quantity of gas remaining is measured4 ,the contraction that has taken place gives1 in hundredths of the total volume1 the volume of the gas absorbed4 ,when it is desired to make an analysis of smoke due to combustion1 caustic potassa is first sucked into the burette4 ,after complete absorption1 and after putting the gas at the same pressure1 the diminution gives the volume of carbonic acid4 ,to determine the oxygen in the remaining gas1 a portion of the caustic potash is allowed to flow out1 and an aqueous solution of pyrogallic acid and potash is allowed to enter4 ,the presence of oxygen is revealed by the color of the liquid1 which becomes darker4 ,the gas is then agitated with the absorbing liquid until1 upon opening the cock1 a1 the liquid remains in the capillary tube1 that is to say1 until no more water runs from the funnel into the burette4 ,to make a quantitative analysis of the carbon contained in gas1 the pyrogallate of potash must be entirely removed from the burette4 ,to do this1 the liquid is sucked out by means of the flask1 ,s1 until there remain only a few drops2 then the cock1 a1 is opened and water is allowed to flow from the funnel along the sides of the burette4 ,then a is closed1 and the washing water is sucked in the same manner4 ,by repeating this manipulation several times1 the absorbing liquid is completely removed4 ,the acid solution of chloride of copper is then allowed to enter4 ,as the absorbing liquids adhere to the glass1 it is better1 before noting the level1 to replace these liquids by water4 ,the cocks1 a and b1 are opened1 and water is allowed to enter from the funnel1 the absorbing liquid being made to flow at the same time through the cock1 b4 ,when an acid solution of chloride of copper is employed1 dilute hydrochloric acid is used instead of water4 ,fig4 #b shows the arrangement of the apparatus for the quantitative analysis of oxide of carbon and hydrogen by combustion4 ,the gas in the burette is first mixed with atmospheric air1 by allowing the liquid to flow through b1 and causing air to enter through the axial aperture of the three way cock1 a1 after cutting off communication at v4 ,then1 as shown in the figure1 the burette is connected with the tube1 ,b1 which is filled with water up to the narrow curved part1 and the interior of the burette is made to communicate with the combustion tube1 v1 by turning the cock1 a4 ,the combustion tube is heated by means of a ,bunsen burner or alcohol lamp1 ,l4 ,it is necessary to proceed1 so that all the water shall be driven from the cock and the capillary tube1 and that it shall be sent into the burette4 ,the combustion is effected by causing the mixture of gas to pass from the burette into the tube1 ,b1 through the tube1 v1 heated to redness1 into which there passes a palladium wire4 ,water is allowed to flow through the point of the tube1 ,b1 while from the flask1 ,f1 it enters through the bottom into the burette1 so as to drive out the gas4 ,the water is allowed to rise into the burette as far as the cock1 and the cocks1 b and b1 are afterward closed4 ,illustration3 ,,dr4 ,b,,nte',s ,,gas ,,burette ,by a contrary operation1 the gas is made to pass from ,b into the burette4 ,it is then allowed to cool1 and1 after the pressure has been established again1 the contraction is measured4 ,if the gas burned is hydrogen1 the contraction multiplied by two-thirds gives the original volume of the hydrogen gas burned4 ,if the gas burned is oxide of carbon1 there forms an equal volume of carbonic acid1 and the contraction is the half of ,,co4 ,thus1 to analyze ,,co1 a portion of the liquid is removed from the burette1 then caustic potash is allowed to enter1 and the process goes on as explained above4 ,the total contraction resulting from combustion and absorption1 multiplied by two-thirds1 gives the volume of the oxide of carbon4 ,the hydrogen and oxide carbon may thus be quantitatively analyzed together or separately4--,revue ,industrielle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,universal ,,gas ,,engine4 ,the accompanying engravings illustrate a new and very simple form of gas engine1 the invention of ,j4 ,a4 ,ewins and ,h4 ,newman1 and made by ,mr4 ,t4 ,b4 ,barker1 of ,scholefield-street1 ,bloomsbury1 ,birmingham4 ,it is known as the ,universal engine1 and is at present constructed in sizes varying from one-eighth horse-power--one man power--to one horse-power1 though larger sizes are being made4 ,the essentially new feature of the engine is1 says the ,engineer1 the simple rotary ignition valve consisting of a ratchet plate or flat disk with a number of small radial slots which successively pass a small slot in the end of the cylinder1 and through which the flame is drawn to ignite the charge4 ,in our illustrations ,fig4 #a is a side elevation2 ,fig4 #b an end view of same2 ,fig4 #c a plan2 ,fig4 #d is a sectional view of the chamber in which the gas and air are mixed1 with the valves appertaining thereto2 ,fig4 #e is a detail view of the ratchet plate1 with pawl and levers and valve gear shaft2 ,fig4 #f is a sectional view of a pump employed in some cases to circulate water through the jacket2 ,fig4 #g is a sectional view of arrangement for lighting1 and ratchet plate1 j1 with central spindle and igniting apertures1 and the spiral spring1 k1 and fly nut1 showing the attachment to the end of the working cylinder1 f#a2 b#e1 b#e1 bevel wheels driving the valve gear shaft2 e1 the valve gear driving shaft2 e#b1 eccentric to drive pump2 e1 eccentric or cam to drive exhaust valve2 e#d1 crank to drive ratchet plate2 e#e1 connecting rod to ratchet pawl2 f1 cylinder jacket2 f#a1 internal or working cylinder2 f#b1 back cylinder cover2 g1 igniting chamber2 h1 mixing chamber2 h#a1 flap valve2 h#b1 gas inlet valve1 the motion of which is regulated by a governor2 h#c1 gas inlet valve seat2 h#d1 cover1 also forming stop for gas inlet valve2 h#e1 gas inlet pipe2 h#f1 an inlet valve2 h#h1 cover1 also forming stop for air inlet valve2 h#i1 inlet pipe for air with grating2 i1 exhaust chamber2 i#b1 exhaust valve spindle2 i#g1 exhaust pipe2 j#f1 lighting aperture through cylinder end2 l1 igniting gas jet2 m1 regulating and stop valve for gas4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,gas ,,engine ,the engine1 it will be seen1 is single-acting1 and no compression of the explosive charge is employed4 ,an explosive mixture of combustible gas and air is drawn through the valves1 h#b and h#f1 and exploded behind the piston once in a revolution2 but by a duplication of the valve and igniting apparatus1 placed also at the front end of the cylinder1 the engine may be constructed double-acting4 ,at the proper time1 when the piston has proceeded far enough to draw in through the mixing chamber1 h1 into the igniting chamber1 g1 the requisite amount of gas and air1 the ratchet plate1 j1 is pushed into such a position by the pawl1 j#c1 that the flame from the igniting jet1 l1 passes through one of the slots or holes1 j#a1 and explodes the charge when opposite j#f1 which is the only aperture in the end of the working cylinder 7see ,fig4 #g and ,fig4 #b71 thus driving the piston on to the end of its forward stroke4 ,the exhaust valve1 ,fig4 #i1 though not exactly of the form shown1 is kept open during the whole of this return stroke by means of the eccentric1 e#c1 on the shaft working the ratchet1 and thus allowing the products of combustion to escape through the exhaust pipe1 i#g1 in the direction of the arrow4 ,between the ratchet disk and the igniting flame a small plate not shown is affixed to the pipe1 its edge being just above the burner top4 ,the flame is thus not blown out by the inrushing air when the slots in ratchet plate and valve face are opposite4 ,this ratchet plate or ignition valve1 the most important in any engine1 has so very small a range of motion per revolution of the engine that it cannot get out of order1 and it appears to require no lubrication or attention whatever4 ,the engines are working very successfully1 and their simplicity enables them to be made at low cost4 ,they cost for gas from d4 to #a;d4 per hour for the sizes mentioned4 ,illustration3 ,fig4#i4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,gas ,,furnace ,,for ,,baking ,,refractory ,,products4 ,in order that small establishments may put to profit the advantages derived from the use of annular furnaces heated with gas1 smaller dimensions have been given the baking chambers of such furnaces4 ,the accompanying figure gives a section of a furnace of this kind1 set into the ground1 and the height of whose baking chamber is only one and a half meters4 ,the chamber is not vaulted1 but is covered by slabs of refractory clay1 ,d1 that may be displaced by the aid of a small car running on a movable track4 ,this car is drawn over the compartment that is to be emptied1 and the slab or cover1 ,d1 is taken off and carried over the newly filled compartment and deposited thereon4 ,the gas passes from the channel through the pipe1 a1 into the vertical conduits1 b1 and is afterward disengaged through the tuyeres into the chamber4 ,in order that the gas may be equally applied for preliminary heating or smoking1 a small smoking furnace1 ,s1 has been added to the apparatus4 ,the upper part of this consists of a wide cylinder of refractory clay1 in the center of whose cover there is placed an internal tube of refractory clay1 which communicates with the channel1 ,g1 through a pipe1 d4 ,this latter leads the gas into the tube1 t1 of the smoking furnace1 which is perforated with a large number of small holes4 ,the air requisite for combustion enters through the apertures1 o1 in the cover of the furnace1 and brings about in the latter a high temperature4 ,the very hot gases descend into the lower iron portion of this small furnace and pass through a tube1 e1 into the smoking chamber by the aid of vertical conduits1 b'1 which serve at the same time as gas tuyeres for the extremity of the furnace that is exposed to the fire4 ,illustration3 ,,gas ,,furnace ,,for ,,baking ,,refractory ,,products4 ,in the lower part of the smoking furnace1 which is made of boiler plate and can be put in communication with the tube1 e1 there are large apertures that may be wholly or partially closed by means of registers so as to carry to the hot gas derived from combustion any quantity whatever of cold and dry air1 and thus cause a variation at will of the temperature of the gases which are disengaged from the tube1 e4 ,the use of these smoking apparatus heated by gas does away also with the inconveniences of the ordinary system1 in which the products are soiled by cinders or dust1 and which render the gradual heating of objects to be baked difficult4 ,at the beginning1 there is allowed to enter the lower part of the small furnace1 ,s1 through the apertures1 a very considerable quantity of cold air1 so as to lower the temperature of the smoke gas that escapes from the tube1 e1 to #cj or #ej degrees4 ,afterward1 these secondary air entrances are gradually closed so as to increase the temperature of the gases at will4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,efficiency ,,of ,,fans4 ,air1 like every other gas or combination of gases1 possesses weight2 some persons who have been taught that the air exerts a pressure of #ad4g lb4 per square inch1 cannot1 however1 be got to realize the fact that a cubit foot of air at the same pressure and at a temperature of #fb deg4 weighs the thirteenth part of a pound1 or over one ounce2 #ac4ada cubic feet of air weigh one pound4 ,in round numbers #cj1jjj cubic feet of air weigh one ton2 this is a useful figure to remember1 and it is easily carried in the mind4 ,a hall #fa feet long1 #cj feet wide1 and #ag feet high will contain one ton of air4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a ,the work to be done by a fan consists in putting a weight--that of the air--in motion4 ,the resistances incurred are due to the inertia of the air and various frictional influences2 the nature and amount of these last vary with the construction of the fan4 ,as the air enters at the center of the fan and escapes at the circumference1 it will be seen that its motion is changed while in the fan through a right angle4 ,it may also be taken for granted that within certain limits the air has no motion in a radial direction when it first comes in contact with a fan blade4 ,it is well understood that1 unless power is to be wasted1 motion should be gradually imparted to any body to be moved4 ,consequently1 the shape of the blades ought to be such as will impart motion at first slowly and afterward in a rapidly increasing ratio to the air4 ,it is also clear that the change of motion should be effected as gradually as possible4 ,fig4 #a shows how a fan should not be constructed2 ,fig4 #b will serve to give an idea of how it should be made4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b ,in ,fig4 #a it will be seen that the air1 as indicated by the bent arrows1 is violently deflected on entering the fan4 ,in ,fig4 #b it will be seen that it follows gentle curves1 and so is put gradually in motion4 ,the curved form of the blades shown in ,fig4 #b does not appear to add much to the efficiency of a fan2 but it adds something and keeps down noise4 ,the idea is that the fan blades when of this form push the air radially from the center to the circumference4 ,the fact is1 however1 that the air flies outward under the influence of centrifugal force1 and always tends to move at a tangent to the fan blades1 as in ,fig4 #c1 where the circle is the path of the tips of the fan blades1 and the arrow is a tangent to that path2 and to impart this notion a radial blade1 as at ,c1 is perhaps as good as any other1 as far as efficiency is concerned4 ,concerning the shape to be imparted to the blades1 looked at back or front1 opinions widely differ2 but it is certain that if a fan is to be silent the blades must be narrower at the tips than at the center4 ,various forms are adopted by different makers1 the straight side and the curved sides1 as shown in ,fig4 #d1 being most commonly used4 ,the proportions as regards length to breadth are also varied continually4 ,in fact1 no two makers of fans use the same shapes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c ,as the work done by a fan consists in imparting motion at a stated velocity to a given weight of air1 it is very easy to calculate the power which must be expended to do a certain amount of work4 ,the velocity at which the air leaves the fan cannot be greater than that of the fan tips4 ,in a good fan it may be about two-thirds of that speed4 ,the resistance to be overcome will be found by multiplying the area of the fan blades by the pressure of the air and by the velocity of the center of effort1 which must be determined for every fan according to the shape of its blades4 ,the velocity imparted to the air by the fan will be just the same as though the air fell in a mass from a given height4 ,this height can be found by the formula h v _/ #fd2 that is to say1 if the velocity be multiplied by itself and divided by #fd we have the height4 ,thus1 let the velocity be #hh per second1 then #hh x #hh #g1gdd1 and #g1gdd _/ #fd #aba4 ,a stone or other body falling from a height of #aba feet would have a velocity of #hh per second at the earth4 ,the pressure against the fan blades will be equal to that of a column of air of the height due to the velocity1 or1 in this case1 #aba feet4 ,we have seen that in round numbers #ac cubic feet of air weigh one pound1 consequently a column of air one square foot in section and #aba feet high1 will weigh as many pounds as #ac will go times into #aba4 ,now1 #aba _/ #ac #i4c1 and this will be the resistance in pounds per square foot overcome by the fan4 ,let the aggregate area of all the blades be #b square feet1 and the velocity of the center of effort #ij feet per second1 then the power expended will bve 7#ij x #fj x #b x #i4c7 _/ #cc1jjj #c4jd horse power4 ,the quantity of air delivered ought to be equal in volume to that of a column with a sectional area equal that of one fan blade moving at #hh feet per second1 or a mile a minute4 ,the blade having an area of #a square foot1 the delivery ought to be #e1bhj feet per minute1 weighing #e1bhj _/ #ac #djf4a lb4 ,in practice we need hardly say that such an efficiency is never attained4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d ,the number of recorded experiments with fans is very small1 and a great deal of ignorance exists as to their true efficiency4 ,mr4 ,buckle is one of the very few authorities on the subject4 ,he gives the accompanying table of proportions as the best for pressures of from #c to #f ounces per square inch3 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,vanes4 ,diameter of inlet ,diameter of fans4 ------------------------ openings4 ,width4 ,length4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ft4 in4 ft4 in4 ft4 in4 ft4 in4 #c #j #j #i #j #i #a #f #c #f #j #aj #j #aj #a #i #d #j #a #j #a #j #b #j #d #f #a #a #a #a #b #c #e #j #a #c #a #c #b #f #f #j #a #f #a #f #c #j ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,for higher pressures the blades should be longer and narrower1 and the inlet openings smaller4 ,the case is to be made in the form of an arithmetical spiral widening1 the space between the case and the blades radially from the origin to the opening for discharge1 and the upper edge of the opening should be level with the lower side of the sweep of the fan blade1 somewhat as shown in ,fig4 #e4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e ,a considerable number of patents has been taken out for improvements in the construction of fans1 but they all1 or nearly all1 relate to modifications in the form of the case and of the blades4 ,so far1 however1 as is known1 it appears that1 while these things do exert a marked influence on the noise made by a fan1 and modify in some degree the efficiency of the machine1 that this last depends very much more on the proportions adopted than on the shapes--so long as easy curves are used and sharp angles avoided4 ,in the case of fans running at low speeds1 it matters very little whether the curves are present or not2 but at high speeds the case is different4--,the ,engineer4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,machine ,,for ,,compressing ,,coal ,,refuse ,,into ,,fuel4 ,the problem as to how the refuse of coal shall be utilized has been solved in the manufacture from it of an agglomerated artificial fuel1 which is coming more and more into general use on railways and steamboats1 in the industries1 and even in domestic heating4 ,the qualities that a good agglomerating machine should present are as follows3 #a4 ,very great simplicity1 inasmuch as it is called upon to operate in an atmosphere charged with coal dust1 pitch1 and steam2 and1 under such conditions1 it is important that it may be easily got at for cleaning1 and that the changing of its parts 7which wear rapidly7 may be effected without1 so to speak1 interrupting its running4 #b4 ,the compression must be powerful1 and1 that the product may be homogeneous1 must operate progressively and not by shocks4 ,it must especially act as much as possible upon the entire surface of the conglomerate1 and this is something that most machines fail to do4 #c4 ,the removal from the mould must be effected easily1 and not depend upon a play of pistons or springs1 which soon become foul1 and the operation of which is very irregular4 ,the operations embraced in the manufacture of this kind of fuel are as follows3 ,the refuse is sifted in order to separate the dust from the grains of coal4 ,the dust is not submitted to a washing4 ,the grains are classed into two sizes1 after removing the nut size1 which is sold separately4 ,the grains of each size are washed separately4 ,the washed grains are either drained or dried by a hydro-extractor in order to free them from the greater part of the water1 the presence of this being an obstacle to their perfect agglomeration4 ,the water1 however1 should not be entirely extracted because the combustibles being poor conductors of heat1 a certain amount of dampness must be preserved to obtain an equal division of heat in the paste when the mixture is warmed4 ,after being dried the grains are mixed with the coal dust1 and broken coal pitch is added in the proportion of eight to ten per cent4 of the coal4 ,the mixture is then thrown into a crushing machine1 where it is reduced to powder and intimately mixed4 ,it then passes into a pug-mill into which superheated steam is admitted1 and by this means is converted into a plastic paste4 ,this paste is then led into an agitator for the double purpose of freeing it from the steam that it contains1 and of distributing it in the moulds of the compressing machine4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,machine ,,for ,,compressing ,,refuse ,,coal ,,into ,,fuel4 ,bilan's machine1 shown in the accompanying cut1 is designed for manufacturing spherical conglomerates for domestic purposes4 ,it consists of a cast iron frame supporting four vertical moulding wheels placed at right angles to each other and tangent to the line of the centers4 ,these wheels carry on their periphery cavities that have the form of a quarter of a sphere4 ,they thus form at the point of contact a complete sphere in which the material is inclosed4 ,the paste is thrown by shovel1 or emptied by buckets and chain1 into the hopper fixed at the upper part of the frame4 ,from here it is taken up by two helices1 mounted on a vertical shaft traversing the hopper1 and forced toward the point where the four moulding wheels meet4 ,the driving pulley of the machine is keyed upon a horizontal shaft which is provided with two endless screws that actuate two gear-wheels1 and these latter set in motion the four moulding wheels by means of beveled pinions4 ,the four moulding wheels being accurately adjusted so that their cavities meet each other at every revolution1 carry along the paste furnished them by the hopper1 compress it powerfully on the four quarters1 and1 separating by a further revolution1 allow the finished ball to drop out4 ,the external crown of the wheels carrying the moulds consists of four segments1 which may be taken apart at will to be replaced by others when worn4 ,this machine produces about #dj tons per day of this globular artificial fuel4--,annales ,industrielles4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,hank ,,sizing ,,and ,,wringing ,,machine4 ,we give a view of a hank sizing machine by ,messrs4 ,heywood ,spencer1 of ,radcliffe1 near ,manchester4 ,the machine is also suitable for fancy dyeing4 ,it is well known1 says the ,textile ,manufacturer1 that when hanks are wrung by hand1 not only is the labor very severe1 but in dyeing it is scarcely possible to obtain even colors1 and1 furthermore1 the production is limited by the capabilities of the man4 ,the machine we illustrate is intended to perform the heavy part of the work with greater expedition and with more certainty than could be relied upon with hand labor4 ,the illustration represents the machine that we inspected4 ,its construction seems of the simplest character4 ,it consists of two vats1 between which is placed the gearing for driving the hooks4 ,the large wheel in this gear1 although it always runs in one direction1 contains internal segments1 which fall into gear alternately with pinions on the shanks of the hooks4 ,the motion is a simple one1 and it appeared to us to be perfectly reliable1 and not liable to get out of order4 ,the action is as follows3 ,the attendant lifts the hank out of the vat and places it on the hooks4 ,the hook connected to the gearing then commences to turn2 it puts in two1 two and a half1 three1 or more twists into the hank and remains stationary for a few seconds to allow an interval for the sizer to wipe off the excess of size1 that is1 to run his hand along the twisted hank4 ,this done1 the hook commences to revolve the reverse way1 until the twists are taken out of the hank4 ,it is then removed1 either by lifting off by hand or by the apparatus shown1 attached to the right hand side4 ,this arrangement consists of a lattice1 carrying two arms that1 at the proper moment1 lift the hank off the hooks on to the lattice proper1 by which it is carried away1 and dropped upon a barrow to be taken to the drying stove4 ,in sizing1 a double operation is customary2 the first is called running1 and the second1 finishing4 ,in the machine shown1 running is carried on one side simultaneously with finishing in the other1 or1 if required1 running may be carried on on both sides4 ,if desired1 the lifting off motion is attached to both running and finishing sides1 and also the roller partly seen on the left hand for running the hanks through the size4 ,the machine we saw was doing about #fjj bundles per day at running and at finishing1 but the makers claim the production with a double machine to be at the rate of about #cf #aj lb4 bundles per hour 7at finishing71 wrung in #a lb4 wringers 7or ,i lb4 of yarn at a time71 or at running at the rate of #de bundles in #b lb4 wringers4 ,the distance between the hooks is easily adjusted to the length or size of hanks1 and altogether the machine seems one that is worth the attention of the trade4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,hank ,,sizing ,,machine4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improved ,,coke ,,breaker4 ,the working parts of the breaker now in use by the ,south ,metropolitan ,gas ,company consist essentially of a drum provided with cutting edges projecting from it1 which break up the coke against a fixed grid4 ,the drum is cast in rings1 to facilitate repairs when necessary1 and the capacity of the machine can therefore be increased or diminished by varying the number of these rings4 ,the degree of fineness of the coke when broken is determined by the regulated distance of the grid from the drum4 ,thus there is only one revolving member1 no toothed gearing being required4 ,consequently the machine works with little power2 the one at the ,old ,kent ,road1 which is of the full size for large works1 being actually driven by a one horse power ,otto gas-engine4 ,under these conditions1 at a recent trial1 two tons of coke were broken in half an hour1 and the material delivered screened into the three classes of coke1 clean breeze 7worth as much as the larger coke71 and dust1 which at these works is used to mix with lime in the purifiers4 ,the special advantage of the machine1 besides the low power required to drive it and its simple action1 lies in the small quantity of waste4 ,on the occasion of the trial in question1 the dust obtained from two tons of coke measured only #c bushels1 or just over a half hundredweight per ton4 ,the following statement1 prepared from the actual working of the first machine constructed1 shows the practical results of its use4 ,it should be premised that the machine is assumed to be regularly employed and driven by the full power for which it is designed1 when it will easily break #h tons of coke per hour1 or #hj tons per working day3 #ejj feet of gas consumed by a #b horse power gas-engine1 at cost price of gas delivered s4 d4 in holder4 #j #i ,oil and cotton waste4 #j #f ,two men supplying machine with large coke1 and shoveling up broken1 at #ds4 #f;d4 #i #j ,interest and wear and tear 7say74 #j #c ----- ,total per day4 #aj #f ----- ,for #hj tons per day1 broken at the rate of4 #j #a ,add for loss by dust and waste1 #a cwt41 with price of coke at 7say7 #acs4 #d;d4 per ton4 #j #h ----- ,cost of breaking1 per ton4 #j #i ,as coke1 when broken1 will usually fetch from #bs4 to #bs4 #f;d4 per ton more than large1 the result of using these machines is a net gain of from #as4 #c;d4 to #as4 #i;d4 per ton of coke4 ,it is not so much the actual gain1 however1 that operates in favor of providing a supply of broken coke1 as the certainty that by so doing a market is obtained that would not otherwise be available4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,coke ,,breaker4 ,it will not be overstating the case to say that this coke breaker is by far the simplest1 strongest1 and most economical appliance of its kind now manufactured4 ,that it does its work well is proved by experience2 and the advantages of its construction are immediately apparent upon comparison of its simple drum and single spindle with the flying hammers or rocking jaws1 or double drums with toothed gearing which characterize some other patterns of the same class of plant4 ,it should be remarked1 as already indicated1 lest exception should be taken to the size of the machine chosen here for illustration1 that it can be made of any size down to hand power4 ,on the whole1 however1 as a few tons of broken coke might be required at short notice even in a moderate sized works1 it would scarcely be advisable to depend upon too small a machine2 since the regular supply of the fuel thus improved may be trusted in a short time to increase the demand4 ,illustration3 ,,improved ,,coke ,,breaker4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improvement ,,in ,,printing ,,machinery4 ,this is the design of ,alfred ,godfrey1 of ,clapton4 ,according to this improvement1 as represented at ,figs4 #a and #b1 a rack1 ,a1 is employed vibrating on the pivot a1 and a pinion1 a#a1 so arranged that instead of the pinion moving on a universal joint1 or the rack moving in a parallel line from side to side of the pinion at the time the motion of the table is reversed1 there is employed1 for example1 the radial arm1 a#b1 mounted on the shaft1 a#c1 supporting the driving wheel1 a#d4 ,the opposite or vibrating end of the radial arm1 a#b1 supports in suitable bearings the pinion1 a#a1 and wheel1 a#e1 driving the rack through the medium of the driving wheel1 a#d1 the effect of which is that through the mechanical action of the vibrating arm1 a#b1 and pinion1 a#a in conjunction with the vibrating movement of the rack1 ,a1 an easy1 uniform1 and silent motion is transmitted to the rack and table4 ,illustration3 ,,improvements ,,in ,,printing ,,machinery4 ,fig4 #a ,illustration3 ,,improvements ,,in ,,printing ,,machinery4 ,fig4 #b4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,characteristic ,,mining ,,rush4--,,the ,,prospective ,,mining ,,center ,,of ,,southern ,,new ,,mexico4 ,a correspondent of the ,tribune describes at length the mining camps about ,lake ,valley1 ,new ,mexico1 hitherto thought likely to be the central camp of that region1 and then graphically tells the story of the recent rush to the ,perche district4 ,within a month of the first strike of silver ore the country was swarming with prospectors1 and a thousand or more prospects had been located4 ,the ,perche district is on the eastern flanks of the ,mimbres ,mountains1 a range which is a part of the ,rocky ,mountain range1 and runs north and south generally parallel with the ,rio ,grande1 from which it lies about forty miles to the westward4 ,the northern half of these mountains is known as the ,black ,range1 and was the center of considerable mining excitement a year and a half ago4 ,it is there that the ,ivanhoe is located1 of which ,colonel ,gillette was manager1 and in which ,robert ,ingersoll and ,senator ,plumb1 of ,kansas1 were interested1 much to the disadvantage of the former4 ,a new company has been organized1 however1 with ,colonel ,ingersoll as president1 and the reopening of work on the ,ivanhoe will probably prove a stimulus to the whole ,black ,range4 ,from this region the ,perche district is from forty to sixty miles south4 ,it is about twenty-five miles northwest of ,lake ,valley1 and ten miles west of ,hillsboro1 a promising little mining town1 with some mills and about #cjj people4 ,the ,perche ,river has three forks coming down from the mountains and uniting at ,hillsboro1 and it is in the region between these forks that the recent strikes have been made4 ,on ,august #ae ,jack ,shedd1 the original discoverer of the ,robinson mine in ,colorado1 was prospecting on the south branch of the north fork of the ,perche ,river1 when he made the first great strike in the district4 ,on the summit of a heavily timbered ridge he found some small pieces of native silver1 and then a lump of ore containing very pure silver in the form of sulphides1 weighing #aej pounds1 and afterward proved to be worth on the average #aa a pound4 ,all this was mere float1 simply lying on the surface of the ground4 ,afterward another block was found1 weighing #hg pounds1 of horn silver1 with specimens nearly #ge per cent4 silver4 ,the strike was kept a secret for a few days4 ,said a mining man3 ,i went up to help bring the big lump down4 ,we took it by a camp of prospectors who were lying about entirely ignorant of any find4 ,when they saw it they instantly saddled their horses1 galloped off1 and ,i believe they prospected all night4 ,a like excitement was created when the news of this and one or two similar finds reached ,lake ,valley4 ,next morning every waiter was gone from the little hotel1 and a dozen men had left the ,sierra mines1 to try their fortunes at prospecting4 ,as the news spread men poured into the ,perche district from no one knows where1 some armed with only a piece of salt pork1 a little meal1 and a prospecting pick2 some mounted on mules1 others on foot2 old men and men half-crippled were among the number1 but all bitten by the monomania which possesses every prospector4 ,now there are probably #b1jjj men in the ,perche district1 and the number of prospects located must far exceed #a1jjj4 ,three miners from there with whom ,i was talking recently owned forty-seven mines among them1 and while one acknowledged that hardly one prospect in a hundred turns out a prize1 the other millionaire in embryo remarked that he wouldn't take #ej1jjj for one of his mines4 ,so it goes1 and the victims of the mining fever here seem as deaf to reason as the buyers of mining stock in ,new ,york4 ,fuel was added to the flame by the report that ,shedd had sold his location1 named the ,solitaire1 to ex-,governor ,tabor and ,mr4 ,wurtzbach on ,august #be for #ajj1jjj4 ,this was not true4 ,i met ,governor ,tabor's representative1 who came down recently to examine the properties1 and learned that the ,governor had not up to that date bought the mine4 ,he undoubtedly bonded it1 however1 and his representative's opinion of the properties seemed highly favorable4 ,the ,solitaire showed what appeared to be a contact vein1 with walls of porphyry and limestone in a ledge thirty feet wide in places1 containing a high assay of horned silver4 ,the vein was composed of quartz1 bearing sulphides1 with horn silver plainly visible1 giving an average assay of from #cej to #ejj4 ,this was free milling4 ,these were the results shown simply by surface explorations1 which were certainly exceedingly promising4 ,recently it has been stated that a little development shows the vein to be only a blind lead1 but the statement lacks confirmation4 ,in any case the effect of so sensational a discovery is the same in creating an intense excitement and attracting swarms of prospectors4 ,but the ,perche district does not rest on the ,solitaire1 for there has been abundance of mineral wealth discovered throughout its extent4 ,four miles south of this prospect1 on the middle fork of the ,perche1 is an actual mine--the ,bullion--which was purchased by four or five ,western mining men for #aj1jjj1 and yielded #aa1jjj in twenty days4 ,the ore contains horn and native silver4 ,on the same fork are the ,iron ,king and ,andy ,johnson1 both recently discovered and promising properties1 and there is a valuable mine now in litigation on the south fork of the ,perche1 with scores of prospects over the entire district4 ,now that one or two sensational strikes have attracted attention1 and capital is developing paying mines1 the future of the ,perche ,district seems assured4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,soy ,,bean4 ,the ,british ,medical ,journal says that ,prof4 ,e4 ,kinch1 writing in the ,agricultural ,students' ,gazette1 says that the ,soy bean approaches more nearly to animal food than any other known vegetable production1 being singularly rich in fat and in albuminoids4 ,it is largely used as an article of food in ,china and ,japan4 ,efforts have been made to acclimatize it in various parts of the continent of ,europe1 and fair success has been achieved in ,italy and ,france2 many foods are made from it and its straw is a useful fodder4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,a ,,new ,,arc ,,electric ,,lamp4 ,footnote3 ,paper read at the ,british ,association1 ,southampton4 ,revised by the ,author4--,nature4 ,by ,w4,h4 ,,preece4 ,electric lamps on the arc principle are almost as numerous as the trees in the forest1 and it is somewhat fresh to come upon something that is novel4 ,in these lamps the carbons are consumed as the current flows1 and it is the variation in their consumption which occasions the flickering and irregularity of the light that is so irritating to the eyes4 ,special mechanical contrivances or regulators have to be used to compensate for this destruction of the carbons1 as in the ,siemens and ,brush type1 or else refractory materials have to be combined with the carbons1 as in the ,jablochkoff candle and in the lamp ,soleil4 ,the steadiness of the light depends upon the regularity with which the carbons are moved toward each other as they are consumed1 so as to maintain the electric resistance between them a constant quantity4 ,each lamp must have a certain elasticity of regulation of its own1 to prevent irregularities from the variable material of carbon used1 and from variations in the current itself and in the machinery4 ,in all electric lamps1 except the ,brockie1 the regulator is in the lamp itself4 ,in the ,brockie system the regulation is automatic1 and is made at certain rapid intervals by the motor engine4 ,this causes a periodic blinking that is detrimental to this lamp for internal illumination4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,fig4 #b4 ,m4 ,abdank1 the inventor of the system which ,i have the pleasure of bringing before the ,section1 separates his regulator from his lamp4 ,the regulator may be fixed anywhere1 within easy inspection and manipulation1 and away from any disturbing influence in the lamp4 ,the lamp can be fixed in any inaccessible place4 ,the ,lamp 7,figs4 #a1 #b1 and #c47--,the bottom or negative carbon is fixed1 but the top or positive carbon is movable1 in a vertical line4 ,it is screwed at the point1 ,c1 to a brass rod1 ,t 7,fig4 #b71 which moves freely inside the tubular iron core of an electromagnet1 ,k4 ,this rod is clutched and lifted by the soft iron armature1 ,a ,b1 when a current passes through the coil1 ,m ,m4 ,the mass of the iron in the armature is distributed so that the greater portion is at one end1 ,b1 much nearer the pole than the other end4 ,hence this portion is attracted first1 the armature assumes an inclined position1 maintained by a brass button1 t1 which prevents any adhesion between the armature and the core of the electromagnet4 ,the electric connection between the carbon and the coil of the electromagnet is maintained by the flexible wire1 ,s4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,the electromagnet1 ,a 7,fig4 #a71 is fixed to a long and heavy rack1 ,c1 which falls by its own weight and by the weight of the electromagnet and the carbon fixed to it4 ,the length of the rack is equal to the length of the two carbons4 ,the fall of the rack is controlled by a friction break1 ,b 7,fig4 #c71 which acts upon the last of a train of three wheels put in motion by the above weight4 ,the break1 ,b1 is fixed at one end of a lever1 ,b ,a1 the other end carrying a soft iron armature1 ,f1 easily adjusted by three screws4 ,this armature is attracted by the electromagnet1 ,e ,e 7whose resistance is #a1bjj ohms71 whenever a current circulates through it4 ,the length of the play is regulated by the screw1 ,v4 ,the spring1 ,l1 applies tension to the break4 ,the ,regulator4--,this consists of a balance and a cut-off4 ,the ,balance 7,figs4 #d and #e7 is made with two solenoids4 ,s and ,s'1 whose relative resistances is adjustable4 ,s conveys the main current1 and is wound with thick wire having practically no resistance1 and ,s' is traversed by a shunt current1 and is wound with fine wire having a resistance of #fjj ohms4 ,in the axes of these two coils a small and light iron tube 7#b mm4 diameter and #fj mm4 length7 freely moves in a vertical line between two guides4 ,when magnetized it has one pole in the middle and the other at each end4 ,the upward motion is controlled by the spring1 ,n ,t4 ,the spring rests upon the screw1 ,h1 with which it makes contact by platinum electrodes4 ,this contact is broken whenever the little iron rod strikes the spring1 ,n ,t4 ,the positive lead from the dynamo is attached to the terminal1 ,b1 then passes through the coil1 ,s1 to the terminal1 ,b'1 whence it proceeds to the lamp4 ,the negative lead is attached to terminal1 ,a1 passing directly to the other terminal1 ,a'1 and thence to the lamp4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d ,the shunt which passes through the fine coil1 ,s'1 commences at the point1 ,p4 ,the other end is fixed to the screw1 ,h1 whence it has two paths1 the one offering no resistance through the spring1 ,t ,n1 to the upper negative terminal1 ,a'2 the other through the terminal1 ,j1 to the electromagnet of the break1 ,m1 and thence to the negative terminal of the lamp1 ,l'4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,the ,cut-off4--,the last part of the apparatus 7,fig4 #d7 to be described is the cut-off1 which is used when there are several lamps in series4 ,it is brought into play by the switch1 ,c ,d1 which can be placed at ,e or ,d4 ,when it is at ,e1 the negative terminal1 ,a1 is in communication with the positive terminal1 ,b1 through the resistance1 ,r1 which equals the resistance of the lamp1 which is1 therefore1 out of circuit4 ,when it is at ,d the cut-off acts automatically to do the same thing when required4 ,this is done by a solenoid1 ,v1 which has two coils1 the one of thick wire offering no resistance1 and the other of #b1jjj ohms resistance4 ,the fine wire connects the terminals1 ,a' and ,b4 ,the solenoid has a movable soft iron core suspended by the spring1 ,u4 ,it has a cross-piece of iron which can dip into two mercury cups1 ,g and ,k1 when the core is sucked into the solenoid4 ,when this is the case1 which happens when any accident occurs to the lamp1 the terminal1 ,a1 is placed in connection with the terminal1 ,b1 through the thick wire of ,v and the resistance1 ,r1 in the same way as it was done by the switch1 ,c ,d4 ,electrical ,arrangement4--,the mode in which several lamps are connected up in series is shown by ,fig4 #f4 ,m is the dynamo machine4 ,the lead is connected to ,b#a of the balance it then passes to the lamp1 ,l1 returning to the balance1 and then proceeds to each other lamp1 returning finally to the negative pole of the machine4 ,when the current enters the balance it passes through the coil1 ,s1 magnetizing the iron core and drawing it downward 7,fig4 #d74 ,it then passes to the lamp1 ,l ,l'1 through the carbons1 then returns to the balance1 and proceeds back to the negative terminal of the machine4 ,a small portion of the current is shunted off at the point1 ,p1 passing through the coil1 ,s'1 through the contact spring1 ,t ,n1 to the terminal1 ,a'1 and drawing the iron core in opposition to ,s4 ,the carbons are in contact1 but in passing through the lamp the current magnetizes the electromagnet1 ,m 7,fig4 #b71 which attracts the armature1 ,a ,b1 that bites and lifts up the rod1 ,t1 with the upper carbon1 a definite and fixed distance that is easily regulated by the screws1 ,y ,y4 ,the arc then is formed1 and will continue to burn steadily as long as the current remains constant4 ,but the moment the current falls1 due to the increased resistance of the arc1 a greater proportion passes through the shunt1 ,s' 7,fig4 #d71 increasing its magnetic moment on the iron core1 while that of ,s is diminishing4 ,the result is that a moment arrives when equilibrium is destroyed1 the iron rod strikes smartly and sharply upon the spring1 ,n ,t4 ,contact between ,t and ,h is broken1 and the current passes through the electromagnet of the break in the lamp4 ,the break is released for an instant1 the carbons approach each other4 ,but the same rupture of contact introduces in the shunt a new resistance of considerable magnitude 7viz41 #a1bjj ohms71 that of the electromagnets of the break4 ,then the strength of the shunt current diminishes considerably1 and the solenoid1 ,s1 recovers briskly its drawing power upon the rod1 and contact is restored4 ,the carbons approach during these periods only about #j4ja to #j4jb millimeter4 ,if this is not sufficient to restore equilibrium it is repeated continually1 until equilibrium is obtained4 ,the result is that the carbon is continually falling by a motion invisible to the eye1 but sufficient to provide for the consumption of the carbons4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f ,the contact between ,n ,t and ,h is never completely broken1 the sparks are very feeble1 and the contacts do not oxidize4 ,the resistances inserted are so considerable that heating cannot occur1 while the portion of the current abstracted for the control is so small that it may be neglected4 ,the balance acts precisely like the key of a ,morse machine1 and the break precisely like the sounder-receiver so well known in telegraphy4 ,it emits the same kind of sounds1 and acts automatically like a skilled and faithful telegraphist4 ,this regulation1 by very small and short successive steps1 offers several advantages3 7#a7 it is imperceptible to the eye2 7#b7 it does not affect the main current2 7#c7 any sudden instantaneous variation of the main current does not allow a too near approach of the carbon points4 ,let1 now1 an accident occur2 for instance1 a carbon is broken4 ,at once the automatic cut-off acts1 the current passes through the resistance1 ,r1 instead of passing through the lamp4 ,the current through the fine coil is suddenly increased1 the rod is drawn in1 contact is made at ,g and ,k1 and the current is sent through the coil1 ,r4 ,as soon as contact is again made by the carbons1 the current in the coil1 ,s1 is increased1 that of the thick wire in ,v diminished1 and the antagonistic spring1 ,u1 breaks the contact at ,g and ,k4 ,the rupture of the light is almost invisible1 because the relighting is so brisk and sharp4 ,i have seen this lamp in action1 and its constant steadiness leaves nothing to be desired4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,apparatus ,,for ,,obtaining ,,pure ,,water ,,for ,,photographic ,,use4 ,our readers are well aware that water as found naturally is never absolutely free from dissolved impurities2 and in ordinary cases it contains solid impurities derived both from the inorganic and organic kingdoms1 together with gaseous substances2 these latter being generally derived from the atmosphere4 ,by far the purest water which occurs in nature is rain-water1 and if this be collected in a secluded district1 and after the air has been well washed by previous rain1 its purity is remarkable2 the extraneous matter consisting of little else than a trace of carbonic acid and other gases dissolved from the air4 ,in fact1 such water is far purer than any distilled water to be obtained in commerce4 ,the case is very different when the rain-water is collected in a town or densely populated district1 more especially if the water has been allowed to flow over dirty roofs4 ,the black and foully-smelling liquid popularly known as soft water is so rich in carbonaceous and organic constituents as to be of very limited use to the photographer2 but by taking the precaution of fitting up a simple automatic shunt for diverting the stream until the roofs have been thoroughly washed1 it becomes possible to insure a good supply of clean and serviceable soft water1 even in ,london4 ,several forms of shunt have been devised1 some of these being so complex as to offer every prospect of speedy disorganization2 but a simple and efficient apparatus is figured in ,engineering by a correspondent who signs himself ,millwright1 and as we have thoroughly proved the value of an apparatus which is practically identical1 we reproduce the substance of his communication4 ,a gentleman of ,newcastle1 a retired banker1 having tried various filters to purify the rain-water collected on the roof of his house1 at length had the idea to allow no water to run into the cistern until the roof had been well washed4 ,after first putting up a hard-worked valve1 the arrangement as sketched below has been hit upon4 ,now ,newcastle is a very smoky place1 and yet my friend gets water as pure as gin1 and almost absolutely free from any smack of soot4 ,illustration ,the sketch explains itself4 ,the weight1 ,w1 and the angle of the lever1 ,l1 are such1 that when the valve1 ,v1 is once opened it goes full open4 ,a small hole in the can ,c1 acts like a cataract1 and brings matters to a normal state very soon after the rain ceases4 ,the proper action of the apparatus can only be insured by a careful adjustment of the weight1 ,w1 the angle through which the valve opens1 and the magnitude of the vessel1 ,c4 ,it is an advantage to make the vessel1 ,c1 somewhat broader in proportion to its height than represented1 and to provide it with a movable strainer placed about half way down4 ,this tends to protect the cataract hole1 and any accumulation of leaves and dirt can be removed once in six months or so4 ,clean soft water is valuable to the photographer in very many cases4 ,iron developer 7wet plate7 free from chlorides will ordinarily remain effective on the plate much longer than when chlorides are present1 and the pyrogallic solution for dry-plate work will keep good for along time if made with soft water1 while the lime which is present in hard water causes the pyrogallic acid to oxidize with considerable rapidity4 ,negatives that have been developed with oxalate developer often become covered with a very unsightly veil of calcium oxalate when rinsed with hard water1 and something of a similar character occasionally occurs in the case of silver prints which are transferred directly from the exposure frame to impure water4 ,to the carbon printer clean rain-water is of considerable value1 as he can develop much more rapidly with soft water than with hard water2 or1 what comes to the same thing1 he can dissolve away his superfluous gelatine at a lower temperature than would otherwise be necessary4 ,the cleanest rain-water which can ordinarily be collected in a town is not sufficiently pure to be used with advantage in the preparation of the nitrate bath1 it being advisable to use the purest distilled water for this purpose2 and in many cases it is well to carefully distill water for the bath in a glass apparatus of the kind figured below4 ,illustration ,a1 thin glass flask serving as a retort4 ,the tube1 ,t1 is fitted air-tight to the flask by a cork1 ,c4 ,b1 receiver into which the tube1 ,t1 fits quite loosely4 ,d1 water vessel intended to keep the spiral of lamp wick1 which is shown as surrounding ,t1 in a moist condition4 ,this wick acts as a siphon1 and water is gradually drawn over into the lower receptacle1 ,e4 ,l1 spirit lamp1 which may1 in many cases1 be advantageously replaced by a ,bunsen burner4 ,a small metal still1 provided with a tin condensing worm1 is1 however1 a more generally serviceable arrangement1 and if ordinary precautions are taken to make sure that the worm tube is clean1 the resulting distilled water will be nearly as pure as that distilled in glass vessels4 ,such a still as that figured below can be heated conveniently over an ordinary kitchen fire1 and should find a place among the appliances of every photographer4 ,distilled water should always be used in the preparation of emulsion1 as the impurities of ordinary water may often introduce disturbing conditions4--,photographic ,news4 ,illustration 99 99 99 99 99 ,,black ,,phosphorus4 ,by ,p4 ,,thenard4 ,the author refers to the customary view that black phosphorus is merely a mixture of the ordinary phosphorus with traces of a metallic phosphide1 and contends that this explanation is not in all cases admissible4 ,a specimen of black or rather dark gray phosphorus1 which the author submitted to the ,academy1 became white if melted and remained white if suddenly cooled1 but if allowed to enter into a state of superfusion it became again black on contact with either white or black phosphorus4 ,a portion of the black specimen being dissolved in carbon disulphide there remained undissolved merely a trace of a very pale yellow matter which seemed to be amorphous phosphorus4--,comptes ,rendus4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,composition ,,of ,,steep ,,water4 ,according to ,m4 ,c4 ,leeuw1 water in which malt has been steeped has the following composition3 ,organic matter4 #j4ef per cent4 ,mineral matter4 #j4eb ---- ,total dry matter4 #a4jh ---- ,nitrogen4 #j4jcc ,the mineral matter consists of-- ,potash4 #j4aic ,phosphoric acid4 #j4jca ,lime4 #j4jab ,soda4 #j4jdg ,magnesia4 #j4jaf ,sulphuric acid4 #j4jjg ,oxide of iron4 traces4 ,chlorine and silica4 #j4bab 99 99 99 99 99 ,,schreiber',s ,,apparatus ,,for ,,revivifying ,,bone-,,black4 ,we give opposite illustrations of ,schreiber's apparatus for revivifying bone-black or animal charcoal4 ,the object of revivification is to render the black fit to be used again after it has lost its decolorizing properties through service--that is to say1 to free its pores from the absorbed salts and insoluble compounds that have formed therein during the operation of sugar refining4 ,there are two methods employed--fermentation and washing4 ,at present the tendency is to abandon the former in order to proceed with as small a stock of black as possible1 and to adopt the method of washing with water and acid in a rotary washer4 ,figs4 #a and #b represent a plan and elevation of a bone-black room1 containing light filters1 ,a1 arranged in a circle around wells1 ,b4 ,these latter have the form of a prism with trapezoidal base1 whose small sides end at the same point1 d1 and the large ones at the filter4 ,the funnel1 ,e1 of the washer1 ,f1 is placed in the space left by the small ends of the wells1 so that the black may be taken from these latter and thrown directly into the washer4 ,the washer is arranged so that the black may flow out near the steam fitter1 ,g1 beneath the floor4 ,the discharge of this filter is toward the side of the elevator1 ,h1 which takes in the wet black below1 and carries it up and pours it into the drier situated at the upper part of the furnace4 ,this elevator1 ,figs4 #c and #d1 is formed of two vertical wooden uprights1 ,a1 ten centimeters in thickness1 to which are fixed two round-iron bars the same as guides4 ,the lift1 properly so-called1 consists of an iron frame1 ,c1 provided at the four angles with rollers1 ,d1 and supporting a swinging bucket1 ,e1 which1 on its arrival at the upper part of the furnace1 allows the black to fall to an inclined plane that leads it to the upper part of the drier4 ,the left is raised and lowered by means of a pitch-chain1 ,f1 fixed to the middle of the frame1 ,c1 and passing over two pulleys1 ,g1 at the upper part of the frame and descending to the mechanism that actuates it4 ,this latter comprises a nut1 ,i1 acting directly on the chain2 a toothed wheel1 ,k1 and a pinion1 ,j1 gearing with the latter and keyed upon the shaft of the pulleys1 ,l and ,m4 ,the diameter of the toothed wheel1 ,k1 is #j4bie of a meter1 and it makes #ec4d revolutions per minute4 ,the diameter of the pinion is #j4aig of a meter1 and it makes #hj revolutions per minute4 ,the pulleys1 ,m and ,l1 are #j4ca of a meter in diameter1 and make #hj revolutions per minute4 ,motion is transmitted to them by other pulleys1 ,n1 keyed upon a shaft placed at the lower part1 which receives its motion from the engine of the establishment through the intermedium of the pulley1 ,o4 ,the diameter of the latter is #j4che of a meter1 and that of ,n is #j4eh4 ,they each make #dc revolutions per minute4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--;,,elevation ,,of ,,bone-,,black ,,revivifying ,,plant 7,,schreiber',s ,,system47 ,,fig4 #b4--,,plan ,,view4 ,,fig4 #c4--,,lateral ,,view ,,of ,,elevator4 ,,fig4 #d4--;,,front ,,view ,,of ,,elevator4 ,,fig4 #e4--;,,continuous ,,furnace ,,for ,,revivifying ,,bone-,,black4 ,the elevator is set in motion by the simple maneuver of the gearing lever1 ,p1 and when this has been done all the other motions are effected automatically4 ,the ,animal ,black ,furnace4--,this consists of a masonry casing of rectangular form1 in which are arranged on each side of the same fire-place two rows of cast-iron retorts1 ,d1 of undulating form1 each composed of three parts1 set one within the other4 ,these retorts1 which serve for the revivification of the black1 are incased in superposed blocks of refractory clay1 ,p1 ,q1 ,s1 designed to regularize the transmission of heat and to prevent burning4 ,these pieces are kept in their respective places by crosspieces1 ,r4 ,the space between the retorts occupied by the fire-place1 ,y1 is covered with a cylindrical dome1 ,o1 of refractory tiles1 forming a fire-chamber with the inner surface of the blocks1 ,p1 ,q1 and ,s4 ,the front of the surface consists of a cast-iron plate1 containing the doors to the fire-place and ash pan1 and a larger one to allow of entrance to the interior to make repairs4 ,one of the principal disadvantages of furnaces for revivifying animal charcoal has been that they possessed no automatic drier for drying the black on its exit from the washer4 ,it was for the purpose of remedying this that ,mr4 ,schreiber was led to invent the automatic system of drying shown at the upper part of the furnace1 and which is formed of two pipes1 ,b1 of undulating form1 like the retorts1 with openings throughout their length for the escape of steam4 ,between these pipes there is a closed space into which enters the waste heat and products of combustion from the furnace4 ,these latter afterward escape through the chimney at the upper part4 ,in order that the black may be put in bags on issuing from the furnace1 it must be cooled as much as possible4 ,for this purpose there are arranged on each side of the furnace two pieces of cast iron tubes1 ,f1 of rectangular section1 forming a prolongation of the retorts and making with them an angle of about #de degrees4 ,the extremities of these tubes terminate in hollow rotary cylinders1 ,g1 which permit of regulating the flow of the black into a car1 ,j 7,fig4 #a71 running on rails4 ,from what precedes1 it will be readily understood how a furnace is run on this plan4 ,the bone-black in the hopper1 ,a1 descends into the drier1 ,b1 enters the retorts1 ,d1 and1 after revivification1 passes into the cooling pipes1 ,f1 from whence it issues cold and ready to be bagged4 ,a coke fire having been built in the fire-place1 ,y1 the flames spread throughout the fire chamber1 direct themselves toward the bottom1 divide into two parts to the right and left1 and heat the back of the retorts in passing4 ,then the two currents mount through the lateral flues1 ,v1 and unite so as to form but one in the drier4 ,within the latter there are arranged plates designed to break the current from the flames1 and allow it to heat all the inner parts of the pipes1 while the apertures in the drier allow of the escape of the steam4 ,by turning one of the cylinders1 ,g1 so as to present its aperture opposite that of the cooler1 it instantly fills up with black4 ,at this moment the whole column1 from top to bottom1 is set in motion4 ,the bone-black1 in passing through the undulations1 is thrown alternately to the right and left until it finally reaches the coolers4 ,this operation is repeated as many times as the cylinder is filled during the descent of one whole column1 that is to say1 about forty times4 ,with an apparatus of the dimensions here described1 #abj hectoliters of bone-black may be revivified in twenty four hours1 with #cfj to #djj kilogrammes of coke4--,annales ,industrielles4 99 99 99 99 99 ,continued from ,,supplement1 ,no4 #ccj1 page #ebfd4 ,,soap ,,and ,,its ,,manufacture1 ,,from ,a ,,consumer',s ,,point ,,of ,,view4 ,in our last article1 under the above heading1 the advantages to be gained by the use of potash soap as compared with soda soap were pointed out1 and the reasons of this superiority1 especially in the case of washing wool or woolen fabrics1 were pretty fully gone into4 ,it was also further explained why the potash soaps generally sold to the public were unfit for general use1 owing to their not being neutral--that is to say1 containing a considerable excess of free or unsaponified alkali1 which acts injuriously on the fiber of any textile material1 and causes sore hands if used for household or laundry purposes4 ,it was shown that the cause of this defect was owing to the old-fashioned method of making potash or soft soap1 by boiling with wood ashes or other impure form of potash2 but that a perfectly pure and neutral potash soap could readily be made with pure caustic potash1 which within the last few years has become a commercial article1 manufactured on a large scale2 just in the same manner as the powdered #ih per cent4 caustic soda1 which was recommended in our previous articles on making hard soap without boiling4 ,the process of making pure neutral potash soap is very simple1 and almost identical with that for making hard soap with pure powdered caustic soda4 ,the following directions1 if carefully and exactly followed1 will produce a first-class potash soap1 suitable either for the woolen manufacturer for washing his wool1 and the cloth afterward made from it1 or for household and laundry purposes1 for which uses it will be found far superior to any soda soap1 no matter how pure or well made it may be4 ,dissolve twenty pounds of pure caustic potash in two gallons of water4 ,pure caustic potash is very soluble1 and dissolves almost immediately1 heating the water4 ,let the lye thus made cool until warm to the hand--say about #ij ,f4 ,melt eighty pounds of tallow or grease1 which must be free from salt1 and let it cool until fairly hot to the hand--say #acj ,f42 or eighty pounds of any vegetable or animal oil may be taken instead4 ,now pour the caustic potash lye into the melted tallow or oil1 stirring with a flat wooden stirrer about three inches broad1 until both are thoroughly mixed and smooth in appearance4 ,this mixing may be done in the boiler used to melt the tallow1 or in a tub1 or half an oil barrel makes a good mixing vessel4 ,wrap the tub or barrel well up in blankets or sheepskins1 and put away for a week in some warm dry place1 during which the mixture slowly turns into soap1 giving a produce of about #abj pounds of excellent potash soap4 ,if this soap is made with tallow or grease it will be nearly as hard as soda soap4 ,when made by farmers or householders tallow or grease will generally be taken1 as it is the cheapest1 and ready to hand on the spot4 ,for manufacturers1 or for making laundry soap1 nothing could be better than cotton seed oil4 ,a magnificent soap can be made with this article1 lathering very freely4 ,when made with oil it is better to remelt in a kettle the potash soap1 made according to the above directions1 with half its weight of water1 using very little heat1 stirring constantly1 and removing the fire as soon as the water is mixed with and taken up by the soap4 ,a beautifully bright soap is obtained in this way1 and curiously the soap is actually made much harder and stiffer by this addition of water than when it is in a more concentrated state previously to the water being added4 ,with reference to the caustic potash for making the soap1 it can be obtained in all sizes of drums1 but small packages just sufficient for a batch of soap are generally more economical than larger packages1 as pure caustic potash melts and deteriorates very quickly when exposed to the air4 ,the ,greenbank ,alkali ,co41 of ,st4 ,helens1 seems to have appreciated this1 and put upon the market pure caustic potash in twenty pound canisters1 which are very convenient for potash soft soap making by consumers for their own use4 ,while on this subject of caustic potash1 it cannot be too often repeated that caustic potash is a totally different article to caustic soda1 though just like it in appearance1 and therefore often sold as such4 ,one of the most barefaced instances of this is the so-called crystal potash1 ball potash1 or rock potash1 of the lye packers1 sold in one pound packages1 which absolutely1 without exception1 do not contain a single grain of potash1 but simply consist of caustic soda more or less adulterated--as a rule very much more than less6 ,it is much to be regretted that this fraud on the public has been so extensively practiced1 as potash has been greatly discredited by this procedure4 ,the subject of fleece scouring or washing the wool while growing on the sheep1 with a potash soap made on the spot with the waste tallow generally to be had on every sheep farm1 seems recently to have been attracting attention in some quarters1 and certainly would be a source of profit to sheep owners by putting their wool on the market in the best condition1 and at the same time cleaning the skin of the sheep4 ,it therefore appears to be a move in the right direction4 ,in concluding this series of articles on practical soap making from a consumer's point of view1 the writer hopes that1 although the subject has been somewhat imperfectly handled1 owing to necessarily limited space and with many unavoidable interruptions1 yet that they may have been found of some interest and assistance to consumers of soap who desire easily and readily to make a pure and unadulterated article for their own use4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,cotton ,,seed ,,oil4 ,by ,s4,s4 ,,bradford1 ,ph4,g4 ,having had occasion during the last six years to manufacture lead plaster in considerable quantities1 it occurred to me that cotton seed oil might be used instead of olive oil1 at less expense1 and with as good results4 ,the making of this plaster with cotton seed oil has been questioned1 as1 according to some authorities1 the product is not of good consistence1 and is apt to be soft1 sticky1 and dark colored2 but in my experience such is not the case4 ,if the ,u4 ,s4 ,p4 process is followed in making this plaster1 substituting for the olive oil cotton seed oil1 and instead of one half-pint of boiling water one and one-half pint are added1 the product obtained will be equally as good as that from olive oil4 ,my results with this oil in making lead plaster led me to try it in making the different liniments of the ,pharmacopoeia1 with the following results3 ,linimentum ,ammoni4--,this liniment1 made with cotton seed oil1 is of much better consistency than when made with olive oil4 ,it is not so thick1 will pour easily out of the bottle1 and if the ammonia used is of proper strength1 will make a perfect liniment4 ,linimentum ,calcis4--,cotton seed oil is not at all adapted to making this liniment4 ,it does not readily saponify1 separates quickly1 and it is almost impossible to unite when separated4 ,linimentum ,camphor4--,cotton seed oil is far superior to olive oil in making this liniment1 it being a much better solvent of camphor4 ,it has not that disagreeable odor so commonly found in the liniment4 ,linimentum ,chloroformi4--,cotton seed oil being very soluble in chloroform1 the liniment made with it leaves nothing to be desired4 ,linimentum ,plumbi ,subacetatis4--,when liq4 plumbi subacet4 is mixed with cotton seed oil and allowed to stand for some time the oil assumes a reddish color similar to that of freshly made tincture of myrrh4 ,when the liquor is mixed with olive oil1 if the oil be pure1 no such change takes place4 ,noticing this change1 it occurred to me that this would be a simple and easy way to detect cotton seed oil when mixed with olive oil4 ,this change usually takes place after standing from twelve to twenty-four hours4 ,it is easily detected in mixtures containing five per cent41 or even less1 of the oils1 and ,i am convinced1 after making numerous experiments with different oils1 that it is peculiar to cotton seed oil4--,american ,journal of ,pharmacy4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,food ,,and ,,energy ,,of ,,man4 ,footnote3 ,from a lecture delivered at the ,sanitary ,congress1 at ,newcastle-on-,tyne1 ,september #bh1 #ahhb4 ,by ,,prof4 ,,de ,,chaumont1 ,f4,r4,s4 ,although eating cannot be said to be in any way a new fashion1 it has nevertheless been reserved for modern times1 and indeed we may say the present generation1 to get a fairly clear idea of the way in which food is really utilized for the work of our bodily frame4 ,we must not1 however1 plume ourselves too much upon our superior knowledge1 for inklings of the truth1 more or less dim1 have been had through all ages1 and we are now stepping into the inheritance of times gone by1 using the long and painful experience of our predecessors as the stepping-stone to our more accurate knowledge of the present time4 ,in this1 as in many other things1 we are to some extent in the position of a dwarf on the shoulders of a giant2 the dwarf may1 indeed1 see further than the giant2 but he remains a dwarf1 and the giant a giant4 ,the question has been much discussed as to what the original food of man was1 and some people have made it a subject of excited contention4 ,the most reasonable conclusion is that man is naturally a frugivorous or fruit-eating animal1 like his cousins the monkeys1 whom he still so much resembles4 ,this forms a further argument in favor of his being originated in warm regions1 where fruits of all kinds were plentiful4 ,it is pretty clear that the resort to animal food1 whether the result of the pressure of want from failure of vegetable products1 or a mere taste and a desire for change and more appetizing food1 is one that took place many ages ago1 probably in the earliest anthropoid1 if not in the latest pithecoid stage4 ,no doubt some advantage was recognized in the more rapid digestion and the comparative ease with which the hunter or fisher could obtain food1 instead of waiting for the ripening of fruits in countries which had more or less prolonged periods of cold and inclement weather4 ,some anatomical changes have doubtless resulted from the practice1 but they are not of sufficiently marked character to found much argument upon2 all that we can say being that the digestive apparatus in man seems well adapted for digesting any food that is capable of yielding nutriment1 and that even when an entire change is made in the mode of feeding1 the adaptability of the human system shows itself in a more or less rapid accommodation to the altered circumstances4 ,food1 then1 is any substance which can be taken into the body and applied to use1 either in building up or repairing the tissues and framework of the body itself1 or in providing energy and producing animal heat1 or any substance which1 without performing those functions directly1 controls1 directs1 or assists their performance4 ,with this wide definition it is evident that we include all the ordinary articles recognized commonly as food1 and that we reject all substances recognized commonly as poisons4 ,but it will also include such substances as water and air1 both of which are essential for nutrition1 but are not usually recognized as belonging to the list of food substances in the ordinary sense4 ,when we carry our investigation further1 we find that the organic substances may be again divided into two distinct classes1 namely1 that which contains nitrogen 7the casein71 and those that do not 7the butter and sugar74 ,on ascertaining this1 we are immediately struck with the remarkable fact that all the tissues and fluids of the body1 muscles 7or flesh71 bone1 blood--all1 in short1 except the fat--contain nitrogen1 and1 consequently1 for their building up in the young1 and for their repair and renewal in the adult1 nitrogen is absolutely required4 ,we therefore reasonably infer that the nitrogenous substance is necessary for this purpose4 ,experiment has borne this out1 for men who have been compelled to live without nitrogenous food by dire necessity1 and criminals on whom the experiment has been tried1 have all perished sooner or later in consequence4 ,when nitrogenous substances are used in the body1 they are1 of course1 broken up and oxidized1 or perhaps we ought to say more accurately1 they take the place of the tissues of the body which wear away and are carried off by oxidation and other chemical changes4 ,now1 modern science tell us that such changes are accompanied with manifestations of energy in some form or other1 most frequently in that of heat1 and we must look1 therefore1 upon nitrogenous food as contributing to the energy of the body in addition to its other functions4 ,what are the substances which we may class as nitrogenous4 ,in the first place1 we have the typical example of the purest form in albumin1 or white of egg2 and from this the name is now given to the class of albuminates4 ,the animal albuminates are3 ,albumin from eggs1 fibrin from muscles1 or flesh1 myosin1 or synronin1 also from animals1 casein 7or cheesy matter7 from milk1 and the nitrogenous substances from blood4 ,in the vegetable kingdom1 we have glutin1 or vegetable fibrin1 which is the nourishing constituent of wheat1 barley1 oats1 etc42 and legumin1 or vegetable casein1 which is the peculiar substance found in peas and beans4 ,the other organic constituents--viz41 the fats and the starches and sugars--contain no nitrogen1 and were at one time thought to be concerned in producing animal heat4 ,we now know--thanks to the labors of ,joule1 ,lyon ,playfair1 ,clausius1 ,tyndall1 ,helmholtz1 etc4--that heat itself is a mode of motion1 a form of convertible energy1 which can be made to do useful or productive work1 and be expressed in terms of actual work done4 ,modern experiment shows that all our energy is derived from that of food1 and1 in particular from the non-nitrogenous part of it1 that is1 the fat1 starch1 and sugar4 ,the nutrition of man is best maintained when he is provided with a due admixture of all the four classes of aliment which we have mentioned1 and not only that1 but he is also better off if he has a variety of each class4 ,thus he may and ought to have albumen1 fibrine1 gluten1 and casein among the albuminates1 or at least two of them2 butter and lard1 or suet1 or oil among the fats2 starch of wheat1 potato1 rice1 peas1 etc41 and cane-sugar1 and milk-sugar among the carbo-hydrates4 ,the salts cannot be replaced1 so far as we know4 ,life may be maintained in fair vigor for some time on albuminates only1 but this is done at the expense of the tissues1 especially the fat of the body1 and the end must soon come2 with fat and carbo hydrates alone vigor may also be maintained for some time1 at the expense of the tissues also1 but the limit is a near one1 ,in either of these cases we suppose sufficient water and salts to be provided4 ,we must now inquire into the quantities of food necessary2 and this necessitates a little consideration of the way in which the work of the body is carried on4 ,we must look upon the human body exactly as a machine2 like an engine with which we are all so familiar4 ,a certain amount of work requires to be done1 say1 a certain number of miles of distance to be traversed2 we know that to do this a certain number of pounds1 or hundredweights1 or tons of coal must be put into the fire of the boiler in order to furnish the requisite amount of energy through the medium of steam4 ,this amount of fuel must bear a certain proportion to the work1 and also to the velocity with which it is done1 so both quantity and time have to be accounted for4 ,no lecture on diet would be complete without a reference to the vexed question of alcohol4 ,i am no teetotal advocate1 and ,i repudiate the rubbish too often spouted from teetotal platforms1 talk that is1 perhaps1 inseparable from the advocacy of a cause that imports a good deal of enthusiasm4 ,i am at one1 however1 in recognizing the evils of excess1 and would gladly hail their diminution4 ,but ,i believe that alcohol properly used may be a comfort and a blessing1 just as ,i know that improperly used it becomes a bane and a curse4 ,but we are now concerned with it as an article of diet in relation to useful work1 and it may be well to call attention markedly to the fact that its use in this way is very limited4 ,the experiments of the late ,dr4 ,parkes1 made in our laboratory1 at ,netley1 were conclusive on the point1 that beyond an amount that would be represented by about one and a half to two pints of beer1 alcohol no longer provided any convertible energy1 and that1 therefore1 to take it in the belief that it did do so is an error4 ,it may give a momentary stimulus in considerable doses1 but this is invariably followed by a corresponding depression1 and it is a maxim now generally followed1 especially on service1 never to give it before or during work4 ,there are1 of course1 some persons who are better without it altogether1 and so all moderation ought to be commended1 if not enjoyed4 ,there are other beverages which are more useful than the alcoholic1 as restoratives1 and for support in fatigue4 ,tea and coffee are particularly good4 ,another excellent restorative is a weak solution of ,liebig's extract of meat1 which has a remarkable power of removing fatigue4 ,perhaps one of the most useful and most easily obtainable is weak oatmeal gruel1 either hot or cold4 ,with regard to tobacco1 it also has some value in lessening fatigue in those who are able to take it1 but it may easily be carried to excess4 ,of it we may say1 as of alcohol1 that in moderation it seems harmless1 and even useful to some extent1 but1 in excess1 it is rank poison4 ,there is one other point which ,i must refer to1 and which is especially interesting to a great seaport like this4 ,this is the question of scurvy--a question of vital importance to a maritime nation4 ,a paper lately issued by ,mr4 ,thomas ,gray1 of the ,board of ,trade1 discloses the regrettable fact that since #ahgc there has been a serious falling off1 the outbreaks of scurvy having again increased until they reached ninety-nine in #ahha4 ,this1 ,mr4 ,gray seems to think1 is due to a neglect of varied food scales2 but it may also very probably have arisen from the neglect of the regulation about lime-juice1 either as to issue or quality1 or both4 ,but it is also a fact of very great importance that mere monotony of diet has a most serious effect upon health2 variety of food is not merely a pandering to gourmandism or greed1 but a real sanitary benefit1 aiding digestion and assimilation4 ,our ,board of ,trade has nothing to do with the food scales of ships1 but ,mr4 ,gray hints that the ,legislature will have to interfere unless shipowners look to it themselves4 ,the ease with which preserved foods of all kinds can be obtained and carried now removes the last shadow of an excuse for backwardness in this matter1 and in particular the provision of a large supply of potatoes1 both fresh and dried1 ought to be an unceasing care2 this is done on board ,american ships1 and to this is doubtless owing in a great part the healthiness of their crews4 ,scurvy in the present day is a disgrace to shipowners and masters2 and if public opinion is insufficient to protect the seamen1 the legislature will undoubtedly step in and do so4 ,and now let me close by pointing out that the study of this commonplace matter of eating and drinking opens out to us the conception of the grand unity of nature2 since we see that the body of man differs in no way essentially from other natural combinations1 but is subject to the same universal physical laws1 in which there is no blindness1 no variableness1 no mere chance1 and disobedience of which is followed as surely by retribution as even the keenest eschatologist might desire4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,rattlesnake ,,poison4 ,by ,,henry ,h4 ,,croft4 ,some time since1 in a paper to which ,i am unfortunately unable to refer1 a ,french chemist affirmed that the poisonous principle in snakes1 or eliminated by snakes1 was of the nature of an alkaloid1 and gave a name to this class of bodies4 ,mr4 ,pedler has shown that snake poison is destroyed or neutralized by means of platinic chloride1 owing probably to the formation of an insoluble double platinic chloride1 such as is formed with almost if not all alkaloids4 ,in this country 7,texas7 where rattlesnakes are very common1 and persons camping out much exposed to their bites1 a very favorite anecdote1 or remedia as the ,mexicans cull it1 is a strong solution of iodine in potassium iodide4#a ,footnote #a3 ,the solution is applied as soon as possible to the wound1 preferably enlarged1 and a few drops taken internally4 ,the common ,mexican remedia is the root of the ,agave virginica mashed or chewed and applied to the wound1 while part is swallowed4 ,great faith is placed in this root by all residents here1 who are seldom ,i without it1 but1 ,i have had no experience of it myself2 and the internal administration is no doubt useless4 ,even the wild birds know of this root2 the queer paisano 78 ground woodpecker7 which eats snakes1 when wounded by a vibora de cascabel1 runs into woods1 digs up and eats a root of the agave1 just like the mongoose2 but more than that1 goes back1 polishes off his enemy1 and eats him4 ,this has been told me by ,mexicans who1 it may be remarked1 are not always reliable4 ,i have had occasion to prove the efficacy of this mixture in two cases of cascabel bites1 one on a buck1 the other on a dog2 and it occurred to me that the same explanation of its action might be given as above for the platinum salt1 viz41 the formation of an insoluble iodo compound as with ordinary alkaloids if the snake poison really belongs to this class4 ,having last evening killed a moderate sized rattlesnake--,crotalus horridus--which had not bitten anything1 ,i found the gland fully charged with the white opaque poison2 on adding iodine solution to a drop of this a dense light-brown precipitate was immediately formed1 quite similar to that obtained with most alkaloids1 exhibiting under the microscope no crystalline structure4 ,in the absence of iodine a good extemporaneous solution for testing alkaloids1 and perhaps a snake poison antidote1 may be made by adding a few drops of ferric chloride to solution of potassium of iodide2 this is a very convenient test agent which ,i used in my laboratory for many years4 ,although rattlesnake poison could be obtained here in very considerable quantity1 it is out of my power to make such experiments as ,i could desire1 being without any chemical appliances and living a hundred miles or more from any laboratory4 ,the same may be said with regard to books1 and possibly the above iodine reaction has been already described4 ,dr4 ,richards states that the cobra poison is destroyed by potassium permanganate2 but this is no argument in favor of that salt as an antidote4 ,mr4 ,pedler also refers to it1 but allows that it would not be probably of any use after the poison had been absorbed4 ,of this ,i think there can be no doubt1 remembering the easy decomposition of permanganate by most organic substances1 and ,i cannot but think that the medicinal or therapeutic advantages of that salt1 taken internally1 are equally problematical1 unless the action is supposed to take place in the stomach4 ,in the bladder of the same rattlesnake ,i found a considerable quantity of light-brown amorphous ammonium urate1 the urine pale yellow4--,chemical ,news4 ,hermanitas ,ranch1 ,texas4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,chinese ,,sign ,,manual4 ,footnote3 ,dr4 ,d4 ,j4 ,macgowan1 in ,medical ,reports of ,china4 #ahha4 ,two writers in ,nature1 both having for their theme ,skin-furrows on the ,hand1 solicit information on the subject from ,china4#a ,as the subject is considered to have a bearing on medical jurisprudence and ethnology as well1 this report is a suitable vehicle for responding to the demand4 ,footnote #a3 ,henry ,faulds1 ,tzukiyi ,hospital1 ,tokio1 ,japan4 ,w4 ,j4 ,herschel1 ,oxford1 ,england4--,nature1 #bhth ,october and #beth ,november1 #ahhj4 ,dr4 ,faulds' observations on the finger-tips of the ,japanese have an ethnic bearing and relate to the subject of heredity4 ,mr4 ,herschel considers the subject as an agent of ,government1 he having charge for twenty years of registration offices in ,india1 where he employed finger marks as sign manuals1 the object being to prevent personation and repudiation4 ,doolittle1 in his ,social ,life of the ,chinese1 describes the custom4 ,i cannot now refer to native works where the practice of employing digital rug as a sign manual is alluded to4 ,i doubt if its employment in the courts is of ancient date4 ,well-informed natives think that it came into vogue subsequent to the ,han period2 if so1 it is in ,egypt that earliest evidence of the practice is to be found4 ,just as the ,chinese courts now require criminals to sign confessions by impressing thereto the whorls of their thumb-tips--the right thumb in the case of women1 the left in the case of men--so the ancient ,egyptians1 it is represented1 required confessions to be sealed with their thumbnails--most likely the tip of the digit1 as in ,china4 ,great importance is attached in the courts to this digital form of signature1 finger form4 ,without a confession no criminal can be legally executed1 and the confession to be valid must be attested by the thumb-print of the prisoner4 ,no direct coercion is employed to secure this2 a contumacious culprit may1 however1 be tortured until he performs the act which is a prerequisite to his execution4 ,digital signatures are sometimes required in the army to prevent personation2 the general in command at ,wenchow enforces it on all his troops4 ,a document thus attested can no more be forged or repudiated than a photograph--not so easily1 for while the period of half a lifetime effects great changes in the physiognomy1 the rug of the fingers present the same appearance from the cradle to the grave2 time writes no wrinkles there4 ,in the army everywhere1 when the description of a person is written down1 the relative number of volutes and coniferous finger-tips is noted4 ,it is called taking the whelk stri1 the fusiform being called rice baskets1 and the volutes peck measures4 ,a person unable to write1 the form of signature which defies personation or repudiation is required in certain domestic cases1 as in the sale of children or women4 ,often when a child is sold the parents affix their finger marks to the bill of sale2 when a husband puts away his wife1 giving her a bill of divorce1 he marks the document with his entire palm2 and when a wife is sold1 the purchaser requires the seller to stamp the paper with hands and feet1 the four organs duly smeared with ink4 ,professional fortune tellers in ,china take into account almost the entire system of the person whose future they attempt to forecast1 and of course they include palmistry1 but the rug of the finger-ends do not receive much attention4 ,amateur fortune-tellers1 however1 discourse as glibly on them as phrenologists do of bumps--it is so easy4 ,in children the relative number of volute and conical stri indicate their future4 ,if there are nine volutes1 says a proverb1 to one conical1 the boy will attain distinction without toil4 ,regarded from an ethnological point of view1 ,i can discover merely that the rug of ,chinamen's fingers differ from ,europeans'1 but there is so little uniformity observable that they form no basis for distinction1 and while the stri may be noteworthy points in certain medico-legal questions1 heredity is not one of them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,lucidity4 ,at the close of an interesting address lately delivered at the reopening of the ,liverpool ,university ,college and ,school of ,medicine1 ,mr4 ,matthew ,arnold said if there was one word which he should like to plant in the memories of his audience1 and to leave sticking there after he had gone1 it was the word lucidity4 ,if he had to fix upon the three great wants at this moment of the three principal nations of ,europe1 he should say that the great want of the ,french was morality1 that the great want of the ,germans was civil courage1 and that our own great want was lucidity4 ,our own want was1 of course1 what concerned us the most4 ,people were apt to remark the defects which accompanied certain qualities1 and to think that the qualities could not be desirable because of the defects which they saw accompanying them4 ,there was no greater and salutary lesson for men to learn than that a quality may be accompanied1 naturally perhaps1 by grave dangers2 that it may actually present itself accompanied by terrible defects1 and yet that it might itself be indispensable4 ,let him illustrate what he meant by an example1 the force of which they would all readily feel4 ,seriousness was a quality of our nation4 ,perhaps seriousness was always accompanied by certain dangers4 ,but1 at any rate1 many of our ,french neighbors would say that they found our seriousness accompanied by so many false ideas1 so much prejudice1 so much that was disagreeable1 that it could not have the value which we attributed to it4 ,and yet we knew that it was invaluable4 ,let them follow the same mode of reasoning as to the quality of lucidity4 ,the ,french had a national turn for lucidity as we had a national turn for seriousness4 ,perhaps a national turn for lucidity carried with it always certain dangers4 ,be this as it might1 it was certain that we saw in the ,french1 along with their lucidity1 a want of seriousness1 a want of reverence1 and other faults1 which greatly displeased us4 ,many of us were inclined in consequence to undervalue their lucidity1 or to deny that they had it4 ,we were wrong3 it existed as our seriousness existed2 it was valuable as our seriousness was valuable4 ,both the one and the other were valuable1 and in the end indispensable4 ,what was lucidity8 ,it was negatively that the ,french have it1 and he would therefore deal with its negative character merely4 ,negatively1 lucidity was the perception of the want of truth and validness in notions long current1 the perception that they are no longer possible1 that their time is finished1 and they can serve us no more4 ,all through the last century a prodigious travail for lucidity was going forward in ,france4 ,its principal agent was a man whose name excited generally repulsion in ,england1 ,voltaire4 ,voltaire did a great deal of harm in ,france4 ,but it was not by his lucidity that he did harm2 he did it by his want of seriousness1 his want of reverence1 his want of sense for much that is deepest in human nature4 ,but by his lucidity he did good4 ,all admired ,luther4 ,conduct was three-fourths of life1 and a man who worked for conduct1 therefore1 worked for more than a man who worked for intelligence4 ,but having promised this1 it might be said that the ,luther of the eighteenth century and of the cultivated classes was ,voltaire4 ,as ,luther had an antipathy to what was immoral1 so ,voltaire had an antipathy to what was absurd1 and both of them made war upon the object of their antipathy with such masterly power1 with so much conviction1 so much energy1 so much genius1 that they carried their world with them--,luther his ,protestant world1 and ,voltaire his ,french world--and the cultivated classes throughout the continent of ,europe generally4 ,voltaire had more than negative lucidity2 he had the large and true conception that a number and equilibrium of activities were necessary for man4 ,il faut douner notre me toutes les formes possibles was a maxim which ,voltaire really and truly applied in practice1 advancing1 as ,michelet finely said of him1 in every direction with a marvelous vigor and with that conquering ambition which ,vico called mens heroica4 ,nevertheless4 ,voltaire's signal characteristic was his lucidity1 his negative lucidity4 ,there was a great and free intellectual movement in ,england in the eighteenth century--indeed1 it was from ,england that it passed into ,france2 but the ,english had not that strong natural bent for lucidity which the ,french had4 ,its bent was toward other things in preference4 ,our leading thinkers had not the genius and passion for lucidity which distinguished ,voltaire4 ,in their free inquiry they soon found themselves coming into collision with a number of established facts1 beliefs1 conventions4 ,thereupon all sorts of practical considerations began to sway them4 ,the danger signal went up1 they often stopped short1 turned their eyes another way1 or drew down a curtain between themselves and the light4 ,it seems highly probable1 said ,voltaire1 that nature has made thinking a portion of the brain1 as vegetation is a function of trees2 that we think by the brain just as we walk by the feet4 ,so our reason1 at least1 would lead us to conclude1 if the theologians did not assure us of the contrary2 such1 too1 was the opinion of ,locke1 but he did not venture to announce it4 ,the ,french ,revolution came1 ,england grew to abhor ,france1 and was cut off from the ,continent1 did great things1 gained much1 but not in lucidity4 ,the ,continent was reopened1 the century advanced1 time and experience brought their lessons1 lovers of free and clear thought1 such as the late ,john ,stuart ,mill1 arose among us4 ,but we could not say that they had by any means founded among us the reign of lucidity4 ,let them consider that movement of which we were hearing so much just now3 let them look at the ,salvation ,army and its operations4 ,they would see numbers1 funds1 energy1 devotedness1 excitement1 conversions1 and a total absence of lucidity4 ,a little lucidity would make the whole movement impossible4 ,that movement took for granted as its basis what was no longer possible or receivable2 its adherents proceeded in all they did on the assumption that that basis was perfectly solid1 and neither saw that it was not solid1 nor ever even thought of asking themselves whether it was solid or not4 ,taking a very different movement1 and one of far higher dignity and import1 they had all had before their minds lately the long-devoted1 laborious1 influential1 pure1 pathetic life of ,dr4 ,pusey1 which had just ended4 ,many of them had also been reading in the lively volumes of that acute1 but not always good-natured rattle1 ,mr4 ,mozley1 an account of that great movement which took from ,dr4 ,pusey its earlier name4 ,of its later stage of ,ritualism they had had in this country a now celebrated experience4 ,this movement was full of interest4 ,it had produced men to be respected1 men to be admired1 men to be beloved1 men of learning1 goodness1 genius1 and charm4 ,but could they resist the truth that lucidity would have been fatal to it8 ,the movers of all those questions about apostolical succession1 church patristic authority1 primitive usage1 postures1 vestments--questions so passionately debated1 and on which he would not seek to cast ridicule--did not they all begin by taking for granted something no longer possible or receivable1 build on this basis as if it were indubitably solid1 and fail to see that their basis not being solid1 all they built upon it was fantastic8 ,he would not say that negative lucidity was in itself a satisfactory possession1 but he said that it was inevitable and indispensable1 and that it was the condition of all serious construction for the future4 ,without it at present a man or a nation was intellectually and spiritually all abroad4 ,if they saw it accompanied in ,france by much that they shrank from1 they should reflect that in ,england it would have influences joined with it which it had not in ,france--the natural seriousness of the people1 their sense of reverence and respect1 their love for the past4 ,come it must2 and here where it had been so late in coming1 it would probably be for the first time seen to come without danger4 ,capitals were natural centers of mental movement1 and it was natural for the classes with most leisure1 most freedom1 most means of cultivation1 and most conversance with the wide world to have lucidity though often they had it not4 ,to generate a spirit of lucidity in provincial towns1 and among the middle classes bound to a life of much routine and plunged in business1 was more difficult4 ,schools and universities1 with serious and disinterested studies1 and connecting those studies the one with the other and continuing them into years of manhood1 were in this case the best agency they could use4 ,it might be slow1 but it was sure4 ,such an agency they were now going to employ4 ,might it fulfill all their expectations6 ,might their students1 in the words quoted just now1 advance in every direction with a marvelous vigor1 and with that conquering ambition which ,vico called mens heroica6 ,and among the many good results of this1 might one result be the acquisition in their midst of that indispensable spirit--the spirit of lucidity6 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,some ,,apparatus ,,that ,,permit ,,of ,,entering ,,flames4 ,footnote3 ,a4 de ,rochas in the ,revue ,scientifique4 ,in the following notes ,i shall recall a few experiments that indicate under what conditions the human organism is permitted to remain unharmed amid flames4 ,these experiments were published in ,england in #ahhb1 in the twelfth letter from ,brewster to ,walter ,scott on natural magic4 ,they are1 ,i believe1 not much known in ,france1 and possess a practical interest for those who are engaged in the art of combating fires4 ,at the end of the last century ,humphry ,davy observed that1 on placing a very fine wire gauze over a flame1 the latter was cooled to such a point that it could not traverse the meshes4 ,this phenomenon1 which he attributed to the conductivity and radiating power of the metal1 he soon utilized in the construction of a lamp for miners4 ,some years afterward ,chevalier ,aldini1 of ,milan1 conceived the idea of making a new application of ,davy's discovery in the manufacture of an envelope that should permit a man to enter into the midst of flames4 ,this envelope1 which was made of metallic gauze with #a-beth of an inch meshes1 was composed of five pieces1 as follows3 7#a7 a helmet1 with mask1 large enough1 to allow a certain space between it and the internal bonnet of which ,i shall speak2 7#b7 a cuirass with armlets2 7#c7 a skirt for the lower part of the belly and the thighs2 7#d7 a pair of boots formed of a double wire gauze2 and 7#e7 a shield five feet long by one and a half wide1 formed of metallic gauze stretched over a light iron frame4 ,beneath this armor the experimenter was clad in breeches and a close coat of coarse cloth that had previously been soaked in a solution of alum4 ,the head1 hands1 and feet were covered by envelopes of asbestos cloth whose fibers were about a half millimeter in diameter4 ,the bonnet contained apertures for the eyes1 nose1 and ears1 and consisted of a single thickness of fabric1 as did the stockings1 but the gloves were of double thickness1 so that the wearer could seize burning objects with the hands4 ,aldini1 convinced of the services that his apparatus might render to humanity1 traveled over ,europe and gave gratuitous representations with it4 ,the exercises generally took place in the following order3 ,aldini began by first wrapping his finger in asbestos and then with a double layer of wire gauze4 ,he then held it for some instants in the flame of a candle or alcohol lamp4 ,one of his assistants afterward put on the asbestos glove of which ,i have spoken1 and1 protecting the palm of his hand with another piece of asbestos cloth1 seized a piece of red-hot iron from a furnace and slowly carried it to a distance of forty or fifty meters1 lighted some straw with it1 and then carried it back to the furnace4 ,on other occasions1 the experimenters1 holding firebrands in their hands1 walked for five minutes over a large grating under which fagots were burning4 ,in order to show how the head1 eyes1 and lungs were protected by the wire gauze apparatus1 one of the experimenters put on the asbestos bonnet1 helmet1 and cuirass1 and fixed the shield in front of his breast4 ,then1 in a chafing dish placed on a level with his shoulder1 a great fire of shavings was lighted1 and care was taken to keep it up4 ,into the midst of these flames the experimenter then plunged his head and remained thus five or six minutes with his face turned toward them4 ,in an exhibition given at ,paris before a committee from the ,academic des ,sciences1 there were set up two parallel fences formed of straw1 connected by iron wire to light wicker work1 and arranged so as to leave between them a passage #c feet wide by #cj long4 ,the heat was so intense1 when the fences were set on fire1 that no one could approach nearer than #bj or #be feet2 and the flames seemed to fill the whole space between them1 and rose to a height of #i or #aj feet4 ,six men clad in the ,aldini suit went in1 one behind the other1 between the blazing fences1 and walked slowly backward and forward in the narrow passage1 while the fire was being fed with fresh combustibles from the exterior4 ,one of these men carried on his back1 in an ozier basket covered with wire gauze1 a child eight years of age1 who had on no other clothing than an asbestos bonnet4 ,this same man1 having the child with him1 entered on another occasion a clear fire whose flames reached a height of #ah feet1 and whose intensity was such that it could not be looked at4 ,he remained therein so long that the spectators began to fear that he had succumbed2 but he finally came out safe and sound4 ,one of the conclusions to be drawn from the facts just stated is that man can breathe in the midst of flames4 ,this marvelous property cannot be attributed exclusively to the cooling of the air by its passage through the gauze before reaching the lungs2 it shows also a very great resistance of our organs to the action of heat4 ,the following1 moreover1 are direct proofs of such resistance4 ,in ,england1 in their first experiment1 ,messrs4 ,joseph ,banks1 ,charles ,blagden1 and ,dr4 ,solander remained for ten minutes in a hot-house whose temperature was #baa ,fahr41 and their bodies preserved therein very nearly the usual heat4 ,on breathing against a thermometer they caused the mercury to fall several degrees4 ,each expiration1 especially when it was somewhat strong1 produced in their nostrils an agreeable impression of coolness1 and the same impression was also produced on their fingers when breathed upon4 ,when they touched themselves their skin seemed to be as cold as that of a corpse2 but contact with their watch chains caused them to experience a sensation like that of a burn4 ,a thermometer placed under the tongue of one of the experimenters marked #ih ,fahr41 which is the normal temperature of the human species4 ,emboldened by these first results1 ,blagden entered a hot-house in which the thermometer in certain parts reached #bfb ,fahr4 ,he remained therein eight minutes1 walked about in all directions1 and stopped in the coolest part1 which was at #bdj ,fahr4 ,during all this time he experienced no painful sensations2 but1 at the end of seven minutes1 he felt an oppression of the lungs that inquieted him and caused him to leave the place4 ,his pulse at that moment showed #add beats to the minute1 that is to say1 double what it usually did4 ,to ascertain whether there was any error in the indications of the thermometer1 and to find out what effect would take place on inert substances exposed to the hot air that he had breathed1 ,blogden placed some eggs in a zinc plate in the hot-house1 alongside the thermometer1 and found that in twenty minutes they were baked hard4 ,a case is reported where workmen entered a furnace for drying moulds1 in ,england1 the temperature of which was #agg1 and whose iron sole plate was so hot that it carbonized their wooden shoes4 ,in the immediate vicinity of this furnace the temperature rose to #afj4 ,persons not of the trade who approached anywhere near the furnace experienced pain in the eyes1 nose1 and ears4 ,a baker is cited in ,angoumois1 ,france1 who spent ten minutes in a furnace at #acb ,c4 ,the resistance of the human organism to so high temperatures can be attributed to several causes4 ,first1 it has been found that the quantity of carbonic acid exhaled by the lungs1 and consequently the chemical phenomena of internal combustion that are a source of animal heat1 diminish in measure as the external temperature rises4 ,hence1 a conflict which has for result the retardation of the moment at which a living being will tend1 without obstacle1 to take the temperature of the surrounding medium4 ,on another hand1 it has been observed that man resists heat so much the less in proportion as the air is saturated with vapors4 ,dr4 ,berger1 who supported for seven minutes a temperature varying from #aji to #aaj ,c4 in dry air1 could remain only twelve minutes in a bagnio whose temperature rose from #da to #ea4ge4 ,at the ,hammam of ,paris the highest temperature obtained is #hg1 and ,dr4 ,e4 ,martin has not been able to remain therein more than five minutes4 ,this physician reports that in #agdc1 the thermometer having exceeded #dj at ,pekin1 #ad1jjj persons perished4 ,these facts are explained by the cooling that the evaporation of perspiration produces on the surface of the body4 ,edwards has calculated that such evaporation is ten times greater in dry air in motion than in calm and humid air4 ,the observations become still more striking when the skin is put in contact with a liquid or a solid which suppresses perspiration4 ,lemoine endured a bath of ,bareges water of #cg for half an hour2 but at #de he could not remain in it more than seven minutes1 and the perspiration began to flow at the end of six minutes4 ,according to ,brewster1 persons who experience no malaise near a fire which communicates a temperature of #ajj ,c4 to them1 can hardly bear contact with alcohol and oil at #ee and mercury at #dh4 ,the facts adduced permit us to understand how it was possible to bear one of the proofs to which it is said those were submitted who wished to be initiated into the ,egyptian mysteries4 ,in a vast vaulted chamber nearly a hundred feet long1 there were erected two fences formed of posts1 around which were wound branches of ,arabian balm1 ,egyptian thorn1 and tamarind--all very flexible and inflammable woods4 ,when this was set on fire the flames arose as far as the vault1 licked it1 and gave the chamber the appearance of a hot furnace1 the smoke escaping through pipes made for the purpose4 ,then the door was suddenly opened before the neophyte1 and he was ordered to traverse this burning place1 whose floor was composed of an incandescent grating4 ,the ,abb ,terrason recounts all these details in his historic romance ,sethos1 printed at the end of last century4 ,unfortunately literary frauds were in fashion then1 and the book1 published as a translation of an old ,greek manuscript1 gives no indication of sources4 ,i have sought in special works for the data which the abb must have had as a basis1 but ,i have not been able to find them4 ,i suppose1 however1 that this description1 which is so precise1 is not merely a work of the imagination4 ,the author goes so far as to give the dimensions of the grating 7#cj feet by #h71 and1 greatly embarrassed to explain how his hero was enabled to traverse it without being burned1 is obliged to suppose it to have been formed of very thick bars1 between which ,sethos had care to place his feet4 ,but this explanation is inadmissible4 ,he who had the courage to rush1 head bowed1 into the midst of the flames1 certainly would not have amused himself by choosing the place to put his feet4 ,braving the fire that surrounded his entire body1 he must have had no other thought than that of reaching the end of his dangerous voyage as soon as possible4 ,we cannot see very well1 moreover1 how this immense grate1 lying on the ground1 was raised to a red heat and kept at such a temperature4 ,it is infinitely more simple to suppose that between the two fences there was a ditch sufficiently deep in which a fire had also been lighted1 and which was covered by a grating as in the ,aldini experiments4 ,it is even probable that this grating was of copper1 which1 illuminated by the fireplace1 must have presented a terrifying brilliancy1 while in reality it served only to prevent the flames from the fireplace reaching him who dared to brave them4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,building ,,stone ,,supply4 ,the use of stone as a building material was not resorted to1 except to a trifling extent1 in this country until long after the need of such a solid substance was felt4 ,the early settler contented himself with the log cabin1 the corduroy road1 and the wooden bridge1 and loose stone enough for foundation purposes could readily be gathered from the surface of the earth4 ,even after the desirability of more handsome and durable building material for public edifices in the colonial cities than wood became apparent1 the ample resources which nature had afforded in this country were overlooked1 and brick and stone were imported by the ,dutch and ,english settlers from the ,old ,world4 ,thus we find the colonists of the ,new ,netherlands putting yellow brick on their list of non-dutiable imports in #afdh2 and such buildings in ,boston as are described as being fairly set forth with brick1 tile1 slate1 and stone1 were thus provided only with foreign products4 ,isolated instances of quarrying stone are known to have occurred in the last century2 but they are rare4 ,the edifice known as ,king's ,chapel1 ,boston1 erected in #ageb1 is the first one on record as being built from ,american stone2 this was granite1 brought from ,braintree1 ,mass4 ,granite is a rock particularly abundant in ,new ,england1 though also found in lesser quantities elsewhere in this country4 ,the first granite quarries that were extensively developed were those at ,quincy1 ,mass41 and work began at that point early in the present century4 ,the fame of the stone became widespread1 and it was sent to distant markets--even to ,new ,orleans4 ,the old ,merchants' ,exchange in ,new ,york 7afterward used as a custom house7 the ,astor ,house in that city1 and the ,custom ,house in ,new ,orleans1 all nearly or quite fifty years old1 were constructed of ,quincy granite1 as were many other fine buildings along the ,atlantic coast4 ,in later years1 not only isolated public edifices1 but also whole blocks of stores1 have been constructed of this material4 ,it was from the ,quincy quarries that the first railroad in this country was built2 this was a horse-railroad1 three miles long1 extending to ,neponset ,river1 built in #ahbg4 ,other points in ,massachusetts have been famed for their excellent granite4 ,after ,maine was set off as a distinct ,state1 ,fox ,island acquired repute for its granite1 and built up an extensive traffic therein4 ,westerly1 ,r4,i41 has also been engaged in quarrying this valuable rock for many years1 most of its choicer specimens having been wrought for monumental purposes4 ,statues and other elaborate monumental designs are now extensively made therefrom4 ,smaller pieces and a coarser quality of the stone are here and elsewhere along the coast obtained in large quantities for the construction of massive breakwaters to protect harbors4 ,another point famous for its granite is ,staten ,island1 ,new ,york4 ,this stone weighs #ahj pounds to the cubic foot1 while the ,quincy granite weighs but #afe4 ,the ,staten ,island product is used not only for building purposes1 but is also especially esteemed for paving after both the ,russ and ,belgian patents4 ,new ,york and other cities derive large supplies from this source4 ,the granite of ,weehawken1 ,n4,j41 is of the same character1 and greatly in demand4 ,port ,deposit1 ,md41 and ,richmond1 ,va1 are also centers of granite production4 ,near ,abbeville1 ,s4,c41 and in ,georgia1 granite is found quite like that of ,quincy4 ,much southern granite1 however1 decomposes readily1 and is almost as soft as clay4 ,this variety of stone is found in great abundance in the ,rocky ,mountains2 but1 except to a slight extent in ,california1 it is not yet quarried there4 ,granite1 having little grain1 can be cut into blocks of almost any size and shape4 ,specimens as much as eighty feet long have been taken out and transported great distances4 ,the quarrying is done by drilling a series of small holes1 six inches or more deep and almost the same distance apart1 inserting steel wedges along the whole line and then tapping each gently with a hammer in succession1 in order that the strain may be evenly distributed4 ,a building material that came into use earlier than granite is known as freestone or sandstone2 although its first employment does not date back further than the erection of ,king's ,chapel1 ,boston1 already referred to as the earliest well-known occasion where granite was used in building4 ,altogether the most famous ,american sandstone quarries are those at ,portland1 on the ,connecticut ,river1 opposite ,middletown4 ,these were worked before the ,revolution2 and their product has been shipped to many distant points in the country4 ,the long rows of brownstone fronts in ,new ,york city are mostly of ,portland stone1 though in many cases the walls are chiefly of brick covered with thin layers of the stone4 ,the old red sandstone of the ,connecticut valley is distinguished in geology for the discovery of gigantic fossil footprints of birds1 first noticed in the ,portland quarries in #ahjb4 ,some of these footprints measured ten to sixteen inches1 and they were from four to six feet apart4 ,the sandstone of ,belleville1 ,n4,j41 has also extensive use and reputation4 ,trinity ,church in ,new ,york city and the ,boston ,atheneum are built of the product of these quarries2 ,st4 ,lawrence ,county1 ,new ,york1 is noted also for a fine bed of sandstone4 ,at ,potsdam it is exposed to a depth of seventy feet4 ,there are places though1 in ,new ,england1 ,new ,york1 and ,eastern ,pennsylvania1 where a depth of three hundred feet has been reached4 ,the ,potsdam sandstone is often split to the thinness of an inch4 ,it hardens by exposure1 and is often used for smelting furnace hearth-stones4 ,shawangunk ,mountain1 in ,ulster ,county1 yields a sandstone of inferior quality1 which has been unsuccessfully tried for paving2 as it wears very unevenly4 ,from ,ulster1 ,greene1 and ,albany ,counties sandstone slabs for sidewalks are extensively quarried for city use2 the principal outlets of these sections being ,kingston1 ,saugerties1 ,coxsackie1 ,bristol1 and ,new ,baltimore1 on the ,hudson4 ,in this region quantities amounting to millions of square feet are taken out in large sheets1 which are often sawed into the sizes desired4 ,the vicinity of ,medina1 in ,western ,new ,york1 yields a sandstone extensively used in that section for paving and curbing1 and a little for building4 ,a rather poor quality of this stone has been found along the ,potomac1 and some of it was used in the erection of the old ,capitol building at ,washington4 ,ohio yields a sandstone that is of a light gray color2 ,berea1 ,amherst1 ,vermilion1 and ,massillon are the chief points of production4 ,st4 ,genevieve1 ,mo41 yields a stone of fine grain of a light straw color1 which is quite equal to the famous ,caen stone of ,france4 ,the ,lake ,superior sandstones are dark and coarse grained1 but strong4 ,in some parts of the country1 where neither granite nor sandstone is easily procured1 blue and gray limestone are sometimes used for building1 and1 when hammer dressed1 often look like granite4 ,a serious objection to their use1 however1 is the occasional presence of iron1 which rusts on exposure1 and defaces the building4 ,in ,western ,new ,york they are widely used4 ,topeka stone1 like the coquine of ,florida and ,bermuda1 is soft like wood when first quarried1 and easily wrought1 but it hardens on exposure4 ,the limestones of ,canton1 ,mo41 ,joliet and ,athens1 ,ill41 ,dayton1 ,sandusky1 ,marblehead1 and other points in ,ohio1 ,ellittsville1 ,ind41 and ,louisville and ,bowling ,green1 ,ky41 are great favorites west4 ,in many of these regions limestone is extensively used for macadamizing roads1 for which it is excellently adapted4 ,it also yields excellent slabs or flags for sidewalks4 ,one of the principal uses of this variety of stone is its conversion1 by burning1 into lime for building purposes4 ,all limestones are by no means equally excellent in this regard4 ,thomaston lime1 burned with ,pennsylvania coal1 near the ,penobscot ,river1 has had a wide reputation for nearly half a century4 ,it has been shipped thence to all points along the ,atlantic coast1 invading ,virginia as far as ,lynchburg1 and going even to ,new ,orleans1 ,smithfield1 ,r4,i41 and ,westchester ,county1 ,n4,y41 near the lower end of the ,highlands1 also make a particularly excellent quality of lime4 ,kingston1 in ,ulster ,county1 makes an inferior sort for agricultural purposes4 ,the ,ohio and other western stones yield a poor lime1 and that section is almost entirely dependent on the east for supplies4 ,marbles1 like limestones1 with which they are closely related1 are very abundant in this country1 and are also to be found in a great variety of colors4 ,as early as #ahjd ,american marble was used for statuary purposes4 ,early in the century it also obtained extensive employment for gravestones4 ,its use for building purposes has been more recent than granite and sandstone in this country2 and it is coming to supersede the latter to a great degree4 ,for mantels1 fire-places1 porch pillars1 and like ornamental purposes1 however1 our variegated1 rich colored and veined or brecciated marbles were in use some time before exterior walls were made from them4 ,among the earliest marble buildings were ,girard ,college in ,philadelphia and the old ,city ,hall in ,new ,york1 and the ,custom ,house in the latter city1 afterward used for a sub-treasury4 ,the new ,capitol building at ,washington is among the more recent structures composed of this material4 ,our exports of marble to ,cuba and elsewhere amount to over #cjj1jjj annually1 although we import nearly the same amount from ,italy4 ,and yet an article can be found in the ,united ,states fully as fine as the famous ,carrara marble4 ,we refer to that which comes from ,rutland1 ,vt4 ,this state yields the largest variety and choicest specimens4 ,the marble belt runs both ways from ,rutland ,county1 where the only quality fit for statuary is obtained4 ,toward the north it deteriorates by growing less sound1 though finer in grain2 while to the south it becomes coarser4 ,a beautiful black marble is obtained at ,shoreham1 ,vt4 ,there are also handsome brecciated marbles in the same state2 and in the extreme northern part1 near ,lake ,champlain1 they become more variegated and rich in hue4 ,such other marble as is found in ,new ,england is of an inferior quality4 ,the pillars of ,girard ,college came from ,berkshire1 ,mass41 which ranks next after ,vermont in reputation4 ,the marble belt extends from ,new ,england through ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 ,maryland1 the ,district of ,columbia1 and ,virginia1 ,tennessee1 and the ,carolinas1 to ,georgia and ,alabama4 ,some of the variegated and high colored varieties obtained near ,knoxville1 ,tenn41 nearly equal that of ,vermont4 ,the ,rocky ,mountains contain a vast abundance and variety4 ,slate was known to exist in this country to a slight extent in colonial days4 ,it was then used for gravestones1 and to some extent for roofing and school purposes4 ,but most of our supplies came from ,wales4 ,it is stated that a slate quarry was operated in ,northampton ,county1 ,pa41 as early as #ahje4 ,in #ahbf ,james ,m4 ,porter and ,samuel ,taylor engaged in the business1 obtaining their supplies from the ,kittanninny ,mountains4 ,from this time the business developed rapidly1 the village of ,slateford being an outgrowth of it1 and large rafts being employed to float the product down the ,schuylkill to ,philadelphia4 ,by #ahfj the industry had reached the capacity of #bj1jjj cases of slate1 valued at #aj a case1 annually4 ,in #ahci quarries were opened in the ,piscataquis ,river1 forty miles north of ,bangor1 ,me41 but poor transportation facilities retarded the business4 ,vermont began to yield in #aheb4 ,new ,york's quarries are confined to ,washington ,county1 near the ,vermont line4 ,maryland has a limited supply from ,harford ,county4 ,the ,huron ,mountains1 north of ,marquette1 ,mich41 contain slate1 which is also said to exist in ,pike ,county1 ,ga4 ,grindstones1 millstones1 and whetstones are quarried in ,new ,york1 ,ohio1 ,michigan1 ,pennsylvania1 and other ,states4 ,mica is found at ,acworth and ,grafton1 ,n4 ,h41 and near ,salt ,lake1 but our chief supply comes from ,haywood1 ,yancey1 ,mitchell1 and ,macon counties1 in ,north ,carolina1 and our product is so large that we can afford to export it4 ,other stones1 such as silex1 for making glass1 etc41 are found in profusion in various parts of the country1 but we have no space to enter into a detailed account of them at present4--,pottery and ,glassware ,reporter4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,an ,,industrial ,,revolution4 ,the most interesting change of which the ,census gives account is the increase in the number of farms4 ,the number has virtually doubled within twenty years4 ,the population of the country has not increased in like proportion4 ,a large part of the increase in number of farms has been due to the division of great estates4 ,nor has this occurred1 as some may imagine1 exclusively in the ,southern ,states and the ,states to which immigration and migration have recently been directed4 ,it is an important fact that the multiplication of farms has continued even in the older ,northern ,states1 though the change has not been as great in these as in ,states of the far ,west or the ,south4 ,in ,new ,york there has been an increase of #be1jjj1 or #aa4e per cent1 in the number of farms since #ahgj2 in ,new ,jersey the increase has been #ab4b per cent41 and in ,pennsylvania #bb4g per cent41 though the increase in population1 and doubtless in the number of persons engaged in farming1 has been much smaller4 ,ohio1 ,indiana1 and ,illinois also1 have been considered fully settled ,states for years1 at least in an agricultural point of view1 and yet the number of farms has increased #bf4a per cent1 in ten years in ,ohio1 #bj4c percent1 in ,indiana1 and #bf4a per cent1 in ,illinois4 ,the obvious explanation is that the growth of many cities and towns has created a market for a far greater supply of those products which may be most advantageously grown upon farms of moderate size2 but even if this fully accounts for the phenomenon1 the change must be recognized as one of the highest importance industrially1 socially1 and politically4 ,the man who owns or rents and cultivates a farm stands on a very different footing from the laborer who works for wages4 ,it is not a small matter that1 in these six ,states alone1 there are #bje1jjj more owners or managers of farms than there were only a decade ago4 ,as we go further toward the border1 west or north1 the influence of the settlement of new land is more distinctly felt4 ,even in ,michigan1 where new railroads have opened new regions to settlement1 the increase in number of farms has been over #ee per cent4 ,in ,wisconsin1 though the increase in railroad mileage has been about the same as in ,michigan1 the reported increase in number of farms has been only #bh per cent41 but in ,iowa it rises to #fj per cent41 and in ,minnesota to nearly #ajj per cent4 ,in ,kansas the number of farms is #ach1efa1 against #ch1bjb in #ahgj2 in ,nebraska #fc1chg1 against #ab1cja2 and in ,dakota #ag1dce1 against #a1gbj4 ,in these regions the process is one of creation of new ,states rather than a change in the social and industrial condition of the population4 ,some ,southern ,states have gained largely1 but the increase in these1 though very great1 is less surprising than the new ,states of the ,northwest4 ,the prevailing tendency of ,southern agriculture to large farms and the employment of many hands is especially felt in ,states where land is still abundant4 ,the greatest increase is in ,texas1 where #agd1ahd farms are reported1 against #fa1abe in #ahgj2 in ,florida1 with #bc1dch farms1 against #aj1bda in #ahgj2 and in ,arkansas1 with #id1dcc farms1 against #di1dbd in #ahgj4 ,in ,missouri #bae1ege farms are reported1 against #adh1bbh in #ahgj4 ,in these ,states1 though social changes have been great1 the increase in number of farms has been largely due to new settlements1 as in the ,states of the far ,northwest4 ,but the change in the older ,southern ,states is of a different character4 ,virginia1 for example1 has long been settled1 and had #gg1jjj farms thirty years ago4 ,but the increase in number within the past ten years has been #dd1ffh1 or #fj4e per cent4 ,contrasting this with the increase in ,new ,york1 a remarkable difference appears4 ,west ,virginia had few more farms ten years ago than ,new ,jersey2 now it has nearly twice as many1 and has gained in number nearly #fj per cent4 ,north ,carolina1 too1 has increased #gh per cent4 in number of farms since #ahgj1 and ,south ,carolina #hj per cent4 ,in ,georgia the increase has been still greater--from #fi1ief to #ach1fbf1 or nearly #ajj per cent4 ,in ,alabama there are #ace1hfd farms1 against #fg1chb in #ahgj1 an increase of over #ajj per cent4 ,these proportions1 contrasted with those for the older ,northern ,states1 reveal a change that is nothing less than an industrial revolution4 ,but the force of this tendency to division of estates has been greatest in the ,states named4 ,whereas the ratio of increase in number of farms becomes greater in ,northern ,states as we go from the ,east toward the ,mississippi ,river1 at the ,south it is much smaller in ,kentucky1 ,tennessee1 ,mississippi1 and ,louisiana than in the older ,states on the ,atlantic coast4 ,thus in ,louisiana the increase has been from #bh1dha to #dh1bib farms1 or #gj per cent41 and in ,mississippi from #fh1jbc to #aja1ggb farms1 or less than #ej per cent41 against #ajj in ,alabama and ,georgia4 ,in ,kentucky the increase has been from #aah1dbb to #aff1dec farms1 or #dj per cent41 and in ,tennessee from #aah1ada to #afe1fej farms1 or #dj per cent41 against #fj in ,virginia and ,west ,virginia1 and #gh in ,north ,carolina4 ,thus1 while the tendency to division is far greater than in the ,northern ,states of corresponding age1 it is found in full force only in six of the older ,southern ,states1 ,alabama1 ,west ,virginia1 and four on the ,atlantic coast4 ,in these1 the revolution already effected foreshadows and will almost certainly bring about important political changes within a few years4 ,in these six ,states there #caj1gie more farm owners or occupants than there were ten years ago4--,n4,y4 ,tribune4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a ,,farmer',s ,,lime ,,kiln4 ,for information about burning lime we republish the following article furnished by a correspondent of the ,country ,gentleman several years ago3 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,fig4 #b4 ,fig4 #c4 ,a 7,fig4 #a71 ,railway ,track--,b ,b ,b1 ,iron ,rods running through ,kiln--,c1 ,capstone over ,arch--,d1 ,arch--,e1 ,well without brick or ash lining4 ,i send you a description and sketch of a lime-kiln put up on my premises about five years ago4 ,the dimensions of this kiln are #ac feet square by #be feet high from foundation1 and its capacity #ajj bushels in #bd hours4 ,it was constructed of the limestone quarried on the spot4 ,it has round iron rods 7shown in sketch7 passing through1 with iron plates fastened to the ends as clamps to make it more firm2 the pair nearest the top should be not less than #b feet from that point1 the others interspersed about #b feet apart--the greatest strain being near the top4 ,the arch should be #g feet high by #e wide in front1 with a gather on the top and sides of about #a foot1 with plank floor2 and if this has a little incline it will facilitate shoveling the lime when drawn4 ,the arch should have a strong capstone2 also one immediately under the well of the kiln1 with a hole #b feet in diameter to draw the lime through2 or two may be used with semicircle cut in each4 ,iron bars #b inches wide by #a_/h inch thick are used in this kiln for closing it1 working in slots fastened to capstone4 ,these slots must be put in before the caps are laid4 ,when it is desired to draw lime1 these bars may be pushed laterally in the slots1 or drawn out entirely1 according to circumstances2 #c bars will be enough4 ,the slots are made of iron bars #a inches wide1 with ends rounded and turned up1 and inserted in holes drilled through capstone and keyed above4 ,the well of the kiln is lined with fire-brick one course thick1 with a stratum of coal ashes three inches thick tamped in between the brick and wall1 which proves a great protection to the wall4 ,about #b1jjj fire-bricks were used4 ,the proprietors of this kiln say about one-half the lower part of the well might have been lined with a first quality of common brick and saved some expense and been just as good4 ,the form of the well shown in ,fig4 #c is #g feet in diameter in the bilge1 exclusive of the lining of brick and ashes4 ,experiments in this vicinity have proved this to be the best1 this contraction toward the top being absolutely necessary1 the expansion of the stone by the heat is so great that the lime cannot be drawn from perpendicular walls1 as was demonstrated in one instance near here1 where a kiln was built on that principle4 ,the kiln1 of course1 is for coal1 and our stone requires about three-quarters of a ton per #ajj bushels of lime1 but this1 ,i am told1 varies according to quality1 some requiring more than others2 the quantity can best be determined by experimenting2 also the regulation of the heat--if too great it will cause the stones to melt or run together as it were1 or1 if too little1 they will not be properly burned4 ,the business requires skill and judgment to run it successfully4 ,this kiln is located at the foot of a steep bluff1 the top about level with the top of the kiln1 with railway track built of wooden sleepers1 with light iron bars1 running from the bluff to the top of the kiln1 and a hand-car makes it very convenient filling the kiln4 ,such a location should be had if possible4 ,your inquirer may perhaps get some ideas of the principles of a kiln for using coal4 ,the dimensions may be reduced1 if desired4 ,if for wood1 the arch would have to be formed for that1 and the height of kiln reduced4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of ,,apple ,,jelly4 ,footnote3 ,from the report of the ,new ,york ,agricultural ,society4 ,within the county of ,oswego1 ,new ,york1 ,dewitt ,c4 ,peck reports there are five apple jelly factories in operation4 ,the failure of the apple crop1 for some singular and unexplained reason1 does not extend in great degree to the natural or ungrafted fruit4 ,though not so many as common1 even of these apples1 there are yet enough to keep these five mills and the numerous cider mills pretty well employed4 ,the largest jelly factory is located near the village of ,mexico1 and as there are some features in regard to this manufacture peculiar to this establishment which may be new and interesting1 we will undertake a brief description4 ,the factory is located on the ,salmon ,creek1 which affords the necessary power4 ,a portion of the main floor1 first story1 is occupied as a saw mill1 the slabs furnishing fuel for the boiler furnace connected with the evaporating department4 ,just above the mill1 along the bank of the pond1 and with one end projecting over the water1 are arranged eight large bins1 holding from five hundred to one thousand bushels each1 into which the apples are delivered from the teams4 ,the floor in each of these has a sharp pitch or inclination toward the water and at the lower end is a grate through which the fruit is discharged1 when wanted1 into a trough half submerged in the pond4 ,the preparation of the fruit and extraction of the juice proceeds as follows3 ,upon hoisting a gate in the lower end of this trough1 considerable current is caused1 and the water carries the fruit a distance of from thirty to one hundred feet1 and passes into the basement of the mill1 where1 tumbling down a four-foot perpendicular fall1 into a tank1 tight in its lower half and slatted so as to permit the escape of water and impurities in the upper half1 the apples are thoroughly cleansed from all earthy or extraneous matter4 ,such is the friction caused by the concussion of the fall1 the rolling and rubbing of the apples together1 and the pouring of the water1 that decayed sections of the fruit are ground off and the rotten pulp passes away with other impurities4 ,from this tank the apples are hoisted upon an endless chain elevator1 with buckets in the form of a rake-head with iron teeth1 permitting drainage and escape of water1 to an upper story of the mill1 whence by gravity they descend to the grater4 ,the press is wholly of iron1 all its motions1 even to the turning of the screws1 being actuated by the water power4 ,the cheese is built up with layers inclosed in strong cotton cloth1 which displaces the straw used in olden time1 and serves also to strain the cider4 ,as it is expressed from the press tank1 the cider passes to a storage tank1 and thence to the defecator4 ,this defecator is a copper pan1 eleven feet long and about three feet wide4 ,at each end of this pan is placed a copper tube three inches in diameter and closed at both ends4 ,lying between and connecting these two1 are twelve tubes1 also of copper1 #a inches in diameter1 penetrating the larger tubes at equal distances from their upper and under surfaces1 the smaller being parallel with each other1 and #a inches apart4 ,when placed in position1 the larger tubes1 which act as manifolds1 supplying the smaller with steam1 rest upon the bottom of the pan1 and thus the smaller pipes have a space of three-fourths of an inch underneath their outer surfaces4 ,the cider comes from the storage tank in a continuous stream about three-eighths of an inch in diameter4 ,steam is introduced to the large or manifold tubes1 and from them distributed through the smaller ones at a pressure of from twenty-five to thirty pounds per inch4 ,trap valves are provided for the escape of water formed by condensation within the pipes4 ,the primary object of the defecator is to remove all impurities and perfectly clarify the liquid passing through it4 ,all portions of pomace and other minute particles of foreign matter1 when heated1 expand and float in the form of scum upon the surface of the cider4 ,an ingeniously contrived floating rake drags off this scum and delivers it over the side of the pan4 ,to facilitate this removal1 one side of the pan1 commencing at a point just below the surface of the cider1 is curved gently outward and upward1 terminating in a slightly inclined plane1 over the edge of which the scum is pushed by the rake into a trough and carried away4 ,a secondary purpose served by the defecator is that of reducing the cider by evaporation to a partial sirup of the specific gravity of about #bj ,baume4 ,when of this consistency the liquid is drawn from the bottom and less agitated portion of the defecator by a siphon1 and thence carried to the evaporator1 which is located upon the same framework and just below the defecator4 ,the evaporator consists of a separate system of six copper tubes1 each twelve feet long and three inches in diameter4 ,these are each jacketed or inclosed in an iron pipe of four inches internal diameter1 fitted with steam-tight collars so as to leave half an inch steam space surrounding the copper tubes4 ,the latter are open at both ends permitting the admission and egress of the sirup and the escape of the steam caused by evaporation therefrom1 and are arranged upon the frame so as to have a very slight inclination downward in the direction of the current1 and each nearly underneath its predecessor in regular succession4 ,each is connected by an iron supply pipe1 having a steam gauge or indicator attached1 with a large manifold1 and that by other pipes with a steam boiler of thirty horse power capacity4 ,steam being let on at from twenty five to thirty pounds pressure1 the stream of sirup is received from the defecator through a strainer1 which removes any impurities possibly remaining into the upper evaporator tube2 passing in a gentle flow through that1 it is delivered into a funnel connected with the next tube below1 and so1 back and forth1 through the whole system4 ,the sirup enters the evaporator at a consistency of from #bj to #bc ,baume1 and emerges from the last tube some three minutes later at a consistency of from #cj to #cb ,baume1 which is found on cooling to be the proper point for perfect jelly4 ,this point is found to vary one or two degrees1 according to the fermentation consequent upon bruises in handling the fruit1 decay of the same1 or any little delay in expressing the juice from the cheese4 ,the least fermentation occasions the necessity for a lower reduction4 ,to guard against this1 no cheese is allowed to stand over night1 no pomace left in the grater or vat1 no cider in the tank2 and further to provide against fermentation1 a large water tank is located upon the roof and filled by a force pump1 and by means of hose connected with this1 each grater1 press1 vat1 tank1 pipe1 trough1 or other article of machinery used1 can be thoroughly washed and cleansed4 ,hot water1 instead of cider1 is sometimes sent through the defecator1 evaporator1 etc41 until all are thoroughly scalded and purified4 ,if the saccharometer shows too great or too little reduction1 the matter is easily regulated by varying the steam pressure in the evaporator by means of a valve in the supply pipe4 ,if boiled cider instead of jelly is wanted for making pies1 sauces1 etc41 it is drawn off from one of the upper evaporator tubes according to the consistency desired2 or can be produced at the end of the process by simply reducing the steam pressure4 ,as the jelly emerges from the evaporator it is transferred to a tub holding some fifty gallons1 and by mixing a little therein1 any little variations in reduction or in the sweetness or sourness of the fruit used are equalized4 ,from this it is drawn through faucets1 while hot1 into the various packages in which it is shipped to market4 ,a favorite form of package for family use is a nicely turned little wooden bucket with cover and bail1 two sizes1 holding five and ten pounds respectively4 ,the smaller packages are shipped in cases for convenience in handling4 ,the present product of this manufactory is from #a1ejj to #a1hjj pounds of jelly each day of ten hours4 ,it is calculated that improvements now in progress will increase this to something more than a ton per day4 ,each bushel of fruit will produce from four to five pounds of jelly1 fruit ripening late in the season being more productive than earlier varieties4 ,crab apples produce the finest jelly2 sour1 crabbed1 natural fruit makes the best looking article1 and a mixture of all varieties gives most satisfactory results as to flavor and general quality4 ,as the pomace is shoveled from the finished cheese1 it is again ground under a toothed cylinder1 and thence drops into large troughs1 through a succession of which a considerable stream of water is flowing4 ,here it is occasionally agitated by raking from the lower to the upper end of the trough as the current carries it downward1 and the apple seeds becoming disengaged drop to the bottom into still water1 while the pulp floats away upon the stream4 ,a succession of troughs serves to remove nearly all the seeds4 ,the value of the apple seeds thus saved is sufficient to pay the daily wages of all the hands employed in the whole establishment4 ,the apples are measured in the wagon box1 one and a half cubic feet being accounted a bushel4 ,this mill ordinarily employs about six men3 ,one general superintendent1 who buys and measures the apples1 keeps time books1 attends to all the accounts and the working details of the mill1 and acts as cashier2 one sawyer1 who manufactures lumber for the local market and saws the slabs into short lengths suitable for the furnace2 one cider maker1 who grinds the apples and attends the presses2 one jelly maker1 who attends the defecator1 evaporator1 and mixing tub1 besides acting as his own fireman and engineer2 one who attends the apple seed troughs and acts as general helper1 and one man-of-all-work to pack1 ship and assist whenever needed4 ,the establishment was erected late in the season of #ahhj1 and manufactured that year about forty-five tons of jelly1 besides considerable cider exchanged to the farmers for apples1 and some boiled cider4 ,the price paid for apples in #ahhj1 when the crop was superabundant1 was six to eight cents per bushel2 in #ahha1 fifteen cents4 ,the proprietor hopes next year to consume #ajj1jjj bushels4 ,these institutions are important to the farmer in that they use much fruit not otherwise valuable and very perishable4 ,fruit so crabbed and gnarled as to have no market value1 and even frozen apples1 if delivered while yet solid1 can be used4 7,such apples are placed in the water while frozen1 the water draws the frost sufficiently to be grated1 and passing through the press and evaporator before there is time for chemical change1 they are found to make very good jelly4 ,they are valuable to the consumer by converting the perishable1 cheap1 almost worthless crop of the bearing and abundant years into such enduring form that its consumption may be carried over to years of scarcity and furnish healthful food in cheap and pleasant form to many who would otherwise be deprived2 and lastly1 they are of great interest to society1 in that they give to cider twice the value for purposes of food that it has or can have1 even to the manufacturer1 for use as a beverage and intoxicant4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,improved ,,grape ,,bags4 ,it stands to reason that were our summers warmer we should be able to grow grapes successfully on open walls2 it is therefore probable that a new grape bag1 the invention of ,m4 ,pelletier1 #bj ,rue de la ,banque1 ,paris1 intended to serve a double purpose1 viz41 protecting the fruit and hastening its maturity1 will1 when it becomes known1 be welcomed in this country4 ,it consists of a square of curved glass so fixed to the bag that the sun's rays are concentrated upon the fruit1 thereby rendering its ripening more certain in addition to improving its quality generally4 ,the glass is affixed to the bag by means of a light iron wire support4 ,it covers that portion of it next the sun1 so that it increases the amount of light and warms the grapes without scorching them1 a result due to the convexity of the glass and the layer of air between it and the bag4 ,m4 ,pelletier had the idea of rendering these bags cheaper by employing plain squares instead of curved ones1 but the advantage thus obtained was more than counterbalanced by their comparative inefficacy4 ,in practice it was found that the curved squares gave an average of #g more than the straight ones1 while there was a difference of #aj when the bags alone were used1 thus plainly demonstrating the practical value of the invention4 ,whether these glass-fronted bags would have much value in the case of grapes grown under glass in the ordinary way is a question that can only be determined by actual experiment2 but where the vines are on walls1 either under glass screens or in the open air1 so that the bunches feel the full force of the sun's rays1 there can be no doubt as to their utility1 and it is probable that by their aid many of the continental varieties which we do not now attempt to grow in the open1 and which are scarcely worthy of a place under glass1 might be well ripened4 ,at any rate we ought to give anything a fair trial which may serve to neutralize1 if only in a slight degree1 the uncertainty of our summers4 ,as it is1 we have only about two varieties of grapes1 and these not the best of the hardy kinds1 as regards flavor and appearance1 that ripen out of doors1 and even these do not always succeed4 ,we know next to nothing of the many really well-flavored kinds which are so much appreciated in many parts of the ,continent4 ,the fact is1 our outdoor culture of grapes offers a striking contrast to that practiced under glass1 and although our comparatively sunless and moist climate affords some excuse for our shortcomings in this respect1 there is no valid reason for the utter want of good culture which is to be observed in a general way4 ,illustration3 ,,grape ,,bag4--,,open4 ,given intelligent training1 constant care in stopping the laterals1 and checking mildew as well as thinning the berries1 allowing each bunch to get the full benefit of sun and air1 and ,i believe good eatable grapes would often be obtained even in summers marked by a low average temperature4 ,illustration3 ,,grape ,,bag4--,,closed4 ,if1 moreover1 to a good system of culture we add some such mechanical contrivance as that under notice whereby the bunches enjoy an average warmth some #aj higher than they otherwise would do1 we not only insure the grapes coming to perfection in favored districts1 but outdoor culture might probably be practiced in higher latitudes than is now practicable4 ,illustration3 ,,curved ,,glass ,,for ,,front ,,of ,,bag4 ,the improved grape bag would also offer great facilities for destroying mildew or guarantee the grapes against its attacks1 as a light dusting administered as soon as the berries were fairly formed would suffice for the season1 as owing to the glass protecting the berries from driving rains1 which often accompany south or south-west winds in summer and autumn1 the sulphur would not be washed off4 ,illustration3 ,,curved ,,glass ,,fixed ,,on ,,bag4 ,the inventor claims1 and we should say with just reason1 that these glass fronted bags would be found equally serviceable for the ripening of pears and other choice fruits1 and with a view to their being employed for such a purpose1 he has had them made of varying sizes and shapes4 ,in conclusion1 it may be observed that1 in addition to advancing the maturity of the fruits to which they are applied1 they also serve to preserve them from falling to the ground when ripe4--,j4 ,,cobnhill1 in the ,garden4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,utilization ,,of ,,solar ,,heat4 ,at a popular fte in the ,tuileries ,gardens ,i was struck with an experiment which seems deserving of the immediate attention of the ,english public and military authorities4 ,among the attractions of the fte was an apparatus for the concentration and utilization of solar heat1 and1 though the sun was not very brilliant1 ,i saw this apparatus set in motion a printing machine which printed several thousand copies of a specimen newspaper entitled the ,soleil ,journal4 ,the sun's rays are concentrated in a reflector1 which moves at the same rate as the sun and heats a vertical boiler1 setting the motive steam-engine at work4 ,as may be supposed1 the only object was to demonstrate the possibility of utilizing the concentrated heat of the solar rays2 but ,i closely examined it1 because the apparatus seems capable of great utility in existing circumstances4 ,here in ,france1 indeed1 there is a radical drawback--the sun is often overclouded4 ,thousands of years ago the idea of utilizing the solar rays must have suggested itself1 and there are still savage tribes who know no other mode of combustion2 but the scientific application has hitherto been lacking4 ,this void this apparatus will fill up4 ,about fifteen years ago ,professor ,mouchon1 of ,tours1 began constructing such an apparatus1 and his experiments have been continued by ,m4 ,pifre1 who has devoted much labor and expense to realizing ,m4 ,mouchou's idea4 ,a company has now come to his aid1 and has constructed a number of apparatus of different sizes at a factory which might speedily turn out a large number of them4 ,it is evident that in a country of uninterrupted sunshine the boiler might be heated in thirty or forty minutes4 ,a portable apparatus could boil two and one-half quarts an hour1 or1 say1 four gallons a day1 thus supplying by distillation or ebullition six or eight men4 ,the apparatus can be easily carried on a man's back1 and on condition of water1 even of the worst quality1 being obtainable1 good drinking and cooking water is insured4 ,m4 ,de ,rougaumond1 a young scientific writer1 has just published an interesting volume on the invention4 ,i was able yesterday to verify his statements1 for ,i saw cider made1 a pump set in motion1 and coffee made--in short1 the calorific action of the sun superseding that of fuel4 ,the apparatus1 no doubt1 has not yet reached perfection1 but as it is it would enable the soldier in ,india or ,egypt to procure in the field good water and to cook his food rapidly4 ,the invention is of especial importance to ,england just now1 but even when the ,egyptian question is settled the ,indian troops might find it of inestimable value4 ,red tape should for once be disregarded1 and a competent commission forthwith sent to #cj ,rue d',assas1 with instructions to report immediately1 for every minute saved may avoid suffering for ,englishmen fighting abroad for their country4 ,i may1 of course1 be mistaken1 but a commission would decide1 and if the apparatus is good the slightest delay in its adoption would be deplorable4--,paris ,correspondence ,london ,times4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,how ,,to ,,establish ,a ,,true ,,meridian4 ,footnote3 ,a paper read before the ,engineers' ,club of ,philadelphia4 ,by ,,professor ,l4 ,m4 ,,haupt4 ,,introductory4 ,the discovery of the magnetic needle was a boon to mankind1 and has been of inestimable service in guiding the mariner through trackless waters1 and the explorer over desert wastes4 ,in these1 its legitimate uses1 the needle has not a rival1 but all efforts to apply it to the accurate determination of permanent boundary lines have proven very unsatisfactory1 and have given rise to much litigation1 acerbity1 and even death4 ,for these and other cogent reasons1 strenuous efforts are being made to dispense1 so far as practicable1 with the use of the magnetic needle in surveying1 and to substitute therefor the more accurate method of traversing from a true meridian4 ,this method1 however1 involves a greater degree of preparation and higher qualifications than are generally possessed1 and unless the matter can be so simplified as to be readily understood1 it is unreasonable to expect its general application in practice4 ,much has been written upon the various methods of determining1 the true meridian1 but it is so intimately related to the determination of latitude and time1 and these latter in turn upon the fixing of a true meridian1 that the novice can find neither beginning nor end4 ,when to these difficulties are added the corrections for parallax1 refraction1 instrumental errors1 personal equation1 and the determination of the probable error1 he is hopelessly confused1 and when he learns that time may be sidereal1 mean solar1 local1 ,greenwich1 or ,washington1 and he is referred to an ephemeris and table of logarithms for data1 he becomes lost in confusion worse confounded1 and gives up in despair1 settling down to the conviction that the simple method of compass surveying is the best after all1 even if not the most accurate4 ,having received numerous requests for information upon the subject1 ,i have thought it expedient to endeavor to prepare a description of the method of determining the true meridian which should be sufficiently clear and practical to be generally understood by those desiring to make use of such information4 ,this will involve an elementary treatment of the subject1 beginning with the ,,definitions4 ,the celestial sphere is that imaginary surface upon which all celestial objects are projected4 ,its radius is infinite4 ,the earth's axis is the imaginary line about which it revolves4 ,the poles are the points in which the axis pierces the surface of the earth1 or of the celestial sphere4 ,a meridian is a great circle of the earth cut out by a plane passing through the axis4 ,all meridians are therefore north and south lines passing through the poles4 ,from these definitions it follows that if there were a star exactly at the pole it would only be necessary to set up an instrument and take a bearing to it for the meridian4 ,such not being the case1 however1 we are obliged to take some one of the near circumpolar stars as our object1 and correct the observation according to its angular distance from the meridian at the time of observation4 ,for convenience1 the bright star known as ,urs ,minoris or ,polaris1 is generally selected4 ,this star apparently revolves about the north pole1 in an orbit whose mean radius is #a #ai' #ac1a making the revolution in #bc hours #ef minutes4 ,footnote #a3 ,this is the codeclination as given in the ,nautical ,almanac4 ,the mean value decreases by about #bj seconds each year4 ,during this time it must therefore cross the meridian twice1 once above the pole and once below2 the former is called the upper1 and the latter the lower meridian transit or culmination4 ,it must also pass through the points farthest east and west from the meridian4 ,the former is called the eastern elongation1 the latter the western4 ,an observation may he made upon ,polaris at any of these four points1 or at any other point of its orbit1 but this latter case becomes too complicated for ordinary practice1 and is therefore not considered4 ,if the observation were made upon the star at the time of its upper or lower culmination1 it would give the true meridian at once1 but this involves a knowledge of the true local time of transit1 or the longitude of the place of observation1 which is generally an unknown quantity2 and moreover1 as the star is then moving east or west1 or at right angles to the place of the meridian1 at the rate of #ae of arc in about one hour1 an error of so slight a quantity as only four seconds of time would introduce an error of one minute of arc4 ,if the observation be made1 however1 upon either elongation1 when the star is moving up or down1 that is1 in the direction of the vertical wire of the instrument1 the error of observation in the angle between it and the pole will be inappreciable4 ,this is1 therefore1 the best position upon which to make the observation1 as the precise time of the elongation need not be given4 ,it can be determined with sufficient accuracy by a glance at the relative positions of the star ,alioth1 in the handle of the ,dipper1 and ,polaris 7see ,fig4 #a74 ,when the line joining these two stars is horizontal or nearly so1 and ,alioth is to the west of ,polaris1 the latter is at its eastern elongation1 and vice versa1 thus3 ,illustration ,but since the star at either elongation is off the meridian1 it will be necessary to determine the angle at the place of observation to be turned off on the instrument to bring it into the meridian4 ,this angle1 called the azimuth of the pole star1 varies with the latitude of the observer1 as will appear from ,fig #b1 and hence its value must be computed for different latitudes1 and the surveyor must know his latitude before he can apply it4 ,let ,n be the north pole of the celestial sphere2 ,s1 the position of ,polaris at its eastern elongation2 then ,n ,s#a #ai' #ac1 a constant quantity4 ,the azimuth of ,polaris at the latitude #dj north is represented by the angle ,n ,o ,s1 and that at #fj north1 by the angle ,n ,o' ,s1 which is greater1 being an exterior angle of the triangle1 ,o ,s ,o4 ,from this we see that the azimuth varies at the latitude4 ,we have first1 then1 to find the latitude of the place of observation4 ,of the several methods for doing this1 we shall select the simplest1 preceding it by a few definitions4 ,a normal line is the one joining the point directly overhead1 called the zenith1 with the one under foot called the nadir4 ,the celestial horizon is the intersection of the celestial sphere by a plane passing through the center of the earth and perpendicular to the normal4 ,a vertical circle is one whose plane is perpendicular to the horizon1 hence all such circles must pass through the normal and have the zenith and nadir points for their poles4 ,the altitude of a celestial object is its distance above the horizon measured on the arc of a vertical circle4 ,as the distance from the horizon to the zenith is #ij1 the difference1 or complement of the altitude1 is called the zenith distance1 or co-altitude4 ,the azimuth of an object is the angle between the vertical plane through the object and the plane of the meridian1 measured on the horizon1 and usually read from the south point1 as #j1 through west1 at #ij1 north #ahj1 etc41 closing on south at #j or #cfj4 ,these two co-ordinates1 the altitude and azimuth1 will determine the position of any object with reference to the observer's place4 ,the latter's position is usually given by his latitude and longitude referred to the equator and some standard meridian as co-ordinates4 ,the latitude being the angular distance north or south of the equator1 and the longitude east or west of the assumed meridian4 ,we are now prepared to prove that the altitude of the pole is equal to the latitude of the place of observation4 ,let ,h ,p ,z ,q1 etc41 ,fig4 #b1 represent a meridian section of the sphere1 in which ,p is the north pole and ,z the place of observation1 then ,h ,h will be the horizon1 ,q ,q the equator1 ,h ,p will be the altitude of ,p1 and ,q ,z the latitude of ,z4 ,these two arcs are equal1 for ,h ,c ,z ,p ,c ,q #ij1 and if from these equal quadrants the common angle ,p ,c ,z be subtracted1 the remainders ,h ,c ,p and ,z ,c ,q1 will be equal4 ,to determine the altitude of the pole1 or1 in other words1 the latitude of the place4 ,observe the altitude of the pole star when on the meridian1 either above or below the pole1 and from this observed altitude corrected for refraction1 subtract the distance of the star from the pole1 or its polar distance1 if it was an upper transit1 or add it if a lower4 ,the result will be the required latitude with sufficient accuracy for ordinary purposes4 ,the time of the star's being on the meridian can be determined with sufficient accuracy by a mere inspection of the heavens4 ,the refraction is always negative1 and may be taken from the table appended by looking up the amount set opposite the observed altitude4 ,thus1 if the observer's altitude should be #dj #ci' the nearest refraction #ja' #jg1 should be subtracted from #dj #cg' #jj1 leaving #dj #cg' #ec for the latitude4 ,,to ,,find ,,the ,,azimuth ,,of ,,polaris4 ,as we have shown the azimuth of ,polaris to be a function of the latitude1 and as the latitude is now known1 we may proceed to find the required azimuth4 ,for this purpose we have a right-angled spherical triangle1 ,z ,s ,p1 ,fig4 #d1 in which ,z is the place of observation1 ,p the north pole1 and ,s is ,polaris4 ,in this triangle we have given the polar distance1 ,p ,s #aj #ai' #ac2 the angle at ,s #ij2 and the distance ,z ,p1 being the complement of the latitude as found above1 or #ij--,l4 ,substituting these in the formula for the azimuth1 we will have sin4 ,z sin4 ,p ,s _/ sin ,p ,z or sin4 of ,polar distance _/ sin4 of co-latitude1 from which1 by assuming different values for the co-latitude1 we compute the following table3 ,,azimuth ,,table ,,for ,,points ,,between #bf and #ej ,n4 ,,lat4 ,,lattitudes ,year #bf #bh #cj #cb #cd #cf ' ' ' ' ' ' #ahhb #a #bh #je #a #bi #dj #a #ca #be #a #cc #bb #a #ce #cj #a #cg #eb #ahhc #a #bg #de #a #bi #bj #a #ca #jd #a #cc #jj #a #ce #jh #a #cg #cj #ahhd #a #bg #bc #a #bh #eg #a #cj #da #a #cb #cg #a #cd #de #a #cg #je #ahhe #a #bg #ja #a #bh #ce #a #cj #ai #a #cb #ad #a #cd #bb #a #cf #da #ahhf #a #bf #ci #a #bh #ac #a #bi #ef #a #ca #ea #a #cc #eg #a #cf #ag ,year #ch #dj #db #dd #df #dh ' ' ' ' ' ' #ahhb #a #dj #bi #a #dc #ba #a #df #cc #a #ej #je #a #ec #ei #a #eh #bj #ahhc #a #dj #jg #a #db #eh #a #df #jh #a #di #ci #a #ec #cd #a #eg #ec #ahhd #a #ci #dj #a #db #ca #a #de #da #a #di #aa #a #ec #je #a #eg #bc #ahhe #a #ci #af #a #db #jg #a #de #af #a #dh #de #a #eb #cg #a #ef #ed #ahhf #a #ch #ea #a #da #da #a #dd #di #a #dh #ag #a #eb #ji #a #ef #bd ,year #ej ' #ahhb #b #jc #aa #ahhc #b #jb #db #ahhd #b #jb #aa #ahhe #b #ja #db #ahhf #b #ja #aa ,an analysis of this table shows that the azimuth this year 7#ahhb7 increases with the latitude from #a #bh' #je at #bf north1 to #b #c' #aa at #ej north1 or #ce' #jf4 ,it also shows that the azimuth of ,polaris at any one point of observation decreases slightly from year to year4 ,this is due to the increase in declination1 or decrease in the star's polar distance4 ,at #bf north latitude1 this annual decrease in the azimuth is about #bb1 while at #ej north1 it is about #cj4 ,as the variation in azimuth for each degree of latitude is small1 the table is only computed for the even numbered degrees2 the intermediate values being readily obtained by interpolation4 ,we see also that an error of a few minutes of latitude will not affect the result in finding the meridian1 e4g41 the azimuth at #dj north latitude is #a #dc' #ba1 that at #da would be #a #dd' #ef1 the difference 7#ja' #ce7 being the correction for one degree of latitude between #dj and #da4 ,or1 in other words1 an error of one degree in finding one's latitude would only introduce an error in the azimuth of one and a half minutes4 ,with ordinary care the probable error of the latitude as determined from the method already described need not exceed a few minutes1 making the error in azimuth as laid off on the arc of an ordinary transit graduated to single minutes1 practically zero4 ,,refraction ,,table ,,for ,,any ,,altitude ,,within ,,the ,,latitude ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states4 ,apparent ,refraction ,apparent ,refraction ,altitude4 minus4 ,altitude4 minus4 #be #j #b' #d4b #ch #j #a' #ad4d #bf #a #eh4h #ci #a #aa4h #bg #a #ec4h #dj #a #i4c #bh #a #di4a #da #a #f4i #bi #a #dd4g #db #a #d4f #cj #a #dj4e #dc #a #b4d #ca #a #cf4f #dd #j #j4c #cb #a #cc4j #de #j #eh4a #cc #a #bi4e #df #j #ef4a #cd #a #bf4a #dg #j #ed4b #ce #a #bc4j #dh #j #eb4c #cf #a #bj4j #di #j #ej4e #cg #a #ag4a #ej #j #dh4h ,,applications4 ,in practice to find the true meridian1 two observations must be made at intervals of six hours1 or they may be made upon different nights4 ,the first is for latitude1 the second for azimuth at elongation4 ,to make either1 the surveyor should provide himself with a good transit with vertical arc1 a bull's eye1 or hand lantern1 plumb bobs1 stakes1 etc4#a ,having set up over the point through which it is proposed to establish the meridian1 at a time when the line joining ,polaris and ,alioth is nearly vertical1 level the telescope by means of the attached level1 which should be in adjustment1 set the vernier of the vertical arc at zero1 and take the reading4 ,if the pole star is about making its upper transit1 it will rise gradually until reaching the meridian as it moves westward1 and then as gradually descend4 ,when near the highest part of its orbit point the telescope at the star1 having an assistant to hold the bull's eye so as to reflect enough light down the tube from the object end to illumine the cross wires but not to obscure the star1 or better1 use a perforated silvered reflector1 clamp the tube in this position1 and as the star continues to rise keep the horizontal wire upon it by means of the tangent screw until it rides along this wire and finally begins to fall below it4 ,take the reading of the vertical arc and the result will be the observed altitude4 ,footnote #a3 ,a sextant and artificial horizon may be used to find the altitude of a star4 ,in this case the observed angle must be divided by #b4 ,,another ,,method4 ,it is a little more accurate to find the altitude by taking the complement of the observed zenith distance1 if the vertical arc has sufficient range4 ,this is done by pointing first to ,polaris when at its highest 7or lowest7 point1 reading the vertical arc1 turning the horizontal limb half way around1 and the telescope over to get another reading on the star1 when the difference of the two readings will be the double zenith distance1 and half of this subtracted from #ij will be the required altitude4 ,the less the time intervening between these two pointings1 the more accurate the result will be4 ,having now found the altitude1 correct it for refraction by subtracting from it the amount opposite the observed altitude1 as given in the refraction table1 and the result will be the latitude4 ,the observer must now wait about six hours until the star is at its western elongation1 or may postpone further operations for some subsequent night4 ,in the meantime he will take from the azimuth table the amount given for his date and latitude1 now determined1 and if his observation is to be made on the western elongation1 he may turn it off on his instrument1 so that when moved to zero1 after the observation1 the telescope will be brought into the meridian or turned to the right1 and a stake set by means of a lantern or plummet lamp4 ,illustration ,it is1 of course1 unnecessary to make this correction at the time of observation1 for the angle between any terrestrial object and the star may be read and the correction for the azimuth of the star applied at the surveyor's convenience4 ,it is always well to check the accuracy of the work by an observation upon the other elongation before putting in permanent meridian marks1 and care should be taken that they are not placed near any local attractions4 ,the meridian having been established1 the magnetic variation or declination may readily be found by setting an instrument on the meridian and noting its bearing as given by the needle4 ,if1 for example1 it should be north #e east1 the variation is west1 because the north end of the needle is west of the meridian1 and vice versa4 ,local time may also be readily found by observing the instant when the sun's center#a crosses the line1 and correcting it for the equation of time as given above--the result is the true or mean solar time4 ,this1 compared with the clock1 will show the error of the latter1 and by taking the difference between the local lime of this and any other place1 the difference of longitude is determined in hours1 which can readily be reduced to degrees by multiplying by fifteen1 as #a h4 #ae4 ,footnote #a3 ,to obtain this time by observation1 note the instant of first contact of the sun's limb1 and also of last contact of same1 and take the mean4 ,,approximate ,,equation ,,of ,,time4 ,date4 ,minutes4 ,jan4 #a #d #c #e #e #f #g #g #i #h #ab #i #ae #aj #ah #aa #ba #ab #be #ac #ca #ad ,feb4 #aj #ae #ba #ad ,clock #bg #ac faster ,m'ch #d #ab than #h #aa sun4 #ab #aj #ae #i #ai #h #bb #g #be #f #bh #e ,april #a #d #d #c #g #b #aa #a #ae #j ------------ #ai #a #bd #b #cj #c ,may #ac #d ,clock #bi #c slower4 ,june #e #b #aj #a #ae #j ------------ #bj #a #be #b #bi #c ,july #e #d #aa #e #bh #f ,clock ,aug4 #i #e faster4 #ae #d #bj #c #bd #b #bh #a #ca #j ------------ ,sept4 #c #a #f #b #i #c #ab #d #ae #e #ah #f #ba #g #bd #h #bg #i #cj #aj ,oct4 #c #aa #f #ab #aj #ac #ad #ad #ai #ae #bg #af ,clock ,nov4 #ae #ae slower4 #bj #ad #bd #ac #bg #ab #cj #aa ,dec4 #b #aj #e #i #g #h #i #g #aa #f #ac #e #af #d #ah #c #bj #b #bb #a #bd #j ------------ #bf #a #bh #b ,clock #cj #c faster4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,ocellated ,,pheasant4 ,the collections of the ,museum of ,natural ,history of ,paris have just been enriched with a magnificent1 perfectly adult specimen of a species of bird that all the scientific establishments had put down among their desiderata1 and which1 for twenty years past1 has excited the curiosity of naturalists4 ,this species1 in fact1 was known only by a few caudal feathers1 of which even the origin was unknown1 and which figured in the galleries of the ,jardin des ,plantes under the name of ,argus ocellatus4 ,this name was given by ,j4 ,verreaux1 who was then assistant naturalist at the museum4 ,it was inscribed by ,prince ,ch4 ,l4 ,bonaparte1 in his ,tableaux ,parallliques de l',ordre des ,gallinaces1 as ,argus giganteus1 and a few years later it was reproduced by ,slater in his ,catalogue of the ,phasianid1 and by ,gray is his ,list of the ,gallinace4 ,but it was not till #ahga and #ahgb that ,elliot1 in the ,annals and ,magazine of ,natural ,history1 and in a splendid monograph of the ,phasianid1 pointed out the peculiarities that were presented by the feathers preserved at the ,museum of ,paris1 and published a figure of them of the natural size4 ,the discovery of an individual whose state of preservation leaves nothing to be desired now comes to demonstrate the correctness of ,verreaux's1 ,bonaparte's1 and ,elliot's suppositions4 ,this bird1 whose tail is furnished with feathers absolutely identical with those that the museum possessed1 is not a peacock1 as some have asserted1 nor an ordinary ,argus of ,malacca1 nor an argus of the race that ,elliot named ,argus grayi1 and which inhabits ,borneo1 but the type of a new genus of the family ,phasianid4 ,this ,gallinacean1 in fact1 which ,mr4 ,maingonnat has given up to the ,museum of ,natural ,history1 has not1 like the common ,argus of ,borneo1 excessively elongated secondaries2 and its tail is not formed of normal rectrices1 from the middle of which spring two very long feathers1 a little curved and arranged like a roof2 but it consists of twelve wide plane feathers1 regularly tapering1 and ornamented with ocellated spots1 arranged along the shaft4 ,its head is not bare1 but is adorned behind with a tuft of thread-like feathers2 and1 finally1 its system of coloration and the proportions of the different parts of its body are not the same as in the common argus of ,borneo4 ,there is reason1 then1 for placing the bird1 under the name of ,rheinardius ocellatus1 in the family ,phasianid1 after the genus ,argus which it connects1 after a manner1 with the pheasants properly so-called4 ,the specific name ocellatus has belonged to it since #ahga1 and must be substituted for that of ,rheinardi4 ,the bird measures more than two meters in length1 three-fourths of which belong to the tail4 ,the head1 which is relatively small1 appears to be larger than it really is1 owing to the development of the piliform tuft on the occiput1 this being capable of erection so as to form a crest #j4je to #j4jf of a meter in height4 ,the feathers of this crest are brown and white4 ,the back and sides of the head are covered with downy feathers of a silky brown and silvery gray1 and the front of the neck with piliform feathers of a ruddy brown4 ,the upper part of the body is of a blackish tint and the under part of a reddish brown1 the whole dotted with small white or caf-au-lait spots4 ,analogous spots are found on the wings and tail1 but on the secondaries these become elongated1 and tear-like in form4 ,on the remiges the markings are quite regularly hexagonal in shape2 and on the upper coverts of the tail and on the rectrices they are accompanied with numerous ferruginous blotches1 some of which are irregularly scattered over the whole surface of the vane1 while others1 marked in the center with a blackish spot1 are disposed in series along the shaft and resemble ocelli4 ,this similitude of marking between the rectrices and subcaudals renders the distinction between these two kinds of feathers less sharp than in many other ,gallinaceans1 and the more so in that two median rectrices are considerably elongated and assume exactly the aspect of tail feathers4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,ocellated ,,pheasant 7,rheinardius ocellatus74 ,the true rectrices are twelve in number4 ,they are all absolutely plane1 all spread out horizontally1 and they go on increasing in length from the exterior to the middle4 ,they are quite wide at the point of insertion1 increase in diameter at the middle1 and afterward taper to a sharp point4 ,altogether they form a tail of extraordinary length and width which the bird holds slightly elevated1 so as to cause it to describe a graceful curve1 and the point of which touches the soil4 ,the beak1 whose upper mandible is less arched than that of the pheasants1 exactly resembles that of the arguses4 ,it is slightly inflated at the base1 above the nostrils1 and these latter are of an elongated-oval form4 ,in the bird that ,i have before me the beak1 as well as the feet and legs1 is of a dark rose-color4 ,the legs are quite long and are destitute of spurs4 ,they terminate in front in three quite delicate toes1 connected at the base by membranes1 and behind in a thumb that is inserted so high that it scarcely touches the ground in walking4 ,this magnificent bird was captured in a portion of ,tonkin as yet unexplored by ,europeans1 in a locality named ,buih-,dinh1 #djj kilometers to the south of ,hu4--,la ,nature4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,maidenhair ,,tree4 ,the ,maidenhair tree--,gingkgo biloba--of which we give an illustration1 is not only one of our most ornamental deciduous trees1 but one of the most interesting4 ,few persons would at first sight take it to be a ,conifer1 more especially as it is destitute of resin2 nevertheless1 to that group it belongs1 being closely allied to the ,yew1 but distinguishable by its long-stalked1 fan-shaped leaves1 with numerous radiating veins1 as in an ,adiantum4 ,these leaves1 like those of the larch but unlike most ,conifers1 are deciduous1 turning of a pale yellow color before they fall4 ,the tree is found in ,japan and in ,china1 but generally in the neighborhood of temples or other buildings1 and is1 we believe1 unknown in a truly wild state4 ,as in the case of several other trees planted in like situations1 such as ,cupressus funebris1 ,abies fortunei1 ,a4 kmpferi1 ,cryptomeria japonica1 ,sciadopitys verticillata1 it is probable that the trees have been introduced from ,thibet1 or other unexplored districts1 into ,china and ,japan4 ,though now a solitary representative of its genus1 the ,gingkgo was well represented in the coal period1 and also existed through the secondary and tertiary epochs1 ,professor ,heer having identified kindred specimens belonging to sixty species and eight genera in fossil remains generally distributed through the northern hemisphere4 ,whatever inference we may draw1 it is at least certain that the tree was well represented in former times1 if now it be the last of its race4 ,it was first known to ,kmpfer in #afij1 and described by him in #agab1 and was introduced into this country in the middle of the eighteenth century4 ,loudon relates a curious tale as to the manner in which a ,french amateur became possessed of it4 ,the ,frenchman1 it appears1 came to ,england1 and paid a visit to an ,english nurseryman1 who was the possessor of five plants1 raised from ,japanese seeds4 ,the hospitable ,englishman entertained the ,frenchman only too well4 ,he allowed his commercial instincts to be blunted by wine1 and sold to his guest the five plants for the sum of #be guineas4 ,next morning1 when time for reflection came1 the ,englishman attempted to regain one only of the plants for the same sum that the ,frenchman had given for all five1 but without avail4 ,the plants were conveyed to ,france1 where as each plant had cost about #dj crowns1 ecus1 the tree got the name of arbre a quarante ecus4 ,this is the story as given by ,loudon1 who tells us that ,andre ,thouin used to relate the fact in his lectures at the ,jardin des ,plantes1 whether as an illustration of the perfidy of ,albion is not stated4 ,the tree is dioecious1 bearing male catkins on one plant1 female on another4 ,all the female trees in ,europe are believed to have originated from a tree near ,geneva1 of which ,auguste ,pyramus de ,candolle secured grafts1 and distributed them throughout the ,continent4 ,nevertheless1 the female tree is rarely met with1 as compared with the male2 but it is quite possible that a tree which generally produces male flowers only may sometimes bear female flowers only4 ,we have no certain evidence of this in the case of the ,gingkgo1 but it is a common enough occurrence in other dioecious plants1 and the occurrence of a fruiting specimen near ,philadelphia1 as recently recorded by ,mr4 ,meehan1 may possibly be attributed to this cause4 ,the tree of which we give a figure is growing at ,broadlands1 ,hants1 and is about #dj feet in height1 with a trunk that measures #g feet in girth at #c feet from the ground1 with a spread of branches measuring #de feet4 ,these dimensions have been considerably exceeded in other cases4 ,in #ahcg a tree at ,purser's ,cross measured #fj feet and more in height4 ,loudon himself had a small tree in his garden at ,bayswater on which a female branch was grafted4 ,it is to be feared that this specimen has long since perished4 ,we have already alluded to its deciduous character1 in which it is allied to the larch4 ,it presents another point of resemblance both to the larch and the cedar in the short spurs upon which both leaves and male catkins are borne1 but these contracted branches are mingled with long extension shoots2 there seems1 however1 no regular alternation between the short and the long shoots1 at any rate the rationale of their production is not understood1 though in all probability a little observation of the growing plant would soon clear the matter up4 ,the fruit is drupaceous1 with a soft outer coat and a hard woody shell1 greatly resembling that of a ,cycad1 both externally and internally4 ,whether the albumen contains the peculiar corpuscles common to ,cycads and ,conifers1 we do not for certain know1 though from the presence of #b to #c embryos in one seed1 as noted by ,endlicher1 we presume this is the case4 ,the interest of these corpuscles1 it may be added1 lies in the proof of affinity they offer between ,conifers and the higher ,cryptogams1 such as ferns and lycopods--an affinity shown also in the peculiar venation of the ,gingkgo4 ,conifers are in some degree links between ordinary flowering plants and the higher ,cryptogams1 and serve to connect in genealogical sequence groups once considered quite distinct4 ,in germination the two fleshy cotyledons of the ,gingkgo remain within the shell1 leaving the three-sided plumule to pass upward2 the young stem bears its leaves in threes4 ,we have no desire to enter further upon the botanical peculiarities of this tree2 enough if we have indicated in what its peculiar interest consists4 ,we have only to add that in gardens varieties exist some with leaves more deeply cut than usual1 others with leaves nearly entire1 and others with leaves of a golden-yellow color4--,gardeners' ,chronicle4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,maidenhair ,,tree ,,in ,,the ,,gardens ,,at ,,broadlands4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,the ,,woods ,,of ,,america4 ,a collection of woods without a parallel in the world is now being prepared for exhibition by the ,directors of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history4 ,scattered about the third floor of the ,arsenal1 in ,central ,park1 lie #cid logs1 some carefully wrapped in bagging1 some inclosed in rough wooden cases1 and others partially sawn longitudinally1 horizontally1 and diagonally4 ,these logs represent all but #bf of the varieties of trees indigenous to this country1 and nearly all have a greater or less economic or commercial value4 ,the #bf varieties needed to complete the collection will arrive before winter sets in1 a number of specimens being now on their way to this city from the groves of ,california4 ,mr4 ,s4 ,d4 ,dill and a number of assistants are engaged in preparing the specimens for exhibition4 ,the logs as they reach the workroom are wrapped in bagging and inclosed in cases1 this method being used so that the bark1 with its growth of lichens and delicate exfoliations1 shall not be injured while the logs are in process of transportation from various parts of the country to this city4 ,the logs are each #f feet in length1 and each is the most perfect specimen of its class that could be found by the experts employed in making the collection4 ,with the specimens of the trees come to the museum also specimens of the foliage and the fruits and flowers of the tree4 ,these come from all parts of the ,union--from ,alaska on the north to ,texas on the south1 from ,maine on the east to ,california on the west--and there is not a ,state or ,territory in the ,union which has not a representative in this collection of logs4 ,on arrival here the logs are green1 and the first thing in the way of treatment after their arrival is to season them1 a work requiring great care to prevent them from checking1 as it is technically called1 or season cracking1 as the unscientific term the splitting of the wood in radiating lines during the seasoning process4 ,as is well known1 the sap-wood of a tree seasons much more quickly than does the heart of the wood4 ,the prevention of this splitting is very necessary in preparing these specimens for exhibition1 for when once the wood has split its value for dressing for exhibition is gone4 ,a new plan to prevent this destruction of specimens is now being tried with some success under the direction of ,prof4 ,bickmore1 superintendent of the museum4 ,into the base of the log and alongside the heart a deep hole is bored with an auger4 ,as the wood seasons this hole permits of a pressure inward and so has in many instances doubtless saved valuable specimens4 ,one of the finest in the collection1 a specimen of the persimmon tree1 some two feet in diameter1 has been ruined by the seasoning process4 ,on one side there is a huge crack1 extending from the top to the bottom of the log1 which looks as though some amateur woodman had attempted to split it with an ax and had made a poor job of it4 ,the great shrinking of the sap-wood of the persimmon tree makes the wood of but trifling value commercially4 ,it also has a discouraging effect upon collectors1 as it is next to impossible to cure a specimen1 so that all but this one characteristic of the wood can be shown to the public in a perfect form4 ,before the logs become thoroughly seasoned1 or their lines of growth at all obliterated1 a diagram of each is made1 showing in accordance with a regular scale the thickness of the bark1 the sap-wood1 and the heart4 ,there is also in this diagram a scale showing the growth of the tree during each year of its life1 these yearly growths being regularly marked about the heart of the tree by move or less regular concentric circles1 the width of which grows smaller and smaller as the tree grows older4 ,in this connection attention may be called to a specimen in the collection which is considered one of the most remarkable in the world4 ,it is not a native wood1 but an importation1 and the tree from which this wonderful slab is cut is commonly known as the ,pride of ,india4 ,the heart of this particular tree was on the port side1 and between it and the bark there is very little sap-wood1 not more than an inch4 ,on the starbord side1 so to speak1 the sap-wood has grown out in an abnormal manner1 and one of the lines indicative of a year's growth is one and seven-eighths inches in width1 the widest growth1 many experts who have seen the specimen say1 that was ever recorded4 ,the diagrams referred to are to be kept for scientific uses1 and the scheme of exhibition includes these diagrams as a part of the whole4 ,after a log has become seasoned it is carefully sawed through the center down about one-third of its length4 ,a transverse cut is then made and the semi-cylindrical section thus severed from the log is removed4 ,the upper end is then beveled4 ,when a log is thus treated the inspector can see the lower two-thirds presenting exactly the same appearance it did when growing in the forest4 ,the horizontal cut1 through the sap-wood and to the center of the heart1 shows the life lines of the tree1 and carefully planed as are this portion1 the perpendicular and the beveled sections1 the grain of the wood can thus be plainly seen4 ,that these may be made even more valuable to the architect and artisan1 the right half of this planed surface will be carefully polished1 and the left half left in the natural state4 ,this portion of the scheme of treatment is entirely in the interests of architects and artisans1 and it is expected by ,prof4 ,bickmore that it will be the means of securing for some kinds of trees1 essentially of ,american growth1 and which have been virtually neglected1 an important place in architecture and in ornamental wood-work1 and so give a commercial value to woods that are now of comparatively little value4 ,among the many curious specimens in the collection now being prepared for exhibition1 one which will excite the greatest curiosity is a specimen of the honey locust1 which was brought here from ,missouri4 ,the bark is covered with a growth of thorns from one to four inches in length1 sharp as needles1 and growing at irregular intervals4 ,the specimen arrived here in perfect condition1 but1 in order that it might be transported without injury1 it had to be suspended from the roof of a box car1 and thus make its trip from ,southern ,missouri to this city without change4 ,another strange specimen in the novel collection is a portion of the ,yucca tree1 an abnormal growth of the lily family4 ,the trunk1 about #b feet in diameter1 is a spongy mass1 not susceptible of treatment to which the other specimens are subjected4 ,its bark is an irregular stringy1 knotted mass1 with porcupine-quill-like leaves springing out in place of the limbs that grow from all well-regulated trees4 ,one specimen of the yucca was sent to the museum two years ago1 and though the roots and top of the tree were sawn off1 shoots sprang out1 and a number of the handsome flowers appeared4 ,the tree was supposed to be dead and thoroughly seasoned by this ,fall1 but now1 when the workmen are ready to prepare it for exhibition1 it has shown new life1 new shoots have appeared1 and two tufts of green now decorate the otherwise dry and withered log1 and the yucca promises to bloom again before the winter is over4 ,one of the most perfect specimens of the ,douglass spruce ever seen is in the collection1 and is a decided curiosity4 ,it is a recent arrival from the ,rocky ,mountains4 ,its bark1 two inches or more in thickness1 is perforated with holes reaching to the-sap-wood4 ,many of these contain acorns1 or the remains of acorns1 which have been stored there by provident woodpeckers1 who dug the holes in the bark and there stored their winter supply of food4 ,the oldest specimen in the collection is a section of the ,picea engelmanni1 a species of spruce growing in the ,rocky ,mountains at a considerable elevation above the sea4 ,the specimen is #bd inches in diameter1 and the concentric circles show its age to be #daj years4 ,the wood much resembles the black spruce1 and is the most valuable of the ,rocky ,mountain growths4 ,a specimen of the nut pine1 whose nuts are used for food by the ,indians1 is only #ae inches in diameter1 and yet its life lines show its age to be #cfi years4 ,the largest specimen yet received is a section of the white ash1 which is #df inches in diameter and #ahb years old4 ,the next largest specimen is a section of the ,platanus occidentalis1 variously known in commerce as the sycamore1 button-wood1 or plane tree1 which is #db inches in diameter and only #aga years of age4 ,specimens of the redwood tree of ,california are now on their way to this city from the ,yosemite ,valley4 ,one specimen1 though a small one1 measures #e feet in diameter and shows the character of the wood4 ,a specimen of the enormous growths of this tree was not secured because of the impossibility of transportation and the fact that there would be no room in the museum for the storage of such a specimen1 for the diameter of the largest tree of the class is #de feet and #h inches1 which represents a circumference of about #aaj feet4 ,then1 too1 the ,californians object to have the giant trees cut down for commercial1 scientific1 or any other purposes4 ,to accompany these specimens of the woods of ,america1 ,mr4 ,morris ,k4 ,jesup1 who has paid all the expense incurred in the collection of specimens1 is having prepared as an accompanying portion of the exhibition water color drawings representing the actual size1 color1 and appearance of the fruit1 foliage1 and flowers of the various trees4 ,their commercial products1 as far as they can be obtained1 will also be exhibited1 as1 for instance1 in the case of the long-leaved pine1 the tar1 resin1 and pitch1 for which it is especially valued4 ,then1 too1 in an herbarium the fruits1 leaves1 and flowers are preserved as nearly as possible in their natural state4 ,when the collection is ready for public view next spring it will be not only the largest1 but the only complete one of its kind in the country4 ,there is nothing like it in the world1 as far as is known2 certainly not in the royal museums of ,england1 ,france1 or ,germany4 ,aside from the value of the collection1 in a scientific way1 it is proposed to make it an adjunct to our educational system1 which requires that teachers shall instruct pupils as to the materials used for food and clothing4 ,the completeness of the exhibition will be of great assistance also to landscape gardeners1 as it will enable them to lay out private and public parks so that the most striking effects of foliage may be secured4 ,the beauty of these effects can best be seen in this country in our own ,central ,park1 where there are more different varieties and more combinations for foliage effects than in any other area in the ,united ,states4 ,to ascertain how these effects are obtained one now has to go to much trouble to learn the names of the trees4 ,with this exhibition such information can be had merely by observation1 for the botanical and common names of each specimen will be attached to it4 ,it will also be of practical use in teaching the forester how to cultivate trees as he would other crops4 ,the rapid disappearance of many valuable forest trees1 with the increase in demand and decrease in supply1 will tend to make the collection valuable as a curiosity in the not far distant future as representing the extinct trees of the country4--,n4,y4 ,times4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a catalogue1 containing brief 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,,patents4 ,in connection with the ,,scientific ,,american1 ,messrs4 ,,munn ,co4 are ,solicitors of ,american and ,foreign ,patents1 have had #ce years' experience1 and now have the largest establishment in the world4 ,patents are obtained on the best terms4 ,a special notice is made in the ,,scientific ,,american of all ,inventions patented through this ,agency1 with the name and residence of the ,patentee4 ,by the immense circulation thus given1 public attention is directed to the merits of the new patent1 and sales or introduction often easily effected4 ,any person who has made a new discovery or invention can ascertain1 free of charge1 whether a patent can probably be obtained1 by writing to ,,munn ,co4 ,we also send free our ,hand ,book about the ,patent ,laws1 ,patents1 ,caveats4 ,trade ,marks1 their costs1 and how procured1 with hints for procuring advances on inventions4 ,address ,,munn ,,co41 #bfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york4 ,branch ,office1 cor4 ,f and #gth ,sts41 ,washington1 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