,,common ,,diseases ,,of ,,farm ,,animals ,by ,r4 ,a4 ,craig1 ,d4,v4,m4 ,illustration3 ,frontispiece--,,insanitary ,,dairy ,,stable ,,and ,,yards4 ,,disease ,,and ,,financial ,,loss ,,are ,,to ,,be ,,expected ,,when ,,farm ,,animals ,,are ,,kept ,,in ,,filthy1 ,,insanitary ,,quarters ,,preface ,in preparing the material for this book1 the author has endeavored to arrange and discuss the subject matter in a way to be of the greatest service and help to the agricultural student and stockman1 and place at their disposal a text and reference book4 ,the general discussions at the beginning of the different sections and chapters1 and the discussions of the different diseases are naturally brief4 ,an effort has been made to conveniently arrange the topics for both practical and class-room work4 ,the chapters have been grouped under the necessary heads1 with review questions at the end of each chapter1 and the book divided into seven parts4 ,the chapters on diseases of the locomotory organs1 the teeth1 surgical diseases and castration1 although not commonly discussed in books of this class1 the writer believes will be of value for reference and instructional work4 ,when used as a text-book1 it will be well for the instructor to supplement the text with class-room discussions4 ,the writer has given special emphasis to the cause and prevention of disease1 and not so much to the medicinal treatment4 ,stockmen are not expected to practise the medicinal treatment1 but rather the preventive treatment of disease4 ,for this reason it is not deemed advisable to give a large number of formulas for the preparation of medicinal mixtures to be used for the treatment of disease1 but such treatment is suggested in the most necessary cases4 ,r4 ,a4 ,,craig4 ,,purdue ,,university1 ,la,fayette1 ,ind4 ,august1 #aiae4 ,,contents ,,part ,i4--,,introductory4 ,i4 ,,general ,,discussion ,,of ,,disease ,,ii4 ,,diagnosis ,,and ,,symptoms ,,of ,,disease ,,iii4 ,,treatment ,,part ,,ii4--,,non-,,specific ,,or ,,general ,,diseases4 ,,iv4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,digestive ,,system ,v4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,liver ,,vi4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,urinary ,,organs ,,vii4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,generative ,,organs ,,viii4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,respiratory ,,apparatus ,,ix4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,circulatory ,,organs ,x4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,nervous ,,system ,,xi4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,skin ,,xii4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,eye ,,xiii4 ,,general ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,locomotory ,,apparatus ,,xiv4 ,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,limbs ,,of ,,the ,,horse ,,xv4 ,,unsoundnesses ,,and ,,blemishes ,,xvi4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,fore-,,limb ,,xvii4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,foot ,,xviii4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,hind ,,limb ,,part ,,iii4--,,the ,,teeth4 ,,xix4 ,,determining ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,animals ,,xx4 ,,irregularities ,,of ,,the ,,teeth ,,part ,,iv4--,,surgical ,,diseases4 ,,xxi4 ,,inflammation ,,and ,,wounds ,,xxii4 ,,fractures ,,and ,,harness ,,injuries ,,xxiii4 ,,common ,,surgical ,,operations ,,part ,v4--,,parasitic ,,diseases4 ,,xxiv4 ,,parasitic ,,insects ,,and ,,mites ,,xxv4 ,,animal ,,parasites ,,part ,,vi4--,,infectious ,,diseases4 ,,xxvi4 ,,hog-,,cholera ,,xxvii4 ,,tuberculosis ,,xxviii4 ,,infectious ,,diseases ,,common ,,to ,,the ,,different ,,species ,,of ,,domestic ,,animals ,,xxix4 ,,infectious ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,horse ,,xxx4 ,,infectious ,,diseases ,,of ,,cattle ,,xxxi4 ,,infectious ,,diseases ,,of ,,poultry ,,reference ,,books ,,illustrations ,,fig4 7,frontispiece7 ,insanitary dairy stable and yards4 #a4 ,side and posterior view of bull showing conformation favorable to the development of disease4 #b4 ,insanitary yards4 #c4 ,showing where pulse of horse is taken4 #d4 ,auscultation of the lungs4 #e4 ,fever thermometer4 #f4 ,dose syringe4 #g4 ,hypodermic syringes4 #h4 ,photograph of model of horse's stomach4 #i4 ,photograph of model of stomach of ruminant4 #aj4 ,oesophageal groove4 #aa4 ,dilated stomach of horse4 #ab4 ,rupture of stomach of horse4 #ac4 ,showing the point where the wall of flank and rumen are punctured with trocar and cannula in bloat4 #ad4 ,photograph of model of digestive tract of horse4 #ae4 ,photograph of model of digestive tract of ruminant4 #af4 ,a yearling colt that died of aneurism colic4 #ag4 ,photograph of model of udder of cow4 #ah4 ,photograph of model of uterus of cow containing foetus4 #ai4 ,placenta of cow4 #bj4 ,a case of milk-fever4 #ba4 ,milk-fever apparatus4 #bb4 ,a case of catarrhal cold4 #bc4 ,photograph of model of horse's heart4 #bd4 ,elephantiasis in horse4 #be4 ,photograph of model of horse's brain4 #bf4 ,unilateral facial paralysis4 #bg4 ,bilateral facial paralysis4 #bh4 ,skeleton of horse4 #bi4 ,photograph of model of stifle joint4 #cj4 ,atrophy of the muscles of the thigh4 #ca4 ,shoulder lameness4 #cb4 ,shoe-boil4 #cc4 ,sprung knees4 #cd4 ,splints4 #ce4 ,bones of digit4 #cf4 ,photograph of a model of the foot4 #cg4 ,foot showing neglect in trimming wall4 #ch4 ,a very large side bone4 #ci4 ,a case of navicular disease4 #dj4 ,an improperly shod foot4 #da4 ,toe-cracks4 #db4 ,quarter-crack caused by barb-wire cut4 #dc4 ,changes occurring in chronic laminitis4 #dd4 ,atrophy of the muscles of the quarter4 #de4 ,string-halt4 #df4 ,a large bone spavin4 #dg4 ,normal cannon bone and cannon bone showing bony enlargement4 #dh4 ,bog spavins4 #di4 ,thorough pin4 #ej4 ,curbs4 #ea4 ,head of young horse showing position and size of teeth4 #eb4 ,longitudinal section of incisor tooth4 #ec4 ,cross-section of head of young horse1 showing replacement of molar tooth4 #ed4 ,transverse section of incisor tooth #ee4 ,transverse sections of incisor tooth showing changes at different ages4 #ef4 ,teeth showing uneven wear occurring in old horses4 #eg4 ,fistula of jaw4 #eh4 ,a large hock caused by a punctured wound of the joint4 #ei4 ,a large inflammatory growth following injury4 #fj4 ,fistula of the withers4 #fa4 ,shoulder abscess caused by loose-fitting harness4 #fb4 ,a piece of the wall of the horse's stomach showing bot-fly larvae attached4 #fc4 ,biting louse4 #fd4 ,sucking louse4 #fe4 ,nits attached to hair4 #ff4 ,sheep-tick4 #fg4 ,sheep scab mite4 #fh4 ,sheep scab4 #fi4 ,a severe case of mange4 #gj4 ,liver flukes4 #ga4 ,tapeworm larvae in liver4 #gb4 ,tapeworms4 #gc4 ,tapeworm larvae in the peritoneum4 #gd4 ,thorn-headed worms4 #ge4 ,large round-worm in intestine of hog4 #gf4 ,lamb affected with stomach worm disease4 #gg4 ,whip-worms attached to wall of intestine4 #gh4 ,pin-worms in intestine4 #gi4 ,a hog yard where disease-producing germs may be carried over from year to year4 #hj4 ,carcass of a cholera hog4 #ha4 ,kidneys from hog that died of acute hog-cholera4 #hb4 ,lungs from hog that died of acute hog-cholera4 #hc4 ,a piece of intestine showing intestinal ulcers4 #hd4 ,cleaning up a hog lot4 #he4 ,hyperimmune hogs used for the production of anti-hog-cholera serum4 #hf4 ,preparing the hog for vaccination4 #hg4 ,vaccinating a hog4 #hh4 ,koch's ,bacillus tuberculosis4 #hi4 ,a tubercular cow4 #ij4 ,tubercular spleens4 #ia4 ,the carcass of a tubercular cow4 #ib4 ,a section of the chest wall of a tubercular cow4 #ic4 ,a very large tubercular gland4 #id4 ,a tubercular gland that is split open4 #ie4 ,caul showing tuberculosis4 #if4 ,foot of hog showing tuberculosis of joint4 #ig4 ,staphylococcus pyogenes4 #ih4 ,streptococcus pyogenes4 #ii4 ,bacillus of malignant oedema1 showing spores4 #ajj4 ,bacillus of malignant oedema4 #aja4 ,bacillus bovisepticus4 #ajb4 ,a yearling steer affected with septicaemia haemorrhagica4 #ajc4 ,bacillus anthracis4 #ajd4 ,bacillus necrophorus4 #aje4 ,negri bodies in nerve-tissue4 #ajf4 ,a cow affected with foot-and-mouth disease4 #ajg4 ,slaughtering a herd of cattle affected with foot-and-mouth disease4 #ajh4 ,disinfecting boots and coats before leaving a farm where cattle have been inspected for foot-and-mouth disease4 #aji4 ,cleaning up and disinfecting premises4 #aaj4 ,bacillus tetani4 #aaa4 ,head of horse affected with tetanus4 #aab4 ,a subacute case of tetanus4 #aac4 ,streptococcus of strangles4 #aad4 ,bacillus mallei4 #aae4 ,nasal septum showing nodules and ulcers4 #aaf4 ,streptococcus pyogenes equi4 #aag4 ,a case of lumpy jaw4 #aah4 ,the ray fungus4 #aai4 ,bacillus of emphysematous anthrax4 #abj4 ,cattle tick 7male74 #aba4 ,cattle tick 7female74 #abb4 ,blood-cells with ,piroplasma bigeminum in them4 #abc4 ,bacillus avisepticus4 ,,part ,i4--,,introductory ,,chapter ,i ,,general ,,discussion ,,of ,,disease ,disease is the general term for any deviation from the normal or healthy condition of the body4 ,the morbid processes that result in either slight or marked modifications of the normal condition are recognized by the injurious changes in the structure or function of the organ1 or group of body organs involved4 ,the increase in the secretion of urine noticeable in horses in the late fall and winter is caused by the cool weather and the decrease in the perspiration4 ,if1 however1 the increase in the quantity of urine secreted occurs independently of any normal cause and is accompanied by an unthrifty and weakened condition of the animal1 it would then characterize disease4 ,tissues may undergo changes in order to adapt themselves to different environments1 or as a means of protecting themselves against injuries4 ,the coat of a horse becomes heavy and appears rough if the animal is exposed to severe cold4 ,a rough1 staring coat is very common in horses affected by disease4 ,the outer layer of the skin becomes thickened when subject to pressure or friction from the harness4 ,this change in structure is purely protective and normal4 ,in disease the deviation from normal must be more permanent in character than it is in the examples mentioned above1 and in some way prove injurious to the body functions4 ,,classification4--,we may divide diseases into three classes3 non-specific1 specific and parasitic4 ,non-specific diseases have no constant cause4 ,a variety of causes may produce the same disease4 ,for example1 acute indigestion may be caused by a change of diet1 watering the animal after feeding grain1 by exhaustion and intestinal worms4 ,usually1 but one of the animals in the stable or herd is affected4 ,if several are affected1 it is because all have been subject to the same condition1 and not because the disease has spread from one animal to another4 ,specific ,diseases4--,the terms infectious and contagious are used in speaking of specific diseases4 ,much confusion exists in the popular use of these terms4 ,a contagious disease is one that may be transmitted by personal contact1 as1 for example1 influenza1 glanders and hog-cholera4 ,as these diseases may be produced by indirect contact with the diseased animal as well as by direct1 they are also infectious4 ,there are a few germ diseases that are not spread by the healthy animals coming in direct contact with the diseased animal1 as1 for example1 black leg and southern cattle fever4 ,these are purely infectious diseases4 ,infection is a more comprehensive term than contagion1 as it may be used in alluding to all germ diseases1 while the use of the term contagion is rightly limited to such diseases as are produced principally through individual contact4 ,parasitic diseases are very common among domestic animals4 ,this class of disease is caused by insects and worms1 as for example1 lice1 mites1 ticks1 flies1 and round and flat worms that live at the expense of their hosts4 ,they may invade any of the organs of the body1 but most commonly inhabit the digestive tract and skin4 ,some of the parasitic insects1 mosquitoes1 flies and ticks1 act as secondary hosts for certain animal microorganisms that they transmit to healthy individuals through the punctures or the bites that they are capable of producing in the skin4 ,,causes4--,for convenience we may divide the causes of disease into the predisposing or indirect1 and the exciting or direct4 ,the predisposing causes are such factors as tend to render the body more susceptible to disease or favor the presence of the exciting cause4 ,for example1 an animal that is narrow chested and lacking in the development of the vital organs lodged in the thoracic cavity1 when exposed to the same condition as the other members of the herd1 may contract disease while the animals having better conformation do not 7,fig4 #a74 ,hogs confined in well-drained yards and pastures that are free from filth1 and fed in pens and on feeding floors that are clean1 do not become hosts for large numbers of parasites4 ,hogs confined in filthy pens are frequently so badly infested with lice and intestinal worms that their health and thriftiness are seriously interfered with4 ,in the first case mentioned the predisposition to disease is in the individual1 and in the second case it is in the surroundings 7,fig4 #b74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,side and posterior view of bull showing conformation favorable to the development of disease4 ,the exciting causes are the immediate causes of the particular disease4 ,exciting causes usually operate through the environment4 ,with the exception of the special disease-producing germs1 the most common exciting causes are faulty food and faulty methods of feeding4 ,the following predisposing causes of disease may be mentioned3 ,age is an important factor in the production of disease4 ,young and immature animals are more prone to attacks of infectious diseases than are old and mature animals4 ,hog-cholera usually affects the young hogs in the herd first1 while scours1 suppurative joint disease and infectious sore mouth are diseases that occur during the first few days or few weeks of the animal's life4 ,lung and intestinal parasites are more commonly found in the young1 growing animals4 ,old animals are prone to fractures of bones and degenerative changes of the body tissues4 ,as a general rule1 the young are more subject to acute diseases and the old to chronic diseases4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,insanitary yards4 ,the surroundings or environments are important predisposing factors4 ,a dark1 crowded1 poorly ventilated stable lowers the animal's vitality1 and renders it more susceptible to the disease4 ,a few rods difference in the location of stables and yards may make a marked difference in the health of the herd4 ,a dry1 protected site is always preferable to one in the open or on low1 poorly drained soil4 ,the majority of domestic animals need but little shelter1 but they do need dry1 comfortable quarters during wet1 cold weather4 ,faulty feed and faulty methods of feeding are very common causes of diseases of the digestive tract and the nervous system4 ,a change from dry feed to a green1 succulent ration is a common cause of acute indigestion in both horses and cattle4 ,the feeding of a heavy ration of grain to horses that are accustomed to exercise1 during enforced rest may cause liver and kidney disorders4 ,the feeding of spoiled1 decomposed feeds may cause serious nervous and intestinal disorders4 ,one attack of a certain disease may influence the development of subsequent attacks of the same1 or a different disease4 ,an individual may suffer from an attack of pneumonia that so weakens the disease-resisting powers of the lungs as to result in a tubercular infection of these organs4 ,in the horse1 one attack of azoturia predisposes it to a second attack4 ,one attack of an infectious disease usually confers immunity against that particular disease4 ,heredity does not play as important a part in the development of diseases in domestic animals as in the human race4 ,a certain family may inherit a predisposition to disease through the faulty or insufficient development of an organ or group of organs4 ,the different species of animals are affected by diseases peculiar to that particular species4 ,the horse is the only species that is affected with azoturia4 ,glanders affects solipeds1 while black leg is a disease peculiar to cattle4 ,,questions #a4 ,what is disease8 #b4 ,how are diseases classified8 ,give an example of the different classes4 #c4 ,what is a predisposing cause8 ,exciting cause8 #d4 ,name the different predisposing and exciting causes of disease4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,diagnosis ,,and ,,symptoms ,,of ,,disease ,the importance of recognizing or diagnosing the seat and nature of the morbid change occurring in an organ or group of organs cannot be overestimated4 ,laymen do not comprehend the difficulty or importance of correctly grouping the signs or symptoms of disease in such a way as to enable them to recognize the nature of the disease4 ,in order to be able to understand the meaning of the many symptoms or signs of disease1 we must possess knowledge of the structure and physiological functions of the different organs of the body4 ,we must be familiar with the animal when it is in good health in order to be able to recognize any deviation from the normal due to disease1 and we must learn from personal observation the different symptoms that characterize the different diseases4 ,stockmen should be able to tell when any of the animals in their care are sick as soon as the first symptom of disease manifests itself1 by changes in the general appearance and behavior4 ,but in order to ascertain the exact condition a general and systematic examination is necessary4 ,the examiner1 whether he be a layman or a veterinarian1 must observe the animal carefully1 noting the behavior1 appearance1 surroundings1 and general and local symptoms4 ,before making a general examination of the animal it is well1 if the examiner is not already acquainted with the history of the case 7care1 feed and surroundings71 to learn as much about this from the attendant as is possible4 ,inquiry should be made as to the feeding1 the conditions under which the animal has been kept1 the length of time it has been sick1 its actions1 or any other information that may be of assistance in forming the diagnosis and outlining the treatment4 ,the general symptoms inform us regarding the condition of the different groups of body organs4 ,a careful study of this group of symptoms enables us correctly to diagnose disease and inform ourselves as to the progress of long1 severe affections4 ,these symptoms occur in connection with the pulse1 respirations1 body temperature1 skin and coat1 visible mucous membranes1 secretions and excretions1 and behavior of the animal4 ,the local symptoms are confined to a definite part or organ4 ,swelling1 pain1 tenderness and loss of function are common local symptoms4 ,a direct symptom may also be considered under this head because of its direct relation to the seat of disease4 ,it aids greatly in forming the diagnosis4 ,other terms used in describing symptoms of disease are objective1 which includes all that can be recognized by the person making the examination2 indirect1 which are observed at a distance from the seat of the disease2 and premonitory1 which precede the direct1 or characteristic symptoms4 ,the subjective symptoms include such as are felt and described by the patient4 ,these symptoms are available from the human patient only4 ,pulse4--,the character of the intermittent expansion of the arteries1 called the pulse1 informs us as to the condition of the heart and blood-vessels4 ,the frequency of the pulse beat varies in the different species of animals4 ,the smaller the animal the more frequent the pulse4 ,in young animals the number of beats per minute is greater than in adults4 ,excitement or fear1 especially if the animal possesses a nervous temperament1 increases the frequency of the pulse4 ,during1 and for a short time after1 feeding and exercise1 the pulse rate is higher than when the animal is standing at rest4 ,the following table gives the normal rate of the pulse beats per minute3 ,horse #cf to #dj per minute ,ox #de to #ej per minute ,sheep #gj to #hj per minute ,pig #gj to #hj per minute ,dog #ij to #ajj per minute ,in sickness the pulse is instantly responsive4 ,it is of the greatest aid in diagnosing and in noting the progress of the disease4 ,the following varieties of pulse may be mentioned3 frequent1 infrequent1 quick1 slow1 large1 small1 hard1 soft and intermittent4 ,the terms frequent and infrequent refer to the number of pulse beats in a given time2 quick and slow to the length of time required for the pulse wave to pass beneath the finger2 large and small to the volume of the wave2 hard and soft to its compressibility2 and intermittent to the occasional missing of a beat4 ,a pulse beat that is small and quick1 or large and soft1 is frequently met with in diseases of a serious character4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,the ,x on the lower border of the jaw indicates the place where the pulse is taken4 ,the horse's pulse is taken from the submaxillary artery at a point anterior to1 or below the angle of the jaw and along its inferior border 7,fig4 #c74 ,it is here that the artery winds around the inferior border of the jaw in an upward direction1 and1 because of its location immediately beneath the skin1 it can be readily located by pressing lightly over the region with the fingers4 ,cattle's pulse is taken from the same artery as in the horse4 ,the artery is most superficial a little above the border of the jaw4 ,it is more difficult to find the pulse wave in cattle than it is in horses1 because of the larger amount of connective tissue just beneath the skin and the heavier muscles of the jaw4 ,a very satisfactory pulse may be found in the small arteries located along the inferior part of the lateral region of the tail and near its base4 ,the sheep's pulse may be taken directly from the femoral artery by placing the fingers over the inner region of the thigh4 ,by pressing with the hand over the region of the heart we may determine its condition4 ,the hog's pulse can easily be taken from the femoral artery on the internal region of the thigh4 ,the artery crosses this region obliquely and is quite superficial toward its anterior and lower portion4 ,the dog's pulse is usually taken from the brachial artery4 ,the pulse wave can be readily felt by resting the fingers over the inner region of the arm and just above the elbow4 ,the character of the heart beats in dogs may be determined by resting the hand on the chest wall4 ,,respiration4--,the frequency of the respirations varies with the species4 ,the following table gives the frequency of the respirations in domestic animals3 ,horse #h to #aj per minute ,ox #ab to #ae per minute ,sheep #ab to #bj per minute ,dog #ae to #bj per minute ,pig #aj to #ae per minute ,the ratio of the heart beats to the respirations is about #a3d or #a3e4 ,this ratio is not constant in ruminants4 ,rumination1 muscular exertion and excitement increase the frequency and cause the respirations to become irregular4 ,in disease the ratio between the heart beats and respirations is greatly disturbed1 and the character of the respiratory sounds and movements may be greatly changed 7,fig4 #d74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,auscultation of the lungs can be practised to an advantage over the outlined portion of the chest wall1 only4 ,severe exercise and diseased conditions of the lungs cause the animal to breathe rapidly and bring into use all of the respiratory muscles4 ,such forced or labored breathing is a common symptom in serious lung diseases1 bloat in cattle1 or any condition that may cause dyspnoea4 ,horses affected with heaves show a double contraction of the muscles in the region of the flank during expiration4 ,in spasm of the diaphragm or thumps the expiration appears to be a short1 jerking movement of the flank4 ,in the abdominal form of respiration the movements of the walls of the chest are limited4 ,this occurs in pleurisy4 ,in the thoracic form of respiration the abdominal wall is held rigid and the movement of the chest walls make up for the deficiency4 ,this latter condition occurs in peritonitis4 ,a cough is caused by irritation of the membrane lining the air passages4 ,the character of the cough may vary according to the nature of the disease4 ,we may speak of a moist cough when the secretions in the air passages are more or less abundant4 ,a dry cough occurs when the lining membrane of the air passages is dry and inflamed4 ,this may occur in the early stage of the inflammation1 or as a result of irritation from dust or irritating gases4 ,chronic cough occurs when the disease is of long duration or chronic4 ,in pleurisy the cough may be short and painful1 and in broken wind1 deep and suppressed4 ,in parasitic diseases of the air passages and lungs1 the paroxysm of coughing may be severe and husky in character4 ,the odor of the expired air1 the character of the discharge and the respiratory sounds found on making a careful examination are important aids in arriving at a correct diagnosis1 and in studying the progress of the disease4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,fever thermometer4 ,body ,temperature4--,the body temperature of an animal is taken by inserting the fever thermometer into the rectum4 ,in large animals a five-inch1 and in small animals a four-inch fever thermometer is used4 ,it should be inserted full length and left in position from one and one-half to three minutes1 depending on the rapidity with which it registers 7,fig4 #e74 ,the average normal body temperatures of domestic animals are as follows3 ,horses #ajj4ebfj ,f4 ,cattle #aja4dbfj ,f4 ,sheep #ajd4jbfj ,f4 ,swine #ajc4jbfj ,f4 ,dog #aja4dbfj ,f4 ,there is a wide variation in the body temperatures of domestic animals4 ,this is especially true of cattle1 sheep and hogs4 ,in order to determine the normal temperature of an animal1 it may be necessary to take two or more readings at different times1 and compare them with the body temperatures of other animals in the herd that are known to be healthy4 ,exercise1 feeding1 rumination1 excitement1 warm1 close stables1 exposure to cold and drinking ice cold water are common causes of variations in the body temperatures of domestic animals4 ,visible ,mucous ,membranes4--,the visible mucous membranes1 as they are termed1 are the lining membranes of the eyelids1 nostrils and nasal cavities1 and mouth4 ,in health they are usually a pale red1 excepting when the animal is exercised or excited1 when they appear a brighter red and somewhat vascular4 ,in disease the following changes in color and appearance may be noted3 ,when inflamed1 as in cold in the head1 a deep red2 in impoverished or bloodless conditions of the body and in internal haemorrhage1 pale2 in diseases of the liver1 sometimes yellowish1 or dark red2 in diseases of the digestive tract 7buccal mucous membrane71 coated2 if inflamed1 dry at first1 later excessively moist2 and in certain germ diseases a mottled red1 or showing nodules1 ulcers and scars4 ,surface of the ,body4--,when a horse is in a good condition and well cared for1 the coat is short1 fine1 glossy and smooth and the skin pliable and elastic4 ,healthy cattle have a smooth1 glossy coat and the skin feels mellow and elastic4 ,the fleece of sheep should appear smooth and have plenty of yolk1 the skin pliable and light pink in color4 ,when the coat loses its lustre and gloss and the skin becomes hard1 rigid1 thickened and dirty1 it indicates a lack of nutrition and an unhealthy condition of the body4 ,in sheep1 during sickness1 the wool may become dry and brittle and the skin pale and rigid4 ,when affected with external parasites1 the hair or wool becomes dirty and rough1 a part of the skin may be denuded of hair1 and it appears thickened1 leathery and scabby1 or shows pimples1 vesicles and sores4 ,during fever1 the temperature of the surface of the body is very unequal4 ,in serious diseases or diseases that are about to terminate fatally1 the skin feels cold and the hair is wet with sweat4 ,when animals are allowed to rough it during the cold weather1 the coat of hair becomes heavy and rough4 ,this is a provision of nature and enables them1 as long as the coat is dry1 to withstand severe cold4 ,horses that are in a low physical condition1 or when accustomed to hard work1 if then kept in a stall for a few days without exercise1 commonly show a filling of the cannon regions of the posterior extremities4 ,this condition also commonly occurs in disease and in mares that have reached the latter period of pregnancy4 ,sheep that are unthrifty and in a poor physical condition1 especially if this is due to internal parasites1 frequently develop dropsical swellings in the region of the jaw1 or neck4 ,body ,excretions4--,the character of the body excretions1 faeces and urine may become greatly changed in certain diseases4 ,it is important that the stockman or veterinarian observe these changes1 and in certain diseases make an analysis of the urine4 ,this may be necessary in order properly to diagnose the case4 ,behavior of the ,animal4--,when the body temperature is high1 the animal may appear greatly depressed4 ,if suffering severe pain1 it may be restless4 ,in diseases of the nervous system1 the behavior of the animal may be greatly changed4 ,spasms1 convulsions1 general local paralysis1 stupid condition and unconsciousness may occur as symptoms of this class of disease4 ,,questions #a4 ,what information is necessary in order to be able to recognize or diagnose disease8 #b4 ,what are the general symptoms of disease8 #c4 ,what are the subjective symptoms of disease8 #d4 ,describe method of taking the pulse beat in the different animals and its character in health and disease4 #e4 ,give the ratio of the heart beats to the respirations in the different species of animals4 #f4 ,what are the normal body temperatures in the different domestic animals8 #g4 ,what are the visible mucous membranes8 #h4 ,is the condition of the coat and skin any help in the recognition of disease8 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,treatment ,preventive ,treatment4--,the subject of preventive medicine becomes more important as our knowledge of the cause of disease advances4 ,a knowledge of feeds1 methods of feeding1 care1 sanitation and the use of such biological products as bacterins1 vaccines and protective serums is of the greatest importance to the farmer and veterinarian4 ,we are beginning to realize that one of the most important secrets of profitable and successful stock raising is the prevention of disease2 that the agricultural colleges are doing a great work in helping to teach farmers that there are right and wrong methods of feeding and caring for animals2 that the practice of sanitation in caring for animals is the cheapest method of treating disease2 and that it is advisable to practise radical methods of control1 when necessary1 in order to rid the herd of an infectious disease4 ,the ration fed and the method of feeding are not only important in considering the causes of diseases of the digestive tract1 but diseases of other organs as well4 ,the feeding of an excessive1 or insufficient quantity of feed1 or a ration that is too concentrated1 bulky and innutritious1 poor in quality1 or spoiled may produce disease4 ,an impure water supply is a common cause of disease4 ,a deep well that is closed in properly and does not permit of contamination from filth1 does not insure a clean water supply if the trough or tank is not kept clean4 ,farm ,buildings4--,if stockmen would make a more careful study of the kind of farm buildings most suitable to their needs1 the selection of the location1 the proportions1 the arrangement of the interior and the lighting and ventilation1 there would be a great saving in losses from disease1 and the cost of building in many cases would be lessened4 ,your neighbor's building that you have taken for your model may not be suitable for your needs4 ,it may be more expensive than your financial condition permits4 ,it may be poorly lighted and ventilated and not suited to the site that you have selected4 ,biological ,products4--,there are a number of biological products that may be used in the prevention and control of disease4 ,some of these products1 such as tuberculin and malein1 enable the owner to rid his herds of tubercular cows and glandered horses before these diseases have become far enough advanced to be recognized by the visible symptoms alone4 ,black leg1 anthrax and hog-cholera vaccines are valuable agents in the control of disease4 ,in the treatment of fistula and infectious abortion1 bacterins may be used4 ,there are many other germ diseases and infections for which vaccines and bacterins may be used4 ,however1 we must not depend wholly on these agents in the control of disease4 ,we must possess a knowledge of the manner in which the infection is spread1 for without this knowledge we would be unable to prevent its dissemination over a wide area4 ,medicinal ,treatment4--,the average stockman or veterinarian is more familiar with the treatment of disease with drugs than he is with the preventive measures just described4 ,this statement does not imply that a knowledge of medicinal therapeutics is not of the greatest importance in the treatment of disease4 ,the ultimate object of all drugs is both to prevent and cure disease1 but the injudicious use of a drug does neither4 ,a discussion of this subject cannot be entered into here1 and because of its largeness it is not advisable to discuss it further than a brief summary of the methods of administering drugs4 ,administration of ,drugs4--,drugs may be administered by the following channels3 by way of the mouth1 in the feed or as a drench2 by injecting into the tissues beneath the skin or hypodermically2 by rubbing into the skin2 by the air passages and the lungs2 and by injecting into the rectum4 ,if the animal is not too sick to eat and the drug does not possess an unpleasant taste1 it may be given with the feed4 ,if soluble1 it may be given with the drinking water1 or in any case1 it may be mixed with ground feed if this method is to be preferred4 ,in all cases the medicine must be well mixed with the feed4 ,this is especially important if there are a number of animals to be treated1 as there is more certainty of each animal getting the proper dose and the danger of overdosing is avoided4 ,if the young animal is nursing the mother1 we can take advantage of certain drugs being eliminated in the mother's milk and administer the drug to the mother4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--;,a good kind of a dose syringe4 ,,drenches4--,in the larger animals a bulky drench is sometimes difficult to administer1 and we should1 in all cases1 count on a portion being wasted4 ,horses are sometimes difficult to drench1 and it may be advisable to confine the horse in some way4 ,small drenches can readily be given with a syringe 7,fig4 #f7 or a small bottle4 ,in giving bulky drenches it is most convenient to use a long-necked1 heavy glass bottle4 ,the horse should be backed into a narrow stall and the head elevated by placing a loop in the end of a small rope over the upper jaw1 passing the rope back of the nose piece on the halter and throwing it over a beam1 and raising the head until the mouth is slightly higher than the throat4 ,if the horse refuses to swallow1 a tablespoonful of clean water may be dropped into the nostril4 ,this forces it to swallow4 ,a drench should never be given through the nose1 as it may pass into the air passages and cause a fatal inflammation of the lungs4 ,cattle can be easily drenched by taking hold of the nostrils with the fingers1 or snapping a bull ring into the partition between the nostrils and elevating the head4 ,sheep may be drenched either in the standing position1 or when thrown on the haunches and held between the knees4 ,care should be exercised in giving irritating drenches to sheep1 especially if the drench be bulky4 ,a herd of hogs may be quickly and easily drenched if they are confined in a small pen1 and the loop of a small rope placed around the snout1 well back toward the corners of the mouth4 ,a small metal dose syringe should be used4 ,if the drench is bulky and the hog difficult to hold1 it may be necessary to elevate the head and raise the forefeet from the ground4 ,the drench should not be given until the hog is quiet and well under control1 as there is some danger of the medicine passing into the air passages and doing harm4 ,it may be necessary to mark the hogs that have been drenched with a daub of paint1 or in some other manner in order to be able to distinguish them from the untreated animals4 ,the administration of drugs enclosed in a gelatin capsule1 or mixing them with syrup1 honey or linseed oil1 and rolling the mass into the form of a cylinder is commonly practised4 ,the capsule or ball may then be shot into the pharynx with a balling gun4 ,a ball may also be given to the larger animals by carrying it into the back part of the mouth with the hand1 and placing it on the back part of the tongue4 ,in the horse this method of administration requires some practice4 ,the tongue must be pulled well forward1 the head held up1 and the tongue released as soon as the ball is placed on the tongue1 so that it may pass back into the pharynx4 ,the administration of drugs by injecting beneath the skin 7,fig4 #g7 is suitable when the drug is non-irritating and the dose is small4 ,drugs administered in this way act promptly and energetically4 ,the alkaloid or active principle of the drug is commonly used4 ,a fold of the skin is picked up with the fingers and the needle is quickly introduced1 care being taken not to prick or scratch the muscular tissue1 as this causes some pain and makes the animal restless4 ,in order to avoid abscess formation at the point of injection1 the skin should be cleansed with a disinfectant and the syringe and needle sterilized before using4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--;,hypodermic syringes4 ,drugs are not absorbed through the unbroken skin1 but when applied with friction1 or when the outer layer is removed by blistering1 absorption may take place4 ,liniments1 blisters and poultices are the preparations used4 ,volatile drugs1 such as chloroform and ether1 are absorbed quickly by the enormous vascular surface of the lungs4 ,this class of drugs is administered for the purpose of producing general anaesthesia4 ,anaesthetics are indispensable in many surgical operations4 ,the administration of a drug in the form of medicated steam is quite useful in combating some respiratory diseases4 ,in steaming large animals a pail about half full of boiling-hot water to which has been added about an ounce of coal-tar disinfectant1 or whatever drug is required1 is held within about one foot of the animal's nostrils4 ,it is usually advisable to throw a light cover over the head and pail in order to direct the steam toward the nostrils4 ,dogs can be placed on a cane-seated chair and a pail or pan of boiling-hot water placed under it1 and a sheet thrown over all4 ,drugs are administered by way of the rectum when the animal can not be drenched1 or the drug can not be given in any other way and when a local action is desired4 ,an enema or clyster is a fluid injection into the rectum and is employed for the following purposes3 to accelerate the action of a purgative2 to stimulate the peristaltic movement of the intestines2 to kill intestinal parasites2 to reduce body temperature2 to administer medicine2 and to supply the animal with food4 ,an enema may be administered by allowing water to gravitate into the rectum from a height of two or three feet or by using an injection pump4 ,in the larger animals several feet of heavy walled rubber tubing carrying a straight nozzle at one end should be used4 ,in administering an enema1 the rectum should be emptied out with the hand and the nozzle of the syringe carried as far forward as possible4 ,the operator should be careful not to irritate or tear the wall of the rectum4 ,size of the ,dose4--,the doses recommended in the treatment of the different diseases1 unless otherwise stated1 are for mature animals4 ,the dose for a colt one year of age is about one-third the quantity given the adult1 two years of age one-half1 and three years of age two-thirds4 ,in well-matured colts a larger dose may be given4 ,in cattle1 the doses recommended are about the same4 ,in the smaller animals the size of the dose may be based on the development and age of the animal4 ,when the drug is administered at short intervals or repeated1 the size of the dose should be reduced4 ,the physiological action of some drugs may be changed by varying the size of the dose4 ,,questions #a4 ,give a general description of preventive treatment4 #b4 ,by what channels may drugs be administered8 #c4 ,how are drenches administered8 #d4 ,how are solid drugs administered8 #e4 ,what kind of drugs are administered hypodermically8 #f4 ,what is an enema8 #g4 ,what proportion of the dose of a drug recommended for the adult may be given to immature animals8 ,,part ,,ii4--,,non-,,specific ,,or ,,general ,,diseases ,,chapter ,,iv ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,digestive ,,system ,the organs that form the digestive tract are the mouth1 pharynx1 oesophagus1 stomach1 intestines and the annexed glands1 viz43 the salivary1 liver1 and pancreas4 ,the development of these organs differs in the different species of animals4 ,for example1 solipeds possess a small1 simple stomach and capacious1 complicated intestines4 ,just the opposite is true of ruminants4 ,the different species of ruminants possess a large1 complicated stomach1 and comparatively simple intestines4 ,in swine we meet with a more highly developed stomach than that of solipeds and a more simple intestinal tract4 ,of all domestic animals the most simple digestive tract occurs in the dog4 ,these variations in the development of the different organs of digestion1 together with the difference in the character of the feed and method of feeding1 cause a variation in the kind of diseases met with in the different species4 ,the complicated stomach of ruminants predispose them to diseases of this portion of the digestive tract4 ,because of their complicated intestinal tract solipeds are prone to intestinal disease4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,mouth ,,general ,,discussion4--,the mouth is the first division of the digestive tract4 ,it is formed by the lips1 cheeks1 palate1 soft palate1 tongue and teeth4 ,here the feed is acted on mechanically4 ,it is broken up by the teeth and moved about until mixed with the saliva and put into condition to pass through the pharynx and along the oesophagus to the stomach4 ,the mechanical change that the feed is subject to is very imperfect in dogs4 ,in the horse it is a slow1 thorough process1 although greedy feeders are not uncommon4 ,the first mastication in the ox is three times quicker than in horses1 but the process of rumination is slow and thorough4 ,,stomatitis4--,simple inflammation of the mouth is frequently met with in horses4 ,ulcerative or infectious inflammation commonly occurs in young1 and occasionally in old1 debilitated animals4 ,this form of sore mouth will be discussed along with other infectious diseases1 and the following discussion will be confined to the non-infectious form of the disease4 ,the causes are irritation from the bit1 sharp teeth1 irritating drenches1 roughage that contains beards or awns of grasses and grains1 and burrs that wound the lining membrane of the mouth4 ,febrile1 or digestive disorders1 or any condition that may interfere with feeding1 may cause this disorder4 ,in the latter cases the mucous membrane of the mouth is not cleansed by the saliva4 ,particles of feed may decompose and irritating organisms set up an inflammation4 ,putrid or decomposed slops1 hot feeds1 irritating drenches and drinking from filthy wallows are common causes of inflammation of the mouth in hogs4 ,the symptoms vary in the different cases and species4 ,slight or localized inflammation of the mouth is usually overlooked by the attendant4 ,lampas of horses may be considered a local inflammation involving the palate4 ,lacerations of the cheek or tongue by the teeth1 or irritating feed1 usually result in a slight interference with prehension and mastication and more or less salivation4 ,salivation from this cause should not be confused with salivation resulting from feeding on white clover4 ,in generalized inflammation of the mucous membrane1 the first symptom usually noticed is the inability to eat4 ,on examining the mouth we find the mucous membrane inflamed1 hot and dry4 ,a part may appear coated4 ,in a short time the odor from the mouth is fetid4 ,following this dry stage of the inflammation is the period of salivation4 ,saliva dribbles from the mouth1 and in severe cases it is mixed with white1 stringy shreds of epithelium and tinged with blood4 ,in less acute forms of the disease1 we may notice little blisters or vesicles scattered over the lining membrane of the lips1 cheeks and tongue4 ,the acute form of stomatitis runs a short course1 usually a few days1 and responds readily to treatment4 ,localized inflammation caused by irritation from teeth1 or feeding irritating feeds1 does not respond so readily to treatment4 ,the treatment is largely preventive and consists largely in removing the cause4 ,when the mouth is inflamed1 roughage should be fed rather sparingly1 and soft feeds such as slops1 mashes1 or gruels given in place of the regular diet4 ,plenty of clean drinking water should be provided4 ,in the way of medicinal treatment antiseptic and astringent washes are indicated4 ,a four per cent water solution of boric acid may be used1 or a one-half per cent water solution of a high grade coal-tar disinfectant4 ,the mouth should be thoroughly irrigated twice daily until the mucous surfaces appear normal4 ,,depraved ,,appetite ,a depraved appetite is met with in all species of farm animals1 but it is especially common in ruminants4 ,it should not be classed as a disease1 but more correctly as a bad habit1 or symptom of innutrition or indigestion4 ,the animals affected seem to have an irresistible desire to lick1 chew and swallow indigestible and disgusting objects4 ,the common cause of depraved appetite is the feeding of a ration deficient in certain food elements4 ,a ration deficient in protein or in salts is said to cause this disorder4 ,lack of exercise1 or confinement1 innutrition1 and a depraved sense of taste may favor the development of this disease4 ,for example1 when sheep are housed closely they may contract the habit of chewing one another's fleeces4 ,lambs are especially apt to contract this habit when suckling ewes that have on their udders long wool soiled with urine and faeces4 ,the first symptom is the desire to chew1 lick or eat indigestible or filthy substances4 ,horses and cattle may stand and lick a board for an hour or more2 cattle may chew the long hair from the tails of horses2 sheep may nibble wool2 sows may within a short time after giving birth to their pigs1 kill and eat them2 chickens may pick and eat feathers4 ,innutrition may accompany the abnormal appetite1 as very frequently the affected animal shows a disposition to leave its feed in order to eat these injurious and innutritions substances4 ,in ruminants1 the wool or hair may form balls and obstruct the opening into the third compartment1 causing chronic indigestion and death4 ,the treatment consists in the removal of the cause4 ,feeding a ration that meets the needs of the system1 clean quarters and plenty of exercise are the most important preventive lines of treatment4 ,in such cases medicinal treatment 7saline and bitter tonics7 may be indicated4 ,it is usually advisable to remove the affected animals from the herd or flock in order to prevent others from imitating them4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,stomach ,there is a remarkable difference in the development of the stomachs of solipeds and ruminants4 ,the horse's stomach 7,fig4 #h7 is simple and has a capacity of three or four gallons4 ,the left portion is lined with a cuticular mucous membrane1 and the right portion with a glandular mucous membrane that has in it the glands that secrete the gastric juice4 ,the most important digestive change in the feed is the action of the gastric juice on the proteids and their conversion into the simpler products1 proteoses and peptones4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,photograph of model of horse's stomach3 left portion1 oesophagus1 right portion1 and intestine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,photograph of model of stomach of ruminant3 rumen1 reticulum1 omasum1 and abomasum4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--;,a section of the wall of the rumen and reticulum1 showing the oesophageal groove3 lips of groove2 opening from oesophagus2 and opening into omasum4 ,,ruminants have a compound stomach 7,figs4 #i and #aj74 ,the capacity of the stomach of the ox is between twenty and thirty gallons4 ,the four compartments into which it is divided are the rumen1 reticulum1 omasum1 and abomasum or true stomach4 ,the rumen is the largest compartment1 with a capacity of more than twenty gallons4 ,the reticulum is the smallest1 with a capacity of about one-half gallon4 ,after a brief mastication1 the food passes directly to the rumen4 ,here it is subjected to a churning movement that mixes and presses the contents of the rumen forward in the direction of the oesophageal opening1 where it is ready for regurgitation4 ,it is then carried back to the mouth1 remasticated and returned to the rumen4 ,this is termed rumination4 ,all food material that is sufficiently broken up is directed toward the opening into the third compartment by the oesophageal grove 7,fig4 #aj71 a demi-canal that connects this with the oesophageal opening4 ,the third compartment1 the omasum1 communicates anteriorly with the second and first1 and posteriorly with the fourth compartment or true stomach4 ,the interior arrangement of this compartment is most singular4 ,it is divided by a number of large folds of the lining membrane between which are smaller folds4 ,it is between these folds that the contents pass4 ,the first three compartments possess no glands capable of secreting a digestive juice4 ,however1 important digestive changes occur4 ,the carbohydrates are digested by means of enzymes contained in the feed4 ,the most important function of the rumen and omasum is the maceration of the fibrous substances1 and the digestion of the cellulose4 ,between sixty and seventy per cent of the cellulose is digested in the rumen4 ,the abomasum is lined by a gastric mucous membrane4 ,the gastric juice secreted converts the protein into peptones4 ,in the young a milk curdling ferment is also secreted by the glands of this compartment4 ,,the ,,stomach ,,of ,,the ,,hog is a type between the carnivora and ruminant4 ,the digestive changes may be divided into four stages4 ,the first period is one of starch conversion2 the second period is the same1 only more pronounced2 the third period1 both starch and protein conversion occurs2 and the fourth period is taken up mostly with protein digestion4 ,,acute ,,indigestion ,,of ,,the ,,stomach ,,of ,,solipeds4--,diseases of the stomach are less common in solipeds than in ruminants4 ,the simple stomach of the horse and the comparatively unimportant place that it occupies in the digestion of the feed renders it less subject to disease4 ,only under the most unfavorable conditions for digestion of the feed does this class of disorders occur4 ,acute indigestion in the form of overloading and fermentation occurs in the stomach 7,fig4 #aa74 ,the predisposing causes that have to do with the development of these disorders1 are the small capacity of the stomach and the location and smallness of the openings leading from the oesophagus and into the small intestines4 ,greedy eaters are more prone to indigestion than animals that eat slowly and are fed intelligently4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--;,dilated stomach of horse4 ,the following exciting causes may be mentioned3 ,sudden changes in ration2 feeding too much green feed or grain2 feeding frozen or decomposed feeds2 drinking ice-cold water2 and violent exercise or work that the animal is not accustomed to1 immediately after feeding are the common disease-producing factors4 ,the symptoms may vary from impaired appetite and slight restlessness to violent1 colicky pains4 ,in the large majority of cases the attendant is unable to differentiate between this and other forms of acute indigestion4 ,the characteristic symptoms are attempts at regurgitation and vomiting1 assuming a dog-sitting position and finally such nervous symptoms as champing of the jaws1 staggering movement and extreme dulness4 ,the violent form of gastric indigestion frequently ends in death4 ,rupture of the stomach is not an uncommon complication 7,fig4 #ab74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--,rupture of stomach of horse4 ,the treatment is both preventive and medicinal4 ,this digestive disorder can be prevented4 ,the feeding of the right kind of a ration and in the right way1 and avoiding conditions that may interfere with the digestion of the feed1 are the general lines of preventive treatment indicated4 ,such measures are of special importance in the handling of animals that possess an individual predisposition toward this class of disease4 ,in mild attacks the animal should be subjected to a rigid or careful diet during the attack and for a few days later4 ,it is advisable to place the animal in a comfortable stall that is well bedded with straw and plenty large for it to move about in4 ,if a roomy sick-stall can not be provided1 a grass lot or barn floor may be used4 ,if the weather is chilly or cold1 the body should be covered with a blanket and roller bandages applied to the limbs4 ,bulky drenches should not be given4 ,stimulants and drugs capable of retarding fermentation are indicated4 ,sometimes the administration of a sedative is indicated4 ,treatment should be prompt1 as in many cases fermentation of the contents of the stomach occurs and gases form rapidly4 ,from two to four ounces of oil of turpentine may be given in from six to eight ounces of linseed oil4 ,,acute ,,indigestion ,,of ,,the ,,stomach ,,of ,,ruminants4--,the different forms of acute indigestion are bloating1 overloading of the rumen and impaction of the omasum4 ,,tympanites1 ,,bloating4--,this disorder is usually caused by animals feeding on green feeds1 such as clover1 alfalfa and green corn1 that ferment readily4 ,stormy1 rainy weather seems to favor bloating4 ,the consumption of spoiled feeds such as potatoes and beets may cause it4 ,the drinking of a large quantity of water1 especially if cold1 chills the wall of the rumen and interferes with its movement4 ,frozen feeds may act in the same way4 ,sudden changes in the feed1 inflammation of the rumen1 and a weak peristaltic movement of the paunch resulting from disease or insufficient nourishment are frequent causes4 ,it may occur in chronic disease4 ,in tuberculosis1 bloating sometimes occurs4 ,the symptoms are as follows3 ,the paunch or rumen occupies the left side of the abdominal cavity1 hence the distention of the abdominal wall by the collecting of gas in the rumen occurs principally on that side4 ,the gas forms quickly and the distended wall is highly elastic and resonant4 ,the animal stops eating and ruminating1 the back may be arched and the ears droop4 ,in the more severe cases the wall of the abdomen is distended on both sides1 the respirations are quickened and labored1 the pulse small and quick1 the eyes are prominent and the mucous membrane congested4 ,death results from asphyxia brought on by the distended paunch pushing forward and interfering with the movement of the lungs and the absorption of the poisonous gases4 ,the treatment is both preventive and medicinal4 ,this form of acute indigestion can be largely prevented by practising the following preventive measures3 ,all changes in the feed should be made gradually1 especially if the ration fed is heavy1 or the new ration consists largely of green1 succulent feed4 ,cattle pasturing on clover should be kept under close observation4 ,it is not advisable to pasture cattle on rank growths of clover that are wet with dew or a light rain4 ,bloating can be quickly relieved by puncturing the wall of the paunch with the trocar and cannula4 ,the operation is quite simple and is not followed by bad results4 ,the instrument is plunged through the walls of the abdomen and rumen in the most prominent portion of the flank1 midway between the border of the last rib and the point of the haunch 7,fig4 #ac74 ,the trocar is then withdrawn from the cannula4 ,after the gas has escaped through the cannula1 the trocar is replaced and the instrument withdrawn4 ,after using the trocar and cannula1 the instrument should be cleaned by placing it in boiling hot water4 ,it is advisable to wash the skin at the seat of the operation with a disinfectant before operating4 ,in chronic tympanitis1 it is sometimes advisable to leave the cannula in position by tying a tape to the flange1 passing it around the body and tying4 ,as a cathartic for cattle1 we may give one quart of linseed and from two to four ounces of turpentine1 or one to two pounds of ,epsom or ,glauber's salts1 dissolved in plenty of water4 ,sheep may be given about one-fourth the dose recommended for cattle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4--,the ,x indicates the point where the wall of flank and rumen are punctured with trocar and cannula in bloat4 ,,overloading ,,the ,,rumen4--,this form of indigestion occurs when ruminants have access to feeds that they are not accustomed to4 ,as a result1 they eat greedily and the mass of feed in the rumen becomes so heavy that the walls of the organ can not move it about1 and digestion is interfered with4 ,this is especially true of succulent feeds4 ,a diseased condition of the animal predisposes it to this disorder4 ,if after eating an excessive amount of dry1 innutritions fodder1 the animal drinks freely of cold water1 acute symptoms of overloading are manifested4 ,the general symptoms occurring in overloading resembles those seen in bloating4 ,the symptoms may be mild and extend over a period of several days1 or it may take on a highly acute form1 terminating fatally within a few hours4 ,the acuteness of the attack depends on the character and quantity of feed eaten4 ,if a large quantity of green feed is eaten1 fermentation occurs and the animal may die within a few hours4 ,the swelling on the left side has a doughy feel4 ,it is not as elastic and resonant as in bloat1 even when complicated by some gas formation4 ,the animal may stop ruminating1 refuse to eat1 and act dull4 ,in the more severe cases the respirations are hurried and labored1 the pulse small and quick and the expression of the face indicates pain4 ,colicky pains sometimes occur4 ,death may occur from shock or asphyxia4 ,the treatment is both preventive and curative4 ,this disease can be prevented by using the necessary precautions to prevent animals from overeating4 ,if gas forms1 the trocar and cannula should be used4 ,a drench of from one to two pounds of ,epsom or ,glauber's salts should be given4 ,sheep may be given from four to six ounces of ,epsom or ,glauber's salts4 ,we should endeavor to stimulate the movement of the paunch by pressure on the flank with the hand1 throwing cold water on the wall of the abdomen and by hypodermic injections of strychnine4 ,rumenotomy should be performed when necessary4 ,this operation consists in opening the walls of the abdomen and rumen1 and removing a part of the contents of the rumen4 ,this is not a dangerous operation when properly performed1 and should not be postponed until the animal is too weak to make a recovery4 ,,impaction ,,of ,,the ,,omasum4--,this disease may occur as a complication of other forms of acute indigestion and diseases accompanied by an abnormal body temperature4 ,feeds that are dry and innutritions commonly cause it4 ,other causes are an excessive quantity of feed1 sudden changes in the diet and drinking an insufficient quantity of water4 ,as in other diseases of the stomach1 the appetite is diminished1 rumination ceases or occurs at irregular intervals1 and the animal is more or less feverish4 ,bloating and constipation may occur4 ,the animal may lose flesh1 is weak1 walks stiffly and grunts as though in pain when it moves about in the stall and at each respiration4 ,in the acute form1 marked symptoms are sometimes manifested4 ,at first the animal acts drowsy2 later violent nervous symptoms may develop4 ,the course of this disease varies from a few days to several weeks4 ,death frequently occurs4 ,frequently a diarrhoea accompanies recovery1 a portion of the faeces appearing black with polished surfaces1 as though they had been baked4 ,the preventive treatment consists in practising the necessary precautions against the development of this disease by avoiding sudden changes in the feed1 the feeding of dry1 innutritions feeds in too large amounts1 allowing animals plenty of water and providing them with salt4 ,the best purgative to give is ,glauber's or ,epsom salts in from one- to two-pound doses1 dissolved in at least one gallon of water4 ,this physic may be repeated in from twelve to eighteen hours if necessary4 ,two drachms of tincture of nux vomica and one ounce of alcohol may be given in a drench three times daily4 ,hypodermic injections of strychnine1 eserine1 or pilocarpine are useful in the treatment of this disease4 ,when recovery begins1 the animal should be allowed moderate exercise and be fed food of a laxative nature4 ,,foreign ,,bodies ,,in ,,the ,,stomach ,,of ,,ruminants4--,foreign bodies such as hair balls and wire are very commonly found in the reticulum4 ,this is because of the habits of this class of animals4 ,cattle eat their feed hastily and do not pick it over as carefully as does the horse4 ,smooth1 round objects do no appreciable harm unless they block the opening into the third compartment of the stomach4 ,this frequently occurs in wool-eating lambs4 ,sharp-pointed objects may penetrate the surrounding tissues or such organs as the spleen1 diaphragm1 and pericardial sack4 ,if these organs are injured by the foreign body serious symptoms develop4 ,the general symptoms are pain1 fever1 weakness and marked emaciation4 ,it is very difficult to form a correct diagnosis1 as the disease comes on without any apparent cause4 ,sometimes a swelling is noticed in the right and inferior abdominal region4 ,if the heart becomes injured1 symptoms of pericarditis are manifested4 ,the treatment is largely preventive4 ,special care should be used to avoid getting foreign substances into the feed given to cattle4 ,the feed troughs should be kept clean2 we should avoid dropping nails and staples into the feed when repairing the silo or grain bin2 and pieces of baling wire should be removed from straw or hay4 ,feeds known to be dirty should be run through a fanning mill before feeding4 ,,inflammation ,,of ,,the ,,stomach ,,of ,,swine4--,overloading and feeding spoiled feed are common causes of inflammation of the stomach4 ,swill-fed hogs are most commonly affected with this disorder4 ,overloading more often results in an inflammation of the stomach if the overloading follows the feeding of a light ration1 and the weather is extremely warm4 ,hogs that are accustomed to eating salt may eat too much of it when fed to them after it is withheld for a week or longer1 and a large quantity of water is taken soon afterwards4 ,slop containing alkaline washing powders and soaps irritate the stomach and intestines and cause a serious inflammation4 ,the symptoms are loss of appetite1 restlessness and sometimes colicky pains4 ,the hog usually wanders off by itself1 acts dull1 grunts1 lies down in a quiet place or stands with the back arched and the abdomen held tense4 ,vomiting commonly occurs4 ,sometimes the animal has a diarrhoea4 ,the body temperature may be above normal4 ,the treatment consists in avoiding irritating feeds and sudden changes in the kind or quantity of feed fed4 ,drenching with hot water1 or with about one ounce of ipecacuan may be practised4 ,from one to three ounces of castor oil1 depending on the size of the hog1 may be given4 ,after recovery the hogs should be confined in a comfortable pen and fed an easily digested ration4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,intestines ,,general ,,discussion4--,the intestinal tract of solipeds is the best developed of any of the domestic animals 7,fig4 #ad74 ,it is divided into two portions1 small and large4 ,the small intestine is a little over seventy feet in length and about one and one-half inches in diameter4 ,the mucous membrane lining presents a large absorbing surface and is well supplied with absorbing vessels that take up the sugars1 proteids and fats1 which are finally distributed to the body cells by the blood capillaries4 ,in addition to these absorbing vessels the mucous membrane contains intestinal glands that secrete the intestinal juice4 ,other digestive secretions from the pancreatic gland and the liver are poured into the small intestine near its origin4 ,these digestive juices act on the proteids1 sugars1 starches and fats1 changing them into substances that are capable of being absorbed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--,photograph of model of digestive tract of horse3 oesophagus2 stomach2 liver2 small intestine2 large intestine2 spleen4 ,after disengaging itself from the mass of loops lodged in the region of the left flank1 the small intestine crosses to the region of the right flank1 where it terminates in the first division of the large intestine4 ,the large intestine is formed by the following divisions3 caecum1 double colon1 floating colon and rectum4 ,the caecum is a large blind pouch that has a capacity of about seven gallons4 ,the double colon is the largest division of the intestines4 ,it is about twelve feet in length and has a capacity of about eighteen gallons4 ,this portion of the intestine terminates in the region of the left flank in the floating colon4 ,the latter is about ten feet in length and about twice the diameter of the small intestine1 from which it can readily be distinguished by its sacculated walls4 ,the rectum is the terminal portion of the intestinal tract4 ,it is about one and one-half feet in length and possesses heavy1 elastic walls4 ,fermentation and cellulose digestion occur in the caecum and double colon4 ,it is in the floating colon that the faeces are moulded into balls4 ,the faeces are retained in the rectum until defecation takes place4 ,the intestinal tract of cattle is longer than that of solipeds and the different divisions are not as well defined as in the horse's intestine and about one-half its diameter4 ,the large intestine is about thirty-five feet in length and its capacity six or seven gallons 7,fig4 #ae74 ,,acute ,,intestinal ,,indigestion ,,of ,,solipeds4--,acute indigestion is more common in horses and mules than it is in any of the other domestic animals4 ,because of the difference in the causes and symptoms manifested1 we may divide it into the following forms3 spasmodic1 flatulent and obstruction colic4 ,the predisposing causes are general and digestive debility resulting from the feeding of an insufficient or unsuitable ration1 and general and parasitic diseases of the intestine4 ,nervous1 well-bred horses are most susceptible to nervous or spasmodic colic4 ,the direct causes are improper methods of feeding and watering2 giving the animal severe or unusual exercise immediately before or after feeding2 the feeding of spoiled or green feeds and new grains2 chilling of the body2 imperfect mastication of feed because of defective teeth2 obstruction of the intestine by worms4 ,the feeding of grain at a time when the animal is not in fit condition to digest it results in imperfect digestion in both the stomach and intestine4 ,this leads to irritation of the intestine and abnormal fermentation of its contents4 ,the drinking of a large quantity of water immediately after feeding grain flushes at least a part of the undigested grain from the stomach through the small intestine and into the caecum4 ,new grains1 such as new oats1 are hurried along the small intestine and reach the large intestine practically undigested4 ,the two latter conditions are common causes of flatulent or wind colic4 ,sudden change in the ration1 especially to a green feed1 may result in intestinal irritation and flatulence4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4--,photograph of model of digestive tract of ruminant3 oesophagus2 rumen2 reticulum2 omasum2 abomasum2 small intestine2 and large intestine4 ,horses that are greedy feeders and have sharp1 uneven1 smooth or diseased teeth are unable to masticate the feed properly4 ,this results in unthriftiness caused by imperfect digestion and assimilation of the feed4 ,such animals usually suffer from a catarrhal or chronic inflammation of the intestine1 and may have periodic attacks of acute indigestion or colic4 ,obstruction colic is very often caused by the feeding of too much roughage in the form of straw1 shredded fodder1 or hay4 ,debility often contributes to this form of indigestion1 and the double colon may become badly impacted with alimentary matter4 ,worms may irritate the intestinal mucous membrane and interfere with digestion1 obstruct the intestine and cause debility and circulatory disturbances4 ,the large round worm may form a tangled mass and completely fill a portion of the double colon4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--;,a yearling colt that died of aneurism colic4 ,some species attach themselves to the intestinal wall1 suck the blood of the host and cause anaemia and debility4 ,colic resulting from circulatory disturbances is not common4 ,the female of a certain species of strongulus deposits eggs in the mucous membrane4 ,on hatching1 the larvae may enter a blood capillary1 drift along in the blood stream and finally come to rest in a large blood-vessel that supplies a certain portion of the intestines with blood4 ,here the parasite develops4 ,the wall of the vessel becomes irritated and inflamed1 pieces of fibrin flake off and drift along the blood stream until finally a vessel too small for the floating particle to pass through is reached and the vessel becomes plugged4 ,the loop of intestine supplied by it receives no blood4 ,a temporary paralysis of the loop occurs1 which persists until a second vessel is able to take over the function of the one that is plugged4 ,this form of colic is most common in old horses 7,fig4 #af74 ,such complications of acute indigestion as twisting1 infolding and displacement of the intestine may occur4 ,it is not uncommon for a stallion to suffer from strangulated hernia1 due to a rather large internal inguinal ring and a loop of the intestine passing through it and into the inguinal canal or scrotum4 ,such displacements are usually accompanied by severe colicky pains4 ,the symptoms vary in the different cases4 ,in the mild form1 the colicky pains are not prominent1 but in the acute form1 the animal is restless1 getting up and down in the stall and rolling over4 ,these movements are especially marked when the abdominal pain is severe4 ,in the spasmodic form the attack comes on suddenly1 the colicky pains are severe1 and the peristaltic movement of the intestine is marked and accompanied by loud intestinal sounds4 ,in most cases of indigestion characterized by fermentation and collections of gas in the intestine there is gastric tympany as well4 ,acute indigestion characterized by impaction of the large intestine pursues a longer course than the forms just mentioned1 and the abdominal pain is not severe4 ,congestion and inflammation of the intestine may result from the irritation produced by the feed4 ,when this occurs1 the abdominal pain is less violent4 ,the animal usually acts dull1 the walk is slow and unsteady1 and the respirations and pulse beats may be quickened4 ,a large percentage of the cases of acute indigestion terminate fatally4 ,the course of the disease varies from a few hours to several days4 ,the treatment is both preventive and curative4 ,the preventive treatment is by far the most important4 ,this consists in observing right methods of feeding and caring for horses4 ,the attendant should note the condition of the animal before feeding grain1 feed regularly and avoid sudden changes in feed4 ,if a horse has received unusual exercise1 it is proper to feed hay first1 and when the animal is cooled out1 water and feed grain4 ,drinking a small quantity of water when tired or following a meal is not injurious1 but a large quantity of water taken at such times is injurious and dangerous to the health of the animal4 ,the feeding of spoiled or mouldy feeds to horses is highly injurious4 ,the horse should be given a roomy1 comfortable stall that is well bedded1 or a clean grass lot4 ,if the attack appears when the animal is in harness1 we should stop working it and remove the harness immediately4 ,work or exercise usually aggravates the case and may cause congestion and inflammation of important body organs4 ,in cold weather the animal should be protected by blankets4 ,if the pain is violent1 sedatives may be given4 ,the gaseous disturbances should be relieved by puncturing the wall of the intestine with the trocar and cannula4 ,rectal injections of cold water may be resorted to4 ,fluid extract of cannabis indica in quarter ounce doses and repeated in one hour may be given in linseed oil4 ,in all cases it is advisable to drench the animal with one pint of raw linseed oil and two ounces of turpentine4 ,strychnine1 eserine and pilocarpine are the drugs commonly used by the veterinarians in the treatment of acute indigestion4 ,small and repeated doses of the above drugs are preferred to large doses4 ,this is one of the diseases that requires prompt and skilled attention4 ,sharp1 uneven or diseased teeth should receive the necessary attention4 ,in old horses1 chopped hay or ground feeds should be fed when necessary4 ,debility resulting from hard work1 wrong methods of feeding and intestinal disorders must be corrected before the periodic attacks of indigestion can be relieved4 ,if the presence of intestinal worms is suspected1 the necessary treatment for ridding the animal of these parasites should be resorted to4 ,bitter or saline tonics should be administered in the feed when necessary4 ,the following formula is useful as a digestive tonic3 ,sodium bicarbonate and sodium sulfate1 one pound of each1 powdered gentian one-half pound1 and oil meal five pounds4 ,a small handful of this mixture may be given with the feed two or three times daily4 ,,inflammation ,,of ,,the ,,intestines4--,the same causes mentioned in inflammation of the stomach and acute indigestion may cause this disease4 ,it is most frequent at times when there are great variations in the temperature4 ,sudden cold or any influence that chills the surface of the body1 or internal cold caused by drinking ice water or eating frozen feed1 may cause it4 ,the infectious forms of enteritis are caused by germs and ptomaines in the feed4 ,drinking filthy water or eating spoiled1 mouldy feeds are common causes4 ,in cattle pasturing in low1 marshy places1 enteritis may be common4 ,the toxic form is caused by irritating poisons1 such as caustic acids1 alkalies and meat brine4 ,in the mild form of enteritis the appetite is irregular1 the animal acts dull and stupid and may be noticed lying down more than common4 ,slight abdominal pains occur1 especially following a meal4 ,an elevation in the body temperature may be noted and the animal may drink more water than usual4 ,constipation or a slight diarrhoea may be present4 ,the feces may be soft and foul smelling1 coated with mucus1 and slightly discolored with blood4 ,in the severe form of enteritis pressure on the abdomen may cause pain1 the respiration and pulse beats are quickened and the body temperature is elevated4 ,the abdominal pain may be severe and the animal is greatly depressed or acts dull4 ,the movement of the intestines is suppressed at first and constipation occurs4 ,fermentation and the formation of gas may take place4 ,later the intestinal peristalsis increases and a foul-smelling diarrhoea sets in that is often mixed with blood4 ,in the toxic form there may be marked nervous symptoms4 ,spasms1 convulsions1 stupefaction and coma may be manifested4 ,in the mild form recovery usually occurs within a few days4 ,the more serious forms of the disease do not terminate so favorably4 ,in the toxic form death usually occurs within a few days4 ,the large majority of cases of enteritis can be prevented by practising the necessary preventive measures4 ,it is very necessary that animals exposed to cold be provided with dry sleeping quarters that are free from draughts4 ,where a number of animals are fed a heavy grain ration1 or fed from the same trough1 they should be kept under close observation4 ,this is necessary in order to detect cases of indigestion or overfeeding early1 and resort to the necessary lines of treatment1 so as to prevent further irritation to the intestinal tract4 ,live stock should not be forced to drink water that is ice-cold4 ,low1 poorly-drained land is not a safe pasture for cattle and horses4 ,spoiled roots1 grains and silage1 mouldy1 dirty roughage and decomposed slops should not be fed to live stock4 ,the treatment consists in withholding all feed and giving the animal comfortable1 quiet quarters--warm quarters and protection from the cold1 providing the animal with a heavy straw bed1 or with blankets if necessary1 if the weather is cold4 ,from five to forty grains of calomel may be given1 depending upon the size of the animal and the frequency of the dose1 two or three times a day4 ,in case the animal is suffering severe pain1 morphine given hypodermically may be indicated4 ,in the mild form and at the very beginning of the attack1 linseed oil may be administered to the larger animals4 ,the dose is about one quart4 ,the smaller animals may be given castor oil in from one- to four-ounce doses4 ,when convalescence is reached the animal should be fed very carefully1 as the digestive tract is not in condition to digest heavy rations or feeds that ferment readily4 ,,diarrhoea4--,diarrhoea occurs as a symptom of irritation and inflammation of the intestinal mucous membrane4 ,sudden changes in the feed1 the feeding of a succulent green ration1 severe exercise when the animal is not in condition for it1 and chronic indigestion may cause diarrhoea in the absence of an intestinal inflammation4 ,the following symptoms may be noted3 ,animals affected by a diarrhoea act dull and weak2 thirst is increased and the animal may show evidence of fever2 the intestinal evacuations are soft1 thin1 and sometimes have an offensive odor4 ,if the diarrhoea continues for several days1 the animal loses flesh rapidly and the appetite is irregular4 ,in such cases weakness is a prominent symptom4 ,recovery usually occurs when the animal is dieted and rested4 ,the treatment consists in giving a physic of linseed or castor oil4 ,horses and cattle may be given from one-half to one quart of linseed oil2 sheep and hogs from one to four ounces of castor oil4 ,feed should be withheld4 ,morphine may be given hypodermically to the large animals after a period of six to eight hours following the administration of the physic4 ,the following formula is quite useful in checking diarrhoea3 salol one-half ounce1 bismuth subnitrate one ounce1 and bicarbonate of soda two ounces4 ,the dose of this mixture is from one to four drachms1 depending on the size of the animal1 three or four times a day4 ,,white ,,scours ,,or ,,diarrhoea ,,in ,,young ,,animals4--,young animals1 when nursing the mother or fed by hand1 frequently develop congestion and inflammation of the stomach and intestines4 ,this disorder is characterized by a diarrhoea4 ,the causes may be grouped under two heads3 wrong methods of feeding and care1 and specific infection4 ,the first milk of the mother is a natural laxative and aids in ridding the intestine of the young of such waste material 7meconium7 as collects during fetal life4 ,if this milk is withheld1 the intestine becomes irritated1 constipation occurs1 followed by a diarrhoea or serious symptoms of a nervous character1 caused by the poisonous effect of the toxic substances absorbed from the intestine on the nervous system4 ,changes in the ration fed the mother1 excitement1 unusual exercise and disease change the composition of the mother's milk4 ,such milk is irritating to the stomach and intestines of the young4 ,this irritation does not always develop into a diarrhoea1 but may result in a congestion of the stomach4 ,when the young are raised artificially or by hand1 and fed milk from different mothers of the same or different species1 or changed from whole to skim milk1 acute and chronic digestive disorders that are accompanied by a diarrhoea are common4 ,feeding calves from filthy pails1 allowing them to drink too rapidly and giving them fermented milk are common causes of scours4 ,white scours caused by irritating germs is a highly infectious disease4 ,the disease-producing germs gain entrance to the body by way of the digestive tract and the umbilical cord4 ,insanitary conditions1 such as dark1 cold1 damp1 filthy quarters1 lower the vitality of young animals1 and predispose them to digestive disorders as well as other diseases4 ,the symptoms are as follows3 ,constipation accompanied by a feverish condition precedes the diarrhoea2 colicky pains are sometimes manifested2 the diarrhoea is usually accompanied by depression1 falling off in appetite and weakness4 ,at first the intestinal discharges are not very foul smelling2 later the odor is very disagreeable4 ,the faeces may be made up largely of undigested1 decomposed milk that adheres to the tail and hind parts4 ,if the diarrhoea is severe1 the animal refuses to suckle or drink from the pail1 and loses flesh rapidly4 ,it is usually found lying down4 ,the ears droop and the depression is marked4 ,the body temperature may vary from several degrees above to below the average normal4 ,the infectious form of white scours may be diagnosed by the history of the outbreak4 ,in this form of the disease1 a large percentage of the young are affected and the death-rate is very high4 ,calves and lambs frequently die of an acute congestion of the fourth stomach4 ,in this disease1 the symptoms appear shortly after feeding4 ,it is characterized by colicky pains1 convulsions and coma4 ,the treatment is largely preventive4 ,young animals should be provided with dry1 clean1 well-ventilated quarters and allowed plenty of exercise4 ,colts thrive best if allowed to run in a blue grass pasture with the mother4 ,if the mother is worked1 suitable provisions in the way of quarters and frequent nursing should be provided4 ,calves1 lambs and pigs are the most frequent sufferers from insanitary quarters4 ,in breeding1 we should always strive to get strong1 vigorous1 healthy young4 ,the care given the mother in the way of exercise and feeding is an important factor here4 ,the first milk of the mother should not be withheld from the young1 especially if the animal is raised by hand4 ,we must also feed it regularly and not too much at any one time4 ,any change in the milk should be made gradually1 and it is usually advisable to reduce the ration slightly when such a change is made1 so as not to overwork the digestive organs4 ,pails and bottles from which the animal feeds should be kept clean4 ,colts raised on cow's milk must be fed and cared for carefully4 ,the milk must be sweet and made more digestible by diluting it with one-third water4 ,a little sugar may be added4 ,it is very advisable to add from one-half to one ounce of lime water to each pint of milk fed4 ,frequent feeding is very necessary at first1 and we must not underestimate the quantity of milk necessary to keep the colt in good condition4 ,it should be taught to eat grain as soon as possible4 ,because of the irritated condition of the stomach and intestine1 the animal suffering from diarrhoea is unable to digest its feed4 ,for this reason it is very important to withhold all feed for at least twelve hours4 ,water should be provided4 ,the alimentary tract is relieved of the irritating material by giving the animal a physic of castor or linseed oil4 ,the dose varies from one-quarter to one-half ounce for the lamb and from one to four ounces for the colt or calf4 ,it is advisable in most cases to follow this with the following mixture3 bicarbonate of soda one ounce1 bismuth subnitrate one-half ounce1 and salol one-quarter ounce4 ,the dose for the colt and calf is one teaspoonful three times a day4 ,lambs and pigs may be given from one-fourth to one-half the above dose4 ,it is usually advisable to give ewes and sows a physic if their young develop a diarrhoea4 ,mothers that are heavy milkers may be given a physic the second or third day following birth4 ,the ration should be reduced as well during the first week4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,digestive ,,tract ,,of ,,poultry ,,general ,,discussion4--,the digestive tract of poultry is composed of the following organs3 mouth1 gullet1 crop1 stomach1 gizzard and intestines1 with the two large glands1 the liver and pancreas4 ,the digestion of the feed begins in the crop4 ,here the feed is held for a short time1 mixed with certain fluids and softened4 ,on reaching the stomach it becomes mixed with the digestive fluid secreted by the gastric glands4 ,this second digestive action consists in thoroughly soaking the feed in the gastric juice1 making it soft and preparing it for maceration by the heavily muscled gizzard4 ,following maceration it passes into the intestine4 ,it is here that the digestive action is completed and absorption occurs4 ,under the conditions of domestication1 poultry are subject to a great variety of intestinal disorders4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,crop4--,impaction and inflammation are the two common diseases of the crop4 ,large1 impacted crops are usually caused by the feeding of too much dry feed1 fermentation of the contents of the crop and foreign bodies that obstruct the opening from the organ4 ,inflammation of the crop is caused by excessive use of condiments in the feed1 putrid or spoiled feeds and eating caustic drugs1 such as lime and rat poison4 ,the symptoms are dulness1 an indisposition to move about1 drooping wings and efforts to eject gases and liquids4 ,the crop is found greatly distended and either hard or soft1 depending on the quantity of feed present and the cause of the distention4 ,if fermentation is present the crop usually feels soft4 ,the preventive treatment consists in practising proper methods of feeding4 ,the curative treatment of a recent case consists in manipulating the mass of feed1 breaking it up and forcing it upwards toward the mouth4 ,if difficulty in breaking up the mass is experienced1 it is advisable to administer a tablespoonful of castor oil to the bird4 ,if the above manipulations are unsuccessful1 an operation is necessary4 ,this consists in making an opening through the skin and the wall of the crop and removing the contents with tweezers4 ,the opening must be closed with sutures4 ,the proper aseptic precautions must be observed4 ,in inflammation of the crop1 the bird should be dieted for at least one day1 and one teaspoonful of castor oil given as a laxative4 ,,acute ,,and ,,chronic ,,indigestion4--,the recognition of special forms of indigestion in poultry is difficult4 ,a flock of poultry that is subject to careless and indifferent care may not thrive and a number of the birds develop digestive disorders4 ,this may be indicated by an abnormal or depraved appetite and emaciated condition4 ,constipation or diarrhoea may occur4 ,in the more severe cases the bird acts dull1 the feathers are ruffled and it moves about very little4 ,the treatment consists in removing the cause1 and giving the flock a tonic mixture in the feed4 ,the following mixture may be used3 powdered gentian and powdered ginger1 eight ounces of each1 ,glauber's salts four ounces1 and sulfate of iron two ounces4 ,one ounce of the above mixture may be given in ten pounds of feed4 ,,white ,,diarrhoea ,,of ,,young ,,chickens4--,white diarrhoea is of the greatest economic importance to the poultryman4 ,the loss of chicks from this disease is greater than the combined loss resulting from all other diseases4 ,it is stated by some authors that not less than fifty per cent of the chickens hatched die from white diarrhoea4 ,such a heavy death-rate as is attributed to this disease can not result from improper methods of handling and insanitary conditions4 ,before it was proven that white diarrhoea was caused by specific germs1 a great deal of emphasis was placed on such causes as debilitated breeding stock1 improper incubation1 poorly ventilated1 overcrowded brooders1 too high or too low temperatures and filth4 ,such conditions are important predisposing factors1 and may1 in isolated cases1 result in serious intestinal disorders4 ,the microorganisms causing this disease belong to both the plant and animal kingdoms4 ,infection usually occurs within a day or two following hatching4 ,chicks two or three weeks of age seldom develop the acute form of the disease4 ,incubator chicks are the most susceptible to the disorder4 ,the following symptoms occur3 ,the chicks present a droopy1 sleepy appearance2 the eyes are closed1 and the chicks huddle together and peep much of the time2 the whitish intestinal discharge is noticed adhering to the fluff near the margins of the vent1 and the young bird is very weak2 death may occur within the first few days4 ,after the first two weeks the disease becomes less acute4 ,in the highly acute form the chicks die without showing the usual train of symptoms4 ,it is very easy to differentiate between the infectious and the non-infectious diarrhoea4 ,in the latter1 the percentage of chicks affected is small and the disease responds to treatment more readily than does the infectious form4 ,the death-rate in the latter form is about eighty per cent4 ,the treatment of diarrhoea in chicks from any cause is preventive4 ,this consists in removing the cause4 ,no person can successfully handle poultry if he does not give the necessary attention to sanitation4 ,poultry houses1 runs1 watering fountains and feeding places must be constantly cleaned and disinfected4 ,the degree of attention necessary depends on the surroundings1 the crowded condition of the poultry houses and runs1 and the presence of disease in the flock4 ,if disease is present1 we can not clean and disinfect the quarters too often4 ,the attendant can not overlook details in handling the incubator or brooder and feeding the chicks and be uniformly successful4 ,if the disease is known to be present in the flock1 the incubators and brooders should be thoroughly disinfected by fumigating them with formaldehyde gas4 ,if dirty1 they should first be washed with a water solution of a good disinfectant4 ,for a period of from twenty-four to forty-eight hours after hatching1 the chicks should receive no feed4 ,dr4 ,kaupp recommends as an intestinal antiseptic1 sulfocarbolate thirty grains1 bichloride of mercury six grains1 and citric acid three grains1 dissolved in one gallon of water4 ,this solution should be kept in front of the chicks all the time4 ,a water solution of powdered copper sulfate 7about one-half teaspoonful dissolved in one gallon of water7 may be used4 ,,questions #a4 ,name the organs that form the digestive apparatus4 #b4 ,what digestive action on the feed occurs in the mouth8 #c4 ,describe the causes and symptoms of inflammation of the mouth2 describe the treatment4 #d4 ,give the causes for depraved appetite2 describe the symptoms and treatment4 #e4 ,give the capacity of the horse's stomach4 #f4 ,name the different compartments of the ruminant's stomach4 #g4 ,give the capacity of the stomach of ruminants4 #h4 ,name the different stages of digestion occurring in the stomach of the hog4 #i4 ,what forms of acute indigestion involve the stomach of solipeds8 ,give causes and treatment4 #aj4 ,give the causes of indigestion of the stomach of ruminants4 #aa4 ,give the treatment for the different forms of indigestion of the stomach of ruminants4 #ab4 ,name the divisions of small and large intestines of solipeds and ruminants4 #ac4 ,what is the capacity and length of large intestine of solipeds and ruminants8 #ad4 ,what are the different forms of acute indigestion of the horses1 and causes8 #ae4 ,give a general line of treatment for acute indigestion of the horse4 #af4 ,give the causes of white diarrhoea in the young chicks2 give a line of treatment4 #ag4 ,name the organs of the digestive apparatus of poultry4 #ah4 ,name the common diseases of the digestive apparatus of poultry1 and give the causes4 ,,chapter ,v ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,liver ,,general ,,discussion4--,the liver is one of the most important glands of the body1 as well as the largest4 ,because of its physiological influence over the functions of the kidneys1 intestines1 and body in general and the varied functions that it possesses1 it is frequently affected by functional disorders4 ,all of the blood that comes directly from the intestine is received by the liver4 ,it secretes the bile1 neutralizes many of the poisonous substances and end products of digestion that are taken up by the absorbing vessels of the intestine1 and acts as a storehouse for the glycogen4 ,it can be readily understood from this brief statement of the nature of the liver functions1 that any functional disorder of the liver may be far reaching in its effect4 ,in many of the diseases that involve other organs1 the liver may be primarily affected4 ,it is difficult to diagnose functional disorders of the liver that are responsible for a diseased condition of some other body organ4 ,a knowledge of the physiology and pathology of the liver is of the greatest importance in the diagnosis of this class of disorders4 ,in the larger domestic animals1 symptoms of liver diseases are more obscure than in the small animals4 ,in certain parasitic diseases and in mixed and specific infectious diseases1 the liver may show marked pathological changes4 ,,common ,,causes ,,of ,,liver ,,disorders4--,domestic animals commonly live under very unnatural conditions4 ,ill results do not follow unless these conditions are so extreme as to violate practically all of the health laws4 ,pampered animals are especially prone to liver disorders4 ,the feeding of too heavy and too concentrated a ration together with insufficient exercise is one of the most common causes of disorders of the liver4 ,the feeding of a ration that is unsuitable for that particular species is a common source of disease in animals4 ,for example1 the feeding to carnivora of a ration made up largely of starchy feed1 and the feeding of a ration containing an excessive quantity of protein to herbivorous animals may result in intestinal1 liver and nervous disorders4 ,spoiled feed may prove highly injurious4 ,catarrhal inflammation of the intestine and intestinal parasites may obstruct the bile duct1 and interfere seriously with the functions of the liver4 ,symptoms4--,in diseases of the liver the appetite is irregular or the animal refuses to eat1 is constipated1 or has diarrhoea4 ,the faeces may be grayish colored or foul smelling4 ,colicky pains are sometimes manifested4 ,usually the animal acts dull and weak4 ,a raise in body temperature may be noted4 ,the visible mucous membranes may appear yellowish- or brownish-red in color4 ,treatment4--,animals grazing over well drained pastures that are free from injurious weeds and provided with plenty of drinking water1 seldom develop diseases of the liver4 ,exercise1 a natural diet and plenty of clean water1 as well as preventing liver disorders1 may be classed among the most important of all curative agents4 ,laxatives or cathartics1 such as oils1 salts1 aloes1 and calomel1 in small doses may be given4 ,we prefer the administration of oil or aloes to horses1 ,glauber's or ,epsom salts to ruminants1 and calomel to dogs4 ,the administration of minimum doses of these drugs1 and repeating the dose after a short interval1 is preferable to large doses4 ,alkaline tonics are also indicated4 ,the following mixture may be given3 bicarbonate of soda1 sulfate of soda and common salt1 eight ounces of each1 and powdered gentian and sulfate of iron1 four ounces of each4 ,large animals may be given a small tablespoonful of this mixture with the feed three times a day4 ,the dose for sheep and hogs is one teaspoonful4 ,a very light1 easily digested ration should be fed4 ,,questions #a4 ,what can be said of the importance of the liver8 #b4 ,tell something of its duties as a gland4 #c4 ,in what animals are liver troubles most conspicuous when present8 #d4 ,give causes of liver disorders4 #e4 ,what are the symptoms8 #f4 ,what are the most important natural cures8 #g4 ,what rule may be given for adapting suitable laxatives to different classes of animals8 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,urinary ,,organs ,,general ,,discussion4--,the urinary apparatus is composed of two glands1 the kidneys and an excretory apparatus that carries the excretion of the kidneys to the outside4 ,the kidneys are situated in the superior region of the abdominal cavity 7sublumbar7 above the peritoneum1 and to the right and left of the median line4 ,they are highly vascular glands1 somewhat bean-shaped and of a deep red color4 ,these glands are capable of removing from the blood a fluid that is essentially different in composition and which1 if retained in the blood1 would be harmful or poisonous to the body tissues4 ,the kidney excretions are carried from the pelvis of the kidneys by the right and left ureters4 ,these canals terminate in the bladder1 an oval-shaped reservoir for the urine4 ,this organ is situated in the posterior portion of the abdominal cavity and at the entrance to the pelvic cavity4 ,posteriorly1 it forms a constricted portion or neck4 ,it is here that the urethra originates4 ,this canal represents the last division of the excretory apparatus4 ,in the female1 the urethra is short and terminates in the vulva4 ,in the male it is long and is supported by the penis4 ,the urine secreted by the kidneys is a body excretion1 and consists of water1 organic matter and salts4 ,the nitrogenous end-products1 aromatic compounds1 coloring matter1 and mucin form the organic matter4 ,the nitrogenous end-products and aromatic compounds are urea1 uric and hippuric acids1 benzoic acid and ethereal sulfates of phenol and cresol4 ,the salts are sulfates1 phosphates and chlorides of sodium1 potassium1 calcium and magnesium4 ,the organic and inorganic matter varies with the ration4 ,the quantity of urine secreted within a given time varies in the different species and at different times in the same individual4 ,in the horse the quantity secreted in twenty-four hours varies from twelve to fifteen pints2 in cattle from ten to forty pints2 in sheep from one-half to one and three-quarter pints4 ,the normal color of the urine varies4 ,in the horse it is yellow or yellowish-red2 in cattle and sheep yellowish2 and in the dog a straw yellow4 ,the specific gravity varies with the quantity secreted and the ration fed4 ,when the quantity of urine secreted is above the average1 the specific gravity is usually low4 ,,the ,,necessity ,,of ,,examining ,,the ,,urine4--,in diseases of the urinary apparatus1 a careful examination of the urine is very necessary in order to be able to form a correct diagnosis4 ,in domestic animals it is impractical to attempt to determine the exact amount of urine passed within a certain time1 but we can make a general estimate of the quantity passed by carefully observing the animal and noting the condition of the bedding in the stall4 ,the sample of urine to be examined is best taken from urine collected at different periods during the day4 ,we should note its color and consistency4 ,the different substances in the urine can be determined only by determining the specific gravity1 testing with certain chemical reagents and by making a microscopic examination of the sediment4 ,normal urine from the horse may be turbid or cloudy and more or less slimy1 because of the presence of mucin4 ,this is less true of other species4 ,in disease the color of the urine may be changed to a pale yellow1 red or brown4 ,for example1 in congestion of the kidneys the urine is light in color and rather transparent2 in southern cattle fever it may be red2 and in azoturia it may be brown4 ,,excessive ,,urination4--,the horse is the most common sufferer from excessive secretion of urine4 ,the most common causes are musty feeds1 such as hay1 grain and shipped feeds4 ,new oats1 succulent feeds and acrid plants may sometimes cause it4 ,in the fall of the year1 when the season is changing from warm to cool weather and the horse eliminates less water from the body by way of the skin1 the kidneys may become more active and the quantity of urine secreted be greatly increased4 ,this1 however1 is a normal physiological condition and should not be confused with this disease4 ,the first symptom noted is the frequent passing of a large quantity of urine4 ,the animal drinks more water than usual and the appetite is poor4 ,dulness and a weak1 emaciated condition are prominent symptoms4 ,death occurs unless the cause of the disease is removed4 ,if the poisonous substance has been acting for some time1 it is difficult to cure the animal4 ,this disease can be prevented by eliminating spoiled feeds from the ration fed to animals in our care4 ,early in the attack the necessary attention to the ration and the feeding of a clean1 nourishing ration is sufficient to correct the disease4 ,the quantity of water drunk by the animal should be limited4 ,complete rest is indicated4 ,laxatives1 stimulants and tonics should be given if necessary4 ,,nephritis4--,congestion and inflammation of the kidneys commonly occur in mixed and specific infectious diseases1 such as septicaemia1 pyaemia and influenza4 ,the toxic effect of spoiled feeds1 impure drinking water1 and irritating drugs like cantharides and turpentine may so irritate the kidneys as to cause them to become inflamed4 ,chilling of the skin and nervousness or extreme fear may sometimes cause a congestion of these organs4 ,inflammation of the kidneys is a common complication of azoturia4 ,irritation from parasites should be included among the causes of this disease4 ,the symptoms vary in the different stages of the disease4 ,during the period of active congestion the quantity of urine secreted is increased4 ,the scant secretion of urine1 dark in color and thick or turbid1 is suggestive of an inflammation of the kidneys4 ,the animal moves stiffly1 the back may be arched1 urination is painful and the urine is passed in very small amounts4 ,the appetite is irregular or suppressed1 the pulse strong at first but later small and weak1 and the body temperature is elevated4 ,on making a rectal examination we find the bladder empty and the kidneys enlarged and sensitive4 ,when the kidneys become so badly diseased that they can no longer perform their function of separating from the blood the nitrogenous end-products of digestion1 uraemic poisoning occurs4 ,in this later stage of the disease the animal staggers about if moved1 and finally goes down in the stall and is unable to get up4 ,death is usually preceded by convulsions and coma4 ,the prognosis is very unfavorable1 death occurring in the majority of cases4 ,in azoturia of horses and in infectious diseases1 the inflammation is nearly always acute4 ,the color of the urine1 its high specific gravity and the small quantity passed are valuable symptoms to consider in the recognition of this disease4 ,chronic inflammation generally develops slowly and may not give rise to any very prominent symptoms at first4 ,the preventive treatment of nephritis consists in careful nursing of animals affected with acute infectious diseases1 a clean water supply and avoiding the feeding of spoiled feeds4 ,the curative treatment is largely careful nursing4 ,the animal should be given comfortable1 well-ventilated quarters and complete rest4 ,chilling of the skin should be especially guarded against by protecting the body with heavy blankets and applying roller bandages to the limbs when necessary4 ,the diet must be of such a nature as not to increase the work of the kidneys4 ,for the first few days the animal should receive very little feed or water4 ,later a sloppy diet of sweet milk1 green feed and mashes should be fed4 ,such purgatives as aloes and ,glauber's salts are indicated at a very early stage in the disease4 ,we must encourage the elimination of waste products by way of the skin in the larger animals by vigorous rubbing1 blanketing and the administration of such drugs as pilocarpine4 ,if the animal becomes weak1 general and heart tonics may be given4 ,,cystitis4--,inflammation of the bladder is not an uncommon disease of horses4 ,it is commonly caused by retention of the urine1 calculi in the bladder and chilling of the body4 ,irritating drugs that are eliminated from the body in the urine1 and infection of the bladder by germs may cause it4 ,the symptoms are usually marked4 ,the inflammation is characterized by more or less pain1 depending on the degree of the inflammation1 and frequent passing of urine4 ,only a small amount of urine is passed at each attempt1 and in severe inflammation it may contain pus or blood4 ,colicky pains sometimes occur4 ,the pain is usually manifested by a stiff1 straddling gait and tenderness when pressure on the bladder is made by introducing the hand into the rectum or vagina1 and pressing over the region of the bladder4 ,general symptoms1 such as elevation in body temperature and irregular appetite1 may be manifested4 ,the treatment should be first directed at removing the cause4 ,if a cystic calculus is present in the bladder it should be removed4 ,if the retention of the urine is caused by some local condition1 and this is very often the case in nervous1 well-bred animals1 this must first be corrected4 ,it is best to feed green and soft feeds1 such as bran mash and chopped hay1 and1 if the animal will take them1 gruels4 ,a physic of castor or linseed oil should be given occasionally4 ,it is very necessary that the animal be kept quiet4 ,comfortable1 clean quarters and a good bed should be provided4 ,whenever necessary the animal should be blanketed4 ,the medicinal treatment consists in irrigating the bladder with antiseptic solutions1 and administering drugs that when eliminated by way of the urine may change its composition and render it less irritating4 ,the following mixture may be given3 potassium chlorate two ounces1 salol one-half ounce1 and powdered nux vomica one ounce4 ,this mixture may be divided into sixteen powders4 ,one of the powders should be given with each feed4 ,,retention ,,of ,,the ,,urine4--,this may be due to a variety of causes4 ,in the ox and ram1 small calculi collect in the ,s-shaped curvature of the urethra1 or at its terminal extremity4 ,in the horse1 cystic calculi are more common than urethral4 ,in cattle and hogs1 fatty secretions from the inflamed lining membrane of the sheath of the male may accumulate1 and obstruct the flow of urine from the anterior opening4 ,the giving of feed rich in salts1 concentrated urine resulting from feeding of too dry a ration1 insufficient exercise and inflammation of the bladder are the direct causes of calculi4 ,compression of the urethra by growths or tumors1 strictures of the urethra1 distended bladder1 spasm of the neck of the bladder in nervous animals1 paralysis of the bladder and injuries to the penis are common causes of retention of the urine4 ,the early symptoms in ruminants are not usually recognized until a day or two after retention of the urine has occurred4 ,the symptoms are then quite marked4 ,the animal acts dull1 refuses to eat1 rumination is stopped1 and there is a constant effort to urinate1 as indicated by the raising of the tail and rhythmical contractions of the urinary muscles just below the anus4 ,urine may dribble from the sheath or the flow may be completely suppressed4 ,the odor of urine may be marked4 ,horses show symptoms of abdominal pain4 ,the animal may move about the stall1 lie down and get up again1 or make unsuccessful attempts to urinate4 ,on examination the bladder is found to be greatly distended with urine4 ,in the horse the retention is recognized at an earlier period than in ruminants1 because of the prompt1 decided symptom of pain4 ,retention of the urine commonly terminates in rupture of the bladder in ruminants4 ,when this occurs1 the symptoms of pain are less evident4 ,death occurs from uraemic poisoning and peritonitis4 ,the outcome is less favorable in ruminants than in solipeds4 ,inflammation of the sheath can be readily recognized because of the local swelling4 ,the following lines of treatment are recommended3 ,a ration or feed that favors the formation of calculi should not be fed to animals2 inflammation of the sheath should receive prompt treatment--this consists in irrigating the part with warm1 soapy or alkaline water1 followed by an antiseptic wash2 we may attempt to work the urethral calculi forward and out of the ,s-curve in the urethra2 if this is unsuccessful1 urethrotomy for their removal may be attempted4 ,the retention of the urine in horses1 because of spasm or paralysis of certain muscles1 may be treated by passing the catheter4 ,sometimes spreading litter under the horse and keeping it quiet may induce it to urinate4 ,hot packs over the region of the back may be used4 ,the treatment for calculi is entirely surgical4 ,the operation for the removal of cystic calculi in the horse1 although difficult1 is followed by good results4 ,,questions #a4 ,describe the urinary apparatus4 #b4 ,give the composition of the urine and quantity secreted in the different animals4 #c4 ,state method of determining quantity and composition of urine secreted by different domestic animals4 #d4 ,give the causes and treatment of excessive urination4 #e4 ,give the causes and treatment of congestion and inflammation of the kidneys4 #f4 ,give the causes of cystitis2 symptoms2 treatment4 #g4 ,give the causes and treatment of retention of the urine4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,generative ,,organs ,,general ,,discussion4--,the study of the organs concerned with the reproduction of the species is essential in order to acquire a knowledge of their several functions4 ,it is only through an understanding of these functions that we can prepare ourselves to correctly recognize1 and successfully treat1 or prevent1 such diseases as may involve the organs of generation4 ,a knowledge of the structure and function of the generative organs of the female is of greater importance from the standpoint of disease1 than is a similar knowledge of the generative organs of the male4 ,the female is concerned with the complete reproductive process1 which may be divided into four stages4 ,these are copulation1 fecundation1 gestation and parturition4 ,the male is concerned only with copulation and fertilization of the ovum by the spermatozoa1 while the female must protect and nourish the embryo and foetus until it has become sufficiently developed to live independently of the protection and nourishment afforded it within the womb4 ,when the final stage of gestation is reached1 birth or the act of parturition occurs4 ,,genital ,,organs ,,of ,,the ,,female4--,the female generative organs are the ovaries1 fallopian tubules1 uterus1 vagina1 vulva and mammary glands4 ,the ovaries are analogous to the testicles of the male4 ,their function is to secrete ova4 ,this pair of glands is suspended from the superior region 7sublumbar7 of the abdominal cavity by folds of the lining membrane4 ,leading from the ovaries1 but connected with the surface of these glands only during the period of oestrum or heat1 are the fallopian tubules4 ,their function is to carry the ovum from the ovaries to the uterus4 ,the uterus or womb is a membranous sack situated in the sublumbar region and at the inlet to the pelvic cavity4 ,it is held in position by numerous folds of the lining membrane of the abdominal cavity4 ,we may divide the womb into three divisions1 cornua1 body and cervix4 ,the cornua or horns are long and cylindrical in shape4 ,this portion of the womb is greatly developed in animals1 like the sow and bitch1 that give birth to several young4 ,in the impregnated animal the wall of the cornua that contains one or several foetuses1 and the body as well1 becomes greatly thickened and the lining membrane more vascular4 ,the body is short in all domestic animals and connects the horns with the cervix or neck4 ,the latter is represented by a narrow portion that projects backward into the vagina4 ,in the cow the cervix is less prominent than in the mare and the tissue that forms it1 quite firm4 ,in the cow the opening in the cervix1 the os1 is very small4 ,the vagina is a musculo-membranous canal that leads from the womb4 ,in the mare and cow it is about one foot in length4 ,its function is to take part in copulation and parturition4 ,the vulva is the external opening of the maternal passages4 ,it shows a vertical slit enclosed by lips1 and interiorly it forms a passage that is continuous with the vagina4 ,this passage is about six inches long in the larger animals4 ,the different features that should be noted are the clitoris1 a small erectile organ located at the inferior portion of the opening1 the meatus urinaris1 the external opening of the urethra1 situated in a depression in the floor of the vulva1 and the hymen1 an incomplete membranous partition that may be found separating the vulva from the vagina4 ,the mammary glands or udders secrete the milk that nourishes the young4 ,the glands vary in number4 ,the mare has two1 the cow four 7,fig4 #ag71 the ewe two and animals that give birth to several young1 eight or more4 ,each gland is surmounted by a teat or nipple4 ,the glandular tissue consists of caecal vesicles that form grape-like clusters around the milk tubules4 ,the milk tubules from the different portions of the gland converge and form larger tubules that finally empty into small sinuses or reservoirs at the base of the teat4 ,leading from these sinuses are one or several milk ducts that open at the summit of the teat4 ,,genital ,,organs ,,of ,,the ,,male4--,the genital organs of the male are the testicles1 the ducts or canals leading from the testicles1 the seminal vesicles1 the glands lying along the urethra1 and the penis4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4--,photograph of model of udder of cow3 milk duct2 milk sinuses2 and glandular tissue4 ,the testicles are the glandular organs that secrete the spermatozoa1 the essential elements of the seminal fluid4 ,these glands are lodged in the scrotal sack1 situated between the two thighs4 ,lying along the superior border of the testicle is a mass of ducts1 the epididymis4 ,the vas deferens is the canal or duct that passes from the epididymis to the region of the bladder and terminates near its neck by emptying into the seminal vesicles4 ,the seminal vesicles are two membranous pouches situated just above the bladder4 ,they act as receptacles for the seminal fluid4 ,two short ducts1 the ejaculatory1 carry the seminal fluid from the seminal vesicles to the urethra4 ,the prostate gland is situated near the origin of the urethra4 ,cowper's glands lie along the course of the urethra and near the origin of the penis4 ,these glands empty their secretions into the urethra and dilute the seminal fluid4 ,the penis is the male organ of copulation4 ,it originates at the arch of the ischium and extends forward between the thighs4 ,it may be divided into fixed and free portions4 ,the free portion is lodged in the prepuce or sheath1 but at the time of erection protrudes from it4 ,,sterility1 ,,impotency4--,fecundation does not always follow intercourse of the male and female4 ,impotency in the male and sterility in the female frequently occur4 ,the causes are quite varied4 ,a normal copulation may be impossible because of injuries to1 and deformities of1 the parts and tumor growths4 ,deformed genital organs and obstructions of the os by growths and scar tissue are causes of sterility in the female4 ,failure to breed is commonly caused by faulty methods of feeding and care4 ,over-feeding and insufficient exercise may result in the body tissues becoming loaded with fat4 ,this may cause a temporary sterility1 but if persisted in1 as is frequently the case in show animals1 the sterility becomes permanent because of the genital glands failing to secrete ova and spermatozoa1 or the lack of vitality of the male and female elements4 ,old age and debility from disease or poor care may induce loss of sexual desire and an absence of1 or weakened spermatozoa in1 the seminal fluid4 ,the refusal of the male to serve certain females is sometimes noted4 ,tuberculosis may affect the ovaries and cause permanent sterility4 ,in inflammation of the lining membrane of the womb and vagina1 the secretions are abnormal and may collect in the womb and the passages leading to it4 ,these secretions destroy the vitality of the spermatozoa1 and this condition may be considered a common cause of sterility in the larger animals4 ,many vigorous young males are made impotent by excessive copulation4 ,the excessive use of the male at any time may result in failure to impregnate a large percentage of the females that he serves4 ,barren females do not become pregnant after frequent intercourse with the male4 ,young sterile females may not come in heat4 ,sometimes unnatural periods of heat are manifested1 the animal coming in heat frequently or remaining in heat for a longer period than usual4 ,this sometimes occurs in tuberculosis of the ovaries4 ,in chronic inflammation of the maternal passage there is more or less discharge from the vulva4 ,both sexes may be overly fat or weakened and debilitated by disease4 ,deformity of the generative organs and growths may be found on making an examination4 ,absence of1 or lack of vitality of the spermatozoa may be determined by microscopic examination of the seminal fluid4 ,the treatment is largely preventive4 ,it is very important that breeding animals be kept in proper physical condition by avoiding the feeding of too heavy or too light a ration1 and allowing them sufficient exercise4 ,the male is more often affected by the latter cause than the female4 ,this is because the average stockman does not consider exercise given under the right conditions an important factor in maintaining the vigor of the male4 ,young males should not be given excessive intercourse with the female4 ,such practice is certain to seriously affect the potency of the animal4 ,the excessive use of the stallion can be avoided by practising artificial impregnation of a part of the mares that he is called to serve4 ,sterility caused by growths and closure of the os may be corrected by an operation4 ,chronic inflammation of the maternal passages should be treated by irrigating the parts with a one per cent warm water solution of lysol1 or liquor cresolis compound4 ,the parts should be irrigated daily for as long a period as necessary4 ,fat animals should be subjected to a rigid diet and given plenty of exercise4 ,following this treatment a stimulating ration may be fed for the purpose of encouraging the sexual desire4 ,in weak and debilitated animals1 the cause should first be removed and a proper ration fed4 ,cantharides and strychnine are the drugs most highly recommended for increasing the sexual desire4 ,,signs ,,of ,,pregnancy4--,the signs which characterize pregnancy are numerous and varied4 ,for convenience we may classify the many signs of pregnancy under two heads1 probable and positive4 ,under the head of probable signs1 we may group the following symptoms of pregnancy3 cessation of heat2 changes in the animal's disposition2 increase in the volume of the abdomen and tendency to put on fat4 ,the positive signs are the change in the volume of the udder2 the secretion of milk2 the movement of the foetus and presence of the foetus in the womb1 as determined by rectal examination or by the feel of the abdomen4 ,the probable signs are not reliable1 and should be considered only in connection with some positive sign4 ,persons who base their opinion of the condition of an animal that is supposed to be pregnant on probable signs1 are frequently mistaken4 ,it has frequently happened that animals whose condition was not at all certain have given birth to young1 without giving rise to what may be termed characteristic probable signs4 ,the earliest probable symptom is the cessation of heat4 ,in the large pregnant animals1 irregular heat periods may occur1 but in the majority of cases we may safely consider the animal impregnated if several heat periods are passed over4 ,it has been generally observed that the disposition of the pregnant animal is changed4 ,they become more quiet and less nervous and irritable4 ,the tendency of pregnant animals to put on fat is frequently taken advantage of by the stockman1 who may allow the boar to run with the herd during the latter period of fattening4 ,the increase in the volume of the abdomen may be considered a positive sign of pregnancy in the small animals1 but in the mare and cow it can not be depended on4 ,animals that are pregnant for the first time1 do not show as great an increase in the volume of the abdomen as do animals that have gone through successive pregnant periods4 ,the volume of the abdomen may vary greatly in the different individuals1 and can not be depended on as a positive indication of pregnancy during the first two-thirds of the period of pregnancy in the larger domestic animals4 ,comparatively early in pregnancy1 the presence of a foetus can be determined by feeling the uterus through the wall of the rectum4 ,in the small domestic animals the feeling of the abdomen gives the best results4 ,in the cow this method of diagnosis is practised during the latter periods of pregnancy4 ,the examiner stands with his back toward the animal's head1 and on the right side of the cow and the left side of the mare4 ,the palm of the hand is applied against the abdominal wall1 about eight or ten inches in front of the stifle and just below the flank4 ,moderate pressure is used1 and if a hard1 voluminous mass is felt1 or if the foetus moves1 it is a sure sign that the animal is pregnant4 ,it is not uncommon for the foetus to show some movement in the morning1 or after the animal drinks freely of cold water4 ,the increase in the volume of the udder occurs at a comparatively early period in animals that are pregnant for the first time4 ,the secretion of milk and the dropping of the muscles of the quarters indicate that parturition is near4 ,the ,abderhalden test for determining whether or not an animal is pregnant is now practised4 ,,hygiene ,,of ,,pregnant ,,animals4--,pregnant animals that are confined in a pasture that is free from injurious weeds and not too rough or hilly1 and where the animals have access to clean water and the necessary shelter1 seldom suffer from an abnormal birth4 ,here they live under the most favorable conditions for taking exercise1 securing a suitable diet and avoiding injury4 ,it may not be possible in managing breeding animals to provide such surroundings at all times1 but we should observe every possible hygienic precaution1 especially if the animal has reached the later periods of pregnancy4 ,all pregnant animals are inclined to be lazy1 but1 if permitted1 will take the necessary exercise4 ,pregnant mares are usually worked4 ,such exercise does no harm1 providing the work is not hard or of an unusual character4 ,cows are usually subject to more natural conditions than other domestic animals4 ,protecting pregnant animals against injuries resulting from crowding1 slipping and fighting is an important part of their care4 ,injuries from crowding together in the sleeping quarters and about feeding-troughs1 or through doors and climbing over low partitions are common causes of injury in pregnant sows4 ,crowding together in the stable or yard1 or through doorways1 fighting1 and slipping on floors1 or icy places sometimes results in injury4 ,it is rare1 however1 for cows to abort from an injury1 but parturition may not be completely free from disagreeable complications4 ,under the conditions mentioned retention of the fetal membranes is common4 ,ewes frequently suffer from too close confinement during late winter4 ,sows are often subject to the most unhygienic conditions4 ,this is shown in the heavy death-rate in sows and pigs4 ,during the late winter and early spring the conditions may be such as not to permit of exercise4 ,stormy1 snowy1 muddy weather is common at this season of the year4 ,persons caring for ewes and sows should see that they take sufficient exercise4 ,it may be necessary to drive them about for a short time each day4 ,at such times it may be advisable to give them a laxative dose of oil1 or give a laxative with the feed4 ,when there is any indication of constipation1 this should be practised4 ,pregnant animals should be fed carefully4 ,we may feed animals that are not in this condition in a careless fashion1 but if pregnant1 over-feeding1 the feeding of a fattening ration1 or spoiled feed1 and sudden changes in the feed can not be practised with any degree of safety4 ,a bulky ration of dry feed and drinking impure1 or too little1 water may cause constipation1 acute indigestion and abortion4 ,the ration fed should contain the necessary inorganic and organic elements for the building up of the body tissues of the foetus4 ,at the end of the parturition period1 separate quarters should be provided4 ,the mare or cow should be given a comfortable clean stall away from the other animals4 ,the ewe should be provided with a warm room if the weather is cold4 ,it is always best to give the sow a separate pen that is dry and clean1 and away from the other animals4 ,all danger from injury to the mother and young should be guarded against4 ,,abortion4--,the expulsion of the foetus at any time during the period of gestation1 when it is not sufficiently developed to live independently of the mother1 is termed abortion4 ,abortion may be either accidental or infectious4 ,accidental abortion is more commonly met with in the mare and sow than the infectious form4 ,in ruminants the opposite holds true4 ,the causes of accidental abortion are faulty methods of feeding and care4 ,injuries1 acute indigestion1 mouldy1 spoiled feeds1 chilling resulting from exposure and drinking ice-cold water1 nervousness brought on by fright1 or excitement and general diseases are the common causes of abortion4 ,infectious abortion is most common in cows4 ,other domestic animals that may be affected are the mare1 sow and ewe4 ,it is caused by a specific germ4 ,the ,bacillus abortus of ,bang is the cause of abortion in cows1 but the specific germ that produces abortion in other species of animals has not been proven4 ,in this country1 ,keer1 ,good1 ,giltner and others have proven that the ,bang bacillus of abortion is infectious for other species of animals1 and outbreaks of this disease have been said to occur among breeding ewes pastured and fed on infected premises4 ,its infectiousness for the females of other species has never been proven in natural outbreaks4 ,the disease-producing germs are present in the body of the foetus1 the fetal membranes1 the discharge from the maternal passages1 the faeces and milk of aborting animals4 ,the male may carry the infection in the sheath1 urethra and on the penis4 ,the natural avenues of infection are the maternal passages and digestive tract4 ,it is very seldom that abortion is carried from one herd to another by means other than through the breeding of animals free from abortion to animals affected by this disease4 ,the purchase of a bull or cow from an infected herd and breeding them to animals that are free from disease1 is a common method of spreading the disease4 ,after serving the diseased animal1 the male may carry the bacillus of abortion into the maternal passages of the next cow he serves4 ,there are numerous cases on record where the bull was a permanent carrier of the ,bacillus abortus and infected nearly every animal served4 ,the distribution of the disease in the herd following the introduction of a cow1 sow1 or ewe that has aborted before or after being purchased1 takes place through contact of the other animals with the virus that may be present on the floor1 or in the manure1 or by taking the virus into the digestive tract along with the feed and drinking water4 ,experimental evidence indicates the latter avenue of infection4 ,the stallion is the most common source of infectious abortion in mares4 ,an infected stallion may distribute the disease to a large percentage of the mares that he serves4 ,for this reason nearly all of the mares in a certain locality may abort4 ,in case the infection occurs at the time of service1 the abortion usually takes place during the first half of the period of pregnancy4 ,cows that become pregnant without recovering from the inflammation of the lining membrane of the genital tract1 may abort at a very early period4 ,mc,fadyean and ,stockman from the artificially inoculated cases of infectious abortion in cows1 showed that the period of incubation averaged #abf days4 ,the symptoms of accidental abortion are extremely variable4 ,animals that abort during the early periods of pregnancy may show so little disturbance1 that the animal can be treated as if nothing had happened4 ,during the latter half of pregnancy1 and especially when the accident is caused by an injury1 the symptoms are more serious4 ,loss of appetite1 dulness1 restlessness1 abdominal pain and haemorrhage are the symptoms commonly noted4 ,if the foetus is dead1 it may be necessary to assist the animal in expelling it4 ,in the latter case1 death of the mother may occur4 ,a slight falling of the flanks1 swelling of the lips of the vulva and a retention of the fetal membranes1 or discharge from the vulva may be the only symptoms noted at the time abortion occurs4 ,the symptoms of infectious abortion vary in the different periods of pregnancy4 ,at an early period1 the foetus may be passed with so little evidence of labor that the animal pays little attention to it4 ,the recurrence of heat may be the first intimation of the abortion4 ,all cases of abortion are followed by more or less discharge from the vulva4 ,this is especially true if the fetal membranes are retained4 ,in such cases1 the discharge has a very disagreeable odor4 ,in most cases the foetus is dead4 ,when born alive1 it is weak and puny1 and usually dies or is destroyed within a few days4 ,when the attendant fails to give the animal the necessary attention1 or is careless in his manipulation of the parts1 inflammation of the womb1 caused by the decomposition of the retained membranes1 or the introduction of irritating germs on the ropes1 instruments and hands1 may occur4 ,death commonly follows this complication4 ,it is very important that the infectious form be diagnosed early in the outbreak4 ,for all practical purposes we are justified in diagnosing infectious abortion1 if several animals in the herd abort1 especially if it follows the introduction of new animals4 ,methods of serum diagnosis1 the agglutination and complement-fixation tests1 are now used in the diagnosis of this disease4 ,the preventive treatment of the accidental form consists in avoiding conditions that may result in this accident4 ,pregnant animals should not be exposed to injuries from other animals or from the surroundings4 ,animals which show a predisposition to abort should not be bred4 ,we should see that all animals receive the necessary exercise and a proper ration4 ,if the animal indicates by her actions that abortion may take place1 we should give her comfortable1 quiet quarters4 ,it is very necessary to keep her quiet1 and if restless1 morphine may be given4 ,a very light diet should be fed and constipation prevented by administering a laxative4 ,the necessary attention should be given in case abortion occurs4 ,the enforcement of preventive or quarantine measures is very important in the control of infectious abortion4 ,this is especially true of breeding herds and dairy cows4 ,breeders do not recognize the importance of keeping their herds clean or free from disease4 ,it is a well-known fact among stockmen that abortion and other infectious diseases have been frequently introduced into the herd through the purchase of one or more breeding animals4 ,because of the prevalence of infectious abortion among cows1 it is advisable to subject newly purchased breeding animals1 or a cow that has been bred outside of the herd1 to a short quarantine period before allowing them to mix with the herd4 ,the breeding of cows from neighboring herds to the herd bull is not a safe practice4 ,in communities where there are outbreaks of this disease1 animals that abort1 or show indications of aborting1 should be quarantined for a period of from two to three months4 ,the separation from the herd should be so complete as to eliminate any danger of carrying the disease to the healthy animals on the clothing and farm tools4 ,if this method of control were practised at the very beginning of the outbreaks1 the disease could be checked in the large majority of herds4 ,the foetus and membranes should be destroyed by burning4 ,in case the animal does not pass the fetal membranes1 they should be completely removed4 ,in the cow1 it is advisable to wait twenty-four hours before doing this4 ,the animal's stall should be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected4 ,it is very advisable to give the entire stable a thorough disinfecting4 ,for this purpose a three or four per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compound may be used4 ,it is advisable to apply it with a spray pump4 ,the floor and feed troughs should be sprinkled daily with the disinfectant4 ,all manure should be removed to a place where the animals can not come in contact with it4 ,it is not advisable to confine the cows to a small yard4 ,the more range they have the easier it is to control the disease4 ,individual treatment is very necessary4 ,in infectious abortion the mucous lining of the womb and the passages leading to it become inflamed4 ,this should be treated by irrigating the parts with a warm water solution of a disinfectant that is non-irritating4 ,this treatment should be repeated daily for a period of from two to four weeks4 ,we must be very careful not to irritate the parts4 ,a one-half per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compound may be used4 ,animals that abort should not be bred until they have completely recovered4 ,small animals that have no special value as breeding animals should be marketed4 ,cows and mares should not be bred for a period of at least three months4 ,infected males should not be used for service4 ,the male should receive the necessary attention in the way of irrigating the sheath before and after each service4 ,,physiology ,,of ,,parturition4--,parturition or birth1 when occurring in the mare1 is designated as foaling2 in the cow1 calving2 in the sheep1 lambing2 and in the sow1 farrowing4 ,a normal or natural birth occurs when no complications are present and the mother needs no assistance4 ,when the act is complicated and prolonged1 it is termed abnormal birth4 ,the length of time required for different individuals of the same species to give birth to their young varies widely4 ,it may require but a few minutes1 or be prolonged for a day or more4 ,the cause of this variation in the length of time required for different animals to bring forth their young1 can be better understood if we study the anatomy of the parts and their functions4 ,throughout the pregnant period the expulsion of the foetus is being prepared for4 ,as the foetus develops there is a corresponding development of the muscular wall of the womb4 ,the last period of pregnancy is characterized by the relaxation of the muscles and ligaments that form the pelvic walls1 and a relaxation and dilation of the maternal passages4 ,in addition1 degenerative changes occur in the structures that attach the foetus to the womb1 the normal structures being gradually destroyed by a fatty degeneration4 ,this results in a separation between the fetal and maternal placenta4 ,the contents of the womb begin to affect the organ in the same manner as a foreign body1 irritating the nerve endings and producing contractions of the muscles4 ,these contractions of the muscles help greatly in breaking down the attachments until finally the labor pains begin in earnest1 and the foetus is gradually forced out of the womb1 through the dilated os and into the vagina and vulva4 ,a normal birth is possible1 only when the expelling power of the womb is able to overcome the resistance offered by the foetus and its membranes1 the pelvic walls and the vagina and vulva4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4--,photograph of model of uterus of cow containing a foetus3 foetus2 umbilical cord2 placenta2 horn containing foetus2 and opposite horn4 ,note the difference in the development of the two horns4 ,the relative size of the foetus to the inlet of the pelvic cavity and its position are the most important factors for the veterinarian and stockman to consider 7,fig4 #ah74 ,on leaving the womb1 the foetus passes into the vagina and vulva4 ,this portion of the maternal passages is situated in the pelvic cavity which continues the abdominal cavity posteriorly4 ,the pelvic walls are formed by bones and ligaments that are covered by heavy muscles4 ,as previously mentioned1 the ligaments and muscles relax toward the end of pregnancy in order to prepare the way for the passage of the foetus4 ,before entering the pelvis it is necessary for the foetus to be forced through the inlet to this cavity4 ,this is the most difficult part of the birth1 as the bones that form the framework of the pelvis completely enclose the entrance to it4 ,it is only in the young mother that the pelvic bones give way slightly to the pressure on them by the foetus4 ,it can be readily understood1 that when the young is large in proportion to the diameter of the pelvic inlet1 it is difficult for it to pass through4 ,this occurs when mothers belonging to a small breed1 are impregnated by a sire belonging to a large breed of animals4 ,it may also occur if the mother is fed too fattening a ration and not permitted sufficient exercise4 ,the part of the foetus that presents itself for entrance into the pelvic cavity and its position are of the greatest importance in giving birth to the young4 ,either end of the foetus1 or its middle portion may be presented for entrance4 ,the anterior and posterior presentations may be modified by the position that the foetus assumes4 ,it may be in a position that places the back or vertebrae opposite the upper portion of the inlet1 or the floor or sides of the pelvic cavity4 ,these positions may be modified by the position of one or both limbs1 or the head and neck being directed forwards instead of backwards4 ,in the transverse presentations1 the back1 or the feet and abdomen of the foetus may present themselves for entrance to the pelvic cavity4 ,these presentations may show three positions each4 ,the head may be opposite the upper walls of the inlet1 the foetus assuming a dog-sitting position1 or it may lie on either side4 ,in order to overcome the friction between the foetus and the wall of the maternal passages1 these parts are lubricated by the fluids that escape from the water bags4 ,if birth is prolonged and the passages become dry1 birth is retarded4 ,the hair offers some resistance in a posterior presentation4 ,young mares that become hysterical have abnormal labor pains that seem to hold the foetus in the womb instead of expelling it4 ,,care ,,of ,,the ,,mother ,,and ,,young4--,although birth is generally easy in the different domestic animals1 it may be difficult and complicated1 and it is of the greatest economic importance that special attention be given the mother at this time4 ,it is very necessary for her to be free if confined in a stall4 ,if running in a pasture or lot1 the necessary shelter from storms1 cold or extreme heat should be provided4 ,other farm animals1 such as hogs1 horses and cattle1 should not be allowed to run in the same lot or pasture4 ,when parturition commences1 the mother should be kept under close observation4 ,if the labor is difficult and prolonged1 we may then examine the parts and determine the cause of the abnormal birth4 ,unnecessary meddling is not advisable4 ,before attempting this examination1 the hands should be cleaned and disinfected1 and the finger nails shortened if necessary4 ,the different conditions to be determined are the nature of the labor pains1 the condition of the maternal passages1 and the position and presentation of the foetus4 ,in the smaller animals this examination may be difficult4 ,in prolonged labor the parts may be found dry and the labor pains violent and irregular1 or weak4 ,the foetus may be jammed tightly into the pelvic inlet1 it may be well forward in the womb1 the head and fore or hind limbs may be directed backwards1 or one or more of these parts may be directed forward in such a position as to prevent the entrance of the foetus into the pelvic inlet4 ,sometimes the foetus is in a transverse position4 ,the parts that present themselves at the pelvic inlet should be carefully examined and their position determined4 ,the necessary assistance should then be given4 ,any delay in assisting in the birth may result in the death of the young or mother1 or both4 ,on the other hand1 unintelligent meddling may aggravate the case and render treatment difficult or impossible4 ,there is no line of veterinary work that requires the attention of a skilled veterinarian more than assisting an irregular or abnormal birth4 ,the attendant must guard against infecting the parts with irritating germs1 or irritating and injuring them in any way4 ,the hands1 instruments1 and cords must be freed from germs by washing with a disinfectant1 or sterilization with heat4 ,the quarters must be clean in order to prevent contamination of the instruments and clothing of the attendant by filth4 ,extreme force is injurious4 ,for illustration1 we may take a case of difficult birth caused by an unusually large foetus4 ,both presentation and position are normal1 the forefeet and head having entered the pelvic cavity1 but the shoulders and chest are jammed tightly in the inlet1 and the progress of the foetus along the maternal passages is retarded4 ,by using sufficient force1 we may succeed in delivering the young1 but by pulling on one limb until the shoulder has entered the pelvis1 and repeating this with the opposite limb we are able to deliver the young without exposing the mother to injury4 ,it may be necessary to change an abnormal presentation1 or position1 to a normal presentation1 or as nearly normal as possible4 ,this should be done before any attempt is made to remove the foetus4 ,following birth the mother should not be unnecessarily disturbed4 ,the quarters should be clean1 well bedded and ventilated1 but free from draughts4 ,if the parturition has been normal1 a small quantity of easily digested feed may be fed4 ,if weak and feverish1 feed should be withheld for at least twelve hours4 ,the mare should be rested for a few weeks4 ,the young needs no special attention if it is strong and vigorous1 but if weak1 it may be necessary to support it while nursing1 or milk the mother and feed it by hand4 ,if the mother is nervous and irritable1 it may be necessary to remove the young temporarily to a place where she can hear and see it1 until a time when she can be induced to care for it4 ,the principal attention required for young pigs is protection against being crushed by the mother4 ,the cutting off and ligation of the umbilical cord at a point a few inches from the abdomen1 and applying tincture of iodine or any reliable disinfectant is very advisable in the colt and calf4 ,,retention ,,of ,,the ,,fetal ,,membranes4--,the foetus is enveloped by several layers of membranes4 ,the external envelope1 the chorion1 is exactly adapted to the uterus4 ,the innermost envelope1 the amnion1 encloses the foetus4 ,covering the external face of the amnion and lining the inner face of the chorion is a double membrane1 the allantois4 ,the envelopes mentioned are not the only protection that the foetus has against injury4 ,it is enveloped in fluids as well4 ,immediately surrounding it is the liquor amnii1 and within allantois is the allantoic fluid4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4--,placenta of cow4 ,the placenta is a highly vascular structure spread out or scattered over the surface of the chorion and the mucous membrane of the uterus1 that attaches the foetus and its envelopes to the womb 7,fig4 #ai74 ,it is by means of this vascular apparatus that the foetus is furnished with nourishment4 ,the fetal and maternal placentas are made up of vascular villi and depressions that are separated only by the thin walls of capillaries1 and a layer of epithelial cells4 ,this permits a change of material between the fetal and maternal circulation4 ,the arrangement of the placenta differs in the different species4 ,in the mare and sow1 the villi are diffused4 ,in ruminants1 the villi are grouped at certain points4 ,these vascular masses are termed cotyledons4 ,the maternal cotyledons or buttons form appendages or thickened points that become greatly enlarged in the pregnant animal4 ,toward the end of the pregnant period1 the attachments between the fetal and maternal placentulae undergo a fatty degeneration and finally separate4 ,this results in contractions of the muscular wall of the uterus1 and the expulsion of the foetus and its envelopes4 ,in the mare1 it is not uncommon for the colt to be born with the covering intact4 ,this does not occur in the cow4 ,usually the envelopes are not expelled until a short time after birth in all animals1 and it is not uncommon for them to be retained4 ,this complication is most commonly met with in the cow4 ,in the mare the retention of the fetal envelopes or afterbirth is commonly due to the muscles of the womb not contracting properly following birth4 ,abortion1 especially the infectious form1 is commonly complicated by a retention of the fetal membranes4 ,any condition that may produce an inflammation of the lining membrane of the womb may result in retention of the after-birth4 ,injuries to the uterus resulting from the animal slipping1 fighting and becoming crowded are1 no doubt1 common causes of failure to clean in cows4 ,the symptoms are so marked that a mistaken diagnosis is seldom made4 ,a portion of the membranes is usually seen hanging from the vulva1 and the tail and hind parts may be more or less soiled4 ,the latter symptom is especially prominent if the membranes have been retained for several days1 and decomposition has begun4 ,in such case1 the discharge from the vulva is dark in color1 contains small pieces of the decomposed membrane and has a very disagreeable odor4 ,in the mare1 acute inflammation of the womb may result if the removal of the after-birth is neglected4 ,loss of appetite1 abnormal body temperature1 weakness and diarrhoea may follow4 ,such cases usually terminate in death4 ,retention of the fetal membranes is a very common cause of leucorrhoea4 ,the treatment consists in removing the fetal envelopes before there is any opportunity for them to undergo decomposition4 ,in the mare1 this should be practised within a few hours after birth has occurred1 and in other animals1 from one to forty-eight hours4 ,in warm stables and during the warm weather1 treatment should not be postponed later than twenty-four hours4 ,the only successful method of treatment is to introduce the hand and arm into the uterus1 and break down the attachments with the fingers4 ,in the larger animals1 the use of the arm must not be interfered with by clothing4 ,every possible precaution should be taken to prevent infection of the genital organs with irritating germs4 ,it is advisable in most cases to flush out the womb with a one per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compound after the removal of the fetal envelopes4 ,,leucorrhoea4--,this is a chronic inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the genital tract1 that is associated with more or less of a discharge from the vulva4 ,it is common in animals that abort1 or retain the after-birth4 ,the discharge may be white1 sticky1 albuminous1 and without odor1 or it may be chocolate colored and foul smelling4 ,the tail and hind parts are usually soiled with it4 ,in chronic inflammation of the womb the discharge is intermittent4 ,in mild cases the health of the animal is in no way impaired4 ,sterility is common4 ,loss of appetite and unthriftiness occur in severe cases4 ,treatment4--,mild cases readily yield to treatment4 ,this consists in irrigating the maternal passages with a one-half per cent warm water solution of liquor cresolis compound4 ,this treatment should be repeated daily and continued for as long a time as necessary4 ,,mammitis4--,inflammation of the mammary gland or udder is more common in the cow than in any of the other domestic animals4 ,in all animals it is most frequently met with during the first few weeks after birth4 ,a predisposing cause in the development of mammitis is a high development of the mammary glands4 ,the following direct causes may be mentioned3 incomplete milking1 or milking at irregular intervals2 injury to the udder by stepping on the teat2 blows from the horns and pressure caused by lying on a rough1 uneven surface2 chilling of the udder by draughts and lying on frozen ground2 and infection of the glandular tissue by irritating germs4 ,the latter cause produces the most serious1 and1 sometimes1 a very extensive inflammation4 ,this form of inflammation may spread from one cow to another1 causing the milk to be unfit for food1 and bringing about the loss of one or more quarters of the udder4 ,the symptoms occurring in the different forms of mammitis differ4 ,the inflammation may involve one or more of the glands1 and may affect either the glandular or the connective tissue4 ,in some cases the gland may appear congested for a few days before the inflammatory changes occur4 ,the part becomes hot1 swollen1 tender and reddened4 ,it may feel doughy or hard4 ,if the connective tissue is involved 7interstitial form71 there is apt to be a high body temperature1 the udder may be much larger than normal1 is tender and pits on pressure4 ,loss of appetite usually accompanies this form of mammitis4 ,very little or no milk is secreted4 ,sometimes1 the milk is greatly changed in appearance1 is foul smelling and contains pus4 ,in congestion of the udder and rupture of the capillary vessels1 the milk may contain blood4 ,mild inflammation of the udder responds readily to treatment4 ,the interstitial form may terminate in abscesses and gangrene4 ,the replacement of the glandular tissue by fibrous tissue in one or more quarters is not uncommon4 ,death seldom occurs4 ,the preventive treatment consists in avoiding conditions that may favor or cause an inflammation of the gland4 ,animals that have highly developed mammary glands should be fed a light diet just before and following parturition4 ,following parturition1 a dose of ,epsom or ,glauber's salts may be given4 ,if the young does not take all the milk1 the udder should be milked out as clean as possible4 ,massaging the udder by kneading or stroking may be practised4 ,the following treatment is recommended3 ,the application of a thick coating of antiphlogistin once or twice daily is a useful remedy4 ,if the udder becomes badly swollen1 it should be supported with a bandage4 ,extensive inflammation may be treated by the application of cold in the form of packs of cracked ice4 ,irrigating the gland with a four per cent water solution of boric acid is an important treatment for certain forms of mammitis4 ,abscess formation or suppuration should be promptly treated by opening and treating the abscesses4 ,if gangrene occurs1 it may be necessary to remove a part1 or the whole of the udder4 ,the giving of milk discolored with blood may be treated by applying camphorated ointment twice daily4 ,,sore ,,and ,,warty ,,teats4--,irritation to the teats by filth1 cold1 moisture and injuries cause the skin to become inflamed1 sore and scabby4 ,preventive treatment is the most satisfactory4 ,sore teats may be treated by applying the following ointment after each milking3 vaseline ten parts and oxide of zinc one part4 ,pendulous warts may be clipped off with a sharp pair of scissors4 ,castor oil applied to the wart daily by rubbing may be used for the removal of flat warts4 ,,milk-,,fever ,,or ,,post-,,partum ,,paralysis4--,this is a disease peculiar to cows1 especially heavy milkers that are in good condition4 ,it most commonly occurs after the third1 fourth and fifth calving4 ,the disease usually appears within the first two or three days after calving1 but it has been known to occur before1 and as late as several weeks after calving4 ,the cause is not certainly known4 ,the ,schmidt theory is that certain toxins are formed in the udder1 owing to the over activity of the cells of the glandular tissue4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--;,a case of milk-fever4 ,the symptoms are characteristic of the disease4 ,at the very beginning of the attack the cow stops eating and ruminating1 becomes uneasy1 switches the tail1 stamps the feet1 trembles1 staggers when forced to walk and finally falls and is unable to get up4 ,at first she may lie in a natural position2 later1 as the paralytic symptoms become more pronounced1 the head is laid against the side of the body and the animal seems to be in a deep sleep 7,fig4 #bj74 ,in the more severe form the cow lies on her side1 consciousness is lost and the paralysis of the muscles is marked4 ,the different body functions are interfered with2 the urine is retained1 bloating occurs1 respirations are slow1 pulse weak and temperature subnormal or normal4 ,preventive treatment1 such as feeding a spare diet during the latter period of pregnancy1 is not always advisable4 ,heavy milkers should be given one-half pound of ,glauber's salts a day or two before calving1 and the dose repeated when the cow becomes fresh4 ,cows affected with milk-fever seldom die if treated promptly4 ,the treatment consists in emptying the udder by milking and injecting air or oxygen gas into the gland until it is completely distended 7,fig4 #ba74 ,the milk-fever apparatus should be clean1 and the air injected filtered4 ,before introducing the milking tube into the milk duct1 the udder should first be washed with a disinfectant1 and a clean towel laid on the floor for the gland to rest on4 ,after injecting the quarter1 strips of muslin or tape should be tied around the ends of the teats to prevent the escape of the air4 ,if the cow does not show indications of recovery in from four to five hours1 the treatment should be repeated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4--,milk-fever apparatus3 pump2 filter2 rubber tubing2 and milk tube4 ,it is very necessary to give the cow a comfortable stall and protect her from any kind of exposure4 ,no bulky drenches should be administered4 ,if she lies stretched out1 the fore parts should be raised by packing straw under her4 ,this is necessary in order to prevent pneumonia1 caused by regurgitated feed entering the air passages and lungs4 ,it is very advisable to give her the following mixture for a few days after the attack3 tincture of nux vomica two ounces1 and alcohol six ounces4 ,one ounce of this mixture may be given four times daily in a little water4 ,,questions #a4 ,name the generative organs of the female4 #b4 ,name the generative organs of the male4 #c4 ,give the causes of sterility or impotency in the male and female4 #d4 ,give the treatment of impotency in the male and female4 #e4 ,describe the probable signs of pregnancy2 positive signs of pregnancy4 #f4 ,describe the hygienic care of the pregnant female in a general way4 #g4 ,name the different forms of abortion2 give the causes4 #h4 ,describe the preventive treatment of infectious abortion4 #i4 ,give a general discussion of the physiology of parturition4 #aj4 ,what are the common causes of difficult birth8 #aa4 ,what parts of the foetus may present themselves at the inlet of the pelvic cavity8 ,what are the different positions of the foetus8 #ab4 ,what attention should be given the mother at the time of parturition8 #ac4 ,what attention should be given the young immediately after birth8 #ad4 ,give the causes of retention of the fetal membranes2 state the method of removing them4 #ae4 ,give the causes and treatment of inflammation of the udder4 #af4 ,give the cause of milk-fever2 give the treatment4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,respiratory ,,apparatus ,,general ,,discussion4--,the respiratory apparatus may be divided into two groups of organs1 anterior and posterior4 ,the anterior group1 the nostrils1 nasal cavities1 pharynx1 larynx and trachea1 is situated in the region of the head and neck4 ,the posterior group1 the bronchial tubes and lungs1 is situated in the chest or thoracic cavity4 ,the nostrils are the anterior openings of the air passages4 ,the nasal cavities are situated in the anterior region of the head1 and extend the entire length of the face4 ,each cavity is divided into three long1 narrow passages by the two pairs of turbinated bones4 ,the lining membrane is the nasal mucous membrane1 the lower two-thirds or respiratory portion differing from the upper one-third1 in that the latter possesses the nerve endings of the olfactory nerve and is the seat of smell4 ,the five pairs of head sinuses communicate with the nasal cavities4 ,posteriorly and near the superior extremity of the nasal passages1 are two large openings1 the guttural1 that open into the pharyngeal cavity4 ,the pharynx is a somewhat funnel-shaped cavity4 ,the walls are thin and formed by muscles and mucous membrane4 ,this is the cross-road between the digestive and respiratory passages4 ,in the posterior portion of the cavity there are two openings4 ,the inferior opening leads to the larynx and the superior one to the oesophagus4 ,all feed on its way to the stomach must pass over the opening into the larynx4 ,it is impossible1 however1 for the feed to enter this opening1 unless accidentally when the animal coughs4 ,the cartilage closing this opening is pressed shut by the base of the tongue when the bolus of feed is passed back and into the oesophageal opening4 ,the larynx may be compared to a box open at both ends4 ,the several cartilages that form it are united by ligaments4 ,it is lined by a mucous membrane4 ,the posterior extremity is united to the first cartilaginous ring of the trachea4 ,the anterior opening is closed by the epiglottis4 ,just within is a ,v-shaped opening that is limited laterally by the folds of the laryngeal mucous membrane1 the vocal chords4 ,the trachea is a cylindrical tube originating at the posterior extremity of the larynx1 and terminating within the chest cavity at a point just above the heart in the right and left bronchial tubes4 ,it is formed by a series of cartilaginous rings joined together at their borders by ligaments and lined by a mucous membrane4 ,the bronchial tubes resemble the trachea in structure4 ,they enter the lungs a short distance from their origin1 where they subdivide into branches and sub-branches1 gradually decreasing in calibre and losing the cartilaginous rings1 ligaments and muscular layer until only the thin mucous membrane is left4 ,they become capillary in diameter1 and finally open into the infundibula of the air cells of the lungs4 ,the lungs take up all of the space in the thoracic cavity not occupied by the heart1 blood-vessels and oesophagus4 ,this cavity resembles a cone in shape that is cut obliquely downwards and forward at its base4 ,the base is formed by the diaphragm which is pushed forward at its middle4 ,it is lined by the pleura1 a serous membrane1 that is inflected from the wall over the different organs within the cavity4 ,the median folds of the pleura divide the cavity into right and left portions4 ,a second method of describing the arrangement of the pleura is to state that it forms two sacks1 right and left1 that enclose the lungs4 ,the lungs are the essential organs of respiration4 ,the tissue that forms them is light1 will float in water1 is elastic and somewhat rose-colored4 ,each lung is divided into lobes1 and each lobe into a great number of lobules by the supporting connective tissue4 ,the lobule is the smallest division of the lung and is formed by capillary bronchial tubes1 air cells and blood-vessels4 ,it is here that the external respiration or the exchange of gases between the capillaries and the air cells occurs4 ,,ventilation4--,it is agreed by all persons who have investigated the subject1 that unventilated stable air is injurious to animals4 ,at one time it was believed that the injurious effects resulting from the breathing of air charged with gases and moisture from the expired air and the animal's surroundings1 were due to a deficiency in oxygen4 ,it is now believed that the ill-effects are mainly due to the stagnation of air1 the humid atmosphere1 and the irritating gases emanating from the body excretions4 ,the common impurities found in stable air are carbonic and ammonia gas1 moisture charged with injurious matter and dust from the floor and bodies of the animals4 ,as a rule1 the more crowded and filthy the stable1 the more impurities there are in the air4 ,if any of the animals are affected with an infectious disease1 such as tuberculosis or glanders1 the moisture and dust may act as carriers of the disease-producing germs4 ,infectious diseases spread rapidly in crowded1 poorly ventilated stables4 ,the two factors responsible for this rapid spread of disease are the lowered vitality of the animal1 due to breathing the vitiated air1 and the greater opportunity for infection1 because of the comparatively large number of bacteria present in the air4 ,the purpose of stable ventilation is to replace the stable air with purer air4 ,the frequency with which the air in the stable should be changed depends on the cubic feet of air space provided for each animal1 and the sanitary conditions present4 ,the principal factor in stable ventilation is the force of the wind4 ,in cold weather it is very difficult to properly ventilate a crowded stable without too much loss of animal heat and creating draughts4 ,for practical purposes1 the need of ventilation in a stable can be determined by the odor of the air1 the amount of moisture present and the temperature4 ,it is impossible to keep the air within the stable as pure as the atmosphere outside4 ,all dangers from injury by breathing impure air1 or by draughts can be eliminated by proper stable construction1 attention to the ventilation and keeping the quarters clean4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4--;,a case of catarrhal cold4 ,,catarrh 7,,cold ,,in ,,the ,,head74--,catarrh is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the nasal cavities that usually extends to the membrane lining of the sinuses of the head4 ,it may be acute or chronic4 ,the inflammation very often extends to the pharynx and larynx4 ,cold in the head is more common in the horse than in any of the other animals 7,fig4 #bb74 ,the most common causes of colds are standing or lying in a draught1 becoming wet1 and exposure to the cold4 ,colds are common during cold1 changeable weather4 ,horses that are accustomed to warm stables1 are very apt to take cold if changed to a cold stable and not protected with a blanket4 ,most animals are not affected by the cold weather if given dry quarters and a dry bed4 ,irritation to the mucous membrane by dust1 gases and germs is a common cause4 ,influenza and colt distemper are characterized by an inflammation of the respiratory mucous membranes4 ,in the horse1 chronic catarrh is commonly caused by diseased teeth1 and injuries to the wall of the maxillary sinus4 ,in sheep1 the larvae of the bot-fly may cause catarrh4 ,the early symptoms usually pass unnoticed by the attendant4 ,the lining membrane of the nostrils is at first dry and red4 ,during this stage sneezing is common4 ,in a few days a discharge appears4 ,this is watery at first1 but may become catarrhal1 heavy1 mucous-like and turbid4 ,in severe cases it resembles pus4 ,the lining membrane of the eyelids appears red and tears may flow from the eye4 ,sometimes the animal acts dull and feverish1 but this symptom does not last longer than one or two days unless complicated by sore throat4 ,inflammation of the throat is a common complication of colds4 ,it is characterized by difficulty in swallowing and partial1 or complete loss of appetite4 ,drinking or exercising causes the animal to cough4 ,if the larynx as well as the pharynx is inflamed1 distressed and noisy breathing may occur4 ,pressure over the region of the throat causes the animal pain4 ,common cold terminates favorably within a week4 ,chronic catarrh may persist until the cause is removed and the necessary local treatment applied4 ,inflammation of the pharynx and larynx may persist for several weeks unless properly treated4 ,abscesses may form in the region of the throat4 ,horses frequently become thick winded as a result of severe attacks of sore throat4 ,the treatment is both preventive and curative4 ,colds and sore throat can be largely prevented by good care1 exercise and properly ventilated stables4 ,mild cases require a light diet1 comfortable quarters and a dry bed4 ,allowing the animal to inhale steam three or four times daily is useful in relieving the inflammation4 ,easily digested feeds1 and in case the animal has difficulty in swallowing1 soft feeds and gruels1 should be given4 ,the throat may be kept covered with a layer of antiphlogistin and bandaged4 ,glycoheroin may be given in from teaspoonful to tablespoonful doses1 depending on the size of the animal4 ,chlorate of potassium may be given in the drinking water4 ,if the animal becomes run down in flesh1 as sometimes occurs in chronic catarrh1 bitter tonics should be given4 ,in the latter disease1 it is sometimes necessary to trephine and wash out the sinus or sinuses affected with an antiseptic solution4 ,it may be necessary to continue this treatment for several weeks4 ,,bronchitis4--,inflammation of the bronchial tubes may be either acute or chronic4 ,acute bronchitis is especially common in the horse1 while the chronic form is more often met with in the smaller animals1 especially hogs4 ,this disease is most common among horses during the changeable seasons of the years4 ,it is caused by warm1 close stables or stalls1 and irritating gases emanating from the floor1 or manure in the stall4 ,in general1 the causes are about the same as in cold in the head4 ,in young animals and hogs1 the inhalation of dust1 and bronchial and lung worms commonly cause it4 ,verminous bronchitis usually becomes chronic4 ,in the acute form of the disease the symptoms come on very quickly1 the fever is high and the pulse beats and respirations are rapid4 ,chilling of the body occurs1 and the animal may appear dull and refuse to eat4 ,the animal coughs frequently4 ,recovery occurs within a few days1 unless complicated by sore throat and pneumonia4 ,in the horse1 bronchitis is not a serious disease1 but in other animals recovery is delayed and complications are more common4 ,in chronic bronchitis in the horse1 the animal coughs frequently1 there is more or less discharge from the nostrils and the respirations may become labored when exercised4 ,the animal is usually weak1 in poor flesh and unfit for work4 ,in other cases1 symptoms of broken wind are noticed4 ,severe coughing spells on getting up from the bed1 or on moving about are characteristic of bronchitis in hogs4 ,verminous bronchitis in calves and lambs is characterized by severe spells of coughing1 difficult and labored breathing and a weak1 emaciated condition4 ,the preventive treatment is the same as for colds4 ,in the acute form the treatment consists largely in careful nursing4 ,properly ventilated1 clean quarters that are free from dust should be provided4 ,the animal should be covered with a light or heavy blanket1 depending on the temperature of the stable1 and the limbs bandaged4 ,a light diet should be fed for a few days4 ,it is advisable to give the animal a physic of oil4 ,the inhalation of steam every few hours during the first few days should be practised4 ,glycoheroin may be given three or four times a day4 ,animals affected with chronic bronchitis should not be exercised or worked4 ,we should guard against their taking cold1 give nourishing feeds1 and a tonic if necessary4 ,,congestion ,,of ,,the ,,lungs4--,pulmonary congestion is generally due to overexertion and exposure to extreme heat or cold4 ,it may occur if the animal is exercised when sick or exhausted4 ,hogs that are heated from exercise and allowed access to cold water1 may suffer from a congestion or engorgement of the lungs4 ,it may be present at the beginning of an attack of pneumonia or pleurisy4 ,the symptoms are difficult breathing and the animal fights for its breath4 ,the body temperature may be several degrees above the normal4 ,in the mild form1 the above symptoms are not so marked4 ,the onset and course of the disease are rapid1 recovery1 pneumonia1 or death often occurring within twenty-four hours4 ,pulmonary haemorrhage is not uncommon4 ,the discharge from the nostrils may be slightly tinged with blood1 or there may be an intermittent discharge of blood from the nostrils or mouth4 ,the mucous membranes are pale1 the animal trembles and shows marked dyspnoea4 ,the preventive treatment consists in using the proper judgment in caring for1 and in working or exercising animals4 ,this is especially true if the animal is affected with acute or chronic disease4 ,at the very beginning1 bleeding should be practised4 ,hot blankets renewed frequently and bandages to the limbs is a very necessary part of the treatment4 ,in case of severe pulmonary haemorrhage1 treatment is of little use4 ,,pneumonia4--,inflammation of the lungs is more common in horses than in any of the other domestic animals4 ,the croupous form is the most common4 ,the inflammation may affect one or both lungs1 one or more lobes1 or scattered lobules of lung tissue4 ,the inflammation may be acute1 subacute or chronic4 ,the causes are very much the same as in other respiratory diseases4 ,exposure to cold and wet1 stable draughts1 becoming chilled after perspiring freely and washing the animal with cold water are the common causes of pneumonia4 ,inflammation of the lungs is especially apt to occur if the animal is not accustomed to such exposure4 ,animals affected with other respiratory diseases are predisposed to pneumonia4 ,drenching animals by way of the nostril and irritating drenches1 or regurgitated feed passing into the air passages and lungs are the traumatic causes of pneumonia4 ,the symptoms vary in the different forms of pneumonia4 ,in case pneumonia occurs secondarily1 the earliest symptoms are confounded with those of the primary disease4 ,the first symptoms noticed may be a high body temperature1 as indicated by chills1 and refusing to eat4 ,the visible mucous membranes are red and congested1 the nostrils dilated1 the respirations quickened and difficult1 the expired air hot and the pulse beats accelerated4 ,the animal coughs1 and in the horse1 a rusty discharge may be noticed adhering to the margins of the nostrils4 ,the horse refuses to lie down if both lungs are inflamed4 ,in severe cases the expression of the face indicates pain1 the respirations are labored1 the general symptoms aggravated1 and the animal stands with the front feet spread apart4 ,cattle are inclined to lie down1 unless the lungs are seriously affected4 ,hogs like to burrow under the litter4 ,the course of croupous pneumonia is typical1 and unless it terminates fatally in the first stage1 the periods of congestion1 hepatization and resolution follow each other in regular manner4 ,auscultation of the lungs is of great value in diagnosing and watching the progress of the disease4 ,it is more difficult to determine the character of the lung sounds in the horse and cow than it is in the small animals4 ,this is especially difficult if the animal is fat4 ,during the period of congestion which lasts about a day1 one can hear both healthy and crepitating sounds4 ,the period of hepatization is characterized by an absence of sound over the diseased area4 ,the inflammatory exudates become organized at the beginning of this stage1 and the air can not enter the air cells4 ,this period lasts several days4 ,resolution marks the beginning of recovery or convalescence4 ,toward the end of the second period1 the inflammatory exudate in the air cells has begun to degenerate4 ,in the last stage1 these exudates undergo liquefaction and are absorbed1 or expelled by coughing1 in from seven days to two weeks1 depending on the extent of the inflammation and the general condition of the animal4 ,in the subacute form the symptoms are mild and may subside within a week4 ,sometimes abscesses form in the lung4 ,gangrenous inflammation of the lung can be recognized by the odor of the expired air and the severity of the symptoms4 ,this form of pneumonia terminates fatally4 ,if the larger portion of the lung tissue is inflamed1 death from asphyxia may occur in the second stage4 ,the success in the treatment of pneumonia depends largely on the care4 ,properly ventilated1 clean1 comfortable quarters and careful nursing are highly important4 ,large animals should be given a roomy box stall4 ,cold does not aggravate pneumonia1 providing the animal's body is well protected with blankets and the limbs bandaged4 ,wet1 damp quarters and draughts are injurious4 ,hogs should be given plenty of bedding to burrow in4 ,a light1 easily digested diet should be fed4 ,very little roughage should be fed4 ,if the animal does not eat well1 it may be given eggs and milk4 ,weak pulse beats should be treated by giving digitalis and strychnine4 ,counterirritation to the chest wall is indicated4 ,during convalescence1 bitter tonics may be given4 ,constipation should be treated by giving the animal castor or linseed oil4 ,,pleurisy4--,inflammation of the pleura is most common in horses4 ,it occurs in all farm animals and is frequently unilateral4 ,there are two forms of pleurisy1 acute and chronic4 ,pleuropneumonia is common when the cause is a specific germ4 ,this occurs in tuberculosis1 pleuropneumonia of horses and pneumococcus infection4 ,the common causes are exposure to cold1 chilling winds1 draughty1 damp quarters1 and drinking cold water when perspiring4 ,injuries to the costal pleura by fractured ribs and punctured wounds may cause it to become inflamed4 ,the early symptoms of acute pleurisy are chills1 rise in body temperature1 pain and abdominal breathing4 ,the most characteristic symptom is the ridge extending along the lower extremities of the ribs 7pleuritic ridge74 ,the animal does not stand still as in pneumonia1 but changes its position occasionally1 its movements in many cases being accompanied by a grunt4 ,pressure on the wall of the chest causes the animal to flinch and show evidence of severe pain4 ,large animals rarely lie down4 ,the cough is short and painful4 ,on placing the ear against the wall of the chest and listening to the respirations1 we are able to hear friction sounds4 ,after a few days effusion occurs in the pleural cavity4 ,although the animal may have refused to eat up to this time1 it now appears greatly relieved and may offer to eat its feed4 ,this relief may be only temporary4 ,if the fluid exudate forms in sufficient quantity to cause pressure on the heart and lungs and interfere with their movement1 the pulse beat is weak1 the respirations quick and labored1 the elbows are turned out and the feet are spread apart4 ,all of the respiratory muscles may be used4 ,the expression of the face may indicate threatened asphyxia4 ,we may determine the extent of the pleural exudate by auscultation4 ,there is no evidence of respiratory sounds in that portion of the chest below the surface of the fluid4 ,dropsical swellings may occur on the under surface of the breast and abdomen4 ,in subacute cases evidence of recovery is noted in from four to ten days4 ,acute pleurisy very often terminates fatally4 ,under the most favorable conditions1 recovery takes place very slowly1 sometimes extending over a period of several months4 ,it is not uncommon for the horse to continue having defective wind4 ,the treatment consists in good care1 well ventilated quarters and careful nursing1 the same as recommended in the treatment of pneumonia4 ,at the very beginning1 the pain may be relieved by the administration of small doses of morphine4 ,if the conditions in the stable permit1 a hot blanket that has been dipped in hot water and wrung out as dry as possible1 may be applied to the chest wall and covered with a rubber blanket4 ,this treatment should be continued during the first few days of the inflammation4 ,these applications may be reinforced by occasionally applying mustard paste to the sides of the chest4 ,the animal should be allowed to drink but a limited amount of water4 ,the feed must be highly nutritious4 ,milk and eggs should be given if necessary4 ,a laxative dose of oil should be given4 ,calomel1 aloes1 and digitalis are recommended when the effusion period approaches in order to increase the elimination of fluid1 and lessen its entrance into the body cavity4 ,if the amount of effusion is large1 puncture of the thoracic cavity with a trocar and cannula may be practised4 ,this operation should be performed carefully1 and all possible precautions used against infection of the wound4 ,during the later period of the disease iodide of potassium1 iron and bitter tonics should be given4 ,,broken-,,wind1 ,,heaves4--,the terms broken-wind and heaves are used in a way to include a number of different diseases of the respiratory organs of the horse4 ,the term heaves is applied almost wholly to an emphysematous condition of the lungs4 ,broken-wind may include the following diseased conditions3 obstruction of the nasal passages by bony enlargements and tumors2 tumors in the pharynx2 enlarged neck glands2 collection of pus in the guttural pouches and paralysis of the left1 or both recurrent nerves 7roaring74 ,the common causes of heaves are pre-existing diseases of the respiratory organs1 severe exercise when the animal is not in condition and wrong methods of feeding4 ,heaves is more common in horses that are fed heavily on dusty timothy and clover hay and allowed to drink large quantities of water after feeding1 than in horses that are fed green feeds1 graze on pastures or receive prairie hay for roughage4 ,chronic indigestion seems to aggravate the disease4 ,over-distention of the stomach and intestines due to feeding too much roughage and grain interferes with respiration4 ,severe exercise when in this condition may result in over-distention1 dilation and rupture of the air cells4 ,this is the most common structural change met with in the lungs of horses affected with heaves4 ,it is termed emphysema4 ,the common symptoms noted are the double contraction of the muscles of the flank with each expiration1 a short1 dry cough and the dilated nostrils4 ,the frequent passage of gas is a prominent symptom in well-established cases of heaves4 ,chronic indigestion is commonly present in heavy horses that are not well cared for1 or are given hard work4 ,this condition aggravates the distressed breathing4 ,heaves is a permanent disorder1 but it may be relieved by climatic changes and careful attention to the animal's diet4 ,the following preventive treatment is recommended3 ,dusty hay should not be fed to horses4 ,clover hay is not a safe feed for horses that are worked hard4 ,when starting on a drive after feeding1 the horse should not be driven fast1 but allowed to go slowly for a few miles4 ,the symptoms can be greatly relieved by careful attention to the diet4 ,a limited quantity of roughage should be fed1 and this should be good in quality and fed in the evening4 ,during the warm weather1 the animal should be watered frequently4 ,after quitting work in the evening the animal may be allowed to drink as much water as it wants4 ,plenty of grain1 soft feed and roots may be fed4 ,a small handful of flaxseed meal given with the feed helps in keeping down constipation4 ,fowler's solution of arsenic may be given twice daily with the feed1 in half-ounce doses for a period of ten days or two weeks4 ,chronic indigestion should be combated by digestive tonics4 ,,questions #a4 ,name the organs that form the anterior and posterior air passages4 #b4 ,to what conditions are the injurious effects of keeping animals in a poorly ventilated stable due8 #c4 ,state the purpose of ventilation4 ,how can the need of ventilation be determined in a stable8 #d4 ,state the causes of cold in the head2 give the treatment4 #e4 ,state the cause of bronchitis2 give the treatment4 #f4 ,what are the causes of pneumonia8 ,describe the symptoms and treatment4 #g4 ,what symptoms are characteristic of pleurisy8 ,give the treatment for pleurisy4 #h4 ,give the causes and treatment of heaves4 ,,chapter ,,ix ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,circulatory ,,organs ,,general ,,discussion4--,the circulatory organs are the heart1 arteries1 veins and lymphatics4 ,the heart is the central organ of the circulatory system 7,fig4 #bc74 ,its function is to force the blood through the blood-vessels4 ,it is situated in the thoracic cavity between the lungs1 and enclosed by a special fold of the pleura1 the pericardial sack4 ,there are two kinds of blood-vessels1 arteries and veins4 ,the arteries leave the heart and carry the blood to the many different organs of the body4 ,the veins return to the heart and carry the blood from the body tissues4 ,the capillaries are small blood-vessels1 microscopic in size1 that connect the arteries with the veins4 ,the arteries carry the pure blood4 ,the opposite is true1 however1 of the lesser or pulmonary system4 ,the pulmonary artery carries the impure blood to the lungs1 and the pulmonary veins carry the pure blood back from the lungs4 ,the lymphatic vessels carry a transparent or slightly colored fluid and chyle from the tissues and alimentary canal4 ,this system of vessels empties into the venous system4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4--,photograph of model of horse's heart3 auricle2 ventricle2 pulmonary artery2 pulmonary veins2 posterior aorta2 and anterior aorta4 ,the functions of the blood are to nourish the body tissues2 furnish material for the purpose of the body secretions2 supply the cells of the body with oxygen2 convey from the tissues injurious substances produced by the cellular activity2 and destroy organisms that may have entered the body tissues4 ,the cellular and fluid portions of the blood are not always destructive to disease-producing organisms4 ,in certain infectious diseases1 the fluid portion of the blood may contain innumerable organisms1 and destruction of the blood cells occurs4 ,in inflammation of tissue the circulation of the blood in the inflamed part undergoes certain characteristic changes4 ,at the beginning there is an increase in the blood going to the part4 ,this is followed by a slowing of the blood stream in the small vessels1 and the collecting of the blood cells in the capillaries and veins4 ,these circulatory changes are followed by the migration of the blood cells1 and the escape of the fluid portion of the blood into the surrounding tissue4 ,the character of the above circulatory changes depends on the extent of the injury to the tissue4 ,,palpitation4--,this disturbance in domestic animals seems to be purely functional4 ,it may occur independent of any organic heart disease4 ,a highly nervous condition1 excitement1 over-exertion1 debility from disease and the feeding of an improper ration are the common causes4 ,the heart beats are so violent and tumultuous as to shake the body1 and be noticed when standing near the animal4 ,the heart sounds are louder than normal and the pulse beats small and irregular4 ,it may be differentiated from spasm of the diaphragm by determining the relationship of the heart beats to the abrupt shocks observed in the costal and flank regions4 ,the treatment consists in keeping the animal quiet and avoiding any excitement4 ,a quiet stall away from the other animals is best4 ,the treatment of palpitation resulting from some organic heart disease must be directed largely at the original disease4 ,morphine is commonly used for the treatment of this disorder4 ,weak1 anaemic animals should receive blood and bitter tonics4 ,if we have reason to believe that the disturbance is caused by improper feeding1 the animal should receive a spare diet for a few days4 ,in such cases it is advisable to administer a physic4 ,,pericarditis4--,inflammation of the pericardial sack is usually a secondary disease4 ,it is frequently met with in influenza1 contagious pleuropneumonia1 hog-cholera and rheumatism4 ,cattle may suffer from traumatic pericarditis caused by sharp1 pointed1 foreign bodies passing through the wall of the reticulum and penetrating the pericardial sack4 ,the jagged ends of fractured ribs may cause extensive injury to neighboring parts1 and the inflammation spreads to the pericardial sack4 ,the symptoms of pericarditis may not be recognized at the very beginning when the disease occurs as a complication of influenza1 or infectious pleuropneumonia4 ,the manifestation of pain by moving about in the stall1 refusing to eat and the anxious expression of the face are the first symptoms that the attendant may notice4 ,the body temperature is higher than normal1 and the pulse rapid and irregular4 ,on auscultation1 friction sounds that correspond to the tumultuous beats of the heart are heard4 ,when fluid collects within the pericardial sack1 the heart beats become feeble and the pulse weak4 ,labored breathing and bluish discoloration of the lips follow4 ,the disease usually runs a very acute course4 ,the prognosis is unfavorable4 ,the treatment recommended in pneumonia is indicated in this disease4 ,absolute rest and the feeding of an easily digested1 laxative diet is a very essential part of the treatment4 ,at the very beginning morphine may be given to quiet the tumultuous beats of the heart4 ,cold applications to the chest wall in the form of ice packs should be used4 ,heart tonics and stimulants such as digitalis1 strychnine and alcohol should be administered when the pulse beats weaken4 ,to promote absorption of the exudate1 iodide of sodium may be given4 ,mustard paste1 or a cantharides blister applied over the region of the heart is useful in easing the pain and overcoming the inflammation4 ,if fluid collects in sufficient quantity to seriously interfere with the heart action1 the sack may be punctured with the trocar and cannula and the fluid withdrawn4 ,great care must be used to avoid injury to the heart and infection of the part4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4--;,elephantiasis in horse4 ,,acute ,,lymphangitis4--,this is an inflammation of the lymphatic vessels of one or both hind limbs4 ,the attack comes on suddenly and usually occurs in connection with rest1 and in horses that are of slow1 quiet temperament4 ,the exciting cause is an infection of the part with bacteria1 the infection probably occurring through some abrasion or small wound in the skin4 ,the local symptoms are swelling1 tenderness and lameness in the affected limb4 ,the animal may refuse to support its weight on the affected limb4 ,the lymphatic glands in the region are swollen1 and the swelling of the limb pits on pressure4 ,in the chronic form of the disease1 the regions of the cannon and foot remain permanently enlarged1 and the swelling is more firm than it is in the acute form 7,fig4 #bd74 ,the general symptoms are high body temperature1 rapid pulse and the partial or complete loss of appetite4 ,the following treatment is recommended3 ,exercise is indicated in cases that are not sufficiently advanced to cause severe lameness1 or inability to use the limb2 rest and the application of woollen bandages wrung out of a hot water solution of liquor cresolis compound are recommended2 ,epsom salts in one-half pound doses may be given and repeated in two or three days2 a very light diet of soft feed should be given2 liniments should not be applied until the soreness in the limb has subsided2 iodide of potassium may be given twice daily with the feed4 ,,questions #a4 ,what are the functions of the blood and lymph8 #b4 ,state the changes occurring in the circulation in inflamed tissue4 #c4 ,what is palpitation8 ,give the causes and treatment4 #d4 ,what are the common causes of pericarditis8 #e4 ,give the causes and treatment of acute lymphangitis4 ,,chapter ,x ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,nervous ,,system ,,general ,,discussion4--,the nervous system may be divided into central and peripheral portions4 ,the central portion comprises the brain or encephalon and the spinal cord4 ,these organs are lodged in the cranial cavity and spinal canal4 ,the nerves and ganglia comprise the peripheral portion4 ,the nerves form white cords that are made up of nerve fibres4 ,the ganglia are grayish enlargements formed by nerve cells and supporting tissue1 situated at the origin of the nerve trunk or along its course4 ,the brain is an oval mass of nerve tissue elongated from before to behind1 and slightly depressed from above to below4 ,it terminates posteriorly in the spinal cord4 ,it is divided into three portions3 cerebrum1 isthmus and cerebellum 7,fig4 #be74 ,the cerebrum forms the anterior portion4 ,it is divided into two lateral lobes or hemispheres by a deep longitudinal fissure4 ,the surface of the cerebral hemispheres is gray and roughened by pleats or folds separated by grooves or fissures4 ,the gray or cortical layer is distinct from the white or connecting structure4 ,the cortical layer is made up of nerve cells or areas which control the voluntary muscles of the body4 ,it is connected with the special senses of touch1 temperature and muscle-sense4 ,the gray layer is connected with the posterior portion of the brain1 the isthmus or medulla oblongata1 by the white nerve tissue4 ,the isthmus or medulla oblongata is elongated from before to behind and connects the cerebral hemispheres with the spinal cord1 anteriorly and posteriorly4 ,it is divided into several different portions1 and is made up largely of white connecting fibres with nuclei of gray matter scattered through them4 ,the isthmus is hollowed out by a system of small ventricles that extend from the cerebral hemispheres to the spinal cord1 where they terminate in a small1 central canal4 ,the isthmus is the highway between the spinal cord and the higher nerve centres4 ,it has in it certain cell centres that give origin to six of the cranial nerves4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4--,photograph of model of horse's brain3 longitudinal section2 lateral view2 cerebrum2 cerebellum2 and isthmus4 ,the third division of the brain is the cerebellum4 ,this is a single mass supported by the isthmus4 ,it is situated posterior to the cerebrum1 from which it is separated by a transverse fold of the membranes covering the brain4 ,this mass of nerve tissue is much smaller than the cerebrum4 ,the white nerve tissue forms central nuclei which send out branches that ramify in every direction4 ,the centre of the muscular sense is said to be located in this division of the brain4 ,a second function is the maintenance of body equilibrium through its connection with the nerve of the middle ear4 ,the spinal cord commences at the posterior opening 7occipital foramen7 of the cranial cavity1 and terminates posteriorly in the lumbar region at the upper third of that portion of the spinal canal belonging to the sacrum4 ,it is thick1 white in color1 irregularly cylindrical in shape1 slightly flattened above and below and reaches its largest diameter in the lower cervical and lumbar regions4 ,the spinal canal is lined by the outer membrane that envelops the cord1 which aids in fixing this organ to the wall of the canal4 ,the spinal cord is formed by white and gray nerve tissue4 ,the gray tissue is situated within the white1 and it is arranged in the form of two lateral comma-shaped columns connected by a narrow commissure of gray matter4 ,the extremities of the lateral gray columns mark the origin of the superior and inferior roots of the spinal nerves4 ,the white tissue of the cord is also divided into lateral portions by superior and median fissures4 ,the inferior fissure does not extend as far as the gray commissure1 leaving the lateral inferior columns connected by a white commissure4 ,there are certain centres in the spinal cord that are capable of carrying on certain reflex actions independent of the chief centre in the brain4 ,the white matter of the cord is made up of paths over which impulses to and from the brain are transmitted4 ,there are twelve pairs of cranial nerves4 ,two pairs belong exclusively to the special senses1 smell and sight4 ,altogether there are ten pairs that are devoted to functions connected with the head1 either as nerves of the special senses or in a motor or sensory capacity 7,figs4 #bf and #bg74 ,there are two pairs distributed to other regions4 ,these are the tenth and eleventh pairs4 ,the tenth pair or pneumogastric is distributed to the vital organs lodged within the body cavities4 ,there are forty-two or forty-three pairs of spinal nerves given off from the spinal cord4 ,the spinal nerves have two roots1 superior and inferior4 ,the superior is the sensory root and the inferior is the motor root1 both uniting to form a mixed nerve trunk4 ,the sensory root possesses a ganglion from which it originates4 ,generally speaking1 the cerebrospinal system deals with the special senses1 movement of skeletal or voluntary muscles and cutaneous and muscular sensations4 ,in addition to the above there is a distinct system termed the sympathetic4 ,the sympathetic system consists of a long cord1 studded with ganglia1 extending from the base of the neck to the sacrum4 ,the ganglia are connected with the inferior roots of the spinal nerves4 ,this cord is connected with groups of ganglia and nerve fibres in the abdominal region1 and this in turn is connected with terminal ganglia in distant tissues4 ,this system of nerves is distributed to the vital organs of the body4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4--,unilateral facial paralysis caused by injury to seventh cranial nerve2 note position of lip4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4--;,bilateral facial paralysis4 ,this colt was affected with facial paralysis when born4 ,,congestion ,,and ,,anaemia ,,of ,,the ,,brain4--,in congestion of the brain1 the blood-vessels distributed to the nerve tissue become engorged with blood4 ,it may be either active or passive4 ,the cause of anaemia of the brain is an insufficient blood supply4 ,this may be due to an abundant haemorrhage and cardiac weakness caused by shock or organic heart disease4 ,the causes of congestion of the brain are faulty methods of care and feeding4 ,it sometimes occurs when horses are shipped in poorly ventilated cars1 or kept in close stables4 ,climatic changes1 or changing the stable and feed1 may cause it4 ,extremely fat animals and animals that are rapidly putting on fat are predisposed to this disorder4 ,improper methods of feeding1 lack of exercise1 constipation and excitement are the most common causes4 ,passive congestion may result from pressure on the jugular vein by obstructing the flow of blood from the brain1 and raising blood pressure in the blood-vessels of the brain4 ,it is sometimes caused by organic heart trouble4 ,the symptoms come on very suddenly in congestion of the brain4 ,the disease may manifest itself as soon as the animal is moved out of the stall or bed1 or it may come on while it is feeding4 ,in slight cases1 the animal appears excited and restless1 the eyes are bright1 the pupils are dilated1 and the pulse beats and respirations quickened4 ,if the animal is moving about1 it may stop suddenly and show marked symptoms of a nervous disorder1 such as turning around1 running straight ahead and falling down4 ,the period of excitement is usually brief and may be followed by marked depression4 ,the mucous membranes of the head are a deep1 red color4 ,the symptoms in anaemic conditions of the brain are loss of consciousness1 stumbling1 falling to the ground and sometimes convulsions4 ,the pig and dog may vomit4 ,favorable cases return to the normal within a few hours4 ,acute inflammatory diseases of the brain and its coverings are associated with cerebral hyperaemia or congestion4 ,the treatment of mild cases is to give the animal quiet1 well-ventilated quarters1 where it can not injure itself4 ,the animal should be first subjected to a severe diet and later given easily-digested feed4 ,if it appears greatly excited1 bleeding should be practised4 ,cold applications to the head should be used in all cases in the small animals4 ,for internal treatment1 purgatives are indicated4 ,in cases of anaemia1 stimulants1 vigorous massage1 artificial respiration and injection of physiological salt solution are indicated4 ,,sunstroke ,,and ,,heatstroke4--,most writers make no distinction between heatstroke and sunstroke4 ,the latter is caused by the direct rays of the sun falling on the animal1 and the former from a high temperature and poor circulation of air in the surroundings4 ,under such conditions1 the physical condition of the animal and exertion play an important part in the production of the nervous disturbance4 ,the first symptoms usually noted are rapid1 labored breathing1 depression and an anxious expression on the face4 ,the horse usually stops sweating4 ,the body temperature is extremely high1 the pulse beats weak1 the animal trembles1 falls to the ground and dies in a convulsion4 ,unless measures directed toward relief of the animal are taken early in the attack1 death commonly occurs4 ,overheating is rather common in horses that are worked hard during the extremely warm weather4 ,horses that have been once overheated are afterwards unable to stand severe work during the hot months of the year4 ,horses in this condition become unthrifty1 do not sweat freely and pant if the work is hard and the weather is warm4 ,the preventive measures consist in not exposing animals that are fat1 or out of condition to severe exercise if the day is close and hot1 especially if they are not accustomed to it4 ,when handling or working animals during hot weather all possible precautions to prevent overheating should be practised4 ,the treatment consists in placing the animal in a cool1 shady place and fomenting the body with cold water4 ,the cold packs or cold fomentations should be applied to the head and forepart of the body only4 ,small doses of stimulants may be given4 ,,meningo-,,cerebritis4--,the discussion of inflammation of the brain and its coverings can be combined conveniently1 as the causes1 symptoms and treatment vary but little4 ,this disorder is met with in all species of domestic animals1 but it is most common in horses and mules4 ,some writers state that meningo-cerebritis is more common during the warm season than it is in the winter4 ,however1 this does not hold true in all sections4 ,in the middle west1 this disease is more common in late fall and winter4 ,it is commonly caused by taking into the body with the feed and water certain organisms and toxins that are capable of producing an inflammation of the brain4 ,the infectious organism or toxins are taken up by the absorbing vessels of the intestines4 ,the secondary form of the disease usually occurs in connection with other diseases such as influenza1 tuberculosis and acute pharyngitis1 or as a result of wound infection4 ,unhygienic conditions1 as unsanitary and poorly ventilated stables and filthy drinking places1 play a very important part in the production of the simple or acute form of meningitis4 ,sudden changes in the feed and the feeding of rotten1 mouldy feeds may cause it4 ,in the fall and winter it may follow the feeding of too heavy a ration of shredded fodder or any other dry feed4 ,other exciting causes are overexertion1 changes in climate1 excitement1 injuries to the head and the feeding of too heavy and concentrated a ration4 ,the symptoms vary in the different individuals1 but in general they are the same4 ,at first the animal is dull1 or extremely nervous and sensitive to sounds4 ,the pupils of the eye are unevenly contracted at first1 later dilated4 ,the eyes may appear staring1 or they are rolled about1 so that the white portion is prominent4 ,the unusual excitement is manifested in different ways by the different species4 ,during the dull period the animal is indifferent to its surroundings4 ,when it is excited1 the pulse beats and respirations are accelerated4 ,the body temperature is often elevated early in the disease4 ,there is a partial or complete loss of appetite4 ,paralysis may be the most prominent symptom4 ,the animal lies in a natural position1 or stretched out and lifting the head occasionally and moving the limbs1 but it is unable to rise4 ,loss of sensibility may gradually progress until the animal becomes semiconscious1 or comatose4 ,in case the inflammation is acute and involves the greater portion of the brain and its coverings1 death occurs within a few days4 ,occasionally the animal survives several weeks4 ,there are few permanent or complete recoveries4 ,the principal lines of treatment are preventive measures and careful nursing4 ,this is one of the diseases that can be largely prevented by observing all possible sanitary precautions in caring for animals4 ,it is admitted by writers that the greater majority of cases of inflammation of the brain and its coverings are caused by infection4 ,proper stable construction1 ventilation and disposal of the manure1 an occasional disinfection of the stable1 cleaning and disinfecting the drinking places and water tanks1 and the necessary attention to the ration greatly reduce the loss from this disease4 ,the animal should be gotten into a dark1 quiet1 roomy stall that is well bedded4 ,a swing may be placed under a large animal if it is able to support any of its weight1 and there is no evidence of nervous excitement4 ,we should do nothing to disturb it4 ,if possible1 the position of the animal that is unable to get up should be changed1 and the bed kept clean and dry4 ,cold in the form of wet or ice packs should be applied to the head during the acute stage4 ,symptoms of excitement must be overcome by large doses of sedatives4 ,iodide of potassium and strychnine may help in overcoming the paralysis4 ,the bowels should be emptied by giving an occasional physic4 ,a very light1 easily digested diet should be fed4 ,,partial ,,or ,,complete ,,paralysis ,,of ,,the ,,posterior ,,portion ,,of ,,the ,,body4--,this disorder is especially common in the small animals4 ,the hog is most frequently affected4 ,the following causes may be mentioned3 ,inflammation of the spinal cord commonly occurs in influenza1 strangles and mixed infections2 constipation brought on by improper feeding and insufficient exercise is a predisposing cause2 injuries such as strains and blows in the region of the back may also cause it2 compression of the spinal cord by the vertebrae is no doubt a very common cause2 dislocation1 enlargement of the disks between the vertebrae1 bony enlargements resulting from strains and injuries1 rickets1 tuberculosis and actinomycosis and tumors commonly cause compression of the cord4 ,it is rarely caused by parasites4 ,young1 fat animals are especially prone to injuries in the region of the back4 ,such animals may suffer from malnutrition of the bones1 and complete fractures of the thigh bones may occur4 ,extreme heat from the sun's rays and close1 hot quarters are probable causes4 ,the symptom that is most prominent is the partial or complete loss of control over the movements of the hind parts4 ,the appetite may be little interfered with4 ,the animal may sit on the haunches1 with the limbs projecting forward1 or swing the hind quarters from side to side in walking or trotting4 ,irregularity in the animal's movements is especially noticeable when turning or backing4 ,in case the animal suffers pain1 the spine is held rigid or arched1 and when forced to move1 marked evidence of pain occurs4 ,there may be a decrease or increase in the sensibility of the part4 ,the increase in sensibility is noticed on striking the muscles with the hand or rubbing the hair the wrong way4 ,spasmodic twitching or contractions in the muscles sometimes occur4 ,there is frequent elevation of temperature4 ,the animal is unable to pass urine or faeces1 or there may be an involuntary passage of the body excretions4 ,the outcome of this disease is unfavorable4 ,acute inflammation of the covering of the cord may subside within a few days4 ,cases that do not recover within a few weeks should be destroyed4 ,paralysis of the hind parts should not be confused with rheumatism1 azoturia and other disorders that may interfere with the movements of the posterior portion of the body4 ,the treatment is largely along preventive lines4 ,a predisposition toward rickets1 and injuries1 may be prevented by feeding a proper ration1 and permitting the animal to take exercise4 ,the quarters and the attendant are frequently responsible for injuries4 ,if this is the case1 the rough handling of the animals should be immediately corrected1 and any condition of the quarters that favors the crowding or piling up of animals should be changed4 ,large animals may be placed in swings if they are able to support a part of their weight on the hind limbs4 ,this is especially indicated at the very beginning of the disorder4 ,small animals should be given a good bed4 ,a very light1 easily digested ration should be fed4 ,an occasional physic should be administered4 ,strychnine and iodide of potassium may be given4 ,cold applications to the back are indicated4 ,,questions #a4 ,what organs comprise the central portion of the nervous system8 ,peripheral portion8 #b4 ,give a general description of the brain4 #c4 ,give a general description of the spinal cord4 #d4 ,what is the sympathetic system8 #e4 ,describe the causes and symptoms of congestion of the brain4 #f4 ,what is heatstroke8 ,give the treatment4 #g4 ,give the preventive and curative treatment of inflammation of the brain4 #h4 ,state the causes1 and give the proper treatment of paralysis of the posterior portion of the body4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,skin ,,general ,,discussion4--,the two layers that form the skin are the epidermis and the derma4 ,the cells of the outer layer or epidermis are of two kinds4 ,the superficial portion is formed by horny1 flattened cells and the deeper by softer cells4 ,this layer of the skin varies greatly in thickness in the different species4 ,the derma is composed of some muscular fibres interwoven with the connective-tissue fibres4 ,it contains the roots of the hair follicles1 sweat and oil glands4 ,the external face which is covered by the epidermis shows a multitude of little elevations4 ,these are the vascular and nervous papillae4 ,in addition1 it shows openings through which the hairs and the skin glands pass4 ,the inner surface is united more or less closely to the muscular or underlying tissue by a layer of fibro-fatty tissue4 ,the appendages of the skin are the hairs and horny productions4 ,the horny productions comprise the horns1 chestnuts1 ergots1 claws and hoofs4 ,the hair varies in length1 thickness and coarseness in the different species1 and the different regions of the body4 ,in addition1 breeding1 care1 heat and cold may cause marked variations in the thickness of the coat4 ,exposure to cold causes the coat to thicken4 ,high temperatures cause the short hairs to drop out and the coat to become thin4 ,diseases of the skin may be classified as parasitic and non-parasitic4 ,parasitic skin diseases are caused by animal and vegetable parasites4 ,non-parasitic skin diseases are caused by irritation to the skin and internal causes4 ,irritation to the skin may be either chemical1 thermic or mechanical4 ,the internal causes may be due to an individual predisposition together with digestive disturbances and the eating of feeds too rich in protein4 ,in this chapter parasitic skin diseases produced by insects will not be discussed4 ,,falling ,,out ,,of ,,the ,,hair ,,and ,,feathers4--,falling out of the hair and feathers frequently occurs independent of parasitic diseases4 ,this condition does not occur as an independent disorder1 but as a secondary affection4 ,it is due to faulty nutrition1 and irritation to the skin4 ,intestinal diseases1 insufficient feed and feed of bad quality are common causes4 ,animals that are fed a heavy ration1 or that lie on dirty1 wet bedding frequently lose large patches of hair4 ,sheep that are dipped in late fall and early winter1 or exposed to wet1 cold weather may lose a part of their fleece4 ,it is not uncommon for animals toward the latter period of pregnancy1 or that sweat freely1 to lose patches of hair4 ,falling out of the hair heals of itself within a few weeks4 ,the preventive measures are of special importance in sheep and horses4 ,this consists in avoiding conditions that may lead to alopecia and in correcting the diet4 ,in horses the regions of the mane and tail should be washed with soap1 or rubbed with alcohol and spirits of camphor1 equal parts4 ,treatment should be persisted in for a long period if necessary4 ,,urticaria1 ,,nettlerash4--,urticaria is characterized by roundish elevations that appear quickly and become scattered over a part or the whole surface of the skin4 ,they are caused by an inflammatory infiltration of the deeper layers of the skin4 ,horses and hogs are most frequently affected4 ,the causes of urticaria are irritating juices of certain plants1 secretions of flies1 ants and some caterpillars1 irritating drugs1 scratching1 sweating and the action of cold on a warm skin4 ,it has been observed in connection with the feeding of certain leguminous feeds and digestive disturbances4 ,horses that are fat1 or putting on flesh rapidly1 seem to be predisposed to this disorder4 ,urticaria may occur in certain infectious diseases4 ,the characteristic symptom is the formation on the skin of roundish elevations or hives4 ,there may be an elevation of body temperature and partial loss of appetite4 ,small animals may act restless and show evidence of itching or pain4 ,this symptom is very common in hogs4 ,the eruption may last only a few hours or a few days1 or1 because of the animal's scratching or rubbing the part1 the skin may become scabby and small pustules form4 ,an important preventive measure is to avoid the use of agents capable of irritating the skin and producing urticaria when treating parasitic skin diseases4 ,it is very advisable to give the animal a saline cathartic 7,epsom or ,glauber's salts74 ,the skin may be washed with cold water1 or a weak water solution of permanganate of potassium4 ,,acne1 ,,summer ,,rash4--,in this skin disease the oil glands and hair follicles are inflamed and sometimes infected with pus germs4 ,this results in skin eruptions varying in size from the point of a pin to about a quarter of an inch in diameter4 ,this inflammation is most prominent during the warm weather4 ,the causes are local irritation to the skin from lying on filthy floors1 sweating and irritation from the harness4 ,according to some writers1 pus germs are the only cause1 the mechanical agents merely aiding in the production of the infection4 ,the face1 side of the neck1 shoulders1 back and sides of the trunk and quarters are the usual seats of disease4 ,the pimples or nodules may disappear within a few weeks1 or persist throughout the warm season4 ,the eruption may disappear without leaving scars1 or suppuration occurs and small bald spots result4 ,the treatment consists in removing the cause of the disease and cleaning the skin with antiseptic washes4 ,the surroundings of the animal must be kept clean and a good bed provided4 ,if possible1 the horse should be laid off from work as soon as the condition is noted4 ,washing the part with a weak water solution of permanganate of potassium may be practised daily4 ,fowler's solution of arsenic may be given4 ,this may be given with the feed4 ,,eczema4--,this is an inflammation of the vascular capillary bodies and the superficial layer of the skin4 ,there may be marked inflammatory exudate1 causing the surface of the skin to become excessively moist and more or less itching4 ,redness1 vesicles and pustules may characterize the inflammation4 ,in the chronic form the skin may become thickened and greatly changed in structure4 ,eczematous inflammation of the skin may occur in all domestic animals1 but it is most common in the dog4 ,in the horse local eczema 7scratches7 is common4 ,the most frequent cause is external irritation4 ,accumulations of filth on the skin and continual wetting of the part are common causes4 ,mechanical causes are rubbing1 pressure1 the action of the sun's rays and chemical irritants4 ,internal causes1 such as catarrhal diseases of the stomach and weakness and emaciation from disease1 may act as direct or predisposing causes4 ,tender-skinned animals seem to be predisposed to the disease4 ,the symptoms vary in the different species of animals4 ,in the horse the thin skin posterior to the fetlock and knee1 in front of the hock and on the under side of the body is most commonly inflamed4 ,moisture and dirt seem to be the most common causes4 ,eczema may involve the skin covered by the mane and tail in animals that are not properly groomed and inclined to rub or scratch4 ,cattle may suffer from eczematous inflammations in the region of the forehead1 back of neck and base of tail4 ,a very common form of the disease involves the space between the toes4 ,sheep frequently suffer from inflammation of the skin over the fetlock region4 ,the skin of animals having long fleeces1 or heavy coats of hair that become wet at a time when there is no opportunity to dry out quickly1 may become inflamed4 ,dogs are commonly affected by the acute and chronic forms of eczema4 ,eczema of swine is limited mostly to young hogs4 ,it is rather rare1 excepting in hogs that are pasturing on certain kinds of clover and rape1 or on muck lands4 ,the inflammation is accompanied by a marked tenderness and itching1 and the animal licks and scratches the part4 ,this increases the extent of the skin lesions4 ,the skin appears moist1 later dirty1 scabby and thickened4 ,cracks and pustules may form4 ,gangrene and sloughing of the skin may occur4 ,the treatment is both preventive and curative4 ,cases of eczema caused by filth and wetness can be prevented by giving the necessary attention to keeping the skin clean and not allowing animals access to muddy1 filthy places4 ,keeping the bed clean and regulating the diet are important preventive measures4 ,before the inflammation can be successfully treated the cause must be removed4 ,in acute eczema it is advisable to protect the part against water1 filth and air4 ,powders and ointments may be used during the early stages of the inflammation4 ,two parts boric acid1 four parts flour1 and one part tannic acid may be dusted over the moist surface4 ,one part zinc oxide and twelve parts vaseline is a useful ointment4 ,scratching the part should be controlled in every case by muzzles1 collars and bandages4 ,dirt and scales may be removed from the skin by washing with cotton soaked in lime water or linseed oil4 ,the animal should receive laxative doses of ,glauber's salts or oil every few days4 ,a simple1 easily digested ration should be fed4 ,the following mixture may be applied in obstinate cases3 oil of tar and soft soap1 two parts each1 and alcohol one part4 ,,common ,,feed ,,rashes4--,this title includes inflammation of the skin caused by pasturing on buckwheat1 certain clovers and rape1 together with moisture and sunlight4 ,green1 flowering buckwheat is more dangerous as a feed for stock than is the grain or straw4 ,clovers and rape are not as dangerous a feed4 ,the actual cause of the skin becoming inflamed is not known4 ,the skin in the regions of the face1 ears1 neck1 lower surface of the body and limbs becomes red and covered with vesicles4 ,later1 scabs and pus may form4 ,the treatment consists in changing the ration and keeping the animals out of the sun1 or long grass and weeds for a few days4 ,this is all the treatment required in most cases4 ,it may be advisable to administer a physic4 ,if pus and scabs form1 the part should be cleansed daily with a one per cent water solution of permanganate of potassium4 ,,herpes 7,,fungous ,,skin ,,disease74--,this is a contagious disease of the skin caused by thread fungi1 ,tricophyton tonsurans and epilans1 which develop in the skin in localized areas1 causing vesicles1 scabs or scales to appear1 and the loss of the hair over the part4 ,this skin disease occurs in all domestic animals1 but it is most commonly met with in cattle4 ,it usually affects young cattle4 ,it most commonly occurs in the region of the face and neck4 ,thick1 bran-like crusts form over the scattered areas of the skin and the hair drops out or breaks off4 ,the animals frequently rub the infected area4 ,prompt treatment may prevent the spread of this disease in the herd4 ,it may be checked by quarantining the infected animals and scrubbing the stalls1 stanchions and walls with a disinfecting solution4 ,grooming the infected animal should be discontinued4 ,this skin disease responds most readily to ointments4 ,flowers of sulfur one part and lard ten parts is commonly used by stockmen4 ,sulfur-iodide ointment1 or tincture of iodine may be applied4 ,,questions #a4 ,give a general description of the skin4 #b4 ,give the causes and treatment of falling of the hair4 #c4 ,what is urticaria8 ,give the treatment4 #d4 ,what is summer rash8 ,give the treatment4 #e4 ,what is scratches8 ,give the treatment4 #f4 ,what feeds produce rashes of the skin8 #g4 ,what fungus produces an inflammation of the skin in cattle8 ,give the treatment4 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,eye ,,general ,,discussion4--,the eye is situated in the orbital cavity1 to which it is attached by muscles that rotate it in different directions4 ,the orbit is lined by fibro-fatty tissues that form a cushion for the eye4 ,anteriorly it is protected by the eyelids1 and in birds by a third eyelid that corresponds to the membrana nictitans of quadrupeds4 ,the lachrymal gland which secretes the tears keeps the above parts moist4 ,the eye is the essential organ of vision4 ,it is formed by a spherical shell which encloses fluid or semisolid parts4 ,the shell is anteriorly made up of a transparent convex membrane1 the cornea1 while the remainder of its wall is formed by three opaque layers or tunics4 ,the external tunic is the sclerotic4 ,it is a white1 solid membrane1 forming about four-fifths of the external shell4 ,its external face is related to the muscles and fatty cushion4 ,it receives posteriorly1 a little lower than its middle portion1 the insertion of the optic nerve1 which passes through the shell and spreads out to form a very thin membrane1 the retina or internal coat4 ,the retina lines about two-thirds of the posterior portion of the shell of the eye4 ,it is made up of seven layers4 ,the essential layer is named from its appearance1 rods and cones4 ,the middle coat is the choroid4 ,this is a dark1 pigmented1 vascular and muscular membrane4 ,the posterior portion is in contact with the retina4 ,anteriorly it forms the ciliary processes and the iris4 ,the media of the eye are the crystalline lens1 vitreous and aqueous humors4 ,the crystalline lens is a transparent1 biconvex body sustained by the ciliary processes4 ,the vitreous humor is a transparent jelly-like substance that fills all the cavity of the eye posterior to the lens4 ,the aqueous humor is a liquid1 contained in the anterior and posterior chambers of the eye in front of the lens4 ,this fluid separates the iris from the front of the lens4 ,,examination ,,of ,,the ,,eye4--,in examining and treating the eye we should avoid rough and hasty manipulation4 ,the animal should be approached slowly4 ,it is best for the attendant who is familiar with the animal to hold it for the examiner4 ,it is advisable on approaching the animal to stroke its face1 and in the horse to brush its foretop away4 ,the hand should be carried slowly to the front of the eye1 and the lids separated with the fingers and thumb if we wish to obtain a better view of the cornea4 ,in cattle the best view of these parts can be obtained by taking hold of the nose and lifting the head4 ,it is impossible to make a satisfactory examination of the eye outside of the stable where the light is coming from all directions4 ,the most satisfactory conditions under which a general examination can be made is to stand the animal facing a transom1 window or open door4 ,we may then look directly into the eye and note the condition of the different refracting media4 ,the lens should appear transparent and free from scars4 ,the aqueous humor free from any cloudiness or precipitate4 ,both pupillary openings should be the same size1 and not too small or too large in the bright light4 ,as we look through the pupillary openings1 both the lens and the vitreous humor should refract the light properly and not appear white or greenish-white in color4 ,the color of the iris should be noted4 ,if it lacks lustre or appears dull1 this may indicate an inflammation4 ,in periodic ophthalmia in horses the iris loses its lustre and becomes a rusty-brown color4 ,it is very important to note this change in the appearance of the iris4 ,we should note1 in addition1 the expression of the animal's face1 the position of the ears and eyelids and manner of the walk4 ,horses that have defective sight may show a deep wrinkle in the upper eyelid when startled or looking directly at an object4 ,animals that are blind hold the ears in a characteristic position1 and may stumble and walk over1 or run into objects unless stopped4 ,the ophthalmoscope is a very useful instrument for determining the condition of the different structures of the eyes1 when in the hands of persons who are trained in its use4 ,,conjunctivitis4--,this is an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the eyelids and covering the eyeball4 ,the two forms of conjunctivitis common in domestic animals are the catarrhal and purulent4 ,the symptoms differ in the two forms of conjunctivitis4 ,they may be distinguished from each other by the difference in the character of the inflammatory discharge4 ,in the catarrhal form1 there is a discharge of tears and the lids are held more or less closed4 ,the mucous membrane is usually brick red in color and swollen4 ,a little later the discharge becomes heavier and adheres more to the margins of the lids4 ,the lids continue tender and the inflammation painful4 ,the surface of the cornea may appear white and the blood-vessels prominent1 but it is only in the severe cases that inflammation of this portion of the eye occurs4 ,in such cases an elevation in body temperature may occur4 ,this is especially true of purulent conjunctivitis when primarily caused by an infectious agent4 ,in the purulent form the discharge is heavy and pus-like4 ,the treatment is both preventive and curative4 ,the first object must be to remove the cause4 ,irritating gases resulting from stable filth should be remedied by correcting the unsanitary conditions in the stable4 ,conditions favoring injury to the eye from foreign bodies1 such as chaff and a careless attendant1 should be corrected4 ,animals suffering from the infectious or purulent form of inflammation should be separated from the other animals4 ,foreign bodies should be removed promptly before they have had an opportunity to set up a serious inflammation4 ,it is necessary to confine the animal in some way before attempting to do this4 ,horses should be twitched1 cattle held by the nose1 and the head of a small animal held firmly with the hands4 ,it may be necessary to cocainize the eye before the operator can remove the foreign object with absorbent cotton or with forceps4 ,in case of injuries and irritation to the lids by foreign bodies1 the eye may be flooded with a three per cent water solution of boric acid twice daily1 or as often as necessary4 ,such washes or lotions may be applied with a small piece of absorbent cotton1 using a fresh piece each time the eye is dressed4 ,a medicine dropper may also be used4 ,a lotion containing silver nitrate two to four grains and distilled water one ounce1 is useful in combating the inflammation4 ,this may be applied twice daily4 ,irritating lotions should be avoided1 if possible1 in the treatment of eye diseases of horses1 because of the danger of making the animal disagreeable to handle4 ,boric acid may be dusted over the ball of the eye of cattle with a powder blower4 ,,periodic ,,ophthalmia1 ,,moonblindness4--,this is a periodic inflammation of one or both eyes of the horse4 ,the internal structures of the eye are involved by the inflammation1 but it may appear as a conjunctivitis4 ,the cause of this disease is not well understood4 ,certain local conditions seem to favor its development4 ,undrained land1 a humid climate1 the feeding of a one-sided ration or one that does not maintain the vitality of the animal1 and severe work seem to produce it4 ,heredity must be accepted as a prominent accessory cause4 ,a number of different bacteria have been mentioned as causative factors for this disease4 ,the symptoms at the very beginning indicate a general inflammation of the eye4 ,the eyelids are swollen1 there is an abundant secretion of tears1 the eyeball is retracted and the lids are held more or less closed4 ,as the inflammation progresses1 the cornea becomes milky in appearance and the aqueous humor may show a precipitate toward the bottom of the anterior chamber4 ,the pupil is usually contracted and dilates slowly when the animal is moved into the light4 ,the acute inflammation gradually subsides1 and about the tenth to the fourteenth day the lids and cornea may appear normal4 ,the periods between these acute attacks of ophthalmia may vary from a few weeks to several months4 ,severe work1 debility and the character of the ration influence their frequency4 ,it is not uncommon for animals that have been given a rest to suffer from a second attack on being put to work4 ,the attendant may observe a hazy or whitish condition of the margin of the cornea4 ,the upper lid may show an abrupt bend of its margin and a deep wrinkle4 ,the color of the iris appears to have lost its lustre1 and the aqueous humor and lens may be cloudy4 ,after a variable number of attacks glaucoma or cataract develops4 ,the history of the case will enable the attendant to recognize this form of ophthalmia4 ,treatment is unsatisfactory4 ,preventive measures consist in avoiding conditions favorable to the production of the disease4 ,this should be practised so far as possible4 ,at the time the attack occurs1 the animal should be given a cathartic4 ,one pound of ,glauber's salts in a drench is to be preferred4 ,rest in a darkened stall is indicated4 ,an eye lotion containing three grains of silver nitrate in one ounce of distilled water should be applied to the eye three times daily4 ,a water solution of atropine or eserine should be used for the purpose of relieving the symptoms of iritis or glaucoma4 ,a very light diet should be fed4 ,,infectious ,,ophthalmia ,,of ,,ruminants4--,this occurs as an acute inflammation of the eyelids and cornea4 ,the disease is highly infectious1 affecting all of the susceptible animals in the herd4 ,it commonly occurs during the late summer and fall4 ,the symptoms appear suddenly4 ,the animal is feverish1 the eyes closed and the cheeks are wet with tears4 ,the cornea becomes clouded1 white and opaque4 ,in severe cases1 the blood-vessels around the margin of the cornea become prominent1 and ulcers form on its surface4 ,the animal's appetite is impaired or lost4 ,there is loss of flesh and temporary blindness4 ,the blindness in one or both eyes may persist for a period of from two weeks to several months4 ,permanent blindness is comparatively rare4 ,the preventive treatment consists in practising the necessary precautions against the introduction of the disease into the herd1 and in carefully quarantining the first cases of the disease that appear4 ,the affected animal should be given a darkened stall1 and fed a very light ration until the acute inflammation has subsided4 ,from one to one and one-half pounds of ,glauber's salts should be given4 ,the local treatment consists in the application of antiseptic lotions or powders to the eye4 ,equal parts of boric acid and calomel1 dusted into the eye twice daily with a powder blower1 is a very effective treatment4 ,,questions #a4 ,name the different structures that form the shell of the eye2 name and describe the different media of the eye4 #b4 ,give the general method of examining the eyes of horses4 #c4 ,what is conjunctivitis8 ,give causes and treatment4 #d4 ,what is moonblindness8 ,give the symptoms4 #e4 ,describe the symptoms of infectious ophthalmia of ruminants and the treatment4 ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,general ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,locomotory ,,apparatus ,,general ,,discussion4--,the movements of the different parts of the animal body depend on the union of the bones that form the skeleton 7,fig4 #bh71 and mode of insertion of the muscles4 ,the bones meet and form joints or articulations4 ,these are divided into three classes3 movable1 mixed and immovable4 ,nearly all of the articulations in the extremities belong to the movable class4 ,the articulations between the bodies of the vertebrae belong to the mixed1 and those between the flat bones of the head to the immovable class4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4--,skeleton of horse4 ,the bony surfaces that meet and form the different types of articulations are held together by ligaments 7,fig4 #bi74 ,sometimes the ligament is placed between the bony surfaces1 but usually it is attached to the margins of the articular surfaces that it unites4 ,the immovable class possesses fibrous-like ligaments that are placed between the margins of the flat bones that form the articulation4 ,the mixed articulations are united by a fibro-cartilaginous pad that is firmly attached to the articular faces of the bones1 and by peripheral ligaments that may be flat or formed by scattered fibres4 ,all movable articulations are formed by bony surfaces encrusted with a thin cartilaginous layer that makes them perfectly smooth1 ligaments and complimentary cartilages4 ,sometimes the bony surfaces do not fit each other1 and we find between them fibro-cartilages that complete the articulation by adapting the articular surfaces to each other4 ,round or flat ligaments may extend from one articular surface to the other1 and attached to the margins of the articulation are membranous1 flat or round ligaments4 ,muscles and tendons that cross the articulations should be included among the structures binding them together4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4--,photograph of model of stifle joint1 showing3 ligaments2 complementary cartilages2 femur2 and tibia4 ,movable joints possess a synovial membrane4 ,this membrane lines the structures that enclose the articulation and secretes a fluid1 the synovia1 that lubricates the surfaces4 ,the muscles are the contractile organs that move the body4 ,the movement of the different parts of the body is rendered possible through the manner in which the skeletal muscles are inserted into the long bones1 by which the lever motion is possible4 ,a muscle originating on one bone and terminating on another either moves both bones toward each other or1 if one attachment is fixed1 the movable is drawn toward the fixed part4 ,we may class muscles as striated or voluntary and unstriated or involuntary4 ,a third class1 mixed1 is represented by the heart muscle4 ,the striated is represented by the skeletal muscles1 and the unstriated by the thin muscular layers that form part of the wall of the stomach1 intestines1 bladder and other hollow organs4 ,,rheumatism4--,this is an inflammation of the tissues that form the locomotory apparatus4 ,the effect of cold on the muscles and tendons is an important factor in its production4 ,it differs from other inflammations by shifting from one part to another4 ,it is termed muscular rheumatism when it affects the muscles1 tendons and fascia1 and articular rheumatism when it involves the articulations4 ,a second classification1 acute and chronic1 depends on the character of the inflammation4 ,the muscular form is common in horses1 dogs and hogs1 while the articular form more commonly affects cattle4 ,the following causes may be considered4 ,animals that are exposed to cold1 wet1 changeable weather1 or kept in cold1 damp1 draughty quarters frequently suffer from rheumatism4 ,under such conditions it is very probable that imperfect metabolism of body tissue occurs1 and certain toxic products that are capable of irritating the muscles and articulations form4 ,clinical symptoms1 and the presence of bacteria in the inflamed tissue indicate that bacteria and their toxins play an important part in the development of articular rheumatism4 ,heredity is said to be an important predisposing factor4 ,one attack always predisposes the animal to a second4 ,the symptoms vary according to the severity of the attack4 ,local rheumatism is not accompanied by serious symptoms4 ,the regions most commonly involved in local1 muscular rheumatism are the shoulder1 neck and back4 ,the joints affected in the articular form are the knee1 fetlock1 hip1 elbow and shoulder4 ,the attack is usually sudden and accompanied by fever1 more or less loss of appetite and soreness4 ,loss of control over the movement of the hind parts or walking on the knees may occur in the smaller animals4 ,the larger animals show a slight or severe lameness4 ,the affected muscle or articulation may be swollen1 hot and tender4 ,pressing on the part with the hand or forcing the animal to move about may cause severe pain4 ,weakness and emaciation may occur in generalized and articular rheumatism1 especially if suppuration takes place in the affected joint4 ,the prognosis is more favorable in muscular rheumatism than in the articular form4 ,both forms may become chronic4 ,it is frequently advisable to destroy animals suffering from the articular form because of their emaciated1 weakened condition and the deformed condition of the joints4 ,the preventive treatment consists in avoiding conditions favorable to the production of rheumatism4 ,in ventilating the stable we should avoid draughts4 ,practical experience indicates that allowing a horse to stand in a draught after it has been warmed up by exercise is a very common source of muscular rheumatism and is especially to be avoided4 ,young hogs and sows that are thin are very prone to rheumatism when given wet1 draughty sleeping quarters4 ,houses having dirt or loose board floors are very often draughty4 ,concrete floors when wet and not properly bedded with straw are objectionable4 ,although we do not fully understand the causative factors1 we can take advantage of the knowledge we have gained from practical experience1 and avoid keeping animals under conditions that are favorable for the production of the disease4 ,it is almost useless to treat rheumatism unless the conditions under which it occurred are corrected4 ,the treatment is both local and internal4 ,the local treatment consists in applying a mild liniment to the part1 together with massage4 ,if the part is tender and painful1 hot applications may be used4 ,spirits of camphor ten parts and turpentine two parts1 applied daily1 are useful in relieving the soreness of rheumatic muscles4 ,salicylate of soda two ounces1 fluid extract of gentian one ounce1 and sufficient water to make an eight-ounce mixture may be given internally three times daily after feeding4 ,of the above mixture horses and cattle may be given one-half ounce and sheep and swine from one to two drachms4 ,the treatment should be continued for a period of from eight to ten days or longer4 ,it may be repeated in from one to two weeks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4--;,atrophy of the muscles of the thigh resulting from an attack of azoturia4 ,iodide of potassium is very useful in the treatment of chronic articular rheumatism4 ,a very light diet should be fed and the animal given as complete rest as possible4 ,an occasional physic should be given4 ,,azoturia1 ,,haemoglobinuria4--,this is a disease of solipeds affecting the muscles of the quarters4 ,the affected muscles become swollen1 hard and paralyzed4 ,the disease follows a short rest1 and rarely occurs when the animal is running in pasture or idle for a long period4 ,animals that are fat or rapidly putting on fat are predisposed to it4 ,animals that have had one attack are predisposed to a second4 ,the cause of this disease is not positively known4 ,the ,german veterinarians attribute it to irritation of the muscles by cold1 and classify azoturia as a rheumatic disorder4 ,the conditions preceding the attack are not in favor of this theory1 and cold can not be considered an important causative factor4 ,the most acceptable is the auto-poisoning theory advanced by ,dr4 ,law4 ,azoturia is common in the country where feed is abundant and wrong methods of feeding horses are commonly practised4 ,it is a very common practice to feed horses accustomed to hard work the same ration when idle for a few days as when working4 ,the blood of horses cared for in this way may become abnormally rich in albuminoids4 ,the suddenness of the attack1 occurring shortly after the animal is given exercise1 indicates auto-poisoning4 ,this may be due to the blood in the portal vessels and the liver capillaries1 charged with nutritious and waste products from the overfed animal's intestines1 being suddenly thrown into the general circulation by a more active circulation of the blood brought on by exercise4 ,the symptoms of disease are manifested shortly after the animal is moved out of the stall and given exercise4 ,when the animal is first exercised it is usually in high spirits4 ,after travelling a short distance it is noticed to sweat more freely than ordinarily1 breathe rapidly1 lag and go lame1 usually in the hind limbs4 ,it trembles1 shows evidence of suffering severe pain by turning its head and looking around toward the flanks1 knuckles over in the hind pasterns1 and may fall down and be unable to get up4 ,the affected muscles appear to be swollen and feel unusually firm when pressed upon with the hand4 ,if the horse does not go down recovery may occur within a few hours1 and we are able to move the horse to the stable4 ,dark brown urine may be passed4 ,at other times1 the animal lies in a natural position1 possesses a good appetite1 but can not stand4 ,in the severe form1 it is restless and shows marked nervous symptoms4 ,the prognosis is unfavorable in the severe form4 ,when nervous symptoms are absent recovery usually occurs in from two to ten days4 ,complications are common4 ,more or less atrophy of the muscles of the quarters may result 7,fig4 #cj74 ,the preventive treatment consists in avoiding conditions that may favor the production of the disease4 ,more attention should be given the feeding and care of work animals4 ,if it is not possible to permit horses that are worked to exercise in a lot or pasture when idle1 the ration should be reduced and roots1 chopped1 or soft feed given4 ,careful nursing is an important part of the treatment4 ,as soon as the horse shows evidence of an attack1 it should be stopped and allowed to stand until sufficiently recovered to be moved4 ,if paralysis occurs1 we should make it as comfortable as possible and arrange to move it to a comfortable1 warm1 well-bedded stall4 ,it may be advisable to place the animal in slings4 ,this is not advisable in the serious form of the disease because of the extent of the paralysis and the nervous symptoms4 ,a very light diet1 bran mashes1 chopped hay or green feed1 should be fed during the convalescent period and for several days after complete recovery has occurred4 ,the following lines of medicinal treatment may be recommended4 ,we should endeavor to stimulate the elimination of the waste products from the body by way of the kidneys1 intestines and skin4 ,this may be accomplished by administering saline cathartics1 covering the body with blankets1 encouraging the animal to drink plenty of water and feeding soft feeds4 ,glauber's salts may be given as a drench1 or eserine may be given hypodermically4 ,sedatives such as chloral hydrate may be used to quiet the animal4 ,,questions #a4 ,give a general description of the locomotory apparatus4 #b4 ,give the causes of rheumatism2 describe the treatment4 #c4 ,what is azoturia8 ,give the cause of this disease4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,structure ,,of ,,the ,,limbs ,,of ,,the ,,horse ,,general ,,discussion4--,each limb is formed by a column of bones that rest upon one another1 forming more or less open angles4 ,the bones of the column meet and form articulations that are held together by ligaments1 and attached to their faces1 borders and extremities are muscles and tendons4 ,in the superior portion of the limb the muscles are heavy1 tapering inferiorly1 and terminating in the region of the foot in long tendons4 ,each limb is divided into four regions4 ,the regions of the fore-limb are the shoulder1 arm1 forearm and forefoot4 ,in the hind limb are the regions of the pelvis1 haunch1 thigh1 leg and hind-foot4 ,the feet in turn are divided into three sub-regions each4 ,the forefoot is formed by the knee1 cannon and toe1 and the hindfoot by the hock1 cannon and toe4 ,,the ,,shoulder ,,bone ,,or ,,scapula is flat and triangular in shape4 ,it is attached to the trunk by heavy muscles1 one of which1 together with its fellow on the opposite side1 may be compared to a great1 muscular sling that supports about two-thirds of the body weight4 ,attached to the internal and external faces of the scapula are heavy muscles that pass over the shoulder-joint1 and become attached to the arm bone through the insertion of their muscular fibres or by a short tendon4 ,,the ,,armbone ,,or ,,humerus belongs to the class of long bones4 ,its superior extremity forms a flattened head that fits rather imperfectly into a shallow cavity in the humeral angle of the scapula4 ,the inferior extremity resembles a portion of a cylinder in shape1 and fits into shallow depressions in the superior extremity of the principal bone of the forearm4 ,the muscles here are divided into two regions1 anterior and posterior brachial4 ,the most of these muscles originate on the posterior border and inferior extremity of the shoulder bone1 and terminate inferiorly on the superior extremities of the principal and second or rudimentary bone of the forearm4 ,the posterior brachial muscles are heavy and powerful4 ,they are sometimes termed elbow muscles1 because they are attached to the point of the elbow4 ,,the ,,region ,,of ,,the ,,forearm is formed by two bones1 the radius and ulna4 ,the radius is the principal bone and is classed among the long bones4 ,the ulna is an elongated flat bone4 ,it is attached to the external portion of the posterior face of the radius and extends above the superior extremity of this bone to form the point of the elbow4 ,the radius articulates with the upper row of knee bones4 ,the muscles of this region1 the antibrachial1 are divided into two sub-regions1 anterior and posterior4 ,they originate superiorly from the lower extremity of the arm bone and the superior extremities of the bones of the forearm1 and terminate toward the lower extremity of the region in tendons that become attached to the bones of the knee1 cannon and digit4 ,,the ,,knee ,,or ,,carpal region is formed by seven short bones that are arranged in two rows4 ,they form a series of articulations4 ,these are the articulations between the two rows1 between the bones of each row1 and between the upper and lower rows and the neighboring regions4 ,nearly all the motion takes place in the articulation between the upper row and the principal bone of the forearm4 ,,the ,,cannon ,,or ,,metacarpal region is formed by three bones4 ,these are the principal metacarpal or cannon bone1 and the rudimentary metacarpal or splint bones4 ,the latter are attached to the margins of the posterior face of the cannon bone4 ,the superior extremities of these bones articulate with the lower row of carpal bones4 ,the convex extremity of the cannon bone meets shallow depressions in the superior extremity of the first digital bone4 ,this is termed the fetlock joint4 ,the anterior and posterior faces of this region are travelled by the long tendons belonging to the extensor and flexor muscles of the digit4 ,,the ,,digit ,,or ,,toe is formed by six bones1 three of which are termed accessory or sesamoids4 ,the digital bones may be given numerical names4 ,,the ,,approximal ,,or ,,third ,,digital ,,bone is the shortest long bone in the body4 ,the two shallow articular cavities belonging to the superior extremity are completed posteriorly by the two sesamoid bones4 ,the inferior extremity is smaller than the superior and resembles the inferior extremity of the cannon bone in shape1 excepting that it shows a middle groove4 ,the anterior and posterior faces are travelled by the tendons of the digital muscles4 ,,the ,,middle ,,or ,,second ,,digital ,,bone is quite short4 ,it articulates superiorly with the first1 and inferiorly with the third bone of the digit4 ,the superior face shows two shallow cavities1 and the inferior two convex surfaces separated by a median groove4 ,the latter face articulates with the third and navicular bones4 ,the popular name for this articulation is the coffin joint4 ,,the ,,third ,,or ,,distal ,,digital ,,bone may be compared to a cone that has been cut away posteriorly1 obliquely downwards and backwards4 ,the superior face shows two shallow cavities that are completed posteriorly by the superior face of the coffin or navicular bone4 ,the anterior face is convex and cribbled by openings1 and the inferior face is concave1 forming the sole4 ,tendons belonging to the digital muscles terminate on the summit and inferior face of this bone4 ,,the ,,pelvis ,,or ,,haunch is formed by a single bone1 the coxa that in the foetus may be divided into three bones4 ,these are the ilium1 pubis and ischium4 ,it belongs to the class of flat bones4 ,anteriorly it is flattened from before to behind and directed inward and upward4 ,the external angle is rugged and is generally termed the angle of the haunch4 ,the internal face of the opposite angle articulates with the sacrum1 to which it is firmly attached by ligaments4 ,the middle portion is constricted and forms a neck4 ,the inferior or posterior portion is flattened from above to below1 and directed inward to meet the border of the opposite bone4 ,just below the neck and externally1 there is a cup-shaped cavity into which the head of the thigh bone fits4 ,the two coxa1 together with the sacral ligaments 7sacrum7 and the muscles of the quarter1 enclose the pelvic cavity4 ,,the ,,region ,,of ,,the ,,thigh is formed by the femur1 the largest long bone in the body4 ,the superior extremity is formed by a rugged eminence1 to which the heavy muscles of the quarter are attached1 and by an articular head4 ,the inferior extremity is formed by two convex articular surfaces that are separated by a deep notch1 and a third pulley-like articular surface1 with which the patella or knee-cap articulates4 ,the pair of condyles articulates with the superior extremity of the leg bone4 ,the thigh or femoral region is heavily muscled4 ,,the ,,leg is formed by three bones4 ,the patella1 a short bone1 has already been mentioned as articulating with the thigh bone4 ,the tibia and fibula are the other two bones in the region4 ,,the ,,tibia belongs to the class of long bones and the fibula is quite rudimentary1 being represented by a stylet-shaped bone that lies posterior to1 and along the outer border of the tibia4 ,the superior extremity of the tibia shows a central spine margined laterally by rather plain articular faces4 ,it articulates with the thigh bone4 ,the muscles of this region are divided into two sub-regions1 anterior and posterior tibial4 ,the muscles originate from the lower extremity of the femur and the two bones in this region1 and terminate inferiorly in tendons that are attached to the bones of the hock1 cannon and digit4 ,,the ,,hock ,,or ,,tarsal region is formed by six bones4 ,they are described as forming two rows4 ,in the upper row there are two bones and in the lower four4 ,they form a series of articulations1 the same as the bones of the knee4 ,practically all of the movement occurs in the articulation between one of the large bones in the upper row and the lower extremity of the tibia4 ,it may be mentioned here that this is the most perfect hinge-joint in the body4 ,a very large tendon is attached to the summit of the hock4 ,other tendons cross and become attached to the hock bones4 ,the regions of the hind cannon and digit are practically the same as the corresponding regions of the forefoot4 ,,questions #a4 ,name the different bones of the fore-limb2 hind limb4 #b4 ,describe the regions of the shoulder1 arm and forearm4 #c4 ,describe the region of the forefoot4 #d4 ,describe the regions of the haunch1 thigh and leg4 #e4 ,describe the region of the hindfoot4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,unsoundnesses ,,and ,,blemishes ,,general ,,discussion4--,the value of a horse depends largely on the condition of the limbs and their ability to do the work for which they are intended4 ,this fact is frequently overlooked by experienced horsemen1 who give attention to general conformation and action rather than to soundness of limb4 ,diseases affecting the limbs may be classed as unsoundnesses and blemishes4 ,this classification is based on the degree to which the disease interferes or may interfere with the work that the animal is called on to perform4 ,unsoundnesses interfere with the use of the part or the use of the animal for a certain work2 blemishes do not4 ,such a basis for the classification of diseases does not enable us to place certain diseased conditions of the limbs in the unsound1 or the blemish class at all times4 ,a curb may1 if it produces lameness1 be classed as an unsoundness4 ,if it does not cause the animal to go lame1 and the enlargement on the posterior border of the hock is small1 it is classed as a blemish4 ,a high splint may place the animal in the unsound class1 but usually a low splint is not considered a serious blemish4 ,this classification is based to a certain extent on the relative economic importance of the disease1 or the influence that the disease may have on the value of the animal1 as well as any interference with the animal's ability to work4 ,,recognition ,,of ,,the ,,disease4--,the seat of the disease may be in a muscle1 tendon1 bone or ligament4 ,the general symptom manifested is lameness or pain4 ,the local symptoms are heat1 pain1 swelling and bony enlargements4 ,the degree of lameness and the character of the local lesions vary greatly in the different cases4 ,when the animal shows a slight lameness and there is little evidence of any local symptom1 it requires the services of a skilled and experienced person to locate the diseased part4 ,when the part shows local lesions of disease and the lameness is characteristic1 diagnosis is not difficult4 ,,the ,,examination should be made while the animal is at rest2 while standing in the stall and on level ground2 when moved at a walk1 or a slow trot on soft ground1 or a hard roadway2 and when moved out after resting a few hours4 ,while examining the animal under the different conditions mentioned1 the examiner must be careful and not pass over any part of a limb without determining whether it is normal or not4 ,he should note any abnormal position that the animal may take while standing at rest4 ,every movement should be watched closely1 as the manner of favoring the part may characterize the lameness4 ,negative symptoms of lameness in a part may at times prove as valuable in forming a diagnosis as positive symptoms4 ,the resting of either of the front feet1 when the horse is standing at ease1 indicates that there is some soreness in the rested limb4 ,pointing or placing one or both feet well in front of the line of support1 when the animal is standing1 usually indicates a diseased condition of the feet4 ,it is natural for a horse that is standing in a stall to rest the hindfeet alternately4 ,when the hindfoot is rested because of a soreness in some portion of the limb1 it may be flexed or extended1 the weight rested on the toe1 and the foot flexed and bearing practically no weight4 ,in serious inflammation of the front feet1 both feet may be placed well in front of the normal position1 and the hindfeet well under the body4 ,,when ,,examining ,a ,,horse1 the blanket or harness should be removed4 ,the horse should have on an open bridle or halter1 and the attendant should give it as much freedom of the head as possible4 ,the examiner should examine each limb carefully and note any symptom of disease that may be present4 ,the attendant should walk the animal straight away from the person making the examination1 toward1 and past him1 so that the animal's movements can be observed from both sides1 from behind and in front4 ,this examination should be repeated with the horse at a slow trot4 ,the character of the lameness may enable us to locate the seat of the disease4 ,we must first determine in which limb the animal is lame4 ,this part of the diagnosis is not difficult4 ,the pain suffered every time weight is thrown on the diseased limb causes the horse to step quickly and shift as much of the body weight as possible on the well foot4 ,the foot of the lame limb is jerked up rather quickly after weight is thrown on it4 ,this favoring of the part varies in the different diseases4 ,when the foot of the sound limb comes to the ground1 more weight than common is placed on it4 ,if the seat of the lameness is in a front limb1 there is a decided nodding or movement of the head downward when the weight is placed on the well foot4 ,if both forefeet are diseased1 the animal steps shorter and more quickly than common4 ,lameness in a hind limb is characterized by more or less dropping of the quarter of the well limb when weight is thrown on it1 and sometimes by a hitch or elevation of the quarter of the diseased limb when it is carried forward4 ,unless there are local symptoms of disease present1 it may be quite difficult to locate the seat of lameness4 ,sometimes local symptoms are misleading4 ,after the lameness has been located in a certain limb1 its movement must be carefully noted in order to detect the part favored4 ,if the lameness is not characteristic enough to enable the examiner to locate the seat of it1 it is then necessary to put the animal through some movement that may emphasize the soreness in the part4 ,the animal may show a certain reluctance to throw weight on the limb when turned to the right or left4 ,moving the horse in a small circle with the lame limb on the outside may cause the animal to use the muscles of the shoulder more freely1 and emphasize any soreness that may be present4 ,if the lame limb is on the inside1 soreness anywhere in the foot may be increased1 because of the extra weight thrown on this portion of the limb4 ,moving the animal over a hard driveway may increase the pain resulting from an inflammation of the feet4 ,causing the animal to trot on soft ground1 step over high objects1 flexing1 extending1 abducting and adducting the part may enable the examiner to locate the exact group of shoulder or arm muscles involved by the disease4 ,,in ,,examining ,,the ,,feet it may be necessary to remove the shoes and practise percussion and pressure over the region of the sole4 ,in some forms of lameness it may be necessary to destroy the sensation in the foot by injecting cocaine along the course of the nerves that supply the foot before arriving at a definite diagnosis4 ,,questions #a4 ,define the term unsoundness and give an example4 #b4 ,define the term blemish and give an example4 #c4 ,give the general method of examining a horse for soundness4 ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,fore-,,limb ,,sprains ,,and ,,injuries ,,in ,,the ,,region ,,of ,,the ,,shoulder4--,sprains and injuries of the structures in the shoulder region are more common in horses that are called on to do heavy work than among driving horses4 ,the following causes may be mentioned3 ,ill-fitting collars1 pulling heavy loads over uneven streets or soft ground1 where the footing is not secure1 and slipping are common causes4 ,young horses that do not know how to pull1 or horses that are tired out by hard work1 are predisposed to muscular strain1 and are apt to suffer injury if forced to do heavy work4 ,sore shoulders1 or an ignorant driver1 may cause the animal to pull awkwardly and throw more strain on certain groups of muscles than they can stand4 ,rheumatism frequently causes shoulder lameness4 ,the muscle usually affected by rheumatism is the large muscle extending from the region of the point of the shoulder to the summit of the head4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4--,shoulder lameness4 ,the symptoms of shoulder lameness vary in the different cases4 ,the horse may walk without going lame1 but when made to trot lameness is quite noticeable4 ,the animal may point with the foot of the diseased limb1 holding it forward1 but squarely on the floor4 ,in severe strain1 little weight is thrown on the limb and the lameness is marked 7,fig4 #ca74 ,in shoulder slip the head of the arm bone pushes outward every time the animal throws weight on the limb4 ,this luxation can be noticed best when standing in front of the animal4 ,marked atrophy of the external shoulder muscles may occur4 ,such atrophy may appear and disappear quickly1 and may result from an injury to the nerve supply of the muscle as well as from favoring the part4 ,atrophy of the shoulder may occur if the animal is lame in other regions of the limb1 especially the feet4 ,the outcome of shoulder lameness is favorable if the disease causing it is given prompt treatment4 ,rest is a very important part of the treatment4 ,it may be advisable to restrict the horse's movements by placing it in a single stall1 and tying the animal so that it can not lie down4 ,this should be continued for at least one week4 ,if the horse is restless1 it should be given a box-stall or turned out in a small lot alone4 ,it should be watered and fed in the quarters where confined4 ,the local treatment consists in applying mild liniments or blisters to the shoulder4 ,it is not advisable1 however1 to apply a blister if the muscles feel hot and tender4 ,,capped ,,elbow1 ,,shoe-,,boil4--,capped elbow is an inflammation of the bursa at the posterior surface of the elbow 7,fig4 #cb74 ,the swelling that results is usually sharply defined4 ,it may feel abnormally warm and doughy1 and it may be painful4 ,later1 the enlargement may be well defined and hard4 ,sometimes the skin is indurated and lies in folds1 or the shoe-boil shows abrasions on its surface and fistulous openings leading from abscess centres4 ,the cystic or soft tumor is a common form4 ,such an enlargement fluctuates on pressure1 and when opened1 a blood-stained fluid escapes4 ,all forms of capped elbow tend to become chronic4 ,the treatment is both preventive and local4 ,as capped elbow is caused by bruising the part with the hoof or heel of the shoe1 the preventive treatment consists in hindering the animal from taking a position that may favor injury to the part4 ,confining the animal in a small stall and tying it with too short a halter strap favors a sternal position when lying down4 ,a roomy stall that permits the animal to stretch or change position is an important preventive measure4 ,shoes that project beyond the quarters should be avoided4 ,the elbow may be protected by placing a thick pad over the heels when the animal is in the stable4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4--,shoe-boil4 ,local treatment varies according to the character of the enlargement4 ,soft1 doughy swellings may be treated by application of cold1 iodine and blisters4 ,the cystic form of tumor must be opened1 the fluid removed and the lining membrane destroyed by the injection of tincture of iodine4 ,hard1 indurated shoe-boils may be treated by completely removing the diseased tissue4 ,the surgical treatment of capped elbow requires the service of an experienced veterinarian4 ,his efforts may prove a complete failure1 unless the irritation to the part by the shoe or hoof is prevented4 ,,injuries ,,to ,,the ,,knee 7,,broken ,,knee74--,horses frequently fall and bruise or lacerate the knee when moving at trot or canter4 ,the injury varies according to the force of the fall1 and the character of the road that the animal is travelling over4 ,some individuals are more liable to suffer from this class of injuries than others4 ,horses that are weak-kneed because of poor conformation1 or knee-sprung1 are inclined to stumble4 ,careless driving1 especially if the animal is tired1 predisposes it to this class of injury4 ,because of the predisposition toward stumbling on the part of some horses1 scars on the front of the knee are termed broken knee1 and the animal is considered unsound4 ,the symptoms vary with the extent of the injury4 ,slight bruises or abrasions result in local swelling and soreness that disappear within a few days4 ,laceration of skin interferes with the movement of the knee and the animal may be quite lame4 ,the part becomes swollen and painful4 ,in injuries involving the sheaths of the tendons and the synovial membrane1 the pain is severe and the accompanying inflammation may take on a serious form4 ,the preventive treatment should not be overlooked4 ,horses should be trained to carry the head at a proper height when moving4 ,the driver should handle the reins properly and keep his attention on the horse or horses that he is driving4 ,superficial bruises require no special treatment other than rest4 ,laceration of the skin and underlying tissue requires complete rest and careful removal of any particles1 of dirt and gravel that may be present in the wound4 ,shreds of tissue that may take no part in the healing should be cut away4 ,the hair in the region of the wound should be trimmed short4 ,careful and repeated dressings with antiseptics are necessary until the inflammation has largely disappeared and healing is rapidly taking place4 ,it may be advisable to tie the horse in the stall so that it can not lie down4 ,,distended ,,synovial ,,sacs1 ,,joint ,,sheaths ,,and ,,bursae1 ,,galls4--,soft enlargements may occur in the region of the knee and fetlock4 ,they are commonly termed galls1 wind-galls1 or road-puffs4 ,they are usually due to the sheaths surrounding the tendons becoming distended with synovia4 ,galls are caused by strains1 direct injury to the part and severe1 continuous work4 ,certain individuals may develop this class of blemishes without being subject to any unusual conditions4 ,this condition is seldom accompanied by lameness4 ,the treatment may vary in the different cases4 ,if the distended sheath1 or bursal enlargement1 is caused by a direct injury or strain1 cold bandages should be applied and the part given as complete rest as possible4 ,wind-galls may be removed by a surgical operation4 ,it is not advisable to attempt the removal of road-puffs4 ,rest1 stimulating leg washes and bandages may temporarily remove the latter4 ,,sprung ,,knees 7,,buck ,,knees74--,this condition of the knee is characterized by the partly flexed condition of the region4 ,it is best observed by standing to one side of the horse 7,fig4 #cc74 ,instead of the forearm and cannon regions appearing perpendicular or in line1 they are directed forward4 ,this condition may exist in varying degrees4 ,some individuals show it to a slight degree1 the condition being accompanied by a weakness or shakiness of the knee when standing at rest4 ,sometimes1 but one knee is involved4 ,the causes of this unsoundness are hereditary and accidental4 ,weak knees due to faulty conformation seldom escape becoming sprung in animals that are given hard work4 ,severe and continuous driving is a common factor in the production of this condition4 ,strains of the flexor muscles of the region may cause it4 ,the retraction of the flexor muscles and their tendons and the aponeurosis of the antibrachial region occurs in this disorder and prevents the animal from extending the knee4 ,the region is greatly weakened by this condition and the animal may be unfitted for active work4 ,for this reason the value of the animal is greatly diminished4 ,treatment is unsatisfactory4 ,the preventive treatment consists in not breeding animals that have poorly conformed knees and using the proper judgment in working young horses and when driving or riding horses4 ,certain cases may be greatly benefited by sectioning the tendons of the external and middle flexors of the metacarpi4 ,to insure a successful outcome in any case that is operated on1 a long period of rest is required4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4--,sprung knees4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4--,splints4 ,,splints4--,a splint is a bony enlargement situated along the line of articulation between the splint and cannon bones 7,fig4 #cd74 ,this blemish is due to an inflammation of the periosteum4 ,it is a very common blemish and is generally located along the splint bones of the forefeet1 especially the internal ones4 ,splints are caused by strains and rupture of the ligament that binds the splint bone to the cannon bone4 ,the result is an inflammation of the periosteum4 ,slipping1 or an unbalanced condition of the foot1 may cause this injury by distributing the weight unequally on the splint bones4 ,faulty action and bad shoeing may cause the horse to strike and bruise the region4 ,symptoms of lameness are not always present4 ,a high splint involving the articulation between the lower row of carpal1 splint and cannon bones may be considered an unsoundness1 because of the persistent character of the lameness4 ,the animal may show little or no lameness when walked1 but if moved at a trot1 especially over a hard roadway1 it may show marked lameness4 ,the local inflammation is characterized by a small swelling lying along the splint bone1 that feels hot and may pit on pressure4 ,after a time the inflammation disappears and is replaced by a hard1 bony enlargement4 ,when this occurs the lameness disappears4 ,the preventive treatment consists in keeping the feet of young horses in proper balance by frequent trimming and proper shoeing4 ,this attention is very necessary in young colts that are running in pasture4 ,it is very advisable to rest the animal during the period of inflammation4 ,cold bandages should be applied4 ,as soon as the inflammation has subsided mild counterirritants and absorbents may be used4 ,in4 case the lameness persists1 more severe counterirritation is indicated4 ,,inflammation ,,of ,,the ,,flexor ,,tendons ,,of ,,the ,,digit4--,the large tendons posterior to the foot and the suspensory ligament that separates them from the cannon bone frequently become inflamed4 ,sometimes complete rupture of one or more of these structures occurs4 ,the lighter breeds of horses are the most frequent sufferers4 ,because of the greater strain thrown on the tendons of the forefeet1 inflammation of these tendons is far more common than it is in the hindfoot4 ,diseased conditions of the hind tendons are usually due to other causes than strain4 ,the following predisposing and accidental causes should be considered3 ,weak flexor tendons and heavy bodies predispose animals to inflammation of the tendons and suspensory ligament2 quality1 not size1 is the factor to consider when judging the strength of a tendon2 long1 slender pasterns increase the strain on these structures1 and this mechanical strain is further increased by low heels and long toes2 the character of the work and the condition of the road that the animal travels over are important factors to consider2 trotting and running horses more often suffer from injuries to tendons and ligaments than draft horses2 travelling at a high rate of speed over an uneven road1 slipping and catching the foot in a rut or car track1 are common causes2 bruises and wounds may result in the tendons becoming inflamed2 inflammation of the tendinous sheaths and the tendons as well sometimes occurs in influenza4 ,lameness is a prominent symptom4 ,the pastern is held in a more upright position than normal4 ,when the animal is standing1 the foot is rested on the toe1 and it may take advantage of any uneven place on which to rest the heel4 ,in severe strains the local symptoms are quite prominent4 ,the tendons may be hot and swollen4 ,pressure may cause the animal pain4 ,in chronic tendinitis the tendon may be thickened and rough or knotty4 ,pain is not a prominent symptom in this class of cases4 ,shortening of the inflamed tendon may occur1 causing the animal to knuckle over4 ,rupture of one or more of the tendons and the suspensory ligament can be recognized by the abnormal extension of the pastern4 ,if the ruptured tendon heals1 it always results in a thickening at the point of the rupture that gives the tendons a bowed appearance4 ,this is termed bowed-tendon4 ,the lameness resulting from an inflammation of tendons resembles that resulting from strains and injuries to the fetlock joint1 especially in the region of the sesamoid bones4 ,,inflammation ,,of ,,the ,,sesamoid ,,bones differs slightly from the former4 ,pressure over the posterior region of the fetlock may cause the animal pain4 ,the lameness shows a tendency to disappear with rest and reappear when the animal is again worked4 ,lameness is most prominent in some cases when the animal is first moved out4 ,there may be a lack of local symptoms1 such as heat and swelling4 ,it is not uncommon for a bony enlargement to form on the sesamoid bone after a few months or a year4 ,the following treatment is recommended4 ,horses that have a poor quality of tendon and weak fetlocks and pasterns should not be used for breeding purposes4 ,careful driving would prevent a large percentage of injuries to tendons4 ,the most important treatment for all injuries due to strains is rest4 ,in all cases of severe strain to the structures in this region1 it is very advisable to apply a plaster bandage4 ,this should be left on for at least two weeks4 ,when the acute inflammation has subsided1 counterirritants may be applied4 ,either cold or hot applications are recommended4 ,cold applications are to be preferred at the beginning of the inflammation4 ,covering the tendons with a cold bandage1 or with a heavy layer of antiphlogistin1 is recommended4 ,the horse should not be worked until after the tendons have had an opportunity to completely recover from the inflammation4 ,,contracted ,,tendons1 ,,knuckling-,,over4--,new-born foals are sometimes unable to stand on their front feet because of the excessive knuckling-over4 ,the colt may walk on the front of the pastern and fetlock4 ,this sometimes results in severe injury to the skin and the underlying tissues4 ,knuckling-over in the mature horse is not always due to contracted tendons4 ,it may occur as a symptom of inflammation of the flexor tendons1 ligaments of the fetlock joint and the articulation as well4 ,it may be noticed in animals that have ring-bone1 or coffin-joint lameness4 ,the most common cause for this unsoundness is inflammation of the muscles and tendons of the flexors of the digit4 ,as a result of long standing or severe inflammation1 shortening of these structures occurs in consequence of the contraction of the inflammatory or cicatricial tissue4 ,knuckling-over in the newborn colt is commonly caused by a weakness or lack of innervation of the extensor muscle of the digit4 ,judging from the quick recovery that usually occurs1 other causes for this condition are seldom present4 ,the treatment recommended for the new-born colt is supporting the fetlock with a light plaster bandage4 ,this should be applied very soon after birth in order to prevent bruising of the fetlock4 ,a light cheese-cloth bandage should be applied to the limb from the hoof to the knee4 ,the colt is laid on its side1 the toe extended as much as possible1 and the plaster bandage applied4 ,this should be removed in about one week and fresh bandages applied4 ,in about two weeks the young animal is usually able to walk on the toe4 ,as soon as it is able to do this a bandage is unnecessary4 ,it is not advisable to turn the colt outside if there is any chance for the bandages to become wet4 ,knuckling-over due to faulty conformation is difficult to correct4 ,light work and careful shoeing are the most valuable preventive measures in young horses4 ,sprains and injuries to the region of the fetlock should receive the necessary treatment4 ,the treatment for contracted tendon is largely surgical and consists in sectioning it4 ,,injuries ,,caused ,,by ,,interfering4--,horses that have faulty action may strike the opposite fetlock with the moving foot1 the inside of the opposite limb in the region of the knee1 and the quarters of the front foot with the shoe of the hindfoot4 ,it is very common for horses to brush the inside of the hind fetlock with the opposite foot when trotting1 especially if tired4 ,interfering in the front feet is less common4 ,striking the inside of the region of the knee with the opposite foot or speedy cutting occurs in driving and speed horses4 ,both of the latter forms of interfering may be considered unsoundnesses4 ,the most common cause of interfering is faulty conformation1 such as narrowness of the chest or pelvis1 faulty conformation of the limbs and irregularity in the action of the joints4 ,shoeing and the condition of the feet are also important factors4 ,animals that have a narrow chest or pelvis interfere because the legs are placed too closely together4 ,turning in of the knees or knock-kneed1 winging in or out of the feet1 or any other defective conformation of the limbs that tends to prevent the animal from moving the feet in line1 lead to serious interfering4 ,a wide-spreading hoof1 an unbalanced condition of the foot and improper fitting of the shoes are common causes for interfering in horses that would otherwise move the feet in line4 ,debility from disease and overwork may cause the animal to interfere temporarily4 ,an unbalanced gait and shortness of the body are the common causes for injuries to the quarters4 ,all degrees of injury to the part struck by the shoe or wall of the foot may be noted4 ,horses that interfere lightly1 wear the hair off and produce slight abrasions of the skin on the inside of the fetlock4 ,sometimes the skin is bruised1 inflamed or scarred4 ,injuries to the inside of the knee and quarter are the most serious4 ,lameness1 inflammation of the periosteum and bony enlargement may result from speedy cutting4 ,deep wounds in the region of the heel or quarter may occur when a horse strikes this part with the shoe of the hindfoot in moving at a high rate of speed4 ,the treatment is largely preventive4 ,no doubt many cases of interfering could be prevented by careful training and balancing of the foot when the animal is growing and developing4 ,the feet of colts should be trimmed every three or four weeks4 ,interfering in the hindfeet may be stopped by noting the character of the animal's gait and the portion of the wall that strikes the part1 and by practising intelligent methods of shoeing4 ,slight injuries should be treated by the application of antiseptic powders4 ,the treatment for injuries to the periosteum is the same as that recommended for splints4 ,as a last resort boots and button rings may be used for the purpose of preventing serious injury to that part which is struck by the foot4 ,,ring-,,bone4--,chronic inflammation of the articulation between the first and second bones of the digit is termed ring-bone 7,fig4 #ce74 ,not all ring-bones involve the articular surfaces4 ,the periarticular1 or false ring-bone1 is a chronic inflammation of the bone near the articular surface4 ,the bony enlargement varies in size4 ,it may form a ring encircling the part1 or it may be limited to the lateral surface of the joint4 ,the bony enlargement may be so small as to be detected only by a careful examination4 ,ring-bone may occur on any of the feet1 but it is said to be more common in the front feet4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4--;,bones of digit1 showing side bones and ring-bones1 and normal bones of digit4 ,the predisposing cause of ring-bone is faulty conformation4 ,long1 weak pasterns that are predisposed to strains1 upright pasterns1 especially if small1 and exposed to concussion and jarring1 and crooked feet that distribute the weight on the part irregularly are important factors in the production of ring-bones4 ,the external causes are sprains or any injury to the region4 ,lameness is nearly always present4 ,the degree of lameness varies1 and does not depend altogether on the size of the bony enlargement4 ,large ring-bones interfere with the movement of the tendon4 ,lameness is most pronounced when weight is thrown on one foot1 the later phase of the step being shortened and the pastern more upright4 ,some cases improve with rest1 but the lameness returns when the animal is given hard work4 ,the preventive treatment consists in giving the necessary attention to the feet of young animals1 by trimming the wall frequently and keeping the feet in balance and the careful selection of breeding stock4 ,resting the animal1 keeping the foot that has the ring-bone on it in proper balance and counterirritation by means of blisters and cautery 7searing7 are important lines of treatment4 ,shortening the toe and raising the heel1 if necessary1 greatly relieves the lameness in some cases4 ,sectioning the sensory nerves that go to the part should not be practised1 unless in exceptional cases4 ,,questions #a4 ,give the causes of shoulder lameness2 give the treatment4 #b4 ,describe capped elbow2 give the treatment4 #c4 ,what is broken knee8 #d4 ,what are wind-galls and road-puffs8 #e4 ,give the cause and treatment of sprung-knee4 #f4 ,give the cause and treatment of splints4 #g4 ,what class of horses most commonly have strained tendons8 ,give the causes and treatment of this form of lameness4 #h4 ,give the treatment of contracted tendons in the new-born colt4 #i4 ,give the causes for interfering4 #aj4 ,what are the different forms of ring-bone8 ,give the causes and treatment of ring-bone4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,foot ,,general ,,discussion4--,the foot of the horse as generally spoken of1 includes the hoof and the structures that are enclosed by it 7,fig4 #cf74 ,it may be divided into three parts1 the insensitive and sensitive structures and the bony core4 ,the insensitive foot or hoof is divided into wall1 sole1 frog and bars4 ,the sensitive foot is divided into vascular tissue and elastic apparatus4 ,the vascular tissue is in turn divided into coronary cushion1 laminae and velvety tissue4 ,the elastic apparatus is divided into plantar cushion and fibro-cartilages4 ,the bony core is formed by the navicular and third digital bones4 ,the hoof and vascular tissue in turn enclose the elastic apparatus and bony core4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4--,photograph of a model of the foot3 wall2 sensitive tissue2 plantar cushion1 inferior dark portion1 sole and frog2 lateral cartilage2 and pedal bone4 ,,the ,,wall forms that portion of the hoof seen when the foot rests on the ground 7,fig4 #cg74 ,it is covered by a thin layer of horny tissue1 the peripole1 that coats over the wall and assists in preventing its drying out4 ,on lifting the foot and examining its inferior surface1 it is noticed that the wall at the heels is inflected under the foot and in a forward direction4 ,this portion of the wall is termed the bars4 ,within the bearing margin of the wall and in front of the bars is a thick1 concave1 horny plate that forms the sole4 ,at the heels and between the bars is a wedge-shaped mass of rather soft horny tissue that projects forward into the sole4 ,this is the foot pad or horny frog4 ,it is divided into two lateral portions by a medium cleft4 ,,the ,,coronary ,,cushion projects into the upper border of the wall4 ,it is covered with vascular papillae which secrete the horny fibres that form the wall4 ,the vascular laminae are leaf-like projections1 the sides of which are covered by secondary leaves4 ,horny laminae1 arranged the same as vascular laminae1 line the wall4 ,these two structures are so firmly united that it is impossible to tear them apart without destroying the tissue4 ,the velvety tissue covers all of the inferior surface of the foot1 with the exception of the bars4 ,as the name indicates1 its surface is covered by vascular papillae that resemble the ply on velvet4 ,it is firmly united to the horny sole which it secretes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4--;,foot showing neglect in trimming wall4 ,the lateral cartilages are attached to the posterior angles of the pedal bone4 ,they are flattened from side to side1 and the portion that projects above the coronary cushion may be felt by pressing on the skin that covers it4 ,the plantar cushion is a wedge-shaped piece of tissue formed by interlacing connective-tissue fibres and fat4 ,it is limited on each side by the lateral cartilages4 ,its inferior face is moulded to the frog4 ,,the ,,bony ,,core formed by the last bone of the digit and the coffin bone was described briefly with the other foot bones4 ,a very important bursa1 because it is so frequently inflamed in coffin-joint lameness1 facilitates the gliding of the flexor tendon over the navicular bone before it becomes attached to the inferior face of the pedal or digital bone4 ,,side-,,bones4--,this is a chronic inflammation of the lateral cartilages of the foot that results in their ossification 7,fig4 #ch74 ,this unsoundness is common in heavy horses1 especially if worked on city streets4 ,the inflammation affects the cartilages of the front feet1 rarely those of the hindfeet4 ,the hereditary tendency toward the development of side-bones is an important predisposing factor4 ,it is not uncommon to meet with this unsoundness in young horses that have never been worked4 ,low1 weak heels1 flat1 spreading feet1 or any other faulty conformation of the foot are predisposing factors4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4--;,a very large side bone4 ,the character of the work is an important exciting cause4 ,continuous work over paved streets1 especially if the horse is shod with high-heeled shoes1 increases the shock received by the elastic apparatus of the foot4 ,this produces more or less irritation to the lateral cartilages1 which may result in their complete ossification4 ,punctured wounds in the regions of the cartilage may cause it to become inflamed and changed to bone4 ,the following symptoms may be noted4 ,farm horses that have side-bones seldom show lameness4 ,this is because they are worked on soft ground and not on a hard street or road4 ,driving and dray horses may step short with the front feet1 or show a stilty action4 ,this may disappear with exercise4 ,the lameness is sometimes marked4 ,the local diseased changes are the greatest help in the recognition of side-bones4 ,horses should not be passed as sound without making a careful examination of the lateral cartilages4 ,this examination is made by pressure over the region of the cartilage with the thumb or fingers4 ,this is for the purpose of testing its elasticity4 ,if it feels rigid and rough1 the cartilaginous tissue has been replaced by bony tissue1 and the animal should be classed as unsound4 ,the treatment is largely preventive4 ,horses with side-bones should not be bred4 ,it is not advisable to use horses with side-bones on the road or city streets4 ,shoeing with rubber pads may help in overcoming the concussion and relieve the lameness4 ,sectioning the sensory nerves going to this portion of the foot is advisable in driving horses4 ,rest and counterirritation relieve the lameness for a short time4 ,,navicular ,,disease4--,in navicular disease the bursa1 flexor tendon1 and navicular bone may become chronically inflamed4 ,because of the seat of the lameness1 it is commonly known as coffin-joint lameness4 ,this disease affects standard and thoroughbred horses more often than it does the coarser breeds4 ,one or both front feet may be affected 7,fig4 #ci74 ,hereditary causes are largely responsible for navicular disease4 ,the tendency toward this disease probably depends on such peculiarities of conformation as narrow1 weak1 high heels1 long pasterns and too long a toe4 ,the character of the work is an important factor4 ,hurried1 rapid movements throw considerable strain on the navicular region1 increasing the danger from injury4 ,this is1 no doubt1 one reason for coffin-joint lameness being more common in driving and speed horses than in slow-going work animals4 ,rheumatic inflammation1 bad shoeing and punctured wounds in the region of the bursa many cause it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4--;,a case of navicular disease involving one front foot4 ,the diseased foot is the smaller4 ,the first symptom usually noted is a tendency to stumble4 ,when standing in the stable1 the animal points or rests the diseased foot4 ,sometimes it rests the heel of the lame foot on the wall of the opposite foot4 ,if both feet are affected1 the animal may rest them alternately1 or take a position with both feet well in front of the normal position4 ,the inflamed structures are so covered by other tissues that it is difficult to detect the local inflammation1 or cause the animal to flinch by applying pressure over the region4 ,as the disease becomes more advanced1 the lameness becomes permanent4 ,the limb is carried forward stiffly and rapidly and the animal stumbles when travelling over rough ground4 ,in time1 because of the little weight thrown on the posterior portion of the foot1 the quarters may become higher1 contracted and more upright and the frog smaller4 ,if one foot is diseased1 it becomes smaller than the opposite foot4 ,the following preventive measures may be recommended4 ,we should not use animals having faulty conformation of the feet for breeding1 because the offspring of such individuals have an inherent tendency toward navicular and other foot diseases4 ,animals that have coffin-joint lameness should be allowed to run in pasture as much as possible1 because natural conditions help to keep down the inflammation and soreness and promote a more healthy condition of the foot4 ,in shoeing the horse it is best to shorten the toe and raise the heel4 ,it is advisable in the more favorable cases to cut the sensory nerves of the foot4 ,this operation destroys the sensation in the foot1 and should not be performed on feet with weak heels1 or that are wide or spreading4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4--;,an improperly shod foot2 note the manner in which the wall is cut away at the toe4 ,,contracted ,,quarters4--,this condition of the feet is characterized by the foot becoming narrow in its posterior portion4 ,one or both of the quarters may be affected4 ,it is principally observed in the forefeet4 ,the causes of contraction of the foot may be classed as predisposing1 secondary and exciting4 ,it may accompany chronic diseases of the foot1 such as navicular disease and side-bones4 ,weak heels is the principal predisposing factor4 ,any condition that tends to prevent the hoof from taking up moisture1 or causes it to lose moisture1 may cause the horn to lose flexibility and contract4 ,this is one of the reasons why horses that are worked continuously in cities1 or used for driving1 frequently develop contracted feet4 ,ill-fitting shoes1 excessive rasping of the wall and bars1 and allowing the shoes to stay on the foot for too long a time are responsible to a very large degree for this disorder of the foot 7,fig4 #dj74 ,the following local symptoms may occur3 ,the wall of the foot at the quarters may appear drawn in at its superior or inferior portion4 ,sometimes one or both quarters are perpendicular1 or nearly so4 ,the foot then appears too narrow at the heel1 too elongated and less rounded than normal4 ,the changes in the appearance of the inferior surface of the hoof vary4 ,the changes here may be so slight that they are not noticed4 ,in well advanced and neglected cases the arch of the sole is increased1 the frog is narrow and atrophied and the bars high and perpendicular4 ,corns may accompany the contraction4 ,the foot may feel feverish4 ,the animal may manifest the pain in the feet when standing at rest by pointing and changing their position4 ,when lameness is present1 it may resemble that occurring in inflammation of lateral cartilages and navicular disease4 ,preventive treatment is of the greatest importance4 ,this consists in giving the feet an opportunity to take up moisture when they are exposed to abnormal conditions and become feverish4 ,under such conditions1 it is advisable to occasionally remove the shoes and turn the animal into a pasture or lot4 ,it is best to do this in the fall or winter when the ground is wet4 ,if this can not be practised1 the shoes should be removed and a poultice of ground flaxseed and bran1 equal parts1 applied to the feet for a period of eight or ten hours1 daily for a week or two4 ,a plank trough six inches deep1 two feet wide and as long as the stall is wide may be filled with a stiff clay1 and the horse made to stand with its front feet in the clay bath for ten or twelve hours daily4 ,when grooming the horse1 the foot should be cleaned with a foot-hook and washed with clean water4 ,hoof ointments should be avoided so far as possible4 ,the importance of fitting the shoe to the foot1 avoiding the too free use of the rasp and hoof knife and resetting or changing the shoe when necessary can not be overestimated4 ,shoeing the animal with a special shoe is sometimes necessary4 ,it is not advisable to attempt the forcible expansion of the quarters4 ,lowering the heels by careful trimming of the wall and sole and permitting frog pressure may be all the special attention required4 ,,sand-,,crack4--,a fissure in the wall of the foot running in the same direction as the horny fibres1 or a seam in the wall resulting from the healing of the fissure is termed sand-crack4 ,the position and extent of the fissure or seam vary4 ,it may involve the wall of the toe 7toe-crack7 7,fig4 #da7 or quarter 7quarter-crack7 7,fig4 #db74 ,it is superficial or deep1 according to the thickness of the wall involved2 complete or incomplete1 depending on whether it extends from the bearing margin of the wall to the coronary band or only a portion of the distance2 simple1 when the horny tissue only is involved2 and complicated1 when the sensitive tissue beneath becomes injured and inflamed4 ,cracks of long standing usually have thick1 rough margins4 ,the causes of this unsoundness are poor quality of horn1 improper care and injuries4 ,sand-cracks commonly occur in hoofs that are dry and brittle and have thin walls4 ,in young horses incomplete cracks due to the wall becoming long and breaking off in large pieces are common4 ,unequal distribution of weight1 the result of unskilled shoeing1 or any other condition that may cause the foot to become unbalanced1 using the foot rasp too freely1 and such diseases as quittor1 corns and contracted quarters subject the animal to this form of unsoundness4 ,any injury to the coronary cushion that secretes the fibres of the horny wall may result in either toe- or quarter-crack4 ,treads and barb-wire cuts are common injuries to the region of the coronet4 ,the preventive treatment consists in preserving a healthy condition of the horn by giving the foot the necessary care and attention in the way of proper trimming and shoeing1 and providing it with the necessary moisture by means of foot-baths1 wet clay and poultices4 ,quarter-cracks respond to treatment more quickly than toe-cracks4 ,the treatment is practically the same for both4 ,this consists in preventing motion in the margins of the fissure so far as possible4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4--,toe-cracks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4--,quarter-crack caused by barb-wire cut4 ,the treatment for fissures in the region of the toe and quarter is as follows3 ,the wall should be cut away along the margins of the crack until it is quite thin2 and extra nail holes should be made in the shoe1 and a nail driven into the bearing margin of the wall a little to each side of the fissure4 ,the wall at the toe should be shortened and the toe of the shoe rolled if the animal's work permits the use of this kind of a shoe4 ,the margins of a quarter-crack and the wall just posterior and below it should be cut away until quite thin4 ,the bearing margin should then be trimmed so that it does not rest on the shoe4 ,a bar shoe that does not press on the frog may be used4 ,light blisters to the region of the coronet help in stimulating the growth of the horn4 ,rest is advisable4 ,,corns4--,this term is applied to injuries to the foot caused by bruises or continuous pressure to the posterior portion of the sole4 ,this condition is common in the forefeet4 ,the predisposing causes are faulty conformation that favors pressure from the shoe on the sole between the bars and wall and weak heels4 ,corns are commonly met with in feet having contracted quarters4 ,the principal external causes are wrong methods of shoeing and allowing the shoes to remain on the feet for too long a period4 ,a common symptom of corns is lameness4 ,in order to relieve the pressure over the inflamed part1 the animal stands with the foot slightly flexed at the fetlock4 ,the lameness is not characteristic4 ,it is only by a local examination of the foot1 made by pressing on the sole or cutting away the horn1 that we are able to form a positive diagnosis4 ,we describe the diseased changes by using the terms dry1 moist and suppurative corns4 ,in the dry corn we find the horn stained and infiltrated with blood4 ,in the moist corn the hoof may be colored the same as in the former1 but in addition there is a space between the vascular and horny tissue that is filled with a serous-like fluid4 ,if this collection of fluid becomes infected with pus organisms and is changed to pus1 it is then termed a suppurative corn4 ,sometimes the pus pushes its way upward and backward between the sensitive laminae and the wall1 and makes its appearance at the margin of the coronary band in the region of the quarters or heels4 ,this usually occurs when the tissues beneath the horny frog become bruised or the sensitive tissue pricked by a nail4 ,it is commonly termed gravelled4 ,pus rarely breaks through the thick horny tissue1 but follows the wall and breaks through the skin where it meets with the least resistance4 ,corns may be considered a serious unsoundness in driving horses4 ,the treatment is largely preventive4 ,trimming the foot and fitting the shoe properly are important preventive measures4 ,the practice of cutting away the bars and sole or opening up the heels1 as it is commonly termed1 should be condemned4 ,this method of trimming the foot instead of preventing corns is a very common factor in producing them4 ,the shoe should not be too short or too narrow4 ,it should follow the outline of the wall and rest evenly on its bearing margin4 ,if this is practised1 weakening the wall by cutting off that portion allowed to project beyond the shoe is unnecessary4 ,feet that have low heels and large1 prominent frogs should be shod with shoes thick at the heels4 ,the best line of treatment for a horse that is subject to corns is to remove the shoes and allow the animal to run in a pasture4 ,if this is impossible1 poulticing the feet or standing the animal in moist clay will help in relieving the soreness4 ,excessive cutting away of the horny sole is contra-indicated4 ,suppurative corns should be given proper drainage and treatment4 ,,laminitis1 ,,founder4--,this is an inflammation of the sensitive or vascular stricture of the foot4 ,the inflammation may be acute1 subacute or chronic4 ,stockmen frequently use a classification for laminitis based on the causes4 ,feed1 road and water founder are common terms used in speaking of this disease4 ,the inflammation is usually limited to the front feet4 ,the causes of laminitis are overfeeding1 sudden changes in the feed1 drinking a large quantity of water when the animal is overheated1 overexertion1 exhaustion and chilling of the body by standing the animal in a cold draft4 ,it may be associated with such diseases as rheumatism1 influenza and colic4 ,the symptoms vary in the different forms of the disease4 ,pain is the most characteristic symptom4 ,the sensitive or vascular structure of the foot has an abundant supply of sensory nerves1 and1 as it is situated between the hoof and the bony core1 the pressure and pain resulting from the inflammation are severe4 ,in the acute form general symptoms are manifested4 ,the appetite is impaired1 the body temperature elevated and the pulse beats and respirations quickened4 ,if the inflammation is severe1 the animal prefers to lie down4 ,this is especially true if all four feet are inflamed4 ,in most cases the horse stands with the forefeet well forward and the hind feet in front of their normal position and under the body4 ,the affected feet are feverish and very sensitive to jarring or pressure4 ,moving about increases the pain in the feet1 and it may be very difficult to make the animal step about the stall4 ,in the subacute form the symptoms are less severe4 ,the irregularity in the gait is especially noticeable when the animal is turned quickly4 ,the local symptoms are less marked than in the acute form and the general symptoms may be absent4 ,the chronic form is characterized by changes in the shape and appearance of the hoofs 7,fig4 #dc74 ,the wall shows prominent ridges or rings1 the toe may be concave1 thick and long and the sole less arched than usual1 or convex4 ,the degree of lameness varies4 ,it is more noticeable when the horse is moved over a hard roadway than if moved over soft ground4 ,one attack of laminitis may predispose the animal to a second attack4 ,the prognosis depends on the character of the inflammation and the promptness and thoroughness of the treatment4 ,acute laminitis may respond to prompt1 careful treatment in from ten to fourteen days4 ,subacute laminitis responds readily to treatment4 ,the prognosis is least favorable in the chronic form4 ,the preventive treatment is very important4 ,dietetic causes are responsible for a large percentage of the cases of this disease4 ,horses that are accustomed to being fed and watered at irregular periods and after severe or unusual exercise seem to be able to stand this treatment better than animals that are more carefully cared for1 but even this class of animals do not always escape injury4 ,stockmen should realize the danger of producing an inflammation of the feet by feeding grain and giving cold water to horses immediately after severe exercise4 ,overfeeding should also be avoided4 ,careful nursing may prevent the occurrence of laminitis as a complication of other diseases4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4--,this foot shows the changes in shape and appearance of wall and sole occurring in chronic laminitis4 ,the treatment of the inflammation is as follows3 ,the removal of the shoes and the necessary trimming of the foot should be practised early in the inflammation2 the horse should be placed in a roomy box-stall that is well bedded with cut straw2 during the cool weather it may be necessary to blanket the animal2 if the weather is hot and the flies annoy the patient1 the stall should be darkened2 in serious cases1 and when the animal is heavy1 it may be advisable to use a sling2 hot water fomentations are to be preferred2 the patient may be stood in a tub of hot water or heavy woollen bandages that have been dipped in hot water and wrung1 out as dry as possible may be applied to the feet2 the temperature of the water should be no hotter than can be comfortably borne with the hands2 the results of this treatment depend on the faithfulness with which it is carried out2 a poultice of ground flaxseed should be applied to the foot at night1 or during the interval between the foot-baths4 ,this treatment may be continued until the acute inflammation has subsided4 ,if the animal is inclined to eat1 it should be fed very little roughness and grain4 ,soft feeds are to be preferred1 and one quart of linseed oil given as a physic4 ,after a period of from ten days to three weeks1 depending on the tenderness of the feet1 the wall at the toe should be shortened1 the sole trimmed if necessary1 flat shoes rolled at the toe placed on the feet1 and the animal allowed to exercise a short time each day in a lot or pasture4 ,as the hoof grows rapidly1 it is necessary to trim it carefully every three or four weeks and replace the shoes4 ,the wall at the toe should be kept short1 but excessive thinning of the sole should be avoided4 ,the same line of treatment as recommended for the horse may be used for laminitis in cattle4 ,if marked diseased changes occur in the feet1 it is not advisable to attempt the treatment of chronic laminitis1 unless it is in valuable breeding animals4 ,,questions #a4 ,give a general description of the foot4 #b4 ,state the nature and causes of side-bones4 #c4 ,what are the causes of navicular disease8 ,give symptoms and treatment #d4 ,what are corns8 ,give the treatment4 #e4 ,give the nature and treatment of quarter- and toe-cracks4 #f4 ,give the symptoms and causes of laminitis4 #g4 ,give lines of treatment to be followed in the different forms of laminitis4 #h4 ,how may laminitis be prevented8 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,hind ,,limb ,,fracture ,,of ,,the ,,ileum1 ,hipped4--,fracture of the angle and neck of the ileum may be classed among the common fractures in horses and cattle4 ,fractures involving other parts of the pelvic bones are less common4 ,such fractures are due to accidental causes1 as striking the point of the haunch on the door frame when hurrying through a narrow doorway and falling on frozen ground4 ,fractures of the external angle of the ileum or point of haunch are usually followed by displacement of the fractured portion4 ,the same is true of fractures of the neck of the ileum4 ,the result is a deformity of the quarter4 ,in making an examination of these parts the examiner should see that the horse is standing squarely on its feet1 and then compare the conformation of the two quarters4 ,fractures of either the external angle or the neck of the ileum cause the quarter to appear narrow and low4 ,a close examination may enable the examiner to differentiate between the two fractures4 ,fractures of the neck of the ileum can be recognized by manipulating the part through the walls of the rectum or vagina4 ,the degree of lameness may vary4 ,in some cases there may be no lameness when the animal walks1 but a slight degree of lameness may be noticed when it trots4 ,for several weeks after the injury the horse may be unable to use the limb1 but it may eventually make nearly a complete recovery4 ,atrophy of the muscles of the hip or quarter 7,fig4 #dd7 should not be mistaken for fractures of the ileum4 ,this condition involves the heavy gluteal muscles and may occur as a complication of azoturia1 or a lameness of the hind limb that is usually due to a spavin4 ,it is very seldom necessary to give fractures of the ileum any special care4 ,if the animal is very lame1 it should be given a narrow stall1 and placed in a sling until it can support its weight on the limb4 ,the same treatment is indicated in cattle4 ,it is not advisable to breed a mare that has had the ileum fractured4 ,the bony enlargement that results from the union of the broken ends of the bone may interfere with the passage of the foetus through the pelvic cavity and cause difficult parturition4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4--;,atrophy of the muscles of the quarter4 ,,luxation ,,of ,,the ,,patella1 ,stifle ,out4--,this is a common accident in horses and mules4 ,young1 immature animals are more prone to displacement of the patella than when mature4 ,the displacement is usually upward or outward4 ,outward displacement is comparatively rare4 ,the causes of stifle out may be described as follows3 ,the patella or knee-cap rests on a pulley-like articular surface belonging to the inferior extremity of the thigh-bone4 ,the external lip of this articular surface is smaller than the internal lip4 ,the patella is held in place from above by the heavy muscles of the anterior region of the thigh1 and from below1 by straight ligaments that attach it to the leg-bone4 ,if the retaining structures mentioned become relaxed1 the patella may1 when the limb is extended1 become so displaced as to rest on the superior portion of the external lip4 ,laxness of the muscles and ligaments in young animals is a predisposing factor4 ,hard work that tires the muscles and causes them to become relaxed1 strains1 unusual movements1 as kicking in the stable and slipping1 may cause this accident4 ,congenital displacement results from imperfect development of the external lip of the trochlea4 ,such a deformity subjects the animal to frequent luxations4 ,the symptoms may vary4 ,the displacement may be first noticed when the horse is backed out of the stall or turned quickly4 ,a slight hitch in the movement of the limb is noted1 that is followed by more noticeable flexion of the hock than normal4 ,in case the luxation is more permanent1 the horse stands quietly with the affected leg held stiffly and extended backward4 ,when made to move forward1 it hops on the well leg and carries the affected one1 or drags it on the toe4 ,if both limbs are affected1 the animal is unable to move4 ,the inability to move the limb is due to the patella resting on the external lip of the pulley surface1 and a locking of the stifle- and hock-joint4 ,this accident is annoying1 and in case the horse is subject to it should be considered an unsoundness4 ,the following treatment may be recommended3 ,the luxation may be reduced in the large majority of cases by backing or turning the animal4 ,if this does not reduce the displacement1 a collar should be placed on the animal1 and a hobble strap fastened to the pastern of the involved limb4 ,one end of a long rope is tied to the collar1 passed backward between the front limbs1 through a ring in the hobble and back over the outside of the shoulder and under the collar4 ,while an attendant pulls the limb a little forward with the rope1 the operator takes hold of the foot and attempts to flex the limb1 at the same time pushing inward on the patella4 ,after reducing the luxation it is advisable to tie the rope to the collar1 so that the limb is carried forward4 ,this prevents the animal from throwing weight on the foot4 ,it may be advisable to tie the animal so that it can not lie down1 if the foot is to be left hobbled for a few days4 ,a fly blister should be applied to the front and outside of the stifle and the application repeated in two or three weeks4 ,,string-,,halt4--,this term is applied to a peculiar involuntary movement of one or both hind limbs that is characterized by a sudden1 purposeless flexion of the hock-joint 7,fig4 #de74 ,horses that are slightly affected may show this movement of the hind limbs when first exercised4 ,other horses may be string-halted when backed1 turned1 walked1 or trotted1 and fail to drive out of it4 ,the cause of true string-halt is not known4 ,the treatment recommended is surgical4 ,this consists in cutting the tendon of the peroneus muscle4 ,the seat of the operation is a little below the hock and on the external face of the cannon4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4--,string-halt4 ,,spavin4--,a spavin is a chronic inflammation of the articular faces of the hock bones1 ligaments and synovial membranes4 ,the inflammation may result in the formation of a bony enlargement on the inner surface of the region1 and a union between the small bones forming the lower portion of the hock1 and the upper extremities of cannon and lower hock bones 7,figs4 #df and #dg74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4--;,a large bone spavin4 ,the predisposing causes are of the greatest importance4 ,a spavin is one of the unsoundnesses of horses that may be transmitted to the offspring4 ,young colts that have heavy bodies and are fed a fattening ration are predisposed to it4 ,crooked hind limbs1 small hocks and quarters that are heavily muscled are predisposing factors4 ,the external causes are strains caused by slipping1 turning quickly1 rearing1 pulling heavy loads and kicks4 ,horses three or four years of age if given work that favors hock strain1 such as excavating cellars1 may develop a spavin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4--,normal cannon bone and cannon bone showing bony enlargement and lower hock bones united to superior extremity2 this occurs in bone spavin4 ,the symptoms or lameness are more characteristic than in most diseases of the limb4 ,at the very beginning of the inflammation1 and sometimes for several months afterward1 the lameness is intermittent and disappears with exercise4 ,after a time it is permanent4 ,it is characterized by a stiffness of the hock4 ,the extension of the hock is incomplete1 the step is short and quick1 the animal goes on its toe and the wall or shoe at the toe shows considerable wear4 ,because of the stiffness in the hock the animal raises the quarter when the limb is carried forward4 ,turning toward the well side may increase the lameness4 ,the spavin test may be of value in diagnosing lameness4 ,this consists in picking up the foot and holding the hock in a flexed position for a few minutes4 ,the foot is then dropped to the ground and the animal moved off at a brisk trot4 ,if the lameness is more marked1 it indicates that the seat is in the region of the hock4 ,this test is of greatest value in young animals4 ,the bony enlargement can usually be seen best if the examiner stands in front and to one side of the animal4 ,the hock should be observed from directly behind as well4 ,the hocks of both limbs should be compared1 and the general conformations of the other joints as well4 ,this may prevent the examiner from mistaking rough hocks for spavin enlargements or a pair of spavins for rough hocks4 ,a bony enlargement does not always accompany the lameness1 and a spavin may be present without the horse going noticeably lame4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4--;,bog spavins4 ,the prognosis is always uncertain and should be guided somewhat by the conformation of the limb1 character of the work required of the animal1 position of the bony enlargement and the degree of lameness4 ,the size of the enlargement is changed very little by the treatment4 ,veterinarians report recoveries in from fifty to sixty per cent of the cases treated4 ,the object of the treatment is to destroy the inflammation and bring about a union between the bones4 ,the treatment recommended is counterirritation and rest4 ,the most satisfactory method of counterirritation is firing followed by blistering4 ,following this treatment1 the horse should be placed in a stall and given no exercise for a period of five or six weeks4 ,it is sometimes advisable to repeat the counterirritation if the results of the first firing are unsatisfactory4 ,,bog ,,spavin4--,bog spavin is an extensive distention of the capular ligament of the hock-joint by synovia 7,fig4 #dh74 ,it is generally due to chronic inflammation of the synovial membrane4 ,this blemish or unsoundness is most common in young horses4 ,thorough pin 7,fig4 #di7 involves the sheath of the large tendon only4 7,compare ,figs4 #dh and #di47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4--,thorough pin4 ,note the relation of the enlargement to the tendon1 and the freedom of the hocks from bog spavin4 ,certain conformations of the hock favor the development of bog spavin4 ,this is especially true of upright and fleshy hocks4 ,hard work may cause the hocks to fill when followed by a brief period of rest4 ,the common cause is a sprain due to slipping and pulling heavy loads4 ,the following symptoms may be noted3 ,lameness is not a common symptom of bog spavin4 ,if there is inflammation present or the articulation is injured1 lameness occurs4 ,the soft swelling that characterizes the bog spavin is most prominent toward the inside and front of the region4 ,in the upper portion or hollow of the hock1 and on the inside and outside1 there may be a second enlargement4 ,smaller enlargements may be present in other regions4 ,all of the swellings feel soft1 and pressure on any one of them moves the fluid present in the others4 ,the treatment is directed at the removal of the lameness4 ,acute inflammation resulting from spavin may be relieved by cold applications and rest4 ,chronic lameness should be given the same treatment as recommended for bone spavin4 ,the enlargement can be successfully removed in growing colts by the repeated application of mild blisters4 ,it may be necessary to continue the treatment for several months4 ,the removal of the enlargement in adult horses by an operation is recommended4 ,the greatest caution is required in performing this operation4 ,,capped ,,hock4--,all swellings on the point of the hock are termed capped hock4 ,the swellings may be due to an injury to the skin and the subcutaneous tissue1 or more important structures may be involved1 as the subcutaneous bursa1 the tendon1 or the synovial bursa or sack4 ,capped hock is caused by the animal kicking in the stall or in harness1 shipping in freight cars and lack of bedding in the stall4 ,unless the deeper structures are bruised and inflamed the animal shows no lameness4 ,the character of the enlargement varies4 ,when the injury is superficial1 the swelling feels firm1 or pits on pressure4 ,later it may become more firm and feel like a loose1 thickened1 fibrous cap for the hock4 ,soft1 fluctuating swellings are due to an inflammation of the bursa4 ,recent injuries feel hot4 ,the preventive treatment consists in hobbling the hind limbs of a horse that kicks in the stable4 ,this is usually necessary only at night4 ,it may be advisable to pad certain parts of the stall4 ,horses that are transported in cars should be protected against injuries during transit by the use of proper care and such arrangement of the animals in the car as may expose them to the least injury4 ,recent injuries should be treated by the application of cold and rest4 ,after the inflammation has subsided tincture of iodine or blisters may be applied4 ,the treatment of bursal enlargements is surgical4 ,this consists in opening the bursa1 destroying the lining membrane of the cavity and treating the part daily until healed4 ,the operation must be performed carefully1 as there is danger of infection with irritating organisms4 ,the animal should be given complete rest until the part is healed4 ,tincture of iodine may be applied to the enlargement that may remain after healing has occurred4 ,this should be continued daily until the skin becomes noticeably irritated4 ,the treatment may be repeated1 if necessary1 after an interval of two weeks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4--;,curbs4 ,,curb4--,this term is applied to all swellings on the posterior border of the hock 7,fig4 #ej74 ,thickenings or enlargements in this region may involve a variety of structures4 ,thickening of the skin1 tendons and sheath may occur4 ,the large ligament that extends from the posterior border of the bone that forms the summit of the hock to the external splint bone1 and acts as a stay for the point of the hock1 is the structure usually involved in curb4 ,faulty conformation is a predisposing cause4 ,a narrow base weakens the hock at this point1 and the extreme length of the bone that forms its summit gives the powerful muscles attached to it greater leverage than in a well-conformed hock4 ,this results in strain to the ligament at the posterior portion of the region4 ,the exciting causes are strains resulting from jumping1 slipping1 rearing1 heavy pulling and bruising of the part4 ,in examining the hock for curb it is necessary to stand to the side and note the profile of the posterior border4 ,excessive development of the head of the external splint bone should not be mistaken for curb4 ,as viewed from the side1 the posterior border of the hock should appear straight4 ,the curb appears as a swelling on this straight line4 ,it varies in size4 ,a recent curb is usually hot and firm1 or may feel soft if enlargement is formed by fluid1 hard if formed by bone4 ,lameness seldom occurs1 but if present1 resembles spavin lameness4 ,the preventive treatment consists in selecting for breeding1 animals that have strong1 straight hocks1 and using the necessary care in handling and working horses4 ,it is not uncommon for young horses at the time they are broken to harness to develop a curb4 ,this may be prevented to a large degree by careful handling4 ,at the beginning of the inflammation the application of cold and hand rubbing is indicated4 ,after the inflammation has subsided tincture of iodine or blisters should be applied4 ,rest is a necessary part of the treatment early in the inflammation4 ,if the lameness does not respond to the above treatment1 it should be treated the same as for bone spavin4 ,,questions #a4 ,describe the different fractures of the ileum and give treatment4 #b4 ,describe string-halt lameness and give treatment4 #c4 ,what is bone spavin8 ,describe spavin lameness4 #d4 ,give the causes and treatment of bog spavin4 #e4 ,give the causes and treatment of capped hock4 #f4 ,give the causes and treatment of curb4 ,,part ,,iii4--,,the ,,teeth ,,chapter ,,xix ,,determining ,,the ,,age ,,of ,,animals ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ea4--;,head of young horse with bone cut away1 and showing position and size of teeth4 ,,general ,,discussion4--,the teeth are the passive organs of digestion4 ,they are hard organs1 implanted in the superior and inferior jaws in the form of a long and narrow arch that is open posteriorly4 ,the free portions of the teeth project into the mouth1 and present sharp or roughened table surfaces for the crushing and tearing of food4 ,in solipeds and ruminants the arch is interrupted on each side by the inter-dental space or bars 7,fig4 #ea74 ,the teeth that form the middle and anterior portion of the arch are termed incisors 7,fig4 #eb74 ,posterior to the incisors are the canines or tusks1 and forming the arms of the arch are the molar teeth4 ,animals have two sets of teeth1 temporary and permanent4 ,the following table gives the number of the different kinds of temporary and permanent teeth4 ,temporary ,teeth ,permanent ,teeth ,incisors ,canines ,molars ,incisors ,canines ,molars ,solipeds #ab #ab #ab #d #bd ,ox #h #ab #h #j #bd ,sheep #h #ab #h #j #bd ,hog #ab #ab #ab #d #bd ,the tusks or canine teeth are not always present in the female4 ,ruminants do not have upper incisor teeth4 ,the temporary teeth are erupted either before or within a few days to a few months after birth4 ,the eruption of the permanent teeth and the replacement of the temporary teeth occur at different periods up to the age of four and one-half years 7,fig4 #ec74 ,it is well to keep the following table of dentition in mind when examining the mouths of animals for the purpose of determining their age4#a ,horses ,cattle ,hogs ,teeth ,temporary ,permanent ,temporary ,permanent ,temporary ,permanent ,incisors3 yrs4 mos4 yrs4 mos4 mos4 ,centrals ,at birth #b #f ,at birth #a #h ,at birth1 #ab or #c-d weeks ,first #d-f wks4 #c #f ,at birth #b #i #h-ab wks4 #ah laterals ,second #e-ab days #c #f laterals ,corners #f-i mos4 #d #f #ab-ah days #d #f ,at birth #i ,molars3 ,first ,at birth #b #f ,at birth #b #f #g weeks #e ,second ,at birth #b #f ,at birth #a #f #h-bh days #ad ,third ,at birth #c #f ,at birth #c #h-bh days #ac ,fourth #aj-ab #a #f #ac ,fifth #b #b #e ,sixth #d-e #b #f #i ,seventh #ah ,canines or #d-e #i tusks ,,in ,,determining ,,the ,,age of the different domestic animals by the development and appearance of the teeth1 most of the attention is given to the lower incisor teeth4 ,up to the fifth year1 the age of the horse or ox can be easily determined by the eruption and replacement of the incisors4 ,at one year of age the colt has a fully developed set of temporary incisors4 ,the ruminant's incisors at this age all show wear4 ,the two-year-old colt shows a well-worn set of incisor teeth1 and the ruminant at this age has replaced the nippers or centrals4 ,the third1 fourth and fifth years are indicated by the replacement of the temporary nippers1 dividers and corners in the horse1 and the first and second dividers and corner teeth in ruminants4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4--,longitudinal section of incisor tooth3 cup2 cement2 enamel2 ivory2 and pulp cavity4 ,in the horse the permanent nippers are full grown and in wear at three years of age2 the permanent dividers are full grown and in wear at four years of age2 and the permanent corners are full grown and in wear at five years of age4 ,the table surfaces of the incisor teeth of a five-year-old horse show different degrees of wear4 ,at this period in the animal's age1 the nippers have been in wear two years1 the dividers one year1 and the corners are beginning to show wear4 ,in ruminants1 all of the chisel-shaped table surfaces of the incisors show considerable wear when the animal is five years old4 ,after the animal has a full set of permanent teeth1 we judge the age by the degree of wear or the appearance of the table surfaces of the incisors1 their shape1 the angle with which they meet and the general appearance of the head4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4--;,cross-section of head of young horse showing replacement of molar tooth4 ,there are several different factors that may cause the wear on the teeth1 and the appearance of their table surfaces to vary in the different individuals4 ,the two factors that are of the most importance are the quality of the teeth and the character of feed4 ,soft teeth wear more quickly than hard teeth1 and the teeth of horses that feed over closely cropped and sandy pastures wear rapidly because of the dirt and grit present on the short grass4 ,this variation in the wear is of little importance to the person who must judge the age of a horse that he expects to purchase by the condition of the teeth4 ,in reality1 a horse is just as old as the wear on the teeth and his general appearance indicate4 ,in order to stand severe work the animal must be able to masticate the feed1 and prepare it for digestion in the stomach and intestines4 ,the degree of wear on the molar teeth may be indicated by the wear on the incisors4 ,the general condition of the horse and his ability to stand hard work depend very largely on the condition of the table surfaces of the molars4 ,it is very difficult to judge the age of horses that have deformed mouths or that are in the habit of crib-biting1 because of the irregularity in the wear of the incisors4 ,when examining the teeth for the purpose of determining the horse's age1 the shape of the incisors1 the angle with which they meet and the appearance of their table surfaces should be observed4 ,the teeth of young horses show more or less yellowish cement4 ,at about seven years of age the anterior faces of the teeth are usually white1 later a yellowish color4 ,the teeth of middle-aged horses may be long1 and in aged animals1 narrow and short4 ,the incisors meet at a more acute angle in old than young horses4 ,the free portion of the incisor tooth is flattened from before to behind4 ,at the level of the gums its two diameters are about the same1 but the portion of the tooth imbedded in the jaw bone is flattened from side to side4 ,as the tooth becomes worn off1 the length of the free portion is maintained by a pushing out of the tooth1 and a corresponding shortening of the portion that is fixed or imbedded in the jaw4 ,the table surface of the unworn incisor tooth is covered with enamel1 and in the middle portion the enamel forms a deep cup4 ,after the tooth has become worn the margin of the table portion is then limited by a ring of enamel4 ,this is termed the encircling enamel ring4 ,the central portion of the table shows a second ring1 the central enamel ring1 that limits the cup margin 7,fig4 #ed74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4--,transverse section of incisor tooth3 peripheral cement2 peripheral enamel2 ivory2 central enamel2 and central cement4 ,as the table surface represents a cross section of the tooth1 its appearance and shape will then depend on the portion of the tooth that it represents4 ,from year to year1 there is a gradual shortening in the lateral diameter1 and an apparent increase in the diameter from before to behind4 ,these changes in shape are from a long1 narrow table surface to an oval1 from oval to circular and from circular to triangular 7,fig4 #ee74 ,as the original free portion of the tooth wears off1 the cup becomes shallow and smaller until the remnant is represented by a mere dot of enamel that finally disappears from the posterior portion of the table4 ,after the cup has moved from the central portion of the crown and occupies a more posterior position1 the dental star1 which represents a cross section of the pulp cavity1 puts in its appearance4 ,it first takes the form of a brown or dark streak1 and later a circular dark spot which gradually increases in size with the wear on the tooth and the age of the animal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4--,table surfaces of nippers at different ages3 four years2 six years2 nine years1 and fifteen years of age4 ,the following changes in the shape and appearance of the incisor teeth of the average horse occur in the different years4 ,unless otherwise mentioned1 the statements made regarding the appearance and wear on the table surfaces apply to the lower incisor teeth4 ,,six ,,years4--,the table surfaces form the most accurate guide4 ,the cups of the nippers tend to an oval form4 ,the corner teeth have been in wear one year at this time4 ,the cup is deep and the posterior margin may show little wear4 ,it is not uncommon to meet with corners that possess irregularly developed tables1 and have cups with posterior margins that are thin and do not come into wear until later4 ,for this reason1 it is not best to depend on the appearance of the corner teeth alone4 ,,seven ,,years4--,the teeth are usually whiter than the previous year4 ,the profile of the upper corner teeth shows a notch in the posterior portion of the table surface4 ,this is due to the superior corners overhanging the inferior corner teeth posteriorly1 resulting in this portion not wearing away4 ,this notch is sometimes slightly in evidence the previous year4 ,the cups in the corners are smaller and the worn surface larger than at six4 ,the nippers show oval table surfaces and the dividers are beginning to take on this shape4 ,the shifting of the cups toward the posterior portion of the tables of the nippers and dividers is noticeable4 ,,eight ,,years4--,as viewed from the side1 the profile of the teeth shows a very noticeable increase in the obliquity with which they meet4 ,the posterior borders of the corners show considerable wear4 ,the notch in the superior corners is still present1 but as the teeth come more nearly in apposition it may begin to disappear4 ,all of the inferior tables are level4 ,the nippers and dividers are oval in shape1 and the cups have become decidedly narrow4 ,the nippers show a well-defined dark streak just in front of the cups4 ,this is the beginning of the dental star4 ,,nine ,,years4--,the appearance of the table surface is more characteristic at this time than the previous year4 ,the cups are less prominent and the plainness or smoothness of the inferior table is more noticeable4 ,the nippers are round1 the cups triangular and the dark streak narrower and more distinct than the previous year4 ,the dividers are becoming round and the corner teeth are oval4 ,,ten ,,years4--,the teeth are more oblique than in the eight-year-old and nine-year-old mouth4 ,the table surfaces of the inferior nippers are decidedly rounded1 the cups are small1 triangular and situated well toward the posterior borders4 ,the dark brown streak or dental star is situated in the central portion of the nippers and dividers4 ,the tables of the dividers are round4 ,,eleven ,,years4--,the tables of the corner teeth are rounded4 ,the dark streak or dental star is present in all of the teeth1 and the remnants of the cups appear as small rings or spots of enamel near to the posterior borders of the tables4 ,the notch in the superior corners may reappear at this time4 ,,twelve ,,years4--,the profile of the teeth when viewed from the side is quite oblique4 ,the table surfaces of all the incisors are round4 ,but a trace of the cup remains in the inferior incisors4 ,the head of the animal is beginning to show age4 ,the inferior border of the jaw bone appears narrower1 or sharper than in the young horse4 ,,thirteen ,,years4--,all of the specks of enamel or the remnants of the cups are gone from the lower incisors4 ,a larger notch may be present in the upper corner teeth than at twelve4 ,the tables of the inferior nippers are becoming triangular and show a small1 dark spot or dental star4 ,,fourteen ,,years4--,the tables of the inferior nippers are triangular1 and the dental star appears as a dark round spot in both the nippers and dividers4 ,,fifteen ,,years4--,the angle with which the teeth meet is greater than at twelve1 the teeth are smaller and dental stars are represented by dark round spots in all of the inferior incisors4 ,the tables of the nippers and dividers are triangular4 ,,seventeen ,,years4--,all of the tables of the lower incisor teeth are triangular4 ,the teeth are narrower and smaller than at fifteen4 ,the profile of the incisors1 viewed from the side1 is quite angular4 ,the dental stars are prominent4 ,,nineteen ,,years4--,all of the signs of the seventeen-year-old mouth are more prominent4 ,the cups have usually disappeared from the upper incisors4 ,footnote #a3 ,this table is from dentition tables given in ,age of the ,domestic ,animals1 by ,huidekoper4 ,,questions #a4 ,name the different kinds of teeth2 state the arrangement and number4 #b4 ,how is the age of an animal determined8 #c4 ,give the time of replacement of the temporary incisor teeth4 #d4 ,how is the age of the animal determined between the fifth and ninth years8 #e4 ,what changes in the appearance of the table surfaces occur between ten and fifteen years of age8 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,irregularities ,,of ,,the ,,teeth ,parrot-mouth1 ,lantern-jaw and ,scissor-mouth4--,the common deformities of the jaw and teeth are the overshot or parrot-mouth1 the undershot or lantern-jaw1 and the scissor-mouth4 ,these different deformities result in unequal wear on the table surfaces of the incisors and molars4 ,in both the overshot and undershot jaws1 the incisor teeth become abnormally long4 ,in the parrot-mouth1 the wear occurs on the posterior face of the superior and the anterior face of the inferior incisors1 the teeth becoming worn to rather a sharp edge1 depending on the degree of the deformity4 ,in the lantern-jaw1 the wear occurs on the posterior face of the lower and the anterior face of the superior row of incisors1 the teeth taking on somewhat the same shape as the parrot-mouth4 ,the greater the deformity and the older the horse becomes1 the more difficult it is for the animal to feed or graze on pasture4 ,in all horses1 the two rows of molar teeth are wider apart in the superior than in the inferior jaw4 ,this results in the external border of the tables of the superior row of molars becoming longer1 or projecting further downward than the internal border4 ,the wear on the table surfaces of the inferior row of molars is just the opposite of the superior row4 ,in the scissor-mouth the wear takes place largely on the internal face of the superior and the external face of the inferior row of molars4 ,the teeth become worn to more or less of a blunt cutting edge1 and after a time the molars come together somewhat like the jaws of a pair of scissors4 ,a horse with a badly deformed scissor-mouth is unable to grind the feed1 and unless given special care1 suffers severely from innutrition4 ,the treatment of deformed mouths consists in removing the irregular or unworn portion of the teeth by means of the tooth float and cutters4 ,this attention should be given early before the free portion of the tooth has become excessively long and irregular4 ,this should be followed by dressing the teeth every six or twelve months4 ,,sharp ,,lateral ,,borders ,,on ,,the ,,molar ,,teeth4--,this is a very common condition in horses4 ,the external border of the superior and the internal border of the inferior row of molars wear away slowly1 and sometimes become quite sharp4 ,this is objectionable because the sharp points lacerate the mucous membrane of the cheek and tongue1 and the mastication of the feed is seriously interfered with4 ,this condition is caused by an excessive difference in the width of the jaws1 unusually prominent ridges of enamel on the external face of the superior molars1 and any conditions that may limit the movements of the jaw4 ,the following symptoms may be noted4 ,the animal has difficulty in masticating the feed because of injury to the cheeks or tongue by the sharp points of enamel4 ,this condition may be indicated by holding the head to one side4 ,salivation is usually present4 ,acute indigestion and innutrition may occur4 ,by examining the teeth1 their condition can be determined4 ,the sharp borders may be removed by dressing or floating the teeth4 ,it is advisable in the majority of horses to float the teeth at least once in every twelve months4 ,,irregularities ,,in ,,the ,,table ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,molar ,,teeth4--,horses eight years of age or older frequently have irregular molars 7,fig4 #ef74 ,this is due very largely to the difference in the quality of the teeth4 ,the harder molars do not wear off as rapidly as the softer ones4 ,this results in the table surfaces of the rows of molars becoming wavy or step-like in outline4 ,sometimes the first or sixth molar overhangs or projects beyond the corresponding tooth of the opposite jaw4 ,when this occurs1 the over-hanging portion may become long and sharp4 ,a molar tooth becomes excessively long if the opposite one is decayed or removed4 ,the symptoms are very much the same as when the borders of the molars are sharp4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4--,teeth showing uneven wear occurring in old horses4 ,the treatment consists in levelling the tables as frequently as necessary by cutting off the longer projections1 and removing the sharp edges with a tooth float4 ,,smooth ,,mouth4--,in old age the tables of the molar teeth may become so smooth that the horse cannot grind or masticate the feed4 ,when all of the molars are in this condition1 a rubbing sound may be noted when the animal is masticating hay4 ,after attempting to chew the hay1 it may be dropped from the mouth4 ,innutrition always occurs4 ,the treatment consists in feeding chops and soft feeds4 ,,dental ,,diseases4--,inflammation of the alveolar periosteum is a common dental disease in domestic animals4 ,this is an inflammation of the alveolar dental membrane that fixes the tooth in the tooth cavity4 ,injuries to the gums and cracks or fissures in the tooth are the common causes4 ,caries or tooth decay is not uncommon4 ,the predisposing factor is a poor quality of enamel and dentine4 ,the process of decay is assisted by microorganisms4 ,the early symptoms may escape notice4 ,slobbering1 masticating on one side1 holding the head to one side1 retained masses of food in the mouth and a disagreeable odor frequently occur4 ,caries may be indicated at first by a dark spot on the table of the tooth1 later by a cavity4 ,in horses1 inflammation of the alveolar membrane results in a bony enlargement on the side of the face if the superior molar is involved4 ,a swelling of the jaw and fistula may result if a lower molar is involved 7,fig4 #eg74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4--;,fistula of jaw4 ,this condition was the result of neglected treatment of decayed teeth4 ,the treatment consists in the prompt removal of the tooth4 ,this is more difficult in young animals than it is in the middle-aged or old4 ,unless the tooth is already loosened it may be necessary to remove it by trephining4 ,,questions #a4 ,describe the appearance of the teeth in an overshot or undershot jaw4 #b4 ,describe the appearance of sharp molar teeth2 a scissor-mouth4 #c4 ,what are the causes of decayed teeth8 ,,part ,,iv4--,,surgical ,,diseases ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,inflammation ,,and ,,wounds ,inflammation is a pathological condition of a tissue1 characterized by altered function1 disturbance of circulation1 and destructive and constructive changes in the irritated part4 ,heat1 redness1 swelling1 pain and disturbed function are the symptoms which characterize inflammation4 ,the changes in the circulation occurring in inflammation are as follows3 7#a7 ,an increase in the rate of the blood-flow through the blood-vessels of the part and their dilation2 7#b7 diminished velocity followed by the blood-flow becoming entirely suspended2 7#c7 following the retardation or suspension of the blood stream1 white blood-corpuscles accumulate along the walls of the small veins and capillaries2 7#d7 white and red blood-corpuscles migrate from the vessels into the neighboring tissue1 and blood-serum transudes through the walls of the vessels1 forming the inflammatory swellings4 ,the red blood-cells do not escape from the blood-vessels in any numbers unless the walls of the blood-vessels become injured or badly diseased4 ,the causes of inflammation may be grouped under the following heads3 mechanical1 chemical1 thermic and infectious4 ,the mechanical or traumatic causes commonly produce inflammation in domestic animals4 ,these are kicks1 strains of tendons1 ligaments or muscles and wounds4 ,inflammation originating from injuries very frequently changes to an infectious form1 through the infection of the part by bacteria4 ,bruised tissue may become infected with pus-producing organisms1 and an abscess or local swelling form4 ,all accidental wounds in domestic animals become more or less infected by irritating microorganisms4 ,the following symptoms occur in local inflammation4 ,increased heat in the part is an important symptom4 ,it is due to the increased blood-flow to the part4 ,because of the pigmented1 hairy skin of domestic animals1 redness is of little value in locating superficial inflammation4 ,swelling is a valuable local symptom4 ,it is produced by the inflammatory exudates4 ,pain results from the pressure on the sensory nerves by the inflammatory swelling4 ,for example1 the laminae of the foot are imprisoned between the horny wall and the pedal bone4 ,this structure is well supplied with sensory nerves1 and when it becomes inflamed and swollen1 the tissues are subject to severe pressure and the pain is severe4 ,inflammation of a tendon results in lameness2 of the udder1 in suspension of milk secretions2 and of the stomach by interference with digestion of the feed4 ,such symptoms may be grouped under the head of disturbed functions4 ,the character of an inflammation is largely modified by the nature of the tissue in which it occurs4 ,a serous inflammation is characterized by serous1 watery exudates4 ,this form occurs in the serous membranes1 mucous membranes and skin4 ,blisters on the skin and inflammation of bursae 7capped hock and shoe boil7 are examples of this type4 ,sero-fibrinous inflammations1 such as occur in pleurisy and peritonitis1 are common4 ,chronic inflammation commonly results in new formations of tissue1 and it is named according to the character of the new tissue formed1 as ossifying1 adhesive1 and fibrous inflammation4 ,pus-forming bacteria produce suppurative inflammation4 ,such diseases as tuberculosis1 glanders and hog-cholera are specific inflammations4 ,specific infectious diseases may be classed as generalized inflammation1 as they usually involve the entire body4 ,inflammation terminates in resolution when the serum is reabsorbed by the blood-vessels and lymphatics1 the living blood-cells find their way back into the circulation and the dead cells disintegrate and are taken up by the vessels4 ,the time required for the tissues to return to the normal varies from a few hours to several weeks4 ,an acute inflammation may end in the chronic form4 ,this may then terminate in new formations1 such as adhesions1 fibrous thickenings and bony enlargements4 ,severe inflammation1 especially if localized and superficial1 may result in death of the part or gangrene4 ,the following treatment is recommended3 ,the cause of the irritation to the tissue must be removed4 ,it is very essential that the part be rested4 ,the necessary rest may be obtained in different ways4 ,inflamed tendons1 ligaments1 and muscles may be rested by placing the animal in a sling1 standing it in a stall1 or fixing the part with bandages4 ,rest of the stomach or intestinal tract may be obtained by feeding a light diet1 or withholding all feed4 ,comfortable quarters1 special care and dieting the animal are important factors in the treatment of inflammation4 ,the agents used in the treatment of superficial and localized inflammation are heat1 cold1 massage and counterirritation4 ,heat is indicated in all inflammations1 excepting when of bacterial origin4 ,it stimulates the circulation and reabsorption of the inflammatory exudates1 and by relaxing the tissues helps greatly in relieving pain4 ,cold is more effective in the highly acute and septic 7suppurative7 inflammation4 ,its action consists principally in the contraction of the dilated blood-vessels4 ,continuous irrigation of the part with cold water is the most satisfactory method of applying cold4 ,massage is a very important method of treating superficial inflammation4 ,mild1 stimulating liniments are usually used in connection with hand-rubbing or friction4 ,chronic inflammation is usually treated with counterirritants4 ,blistering and firing are the most important methods of treatment4 ,such counterirritation makes possible the absorption of the inflammatory exudates by changing the chronic inflammation to the acute form4 ,,wounds4--,a wound1 in the restricted sense that the term is commonly used1 includes only such injuries that are accompanied by breaks or divisions of the skin and mucous membrane4 ,it is usually an open1 hemorrhagic injury4 ,if the tissues are severed by a sharp instrument and the edges of the wound are smooth1 it is classed as an incised or clean-cut wound4 ,this class is not commonly met with in domestic animals outside of operative wounds4 ,when the tissues are torn irregularly1 the injury is classed as a lacerated wound4 ,a barb-wire cut is the best example of this class4 ,a contused wound is an injury caused by a blunt object4 ,such injuries may be divided into superficial and deep4 ,superficial-contused wounds may be an abrasion to the skin or mucous surface4 ,deep-contused wounds may be followed by loss of tissue or sloughing1 and may present irregular1 swollen margins4 ,such injuries are commonly caused by kicks4 ,punctured wounds are many times deeper than the width of the opening or break in the skin or mucous membrane4 ,this class is produced by sharp objects1 such as nails1 splinters of wood1 and forks4 ,sometimes1 wounds are given special names1 as gun-shot1 poisoned1 and open joint1 depending on the nature of the cause and region involved4 ,bleeding or hemorrhage is the most constant symptom4 ,the degree of hemorrhage depends on the kind1 number and size of the blood-vessels severed4 ,in arterial hemorrhage1 the blood is bright red and spurts from the mouth of the cut vessel4 ,in venous hemorrhage1 the blood is darker and flows in a continuous stream4 ,in abrasions and superficial wounds capillary hemorrhage occurs4 ,death may follow severe hemorrhage4 ,weak pulse1 general weakness1 vertigo1 loss of consciousness and death may result if one-third of the total quantity of blood is lost4 ,unthriftiness and general debility may follow the loss of a less quantity of blood4 ,the following symptoms may be noted in the different kinds of wounds3 ,the sensitiveness to the pain resulting from accidental or operative wounds varies in the different individuals and species1 and in the kind of tissue injured4 ,injuries to the foot1 periosteum1 skin and mucous membrane are more painful than are injuries to cartilages and tendons4 ,the appearance of the wound varies in the different regions and the different tissues4 ,if the tissues are badly torn or bruised1 swelling and sloughing may occur4 ,if the wound is transverse to the muscular fibres1 it gaps more than when parallel to the muscle4 ,when infected by irritating organisms1 open and punctured wounds 7,fig4 #eh7 become badly swollen1 discharge pus freely and heal slowly with excessive granulations4 ,wounds involving tendons1 bursae and closed articulations become swollen and discharge synovia4 ,wounds involving muscles1 tendons and bursae usually cause lameness1 and when involving a special organ1 interfere with1 or destroy1 its function4 ,extensive or serious wounds may be followed by loss of appetite4 ,an abnormal body temperature and other symptoms characteristic of the different forms of blood poisoning may follow infection of the injured tissues by certain germs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4--;,a large hock caused by a punctured wound of the joint4 ,the rapidity with which wounds heal depends upon the kind of tissue injured and the amount to be replaced1 the degree of motion in the part1 the kind and degree of infection and irritation and the general condition of the animal4 ,in general1 skin and muscles heal rapidly1 tendons slowly1 cartilages unsatisfactorily and nerve tissue very slowly4 ,healing is greatly interfered with by movement of the part 7,fig4 #ei74 ,the more nearly the part can be fixed or rested1 the more quickly and satisfactorily does healing occur4 ,irritation by biting1 nibbling1 licking1 bandaging1 wrong methods of treatment and filth retard healing and may result in serious wound complications4 ,an animal in poor physical condition1 or one kept under unfavorable conditions for healing1 cannot recover from the injury rapidly or satisfactorily4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4--;,a large inflammatory growth following an injury to the front of the hock4 ,,wound ,,healing4--,the following forms of healing commonly occur in wounds3 ,first and second intention2 under a scab1 and by abnormal granulation4 ,healing by first intention occurs when the wound is clean cut and there is very little destruction of tissue1 and when there is no suppuration or pus formation4 ,the blood and wound secretions cause the edges of the wound to adhere4 ,after a few days or a week the union becomes firm4 ,very little scar tissue is necessary in this form of healing4 ,healing by second intention is characterized by pus formation and granulation tissue4 ,after the first day1 the surface of the wound may be more or less covered by red1 granular-like tissue4 ,later this granular appearance is modified by an accumulation of creamy pus and swelling of the part1 and finally scab formation and contraction of the new scar tissue4 ,abrasions and superficial wounds usually heal under a scab4 ,the scab is formed by the blood and wound secretions4 ,this protects the surface of the wound until finally the destroyed tissue is replaced by the granulations1 and the skin surface is restored4 ,abnormal granulation is not an uncommon form of healing in domestic animals4 ,mechanical and bacterial irritation causes the injured tissue to become swollen and inflamed4 ,in such a wound1 excessive and rapid granulation occurs1 the new tissue piling up over the cut surfaces and appearing red and uneven4 ,this is termed excessive granulation or proud flesh4 ,this tissue may refuse to heal over1 or the scar may be large1 prominent and painful4 ,abnormal tissue 7horny or tumor-like7 may sometimes form4 ,,wound ,,treatment4--,wounds in domestic animals are frequently allowed to heal without special care or treatment4 ,this is unfortunate4 ,the careful and intelligent treatment of wounds would greatly decrease the loss resulting from this class of injuries4 ,the method of treatment varies in the different kinds of wounds4 ,the first step in the treatment is to check the haemorrhage4 ,heat1 ligation1 pressure and torsion are the different methods recommended4 ,bathing the wound with hot water 7#aaebfj-abjbfj ,f47 is a satisfactory method of controlling haemorrhage from small blood-vessels4 ,ligation and torsion of the cut end of large blood-vessels should be practised4 ,pressure over the surface of the wound is the most convenient method of ,controlling haemorrhage in most cases4 ,whenever possible1 the part should be bandaged heavily with clean cheese cloth or muslin4 ,before applying the bandage1 it is advisable to cover the wound with a piece of sterile absorbent cotton that is well dusted with boric acid4 ,hemorrhage from wounds that cannot be bandaged may be temporarily stopped by pressure with the hand1 or1 better1 by packing the wound with absorbent cotton and holding this in place with sutures4 ,this should be left in place for a period of twelve or thirty-six hours1 depending on the extent of the haemorrhage and character of the wound4 ,the next step is the preparation of the wound for healing4 ,the injured tissues should be carefully examined for foreign bodies such as hair1 dirt1 gravel1 slivers of wood and nails4 ,the hair along the margins of the wound should be trimmed1 and all tissue that is so torn and detached as to interfere with healing cut away4 ,drainage for the wound secretions and pus should be provided4 ,the advisability of suturing the wound depends on its character and location4 ,a contused-lacerated wound should not be closed with sutures unless it is clean and shows no evidence of sloughing4 ,a badly infected wound should be left open unless satisfactory drainage for the pus and wound secretions can be provided4 ,wounds across the muscle and in parts that are quite movable should not be sutured4 ,the after-treatment consists in keeping the animal quiet1 if the wound is in a part that is quite movable1 and preventing it from biting1 licking or nibbling the injury4 ,wounds in the region of the foot become irritated with dirt and by rubbing against weeds and grass4 ,this makes it advisable to keep the animal in a clean stall until healing is well advanced4 ,local treatment consists in keeping the wound clean by washing the part daily1 or twice daily1 with a one per cent water solution of a cresol disinfectant4 ,liquor cresolis compositus may be used4 ,it is sometimes advisable to protect the granulating surface against irritation by dusting it over with a non-irritating antiseptic powder1 or applying a mixture of carbolic acid one part and glycerine twelve parts4 ,after the wound shows healthy granulations longer intervals should lapse between treatments4 ,in poorly cared for1 and badly infected wounds1 the part may become badly swollen1 the granulations pile up and the wound refuse to heal over4 ,it may be advisable in such cases to cut away the excessive granulations and stop the haemorrhage by cauterization with a red-hot iron1 or by compression4 ,unhealthy granulations may be kept down by applying caustic occasionally4 ,,abscess4--,this is an accumulation of pus in the tissues4 ,it may be due to a severe bruise or contusion that is followed by the infection of the part with some of the pus-producing bacteria4 ,abscesses occur in certain infectious diseases4 ,in strangles1 the disease-producing organism may be carried to different regions of the body by the circulatory vessels4 ,this may result in a number of abscesses forming in the different body tissues4 ,the following forms of abscess are recognized3 hot and cold1 superficial and deep1 simple and multiple4 ,the hot is the acute1 and the cold the chronic abscess4 ,the terms superficial and deep allude to the relative position of the abscess1 and simple and multiple to the number present4 ,an abscess may first appear as a hot1 painful swelling4 ,if superficial1 the skin feels tense and the contents fluctuate when pressed on4 ,later the fever subsides and no pain may occur when the abscess is pressed upon4 ,deep abscess may not fluctuate4 ,the treatment consists in converting the abscess into an open wound whenever possible4 ,the incision should extend to the lowest part of the wall1 so as to insure complete drainage4 ,a cold abscess in the shoulder region may become lined by a layer of tissue that retards healing4 ,in order to hasten the healing process1 it may be necessary to remove this4 ,until granulation is well advanced1 the abscess cavity should be irrigated daily with a one per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compositus1 or a one to two thousand water solution of corrosive sublimate4 ,the surface of the skin in the region of the abscess should be kept clean4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4--;,fistula of the withers1 showing the effect of using caustics carelessly4 ,,fistulous ,,withers ,,and ,,poll ,,evil4--,these terms are applied to swellings1 blood tumors1 abscesses and pus fistulae that may be present in the region of the poll and withers 7,fig4 #fj74 ,pus fistula is the characteristic lesion present1 and it is the result of a suppurative inflammation of the tissues in the region4 ,the abscess cavity or cavities are usually deep1 and may involve the ligaments and vertebrae4 ,bruises or contusions are the most common causes4 ,the prominence of these regions predisposes them to injury in the stable1 or when rolling on rough or stony ground4 ,bites and bruises to the withers resulting from other horses taking hold of the region with the teeth1 or striking the part against a hard surface1 are frequent causes4 ,the treatment is both preventive and surgical4 ,all possible causes should be investigated4 ,this is of special importance on premises where several horses develop fistulous withers and poll evil4 ,if the cause then becomes known1 it should be removed4 ,the surgical treatment consists in opening up the different abscess cavities1 providing complete drainage for the pus and destroying the tissue that lines the walls of the cavities4 ,horses that are prone to rub the region should be prevented from doing this1 as such irritation retards healing4 ,autogenous bacterins should be used in addition to the surgical treatment4 ,a pus fistula should heal from the bottom1 and if the opening becomes closed1 drainage should be re-established4 ,the daily treatment is the same as recommended for abscesses4 ,excessive cutting and destruction of the tissues with caustic preparations result in scarring and deformity of the part4 ,such radical lines of treatment should be discouraged4 ,we should not delay the surgical treatment of abscesses in the regions of the poll and withers4 ,,questions #a4 ,name and describe the different forms of inflammation4 #b4 ,give the causes and treatment of inflammation4 #c4 ,name and describe the different methods by which wounds heal4 #d4 ,describe the treatment of wounds4 #e4 ,what are the causes of an abscess8 ,give the treatment4 #f4 ,what are the causes of fistula and poll evil8 ,give the treatment4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,fractures ,,and ,,harness ,,injuries ,,fractures4--,broken bones or fractures are not uncommon in domestic animals4 ,in the horse1 the bones of the leg1 forearm1 foot1 and spine are the most commonly broken4 ,in the dog the largest percentage of fractures occurs in the superior regions of the limbs4 ,fractures may be classified as simple and compound1 complete and incomplete1 comminuted or splinter4 ,in the simple fracture the skin over the region escapes injury1 but in the compound fracture the skin is broken and the ends of the broken bone may protrude through it4 ,the terms complete and incomplete are used in describing fractures in which the ends of the bones are not attached to each other1 or partially so4 ,in the comminuted fracture the bone is broken into a number of pieces4 ,there are a number of other terms that may be used in designating the different kinds of fractures1 such as double1 when both bones in the region are broken1 and oblique1 transverse and longitudinal1 depending on the direction of the break4 ,the causes of fractures may be divided into external or mechanical1 and internal4 ,fractures may result from kicks1 blows1 muscular strain and contusions4 ,abnormal fragility due to disease1 extreme youth and old age are the internal predisposing factors4 ,the symptoms are crepitation1 abnormal movement and deformity of the part4 ,abnormal movement of the part and inability to support weight occur in fractures of the bones of the limbs4 ,crepitation or a grinding1 rubbing sound due to the movement of the ends of the broken bones on one another occurs when the part is moved or manipulated with the hands4 ,pain1 swelling and injury to the skin are other local symptoms4 ,the new tissue or bone callus is formed by the bone-forming cells in the deeper layer of the periosteum and bone-marrow4 ,the prognosis is unfavorable4 ,the larger percentage of fractures in domestic animals are incurable1 or make an unsatisfactory recovery4 ,this is due to careless treatment1 the character of the fracture and the inability to fix the ends of the broken bone4 ,fractures in young and small animals usually heal quickly4 ,individuals that are healthy and vigorous usually make a speedy recovery4 ,fractures heal very slowly in the aged4 ,compound and comminuted fractures are impossible to treat in the larger percentage of cases4 ,the treatment consists in fixing the broken bone or bones in a normal position by means of bandages and splints4 ,if this is not practised1 the surrounding tissues become injured by the broken ends of the bone1 and the fracture may become so complicated as to render treatment useless4 ,motion retards or prevents the repair of the break4 ,however1 fractures of the ribs1 pelvic bones and sometimes long bones that are well covered by heavy muscles heal naturally or in the absence of any means of retention4 ,bandaging4--,the attendant must use good judgment in devising means of fixing the broken bone1 and in holding it in its natural position4 ,whenever possible1 a plaster bandage should be used4 ,this must not be made too heavy1 and it is very necessary to adjust it properly1 so that it will stay in place and not become too tight or too loose4 ,when applied to the limb1 the bandage should extend as far down as the hoof1 and some distance above the break4 ,this is necessary in order to keep it from slipping down and becoming too loose4 ,a soft bandage should be applied first in order to equalize the pressure from the plaster cast and protect the skin4 ,wooden splints are not very satisfactory agents for the treatment of fractures4 ,thick leather that has been made soft by soaking in warm water and then shaping it to the part makes a more satisfactory splint4 ,in all cases a soft bandage should be applied under the splint4 ,the adjustment of the plaster bandage or splint should be noticed daily1 and whenever necessary it should be removed and readjusted4 ,injuries to the skin must be carefully cleaned1 disinfected and bandaged before applying the plaster bandage4 ,if evidence of wound infection occurs later1 the bandage must be removed and the wound treated4 ,large animals suffering with a fracture of any of the bones of the limb should be placed in slings4 ,incomplete fracture should receive the same treatment as simple fracture4 ,if this is practised1 the danger of its becoming complete is avoided4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4--,shoulder abscess caused by loose-fitting harness4 ,,harness ,,injuries4--,this class of injuries is common in horses that are given steady1 hard work1 or that are not accustomed to work4 ,young horses1 when first put to hard work1 are especially prone to injuries from the collar4 ,a large proportion of these injuries are due to an ill-fitting harness or saddle4 ,when the harness is not adjusted or fitted properly1 there is severe pressure on certain parts4 ,this is the common cause of shoulder abscesses 7,fig4 #fa71 sore necks and sit-fasts4 ,rough1 uneven surfaces on the faces of the collar and saddle are the common causes of galling4 ,the character of the work is an important factor4 ,work that requires the animal to support weight on the top surface of the neck is productive of sore neck4 ,heavy work over rough1 uneven ground frequently causes shoulder abscesses and strained muscles4 ,the simplest and most common harness injuries are galling1 sore shoulders and sore neck4 ,harness galls first appear as flat1 painful swellings4 ,on raising the collar from the skin the inflamed area appears dry and the surrounding hair is wet with sweat4 ,later1 the skin becomes hard and its outer layer1 and sometimes the deeper layer as well1 slough1 or is rubbed off by friction of the harness4 ,the surface then appears red and moist4 ,fluctuating swellings due to small collections of blood and lymph sometimes form4 ,sometimes1 small areas on the face of the shoulder and that portion of the back pressed on by the saddle become swollen1 indurated and hard and give the shoulder a rough appearance4 ,continuous irritation from the collar may cause an inflammatory thickening of the subcutaneous tissue in the shoulder region1 and the skin appears loose and somewhat folded4 ,this uneven surface is productive of chronic collar galls4 ,a sit-fast is characterized by a large swelling at the top of the neck1 followed by a deep sloughing of the tissues4 ,a slightly swollen1 wrinkled condition of the skin over the top of the neck is sometimes present in horses that resist the attendant1 when he attempts to handle the part or harness the animal4 ,this form of sore neck is evidently very painful1 although little evidence of inflammation is present4 ,strain of shoulder muscles and shoulder abscesses have been discussed under their separate heads4 ,the treatment is very largely preventive4 ,too little attention is given to the proper fitting of the harness and saddle4 ,a well-fitted collar that properly distributes the weight on the shoulder1 and is neither too small or too large at the top of the neck1 is the best preventive for shoulder and neck injuries4 ,old1 ill-fitting1 lumpy collars should not be used4 ,neither should the same collar be used for different horses4 ,farmers should avoid using sweat pads that are lumpy or soaked with sweat4 ,if soft and dry1 such pads are useful in preventing galling4 ,the surfaces of the collar or saddle that come in contact with the skin should be kept smooth and clean4 ,in the spring of the year1 it is advisable to bathe the shoulders of work horses with cold water twice a day4 ,bathing the shoulders with the following preparation is a useful preventive measure3 lead acetate four ounces1 zinc sulfate three ounces and water one gallon4 ,smooth leather pads for the top of the collar and saddle are useful preventive and curative agents4 ,galls are lest treated by rest4 ,ointments or gall cures are usually applied4 ,the following dry dressing dusted over the red1 moist1 abraded surfaces is quite healing3 tannic acid one ounce1 boric acid four ounces1 and calomel two ounces4 ,this may be dusted over the part two or three times daily4 ,dry1 abraded surfaces may be treated by applying a mixture of glycerine four ounces1 tannic acid one-half ounce and carbolic acid one dram4 ,in operating for the removal of fibrous enlargements1 thickened skin and abscesses on the front of the shoulder1 it is advisable to make the incision in the skin well to the side of the face of the shoulder in order to avoid scarring the surface that comes in contact with the collar4 ,,questions #a4 ,name and describe the different kinds of fractures4 #b4 ,what are the symptoms of fracture8 #c4 ,describe the treatment of fractures4 #d4 ,what are the causes of harness injuries8 #e4 ,describe the treatment of the different harness injuries4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,common ,,surgical ,,operations ,,dehorning ,,cattle4--,it is very often necessary to remove the horns of cattle in order to prevent their injuring or worrying certain individuals in the herd4 ,this operation is of greatest economic importance in dairy and feeding cattle4 ,when first practised1 the dehorning of mature cattle was condemned by some persons who deemed it an inhuman and unnecessary operation4 ,it is surely a humane act to remove the horns of cattle that are confined in small yards and pastures1 and prevent them from painfully1 or seriously1 injuring one another4 ,in most localities there are men who are well equipped to dehorn cattle1 and able to perform this operation for a very moderate fee4 ,it is not advisable to attempt to dehorn a number of adult cattle if the operator is not well equipped for the work4 ,unless a well-constructed dehorning rack is available for confining the animals1 there is danger of injuring them and it is very difficult to saw off the horn quickly and satisfactorily4 ,this increases the pain that the animal suffers1 and horn stubs soon develop4 ,good equipment1 such as a chute1 saw or clippers1 is necessary4 ,a dehorning chute should be built of plank with a good frame well bolted together1 with stanchion and nose block for confining the head4 ,most operators prefer a meat saw for cutting off the horns4 ,it is preferable to dehorning shears1 as there is danger of fracturing the frontal bone when removing the horns of mature cattle4 ,the best form of dehorning shears have a wide ,v in the cutting edge4 ,the operation is very simple4 ,the horn should be cut off at a point from one-quarter to one-half an inch below the hair line or skin4 ,if this is not practised1 an irregular horn growth or stub of horn develops4 ,it is usually unnecessary to apply anything to the wound4 ,if the animal does not strike or rub the part1 the clot that forms closes the blood-vessels and the haemorrhage stops4 ,in case of haemorrhage of a serious nature1 a small piece of absorbent cotton may be spread over the surface of the wound1 and pushed in to the opening in order to keep it in place4 ,pine tar may be smeared over this dressing4 ,some operators prefer cauterizing the wound with a red-hot iron for the purpose of preventing haemorrhage4 ,during warm weather1 the wound should be washed daily with a two per cent water solution of a coal tar disinfectant1 until healing is well advanced4 ,a very necessary after-treatment is the washing of the part after two or three days for the purpose of removing the dried blood4 ,the opening at the base of the horn communicates directly with the frontal sinus1 a large cavity situated between the two plates of the frontal bone4 ,sometimes the bone is slivered1 or the wound becomes infected and inflamed4 ,this may be due to a dirty dehorning saw1 or getting dirt into the wound4 ,the inflammation may extend to the sinus and a heavy discharge from the cavity occur4 ,this complication may be prevented by placing the saw or cutters in a disinfectant when not in use1 and cleaning and disinfecting the wound very carefully for a few days after the operation4 ,the horn buttons of calves from a few days to one week of age can be destroyed1 and the growth of the horn prevented by applying caustic soda or potash to them4 ,the method of procedure is as follows3 ,clip away the hair from around the base of the horn tissue and apply a little vaseline to the skin near1 but not close to1 the base of the horn2 moisten the horn button and rub it two or three times with the end of the stick of caustic2 do not allow the calf to go out in the rain for a few days after applying the caustic4 ,the horns of calves a few weeks of age may be removed with a sharp knife or calf dehorner4 ,,choking4--,this is a common accident in cattle and horses4 ,the object that causes the choke may be lodged in the pharynx or oesophagus4 ,certain individuals are more prone to choke while feeding than others4 ,this is because of their habit of eating greedily1 and swallowing hastily without properly mixing the bolus with the saliva4 ,for this reason1 choking occurs when the animal is eating dry feed4 ,cattle frequently become choked on pieces of such food as roots and apples that are too large to readily pass down the oesophagus4 ,sharp objects taken in with the food sometimes become lodged in the oesophagus or pharynx4 ,the symptoms differ in complete and partial choke4 ,in the latter1 the symptoms are not very characteristic4 ,the animal may stop feeding1 but shows very little evidence of suffering pain4 ,it may be able to swallow a little water4 ,on attempting to drink1 a part of the water may be returned through the nose1 the same as in complete choke4 ,ineffectual efforts to swallow1 salivation1 coughing1 hurried respiration1 and an anxious expression of the face occur in complete choke4 ,bloating may complicate this accident in ruminants4 ,after partial choke has persisted for a day or two1 the animal appears dejected or distressed4 ,pressure on the trachea by hard objects may cause difficult respiration4 ,mechanical pneumonia sometimes occurs4 ,this is due to the food and water that the animal may attempt to swallow1 being returned to the pharynx and passed into the air passages and lungs4 ,the treatment is as follows3 ,animals that have choked should not be given access to feed of any kind4 ,any attempt to take food or drink water may result in pneumonia4 ,it may be necessary to drench the animal with a very small quantity of water for the purpose of diagnosis4 ,the most common form of choke in horses is that due to accumulation of dry food in the oesophagus4 ,the administration of a drug that stimulates the secretion of saliva is a very successful method of relieving this form of choke4 ,pilocarpine is the drug commonly used4 ,cheap whips should not be introduced into the oesophagus for the purpose of dislodging the foreign body4 ,there is always danger of the whip becoming broken off1 and the broken part lodging in the oesophagus4 ,neither should such rigid objects as a broom or rake handle be introduced1 because of the danger from serious injury to the walls of the pharynx and oesophagus4 ,the flexible probang1 which is usually made of spiral wire covered with leather1 is a very useful instrument to relieve choke when in the hands of an experienced operator4 ,if the object causing the choke is situated in the neck portion of the oesophagus1 it may sometimes be moved forward1 or toward the stomach by pressure with the fingers4 ,,castration4--,the castration of the male is a common operation in domestic animals4 ,the purpose of the operation is to render the animal more useful for work or meat production4 ,the age at which the operation is performed varies in the different species4 ,the colt is usually castrated when he is one year old1 and the calf1 pig and lamb when a few weeks or a few months of age4 ,it is not advisable to castrate the young at weaning time4 ,the operation and the weaning together may temporarily check the growth of the animal4 ,colts that are undeveloped and in poor flesh1 or affected with colt distemper1 should be allowed to recover before they are operated on4 ,in all animals1 it is advisable to wait until after they have recovered from disease and become thrifty and strong4 ,the spring1 early summer and fall are the most suitable seasons for castrating the young4 ,it may be practised during the hot or cold months of the year with little danger from wound infection or other complications1 providing the necessary after-attention can be given4 ,the preparation of the animal for the operation by withholding all feed for about twelve hours is very advisable4 ,if this is practised1 the stomach and intestines are not distended with feed1 and the young are cleaner1 easier to handle and suffer less from castration4 ,clean quarters and surroundings are very necessary to the success of the operation4 ,the instruments required are sharp knives1 preferably a heavy scalpel and a probe-pointed bistoury1 an emasculator for large and mature animals1 and surgeon's needles and suture material4 ,ropes and casting harness are frequently used for confining and casting the large and mature animals4 ,two clean pans or pails filled with a two per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compositus1 or an equally reliable disinfectant1 should be provided for cleaning the scrotum and neighboring parts and the instruments4 ,pieces of absorbent cotton or oakum may be used in washing and cleaning the scrotum4 ,the instruments should be sterilized in boiling water before using4 ,if a number of pigs or lambs are to be castrated1 it is best to confine them in a small1 clean1 well-bedded pen4 ,this enables the attendant to catch them quickly and without unnecessary excitement or exercise4 ,they should be taken to an adjoining pen to be castrated4 ,the scrotum should be washed with the disinfectant1 and the testicles pressed tightly against the scrotal wall4 ,an incision parallel with the middle line or raphe and a little to one side is made through the skin and the coverings of the testicle1 and the testicle pressed out through the incision4 ,the testicle and cords are then pulled well out and the cord broken off with a quick jerk and twist1 or scraped off with a knife4 ,the latter method is to be preferred in large lambs if the operator does not have an emasculator4 ,the incision in the scrotum should be extended from its base to the lowest part1 in order to secure perfect drainage4 ,young calves may be castrated in the standing position or when cast and held on the side4 ,the method of operating is the same as recommended for pigs and lambs4 ,the castration of the colt may be performed in either the standing position or when cast4 ,the method of operating is the same as practised in the smaller animals with the exception of cutting off the cord4 ,the emasculator is used here4 ,this instrument crushes the stump of the cord and prevents haemorrhage from the cut ends of the blood-vessels4 ,careful aseptic precautions must be observed in operating on colts1 as they are very susceptible to wound infection and peritonitis4 ,the blood-vessels of the testicular cord are larger in the adult animals1 and the danger from haemorrhage is greater than in the young4 ,for this reason1 it is advisable to use an emasculator in castrating all mature animals4 ,complications ,following ,castration4--,the haemorrhage from the wound and stump of cord is usually unimportant in the young animals4 ,serious haemorrhage from the vessels of the cord sometimes occur in the adult1 and a persistent haemorrhage results when a subcutaneous vein is cut in making the incision in the scrotum4 ,this complication is not usually serious1 and can be prevented and controlled by observing proper precautions in cutting off the cord1 or by picking up the cut ends of the vessel and ligating it4 ,packing the scrotal sack with sterile gauze or absorbent cotton1 and closing the incision with sutures may be practised for the purpose of stopping this form of haemorrhage4 ,the packing should be removed in about twelve hours4 ,the infection of the wound always follows castration4 ,if the incision is small and the operation is followed by swelling of the neighboring tissues1 the clotted blood1 wound secretions and pus become penned up in the scrotal sack4 ,local blood poisoning or peritonitis follows4 ,this is not an uncommon complication4 ,it can be prevented by aseptic precautions in operating1 and insuring good drainage by extending the incision to the lowest part of the scrotal sac4 ,the scrotal sac always contracts down and becomes more or less swollen within a day or two following castration4 ,we must keep this in mind when enlarging the opening1 and be sure and make it plenty large to permit the escape of the infectious matter4 ,in castrating sheep1 all wool in the region of the scrotal sac should be clipped off1 as this interferes with drainage from the wound4 ,exercise following castration is almost as essential as clean quarters4 ,lack of exercise leads to oedematous swelling in the region of the scrotum1 and the lips of the incision may become adhered if the animal is at rest4 ,colts and all mature animals that are confined in close quarters should be examined within forty-eight hours following the operation1 and the condition of the wound noted4 ,if closed1 the hands should be cleaned and disinfected1 and the adhesion broken down with the fingers4 ,it is best to exercise horses daily4 ,it is unsafe to expose castrated animals to cold1 damp1 chilly weather4 ,the shock and soreness resulting from the operation render the animal highly susceptible to pleurisy and pneumonia4 ,this is especially true of young colts4 ,inguinal hernia or rupture may complicate the operation4 ,this form of hernia is quite frequently met with in pigs1 and only occasionally in the other animals4 ,this complication is usually overcome by practising what is commonly termed the covered operation4 ,the pig is usually held or hung up by the hind legs4 ,a larger animal is placed on its back4 ,the hernia is reduced by manipulating the mass of intestines with the fingers1 so that they drop back into the abdominal cavity4 ,the part is carefully cleaned and disinfected and an incision made through the scrotal wall1 and the thin covering or serous sac in which the testicle is lodged is exposed4 ,the testicle with the cord and covering is drawn well out of the scrotum and held by an attendant4 ,the operator then passes a needle carrying a strong silk thread through the cord and covering1 below the point where he intends severing it4 ,the needle is removed and the cord and covering ligated at this point4 ,the cord is then cut off about one-half an inch from the ligature1 and the incision in the scrotum made plenty large in order to insure drainage4 ,it is very essential to the success of this operation that the animal be dieted for twelve or eighteen hours before attempting to operate4 ,the after-treatment consists in giving the animal separate quarters and feeding a light diet4 ,enlarged or scirrhous cords follow infection of the wound1 usually with spores of a certain fungus 7,botryomyces74 ,this complication more often follows castration of cattle and pigs than of colts4 ,wrong methods of operating1 such as leaving the stump of the cord too long and insufficient drainage for the pus and wound secretions1 are the factors that favor this complication4 ,scirrhous cords or fibrous tumors should be dissected out and removed before they have become large and begun breaking down4 ,,castration ,,of ,,ridgeling ,,or ,,cryptorchid ,,animals4--,in the ridgeling animal one or both of the testicles have not descended into the scrotal sac1 and are usually lodged in the inguinal canal or abdominal cavity4 ,if the testicle is lodged in the inguinal canal the animal is termed a flanker4 ,in yearling colts the testicular cord is sometimes short1 and the testicle is situated high up in the scrotum and inguinal canal4 ,in examining a supposed cryptorchid colt1 he should be twitched4 ,this may cause the testicle to descend into the scrotum4 ,the castration of a true cryptorchid requires a special operation4 ,when properly performed and the animal given special after-care1 the operation is not followed by any serious complications4 ,an abnormally large1 diseased testicle is sometimes met with that cannot be removed in the usual way1 and which complicates and increases the difficulty of operating4 ,,caponizing4--,the castration or caponizing of the male chicken is commonly practised in certain localities4 ,this operation changes the disposition of the cockerel4 ,he becomes more quiet and sluggish1 never crows1 the head is small1 the comb and wattles cease growing and the hackle and saddle feathers become well developed4 ,a capon always develops more uniformly and is larger than the cockerel4 ,the best time to caponize the cockerel is when he weighs between two or three pounds4 ,if older and heavier1 the testicle becomes so large that it is very difficult to remove1 and the danger from tearing the spermatic artery and a fatal haemorrhage resulting is greater4 ,there are several kinds of caponizing instruments4 ,they may be purchased in sets4 ,each set should contain an instrument for removing the testicle2 a knife for making the incision through the abdominal wall2 a sharp hook for tearing through the thin membrane2 spring spreader for holding the lips of the incision apart2 a blunt probe for keeping the intestines out of the way of the operator2 and a pair of tweezers for removing clots of blood4 ,the different instruments for removing the testicles are a spoon-like scoop1 spoon forceps and cannula4 ,the spoon-like scoop is preferred by most operators4 ,the cockerel is confined for the operation by passing a strong noose of cord around both legs1 and a second noose around the wings close to the body1 that have weights fastened to them4 ,the cords pass through holes or loops in a barrel or board that is used for an operating table4 ,this holds the cockerel firmly and prevents his struggling4 ,the bird should be prepared for the operation by withholding all feed and water for a period of twenty-four hours or longer1 for the purpose of emptying out the intestine4 ,the operator must have a strong light1 in order to work quickly and safely4 ,direct sunlight or electric light should be used4 ,the instruments should be placed in a two per cent water solution of carbolic acid4 ,a second vessel containing a two per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compound for cleaning the skin is necessary4 ,absorbent cotton should be used for washing the wound4 ,the general method of operating is as follows3 ,the incision is made between the last two ribs and in front of the thigh4 ,the feathers over this region should be removed1 and the skin pulled to one side before making the incision4 ,an incision about one and one-half inches in length is made through the skin and muscles1 and the spreader inserted4 ,the sharp hook is then inserted and the thin serous membrane over the intestine is torn through4 ,the testicles are situated in the superior portion of the abdominal cavity or under the back4 ,on pushing the intestines to one side1 both testicles1 which are about the size of a bean and yellowish in color1 can be seen4 ,the lower one should be removed first4 ,after removing both testicles1 blood clots1 feathers1 or any foreign body that may have gotten into the wound should be picked up with the tweezers before removing the spreaders and allowing the wound to close4 ,no special after-treatment is required4 ,the most common complication is rupture of the spermatic artery4 ,this occurs at the time the testicle is torn loose and may be due to careless methods1 or operating on cockerels that are too large4 ,if all of the testicle is not removed from the abdominal cavity1 the bird is termed a slip4 ,sometimes air puffs form after the operation4 ,these should be punctured with a sharp knife4 ,,ovariotomy1 ,,spaying4--,the removal of the ovaries1 or ovariotomy1 is practised for the purpose of rendering the female more useful for meat production1 prolonging the period of lactation1 overcoming vicious habits and preventing oestrum or heat4 ,the operation is commonly performed in the heifer and bitch1 occasionally in the mare1 and at present rarely in the sow4 ,heifers are usually spayed between the ages of eight and twelve months2 the bitch and sow when a few months old1 or before the periods of heat have begun4 ,the mare is spayed when mature4 ,it is possible to spay the female at any age1 but the ages mentioned are the most convenient4 ,pregnant animals should not be operated on4 ,the season of the year makes little difference in the results1 providing the animal can be kept under close observation and given the necessary care and treatment4 ,the spring of the year1 just before turning the herd on pasture1 is the best season to spay heifers4 ,all animals should be prepared for the operation by withholding all feed for at least twenty-four hours before they are operated on1 and it may be advisable to give them a physic4 ,it is easier to operate when the intestinal tract is comparatively empty1 and the death rate is lower than when the animal is not properly prepared for the operation4 ,the method of operating is not the same in the different species4 ,in young heifers and sows1 the flank operation is preferred1 and in mares and cows1 the vaginal operation4 ,the median line operation is practised in bitches4 ,a spaying emasculator1 or ecraseur1 are the special instruments need for removing the ovaries4 ,the animal must be properly confined for the operation4 ,heifers are usually held in the standing position by fastening the head securely1 and crowding the left side of the animal against a solid board partition1 or side of a chute4 ,if the vaginal operation is performed1 the mare or cow may be confined in stocks4 ,the bitch is usually anesthetized and placed on her back on a table that is inclined1 so that the hind parts are elevated4 ,ovariotomy cannot be successfully performed by an untrained and inexperienced operator4 ,the necessary precautions against the infection of the part must be observed1 in order to promote the healing of the wound and prevent peritonitis4 ,the seat of the operation should be carefully cleaned and disinfected4 ,following the operation the animal should be fed a spare diet for a few days4 ,this is a very necessary part of the care of the bitch4 ,the general condition of the animal should be noted daily until there is no further danger from wound infection4 ,healing is usually completed in from seven to twelve days4 ,the sutures should then be removed1 and if stitch abscesses occur1 the part should be washed with a disinfectant4 ,,questions #a4 ,what is the purpose of dehorning cattle8 ,give different methods of removing the horns4 #b4 ,give the causes and treatment of choking4 #c4 ,what is the purpose of castration and ovariotomy8 #d4 ,at what age is it best to practise castration and ovariotomy8 #e4 ,in what way should an animal be prepared for castration8 ,give a description of the method of castration in the different animals4 #f4 ,what special care should be given following castration8 #g4 ,what are some of the complications that may follow castration8 ,,part ,v4--,,parasitic ,,diseases ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,parasitic ,,insects ,,and ,,mites ,parasitic insects are common causes of skin diseases in domestic animals4 ,the diseased conditions of the skin1 and the irritation that they may cause the animal1 depend on the life history and habits of the parasite4 ,species that are unable to live independently of a host and are permanent parasites are usually the most injurious to the animal4 ,this is especially true of parasites that are capable of puncturing the skin or burrowing into it4 ,temporary parasites may cause fatal forms of disease4 ,this is true of the larva8 of the sheep bot-fly1 which develop in the sinuses of the head1 causing severe inflammation of these parts1 nervous symptoms and death4 ,the character of the symptoms of a parasitic disease depends on the habits of the parasite1 and the tissue or organ1 that it may attack4 ,the parasitic flies belong to the order ,diptera1 and the families ,muscidae and ,o,estridae4 ,fleas belong to the sub-order ,pulicidae4 ,the order ,hemiptera includes the lice1 and the most important families are ,pediculidae and ,ricinidae4 ,mites and ticks belong to the order ,acarina4 ,the most important parasites belonging to this order are the ,sarcoptidae and ,ixodidae4 ,,oestridae4--,the three common bot-flies are the ,gastrophilus equi1 ,hypoderma lineata and ,o,estrus ovis4 ,these flies are important because of the parasitic habits of their larva4 ,they inhabit the stomach and intestines of horses 7,fig4 #fb72 the subcutaneous tissue and skin of cattle2 and the sinuses of the head and nasal cavities of sheep4 ,the common bot-fly of the horse 7,g4 equi7 has a heavy1 hairy body4 ,its color is brown1 with dark and yellowish spots4 ,the female fly can be seen during the warm weather1 hovering around the horse1 and darting toward the animal for the purpose of depositing the egg4 ,the color of the egg is yellow1 and it adheres firmly to the hair4 ,it hatches in from two to four weeks1 and the larva reaches the mouth through the animal licking the part4 ,from the mouth1 it passes to the stomach1 where it attaches itself to the gastric mucous membrane 7,fig4 #fb74 ,here it remains until fully developed1 when it becomes detached and is passed out with the fasces4 ,the third stage is passed in the ground4 ,this takes place in the spring and early summer and lasts for several weeks1 when it finally emerges a mature fly4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4--;,a piece of the wall of the horse's stomach showing the bot-fly larvae attached4 ,the bot-fly of the ox 7,h4 lineata7 is dark in color and about the size of a honey-bee4 ,on warm days1 the female may be seen depositing eggs on the body of the animal1 especially in the region of the heels4 ,this seems to greatly annoy the animal1 and it is not uncommon for cattle to become stampeded4 ,the egg reaches the mouth through the animal licking the part4 ,the saliva dissolves the shell of the egg and the larva is freed4 ,it then migrates from the gullet1 wanders about in the tissue until finally it may reach a point beneath the skin of the back4 ,here the larva matures and forms the well-known swelling or warble4 ,in the spring of the year it works out through the skin4 ,the next stage is spent in the ground4 ,the pupa state lasts several weeks1 when the mature fly issues forth4 ,the bot-fly of sheep 7,o4 ovis7 resembles an overgrown house-fly4 ,its general color is brown1 and it is apparently lazy1 flying about very little4 ,this bot-fly makes its appearance when the warm weather begins1 and deposits live larvae in the nostrils of sheep4 ,this act is greatly feared by the animals1 as shown by their crowding together and holding the head down4 ,the larva works up the nasal cavities and reaches the sinuses of the head1 where it becomes attached to the lining mucous membrane4 ,in the spring1 when fully developed1 it passes out through the nasal cavities and nostrils1 drops to the ground1 buries itself1 and in from four to six weeks develops into the mature fly4 ,,symptoms ,,of ,,bot-,,fly ,,diseases4--,the larvae of the bot-fly of the horse do not cause characteristic symptoms of disease4 ,work horses that are groomed daily are not hosts for a large number of bots1 but young and old horses that are kept in a pasture or lot and seldom groomed may become unthrifty and pot bellied1 or show symptoms of indigestion4 ,cattle suffer much pain from the development of the larva of the ,h4 lineata4 ,during the spring of the year1 the pain resulting from the presence of the larvae beneath the skin and the penetration of the skin is manifested by excitement and running about4 ,besides the loss in milk and beef production1 there is a heavy yearly loss from the damage to hides4 ,the parasitic life of the bot-fly of sheep results in a severe catarrhal inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the sinuses of the head1 and a discharge of a heavy1 pus-like material from the nostrils4 ,the irritation produced by the larvae may be so serious at times as to result in nervous symptoms and death4 ,,treatment ,,of ,,bot-,,fly ,,diseases4--,the treatment of the different bot-fly diseases is largely preventive4 ,this consists in either the destruction of the eggs or the larvae4 ,the different methods of destroying the eggs of the bot-fly of the horse are clipping the hair from the part1 scraping off the eggs with a sharp knife1 or destroying them by washing the part infested with eggs with a two or three per cent water solution of carbolic acid4 ,this should be practised every two weeks during the period when the female deposits the eggs4 ,housing the cattle1 or applying water solutions of certain preparations to the skin that may keep the female from depositing eggs1 may be practised for the prevention of the ox-warble4 ,the most practical method of ridding cattle of this pest is to destroy the larvae4 ,this can be done by examining each animal and locating the swelling or warble and injecting a few drops of kerosene into the opening in the skin4 ,a better method is to enlarge the opening in the skin with a sharp knife1 squeeze out the grub and destroy it4 ,this should be practised in late winter and early spring4 ,the application of pine tar to the nostrils of sheep is the most practical method of preventing grub in the head4 ,this should be practised every few days during the summer months4 ,a very good preventive measure is plenty of shade for the flock4 ,valuable animals may be treated by trephining into the head sinus and removing the grub4 ,,lice4--,the sucking lice belong to the genus ,hoematopinus1 and the biting lice of mammals belong to the genus ,trichodectes4 ,different species of sucking and biting lice occur on the different species of farm animals4 ,poultry act as hosts for many different species of biting lice belonging to the following genuses3 ,lipiurus1 ,goniodes1 ,goniocotes and ,menopon4 ,the common sucking lice occurring on animals are the large-headed horse louse1 ,h4 macrocephalus2 the long-nosed ox louse1 ,h4 tenuirostris2 the large-bellied ox louse1 ,h4 curysternus2 the ,h4 stenopses of sheep2 ,h4 suis of swine2 and the ,h4 piliferus of the dog4 ,the common biting lice 7,fig4 #fc7 that are found on domestic animals are the ,t4 pilosus and ,t4 pubescens of solipeds1 ,t4 scalaris of the ox1 ,t4 spoerocephalus of sheep and goats1 ,t4 latus and ,t4 subrostratus of the dog and cat4 ,menopon palidum1 ,lipiurus variabilis and ,gonoides dissimilis are the common lice found on poultry4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4--;,biting louse4 ,,symptoms ,,of ,,lice4--,the symptoms of lousiness depend on the variety of lice present1 the degree to which the animal is infested with them1 its physical condition and the care that it receives4 ,lice multiply more rapidly and cause greater loss during the winter months than they do in the summer1 when the animals are not housed and the opportunity for infection from the surroundings is not so great4 ,the sucking louse 7,fig4 #fd7 is the most injurious and irritating4 ,the irritation and loss of blood that the animal may suffer when badly infested by this parasite may result in marked unthriftiness4 ,young and old animals that are not well cared for suffer most4 ,the biting louse may bite through the superficial layer of the skin1 and cause the animal to bite and rub the part4 ,this irritation to the skin prevents the animal from becoming rested1 and after a time seriously interferes with its thriftiness4 ,horses and mules show a staring1 dirty1 rough coat4 ,the mane and tail may become broken and matted4 ,the animal rubs against the stall1 fences and trees1 and bites the skin in its efforts to relieve the irritation4 ,on examining the coat1 nits are found adhering to the hair 7,fig4 #fe74 ,we should examine the parts of the skin covered by the long hair for the sucking lice2 and the withers1 abdomen and limbs for the biting lice4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4--,sucking louse 7much enlarged74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4--,nits attached to hair 7much enlarged74 ,the symptoms of lousiness in cattle are about the same as occur in horses4 ,licking and rubbing the skin are prominent symptoms in cattle1 and the coat becomes dirty and rough4 ,the licked part is matted and curled4 ,the lice may be discovered by parting the hair along the back and rump4 ,the biting louse of sheep causes the fleece to become matted and tufts of wool are pulled out4 ,this is brought about by the sheep rubbing and nibbling the fleece1 and the lice cutting through the wool4 ,the loss due to the damage to the fleece is usually greater than that resulting from unthriftiness4 ,the hog-louse is the largest specie known4 ,as well as the largest1 it is the most common of all lice found on domestic animals4 ,the favorite points of attack are the under surface of the body1 the neck and the inside of the thighs4 ,the irritation and itching are severe1 and the hog rubs and scratches the skin4 ,young hogs suffer most from this parasite1 and their thriftiness is greatly interfered with4 ,the long-haired breeds of dogs suffer more from lice than the short-haired breeds4 ,the almost constant scratching and biting of the skin result in its becoming badly irritated and scabby4 ,the symptoms differ little from irritation to the skin caused by fleas1 but the presence of biting or sucking lice enables the person making the examination to determine the cause of the irritation4 ,lice are the most common parasites of poultry4 ,it is uncommon to meet with a flock of fowls that are not hosts for one or more of the many different varieties of bird lice4 ,restlessness1 picking1 scratching1 flapping the wings1 abandoning the nest and loss of condition are common symptoms4 ,young birds suffer most from lice4 ,this is especially true of young chickens1 death frequently resulting4 ,old fowls may show little inconvenience unless badly infested4 ,the finding of the lice with the head imbedded in the skin or on the feathers enables the person making the examination to positively diagnose the case4 ,the head1 back1 region of the vent and beneath the wings are the parts that should be carefully examined for lice4 ,,treatment ,,of ,,lousiness4--,the preventive treatment is very important4 ,this consists in carefully examining all animals or birds that have been purchased recently1 and if found to harbor lice1 excluding them from the herd or flock until after they have been properly treated4 ,it is impossible to rid animals of lice if the quarters are thoroughly cleaned and disinfected4 ,this is necessary in order to destroy lice that have become scattered about by the lousy animals1 and prevent the reinfection of the treated animals4 ,the best method to use in cleaning the quarters is to remove all litter and manure from the stable or houses and their immediate surroundings4 ,it should be burned1 or hauled to a field or lot where other animals cannot come in contact with it for a few months4 ,the walls1 floors and partitions should be sprayed with a three per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compositus4 ,lime may be scattered about the buildings1 yards and runs4 ,the most satisfactory method of destroying lice on the bodies of animals is by washing or dipping in a water solution or mixture of some reliable disinfectant or oil4 ,running hogs through a dipping tank that contains a one or two per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compositus1 or a coal tar disinfectant1 or that has from three-fourths to one and one-half inches of oil on top of the water1 is the most satisfactory method of destroying the hog louse4 ,because of the thinness of the hog's coat and the danger from irritating the skin when strong solutions of a disinfectant are used1 most swine breeders prefer crude oil as a remedy for lousiness in hogs4 ,crude oil may be applied to the bodies of hogs with a swab4 ,if this method is practised instead of dipping1 it is advisable to crowd the hogs into a small pen1 and apply the oil in front and between the thighs and back of the arms4 ,this may be practised during the cold weather when it is impossible to dip the animals4 ,horses may be washed with a one or two per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compositus1 or a coal tar disinfectant4 ,if the weather is cold1 it is advisable to pick a sunny day1 and blanket the animal after rubbing it as dry as possible in order to prevent chilling and catching cold4 ,cattle may be treated in the same manner as horses4 ,mercurial ointment rubbed in small amounts on the skin back of the horns and ears1 where the animal cannot lick it1 is a common remedy4 ,the absorption of a small amount of this drug does the animal no harm1 but a larger quantity may salivate it4 ,sheep are treated by dipping in a water solution of a reliable coal tar disinfectant4 ,this should not be practised during cold weather1 as the fleece does not dry out4 ,insect powder may be dusted into the fleece when it is impossible to dip the animal4 ,a very satisfactory treatment for lousiness in dogs and cats is to wash them with carbolized soap4 ,we should wait a few minutes before rinsing off the soapy lather and drying the coat4 ,a number of different remedies are used for the treatment of lousiness in poultry4 ,dust baths and insect powder are recommended4 ,ointments are commonly used4 ,one part sulfur and four parts vaseline1 or lard1 may be made into an ointment and applied to the head1 neck1 under the wings and around the vent4 ,mercurial ointment may be applied to the margin of the vent4 ,neither of them should be used for destroying lice on young chicks4 ,mercurial ointment should be used very carefully because of its poisonous effect4 ,lard may be used for destroying lice on young chicks4 ,crude petroleum may be sprayed among the feathers by a hand-sprayer1 while the fowls are suspended by the feet4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff--,sheep-tick4 ,none of the disinfectants and oils recommended for dipping and washing lousy animals destroy the nits4 ,this makes it necessary to re-treat the animal in from eight to ten days after the first treatment4 ,,the ,,sheep-,,tick4--,this is not a true tick4 ,it resembles a fly more than it does a tick1 and its right name is ,melophagus ovinus 7,fig4 #ff74 ,louse-fly is a better name for this parasite than tick1 as its entire life is spent on the body of a sheep4 ,the general color of the body is brown4 ,the legs are stout1 covered with hair and armed with hooks at their extremities4 ,the mouth parts consist of a tubular1 toothed proboscis with which the parasite punctures the skin and sucks the blood4 ,within a few hours after birth1 the larvae develop into pupae1 which are hard1 dark brown in color and firmly glued to the wool4 ,the young louse-fly emerges from the pupa in from three to four weeks4 ,the sheep-tick is a very common external parasite4 ,the adult parasites and the pupae are large and easily found4 ,when badly infested with ticks1 a sheep will rub1 dig and scratch the skin and fleece4 ,this results in pieces of wool becoming pulled out and the fleece appears ragged4 ,after clipping the ticks migrate from the ewes to the lambs1 which may become unthrifty and weak4 ,the treatment consists in dipping the flock in a one or two per cent water solution of a coal-tar dip4 ,dips containing arsenic are most effective in ridding sheep of ticks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4--,sheep scab mite1 ventral view4 7,from ,farmers' ,bulletin ,no4 #aei1 ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture47 ,,scabies4--,this parasitic disease is one of the oldest and most prevalent diseases of the skin4 ,it is commonly known as scab or mange4 ,the animals most commonly affected are sheep1 horses and cattle4 ,the disease is caused by small mites or acari that are naturally divided into the ,sarcoptes1 which burrow under the epidermis1 forming galleries2 the ,psoroptes1 which live on the surface of the skin where they are sheltered by scabs and scurf2 and the ,symbiotes1 which also live on the surface of the skin1 but prefer the regions of the hind feet and legs4 ,acari multiply rapidly and live their entire life on the body of the host4 ,a new generation is produced in about fifteen days4 ,gerlach has estimated the natural increase in three months at #a1jjj1jjj females and #ejj1jjj males4 ,scab and mange are exceedingly contagious diseases4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4--,sheep scab4 ,common sheep scab is caused by that specie of mites known as the ,psoroptes communis var4 ovis 7,fig4 #fg74 ,any part of the body may become affected4 ,the bites of the mites greatly irritate the skin1 and the animal scratches1 bites and rubs the part in its effort to relieve the intense itching4 ,the skin becomes inflamed and scabby1 the wool is pulled and rubbed out1 and the fleece becomes ragged 7,fig4 #fh74 ,by pulling wool out of the newly infested area1 or collecting skin scrapings and placing this material on black paper in a sunny1 warm place1 the mites may be seen crawling over the paper4 ,this method of diagnosis should be resorted to in all suspicious cases of skin disease1 and before the disease has developed to any great extent4 ,the mite that most commonly causes mange in cattle is the ,psoroptes communis var4 bovis4 ,it may invade the skin in the different regions of the body1 but it is in the regions of the tail and thighs that the first evidence of the mange is noticed4 ,the animal rubs1 scratches1 and licks the part4 ,the itching is intense4 ,the hair over the part is lost and the skin appears inflamed1 thickened1 moist1 or covered with white crusts4 ,cracks and sores may form in the skin4 ,the examination of scrapings from the inflamed skin should be practised in order to confirm the diagnosis4 ,mange in horses may be caused by either psoroptic or sarcoptic mites4 ,psoroptes communis var4 equi seems to be the more common parasite4 ,the itching is intense4 ,the inflamed areas are small at first and scattered over the regions of the rump1 back and neck 7,fig4 #fi74 ,after a time the small areas come together and form large patches1 and further spreading of the inflammation results from grooming1 scratching and biting the skin4 ,scattered1 elevated eruptions on the skin from which the hair has dropped out are first noticed4 ,these parts may show yellowish scabs4 ,later the skin is thickened1 smooth1 wrinkled1 cracked1 or covered with sores4 ,scrapings made from the inflamed areas of the skin may show the psoroptic mites4 ,mange in hogs is comparatively rare4 ,it is caused by one of the sarcoptic mites4 ,the thin portions of the skin are usually first invaded4 ,there are violent itching and rubbing1 and small1 red elevations occur on the skin in the region of the ears1 eyelids or inner surface of the thighs1 depending on the part first invaded4 ,the skin becomes greatly thickened and covered with crusts and scabs4 ,pus formation and ulceration may occur4 ,,treatment ,,of ,,scab ,,and ,,mange4--,a careful inspection of recently purchased animals that pass through stockyards1 or are shipped from sections where scab and mange are common skin diseases1 is an important preventive measure4 ,infected animals should be completely isolated from the herd1 and kept apart from other animals until after they have been treated4 ,hogs that are slightly infected should be quarantined and treated4 ,if badly affected1 they should be killed1 and the carcass disposed of by burning or burying4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4--;,a severe case of mange4 ,the different remedies used in the treatment of the disease may be applied by dipping1 hand dressing or washing1 pouring1 smearing and spotting4 ,the first method is the most satisfactory4 ,the last method may be used when a small area of the skin is involved1 and during the cold weather4 ,washing or dipping the animal with a two per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compositus is an effective remedy for the psoroptic forms of scab and mange4 ,tobacco1 lime and sulfur1 and arsenical dips are recommended in the treatment of sheep and cattle4 ,ointments are recommended for animals that are slightly affected with mange4 ,lime and sulfur dips are recommended by the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry4 ,small infected areas of the skin may be treated by applying sulfur-iodide ointment4 ,the following ointment is commonly recommended3 potassium sulfide ten parts1 potassium carbonate two parts1 and lard three hundred parts4 ,sheep cannot be safely dipped for scab during the cold weather4 ,if thickened and scabby1 the skin should be scrubbed with the dip1 or the animal prepared for dipping or washing by first clipping the hair or wool and scrubbing the skin with water and a good soap4 ,in order to prevent reinfection1 it is necessary to remove the animal to new quarters1 or thoroughly clean and disinfect the old4 ,it is necessary to wash or spray the fences1 floors1 walls1 brushes and curry-combs with a disinfecting solution4 ,manure and other litter should be removed to a place where there is no danger from its distributing the infection4 ,,diseases ,,of ,,poultry ,,caused ,,by ,,mites4--,mites or acarina that cause diseases of poultry may live on the feathers1 beneath the skin1 and within the body of the fowl4 ,the small1 red mite 7,dermanyssus gallinae7 remains on the surface of the body only when feeding1 and spends the rest of the time under collections of filth and in cracks in the roosts and walls of the house4 ,this parasite causes the birds to become restless1 emaciated and droopy4 ,a very small mite 7,sarcoptes mutans7 is the cause of scaly leg4 ,it lives under the skin4 ,the joints of the feet appear affected1 and the foot and leg become enlarged1 roughened and scaly4 ,depluming scabies is caused by ,sarcoptes laevis var4 gallinae4 ,this mite causes the feathers to break off at the surface of the skin4 ,masses of epidermic scales may form around the broken ends of the feathers4 ,the diagnosis can be confirmed by examining the skin lesions and finding the mite4 ,the air sac mite 7,cytodites nudus7 may cause sufficient irritation to the mucous membrane lining the air sacs to seriously obstruct the air passages with mucus1 or produce death from exhaustion4 ,a post-mortem examination of a fowl that has died of this disease shows the mites on the surface of the lining membrane of the air-sacs4 ,they appear as a white or yellow dust4 ,,treatment ,,of ,,poultry ,,diseases ,,caused ,,by ,,mites4--,diseases of poultry caused by mites may be prevented by quarantining all recently purchased birds for a period of from two to four weeks1 and by keeping the poultry houses clean4 ,birds that are found infested with parasites should be destroyed or returned4 ,in case the bird is valuable and suffering from external parasites only1 it should be given the necessary treatment4 ,red mites may be destroyed by thoroughly cleaning the poultry house1 and spraying the roosts1 nests1 walls and floor with a three per cent water solution of liquor cresolis compositus4 ,this should be repeated twice a week for two weeks4 ,scaly-leg may be treated by applying a penetrating oil to the feet and lower part of the leg4 ,it is advisable to first remove the scales by scrubbing the part with soap and warm water4 ,dipping the feet in a mixture of kerosene one part and linseed oil two parts is recommended4 ,this should be repeated as often as necessary4 ,,questions #a4 ,describe the different bot-flies4 #b4 ,give the life history of the bot-fly of the horse2 of the ox2 of sheep4 #c4 ,give the symptoms of bot-fly diseases4 #d4 ,give the symptoms of lousiness4 #e4 ,give treatment for lousiness of different farm animals4 #f4 ,what is the damage from the sheep-tick8 ,give treatment4 #g4 ,describe the injury from scabies and mange4 #h4 ,give treatments for these diseases4 #i4 ,mention the several poultry mites and tell how to treat them4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,animal ,,parasites ,the common parasitic diseases of domestic animals are caused by the following groups of worms3 ,flukes or trematoides2 tapeworms or ,cestoides2 thorn-headed worms or ,acanthocephales2 and round-worms or ,nematoids4 ,flat worms1 such as tapeworms and flukes1 require secondary hosts4 ,the immature and mature forms of tapeworms are parasites of vertebrate animals1 but an invertebrate host is necessary for the completion of the life cycle of the fluke4 ,the hog is the only specie of domestic animals that becomes a host for the thorn-headed worm4 ,the round-worm is a very common parasite4 ,there are many species belonging to this class4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4--,liver flukes4 ,,distoma ,,hepaticum 7,,common ,,liver ,,fluke74--,sheep are the most common hosts for this parasite4 ,it is present in the gall ducts and livers1 and causes a disease of the liver known as liver rot4 ,the liver fluke is flat or leaf-like and from thirteen to fifteen mm4 long 7,fig4 #gj74 ,the head portion is conical4 ,it has an oval and ventral sucker1 and the body is covered with scaly spines4 ,the eggs are oval and brownish in color4 ,the life history1 in brief1 is as follows3 ,each adult is capable of producing an immense number of eggs which are carried down the bile ducts with the bile to the intestine1 and are passed off with the faeces4 ,under favorable conditions for incubation1 such as warm1 moist surroundings1 the ova or eggs hatch and the ciliated embryos become freed4 ,the embryo next penetrates into the body of certain snails and encysts4 ,the sporocyst1 as it is now called1 develops into a third generation known as redia which escape from the cyst4 ,the daughter redia or cercaria1 as they are now termed1 leave the body of the snail and finally become encysted on the stems of grass1 cresses and weeds4 ,when taken into the digestive tract of the animal grazing over infested ground1 the immature flukes are freed by the digestive juices4 ,they then pass from the intestine into the bile ducts4 ,the period of development varies from ten to twenty weeks2 each sporocyst may give rise to from five to eight redia and each redia to from twelve to twenty cercaria4 ,fluke diseases occur among animals pastured on low1 wet1 undrained land4 ,drying ponds and lakes are the homes of the fresh water snails1 and in such places there are plenty of hosts for the immature flukes4 ,wet seasons favor the development of this parasite4 ,cattle and sheep that pasture on river bottom land in certain sections of the southern portion of the ,united ,states are frequently affected with fluke diseases4 ,the symptoms of liver rot of sheep may be divided into two stages4 ,the first stage is marked by increase in weight and improved condition4 ,in the second stage of the disease1 the animal shows a pale skin and mucous membrane1 dropsical swellings1 loss of flesh and weakness4 ,the character of the symptoms of the disease depends on the age of the animals and the care that they receive4 ,young1 poorly cared for animals suffer severely from the disease1 and the death rate is usually heavy4 ,the finding of fluke ova in the faeces is conclusive evidence of the nature of the disease4 ,it may be advisable to kill one of the sick animals1 and determine the nature of the disease by a post-mortem examination4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4--,tapeworm larvae in liver 7,echinococcus polymorphus74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4--,tapeworms4 ,the treatment is preventive4 ,drainage water from a pasture infested with snails harboring immature flukes is a source of infection1 and should not be used as a water supply for cattle and sheep4 ,in sections where the disease is prevalent1 sheep should not be pastured on low1 poorly-drained land4 ,such land should be used for pasturing horses and cattle1 but if possible1 it should be first drained and cultivated4 ,careful feeding and good care may help the affected animals to recover4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4--,tapeworm larvae in the peritoneum 7,cysticercus cellulosa74 ,,tapeworms ,,or ,,cestoides4--,tapeworms are formed by a chain of segments1 joined together at their ends1 and are flat or ribbon-shaped 7,fig4 #ga74 ,the head segment is small1 and possesses either hooks or suckers4 ,it is by these that the worm attaches itself to the lining membrane of the intestine4 ,the anterior segments are smaller and less mature than the posterior segments4 ,each segment is sexually complete1 possessing both the male and female organs1 and when mature1 one or more of them break off and are passed out with the faeces4 ,the mature or ripe segments are filled with ova4 ,on reaching the digestive tract of a proper host1 usually with the drinking water or fodder1 the embryo is freed from the egg4 ,the armed embryo uses its hooklets in boring its way through the wall of the intestine4 ,it then wanders through the tissues of its host until it finally reaches a suitable place for development 7,figs4 #ga and #gc74 ,on coming to rest1 it develops into the larva or bladder-worm1 which when eaten by a proper host gives rise to the mature tapeworm4 ,the following tables give the most important tapeworms3 ,,adult ,,forms ,name ,host ,organ ,taenia expansa ,sheep and ox ,intestine ,taenia fimbriata ,sheep ,liver ,taenia denticulata ,cattle ,intestine ,taenia alba ,cattle ,intestine ,taenia perfoliata ,solipeds ,intestine ,taenia mamillana ,solipeds ,intestine ,taenia echinococcus ,dog ,intestine ,,larval ,,forms ,name ,host ,cysticercus bovis ,cattle ,cysticercus cellulosa ,swine and man ,cysticercus tennicollis ,cattle1 sheep and swine ,coenurus cerebralis ,cattle and sheep ,echinococcus polymorphus ,cattle1 sheep1 swine and man ,the adult tapeworms ,taeniae saginata and soleum1 of which the ,cysticerci bovis and cellulosa are the larvae forms1 occur in man4 ,the larvae are present in meat and pork1 and this form of parasitism is termed beef measles in cattle and pork measles in hogs4 ,man becomes host for these two forms of tapeworms through eating measly pork or beef that is not properly cooked4 ,the dog is the host for ,taeniae marginala1 coenurus and echinococcus4 ,the larvae forms of these taeniae are the ,cysticercus tennicollis1 ,coenurus cerebralis and ,echinococcus polymorphus4 ,c4 tennicollis is a parasite of the serous or lining membranes of the body cavities4 ,it is not of great economic importance4 ,c4 cerebralis is a parasite of the brain of sheep1 and may cause a heavy death rate in flocks that are infested with it4 ,e4 polymorphus is a parasite of the liver1 but it may occur in other organs4 ,,the ,,thorn-,,headed ,,worm ,,or ,,acanthocephale4--,this parasite requires a secondary host4 ,in this case a particular species of the ,may-beetle larva or white grub that is commonly found about manure piles and in clover pastures is the host4 ,the hog eats a white grub that is host for the larval form4 ,the digestive juices free the larva1 it then becomes attached to the intestinal mucous membrane and develops into the adult thorn-headed worm 7,fig4 #gd74 ,this parasite is characterized by a hooked proboscis or thorn at its anterior extremity1 and the absence of a distinct digestive tract4 ,the male is much smaller than the female4 ,the eggs are passed out of the intestine with the faeces4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4--,thorn-headed worms4 ,,the ,,round-,,worms ,,or ,,nematoids4--,round-worms are very common parasites of domestic animals 7,fig4 #ge74 ,this group of worms is characterized by their cylindrical form1 the presence of a true digestive canal and the separation into two sexes1 male and female4 ,the life history is more simple than in the flat worms4 ,intermediate hosts are not required for the development of the common forms4 ,the eggs and embryos are deposited by the female in the intestinal tract1 air passages1 or excretory ducts of the kidneys of the host4 ,development may be completed here1 or the eggs and embryos are passed off with the body excretions4 ,they may live for a short time outside the animal body1 or undergo certain development and again infest a host of the same species from which they came1 through the water1 grass and fodder that the animal may take into its digestive tract4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4--,large round-worm in intestine of hog4 ,the following species of nematoids are common parasites of domestic animals3 ,,solipeds ,species ,organ ,ascaris megalocephala ,intestines ,sclerostoma equinum ,large intestine and blood-vessels ,sclerostoma tetracanthum ,large intestine ,oxyrus curvula ,large intestine ,oxyrus mastigodes ,large intestine ,,cattle ,species ,organ ,strongylus convolutus ,abomasum ,ascaris vituli ,small intestine 7calves7 ,strongylus ventricosus ,small intestine ,oesophagostomum inflatum ,large intestine ,trichocephalus affins ,large intestine ,strongylus micrurus ,bronchi ,strongylus pulmonaris ,bronchi ,,sheep ,species ,organ ,haemonchus contortus ,abomasum ,ascaris ovis ,small intestine ,strongylus filicollis ,small intestine ,oesophagostomum columbianum ,intestines ,uncinaria cernua ,small intestine ,trichocephalus affins ,large intestine ,strongylus filaria ,bronchi ,strongylus rufescens ,bronchi and air follicles ,,swine ,species ,organ ,ascaris suis ,intestines ,oesophagostomum dentatum ,large intestine ,trichocephalus crenatus ,large intestine ,trichina spiralis ,muscles and intestines ,strongylus paradoxus ,trachea and bronchi ,sclerostoma pingencola ,renal fat and kidney ,,poultry ,species ,organ ,ascaris inflexa ,intestine ,spiroptera hamulosa ,gizzard ,heterakis papillosa ,caecum ,syngamus trachealis ,trachea and bronchi ,,intestinal ,,worms ,,of ,,solipeds4--,the large round-worms or ascarides and the sclerostomes are the most injurious intestinal parasites of solipeds4 ,the ,a4 megalocephala or large round-worm is from #e to #ae inches 7#ab to #ce cm47 long4 ,it may be present in the double colon in such large numbers as to form an entangled mass that completely fills a portion of the loop in which it is lodged4 ,it may interfere with digestion by obstructing the passage of alimentary matter1 and irritating the intestine4 ,the ,s4 equinum and ,s4 tetracanthum are small worms4 ,the former sclerostoma is from #j4f to #a4e inches 7#ah to #ce mm47 long1 and the latter is from #j4e to #j4f inch 7#h to #ag mm47 long4 ,both sclerostomes attach themselves to the lining membrane of the intestine by their mouth parts1 and suck blood4 ,the young ,s4 equinum may live in tumor-like cysts that they cause to form in the lining membrane of the intestine4 ,the young worm may penetrate the wall of a small blood-vessel as well1 and drift into a large vessel1 where it may become lodged and undergo partial development4 ,the irritation to the blood-vessel results in an inflammation and dilation of the vessel wall4 ,this is termed verminous aneurism4 ,a portion of the fibrin-like lining of the aneurism may flake off and drift along in the blood stream1 until finally a vessel that is too small for the floating particle or embolus to pass through is reached4 ,the vessel is then plugged or a thrombus is formed4 ,if the vessel involved by the thrombus happens to be a mesenteric vessel1 then a loop of intestine has its blood supply cut off1 and colicky pains result4 ,such colics are dangerous1 and may terminate fatally4 ,intestinal obstruction1 thrombo-embolic colics1 unthriftiness and a weakened1 anaemic condition may be caused by intestinal worms4 ,the treatment is both preventive and medicinal4 ,the preventive treatment consists in giving young1 growing animals the best care possible4 ,cleanliness about the stable1 giving the colt plenty of range when running in a pasture1 and feeding a ration that is sufficient to keep the colt in good physical condition are the important preventive measures4 ,tartar emetic in one-half to one dram doses may be given with the feed daily until five or six doses are given4 ,turpentine may be given in one to three ounce doses in a pint of linseed oil4 ,this may be repeated daily for two or three days4 ,worms located in the posterior bowel may be removed by rectal injections of a weak water infusion of quassia chips4 ,the rectum should be first emptied with the hand1 and the nozzle of the syringe carried as far forward with the hand as possible4 ,the injections should be repeated daily for several days4 ,,intestinal ,,worms ,,of ,,cattle4--,intestinal worms seldom cause serious losses from unthriftiness or death in cattle4 ,it is in calves only that we are called on to treat this class of disease4 ,the symptoms resulting from the invasion of the intestinal tract by the different worms vary in severity according to the number1 habits of the parasite and care that the animal receives4 ,the usual symptoms are unthriftiness1 indigestion1 diarrhoea and a stunted1 anaemic condition4 ,stiles reported extreme anaemia1 unthriftiness and many deaths among cattle in a certain section of ,texas1 due to extensive infection with the ,uncinaria radialus4 ,the treatment is largely preventive4 ,calves and yearlings should be provided with plenty of feed at all seasons of the year4 ,good care and careful feeding will keep them in a thrifty1 healthy condition and enable them to throw off invasions of intestinal worms4 ,turpentine is the vermifuge usually administered to calves4 ,the dose is from two to four drams given in a milk or raw linseed oil emulsion4 ,,stomach ,,worm ,,of ,,sheep4--,the twisted stomach worm1 ,haemonchus contortus1 is the most injurious internal parasite of sheep4 ,it is a very small1 hair-like worm from #j4d to #a inch 7#i to #be mm47 in length4 ,in the adult form it attaches itself to the mucous membrane of the fourth stomach or abomasum1 and lives by sucking blood4 ,the blood present in the digestive tract of the worm gives it a brown color1 and the white oviducts which are wound around the digestive canal cause the body to appear twisted4 ,when the twisted stomach worm is present in large numbers1 the worms become mixed with the contents of the stomach and can be readily found on making a post-mortem examination4 ,symptoms of stomach worms are first manifest in the lambs 7,fig4 #gf74 ,it is not until early summer that the disease appears in the flock4 ,the symptoms are not characteristic unless we consider an unthrifty1 anaemic1 weak1 emaciated condition accompanied by diarrhoea1 during the summer months characteristic of stomach-worm disease4 ,the sick animals are unable to keep up with the flock1 and they like to stand about in the shade4 ,they move slowly1 the back is arched1 the appetite poor1 the mucous membranes and skin are pale and the hind parts soiled by the diarrhoeal discharge4 ,more acute symptoms than the above sometimes occur4 ,the disease may last from a few days to several weeks4 ,a large percentage of the affected animals die4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4--,lamb affected with stomach worm disease4 ,the treatment is largely preventive4 ,frequent changing of pastures and dry lot feeding are common preventive measures4 ,permanent sheep pastures lead to heavy losses from stomach worm disease4 ,a very effective preventive measure1 as we may term it1 is the practice of administering a vermifuge to the ewes in the late summer and again in early winter4 ,this may be given in a drench1 or with the feed4 ,this prevents the reinfection of the pastures every spring1 and the young lambs are not exposed to this form of infection4 ,the most effective treatment that the writer has ever used is the following formula recommended by ,dr4 ,law3 ,arsenous acid one dram1 sulfate of iron five drams1 powdered areca nut two ounces1 common salt four ounces4 ,this is sufficient for one dose for thirty sheep4 ,it may be given with the salt1 or in ground feed4 ,if the flock is apparently healthy1 four doses given at intervals of three days is sufficient4 ,if symptoms of stomach worms are manifested the animals should be dosed daily until they have received from five to ten doses1 depending on the condition of the animal4 ,,intestinal ,,worms ,,of ,,sheep4--,the most widely distributed and seemingly most injurious intestinal worm of sheep is the ,o,esopliagostomum columbianum4 ,it is a small worm from #j4e to #j4ge inch 7#ab to #ah mm47 long4 ,it penetrates the lining membrane of the intestines and encysts in the intestinal wall4 ,a tumor1 varying in size from that of a millet seed to a hazelnut1 then forms in the wall of the intestine4 ,these tumors undergo a cheesy degeneration1 and when mature1 may appear as greenish1 cheesy-like masses1 covering a large portion of the lining membrane of the intestine4 ,diarrhoea and emaciation may result4 ,these symptoms are most evident during the winter months4 ,the treatment recommended for ridding sheep of this intestinal worm is largely preventive4 ,very little can be done with the medicinal treatment of a sheep whose intestinal tract is badly infested with this parasite4 ,good care and the feeding of a proper ration are the only curative measures that are effective in such cases4 ,the occasional administration of a vermifuge for the purpose of ridding the digestive tract of worms1 together with the frequent changing of pastures during the spring and summer1 are the most effective preventive lines of treatment4 ,the same treatment recommended for stomach worms may be used for this disease4 ,,intestinal ,,parasites ,,of ,,hogs4--,the ,ascaris suis or common round worm is very commonly found in the small intestine4 ,it is quite frequently found in large numbers1 almost filling the lumen of the intestine of an unthrifty pig 7,fig4 #ge74 ,it may also work its way into the bile duct4 ,sometimes1 after a hog has died1 this parasite migrates forward into the stomach and gullet4 ,the ,a4 suis is from #d to #aj inches 7#aj to #bf cm47 long4 ,the ,echinorhynchus gigas or thorn-headed worm is the most dangerous of all intestinal worms 7,fig4 #gd74 ,it is usually found with its proboscis or thorn imbedded in the wall of the small intestine4 ,the ,echinorhynchus is not as common a parasite as the ,ascaride1 and it is not usually present in large numbers4 ,usually1 not more than a half-dozen of these worms are found in the intestine of a hog1 but in some localities and in hogs that are allowed to root around manure piles and in clover pastures the herd may become badly infected with them and serious losses occur4 ,the average length of the male is about #c inches 7#h cm47 and the female #aj inches 7#bf cm474 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4--,whip-worms attached to wall of intestine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4--,pin-worms in intestine4 ,the ,trichocephalus crenatus or whip worm 7,fig4 #gg7 is slender or hair-like in its anterior two-thirds and thick posteriorly4 ,it is from #a4e to #b inches 7#dj to #de mm47 long4 ,it is found in the caecum attached to the wall by the hair-like portion4 ,the ,o,esophagostomum dentatum or pin worm is from #j4c to #j4f inch 7#h to #ae mm47 long4 ,it is found in the large intestine 7,fig4 #gh74 ,the symptoms of intestinal worms are not very evident in the average drove of hogs4 ,none of the other farm animals are such common hosts for intestinal worms as hogs4 ,but it is only in extreme cases of infection by intestinal worms1 and in stunted and poorly-cared-for hogs1 that very noticeable symptoms of disease are manifested4 ,we must not take from the above statement that it is unnecessary to resort to treatment unless in exceptional cases4 ,intestinal worms interfere with the growth of young hogs1 and may irritate and inflame the intestine1 causing chronic indigestion1 nervous symptoms1 and in some cases death4 ,this irritated and inflamed condition of the intestine is best noted in the abattoir by the ease with which the wall of the intestine that contains large numbers of worms tears when handling it4 ,the treatment of intestinal worms in hogs is both preventive and medicinal4 ,if the conditions in the pens and houses are such as to enable the eggs and embryos to live for a long time1 or the surroundings are favorable for infection of the animals through their feed and water supply1 the herd may become badly infested with intestinal parasites4 ,the preventive treatment consists in keeping hogs in clean1 well-drained yards or pastures1 and feeding them from clean troughs and concrete feeding floors that can be washed1 when necessary1 in order to keep them clean4 ,turpentine1 given in a milk emulsion1 is a common remedy for intestinal worms in hogs4 ,the dose is one teaspoonful for every eighty pounds weight4 ,this dose should be repeated daily for three days4 ,the following vermifuge can be recommended3 ,santonin three to five grains1 calomel five to eight grains4 ,this is sufficient for one hundred pounds weight4 ,if the pigs are small and it requires two or three to weigh one hundred pounds1 the large dose should be given4 ,if the hogs weigh one hundred pounds or more1 they should receive the small dose4 ,the drove should be divided into lots of ten or fifteen hogs each4 ,the drugs should be mixed and divided into the same number of powders as there are lots of hogs4 ,ground feed is placed in the trough1 dampened with milk1 or water and the powder sprinkled evenly over it4 ,the hogs are then allowed to eat the feed4 ,it is best to dose them in the morning after they have been off feed for ten or twelve hours4 ,,verminous ,,bronchitis ,,in ,,calves4--,the lung worms of cattle1 ,strongylus micrurus and ,strongylus pulmonaris1 may cause heavy losses in calves and yearlings4 ,older cattle may harbor these parasites1 but they do not seem to be inconvenienced by them4 ,the ,s4 micrurus is from #a to #c inches 7#be to #ge mm47 long4 ,the ,s4 pulmonaris is smaller4 ,it is from #j4d to #a4c inches 7#aj to #ce mm47 long4 ,they are found in the trachea and small bronchial tubes1 where they are mixed with mucous secretions from the inflamed lining membrane of the bronchial tubes4 ,wet seasons and low1 wet pastures are said to favor the development of lung worms4 ,their life history is not fully understood4 ,they do not persist generation after generation in the air passages of an animal1 but the eggs and embryos are expelled and live for a time outside of the animal1 when they may again become parasites of another or the same host4 ,the symptoms are the same as occur in bronchitis and pneumonia4 ,calves and yearlings are the only animals in the herd that may show symptoms of the disease4 ,the air passages become irritated and inflamed1 and the calf shows a slight cough4 ,as the inflammation increases and the worms and mucous secretions plug up the small bronchial tubes1 the coughing spells become more severe and rattling1 wheezing sounds may be heard on auscultating the lungs4 ,the calf finally loses its appetite1 becomes emaciated and weak1 and wanders off alone4 ,it is usually found lying down and shows labored breathing that is occasionally interrupted by paroxysmal coughing4 ,the death rate in poorly-cared-for herds is heavy4 ,,verminous ,,bronchitis ,,and ,,pneumonia ,,of ,,sheep4--,the two lung worms of sheep are the ,strongylus filaria and ,strongylus rufescens4 ,the former is from #a4c to #c inches 7#cc to #hj mm47 long1 and the latter from #j4f to #a inch 7#af to #be mm47 long4 ,the ,s4 filaria is thread-like and the ,s4 refuscens hair-like in appearance4 ,for this reason they are termed thread and hair lung-worms4 ,the thread-worm is found in the trachea and the larger bronchial tubes1 and the hair-worm in the most minute as well as the larger bronchioli4 ,this disease is most common in wet seasons4 ,undrained pastures and ponds are said to favor the spread of the disease4 ,permanent pastures favor the reinfection of the flock from year to year4 ,the eggs and embryos are expelled in coughing1 and live for a time in the pastures1 pens and houses4 ,the sheep become infected through the dust1 drinking water or feed4 ,the symptoms of verminous bronchitis and pneumonia are quite characteristic4 ,lambs suffer most from these diseases4 ,a number of animals in the flock are affected4 ,coughing1 rapid and labored breathing1 loss of appetite1 emaciation and weakness are the usual symptoms noticed4 ,when a paroxysm of coughing occurs1 considerable mucus is expelled4 ,an examination of the expectorations may result in finding a few lung worms4 ,in poorly-cared-for flocks1 and when complicated by stomach and intestinal worms1 the death rate is usually heavy4 ,the treatment of lung-worm diseases in lambs and calves is largely preventive4 ,we should use every possible precaution against introducing the infection into the herd or flock4 ,it is not advisable to bring animals from an infected herd onto the premises1 without subjecting them to a careful examination and a long quarantine before allowing them to stable or pasture with the other animals4 ,calves or lambs that show marked symptoms of disease should be given comfortable quarters1 and special care and feeding4 ,the entire herd or flock must be given the best care and ration possible4 ,this is the only satisfactory method of treatment4 ,changing the pasture or lot frequently may help in ridding the premises of the infection4 ,,verminous ,,bronchitis ,,in ,,hogs4--,the lung worm1 ,strongylus paradoxus1 is a common parasite of young hogs4 ,it is from #j4f to #a4f inches 7#af to #dj mm47 long4 ,when the infection is light1 the worms are found mostly in the bronchial tubes of the margin and apex of the lung4 ,infection with this parasite does not depend on the humidity of the soil1 or low1 wet pastures containing ponds4 ,probably dusty quarters are responsible in large degree for this disease4 ,the symptoms are most evident in pigs weighing from forty to eighty pounds4 ,the first symptom is a cough1 occurring on leaving the bed1 after exercise and after eating4 ,in badly infected cases the paroxysm of coughing is quite severe4 ,the appetite usually remains good and the thriftiness of the pig is not seriously interfered with4 ,the feeding of a suitable ration1 and the good care that is usually given young hogs1 are responsible for the mildness of the disease4 ,the treatment that is of most importance is clean quarters1 and the feeding of a ration that will keep the pig growing and healthy4 ,the sleeping quarters should be kept free from dust4 ,disinfectants should be used freely about the quarters4 ,,the ,,kidney ,,worm ,,of ,,hogs4--,sclerostoma pinguicola is the kidney worm of hogs4 ,it is from #a to #a4e inches 7#be to #bg mm47 long1 and when seen against the kidney fat it appears dark or mottled4 ,it is usually found in the fat in the region of the pelvis of the kidney4 ,although the kidney worm is capable of causing inflammatory changes in the tissues surrounding the kidney and the pelvis of this organ1 the disease cannot be determined by any noticeable symptom4 ,paralysis of the posterior portion of the body is attributed to the presence of kidney worms by stockmen4 ,there are no data by which we may prove that the kidney worm is responsible for this disorder4 ,the treatment is preventive4 ,clean feed1 pens1 watering troughs and feeding floors are the preventive measures indicated here4 ,it is useless to attempt treatment with drugs1 as the worms are out of reach of any drug that may be administered4 ,,worms ,,of ,,the ,,digestive ,,tract ,,of ,,poultry4--,poultry are often seriously infested with worms4 ,a small number of the less injurious worms may not cause any appreciable symptoms of disease2 but the fowl that harbors them is a source of infection to the other fowls4 ,the infectious nature of parasitic disease caused by worms should be recognized more fully than at present by poultrymen4 ,the different species of poultry are hosts for many different species of round-worms1 thorn-headed worms and tapeworms4 ,dr4 ,kaupp states that ,acaris inflexa or large round-worm1 ,heterakis pipilosa or small round-worm1 and the ,spiroptera hamulosa or gizzard-worm are frequently found in fowls4 ,the common round-worm may be found in the first portion of the intestine1 and the small round-worm in the caecum4 ,neither of the species are dangerous unless present in large numbers4 ,they may then obstruct the intestine1 and irritate the intestinal mucous membrane4 ,this may cause constipation1 catarrhal inflammation of the intestine and diarrhoea4 ,the gizzard-worm is the most dangerous of the parasites mentioned4 ,the gizzard has an important digestive function1 and any condition that may weaken its muscular walls may cause serious digestive disorders4 ,this parasite may encyst in the wall of the gizzard4 ,the treatment of intestinal worms in poultry is both preventive and curative4 ,the preventive measures consist in keeping the houses and runs clean4 ,air-slaked lime should be scattered over the runs every few weeks4 ,the drinking places should be cleaned and disinfected daily4 ,all possible precautions should be taken in order to prevent filth from getting into the drinking water4 ,epsom salts1 powdered areca nut and santonin are the remedies commonly recommended for the treatment of intestinal worms4 ,from twenty to forty grains of ,epsom salts may be given4 ,powdered areca nut is recommended in from three to ten grain doses4 ,santonin may be given in from one to two grain doses4 ,both the areca nut and santonin may be given with the feed4 ,,the ,,gapes ,,in ,,birds4--,the gape-worm1 ,syngamus trachealis1 is from #j4b to #j4h inch 7#e to #bj mm47 long4 ,the male and female are permanently united4 ,the male is about one-third as long as the female1 and when attached to the anterior third of the female1 gives the pair a forked appearance4 ,fowls become infested with the gape-worm by eating the adult parasite that has been expectorated1 or an earth worm that is host for the immature parasite4 ,the embryo gape-worm is freed in the intestine1 and from here they are supposed to migrate into the abdominal air sacs and to the trachea and bronchi4 ,the symptom are most severe in very young fowls4 ,the affected bird opens its mouth and appears to gasp for breath1 sneeze and attempt to swallow4 ,in the severe cases the appetite is interfered with1 mucus accumulates in the mouth and the bird is dull and listless4 ,the death rate is quite high in young-chickens and turkeys4 ,the treatment is both preventive and curative4 ,if the gape-worm is known to be present in the runs1 the ground should be covered with lime1 and the fowls moved to fresh runs if possible4 ,the young birds should not be exposed to the infection until they are well feathered out4 ,antiseptics may be given with the drinking water4 ,disinfectants should be used freely about the poultry houses1 and the quarters kept clean4 ,the worms may be snared by inserting a stiff horse hair that has been twisted and forms a loop into the trachea4 ,this may be dipped into camphorated oil or turpentine4 ,this treatment should be repeated until the bird has been relieved4 ,,questions #a4 ,name the different groups of internal parasites2 give examples of each4 #b4 ,what conditions favor liver rot8 ,give the life history of the liver fluke4 #c4 ,name three common tapeworms2 give the life history of the beef and pork tapeworms4 #d4 ,name the common intestinal worms of horses and give the treatment4 #e4 ,give the symptoms and treatment of stomach-worm disease of sheep4 #f4 ,name the common intestinal worms of hogs and give treatment4 #g4 ,what species of domestic animals suffer most of verminous bronchitis8 ,give the treatment4 #h4 ,name the common internal parasites of poultry and give treatment4 ,,part ,,vi4--,,infectious ,,diseases ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,hog-,,cholera ,,hog-,,cholera is a highly infectious disease of swine4 ,it is characterized by an inflammation1 of the lymphatic glands1 kidneys1 intestines1 lungs and skin4 ,the inflammation is hemorrhagic in character1 the inflamed organs usually showing deep red spots or blotches4 ,hog-cholera is especially prevalent in the corn-raising ,states which possess a denser hog population than any other section of the ,united ,states4 ,in this country the loss from hog-cholera in #aiac amounted to more than #fj1jjj1jjj1 and it may be considered of greater economic importance than any of the other animal diseases4 ,,specific ,,cause4--,the specific cause of hog-cholera is an ultra-visible organism that is present in the excretions1 secretions and tissues of a cholera hog4 ,de ,schweinitz and ,dorset in #aijc produced typical hog-cholera by inoculating hogs with cholera-blood filtrates that were free from any organism that could be demonstrated by microscopical examination or any cultural method4 ,the term ultra-visible virus is applied to the virus of hog-cholera4 ,the ultra-visible virus is eliminated from the body of the cholera hog with the body secretions and excretions4 ,healthy hogs contract the disease by eating feed or drinking water that is infected with the virus4 ,there are other methods of infection1 but field and experimental data show that hog-cholera is commonly produced by taking the germs into the body with food and drinking water4 ,,accessory ,,causes4--,the usual method of introducing hog-cholera into a neighborhood is through the importation of feeding or breeding hogs that were infected with the disease before they were purchased1 or became infected through exposure to the disease in the public stock-yards and stock-cars4 ,the shipping of feeding hogs from one section of the country to another1 and from public stock-yards1 has always been productive of hog-cholera4 ,dr4 ,dorset states that more than fifty-seven per cent of the hog-cholera outbreaks are caused by visiting1 exchanging work1 exposure on adjoining farms and harboring the infection from year to year 7,fig4 #gi71 and more than twenty-three per cent to purchasing hogs and shipping in infected cars1 birds and contaminated streams4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4--;,a hog yard where the disease-producing germs may be carried over from year to year4 ,in neighborhoods where outbreaks of hog-cholera occur necessary precautions against the spread of the disease are not taken4 ,the exchange of help at threshing and shredding time in neighborhoods where there is an outbreak of hog-cholera is the most common method of spreading the disease4 ,visiting farms where hogs are dying of cholera2 walking or driving a team and wagon through the cholera-infected yards2 stock buyers1 stock-food and cholera-remedy venders that visit the different farms in a neighborhood may distribute the hog-cholera virus through the infected filth that may adhere to the shoes1 horses' feet and wagon wheels4 ,cholera hogs may carry the disease directly to a healthy herd when allowed to run at large4 ,streams that are polluted with the drainage from cholera-infected yards are common sources of disease4 ,pigeons1 dogs1 cows and buzzards that travel about the neighborhood and feed in hog yards and on the carcasses of cholera hogs may distribute the disease4 ,because of the active part that dogs1 birds and surface drainage take in the distribution of hog-cholera1 the practice of allowing the carcasses of dead hogs to lie on the ground and decompose is responsible for a large percentage of the hog-cholera outbreaks4 ,age is an important predisposing factor4 ,young hogs are most susceptible to cholera1 and this susceptibility can be greatly increased by giving them crowded1 filthy quarters4 ,infection with lice1 lung and intestinal worms1 the feeding of an improper ration and sudden changes in the ration lower the natural resistance of a hog against disease4 ,pampered hogs usually develop acute cholera when exposed to this disease4 ,hog-cholera is more virulent or acute during the summer and fall months than it is during the winter and spring months4 ,after the disease sweeps over a section of country1 it becomes less virulent and takes on a subacute or chronic form4 ,outbreaks of hog-cholera usually last two or three years in a neighborhood4 ,this depends largely on the number of susceptible hogs that were not exposed to the infection the first season1 and the preventive precautions observed by the owners4 ,,period ,,of ,,incubation4--,the length of time elapsing between the exposure of the hog to the cholera virus1 and the development of noticeable symptoms of hog-cholera1 varies from a few days to two or three weeks4 ,the length of this incubation period depends on the susceptibility of the animal1 the virulence of the virus and the method of exposure4 ,an acute form of hog-cholera indicates a short period of incubation1 and a chronic form1 a long period4 ,,symptoms4--,the symptoms of hog-cholera may differ widely in the different outbreaks of the disease4 ,the symptoms may be classified under the following forms3 ,acute1 subacute and chronic4 ,the acute form of hog-cholera is the most common4 ,the early symptoms are tremors1 fever1 depressed appearance1 marked weakness1 staggering gait1 constipation and diarrhoea1 labored breathing and convulsions4 ,death may occur within a few hours or a few days4 ,recovery seldom occurs4 ,in the subacute form1 the symptoms are mild and develop slowly4 ,recovery may take place within a few days1 or after extending over a week or ten days it may assume the chronic form4 ,very often in outbreaks of subacute cholera a large majority of the herd does not show visible symptoms of the disease4 ,in the chronic form1 marked symptoms of pleuropneumonia and chronic inflammation of the intestine are common4 ,ulcers and sores form on the skin and the hair may come off4 ,large portions of the skin may become gangrenous and slough4 ,young hogs are usually stunted and emaciated4 ,the first symptom of disease is an elevation of body temperature4 ,at the beginning of any outbreak of hog-cholera the body temperatures of the apparently healthy animals may vary from #ajebfj to #ajhbfj ,f4 ,after a few days1 animals that are fatally sick or recovering from the disease may show normal or subnormal body temperature4 ,loss of appetite is the first symptom of disease usually noted by the person in charge of the herd4 ,the hog may show a disposition to eat dirt4 ,the sick hog is usually found lying in its bed1 or off by itself in a quiet place4 ,it presents a rather characteristic appearance4 ,the back is arched1 the hind feet are held close together1 or crossed1 the abdomen is tucked up and the hog appears weak in its hind parts4 ,diarrhoea or constipation may be present4 ,the color of the diarrhoeal discharges varies according to the character of the feed1 and it may be more or less tinged with blood and have a disagreeable odor4 ,the urine is highly colored4 ,the respirations and pulse beats are quickened and abnormal in character4 ,thumps sometimes occur4 ,when the mucous membranes lining the throat and anterior air passages are thickened1 the respirations are noisy and difficult4 ,the animal may cough on getting up from its bed and moving about4 ,there is at times a noticeable discharge from the nostrils4 ,when the lungs are inflamed the respirations are quickened and labored4 ,in case the pleural membrane is inflamed1 the respiratory symptoms are more severe1 and the hog shows evidence of pain when the walls of the chest are pressed on4 ,the pericardium may be inflamed4 ,in such cases the hog staggers and falls when forced to walk4 ,the central nervous system may be involved by the inflammation4 ,the usual symptoms occurring in inflammation of the brain and its coverings are then present4 ,a sleepy1 comatose condition may end in death1 or the animal dies in a convulsion4 ,the secretions of the skin and mucous membranes are abnormal4 ,the skin in the regions of the ears1 inside of the thighs and under surface of the body is moist1 dirty or discolored red4 ,just before death the skin over the under surface of the body becomes a purplish red4 ,in the chronic form1 a dirty1 thickened1 wrinkled skin is commonly observed4 ,at first the secretion from the eyes is thin and watery1 but it becomes thick1 heavy and pus-like1 causing the margins of the lids to adhere to each other4 ,the death rate in hog-cholera varies in the different forms of the disease4 ,the average death rate is about fifty per cent4 ,,differential ,,diagnosis4--,the diagnosis of hog-cholera in the field must depend on the clinical symptoms1 post-mortem lesions and history of the outbreak4 ,the history should be that of a highly infectious disease4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4--;,carcass of a cholera hog showing different groups of lymphatic glands2 kidneys2 and ulcer on caecum4 ,abnormal body temperatures of a large percentage of the herd indicate the presence of an acute infectious disease4 ,we should then destroy one of the sick hogs and make a careful post-mortem examination 7,fig4 #hj74 ,an early diagnosis of the disease is necessary1 as this enables us to use curative treatment when it will do some good1 and take the necessary steps toward preventing the spread of the disease to neighboring herds4 ,intestinal and lung worms are common in young hogs4 ,the presence of these worms does not always indicate that they are the cause of the sickness and death of the animal4 ,such parasites are injurious and may cause disease1 but it is only in rare cases that they cause death4 ,pig typhoid is sometimes spoken of as a highly infectious disease involving the intestines4 ,a disease of hogs that may be termed typhus-fever sometimes affects a large number of the hogs in the herd4 ,this disease occurs among hogs kept in small yards and houses that are crowded1 unsanitary and in continuous use1 or when the hogs drink from wallows1 ponds and creeks4 ,the term swine-plague should not be used in speaking of outbreaks of hog-cholera1 as it is now considered a form of hog-cholera involving especially the lungs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4--,kidneys from hog that died of acute hog-cholera4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4--,lungs from hog that died of acute hog-cholera4 ,,lesions4--,in acute hog-cholera the inflammation is hemorrhagic in character4 ,small1 red spots and blotches occur in different organs and tissues4 ,in the chronic form of the disease ulceration of the intestinal and gastric mucous membrane1 inflammation of the lungs and pleura and sloughing of the skin are common lesions4 ,the skin over the under side of the neck1 body and inside of the thighs may appear red or purplish-red in color4 ,the different groups of lymphatic glands are enlarged and softened4 ,they may vary in color from a grayish-red to a deep red1 depending on the degree of engorgement with blood4 ,the pleura and pericardium may show small red spots and blotches4 ,the kidneys are usually lighter colored than normal1 and marked with red spots and blotches 7,fig4 #ha74 ,the spleen may show no evidence of disease4 ,it may be large and soft1 or even smaller than normal4 ,the liver may be enlarged and dark1 or mottled and light colored4 ,the stomach and intestines may show hemorrhagic spots and blotches4 ,sometimes the gastric and intestinal mucous membrane is a brick red4 ,ulceration of the mucous membrane is common 7,fig4 #hc74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4--;,a piece of intestine from a hog that died of chronic hog-cholera1 showing appearance of intestinal ulcers4 ,small1 red spots may be present on the surface of the lungs 7,fig4 #hb74 ,scattered lung lobules or a large portion of the lungs may be inflamed4 ,in chronic hog-cholera1 pleural exudation1 adhesions and abscesses in the lung tissue may occur4 ,inflammations of the pericardium and heart muscle are less common lesions4 ,,preventive ,,measures4--,hog-cholera is the most widespread infectious disease of hogs1 and all possible precautions against its distribution to healthy herds should be practised4 ,hogs coming from other herds and stock shows should be excluded from the home herd until they are positively shown to be free from disease4 ,they should be quarantined in yards set off for this purpose4 ,the hogs should be cleaned by dipping or washing them with a disinfectant4 ,the quarantine period should be longer than the average period of incubation4 ,three weeks is sufficient4 ,the possible introduction of the disease into the pens by people1 dogs1 birds and other carriers of the disease should be guarded against1 especially if cholera is present in the neighborhood4 ,the exchange of help at threshing and shredding time with a neighbor who has hog-cholera on his farm is a common method of distributing the infection4 ,it is not advisable to allow a stranger to enter your hog-houses and yards1 unless his shoes are first disinfected4 ,whenever it is necessary for a person to enter yards where the disease is present1 the shoes should be cleaned and disinfected on leaving4 ,the wheels of wagons1 and the feet of horses that are driven through cholera yards1 should be washed with a disinfectant4 ,the feet of feeding cattle that are shipped from stock-yards should be treated in the same manner4 ,persons taking care of cholera hogs should observe the necessary precautions against the distribution of the disease1 and see that others practise like precautions4 ,hog-yards should be well drained and all wallow holes filled4 ,pens and pastures through which the drainage from the swine enclosures higher up flows should not be used for hogs4 ,,care ,,of ,a ,,diseased ,,herd4--,when an outbreak of hog-cholera occurs on a farm the farm should be quarantined4 ,the herd should be moved away from running streams1 public roads and line fences1 so that neighboring herds are not unnecessarily exposed to the disease4 ,during the hot weather shade and an opportunity to range over a grass lot or pasture are highly necessary4 ,a recently mowed meadow1 or a blue grass pasture and a low shed1 open on all sides and amply large for the herd to lie under1 give the animals clean range and comfortable1 cool quarters4 ,roomy1 dry1 well-ventilated sleeping-quarters that are free from drafts and can be cleaned and disinfected are best when the weather is cold and wet4 ,in the subacute1 and in the early part of an acute outbreak of hog-cholera1 it is advisable to separate the sick from the well hogs4 ,the fatally sick animals should be destroyed4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4--;,cleaning up a hog lot4 ,a very light ration should be fed and an intestinal antiseptic given with the feed4 ,a thin slop of shorts is usually preferred4 ,four ounces of pulverized copper sulfate may be dissolved in one gallon of hot water1 and one quart of this solution may be added to every ten gallons of drinking water and slop4 ,water and slop should not be left in the troughs for the hogs to wallow in4 ,the troughs should be disinfected and turned bottom side up as soon as the hogs have finished feeding and drinking4 ,kitchen slop and sour milk should not be fed4 ,the care and treatment of the herd require work and close attention on the part of the attendant4 ,indifferent1 careless treatment is of no use in this disease4 ,a disinfectant should be sprayed or sprinkled about the feed troughs1 floors1 pens and sleeping quarters daily4 ,,disposing ,,of ,,dead ,,hogs4--,the carcasses of the dead hogs should be burned4 ,before placing the carcass on the fire1 it should be cut open and several long incisions made through the skin4 ,a crematory may be made by digging two cross trenches that are about one foot deep at the point where they cross1 and shallow at the ends4 ,iron bars or pipe may be laid over the trenches where they cross for the carcass to rest upon1 or woven wire fencing securely fastened with stakes may be used in the place of the iron bars4 ,if the carcass is disposed of by burying1 it should be buried at least four feet deep and covered with quicklime4 ,,disinfecting ,,the ,,yards ,,and ,,houses4--,if the sick hogs are moved to new quarters at the beginning of the outbreak1 the hog houses and yards should be cleaned and disinfected 7,fig4 #hd74 ,the manure and all other litter should be hauled away to a field where there is no danger from this infectious material becoming scattered about the premises1 leaving a centre of infection in the neighborhood and causing outbreaks of cholera among neighboring herds4 ,it may be advisable to burn the corn-cobs and other litter that have accumulated about the yards4 ,loose board floors should be torn up and the manure from beneath removed4 ,portable houses should be removed4 ,the floors1 walls of the house and fences should be first cleaned by scraping off the filth1 and then sprayed with a three per cent water solution of a cresol or coal tar disinfectant to which sufficient lime has been added to make a thin whitewash4 ,three or four months of warm1 sunny weather are sufficient to destroy the cholera infection in well-cleaned yards4 ,,anti-,,hog-,,cholera ,,serum4--,the credit of developing the first and at present the only reliable anti-hog-cholera serum and method of vaccination belongs to ,drs4 ,dorset and ,niles4 ,anti-hog-cholera serum came into general use in #aijh1 and all of the swine-producing ,states have established ,state laboratories for the production of this serum4 ,anti-hog-cholera serum is produced by injecting directly1 or indirectly1 into the blood-vessels of an immune hog a large quantity of cholera virus1 secured by bleeding a hog that is fatally sick with acute cholera1 and bleeding the injected animal after it has completely recovered from the injection4 ,the injection of the cholera blood is for the purpose of stimulating the production of antibodies by the body tissues1 and raising the protective properties of the immune hog's blood4 ,an animal so treated is called a hyperimmune 7,fig4 #he74 ,the blood from the hyperimmunes is defibrinated and a preservative added1 and after it has been tested for potency and freedom from contaminating organisms1 it is ready for use4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4--;,hyperimmune hogs used for the production of anti-hog-cholera serum4 ,,the ,,vaccination ,,of ,,hogs ,,with ,,anti-,,hog-,,cholera ,,serum4--,the vaccination of a hog by the single method consists in injecting hypodermically or intramuscularly anti-hog-cholera serum4 ,the immunity conferred may not last longer than three or four weeks4 ,the vaccination of a hog by the double method consists in injecting hypodermically or intramuscularly anti-hog-cholera serum and hog-cholera blood4 ,the vaccination or treatment of a cholera hog showing noticeable symptoms1 or a high body temperature1 consists in injecting hypodermically or intramuscularly anti-hog-cholera serum 7,fig4 #hg74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4--,preparing the hog for vaccination by washing the part where the serum is injected with a disinfectant4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4--,vaccinating a hog4 ,the region into which the serum and cholera blood may be injected are the inside of the thigh1 within the arm1 flank and side of the neck 7,fig4 #hf74 ,two hypodermic syringes1 holding about twenty cubic centimetres and six cubic centimetres1 and having short1 heavy1 seventeen or eighteen-gauge slip-on needles1 should be used4 ,the small syringe is used for injecting the virulent or cholera blood which is injected into a different part than the serum4 ,the quantity of serum and virus injected varies with the size and condition of the animal4 ,young hogs should receive one-half cubic centimetre of serum for each pound of body weight1 and cholera hogs should be given one-half more to twice the dose that is recommended for healthy animals4 ,the dose of virus recommended varies from one to two cubic centimetres for each hog4 ,in vaccinating small pigs not more than five1 and in large hogs not more than twenty1 cubic centimetres should be injected at any one point4 ,the body temperature of each animal should be taken4 ,a body temperature of #ajc4ebfj ,f4 in a mature hog and a body temperature of #ajdbfj ,f4 in a young hog may indicate hog-cholera4 ,exercise1 feeding and close confinement in a warm place may raise the body temperature above the normal4 ,hogs that are to be vaccinated or treated should not be given feed for at least twelve hours before handling them4 ,if possible they should be confined in a roomy1 clean1 well-bedded pen4 ,if this is practised1 they are cleaner and easier to handle and their body temperatures are less apt to vary4 ,after the treatment or vaccination the hogs should be fed a light diet for a period of at least ten days1 and the ration increased gradually in order to avoid causing acute indigestion4 ,this is necessary because of the elevation in body temperature resulting from the inability of the animal to digest heavy feeds1 kitchen slops and sour milk4 ,if poor judgment is used in caring for the vaccinated hogs1 and the person who vaccinates them uses careless methods1 heavy losses from acute indigestion1 blood poisoning1 or hog-cholera may occur4 ,,questions #a4 ,what is the specific cause of hog-cholera8 ,give and describe the different methods of spreading the disease4 #b4 ,what are the symptoms of hog-cholera8 #c4 ,give the preventive and curative treatment of hog-cholera4 #d4 ,what is anti-hog-cholera serum8 ,give the different methods of vaccination and treatment4 ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,tuberculosis ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4--,koch's ,bacillus tuberculosis4 ,tuberculosis is a contagious an and domestic animals1 affecting any the lymphatic glands and lungs1 change in the tissues is the formation tubercle or nodule4 ,,history4--,tuberculosis is one of the oldest of known diseases of domestic animals and man4 ,its contagious character was proven by ,villemin in #ahfe1 who by experential infection transmitted tuberculosis from man to animals and from animal to animal4 ,it was in #ahhb that ,dr4 ,robert ,koch discovered and proved by inoculation experiments that the disease was caused by a specific germ 7,fig4 #hh74 ,prior to the experiments by ,villemin and ,koch1 the belief was that tuberculosis was due to heredity1 unsanitary conditions and inbreeding4 ,following discovery of the specific germ and conditions favoring its development and spread1 numerous scientifically conducted experiments were made4 ,these resulted in practical methods of control and elimination of tuberculosis from herds having this disease4 ,by carefully conducted experiments and other forms of educational work the infectious character of tuberculosis and the economic importance of preventative measures have been demonstrated4 ,the average stockman is well informed regarding the character and economic importance of this disease1 but there is no general application of this knowledge1 and tuberculosis is increasing in dairy and breeding herds4 ,the slow development of tuberculosis1 and the absence of visible symptoms during the early stage of the disease1 are responsible for this condition and the extensive infection of dairy and breeding herds4 ,,prevalence ,,of ,,the ,,disease4--,tuberculosis is very prevalent among cattle and swine in all countries where intensive agriculture is practised4 ,it is a rare disease among cattle of the steppes of eastern ,europe and the cattle ranges of the western portion of the ,united ,states4 ,in countries where dairying is an important industry1 tuberculosis is a common disease of cattle and hogs4 ,the abattoir reports of ,europe and the ,united ,states show that tuberculosis is on the increase among domestic animals4 ,the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture reports that out of #djj1jjh cattle tested with tuberculin #i4be per cent reacted4 ,melvin states that the annual loss from tuberculosis in the ,united ,states is about #bc1jjj1jjj4 ,in dairy herds in which the disease has existed for several years1 it is not uncommon to find from #be to #ge per cent tubercular4 ,,the ,,direct ,,cause4--,the direct cause of tuberculosis is ,koch's ,bacillus tuberculosis4 ,this is a slender1 rod-shaped microorganisms 7,fig4 #hh7 occurring in the diseased tissues1 feces and milk of a tubercular animal4 ,it belongs to that small group known as acid-fast bacteria4 ,the tubercle bacillus is not really destroyed by external influences1 and it may retain its virulence for several months in dried sputum if protected from the light4 ,its vitality enables it to resist high temperatures1 changes in temperature1 drying and putrefaction to a1 greater degree than most non-spore-producing germs4 ,direct sunlight destroys the germ within a few hours1 but it may live in poorly lighted1 filthy stables for months4 ,a temperature of #febfj ,c4 destroys it in a few minutes4 ,animals that1 have advanced or open tuberculosis may disseminate the germ of the disease in the discharge from the mouth1 nostrils1 genital organs1 in the intestinal excreta and milk4 ,the germs discharged from the mouth and nostrils are coughed up from the lungs and may infect the feed4 ,milk is a common source of infection for calves and hogs4 ,allowing hogs to run after cattle is sure to result in infection of a large percentage of them1 if there are any open cases of tuberculosis in the herd4 ,,predisposing ,,causes4--,any condition that may lessen the resistance of the body or enable the tubercle bacillus to survive the exposure outside the body favors the development of the disease and the infection of the healthy animals4 ,crowded1 poorly ventilated1 filthy stables lower the disease-resisting power of the animal1 and favor the entrance of the germs into the body4 ,under such unsanitary conditions1 tuberculosis spreads quickly among dairy cattle1 and a large percentage of the animals develop the generalized form of the disease4 ,sanitary stables and yards do not prevent the spread of the disease among animals that live in close contact with one another4 ,fresh air and sanitary surroundings only check the spread and retard its progress4 ,,introduction ,,of ,,tuberculosis ,,into ,,the ,,herd4--,the common method of introducing tuberculosis into the herd is through the purchase of animals having the disease4 ,such animals may be in apparent good health at the time of purchase1 and be affected with generalized or open tuberculosis4 ,a source of infection is by unknowingly buying cows that have reacted to the tuberculin test4 ,the indiscriminate use and sale of tuberculin are largely responsible for the large number of reacting animals that have been placed on the open market4 ,this dishonest practice has resulted in the rapid spread of the disease in certain localities4 ,for years a large percentage of the breeding herds have been infected1 and the writer has met with several herds of dairy and beef cattle that became tubercular through the purchase of tubercular breeding animals4 ,,symptoms4--,there is no one symptom by which we may recognize tuberculosis in cattle and hogs4 ,none of the symptoms shown by a tubercular animal are characteristic1 unless it is in the late stage of the disease4 ,in a well-cared-for animal1 the lymphatic glands in the different regions of the body1 the lungs1 liver and other organs1 may be full of tubercles without causing noticeable symptoms of disease 7,fig4 #hi74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4--;,a tubercular cow4 ,this cow was1 to all appearances1 in good health1 but showed generalized tuberculosis on post-mortem examination4 ,tuberculosis may attack any organ of the body1 and in the different cases of the disease the symptoms may vary4 ,enlargement of the glands in the region of the throat1 and noisy1 difficult breathing are sometimes present4 ,the udder frequently shows hard lumps scattered through the gland4 ,bloating may occur if a diseased gland in the chest cavity presses on the oesophagus and prevents the usual passage of gas from the paunch4 ,chronic diarrhoea may occur4 ,if the disease involves the digestive tract1 the animal is unthrifty and loses flesh rapidly4 ,coughing is not a characteristic symptom1 and we should not place too much emphasis on it4 ,if the lungs become tubercular the animal usually has a slight1 harsh cough4 ,the cough is first noticed when the cattle get up after lying down1 when the stable is first opened in the morning and when the animals are driven4 ,if the chest walls are thin1 soreness from pressure on the ribs may be noted4 ,by applying the ear to the chest wall and listening to the lung sounds1 absence of respiratory murmurs and abnormal sounds may be distinguished1 due to consolidation of the lung tissue1 abscess cavities and pleural adhesions4 ,in a well-advanced case the hair is rough1 the skin becomes tight and the neck thin and lean4 ,the animal may breathe through the mouth when it is exercised4 ,weakness may be a prominent symptom4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4--,tubercular spleens4 ,breeding animals that are well fed and cared for may live for several years before showing noticeable symptoms of tuberculosis4 ,the disease progresses more rapidly in milch cows1 especially if given poor care4 ,calves allowed to nurse a tubercular mother that is giving off tubercle bacilli frequently develop enlarged throat glands and the intestinal form of the disease4 ,hogs develop a generalized form of tuberculosis more quickly than cattle1 but an unthrifty1 emaciated condition is seldom noted in hogs under ten months old4 ,,post-,,mortem ,,lesions4--,the effect of the tubercle bacillus on the body is to irritate and destroy the tissues4 ,lumps or tubercles form in the lymphatic glands1 liver1 lungs1 spleen 7,fig4 #ij71 serous membranes1 kidneys and other body organs 7,figs4 #ia and #ib74 ,the tubercles may be very small at first1 but as the disease progresses they continue to enlarge until finally a tubercular mass the size of a base-ball1 or larger1 is formed 7,figs4 #ic1 #id1 #ie and #if74 ,lymphatic glands may become several times larger than normal and the liver and lungs greatly enlarged4 ,the pleura and peritoneum may be thickened and covered with tubercles about the size of a millet seed1 or larger4 ,pleural and peritoneal adhesions to the organs within the body cavities are common4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4--,the carcass of a tubercular cow4 ,note the condition of the carcass1 and the tubercular nodules on the chest wall1 showing that the disease was well advanced4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4--;,a section of the chest wall of a tubercular cow showing a better view of the diseased tissue4 ,the tubercle usually undergoes a cheesy degeneration4 ,old tubercles may become hard and calcareous4 ,sometimes the capsule of the tubercle is filled with pus4 ,a yellowish1 cheesy material within the capsule of the tubercular nodule or mass is typical of the disease4 ,,the ,,tuberculin ,,test4--,the only certain method of recognizing tuberculosis is by this test4 ,there is no other method of recognizing this disease that is more accurate than the above test4 ,the substance used in testing animals for tuberculosis is a laboratory product4 ,it is a germ-free fluid prepared by growing the tubercle bacillus in culture medium 7bouillon7 until charged with the toxic products of their growth4 ,the culture medium is then heated to a boiling temperature in order to destroy the germs4 ,it is then passed through a porcelain filter that removes the dead germs4 ,the remaining fluid is tuberculin4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4--;,a very large tubercular gland that had broken down in the central portion4 ,there are two methods of applying the tuberculin test4 ,the subcutaneous test consists in injecting a certain quantity of tuberculin beneath the skin1 and keeping a record of the body temperature of the animal between the eighth and eighteenth hours following the injection4 ,tubercular animals show an elevation in temperature that comes on about the eighth or twelfth hour of the test4 ,in the intradermal test1 a small quantity of a special tuberculin is injected into the deeper layer of the skin4 ,the seat of the injection in cattle is a fold of the skin on the under side of the base of the tail4 ,in tubercular animals the injection is followed by a characteristic local swelling4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4--;,a tubercular gland that is split open4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie4--;,caul showing tuberculosis4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if4--;,foot of hog showing tuberculosis of joint4 ,the control of tuberculosis is largely in the hands of the breeder and dairyman4 ,this is a disease that requires the cooperation of stockmen and sanitary officers in the application of control measures4 ,if there are several open cases of tuberculosis in a herd of cattle1 the application of the tuberculin test1 removal of the reacting animals and disinfection of the premises are not sufficient to eradicate the disease4 ,it is necessary to repeat the tuberculin test within six months1 and later at twelve-months intervals1 until none of the animals that remain in the herd react4 ,the most practical method of disposing of dairy cows that react to the tuberculin test is to slaughter them4 ,unless a large percentage of the herd is tubercular1 it is not advisable to practise segregation and quarantine4 ,this may be advisable if the reactor is a valuable breeding animal1 unless visible symptoms are shown4 ,the milk from reacting cows may be used if it is boiled or sterilized4 ,whenever a calf is born of a reactor1 it should be separated from the mother and fed milk from a healthy cow4 ,the separation of the tubercular from the healthy cows must be complete4 ,separate buildings1 yards and pastures that do not join the quarters where the healthy animals are kept should be provided4 ,the person attending the reactors should not attend the healthy animals1 and separate forks1 shovels1 pails and other utensils should be provided for the two herds4 ,the best method of controlling tuberculosis in hogs is to slaughter all reactors1 disinfect yards and houses and move the herd4 ,if the old quarters are free from filth and carefully disinfected1 the hogs may be returned without danger of infection after six months4 ,a retest of the herd should be made before returning them to the permanent quarters and the reactors slaughtered4 ,,questions #a4 ,give the history of the early experimental work in tuberculosis2 give the common methods of spreading the disease4 #b4 ,what are the symptoms and post-mortem lesions in tuberculosis8 #c4 ,give the method of controlling tuberculosis4 ,,chapter ,,xxviii ,,infectious ,,diseases ,,common ,,to ,,the ,,different ,,species ,,of ,,domestic ,,animals ,,septicaemia ,,and ,,pyaemia4--,the term commonly used in speaking of simple septicaemia and pyaemia is blood poisoning4 ,these infectious diseases are caused by several different species of bacteria that gain entrance to the tissues by way of wounds4 ,the bacteria that cause pyaemia are transferred by the blood stream to different organs and produce multiple abscesses4 ,in septicaemia1 the bacteria may occur in immense numbers in the blood and produce a general infection of the tissues1 causing a parboiled appearance of the liver1 heart1 voluntary muscles and kidneys1 and enlargement of the spleen4 ,the two forms of infection are often present at the same time4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4--,staphylococcus pyogenes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4--,streptococcus pyogenes4 ,the forms of bacteria that may cause blood poisoning are the ,staphylococcus pyogenes aureus and albus 7,fig4 #ig71 ,streptococcus pyogenes 7,fig4 #ih71 ,bacillus pyocyaneus1 ,bacillus coli communis1 and the bacillus of malignant oedema 7,figs4 #ii and #ajj74 ,the latter is included with the bacteria that produce blood poisoning because it is a frequent cause of wound septicaemia4 ,subcutaneous1 punctured1 lacerated1 contused and deep wounds without suitable drainage are the most suitable for the development of and infection of the tissues with the above germs4 ,wound infection is most common during hot weather4 ,the symptoms are both general and local4 ,the tissues in the region of the wound become swollen and painful4 ,in malignant oedema the swelling pits on pressure1 and if the wound is open1 the surface becomes soft and may slough4 ,the body temperature may be several degrees above the normal1 the appetite is impaired or the animal stops eating and acts sleepy4 ,a small amount of highly-colored urine may be passed4 ,nervous symptoms1 such as muscular twitching1 excited condition1 delirium and paralysis1 may be noted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4--;,bacillus of malignant oedema1 showing spores4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4--;,bacillus of malignant oedema4 ,the prognosis is unfavorable4 ,in pyaemia the animal may live from a few days to several months4 ,septicaemia usually terminates fatally in from two to ten days4 ,the treatment is largely preventive4 ,wounds should be given prompt attention4 ,they should be freed from all foreign substances and washed with a disinfecting solution4 ,a contused-lacerated wound should not be sutured if this interferes with the cleansing of it1 and the escape of the wound secretions4 ,all punctured wounds should be enlarged so as to permit of treatment and drainage4 ,,hemorrhagic ,,septicaemia4--,an acute infectious disease of ruminants and swine1 characterized by hemorrhages in the different body tissues that appear as small red spots or blotches4 ,the specific cause of this disease is the ,bacillus bovisepticus 7,fig4 #aja74 ,this bacillus probably enters the body tissues by way of the lining membrane of the intestinal and respiratory tracts4 ,in the northern ,states1 cattle pasturing on marsh lands and swampy pastures are more often affected with the disease in the late summer and fall than at other seasons of the year4 ,the drinking of contaminated surface water that collects in muddy pools and ponds may cause the disease4 ,cattle pasturing in stalk fields sometimes become infected in this way4 ,dusty sleeping quarters and small1 crowded1 muddy yards seem to favor the development of the disease in hogs4 ,exposure1 insufficient exercise and careless feeding are the predisposing factors4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aja4--;,bacillus bovisepticus4 ,the symptoms vary according to the animal and organ1 or organs of the body affected and the violence of the attack4 ,the disease may be acute or subacute4 ,the brain and its membranes1 lungs and air-passages and intestines may become affected4 ,the symptoms may be classed under the head of nervous1 respiratory and intestinal 7,fig4 #ajb71 and they may be very unsatisfactory from the standpoint of diagnosis4 ,the history and post-mortem lesions are of most value in the recognition of this disease4 ,the local conditions1 the loss of several animals in the herd and the finding of hemorrhagic lesions in the different body tissues may enable the examiner to correctly diagnose the disease4 ,it is very advisable in order to confirm the diagnosis to make a bacteriological examination of the tissues4 ,the acute form of the disease is very fatal4 ,animals that have the subacute form usually recover4 ,the death-rate is between five and fifteen per cent of the herd4 ,the mortality is heavier than this unless prompt preventive measures are taken4 ,preventive treatment is of the greatest importance4 ,cattle that become affected when running on pasture should be moved1 or in case a part of the pasture is swampy1 we may prevent further loss by fencing off this portion4 ,drinking places that are convenient and free from filth should be provided4 ,watering troughs and drinking fountains should be cleaned and disinfected every few weeks4 ,for this purpose1 use a three per cent water solution of a cresol disinfectant1 or a ten per cent water solution of sulfate of iron4 ,dusty quarters should be cleaned and disinfected4 ,dirt floors may be sprinkled with crude oil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4--;,a yearling steer affected with septicaemia haemorrhagica1 intestinal form4 ,when an outbreak of septicaemia haemorrhagica occurs in a herd1 both the well and sick animals should be given a physic4 ,cattle may be given one-half pound of ,epsom salts1 repeated in three or four days2 sheep and hogs from one to four ounces of raw linseed oil4 ,animals that have the subacute form of the disease may be given stimulants1 and iron and bitter tonics4 ,,anthrax1 ,,charbon4--,this is an acute infectious disease affecting many different species of animals4 ,anthrax is one of the oldest animal diseases1 and early in the history of the race it existed as a plague in ,egypt4 ,it most commonly affects cattle1 sheep and horses4 ,man contracts the disease by handling wool and hides from animals that have died of anthrax1 and by accidental inoculation in examining the carcass of animals that have died of the disease4 ,cause4--,anthrax is caused by a rod-shaped1 spore-producing microorganism1 ,bacillus anthracis 7,fig4 #ajc74 ,it gains entrance to the body by way of the intestinal tract1 lungs and air-passages and the skin4 ,the bites of insects play an important part in the distribution of the disease in some localities1 but the most common method of infection is by way of the digestive tract1 through eating and drinking food and water contaminated with the anthrax germs4 ,the spores of the ,b4 anthracis are very resistant to changes in temperature and drying4 ,they may live for years in rich1 moist inundated soils4 ,river-bottom and swampy lands that have become infected with discharges from the bodies of animals sick with anthrax1 and by burying the carcasses of animals that have died of this disease1 retain the infection for many years4 ,anthrax is very widely distributed4 ,it is the most prevalent in the southern portion of the ,united ,states1 especially the lower portion of the ,mississippi ,valley4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4--;,bacillus anthracis4 ,the symptoms vary in different cases1 depending on the organs affected1 and the virulence and amount of virus introduced4 ,the apoplectic form is very acute4 ,the disease sets in suddenly2 the animal trembles1 staggers1 falls and dies in a convulsion4 ,blood may be discharged from the nose and with the urine and faeces4 ,in the abdominal form1 abdominal pain1 diarrhoea1 prolapse of the rectum1 bloating and doughy swellings in the region of the abdomen occur4 ,in the thoracic form1 the symptoms are bloody discharge from the nostrils1 salivation1 rapid1 difficult breathing and swelling in the region of the throat4 ,local or skin lesions may occur in conjunction with1 or independent of1 the above forms of disease4 ,these are carbuncles one or two inches in diameter that are hot and tender at first1 but later become gangrenous1 diffused swellings4 ,on post-mortem examination the blood is found tarry and dark1 and bloody exudates may be found in the abdominal and thoracic cavities4 ,the spleen is soft and two or three times larger than normal4 ,the diagnosis should be confirmed by finding the ,b4 anthracis in the blood and tissues4 ,the death-rate is very high1 usually about seventy-five per cent4 ,the treatment is preventive4 ,animals should be kept away from lots and pastures where deaths from anthrax have been known to occur1 unless immunized against the disease4 ,marshy1 swampy land that is infected with the germs of anthrax should be drained and cultivated4 ,when an outbreak of the disease occurs1 all of the animals should be vaccinated4 ,the carcasses of the animals that die should be cremated at or near the place where they die4 ,if hauled or dragged1 the necessary precautions should be taken against scattering the infectious material from the carcass1 and plenty of disinfectants used4 ,persons attending the animals should be warned against opening or handling the carcass without protecting the hands with rubber gloves4 ,anthrax vaccine should not be used by incompetent persons4 ,,ulcerative ,,stomatitis4 7,,ulcerative ,,sore ,,mouth47--,this is an infectious disease of young animals4 ,pigs from a few days to a few weeks of age are the most commonly affected4 ,the specific cause of ulcerative sore mouths is the ,bacillus necrophorus 7,fig4 #ajd74 ,the infectious agent is distributed by the udder of the mother becoming soiled with filth from the stable floor and yards1 and by affected pigs nursing mothers of healthy litters4 ,filth1 sharp teeth and irritation to the gums from the eruption of the teeth are important predisposing factors4 ,the symptoms are1 at first1 an inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the lips and cheeks and covering the gums4 ,the inflamed parts are first swollen and a deep red color2 later1 white patches form and the part sloughs1 leaving a deep ulcer4 ,as ulceration progresses1 difficulty in nursing increases until finally the young animal is unable to suckle4 ,if ulceration of the mouth is extensive1 the animal may be feverish1 dull and lose flesh rapidly4 ,portions of the lips1 gums and snout may slough off4 ,the death-rate in pigs is very high4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4--;,bacillus necrophorus4 ,the preventive treatment consists in keeping the quarters and yards in a sanitary condition1 and using all possible precautions against the introduction of the disease into the herd4 ,the diseased young and mother should be separated from the herd and the quarters disinfected daily4 ,the mouths of all the young should be examined daily and the diseased animals treated4 ,the ulcers should be scraped or curetted and cauterized with lunar caustic1 and the mouth washed daily with a two per cent water solution of a cresol disinfectant4 ,dipping pigs headforemost into a water solution of permanganate of potassium 7one-half teaspoonful dissolved in a gallon of water71 twice daily1 may be practised if the herd is large4 ,it is usually most economical to kill the badly diseased animals1 as they usually die or become badly stunted4 ,,rabies1 ,,hydrophobia4--,rabies is an infectious disease affecting the nervous system1 that is transmitted by the bite of a rabid animal and the inoculation of the wound with the virus present in the saliva4 ,it is commonly considered a disease of dogs1 but because of the disposition of rabid dogs to bite other animals1 rabies is common in domestic animals and man4 ,rabies is widely distributed1 being most prevalent in the temperate zone1 and where the population is most dense4 ,it has been excluded from ,australia1 ,tasmania and ,new ,zealand by a rigid inspection and quarantine of all imported dogs4 ,the specific cause of rabies is probably a protozoan parasite 7the ,negri bodies present in nerve-cells1 ,fig4 #aje74 ,the germ spreads from the wounds through the nerves and central nervous system4 ,the disease-producing organisms are present in great numbers in the nerve-tissue and saliva4 ,the period of incubation varies from a few days to several months4 ,it is usually from ten to seventy days4 ,the symptoms differ in the different species4 ,there are two forms of the disease3 the furious and the dumb4 ,the former is more common4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aje4--,negri bodies in nerve-tissue4 ,in the dog1 the symptoms may be divided into three stages4 ,the first1 or melancholy stage1 usually lasts from twelve to forty-eight hours4 ,the animal's behavior is altered and it becomes sullen1 irritable and nervous4 ,sometimes it is friendly and inclined to lick the hand of its master4 ,an inclination to gnaw or swallow indigestible objects is sometimes noted4 ,frequently a certain part of the skin is rubbed or licked4 ,the second1 or furious stage1 may last several days4 ,violent nervous or rabid symptoms are manifested1 and the dog may leave home and travel long distances4 ,the animal usually shows a strong inclination to bite4 ,it may move about snapping at imaginary objects in its delirium1 and may bite any person or animal with which it comes in contact4 ,the bark is peculiar1 the appetite is lost and the animal becomes weak and emaciated4 ,in the third1 or paralytic stage1 the dog may present an emaciated1 dirty1 ragged appearance4 ,the lower jaw may drop1 the tongue hangs from the lips and the eyes appear sunken and glassy4 ,paralysis of the hind parts may be present4 ,in the dumb form1 the paralytic symptoms predominate and the disease pursues a short course4 ,rabies terminates in death in from four to ten days4 ,furious rabies is more common in the horse4 ,the animal is very nervous1 restless and alert4 ,it may attack other animals in a vicious manner1 kicking and biting them4 ,the animal does not seem to care to eat or drink1 and usually shows violent nervous symptoms1 such as biting the manger1 rearing and kicking when confined in the stable4 ,cattle butt with the horns and show a tendency to lick other animals4 ,they bellow more than common and the sexual desire is increased4 ,paralytic symptoms are manifested early in the disease1 and the animal may fall when moving about4 ,they soon present a gaunt1 emaciated appearance4 ,in dogs the diagnosis is confirmed by a microscopical examination of the vagus ganglia and that portion of the brain known as ,amnion's horn1 and the finding of ,negri bodies in the nerve-cells4 ,in case a person is bitten by a dog1 the animal should be confined until the disease is well advanced and killed or allowed to die4 ,the head should then be removed and forwarded to the ,state laboratory1 or wherever such examinations are made4 ,the treatment is preventive4 ,wherever an outbreak of rabies occurs all dogs should be confined on the owner's premises or muzzled4 ,all dogs running at large without muzzles should be promptly killed4 ,a heavy tax on dogs1 and the killing of all dogs not wearing a license tag1 would prevent the heavy financial loss resulting from rabies1 and the ravages of wandering dogs in the ,united ,states4 ,in countries where the muzzling of dogs is enforced during the entire year1 rabies is a rare disease4 ,,foot-,,and-,,mouth ,,disease4--,this is a highly contagious and infectious disease of cattle1 sheep1 goats and swine4 ,it is characterized by the eruption of vesicles on the mucous membrane lining the mouth1 the lips1 between and above the claws and in the region of the udder and perineum4 ,man may contract the disease by caring for sick animals2 or by drinking raw milk from a sick cow4 ,babies are most susceptible to infection from milk4 ,foot-and-mouth disease was introduced into eastern ,europe from the steppes of ,prussia and ,asia near the end of the eighteenth century4 ,it was introduced into ,england about #ahci1 and in #ahgj into ,canada through the importation of cattle from ,england4 ,from ,canada the disease spread to the ,united ,states4 ,very few animals were infected during the #ahgj outbreak1 and the disease was quickly stamped out in both countries4 ,europe has been unable to eradicate foot-and-mouth disease4 ,the different outbreaks that occur from time to time cause enormous financial loss4 ,in the ,united ,states outbreaks of the disease have occurred in the following years3 #ahgj1 #ahhd1 #aijb-'jc1 #aijh and #aiad-'ae4 ,in the first two outbreaks very few cattle contracted the disease1 and the infection was quickly stamped out4 ,the third and fourth outbreaks were more extensive1 and it was necessary to slaughter several thousand cattle and hogs in order to eradicate the disease4 ,the first four outbreaks occurred in the eastern ,states1 and the disease was prevented from spreading to the principal live-stock centers of the country1 and the leading stock-raising ,states by slaughtering the diseased and exposed animals and by county and ,state quarantines4 ,early in the #aiad-'ae outbreak1 the disease spread to the ,chicago ,stock ,yards1 and from there1 through shipments of cattle1 to the principal live-stock sections of the country4 ,the financial loss resulting from this outbreak has amounted to several million dollars4 ,the ,federal and ,state authorities have always been successful in stamping out the disease in the ,united ,states4 ,the specific cause of foot-and-mouth disease is a filterable virus that is present in the serum from the vesicles1 the saliva1 milk1 and various body secretions and excretions from the sick animal4 ,in the early stage of the disease it is present in the blood4 ,none of the many investigators have been able to discover the microorganism that produces the disease4 ,two of the outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease in the ,united ,states originated from an infected vaccine used for the inoculation of vaccine heifers4 ,the origin of the #aiad-'ae outbreak has not been discovered4 ,when introduced into a country1 the disease spreads rapidly1 through the movement of live-stock affected by the disease4 ,animals recently recovered may infect other animals4 ,dogs1 birds1 people1 vehicles1 milk1 roughage1 grains and other material from an infected farm may spread the disease4 ,the period of incubation is short4 ,symptoms of disease may be manifested in from one to six days following exposure4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4--;,a cow affected with foot-and-mouth disease4 ,note the accumulation of saliva about the lips4 7,from report of the ,bureau of ,animal ,industry47 ,the first symptoms are fever1 dulness1 trembling and loss of appetite4 ,this is followed by vesicles or blisters forming on the mucous membrane of the mouth1 lips1 between and above the claws and the region of the udder4 ,the inflammation of the mouth and feet may be very painful4 ,long strings of saliva may dribble from the mouth and collect about the lips 7,fig4 #ajf74 ,a smacking or clucking sound is produced when the animal moves its jaws and lips4 ,the severe pain resulting from the inflammation of the mouth and feet1 and the difficulty in moving about and eating and drinking1 cause the animal to lose flesh and become emaciated4 ,milk cows may go dry4 ,the death-rate is not heavy4 ,some writers place it as low as two or three per cent4 ,because of the erosions and sloughing of the tissues of the mouth1 feet and udder it becomes necessary to kill many of the animals4 ,young animals frequently die of inflammation of the digestive tract4 ,the immunity conferred by an attack of the disease is not permanent4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4--,slaughtering a herd of cattle affected with foot-and-mouth disease4 7,photographed by ,s4 ,j4 ,craig1 ,county ,agricultural ,agent1 ,crown ,point1 ,indiana47 ,the most economical measures of prevention and control are to buy and slaughter all diseased and exposed animals1 bury the carcasses in quicklime1 disinfect the premises 7,figs4 #ajg1 #ajh and #aji7 and enforce a district1 county and ,state quarantine1 until after the infection has died out4 ,this statement may not hold true of methods of control in countries where foot-and-mouth disease is widely distributed4 ,,tetanus4 ,,lockjaw4--,this is an acute infectious disease that is characterized by spasmodic contractions of voluntary muscles4 ,the specific germ remains at the point of infection1 and produces toxins that cause tetanic contractions of the muscles4 ,it commonly affects horses1 mules1 cattle1 sheep and swine4 ,the disease is most common in warm1 temperate climates4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4--;,disinfecting boots and coats before leaving a farm where cattle have been inspected for foot-and-mouth disease4 7,photographed by ,s4 ,j4 ,craig1 ,county ,agricultural ,agent1 ,crown ,point1 ,indiana47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aji4--;,cleaning up and disinfecting premises where an outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease has occurred4 ,the specific cause is a pin-shaped germ1 the ,bacillus tetani 7,fig4 #aaj71 that is present in the soil1 especially those that are rich and well manured4 ,the germ enters the body by way of a wound1 especially punctured wounds4 ,infection may take place through some wound in the mucous membrane lining the mouth1 or other parts of the digestive tract4 ,infection may follow a surgical operation1 such as castration4 ,in any case1 the germ requires an absence of air 7oxygen7 for its development4 ,the period of incubation varies from one to two weeks1 the length of time depending on the nearness of the wound to a large nerve trunk or brain4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4--;,bacillus tetani4 ,the first symptom observed is a stiffness of the muscles1 especially those nearest the point of inoculation or wound4 ,the muscles of the head1 neck1 back and loins are often affected first1 and when pressed upon with the fingers feel hard and rigid4 ,the disease rapidly extends1 producing spasms of other muscles of the body4 ,in breathing1 the ribs show less movement than normal1 the head is held in one position and higher than usual1 the ears are stiff or pricked1 the nostrils dilated1 the lips rigid or drawn back and the eyes retracted1 causing the third eyelid to protrude over a portion of the eye 7,fig4 #aaa74 ,in most cases the muscles of mastication and swallowing are affected4 ,the animal may be unable to open its mouth and swallows with difficulty4 ,when standing1 the limbs are spread out so as to increase the base of support1 and in acute cases about to terminate fatally1 the pulse is quick and small and the respiration shallow1 rapid and labored4 ,the animal sweats profusely1 falls down and struggles violently1 but remains conscious to the end4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4--;,head of horse affected with tetanus1 showing third eyelid protruding over the eye4 ,in the subacute form 7,fig4 #aab7 the symptoms are mild1 and the animal may be able to move about1 eat and drink without very great effort4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aab4--;,a subacute case of tetanus4 ,treatment is largely preventive4 ,all wounds should be carefully disinfected4 ,this is especially advisable in punctured wounds of the foot4 ,in communities1 or on premises where tetanus is a common disease1 animals that have punctured or open wounds should be given a protective dose of tetanus antitoxin4 ,the curative treatment is largely good care4 ,if a wound is present1 it should be thoroughly disinfected4 ,the animal may be supported by placing it in a sling4 ,a comfortable box-stall1 where the animal is not annoyed by noises or worried by other animals1 is to be preferred4 ,a fresh pail of water should be given the animal several times daily4 ,the course of the disease varies4 ,death may occur within a few days1 or the disease may last two or three weeks4 ,animals that recover from tetanus may show symptoms of the disease for several weeks4 ,the death-rate is highest in hot climates and during the summer months4 ,if the animal can eat1 it is not advisable to feed a heavy ration of roughage or grain4 ,a very light diet of soft food1 such as chops and bran-mash1 prevents constipation and encourages recovery4 ,drugs that have a relaxing effect on the muscles may be given4 ,tetanus antitoxin may be given in large doses4 ,,questions #a4 ,what is septicaemia and pyaemia8 #b4 ,what is haemorrhagic septicaemia8 ,give methods of spreading and controlling this disease4 #c4 ,give the cause of anthrax and symptoms4 #d4 ,what control measures are recommended in anthrax8 #e4 ,what is ulcerative sore mouth8 ,give the treatment4 #f4 ,describe the symptoms occurring in rabies1 and state the control measures recommended4 #g4 ,name the species of animals affected by foot-and-mouth disease1 and the countries where the disease is prevalent4 #h4 ,give the methods of distribution and control of foot-and-mouth disease4 #i4 ,what is the specific cause and method of infection in tetanus8 ,give the treatment4 ,,chapter ,,xxix ,,infectious ,,diseases ,,of ,,the ,,horse ,,strangles4 ,,distemper4--,this is an acute infectious disease associated with a catarrhal condition of the air-passages and suppuration of the lymphatic glands in the region of the throat4 ,colts are the most susceptible to the disease4 ,one attack renders the animal immune against a second attack of the disease1 but the immunity is not always permanent4 ,the specific cause1 ,streptococcus equi 7,fig4 #aac71 was discovered by ,schutz in #ahhh4 ,strangles is commonly spread by exposing susceptible animals to diseased animals1 either by direct contact1 or by exposing them to the infection in the stable and allowing them to drink or eat food from watering and feeding troughs on premises where the disease exists4 ,the predisposing causes are cold and sudden changes in the weather4 ,for this reason the disease is most prevalent during the late winter and early spring4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aac4--,streptococcus of strangles4 ,the period of incubation varies1 usually from four to eight days4 ,the symptoms at the beginning of the attack are a feverish condition and partial loss of appetite4 ,the visible mucous membranes are red and dry4 ,this is followed by watery nasal secretions that become heavy and purulent within a few days4 ,the inflammation may extend to the larynx and pharynx4 ,the glands in the region of the jaw become hot1 swollen and painful1 and the animal may be unable to eat or drink4 ,the swelling and inflammation of the throat1 and the heavy1 pus-like secretions that accumulate in the nasal cavities1 cause difficult respirations4 ,after a few days the abscesses usually break1 and the symptoms are less severe4 ,if the abscesses break on the inside of the throat1 the discharge from the nostrils is increased4 ,the disease may be accompanied by an eruption of nodules1 or vesicles on the skin1 or nasal mucous membrane4 ,in severe and chronic cases multiple abscesses may form4 ,this complication is indicated by emaciation and weakness4 ,such cases usually terminate in death4 ,severe inflammation and swelling in the region of the throat may terminate in strangulation and death4 ,the death-rate is from one to three per cent4 ,the preventive treatment consists in using all possible precautions to prevent the exposure of susceptible animals and practising the immunization of exposed animals4 ,the curative treatment is principally careful nursing4 ,rest1 a comfortable stall1 nourishing feed and good care constitute the necessary treatment for the average case of distemper4 ,when the abscesses become mature1 they should be opened and washed with a disinfectant4 ,steaming the animal several times daily relieves difficult breathing and the irritated condition of the mucous membranes4 ,in case the abscesses do not form promptly and the throat is badly swollen1 a blistering ointment or liniment may be applied4 ,bitter and saline tonics1 the same as recommended in the treatment of indigestion1 may be given with the feed4 ,,influenza 7,,catarrhal ,,or ,,shipping ,,fever74--,this is a well-known acute infectious disease of solipeds4 ,it is characterized by depression1 high body temperature and catarrhal inflammation of the respiratory and other mucous membranes4 ,several epidemics of influenza have occurred in the ,united ,states4 ,the most serious epidemic occurred in the latter part of the '#gj's1 and the last one in #aijj-'ja4 ,influenza is present in the principal horse centers in a somewhat attenuated form4 ,the specific cause of the disease has never been determined4 ,the virus is present in the expired air1 nasal secretions and excreta4 ,close proximity to a diseased animal is not necessary in order to contract the disease4 ,stables may harbor the infection1 and it may be distributed by such disease carriers as blankets1 harness1 clothing of the attendant and dust4 ,the predisposing causes are cold1 exposure and changes in climate4 ,when the disease appears in a country1 it is first present in the large cities1 and from there it is scattered to the outlying districts4 ,the period of incubation is usually from four to seven days4 ,the early symptoms of the disease are a high fever1 marked depression and partial or entire loss of appetite4 ,the horse usually stands in the stall with the head down and appears sleepy4 ,the visible and respiratory mucous membranes are inflamed1 the respirations are quickened and the animal may cough4 ,the eyes are frequently affected1 the lids and cornea showing more or less inflammation4 ,the digestive tract may be affected4 ,at the beginning1 colicky pains may be present and later constipation and diarrhoea4 ,symptoms of a serious nervous disturbance are sometimes manifested4 ,the limbs usually become swollen or filled4 ,this disappears as the animal begins to improve4 ,pregnant mares may abort4 ,the death-rate is low4 ,the treatment required for the sick animals is largely rest1 a light diet and a comfortable1 clean1 well-ventilated stall1 free from draughts4 ,windows in the stall should be darkened4 ,if the stable is cold1 the body of the animal should be covered with a blanket and the limbs bandaged4 ,two ounces of alcohol and one drachm of quinine may be given three or four times daily4 ,small doses of raw linseed oil may be given if necessary4 ,horses that are exposed to cold1 wet weather or worked after becoming sick1 frequently suffer from pneumonia1 pericarditis1 gastro-enteritis and other diseases4 ,such complications should be given prompt treatment4 ,it is very advisable to give a protective serum to horses that are shipped or transported long distances1 and exposed to the disease in sale or transfer stables4 ,,glanders1 ,,farcy4--,this is a contagious and infectious disease of solipeds that is characterized by the formation of nodules and ulcers on the skin1 nasal mucous membrane and lungs4 ,although glanders is one of the oldest of animal diseases1 it was not until #ahfh that its contagious character was demonstrated4 ,the disease is widely distributed4 ,it became more prevalent in the ,united ,states after the ,civil ,war4 ,the vigorous control measures practised by the ,state and ,federal health officers have greatly decreased the percentage of animals affected with glanders4 ,at the present time the disease is more often met with in the large cities than in the agricultural sections of the country4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aad4--;,bacillus mallei4 ,the specific cause of glanders is the ,bacillus mallei 7,fig4 #aad74 ,this microorganism was discovered in #ahhb4 ,it is present in the discharges from the nasal mucous membrane and the ulcers4 ,these discharges may become deposited upon the feed troughs1 mangers1 stalls1 harness1 buckets1 watering troughs1 drinking fountains and attendants' hands and clothing4 ,healthy horses living in the same stable with the glandered animals may escape infection for months4 ,it is usually the diseased animal's mate1 or the one standing in an adjoining stall1 that is first affected4 ,catarrhal diseases predispose animals to glanders1 as the normal resistance of the mucous membranes is thereby reduced4 ,the most common routes by which the germ enters the body are by way of the digestive and respiratory tracts4 ,it may enter the body through the uninjured mucous membranes of the respiratory tract and genital organs1 or through wounds of the skin4 ,the period of incubation may be from a few to many days4 ,the symptoms may be acute or chronic in nature4 ,the acute form pursues a rapid course4 ,it is frequently seen in mules and asses1 and it may develop from the subacute or chronic form in horses4 ,when the disease is acute1 the animal has a fever1 is stupid1 does not eat1 and may have a diarrhoea4 ,in this form the lymphatic glands suppurate1 the animal loses flesh rapidly and dies in from one to two weeks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aae4--,nasal septum showing nodules and ulcers4 ,the chronic form is the most common4 ,it develops slowly and lasts for years4 ,the early symptoms of the disease 7chilling and fever7 usually escape notice4 ,the first visible symptom is a nasal discharge of a dirty white color from one or both nostrils4 ,this is usually scanty at first1 and intermittent1 but later becomes quite abundant4 ,the discharge is very sticky1 and adheres to the hair and skin4 ,the most frequent seat of the disease is in the respiratory organs1 lymph glands and skin4 ,nodules and ulcers appear on the nasal mucous membrane 7,fig4 #aae71 but they may be so high up as to escape notice4 ,the ulcers are very characteristic of the disease4 ,they are angry looking1 with ragged1 raised margins1 and when they heal leave a puckered scar4 ,the submaxillary glands may be enlarged1 and at first more or less hard and painful1 but later they become nodular and adhere to the jaw or skin4 ,nodules and ulcers may form on the skin over the inferior wall of the abdomen and the inside of the hind limbs and are known as farcy buds4 ,lymphatic vessels near these buds become swollen and hard4 ,the animal loses flesh rapidly1 does not withstand hard work1 and the limbs usually swell4 ,it is sometimes difficult to diagnose the disease4 ,the ulcers on the nasal mucous membranes and elsewhere are very characteristic1 and when present enable the examiner to form a diagnosis4 ,in cases of doubt1 a bacteriological examination of the nasal discharge may be made1 or we may resort to one or several of the various diagnostic tests4 ,the ,mallein test is quite commonly used4 ,the sterilized products of a culture of the ,b4 mallei are injected beneath the skin of the suspected animal4 ,this causes a rise in body temperature and a hot1 characteristic swelling at the point of injection in glandered animals4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4--,streptococcus pyogenes equi4 ,treatment is not recommended at the present time4 ,nearly all of the ,states have laws which aim to stamp out the disease wherever found by killing all affected animals1 and thoroughly disinfecting the stables1 harness and everything which has been near the animal4 ,diseased animals should be carefully isolated until slaughtered1 and all animals exposed to them should be subsequently tested for glanders4 ,,contagious ,,pleuropneumonia 7,,stable ,,pneumonia74--,this is an infectious disease of solipeds that usually results in a fatal inflammation of the lungs and pleural membrane4 ,many writers have described this disease as associated with influenza1 but it is frequently seen as a separate disease1 usually involving only the lungs and pleurae4 ,it is prevalent in several parts of the ,united ,states1 more particularly the horse centers or large markets1 where it appears in the form of epidemics4 ,in several of these localities it is known as western or stable fever4 ,the specific cause is not definitely known4 ,the ,streptococcus pyogenes equi 7,fig4 #aaf7 is very commonly present4 ,this germ grows in the diseased tissues4 ,the disease is spread by direct or indirect contact1 as when well or susceptible animals are placed in the same stable with an animal affected with the disease1 or in stalls which have recently held diseased animals4 ,the period of incubation is from four to ten days following exposure4 ,the symptoms are those commonly seen at the beginning of an attack of simple pneumonia and pleurisy4 ,they consist of chills1 high fever1 cough1 depression1 difficult and labored breathing and loss of appetite4 ,the disease usually runs a course of from one to three weeks4 ,the death-rate is thirty per cent or more4 ,the treatment is mainly preventive4 ,stables where horses having pleuropneumonia have been kept should be cleaned and disinfected by spraying the floors1 stalls and walls with a four per cent water solution of a cresol disinfectant4 ,it is advisable to subject all newly-purchased animals to a short quarantine period before allowing them to mix with the other animals in the stable4 ,exposed animals may be given a protective serum4 ,the curative treatment is the same as recommended for the treatment of simple pneumonia and pleurisy4 ,,questions #a4 ,what is the specific cause of distemper8 ,give the symptoms and treatment4 #b4 ,what are the different methods of spreading influenza8 ,give the symptoms and treatment4 #c4 ,give the cause and methods of controlling glanders4 #d4 ,give the cause and treatment of contagious pleuropneumonia4 ,,chapter ,,xxx ,,infectious ,,diseases ,,of ,,cattle ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aag4--;,a case of lumpy jaw4 ,,actinomycosis1 ,,lumpy ,,jaw4--,this is an infectious disease that is characterized by the formation of tumors and abscesses 7,fig4 #aag71 and the destruction of the infected tissues4 ,the disease is common in cattle and usually affects the bones and soft parts of the head4 ,in the ,united ,states1 where the disease is known as lumpy jaw the jawbone is commonly affected4 ,in ,european countries the disease frequently involves the tongue1 and the term wooden tongue is applied to it4 ,the disease may affect regions of the body other than the head4 ,actinomycosis of the lungs sometimes occurs4 ,swine and horses may be affected by this disease4 ,the specific cause of actinomycosis is commonly known as the ray fungus 7,fig4 #aah74 ,this fungus grows on certain plants1 and the animal usually contracts the disease by eating plants or roughage that have the fungus on them4 ,grasses having awns that are capable of wounding the mucous membrane of the mouth and penetrating the gums are most apt to produce the disease4 ,young cattle that are replacing and erupting their teeth are most prone to lumpy jaw4 ,conditions that favor bruising of the jaw and external wounds favor the development of actinomycosis4 ,the fungus grows in the tissues1 causing an inflammatory reaction and destruction of the tissue4 ,the ray fungus can be seen in the diseased tissue or the pus as yellowish1 spherical bodies about the size of a grain of sand4 ,each of these bodies is formed by a large number of club-like bodies arranged about a central mass of filaments4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aah4--,the ray fungus4 ,the local symptoms are characteristic 7,fig4 #aag74 ,the tumor may involve the soft tissues of the head4 ,if the jawbone is affected the tumor feels hard and cannot be moved about4 ,sometimes it is soft and filled with pus4 ,tumors of long standing may possess uneven1 nodular surfaces and fistulous openings4 ,when the tongue is affected1 it is swollen and painful1 and prehension and mastication of the food may be impossible4 ,when the pharynx is the seat of disease1 breathing and swallowing are difficult and painful4 ,actinomycosis of the lungs may present the appearance of a chronic pulmonary affection4 ,if the disease involves the head and lungs1 the animal may become unthrifty and emaciated4 ,in doubtful cases a microscopic examination of a piece of the tumor1 or some of the pus1 may be necessary4 ,the treatment is surgical and medicinal4 ,small1 external tumors may be removed by an operation4 ,sometimes an incision is made into the diseased tissue and a caustic preparation introduced4 ,the most desirable method of treatment is the administration of large doses of iodide of potassium in a drench1 or in the drinking water4 ,the dose is from one to three drachms daily for a period of seven to fourteen days4 ,the size of the dose depends on the size of the animal and its susceptibility to iodism4 ,an animal weighing #ajjj pounds may be given two drachms4 ,the treatment is kept up until the symptoms of iodism develop4 ,the condition is indicated by a loss of appetite and a catarrhal discharge from the eyes and nostrils4 ,when this occurs1 the treatment should be stopped1 and the animal drenched with one-half pound of ,epsom salts1 and the dose repeated after three or four days4 ,after an interval of two weeks1 the iodide of potassium treatment should be repeated if the growth of the tumor is not checked4 ,,emphysematous ,,anthrax1 ,,black ,,leg4--,black leg is an acute infectious disease of cattle that is characterized by lameness and superficial swellings in the region of the shoulder1 quarter or neck4 ,the swellings are hot and painful and usually contain gas4 ,the specific cause of black leg is a rod-shaped1 spore-producing germ1 the bacillus of emphysematous anthrax 7,fig4 #aai74 ,this germ possesses great vitality1 and may live indefinitely in the soil4 ,it has been known to live for years in clay and undrained soils4 ,young animals that are in high condition are predisposed to the disease4 ,the germ enters the body through abrasions in the skin and mucous membrane of the mouth and intestines4 ,black leg is a common disease of young cattle in all sections of the country where cattle-raising is engaged in extensively4 ,outbreaks of the disease are most prevalent in the early spring after the snow has melted1 and in the late summer in localities where cattle graze over the dried-up ponds and swampy places in the pasture4 ,the germs of black leg may be carried from a farm where the disease is prevalent to non-infected premises by surface water4 ,the opening up of drainage ditches through stock-raising communities may be followed by outbreaks of the disease4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aai4--;,bacillus of emphysematous anthrax4 ,the symptoms of black leg develop quickly and may terminate fatally in a few hours4 ,these are general dulness1 stiffness1 prostration and loss of appetite4 ,lameness is a prominent symptom4 ,the animal may show a swelling in the regions of the shoulder and hindquarters or on other parts of the body4 ,the swelling is very hot and painful at first1 but if the animal lives for a time1 it becomes less tender1 crackles when pressed on and the skin may feel cold and leathery4 ,fever is a constant symptom4 ,in the highly acute form of the disease nervous symptoms1 such as convulsions and coma1 occur4 ,the tissue changes in the region of the swelling are characteristic4 ,an incision into the swelling shows a bloody1 dark exudate and the surface of the muscular tissue is dark4 ,frothy1 bloody liquid escapes from the mouth1 nose and anus4 ,the preventive treatment consists in thoroughly draining pastures and yards where cattle run4 ,this measure does not insure cattle against the disease4 ,cattle that die of black leg should be cremated4 ,this should be done at the spot where the animal dies4 ,if the carcass is moved or opened1 the ground should be thoroughly wet with a four per cent water solution of a cresol disinfectant and covered with lime4 ,vaccination of the exposed or susceptible animals should be practised4 ,on farms where the disease exists it may be necessary to vaccinate the young animals 7less than two years of age7 once or twice every year in order to prevent the disease4 ,medicinal treatment is unsatisfactory4 ,,texas ,,or ,,tick ,,fever4--,tick fever is an infectious disease of cattle4 ,it is caused by an animal organism that is present in the blood1 and is conveyed from the animal that is host for the tick fever parasite to the non-infected animal by a tick 7,figs4 #abj and #aba74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj4--;,cattle tick 7male74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aba4--;,cattle tick 7female74 ,tick fever was introduced into the southern portion of the ,united ,states through importation of cattle by the ,spaniards4 ,previous to the establishing of a definite quarantine line between the permanently infected and the non-infected sections1 heavy losses among northern cattle resulted through driving and shipping southern cattle through the northern ,states4 ,the specific cause and the part taken by the tick in its distribution were not discovered until #ahhi-'ij4 ,smith recognized and discovered the specific cause of the disease1 and ,kilborn and ,salmon proved by a series of experiments that the cattle tick was responsible for the transmission of the disease from animal to animal4 ,the specific cause of tick fever is a protozoan parasite1 ,piroplasma bigeminum 7,fig4 #abb74 ,it is present in the blood of cattle that are affected with this disease4 ,the natural method of entrance into the body is through the bite of the cattle tick4 ,the disease may be transmitted by inoculating blood containing the parasite into a susceptible animal4 ,there are two forms of the disease1 the acute and chronic4 ,the symptoms of the acute form of the disease are a high fever1 depression1 loss of appetite1 diarrhoea1 dark or bloody urine1 staggering gait and delirium4 ,death may occur within a few days from the time the first symptoms are manifested4 ,the symptoms of the chronic form of the disease resemble the acute form1 but are more mild4 ,the animal is unthrifty and loses flesh rapidly4 ,the bloodless condition of the body is manifested by the pale1 visible mucous membrane4 ,death seldom occurs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abb4--;,blood-cells with ,piroplasma bigeminum in them4 ,the most characteristic diseased changes found on post-mortem examination occur in the liver and spleen4 ,the liver is enlarged1 and a yellowish1 mahogany-brown color4 ,the gallbladder is filled with a very thick bile4 ,the spleen may be several times the normal size and dark colored4 ,when it is cut into1 the pulpy tissue may resemble thick1 dark blood4 ,the kidneys are pale and the bladder may contain dark or reddish-colored urine4 ,in the northern ,states and outside of the quarantined area1 the direct or indirect exposure of the affected cattle to southern cattle1 and the presence of the cattle tick1 ,margarophus annulatus1 are sufficient evidence to confirm the diagnosis of this disease4 ,the prevention and control depend on destruction of the cattle tick4 ,in the early history of the disease1 shipping and driving of southern cattle into and through the northern ,states caused outbreaks of tick fever and heavy losses among northern cattle4 ,this finally resulted in the locating of the infected district1 and the establishment of the ,texas-fever quarantine line in #ahia by ,dr4 ,d4 ,e4 ,salmon4 ,previous to this time ,kilborne and ,salmon proved that the cattle tick was essential to the spread and production of the disease4 ,a further study of the life history of the tick resulted in the discovery that it could not mature unless it became a parasite of horses1 mules1 or cattle4 ,this has led to the eradication of the tick in certain sections of the ,south1 by not allowing cattle access to a pasture or lot for a certain period1 and by freeing the animals from ticks by hand-picking1 dipping and smearing4 ,the immunization of cattle that are shipped into an infected district for breeding purposes is often practised4 ,immunity is obtained by introducing the ,p4 bigeminun into the blood1 either by placing a few virulent young ticks upon the animal1 or by repeated inoculation with a very small quantity of virulent blood4 ,,questions #a4 ,give the cause and treatment of actinomycosis4 #b4 ,give the cause and treatment of emphysematous anthrax4 #c4 ,give the cause of tick fever2 distribution of the disease and methods of control4 ,,chapter ,,xxxi ,,infectious ,,diseases ,,of ,,poultry ,,fowl ,,cholera4--,this is a highly infectious disease of all species of poultry1 that is characterized by weakness1 depression and yellowish colored excrement4 ,the specific cause of fowl cholera is the ,bacillus avisepticus 7,fig4 #abc74 ,this microorganism is transmitted to the healthy birds by the feed1 or water becoming contaminated with the discharges from the diseased birds4 ,according to ,salmon1 the period of incubating varies from four to twenty days4 ,the early symptoms are a falling off in appetite1 high fever1 dulness1 diarrhoea and weakness4 ,the affected bird becomes drowsy1 the head is drawn toward the body1 and it may remain asleep for long periods at a time4 ,salmon states that the general outline of the sick bird becomes spherical or ball-shaped4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abc4--;,bacillus avisepticus4 ,the disease is usually highly fatal4 ,in the acute form the larger portion of the flock may die off within a week4 ,in the subacute and chronic forms1 the birds become greatly emaciated1 and a few die off weekly through a period of a month or longer4 ,the tissue changes occurring in the disease are inflammation of all or a few of the internal organs4 ,ward states that the most characteristic lesion of fowl cholera is the severe inflammation of that portion of the small intestine nearest to the gizzard4 ,small hemorrhagic spots may be found on the heart and other organs4 ,the treatment is both preventive and curative4 ,the preventive treatment consists in quarantining newly purchased birds until we are satisfied that they are free from disease4 ,the occasional disinfection of the poultry houses and runs is highly important4 ,cleaning the poultry house by removing the floor1 roosts1 or any part of the house for the purpose of removing all filth1 and spraying the interior with a three per cent water solution of a cresol disinfectant1 should be practised4 ,lime should be scattered over the runs1 or the yards immediately about the house4 ,the above preventive measures form an important part of the care and management of the flock4 ,the carcasses of the dead birds should be burned4 ,it is advisable to kill all birds that are fatally sick4 ,all of the flock should be given antiseptics with the feed and water4 ,four ounces of a water solution of copper sulfate1 made by dissolving one-quarter pound of this drug in one gallon of hot water1 may be added to each gallon of drinking water4 ,frequent disinfection of the drinking fountains1 feeding places and houses should be practised4 ,,diseases ,,resembling ,,fowl ,,cholera4--,there are a few diseases1 such as septicaemia1 limber neck and infectious enteritis1 that are sometimes mistaken for fowl cholera4 ,these diseases are caused by different microorganisms that may be found in the digestive tract and air-passages of healthy birds1 insanitary conditions and decomposed feed1 especially meat4 ,it seems that under certain conditions1 such as insanitary quarters and birds that are low in constitutional vigor and weakened from other causes1 certain germs may become disease-producers4 ,the death rate from mixed infections is very heavy in poultry4 ,the symptoms vary in the different cases4 ,the disease may be highly acute1 as in limber neck1 or chronic1 extending over a period of a week or more4 ,diarrhoea is not a prominent symptom in the majority of cases4 ,the post-mortem lesions vary from a hemorrhagic to a chronic inflammation of the different body organs and serous membranes4 ,the treatment is preventive4 ,a frequent cleaning and disinfecting of the poultry house and surroundings1 avoiding the feeding of spoiled feed1 or allowing the drinking fountains and feeding places to become filthy1 are effective preventive measures4 ,sick birds should be either isolated and quarantined1 or destroyed4 ,antiseptics may be given with the feed and drinking water4 ,,avian ,,diphtheria 7,,roup74--,this infectious disease of poultry is especially common in chickens4 ,it is characterized by a catarrhal and diphtheritic inflammation of the mucous membranes of the head4 ,the specific cause of roup has not been determined4 ,the disease-producing germs are present in the discharges from the nostrils1 eyes and mouth1 and the body excretions of sick birds4 ,birds having a mild form of roup1 or that have recently recovered from it1 are common carriers of the disease4 ,the disease is usually introduced into the flock by allowing birds exposed at poultry shows1 or recently purchased breeding stock from an infected flock1 to mix with the healthy birds4 ,the predisposing causes are very important factors in the development of roup4 ,cold1 damp1 draughty1 poorly ventilated poultry houses cause the disease to spread rapidly and become highly acute4 ,the symptoms differ in character in the different outbreaks of the disease4 ,usually the first symptoms noticed are sneezing1 dulness1 diminished appetite and a watery discharge from the nostrils and eyes4 ,later the eyelids may become swollen and the nostrils plugged by the discharge from the inflamed membranes4 ,if the mouth is examined at this time1 an accumulation of mucus and patches of diphtheritic or false membranes are found4 ,in the acute form of roup the false membranes and yellowish1 cheesy-like material accumulate on the different mucous membranes1 and interfere with vision1 breathing and digestion4 ,the affected bird becomes thin and weak4 ,the death rate is very high in this form of the disease4 ,the preventive treatment consists in quarantining birds that have been purchased from other flocks1 and that have been exhibited1 for a period of three weeks4 ,a careful examination of the mouth should be made4 ,if a catarrhal discharge from the nostrils and false membranes is present1 prompt treatment should be used4 ,a sick bird should be held in quarantine for several weeks after it has recovered1 and receive a thorough washing in a two per cent water solution of a cresol disinfectant before allowing it to mix with the healthy birds4 ,the medicinal treatment consists in removing the discharges from the nostrils and eyes with pledgets of absorbent cotton that are soaked with a four per cent water solution of boric acid4 ,among the common treatments mentioned are boric acid and calomel1 equal parts by weight1 blown into the nostrils and eyes with a powder blower4 ,water solutions of boric acid1 potassium permanganate and hydrogen peroxide are recommended4 ,liquid preparations are applied with pledgets of cotton1 oil cans1 or atomizers4 ,many recoveries can be obtained with careful treatment4 ,it is usually most economical to kill the severely affected birds4 ,many poultrymen dispose of the entire flock as soon as the disease makes its appearance1 and clean and disinfect the premises before restocking4 ,,chickenpox4--,in some sections the disease appears in another form1 known as chickenpox 7contagious epithelioma71 in which nodules form on the skin along the base of the comb and other parts of the head1 or both forms may be met with in the same flock4 ,the nodules should be treated with vaseline1 or glycerine ointments containing two per cent of any of the common antiseptics or disinfectants4 ,,entero-,,hepatitis4 ,,blackhead4--,this is a very fatal disease of young turkeys4 ,grown turkeys and other fowls are not so susceptible to the disease4 ,it is characterized by an inflammation of the liver and intestines1 especially the caeca4 ,the specific cause is a protozoan microorganism1 ,amoeba meleagridis4 ,adult fowls and turkeys may act as carriers of the germ1 and the young turkeys become infected at an early period4 ,the symptoms are diminished or lost appetite1 dulness1 drooped wings1 diarrhoea1 weakness and death4 ,when the disease becomes well advanced1 the head and comb become dark4 ,the course of the disease is from a few weeks to three months4 ,very few of the young turkeys survive4 ,the treatment is almost entirely preventive4 ,the same precautionary measures for the prevention of the introduction of disease into the flock1 recommended in other infectious diseases1 should be practised4 ,turkeys that survive should be disposed of4 ,as chickens may harbor the disease-producing germs1 we should not attempt to raise turkeys in the same quarters with them4 ,eggs should be obtained from disease-free flocks4 ,wiping the eggs with a cloth wet with fifty per cent alcohol may be practised4 ,the same recommendations regarding the cleaning and disinfecting of the quarters described in the treatment of fowl cholera should be practised4 ,if an outbreak of the disease occurs in the flock all of the sick birds should be killed1 and their carcasses cremated4 ,moving the flock to fresh runs and the administration of intestinal antiseptics are the only effective lines of treatment4 ,,avian ,,tuberculosis4--,tuberculosis of poultry is a serious disease in some countries4 ,poultry usually contract tuberculosis by contact with a tubercular bird1 and not from other domestic animals and man4 ,the symptoms are of a general character1 such as emaciation1 weakness1 wasting of muscles and lameness4 ,tubercular growths may appear on the surface of the body4 ,if we suspect the presence of the disease1 it is advisable to kill one of the sick birds and make a careful examination4 ,the finding of yellowish1 white1 cheesy nodules or masses in the liver1 spleen1 intestines and mesenteries is strong evidence of tuberculosis4 ,a bacteriological examination of the tissues may be necessary in order to confirm the diagnosis4 ,the same methods of treatment as recommended in tuberculosis of other domestic animals may be used in eliminating the disease from the premises and flock4 ,this consists in killing and cremating all birds showing visible symptoms1 moving the apparently healthy portion of the flock to new quarters and wiping the eggs with alcohol4 ,the old quarters should be cleaned1 disinfected1 and then allowed to stand empty for several months1 when we should again spray with a disinfectant1 and scatter lime over the runs4 ,if the cleaning and disinfecting have been thorough1 we may safely turn young or healthy birds into the old quarters4 ,all possible precautions against carrying the infection to the healthy flock must be observed4 ,,questions #a4 ,give the cause and treatment for fowl cholera4 #b4 ,what diseases resemble fowl cholera8 ,give the treatment4 #c4 ,give the symptoms and treatment for roup4 #d4 ,give the treatment for blackhead4 #e4 ,give the treatment for ,avian tuberculosis4 ,,reference ,,books ,pathology and ,therapeutics of the ,diseases of ,domestic ,animals1 ,vol4 ,i-,,ii1 ,hutyra and ,marek4 ,veterinary ,medicine1 ,vol4 ,i-,v1 ,law4 ,general ,therapeutics for ,veterinarians1 ,frohner4 ,prevention and ,treatment of the ,diseases of ,domestic ,animals1 ,winslow4 ,age of the ,domestic ,animals1 ,huidekoper4 ,veterinary ,materia ,medica and ,therapeutics1 ,winslow4 ,veterinary ,anatomy1 ,sisson4 ,chauveau's ,comparative ,anatomy of ,domestic ,animals4 ,manual of ,veterinary ,physiology1 ,smith4 ,annual ,reports of ,bureau of ,animal ,industry1 from #aijb to #aiaa4