,illustration     ,,scientific          
,,american ,,supplement ,,no4 #ceh      
,,new ,,york1 ,,november #aa1 #ahhb     
,scientific ,american ,supplement4 ,vol4
 ,,xiv1 ,no4 #ceh4  ,scientific         
,american established #ahde  ,scientific
 ,american ,supplement1 #e a year4      
,scientific ,american and ,supplement1  
#g a year4          99       99       99
       99       99  ,,table ,,of        
,,contents  ,i4   ,,engineering ,,and   
,,mechanics4--,hydraulic ,filtering     
,press      for ,treating ,oleaginous   
,seeds4--,details of construction and   
manipulation4--#ae figures              
,laurent  ,collot's ,automatic          
,injection ,pump4--#f figures4          
,improved ,dredger4--#a figure4--,one   
ton bucket dredge4       ,history of the
 ,fire ,extinguisher4       ,how to ,tow
 a ,boat4--#a figure4       ,railways of
 ,europe and ,america4       ,locomotive
 ,painting4 ,by ,,john ,s4 ,,atwater4   
,crackle ,glass4--,new ,process4        
,how ,marbles are ,made4  ,,ii4         

,,technology ,,and                      
,,chemistry4--,drawing ,room            
,photography4       ,a ,new ,method of  
,preparing ,photographic ,gelatine      
,emulsion by      ,precipitation of the 
,bromide of ,silver4 ,by ,,franz        
,,stolze4       ,taylor's ,freezing     
,microtome4--#a figure4       ,vincent's
 ,chloride of ,methyl ,ice ,machine4 #aj
 figures4--      ,longitudinal and      
transverse sections of freezer4--,half  
plan of      freezer4--,longitudinal and
 vertical sections and plan of pump4--  
,details4--,vertical section of the     
liquefier4       ,carbonic ,acid in the 
,air4 ,by ,m4 ,,dumas4       ,influence 
of ,aqueous ,vapor on the ,explosion of 
,carbonic ,oxide      and ,oxygen4 ,by  
,,harold ,b4 ,,dixon4       ,composition
 of ,beers ,made ,partly from ,new      
,grain4  ,,iii4 ,,botany1               
,,horticulture1 ,,etc4--,double         
,buttercups4--#a figure4                
,ligustrum ,quihoui4--#a figure4        
,raphiolepis ,japonica4--#a figure4     

,rivina ,lvis4       ,apples in ,store4 
,,iv4  ,,electricity1 ,,light1 ,,heat4  
,,etc4--,before it happened4--      ,how
 the telegraph gets ahead of time4      
,the ,ader ,relay4--,by ,r4,g4 ,,brown4 
,the ,platinum ,water ,pyrometer4--,by  
,j4,c4 ,,hoadley4 #b figures4           
--,description of apparatus4--,heat     
carriers4--,manipulating4  ,v4          
,,hygiene ,,and ,,medicine4 ,,etc4--,the
 ,british ,sanitary ,congress4          
--,address of ,president ,galton4--,the 
causes of disease4 ,researches      of  
,pasteur1 ,lister1 ,koch1 ,klebs1       
etc--,germ theory of                    
malaria4--,cholera4--,the water         
question4--,effects of sewering4--      
,influence of smoke and                 
fogs4--,importance of a circulation of  
air4      --,health conditions of       
different classes4--,economic advantages
 of      sanitary measures4             
,psychological ,development in          
,children4--,by ,g4,j4 ,,romanes4       
,the ,racial ,characteristics of ,man4  

,eccentricity and ,idiosyncrasy4--,by   
,,dr4 ,,wm4 ,a4 ,,hammond4              
,pyorrhea ,alveolaris--,by ,,dr4 ,j4,m4 
,,riggs4--,a curious disease      of the
 teeth and its treatment4       ,sulphur
 as a ,preservative against ,marsh      
,fever4  ,,vi4  ,,architecture1 ,,art1  
,,etc4--,the ,new ,parliament ,building1
      ,berlin4 #d figures4--,thiersch's 
design4--,portrait1 ,prof4 ,thiersch4   
--,wallot's design4--,portrait of ,m4,p4
 ,wallot4  ,,vii4 ,,astronomy1          
,,etc--,on ,determining the ,sun's      
,distance by a      ,new ,method4--,by  
,t4,s4,h4 ,,eytinge4       ,professor   
,haeckel on ,darwin4         99       99
       99       99       99     ,,the   
,,new ,,parliament ,,building1 ,,berlin4
   ,in the accompanying engravings are  
represented the two prize designs for   
the new ,capitol or ,parliament         
,building at ,berlin1 of which one is by
 ,prof4 ,friedrich ,thiersch1 of        
,munich1 and the other by ,mr4 ,paul    
,wallot1 of ,frankfurt a4 ,m41 the      

portraits of which gentlemen are also   
shown4 ,the jury has decided that ,mr4  
,wallot's design shall be executed4 ,the
 building is to be erected on the       
,pariser ,platz1 near the ,brandenburger
 ,thor1 in ,berlin4 ,mr4 ,wallot's      
design will have to be somewhat changed 
before it can be carried out1 for he has
 arranged the main entrance in the side 
of the building1 and that has not       
satisfied the jury1 as they wish to have
 the entrance of the ,capitol more      
imposing4 ,the building is provided with
 four corner pavilions and with a large1
 highly ornamented1 square dome1 below  
which the ,reichsrath ,chamber1 or ,hall
 of ,representatives1 is located4       
,however1 the most important feature of 
the entire design is the ground plan1   
which is superior to all others entered 
for competition4 ,prof ,thiersch's      
design also has four corner pavilions1  
with a large circular central dome and  
four smaller cupolas surrounding it4    
,the front of the building is very      

imposing1 and is highly ornamented with 
statuary4 ,an emperor's crown surmounts 
the central dome4  ,illustration3       
,,thiersch',s ,,design ,,for ,,the ,,new
 ,,parliament ,,building4 ,,berlin      
,illustration3 ,,professor ,,friedrich  
,,thiersch4  ,illustration3 ,,mr4 ,p4   
,,wallot',s ,,design ,,for ,,the ,,new  
,,parliament ,,building1 ,,berlin       
,illustration3 ,,paul ,,wallot4         
99       99       99       99       99  
,,the ,,british ,,sanitary ,,congress4  
,,address ,,of ,,president ,,galton4    
,the ,congress of the ,sanitary         
,institute of ,great ,britain was opened
 in ,newcastle on ,september #bf4 ,the  
inaugural public meeting was held in the
 ,town ,hall4 ,prof4 ,de ,chaumont      
presided1 in the place of the           
ex-,president1 ,lord ,fortescue1 and    
introduced ,captain ,galton1 the new    
,president4  ,the ,president commenced  
his inaugural address by thanking1 in   
the name of the ,sanitary ,institute of 
,great ,britain1 the ,mayor and         

,corporation of ,newcastle for the      
invitation to visit this important      
industrial metropolis of ,northern      
,england4 ,the invitation1 he said1 was 
the more satisfactory because ,newcastle
 was advancing in the van of sanitary   
improvement1 and was thus proving the   
interest of this great city in a subject
 which was contributing largely to the  
moral and material progress of the      
nation4 ,of all the definite questions  
which were made the subject of the      
instruction by congresses at the present
 time1 there was scarcely one which     
deserved a greater share of attention   
than that which called that congress    
together--namely1 the subject of the    
public health4  ,within the last half   
century the whole community had been    
gradually awakening to the importance of
 a knowledge of the laws of health1 and 
the energies of some of the ablest      
intellects in the world had been        
employed in investigating the causes of 
disease1 and in endeavoring to solve the

 problem of the prevention of disease4  
,there was much that was still obscure  
in this very intricate problem1 but the 
new light which was daily being thrown  
upon the causes of disease by the       
careful and exact researches of the     
chemist and physiologist was gradually  
tending to explain those causes and to  
raise the science of hygiene1 or science
 of prevention of disease1 out of the   
region of speculation1 and enable it to 
take rank as one of the exact sciences4 
,long ago the careful observation of    
facts had shown that the preservation of
 health required certain conditions to  
be observed in and around dwellings1    
conditions which1 when neglected1 had   
led to the outbreaks of epidemic disease
 from the days of ,moses to the present 
time4 ,but while the results had been   
patent1 it was only in recent years that
 a clew had been obtained to the occult 
conditions in air and water to enable   
their comparative healthful purity to be
 distinguished4  ,the researches of     

,pasteur in respect to the forms of     
disease in ,french vineyards opened a   
fruitful field of inquiry1 and the      
theories of ,dr4 ,bastian on spontaneous
 generation gave rise to the beautiful  
series of experiments by ,tyndall on    
bacterian life4 ,a large band of leading
 scientific men1 both in this country   
and over the whole world1 were devoting 
their energies to a knowledge of the    
recent theories on the propagation of   
disease by germs4 ,in a lecture on      
fermentation1 ,tyndall remarked that the
 researches1 by means of which science  
has recently elucidated the causes of   
fermentation1 have raised the art of    
brewing from being an art founded on    
empirical observation--that is to say1  
on the observation of facts apart from  
the principles which explain them--into 
what may be termed an exact science4    
,in like manner1 if recent theories on  
the propagation of disease by germs were
 proved to be correct1 and if the laws  
which govern the propagation or         

destruction of those germs were known1  
the art of the physician would be       
similarly raised4 ,upon these questions 
leading scientific men all over the     
world were devoting their energies4     
,research had shown that putrefaction   
was only another form of organized life1
 and ,tyndall had shown that in the     
moving particles of fine dust discovered
 by a ray of light in a dark room the   
germs of low forms of life1 which would 
cause putrefaction1 were ever present1  
and ready to spring into life when a    
favorable nidus for the development of  
the organism was provided4  ,professor  
,lister had turned this knowledge to    
useful account in surgery in causing the
 air to be filtered by means of a       
carbolic spray during surgical          
operations1 by which means germs or     
organisms in the air were prevented from
 reaching the wounds1 and from          
developing organisms1 the presence of   
which caused putrefaction or            
suppuration4 ,this antiseptic treatment1

 which had arisen from the observation  
of germs in the air1 had had a material 
influence on the art of surgery         
throughout the world4  ,the speaker then
 reviewed the declarations of           
physiologists regarding the theories    
that some diseases arise from minute    
organisms in the blood--,pasteur holding
 that the disease in silkworms was from 
this cause2 ,dr4 ,davaine1 that splenic 
fever in cattle arose thus2 ,dr4 ,klein 
alleging that pig typhoid was due to an 
organism2 ,toussaint attributing fowl   
cholera to a similar cause2 ,professor  
,koch attributing tubercular disease to 
specific germs2 ,dr4 ,vandyke ,carter   
contending that there was a connection  
between the presence of bacillus        
spirillum and relapsing fever2 and ,mr4 
,talamon claiming to have discovered    
that diphtheria was due to an organism  
by means of which the virus could be    
conveyed from human beings to animals1  
and vice versa4  ,taking another branch 
of the same subject1 the causes of      

zymotic diseases being traced to        
controllable sources1 he said3 ,drs4    
,klebs and ,crudelli allege that        
malarial fever arises from germs present
 in the soil and which float over the   
air of marshes2 and that by treating    
with water the soil of a fever-haunted  
marsh of the ,campagna the germs of this
 organism could be washed out2 and that 
the water containing the organisms thus 
obtained1 introduced into the           
circulation of a dog1 produced ague more
 or less rapidly1 and more or less      
violent1 according to the numbers in    
which the organisms were present in the 
water4  ,this theory1 no doubt1 agrees  
with certain well-known facts4 ,in a    
tropical climate1 if soil which has been
 long undisturbed1 or the soil of marshy
 ground1 be turned up1 intermittent     
fever is almost certain to ensue4 ,in   
illustration of this1 ,i recollect that 
at ,hong ,kong the troops were          
unhealthy1 and a beautiful position on a
 peninsula exposed to the most favorable

 sea-breezes was selected for a new     
encampment4 ,the troops were encamped   
upon this spot for some time to test its
 healthiness1 which was found to be all 
that could be desired4 ,it was then     
resolved to build barracks4 ,as soon as 
the foundations were dug1 fever broke   
out4  ,as an instance of this nearer    
home1 ,i may mention that last winter at
 ,cannes1 in the south of ,france1 some 
extensive works adjacent to the town    
were begun which required a large       
quantity of earth to be moved4 ,the     
weather was exceptionally warm2 an      
outbreak of fever occurred among the    
workmen1 of whom fifteen died4 ,this    
fever was attributed to the turning up  
of the soil4  ,if a strong solution of  
quinine be let fall in the water        
containing these organisms they at once 
die2 the efficacy of quinine as a       
preventive of this form of fever would  
therefore not be inconsistent with this 
theory4 ,upon this subject the          
,president called attention to the view 

of ,sir ,joseph ,fayrer1 who            
acknowledged the importance of the      
discovery if it should be confirmed1 but
 considered that there was a possibility
 that the results attributed to these   
influences might1 to some extent1 be due
 to disturbance of the system in a body 
predisposed to be deranged by           
peculiarity of constitution1 climatic or
 other influence of the nature of which 
we are ignorant1 though it is           
conceivable by analogy4  ,the marvelous 
facility of reproduction of various     
germs1 as shown by ,pasteur in the case 
of chicken cholera1 was dwelt upon2 and 
the ,president said that it would be a  
wonder how any higher form of life could
 exist subject to the possibility of    
invasion by such countless hosts of     
occult enemies were it not seen that the
 science of the prevention of disease   
advanced quite as rapidly as our        
knowledge of the causes4 ,holding that  
the attitude of the sanitarian1 in      
regard to the germ theory of diseases1  

as applied to all diseases of the       
zymotic class1 must be one of reserve1  
yet1 he said1 even if the views of those
 who are prepared to accept the germ    
theory of disease to its fullest extent 
were shown to be true1 it seems to be   
certain that if the invasion of these   
occult enemies present in the air is    
undertaken in insufficient force1 or    
upon an animal in sufficiently robust   
health1 they are refused a foothold and 
expelled2 or1 if they have secured a    
lodgment in the tissues1 they1 so to    
speak1 may be laid hold of1 and absorbed
 or digested by them4  ,in corroboration
 of this view1 ,professor ,koch and     
others state that the minor organisms of
 tubercular disease do not occur in the 
tissues of healthy bodies1 and that when
 introduced into the living body their  
propagation and increase is greatly     
favored by a low state of the general   
health4 ,the ,president held that for   
the present sanitary procedure was      
independent of these theories on the    

germ origin in particular of zymotic    
disease2 but gave the facts as worthy of
 consideration1 as indicating points for
 the direction of those who aimed at    
preventing disease4  ,the ,president    
dealt with the important subject of     
isolation in the cases of contagious    
zymotic diseases1 and then1 proceeding  
to discuss the subject of epidemic      
diseases1 said3 ,notwithstanding the    
numerous experiments and the great      
efforts which have been made in recent  
times to endeavor to trace out the      
origin of disease1 the sanitarian has   
not yet been able to lift up the veil   
which conceals the causes connected with
 the occurrence of epidemic diseases4   
,these diseases come in recurring       
periods1 sometimes at longer1 sometimes 
at shorter intervals4 ,animals1 as well 
as the human race1 are similarly        
affected by these diseases of periodical
 recurrence2 but why they prevail more  
in one year than in another we are      
entirely ignorant4 ,they appear to be   

subject to certain aerial or climatic   
conditions4  ,cholera affords an        
illustration of this4 ,there is a part  
of ,india1 low-lying1 water-logged1 near
 the mouth of the ,ganges1 where cholera
 may be said to be endemic4 ,in certain 
years1 but why we know not1 it spreads  
out of this district1 and moves westward
 over the country2 the people are       
sedentary1 and seldom leave home1 but   
the cholera travels on4 ,at last it     
arrives on the borders of the desert1   
where there are no people1 and no       
intercourse1 no alvine secretions1 and  
no sewers1 yet the statistician sitting 
in ,calcutta can tell almost the day on 
which the epidemic influence will have  
crossed the desert4 ,but it exercises   
discrimination in its attacks1 ,it will 
visit one town or village and leave many
 others in the vicinity untouched4      
,similarly it will attack one house and 
leave another4 ,but it has been         
generally found that the attacked house 
or village held out special invitation  

from its insanitary condition4 ,the same
 houses or the same localities will be  
revisited in recurring epidemics1       
because the conditions remain the same2 
remove those conditions1 and at the next
 recurrence the locality will escape4   
,at ,malta it was found that the same   
localities and houses which yielded the 
majority of plague deaths there in #ahac
 yielded the majority of the deaths in  
the cholera epidemics of #ahci and      
#ahfg1 and that in the intervals the    
same localities yielded the majority of 
cases of small-pox1 fever1 and of an    
anthrax1 a very special eruptive        
epidemic attended by carbuncles4 ,hence1
 while we are unable either to account  
for the cause or to prevent the periodic
 recurrence of epidemics1 the sanitarian
 has learnt that it is possible to      
mitigate the severity of the visit2 and 
that1 whether these evils arise from the
 occult causes to which ,i have alluded1
 or from other causes1 pure air and pure
 water afford almost absolute safeguards

 against most forms of zymotic diseases4
  ,in speaking of the pure-water        
question1 he remarked3 ,although there  
are many theories as to how far water   
which has once been contaminated by     
sewage may again after a time become fit
 to drink1 ,i am disposed to think that 
there has never been a well-proved case 
of an outbreak of disease resulting from
 the use of drinking water where the    
chemist would not unhesitatingly on     
analysis have condemned the water as an 
impure source2 and it appears probable  
that1 whatever may be the actual causes 
of certain diseases--i4e41 whether germs
 or chemical poisons1 the materies morbi
 which finds its way into the river at  
the sewage outfall is destroyed1        
together with the organic impurity1     
after a certain length of flow4 ,he     
pressed that there should be no further 
delay in bringing the ,act for the      
,prevention of ,pollution of ,rivers    
into operation1 and in enforcing the    
provisions of the ,acts4 ,in regard to  

the pollution of the air1 he called     
attention to the fact that nearly fifty 
years ago ,mr4 ,edwin ,chadwick         
impressed upon the community the evils  
which were caused by the impure         
condition of the air in our towns owing 
to the retention of refuse around       
houses4 ,the speaker remarked that the  
gases1 which were the result of         
putrefaction1 were offensive to the     
smell1 and some of them1 such as        
sulphureted hydrogen1 when present in   
undue proportions in the air1 would kill
 persons outright1 or when those gases  
were in smaller proportions in the air  
breathed by people1 there would be a    
lowered tone of health in the           
individuals exposed to them4 ,continued 
exposure might lead to the development  
of other conditions1 which1 in their    
turn1 might lead to disease or death4   
,from this point the ,president         
proceeded to speak of the increased     
toxical power of volatile compounds     
given off by neglected decomposed       

matter1 and was thence led to dwell upon
 the dangers arising from decomposed    
substances in cesspools and in badly    
constructed drains4 ,there was no doubt1
 he said1 that in the sewering of towns 
want of experience in the construction  
of works had in some cases led to       
deposits in the sewers1 and evil        
consequences had ensued2 but it might be
 accepted as certain that in every case 
where the sewerage had been devised on  
sound principles1 and where the works   
had been carried on under intelligent   
supervision1 a largely reduced          
death-rate had invariably followed4     
,evidence of this fact he adduced from  
the history of ,newcastle1 for in the   
ten years beginning in #ahfg the        
death-rate was #bg4f1 while in the ten  
years ending #ahha 7during which there  
had been improved sewerage in operation7
 the death-rate was only #bc1 while in  
#ahha it was only #ba4g4 ,he instanced  
the like results in ,munich1 where the  
entire fever mortality sank from #bd4b  

in the period when there were no        
regulations in regard to cleanliness to 
#h4g when the sewerage was complete1 at 
,frankfort-on-the-,main1 at ,dantzic1   
and at ,hamburg1 where similar results  
obtained of a heavy zymotic mortality   
previous to the sewering of the cities1 
and a lighter mortality on the          
completion of the works4  ,these results
 were set forth in figures1 and after   
dealing with the beneficial results of  
purifying the air of towns by the rapid 
abstraction of refuse matter1 he passed 
on to review other fertile causes of    
mischief in poisoning the air of towns1 
the chief of these being horse manure1  
the dust of refuse1 and smoke4  ,on this
 subject he quoted ,dr4 ,angus ,smith1  
who in his ,contributions to the        
,beginnings of a ,chemical ,climatology1
 shows that the air in the middle of the
 ,atlantic ,ocean1 on the sea-shore1 and
 on uncontaminated open spaces1 commands
 the greatest amount of oxygen2 that at 
the tops of hills the air contains more 

oxygen than at the bottom2 and that     
places where putrefaction may be        
supposed to exist are subject to a      
diminution of oxygen4  ,for instance1 a 
diminution of oxygen and an increase of 
carbonic acid is decidedly apparent in  
crowded rooms1 theaters1 cowhouses1 and 
stables4 ,it is well known that oxygen  
over putrid substances is absorbed1     
while carbonic acid and other gases take
 its place2 and hence all places near or
 in our houses which contain impurities 
diminish the oxygen of the air4 ,the    
average quantity of oxygen in pure air  
amounts to #ba parts out of #ajj4 ,in   
impure places1 such1 for instance1 as in
 a sleeping-room where the windows have 
been shut all night1 or in a            
lecture-theater after a lecture1 or in a
 close stable1 the oxygen has been found
 to be reduced to as little as #bj parts
 in #ajj4  ,that is to say1 a man       
breathing pure air obtains1 and he      
requires1 #b1afd grains of oxygen per   
hour4 ,in bad air he would1 if breathing

 at the same rate1 get little over      
#b1jjj grains of oxygen an hour--that   
is1 a loss of #e per cent42 and this    
diminished quantity of oxygen is        
replaced with other1 and in almost all  
cases1 pernicious matters4 ,the oxygen  
is the hard-working1 active substance   
that keeps up the fire1 cooks the food1 
and purifies the blood2 and1 of course1 
as the proportion of oxygen in the air  
breathed diminishes1 the lungs must     
exert themselves more to obtain the     
necessary quantity of oxygen for        
carrying on the functions of life4 ,if  
the air is loaded with impurities the   
lungs get clogged1 and their power of   
absorbing the oxygen that is present in 
the air is diminished4 ,an individual   
breathing this impure air must therefore
 do less work2 or1 if he does the same  
amount of work1 it is at a greater      
expense to his system4  ,the influence  
of smoky town air on health is to some  
extent illustrated by the fact that the 
death-rate of twenty-three manufacturing

 towns1 selected chiefly for their smoky
 character1 averaged #ba4i per #a1jjj in
 #ahhj2 while the rural districts in the
 counties of ,wilts1 ,dorset1 and       
,devon1 excluding large towns1 averaged 
#ag4g per #a1jjj2 and the deaths from   
the principal zymotic diseases in the   
towns were more than double those in the
 rural districts4  ,the ,president      
quoted the experiments of ,mr4 ,aitkin1 
of ,edinburgh1 on the creation of       
fogs--that the vapor of water injected  
into air1 from which particles had been 
strained out1 was not visible2 whereas  
as soon as foreign matter1 such as dust1
 or smoke1 or fumes1 and especially     
fumes of sulphur1 were introduced1 the  
aqueous vapor condensed on the          
particles1 and became visible as fog1   
and pointed out the fact that the       
barbarous method which we adopt for     
burning coal in this country adds to the
 dust the fumes which necessarily result
 from combustion1 as well as a quantity 
of soot and tarry matter1 a soot which  

assists in forming the black canopy     
which it is the fashion in ,england to  
consider the proper attribute of a large
 town4  ,he quoted the opinions of      
eminent scientific men to show that it  
was possible1 under proper methods of   
burning coal1 to lessen the intensity of
 fogs1 and so to lessen materially the  
causes of ill-health1 terminating in    
fatal disease of those subject to them4 
,in dealing with the wide subject of the
 general effect of sanitary conditions  
upon health1 he gave some remarkable    
facts showing that sanitary work had    
reduced the death-rate of the ,european 
army in ,india from #fj per #a1jjj to   
#af per #a1jjj2 that the deaths from    
tubercular disease in the army at home  
used to be #aj per #a1jjj--the sum total
 now of the total deaths from all causes
 in a time of peace--a reduction due to 
the improved hygienic conditions under  
which soldiers now live2 that the       
death-rate in a certain part of         
,newcastle 7now removed7 used to be #ed 

per #a1jjj1 and of the entire borough   
#bf4a so lately as seven years ago1     
while now it was #ba4h2 that in parts of
 ,london1 where the people were         
ill-lodged and crowded1 as in parts of  
,limehouse1 ,whitechapel1 ,aldgate1 and 
,st4 ,giles's1 the death-rates were #ej 
per cent4 above the death-rates in more 
open parts of the same districts1 and   
that when proper dwellings were erected 
the death-rates fell from #ej in the    
#a1jjj to not more than #bj per #a1jjj4 
,he then spoke of the advantage arising 
to the health of the population         
generally by the new dwellings for      
artisans4  ,he remarked that these      
improved dwellings afford accommodation 
to a population per acre as dense as1   
and in most cases even denser than1 that
 afforded by the buildings which they   
replaced4 ,within limits it is not the  
density of population which regulates   
the health4 ,but if a dense population  
is spread over the surface or close to  
the surface of the ground1 by which     

means all movement of air is prevented1 
and if there are numerous corners in    
which refuse is accumulated1 it will be 
difficult to prevent disease4 ,dr4      
,angus ,smith's experiments show that   
while there is less oxygen and more     
carbonic acid in the eastern and in the 
more crowded parts of ,london1 yet in   
open spaces the amount of oxygen rises  
and the carbonic acid diminishes very   
considerably2 and that we are exposed to
 distinct currents of good air in the   
worst1 and equally to currents of bad   
air in the best atmosphere1 in towns    
like ,manchester4  ,dr4 ,tyndall showed 
that where there is quiescence in the   
air the tendency of his sterilized      
infusions to produce organisms was      
increased4 ,the conclusion from all     
these experiments is to show the        
importance of laying out the general    
plan of dwellings in a town so that     
currents of air shall be able to flow on
 all sides with as little impediment as 
possible1 by which means the air will be

 continually liable to renewal by purer 
air4 ,the dwellings which have been     
constructed in the place of the very    
defective dwellings condemned by the    
medical officers of health in various   
parts of ,london specially illustrate   
the importance of this question of the  
circulation of air4 ,these dwellings    
replace those in which the normal       
mortality was as much as #cc1 #dd1 and  
#ej per #a1jjj4 ,but these improved     
dwellings provide ample space all round 
the blocks of building1 so that air can 
flow round and through them in every    
direction1 and so that there are no     
narrow courts and hidden corners for the
 accumulation of refuse4 ,the mortality 
in the new dwellings is as low as #ac   
per #a1jjj in some1 and does not rise   
above #bj per #a1jjj in any of them1 and
 upon an average of years it may be     
taken at from #ad to #af per #a1jjj4 ,it
 is to this point that ,i specially     
desire to draw attention--namely1 that  
these facts prove the possibility of    

bringing down the death-rate of the     
class of population which inhabits this 
sort of accommodation to rates varying  
from #ae to #af per #a1jjj4 ,i say of   
the class of population1 because habits 
and mode of life have an important      
influence on health and on longevity4   
,mr4 ,chadwick and ,dr4 ,richardson     
obtained some statistics for            
,westminster1 for the use of a committee
 of the ,society of ,arts1 which        
indicate the very different conditions  
of health to which the different classes
 of population are subject4 ,it appeared
 from these statistics that out of one  
hundred deaths of the first class1 or   
gentry1 six were those of children in   
their first year1 and nine of children  
within their fifth year2 while out of   
one hundred deaths of the wage classes  
twenty-two are those of children in     
their first year1 and thirty-nine within
 their fifth year4 ,if we take the      
average duration of life of all who have
 died of the first class1 men1 women1   

and children1 we find that they have had
 an average of fifty-five years and     
eight months of life2 while of the wage 
classes they have had a mean of only    
twenty-eight years and nine months4 ,and
 if we take the average duration of life
 of those who have escaped the earlier  
ravages of death up to twenty years of  
age1 the males who have died of the     
first class have had sixty-one years of 
life1 while of the wage class the males 
have had only forty-seven years and     
seven months4 ,moreover1 of the first   
class in ,westminster1 the proportion   
who have attained the old age1 and died 
of natural causes1 is #c4bg per cent41  
but of the wage classes only a fraction1
 or two-thirds per cent41 did so4 ,i    
have obtained similar returns for this  
town4 ,it was considered desirable1 for 
the purpose of this return1 to divide   
the population into the following five  
classes3 ,first1 gentry and professional
 men2 second1 tradesmen and shopkeepers2
 third1 shipwrights1 chain and anchor   

smiths1 iron forge laborers1 etc41      
fourth1 seamen1 watermen1 fishermen1    
etc42 fifth1 other wage clashes and     
artisans2 and each of these classes     
represents distinct sanitary conditions 
and habits of life4 ,the healthiest     
class is that of the seamen1 watermen1  
and fishermen4 ,the mean age at death of
 all who died of that class1 men1 women1
 and children1 is thirty-seven years1 as
 compared with thirty five years for    
gentry and professional men2 while the  
mean age of shipwrights1 chain and      
anchor makers1 and iron forge laborers  
is only twenty-two years4 ,the          
,president considered that these points 
gave much food for reflection4 ,he then 
touched upon the important question of  
the effect of occupation upon health1   
and remarked3 ,if we take the           
professional and merchant class1 who    
attend at their offices during the      
daytime1 we may be sure that1 as a rule1
 they are placed in unhealthy           
surroundings during that time1 and in   

many cases have to breathe during their 
hours of work as bad an atmosphere as   
that in which the wage classes work4 ,he
 also quoted returns showing that the   
great mortality among the tradesmen     
class in ,westminster was explained from
 the fact that the best rooms in the    
houses in which they live were let for  
lodgings1 the tradesmen contenting      
themselves with living in the basements 
or back premises1 which were frequently 
unhealthy4 ,he looked for great         
improvements in the health of the wage  
classes by the construction of improved 
dwellings2 but1 he confessed1 in many   
cases workmen required to be taught to  
attend to precautions devised for their 
health4  ,on the subject of sickness    
caused by insanitary conditions1 he     
quoted the remark of an ,east ,london   
clergyman that the poor go on living in 
wretched places1 but have much          
ill-health4 ,he showed from ,mr4        
,burdett's figures that the ,london     
voluntary hospitals and dispensaries    

cost nearly #fjj1jjj a year to          
administer--an expenditure incurred     
mainly for the purpose of patching up   
the wretched poor who had been injured  
by bad drainage1 want of ventilation and
 the like2 and he urged that it might be
 safely assumed preventive measures     
would bring down the death-rate of the  
wage class to one-half1 reducing also   
the sickness rate in at least a similar 
proportion4 ,by means of this item alone
 the wage-earning power of the          
industrious classes would be enlarged by
 some millions of pounds1 and their     
comfort correspondingly increased4      
,there would also1 he contended1 be     
other distinct economies1 for there     
would be less need for much of the      
accommodation in prisons1 reformatories1
 and workhouses now needed from evils   
incident to unhealthy circumstances and 
crowded dwellings4  ,he dwelt upon the  
economic advantages of sanitary measures
 generally1 dealing first with the      
subject of the conversion of sewage into

 manure1 and then1 in relation to the   
provision of healthful dwellings1 such  
as those of the ,metropolitan           
,association for ,improving the         
,dwellings of the ,industrial ,classes1 
he showed that the cost of such         
dwellings had been about #a1ijj1jjj for 
#aa1jjj persons4 ,by the saving in life 
and health1 through the continuance in  
earning power of men1 whose lives would 
otherwise have been cut short1 he       
estimated that the expenditure of the   
#a1ijj1jjj for the #aa1jjj persons1 by  
the addition often years' earning power 
to the heads of families1 brought in a  
return of #d1fjj1jjj1 and urged these   
facts as showing the pecuniary          
advantages accruing to the nation from  
sanitary improvements which led to      
decreased death and sickness rates4 ,on 
the one hand1 he said1 insanitary       
dwellings and insanitary conditions of  
life engendered sickness1 entailed      
poverty1 and fostered crime1 while      
improved dwellings insured improved     

health1 and by affording a security for 
the more continuous earning of wages    
created the possibility of a comfortable
 home4 ,advanced sanitarians had long   
preached these doctrines1 and he was    
happy to think that they were at last   
beginning to hear some results1 and in  
those results he saw the means of       
developing morality1 contentment1 and   
happiness among the people4         99  
99       99       99       99  ,,nature4
     ,,psychological ,,development ,,in 
,,children4  ,footnote3 ,die ,seele des 
,kindes ,beobachtungen ueber die        
geistige ,entwickelung des ,menschen in 
den ersten ,lebensjahren4 ,von ,w4      
,preyer1 ordentlichen ,professor der    
,physiologie an der ,universitaet und   
,director des physiologischen ,instituts
 zu ,jena1 etc4 ,leipzig3 ,th4 ,grieben4
 #ahhb4   ,this is a large octavo       
volume1 extending to over four hundred  
pages1 and consisting of daily          
observations without intermission of the
 psychological development of the       

author's son from the time of birth to  
the end of the first year1 and of       
subsequent observations less continuous 
up to the age of three years4 ,professor
 ,preyer's name is a sufficient         
guarantee of the closeness and accuracy 
of any series of observations undertaken
 with so much earnestness and labor1 but
 still we may remark at the outset that 
any anticipation which2 the reader may  
form on this point will be more than    
justified by his perusal of this book4  
,we shall proceed to give a sketch of   
the results which strike us as most     
important1 although we cannot pretend to
 render within the limits of a few      
columns any adequate epitome of so large
 a body of facts and deductions4  ,the  
work is divided into three parts1 of    
which the first deals with the          
development of the senses1 the second   
with the development of the will1 and   
the third with the development of the   
understanding4  ,beginning with the     
sense of sight1 the observations show   

that light is perceived within five     
minutes after birth1 and that the pupils
 react within the first hour4 ,on the   
second day the eyes are closed upon the 
approach of a flame2 on the eleventh the
 child seemed to enjoy the sensation of 
light2 and on the twenty-third to       
appreciate the rose color of a curtain  
by smiling at it4 ,definite proof of    
color discrimination was first obtained 
in the eighty-fifth week1 but may1 of   
course1 have been present earlier4 ,when
 seven hundred and seventy days old the 
child could point to the colors yellow1 
red1 green1 and blue1 upon these being  
named4  ,the eyelids are first closed to
 protect the eyes from the sudden       
approach of a threatening body in the   
seventh or eighth week1 although1 as    
already observed1 they will close       
against a strong light as early as the  
second day4 ,the explanation of their   
beginning to close against the approach 
of a threatening body is supposed to be 
that an uncomfortable sensation is      

produced by the sudden and unexpected   
appearance1 which causes the lids to    
close without the child having any idea 
of danger to its eyes2 and the effect is
 not produced earlier in life because   
the eyes do not then see sufficiently   
well4 ,on the twenty-fifth day the child
 first definitely noticed its father's  
face2 when he nodded or spoke in a deep 
voice1 the child blinked4 ,this         
,professor ,preyer calls a              
surprise-reflex2 but definite           
astonishment 7at the rapid opening and  
closing of a fan7 was not observed till 
the seventh month4 ,the gaze was first  
fixed on a stationary light on the sixth
 day1 and the head was first moved after
 a moving light on the eleventh day2 on 
the twenty-third day the eyeballs were  
first moved after a moving object       
without rotation of the head2 and on the
 eighty-first day objects were first    
sought by the eyes4 ,up to this date the
 motion of the moving object must be    
slow if it is to be followed by the     

eyes1 but on the one hundred and first  
day a pendulum swinging forty times a   
minute was followed4 ,in the            
thirty-first week the child looked after
 fallen objects1 and in the             
forty-seventh purposely threw objects   
down and looked after them4 ,knowledge  
of weight appeared to be attained in the
 forty-third week4 ,persons were first  
distinguished as friends or strangers in
 the sixth month1 photographs of persons
 were first recognized in the one       
hundred and eighth week1 and all glass  
bottles were classified as belonging to 
the same genus as the feeding-bottle in 
the eighth month4  ,with regard to the  
sense of hearing1 it is first remarked  
that all children for some time after   
birth are completely deaf1 and it was   
not till the middle of the fourth day   
that ,professor ,preyer obtained any    
evidence of hearing in his child4 ,this 
child first turned his head in the      
direction of a sound in the eleventh    
week1 and this movement in the sixteenth

 week had become as rapid and certain as
 a reflex4 ,at eight months1 or a year  
before its first attempts at speaking1  
the infant distinguished between a tone 
and a noise1 as shown by its pleasure on
 hearing the sounds of a piano2 after   
the first year the child found          
satisfaction in itself striking the     
piano4 ,in the twenty-first month it    
danced to music1 and in the twenty      
fourth imitated song2 but it is stated  
on the authority of other observers that
 some children have been able to sing   
pitch correctly1 and even a melody1 as  
early as nine months4 ,one such child   
used at this age to sing in its sleep1  
and at nineteen months could beat time  
correctly with its hand while singing an
 air4  ,concerning touch1 taste1 and    
smell1 there is not so much to quote1   
though it appears that at birth the     
sense of taste is best developed1 and   
that the infant then recognizes the     
difference between sweet1 salt1 sour1   
and bitter4 ,likewise1 passing over a   

number of observations on the feelings  
of hunger1 thirst1 satisfaction1 etc41  
we come to the emotions4 ,fear was first
 shown in the fourteenth week2 the child
 had an instinctive dread of thunder1   
and later on of cats and dogs1 of       
falling from a height1 etc4 ,the date at
 which affection and sympathy first     
showed themselves does not appear to    
have been noted1 though at twenty-seven 
months the child cried on seeing some   
paper figures of men being cut with a   
pair of scissors4  ,in the second part  
of the book it is remarked that         
voluntary movements are preceded1 not   
only by reflex1 but also by impulsive   
movements1 the ceaseless activity of    
young infants being due to purposeless  
discharges of nervous energy4 ,reflex   
movements are followed by instinctive1  
and these by voluntary4 ,the latter are 
first shown by grasping at objects1     
which took place in ,preyer's child     
during the nineteenth week4 ,the        
opposition of the thumb to the fingers1 

which in the ape is acquired during the 
first week1 is very slowly acquired in  
the child1 while1 of course1 the        
opposition of the great toe is never    
acquired at all2 in ,preyer's child the 
thumb was first opposed to the fingers  
on the eighty-fourth day4 ,up to the    
seventeenth month there is great        
uncertainty in finding the mouth with   
anything held in the hand--a spoon1 for 
instance1 striking the cheeks1 chin1 or 
nose1 instead of at once going between  
the lips2 this forms a striking contrast
 to the case of young chickens which are
 able to peck grains1 etc41 soon after  
they are hatched4 ,sucking is not a pure
 reflex1 because a satisfied child will 
not suck when its lips are properly     
stimulated1 and further1 the action may 
be originated centrally1 as in a        
sleeping suckling4 ,at a later stage    
biting is as instinctive as sucking1 and
 was first observed to occur in the     
seventeenth week with the toothless     
gums4 ,later than biting1 but still     

before the teeth are cut1 chewing       
becomes instinctive1 and also licking4  
,between the tenth and the sixteenth    
week the head becomes completely        
balanced1 the efforts in this direction 
being voluntary and determined by the   
greater comfort of holding the head in  
an upright position4 ,sitting up usually
 begins about the fourth month1 but may 
begin much later4 ,in this connection an
 interesting remark of ,dr4 ,lauder     
,brunton is alluded to 7,bible and      
,science1 page #bci71 namely1 that when 
a young child sits upon the floor the   
soles of his feet are turned inward     
facing one another1 as is the case with 
monkeys4 ,when laid upon their faces    
children at earliest can right          
themselves during the fifth month4      
,preyer's child first attempted to stand
 in the thirty-ninth week1 but it was   
not until the beginning of the second   
year that it could stand alone1 or      
without assistance4 ,the walking        
movements which are performed by a child

 much too young to walk1 when it is held
 so that its feet touch the ground1 are 
classified by ,preyer as instinctive4   
,the time at which walking proper begins
 varies much with different children1   
the limits being from eight to sixteen  
months4 ,when a child which is beginning
 to walk falls1 it throws its arms      
forward to break the fall2 this action  
must be instinctive4 ,in the            
twenty-fourth month ,preyer's child     
began spontaneously to dance to music   
and to beat time correctly4  ,a chapter 
is devoted to imitative movements4 ,at  
the end of the fifteenth week the child 
would imitate the movement of protruding
 the lips1 at nine months would cry on  
hearing other children do so1 and at    
twelve months used to perform in its    
sleep imitative movements which had made
 a strong impression while awake--e4g41 
blowing2 this shows that dreaming occurs
 at least as early as the first year4   
,after the first year imitative         
movements are more readily learned than 

before4  ,shaking the head as a sign of 
negation was found by ,preyer1 as by    
other observers1 to be instinctive1 and 
he adopts ,darwin's explanation of the  
fact--viz41 that the satisfied suckling 
in refusing the breast must needs move  
its head from side to side4 ,in the     
seventeenth month the child exhibited a 
definite act of intelligent adjustment1 
for1 desiring to reach a toy down from a
 press1 it drew a traveling-bag from    
another part of the room to stand upon4 
,we mention this incident because it    
exhibits the same level of mental       
development as that of ,cuvier's orang1 
which1 on desiring to reach an object   
off a high shelf1 drew a chair below the
 shelf to stand upon4 ,anger was        
expressed in the tenth month1 shame and 
pride in the nineteenth4  ,between the  
tenth and eleventh month the first      
perception of causality was observed4   
,thus on the three hundred and          
nineteenth day the child was beating on 
a plate with a spoon and accidentally   

found that the sound was damped by      
placing the other hand upon the plate2  
it then changed its hands and repeated  
the experiment4 ,similarly at eleven    
months it struck a spoon upon a         
newspaper1 and changed hands to see if  
this would modify the sound4 ,in some   
children1 however1 the perception of    
causality to this extent occurs earlier4
 ,the present writer has seen a boy when
 exactly eight months old deriving much 
pleasure from striking the keys of a    
piano1 and clearly showing that he      
understood the action of striking the   
keys to be the antecedent required for  
the production of the sound4  ,the third
 part of the book is concerned1 as      
already stated1 with the development of 
the understanding4 ,here it is noticed  
that memory and recognition of the      
mother's voice occurs as early as the   
second month2 at four months the child  
cried for his absent nurse2 and at      
eighteen months he knew if one of ten   
toy animals were removed4 ,in ,preyer's 

opinion--and we think there can be no   
question of its accuracy--the           
intelligence of a child before it can   
speak a word is in advance of that of   
the most intelligent animal4 ,he gives  
numerous examples to prove that a high  
level of reason is attained by infants  
shortly before they begin to speak1 and 
therefore that the doctrine which       
ascribes all thought to language is     
erroneous4  ,highly elaborate           
observations were made on the           
development of speech1 the date at which
 every new articulate sound was made    
being recorded4 ,the following appear to
 us the results under this head which   
are most worth quoting4  ,instinctive   
articulation without meaning may occur  
as early as the seventh week1 but       
usually not till the end of the first   
half year4 ,tones are understood before 
words1 and vowel sounds before          
consonants1 so that if the vowel sounds 
alone are given of a word which the     
child understands 7thirteen months71 it 

will understand as well as if the word  
were fully spoken4 ,many children before
 they are six months old will repeat    
words parrot-like by mere imitation1    
without attaching to them any meaning4  
,but this echo-speaking never takes     
place before the first understanding of 
certain other words is shown--never1    
e4g41 earlier than the fourth month4    
,again1 all children which hear but do  
not yet speak1 thus repeat many words   
without understanding them1 and         
conversely1 understand many words       
without being able to repeat them4 ,such
 facts lead ,professor ,preyer to       
suggest a somewhat elaborate schema of  
the mechanism of speech1 both on its    
physiological and psychological aspects2
 but this schema we have not sufficient 
space to reproduce4  ,although the      
formation of ideas is not at first1 or  
even for a considerable time1 dependent 
on speech 7any more than it is in the   
case of the lower animals71 it          
constitutes the condition to the        

learning of speech1 and afterward speech
 reacts upon the development of         
ideation4 ,a child may and usually does 
imitate the sounds of animals as names  
of the animals which make them long     
before it can speak one word1 and1 so   
far as ,preyer's evidence goes1         
interjections are all originally        
imitative of sounds4 ,children with a   
still very small vocabulary use words   
metaphorically1 as tooth-heaven to      
signify the upper gums1 and it is a     
mistake to suppose that the first words 
in a child's vocabulary are invariably  
noun-substantives1 as distinguished from
 adjectives or even verbs4 ,as this     
statement is at variance with almost    
universal opinion1 we think it is       
desirable to furnish the following      
corroboration4 ,the present writer has  
notes of a child which possessed a      
vocabulary of only a dozen words or so4 
,the only properly ,english words were  
poor1 dirty1 and cook1 and of these the 
two adjectives1 no less than the        

noun-substantive1 were always           
appropriately used4 ,the remaining words
 were nursery words1 and of these ta-ta 
was used as a verb meaning to go1 to go 
out1 to go away1 etc41 inclusive of all 
possible moods and tenses4 ,thus1 for   
instance1 on one occasion1 when the     
child was wheeling about her doll in her
 own perambulator1 the writer stole away
 the doll without her perceiving the    
theft4 ,when she thought that the doll  
had had a sufficiently long ride1 she   
walked round the perambulator to take it
 out4 ,not finding the doll where she   
had left it she was greatly perplexed1  
and then began to say many times poor   
,na-na1 poor ,na-na1 ,na-na ta-ta1      
,na-na ta-ta2 this clearly meant--poor  
,na-na has disappeared4 ,and many other 
examples might be given of this child   
similarly using her small stock of      
adjectives and verbs correctly4         
,according to ,preyer1 from the first   
week to the fifth month the only vowel  
sounds used are  and a4 ,on the         

forty-third day he heard the first      
consonant1 which was m1 and also the    
vowel o4 ,next day the child said ta hu1
 on the forty-sixth day g r1 and on the 
fifty-first arra ,all the vowel sounds  
were acquired in the fifth month4 ,we   
have no space to go further into the    
successive dates at which the remaining 
consonants were acquired4 ,in the       
eleventh month the child first learnt to
 articulate a certain word 7ada7 by     
imitation1 and afterward repeated the   
taught word spontaneously4 ,the first   
year passed without any other indication
 of a connection between articulation   
and ideation than was supplied by the   
child using a string of different       
syllables 7and not merely a repetition  
of the same one7 on perceiving a rapid  
movement1 as any one hurriedly leaving  
the room1 etc42 but this child          
nevertheless understood certain words   
7such as handchen geben7 when only      
fifty-two weeks old4 ,inefficient       
attempts at imitative speaking precede  

the accurate attempts1 and at fourteen  
months this inefficiency was still very 
apparent1 being in marked contrast with 
the precision whereby it would imitate  
syllables which it could already say2   
the will to imitate all syllables was   
present1 though not the ability4 ,at the
 beginning of the fourteenth month on   
being asked3 ,wo ist dein ,schrank8 the 
child would turn its head in the        
direction of the cupboard1 draw the     
person who asked the question toward it 
7though the child could not then walk72 
and so with other objects the names of  
which it knew4 ,during the next month   
the child would point to the object when
 the question was asked1 and also cough1
 blow1 or stamp on being told to do so4 
,in the seventeenth month there was a   
considerable advance in the use of      
sign-language 7such as bringing a hat to
 the nurse as a request to go out71 but 
still no words were spoken save ma-ma1  
pa-pa1 etc4 ,in the twentieth month the 
child could first repeat words of two   

unlike syllables4 ,when twenty-three    
months old the first evidence of        
judgment was given2 the child having    
drunk milk which was too hot for it1    
said the word heiss4 ,in the sixty-third
 week this word had been learnt in      
imitative speaking1 so it required eight
 and a half months for it to be properly
 used as a predicate4 ,at the same age  
on being asked1 ,where is your beard8   
the child would place its hand on its   
chin and move its thumb and fingers as  
if drawing hair through them1 or as it  
was in the habit of doing if it touched 
its father's beard2 this is evidence of 
imagination1 which1 however1 certainly  
occurs much earlier in life4 ,at the    
close of the second year a great advance
 was made in using two words together as
 a sentence--e4g41 home1 milk1 to       
signify a desire to go home and have    
some milk4 ,in the first month of the   
third year sentences of three or even   
four words were used1 as papa1 pear1    
plate1 please4 ,hitherto the same word  

would often be employed to express      
several or many associated meanings1 and
 no words appeared to have been entirely
 invented4 ,the powers of association   
and inference were well developed4 ,for 
instance1 the child received many       
presents on its birthday1 and being     
pleased said bursta 7,geburtstage72     
afterward when similarly pleased it     
would say the same word4 ,again1 when it
 injured its hand it was told to blow   
upon it1 and on afterward knocking its  
head it blew into the air4 ,at this age 
also the power of making propositions   
advanced considerably1 as was shown1 for
 instance1 by the following sentence on 
seeing milk spilt upon the floor3 ,mime 
atta teppa papa o1 which was equivalent 
to ,milch fort 7auf den7 ,teppich1 ,papa
 7sagte7 pfui6 ,but it is interesting   
that at this age words were learnt with 
an erroneous apprehension of their      
meaning2 this was particularly the case 
with pronouns--dein ,bett1 for example1 
being supposed to mean das grosse ,bett4

 ,all words which were spontaneously    
acquired seemed to be instances of      
onomatopoeia4 ,adverbs were first used  
in the twenty-seventh month1 and now    
also words which had previously been    
used to express a variety of associated 
or generic meanings1 were discarded for 
more specific ones4 ,in the             
twenty-eighth month prepositions were   
first used1 and questions were first    
asked4 ,in the twenty-ninth month the   
chief advance was in naming self with a 
pronoun1 as in give me bread2 but the   
word ,i was not yet spoken4 ,when asked3
 ,wer ist mir8 the child would say its  
own name4 ,although the child had long  
been able to say its numerals1 it was   
only in this month that it attained to  
an understanding of their use in        
counting4 ,in the thirty-second month   
the word ,i was acquired1 but still the 
child seemed to prefer speaking of      
itself in the third person4  ,the long  
disquisition on the acquirement of      
speech is supplemented by a chapter     

conveying the observations of other     
writers upon the same subject4 ,this is 
followed by an interesting chapter on   
the development of self-consciousness1  
and the work concludes with a summary of
 results4 ,there are also lengthy       
appendices on the acquirements of       
correct vision after surgical operations
 by those who have been born blind1 and 
on the mental condition of uneducated   
deaf mutes2 but we have no space left to
 go into these subjects4 ,enough1 we    
trust1 has been said to show that       
,professor ,preyer's laborious          
undertaking is the most important       
contribution which has yet appeared to  
the department of psychology with which 
it is concerned4 ,,george ,j4 ,,romanes4
         99       99       99       99  
99     ,,the ,,racial ,,characteristics 
,,of ,,man4   ,,dr4 ,,zerffi1 ,f4 ,r4   
,hist4 ,s41 recently delivered the first
 of the inaugural lectures in connection
 with the opening of the ,crystal       
,palace ,company's ,school of ,art1 on  

,the ,racial ,characteristics of ,man   
,scientifically ,traced in ,general     
,history4 ,he complained that the study 
of man from a scientific point of view1 
especially in history as enacted by him1
 was mostly neglected1 although it ought
 to be--nay1 would and must more and    
more become--our most important subject1
 as forming the only real basis of all  
our higher culture4 ,history was        
undoubtedly a deductive science1 but it 
could be verified and put to the best   
uses by the purely inductive study of   
facts4 ,any change1 whether progressive 
or retrospective1 in the social1        
political1 or religious condition of    
men1 would be a fact4 ,the acting forces
 were men1 of whom there were on the    
globe more than a thousand millions1 all
 endowed with three principal           
faculties--of receiving impressions1    
which produced sensations1 and were     
reflected in their intellectual         
consciousness4 ,but neither in comparing
 individuals with one another1 nor race 

with race1 were these faculties equally 
developed4 ,they varied with a race's   
average facial angles and lines1 its    
amount of brain1 the color of its skin1 
and its general organization4 ,the      
facial angle of the black races might be
 taken at #he1 and the number of cubic  
inches of brain might range between #ge 
and #hj4 ,in an ethnological chart hung 
behind the lecturer1 the main body of   
the ,nigritian races1 which was made up 
of the ,asiatic and ,african negroes1   
was credited with #hc cubic inches of   
brain as a general statement4 ,it was   
remarked however1 that the brain was    
very small relatively to the body1 while
 the cerebellum formed a very large     
portion of the organ4 ,the statical and 
dynamical forces of the intellect were  
said to be undeveloped1 the animal      
propensities predominating4 ,the long   
extinct ,american ,toltecs1 ranking as  
one section of a subdivision under this 
head1 figured for #gi cubic inches of   
brain4 ,in both directions the          

intellectual forces were marked as      
undeveloped1 but the ,toltecs were      
credited with great imitative powers4   
,the other section1 comprising the      
,hottentots and ,australian black       
fellows1 were allowed but #ge cubic     
inches of brain1 or not more than #aj   
above the highest anthropoid apes1 and  
in neither did the statical or dynamical
 intellect pass beyond a transitory     
stage of the lowest degree4 ,the typical
 facial angle of the yellow or ,turanian
 races--the bulk being ,chinese1        
,mongols1 ,finns1 ,turks1 with ,malay1  
,gangetic1 ,lohitic1 ,tamulic1 and      
,american tribes--was given as #hg      
degrees4 ,in cubic inches1 the brain    
ranged between #hb and #ie4 ,in the     
chart the figure given was #hc4 ,here1  
too1 the statical or conservative energy
 of the intellect was made the great    
characteristic1 the dynamical or        
progressive developing for the most part
 in technical products only4 ,the       
tendency was to become herdsmen1        

farmers1 and traders4 ,as a division    
were classed the aborigines of ,india   
and of ,egypt1 with an average #hj cubic
 inches of brain1 a very large          
cerebellum1 and a cerebrum comparatively
 small4 ,their intellect was as         
characteristically statical as that of  
the other yellow races1 the dynamic     
impulse manifesting itself only in      
symbolism1 mysticism1 and the like4 ,at 
the head of all stood the white races1  
,aryans for the most part1 but with the 
,semites--,chaldeans1 ,phoeniceans1     
,hebrews1 ,carthaginians1 ,arabs--as a  
subdivision4 ,ideally1 their facial     
angle was #ij--the right angle--and     
their cubic inches of brain ranged from 
#ib to #abj1 rising in individual       
instances--the lecturer named ,byron--as
 high as #aej4 ,the number in the chart 
for the ,aryans--,sanskrit-speaking     
,indians1 the ,greeks and ,romans1 the  
,goths1 ,kelts1 ,slavs1 and their       
progeny--was #ib1 and for the ,semitic  
peoples #hh4 ,the ,aryans were credited 

with a due balance between the dynamical
 and statical energy of their intellect1
 to which they owed nearly all the great
 inventions and discoveries1 and with   
all the systematic development of       
science4 ,they brought forth the        
philosophers1 moralists1 engineers1     
sculptors1 musicians4 ,the ,semitic     
intellect was predominantly statical1   
being but little developed in the       
creative or dynamical direction1 and    
then mostly in theological thought4     
,they produced1 however1 musicians1     
traders1 and conquerors4         99     
99       99       99       99           
,,eccentricity ,,and ,,idiosyncrasy4    
,footnote3 ,an extract from a ,treatise 
on ,insanity shortly to be published by 
,d4 ,appleton  ,co4  ,by ,,william ,a4  
,,hammond1 ,m4,d41 ,surgeon-,general    
,u4,s4 ,army 7,retired ,list71          
,professor of ,diseases of the ,mind and
 ,nervous ,system in the ,new ,york     
,post-,graduate ,medical ,school1 etc4  
,,eccentricity4--,persons whose minds   

deviate in some one or more notable     
respects from the ordinary standard1 but
 yet whose mental processes are not     
directly at variance with that standard1
 are said to be eccentric4 ,eccentricity
 is generally inherent in the           
individual1 or is gradually developed in
 him from the operation of unrecognized 
causes as he advances in years4 ,if an  
original condition1 it may be shown from
 a very early period of life1 his plays1
 even1 being different from those of    
other children of his age4 ,doubtless it
 then depends upon some peculiarity of  
brain structure1 which1 within the      
limits of the normal range1 produces    
individuality of mental action4  ,but   
eccentricity is not always an original  
condition1 for1 under certain           
circumstances1 it may be acquired4 ,a   
person1 for instance1 meets with some   
circumstance in his life which tends to 
weaken his confidence in human nature4  
,he accordingly shuns mankind1 by       
shutting himself up in his own house and

 refusing to have any intercourse with  
the inhabitants of the place in which he
 resides4 ,in carrying out his purpose  
he proceeds to the most absurd extremes4
 ,he speaks to no one he meets1 returns 
no salutations1 and his relations with  
the tradesmen who supply his daily wants
 are conducted through gratings in the  
door of his dwelling4 ,he dies1 and the 
will which he leaves behind him is found
 to devote his entire property for the  
founding of a hospital for sick and     
ownerless dogs1 the most faithful       
creatures ,i have ever met1 and the only
 ones in which ,i have any confidence4  
,such a man is not insane4 ,there is a  
rational motive for his conduct--one    
which many of us have experienced1 and  
which has1 perhaps1 prompted us to act  
in a similar manner1 if not to the same 
extent4  ,another is engaged in vast    
mercantile transactions1 requiring the  
most thorough exercise of the best      
faculties of the mind4 ,he studies the  
markets of the world1 and buys and sells

 with uniform shrewdness and success4   
,in all the relations of life he        
conducts himself with the utmost        
propriety and consideration for the     
rights and feelings of others4 ,the most
 complete study of his character and    
acts fails to show the existence of the 
slightest defect in his mental          
processes4 ,he goes to church regularly 
every ,sunday1 but has never been       
regarded as a particularly religious    
man4 ,nevertheless1 he has one          
peculiarity4 ,he is a collector of      
,bibles1 and has several thousand1 of   
all sizes and styles1 and in many       
languages4 ,if he hears of a ,bible1 in 
any part of the world1 different in any 
respect from those he owns1 he at once  
endeavors to obtain it1 no matter how   
difficult the undertaking1 or how much  
it may cost4 ,except in the matter of   
,bibles he is disposed to be some what  
penurious--although his estate is       
large--and has been known to refuse to  
have a salad for his dinner on account  

of the high price of good olive-oil4 ,he
 makes his will1 and dies1 and then it  
is found that his whole property is left
 in trust to be employed in the         
maintenance of his library of ,bibles1  
in purchasing others which may become   
known to the trustees1 and in printing  
one copy1 for his library1 of the book  
in any language in which it does not    
already exist4 ,a letter which is       
addressed to his trustees informs them  
that1 when he was a boy1 a ,bible which 
he had in the breast-pocket of his coat 
preserved his life by stopping a bullet 
which another boy had accidentally      
discharged from a pistol1 and that he   
then had resolved to make the honoring  
of the ,bible the duty of his whole     
life4  ,neither of these persons can be 
regarded as insane4 ,both were the      
subjects of acquired eccentricity1      
which1 in all likelihood1 would have    
ensued in some other form1 from some    
other circumstance acting upon brains   
naturally predisposed to be thus        

affected4 ,the brain is the soil upon   
which impressions act differently1      
according to its character1 just as1    
with the sower casting his seed-wheat   
upon different fields1 some springs up  
into a luxuriant crop1 some grows       
sparsely1 and some1 again1 takes no     
root1 but rots where it falls4          
,possibly1 if these individuals had     
lived a little longer1 they might have  
passed the border-line which separates  
mental soundness from mental            
unsoundness2 but certainly1 up to the   
period of their deaths1 both would have 
been pronounced sane by all competent   
laymen and alienists with whom they     
might have been brought into contact2   
and the contest of their wills1 by any  
heirs-at-law1 would assuredly have been 
a fruitless undertaking4  ,they chose to
 have certain ends in view1 and to      
provide the means for the accomplishment
 of those ends4 ,there were no          
delusions1 no emotional disturbance1 no 
hallucinations or illusions1 and the    

will was normally exercised to the      
extent necessary to secure the objects  
of their lives4 ,at any time they had it
 in their power to alter their purposes1
 and in that fact we have an essential  
point of difference between eccentricity
 and insanity4 ,we may regard their     
conduct as singular1 because they made  
an unusual disposition of their         
property2 but it was no more irrational 
than if the one had left his estate to  
the ,society for the ,prevention of     
,cruelty to ,animals1 and the other had 
devoted his to sending missionaries to  
,central ,africa4  ,two distinct forms  
of eccentricity are recognizable4 ,in   
the one1 the individual sets himself up 
above the level of the rest of the      
world1 and1 marking out for himself a   
line of conduct1 adheres to it with an  
astonishing degree of tenacity4 ,for him
 the opinions of mankind in general are 
of no consequence4 ,he is a law unto    
himself2 what he says and does is said  
and done1 not for the purpose of        

attracting attention or for obtaining   
notoriety1 but because it is pleasing to
 himself4 ,he does not mean to be       
singular or original1 but he is1        
nevertheless1 both4 ,for every man is   
singular and original whose conduct1    
within the limits of reason and         
intelligence1 differs from that of his  
fellow-men4 ,he endeavors to carry out  
certain ideas which seem to him to have 
been overlooked by society to its great 
disadvantage4 ,society usually thinks   
different2 but if the promulgator is    
endowed with sufficient force of        
character1 it generally happens that1   
eventually1 either wholly or in part1   
his views prevail4 ,all great reformers 
are eccentrics of this kind4 ,they are  
contending for their doctrines1 not for 
themselves4 ,and they are not apt to    
become insane1 though sometimes they do4
  ,the subjects of the other form occupy
 a lower level4 ,they affect singularity
 for the purpose of attracting attention
 to themselves1 and thus obtaining the  

notoriety which they crave with every   
breath they inhale4 ,they dress         
differently from other people1 wearing  
enormous shirt-collars1 or peculiar     
hats1 or oddly cut coats of unusual     
colors1 or indulging in some other      
similar whimsicality of an unimportant  
character1 in the expectation that they 
will thereby attract the attention or   
excite the comments of those they meet4 
,or they build houses upon an idea      
perhaps correct enough in itself1 as1   
for instance1 the securing of proper    
ventilation2 but in carrying it out they
 show such defective judgment that the  
complete integrity of the intellect may1
 perhaps1 be a matter of question4      
,thus1 one gentleman of my acquaintance1
 believing that fireplaces were the best
 ventilators1 put four of these openings
 into every room in his house4 ,this1   
however1 was one of the smallest of his 
eccentricities4 ,he wore a ventilated   
hat1 his clothing was pierced with      
holes1 as were even his shoes2 and no   

one could be in his company five minutes
 without having his attention directed  
to these provisions for securing health4
  ,in addition to these advanced notions
 on the subject of ventilation1 he had  
others equally singular in regard to the
 arrangement of the furniture in his    
dwelling and the care that was to be    
taken of it4 ,thus1 there was one room  
called the apostles' room4 ,it contained
 a table that represented ,christ1 and  
twelve chairs1 which were placed around 
it1 and typified the twelve apostles2   
one chair1 that stood for ,judas        
,iscariot1 was covered with black crape4
 ,the floor of this room was very highly
 polished1 and no one was allowed to    
enter it without slipping his shod feet 
into cloth slippers that were placed at 
the door ready for use4 ,he had a       
library1 tolerably large but of little  
value1 and every book in it which       
contained ,judas's name was bound in    
black1 and black lines were drawn around
 the name wherever it occurred4 ,such   

eccentricity as this is not far removed 
from insanity1 and is liable at any     
time1 from some cause a little out of   
the common way1 to pass over the line4  
,thus1 a lady had since her childhood   
shown a singularity of conduct as       
regarded her table furniture1 which she 
would have of no other material than    
copper4 ,she carried this fancy to such 
an extent that even the knives and forks
 were of copper4 ,people laughed at her1
 and tried to reason her out of her     
whim1 but in vain4 ,she was in her      
element as soon as attention was        
directed to her fancy and arguments     
against it were addressed to her4 ,she  
liked nothing better than to be afforded
 a full opportunity to discuss with any 
one the manifold advantages which copper
 possessed as a material to be used in  
the manufacture of every article of     
table ware4 ,in no other respect was    
there any evidence of mental aberration4
 ,she was intelligent1 by no means      
excitable1 and in the enjoyment of      

excellent health4 ,she had1 moreover1 a 
decided talent for music1 and had       
written several passably good stories   
for a young ladies' magazine4 ,an uncle 
had1 however1 died insane4  ,a          
circumstance1 trifling in itself1 but   
one1 as it afterward resulted1 of great 
importance to her1 started in her a new 
train of thought1 and excited emotions  
which she could not control4 ,she read  
in a morning paper that a ,mr4          
,koppermann had arrived at one of the   
hotels1 and she announced her           
determination to call upon him1 in      
order1 as she said1 to ascertain the    
origin of his name4 ,her friends        
endeavored to dissuade her1 but without 
avail4 ,she went to the hotel1 and was  
told that he had just left for ,chicago4
 ,without returning to her home1 she    
bought a railway ticket for ,chicago1   
and actually started on the next train  
for that city4 ,the telegraph1 however1 
overtook her1 and she was brought back  
from ,rochester raving of her love for a

 man she had never seen1 and whose name 
alone had been associated in her mind   
with her fancy for copper table         
furniture4 ,she died of acute mania     
within a month4 ,in this case erotic    
tendencies1 which had never been        
observed in her before1 seemed to have  
been excited by some very indirect and  
complicated mental process1 and these in
 their turn developed into general      
derangement of the mind4  ,in another   
case1 a young man1 a clerk in a city    
bank1 had for several years exhibited   
peculiarities in the keeping of his     
books4 ,he was exceedingly exact in his 
accounts1 but after the bank was closed 
always remained several hours1 during   
which he ornamented each page of his    
day's work with arabesques in           
different-colored inks4 ,he was very    
vain of this accomplishment1 and was    
constantly in the habit of calling      
attention to the manner in which1 as he 
supposed1 he had beautified what would  
otherwise have been positively ugly4    

,his fellow-clerks amused themselves at 
his expense1 but his superior officers1 
knowing his value1 never interfered with
 him in his amusement4 ,gradually1      
however1 he conceived the idea that they
 were displeased with him1 and at last  
the notion became so firmly rooted in   
his mind that he resigned his position1 
notwithstanding the protestations of the
 directors that his idea was erroneous4 
,delusions of various other kinds       
supervened1 and he passed into a        
condition of chronic insanity1 in which 
he still remains4 ,in most of the cases 
occurring under this head the           
intellectual powers are not of a high   
order1 though there may sometimes be a  
notable development of some talent1 or  
even a great power for acquiring        
learning4 ,painters1 sculptors1         
musicians1 mathematicians1 poets1 and   
men of letters generally1 not           
infrequently exhibit eccentricities of  
dress1 conduct1 manner1 or ideas1 which 
not only merely add to their notoriety1 

but often make them either the          
laughing-stocks of their fellow-men or  
objects of fear or disgust to all who   
are brought into contact with them4     
,,idiosyncrasy4--,by idiosyncrasy we    
understand a peculiarity of constitution
 by which an individual is affected by  
external agents in a manner different   
from mankind in general4 ,thus1 some    
persons cannot eat strawberries without 
a kind of urticaria appearing over the  
body2 others are similarly affected by  
eating the striped bass2 others1 again1 
faint at the odor of certain flowers1 or
 at the sight of blood2 and some are    
attacked with cholera-morbus after      
eating shellfish--as crabs1 lobsters1   
clams1 or mussels4 ,many other instances
 might be advanced1 some of them of a   
very curious character4 ,these several  
conditions are called idiosyncrasies4   
,bgin1#a who defines idiosyncrasy as the
 predominance of an organ1 a viscus1 or 
a system of organs1 has hardly1 ,i      
think1 fairly grasped the subject1      

though his definition has influenced    
many ,french writers on the question4   
,it is something more than              
this--something inherent in the         
organization of the individual1 of which
 we only see the manifestation when the 
proper cause is set in action4 ,we      
cannot attempt to explain why one person
 should be severely mercurialized by one
 grain of blue mass1 and another take   
daily ten times that quantity for a week
 without the least sign of the peculiar 
action of mercury being produced4 ,we   
only know that such is the fact2 and    
were we to search for the reason1 with  
all the appliances which modern science 
could bring to our aid1 we should be    
entirely unsuccessful4 ,according to    
,bgin's idea1 we should expect to see   
some remarkable development of the      
absorbent system in the one case1 with  
slight development in the other2 but1   
even were such the case1 it would not   
explain the phenomena1 for1 when ten    
grains of the preparation in question   

are taken daily1 scarcely a day elapses 
before mercury can be detected in the   
secretions1 and yet hydrargyriasis is   
not produced2 while when one grain is   
taken1 and this condition follows1 the  
most delicate chemical examination fails
 to discover mercury in any of the      
fluids or tissues of the body4          
,footnote #a3 ,physiologic              
,pathologique1 ,paris1 #ahbh1 t4i41 p4  
#dd4  ,bgin's definition scarcely       
separates idiosyncrasy from temperament1
 whereas1 according to what would appear
 to be sound reasoning1 based upon an   
enlarged idea of the physiology of the  
subject1 a very material difference     
exists4  ,idiosyncrasies are often      
hereditary and often acquired4 ,two or  
more may exist in one person4 ,thus1    
there may be an idiosyncrasy connected  
with the digestive system1 another with 
the circulatory system1 another with the
 nervous system1 and so on4  ,an        
idiosyncrasy may be of such a character 
as altogether to prevent an individual  

following a particular occupation4      
,thus1 a person who faints at the sight 
of blood cannot be a surgeon2 another1  
who is seized with nausea and vomiting  
when in the presence of insane persons1 
cannot be a superintendent of a lunatic 
asylum--not1 at least1 if he ever       
expects to see his patients4            
,idiosyncrasies may1 however1 be        
overcome1 especially those of a mental  
character4  ,millingen#a cites the case 
of a man who fell into convulsions      
whenever he saw a spider4 ,a waxen one  
was made1 which equally terrified him4  
,when he recovered1 his error was       
pointed out to him4 ,the wax figure was 
put into his hand without causing dread1
 and shortly the living insect no longer
 disturbed him4  ,footnote #a3          
,curiosities of ,medical ,experience1   
,london1 #ahcg1 vol4 ii41 p4 #bdf4  ,i  
knew a gentleman who could not eat soft 
crabs without experiencing an attack of 
diarrhea4 ,as he was exceedingly fond of
 them1 he persevered in eating them1 and

 finally1 after a long struggle1        
succeeded in conquering the trouble4    
,individuals with idiosyncrasies soon   
find out their peculiarities1 and are   
enabled to guard against any injurious  
result to which they would be subjected 
but for the teachings of experience4    
,idiosyncrasies may be temporary        
only--that is1 due to an existing       
condition of the organism1 which1       
whether natural or morbid1 is of a      
transitory character4 ,such1 for        
instance1 are those due to dentition1   
the commencement or the cessation of the
 menstrual function1 pregnancy1 etc4    
,these are frequently of a serious      
character1 and require careful watching1
 especially as they may lead to         
derangement of the mind4 ,thus1 a lady1 
,mrs4 ,x1 was at one time under my      
professional care1 who1 at the beginning
 of her first pregnancy1 acquired an    
overpowering aversion to a half-breed   
,indian woman who was employed in the   
house as a servant4 ,whenever this woman

 came near her she was at once seized   
with violent trembling1 which ended in a
 few minutes with vomiting and great    
mental and physical prostration1 lasting
 several hours4 ,her husband would have 
sent the woman away1 but ,mrs4 ,x       
insisted on her remaining1 as she was a 
good servant1 in order that she might   
overcome what she regarded as an        
unreasonable prejudice4 ,the effort was1
 however1 too much for her1 for upon one
 occasion when the woman entered ,mrs4  
,x's apartment rather unexpectedly1 the 
latter became greatly excited1 and1     
jumping from an open window in her      
fright1 broke her arm1 and otherwise    
injured herself so severely that she was
 for several weeks confined to her bed4 
,during this period1 and for some time  
afterward1 she was almost constantly    
subject to hallucinations1 in which the 
,indian woman played a prominent part4  
,even after her recovery the mere       
thought of the woman would sometimes    
bring on a paroxysm of trembling1 and it

 was not till after her confinement that
 the antipathy disappeared4             
,millingen#a remarks that certain       
antipathies1 which in reality are       
idiosyncrasies1 appear to depend upon   
peculiarities of the senses4 ,rather1   
however1 they are due to peculiarities  
of the ideational and emotional centers4
 ,the organ of sense1 in any one case1  
shows no evidence of disorder2 neither  
does the perceptive ganglion1 which     
simply takes cognizance of the image    
brought to it4 ,it is higher up that the
 idiosyncrasy has its seat4 ,in this way
 we are to explain the following cases  
collected by ,millingen3  ,footnote #a3 
,op cit41 p4 #bdf4  ,amatus ,lusitanus  
relates the case of a monk who fainted  
when he beheld a rose1 and never quitted
 his cell when that flower was blooming4
 ,scaliger mentions one of his relatives
 who experienced a similar horror when  
seeing a lily4 ,zimmermann tells us of a
 lady who could not endure the feeling  
of silk and satin1 and shuddered when   

touching the velvety skin of a peach4   
,boyle records the case of a man who    
felt a natural abhorrence to honey2     
without his knowledge some honey was    
introduced in a plaster applied to his  
foot1 and the accidents that resulted   
compelled his attendants to withdraw it4
 ,a young man was known to faint        
whenever he heard the servant sweeping4 
,hippocrates mentions one ,nicanor1 who 
swooned whenever he heard a flute2 even 
,shakespeare has alluded to the effects 
of the bagpipes4 ,julia1 daughter of    
,frederick1 ,king of ,naples1 could not 
taste ,i meat without serious accidents4
 ,boyle fainted when he heard the       
splashing of water2 ,scaliger turned    
pale at the sight of water-cresses2     
,erasmus experienced febrile symptoms   
when smelling fish2 the ,duke d',epernon
 swooned on beholding a leveret1        
although a hare did not produce the same
 effect2 ,tycho ,brahe fainted at the   
sight of a fox2 ,henry ,,iii4 of ,france
 at that of a cat2 and ,marshal         

d',albret at a pig4 ,the horror that    
whole families entertain of cheese is   
generally known4  ,he also cites the    
case of a clergyman who fainted whenever
 a certain verse in ,jeremiah was read1 
and of another who experienced an       
alarming vertigo and dizziness whenever 
a great height or dizzy precipice was   
described4 ,in such instances the power 
of association of ideas is probably the 
most influential agent in bringing about
 the climax4 ,there is an obvious       
relation between the warnings given by  
the prophet in the one case1 and the    
well-known sensation produced by looking
 down from a great height in the other1 
and the effects which followed4  ,our   
dislikes to certain individuals are     
often of the nature of idiosyncrasies1  
which we can not explain4 ,martial says3
    ,non amo te1 ,sabidi1 nec possum    
dicere quare2    ,hoc tantum possum     
dicere1 non amo te2  or1 in our ,english
 version3    ,i do not like you1 ,doctor
 ,fell1    ,the reason why ,i can not   

tell2    ,but this ,i know1 and that    
full    ,i do not like you1 ,doctor     
,fell4  ,some conditions often called   
idiosyncrasies appear to be1 and        
doubtless are1 due to disordered        
intellect4 ,but they should not be      
confounded with those which are inherent
 in the individual and real in          
character4 ,thus1 they are frequently   
merely imaginary1 there being no        
foundation for them except in the       
perverted mind of the subject2 at other 
times they are induced by a morbid      
attention being directed continually to 
some one or more organs or functions4   
,the protean forms under which          
hypochondria appears1 and the still more
 varied manifestations of hysteria1 are 
rather due to the reaction ensuing      
between mental disorder on the one part1
 and functional disorder on the other1  
than to that quasi normal peculiarity of
 organization recognized as             
idiosyncrasy4  ,thus1 upon one occasion 
,i was consulted in the case of a lady  

who it was said had an idiosyncrasy that
 prevented her drinking water4 ,every   
time she took the smallest quantity of  
this liquid into her stomach it was at  
once rejected1 with many evident signs  
of nausea and pain4 ,the patient was    
strongly hysterical1 and ,i soon made up
 my mind that either the case was one of
 simple hysterical vomiting1 or that the
 alleged inability was assumed4 ,the    
latter turned out to be the truth4 ,i   
found that she drank in private all the 
water she wanted1 and that what she     
drank publicly she threw up by tickling 
the fauces with her finger-nail when no 
one was looking4  ,the idiosyncrasies of
 individuals are not matters for        
ridicule1 however absurd they may appear
 to be4 ,on the contrary1 they deserve1 
and should receive1 the careful         
consideration of the physician1 for much
 is to be learned from them1 both in    
preventing and in treating diseases4 ,in
 psychiatrical medicine they are        
especially to be inquired for4 ,it is   

not safe to disregard them1 as they may 
influence materially the character of   
mental derangement1 and may be brought  
in as efficient agents in the           
treatment4--,n4,y4 ,medical ,journal4   
99       99       99       99       99  
,,pyorrhea ,,alveolaris4  ,footnote3    
,abstract from a paper lately read      
before the ,southern ,dental            
,association1 ,baltimore1 ,md4  ,by ,dr4
 ,j4 ,m4 ,,riggs1 of ,hartford1 ,conn4  
,a gentleman1 a physician1 aged         
thirty-two years1 strong and vigorous1  
with no lack of nerve-energy1 calls to  
have his teeth attended to1 with the    
disease in the first stage throughout   
the mouth4 ,upon examination1 he        
observes upon the gum of one of the     
lower cuspids a dark purplish ring      
encircling the neck1 from               
one-sixty-fourth to one sixteenth of an 
inch in depth2 the tooth in situ is     
white and clean4 ,with the aid of the   
mouth and hand mirror he shows the      
condition to the patient1 and1 taking up

 an excavator1 endeavors to pass it down
 between the tooth and gum1 on the      
labial surface4 ,after it gets down a   
little way the instrument meets with an 
obstruction1 over which1 calling the    
patient's attention to the fact1 he     
carefully guides the instrument until it
 drops down on the tooth-substance      
beyond it2 then1 turning the instrument 
and pressing it upward1 he breaks off a 
portion of the concretion2 which proves 
to be what is ordinarily called         
lime-salts1 or tartar4 ,that is the     
cause of the purple ring on the gum1    
which is merely the outward             
manifestation of the disease4 ,take it  
off thoroughly1 polish the surface of   
the tooth1 and in three days' time the  
gum will show a perfectly healthy color4
 ,the condition described is the first  
stage of the disease1 and the treatment 
given is all that is required for a cure
 of the case at this time4 ,but take the
 same man and let him go for ten years  
without the simple operation detailed4  

,the disease spreads1 and causes        
inflammation of the process1 and1       
finally1 its absorption--sometimes on   
the labial surface for one half or      
two-thirds the length of the tooth4 ,it 
runs its course1 the tartar             
accumulating1 all the time following up 
the line of attack4 ,at the end of ten  
years what has become of the line of    
tartar8 ,sometimes it will be found     
extending clear around the tooth4       
,sometimes it will not be found at all2 
it has done its work--the tooth is      
loose1 but the concretion is gone1 in   
whole or in part4 ,in this case the     
patient wants the tooth out1 but1 he    
asks1 what has become of the tartar8    
,the answer is that the natural acids   
found in the oral cavity have dissolved 
it1 and it has passed into the stomach  
or out of the mouth in the saliva4 ,but 
the tooth is so loose that it is a      
torment to the man2 it lies in its      
socket1 entirely loose1 almost ready to 
drop over4 ,it hurts so that he cannot  

bear the pain4 ,the tooth is taken out4 
,there is no tartar on it1 or very      
little2 there is a little speck near the
 point that looks like a foreign body2  
but the point of the tooth--the apex--is
 as sharp as a needle4 ,after the       
disease has done its work of separating 
the tooth from its socket1 the          
destroying agent begins to absorb the   
tooth at the point1 irregularly1 causing
 the sharpness described4 ,now1 because 
no tartar is found upon the tooth1 does 
that argue that it has never been there8
 ,not at all2 the loosened tooth shows  
simply that it has been there and has   
been absorbed4 ,the speaker has never   
seen a tooth in that condition on the   
point of which he could not show patches
 or specks2 we may not see the tartar1  
but it certainly once existed there1 and
 has accomplished its work4  ,now       
suppose we find a patient with all the  
teeth loosened2 he has neuralgia pains  
in the face1 for which medicine seems to
 furnish no remedy2 he has also catarrh1

 and the malar and nasal bones are all  
affected4 ,in the third and fourth      
stages a low inflammatory action        
pervades all the bones of the face1     
accompanied by neuralgic pains1         
extending to the brain itself4 ,in such 
a case the disease of the teeth         
intensifies the catarrh4 ,a medical man 
called upon him for treatment for       
pyorrhea alveolaris2 the patient was    
also afflicted with catarrh4 ,he cured  
the pyorrhea alveolaris1 and cured the  
catarrh1 too1 at the same time4         
,another case4--,a lady called in great 
distress4 ,nearly all her teeth were    
affected1 and the discharge was most    
offensive and abundant2 if she lay on   
her side in bed1 the pillow would be    
covered with large splotches of the     
discharge in the morning2 if she lay on 
her back1 the mass was swallowed1 and   
the result was that the whole alimentary
 canal was demoralized by the pus1      
blood1 and vitiated secretions4 ,when   
she arose she wanted no breakfast1 only 

two or three cups of strong coffee and  
some crackers4 ,she was nearly blind1   
could only see a great light1 and was   
totally unable to see to read4 ,he told 
her that the trouble with her sight was 
caused by the diseased condition of the 
teeth2 that unless that was remedied1   
she might live three months1 but she    
would die suddenly4 ,he treated three or
 four teeth at a time at each sitting4  
,this consumed three weeks4 ,the teeth  
became firm1 her appetite returned1 her 
sight was restored1 and she was able to 
walk a mile or two without disturbance4 
,he was called to ,brooklyn1 where they 
had a live society1 and an infirmary for
 the treatment of dental diseases1 at   
which members of the society were       
delegated to attend from day to day4 ,he
 was invited to give a clinic upon      
pyorrhea alveolaris1 and he told them of
 this patient1 whom he showed to some   
fifteen members4 ,the woman was         
apparently in fair health4 ,it was not  
loss of nerve-energy which started the  

disease in this case1 but the disease   
caused the loss of appetite and the     
vitiated condition of the whole         
alimentary canal4 ,her physician would  
have sent this woman to the grave1 not  
recognizing the disease and its         
management4  ,he maintains that it is   
not lack of nervous energy that causes  
this disease1 but the disease will lead 
to loss of nerve-energy4 ,that small    
purple ring on the gum of the cuspid in 
the case first mentioned would          
eventually have led to the loss of the  
whole set1 if left to work its way      
unopposed4 ,he had tried in these       
remarks to controvert the old ideas1 and
 to present the cause of the disease and
 its treatment as he sees it4 ,you may  
see it differently2 if so1 give us your 
information1 in order that we may       
correct our views1 if wrong4  ,one      
gentleman says he finds it is only those
 who are strong and vigorous who have   
this disease4 ,the speaker finds some   
cases of this kind2 he also finds       

consumptives who have not a trace of it1
 but he would take the strongest man in 
the room and cause a beautiful case of  
pyorrhea alveolaris in his mouth in     
three weeks1 with a fine cotton thread  
tied around one of the lower front teeth
 at the line of the gum4 ,the thread    
will work its way under the gum1 and the
 gum will become inflamed2 it will work 
its way down between the gum and the    
tooth1 and in the meantime the flour and
 the particles of food will also work   
down under the loose gum1 finding a     
rallying-point on the thread2 the mass  
will become impregnated with lime-salts1
 and will then begin to harden1 and in a
 very short time you will have an       
excellent example of the disease under  
discussion4 ,patients suffering from    
salivation fall an easy prey to this    
disease1 due to the action of the drug  
on the glands and the hard and soft     
tissues of the mouth1 the gums in such  
cases affording a ready pocket under    
their edges for the deposits4  ,when you

 find a tooth with the characteristic   
concretion of tartar upon it1 the first 
principle of surgery demands that you   
clean that tooth thoroughly4 ,go down   
beyond the line of the disease1 go      
around the tooth thoroughly1 and break  
up the diseased tissue1 and apply       
tincture of myrrh1 and in three days you
 will notice a marked improvement for   
the better1 and if the patient takes    
proper care of the teeth the disease    
will not return4 ,practitioners should  
watch the teeth of the young people     
under their care1 and see that the mouth
 is kept scrupulously clean and healthy4
  ,in reply to a question1 ,dr4 ,riggs  
stated that whenever absorption goes on 
irregularly1 unless the inflammatory    
action is extreme1 it will sometimes    
absorb one or two bone-cells1 and then  
skip one or two1 and these last1 being  
isolated1 naturally die1 or become      
necrosed to some extent4 ,in treating   
this disease you must break up the line 
of disintegrated tissue4 ,you must1 as  

it were1 transfer your eyesight to the  
end of the instrument1 so that when you 
strike dead bone you will know it4 ,live
 bone will feel smooth and greasy4  ,it 
requires some years of experience to    
treat this disease properly1 because you
 have not your eyesight to aid you1 but 
must depend absolutely upon the sense of
 touch4 ,with experience1 however1 you  
will learn to give a great deal of      
relief in one of the most annoying      
conditions to which the teeth are       
subject4 ,the reason the profession are 
not familiar with the treatment of this 
disease is1 they fail to recognize it   
until it reaches its third or fourth    
stage1 and then they treat it by        
depletion and therapeutic remedies4     
,some treat it by stippling in acids    
underneath the gum1 thinking thereby to 
dissolve away not only the tartar1 but  
the necrosed bone4 ,another writer takes
 off patches of the diseased tissue1 and
 another a strip of the gum1 from       
wisdom-tooth to wisdom-tooth4 ,this     

treatment he could only characterize as 
simply barbarous4 ,the treatment of this
 disease is purely surgical4 ,any       
therapeutic treatment is to alleviate   
the pain and soreness immediately after 
the operation4  ,dr4 ,w4 ,n4 ,morrison1 
,st4 ,louis1 referring to the method of 
treating pyorrhea alveolaris described  
by ,dr4 ,riggs1 said he cheerfully bore 
testimony to the importance of loosening
 the scales of tartar1 and teaching     
patients the value of cleanness of the  
mouth4 ,in his experience he had found  
that all instruments will occasionally  
fail to dislodge the deposit4 ,in such  
cases he used as an assistant a little  
ring of para gum about an eighth of an  
inch wide4 ,this was sprung on the tooth
 at the edge of the gum4 ,if this is    
done and the ring allowed to remain a   
few hours1 you will see an entirely new 
revelation1 and you will readily be able
 to get at the tooth to clean it4 ,he   
had found it advisable to give patients 
practical showing how the brush should  

be used4         99       99       99   
99       99     ,,sulphur ,,as ,a       
,,preservative ,,against ,,marsh        
,,fever4   ,at a recent meeting of the  
,paris ,academy1 ,m4 ,d',abbadie called 
attention to some facts regarding marsh 
fever1 which ,african travelers and     
others might do well to ponder4 ,some   
elephant hunters from plateaus with     
comparatively cool climate brave the    
hottest and most deleterious ,ethiopian 
regions with impunity1 which they       
attribute to their habit of daily       
fumigation of the naked body with       
sulphur4 ,it was interesting to know    
whether sulphurous emanations1 received 
involuntarily1 have a like effect4 ,from
 inquiries made by ,m4 ,fouqu1 it       
appears that in ,sicily1 while most of  
the sulphur mines are in high districts 
and free from malaria1 a few are at a   
low level1 where intermittent fever     
prevails4 ,in the latter districts1     
while the population of the neighboring 
villages is attacked by fever in the    

proportion of #ij per cent41 the workmen
 in the sulphur mines suffer much less1 
not more than eight or nine per cent4   
being attacked4 ,again1 on a certain    
marshy plain near the roadstead in the  
island of ,milo 7,grecian ,archipelago71
 it is hardly possible to spend a night 
without being attacked by intermittent  
fever1 yet on the very fertile part near
 the mountains are the ruins of a large 
and prosperous town1 ,zephyria1 which1  
#cjj years ago1 numbered about #dj1jjj  
inhabitants4 ,owing to the ravages of   
marsh fever the place is now nearly     
deserted4 ,one naturally asks how such a
 town grew to its former populous state4
 ,sulphur mining has been an important  
source of wealth in ,milo from the time 
of the ancient ,greeks4 ,up to the end  
of last century the sulphur was chiefly 
extracted at ,kalamo1 but since that    
time it has only been mined on the east 
coast of the island4 ,the decadence of  
,zephyria has nearly corresponded to    
this transference4 ,the sulphurous      

emanations no longer reach the place1   
their passage being blocked by the      
mountain mass4 ,once more1 on the west  
side of the marshy and fever-infested   
plain of ,catania1 traversed by the     
,simeto1 is a sulphur mine1 and beyond  
it1 at a higher level1 a village which  
was abandoned in the early part of this 
century because of marsh fever4 ,yet    
there is a colony of workmen living     
about the mine1 and they seem to be     
advantageously affected by the          
emanations4 ,m4 ,d',abbadie further     
mentions that the engineer who made a   
railway through this notorious plain    
preserved the health of his workmen by  
requiring them to drink no water but    
what was known to be wholesome and was  
brought from a distance4         99     
99       99       99       99           
,,hydraulic ,,filtering ,,press ,,for   
,,treating ,,oleaginous ,,seeds4        
,messrs4 ,laurent ,bros4  ,collot       
exhibited at the ,paris ,universal      
,exhibition in #ahgh a patented         

hydraulic apparatus styled a filtering  
press1 the principle and construction of
 which it will prove of interest to     
describe4 ,the apparatus is remarkable  
for its simplicity and ease of          
manipulation1 and is destined to find an
 application in most oil mills4         
,details of ,structure4--,the filter1   
which is shown in detail in ,figs4 #e to
 #g1 is formed of two semicylindrical   
cast iron shells1 ,f1 that are firmly   
united1 and held by a strong iron band  
which is cleft at one point in its      
circumference1 and to which there is    
adapted a mechanism permitting of       
loosening it slightly so as to          
facilitate the escape of the oil-cake4  
,within these shells1 ,f1 there are     
grooves1 a1 which have the arrangement  
shown by the partial section in ,fig4   
#aa1 and through which flows the oil    
expressed by pressure4 ,to prevent the  
escape of the material through these    
grooves or channels1 the interior of the
 shells is lined throughout with plates 

or strips of brass that fit very closely
 together1 and present a simple slit    
with chamfered edges opposite the       
grooves4 ,at the two joints of the      
shells four of these plates are riveted 
two by two2 all the others are movable1 
and rest1 like the pieces of an arch1   
against the fixed plates that form      
abutments4 ,each half lining is thus    
held by means of a central plate1 b'    
7,fig4 #aj71 with oblique edges1 and    
which1 being driven home by the top of  
the filter1 binds the whole tightly     
together4 ,all these plates1 which are  
slightly notched at their upper part1   
rest on a small flange at the lower part
 of the shells4  ,illustration3         
,,filtering ,,press ,,for ,,oleaginous  
,,seeds4--,,automatic ,,injection ,,pump
  ,as regards their manufacture1 these  
plates are cut out of sheets of         
perfectly laminated brass1 and are      
afterward set into a matrix to center   
them properly4 ,after the shells have   
been bored out1 all the plates are      

mounted therein so as to obtain a       
perfectly cylindrical and uniform       
surface4 ,the plates are then numbered  
and taken out2 and1 finally1 a slit with
 chamfered edges is cut longitudinally  
through them1 save at three points--two 
at the extremities and one at the       
middle4 ,the plates thereafter rest     
against each other only at these three  
points1 and leave at the chamfered      
places capillary openings just          
sufficient to give passage to the oil1  
but not to the pressed paste1 however   
fine it be4 ,as will be seen in ,fig4   
#e1 the points of contact are not in the
 same horizontal plane1 but are arranged
 spirally1 so that the flow will not be 
stopped at this place as it would be    
were these solid parts all at the same  
height4 ,the filter1 ,f1 is completed by
 two pieces that play an important part4
 ,the first of these is a cast iron rim1
 ,j1 which is set into the upper edge1  
and forms a sort of lip whose internal  
diameter corresponds exactly to the     

surface of the plates1 b4 ,this rim1 ,j1
 is cast in one piece1 and carries on   
its circumference two small1            
diametrically opposite iron studs1 which
 are so placed that they may engage in  
the groove1 p1 at the upper edge of the 
shells1 ,f4  ,the second of the two     
pieces is a cast iron bottom1 ,k1 which 
works on a hinge-joint1 and which is    
perforated with a large number of holes 
for giving passage to the oil that has  
traversed the hair cloth cushion of     
which we shall speak further on4 ,these 
holes must correspond accurately with   
the radial conduits presented by plate1 
,e1 and through which flows the oil to a
 circular channel running around this   
same piece4 ,in order to exactly        
maintain such a relation between the    
holes and channels1 the piece1 ,e1 is   
provided with a stirrup-iron1 d1 that   
passes around one of the columns1 ,c1 of
 the hydraulic press4  ,the entire      
filter thus constructed is attached to  
one of the columns1 ,c'1 of the         

hydraulic press in such a way that it   
can revolve around it4 ,for this        
purpose1 the column is surrounded by an 
iron sleeve1 ,l1 cast in two pieces1 and
 which in its lower position rests on   
the shoulder1 e1 of the column4 ,the    
filter is connected with the sleeve by  
means of screws1 as shown in ,fig4 #f4  
,we shall now describe the mechanism for
 loosening the band1 ,i1 and moving the 
bottom1 ,k4  ,the band1 ,i 7,figs4 #e to
 #i71 is cleft at a point in its        
circumference corresponding to one of   
the joints of the shell1 ,f1 and carries
 at each side of the cleft a bearing in 
which turns freely a steel pin4 ,one of 
these latter1 i1 is cylindrical1 and the
 other1 j1 has eccentric extremities    
that are connected with the former by   
two small iron rods1 k and l4 ,the upper
 extremity of the pin1 j1 is provided   
with a bent lever-handle1 ,m1 and the   
lower one carries in its turn a small   
disk1 m1 the use of which will be       
explained further on4 ,it results from  

such an arrangement that by acting on   
the lever1 ,m1 with the band1 and by    
reason of the eccentricity of the pin1  
j1 the two extremities of the band1 ,i1 
may be made to approach or recede at the
 will of the operator4 ,the position of 
nearest approximation is limited by the 
abutting of the hook at the end of the  
lever1 ,m1 against the side of the      
filter4 ,this latter position           
corresponds to the moment of charging   
the apparatus 7,fig4 #f71 while the     
contrary one indicates the moment that  
the oil cake falls 7,fig4 #d74 ,although
 the separation is but a few            
millimeters1 it is sufficient for       
disengaging and allowing the cake to    
drop4  ,the movable bottom1 ,k 7,figs4  
#e and #f71 which closes the base of the
 filter during the pressing1 becomes    
detached and drops vertically 7,figs4 #c
 and #d71 when the filter is disengaged 
from the press1 and the oil cake is to  
be dropped out4 ,to render the maneuver 
of this part easy1 the bottom is        

provided with a projecting piece1 ,n1   
united by a bolt with the band1 ,i1 and 
furnished with an articulated           
hand-lever1 ,n'1 that terminates in an  
appendage1 q4 ,the upper part of the    
hinge is provided with a tail piece1 q'1
 under which the appendage q1 places    
itself when the bottom1 ,k1 is brought  
to its horizontal position4             
,consequently1 when the operator desires
 to let the bottom drop in the position 
shown by the dotted line 7,fig4 #e71    
after the filter has been loosened1 he  
moves the lever1 ,n1 to the position    
shown by the dotted line 7,fig4 #f74    
,the appendage1 q1 then disengages      
itself from the tail piece1 q'1 and the 
bottom is thus enabled to assume a      
vertical position4 ,as the bottom at the
 time of charging would not be          
sufficiently supported if there merely  
existed the lever and catch1 it is      
further provided at its opposite        
extremity with an appendage1 r1 which   
slides over a catch1 r'4 ,this latter is

 attached to the disk1 m1 at the lower  
extremity of the pin1 j 7,fig4 #g71 and 
takes exactly the proper position when  
the band is closed at the moment of     
charging1 but leaves it1 on the         
contrary1 when the band is loosened to  
allow the oil cake to drop out4  ,as the
 lateral flow takes place through the   
interstices of the brass lining1 there  
is need of but one cushion on the bottom
 and another at the top to hold the     
material to be pressed4 ,the first is a 
simple hair-cloth disk for preventing   
the seed from passing through the       
perforations in the bottom plate2 and   
the second1 ,o1 of which ,figs4 #ab and 
#ac represent a segment1 is formed of   
three thicknesses of the same material  
united at the edges by two flat iron    
circles1 s1 riveted together4 ,these    
circles1 which are made to fit the      
inside diameter of the shells very      
accurately1 prevent any leakage of the  
oil around the presser1 ,g1 and keep the
 hairs from getting caught between this 

piece and the plates1 b4  ,charging of  
the ,filter4 7,figs4 #ad and #ae47--,the
 apparatus for charging the filter is of
 the same capacity as the latter1 and is
 made of galvanized iron4 ,it is placed 
on a slide at the aperture of the steam 
kettle so as to receive the warm seed as
 it is thrown out by the stirrer4 ,when 
full1 it is taken up by its handles1    
rested on the rim of the filter1 and its
 contents emptied therein4  ,general    
,manipulation of the ,press4--,supposing
 the filter in the position shown in    
,figs4 #c and #d1 at the moment the     
seedcake is about to drop out3 the      
operator takes hold of the lock lever1  
,n1 with his left hand1 raises the      
bottom1 ,k1 to a horizontal position1   
and at the same time fastens the bolt of
 the lever by turning it4 ,he then      
seizes the lever1 ,m1 with his right    
hand1 and turns it so as to close the   
filter1 having care at the same time to 
support the extremity1 r1 of the bottom 
with his left hand so that the catch1   

r'1 may pass under it when the lever is 
manipulated4 ,the bottom haircloth is   
then put in place1 the charge is thrown 
in1 and its surface leveled1 and the    
hair-cloth cushion is laid on top4 ,the 
filter is then revolved around the      
column so as to bring it into the       
position shown in ,fig4 #a4 ,the cock of
 the distributer that admits water under
 pressure being turned on1 the ram1 ,d1 
rises1 carries with it the filter1 and  
compresses the material against the     
presser1 ,g4 ,at the end of from six to 
ten minutes the pressure-valve is closed
 and the discharge-valve opened4 ,the   
filter then slides down with its socket 
along the column1 ,c'1 till it reaches  
the shoulder1 e1 where it rests4 ,it is 
next swung around to the position shown 
in ,fig4 #c1 and emptied of its contents
 by a manipulation1 the reverse of that 
described for charging it4 ,all these   
manipulations of charging and emptying  
require no more than half a minute on   
the part of an experienced workman4     

,the press under consideration is well  
adapted to the treatment of heated seed 
paste1 and has been very successfully   
employed for that purpose in ,france1   
,belgium1 and ,holland4 ,it succeeds    
equally well for the extraction of oil  
from nuts4 ,referring to the drawings1  
the scales are for ,figures #a1 #b1 #c1 
#d1 #ad1 #ae1 one fifteenth actual size2
 ,figures #e1 #f1 #g1 #h1 #i1 one-tenth2
 ,figures #aj1 #aa1 #ab1 and #ac1       
one-fifth4--,machines1 ,outils et       
,appareils4         99       99       99
       99       99     ,,laurent        
,,collot',s ,,automatic ,,injection     
,,pump4   ,as well known1 in every      
well-constructed injection pump1 there  
is a system of gearing which acts upon  
the suction valve and stops the         
operation of the pump as soon as the    
requisite pressure is reached2 but the  
piston1 for all that1 continues its     
motion1 and1 besides the resistant work 
of the pump has passed through different
 degrees of intensity1 seeing that at   

every moment of its operation the piston
 has preserved the same stroke and      
velocity4 ,we are speaking1 be it       
understood1 of pumps that are controlled
 mechanically4 ,in the one that we are  
about to describe1 things take place far
 otherwise4 ,in measure as the pressure 
increases1 the stroke of the piston     
diminishes1 and when it has reached its 
maximum1 the motion of the piston ceases
 entirely4 ,if1 during the operation    
progression undergoes more or less      
variation1 that is1 for example1 if it  
diminishes at a given moment to         
afterwards increase1 the stroke of the  
piston undergoes all the influences of  
it4  ,the pump of which we speak is     
shown in ,figs4 #af to #ba1 and is the  
invention of ,messrs4 ,laurent ,bros4   
,collot4 ,it may be described briefly as
 follows3  ,the apparatus1 as a whole1  
has for base a cast-iron reservoir2 ,a1 
to the top of which is fixed the pump   
properly so-called1 ,b1 as well as the  
clack box1 ,a1 and safety valve4 ,the   

pump is placed opposite an upright1 ,d1 
whose top serves as a guide to the      
prolongation1 ,e1 of the piston rod4    
,this latter is traversed by a pivot1 a 
7,fig #ai71 on which is mounted a lever1
 ,f1 whose outer extremity is           
articulated with a connecting rod1 ,g1  
which is itself connected with the      
cranked shaft1 ,g4 ,this shaft has for  
its bearings two supports1 b1 attached  
to the reservoir1 and carries the       
driving pulleys and a fly wheel4 ,the   
beam1 ,f1 having to give motion to the  
piston in describing an arc of a circle 
at the extremity attached to the        
connecting rod1 must1 for that reason1  
have a fixed point of oscillation1 or   
one that we must consider as such for   
the instant4 ,now1 such point is        
selected on a piece1 ,h1 having the     
shape of the letter ,c1 and which plays 
an important part in the working of the 
pump4 ,this piece is really a two-armed 
lever1 having its center of oscillation 
in two brackets1 c1 at the base of the  

reservoir4 ,fig4 #ag shows the relation 
of the beam1 ,f1 and lever1 ,h4 ,the    
upper extremity of this latter is       
forked1 and embraces the beam1 ,f1 whose
 external surfaces are provided with two
 slots1 d1 in which to move slides1 e1  
attached to studs1 f1 which are         
perfectly stationary on the extremities 
of the forks of the lever1 ,h4 ,one of  
the slots is shown in section on the    
line #a--b in ,fig4 #bj1 and on the line
 #c--d in ,fig4 #ba4  ,things thus      
arranged1 if we suppose the piece1 ,h1  
absolutely stationary1 it is clear that1
 as the oscillation of the beam1 ,f1 is 
effected on the studs1 f1 as centers1   
the piston of the pump will perform an  
invariable travel whose extent will be  
dependent upon its position between such
 point of oscillation and the point of  
articulation of the connecting rod1 ,g4 
,but we must observe that even according
 to such a hypothesis1 the point1 f1    
would not be entirely stationary1       
because the point of articulation1 a1   

upon the piston rod being obliged to    
follow an invariably straight line1 the 
slots1 d1 will have to undergo an       
alternate sliding motion on the slides1 
e1 save1 be it understood1 when the     
latter are brought to coincide exactly  
with the center of articulation1 a4 ,now
 we shall1 in fact1 see that the point1 
f1 can move forward in following the    
slots1 d1 and that it may even reach the
 point of articulation1 a1 of the beam1 
,f1 on the rod1 ,e1 that is to say1     
occupy the position shown in ,fig4 #ah1 
where the oscillation of the beam1 ,f1  
being effected according to the point1  
a1 the stroke of the piston has become  
absolutely null4  ,the position of the  
piece1 ,h1 is1 in effect1 variable with 
the pressures that are manifested in the
 pump4 ,it will be seen that the latter 
has a tubular appendage1 g1 in whose    
interior there plays what is called a   
starting rod1 h1 which is constantly    
submitted to the pressures existing in  
the interior of the pump1 and which     

rests against the lower arm1 ,h1 of the 
piece1 ,h4 ,but this latter is also     
loaded at the opposite side with heavy  
counterpoises1 i1 which counterbalance1 
within a determinate limit1 the action  
of the rod1 h1 that tends constantly to 
cause the lever1 ,h1 to oscillate around
 its pivot1 in the brackets1 c4  ,to sum
 up1 then1 as long as the pressure in   
the pump has not reached a determinate  
limit1 the lever1 ,h1 held by its       
counterpoises1 i1 will keep the position
 shown in ,fig4 #af1 and for which the  
center of oscillation1 f1 corresponds   
with the maximum stroke of the pump     
piston4 ,but as soon as such limit is   
exceeded1 the equilibrium being broken1 
the action of the rod1 h1 predominates1 
the piece1 ,h1 reverses from right to   
left1 the point of oscillation1 f1 moves
 forward in the slots1 d1 and the stroke
 of the piston is reduced just so much4 
,if1 finally1 the pressure continues to 
increase1 the motion of the piece1 ,h1  
will continue1 and the point of         

oscillation1 f1 will reach the position 
for which the motion of the piston      
ceases completely 7,fig4 #ah74  ,but it 
results further1 therefrom1 that if when
 such position is reached1 the pressure 
diminishes1 the lever1 ,h1 will1 under  
the influence of its counterpoise1 tend 
to return to its first position and thus
 set the piston in motion4 ,as we       
remarked in the beginning1 the          
automatism of these functions is        
absolutely complete4  ,it will be       
remarked that the piece1 ,h1 is provided
 with an appendage1 ,h1 whose interior  
forms a rack4 ,this rack engages with a 
pinion1 ,i1 mounted on an axle1 ,j1     
which carries externally a fly wheel1   
,k4 ,this axle1 ,j1 moves with the      
various displacements of the lever1 and 
its fly wheel overcomes by its inertia  
all backward and forward shocks         
resulting from the thrusts due to the   
sliding of the steel slides in the      
different positions of the connecting   
rods4 ,such shocks would make themselves

 especially felt while the dead centers 
were being passed4  ,the velocity with  
which this pump runs varies from #ge to 
#hj revolutions per minute4 ,it easily  
gives a pressure of #bjj atmospheres4   
,with a hydraulic press having a piston 
,o4#bg of a meter in diameter1 it       
permits of effecting in ten minutes the 
extraction of the oil from #be          
kilogrammes of colza seeds4 ,referring  
to the drawings1 the scales for ,figures
 #af1 #ag1 #ah are one-fifteenth actual 
size1 and ,figures #ai1 #bj1 #ba1       
one-tenth4--,machines1 ,outils et       
,appareils4         99       99       99
       99       99     ,,improved       
,,dredger4   ,we illustrate below a     
dredger of simple construction1 well    
calculated for doing useful work on     
shallow streams4 ,the barge is #ed ft4  
long1 #bb ft4 beam1 and #f ft4 deep4    
,her draught of water is under #d ft4   
,built by ,rose1 ,downs  ,thompson      
,hull4 ,our drawing explains itself4 ,it
 will be seen that we have here a       

swiveling crane and grab bucket1 and    
that the stuff dredged can be loaded    
into the barge and conveyed where       
necessary4 ,the lifting power of the    
crane is one ton1 and in suitable       
material such a dredger can get through 
a great deal of work in a comparatively 
short time4--,engineer4  ,illustration3 
,,improved ,,one-,,ton ,,bucket         
,,dredger4         99       99       99 
99       99     ,,history ,,of ,,the    
,,fire ,,extinguisher4   ,the first fire
 extinguishers were of the annihilator  
pattern1 so arranged in a building that 
when a fire occurred carbonic acid gas  
was evolved1 and1 if the conditions were
 right 7as the mediums say71 the fire   
was put out4 ,it worked very nicely at  
experimental fires built for the        
purpose1 but was apt to fail in case of 
an involuntary conflagration4 ,about the
 year #ahfg a patent was granted to     
,carlier and ,vignon1 of ,france1 for an
 apparatus in which water saturated with
 carbonic acid gas was projected upon   

the fire by the expansive force of the  
gas itself4 ,as the apparatus was       
portable and the stream could be        
directed to any point1 it was obviously 
the desideratum needed4 ,mr4 ,d4 ,miles1
 of ,boston1 purchased the ,american    
patent1 and subsequently sold the       
territory1 exclusive of ,new ,england1  
to the ,babcock ,co41 who1 at the time1 
had a crude apparatus of their own4 ,the
 first machines sold under the new      
patent were filled with water and loaded
 with cartridges of dry acid and        
bicarbonate of soda--the cap screwed    
down hastily1 and1 as the chemicals     
dissolved1 the gas was generated1 the   
pressure raised1 and the water charged  
by absorption4 ,the pressure of some #hj
 pounds was sufficient to project a     
stream #ej feet or more1 and the machine
 was set upon the shelf so as to be     
ready for any fire that might occur4 ,in
 many cases1 however1 the pressure      
escaped after a short time1 and the     
machine when needed was found to be     

useless4  ,the most important step in   
the evolution of the modern extinguisher
 was the adoption of a device for mixing
 liquid acid with the soda solution1 by 
the turning of a handle or screw1 after 
the alarm was given4 ,this was a        
practical machine1 and proved of such   
value that an immense business was built
 up4 ,the result of this prosperity was 
the development of new companies with   
new devices for accomplishing the same  
result1 which were successfully offered 
to the public with varying success4  ,as
 these were direct infringements upon   
the patent rights acquired by the       
,babcock ,company1 their encroachments  
were resisted in the courts1 and much   
money was spent in the effort of the    
company to sustain their rights1        
including the purchase of the patents of
 several rival machines that possessed  
real merit or whose business was worth  
controlling4 ,among these purchases was 
the right and good will of the ,national
 ,extinguisher ,co41 who used an acid   

cartridge of glass1 the acid being      
liberated by breaking the glass4 ,this  
feature1 united with important          
improvements in general construction and
 the use of a peculiar glass bottle     
instead of a tube1 is the ,babcock      
machine of to-day1 the combination      
making the simplest and most effective  
and reliable apparatus ever built4 ,in  
the meantime1 an investigation before   
the courts brought out the fact that the
 ,french patent was antedated by an     
,american invention1 for which a patent 
was applied by a ,dr4 ,graham1 in #ahcg4
 and which possessed the essential      
features of the principle in dispute4   
,graham1 through lack of means1 or for  
some other reason1 had failed to perfect
 his papers up to the time of his death1
 and1 as the invention was one of       
obvious importance1 a bill was passed   
through ,congress for the reopening of  
the case1 and the patent was issued to  
the ,graham heirs in #ahgh4 ,soon after 
the issue of the ,graham patent1 several

 extinguisher firms1 viz1 ,charles ,t4  
,holloway1 of ,baltimore2 ,w4 ,k4       
,platt1 of ,philadelphia2 ,s4,f4        
,hayward of ,new ,york2 the ,protection 
,fire ,annihilator ,co41 of ,new ,york2 
the ,babcock ,manufacturing ,co41 of    
,chicago1 and the ,new ,england ,fire   
,extinguisher ,co41 of ,northampton1    
,mass41 were licensed to manufacture    
under the patent1 by ,archibald ,graham1
 as administrator of the estate of his  
father1 who bound himself in these      
licenses to issue no other licenses     
except with the approval of all those   
who were included in the combination4   
,this arrangement left several          
enterprising manufacturers out in the   
cold1 and one of these1 in investigating
 the status of extinguisher patents at  
,washington1 discovered an assignment of
 a quarter interest of the ,graham      
patent to a ,mr4 ,burton1 who1 at the   
time of ,graham's second application for
 a patent1 had assisted him with #ejj4  
,this assignment had long been          

forgotten--,burton having died1 and his 
heirs knowing nothing of its existence4 
,the widow of ,burton was hunted up1 an 
assignment was secured for #cj1jjj1 and 
a consolidated fire extinguisher company
 was formed1 which became the owner of  
the one quarter interest in the patent4 
,this combination1 known as the ,fire   
,extinguisher ,manufacturing ,co41      
included the ,protective ,annihilator   
,co41 of ,new ,york2 the ,northampton   
,fire ,extinguisher ,co1 of             
,northampton1 ,mass42 and the ,north    
,american ,fire ,annihilator ,co41 of   
,philadelphia4 ,the combination bought  
out the ,babcock ,co41 who had already  
acquired the patents of the ,champion   
,co41 all the patents of the ,conellies1
 of ,pittsburg1 and of the ,great       
,american ,co41 of ,louisville1 as well 
as the licenses of ,s4 ,f4 ,hayward and 
,w4 ,k4 ,platt4 ,this covers all the    
extinguisher patents in existence1      
except those of ,charles ,t4 ,holloway1 
of ,baltimore4  ,the advantages of the  

chemical engine are well summed up in   
the following statement3  ,the          
superiority of a chemical engine        
consists--  #ast4 ,in its simplicity4   
,it dispenses with complex machinery1   
experienced engineers1 reservoirs1 and  
steam4 ,carbonic acid gas is both the   
working and extinguishing agent4  #b;d4 
,in promptness4 ,it is always ready4 ,no
 steam to be raised1 no fire to be      
kindled1 no hose to be laid1 and no     
large company to be mustered4 ,the      
chemicals are kept in place1 and the gas
 generated the instant wanted4 ,in half 
the cases the time thus saved is a      
building saved4 ,five minutes at the    
right time are worth five hours a little
 later4  #c;d4 ,in efficiency4 ,mere    
water inadequately applied feeds the    
fire1 but carbonic acid gas never4 ,bulk
 for bulk1 it is forty times as         
effective as water1 the seventy gallons 
of the two smallest cylinders being     
equal to twenty-eight hundred gallons of
 water4 ,besides1 it uses the only agent

 that will extinguish burning tar1 oil1 
and other combustible fluids and vapors4
 ,one cylinder can be recharged while   
the other is working1 thus keeping up a 
continuous stream4  #dth4 ,in           
convenience4 ,five or six men can draw  
it and manage it4 ,its small dimensions 
require but small area1 either for work 
or storage4 ,one hundred feet or more of
 its light1 pliant hose can be carried  
on a man's arm up any number of stairs  
inside a building1 or1 if fire forbids1 
up a ladder outside4  #eth4 ,in saving  
from destruction by water what the fire 
has spared4 ,it smothers1 but does not  
deluge2 the modicum of water used to    
give momentum to the gas is soon        
evaporated by the heat1 doing little or 
no damage to what is below4 ,this       
feature of the engine is of incalculable
 worth to housekeepers1 merchants1 and  
insurance companies4  #fth4 ,economy4   
,it costs only about half as much as a  
first class hand engine1 and about      
one-fourth as much as a steam engine1   

with their necessary appendages1 and the
 chemicals for each charge cost less    
than two dollars4         99       99   
99       99       99     ,,how ,,to     
,,tow ,a ,,boat4   ,a correspondent of  
,engineering ,news says3 ,those living  
on swift streams1 and using small boats1
 often have occasion to tow up stream4  
,so do surveyors1 hunters campers1      
tourists1 and others4 ,one man can tow a
 boat against a swift current where five
 could not row4  ,where there are two   
persons1 the usual method is for one to 
waste his strength holding the boat off 
shore with a pole1 while the other tows4
 ,where but one person1 he finds towing 
almost impossible1 and when bottom too  
muddy for poling and current too swift  
for rowing1 he makes sad progress4      
,illustration  ,the above cut shows how 
one man can easily tow alone4 ,the light
 regulating string1 ,b1 passes from the 
stern of the boat to one hand of the    
person towing1 ,t4 ,the tow line1 ,a1 is
 attached a little in front of the      

center of the boat4 ,hence when ,b is   
slackened the boat approaches the shore1
 while a very slight pull on it turns   
the boat outward4 ,the person towing    
glances back ever and anon to observe   
the boat's line of travel4         99   
99       99       99       99           
,,railways ,,of ,,europe ,,and          
,,america4   ,the following table1 which
 has been prepared by the ,french       
,ministry of ,public ,works1 gives the  
railway mileage of the various countries
 of ,europe and the ,united ,states up  
to the end of last year1 with the number
 of miles constructed in that year1 and 
the population per mile3                
,total    ,built in #ahha    ,population
 per ,mile  ,germany                    
#ba1cac          #cca                   
#b1aed ,great ,britain           #ah1aeg
          #afd                 #a1ici   
,france                  #ag1acd        
#hie                 #b1agj             
,austria-,hungary         #aa1hhj       
#bfb                 #c1bjj ,italy      

#e1dej          #aji                    
#e1cba ,spain                    #d1hfi 
#agf                 #c1dib ,sweden     
,norway          #d1faf          #bgc   
#a1djh ,belgium                  #b1efa 
#dh                 #b1bjc ,switzerland 
#a1eeg           #bb                    
#a1hca ,holland                  #a1dbf 
#hc                 #b1hhe ,denmark     
#a1jec           #be                    
#a1iai ,roumania                   #iaf 
#ef                 #e1hfj ,turkey      
#hff            -                 #b1hia
 ,portugal                   #geg       
#h                 #e1hgj ,greece       
#f            -                #bh1jjj  
-------        -----                    
------ ,total                  #ajg1cjf 
#b1dee                 #c1afh ,united   
,states          #ajd1hac        #i1ceh 
#ejb  ,it appears from this that the    
,united ,states mileage was only #b1dic 
less than the total of all ,europe1 and 
at the present time it exceeds it1 as   
the former country has built about      

#f1jjj miles this year1 whereas ,europe 
has not exceeded #a1ejj4 ,the difference
 in the number of persons per mile in   
the two cases is also very great1       
,europe taking six times as many persons
 to support a mile of railway as the    
,states1 and can only be accounted for  
by the fact that ,american railways are 
constructed much cheaper than the       
,european ones4         99       99     
99       99       99     ,,before ,,it  
,,happened4   ,,at #i ,a4,m4 on         
,wednesday1 ,september #ac1 the         
correspondent of a press agency         
dispatched a telegram to ,london with   
the intimation that the great battle at 
,tel-el-,kebir was practically over4 ,it
 may possibly astonish not a few of our 
readers 7says a writer in the ,echo71 to
 learn that this message reached the    
metropolis between #g and #h o'clock on 
the same morning2 and1 in fact1 had an  
unbroken telegraphic wire extended from 
,kassassin to ,london1 ,sir ,garnet     
,wolseley's great victory might have    

been known here at #f3eb ,a4,m41 or     
7seemingly7 at a time when the fight was
 raging and our success far from        
complete4 ,nay1 had the telegram been   
flashed straight to ,washington in the  
,united ,states1 it would have reached  
there something like #a h4 #dd m4 after 
the local midnight of ,september #ab4   
,paradoxical as this sounds the         
explanation of it is of the most simple 
possible character4 ,the rate at which  
electricity travels has been very       
variously estimated4 ,fizeau asserted   
that its velocity in copper wire was    
#aaa1ghj miles a second2 ,walker that it
 only travels #ah1djj miles through that
 medium during the same interval2 while 
the experiments made in the ,united     
,states during the determination of the 
longitudes of various stations there    
still further reduced the rate of motion
 to some #af1jjj miles a second4        
,whichever of these values we adopt1    
however1 we may take it for our present 
purpose1 that the transmission of a     

message by the electric telegraph is    
practically instantaneous4 ,but be it   
here noted1 there is no such a thing as 
a hora mundi or common time for the     
whole world4 ,what is familiarly known  
as longitude is really the difference in
 time1 east or west1 from a line passing
 through the north and south poles of   
the earth2 and the middle of the great  
transit circle is the ,royal            
,observatory at ,greenwich4 ,if in the  
latitude of ,london 7#ea #cj' ,n471 we  
proceed #aj miles and #a1chc yards      
either in an easterly or westerly       
direction1 we find that the local time  
is respectively either one minute faster
 or one minute slower than it was at our
 initial point4 ,let us try to          
understand the reason of this4 ,if we   
fix a tube rigidly at any station on the
 earth's surface1 pointing to that part 
of the sky in which any bright star is  
situated when such star is due south    
7or1 as it is technically called1 on the
 meridian71 and note by a good clock the

 hour1 minute1 and second at which it   
crosses a wire stretched vertically     
across the tube1 then after a lapse of  
#bc h4 #ef m4 #d4ji s41 will that star  
be again threaded on the wire4 ,if the  
earth were stationary--or1 rather1 if   
she had no motion but that round her    
axis--this would be the length of our   
day4 ,but1 as is well known1 she is     
revolving round the sun from left to    
right2 and1 as a necessary consequence1 
the sun seems to be revolving round her 
from right to left2 so that if we       
suppose the sun and our star to be both 
on the wire together to-day1 to-morrow  
the sun will appear to have traveled to 
the left of the star in the sky2 and the
 earth will have that piece more to turn
 upon her axis before our tube comes up 
with him again4 ,this apparent motion of
 the sun in the sky is not an equable   
one4 ,sometimes it is faster1 sometimes 
slower2 sometimes more slanting1        
sometimes more horizontal4 ,thus it     
comes to pass that solar days1 or the   

intervals elapsing between one return of
 the sun to the meridian and another1   
are by no means equal4 ,so a mean of    
their lengths is taken by adding them up
 for a year1 and dividing by #cfe2 and  
the quantity to be divided to or        
subtracted from the instant of apparent 
noon 7when the sun dial shows #ab       
o'clock71 is set down in the almanac    
under the heading of ,the ,equation of  
,time4 ,we may1 however1 here conceive  
that it is noon everywhere in the       
northern hemisphere when the sun is due 
south4 ,now the earth turns on her axis 
from west to east1 and occupies #bd h4  
in doing so4 ,as all circles are        
conceived to be divided into #cfj1 it is
 obvious that in one hour #ae must pass 
beneath the sun or a star2 #cj in two   
hours1 and so on4 ,the longitude of     
,kassassin is1 roughly speaking1 #cb    
east1 so that when the sun is due south 
there1 or it is noon1 the earth must go 
on turning for two hours and eight      
minutes before ,greenwich comes under   

the sun1 or it is noon there1 which is  
only another way of saying that at noon 
at ,kassassin it is #i h4 #eb m4 ,a4,m4 
at ,greenwich4 ,it is this purely local 
character of time which gives rise to   
the seeming paradox of our being able to
 receive news of an event before 7by our
 clocks7 it has happened at all4        
99       99       99       99       99  
,,the ,,ader ,,relay4   ,this new       
instrument has excited considerable     
interest among telegraph and telephone  
men by its exceeding sensitiveness4 ,it 
is so sensitive to the passage of an    
electric current that a battery formed  
with an ordinary pin for one electrode  
and a piece of zinc wire for the other1 
immersed in a single drop of water1 will
 give sufficient current to operate the 
relay4 ,in practice it has successfully 
worked as a telephonic call on the      
,eastern ,railroad ,company's line      
between ,nancy and ,paris1 a distance of
 #bab miles1 requiring but two cups of  
ordinary ,leclanch battery4  ,the       

instrument consists of two permanent    
horseshoe magnets1 fixed parallel with  
each other and an inch apart4 ,a very   
thin spool or bobbin of insulated wire  
is suspended1 like the pendulum of a    
clock1 between these permanent magnets1 
in such a manner that the bobbin hangs  
just in front of the four poles4 ,a     
counterpoise is fixed at the top of the 
pendulum bar1 which permits the         
adjusting of the antagonistic forces    
represented by the action of the        
swinging bobbin1 and two springs1 which 
are insulated from the mass1 and which  
form one electrode of the local or      
annunciator circuit1 while the pendulum 
bar forms the other4  ,it will be easily
 understood that as the bobbin hangs    
freely in the center of a very strong   
magnetic field 7formed by the four poles
 of the two permanent magnets71 the     
slightest current sent through the      
bobbin will cause the bobbin to be      
attracted from one direction1 while it  
will be repelled from the other1        

according to the polarity of the current
 transmitted4  ,as the relay has a very 
low resistance1 it is evident that it   
will become an acceptable auxiliary in  
our central office1 particularly when   
used as a calling off signal1 as by its 
use the ground deviation1 so            
objectionable and yet so universally    
used for calling off purposes1 can be   
entirely avoided1 and the relay left    
directly in the circuit1 as is being    
done here in ,paris4 ,r4 ,g4 ,,brown4   
,paris1 ,september #ab1 #ahhb4          
99       99       99       99       99  
,,the ,,platinum ,,water ,,pyrometer4   
,by ,j4 ,c4 ,,hoadley4   ,the following 
description of the apparatus used for   
the determination of high temperatures1 
up nearly to the melting point of       
platinum1 is offered in answer to       
several inquiries on the subject3  ,the 
object to be attained is a convenient   
and reasonably accurate application of  
the method of mixtures to the           
determination of temperatures above the 

range of mercurial thermometers1 say    
#ejj ,f41 up to any point not above the 
melting point of the most refractory    
metal available for the purpose1        
platinum4  ,a first requisite is a cup  
or vessel of convenient form1 capable of
 holding a suitable quantity of water1  
say about two pounds avoirdupois4       
,berthelot decidedly prefers a simple   
can of platinum1 very thin1 with a light
 cover of the same metal1 to be fastened
 on by a bayonet hitch4 ,for strictly   
laboratory work this may be the best    
form2 but for the hasty manipulation and
 rough usage of practical boiler testing
 something more robust1 but1 if         
possible1 equally sensitive1 is         
required4 ,the vessel ,i have used is   
represented in section in the           
accompanying cut1 ,fig4 #a4  ,the inner 
cell1 or true containing vessel1 is     
#d4be inches in diameter2 and of the    
same height on the side1 with a bottom  
in the form of a spherical segment1 of  
#d4be inches radius4 ,it is formed of   

sheet brass #j4ja inch thick1           
nickel-plated and polished outside and  
inside4 ,the outer case is #h inches    
diameter and #h4e inches deep1 of       
#af-ounce copper1 nickel-plated and     
polished inside1 but plain outside4     
,there are two handles on opposite      
sides1 for convenience of rapid         
manipulation4 ,the top1 of the same     
copper as the sides and bottom1 is      
depressed conically4 like a hopper1 and 
wired at its outer edge1 forming a lip  
all around for pouring out of4 ,the     
central cell is connected with the outer
 case only by three rings of hard rubber
 7vulcanite71 each #j4be inch thick1 the
 middle ring completely insulating the  
cell from its continuation upward1 and  
from the outer case4 ,a narrow flange is
 turned outward at the upper edge of the
 cell1 and a similar flange is also     
turned outward at the lower edge of the 
cylindrical continuation of the walls of
 the cell upward4 ,between these two    
flanges1 the middle ring of hard rubber 

is interposed1 and the two parts1 the   
cell and its upward continuation1 are   
clamped together by the upper and lower 
rings of hard rubber1 which embrace the 
flanges and are held together by screws4
 ,the joints between the flanges and the
 middle ring of hard rubber1 which might
 otherwise leak a little1 are made tight
 with asphaltum varnish4  ,illustration3
 ,fig4 #a4  ,fig #a shows two           
partitions1 dividing the space between  
the cell and the case into three        
compartments1 and a concave false       
bottom4 ,the cover is also seen to be   
divided into three compartments1 by two 
partitions1 and each compartment of the 
vessel and of its cover is provided with
 a small tube for inserting a           
thermometer4 ,this construction was     
adopted in the first instruments made1  
for the purpose of observing the rate of
 heat transmission through the          
successive compartments1 but these parts
 are without importance with respect to 
the practical use of the instrument1 and

 may as well be omitted1 as they        
considerably increase the cost1 being   
nickel-plated and polished on both      
sides4 ,the top and bottom plates of the
 cover are of #j4ja inch brass1         
nickel-plated and polished on both      
sides1 both convex outward1 the bottom  
plate but slightly1 the top plate to    
#d4be inches radius4 ,a ring of hard    
rubber connects1 yet separates and      
insulates these plates1 and they are    
bound together with the ring into a firm
 structure by a tube of hard rubber1    
having a shoulder and knob at the top1  
and at the lower end a screw-thread     
engaging with a thin nut soldered to the
 upper side of the bottom plate4 ,when  
the cover is in place1 its lower plate  
is even with the top of the cell2 and   
the contained water1 which nearly fills 
the cell1 is surrounded by polished1    
nickel-plated1 brass plates #j4ja inch  
thick1 insulated trom other metal by    
interposed hard rubber4 ,the spaces     
between the cell and case 7a single     

space if the partitions are omitted71   
the space above the hard rubber rings1  
and the space or spaces in the cover are
 all filled with eider-down1 which costs
 #a4jj per ounce avoirdupois1 but a few 
ounces are sufficient4 ,soft1 fine      
shavings1 or turnings of hard rubber1   
are said to be excellent as a substitute
 for eider-down4 ,heat cannot be        
confined by any known method4 ,its      
transmission can be in some degree      
retarded1 and in a greater degree1      
perhaps1 regulated4 ,some heat will be  
promptly absorbed by the sides1 bottom1 
and cover of the cell1 and by the       
agitator2 but this does no harm1 as its 
quantity can be accurately ascertained  
and allowed for4 ,some will be gradually
 transmitted to the eider-down1 filling 
the spaces1 and through this to the     
outer casing2 but this can be reduced to
 a minimum by rapid and skillful        
manipulation1 and its quantity1 under   
normal conditions1 can be ascertained   
approximately1 so as not to introduce   

large errors4 ,but varying external     
influences1 such as currents of air1    
caused by opening doors1 or by persons  
passing along near the apparatus during 
the progress of an experiment1 which    
would introduce disturbing              
irregularities1 can best be guarded     
against by such spaces as ,i have       
described1 filled with the poorest      
heat-conductor and the lightest solid   
substance attainable4 ,air1 although a  
poor heat-conductor1 and extremely      
light1 is diathermous1 and offers no    
obstruction to the escape of radiant    
heat4  ,the agitator is an important    
part of the apparatus4 ,its object1 in  
this instrument1 is twofold4 ,first1 it 
serves to produce a uniform temperature 
throughout the body of water in the     
instrument2 and secondly1 it answers as 
a support to the heat-carrier of        
platinum or other metal1 often intensely
 hot1 which would injure or destroy the 
delicate metal of the bottom if allowed 
to fall on it4 ,for this second purpose1

 no spiral revolving agitator1 such as  
that commended by ,berthelot1 would     
suffice4 ,the best form is such as ,i   
have shown in ,fig4 #a4 ,a concave disk 
of sheet-brass1 made to conform to the  
shape of the bottom of the cell1 with a 
narrow rim turned up all around1 of     
about #j4jb inch thickness1 is liberally
 perforated with holes to lighten it1   
and to give free passage to water4 ,the 
concave form causes the streams of      
water1 produced by slightly raising and 
lowering the agitator1 to take a radial 
direction downward or upward1 so as to  
cross each other and promote rapid      
mixing4 ,by a slight modification small 
vanes might be turned outward from the  
surface of the metal1 which would       
produce mixing currents if the agitator 
were given a slight reciprocatory       
revolving motion1 thus avoiding the     
alternate withdrawal and re-immersion of
 any part of the stem so strongly       
deprecated by ,berthelot2 but for       
several reasons ,i think an up and down 

motion of the agitator desirable in this
 instrument4 ,the platinum heat carrier1
 sometimes at a temperature of #b1ejj to
 #b1hjj ,f41 is thereby brought into    
more rapid and forcible contact with the
 water1 steam or water in the spherical 
condition is washed away from its       
surface1 and by cooling it more rapidly1
 the duration of the observation is     
lessened1 and errors due to transmission
 of heat through the walls of the       
instrument are diminished4 ,the upper   
part of the agitator stem is of hard    
rubber1 and the brass portion1 which    
terminates at the under side of the     
cover when the agitator is in its lowest
 position1 suspended by the shoulder at 
the upper end1 need never be lifted for 
the purpose of mixing out of the hard   
rubber tube at the cover1 so that loss  
of heat from this cause must be very    
slight4 ,the brass tube is very freely  
perforated with holes to admit water1   
streaming radially through the holes in 
the agitator1 to contact with the       

thermometer4 ,the hole in the stem at   
the top is flared1 to receive a cork1   
through which the thermometer is to be  
passed4 ,the bulb of the thermometer    
should be elongated1 and very slightly  
smaller in diameter than the stem4      
,after passing it through the cork1 a   
very slight band--a mere thread--of     
elastic rubber should be put around the 
bulb1 near its lower end1 or a thin1    
narrow shaving of cork may be wound     
around and tied on1 to keep it from     
contact with the brass tube1 for safety2
 and a little tuft of wool1 curled hair1
 or hard rubber shavings should be put  
in the bottom of the brass tube to avoid
 accidents4 ,for the same purpose1 a    
light1 but sufficient fender of brass   
wire1 say #j4jc inch diameter1 might be 
judiciously placed around the brass tube
 at a little distance1 to protect it and
 the thermometer inside of it from      
shocks from the platinum ball when      
hastily thrown in1 as it must always be4
 ,i have had delicate and costly        

thermometers broken for want of such a  
fender4 ,thermometers cannot be too nice
 for this work4 ,for accurate work at   
moderate temperatures1 they should be   
about #ad inches long1 having a safe    
bulb at the upper end1 with a range of  
#bj ,f4--#cb to #eb--;in a length of #aj
 inches1 giving half an inch to a degree
 ,f41 and carefully graduated to tenths 
of a degree1 so that they can be read to
 hundredths1 corresponding to single    
degrees of the heat-carrier in the      
normal use of the instrument4  ,for the 
determination of the highest            
temperatures1 up closely to #b1ijj ,f41 
it will be convenient to have           
thermometers of greater range1 say #cb  
to #hb ,f41 #ej in a length of #ab4e    
inches1 or a quarter of an inch to a    
degree ,f41 also graduated to tenths1 or
 at the least1 to fifths of a degree4   
,such thermometers will be about #ag    
inches long4  ,it is very satisfactory  
to have two instruments and a good      
outfit of thermometers and              

heat-carriers1 in order to take         
duplicate observations for mutual       
verification and detection of errors4   
,,heat ,,carriers4  ,for these platinum 
is greatly to be preferred to any other 
known substance4 ,its rather high cost  
is the only objection to its use4 ,its  
heat capacity is low1 by weight1 but its
 specific gravity is great1 and         
sufficient capacity can be obtained in  
moderate bulk1 while its high           
conductivity tends to shorten the       
duration of each experiment or          
observation4 ,a convenient outfit for   
each instrument consists of three balls1
 hammered to a spherical form1 one      
#a4ache inches diameter1 weighing #d1bjj
 grains#j4f pound avoirdupois2 one      
#j4iide inch diameter1 weighing #b1hjj  
grains#j4d pound2 and one #j4ghid inch  
diameter1 weighing #a1djj grains#j4b    
pound4  ,these can be obtained at       
#a-b_/c cents per grain1 and will cost1 
respectively1 #gj4jj1 #df4fg1 and       
#bc4cc1 and collectively1 #adj4jj4 ,at  

the assumed specific heat of ,pt#j4jccc1
 the heat capacity of the respective    
balls will be #a_/ajj1 #a_/aej1 and     
#a_/cjj of #b pounds of cold water1 and 
the two smaller balls used together will
 be equal to the larger one4            
,corrections for varying specific heat  
of platinum may be conveniently made by 
the tables given in a previous          
article4#a ,corrections for varying     
specific heat of water are less         
important1 but may be made by the       
following table3  ,temperatures1        
,fahrenheit1 and ,corresponding ,number 
of ,british ,thermal ,units ,contained  
in ,water from ,zero ,fahrenheit4   ,deg
  ,b4t4u4  ,deg  ,b4t4u4  ,deg   ,b4t4u4
  ,deg  ,b4t4u4                         
----------------------------------------
-------------  #cb  #cb4jjj   #eg       
#eg4jjg   #hb   #hb4jci  #ajg  #ajg4aja 
#cc  #cc4jjj   #eh  #eh4jjg   #hc       
#hc4jda  #ajh  #ajh4ajd   #cd  #cd4jjj  
#ei  #ei4jjh   #hd   #hd4jdc  #aji      
#aji4ajg   #ce  #ce4jjj   #fj  #fj4jji  

#he   #he4jde  #aaj  #aaj4aaj   #cf     
#cf4jjj   #fa  #fa4jaj   #hf   #hf4jdg  
#aaa  #aaa4aac   #cg  #cg4jjj   #fb     
#fb4jaa   #hg   #hg4jdi  #aab  #aab4aag 
#ch  #ch4jjj   #fc  #fc4jab   #hh       
#hh4jea  #aac  #aac4aba   #ci  #ci4jja  
#fd  #fd4jac   #hi   #hi4jec  #aad      
#aad4abe   #dj  #dj4jja   #fe  #fe4jad  
#ij   #ij4jee  #aae  #aae4abi   #da     
#da4jja   #ff  #ff4jae   #ia   #ia4jeg  
#aaf  #aaf4acc   #db  #db4jja   #fg     
#fg4jaf   #ib   #ib4jei  #aag  #aag4acg 
#dc  #dc4jja   #fh  #fh4jah   #ic       
#ic4jfa  #aah  #aah4ada   #dd  #dd4jjb  
#fi  #fi4jai   #id   #id4jfc  #aai      
#aai4ade   #de  #de4jjb   #gj  #gj4jbj  
#ie   #ie4jfe  #abj  #abj4adi   #df     
#df4jjb   #ga  #ga4jba   #if   #if4jfh  
#aba  #aba4aec   #dg  #dg4jjb   #gb     
#gb4jbc   #ig   #ig4jga  #abb  #abb4aeg 
#dh  #dh4jjc   #gc  #gc4jbd   #ih       
#ih4jgd  #abc  #abc4afa   #di  #di4jjc  
#gd  #gd4jcf   #ii   #ii4jgg  #abd      
#abd4afe   #ej  #ej4jjc   #ge  #ge4jbg  
#ajj  #ajj4jhj  #abe  #abe4afi   #ea    

#ea4jjd   #gf  #gf4jbi  #aja  #aja4jhc  
#abf  #abf4agc   #eb  #eb4jjd   #gg     
#gg4jcj  #ajb  #ajb4jhf  #abg  #abg4agg 
#ec  #ec4jje   #gh  #gh4jcb  #ajc       
#ajc4jhi  #abh  #abh4ahb   #ed  #ed4jje 
#gi  #gi4jcd  #ajd  #ajd4jib  #abi      
#abi4ahg   #ee  #ee4jjf   #hj  #hj4jcf  
#aje  #aje4jie  #acj  #acj4aib   #ef    
#ef4jjf   #ha  #ha4jcg  #ajf  #ajf4jih  
#aca  #aca4aig                          
----------------------------------------
-------------  ,footnote #a3 ,journal   
for ,august1 pp4 #ig1 #ih1 and errata in
 ,journal for ,september1 p4 #agb4  ,a  
composite heat-carrier1 of iron covered 
with platinum1 answers well for         
temperatures up to about #a1ejj ,f4 ,a  
ball of wrought iron #j4hh inch diameter
 will weigh #gjj grains1 and a capsule  
of platinum spun over it #j4jdh inch    
thick1 making the outside diameter      
#j4igf inch1 will also weigh #gjj       
grains4 ,upon the assumption of #j4jccc 
for the specific heat of ,pt and #j4afff
 for that of ,fe1 the composite ball    

will have a heat capacity equal to that 
of #d1bjj grains of ,pt1 and equal to   
#j4ja of that of #b pounds of cold      
water4 ,a patch1 about #j4ce inch       
diameter1 has to be put in to close the 
orifice where the ,pt capsule is spun   
together1 and a slight stain will show  
itself at the joint around this patch1  
from oxidation of the iron1 but the     
latter will be pretty effectually       
protected4 ,difference of expansion1    
which will not exceed #j4jjg inch in    
diameter1 will not endanger the capsule 
of ,pt4 ,the interruption of            
conductivity at the surface contact of  
the two metals makes the process of     
heating and cooling a little slower1 but
 not noticeably so4  ,such composite    
balls can be obtained for #bj each1 #ej 
less than the cost of an equivalent ball
 of solid platinum1 which is preferable 
in all but cost4 ,iron balls could be   
used for a few crude determinations4    
,cast iron varies too much in           
composition1 and wrought iron oxidizes  

rapidly4 ,while the oxide adheres it    
gains in weight1 and when scales fall   
off it loses2 and the specific heat of  
the oxide differs from that of metallic 
iron4 ,whatever metal is used1 care must
 be taken to apply the appropriate      
tabular correction for ,pt,fe1 or ,pt   
and ,fe4   ,,manipulation4  ,small      
graphite crucibles with covers1 as shown
 in section1 in ,fig4 #b1 serve to guard
 against losing the ball1 to handle it  
by when hot1 and to protect it against  
loss of heat during transmission from   
the fire to the pyrometer4 ,to guard    
against overturning the crucibles1      
moulded firebrick should be provided to 
receive them1 two crucibles being put   
into one brick1 in the same exposure1   
whenever great accuracy is desired1 each
 serving as a check on the other1 and   
their mean being likely to be more      
nearly correct than either one if they  
differ4 ,the firebrick cover is         
occasionally useful to retard cooling1  
if1 by reason of local obstructions1    

some little delay is unavoidable in     
transferring the balls from the fire to 
the water of the pyrometer4 ,with       
convenient arrangements1 this may be    
done in three seconds4 ,after observing 
the temperature of the water1 make ready
 for the immersion of the heat carrier  
by raising the agitator until a space of
 only about #a4e of an inch is left     
between its rim and the cover4 ,an      
instant before putting in the heat      
carrier--pouring it from the            
crucible--lift the cover and agitator   
both together1 so that the rim of the   
latter is level with the sloping top of 
the instrument4 ,the agitator then      
receives the hot ball without shock1 and
 no harm is done4 ,if the ball goes     
below the agitator1 it is likely to     
injure the bottom of the cup4 ,if1 on   
taking the temperature of the water     
before the immersion of the heat        
carrier1 any change is observed1 either 
rising or falling1 the direction and    
rate of such change1 and the exact      

interval of time between the last       
recorded observation and the immersion1 
should be noted1 in order to determine  
the exact temperature of the water at   
the instant of immersion4 ,the          
temperature of the water will continue  
to rise as long as the heat carrier     
gives out heat faster than the cell     
loses it4 ,the rise will grow gradually 
slower until it ceases1 and the maximum 
can be very accurately determined4      
,examples of the mode of using the      
tables1 and of determining the true     
temperature of the heat carrier at the  
instant of immersion from the           
observations with the instrument1 are   
given in the table on pages #agj and    
#aga of this ,journal for ,september4 ,a
 method of using the tables1 by which a 
closer approximation to the true        
temperature may be reached1 will be     
pointed out in a subsequent article4    
,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4                
,,determination ,,of ,,the ,,calorific  
,,capacity ,,of ,,the ,,metals ,,of     

,,the ,,pyrometer1 in terms of water1   
i4e41 in ,british thermal units4        
,first4 ,weigh the cup1 or cell1 the    
lower plate of the cover and the        
metallic portion of the agitator1 and   
compute their heat-capacity by the      
specific heat of the respective metals4 
,compute also the heat capacity of the  
thermometer2 or1 if it be long1 of so   
much of it as is found to share nearly  
the temperature of the immersed portion4
 ,the result will be a minimum--indeed1 
in so small a vessel the inevitable loss
 by conduction and radiation will amount
 to more than one-third as much as the  
simple heat capacity of the metals4#a   
,the total must be ascertained by an    
application of the method of mixture4   
,ascertain the temperature of the       
interior of the instrument simply2 pour 
in quickly but carefully a known        
quantity of water1 say about two pounds1
 of known temperature1 say about #ajj   
,f41 and ascertain the temperature as   
soon after pouring as mixing can be     

properly performed4 ,but a correction is
 necessary for loss of heat in the act  
of pouring4 ,to ascertain the amount of 
this correction prepare a bath of tepid 
water1 and bring all parts of the       
instrument--outside1 inside1 and        
interior portions1 together with the    
vessel to pour from--exactly to one     
common1 carefully ascertained           
temperature4 ,now take two pounds of the
 water and pour it into the cell in the 
same manner as before4 ,exposure of so  
thin a stream on two surfaces to the air
 of the room will produce a certain     
degree of refrigeration in the water1   
which is supposed to be warmer than the 
air1 say at about #afj ,f4 ,this effect 
will be due to conduction1 by contact   
with the air1 to radiation1 and to      
evaporation2 and by so much the         
refrigeration observed in mixing is to  
be diminished4  ,footnote #a3 ,in our   
case the heat-capacity1 thermometer     
included1 was #j4jgeg2 total1 #j4ajec2  
radiation1 etc41 #j4jbif4 ,respectively1

 #ga4i per cent1 and #bh4a per cent4 of 
the total4  ,four experiments1 carefully
 conducted1 gave the following results3 
,loss of temperature by pouring at #agj 
,f41 #j4ha1 #j4hf1 #a4jj1 and #a4jg ,f42
 mean1 #j4ice ,f4  ,the following are   
values of the calorific capacity of my  
pyrometers1 that is1 of those parts of  
each which share directly the           
temperature of the inclosed water1      
including the thermometer to be used    
with the instrument1 and the heat       
communicated to the eider-down and      
otherwise lost during an observation1   
expressed in decimals of a ,british     
thermal unit1 or in decimals of a pound 
of cold water3  #j4ajdh1 #j4ajeb1       
#j4ajgg1 #j4ajjh1 #j4ajbh1 and #j4aajd4 
,mean         #j4ajec  #j lb4    #a oz4 
#aa drms4 ,add water    #a4hidg  #a     
#ad       #d                ------   -  
--       --              #b4jjjj  #b    
#j       #j    ,this was the value used4
 ,the instrument1 being put on delicate 
coin scales and counterbalanced1 weights

 equal to #a4hidg lb4 avoirdupois  #a   
lb4 #ad oz4 #e drms41 were added to the 
counterbalancing weights1 and cold water
 was poured in until the scales again   
balanced4  ,the pyrometer with its      
contained water was then just equal in  
heating capacity1 while the temperature 
was not above #ch ,f4 to two pounds of  
cold water4 ,the two instruments were   
sensibly alike1 but were numbered ,no4  
#a and ,no4 #b1 and at each observation 
the one used was noted4  ,the process of
 preparation and testing appears long   
and tedious1 and is indeed somewhat so2 
but the instruments once well made are  
durable1 convenient in use1 and with    
care reasonably accurate4  ,compared    
with mercurial thermometers between #bab
 and #fjj ,f41 ,i believe them to be    
much more accurate1 although less       
convenient4  ,for a range of            
temperatures from #bab to #ijj ,f4 they 
are certainly more trustworthy than     
anything save an air thermometer of     
suitable construction2 and for all      

temperatures from #hjj to #ijj ,f4 up   
nearly to the melting point of platinum 
they are without a rival1 so far as ,i  
know4  ,for some situations the ball can
 best be inserted in the fire or other  
situation where an observation is       
desired1 and withdrawn for immersion by 
means of long1 slender tongs1 with jaws 
resembling bullet moulds4  ,a word about
 the melting point of platinum4 ,my     
balls certainly began to melt below     
#b1iej ,f41 but ,i am by no means sure  
that they do not contain any silver1    
although their specific gravity gives   
assurance that they are at least nearly 
pure4--,franklin ,journal4         99   
99       99       99       99           
,,locomotive ,,painting4  ,footnote3 ,a 
paper read before the ,master ,car      
,painters' ,association1 ,chicago1      
,september1 #ahhc4  ,by ,,john ,s4      
,,atwater4   ,the subject of locomotive 
painting has been pretty well discussed 
at the former meetings of the           
association1 and we have heard many     

excellent suggestions regarding the use 
of oils1 mineral paints1 and leads from 
gentlemen of long experience4 ,but as   
the secretary has invited a display of  
my ignorance ,i will endeavor to explain
 as clearly as possible the methods ,i  
pursue1 which1 though not new or        
original1 have been productive of good  
results4  ,if time enough can be had we 
can prime with oil alone1 or in         
connection with the leads or minerals1  
and be sure of durability2 but in these 
days of lightning speed1 lightning      
illuminations1 and lightning painting1  
we must look about for something with   
chain lightning in it1 which1 unlike the
 lightning1 will remain bright and stick
 after it strikes4 ,we all have to paint
 according to the time and the          
facilities we have for doing the work4  
,the scale on iron or steel is the only 
serious trouble which the painter has to
 contend with4 ,rust can be removed or  
utilized with the oil1 making a good    
paint1 but unless time can be given it  

is better to remove the rust4  ,if      
possible let tanks get thoroughly       
rusted1 then scrape off scale and rust  
with files sharpened to a chisel edge1  
rub down large surfaces with sandstone1 
and use ,no4 #c emery cloth between     
rivet heads1 etc41 then wash off with   
turpentine4 ,this will give you a good  
solid surface to work upon4  ,for       
priming ,i use #ajj pounds white lead   
7in oil71 #aj pounds dry red lead1 #ac  
pounds ,prince's metallic1 #h quarts    
boiled oil1 #b quarts varnish1 #f quarts
 turpentine1 and grind in the mill1 as  
it mixes it thoroughly with less waste4 
,i mix about #bej pounds at a time 7put 
into kegs and draw off as wanted through
 faucets74  ,this o-le-ag-in-ous        
compound can be worked both ways1       
quickly by adding japan1 slower by      
adding oil1 and reduce to working       
consistency with turpentine4  ,without  
the oil or japan it will dry hard on    
wrought iron in about seven days1 on    
castings in about four days4 ,when dry  

putty with white-lead putty1 thinned    
with varnish and turpentine1 and knifed 
in with a broad-gauge putty knife4 ,next
 day sandpaper and apply first coat     
rough-stuff1 which is1 equal parts1 in  
bulk1 white lead and ,reno's umber1     
mixed stiff with equal parts japan and  
rubbing varnish1 and thin with          
turpentine4 ,next morning1 second coat  
rough-stuff1 made with ,reno's umber1   
fine pumice stone1 japan1 and           
turpentine4 ,at #a o'clock ,p4,m4 put on
 guide coat for the benefit of the small
 boys1 which is rough-stuff ,no4 #b1    
darkened with lamp-black and very thin4 
,the addition of fine pumice to         
rough-stuff ,no4 #b encourages the boys 
in rubbing1 and prevents the blockstone 
from clogging4  ,by the time the last   
end of the tank is painted the first end
 is ready for rubbing1 though it is     
better to stand until next day4  ,after 
rubbing sandpaper and put on very thin  
coat of varnish and turpentine 7about   
equal parts74 ,this soaks into the      

filling1 hardening it and making a      
close1 smooth1 elastic surface1 leaving 
no brush marks and being more durable   
than a quick-drying lead4 ,this can be  
rubbed with fine sandpaper or hair to   
take off gloss1 and colored the next    
morning1 but it is better to remain #bd 
hours before coloring4  ,upon this      
surface an all japan color would1 before
 night1 resemble a map of the war in    
,egypt1 but by adding varnish and a very
 little raw oil to the japan color1     
making it of the same nature as the     
under surface1 will prevent cracking4   
,if ,i sandpaper in the morning1 ,i put 
on first-coat color before noon4 ,second
 ditto afternoon1 and varnish with      
rubbing varnish that night2 rub down1   
stripe and letter next day1 though ,i   
consider it better to stripe and letter 
on the color1 and varnish with wearing  
body varnish4  ,the tank is then ready  
for mounting4 ,when mounted ,i paint    
trucks and woodwork1 two coats lead1    
color1 color and varnish1 and finish the

 whole with wearing body varnish4 ,time1
 from #ad to #af days4  ,on cabs ,i use 
the same priming as on tanks1 let stand 
five days1 putty nail holes and plaster 
putty hard wood1 and give two coats     
lead1 mixed as follows3 #ajj pounds keg 
lead1 #ai pounds ,reno's umber1 #c      
quarts japan1 #a quarts varnish1 #f     
quarts turpentine4 ,i call this ,no4 #b 
lead1 and allow #bd hours between coats1
 then apply a coat of ,no4 #b rough     
stuff at #g ,a4,m4 ,rub down at #aj     
,a4,m4 two coats color1 and varnish     
before #f ,p4,m4 ,striped and lettered  
next day and finished on the following  
day if it is not taken away from me1 and
 put on the engine4 ,time1 eleven days4 
,can be done in five days4  ,on         
castings1 same priming1 putty and ,no4  
#b lead if time is allowed4 ,i use      
rough-stuff ,no4 #b on all flat places1 
rub down and give two coats of ,no4 #b  
lead4 ,also painting inside of all      
castings1 and sheet iron casings2 and   
inside of boiler jacket1 with ,prince's 

metallic4  ,all castings ,i get ready   
for color before they are put on the    
locomotive1 except such as have to be   
filed or fitted on outside edges4 ,as   
there is very little time given to      
finish a locomotive after the machinists
 get through1 ,i usually finish it the  
day before it is done4  ,as a sample    
7one of many71 an #h--ag--;,c4          
locomotive boiler tested ,saturday      
afternoon1 ,august #ab1 boiler painted1 
with #abj pounds steam on1 wheels put   
under1 boiler covered1 cab put on1 and  
finished ,monday1 ,august #ad1 at       
midnight 7did not work ,sunday72 primed1
 puttied1 colored1 lettered1 and        
varnished same day4 ,after #aj o'clock  
at night the painters have a chance1 and
 it is their glorious privilege to work 
until morning4 ,the machinists have all 
the time there is1 the painters have    
what is left4  ,so much for the ordinary
 way4 ,for a quicker method of painting 
tanks ,i send a sample marked ,no4 #a4  
,time1 including first coat varnish1    

five days4 ,priming1 #a pound ,reno's   
umber to #b quarts pellucedite2 two     
coats rough-stuff1 composed of umber and
 pellucedite1 rubbed down1 and thin coat
 of pellucedite2 one coat drop black1   
one coat rubbing varnish2 exposed to    
weather 7southeasterly exposure near    
salt water7 ,march #ab1 #ahgi2          
revarnished one coat1 finishing         
,september #a1 #ahgi2 remained out until
 ,march #bb1 #ahhj4 ,total exposure1 one
 year and one and a half weeks2 thrown  
around the shop until ,august1 #ahhb2   
has been painted three years and six    
months4 ,this is not a sample of good   
work1 but of quick and rough painting4  
,considering the time and usuage it has 
experienced it has stood much better    
than ,i expected1 though ,i cannot      
safely recommend that kind of painting  
when any other can be followed4  ,sample
 ,no4 #c--,time1 including two coats    
varnish1 #ad days4 ,painted as described
 in first part of this article2 exposed 
in same places as ,no4 #a1 ,april #c1   

#ahhj2 total exposure1 six months2 has  
been painted two years and five months4 
,the above are not exactly ,thoughts on 
,locomotive ,painting4 ,what my thoughts
 are would require several dictionaries 
to express2 but that is owing1 not to   
the kind of work1 but having to produce 
certain results in a time that will not 
insure good1 durable work4  ,for        
removing old paint on wood ,i use a     
burner4 ,from iron1 ,i have found the   
quickest and most effectual way is to   
dissolve as much sal soda in warm water 
as the water will take up1 and mix with 
fresh lime1 making a thick mortar2      
spread this on the tank1 about an inch  
thick1 with a trowel2 when it begins to 
crack1 which will be in a few minutes1  
it has softened the paint enough1 so    
that with a wide putty knife you can    
take it all off2 then wash off tank with
 water4 ,this takes off paint1 rust1 and
 everything1 including the skin from    
your hands1 if you are not careful4     
,plaster one side of tank1 and use      

mortar over again for the other side4   
,engine oil used to brighten smoke      
stacks1 no matter with what painted1    
will cause blistering4 ,tallow and japan
 drop black mixed1 and apply while stack
 is hot1 with an occasional rubbing over
 with the same1 will remain bright a    
long time4  ,rust always contains       
dampness1 and will feed on itself1      
extending underneath and destroying     
solidly painted surfaces4 ,it is1       
therefore1 necessary1 in order to secure
 good results1 that the rust should be  
killed before priming1 or that the      
priming be so mixed that it will        
assimilate with the rust and prevent    
spreading4  ,steel tanks will not rust  
as rapidly as iron1 but the scale is    
more apt to flake off by the expansion  
and contraction of the metal1 taking the
 paint with it4  ,heated oil1 or heated 
oil priming1 will dry faster and be more
 penetrating than cold4 ,i consider     
heated boiled oil and red lead the best 
primer for iron4  ,in regard to         

ornamentation1 my taste is governed by  
the fact that ,i work by contract1 and  
get no more for a highly ornate         
locomotive than ,i do for a plain one1  
therefore ,i like the plain ones best1  
and ,i hope that our good brother       
,burch's prophecy1 that the days of     
'fancy locomotives' will return1 will   
never be fulfilled until after ,i go out
 of the business4 ,there is a happy     
medium between a hearse and a circus    
wagon1 and the locomotive painter1 when 
not tied down by specifications1 can    
produce a neat and handsomely painted   
engine without the spread eagle or star 
spangled banner4 ,my own ideas are in   
the direction of simple lines of        
striping1 following the lines of the    
surfaces upon which they are drawn4     
,finally1 take all the time you can get1
 the more the better1 and use oil       
accordingly4         99       99        
99       99       99     ,,crackle      
,,glass4   ,an ingenious process of     
producing glass with an iced or crackled

 surface1 suitable for many decorative  
purposes1 has been invented in ,france  
by ,bay4 ,the product appears in the    
form of sheets or panes1 one side of    
which is smooth or glossy1 like common  
window glass1 while the other is rough  
and filled with innumerable crevices1   
giving it the frozen or crackled        
appearance so much admired for many     
decorative purposes4 ,this peculiar     
cracked surface is obtained by covering 
the surface of the sheet on the table   
with a thick coating of some            
coarse-grained flux mixed to form a     
paste1 or with a coating of some more   
easily fusible glass1 and then          
subjecting it to the action of a strong 
fire1 either open or in a muffle4 ,as   
soon as the coating is fused1 and the   
table is red-hot1 it is withdrawn and   
rapidly cooled4 ,the superficial layer  
of flux separates itself in this        
operation from the underlying glass     
surface1 and leaves behind the evidence 
of its attachment to the same in the    

form of numberless irregularities1      
scales1 irregular crystal forms1 etc41  
giving the glass surface the peculiar   
appearance to which the above name has  
been given4 ,the rapid cooling of the   
glass may be facilitated with the aid of
 a stream of cold air1 or by            
continuously projecting a spray of cold 
water upon it4 ,by protecting certain   
portions of the glass surface from      
contact with the flux1 with the use of a
 template of any ornamental or other    
desired form1 these portions will retain
 their ordinary appearance1 and will    
show the form of the design very        
strongly outlined beside the crackled   
surface4 ,in this manner1 letters1      
arabesque1 and other patterns in white  
or colored glass can be produced with   
great ease and with fine effect4        
99       99       99       99       99  
,,how ,,marbles ,,are ,,made4   ,marbles
 are named from the ,latin word marmor1 
by which similar playthings were known  
to the boys of ,rome1 #b1jjj years ago4 

,some marbles are made of potter's clay 
and baked in an oven just as earthenware
 is baked1 but most of them are made of 
a hard kind of a stone found in ,saxony1
 ,germany4 ,marbles are manufactured    
there in great numbers and sent to all  
parts of the world1 even to ,china1 for 
the use of the ,chinese children4  ,the 
stone is broken up with a hammer into   
pieces1 which are then ground round in a
 mill4 ,the mill has a fixed slab of    
stone1 with its surface full of little  
grooves or furrows4 ,above this a flat  
block of oak wood of the same size as   
the stone is made to turn round rapidly1
 and1 while turning1 little streams of  
water run in the grooves and keep the   
mill from getting too hot4 ,about #ajj  
pieces of the square pieces of stone are
 put in the grooves at once1 and in a   
few minutes are made round and polished 
by the wooden block4  ,china and white  
marbles are also used to make the round 
rollers which have delighted the hearts 
of the boys of all nations for hundred  

of years4 ,marbles thus made are known  
to the boys as chinas1 or alleys4 ,real 
china ones are made of porcelain clay1  
and baked like chinaware or other       
pottery4 ,some of them have a pearly    
glaze1 and some are painted in various  
colors1 which will not rub off1 because 
they are baked in1 just as the pictures 
are on the plates and other tableware4  
,glass marbles are known as agates4     
,they are made of both clear and colored
 glass4 ,the former are made by taking  
up a little melted glass on the end of  
an iron rod and making it round by      
dropping it into a round mould1 which   
shapes it1 or by whirling it around the 
head until the glass is made into a     
little ball4  ,sometimes the figure of a
 dog or squirrel or a kitten or some    
other object is put on the end of the   
rod1 and when it is dipped into the     
melted glass the glass runs all around  
it1 and when the marble is done the     
animal can be seen shut up in it4       
,colored glass marbles are made by      

holding a bunch of glass rods in the    
fire until they melt2 then the workmen  
twist them round into a ball or press   
them into a mould1 so that when done the
 marble is marked with bands or ribbons 
of color4 ,real agates1 which are the   
nicest of all marbles1 are made in      
,germany1 out of the stone called agate4
 ,the workmen chip the pieces of agate  
nearly round with hammers and then grind
 them round and smooth on               
grindstones4--,philadelphia ,times4     
99       99       99       99       99  
,,drawing-,,room ,,photography4   ,among
 the examples we have received are some 
which would certainly do credit to any  
professional artist1 alike for the      
posing1 lighting1 and general treatment2
 indeed1 we may say that some of the    
poses are of a high artistic order1 and 
quite a relief from the conventional    
positions and accessories so frequently 
seen in professional work4 ,the         
expressions secured are also1 as a rule1
 unusually pleasing and natural4 ,this  

is1 no doubt1 in a great measure due to 
the sitter feeling more at ease in the  
amateur friend's drawing room than in a 
stranger's studio4 ,particularly is this
 the case in some excellent             
work--full-length pictures--sent from   
the other side of the ,atlantic1 and    
taken in a room of very modest          
dimensions1 and with only one window4   
,among the failures 7if such they may be
 called7 the chief fault lies in the    
lighting1 and from either under or over 
exposure--the former chiefly arising    
when a landscape lens was used1 and the 
latter when a portrait combination was  
employed4 ,some correspondents also     
complain of the long exposure that1 in  
their case1 had been imperative2 but1   
curiously enough1 with all the          
successful pictures a very brief        
exposure has always been mentioned1 and 
generally with an exceedingly small     
window4  ,with a view to the further    
assistance of those who have met with   
difficulties1 we recur again to the     

subject of the lighting1 for upon this  
must entirely depend the success or     
failure in producing satisfactory       
results2 and1 as we explained in        
previous articles1 unless proper        
chiaroscuro is secured on the model1 it 
will be impossible to obtain it in the  
picture4 ,the chief defect in this      
respect has been either that the light  
has been too abrupt1 and consequently   
the high lights are very white and the  
shadows heavy1 giving the pictures an   
under-exposed appearance1 or the face is
 devoid of shadow1 one side being as    
light as the other2 hence it lacks the  
roundness necessary to constitute a good
 picture4 ,in most instances the former 
defect has arisen from the reflecting   
screen not being properly placed so as  
to reflect back the light in the right  
direction1 or it has been too far from  
the model2 hence it has lost the greater
 part of its value4 ,it should be borne 
in mind that the nearer the sitter is to
 the source of light the nearer the     

reflector must be to him1 and also that 
at whatever angle the light falls upon  
the reflector it is always thrown off at
 a corresponding one4  ,now1 supposing  
that the light falls upon the model at  
an angle of1 say1 #dj3 we shall have to 
place our reflecting screen at somewhat 
the same angle1 and the nearer it is    
approached the greater will be the      
effect produced4 ,if the sitter be      
placed very close to the window and the 
reflector a long way off1 or if it      
project the light in a wrong direction1 
it is manifest that in the resulting    
pictures the shadows will1 of necessity1
 be heavy1 and the negative will have an
 under-exposed appearance1 however long 
may have been given1 simply because     
there was no harmony in the lighting of 
the model4 ,in the case where the       
picture has been flat it has arisen from
 the sitter being placed too far back   
from the window1 so that the direct     
light falling upon him has been too     
feeble to produce any strong lights1 and

 the reflector arranged so that it      
received a stronger illumination than   
the model1 then reflecting it on to the 
latter1 quite overpowering the dominant 
lights4 ,the remedy for this is simply  
to bring the sitter more forward1 so as 
to obtain a stronger dominant light4    
,with regard to the time of exposure3 we
 must again impress upon the student the
 necessity for placing the sitter as    
close to the window as can be           
conveniently done1 for then he will     
receive the strongest illumination2 and1
 no matter how strong the shadows which 
may be produced1 they can always be     
modified sufficiently by the judicious  
use of the reflector4 ,of course1 in    
practice there is a limit as to the     
closeness the sitter can be placed1     
inasmuch as if too near there will not  
be room enough for the background4 ,as  
we have before said1 the effective light
 falling upon the sitter is governed by 
the amount of direct skylight to which  
he is exposed4 ,for experiment1 let any 

one seat himself1 say1 one foot from the
 window and sideways to it1 and note the
 amount of sky that can be seen from    
this position1 then take a seat six feet
 within the room1 and note it from      
thence4 ,the difference will be very    
marked indeed1 and it will fully account
 for the long exposure that some have   
found imperative4  ,in our previous     
articles we directed special attention  
to the advantage accruing from arranging
 the sitter in such a position that he  
received as much direct light as        
possible1 so that it practically helps  
to soften the shadows2 hence the sitter 
should be placed so that he is turned as
 little away from the source of light as
 will enable the desired view of the    
face being obtained4 ,that this may the 
more advantageously be done the camera  
should always be placed as close as     
possible to the side wall in which the  
window is situated4 ,as an experiment   
illustrating the advantage of this3 let 
a camera be placed close to the wall1   

then the sitter arranged so that from   
that point of view a three-quarter face 
is obtained1 and it will be noticed that
 there is very little need of the       
reflector at all4 ,let a negative now be
 taken1 and the camera brought1 say1    
five feet into the room1 and the sitter1
 without changing his seat1 turned round
 until a similar view of the face is    
obtained from that point4 ,it will now  
be seen that the shadows are very much  
deeper than before1 and the reflector   
will have to be brought pretty close in 
order to overcome them2 nevertheless    
they may be obtained quite as soft and  
harmonious as in the former case4 ,let a
 second negative now be taken1 giving   
the same exposure as before1 and it will
 be found that if the first one were    
correctly timed the second will be      
considerably under-exposed4 ,yet the    
sitter was at the same distance from the
 window in each case4  ,this shows the  
advisability of utilizing all the direct
 light it is possible to do1 and thereby

 leaving as little as we can to be      
accomplished by the reflector4 ,when the
 sitter is arranged to the best         
advantage at a window of ordinary size1 
fully exposed pictures can generally be 
obtained with a portrait lens 7full     
opening7 in fairly good light1 on       
moderately sensitive plates1 with one or
 two seconds' 7or even less7 exposure4  
,if a longer exposure than this be      
necessary1 it may fairly be assumed that
 the lighting has not been properly     
managed4--,british ,journal of          
,photography4         99       99       
99       99       99     ,a ,,new       
,,method ,,of ,,preparing ,,photographic
 ,,gelatine ,,emulsion ,,by             
,,precipitation ,,of ,,the ,,bromide    
,,of ,,silver4  ,by ,,franz ,,stolze1   
,ph4,d4   ,i consider the method of     
precipitation described below as far    
superior to any other hitherto employed1
 particularly on account of its         
infallible certainty4 ,i began at first 
with a thirtieth of the whole quantity  

of gelatine1 and increased that quantity
 to a tenth without the precipitate     
forming with greater difficulty4 ,the   
salts were dissolved in the usual       
quantity of water1 the bromide of       
potassium was added to the              
separately-dissolved gelatine1 and both 
solutions cooled in iced water4 ,i soon 
found that even this was not necessary4 
,i accelerated the solution of the salts
 by vigorous agitation1 so that the     
temperature became so much lowered that1
 even after the addition of the warm    
gelatine1 it still remained low enough  
to give the precipitate when mixed4 ,the
 mixing took place gradually1 all the   
usual precautionary measures being      
observed2 such as pouring the silver    
solution into ,no4 #b in small          
quantities at a time1 and constantly    
stirring1 and the separation from the   
mother lye was complete4  ,the formula  
according to which ,i worked latterly   
was as follows3            ,,solution   
,i4 ,nitrate of                         

silver4444444444444444444444 #dfc       
grains4                                 
,water4444444444444444444444444444444444
4 #af ounces4            ,,solution     
,,ii4 ,bromide of                       
potassium4444444444444444444 #cee       
grains4 ,iodide of                      
potassium444444444444444444444 #ae      
grains4                                 
,gelatine4444444444444444444444444444444
4 #df  grains4                          
,water4444444444444444444444444444444444
4 #af ounces4  ,after the mixing is     
completed the perfect separation of the 
precipitate takes place in four minutes 
at most4 ,the clear fluid may be        
decanted off almost to the last drop1   
after which the precipitate is washed   
three times with water4 ,in order to    
dissolve the precipitate pour over it a 
solution of #a4e part of bromide of     
potassium in #ajj parts of water1       
agitate1 and then add a solution formed 
of #h parts of ammonia of the usual     
strength in #fjj parts of water4 ,the   

emulsification will begin at once       
without any further heating4 ,when now  
heated on the water bath--already at    
from #ie ,f to #ajd ,f--the whole       
precipitate will be suspended1 and thin 
films of the emulsion1 when looked      
through1 will have a grayish tint1 but  
when dry they will appear partially red4
 ,digestion at #ajd ,f is               
continued--from half an hour to an hour 
is usually long enough--until the film1 
even when dry1 remains violet through   
and through4 ,the remaining gelatine1   
#dej grains dissolved in #af ounces of  
warm water1 is then added1 filtered1 and
 plates coated with the resultant       
emulsion4 ,but if it be desired to      
prepare emulsion for storage1 wash the  
precipitate finally with alcohol1 and   
store it either under alcohol or dry it 
as usual4 ,to use it dissolve in the    
manner described above and mix with     
gelatine4  ,the great advantages of this
 process are evident4 ,not only is the  
troublesome washing saved1 but1 what is 

more important1 the great mass of the   
gelatine is added to the emulsion in a  
condition which secures to the film a   
hitherto unattainable firmness4 ,also1  
it enables one to prepare a keeping     
emulsion with a minimum of alcohol1 and1
 since the quantity of gelatine in the  
original emulsion is so small1 it dries1
 when it is not desired to keep it under
 alcohol1 so much more rapidly1 and     
thereby also furnishes a more constant  
preparation4  ,i am convinced that this 
process is as yet but in its infancy1   
and that it is susceptible of great     
improvement4 ,from the purely           
theoretical standpoint1 the property    
possessed by gelatine1 of combining in  
sufficiently cold solutions with bromide
 of silver in the nascent state1 and    
falling to the bottom in a flaky        
condition1 is exceedingly interesting4  
,evidently this property plays a part in
 the preparation of emulsion which has  
not until now been recognized4 ,i do not
 doubt that it may be possible to       

effect1 by a sufficiently low           
temperature1 precipitation even from    
solutions rich in gelatine1 if          
experiments in that direction were set  
on foot4 ,what influence variations in  
temperature may have upon the subsequent
 sensitiveness of the emulsion1 and     
whether the action of the ammonia and   
the bromide of potassium is more        
energetic1 in the absence of the        
elsewhere-present nitric salts1 are     
questions which can only be answered    
after thorough examination2 and the     
parts played by the various additions of
 iodide or chloride of silver in this   
method of emulsification must likewise  
also be ascertained by experiment4 ,the 
object of this article is to point out  
this rich province for research1 and to 
induce experimenters to turn their      
attention to it2 for it is only after   
the behavior of emulsion under all these
 conditions has been thoroughly examined
 that we can hope to reap the best      
results from the new                    

process4--,wochenblatt4         99      
99       99       99       99           
,,taylor',s ,,freezing ,,microtome4     
,this microtome presents all the        
advantages of any plan heretofore       
employed in hardening animal or         
vegetable tissues for section cutting1  
while it has many advantages over all   
other devices employed for the same     
purpose4  ,microscopists who are        
interested in the study of histology and
 pathology have long felt the necessity 
for a better method of freezing animal  
and vegetable tissue than has been      
heretofore at their command4  ,in       
hardening tissues by chemical agents1   
the tissues are more or less distorted  
by the solutions used1 and the process  
is very slow4 ,ether and rhigolene have 
been employed with some degree of       
success1 but both are expensive1 and    
they cannot be used in the presence of  
artificial light1 because of danger of  
explosion4 ,another disadvantage is that
 two persons are required to attend to  

the manipulations1 one to force the     
vapor into the freezing box1 while the  
other uses the section-cutting knife4   
,the moment the pumping of the ether or 
rhigolene ceases1 the tissue operated on
 ceases to be frozen1 so ephemeral is   
the degree of the cold obtained by these
 means4  ,the principal advantages to be
 obtained by the use of this microtome  
are1 first1 great economy in the method 
of freezing1 and1 second1 celerity and  
certainty of freezing4 ,with an         
expenditure of twenty-five cents1 the   
tissues to be operated on can be kept   
frozen for several hours at a time4     
,illustration3 ,,freezing ,,microtome4  
,small objects immersed in gum solutions
 are frozen and in condition for cutting
 in less than one minute4  ,the method  
of using this microtome can be          
understood by reference to the          
illustration4 ,a represents a revolving 
plane1 by which the thickness of the    
section is regulated1 in the center of  
which an insulated chamber is secured   

for freezing the tissue4 ,it resembles a
 pill-box constructed of metal4 ,a brass
 tube enters it on each side4 ,the      
larger one is the supply tube1 and      
communicates with the pail1 a1 situated 
on bracket1 s1 by means of the upper    
tube1 t4 ,to the smaller brass tube is  
attached the rubber tube1 t b1 which    
discharges the cold salt water into a   
pail placed under it4 7,see b47 ,the    
salt and water as it passes from pail1  
a1 to pail1 b1 is at a temperature of   
about zero4 ,the water should not be    
allowed to waste4 ,it should be returned
 to the first pail for continual use1 or
 as long as it has freezing properties4 
,as a matter of further economy1 it is  
necessary to limit the rate of exit of  
the freezing water4 ,this is regulated  
by nipping the discharge-tube with the  
spring clothes pin supplied for the     
purpose4 ,should the cold within the    
chamber be too intense1 the edge of the 
knife is liable to be turned and the    
cutting will be imperfect4 ,when this   

occurs the flow of water through the    
chamber is stopped by using the spring  
clothes-pin as a clip on the upper tube4
 ,in order to regulate the thickness of 
the tissue to be cut a scale is engraved
 on the edge of the revolving plate1 ,a1
 which1 in conjunction with the pointer1
 e1 indicates the thickness of the      
section4--,microscopical ,journal4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,,the ,,st4 ,,gothard ,,tunnel4--,it    
appears that the traffic through the    
,st4 ,gothard ,tunnel has increased1    
since the inauguration of through       
international services1 to such an      
extent that the ,company have already   
obtained sanction for laying the second 
pair of rails in the tunnel4 ,the ,great
 ,eastern ,railway ,company has         
increased its steamer traffic1 and built
 additional station accommodation at    
,harwich4         99       99       99  
99       99     ,,vincent',s ,,chloride 
,,of ,,methyl ,,ice ,,machine4          
,chloride of methyl was discovered in   

#ahdj by ,messrs4 ,dumas and ,peligot1  
who obtained it by treating methylic    
alcohol with a mixture of sea salt and  
sulphuric acid4 ,it is a gaseous product
 at ordinary temperature1 but when      
compressed and cooled1 easily liquefies 
and produces a colorless1 neutral liquid
 which enters into ebullition at #bcg4g 
above zero and under a pressure of #j4gf
 m4  ,illustration3 ,,vincents ,,ice    
,,machine4 ,,fig4 #a4--,,the ,,freezer  
7,longitudinal ,section74  ,up to recent
 times1 chloride of methyl in a free    
state had received scarcely any         
industrial application1 by reason of the
 difficulty of preparing it in a state  
of purity at a low price4 ,mr4 ,c4      
,vincent1 however1 has made known a     
process which permits of this product   
being obtained abundantly and cheaply4  
,it consists in submitting to the action
 of heat the hydrochlorate of           
trimethylamine1 which is obtained as a  
by-product in the manufacture of potash 
of beets4 ,the hydrochlorate is thus    

decomposed into free trimethylamine1    
ammonia1 and chloride of methyl4 ,a     
washing with hydrochloric acid takes    
away all traces of alkali1 and the gas1 
which is gathered under a receiver full 
of water1 may afterward be dried by     
means of sulphuric acid1 and be         
liquefied by pressure4  ,illustration3  
,,vincents ,,ice ,,machine4 ,,fig4      
#b4--,,the ,,freezer 7,transverse       
,section74  ,pure liquid chloride of    
methyl is now an abundant product4      
,there are two uses to which it is      
applied3 first1 for producing cold1 and 
second1 for manufacturing coal tar      
colors4  ,illustration3 ,,vincents ,,ice
 ,,machine4 ,,fig4 #c4--;,,half ,,plan  
,,of ,,freezer  ,at present we shall    
occupy ourselves with the first of such 
applications--the production of cold4   
,the apparatus serving for the          
production of cold by this material are 
three in number3 7#a7 the freezer       
7,figs4 #a1 #b1 and #c71 in which is    
produced the lowering of temperature    

that converts into ice the water placed 
in carafes or any other receptacles2    
7#b7 the pump 7,figs4 #d1 #e1 and #f71  
which sucks the chloride of methyl in a 
gaseous state up into the freezer and   
forces it into the liquefier2 and 7#c7  
the liquefier1 which is nothing else    
than a spiral condenser in which the    
chloride of methyl condenses1 and from  
thence returns to the freezer to serve  
anew for the production of cold4        
,illustration3 ,,vincents ,,ice         
,,machine4 ,,fig4 #d4--,,the ,,pump     
7,longitudinal ,section74  ,the         
,freezer4--,this consists of a          
rectangular iron tank1 #a meter x #a    
meter x #a4e meters1 containing a       
galvanized plate iron cylinder1 ,a1 kept
 in place by iron supports4 ,this       
cylinder contains #bd horizontal tubes1 
which are open at the ends and riveted  
to vertical plates like those of tubular
 steam boilers4 ,the tank is filled with
 a mixture of water and chloride of     
calcium1 forming1 as well known1 an     

incongealable liquid4 ,into this liquid 
are plunged the receptacles containing  
the water to be converted into ice4 ,the
 chloride of methyl is introduced       
through the cock1 ,b1 into the body of  
the cylinder1 ,a1 and surrounds and     
cools the tubes1 as well as the         
incongealable liquid uninterruptedly    
circulating in the latter1 by means of a
 helix1 ,c1 set in motion by a belt from
 the shop4 ,this liquid is thus greatly 
lowered in temperature and freezes the  
water in the receptacles4               
,illustration3 ,,vincents ,,ice         
,,machine4 ,,fig4 #e4--,,vertical       
,,section ,,of ,,the ,,pump4  ,the      
,pump4--,the pump in the larger         
apparatus has two chambers of unequal   
diameter1 that is to say1 it operates   
after the manner of compound engines4   
,the machine under consideration1 being 
one that produces a moderate quantity of
 ice1 has but a single chamber1 as shown
 in ,figs #d1 #e1 and #f4 ,it is a      
suction and force pump1 whose piston1   

,e1 is solid and formed of two parts1   
which are set into each other1 and the  
flanges of which hold a series of bronze
 segments4  ,illustration3 ,,vincents   
,,ice ,,machine4 ,,fig4 #f4--,,plan ,,of
 ,,the ,,pump4  ,the chamber1 properly  
so-called1 is of iron1 cast in one      
piece1 and is surmounted with a         
rectangular tank1 ,f1 in which          
constantly circulates the cold water    
designed for cooling the sides of the   
cylinder2 these latter always tending to
 become heated through the compression  
of the methyl chloride4  ,the cylinder  
heads are hollowed out in the middle1   
and carry the seats of the suction      
valves4 ,each of the latter communicates
 with a chamber1 ,g ,g1 in which        
debouches the pipe1 ,h1 communicating   
with the cylinder1 ,a1 of the freezer   
7,figs4 #a1 #b1 and #c74  ,illustration3
 ,,vincents ,,ice ,,machine4 ,,fig4     
#g4--,,the ,,liquefier4  ,above the     
cylinder there are two delivery valves  
which give access to the chamber1 ,d1   

communicating with the worm of the      
liquefier 7,fig4 #g7 through the pipe1  
,j4  ,the piston of the pump is set in  
motion by a pulley1 ,k1 and a cranked   
shaft actuated by a belt from the       
shafting4 ,the piston head is guided by 
a slide keyed to the frame4             
,illustration3 ,,vincents ,,ice         
,,machine4 ,,fig4 #h4--,,section ,,of   
,,flange ,,of ,,the ,,worm4  ,the       
,liquefier4--,this apparatus consists of
 a cylindrical tank1 ,l1 of #c mm4 thick
 boiler plate1 mounted vertically on a  
masonry base and designed to be         
constantly fed with cool water4 ,it     
contains a second cylindrical tank1 ,m1 
of #f mm4 thick galvanized iron4 ,this  
latter tank is provided with a cast-iron
 cover1 on which are mounted the worm1  
,n1 and a pipe1 ,o1 connected with the  
tube of the pressure gauge4 ,to the base
 of the tank1 ,m1 there is affixed1 on a
 cast iron thimble1 a cock1 ,p1 for     
setting up a communication between the  
tank and the pipe1 ,r1 which returns to 

the freezer through the cock1 ,b 7,fig4 
#a74  ,illustration3 ,,vincents ,,ice   
,,machine4 ,,fig4 #i4--,,view ,,of ,,the
 ,,underside ,,of ,,the ,,same4  ,the   
cold water requisite for condensation   
enters the tank1 ,l1 through a pipe     
terminating in a pump or a reservoir4   
,the waste water flows off through the  
tubulure1 ,q4 ,the tank is emptied1 when
 necessary1 through the blow-off cock1  
,s4  ,illustration3 ,,vincents ,,ice    
,,machine4 ,,fig4 #aj4--,,plan ,,of     
,,the ,,worm4  ,operation of the        
,apparatus4--,as has been remarked      
above1 the cylinder1 ,a1 is filled with 
chloride of methyl4 ,the pump1 through  
suction1 produces in this cylinder a    
depression from which there results the 
evaporation of a portion of the chloride
 of methyl1 and consequently a          
depression of temperature which is      
transmitted to the incongealable liquid 
circulating in the tubes1 and to the    
receptacles 7carafes or otherwise7      
containing the water to be converted    

into ice4  ,the pump sucks in the vapor 
of mythyl chloride through the pipe1 ,h1
 and through its suction valves1 and    
forces it into the chamber1 ,d1 through 
its delivery valves1 and from thence    
into the worm1 ,n1 through the pipe1 ,j4
 ,under the influence of compression and
 of the water contained in the tank1 ,l1
 the methyl chloride liquefies and falls
 into the receptacle1 ,m1 from whence it
 returns to the freezer through the     
pipe1 ,r4  ,two pressure-gauges1 one of 
them fixed on the freezer and the other 
on the liquefier1 permit of regulating  
the running of the machine4 ,the vacuum 
in the freezer is #j to  atmosphere1 and
 the pressure in the liquefier is #c to 
#d atmospheres4 ,these apparatus make   
opaque ice1 but will likewise produce   
transparent1 if a pump for injecting air
 is adjoined4 ,this1 however1 doubles   
the time that it takes to effect the    
freezing1 and carries with it the       
necessity of doubling the number of     
moulds to have the same quantity of ice4

  ,the cost price of ice made by this   
system depends evidently on the price of
 coal in each country1 on the perfection
 of the boiler and motor1 as well as on 
the power of the freezing machine4      
,putting the coal at #bj francs per ton1
 and the consumption at #b kilogrammes  
per horse and per hour1 ice may be      
obtained at a cost of about half a      
centime per kilogramme4 ,the apparatus  
shown in the accompanying figures have  
been constructed according to the       
following data3    ,production of ice   
per hour444444444444 #be kilogrammes4   
,production of heat units per hour44444 
#b4e grammes4   ,quantity of ice        
produced per     kilogramme of coal     
burned44444444444 #e kilogrammes4       
,water of condensation per hour44444444 
#j4ge cubic meter4  ,these machines are 
employed not only for the manufacture of
 ice1 but also in breweries for cooling 
the air of the cellars and fermenting   
rooms1 or that of the vats themselves2  
in manufactories of chemical products2  

in distilleries2 in manufactories of    
aerated waters1 etc4  ,they may also be 
used in the carrying of meats and other 
food products across the ocean1 and1 in 
a word1 in all industries in which it is
 necessary to obtain artificial cold4   
,the power necessary to operate         
apparatus that produce #be kilogrammes  
per hour is about that of #c            
horses4--,annales ,industrielles4       
99       99       99       99       99  
,,carbonic ,,acid ,,in ,,the ,,air4     
,footnote3 ,an address before the ,paris
 ,academy4  ,by ,m4 ,,dumas4   ,of all  
the gases that the atmosphere contains1 
there is one which offers a special     
interest1 as well on account of the part
 ascribed to it in the mutual           
interchange going on between the two    
organic kingdoms1 as on account of the  
relation that it has been observed to   
occupy between earth1 air1 and water2   
this gas is carbonic acid4  ,ever since 
the fact has been established that      
animals consume oxygen and give out     

carbonic acid as the product of         
respiration1 while plants consume       
carbonic acid and give out oxygen1 the  
question has often been asked whether   
the quantity of carbonic acid contained 
in the air did not represent a sort of  
sustaining reservoir which was being    
continually drawn on by the plants and  
resupplied by animals1 so that it has   
doubtless remained unchanged owing to   
this double action4  ,on the other hand1
 ,boussingault has long since shown that
 volcanic regions give out through      
crevices and fumaroles enormous         
quantities of carbonic acid4 ,the       
deposition of carbonate of lime that is 
continually taking place on the         
sea-bottom is1 on the other hand1 fixing
 carbonic acid in quantities which we   
may accurately estimate from the strata 
of limestone seen on the surface of the 
earth4 ,we might imagine1 that in       
comparison with the huge volumes of     
carbonic acid sent forth in volcanic    
districts1 even in the oldest one1 and  

the mass of carbonate of lime deposited 
on the sea bottom1 the results          
attributed to the life of plants and    
animals would be of no consequence      
either for increasing or diminishing the
 physiological carbonic acid in the air 
comparable with those which are         
accomplished by the purely geological   
exchange4  ,schloesing has recently     
succeeded1 by a happy application of the
 principle of dissociation1 in showing  
that the amount of carbonic acid in the 
air bears a direct relation to the      
quantity of bicarbonate of lime         
dissolved in sea water4 ,if the quantity
 of carbonic acid diminishes1 the       
bicarbonate of the water is decomposed1 
half of its carbonic acid escapes into  
the atmosphere1 and the neutral         
carbonate of lime is precipitated4 ,the 
aqueous vapor condensed from the air    
dissolves part of the carbonic acid     
contained therein1 and carries it along1
 when it falls as rain upon the earth1  
and takes up there enough lime to form  

the bicarbonate1 which is thus carried  
back to the sea4  ,the physiological    
role of carbonic acid1 its geognostic   
influence1 and its relations to most    
ordinary meteorological phenomena on the
 earth's surface--all these contribute  
to give special weight to studies       
concerned in the estimation of the      
normal quantity of carbonic acid in the 
air4  ,nevertheless1 this estimation is 
attended with great difficulty4 ,not    
everyone is able to take up such        
questions1 and not all processes are    
adapted to it4 ,the first thought which 
would naturally arise would be to       
inclose a known volume of air in a given
 vessel1 and then determine its carbonic
 acid by measuring or weighing it4 ,in  
this way we should obtain the exact     
relation between a volume of air and the
 volume of carbonic acid in it1 for any 
given moment1 and in any given place4   
,if1 however1 this be done with a       
ten-liter flask1 for example1 it would  
only hold #c c4c4 of carbonic acid1     

weighing #f milligrammes2 and1 whether  
it is weighed or measured1 the error may
 easily equal #aj per cent4 of the real 
value1 hence no deductions could be     
drawn from the observed facts4  ,for    
this reason larger volumes of air were  
taken1 and a current of air1 whose      
volume could be accurately measured by  
known methods1 was passed through       
condensers capable of retaining the     
carbonic acid4 ,but in this case the air
 must pass very slowly through it1 so   
that the process may last several hours2
 and since the air is continually in    
motion1 owing to vertical and horizontal
 currents1 the experiment may be begun  
with the air of one place1 and concluded
 with air from a far distant spot4 ,for 
example1 if an experiment lasting       
twenty-four hours was made in ,paris    
when the air moved but four meters per  
second 7nine or ten miles per hour71 it 
might be begun with air from the        
,department of the ,seine1 and end with 
air from the ,department of the ,rhone1 

or the ,belgian frontier1 according to  
the direction of the wind4  ,so long as 
we had no analytical methods of         
sufficient delicacy to estimate with    
certainty the hundredth1 or at least the
 tenth of a milligramme of carbonic     
acid1 it was very difficult to determine
 the quantity in the air at a given time
 and place4 ,it is frequently possible  
to analyze upon the plain air that has  
descended from the heights above1 and to
 examine by bright daylight the effect  
of night upon the atmosphere4  ,still   
other difficulties show themselves in   
such investigations4 ,it seems very easy
 to collect carbonic acid in potash     
tubes1 and to determine its amount from 
the increase in weight of the tubes2    
but1 alas6 to how many sources of error 
is this method exposed4 ,if the potash  
has been in contact with any organic    
substance1 it will absorb oxygen4 ,if   
the pumice that takes the place of the  
potash contains protoxide of iron1 it   
will also absorb oxygen4 ,in both cases 

the oxygen increases the weight of the  
carbonic acid4  ,every experimenter who 
has been compelled to repeat the        
weighing of a somewhat complicate piece 
of apparatus1 with an interval of       
several hours between1 knows how many   
inaccuracies he is exposed to if he is  
compelled to take into calculation the  
changes of temperature and pressure1 and
 the moisture on the surface of the     
apparatus4 ,after fighting all these    
difficulties1 and frequently in vain1   
the experimenter begins to mistrust     
every result that depends only on       
difference in weight1 and to prefer     
those methods whereby the substance to  
be estimated can be isolated1 so that it
 can be seen and handled1 weighed or    
measured1 in a free state1 and in its   
own natural condition4  ,the classical  
experiments of ,thenard1 of ,th4 de     
,saussure1 of ,messrs4 ,boussingault1 on
 the quantity of carbonic acid in the   
air1 are well known to every one3 they  
need only to be organized1 repeated1 and

 multiplied4  ,j4 ,reiset1 who has      
conducted a long and tedious series of  
experiments on this subject1 has adopted
 a process that seems to offer every    
guarantee of accuracy4 ,the air that    
furnishes the carbonic acid is aspirated
 through the absorption apparatus by two
 aspirators of #fjj liters capacity4    
,the temperature and pressure of the air
 are carefully measured4 ,the carbonic  
acid is absorbed by baryta water in     
three bulb apparatus4 ,the last bulb1   
which serves as a check to control the  
operation1 remains clear1 and proves    
that no binoxide of barium is formed4   
,the baryta water used is titrated      
before and after the operation1 and from
 the difference is calculated the       
quantity of carbonate formed1 and hence 
of the carbonic acid4  ,these tedious   
experiments1 which varied in duration   
from #f to #be hours1 require at least  
two days of continuous labor4 ,they were
 repeated #aic times by ,reiset in      
#ahgb1 #ahgc1 and #ahgi4 ,they were made

 in still weather1 and in violent winds 
and storms4 ,the air was taken at the   
sea-shore1 in the middle of the fields1 
on the level earth1 during harvests1 in 
the forests1 and in ,paris4 ,under such 
varied conditions1 the quantity of      
carbonic acid varied but little2 the    
numbers obtained were between #b4id and 
#c4a1 which may be taken as a general   
average of the carbonic acid in the air4
  ,the quantity of carbonic acid in the 
free atmosphere is tolerably constant1  
which must necessarily be the case      
according to ,schloesing's proposed     
relation between the bi-carbonate of    
lime in the sea and the carbonic acid in
 the air4 ,the only cause that seems at 
all competent to change the geological  
quantity of carbonic acid in the        
atmosphere is the formation of fog4 ,as 
the aqueous vapors condense1 they       
collect the carbonic acid2 and the foggy
 air1 as a rule1 is more heavily laden  
with this gas than ordinary air4  ,it is
 not surprising that there is less      

carbonic acid in the air collected on   
clear summer days1 in the midst of      
clover1 etc41 that is in an active      
reducing furnace2 if anything is        
surprising1 it is that the quantity of  
carbonic acid does not sink below #b4h4 
,it is also a matter for surprise that  
in ,paris1 among so many sources of     
carbonic acid1 the furnace fires1 the   
respiration of men and animals1 and the 
spontaneous decomposition and decay of  
organic substances1 the quantity of     
carbonic acid does not exceed #c4e4     
,if1 then1 the great general mean of    
normal atmospheric carbonic acid        
deviates but little from #b4i or #c4j1  
it is not doubtful that under local     
conditions1 in closed places1 and under 
exceptional meteorological conditions1  
considerable variations may occur in    
these proportions4 ,but these variations
 do not affect the general laws of the  
composition of the atmosphere4  ,there  
are two entirely distinct points from   
which the measurement of the atmospheric

 carbonic acid may be contemplated4     
,the first consists in considering it as
 a geological element which belongs to  
the gaseous envelope of the earth in    
general1 and it leads us to express the 
general relation of carbonic acid to the
 quantity of air1 as about three volumes
 in #aj1jjj4  ,the second1 which relates
 to accidental and local phenomena1 to  
the activity of man and beast1 to the   
effect of fires and of decomposing      
organic matter1 to volcanic emanations1 
and finally to the action of clouds and 
rain1 permits us to recognize the       
changes which can occur in air exposed  
to the influences mentioned1 and to a   
certain extent confined4 ,without       
denying that it is of interest from a   
meteorological and hygienic standpoint1 
it does not take the same rank as first4
  ,j4 ,reiset's experiments1 by their   
number1 accuracy1 the large volumes     
employed1 and the interval of years that
 separate them1 have definitely         
established two facts on which the      

earth's history must depend3 the first  
is1 that the percentage of carbonic acid
 in the air scarcely changes2 the       
second1 that it differs but little from 
three ten-thousandths by volume4  ,these
 results are fully confirmed by the     
results which were obtained by ,franz   
,schulze1 in ,rostock1 in #ahfh1 #ahfi1 
#ahgj1 and #ahga4 ,the averages which he
 got1 with very small variation1 were   
#b4hffh for #ahfi1 #b4ijeb for #ahgj1   
and #c4jabf for #ahga4  ,more recently  
,muentz and ,aubin have analyzed air    
collected on the plains near ,paris1 on 
the ,pic du ,midi1 and on the top of    
,puy-de-,dome4 ,their results agree with
 those published by ,reiset and         
,schulze4  ,the grand average of        
carbonic oxide in the air seems to be   
tolerably fixed1 but after this         
starting-point is established it remains
 to study the variations that it is     
capable of1 not from local causes1 which
 are of little importance1 but from     
general causes connected with large     

movements of the air4 ,upon this study1 
which demands the co-operation of a     
definite number of observers stationed  
at different and distant points of the  
earth1 the experiments being made       
simultaneously and by comparable        
methods4  ,m4 ,dumas called the         
attention of the ,academy to this point1
 in connection with its mission of      
selecting suitable stations for         
observing the transit of ,venus4 ,the   
process and apparatus of ,muentz and    
,aubin offer the means adapted for      
making these experiments1 and seem      
sufficient to solve the problem which   
science proposes1 of determining the    
present quantity of carbonic acid in the
 air4  ,if these experiments yield      
satisfactory results1 as we have good   
reasons to believe they will1 it is to  
be hoped that annual observations will  
be made in properly-chosen places1 so as
 to determine the variations which may  
possibly take place in the relative     
quantity of atmospheric carbonic acid   

during the coming century4--,compt4     
,rend41 p4 #ehi4  ,although this        
proposition was made by a ,frenchman to 
his fellow scientists1 would it not be  
well for some ,american to accept the   
challenge1 and bring it before the      
coming meeting of the ,american         
,association for the ,advancement of    
,science1 in the hope that we1 too1 may 
contribute our mite of effort in the    
same direction8--,ed4 ,knowledge4       
99       99       99       99       99  
,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,aqueous ,,vapor
 ,,on ,,the ,,explosion ,,of ,,carbonic 
,,oxide ,,and ,,oxygen4  ,footnote3     
,read before the ,british ,association1 
,southampton ,meeting1 ,section ,b1     
#ahhb4  ,by ,,harold ,b4 ,,dixon1       
,m4,a41 ,millard ,lecturer in           
,chemistry1 ,balliol and ,trinity       
,colleges1 ,oxford4   ,two years ago ,i 
had the honor of showing before the     
,chemical ,section of the ,british      
,association some experiments1 in which 
a well-dried mixture of carbonic oxide  

and oxygen was submitted to electric    
sparks without exploding4#a ,it was     
further shown that the introduction of a
 very minute quantity of aqueous vapor  
into the non-explosive mixture was      
sufficient to cause explosive           
combination between the gases when the  
spark was passed4 ,the hypothesis       
advanced to account for the observed    
facts was that carbonic oxide does not  
unite directly with oxygen at a high    
temperature1 but only indirectly through
 the intervention of water-vapor        
present1 a molecule of water being      
decomposed by one of carbonic oxide to  
form a molecule of carbonic acid and one
 of free hydrogen1 and the latter       
uniting with the oxygen to re-form a    
molecule of water1 which again undergoes
 the same cycle of changes1 till all the
 oxygen is transferred to the carbonic  
oxide3  ,h#b,o  ,,co  ,h#b  ,,co#b  ,h#b
  ,o  ,h#b,o  ,footnote #a3 ,report of  
,british ,association1 #ahhj1 p4 #ejc4  
,for such a series of reactions a       

comparatively few molecules of water    
would suffice1 and the change produced  
by their alternate reduction and        
oxidation would come under the old term 
of catalytic action1 inasmuch as the few
 water molecules present at the         
beginning are found in the same state at
 the completion of the reaction4  ,the  
truth of this hypothesis has since been 
confirmed by experiments ,i have made on
 the incomplete combustion of mixtures  
of carbonic oxide and hydrogen2 and on  
the velocity of explosion of carbonic   
oxide and oxygen with varying           
proportions of aqueous vapor4 ,i        
therefore thought a description of the  
more convenient methods lately devised  
as lecture experiments for showing the  
influence of water on the combustion of 
carbonic oxide would not be             
uninteresting to the ,section4  ,a glass
 tube from #ah inches to #b feet long1  
closed at one end1 and provided with    
platinum wires1 is bent near its open   
end so that the shorter arm makes an    

angle of about #fj with the longer arm4 
,the tube1 held by a clamp1 is heated in
 a ,bunsen flame1 and is then filled    
with mercury heated to about #acj ,c4   
,the mixture of gases is then made to   
displace a portion of the mercury by    
forcing it through a fine tube1 which is
 connected by a steel cap to the        
eudiometer of ,mc,leod's gas apparatus1 
and passes down through the mercury in  
the shorter arm of the experimental     
tube4 ,when a sufficient quantity of the
 gaseous mixture has been collected in  
the longer arm1 some dry phosphoric     
oxide is introduced in the following    
way3 ,a small glass tube is heated1     
packed with the dry powder1 and pushed  
down into the shorter arm of the        
experimental tube4 ,with a hot glass rod
 the phosphoric oxide is pushed out at  
the bottom of the small tube1 and passes
 up into the gaseous mixture in the     
longer arm4 ,after standing for a few   
hours in contact with the phosphoric    
oxide1 the gases may be submitted to    

strong sparks from a ,leyden jar without
 igniting4 ,care must be taken that none
 of the oxide comes in contact with the 
platinum wires1 for if any sticks to the
 wires it becomes heated by the passage 
of the sparks1 and gives off enough     
water to determine the explosion4 ,in   
this way ,i have prepared several       
specimens of a non-explosive mixture of 
carbonic oxide and oxygen in the proper 
proportions to form carbonic acid4 ,some
 of these tubes have been submitted     
without explosion to sparks from a large
 ,leyden jar1 to a continuous succession
 of sparks from a ,holtz machine1 and to
 the discharge of a ,ruhmkorff's coil1  
that heated the platinum wires between  
which it passed to bright redness4      
,other tubes which withstood the passage
 of the sparks from a ,leyden jar1 when 
submitted to the discharge of the coil1 
exploded after a few seconds when the   
platinum wires became red-hot4 ,this ,i 
think may probably be attributed to     
hydrogen1 occluded by the platinum1     

being given off on heating1 and forming 
steam with the oxygen present4  ,for an 
easy and striking lecture experiment1 ,i
 employ a tube open at both ends and    
bent like a ,w4 ,the two open arms are  
short and the platinum wires are fixed  
at the highest bend4 ,the tube is filled
 with hot mercury--one of the ends being
 closed by a caoutchouc stopper for the 
purpose--and a dry mixture of #e volumes
 of air and #b volumes of carbonic oxide
 is introduced into the bent tube over  
the mercury4 ,a little phosphoric oxide 
is passed up one arm4 ,after a few      
minutes the gases may be submitted to   
the spark without exploding4 ,a little  
water may then be introduced through a  
pipette into the other arm2 and if the  
spark is passed directly the gases      
ignite in the wet and not in the dry arm
 of the tube4  ,the admixture of the    
inert nitrogen renders a larger quantity
 of aqueous vapor necessary for the     
explosion than when only carbonic oxide 
and oxygen in proper proportion are     

present4         99       99       99   
99       99     ,,composition ,,of      
,,beers ,,made ,,partly ,,from ,,raw    
,,grain4   ,at the present time ,english
 brewers are being denounced for        
substituting properly-prepared maize1   
rice1 and other raw grain for barley    
malt1 and the beers produced partly from
 such materials are described as being  
very inferior1 and even injurious to    
health4 ,that such denunciations are    
altogether unwarranted is evident to all
 who have paid any attention to the     
subject1 and are acquainted with the    
chemical changes involved in brewing1   
and with the composition of the         
resulting beers4 ,unfortunately but few 
comparative analyses have been published
 of beers made solely from malt and     
beers made from malt in conjunction with
 raw grain1 and therefore such wild     
assertions as were recently uttered in  
the ,house of ,commons have remained    
unanswered4 ,a ,german chemist1 ,j4     
,hanamann1 some time since made a series

 of analyses of beers brewed partly from
 raw grain1 and his results completely  
controvert the theory that raw grain    
beers essentially differ in composition 
from malt beers4 ,four worts were made  
by the decoction system of mashing3 ,a  
entirely from barley malt2 ,b from #fj  
per cent4 of malt and #dj per cent4 of  
maize2 ,c from #fj per cent4 of malt and
 #dj per cent4 of rice2 and ,d from #fj 
per cent of malt and #dj per cent4 of   
pure starch4 ,the analyses of these     
respective worts gave the following     
results3                            ,a  
,b       ,c       ,d                    
,sugar444444444444444  #d4if    #d4jh   
#d4hd    #d4hg   ,dextrine444444444444  
#f4je    #f4hc    #f4ce    #f4fj        
,total extract4444444 #ab4bi   #ab4bg   
#ab4cj   #ab4cb   ,albuminoids444444444 
#j4hb    #j4gh    #j4fh    #j4db        
,other substances4444  #j4df    #j4eh   
#j4dc    #j4dc  ,it will be seen that   
these worts vary very little in         
composition1 the chief points of        

difference being that those made partly 
from raw grain are more dextrinous and  
contain less albuminoids than the wort  
made from malt alone4 ,the process of   
brewing was then continued as usual1 and
 after fermentation the resulting beers 
were again analyzed with the following  
results3                            ,a  
,b       ,c       ,d                    
,alcohol4444444444444  #b4ga    #b4gf   
#b4ij    #c4ai   ,sugar444444444444444  
#a4je    #a4ab    #j4ih    #j4ce        
,dextrine444444444444  #d4ed    #d4ca   
#d4db    #d4gd   ,extract4444444444444  
#f4ei    #f4dh    #f4be    #e4ia        
,albuminoids444444444  #j4dc    #j4ci   
#j4cc    #j4bh   ,other substances 444  
#j4eg    #j4ff    #j4eb    #j4ed  ,it   
will be observed that the beers made    
partly from raw grain are slightly more 
alcoholic1 but in other respects differ 
but very little from the pure malt beer1
 but none of them can in any way be     
pronounced as really inferior or        
unwholesome4 ,the beer made partly from 

maize is1 in fact1 hardly to be         
distinguished in chemical composition   
from that made solely from malt4 ,these 
worts and beers were brewed upon the    
,german system1 but analogous results   
would undoubtedly be obtained with beers
 brewed from the like materials on the  
,english system4 ,we hope soon to be in 
a position to publish some comparative  
analyses of beers brewed in this country
 from malt combined with different kinds
 of raw grain2 but the analyses which we
 have now quoted constitute a sufficient
 refutation to those who assert that    
brewers using raw grain are producing an
 injurious or even an inferior quality  
of beer4--,brewers' ,guardian4          
99       99       99       99       99  
,,double ,,buttercups4   ,among early   
summer flowers in open borders few are  
prettier than the double-flowered kinds 
of ranunculus of the herbaceous type4   
,having been established favorites for  
ages1 most of them are familiar to us1  
and poor indeed is that hardy plant     

border which does not contain a good    
healthy tuft of what are termed ,fair   
,maids of ,france1 or ,bachelor's       
,buttons1 the doubled flowered variety  
of ,r4 aconitifolius4 ,the small1 pure  
white rosette-like flowers produced so  
plentifully1 and in such a graceful     
manner1 make it an extremely pretty1    
and1 though common1 valuable plant1     
particularly useful in a cut state4 ,it 
is one of the kinds shown in the annexed
 engraving4 ,of double crowfoots there  
are three others1 the types of which are
 ,r4 bulbosus1 acris1 and repens4 ,all  
these are very pretty1 having bright    
yellow1 compact1 rosette-like flowers1  
as perfect in form as that of some of   
the finest sorts of the ,asiatic or     
,persian ranunculus of the florists4    
,both the double ,r4 acris and repens   
are profuse flowerers1 but ,r4 bulbosus 
is not so2 it1 however1 bears much      
larger flowers than either of the       
others1 and on this account is named ,r4
 speciosus4 ,these four plants are      

indispensable1 yielding1 as they do1    
flowers in such abundance and in such   
long succession4 ,in order to enable    
them to develop fully they require good 
culture1 a good1 deep loamy soil1       
enriched with well-decayed manure1 and  
if the border be moist1 so much the     
better1'for these ranunculuses delight  
in a cool1 moist soil4 ,treated         
liberally in this way1 these double     
buttercups are indeed fine plants4--,w4 
,g41 in ,the ,garden4  ,illustration3   
,,double ,,buttercups4         99       
99       99       99       99           
,,ligustrum ,,quihoui4   ,this is a     
,chinese species1 at present little     
known in this country4 ,it forms a low  
bush with spreading wiry purplish downy 
branches1 and loose terminal panicles of
 white flowers4 ,its peculiar spreading 
habit1 dark green leaves1 and abundant  
flowers render it a desirable           
acquisition to the shrubbery4 ,it is    
quite hardy4--,the ,gardeners'          
,chronicle4  ,illustration3 ,,ligustrum 

,,quihoui4         99       99       99 
99       99     ,,raphiolepis           
,,japonica4   ,this handsome ,japanese  
shrub is not an uncommon plant in       
greenhouses1 in which it is generally   
known under the garden name of ,r4      
ovata4 ,it is1 however1 perfectly hardy1
 and it is with the view of making that 
fact known that we produce the annexed  
illustration of it1 which represents a  
spray lately sent to us by ,messrs4     
,veitch from their nursery at ,coombe   
,wood1 where the plant has withstood the
 full rigor of our climate for some     
years past4 ,the ,coombe ,wood ,nursery 
is not very well sheltered1 and the soil
 is not of the lightest description2 the
 plant may1 therefore1 be said to have a
 fair trial out-of-doors4 ,we have also 
met with it in the open air in other    
places besides ,coombe ,wood1 and if we 
remember rightly1 ,mr4 ,g4,f4 ,wilson   
has a fine old bush of it on his rockery
 which abounds with shrubs of a similar 
character1 all apparently at home4 ,this

 shrub is of low growth1 somewhat bushy 
in habit1 and rather sparsely furnished 
with oval leaves of a leathery texture4 
,it produces its flowers in early       
summer1 and when a good-sized bush1 well
 covered with clusters of white blossoms
 resembling those of some species of    
,cratgus1 it has a handsome appearance1 
and1 like most other rosaceous shrubs1  
powerfully fragrant4 ,those who possess 
duplicate plants of it would do well to 
try it in the open in some sheltered    
spot1 and if in a high and dry position 
so much the better4 ,this species is    
called also in the gardens by its       
synonym1 ,r4 integerrima ,there are     
three other kinds of ,raphiolepis in    
cultivation1 viz41 ,r4 indica1 ,r4      
rubra1 and ,r4 salicifolia1 but only the
 last named one is generally known4 ,it 
too is a handsome shrub1 readily        
distinguished by the long1 willow-like  
foliage4 ,its flowers are much the same 
as those of ,r4 japonica1 but more      
plentifully produced4 ,we have no       

instance of its having stood out like   
its congener1 and we doubt if it is so  
hardy1 seeing that it is a ,chinese     
plant4 ,perhaps some of our readers can 
enlighten us on the point4--,w4,g41 in  
,the ,garden4  ,illustration3           
,,flowering ,,spray ,,of ,,raphiolepis  
,,japonica4         99       99       99
       99       99     ,,rivina ,l,,vis4
   ,the brilliant little scarlet berries
 of this plant render it1 when well     
grown1 one of the prettiest of ornaments
 for the hothouse1 conservatory1 or even
 for a warm room4 ,it is quite easily   
managed1 stray seeds of it even growing 
where they fall1 and making handsome    
specimens4 ,for indoor decoration few   
subjects are more interesting1 and a few
 plants may be so managed as to have    
them in fruit in succession all the year
 round4 ,any kind of soil will answer   
for this ,rivina4 ,cuttings of it strike
 freely1 but it is easiest obtained from
 seeds4 ,either one plant or three may  
occupy a #f in4 pot1 and that is the    

best size for table decoration4 ,usually
 it is best to raise a few plants every 
year and discard the old stock1 but some
 may be retained for growing into large 
specimens4 ,these should be cut back    
before they are started into growth4    
,the berries yield a fine1 but fugitive 
red color4 ,miller says that he made    
experiments with the juice for coloring 
flowers1 and succeeded extremely well1  
thus making the tuberose and the double 
white narcissus variegated in one night4
 ,of this species there is a variety    
with yellow berries which are not quite 
so handsome as the red1 though very     
attractive4 ,r4 humilis differs from    
lvis in having hairy leaves1 those of   
lvis being quite smooth4 ,it also       
differs in the duller red color of the  
berries1 lvis being much the prettier4  
,both are natives of the ,west          
,indies4--,r4,i4,l41 in ,the ,garden4   
99       99       99       99       99  
,,apples ,,in ,,store4   ,apples always1
 whether in barrels or piles1 when the  

temperature is rising so that the       
surrounding air is warmer than the      
apples1 condense moisture on the surface
 and become quite moist and sometimes   
dripping wet1 and this has given the    
common impression that they sweat1 which
 is not true4 ,as they come from the    
tree they are plump and solid1 full of  
juice2 by keeping1 they gradually part  
with a portion of this moisture1 the    
quantity varying with the temperature   
and the circulation of air about them1  
and being much more rapid when first    
picked than after a short time1 and by  
parting with this moisture they become  
springy or yielding1 and in a better    
condition to pack closely in barrels2   
but this moisture never shows on the    
surface in the form of sweat4 ,in       
keeping apples1 very much depends upon  
the surroundings2 every variation in    
temperature causes a change in the      
fruit1 and hastens maturity and decay1  
and we should strive to have as little  
change as possible1 and also have the   

temperature as low as possible1 so the  
apples do not freeze4 ,then1 some       
varieties keep much better in open bins 
than others2 for instance1 the ,greening
 is one of the best to store in bins4 ,a
 very good way for storing apples is to 
have a fruit-room that can be made and  
kept at from #cb to #bh1 and the air    
close and pure1 put the apples in       
slatted boxes1 not bins1 each box       
holding about one barrel1 and pile them 
in tiers1 so that one box above rests on
 two below1 and only barrel when ready  
to market2 but this is an expensive way1
 and can only be practiced by those with
 limited crops of apples1 and it is not 
at all practicable for long keeping1    
because in this way they lose moisture  
much more rapidly than when headed close
 in barrels1 and become badly shriveled4
  ,all things considered1 there is no   
way of keeping apples quite so good and 
practicable as packing in light barrels 
and storing in cool cellars2 the barrel 
forms a room within a room1 and prevents

 circulation of air and consequent      
drying and shrinking of the fruit1 and  
also lessens the changes of temperature1
 and besides more fruit can be packed   
and stored in a given space than in any 
other way4 ,the poorest of all ways is  
the large open bin1 and the objections  
are3 too much fruit in contact2 too much
 weight upon the lower fruit2 and too   
much trouble to handle and sort when    
desirable to market4 ,it was formerly   
the almost universal custom in ,western 
,new ,york to sort and barrel the apples
 as fast as picked from the trees1      
heading up at once and drawing to market
 or piling in some cool place till the  
approach of cold weather1 and then      
putting in cellars4 ,by this method it  
was impossible to prevent leaves1 twigs1
 and other dirt from getting into the   
bin1 and it was difficult to properly   
sort the fruit1 and if well sorted1     
occasionally an apple1 with no visible  
cause1 will entirely and wholly rot soon
 after packing4 ,some varieties are more

 liable to do this than others1 but all 
will to some extent2 this occurs within 
a week or ten days after picking1 and1  
when barreled1 these decayed apples are 
of course in the barrels1 and help to   
decay others4 ,although packed ever so  
well and pressed ever so tight1 the     
shrinking of the fresh-picked fruit1    
soon makes them loose1 and nothing is so
 bad in handling apples as this4        
,altogether this was a very untidy      
method of handling apples1 and has been 
entirely abandoned for a better4  ,the  
very best method depends a good deal    
upon the quantity to be handled2 if only
 a few hundred barrels1 they can be put 
in open barrels and stored on the barn  
floor4 ,place empty barrels on a        
log-boat or old sled2 take out the upper
 head and place it in the bottom of the 
barrel2 on picking the apples put them1 
without sorting1 directly into these    
barrels1 and when a load is filled1 draw
 to the barn and place in tiers on end  
along one side of the floor2 when one   

tier is full lay some strips of boards  
on top and on these place another tier  
of barrels2 then more boards and another
 tier2 two men can easily place them    
three tiers high1 and an ordinary barn  
floor will in this way store a good many
 barrels of apples4 ,where many hundreds
 or thousands of barrels are grown1 it  
is a good plan to build houses or sheds 
in convenient places in the orchard for 
holding the apples as picked2 these are 
built on posts or stones1 about one foot
 from the ground2 floors1 sides1 and    
ends should be made of strips about four
 inches wide and placed one inch apart1 
and the roof should project well on     
every side4 ,the apples1 as picked1 are 
drawn to these in boxes or barrels and  
piled carefully on the floors1 about    
three feet deep4 ,where these houses are
 not provided1 the next best way is to  
pile the apples1 as picked1 on clean    
straw under the trees in the deepest    
shade to be found4  ,after lying in any 
one of these positions about ten days   

they should be carefully sorted and     
packed in clean barrels1 placing at     
least two layers on the bottom of the   
barrels1 with stems down2 after this    
fill full1 shaking moderately two or    
three times as the tilling goes on1 and1
 with some sort of press1 press the head
 down1 so that the apples shall remain  
firm and full under all kinds of        
handling4 ,apples may be pressed too    
much as well as too little4 ,if pressed 
so that many are broken1 and badly      
broken1 they will soon get loose and    
rattle in the barrels1 and nothing      
spoils them sooner than this4 ,what we  
want is to have them just so they shall 
be sure to remain firm1 and carefully   
shaking so as to have them well settled 
together1 has as much to do with their  
remaining firm as the pressing down of  
the head4 ,after the barrels are filled 
and headed they should at once be placed
 on their sides in a barn or shed1 or in
 piles1 covered with boards1 from sun   
and rain1 or if a fruit-house or cellar 

is handy they may at once be placed     
therein2 the object should be to keep   
them as cool and at as even a           
temperature as possible4 ,in all the    
operations of handling apples from      
picking to market1 remember that        
carelessness and harshness always bruise
 the fruit1 and that every bruise       
detracts much from its keeping and      
market value2 and remember another      
thing1 that ,honesty is the best        
policy4--,j4,s4 ,woodward1 in ,n4,y4    
,tribune4         99       99       99  
99       99     ,,on ,,determining ,,the
 ,,sun',s ,,distance ,,by ,a ,,new      
,,method4  ,by ,t4,s4,h4 ,,eytinge1     
,cainsville1 ,canada4   ,it is well     
known that the sun's distance has been  
determined from the velocity of light4  
,it has been found1 by terrrestrial     
experiments1 about how fast light       
travels1 and1 knowing from certain      
astronomical phenomena the time light   
requires to pass from the sun to the    
earth1 we have been able to determine   

the sun's distance4  ,there are several 
methods of determining the velocity of  
light1 but hitherto only two plans have 
been used to detect the time light      
occupies in passing from the sun to the 
earth4 ,this time was first discovered  
by observations of the satellites of    
,jupiter4 ,it was found that the        
interval between the eclipses of these  
bodies was not always the same--that the
 eclipses occurred earlier when ,jupiter
 was nearest the earth1 and later when  
he was at his greatest distance4        
,roemer1 a ,danish astronomer1 first    
detected the cause of this variation4   
,the second method by which this time   
has been found is the aberration of     
stellar light4 ,this refined method was 
detected by the great ,english          
astronomer ,bradley4  ,about two years  
ago it occurred to me that a third      
method can be used to solve this        
important problem4 ,my plan is this3 ,it
 is well known that many variable stars1
 such as ,algol1 sigma ,librae1 ,u      

,coronae1 and the remarkable variable   
,d4,m4  #a4cdjh1 discovered by ,mr4     
,e4,f4 ,sawyer1 fluctuate at regular    
intervals4 ,now1 ,i believe it is       
possible to determine very accurately   
the intervals between these changes1    
and1 by noting the change of time in    
these intervals1 when the earth is in   
different points of its orbit1 we get   
the time light requires to cross that   
orbit4 ,for1 as in the case of the      
satellites of ,jupiter1 when the star is
 in opposition1 the changes will occur  
earlier than when it is in conjunction  
or approaching that point4 ,i have      
recently put this plan to the test1 and 
hope before long to make known the      
results4  ,in detecting the changes of  
variables1 ,i have attempted to         
substitute1 in place of the ordinary eye
 observations1 a very delicate          
thermopile1 which registers the changes 
in the star's heat4 ,so far as ,i know1 
this is the first application of the    
thermopile to variables4         99     

99       99       99       99           
,,professor ,,haeckel ,,on ,,darwin4    
,in ,nature appears a report of the     
remarkable address given by ,professor  
,haeckel at the recent ,eisenach meeting
 of the ,german ,association of         
,naturalists on the theories of ,darwin1
 ,goethe1 and ,lamarck4 ,the address is 
mainly devoted to ,darwin and           
,darwinism1 and of both1 we need        
scarcely say1 ,professor ,haeckel has   
the highest estimate4 ,he said3  ,when1 
five months ago1 the sad intelligence   
reached us by telegraph from ,england   
that on ,april #ai ,charles ,darwin had 
concluded his life of rich activity     
there thrilled with rare unanimity      
through the whole scientific world the  
feeling of an irreparable loss4 ,not    
only did the innumerable adherents and  
scholars of the great naturalist lament 
the decease of the head master who had  
guided them1 but even the most esteemed 
of his opponents had to confess that one
 of the most significant and influential

 spirits of the century had departed4   
,this universal sentiment found its most
 eloquent expression in the fact that   
immediately after his death the ,english
 newspapers of all parties1 and         
pre-eminently his ,conservative         
opponents1 demanded that the            
burial-place of the deceased should be  
in the ,valhalla of ,great ,britain1 the
 national ,temple of ,fame1 ,westminster
 ,abbey2 and there1 in point of fact1 he
 found his last resting-place by the    
side of the kindred-minded ,newton4 ,in 
no country of the world1 however1       
,england not excepted1 has the reforming
 doctrine of ,darwin met with so much   
living interest or evoked such a storm  
of writings1 for and against1 as in     
,germany4 ,it is1 therefore1 only a debt
 of honor we pay if at this year's      
assembly of ,german naturalists and     
physicians we gratefully call to        
remembrance the mighty genius who has   
departed1 and bring home to our minds   
the loftiness of the theory of nature to

 which he has elevated us4 ,and what    
place in the world could be more        
appropriate for rendering this service  
of thanks than ,eisenach1 with its      
,wartburg1 this stronghold of free      
inquiry and free opinion6 ,as in this   
sacred spot #cfj years ago ,martin      
,luther1 by his reform of the ,church in
 its head and members1 introduced a new 
era in the history of civilization1 so  
in our days has ,charles ,darwin1 by his
 reform of the doctrine of development1 
constrained the whole perception1       
thought1 and volition of mankind into   
new and higher courses4 ,it is true that
 personally1 both in his character and  
influence1 ,darwin has more affinity to 
the meek and mild ,melanchthon than to  
the powerful and inspired ,luther4 ,in  
the scope and importance1 however1 of   
their great work of reformation the two 
cases were entirely parallel1 and in    
both the success marks a new epoch in   
the development of the human mind4      
,consider1 first1 the irrefragable fact 

of the unexampled success which         
,darwin's reform of science has achieved
 in the short space of #bc years6 for   
never before since the beginning of     
human science has any new theory        
penetrated so deeply to the foundation  
of the whole domain of knowledge or so  
deeply affected the most cherished      
personal convictions of individual      
students2 never before has a new theory 
called forth such vehement opposition   
and so completely overcome it in such   
short time4 ,the depicture of the       
astounding revolution which ,darwin has 
accomplished in the minds of men in     
their entire view of nature and         
conception of the world will form an    
interesting chapter in the future       
history of the doctrine of development4 
,describing a visit which he paid to the
 late ,mr4 ,darwin in #ahff1 ,professor 
,haeckel says3  ,in ,darwin's own       
carriage1 which he had thoughtfully sent
 for my convenience to the railway      
station1 ,i drove one sunny morning in  

,october through the graceful1 hilly    
landscape of ,kent1 which1 with the     
checkered foliage of its woods1 with its
 stretches of purple heath1 yellow      
broom1 and evergreen oaks1 was arrayed  
in the fairest autumnal dress4 ,as the  
carriage drew up in front of ,darwin's  
pleasant country-house1 clad in a       
vesture of ivy and embowered in elms1   
there stepped out to meet me from the   
shady porch1 overgrown with creeping    
plants1 the great naturalist himself1 a 
tall and venerable figure with the broad
 shoulders of an ,atlas supporting a    
world of thoughts1 his ,jupiter-like    
forehead highly and broadly arched1 as  
in the case of ,goethe1 and deeply      
furrowed by the plow of mental labor3   
his kindly1 mild eyes looking forth     
under the shadow of prominent brows2 his
 amiable mouth surrounded by a copious  
silver-white beard4 ,the cordial1       
prepossessing expression of the whole   
face1 the gentle1 mild voice1 the slow1 
deliberate utterance1 the natural and   

naive train of ideas which marked his   
conversation1 captivated my whole heart 
in the first hour of our meeting1 just  
as his great work had formerly1 on my   
first reading it1 taken my whole        
understanding by storm4 ,i fancied a    
lofty world sage out of ,hellenic       
antiquity--a ,socrates or               
,aristotle--stood alive before me4 ,our 
conversation1 of course1 turned         
principally on the subject which lay    
nearest the hearts of both--on the      
progress and prospects of the history of
 development4 ,those prospects at that  
time--#af years ago--were bad enough1   
for the highest authorities had for the 
most part set themselves against the new
 doctrines4 ,with touching modesty1     
,darwin said that his whole work was but
 a weak attempt to explain in a natural 
way the origin of animal and vegetable  
species1 and that he should not live to 
see any noteworthy success following the
 experiment1 the mountain of opposing   
prejudice being so high4 ,he thought ,i 

had greatly overestimated his small     
merit1 and that the high praise ,i had  
bestowed on it in my ',general          
,morphology' was far too exaggerated4   
,we next came to speak of the numerous  
and violent attacks on his work1 which  
were then in the ascendant4 ,in the case
 of many of those pitiful botches one   
was1 in fact1 quite at a loss whether   
more to lament the want of understanding
 and judgment they showed or to give the
 greater vent to the indignation one    
could not but feel at the arrogance and 
presumption of those miserable          
scribblers who pooh-poohed ,darwin's    
ideas and bespattered his character4 ,i 
had then1 as on later occasions1        
repeatedly expressed my just scorn of   
the contemptible clan4 ,darwin smiled at
 this1 and endeavored to calm me with   
the words1 ',my dear young friend1      
believe me one must have compassion and 
forbearance with such poor creatures2   
the stream of truth they can only hold  
back for a passing instant1 but never   

permanently stem4' ,in my later visits  
to ,down in #ahgf and #ahgi ,i had the  
pleasure of being able to relate to     
,darwin the mighty progress which in the
 past intervals his doctrines had made  
in ,germany4 ,their decisive outburst   
happened more rapidly and more          
completely here with us than in         
,england1 for the reason chiefly that   
the power of social and religious       
prejudice is not nearly so strong here  
as among our cousins across the         
,channel1 who are better placed than    
ourselves4 ,darwin was perfectly well   
aware of all this2 though his knowledge 
of our language and literature was      
defective1 as he often complained1 yet  
he had the highest appreciation of our  
intellectual treasures4         99      
99       99       99       99  ,a       
catalogue1 containing brief notices of  
many important scientific papers        
heretofore published in the             
,,supplement1 may be had gratis at this 
office4         99       99       99    

99       99     ,,the ,,scientific      
,,american ,,supplement4  ,,published   
,,weekly4  ,,terms ,,of ,,subscription1 
#e ,a ,,year4   ,sent by mail1 postage  
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back volumes of ,,the ,,supplement can  
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bound in stiff covers4  ,,combined      
,,rates--,one copy of ,,scientific      
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,,american ,,supplement1 one year1      
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99       99       99     ,,patents4     

,in connection with the ,,scientific    
,,american1 ,messrs4 ,,munn  ,co4 are   
,solicitors of ,american and ,foreign   
,patents1 have had #ce years'           
experience1 and now have the largest    
establishment in the world4 ,patents are
 obtained on the best terms4  ,a special
 notice is made in the ,,scientific     
,,american of all ,inventions patented  
through this ,agency1 with the name and 
residence of the ,patentee4 ,by the     
immense circulation thus given1 public  
attention is directed to the merits of  
the new patent1 and sales or            
introduction often easily effected4     
,any person who has made a new discovery
 or invention can ascertain1 free of    
charge1 whether a patent can probably be
 obtained1 by writing to ,,munn  ,co4   
,we also send free our ,hand ,book about
 the ,patent ,laws1 ,patents1 ,caveats4 
,trade ,marks1 their costs1 and how     
procured1 with hints for procuring      
advances on inventions4 ,address  ,,munn
  ,,co41 #bfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york4 

,branch ,office1 cor4 ,f and #gth ,sts41
 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c4