,illu/ration ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ,,supplem5t ,,no4 #cbd ,,new ,,york1 ,,m>* #ah1 #ahhb ,sci5tific ,am]ican ,supplem5t4 ,vol4 ,,xiii1 ,no4 #cbd4 ,sci5tific ,am]ican e/abli%$ #ahde ,sci5tific ,am]ican ,supplem5t1 #e a ye>4 ,sci5tific ,am]ican & ,supplem5t1 #g a ye>4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,table ,,( ,,cont5ts4 ,i4 ,,eng9e]+ ,,& ,,me*anics--,ma*9e ,tools = ,boil] ,mak]s4 #b figures4--,improv$ boil] plate radial drill4--,improv$ boil] plate b5d+ roll]4 ,mod]n ,ordnance4 ,by ,,colonel ,,maitl&4--,rifl$ cannon4--,built guns4--,/eel ca/+s4--,bree* load+4--,long guns4--,sl[ burn+ ( p[d]4--,bree* clos]s4--,projectiles4--,de/ructive p[] ( guns4 ,oscillat+ ,cyl9d] ,locomotive4 #b figures4--,%aw's oscillat+ cyl9d] locomotive4 ,gas ,motors & ,produc]s4 ,by ,c4 ,w4 ,,siem5s--#b figures4 ,! ,baz9 ,sy/em ( ,dr$g+4 ,by ,a4 ,a4 ,,langley4--#c figures4 ,,ii4 ,,*emi/ry4--,on ! ,mydriatic ,alkaloids4 ,by ,,alb]t ,,lad5b]g4 --,i4 ,atrop9e4--,,ii4 ,! ,atrop9e ( ,datura ,/ramonium4 --,,iii4 ,hyoscyam9e f ,hyoscyamus4 ,detection ( ,small ,quantities ( ,morphia4 ,by ,a4 ,,joriss54 ,! ,e/imation ( ,manganese by ,titration4 ,by ,c4 ,g4 ,,s>n/rom4 ,on ! ,e/imation & ,sep>ation ( ,manganese4 ,by ,,nelson ,h4 ,,d>ton4 ,delicate ,te/ = ,oxyg54 ,det]m9ation ( ,small ,quantities ( ,ars5ic 9 ,sulphur4 ,by ,h4 ,,s*aeppi4 ,,iii4 ,,biology1 ,,etc4--,rese>*es on ,animals ,conta9+ ,*lorophyl4 --,ab/ract ( a long & valuable pap] ,on ! ,nature & ,functions ( ! ,yell[ ,cells ( ,radiol>ians & ,coel5t]ates1 read to ! ,royal ,society ( ,ed9burgh4 ,by ,,patrick ,,g$des4 ,! ,hib]nation ( ,animals1 ,an int]e/+ review ( ! w9t] habits ( "s ( our famili> animals1 insects1 etc4 ,,iv4 ,,horticulture1 ,,silk ,,culture1 ,,etc4--,h[ to ,plant ,trees4 ,by ,n4 ,,rob]tson4 ,! ,gr[? ( ,palms4 ,! ,future ( ,silk ,culture 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,report ( ,unit$ ,/ates ,consul ,peixotto1 ( ,lyons4 ,a valuable & enc\rag+ summ>y ( ! conditions & prospects ( silk culture 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,v4 ,,te*nology1 ,,etc4--,compress$ ,oil ,gas = ,light+ ,c>s1 ,/eamboats1 & ,buoys4 ,an elaborate description ( ! app>atus & appliances ( ! ,p9ts* sy/em ( illum9ation4 #ad figures4 ,elevation & plan ( works4--,c>s4--,locomotive & c> lamps4--,buoys4--,regulations1 etc4 ,,vi4 ,,art1 ,,ar*itecture1 ,,etc4--,ca/ ,iron 9 ,ar*itecture4 ,,vii4 ,,electricity1 ,,magnetism1 ,,etc4--,on ! ,me*anical ,production ( ,electric ,curr5ts4 #ab figures4 ,r\sse's ,second>y ,batt]y4 ,,viii4 ,,miscellane\s4--,dang]s f ,lightn+ 9 ,bla/+4 ,! ,t9cal ,trade ( ,asia4 ,sir ,w4 ,pallis]4 ,obitu>y & summ>y ( 8 inv5tions4 ,! ,tides4 ,influ5ce ( ! tides ^u ! hi/ory ( ! e>?4 ,drill+ ,glass4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ma*9e ,,tools ,,= ,,boil]-,,mak]s4 ,we give ?is week an engrav+ ( a radial drill+ ma*9e design$ especially = ! use ( boil]-mak]s1 ?is ma*9e1 toge!r ) ! plate b5d+ rolls1 =m+ portion ( a plant con/ruct$ = ,messrs4 ,beesley & ,sons1 boil] mak]s1 ( ,b>r[-9-,furness4 ,illu/ration3 ,,improv$ ,,boil] ,,plat]adial ,,drill4 ,?is radial drill1 :i* is a tool ( sub/antial proportions1 is adapt$ n only = ord9>y drill+ "w1 b also = turn+ ! ends ( boil] %ells1 = cutt+ out ( flue holes tube bor+1 etc4 ,z w be se5 f our engrav+1 ! pill> :i* supports ! radial arm is m\nt$ on a massive baseplate1 :i* also c>ries a circul> table #f ft4 9 diamet]1 ?is table hav+ a worm-:eel ca/ on x z %[n4 ,?is table is driv5 by a worm ge>+ into ! :eel j m5tion$4 ,on ?is table boil] ends up to #h ft4 9 diamet] c be turn$ up1 ! turn+ tool be+ c>ri$ by a slide re/1 :i* is m\nt$ on ! ma9 baseplate1 z %[n1 & :i* is adju/able v]tically & radially4 ,= cutt+ out flue holes a /eel bor+ head is employ$1 ?is head hav+ a r\nd end :i* fits into ! c5t] ( ! table4 ,:5 ?is "w is be+ done ! radial arm is br\ght into ! l[e/ position4 ,flue holes #dj 94 9 diamet] c ?us be cut out4 ,! ma*9e has a #d 94 /eel sp9dle ) self-act+ v>iable fe$ motion ?r\gh a range ( #aj 941 & ! radial arm is rais$ or l[]$ by p[] ?r\gh a range ( #b ft4 #h 94 ,:5 ! arm is 9 its highe/ position !re is room = a piece ( "w #d ft4 high betwe5 ! circul> table & ! l[] end ( ! sp9dle4 ,! circul> table s]ves z a comp\nd table = ord9>y "w1 & ! ma*9e is altoge!r a v useful "o = boil]-mak]s4 ,! plate-b5d+ rolls1 :i* are illu/rat$ on fir/ page1 are #aj ft4 long1 & are made ( wr\ght iron1 ! top roll be+ #ab 94 & ! two bottom rolls #aj 94 9 diamet]4 ,ea* ( ! bottom rolls c>ries at its end a l>ge spur-:eel1 ^! spur-:eels1 :i* are on opposite sides ( ! ma*9e1 ea* ge>+ into a p9ion on a %aft :i* runs f end to end bel[ ! rolls1 & :i* is itself ge>$ to ! %aft c>ry+ ! belt pulleys1 z %[n4 ,?is is a v simple & direct mode ( driv+1 & avoids ! necessity = small :eels on ! rolls4 ,!re is no sw+ frame1 b ! top roll is arrang$ to draw ?r\gh betwe5 ! arms ( ! spur-:eels1 a v sub/antially fram$ ma*9e be+ ?us obta9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,,improv$ ,,boil] ,,plate ,,b5d+ ,,roll]4 ,! *ief novelty 9 ! ma*9e is ! additional roll provid$ "u ! ord9>y bottom rolls4 ,?is extra roll1 :i* is us$ = /raight5+ old plates & = b5d+ small tubes1 pipes1 etc41 is made ( /eel1 & is #g 94 9 diamet] by #e ft4 long4 ,x is provid$ ) a sw+ frame at "o end to all[ ( tak+-(f pipes :5 b5t1 etc41 & x is altoge!r a v useful addition4 ,! ma*9e we illu/rate weighs #aa tons1 & is all self-conta9$1 ! /&>ds be+ m\nt$ on a /rong b$plate1 :i* also c>ries ! be>+s = ! %aft ) fa/ & loose pulleys1 belt ge>1 etc4 ,?us no f\ndation is requir$4--,eng9e]+4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,mod]n ,,ordnance4 ,footnote3 ,a pap] read ,feb4 #h1 #ahhb1 be=e ! ,society ( ,arts1 ,london4 ,by ,,colonel ,,maitl&4 ,a great *ange has lately be5 tak+ place ?r\gh\t ,europe 9 ! matt] ( armam5ts4 ,artill]y k has be5 advanc+ by leaps & b\nds2 & all ! *ief nations are vy+ ) ea* o!r 9 ! p]fection ( _! matriel ( w>4 ,z a read9ess to fight is ! be/ insurance = peace1 x behooves u to see f "t to "t h[ we /&1 & ! pres5t mom5t is a peculi>ly suitable "o = tak+ /ock ( our p[]s & capabilities4 ,i propose1 !re=e1 to give y1 ?is ev5+1 a brief sket* ( ! pr9ciples ( manufacture ( mod]n guns1 at home & abroad1 conclud+ ) a few words on _! employm5t & p[]4 ,! introduction ( rifl$ cannon into practical use1 ab\t tw5ty ye>s ago1 caus$ a complete revolution 9 ! art ( gun-mak+4 ,ca/ iron & bronze 7 f\nd no long] suitable = ! purpose4 ,ca/ iron 0 too brittle to su/a9 ! pressure ( ! p[d] gas1 :5 its duration 0 increas$ by ! use ( elongat$ projectiles2 :ile ! s(tness ( bronze 0 ill adapt$ to reta9 ! nicety ( =m requir$ by accurate rifl+4 ,f among a cl\d ( proposals1 exp]im5ts1 & inv5tions1 two great sy/ems at l5g? dis5tangl$ !mselves4 ,!y 7 ! ,engli% con/ruction ( built-up wr\ght iron coils1 & ! ,prussian con/ruction ( solid /eel ca/+s4 ,wr\ght-iron1 z y are all aw>e1 is ne>ly pure iron1 conta9+ b a trace ( c>bon4 ,/eel1 z us$ = guns1 conta9s f #j4c to #j4e p] c5t ( c>bon2 ! l>g] ! quantity ( c>bon1 ! h>d] ! /eel4 ,s9ce ! e>ly days ( :i* ,i am n[ speak+1 great improvem5t has tak5 place 9 ! qualities ( bo? mat]ials1 b m especially 9 t ( /eel4 ,/ill ! same g5]al *>act]i/ics 7 to be not$1 & x may be broadly /at$1 t ,engl& *ose confess$ly ! weak] mat]ial1 z be+ m "u control1 *eap]1 & saf] to intru/ ) ! lives ( m52 :ile ,prussia select$ ! /rong] b less manageable sub/ance1 9 ! hope ( improv+ its uni=mity1 & r5d]+ x ?or\ghly tru/wor?y4 ,! diff]5ce 9 /r5g?1 :5 bo? are s\nd1 is great4 ,r\ghly1 gun /eel is ab\t twice z /rong z wr\ght iron4 ,i mu/ n[ say a few words on ! nature ( ! /ra9s to :i* a piece ( ordnance is subject$ :5 fir$4 ,gunp[d] is commonly t]m$ an explosive1 b ?is h>dly repres5ts its qualities accurately4 ,) a true explosive1 su* z gun-cotton1 nitro glyc]9e & its comp\nds1 detonation & conv]sion ( ! :ole into gas are practically in/antane\s1 :atev] ! size ( ! mass2 :ile1 ) gunp[d]1 only ! ext]ior ( ! gra9 or lump burns & gives (f gas1 s t ! l>g] ! gra9 ! sl[] ! combu/ion4 ,! products consi/ ( liquids & gases4 ,! gas1 :5 cool$ d[n to ord9>y temp]ature1 occupies ab\t #bhj times ! volume ( ! p[d]4 ,at ! mom5t ( combu/ion1 x is enorm\sly exp&$ by heat1 & its volume is probably some:at ab\t #f1jjj times t ( ! p[d]4 ,i h "h a few specim5s ( ! p[d]s us$ = diff]5t sizes ( guns1 ris+ f ! f9e gra9 ( ! m\nta9 gun to ! l>ge prisms & cyl9d]s fir$ 9 our heavy ordnance4 ,y w readily p]ceive t1 ) ! f9e-gra9$ p[d]s1 ! rapid combu/ion turn$ ! :ole *>ge into gas be=e ! projectile c\ld move f> away f its seat1 sett+ up a high pressure :i* act$ viol5tly on bo? gun & %ot1 s t a %ort1 %>p /ra91 approximat+ to a bl[1 _h to be gu>d$ aga9/4 ,) ! l>ge sl[-bur/+ p[d]s n[ us$1 long heavy %ells move quietly (f "u ! impulse ( a gradual evolution ( gas1 ! pres5ce ( :i* cont9ues to increase till ! projectile has mov$ a foot or m2 !n ensues a conte/ betwe5 ! increas+ volume ( ! gas1 t5d+ to raise ! pressure1 & ! gr[+ space beh9d ! advanc+ %ot1 t5d+ to relieve x4 ,z artill]y sci5ce progresses1 s does ! duration ( ?is conte/ ext5d fur!r along ! bore ( ! gun t[>d ! great desid]atum1 a l[ maximum pressure long su/a9$4 ,:5 quick burn+ p[d] 0 us$ = ordnance1 ! pressures 7 %ort & %>p2 ! metal 9 imm$iate proximity to ! *>ge 0 call$ ^u to und]go sev]e /ra9s1 :i* _h sc>cely "t to rea* ! m di/ant portions ( ! gun at all2 ! ext]ior 0 n ne>ly s mu* /ra9$ z ! int]ior4 ,9 ord] to obviate ?is defect1 & to br+ ! ext]ior ( ! gun into play1 ! sy/em ( build+ up guns ( successive tubes 0 introduc$4 ,^! tubes 7 put "o ov] ! o!r 9 a /ate ( t5sion produc$ by %r9kage4 ,?is t]m is appli$ to ! process ( exp&+ a tube by ! application ( heat1 & 9 t condition fitt+ x ov] a tube l>g] ?an ! inn] diamet] ( ! out] tube :5 cold4 ,:5 ! out] tube cools x contracts on ! inn] tube & clut*es x fa/4 ,! wr\ght-iron guns ( ,engl& h all be5 put toge!r 9 ?is mann]4 ,prussia at fir/ reli$ on ! sup]ior /r5g? ( solid ca/+s ( /eel to )/& ! explosive /ra91 b at l5g? f\nd ! necessity = re-en=c+ !m ) hoops ( ! same mat]ial1 %runk on ! body ( ! piece4 ,! gr& pr9ciple ( %r9kage enables ! gunmak] to br+ into play ! /r5g? ( ! ext]ior ( ! gun1 ev5 ) quick p[d]s1 & to a /ill great] ext5t z ! duration ( ! /ra9 increases ) ! progress ( p[d] manufacture4 ,?us1 tak+ our l>ge/ muzzle-load]s design$ a few ye>s ago1 ! ?9 /eel l9+ tube1 :i* =ms an excell5t surface1 is compress$ consid]ably by ! wr\ght-iron bree* coil hold+ x1 :i*1 9 its turn1 is compress$ by ! massive ext]ior coil4 ,:5 ! gun is fir$1 ! /ra9 is transmitt$ at once1 or ne>ly at once1 to ! bree* coil1 & !nce m sl[ly to ! out] "o4 ,n[1 z ! duration ( ! pressure increases1 ow+ to ! use ( l>g] *>ges ( sl[] burn+ p[d]1 x is evid5t t ! m complete & effective w be ! transmission ( ! /ra9 to ! ext]ior1 &1 consequ5tly1 ! fur!r into ! body ( ! gun1 />t+ f ! bore1 & travel+ outw>d1 does x become advantage\s to employ ! /rong] mat]ial4 ,h5ce1 9 ,engl&1 we _h reason to congratulate ourselves on ! c]ta9ty & *eapness ( manufacture ( wr\ght iron coils1 z long z mod]ate *>ges ( comp>atively quick burn+ p[d] 7 employ$1 & z long z adh]5ce to a muzzle-load+ sy/em p]mitt$ ! projectiles to move away at an e>ly p]iod ( ! combu/ion ( ! *>ge4 ,!n ! pressures1 ?\gh %>p1 7 ( %ort duration1 & 7 n ?or\ghly transmitt$ ?r\gh ! body ( ! gun1 s t ! solidity1 mass1 & compression ( ! surr\nd+ coils prov$ usually suffici5t to support ! int]ior l9+4 ,n[ t bree*-load+ & sl[ p[d]s h be5 introduc$1 ^! conditions h be5 *ang$4 ,! /ra9s1 ?\gh less sev]e1 & less t5d+ to explosive rupture1 la/ long]1 & are m fully transmitt$ ?r\gh ! body ( ! gun4 ,%e] /r5g? ( mat]ial n[ tells m1 & signs h n be5 want+ t coils ( wr\ght iron af=d insuffici5t support to ! l9+4 ,x becomes1 !re=e1 advantage\s to ?ick5 ! inn] tube1 & to support x ) a /eel bree* piece4 ,c>ry+ ?is pr9ciple fur!r1 we %all be l$ to sub/itute ! /rong] = ! weak] metal ?r\gh\t ! piece4 ,?is has be5 done by ! ,g]mans 9 ! fir/ in/ance1 & rec5tly by ! ,fr5* also4 ,x is probable t we %all foll[ ! same c\rse4 ,:5 ,i say probable1 ,i int5tionally gu>d myself aga9/ utt]+ a pr$iction4 ,x is nev] safe to prophesy1 unless y "k1 z ! ,am]ican humori/ puts x4 ,& 9 ?is case we d n "k1 = a v dang]\s rival1 once defeat$1 b n[ full ( r5ew$ vigor1 has ent]$ ! li/s aga9/ =g$ /eel z a mat]ial = ordnance4 ,?is rival's "n is wire4 ,temp]$ /eel wires c be made ( extraord9>y /r5g?4 ,a piece ( r\nd section1 only "o ?irty-fif? ( an in* 9 diamet]1 w j su/a9 a heavy man4 ,if1 n[1 a /eel tube1 suitable = ! l9+ ( a gun1 be prep>$ by hav+ wire w\nd r\nd x v tightly1 lay] ov] lay]1 x w be compress$ z ! w9d+ proce$s1 & ! t5sion ( ! wire w act z %r9kage4 ,y w readily und]/& t a gun c be ?us =m$1 hav+ enorm\s /r5g? to resi/ bur/+4 ,un=tunately1 ! wires h no cohesion ) "o ano!r1 & ! great difficulty ) con/ruction ( ?is k9d is to obta9 :at gun-mak]s call end /r5g?4 ,x is ( b little use to make y\r walls /rong en\gh1 if ! fir/ r\nd bl[s ! bree* out4 ,9 ! e>ly days ( wire ?is 0 :at happ5$1 & ,mr4 ,longridge1 :o inv5t$ ! sy/em1 0 compell$ to ab&on x4 ,lately1 me?ods h be5 devis$ 9 ,france1 by ,m4 ,s*ultz2 at ,elswick1 by ,sir ,w4,g4 ,arm/rong ,co42 & at ,woolwi*1 by ourselves1 = gett+ end /r5g? ) wire guns4 ,!y are all 9 ! exp]im5tal /age2 !y may prove successful2 b ,i pref] n to prophesy at pres5t4 ,! diagrams on ! wall %[ ! g5]al con/ruction ( ! mod]n ,g]man1 ,fr5*1 & ,engli% heavy bree*-load+ guns4 ,! ,g]mans h a tube1 a jacket1 & hoops4 ,! ,fr5*1 a ?ick tube or body1 & hoops4 ,! ,engli%1 a tube1 a jacket1 & an ov]coat1 z x may be call$4 ,9 ea* sy/em ( con/ruction1 ! :ole ( ! wall ( ! gun comes into play to resi/ ! transv]se bur/+ /ra9 ( ! *>ge4 ,! longitud9al or end /r5g? v>ies3 ?us1 9 ! ,g]man guns1 ! tube & hoops d no?+--! jacket is consid]$ suffici5t4 ,! ,fr5* con/ruction relies entirely on ! ?ick body1 :ile ! ,engli% me?od aims at utiliz+ ! :ole section ( ! gun1 bo? ways4 ,( c\rse1 if ! o!rs are /rong en\gh1 !re is no p>ticul> advantage 9 ?is2 & x is by no means improbable t ev5tually we %all f9d x *eap]1 & equally good1 to sub/itute hoops = ! ov]coat4 ,i fe> ,i h deta9$ y a long "t ov] con/ruction1 b x is bo? in/ructive & int]e/+ to note t c]ta9 well def9$ po9ts ( contact n[ exi/ betwe5 all ! great sy/ems4 ,?us1 a surface ( /eel inside ! bore is common to all1 & ! g5]al use ( /eel is spread+ fa/4 ,%r9kage1 aga91 is n[ ev]y:]e employ$1 & su* diff]5ces z /ill exi/ are matt]s r ( detail ?an ( pr9ciple1 z f> z sy/ems ( con/ruction are conc]n$4 ,we n[ come to a "p ( ! "q :i* has long be5 hotly debat$ 9 ?is c\ntry1 & ab\t :i* an imm5se quantity ( matt] has be5 bo? spok5 & writt5 on opposite sides--,i mean muzzle load+ & bree*-load+4 ,! controv]sy has be5 a rem>kable "o1 &1 p]haps1 ! mo/ rem>kable "p ( x has be5 ! circum/ance t :ile !re is n[ little d\bt t ! advocates ( bree*-load+ 7 on ! "r side1 _! reasons 7 = ! mo/ "p fallaci\s4 ,?us1 !y commonly /at$ t a gun load$ at ! bree* c\ld be m rapidly fir$ ?an "o load$ at ! muzzle4 ,n[1 ?is 0 c]ta9ly n ! case1 at any rate1 ) ! comp>atively %ort guns :i* 7 made on bo? sy/ems a few ye>s ago4 ,! public 7 acqua9t$ ) bree*-load]s only 9 ! =m ( sport+ guns & rifles1 & argu$ f !m4 ,! muzzle-load+ ?irty eight ton guns 7 fir$ 9 a casemate at ,%oeburyness repeat$ly 9 less ?an tw5ty m9utes = t5 r\nds1 ) c>eful aim+4 ,no bree*-load] ( correspond+ size has1 ,i ?9k1 ev] beat5 t rate4 ,) field-guns 9 ! op51 ! ,no4 #a ( ! deta*m5t c aim 8 muzzle load] :ile x is be+ load$1 :ile he mu/ wait to d s till load+ at ! bree* is complet$4 ,aga91 x 0 freely /at$ t1 ) bree*-load]s great] protection 0 af=d$ to ! gunn]s ?an ) ! muzzle-load]s4 ,?is entirely dep5ds on h[ ! guns are m\nt$4 ,if 9 siege works or en b>bette1 x is mu* easi] to load a muzzle load] "u cov] ?an a bree*-load]4 ,b ,i ne$ n trav]se ! old gr\nd all ov] aga94 ,x is suffici5t = me to say "h1 t ! real cause :i* has r5d]$ bree*-load+ an absolute necessity is ! improvem5t :i* has be5 made 9 ! p[d]4 ,y witness$ a few m9utes ago ! *ange :i* took place 9 ! action ( fir$ gunp[d] :5 ! gra9s 7 enl>g$4 ,y w readily und]/& t ne>ly ! :ole ( a quick burn+ *>ge 0 conv]t$ into gas be=e ! %ot _h "t to />t2 suppose = ! mom5t t ! combu/ion 0 really in/antane\s4 ,!n we h a bore1 say sixte5 diamet]s long1 ) ! c>tridge occupy+ a l5g? (1 say1 two diamet]s4 ,! pressure ( ! gas causes ! %ot to move4 ,! great] ! pressure1 ! great] ! impulse giv54 ,z ! %ot advances1 ! pressure less5s2 & x less5s 9 proportion to ! di/ance ! %ot proce$s4 ,?us1 :5 ! %ot has proce$$ a di/ance equal to ! l5g? ( ! c>tridge1 ! space occupi$ by ! gas is d\bl$1 & its orig9al pressure is halv$4 ,z ! %ot travels ano!r c>tridge l5g?1 ! space occupi$ by ! gas is trebl$1 & its pressure w be b "o-?ird ( ! orig9al am\nt4 ,:5 ! %ot arrives at ! muzzle--t is1 at eight times ! l5g? ( ! c>tridge f ! bree*--! pressure w be b "o n9? ( t orig9ally set up4 ,rememb]1 ?is is on ! supposition t ! p[d] has be5 entirely conv]t$ into gas be=e ! %ot beg9s to move4 ,n[1 suppose ! p[d] to be ( a sl[-burn+ k9d1 & assume t only "o-?ird ( x has be5 conv]t$ into gas be=e ! %ot />ts1 !n ! rema9+ two-?irds w be giv+ (f additional gas z ! %ot travels ?r\gh ! bore4 ,in/ead1 !re=e1 ( ! pressure fall+ rapidly1 z ! %ot approa*es ! muzzle1 ! increas+ quantity ( gas t5ds to make up = ! increas+ space hold+ x4 ,y w at once p]ceive t ! sl[] ! combu/ion ( ! p[d] ! less diff]5ce !re w be 9 ! pressure ex]t$ by ! gas at ! bree* & at ! muzzle1 & ! great] w be ! advantage1 9 po9t ( velocity1 ( l5g!n+ ! bore1 & s keep+ ! %ot "u ! influ5ce ( ! pressure4 ,h5ce1 all rec5t improvem5t has t5d$ t[>d l>g] *>ges ( sl[] burn+ p[d]1 & increas$ l5g? ( bore4 ,& x is evid5t t ! long] ! bore ( ! gun1 ! great] is ! conv5i5ce ( putt+ ! *>ge 9 beh9d1 in/ead ( hav+ to ram x home f ! front4 ,i may "h rem>k1 t ! increas$ l5g? ( gun necess>y to produce ! be/ effect is caus+ ev5 ^? :o h possess$ bree*-load]s = _m ye>s to re>m1 j z completely z we are n[ beg9n+ to d4 ,all ! old %ort bree* load+ guns are becom+ obsolete4 ,ano!r great advantage ( bree*-load+ is ! facility af=d$ = enl>g+ ! p[d] *amb] ( ! gun1 s t a comp>atively %ort1 ?ick c>tridge may be ,i employ$1 )\t any def9ite re/riction due to ! size ( ! bore4 ,!re is yet "o m po9t 9 :i* bree*-load+ has rec5tly be5 f\nd1 9 ! ,royal ,gun ,factory1 to possess a great advantage ov] muzzle-load+ z reg>ds balli/ic effect4 ,) a %ot load$ f ! front1 x is cle> t x mu/ be small] all ov] ?an ! bore1 or x w\ld n pass d[n to its seat4 ,a %ot ?ru/ 9 f beh9d1 on ! contr>y1 may be furni%$ ) a b& or %ea? ( comp>atively s(t metal l>g] ?an ! bore2 ! gas !n act+ on ! base ( ! projectile1 =ces ! b& ?r\gh ! grooves1 seal+ ! escape1 ent]+ ! projectile1 &1 to a great ext5t1 mitigat+ ! erosion ( surface4 ,?is is1 ( c\rse1 univ]sally kn[n4 ,x is also pretty g5]ally kn[n among artill]i/s t ! effect ( ! resi/ance (f]$ by ! b& or %ea?+ on ! p[d] is to cause m complete combu/ion ( ! *>ge be=e ! %ot moves1 & !re=e to raise ! velocity & ! pressure4 ,b ,i believe x escap$ notice1 till obs]v$ 9 ,may1 #ahhj1 9 ! ,royal ,gun ,factory1 t ?is circum/ance af=ds a mo/ /eady & conv5i5t mode ( regulat+ ! consumption ( ! *>ge1 s z to obta9 ! be/ results ) ! p[d] employ$4 ,suppos+ ! projectile to />t1 z 9 a muzzle load]1 )\t (f]+ any resi/ance beyond t due to in]tia1 x is necess>y to employ a p[d] :i* %all burn quickly en\gh to give (f mo/ ( its gas be=e ! %ot has proce$$ f> d[n ! bore2 o!rwise ! velocity at ! muzzle w be l[4 ,to control ?is comp>atively quick burn+ p[d]1 a l>ge air space is giv5 to ! c>tridge1 :i*1 !re=e1 is plac$ 9 a *amb] consid]ably too big = x4 ,suppos+1 on ! o!r h&1 ! projectile to be furni%$ ) a /\t b&1 giv+ a high resi/ance to initial motion1 a mu* sl[] p[d] c be us$1 s9ce ! combu/ion proce$s z if 9 a clos$ vessel1 until suffici5t pressure is develop$ to ov]come ! resi/ance ( ! b&4 ,?is enables u to put a l>g] quantity ( sl[] burn+ p[d] into ! *amb]1 & 9 fact to use1 in/ead ( a space fill$ ) air1 a space fill$ ) p[d] giv+ (f gas1 :i* comes into play z ! projectile travels d[n ! bore4 ,?us1 :ile n exce$+ ! int5d$ pressure at ! bree*1 ! pressure t[>d ! muzzle is kept up1 & ! velocity v mat]ially increas$4 ,foll[+ ?is pr9ciple to ?is conclusion1 x w be f\nd t ! p]fect *>ge = a gun w be "o :i* exactly fills ! *amb]1 & :i* is compos$ ( a p[d] r too sl[ to give ! pressure = :i* ! gun is design$1 suppos+ ! %ot to move (f freely4 ,! p[d] %\ld be s mu* too sl[ z to require = its full developm5t ! hold+ p[] ( a b& :i* is j /rong en\gh to give rotation to ! %ot4 ,hav+ settl$ t ! gun ( ! future is to be a bree*-load]1 we h next to consid] :at sy/em ( clos+ ! bree* is to be adopt$4 ,! ,g]man guns are provid$ ) a r\nd back$ w$ge1 :i* is pu%$ 9 f ! side ( ! bree*1 & =c$ firmly home by a screw provid$ ) h&les2 ! face ( ! w$ge is fitt$ ) an easily removable flat plate1 :i* abuts aga9/ a ,broad well r+1 let into a recess 9 ! end ( ! bore4 ,on fir+1 ! gas presses ! r+ firmly aga9/ ! flat plate1 & r5d]s escape impossible z long z ! surfaces rema9 un9jur$4 ,:5 !y become worn1 ! r+ & plate c be ex*ang$ 9 a few m9utes4 ,mr4 ,vavasseur1 ( ,s\?w>k1 con/ructs 8 guns on a v simil> plan4 ,9 ! ,fr5* guns1 & our mod]n ones1 ! bore is cont9u$ to ! re> extremity ( ! piece1 ! bree* end =m+ an int]mitt5t screw1 t is1 a screw hav+ ! ?reads int]mitt5tly left & slott$ away4 ,! bree* block has a simil>ly cut screw on x1 s t :5 ! slots 9 ! block correspond ) ! unt\*$ ?reads 9 ! gun1 ! block c be pu%$ /raight 91 & ! ?reads made to engage by "p ( a revolution4 ,9 ! ,fr5* ,m>9e ! escape ( gas is /opp$ v mu* z 9 ,krupp's sy/em2 a ,broadwell r+ is let into a recess 9 ! end ( ! bore1 & a plate on ! face ( ! bree*-block abuts aga9/ x4 ,9 ! ,fr5* l& s]vice ! escape is seal$ 9 q a diff]5t mann]4 ,a /alk passes ?r\gh ! bree*-block1 its foot be+ secur$ on ! ext]ior4 ,! /alk has a mu%room-%ap$ head project+ into ! bore4 ,r\nd ! neck ( ! /alk1 j "u ! mu%room1 is a coll> ( asbe/os1 secur$ 9 a canvas cov]2 :5 ! gun is fir$1 ! gas presses ! mu%room aga9/ ! asbe/os coll>1 & squeezes x aga9/ ! walls ( ! bore4 ,x is f\nd t ?is cuts (f all escape4 ,we are at pres5t us+ ! ,elswick me?od1 :i* consi/s ( a flat-back$ cup1 abutt+ aga9/ ! slightly r\nd$ face ( ! bree* plug4 ,! lips ( ! cup re/ aga9/ a copp] r+ let 9 ! walls ( ! bore4 ,on fir+1 ! gas presses back ! cup aga9/ ! r\nd$ end ( ! bree*-block1 & ?us =ces ! lips h>d aga9/ ! copp] r+4 ,x is difficult to comp>e ! excell5ce ( ^! v>i\s sy/ems1 s mu* dep5ds on ! c>e ( ! gunn]s1 & ! nicety ( manufacture4 ,! ,g]man & ,fr5* m>9e me?ods p]mit ! p>ts to be quickly ex*ang$ :5 worn1 b x is necess>y to cut deeply into ! walls ( ! gun1 & to make ! w$ge1 or bree*-screw1 consid]ably l>g] ?an ! op5+ into ! *amb]4 ,! ,elswick plan is decid$ly bett] 9 ?is la/ respect1 b x requires sev]al h\rs to extract & r5ew ! copp] r+ :]e worn4 ,! ,fr5* l& s]vice 7,de ,bange7 arrangem5t requires no cutt+ into ! gun1 & no enl>gem5t ( ! bree* screw beyond ! size ( ! *amb]1 :ile x is r5ewable 9 a few m9utes1 m]ely requir+ a fre% asbe/os pad :5 worn4 ,z reg>ds durability1 !re is probably no great diff]5ce4 ,i h be5 in=m$ t ) a light gun z _m z #c1jjj r\nds h be5 fir$ ) "o asbe/os pad4 ,b usually x may be consid]$ t a r5ewal w be requir$ ( ! we>+ surfaces ( any bree*-load] aft] a numb] ( r\nds1 v>y+ f six or sev5 hundr$1 ) a field gun1 to a hundr$ or a hundr$ & fifty ) a v heavy gun4 ,full in=mation is want+ on ?is po9t4 ,hav+ n[ decid$ on ! mat]ial ( :i* ! gun is to be compos$1 & ! mann] 9 :i* x is to be con/ruct$1 & hav+1 moreov]1 settl$ ! knotty po9t ( h[ x is to be load$1 we come to ! g5]al pr9ciples on :i* a gun is design$4 ,x mu/ n be ov]look$ t a gun is a ma*9e :i* has to p]=m a c]ta9 quantity ( "w ( a c]ta9 def9ite k9d1 &1 l all o!r ma*9es1 mu/ be =m$ specially = its purpose4 ,! motive p[] is gunp[d]1 & ! article to be produc$ is p]haps a hole 9 an armor-plate1 p]haps a brea* 9 a conceal$ esc>p1 or p]haps de/ructive effect on troops4 ,^! articles are q di/9ct1 & ?\gh all guns are capable ( produc+ !m all to "s ext5t1 no gun is capable ( produc+ m ?an "o 9 ! highe/ /ate ( excell5ce4 ,?us1 = armor pi]c+1 a long po9t$ bolt1 ne>ly solid1 is requir$4 ,x mu/ /rike ) great velocity1 & mu/ !re=e be propell$ by a v l>ge *>ge ( p[d]4 ,h5ce an armor-pi]c+ gun %\ld h a l>ge *amb] & a comp>atively small bore ( great l5g?4 ,= brea*+ =tifications1 on ! o!r h&1 curv$ fire is necess>y2 ! esc>ps ( mod]n =tresses are usually cov]$ f view by scre5s ( e>? or masonry 9 front1 s t ! projectiles mu/ pass ov] ! cre/ ( ! scre51 & drop suffici5tly to /rike ! wall ab\t half-way d[n1 t is to say1 at an angle ( #ae to #bj4 ,to de/roy ! wall1 %ell conta9+ l>ge bur/+ *>ges ( p[d] are f\nd to be p>ticul>ly well adapt$4 ,n[ x is cle> t1 = a %ell to drop at an angle ( #ae or #bj at ! end ( a mod]ate range1 ! velocity at />t+ mu/ be l[4 ,h5ce1 = pieces int5d$ = brea*+ no enl>g$ p[d] *amb] is want$2 ! effect on ! wall is due to ! %ell1 :i* mu/ be made ( a %ape to hold ! mo/ p[d] = a giv5 weight2 &1 !re=e1 r %ort & ?ick4 ,?is gives u a l>ge bore1 :i* ne$ n be long1 z little velocity is requir$4 ,= produc+ de/ructive effect among troops1 a ?ird k9d ( projectile is employ$4 ,x is call$ %rapnel1 & x consi/s ( a ?9 %ell1 hold+ a little p[d] & a l>ge quantity ( bullets4 ,! p[d] is ignit$ by a fuse1 :i* is set to act dur+ flight1 or on graze1 :5 ! %ell is ne>+ ! object4 ,! explosion bur/s ! %ell op51 & lib]ates ! bullets1 :i* fly =w>d1 actuat$ by ! velocity ( ! %ell at ! mom5t ( bur/+4 ,h5ce1 to r5d] ! bullets effective1 a consid]able rema9+ velocity is requisite4 ,! gun mu/ !re=e take a l>ge p[d] *>ge1 :ile1 z ! %ell has to hold z _m bullets z possible1 ! bore mu/ be l>ge en\gh to take a %ort projectile ( ! giv5 weight4 ,?us1 ! proportions ( ! %rapnel gun w be int]m$iate betwe5 ^? ( ! armor-pi]c+ gun & ! %ell gun4 ,!re are c]ta9 axioms kn[n f exp]i5ce1 :i* %\ld be m5tion$ "h4 ,fir/1 ! l5g? ( ! p[d] *amb] %\ld n be m ?an ?ree & a half or f\r times its diamet]1 if x c possibly be avoid$1 because1 ) long] *>ges1 ! inflam$ p[d] gas is apt to acquire rapid motion1 & to set up viol5t local pressures4 ,next1 ! /r5g? ( a heavy gun1 z reckon$ on ! pr9ciple ( all ! metal be+ s\nd & well 9 be>+1 %\ld n be less ?an ab\t f\r times ! /ra9 expect$4 ,aga91 ?\gh !re are sev]al op9ions z to ! be/ weight ( %ot = armor pi]c+1 9 proportion to diamet]1 yet among ! mo/ advanc$ gun-mak]s1 !re is a gr[+ t5d5cy t[>d increas$ weight4 ,! value ( w_/d1 t is1 ! weight 9 p\nds divid$ by ! cube ( ! diamet] 9 in*es1 z ?is "q is t]m$1 is 9 ! h&s ( ! ,ordnance ,committee1 & x is to be confid5tly hop$ t ef=ts w %ortly be made to arrive at a solution4 ,9 ! meantime1 f ab\t #j4de to #j4e appe>s to be a fairly satisfactory value1 & is adopt$ = ! pres5t4 ,la/ly1 x may be broadly /at$1 t ) suitable p[d]s1 a *>ge ( "o-?ird ! weight ( ! %ot dem&s = mo/ pr(itable use a l5g? ( bore equal to ab\t tw5ty-six calib]s2 a *>ge equal to half ! weight ( ! %ot %\ld be accommodat$ ) a bore ( ab\t ?irty calib]s2 :ile a *>ge ( two-?irds ! weight ( ! %ot w be be/ suit$ by a bore ?irty-five calib]s long4 ,( c\rse1 9 ea* case1 great] l5g? ( bore w give increas$ velocity1 b x w be ga9$ at ! exp5se ( additional weight1 :i* c be bett] utiliz$ else:]e 9 ! gun4 ,! am\nt ( "w p]=m$ by gunp[d]1 :5 explod$ 9 a gun1 is a subject :i* has engag$ a va/ quantity ( att5tion1 & "s highly +5i\s me?ods ( calculat+ x h be5 put =w>d4 ,ow+1 h[ev]1 to ! impossibility ( asc]ta9+ h[ fa/ ! combu/ion ( l>ge gra9s & prisms proce$s1 a v consid]able am\nt ( exp]i5ce is requir$ to enable ! gunmak] to apply ! necess>y corrections to ^! calculations2 b1 on ! :ole1 x may be said t1 ) a giv5 *>ge & weight ( %ot1 ! muzzle velocity may n[ be pr$ict$ ) "s accuracy4 ,y n[ h ! *ief data on :i* ! design] bases 8 proposals1 & lays d[n ! dim5sions ( ! gun to suit su* conditions z x may be requir$ to fulfill4 ,9 actual practice1 ! conditions are almo/ always complicat$1 ei!r by necessities ( m\nt+ 9 p>ticul> places1 su* z turrets & casemates2 or by ! advantages att5d+ ! int]*angeability ( /ores1 or o!r circum/ances2 & x requires great wat*fulness to keep abrea/ ( ! ev]-gr[+ improvem5ts ( ! day4 ,i w n[ conclude ) a few words on ! p[] ( heavy guns1 :5 employ$ 9 v>i\s ways4 ,! fir/ consid]ation is accuracy ( fire4 ,no matt] h[ deadly ! projectile may be1 x is useless if x does b wa/e itself on air4 ,accuracy is ( two k9ds--true direction & precision ( range4 ,all mod]n guns are capable ( be+ made to %oot /raight2 b _! precision ( range dep5ds p>tly on ! successful design+ ( ! gun & ammunition1 s z to give uni=m velocities1 & p>tly on ! flatness ( ! trajectory4 ,! great] ! velocity1 ! l[] ! trajectory1 & ! great] ! *ance ( /rik+ ! t>get4 ,suppos+ a heavy gun to be m\nt$ z 9 ! =tresses r\nd our coa/s1 & aim$ ) due c>e1 ! di/ance ( ! object be+ approximately kn[n1 we may fairly expect to /rike a t>get ( ! size ( an ord9>y door ab\t e o!r %ot1 at a range ( a mile & a half4 ,"h we h c>riages m\nt$ on accurately level$ plat=ms2 we h m5 work+ electric position f9d]s1 & ! gunn]s live on ! spot1 & "k ! look ( ! sea & l& r\nd ab\t4 ,n[1 consid] ! case ( guns m\nt$ 9 %ips4 ,y at once p]ceive ! difficulties ( ! %oot]4 ,ev5 suppos+ ! %ip to be "o ( our magnific5t ironclads1 solid1 /eady1 yield+ little to ! motion ( ! wat]1 yet %e is "u /eam1 ! aim ( h] guns is alt]$ e mom5t1 "s oscillation is unavoidable1 & %e c only e/imate ! range ( h] adv]s>y4 ,great skill is requir$1 & n only requir$1 ,i am glad to say1 b ready to h&1 on ! "p ( ! seam5 gunn]s2 & l[ trajectory guns mu/ be provid$ to aid _! skill4 ,if we g to un>mor$ %ips ( great tonnage & spe$1 we %all f9d ^! difficulties int5sifi$2 & if we pass on to ! little gunboats1 advocat$ 9 "s qu>t]s = attack+ ironclads 9 a sw>m1 we %all f9d t un/ead9ess ( plat=m 9 a sea-way r5d]s !m a helpless & h>mless m>k = ! comp>atively accurate practice ( _! solit>y b /ately foe4 ,! de/ructive p[] ( guns is little kn[n to ! g5]al public1 & _m wild /atem5ts are sometimes put =w>d4 ,guns & plates h f\ght _! battle ) v>y+ success = _m ye>s4 ,"o day ! plate resi/s1 ano!r day ! gun drives its bolt ?r\gh4 ,b x is frequ5tly ov]look$ t ! victory ( a plate is a complete victory4 ,if ! %ot does n get ?r\gh1 x does practically no?+4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! victory ( ! gun is b a p>tial triumph2 x is conf9$ to a small arc4 ,i mean t1 :5 ! plate is /ruck at an angle exce$+ #cj or s1 ! %ot glances h>mlessly (f2 :ile1 ev5 :5 p]=ation is obta9$1 x is at ! exp5se ( ! m deadly qualities ( ! projectile1 :i* mu/ be a ne>ly solid bolt1 unable to c>ry 9 ) x heavy bur/+ *>ges ( p[d] or de/ructive masses ( balls4 ,ab\t six ye>s ago1 an exp]im5t c>ri$ out at ,%oeburyness taught a lesson :i* seems to be 9 dang] ( be+ =gott54 ,we he> sometimes t un>mor$ vessels are a mat* = ironclads & =ts2 & ,i w conclude ?is pap] ) a %ort extract f ! (ficial acc\nt ( ! results ( fir+ %rapnel %ell at an unprotect$ %ip's side4 ,i %all say no?+ ( boil]s & magaz9es1 b %all /ate simply ! damage to guns & gunn]s4 ,a t>get 0 built repres5t+ ! side ( a c]ta9 class ( un>mor$ %ips ( w>2 beh9d ?is t>get1 z on a deck1 7 plac$ "s uns]viceable guns1 m\nt$ on old c>riages1 & surr\nd$ by wood5 dummies1 to repres5t ! m5 work+ ! guns4 ,! attack+ gun 0 a twelve-ton n9e-in* muzzle-load]1 ( ! old despis$ type1 & ! projectiles 7 %rapnel %ell4 ,! *>ges 7 r$uc$ to repres5t ! /rik+ =ce at a range ( #ejj y>ds4 ,two r\nds did ! foll[+ damage inside1 besides te>+ & ripp+ ! %ip's side 9 all directions4 #a/ ,gun4--,sev5 m5 ( deta*m5t kill$4 #b;d ,gun4--,c>riage de/roy$4 ,six m5 bl[n to pieces1 all ! rema9d] ( ! deta*m5t sev]ely hit4 #c;d ,gun4--,no damage to gun or c>riage4 ,five m5 kill$1 "o bl[n to bits1 & "o w\nd$ 9 leg4 #d? ,gun4--,gun dism\nt$4 ,! :ole ( ! gun deta*m5t bl[n to pieces4 ,t is ! am\nt ( de/ruction a*iev$ 9 an un>mor$ %ip by two r\nds ( %rapnel %ell4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,oscillat+ ,,cyl9d] ,,locomotive4 ,?is locomotive is ! design ( ,mr4 ,h5ry ,f4 ,%aw1 ( ,bo/on4 ,?is eng9e has oscillat+ cyl9d]s plac$ betwe5 ! driv+-:eels4 ,fig4 #b repres5ts a section ( "o ( ^! cyl9d]s1 f :i* x w be se5 t ea* has two pi/ons & pi/on-rods1 :i* are connect$ directly to ! crank-p9s4 ,8 inv5tion is describ$ z foll[s 9 8 specification3 ,midway betwe5 ea* set ( :eels1 e & f1 is locat$ ! oscillat+ /eam-cyl9d]1 g1 hav+ its j\rnals1 g' & g1 support$ 9 ! /ation>y arm1 h1 :i* is secur$ 9 a suitable mann] to ! frame1 c4 ,to ea* cyl9d]1 g1 is secur$ or ca/ 9 "o piece !re) a balanc$ vibratory beam or truss1 i1 z %[n4 ,)9 ! cyl9d]1 g1 are two movable pi/ons1 k & k'1 ,fig4 #b1 provid$ ) pi/on-rods1 l & l'1 & cross-heads1 m & m'1 z %[n4 n n are slides = ! cross-head1 m1 on ! insides ( "o end ( ! truss or beam1 i1 & n' n'1 are simil> slides 9 ! o!r end ( said truss or beam1 = ! cross-head1 m'4 ,to ! driv+-:eel1 e1 is atta*$ a crank-p91 pass+ ?r\gh ! cross-head1 m1 & to ! driv]-:eel1 f1 is atta*$ a simil> crank-p91 ,f1 t passes ?r\gh ! cross-head1 m'4 o is ! slide-valve )9 ! /eam-*e/1 ,g1 :i* slide-valve is op]at$ =w>d & back by means ( ! valve-rod1 o1 ! out] end ( :i* is h+$ to ! upp] end ( ! slott$ lev]1 o1 ,fig4 #a1 t is hung at o1 on ! end ( ! balanc$ & vibratory beam ( truss1 i1 z %[n4 ,on ! crank1 ,f1 is secur$ an ecc5tric1 t works )9 ! slot ( ! slott$ lev]1 o1 dur+ ! revolution ( ! crank1 ,f1 & 9 ?is mann] imp>ts ! requisite motion to ! slide valve1 o1 to admit ! /eam into ! cyl9d]1 g1 alt]nately betwe5 ! pi/ons1 k & k'1 & at ! ends ( said cyl9d]1 g1 s z to alt]nately =ce ! pi/ons1 k & k'1 f & t[>d ea* o!r1 & ?us1 9 comb9ation ) ! vibratory motion ( ! truss1 i1 imp>t a rot>y motion to ! driv+-:eels1 e & f4 ,illu/ration3 ,,%aws ,,oscillat+ ,,cyl9d] ,,locomotive4 ,! /eam is admitt$ to & f ! cyl9d]1 g1 z foll[s3 ,:5 ! pi/ons1 k & k'1 are at ! out] ends ( _! /roke ! /eam ent]s ?r\gh ! *annel1 p1 back ( ! pi/on1 k1 & at ! same "t ?r\gh ! *annel1 p'1 back ( ! pi/on1 k'1 & ?us causes bo? pi/ons to move t[>d ea* o!r1 ! /eam betwe5 !m be+ at ! same "t exhau/$ ?r\gh ! *annels1 q & q'1 ! =m] communicat+ ) ! exhau/1 r1 by means ( ! space1 s1 9 ! valve1 o1 & ! latt] communicat+ ) ! exhau/1 r'1 ?r\gh ! *annel1 s'1 9 ! said valve1 o4 ,! /eam t passes to ! back ( ! pi/on1 k1 comes direct f ! /eam-*e/1 ,g1 ?r\gh ! op5 end ( ! *annel1 p1 ! valve1 o1 be+ at ?is "t mov$ to "o side to leave ! port1 p1 op54 ,! /eam is admitt$ to ! back end ( ! pi/on1 k'1 f ! /eam-*e/1 ,g1 ?r\gh ! *annel1 s1 9 ! valve1 o1 & f !nce to ! *annel1 p'4 ,:5 ! pi/ons1 k & k'1 h rea*$ _! inn] positions ! live /eam is admitt$ ?r\gh ! *annels1 q & q'1 direct f ! /eam-*e/1 ,g1 to ! =m]1 & ?r\gh ! recess1 s1 & *annel1 s'1 9 ! valve1 o1 to ! latt]1 ! exhau/ /eam back ( ! pi/on1 ,k1 pass+ out ?r\gh ! *annel1 p1 to ! recess1 s1 9 ! valve1 o1 & !nce to ! exhau/1 r1 ! exhau/ /eam back ( ! pi/on1 k1 pass+ out ?r\gh *annel1 p'1 & ?r\gh *annel1 s1 9 ! valve1 o1 & !nce to ! exhau/1 r'4 ,! valve-rod1 o'1 is to be connect$ to a l9k & rev]s+ lev] z usual1 su* be+1 h[ev]1 omitt$ 9 ! draw+s4 ,! advantages claim$ = x are t x is compos$ ( v few p>ts1 & x is v p[]ful on acc\nt ( its hav+ a sep>ate /eam actuat+ pi/on = ea* ( its driv+-:eels4 ,x has great /r5g? & resi/ance1 ow+ to ! fact t no pressure is ex]t$ on ! j\rnals on :i* ! /eam cyl9d]s oscillate1 & all ! pressure f ! /eam pi/ons is directly transf]r$ to ! crank-p9s on ! driv+-:eels4 ,! eng9e is p]fectly balanc$ 9 any position dur+ ! /roke1 & x may !re=e be run at a mu* high] spe$ ?an ! common eng9es n[ 9 use4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,gas ,,motors ,,& ,,produc]s4 ,by ,c4,w4 ,,siem5s1 ,london4 ,! cyl9d] ( ! eng9e--assum+ t x has only a s+le-act+ "o1 plac$ ) its axis v]tical--consi/s ( two p>ts2 ! upp] hot "p be+ l9$ ) plumbago1 fire-clay1 or o!r refractory mat]ial1 & ! l[] "p kept cool by a wat] cas+4 ,! cyl9d] has a trunk pi/on work+ 9 ! l[] "p1 & on its upp] side a %ield t almo/ fills ! hot "p ( ! cyl9d] :5 ! pi/on is at ! extreme ( its up/roke4 ,! trunk-rod ( ! pi/on passes ?r\gh a /uff+-box 9 ! cyl9d] bottom1 & is connect$ to a crank on ! eng9e-%aft2 & ?is 7unless multiple cyl9d]s are employ$7 c>ries a heavy fly-:eel4 ,f ! l[] end ( ! cyl9d] !re is a passage :i*1 by means ( a rotat+ or reciprocat+ slide1 is alt]nately put 9 communication ) inlets = gas & air 7regulat$ by suitable cocks or valves7 & ) a /rong receptacle4 ,z ! pi/on1 makes its up/roke1 air & gas are drawn into ! annul> space surr\nd+ its trunk1 & ! mix$ air & gas are compress$ by ! d[n/roke ( ! pi/on1 & deliv]$ into ! receptacle1 9 :i* consid]able pressure is ma9ta9$4 ,! receptacle is made ( cyl9drical =m1 ) a dom$ cov] ( ?9 %eet metal2 s t 9 case ( excessive int]nal pressure x c op]ate z a safety-valve to save ! body ( ! receptacle f damage4 ,f ! upp] end ( ! cyl9d] !re is a passage t1 by means ( a rotat+ or reciprocat+ slide1 is alt]nately put 9 communication ) ! receptacle & ) a dis*>ge outlet4 ,9 ?is passage are fix$ a numb] ( wire gauze scre5s or pieces ( metal ) int]/ices4 ,^! con/itute a reg5]ator ( heat1 & also prev5t a communication ( flame f ! cyl9d] to ! receptacle4 ,9 ! upp] end ( ! cyl9d] or ( ! pi/on %ield are provid$ electrodes :i* give an electric sp>k1 or a plat9um wire :i* is r5d]$ inc&esc5t by a curr5t f an inductor or o!r s\rce ( electricity to ignite ! combu/ible *>ge ( ! cyl9d]4 ,aft] ! eng9e has be5 = "s "t at "w1 ! heat at ! upp] "p ( ! cyl9d] may suffice = effect+ ignition )\t provision ( o!r means = ?is purpose4 ,9 comb9+ su* an eng9e ) means = g5]at+ ! combu/ible gas1 a gas produc] is employ$4 ,9 ?is produc] a curr5t ( heat$ air is introduc$ into ! he>t ( a body ( k9dl$ fuel1 & ! gases produc$--p>tly by di/illation & p>tly by imp]fect combu/ion ( ! fuel--are convey$ to ! gas inlet ( ! cyl9d] or pump ( ! eng9e4 ,z ! gas 9 leav+ ! produc] is hot1 x is caus$ to pass ?r\gh reg5]at+ app>atus1 to :i* x deliv]s a l>ge portion ( its heat be=e x rea*es ! eng9e1 & ! air :i* supplies ! produc] is made to pass ?r\gh ?is reg5]at+ app>atus s z to take up ! heat ab/ract$ f ! gas4 ,9 ! accompany+ engrav+s1 ,fig4 #a %[s a front elevation 7p>tly 9 section7 ( a pair ( eng9es con/ruct$ accord+ to ?is inv5tion4 ,! l[] "p1 ,a1 ( ea* cyl9d] is cool$ by wat] circulat+ ?r\gh its cas+4 ,! upp] "p1 ,b1 is l9$ ) refractory mat]ial1 su* z fire-clay4 ,! trunk pi/on1 ,c1 is made holl[1 & =m$ ) a %ield cov]$ by refractory mat]ial to protect ! pack+ ( ! pi/on & ! surface ( ! l[] "p ( ! cyl9d] f heat4 ,! pi/ons ( ! two cyl9d]s are connect$ by rods1 ,d1 to opposite cranks on ! %aft1 ,e4 ,?is %aft1 by means ( bevel ge>1 ,f1 works a revolv+ cyl9drical valve1 ,g1 situat$ 9 a cas+ betwe5 ! two cyl9d]s4 ,! l[e/ "p ( ?is cas+ is suppli$ ) combu/ible gas & ) air1 9 proportions capable ( be+ regulat$ by /opcocks or valves4 ,! highe/ "p ( ! cas+ communicates ) a dis*>ge-pipe2 & ! middle "p ( x ) a res]voir :i* c be cut (f f communication by a /opcock1 s t ! *>ge 9 ! res]voir may be reta9$ :5 ! eng9e is /opp$4 ,! middle space ( ! holl[ valve1 ,g1 communicates1 by a numb] ( holes1 ) ! middle space ( ! slide cas+4 ,x also1 by means ( a port at its l[] "p1 communicates alt]nately ) ! annul> spaces ( ! two cyl9d]s2 ?is communication 9 ea* case be+ made :5 ! pi/on is p]=m+ ! latt] "p ( its d[n/roke4 ,! int]ior ( ! slide also1 by means ( a second port at its upp] "p1 communicates alt]nately ) ! tops ( ! two cyl9d]s2 ?is communication be+ 9 ea* case made :ile ! pi/on is p]=m+ ! fir/ portion ( its d[n/roke4 ,dur+ ! up/roke ( ea* pi/on ! slide1 by means ( ano!r port1 makes communication alt]nately to ea* cyl9d] f ! bottom ( ! slide cas+1 & by means ( a f\r? port make communication alt]nately f ea* cyl9d] to ! top ( ! slide cas+4 ,9 ! passage connect+ ! top ( ! slide cas+ to ea* cyl9d] is plac$ a reg5]ator1 consi/+ ( a numb] ( p]=at$ metal plates or %eets ( wire gauze4 ,illu/ration3 ,,siem5s' ,,gas ,,produc] ,,& ,,gas ,,motor4 ,fig #a4 ,9 ord] t gas ( poor quality or gas dilut$ ) a l>ge proportion ( air may be utiliz$1 an ignit+ arrangem5t is employ$ :i* op]ates z foll[s3 ,i is a vessel conta9+ a supply ( hydroc>bon oil1 pref]ably ( volatile "*4 ,f ?is vessel pipes lead to two cocks1 "o = ea* cyl9d]2 ^! corks be+ caus$ to revolve 9 "t ) ! eng9e-%aft by a *a91 ,m1 communicat+ motion f a :eel on ! eng9e %aft to a *a9-:eel ( equal size on ! sp9dle ( ! two cocks4 ,! plug ( ea* cock has on its side a small holl[1 :i* dur+ "o "p ( its revolution pres5ts itself "u ! oil-pipe1 & receives a *>ge ( oil4 ,dur+ ano!r "p ( its revolution1 :i* is tim$ to correspond ) ! fl[ ( gase\s mixture to ! cyl9d]1 ! holl[ ( ! plug pres5ts itself to ! b5d ( a pipe lead+ f ! top ( ! cyl9d] to a port op5+ into ! cyl9d] bel[ ! reg5]ator1 9 :i* port are situat$ two wires ( plat9um4 ,^! wires are connect$ ) ! bru%es ( a commutator1 ,k1 on ! eng9e-%aft1 :i* commutator is 9 electrical connection ) ! poles ( a batt]y1 dynamo-electric ma*9e1 or o!r s\rce ( electricity4 ,in/ead ( two wires to produce a sp>k1 a s+le wire may be arrang$ to become inc&esc5t at ! prop] "t = ignition4 ,! op]ation ( ! eng9e is z foll[s3 ,ea* pi/on z x asc5ds draws into ! annul> space "u x a supply ( gas & air 9 proportion regulat$ by ! cocks or valves1 & z x desc5ds x =ces ?is *>ge into ! int]ior ( ! revolv+ valve & its cas+1 & into ! res]voir :i* communicates !re)4 ,:5 ei!r pi/on is at ! top ( its /roke1 ! revolv+ valve admits to ! upp] "p ( ! cyl9d] a supply ( ! gase\s mixture f ! res]voir & valve cas+1 & ?is passes ?r\gh ! g5]ator4 ,at ! same "t a portion ( ! *>ge passes by ! pipe1 & becomes enri*$ by admixture ( ! hydroc>bon oil deliv]$ to x by ! cock4 ,! enri*$ mixture1 9 pass+ ! plat9um wires1 :i* at t "t give an electrical sp>k1 is ignit$1 & ignites ! *>ge t is pass+ ?r\gh ! reg5]ator into ! cyl9d]4 ,! mixture ?us ignit$ exp&s1 & act+ on ! full area ( ! pi/on propels x d[nw>d1 ! "u side ( ! pi/on be+ at t "t subject to pressure only on its annul> area4 ,:5 ! pi/on has complet$ its d[n-/roke ! passage is op5$ to ! dis*>ge-pipe1 & ! exp&$ products ( combu/ion !n pass f ! cyl9d] ?r\gh ! reg5]ator1 & are dis*>g$4 ,9 _! passage !y give out to ! reg5]ator a l>ge portion ( _! heat1 :i* ! *>ge ent]+ ! cyl9d] = ! next /roke receives 9 pass+ ?r\gh ! reg5]ator4 ,illu/ration3 ,,siem5s' ,,gas ,,produc] ,,& ,,gas ,,motor4 ,fig #b4 ,fig4 #b is a v]tical section ( a gas produc] & scrubb]1 :i*1 z /at$ above1 may be employ$ 9 comb9ation ) eng9es su* z h be5 describ$ = supply+ !m ) combu/ible gas4 ,! produc] is a vessel l9$ ) refractory mat]ial4 ,at ! top x has a supply op5+ cov]$ by a cap1 ,u1 hav+ a flange dipp+ into a s& jo9t4 ,at ! bottom x has an op5+ surr\nd$ by incl9$ b>s1 ,v1 :i* re/ ^u a wat]-pipe p]=at$ ) small holes1 by :i* wat] issues to cool ! b>s & g5]ate vapor4 ,?is vapor rises along ) a limit$ supply ( air ?r\gh ! inc&esc5t fuel above1 & combu/ible gas is produc$1 :i* collects 9 ! annul> space1 & is l$ !nce by a pipe to ! scrubb]4 ,! scrubb] is a vessel conta9+ 9 its l[] "p wat]1 ,w1 suppli$ by a pipe1 & hav+ an ov]fl[4 ,by means ( a p]=at$ deflect+ plate ! gas is caus$ to bubble ?r\gh ! wat]1 :]eby x is cleans$ & cool$1 & x passes by a pipe1 ,x1 to supply ! eng9e4 ,! upp] end ( ! v]tical pipe ( ! scrubb] is made op5 & cov]$ by a cap seal$ 9 wat] :ile ! produc] is at "w4 ,9 />t+ ! produc] ?is cap is remov$ & a *imney pipe put 9 its place1 s z to give a draught = k9dl+ ! fuel 9 ! produc]4 ,:5 ! fuel is k9dl$ ! *imney is remov$ & ! cap sub/itut$1 :]eupon ! suction ( ! eng9e cont9ues ! draught z requir$4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,baz9 ,,sy/em ,,( ,,dr$g+4 ,by ,,mr4 ,a4,a4 ,,langley4 ,?is pap]1 lately read be=e ! ,in/itution ( ,me*anical ,eng9e]s1 ,london1 is a description ( ! con/ruction & work+ ( a dr$g] on ,m4 ,baz9's sy/em1 z us$ by ! au?or = ! pa/ ?ree ye>s 9 dr$g+ s& & o!r mat]ial 9 ,l[e/(t ,h>bor4 ,! dr$g] is repres5t$ 9 its g5]al features on next page1 ,fig4 #a4 ,! total l5g? ( ! hull is #fj ft41 ) #bj ft4 beam4 ,9 ! aft] "p ( ! hold is plac$ a horizontal boil]1 ,a1 :i* supplies /eam to a pair ( inv]t$ v]tical eng9es1 ,b4 ,^! eng9es drive1 ?r\gh belts & ov]head pulleys1 a c5trifugal pump1 ,c1 :i* dis*>ges into ! op5 tr\gh1 ,h4 ,! suction pipe1 ,d1 ( ?is pump passes ?r\gh ! side ( ! dr$g]1 & !n =ms an elb[ b5t d[nw>d at an angle ( #de deg4 ,to ?is elb[ is atta*$ a flexible pipe1 ,e1 #ab 94 9 diamet] & #be ft4 long1 made ( ,india-rubb]1 ) a coil ( iron inside to help x to keep its %ape4 ,at ! l[] end ( ?is pipe is an elb[-%ap$ copp] nozzle :i* re/s on ! bottom1 & is fitt$ ) a grat+ to prev5t /ones gett+ into ! pump & /opp+ ! "w4 ,! flexible tube is support$ by *a9s t pass ov] ! head ( a d]rick1 ,f1 m\nt$ at ! /]n ( ! dr$g]1 & !n r\nd ! b>rel ( a /eam w9*4 ,by ?is means ! dep? ( ! nozzle is alt]$1 z requir$ to suit ! dep? ( wat]4 ,a man /&s at ! w9*1 & lifts or l[]s ! pipe z is requir$1 judg+ by ! "* ( ! dis*>ge f ! pump4 ,if ! liquid dis*>g$ is v d>k & ?ick ! nozzle is too deep 9 ! s& or gravel2 if ( a light color ! pipe mu/ be l[]$4 ,! be/ proportion ( wat] to s& is #e to #a4 ,:5 loose s& is ! only mat]ial to be dealt )1 x c be easily suck$ up1 ev5 if ! nozzle is deeply buri$2 b at o!r times /ones int]f]e ) ! "w1 & ! man 9 *>ge ( ! flexible tube has to be v c>eful z to ! dep? to :i* ! nozzle may be buri$ 9 ! s&4 ,! pump is %[n 9 ,figs4 #b & #c4 ,! fan is #b ft4 diamet]1 & has only two blades1 a l>g] numb] be+ less effici5t4 ,! faces ( ! blades1 :]e !y come 9 contact ) ! s&1 are cov]$ ) flaps ( ,india-rubb]4 ,small doors are provid$ at ! side ( ! pump = clean+ x out1 extract+ /ones1 etc4 ,! fan makes #cej revolutions p] m9ute1 & at t spe$ is capable ( rais+ #djj tons ( s&1 gravel1 & /ones p] h\r1 b ! av]age 9 actual "w may be tak5 at #bjj tons p] h\r4 ,?is is ) a #aj-;horse p[] eng9e1 & work+ 9 a dep? ( wat] v>y+ f #g ft4 to #be ft4 ,! great advantage ( ?is dr$g] is its capability ( work+ 9 di/urb$ wat]1 :]e ! frames ( a bucket dr$g] w\ld be injur$ by ! rise & fall ( ! vessel4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,braz9 ,,sy/emem ,,( ,,dr$g+4 ,?us at ,l[e/(t bucket dr$g]s are us$ inside ! h>bor1 & ! ,baz9 dr$g] at ! entrance1 :]e !re are s& & gravel1 & :]e ! wat] is m di/urb$4 ,! dr$g] does n succe$ v well 9 s(t silt1 because1 ow+ to its sl[ precipitation1 x runs ov] ! sides ( ! hopp] b>ges )\t settl+4 ,nor does x d = dr$g+ solid clay4 ,x gives1 h[ev]1 excell5t results ) s& & gravel1 & = ?is "w is mu* sup]ior to ! bucket dr$g]4 ,! exp]i5ce 9 work+ 0 !n describ$1 %[+ t a great _m v disc\rag+ failures prec$$ successful work+1 ab\t a ye> be+ exp5d$ 9 gett+ good results4 ,,co/ ,,( ,,work+4 ,! vessel or b>ge = c>ry+ ! ma*9]y & pumps co/ #fjj1 & ! contract price ( ! ma*9]y & pumps 0 #a1bjj4 ,b be=e ! dr$g] 0 tak5 ov] by ! company ! alt]ations be=e enum]at$ _h co/ ab\t #cjj1 br++ ! total = b>ge & dr$g] up to #b1ajj4 ,9 build+ a second dr$g] ?is might ( c\rse be greatly r$uc$4 ,! co/ ( repairs = "o mon?'s work+ has be5 only #e4 ,! contractor receives = labor alone #a-a_/h;d4 p] ton1 be+ at ! rate ( ab\t #a;d4 = ! dr$g+ & #c_/h;d4 = tak+ to sea--a lead ( two miles--all mat]ials be+ suppli$ to him4 ,! consumption ( coal is at ! rate ( ab\t #a ton = #a1jjj tons ( s& dr$g$4 ,at ,l[e/(t ,h>bor ! total am\nt ( dr$g+ has be5 ab\t #bjj1jjj tons ye>ly1 b ?is is n[ mu* r$uc$ 9 consequ5ce ( ! pi] ext5sion rec5tly con/ruct$ by ! au?or1 :i* n[ prev5ts ! s& & %+le f ! sea block+ ! m\? ( ! h>bor4 ,! total co/ ( work+ has be5 #b4egb;d4 p] ton4 :i* ) #aj p] c5t int]e/ on capital1 #j4bdj;d41 makes ! total co/ p] ton #b4hab;d4 ,! repairs to /eam tug1 hopp]1 b>ges1 & dr$g] h av]ag$ ab\t #b;d4 p] ton4 ,be=e ! discussion on ! pap] comm5c$1 ,mr4 ,langley rem>k$ t attempts _h be5 made to connect ! eng9e direct to ! pump ( a ,baz9 dr$g]1 b ?is arrangem5t fail$1 & ! belt act$ z a safety arrangem5t & prev5t$ breakage by slipp+ :5 ! pump 0 *ok$ 9 any way4 ,a new lock 0 con/ruct$ ne> ,l[e/(t a %ort "t ago1 & ! dr$g] pump 0 us$ to empty x2 :5 half empty ! m5 plac$ a net 9 front ( ! deliv]y pipe & caught a c>tload ( fi%1 _m ( :i* :]e un9jur$4 ,9 ! discussion ,mr4 ,wallick1 :o _h sup]9t5d$ ! use ( ! dr$g] at ,l[5/(t1 gave "s ( 8 exp]i5ce !re1 & repeat$ ! in=mation & op9ions giv5 by ,mr4 ,langley 9 ! pap]4 ,mr4 ,ball1 ,london ag5t = ,m4 ,baz91 said t z devis$ by ,m4 ,baz9 ! pump 0 plac$ bel[ wat] level1 s t ! head ( wat] outside %\ld be utiliz$2 b he--,mr4 ,ball--n[ plac$ ! pump consid]ably above wat] level1 z no specially =m$ craft 0 ?us necess>y4 ,he also describ$ "s ( ! /eps by :i* he _h arriv$ at ! pres5t arrangem5ts ( ! :ole plant1 & gave "s p>ticul>s ( its work+4 ,mr4 ,crampton ask$ "s que/ions1 9 reply to :i* ,mr4 ,ball said ! longe/ di/ance !y _h c>ri$ ! mat]ial 0 #a1bjj y>ds 9 two relays--namely1 a second pump on a float+ b>ge ) special eng9e4 ,! di/ance to :i* !y c\ld c>ry ! mat]ial dep5d$ ^u its "*4 ,f9e s& w\ld travel well2 mud w\ld n1 b[ld]s w\ld n1 ?\gh gravel w\ld4 ,to give ! wat] a rot>y motion he _h ins]t$ a helical piece ( angle iron1 & s prev5t$ deposition4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,dang] ,,f ,,lightn+ ,,9 ,,bla/+4 ,al?\gh ! accid5t 9 ! tunnel 9 process ( con/ruction at ,union ,hill by ! ,new ,york1 ,ont>io1 & ,we/]n ,railroad ,company1 :i* took place on ,tuesday aft]noon1 0 happily att5d$ ) no loss ( life or s]i\s injuries to ! m5 employ$ 9 ! %aft1 x reads a new lesson z to ! fir+ ( *>ges ( p[d] by electricity1 & "o t %\ld be c>efully not$ by railway & civil eng9e]s1 & ev5 by ! torp$o s]vice ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,! exact cause ( ! explosion has sc>cely be5 fully & accurately set =? by ! v>i\s reports ( ! affair4 ,x appe>s t ! wires usually employ$ lo supply ! electric lamps 9 ! excavation 7 us$ = ! purpose ( fir+ ! *>ges1 be+ disconnect$ f ! electric light sy/em = ! mom5t & connect$ ) ! explosives4 ,z a rule1 six *>ges 7 fir$ toge!r1 ^? ( ! aft]noon relay ( m5 be+ explod$ at v regul> h\rs--! la/ usually at #e3de ,p4,m4 ,!re 7 only sixte5 m5 9 ! %aft1 & ! "w ( connect+ ! wires _h comm5c$1 :5 ! fla% ( lightn+ t occurr$ at #e3db ,p4,m41 sudd5ly *>g$ ! conductors & produc$ ! explosion4 ,!re 7 two fla%es ( lightn+ betwe5 ! h\rs ( #e & #f o'clock ,tuesday aft]noon1 ! fir/ tak+ place at #e3bc1 & ! second n9ete5 m9utes lat]4 ,! =m]1 accord+ to te/imony elicit$ by our report]1 simply caus$ a slight p]turbation ( ! lights 9 ! tunnel1 b did n ext+ui% !m4 ,five m9utes lat] ! "w ( disconnection & reconnection began1 b only two ( ! six *>ges 7 ready = ! pressure ( ! button :5 ! la/ fla% int]rupt$ ! proce$+s4 ,! fact t ! "t ( ! explosion correspond$ to ! second ) t ( ! a]ial electrical dis*>ge furni%es indubitable evid5ce t ! accid5t 0 n caus$ by any c>elessness on ! "p ! electrician 9 *>ge1 & exon]ates all p>ties f blame4 ,at ! same "t x %\ld be rememb]$ by eng9e]s 9 ( su* "w t atmosph]ic electricity _c be altoge!r disreg>d$ 9 su* cases1 & t z a s\rce ( accid5t x may at any "t prove dang]\s4 ,! concurr5ce ( circum/ances on ,tuesday 0 p>ticul>ly =tunate4 ,9 ! fir/ in/ance only two ( ! six *>ges _h be5 connect$ ) ! fir+ batt]y1 & 9 ! second ! rock 9 :i* ! *>ges 7 ins]t$ 0 s peculi>ly s(t & por\s z to dead5 ! =ce ( ! eight p\nds ( giant p[d] ?us prematurely set (f4 ,_h ! c>tridges be5 set 9 ! h>d] & m solid rock ( ! ea/ head+1 in/ead ( ! we/1 & ! explosion tak5 place !re1 probably n a man 9 ! %aft w\ld h escap$ de/ruction4 ,! lesson to eng9e]s is "o ( no less importance ?an if ! :ole numb] ( m5 _h be5 kill$1 & %\ld lead to ! ex]cise ( great c>e & precaution at times :5 ! air is *>g$ ) electrical en]gy4--,new ,york ,times4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,ca/ ,,iron ,,9 ,,ar*itecture4 ,:atev] may be ! misgiv+s ent]ta9$ by _m eng9e]s respect+ ! future use ( ca/ iron = /ructures ( c]ta9 k9ds1 x is cle> t = ar*itectural purposes ?is mat]ial is likely to be employ$ to an ext5t h>dly contemplat$ by _m :o h look$ ^u x ) disfavor4 ,at ! pres5t mom5t _m build+s may be se5 9 ,london1 9 :i* ca/ iron has be5 introduc$ in/ead ( /one = ar*itectural features1 & ! sub/itution ( ca/ iron = faades 9 _m w>eh\ses & comm]cial build+s seems to %[ t1 not)/&+ ! prejudices ( ! ,engli% ar*itect aga9/ ! importation ( ! iron ar*itecture ( our transatlantic bre?r51 !re is a prospect ( its be+ l>gely employ$ = frontages 9 :i* ample light+ & /r5g? are ne$$4 ,! ext5sive w9d[ space necess>y 9 n>r[ city ?or\ghf>es1 & ! difficulty ( employ+ brick 9 l>ge masses1 su* z pila/]s & l9tels1 h *iefly l$ to ! adoption ( mat]ial hav+ less ( ! unc]ta9 durability & /r5g? ( ei!r /one or t]ra-cotta 9 its favor4 ,ar*itects w\ld gladly resort to ! la/-nam$ mat]ial if x c\ld be procur$ 9 suffici5t size & mass )\t ! difficulties att5dant ^u %r9kage 9 ! burn+1 & ! w9d+ & unev5ness ( ! l9es !reby caus$4 ,!y h also an ev5 m tractable mat]ial 9 concrete ready to _! h&1 if !y w\ld s]i\sly br+ !mselves to ! task ( /amp+ an expressive art ^u x1 in/ead ( go+ on design+ concrete h\ses z if !y 7 /one ones4 ,ca/ iron has ! advantage ( be+ a tri$ mat]ial2 x is well adapt$ = /ructures n liable to sudd5 weights or to vibration1 & s x has come to be us$ = features ( an ar*itectural k9d1 by a sort ( tacit ackn[l$gm5t 9 its favor4 ,^? :o are desir\s ( see+ examples ( its employm5t 9 fronts ( w>eh\ses w f9d in/ances 9 ,que5 ,victoria ,/reet1 ,s\?w>k ,/reet1 & ,bridge ,road1 & ,!obalds ,road1 :]e ! :ole or portions ( fronts h be5 con/ruct$ ( ca/ iron4 ,at "s corn] premises 9 ,s\?w>k1 ! pi]s z well z ! w9d[s are =m$ ( ca/ iron1 ! =m] be+ made to assume ! appe>ance ( project+ pila/]s4 ,!re is no?+ to :i* ! mo/ capti\s critic c\ld object 9 ! treatm5t adopt$ "h2 ! pila/]s & o!r features h pla9 m\ld$ memb]s1 & !re is no pr9ciple ( design 9 ca/ "w :i* has be5 violat$--! only "q be+ ! purely ae/hetic "o--is x ju/ifiable to copy features 9 ca/ iron :i* h g5]ally be5 con/ruct$ 9 /one or m>ble8 ,! answ] is obvi\s3 ,c]ta9ly n1 :5 ^? features sugge/ ! mass & proportions or treatm5t prop] only = /one or m>ble2 b :5 !y d n s repres5t ! mat]ial1 x is q optional = ! ar*itect to build up 8 front ) ca/+s1 if by s do+ he c obta9 great] rigidity ( be>+1 /r5g?1 & durability4 ,he ought1 ( c\rse1 to v>y ! proportions ( 8 pila/]s & horizontal l9tels1 & make !m m 9 accord ) ! mat]ial4 ,x is ! :olesale reproduction ( ! m co/ly & ornam5tal features1 su* z we see 9 _m build+s ( ,new ,york & ,philadelphia1 :]e :ole fronts are manufactur$ ( ca/ iron & %eet-metal1 :i* has %ock$ ! m9ds ( ar*itects ( culture & s5sitive feel+4 ,su* imitations & *eap displays outrage ! arti/ by ! attempt to produce 9 ca/ or roll$ metal :at prop]ly belongs to a /one front4 ,be>+ ?is di/9ction 9 m9d1 we are n presum+ too mu* to ass]t t ar*itects h 9 ca/ iron1 :5 prop]ly employ$ "u c]ta9 re/rictions1 a mat]ial :i* might be turn$ to acc\nt 9 n>r[ fronts :]e ! use ( brick or /one pi]s w\ld encroa* too mu* ^u ! space = light4 ,= w>eh\se fronts1 we h evid5ce = ?9k+ t ! employm5t ( iron might be att5d$ ) advantage1 especially 9 comb9ation ) brickwork = ! ma9 v]tical pi]s4 ,pla9 classic m\ld+s1 capitals & bases ( ! ,doric or ,tuscan ord]1 are well suit$ = ca/-iron supports to l9tels or gird]s4 ,9 "o attempt to make use ( ! /ructural features ( ! latt]1 ! fronts ( ! gird]s betwe5 ! pi]s are divid$ into panels1 ! flanges & /iff5+ pieces to ! webs =m+ an effective framework = ca/ or appli$ ornam5t to be introduc$4 ,! iron framework ?us con/ruct$ l5ds itself to ! m9or divisions ( ! w9d[ op5+s1 :i* c be ( wood4 ,9 ! new ,lead5 ,hall & ,metropolitan ,fruit & ,vegetable ,m>kets1 ca/-iron fronts h be5 l>gely employ$1 consi/+ ( /an*ions ca/ 9 ! =m ( pila/]s1 ) horizontal connections & o!r ar*itectural memb]s4 ,reg>d+ ! m con/ructive aspects ( ca/ iron1 ! employm5t ( x 9 fronts hav+ num]\s po9ts ( support & small be>+s is cle>ly )9 ! capabilities ( ! mat]ial4 ,s long z x is us$ 9 positions 9 :i* its resi/ance to compression is ! *ief (fice x has to fulfill1 ca/ iron is 9 its "r place4 ,9 ! fronts ( build+s1 !re=e1 :]e x is made to c>ry ! floors & roll$ joi/s1 & ! l9tels ( op5+s1 ei!r z pi]s1 pila/]s1 or simply z mullions ( w9d[s1 x is /rictly )9 its legitimate functions4 ,s ) reg>d to l9tels & heads ( op5+s :]e %ort spans exi/1 ca/ iron is free f ! objection t c be urg$ aga9/ x = long gird]s4 ,9 fact1 no position is bett] fitt$ = a brittle1 granul> mat]ial ?an t ( a v]tical framework to receive w9d[s & ornam5tation1 & = su* purposes ca/ iron is1 to our m9ds1 admirably suit$4 ,= bridge-build+ ! value ( ?is metal has lately be5 mu* disput$1 ?\gh we h sev]al notable examples ( its use 9 ! e>li] days = su* /ructures4 ,9 fact1 ! use ( ca/ iron = /ructural purposes is n old] ?an ! "t ( ,smeaton1 :o 9 #agee employ$ x = mill con/ruction1 & ab\t ! same "t ! great ,coalbrookdale ,viaduct 0 erect$ across ! ,sev]n ne> ,broseley1 :i* gave an impetus to ! use ( ca/ iron = bridge con/ruction4 ,! viaduct _h a span ( #ajj feet1 & 0 compos$ ( ribs ca/ 9 two pieces2 x 0 erect$ f ca/+s design$ by ,mr4 ,prit*>d1 ( ,%rewsbury1 an ar*itect1 & ?is circum/ance is wor?y ( note z %[+ t an ar*itect really 0 ! fir/ to employ ?is mat]ial = important /ructural "w1 & t ! same pr(ession 0 ! fir/ to reject x ^u traditional gr\nds4 ,x is q c]ta91 h[ev]1 ! bridge-build] lo/ no "t 9 try+ 8 h& ^u s tractable a mat]ial2 = n long aft] ,tel=d erect$ a bridge at ,buildwas ( ev5 a great] span1 & ! fam\s ca/-iron bridge ov] ! riv] ,we> at ,sund]l& 0 erect$ f ! designs ( ,?omas ,pa9e1 ! au?or ( ! ,age ( ,reason4 ,iron bridges quickly foll[$ ^u ^! e>ly exp]im5ts1 = we he> ( sev]al be+ built on ! ar*$ sy/em1 & l>ge cotton-mills be+ erect$ ^u firepro( pr9ciples at ! comm5cem5t ( ! pres5t c5tury1 ! iron gird]s & columns ( "o mill be+ design$ by ,b\lton & ,watt4 ,a little lat]1 ,eaton ,hodgk9son prov$ by exp]im5ts ! unc]ta9ty ( ca/ iron ) reg>d to t5sile /r5g?1 :i* he %[$ to be mu* less ?an _h be5 /at$ by ,tr$gold4 ,ca/ iron 0 aft]w>ds l>gely adopt$ by eng9e]s4 ,! exp]im5ts ( ,hodgk9son suppli$ a safe f\ndation ( facts to "w ^u1 & ca/ iron has ev] s9ce reta9$ its hold4 ,?omas ,pa9e's celebrat$ bridge at ,sund]l& _h a span ( #bcf feet & a rise ( #cd feet1 & 0 con/ruct$ ( six ribs1 & is rem>kable f ! fact t ! ar*$ gird] pr9ciple us$ 9 ! ,coalbrookdale & ,buildwas bridges 0 reject$1 t ! ribs 7 compos$ ( segm5ts or v\ssoirs1 ea* made up ( #abe p>ts1 ?us treat+ ! mat]ial 9 ! mann] ( /one4 ,ea* v\ssoir 0 a ca/-iron fram$ piece two feet long & five feet 9 dep?1 & ^! 7 bolt$ toge!r4 ,! ,s\?w>k bridge ov] ! ,?ames1 by ,sir ,john ,r5nie1 foll[$1 9 :i* a simil> pr9ciple ( con/ruction is adopt$4 ,!re is mu* to be said 9 favor ( a sy/em :i* puts ea* rib "u compression 9 ! mann] ( a /one ar*1 & :i* builds up a rib f a numb] ( small pieces4 ,at lea/1 x is a sy/em bas$ on ! legitimate use ( ca/ iron = con/ructive purposes4 ,! l>ge segm5tal ca/+s us$ 9 ! ,pimlico bridge1 & ! new bridge ov] ! ,tr5t at ,nott+ham1 f ,mr4 ,m4 ,o4 ,t>botton's design1 are excell5t examples ( ! ar*$ gird] sy/em4 ,! ,nott+ham bridge has ea* rib made up ( ?ree ,i-%ap$ segm5ts bolt$ toge!r & unit$ transv]sely2 ! span is #ajj feet 9 ea* ( ! ?ree op5+s1 & ! ribs are ?ree feet deep at ! spr++1 dim9i%+ ab\t six in*es at ! cr[n4 ,we h yet to le>n :y eng9e]s h ab&on$ ! ar*$ bridge = ! wr\ght iron gird] sy/em1 except t ! latt] is consid]$ m economical1 & bett] fitt$ = be>+ t5sile /ress4 ,ca/-iron bridges con/ruct$ z rigid ar*es1 subject to compression & compos$ ( small p>ts1 h all ! me*anical advantages ( /one )\t "s ( its drawbacks1 :ile arti/ically !y c be made satisfactory erections4--,build+ ,news4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,sir ,w4 ,,pallis]4 ,we ann\nce ) regret ! dea? ( ,major ,sir ,william ,pallis]1 :i* took place sudd5ly on ,febru>y #d1 #ahhb4 ,sir ,william _h be5 suff]+ f disease ( ! he>t = a consid]able p]iod1 b we believe t no "o anticipat$ t ! end 0 s ne>4 ,= "s tw5ty ye>s ,sir ,william _h devot$ himself to ! improvem5t ( guns1 projectiles1 & armor4 ,to him is attribut$ ! inv5tion ( ! *ill$-head$ projectiles :i* are kn[n by 8 "n4 ,!re seems to be no d\bt t *ill$ projectiles 7 sugge/$ at ,woolwi* ,ars5al1 & ev5 made1 be=e ,sir ,william took ! matt] up1 b !re is excell5t reason to believe t ,sir ,william knew no?+ ( ?is1 & t ! inv5tion 0 orig9al ) him2 at all ev5ts1 he1 aid$ by ! ef=ts ( ! f\ndry & ! laboratory at ,woolwi*1 br\ght ^! projectiles to p]fection1 & unless /eel-fac$ armor defeat !m !y _c be said to h z yet met _! mat*4 ,a mo/ valuable inv5tion ( ! deceas$ (fic] 0 ! cut-d[n screw bolt = secur+ armor plates to %ips & ports4 ,x 0 at "o "t fe>$ t no fa/5+ c\ld be got = armor plates1 z on ! impact ( a %ot ! heads or ! nuts always flew (f ! bolts4 ,! fracture usually took place j at ! po9t :]e ! screw-?read t]m9at$4 ,sir ,william adopt$ ! bold c\rse ( actually weak5+ ! bolt 9 ! middle ( its l5g? by turn+ x d[n1 s t ! screw /&s rais$ up in/ead ( be+ cut into ! bolt1 & by ?is simple device he *ang$ ! :ole face ( affairs1 & ! exp$i5t appli$ 9 o!r ways1 su* z by drill+ holes longitud9ally d[n bolts1 has s9ce be5 ext5sively adopt$ :]e great immunity f fracture is requir$4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 = ! well-kn[n conv]t$ gun t ,sir ,william ,pallis]'s "n w be be/ rememb]$4 ,:5 our smoo?-bore ca/ iron guns became obsolete !y 7 conv]t$ into ! rifl$ comp\nd guns by a process :i* l$ to _! be+ kn[n z ,pallis] guns4 ,! plan 0 to bore out a ca/ iron gun & !n to ins]t a wr\ght iron rifl$ b>rel consi/+ ( two tubes ( coil$ iron "o inside ! o!r4 ,by ! fir+ ( a pro( *>ge ! wr\ght iron b>rel 0 tight5$ inside ! ca/ iron cas+4 ,by ?is means we obta9$ a conv]t$ gun at "o-?ird ( ! co/ ( a new gun1 & sav$ #adj on a #fd-p\nd] & #baj on an #hj-p\nd]4 ,! process ( conv]sion involv$ no *ange 9 ! ext]nal %ape ( ! gun1 & x c\ld1 !re=e1 be replac$ ^u ! c>riage & plat=m to :i* x =m]ly belong$4 ,! conv]t$ guns 7 plac$ ^u wood5 frigates & corvettes & ^u ! l& fronts ( =tifications1 & 7 adopt$ = ! def5se ( h>bors4 ,! _m s]vices ,sir ,william ,pallis] _h r5d]$ to ! sci5ce ( artill]y secur$ him ! ,companion%ip ( ! ,ba? 9 #ahfh1 & knigh?ood 9 #ahgc4 ,9 #ahgd he receiv$ a =mal ackn[l$gm5t f ! ,lords ( ! ,admiralty ( ! effici5cy ( 8 armor bolts = ironclad %ips4 ,8 guns h be5 l>gely made 9 ,am]ica & else:]e abroad2 & 9 #ahge he receiv$ f ! ,k+ ( ,italy ! ,cross ( ,comm&] ( ! ,cr[n ( ,italy4 ,! y\nge/ son ( ,lieut5ant ,colonel ,wray ,pallis]--,wat]=d ,militia--he 0 born 9 ,dubl9 9 #ahcj1 & 0 !re=e only fifty-two ye>s ( age4 ,he 0 educat$ successively at ,rugby1 at ,tr9ity ,college1 ,dubl91 & at ,tr9ity ,hall1 ,cambridge1 &1 f9ally pass+ ?r\gh ! ,/aff ,college at ,s&hur/1 he ent]$ ! ,rifle ,brigade 9 #ahee1 & 0 transf]r$ to ! ,eighte5? ,huss>s 9 #aheh4 ,he rema9$ 9 ! s]vice to ! end ( #ahga1 :5 he retir$ by ! sale ( 8 commission4 ,at ! g5]al election ( #ahhj1 ,sir ,william ,pallis] 0 return$ z a ,cons]vative at ! head ( ! poll = ,taunton4 ,9 ! ,h\se ( ,commons ,sir ,william gave 8 *ief att5tion to ! sci5tific matt]s on :i* 8 au?ority 0 s g5]ally recogniz$4 ,"u ! _m disappo9tm5ts & unk9d cuts1 :i* fall to ! lot ( ! mo/ successful inv5tors1 ,sir ,william ,pallis] display$ qualities t won he>ty admiration4 ,! confid5ce ) :i* he left 8 la/ well-kn[n exp]im5t to be c>ri$ out 9 8 own abs5ce almo/ "u ! directions ( ^? ^: pr(essional op9ions 7 adv]se to 8 own1 may be call$ *ivalr\s4 ,8 lib]ality & k9dness ( ,colonel ( ! second ,middlesex ,artill]y ,volunte]s _h ga9$ him ! affection ( ! entire corps2 9 %ort1 :]e x might naturally be expect$ t he %\ld w9 respect1 he won ! love ( ^? :o 7 ?r[n ) him4--,! ,eng9e]4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,c$>s ,,( ,,lebanon4--,regulations 7 lately issu$ by ,ru/em ,pa%a = ! guidance ( travel]s & o!rs visit+ ! ,c$>s ( ,lebanon4 ,^! v5]able trees h n[ be5 f5c$ 91 b1 ) c]ta9 re/rictions1 !y w cont9ue to be accessible to all :o wi% to inspect !m4 ,9 future no encampm5ts w be p]mitt$ )9 ! enclosure1 except 9 ! "p m>k$ out = t purpose by ! keep]1 nor may any cook+ or camp fires be light$ ne> ! trees4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,! ,,me*anical ,,production ,,( ,,electric ,,curr5ts4 ,! object ( ^! articles is to lay d[n 9 ! simple/ & mo/ intelligible way ! pr9ciples :i* are conc]n$ 9 ! me*anical production ( electric curr5ts4 ,e "o kn[s n[ t electric lights are produc$ f p[]ful curr5ts ( electricity g5]at$ 9 a ma*9e conta9+ magnets & coils ( wire1 & driv5 by a /eam eng9e1 or gas eng9e1 or wat]-:eel4 ,b ( ! ?\s&s :o h he>d t a /eam eng9e c ?us provide u ) electric curr5ts1 h[ _m are !re :o compreh5d ! action ( ! g5]ator or dynamo-electric ma*9e8 ,h[ _m1 ( eng9e]s ev51 c expla9 :]e ! electricity comes f1 or h[ ! me*anical p[] is conv]t$ into electrical en]gy1 or :at ! magnetism ( ! iron magnets has to d ) x all8 ,take any "o ( ! dynamo-electric ma*9es ( ! pres5t date--! ,siem5s1 ! ,gramme1 ! ,bru%1 or ! ,edison ma*9e--( ea* ( ^! !re exi/ descriptions excell5t 9 _! way1 & suffici5t = m5 already v]s$ 9 ! te*nicalities ( electric sci5ce4 ,b to ^? :o h n s]v$ an appr5tice%ip to ! te*nicalities--to all b pr(ess$ electricians--! action ( ^! ma*9es is almo/ an unkn[n my/]y4 ,z1 h[ev]1 an und]/&+ ( ! h[ & ! :y ( ! dynamo-electric ma*9e or g5]ator is ! v ,a ,b ,c ( electrical eng9e]+1 an exposition ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciples ( ! me*anical production ( electric curr5ts dem&s an important place 9 ! curr5t sci5ce ( ! day4 ,x w be our endeavor to exp\nd ^! pr9ciples 9 ! pla9e/ t]ms1 :ile at ! same "t sacrific+ no?+ 9 po9t ( sci5tific accuracy or ( ess5tial detail4 ,! mod]n dynamo-electric ma*9e or g5]ator may be reg>d$ z a comb9ation ( iron b>s & copp] wires1 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! ma*9]y be+ fix$1 :ile o!r p>ts are driv5 r\nd by ! application ( me*anical =ces4 ,h[ ! movem5t ( copp] wires & iron b>s 9 ?is peculi> arrangem5t c g5]ate electric curr5ts is ! po9t :i* we are propos+ to make cle>4 ,friction has no?+ to d ) ! matt]4 ,! old-fa%ion$ sp>k-produc+ electrical ma*9e ( our y\?ful days1 9 :i* a glass cyl9d] or disk 0 rotat$ by a h&le :ile a rubb] ( silk press$ aga9/ x1 has no?+ 9 common ) ! dynamo-electric g5]ator1 except t 9 bo? some?+ turns ^u an axis z a gr9d/one or ! b>rel ( a b>rel-organ may d4 ,9 ! mod]n dynamo we _c help hav+ friction at ! be>+s & contact pieces1 x is true1 b !re %\ld be no o!r friction4 ,! mov+ coils ( wire or armatures %\ld rotate freely )\t t\*+ ! iron pole-pieces ( ! fix$ portion ( ! ma*9e4 ,9 fact friction w\ld be fatal to ! action ( ! dynamo4 ,h[ !n does x act8 ,we w proce$ to expla9 )\t fur!r delay4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 ?ree fundam5tal pr9ciples to be borne 9 m9d if we w\ld foll[ ! explanation cle>ly f /ep to /ep1 & ^! ?ree pr9ciples mu/ be laid d[n at ! v outset4 #a4 ,! fir/ pr9ciple is t ! exi/5ce ( ! en]gy ( electric curr5ts1 & also ! en]gy ( magnetic attractions1 mu/ be s\ght = n s mu* 9 ! wire t c>ries ! curr5t1 or 9 ! b> ( /eel or iron t we call a magnet1 z 9 ! space t surr\nds ! wire or ! b>4 #b4 ,! second fundam5tal pr9ciple is t ! electric curr5t is1 9 "o s5se1 q z mu* a magnetic fact z an electrical fact2 & t ! wire :i* c>ries a curr5t ?r\gh x has magnetic prop]ties 7s long z ! curr5t fl[s7 & c attract bits ( iron to itself z a /eel magnet does4 #c4 ,! ?ird pr9ciple to be borne 9 m9d is t to d "w ( any k9d1 :e!r me*anical or electrical1 requires ! exp5diture ( en]gy to a c]ta9 am\nt4 ,! /eam eng9e _c "w )\t its coal1 nor ! labor] )\t 8 food2 nor w a flame g on burn+ )\t its fuel ( "s k9d or o!r4 ,nei!r c an electric curr5t g on fl[+1 nor an electric light keep on %$d+ =? its beams1 )\t a con/ant supply ( en]gy f "s s\rce or o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,! la/ ( ^! ?ree pr9ciples1 involv+ ! relation ( electric curr5ts to ! "w !y c d & to ! en]gy exp5d$ 9 _! production1 w be treat$ ( sep>ately & lat]4 ,meantime we resume ! task ( %[+ h[ su* curr5ts c be produc$ me*anically1 & h[ magnetism comes 9 9 ! process4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b ,surr\nd+ e magnet !re is a field or region 9 :i* ! magnetic =ces act4 ,any small magnet1 su* = example z a compass ne$le1 :5 br\ght into ?is field ( =ce1 exhibits a t5d5cy to set itself 9 a c]ta9 direction4 ,x turns s z to po9t ) its nor? pole t[>d ! s\? pole ( ! magnet1 & ) its s\? pole t[>d ! nor? pole ( ! magnet2 or if x _c d bo? ^! ?+s at once1 x takes up an int]m$iate position "u ! jo9t action ( ! sep>ate =ces & sets 9 along a c]ta9 l9e4 ,su* l9es ( =ce run ?r\gh ! magnetic field f "o pole ( ! magnet to ! o!r 9 curves4 ,if we def9e a l9e ( =ce z be+ ! l9e along :i* a free nor?-seek+ magnetic pole w\ld be urg$1 !n ^! l9es w run f ! nor? pole ( ! magnet r\nd to ! s\? pole1 & pass ?r\gh ! sub/ance ( ! magnet itself4 ,9 ,fig4 #a a r\gh sket* is giv5 ( ! l9es ( magnetic =ce z !y em]ge f ! poles ( a b> magnet 9 tufts4 ,! arr[ heads %[ ! direction 9 :i* a free nor? pole w\ld move4 ,^! l9es ( =ces are no fiction ( ! imag9ation1 l ! l9es ( latitude & longitude on ! globe2 !y exi/ & c be r5d]$ visible by ! simple/ ( exp$i5ts4 ,:5 iron fil+s are spr9kl$ ^u a c>d or a %eet ( glass bel[ :i* a magnet is plac$1 ! fil+s set !mselves--especially if aid$ by a g5tle tap--along ! l9es ( =ce4 ,fig4 #b is a reproduction f nature ( ?is v exp]im5t1 & surpasses any attempt to draw ! l9es ( =ce artificially4 ,x is impossible to magnetize a magnet )\t also 9 ?is fa%ion magnetiz+ ! space surr\nd+ ! magnet2 & ! space ?us fill$ ) ! l9es ( =ce possesses prop]ties :i* ord9>y unmagnetic space does n possess4 ,^! l9es give u def9ite in=mation ab\t ! magnetic condition ( ! space :]e !y are4 ,_! direction %[s u ! direction ( ! magnetic =ces1 & _! d5sity %[s u ! /r5g? ( ! magnetic =ces2 = :]e ! =ce is /ronge/ !re we h ! l9es ( =ce mo/ num]\s & mo/ /rongly del9eat$ 9 ! scatt]$ fil+s4 ,to complete ?is fir/ consid]ation ( ! magnetic field surr\nd+ a magnet1 we w take a look at ,fig4 #c1 :i* reproduces ! l9es ( fil+s z !y settle 9 ! field ( =ce opposite ! end ( a b> magnet4 ,! repulsion ( ! nor? pole ( ! magnet ^u ! nor? poles ( o!r magnets w\ld be1 ( c\rse1 9 l9es div]g+ radially f ! magnet pole4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c ,we w next consid] ! space surr\nd+ a wire ?r\gh :i* a curr5t ( electricity is fl[+4 ,?is wire has magnetic prop]ties s long z ! curr5t cont9ues1 & w1 l a magnet1 act on a compass ne$le4 ,b ! ne$le nev] tries to po9t t[>d ! wire2 its t5d5cy is always to set itself broadside to ! curr5t & at "r angles to x4 ,! field ( a curr5t fl[+ up a /raight wire is1 9 fact1 n unlike ! sket* %[n 9 ,fig4 #d1 :]e in/ead ( tuft$ gr\ps we h a sort ( magnetic :irl to repres5t ! l9es ( =ce4 ,! l9es ( =ce ( ! galvanic field are1 inde$1 circles or curves :i* inclose ! conduct+ wire1 & _! numb] is proportional to ! /r5g? ( ! curr5t4 ,9 ! figure1 :]e ! curr5t is suppos$ to be fl[+ up ! wire 7%[n by ! d>k arr[s71 ! little arr[s %[ ! direction 9 :i* a free nor? pole w\ld be urg$ r\nd ! wire2#a a s\? pole w\ld1 ( c\rse1 be urg$ r\nd ! wire 9 ! contr>y direction4 ,n[1 ?\gh :5 we look at ! telegraph wires1 or at any wire c>ry+ a curr5t ( electricity1 we _c see ^! :irls ( magnetic =ce 9 ! surr\nd+ space1 !re is no d\bt t !y exi/ !re1 & t a great "p ( ! en]gy sp5t 9 />t+ an electric curr5t is sp5t 9 produc+ ^! magnetic :irls 9 ! surr\nd+ space4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 "o way ( %[+ ! exi/5ce ( ^! l9es ( =ce2 simil>1 inde$1 to t adopt$ = %[+ ! l9es ( =ce 9 ! field surr\nd+ a magnet4 ,pass ! conduct+ wire up ?r\gh a hole 9 a c>d or a plate ( glass1 z %[n 9 ,fig4 #e1 & spr9kle fil+s ov] ! surface4 ,!y w1 :5 ! glass is g5tly tapp$1 arrange !mselves 9 conc5tric circles1 ! smalle/ & inn]mo/ be+ ! be/ def9$ because ! magnetic =ce is /ronge/ !re4 ,fig #f is an actual reproduction ( ! circul> l9es produc$ 9 ?is fa%ion by iron fil+s 9 ! field ( =ce surr\nd+ an electric curr5t4 ,footnote #a3 ,x w n be out ( place "h to recall ,amp]e's +5i\s rule = rememb]+ ! direction 9 :i* a curr5t urges ! pole ( a magnetic ne$le4 ,suppose a man swimm+ 9 ! wire ) ! curr5t1 & t he turns s z to face ! ne$le1 !n ! nor? pole ( ! ne$le w be deflect$ t[>d 8 left h&4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d ,?is exp]im5tal evid5ce mu/ suffice to e/abli% two ( ! ?ree fundam5tal po9ts /at$ at ! outset1 = !y prove conclusively t ! electric curr5t may be treat$ z a magnetic ph5om5on1 & t bo? 9 ! case ( ! pole ( a magnet1 & 9 t ( ! wire :i* c>ries a curr5t1 a portion1 at any rate1 ( ! en]gy ( ! magnetic =ces exi/s outside ! magnet or ! curr5t1 & mu/ be s\ght 9 ! surr\nd+ space4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f ,hav+ grasp$ ^! two po9ts1 ! next /ep 9 our argum5t is to e/abli% ! relation betwe5 ! curr5t & ! magnet1 & to %[ h[ "o may produce ! o!r4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g ,if we w9d a piece ( copp] wire into a helix or spiral1 z 9 ,fig4 #g1 & pass a curr5t ( electricity ?r\gh x1 ! magnetic :irls 9 ! surr\nd+ space are modifi$1 & ! l9es ( =ce are no long] small circles wrapp+ r\nd ! conduct+ wire4 ,= n[ ! l9es ( =ce ( adjac5t /r&s ( ! coil m]ge into "o ano!r1 & run cont9u\sly ?r\gh ! helix f "o end to ! o!r4 ,comp>e ?is figure ) ,fig4 #a1 & ! simil>ity 9 ! arrangem5t ( ! l9es ( =ce is obvi\s4 ,! front end ( ! helix acts1 9 fact1 l ! nor? pole ( a magnet1 & ! fur!r end l ! s\? pole4 ,if a small b> ( iron be n[ pu%$ into ! int]ior ( ?is helix1 ! l9es ( =ce w run ?r\gh x & magnetize x1 conv]t+ x into an electro-magnet4 ,! magnetic field ( su* an electro-magnet is %[n 9 ,fig4 #h1 :i* is reproduc$ f ! actual figure made by iron fil+s4 ,to magnetize ! iron b> ( ! electro-magnet z /rongly z possible ! wire %\ld be coil$ _m times r\nd1 & ! curr5t %\ld be z /rong z possible4 ,?is mode ( mak+ an iron rod or b> into a p[]ful magnet is adopt$ 9 e dynamo-electric ma*9e4 ,=1 z w be pres5tly expla9$1 v p[]ful magnets are requir$1 & ^! magnets are mo/ effectively made by s5d+ ! electric curr5ts ?r\gh spiral coils ( wire w\nd 7z 9 ,fig4 #h7 r\nd ! b>s t are to be made into magnets4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h ,! read] w at ?is po9t probably be ready to jump to ! conclusion t magnets & curr5ts are alike surr\nd$ by a sort ( magnetic atmosph]e1 & su* a view may help ^? to :om ! subject is fre% to realize h[ su* actions z we h be5 describ+ c be communicat$ f "o magnet to ano!r1 or f a curr5t to a magnet4 ,nev]!less su* a conclusion w\ld be bo? premature & inaccurate4 ,ev5 9 ! mo/ p]fect vacuum ^! actions /ill g on1 & ! l9es ( =ce c /ill be trac$4 ,x is probably m correct to conclude t ^! magnetic actions are propagat$ ?r\gh space n by special magnetic atmosph]es1 b by !re be+ movem5ts & pressures & t5sions 9 ! e!r :i* is believ$ to p]vade all space z a v ?9 m$ium m att5uat$ ?an ! lighte/ gas1 & :i* :5 subject$ to electro-magnetic =ces assumes a peculi> /ate1 & gives rise to ! actions :i* h be5 detail$ 9 ! prec$+ p>agraphs4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4 ,! next po9t to be /udi$ is ! magnetic prop]ty ( a s+le loop ( ! wire ?r\gh :i* an electric curr5t fl[s4 ,fig4 #i repres5ts a s+le voltaic cell conta9+ ! usual plates ( z9c & copp] dipp+ into acid to g5]ate a curr5t 9 ! old-fa%ion$ way4 ,?is curr5t fl[s f ! z9c plate ?r\gh ! liquid to ! copp] plate1 & f !nce x fl[s r\nd ! wire r+ or circuit back to ! z9c plate4 ,"h ! l9es ( magnetic =ce 9 ! surr\nd+ space are no long] only :irls l ^? drawn 9 ,fig4 #d & #f1 = !y react on "o ano!r & become ne>ly p>allel :]e !y pass ?r\gh ! middle ( ! r+4 ,! ?ick arr[s %[ ! direction ( ! electric curr5t1 ! f9e arr[s are ! l9es ( magnetic =ce1 & %[ ! pa?s along :i* a free nor? pole w\ld be urg$4 ,all ! front face1 :]e ! arr[-heads are1 w be l ! nor? pole ( a magnet4 ,all ! o!r face ( ! r+ w be l ! s\? pole ( a magnet4 ,our r+ resembles a flat magnet1 "o face all nor? pole ! o!r face all s\? pole4 ,su* a magnet is sometimes call$ a magnetic %ell4#a ,footnote #a3 ,! rule = tell+ :i* face ( ! magnetic %ell 7or ( ! loop circuit7 is nor? & :i* s\? 9 its magnetic prop]ties is ! foll[+3 ,if z y look at ! circuit ! curr5t is fl[+ 9 ! same app>5t direction z ! h&s ( a clock move1 !n ! face y are look+ at is a s\? pole4 ,if ! curr5t fl[s ! opposite way r\nd to ! h&s ( a clock1 !n x is ! nor? pole face t y are look+ at4 ,s9ce ! circuit ?r\gh :i* ! curr5t is fl[+ has ^! magnetic prop]ties1 x c attract o!r magnets or repel !m accord+ to circum/ances4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4 ,if a magnet be plac$ ne> ! circuit1 s t its nor? pole1 ,n1 is opposite t side ( ! circuit :i* acts z a s\? pole1 ! magnet & ! circuit w attract "o ano!r4 ,! l9es ( =ce t radiate f ! end ( ! magnet1 curve r\nd & coalesce ) "s ( ^? ( ! circuit4 ,x 0 %[n by ! late ,pr(essor ,cl]k-,maxwell1 t e portion ( a circuit is act$ ^u by a =ce urg+ x 9 su* a direction z to make x inclose )9 its embrace ! greate/ possible numb] ( l9es ( =ce4 ,?is proposition1 :i* has be5 t]m$ ,maxwell's ,rule1 is v important1 because x c be s readily appli$ to s _m cases1 & w enable "o s easily to ?9k out ! actual reaction 9 any p>ticul> case4 ,! rule is illu/rat$ by ! sket* %[n 9 ,fig4 #aj1 :]e a b> magnet has be5 plac$ ) its nor? pole opposite ! s\? face ( ! circuit ( ! cell4 ,! l9es ( =ce ( ! magnet are drawn into ! r+ & coalesce ) ^? due to ! curr5t4 ,accord+ to ,f>aday's mode ( reg>d+ ! actions 9 ! magnetic field !re is a t5d5cy = ! l9es ( =ce to %ort5 !mselves4 ,?is w\ld occur if ei!r ! magnet 7 pull$ into ! circuit1 or ! circuit 7 mov$ up t[>d ! magnet4 ,ea* attracts ! o!r1 & :i*ev] ( !m is free to move w move 9 ob$i5ce to ! attraction4 ,& ! motion w 9 ei!r case be su* z to increase ! total numb] ( l9es ( =ce t pass ?r\gh ! circuit4 ,le/ x %\ld be ?\ght t ,fig4 #aj is fanciful or ov]drawn1 we reproduce an actual magnetic field made 9 ! mann] describ$ 9 ! prec$+ article4 ,fig4 #aa is a k9d ( sectional view ( ,fig4 #aj1 ! circuit be+ repres5t$ m]ely by two circul> spots or holes above & bel[ ! middle l9e1 ! curr5t fl[+ t[>d ! spectator ?r\gh ! l[] spot1 & pass+ 9 front ( ! figure to ! upp] hole1 :]e x fl[s d[n4 ,into ?is circuit ! pole1 ,n1 is attract$1 ! t5d5cy be+ to draw z _m l9es ( =ce z possible into ! embrace ( ! circuit4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4 ,s f> z ! reason+ ab\t ^! mutual actions ( magnets & curr5ts is conc]n$1 x w\ld !re=e appe> t ! l9es ( =ce are ! really important feature to be und]/ood & /udi$4 ,all our reasons ab\t ! attractions ( magnets c\ld be equally well ?\ght out if !re 7 no corporeal magnets !re at all1 only collections ( l9es ( =ce4 ,b>s ( iron & /eel may be reg>d$ z conv5i5t conductors ( ! l9es ( =ce2 & ! poles ( magnets are simply ! places :]e ! l9es ( =ce run out ( ! metal into ! air or vice v]sa4 ,electric curr5ts also may be reason$ ab\t1 & _! magnetic actions =etold q irrespective ( ! copp] wire t acts z a conductor2 = "h !re are n ev5 any poles2 ! l9es ( =ce or magnetic :irls are :olly outside ! metal4 ,!re is an important diff]5ce1 h[ev]1 to be obs]v$ betwe5 ! case ( ! l9es ( =ce ( ! curr5t1 & t ( ! l9es ( =ce ( ! magnet4 ,! l9es ( =ce ( ! magnet are ! magnet s f> z magnetic =ces are conc]n$2 = a piece ( s(t iron laid along ! l9es ( =ce !reby becomes a magnet & rema9s a magnet z long z ! l9es ( =ce pass ?r\gh x4 ,b ! l9es ( =ce cross+ ?r\gh a circuit are n ! same ?+ z ! curr5t ( electricity t fl[s r\nd ! circuit4 ,y may take a ,i loop ( wire & put ! poles ( magnets on ea* side ( x s t ! l9es ( =ce pass ?r\gh 9 great numb]s f "o face to ! o!r1 b if y h !m !re ev5 = mon?s & ye>s ! m]e pres5ce ( ^! l9es ( =ce w n create an electric curr5t ev5 ( ! feeble/ k9d4 ,!re mu/ be motion to induce a curr5t ( electricity to fl[ 9 a wire circuit4 ,f>aday's great discov]y 01 9 fact1 t :5 ! pole ( a magnet is mov$ into1 or mov$ out (1 a coil ( wire1 ! motion produces1 :ile x la/s1 curr5ts ( electricity 9 ! coil4 ,su* curr5ts are kn[n z induc$ curr5ts2 & ! action is call$ magneto-electric induction4 ,! mom5t>y curr5t produc$ by plung+ ! magnet pole into ! wire coil or circuit is f\nd to be 9 ! opposite direction to t 9 :i* a curr5t mu/ be s5t if x 7 desir$ to attract ! magnet pole into ! coil4 ,if ! read] w look back to ,fig4 #aj he w see t a nor? magnet pole is be+ attract$ 9 f beh9d into a circuit r\nd :i*1 z he views x1 ! curr5t fl[s 9 an opposite s5se to t 9 :i* ! h&s ( a clock move r\nd4 ,n[1 comp>e ?is figure ) ,fig4 #ab1 :i* repres5ts ! g5]ation ( a mom5t>y induc$ curr5t by ! act ( mov+ ! nor? pole1 ,n1 t[>d a wire r+1 :i* is 9 ?is case connect$ ) a little detect] galvanomet]1 ,g4 ,! mom5t>y curr5t fl[s r\nd ! circuit 7z se5 by ! spectator f ! front7 9 ! same s5se z ! movem5t ( ! h&s ( a clock4 ,! induc$ curr5t :i* results f ! motion is f\nd1 !n1 to be 9 a direction exactly oppos$ to t ( ! curr5t t w\ld itself produce ! same movem5t ( ! magnet pole4 ,if ! nor? pole1 in/ead ( be+ mov$ t[>d or into ! circuit1 7 mov$ away f ! circuit1 ?is motion w also induce a transi5t curr5t to fl[ r\nd ! wire1 b ?is "t ! curr5t w be 9 ! same s5se z t 9 ,fig4 #aj1 9 ! opposite s5se to t 9 ,fig4 #ab4 ,pull+ ! magnet pole away sets up a curr5t 9 ! rev]se direction to t set up by pu%+ ! pole ne>]4 ,9 bo? cases ! curr5ts only la/ :ile ! motion la/s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4 ,n[ 9 ! fir/ article x 0 po9t$ out t ! l9es ( =ce ( ! magnet indicate n only ! direction1 b ! /r5g? ( ! magnetic =ces4 ,! /rong] ! pole ( ! magnet is1 ! great] w be ! numb] ( l9es ( =ce t radiate f its poles4 ,! /r5g? ( ! curr5t t fl[s r\nd a circuit is also proportional to ! numb] ( l9es ( =ce :i* are !reby caus$ to pass 7z 9 ,fig4 #i7 ?r\gh ! circuit4 ,! /rong] ! curr5t1 ! m num]\s ! l9es ( =ce t ?read !mselves ?r\gh ! circuit4 ,:5 a magnet is mov$ ne> a circuit ne> x1 x is f\nd t any alt]ation 9 ! numb] ( l9es ( =ce t cross ! circuit is accompani$ by ! production ( a curr5t4 ,ref]r+ once m to ,fig4 #aj1 we w call ! direction ( ! curr5t r\nd ! circuit 9 t figure ! positive direction2 & to def9e ?is direction we may rem>k t if we 7 to view ! circuit f su* a po9t z to look along ! l9es ( =ce 9 _! own direction1 ! direction ( ! curr5t r\nd ! circuit w appe> to be ! same z t ( ! h&s ( a clock mov+ r\nd a dial4 ,if ! magnet1 ,n ,s1 be n[ drawn away f ! circuit s t few] ( its l9es ( =ce pass$ ?r\gh ! circuit1 exp]im5t %[s ! result t ! curr5t fl[+ 9 circuit w be = ! mom5t increas$ 9 /r5g?1 ! increase 9 /r5g? be+ proportional to ! rate ( decrease 9 ! numb] ( l9es ( =ce4 ,s1 on ! o!r h&1 if ! magnet 7 pu%$ up t[>d ! circuit1 ! curr5t 9 ! circuit w\ld be mom5t>ily r$uc$ 9 /r5g?1 ! decrease 9 /r5g? 9 ! curr5t be+ proportional to ! rate ( increase 9 ! numb] ( l9es ( =ce4 ,simil> consid]ations apply to ! case ( ! simple circuit & ! magnet %[n 9 ,fig4 #ab4 ,9 ?is circuit !re is no curr5t fl[+ s long z ! magnet is at re/2 b if ! magnet be mov$ up t[>d ! circuit s z to increase ! numb] ( l9es ( =ce t pass ?r\gh ! circuit1 !re w be a mom5t>y inv]se curr5t induc$ 9 ! circuit & x w fl[ 9 ! negative direction4 ,:ile if ! magnet 7 mov$ away ! decrease 9 ! numb] ( l9es ( =ce w\ld result 9 a transi5t direct curr5t1 or "o fl[+ 9 ! positive direction4 ,x w\ld be possible to d$uce ^! results f an ab/ract consid]ation ( ! matt] f ! po9t ( view ( ! pr9ciple ( cons]vation ( en]gy4 ,b we pref] to res]ve ?is po9t until a g5]al notion ( ! action ( dynamo-electric ma*9es has be5 giv54 ,! foll[+ pr9ciples or g5]aliz$ /atem5ts foll[ z a matt] ( ! v simple/ consequ5ce f ! =ego+ consid]ations3 7a7 ,to induce a curr5t 9 a coil ( wire by means ( a magnet !re mu/ be relative motion betwe5 coil & magnet4 7b7 ,approa* ( a magnet to a coil or ( a coil to a magnet induces curr5ts 9 ! opposite direction to t induc$ by recession4 7c7 ,! /rong] ! magnet ! /rong] w be ! induc$ curr5ts 9 ! coils4 7d7 ,! m rapid ! motion ! /rong] w be ! mom5t>y curr5t induc$ 9 ! coils 7b ! "t x la/s w1 ( c\rse1 be %ort]74 7e7 ,! great] ! numb] ( turns 9 ! coil ! /rong] w be ! total curr5t induc$ 9 x by ! movem5t ( ! magnet4 ,^! po9ts are ( vital importance 9 ! action ( dynamo electric g5]ators4 ,x rema9s1 h[ev]1 yet to be %[n h[ ^! transi5t & mom5t>y induction curr5ts c be s direct$ & manipulat$ z to be made to comb9e into a /eady & cont9u\s supply4 ,to br+ a magnet pole up t[>d a coil ( wire is a process :i* c only la/ a v limit$ "t2 & its recession f ! coil also _c furni% a cont9u\s curr5t s9ce x is a process ( limit$ duration4 ,9 ! e>lie/ ma*9es 9 :i* ! pr9ciple ( magneto-electric induction 0 appli$1 ! curr5ts produc$ 7 ( ?is mom5t>y k9d1 alt]nat+ 9 direction4 ,coils ( wire fix$ to a rotat+ axis 7 mov$ pa/ ! pole ( a magnet4 ,:ile ! coil 0 approa*+ ! l9es ( =ce 7 increas+1 & a mom5t>y inv]se curr5t 0 set up1 :i* 0 imm$iately succe$$ by a mom5t>y direct curr5t z ! coil rec$$ f ! pole4 ,su* ma*9es on a small scale are /ill to be f\nd 9 opticians' %ops = ! purpose ( giv+ p %ocks4 ,on a l>ge scale alt]nate curr5t ma*9es are /ill employ$ = c]ta9 purposes 9 electric light+1 z1 = example1 = use ) ! ,jablo*k(f c&le4 ,l>ge alt]nate-curr5t ma*9es h be5 devis$ by ,wilde1 ,gramme1 ,siem5s1 ,de ,m]it5s1 & o!rs4--,eng9e]+4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,! ,,unit ,,weight ,,& ,,mode ,,( ,,con/itution ,,( ,,comp\nds4 ,dr4 ,odl+ deliv]$ a lecture on ! above be=e ! ,*emical ,society1 ,london1 ,febru>y #b1 #ahhb4 ,! lectur] said t x _h be5 f\nd useful to occasionally br+ =w>d v>i\s po9ts ( *emical doctr9e1 on :i* !re 7 diff]5ces ( op9ion1 to be discuss$ by ! society4 ,on ?is occasion he wi%$ n s mu* to demon/rate c]ta9 conclusions1 or to make a decl>ation ( 8 op9ions1 z to invite discussion & a ?\ghtful consid]ation ( que/ions ( importance to *emi/s4 ,orig9ally ?ree que/ions 7 propos$3 ,fir/1 ,is !re any satisfactory evid5ce d$ucible ( ! exi/5ce ( two di/9ct =ms ( *emical comb9ation 7atomic & molecul>78 ,second1 ,is ! det]m9ation ( ! vapor d5sity ( a body alone suffici5t to det]m9e ! weight ( ! *emical molecule8 ,?ird1 ,9 ! case ( an elem5t =m+ two or m di/9ct s]ies ( comp\nds1 e4g41 f]r\s & f]ric salts1 is ! transition f "o s]ies to ano!r necess>ily connect$ ) ! addition or subtraction ( an ev5 numb] ( hydrog5oid atoms8 ,he w\ld1 h[ev]1 limit himself to ! fir/ ( ^! que/ions2 at ! same "t ! ?ree que/ions 7 s closely associat$ ) "o ano!r t 9 discuss+ ! fir/ x 0 difficult to "k :]e to beg94 ,! answ] to ?is "q 7,is !re any satisfactory evid5ce d$ucible ( ! exi/5ce ( two di/9ct =ms ( *emical comb9ation87 dep5ds mat]ially on ! view we take ( ! prop]ty call$ 9 text-books val5cy or atomicity2 & be=e discuss+ ! "q x is important to h a cle> idea ( :at ^! words val5cy & atomicity really mean4 ,x is necess>y1 too1 to />t ) "s propositions :i* mu/ be tak5 = grant$4 ,^! propositions are3 ,fir/1 t 9 all *emical *anges1 ^? k9ds ( matt] :i* we commonly call elem5t>y1 d n suff] decomposition4 ,second1 ,t ! atomic weights ( ! elem5ts z receiv$ are correct1 i4e41 t !y d really express ) great exactitude ! relative weights ( ! atoms ( ! individual elem5ts4 ,if we accept ^! two propositions1 x foll[s t hydrog5 c be replac$ atom = atom by o!r elem5ts n only by ! hydrog5s b by alkali metals1 etc4 ,hydrog5 is1 x may "h be rem>k$1 an elem5t ( unique "*2 n only c x be replac$ by ! elem5ts ( ! widely diff]5t classes repres5t$ by *lor9e & sodium1 b x is ! t]m9al ( ! s]ies ( p>aff9s1 ,cn,h#bn2 ,c#c;,h#f1 ,c#b;,h#d1 ,h#b4 ,! ?ird proposition :i* mu/ be tak5 = grant$ is1 t ! gr\ps ( elem5ts1 ,c#b;,h#e1 ,,*#c1 behave z elem5ts1 & t ^! radicals1 e?yl1 me?yl1 etc41 d n suff] decomposition 9 _m *emical reactions4 ,n[ z to val5cy or atomicity1 accept+ ! receiv$ atomic weights ( ! elem5ts1 x is c]ta9 t !re are at lea/ f\r di/9ct types ( hydrog5 comp\nds repres5t$ by ,cl,h1 ,,oh#b1 ,,nh#c1 ,,*#d4 ,! recognition ( ^! types1 & _! relations to ea* o!r z types1 0 "o ( ! mo/ important & be/ assur$ advances made 9 !oretical *emi/ry4 ,:5 we comp>e ! =mula ( wat] ) t ( hydro*loric acid1 we f9d t !re is twice z mu* hydrog5 comb9$ ) "o atom ( oxyg5 z !re is comb9$ ) "o atom ( *lor9e2 & 9 a great _m o!r in/ances1 we f9d t we c replace two atoms ( *lor9e by "o atom ( oxyg51 s t we get an idea ( ! ex*angeable value ( ^! elem5ts1 & we say t "o atom ( oxyg5 is wor? two ( *lor9e1 or is bival5t2 simil>ly1 nitrog5 is said to be trival5t4 ,! mean+ atta*$ to ! ^w val5cy1 is simply "o ( int]*angeability1 j z we say a p5ny is wor? two halfp5nies or f\r f>?+s4 ,! "q next arises1 is ! val5cy ( an elem5t fix$ or v>iable8 ,if ! ^w be def9$ z above1 x is absolutely c]ta9 t ! val5cy v>ies4 ,?us1 t9 may be trival5t1 ,sn,cl#b1 or tetraval5t1 ,sn,cl#d4 ,accord+ly elem5ts h be5 class$ z monads1 dyads1 triads1 etc4 ,! lectur] object$ mo/ /rongly to ! ^w atomicity2 he c\ld n conceive ( "o atom be+ m atomic ?an ano!r2 he c\ld und]/& ! atomicity ( a molecule or ! equival5cy ( an atom1 b n ! atomicity ( an atom2 ! expression seem$ to him complete nons5se4 ,he next consid]$ ! possibility ( assign+ a fix$ limit to ?is val5cy or adicity ( an atom1 & conclud$ t ! adicity 0 n absolutely fix$1 b 0 fix$ 9 relation to c]ta9 elem5ts1 e4g41 ,c nev] comb9es ) m ?an f\r atoms ( ,h2 ,o nev] m ?an two atoms ( ,h1 etc4 ,! adicity ( an elem5t :5 comb9$ ) two or m elem5ts is usually high] ?an :5 comb9$ ) only "o1 e4g41 ,,nh#c1 ,,nh#d;,cl4 ,! t]m capacity ( saturation1 may be us$ z a synonym = adicity1 if c>e be tak5 to di/+ui% x f o!r k9ds ( saturation1 su* z an acid ) an alkali1 etc4 ,adicity is1 h[ev]1 q di/9ct f comb9+ =ce2 ! latt] is indicat$ by ! am\nt ( heat evolv$ 9 ! comb9ation4 ,! lectur] !n proce$$ to criticise a /atem5t commonly f\nd 9 text books1 t *emical comb9ation suppresses altoge!r ! prop]ties ( ! comb9+ bodies4 ,! rev]se ( ?is /atem5t is probably true4 ,to take ! case commonly giv5 ( ! comb9ation ( copp] & sulphur :5 heat$2 ?is is good z f> z x goes1 b !re are num]\s in/ances1 z ,cl,i1 ,s,se1 etc41 :]e ! orig9al prop]ties & *>act]s ( ! comb9+ elem5ts d n completely disappe>4 ,! real /atem5t is t ! orig9al prop]ties ( ! elem5ts disappe> m or less1 & lea/ :5 ! comb9ation is weak & att5d$ ) ! evolution ( a slight am\nt ( heat1 & 9 e case "s prop]ties are left :i* c be recogniz$4 ,s ) ref]5ce to ! "q ( atomic & molecul> comb9ation1 z atomic comb9ation does n necess>ily produce *ange1 x does n diff] 9 ?is respect f :at is usually call$ molecul> comb9ation4 ,! lectur] !n ref]r$ to an important diff]5ce 9 ! adicity ( *lor9e & oxyg54 ,*lor9e c comb9e ) me?yl or e?yl s+ly4 ,oxyg5 c comb9e ) bo? & hold !m toge!r 9 "o molecule4 ,! recognition ( ?is fundam5tal diff]5ce betwe5 *lor9e & oxyg51 ?is =mation ( d\ble oxides z oppos$ to s+le *lorides1 m>ks an epo* 9 sci5tific *emi/ry4 ,! lectur] !n consid]$ ! subject ( *emical =mul2 x is ! b\nd5 duty ( e =mula to express cle>ly ! numb] ( atoms ( ea* k9d ( elem5t>y matt] :i* ent]s into ! con/itution ( ! molecule ( ! sub/ance4 ,a =mula may d mu* m ?an ?is4 ,if we attempt to express too mu* by a complex =mula we may veil ! numb] ( atoms conta9$ 9 x4 ,?is difficulty may be avoid$ by us+ two =mul1 a synoptic =mula giv+ ! numb] ( atoms pres5t1 & a complex =mula p]haps cov]+ half a page1 giv+ ! con/itution ( ! molecule4 ,b betwe5 ! purely synoptic =mula & ! v elaborate =mula !re are o!rs--contract$ =mul--:i* labor "u ! disadvantage1 z a rule1 ( be+ "o-sid$1 & s create a false impression z to ! nature ( ! sub/ance4 ,?us1 = in/ance1 to take ! =mula ( sulphuric acid1 ,h#b,,s#d4 ,?is sugge/s t all ! oxyg5 is unit$ to ! ,s2 7,,ho7#b,,s#b sugge/s t two atoms ( hydroxyl exi/ 9 ! molecule2 !n1 aga91 we might write ! =mula ,,hso#b,,oh1 or ,h#b,,oso#c4 ,all ( ^! are ju/ifiable1 & ea* might be useful to expla9 c]ta9 reactions ( sulphuric acid1 b to use "o only creates a false impression4 ,! only plan is to use !m v>i\sly & caprici\sly1 accord+ to ! reaction to be expla9$4 ,aga91 e?yl acetate may be writt5-- ,h#c;,c ,h#b;,c_/ ,o _/ ,,oc ,h#c;,c_/ ,or cond5s$-- ,h#e;,c#b ,o ,h#c;,c#b,o_/ ,or ,h#e;,c#b,o4,c#b;,h#c,o1 or ,h#e;,c#b4;,c#b;,h#c,o#b4 ,n[ ea* ( ^! two latt] =mul is a p>tial =mula1 ea* repres5ts a "o-sid$ view2 x is ju/ifiable if y use bo?1 b unfair if y use only "o4 ,we n[ come to ! "q z to ! exi/5ce or non-exi/5ce ( two di/9ct classes ( comp\nds1 "o 9 :i* ! atoms are comb9$ directly or indirectly ) ea* o!r1 & ! o!r 9 :i* a gr\p ( atoms is comb9$ z an integ] ) "s o!r gr\p ( atoms1 )\t any atomic connection by s-call$ molecul> comb9ation4 ,^! two modes ( comb9ation are ess5tially di/9ct4 ,! "q is n "o ( degree4 ,are !re any facts to support ?is !ory t "o set ( comp\nds is =m$ 9 "o way1 ano!r 9 a diff]5t way8 ,take ! case ( ! sulphates3 ,/>t+ ) ,,s#c1 we c replace "o atom ( ,o by ,,ho#b1 & obta9 ,,s#b7;,,ho7#b or ,h#b,,s#d2 replac+ a second atom1 we get ,,s7,,ho7#d or ,h#d,,s#e1 glacial sulphuric acid1 a p]fectly def9ite body correspond+ to a def9ite class ( sulphates1 e4g41 ,h#b,mg,s,o#e1 ,zn#b,,s#e1 etc4 ,by replac+ ! ?ird atom ( ,o we get ,s7,,ho7#f or ,h#f,,soh#f2 ?is corresponds to a class ( salts1 gypsum1 ,h#d;,ca,s,o#f1 etc4 ,^! are admitt$ )\t dispute to be atomic comp\nds4 ,are we to /op "h8 ,we may write ! above comp\nds ?us3 ,h#b,,s#d1 ,h#b,,s#d;,h#b,o1 ,h#b,,s#db;,h#b,o4 ,if we measure ! heat evolv$ 9 ! =mation ( ! two latt] comp\nds1 x is1 = ,h#b,,s#d;,h#b,o1 #f4bgb2 ,h#b,,s#db;,h#b,o1 #c4jib4 ,b if we n[ take ! comp\nd ,h#b,,s#dc;,h#b,o we h heat evolv$ #a4gdd2 s we c h ,h#b,,s#dd;,h#b,o1 etc4 ,:]e are we to draw ! l9e betwe5 atomic & molecul> comb9ation1 & :y8 ,x comes to ?is3 ,all comp\nds :i* y c expla9 on y\r views ( atomicity are atomic1 & all t y _c ?us expla9 are molecul>4 ,simil>ly ) phosphates1 ars5ates1 etc4 ,9 all ^! comp\nds x is impossible to lay "o's f+] on any di/9ction z reg>ds *emical behavior betwe5 ! comp\nds call$ atomic & ^? usually call$ molecul>4 ,two po9ts rema9 to be m5tion$3 ,! fir/ is ! relation%ip betwe5 alt]ation ( adicity & two s]ies 7ous & ic7 ( comp\nds4 ,t9 is usually said to be dyad 9 /ann\s comp\nds & a tetrad 9 /annic comp\nds1 b 9 a comp\nd l ,sn,cl#b;,am,cl1 is n t9 really a tetrad8 ,cl ,cl ,sn ,cl ,,nh#d & yet x is a /ann\s comp\nd1 & gives a black precipitate ) ,h#b,s2 s t val5cy does n necess>ily g ) ! s]ies4 ,! second po9t is t an objection may be urg$1 z1 = example1 9 ammonium *loride 7! lectur] /at$ above t "h ,n 0 a p5tad1 ! addition ( ! *lor9e hav+ caus$ ! ,n to assume ! p5tadic "*71 x may be said1 :y %\ld y n suppose t x is ! *lor9e :i* has alt]$ its val5cy1 & t ! comp\nd %\ld be writt53 ,h ,h ,n ,h--,cl ,h_/ ,!re is some?+ to be said = ?is view1 b on ! :ole ! balance ( ! evid5ce is 9 favor ( nitrog5 be+ a p5tad4 ,9 conclusion ! lectur] /at$ t 8 pr9cipal object 0 to direct ! att5tion ( *emi/s1 & especially ( "y *emi/s1 to ! "q3 ,is !re or is !re n any evid5ce d]iv$ f ! prop]ties1 ! decompositions1 or ! relative /abilities ( sub/ances to w>rant u 9 believ+ t two classes ( comp\nds exi/3 "o class 9 :i* !re is int]atomic connection alone1 & ano!r 9 :i* ! connection is molecul>8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,fr5* ,,toilet ,,articles4 ,mr4 ,m>t5son1 ( ,/4 ,pet]sburg1 :o1 x w be rememb]$1 0 "o ( ! ,russian delegates to ! ,int]national ,ph>maceutical ,congress1 has be5 analyz+ a numb] ( ,fr5* prep>ations = ! toilet1 mo/ ( :i* are famili> to our read]s1 at any rate by "n & repute4 #a4 ,eau de ,fleurs de ,lys--7,plan*on & ,riet1 ,p>is47--,an infallible bani%] ( freckles1 etc41 etc4 ,! bottle conta9s #ajj grammes ( a milky fluid1 made up ( #ig p] c5t4 ( wat]1 #b4e p] c5t4 ( precipitat$ calomel1 & a small quantity ( common salt & corrosive sublimate1 & sc5t$ ) orange fl[] wat]4 #b4 ,eau de ,blanc de ,p]les4--,! bottle conta9s #abj grammes ( a weak alkal9e solution1 ) a ?ick deposit ( #ae p] c5t4 ( c>bonate ( lead1 & sc5t$ ) otto ( roses & g]anium4 #c4 ,n\veau ,blanc de ,p]le1 ,extra ,f94--7,lub91 ,p>is47--,! bottles conta9s #ce grammes ( a liquid consi/+ ( wat]1 hold+ 9 susp5sion ab\t equal p>ts ( z9c oxide1 magnesic c>bonate1 & p[d]$ talc1 p]fum$ ) otto ( roses4 #d4 ,lait de ,p]les4--,a close imitation ( ,no4 #c1 ! bottle hold+ ne>ly ?ree times ! quantity = ! same price4 ,! am\nt ( ! precipitate 9 ?is case is #bj p] c5t4 #e4 ,lait de ,p]les4--7,legr&1 ,p>is74--,! bottles conta9 #fe grammes ( a ?ick :ite fluid1 ! precipitate f :i* consi/s ( z9c oxide & bismu? oxy*loride1 & is sc5t$ ) rose wat]4 #f4 ,lait ,antiphlique4--7,c&s & ,co41 ,p>is47--,ea* bottle conta9s #adj grammes ( a milky fluid1 smell+ /rongly ( camphor1 & hav+ an acid reaction4 ,x conta9s alcohol1 camphor1 ammonic *loride1 half p] c5t4 ( corrosive sublimate1 album51 & a little free hydro*loric acid4 #g4 ,lait de ,concombres4--,! bottle conta9s #afj grammes ( a v inelegantly made emulsion1 smell+ ( v common rose-wat]1 ) an unpleasant twang ab\t x1 & giv+ a /rongly alkal9e reaction4 ,x consi/s ( soap1 glyc]91 & cotton se$ oil1 made into a semi-emulsion4 #h4 ,crme de ,fleurs des ,lys2 ,blanc de ,ville ,onctueux4--,ab\t #cj grammes ( a k9d ( weak o9tm5t conta9$ 9 a small pomatum pot prettily ornam5t$4 ,x is simply a salve made ( wax oil1 & possibly l>d1 mix$ ) a l>ge proportion ( z9c oxide1 & smell+ ( inf]ior otto ( roses4 #i4 ,pte de ,velonas4-,?is pa/e consi/s ( almond1 & possibly o!r meal mix$ ) soap p[d]1 & has a /rong alkal9e reaction4 ,x is sc5t$ ) orris-root4 #aj4 ,r\ge ,vgtal4--,! box conta9s #h grammes ( raspb]ry color$ p[d]1 consi/+ *iefly ( ,*9a clay & talc1 t9t$ to ! prop] dep? ) extract ( co*9eal4 #aa4 ,r\ge ,extra ,f9 ,fonc4--,a small squ>e bottle conta9+ #aa grammes ( a deep r$ solution1 smell+ ( otto ( roses & ammonia4 ,x consi/s ( a solution ( c>m9e 9 ammonia1 ) an addition ( a c]ta9 am\nt ( alcohol4 #ab4 ,r\ge de ,dor94--,extract des ,fleurs des ,indes4--,a r\nd pot conta9+ a porcela9 disk1 cov]$ ) ab\t #f grammes ( a bright r$ pa/e1 :i* is a mixture ( c>?am9 or saffl[] ) talc4 ,?is r\ge1 :i* diff]s f all ! o!rs1 is h>mless & effectual1 b mu/ be> a high pr(it see+ t ! +r$i5ts co/ only a few half-p5ce1 :ile x sells 9 ,/4 ,pet]sburg at ab\t #ds4 #i;d4 a pot4 #ac4 ,etui ,my/rieux ou ,boite de ,ma9t5on4--,a prettily got-up box conta9+ r$ & :ite pa9t1 & two /icks ( black & blue cosmetic = ! eyebr[s & ve9s1 ) camel's hair p5cils = apply+ ! latt]4 ,sells 9 ,/4 ,pet]sburg at #fs4 #d;d4 #ad4 ,philidore4--,remde ,specifique p\r ot] les ,pellicules de la tte1 etc4--,! bottle conta9s #ajj grammes ( a /rong alkal9e solution smell+ /rongly ( ammonia1 & conta9+ pota%1 ammonia1 alcohol1 glyc]91 & eau de cologne4 #ae4 ,colorigne ,rigaud4--,a blue bottle conta9+ #afj grammes ( a cle> fluid ) a slight black deposit1 consi/+ ( a mixture ( equal p>ts ( a #ad p] c5t4 solution ( sodic hyposulphate1 & a #d p] c5t4 solution ( lead acetate4 ,( c\rse ! long] ?is solution is kept ! m lead sulphate x deposits4 ,x sells 9 ,/4 ,pet]sburg at #hs4 p] bottle4 ,x is also /at$ to be mu* m p[]ful if us$ 9 conjunction ) ! ,pommade ,mir&a ,rigaud4 ,?is beats ,mrs4 ,all5 completely out ( ! field4--,ph>maceutis*e ,zeits*rift fr ,russl&4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,! ,,mydriatic ,,alkaloids4 ,by ,,alb]t ,,lad5burg4 ,we translate ! foll[+ important article1 says ! ,*emi/s' ,j\rnal1 f ! ,moniteur ,sci5tifique ( la/ mon?4 ,x may be expla9$ = ! sake ( our /ud5t read]s t ! ^w mydriatic is d]iv$ f ! ,greek mudriasis1 :i* means p>alysis ( ! pupil4 ,! syn!tical rese>*es :i* ,i h und]tak5 ) a view to expla9 ! con/itution ( atrop9e h %[n me ! necessity ( /udy+ ! connection ( atrop9e ) ! o!r alkaloids1 :i* h an analog\s physiological action4 ,accord+ to ! e>ly rese>*es we c\ld n discov] any ( ^! relation%ips :i* only become evid5t :5 we come to /udy ! new discov]ies :i* h be5 made 9 connection ) ! trop9es1 to :i* class belong bo? dubois9e & hyoscyam9e1 :i*1 al?\gh diff]+ f atrop9e1 are equally mydriatic 9 _! action4 ,i4--,,atrop9e4 ,discov]$ by ,me9 9 #ahca 9 ! roots ( belladonna4 ,m ?or\ghly /udi$ "s "t aft] by ,geig] & ,hesse1 :o confirm$ ,me9's results4 ,liebig next publi%$ an analysis ( ! alkaloid1 :i* 0 aft]w>d %[n to be incorrect4 ,he consequ5tly modifi$ 8 =mula1 & gave ! foll[+ z ! composition ( atrop9e2 ,c#ag;,h#bc,,no#c4 ,liebig's am5d$ analysis 0 aft]w>d confirm$ by ,planta1 :o fur!r %[$ t ! alkaloid itself melt$ at #aid ,f41 & its d\ble gold salt at #bge ,f4 ,x is wor?y ( rem>k t ! fir/ figure 0 consid]$ correct until my rese>*es prov$ ! contr>y4 ,! physiological action ( atrop9e1 especially 9 relation to ! eye1 has be5 mo/ c>efully /udi$ by sev]al celebrat$ oph?almologi/s1 su* z ,graef1 ,dond]s1 ,bezold1 & ,bloebaum4 ,its *emical prop]ties h also be5 ! object ( v ext5sive rese>*es by ,pfeiff]1 ,kraut1 & ,lass54 ,pfeiff] fir/ discov]$ t b5zoic acid 0 "o ( ! products ( decomposition ( atrop9e1 & ,kraut split atrop9e by means ( b>yta wat] into atropic acid1 ,c#i;,h#f,o#b1 & trop9e1 ,c#h,o#ae,,no4 ,lass51 :o us$ hydro*loric acid1 discov]$ ! true products ( ! splitt+ up ( atrop9e1 viz41 tropic acid1 ,c#i;,h#h,o#c1 & trop9e1 ,c#h;,h#ae,n1 & prov$ at ! same "t t atropic acid is easily =m$ by ! action ( boil+ b>yta wat] on tropic acid1 :ile hydro*loric acid at all temp]atures =ms isatropic acid1 an isom] ( atropic acid4 ,kraut confirm$ ^! results1 & %[$ t atropic acid z well z c9namic acid gives b5zoic acid by oxidation1 & hydratropic acid 7! isom] ( ph5ylpropionic acid7 by r$uction ) sodium amalgam4 ,^! results are suffici5t to %[ t tropic acid may h "o ( ! foll[+ two =mulae4 ,i ,,ii ,,*#b,,oh ,,*#c _/ _/ ,c#d;,h#e;,,* or ,c#h;,h#e--;,c--,,oh ,,ooho ,,cooh ,fittig & ,wur/]1 :o discov]$ atrolactic acid1 ,c#b;,h#aj,o#c1 an isom] ( tropic acid1 gives tropic acid ! second =mula1 :ile ,burgheim> & myself h %[n t x is ! true =mula ( atrolactic acid4 ,lately we h succe$$ 9 p]=m+ ! complete syn!sis ( atropic acid1 & ! artificial prep>ation ( atrop9e has be5 greatly facilitat$ s9ce ,i h %[n t we c easily recon/ruct atrop9e by />t+ f its products ( decomposition1 tropic acid1 & trop9e4 ,be=e my rese>*es no?+ 0 kn[n ( ! con/itution ( trop9e4 ,new unpubli%$ rese>*es into ?is problem h %[n t x closely resembles neur9e1#a a body :i* ,i hope w spe$ily lead u to ! complete syn!sis ( atrop9e4 ,footnote #a3 ,z we %all probably he> a great deal ab\t ?is alkaloid1 x may be z well to /ate t1 al?\gh f\nd 9 ! bra9 & liv]1 x may be prep>$ syn!tically by ! action ( e?yl5e oxide1 7,,*#b7b,o1 wat]1 ,h#b,o1 & trime?yiam9e1 ,n7,,*#c7c4 ,its con/itution is t ( trime?yl-e?yl5e-hydrate-ammonic-hydrate1 & has ! foll[+ con/itutional =mula3 7,,*#b7b,,oh ,,*#c ,n ,,*#c ,,*#c ,,oh or 9 o!r words1 x is ! hydrate ( trime?yl-hydre?yl5e-ammonium4 ,! fus+ po9t ( atrop9e is n #aid ,f41 z /at$ by ,planta1 b #bcg ,f4 ,cry/alliz$ f n too dilute alcohol x =ms cry/als :i* are aggregations ( prisms4 ,tolu5e1 alcohol1 & *lor(orm all dissolve atrop9e readily4 ,its d\ble gold salt is v *>act]i/ic4 ,x is g5]ally precipitat$ 9 ! =m ( an oil :i* solidifies rapidly & may be cry/alliz$ f hot wat] aft] ! addition ( a little hydro*loric acid4 ,?is cl\ds 9 cool+1 & aft] a c]ta9 "t x sep>ates 9 small cry/als ( indet]m9ate =m :i* unite 9 w>ty concretions4 ,aft] dry+ ! salt =ms a dull p[d]1 melt+ betwe5 #bge ,f4 & #bhj ,f4 ,x also melts 9 boil+ wat]1 & its aque\s solution expos$ to ! light is p>tially r$uc$1 #ajj grammes ( wat] acidulat$ ) #aj cubic c5timet]s ( #a4aij solution ( hydro*loric acid dissolves #j4acg gramme ( ! gold salt at #acf ,f4 to #adj ,f4 ,i %\ld fancy t ! above p>ticul>s are suffic5t to completely diff]5tiate atrop9e f all ! o!r mydriatic alkaloids4 ,,ii4--,,! ,,atrop9e ,,( ,,datura ,,/ramonium4 ,planta has already tri$ to %[ t atrop9e is id5tical ) ! datur9e obta9$ by ,geig] & ,hesse1 f\nd+ 8 op9ion on facts :i* we n[adays look ^u z d\btful4 ,?is id5tity 0 g5]ally admitt$ by all *emi/s4 ,! ph>macologi/s1 head$ by ,s\beiran1 ,erh>dt1 ,s*r(f1 & ,poehl1 7 mu* m res]v$ 9 _! judgm5t4 ,i ?\ght x z well1 !re=e1 to recomm5ce ! /udy ( datur9e1 ! m s z ,i _h already det]m9$ ! incorrectness ( ! long accept$ po9t ( fusion ( atrop9e1 & t my rese>*es on hyoscyam9e conv9c$ me t ?is base is an isom] ( atrop9e1 al?\gh v analog\s to x4 ,i h also %[n t ,m]ck's datur9e diff]s f atrop9e1 & is m]ely pure hyoscyam9e4 ,a %ort "t aft]w>d !re appe>$ a pap] by ,s*midt :i* aga9 ass]t$ ! id5tity ( datur9e & atrop9e4 ,i !re=e reque/$ ,mr4 ,m]ck1 ( ,d>m/adt1 to s5d me all ! bases :i* he obta9$ f datura4 ,?is em95t manufactur] 0 good en\gh to comply ) my reque/1 & s5t me two products1 "o ( :i* 0 m>k$ light datur9e1 ! o!r heavy datur9e1 ! sep>ation ( :i* 0 effect$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,! solution ( crude datur9e 9 conc5trat$ alcohol 0 mix$ ) a little hot wat]2 ?is treatm5t caus$ ! deposition ( ! heavy datur9e1 :ile ! light datur9e rema9$ 9 ! "m liquor4 ,! heavy datur9e1 ( :i* only a small quantity is obta9able1 is f> f be+ a body ( def9ite composition1 t is to say1 x is a mixture ( atrop9e & hyoscyam9e4 ,if we conv]t ! base into a d\ble gold salt we obta9 by a s+le cry/allization a dull look+ salt1 melt+ at f #bge ,f4 to #bhj ,f41 ! appe>ance ( :i* is v diff]5t to t ( atrop9e4 ,i h succe$$ 9 splitt+ up heavy datur9e by two diff]5t me?ods4 ,by recry/alliz+ ! gold salt six times f boil+ wat]1 ! salt ( hyoscyam9e1 :i* melts at f #caf ,f4 to #cbc ,f41 cry/allizes our fir/1 & by ! successive evaporation ( ! "m liquor at la/ obta9 ! pure gold salt ( atrop9e1 :i* melts at #bge ,f4 to #bhj ,f4 ,if we only want to isolate ! atrop9e1 x is bett] to cry/allize ! free base two or ?ree times f alcohol at #ej p] c5t41 always tak+ ! e>lie/ =m$ cry/als4 ,^! facts prove ! pres5ce ( atrop9e 9 datura2 b :ile ,planta & ,s*midt ass]t t only ?is alkaloid is f\nd 9 ! plant1 ,i h prov$ t ! proportion ( atrop9e 9 x is b small1 :ile its ri*ness 9 hyoscyam9e is great4 ,i ?9k1 !re=e1 t bo? ,planta & ,s*midt mu/ h work$ ) a mixture ( atrop9e & hyoscyam9e4 ,x is true t ,s*midt _h receiv$ pure atrop9e "u ! "n ( datur9e1 = ,i h prov$ mo/ conclusively t ! s-call$ datur9e suppli$ by ,trommsdorff1 ( ,erfurt1 is pure atrop9e & no?+ else4 ,x has no action :atev] on pol>iz$ light4 ,,iii4--,,hyoscyam9e ,,f ,,hyoscyamus4 ,discov]$ by ,geig] & ,hesse 9 #ahcc4 ,x 0 fir/ obta9$ 9 ! =m ( ne$les1 :i* 7 mu* m soluble ?an atrop9e4 ,9 ! pure /ate x =ms a visc\s mass ) a repulsive odor4 ,^! rese>*es 7 repeat$ by ,?ib\t1 ,klet9ski1 ,ludwig1 ,lad+1 ,bu*eim1 ,wagym>1 & ,r5>d4 ,hoehn & ,rei*>dt h rec5tly /udi$ hyoscyam9e 9 a v complete mann]4 ,!y h obta9$ ! body 9 ! =m ( w>ty concretions z s(t z wax1 & melt+ at #aid ,f41 hav+ a =mula accord+ to !m ( ,c#ae;,h#bc,,no#c4 ,!y h also /udi$ ! splitt+ up ( ! alkaloid by means ( b>yta wat]1 & h obta9$ an acid :i* !y h nam$ hyosc9ic acid1 & :i* melts at ab\t #bai ,f41 & a basic body1 hyosc9e1 ,c#f;,h#ac,n4 ,!y repres5t ! reaction z foll[s3 ,c#ae;,h#bc,,no#c ,c#i;,h#aj,o#c ,c#f;,h#ac,n4 ,accord+ to ?is view hyoscyam9e ought to be ! hyosc9ate ( hyosc9e1 or at any rate an isom] ( ?is body4 ,x is to be rem>k$ t !y comp>e hyosc9ic acid n ) tropic acid1 ( :i* x possesses ! composition1 b ) atropic acid1 ,c#i;,h#h,o#b4 ,i h work$ ) ! hyoscyam9e ( bo? ,m]ck & ,trommsdorff1 z well z ) a product :i* ,i obta9$ f hyoscyamus se$s myself4 ,! be/ way ( purify+ ! alkaloid is by recry/alliz+ its gold salt sev]al times1 s z to obta9 x 9 brilliant yell[ plates1 melt+ at #cbj ,f4 ,by pass+ a /ream ( hydrosulphuric acid gas ?r\gh ! liquor ! gold is precipitat$ 9 ! =m ( sulphide4 ,! liquid is filt]$ & evaporat$1 precipitat$ by an excess ( a /rong solution ( potassium c>bonate1 & ! alkaloid extract$ by *lor(orm4 ,! solution is dri$ ov] c>bonate ( potassium1 & "p ( ! *lor(orm is di/ill$ (f4 ,by leav+ ! solution to evaporate spontane\sly ! alkaloid is obta9$ 9 silky cry/als4 ,! cry/als are !n dissolv$ 9 alcohol1 :i*1 on be+ p\r$ into wat]1 p>ts ) !m 9 ! same =m4 ,hyoscyam9e cry/allizes 9 ! acicul> =m1 ) great] difficulty ev5 ?an atrop9e1 x also =ms less compact cry/als4 ,its fus+ po9t is #adi4f ,f4 ,i h n yet succe$$ 9 cry/alliz+ any ( its m simple salts4 ,! d\ble plat9um salt melts at #cib ,f41 ) decomposition4 ,! d\ble gold salt1 :i* has be5 describ$ above1 does n melt 9 boil+ wat]1 & its aque\s solution is r$uc$ nei!r by boil+ nor by long exposure to light4 ,by leav+ ! hot saturat$ solution to cool x does n cl\d1 b ! d\ble salt sep>ates pretty rapidly 9 ! =m ( plates4 ,"o lit] ( wat] conta9+ #aj cubic c5timet]s ( hydro*loric acid at #a4ai dissolves #fe c5tigrammes ( ! salt at #adf ,f4 ,^! *>act]i/ics all[ u to diff]5tiate atrop9e & hyoscyam9e1 ! reactions ( :i* are almo/ id5tical1 z w be se5 f ! foll[+ table1 :i* %[s ! action ( weak solutions ( ! acids nam$ on ! hydro*lorates ( ! bases3 ,reag5ts4 ,hyoscyam9e4 ,atrop9e4 ,picric acid4 ,an oil solidify+ ,cry/all9e precipitate4 imm$iately into tabul> cry/als4 ,m]curopotassic ,:ite *eesy ,same4 iodide4 precipitate4 ,iodiz$ potassic ,an imm$iate ,a br[n oil cry/alliz+ iodide4 precipitate ( aft] a "t4 p]iodate4 ,m]curic *loride4 ,same z picric acid4 ,same4 ,tannic acid4 ,slight cl\d4 ,cl\d h>dly visible4 ,plat9um *loride4 ,o4 ,o4 7,to be cont9u$47 99 99 99 99 99 ,,detection ,,( ,,small ,,quantities ,,( ,,morphia4 ,by ,a4 ,,joriss54 ,! solution ( morphia1 free f =eign bodies1 is evaporat$ to dryness1 & ! residue is heat$ on ! wat] ba? ) a few drops ( sulphuric acid4 ,a m9ute cry/al ( f]r\s sulphate is !n add$1 bruis$ ) a glass rod1 /irr$ up 9 ! liquid1 heat$ = a m9ute long]1 & p\r$ into a :ite porcela9 capsule1 conta9+ #b to #c c4c4 /rong ammonia4 ,! morphia solution s9ks to ! bottom1 & :]e ! liquids t\* !re is =m$ a r$ color1 pass+ into violet at ! m>g91 :ile ! ammoniacal /ratum takes a pure blue4 ,! reaction is v di/9ct to #j4jjjf grm4 ,code9e does n give ?is reaction4 ,if sulphuric acid at #aij to #bjj is all[$ to act ^u morphia1 !re is ultimately =m$ an opaque black gre5 mass4 ,if ?is is p\r$ dropwise into mu* wat]1 ! mixture turns blui%1 & if x is !n %ak5 up ) e!r or *lor(orm1 ! =m takes a purple & ! latt] a v p]man5t blue4 ,code9e gives ! same reaction1 b no o!r ( ! alkaloids4 ,?is reaction c be obta9$ v di/9ctly ) #j4jjjd grm4 ( morphia4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,! ,,e/imation ,,( ,,manganese ,,by ,,titration4 ,footnote3 ,f ,j]nkontorets ,annal]1 vol4 xxxvi4--,iron4 ,by ,c4 ,g4 ,,s>n/rom4 ,if we dissolve black oxide ( manganese1 p]manganate ( pota%1 or any o!r comp\nd ( manganese ( a high] degree ( oxidation ?an ! protoxide 9 hydro*loric acid1 we obta91 z is well kn[n1 a d>k color$ solution ( p]*loride ( manganese1 :i*1 :5 heat$ to boil+ loses color pretty rapidly1 *lor9e be+ giv5 (f1 until f9ally only proto*loride rema9s4 ,?is decomposition also proce$s at ! common temp]ature1 ?\gh mu* m sl[ly1 & we may !re=e say t manganese :5 dissolv$ 9 hydro*loric acid always t5ds to desc5d to its l[e/1 &1 consid]$ z a base1 /ronge/ degree ( oxidation1 :i* is n rais$ to a high] degree ev5 by *ameleon solution4 ,9 slightly acid1 neutral1 or alkal9e solutions on ! o!r h&1 protoxide ( manganese absorbs oxyg5 ) great avidity & =ms ) x diff]5t comp\nds1 accord+ to ! means ( oxidation employ$4 ,?us1 = example1 manganese is sl[ly deposit$ f an ammoniacal solution1 :5 x is p]mitt$ to take up oxyg5 f ! air1 z hydrat$ sesquioxide1 & f neutral or alkal9e solutions1 z hydrat$ p]oxide on ! addition ( *lor9e1 brom9e1 or *ameleon solution4 ,= if to an acid solution ( proto*loride ( manganese we add a solution ( bic>bonate ( soda1 z long z c>bonic acid escapes or till ! free acid is saturat$ & ! proto*loride ( manganese conv]t$ into c>bonate ( protoxide ( manganese1 :i* =ms ) bic>bonate ( soda a soluble d\ble salt1 resembl+ ! c>bonate ( lime & magnesia1 we obta9 a solution :i* is1 inde$1 acid f free c>bonic acid1 b has a slight alkal9e reaction ) litmus pap]1 & ) ! greate/ ease deprives *ameleon solution ( its color1 ! p]manganic acid be+ r$uc$ & ! protoxide ( manganese be+ oxidiz$ to p]oxide1 :i* is precipitat$ z hydrate4 ,?is reaction proce$s accord+ to ! =mula1 #c,mn,c,o#c #b,k,mn,o#d ,h#b,o #b,,khco#c #e,mn,o#b ,,co#b & x may be employ$ = e/imat+ ! cont5t ( manganese by titration4 ,z foll[s f ! =mula two equival5ts ( p]manganate ( pota% are requir$ = ! titration ( ?ree equival5ts ( protoxide ( manganese1 :i* has also be5 e/abli%$ by direct exp]im5ts1 z well z t ! escape ( c>bonic acid indicat$ by ! =mula actually takes place4 ,! precipitate ( manganese is dissolv$ ei!r 9 wat] to :i* #j4e p] c5t4 ( hydro*loric acid has be5 add$1 or 9 boil+ nitric acid4 ,:5 manganese occurs along ) iron1 :i* 9 g5]al is ! case1 we mu/ take c>e t ! iron 9 ! solution is 9 ! /ate ( p]oxide1 :i* is precipitat$ on ! addition ( ! bic>bonate ( soda1 & is all[$ to rema9 z a precipitate1 because x does n affect ! titration injuri\sly4 ,! removal ( ?is precipitate by filt]+ w\ld be m loss ?an ga91 p>tly because !re w\ld be a risk ( los+ manganese 9 ?is way1 p>tly because ! precipitate ( manganese1 :i* occurs imm$iately on ! addition ( ! *ameleon solution1 proce$s bo? m rapidly & ) great] complet5ess 9 ! pres5ce ( ! iron precipitate ?an o!rwise4 ,?is appe>s to be caus$ by ! iron precipitate z x 7 inclos+1 & me*anically draw+ d[n ! light manganese precipitate1 provid$ a weak *emical union betwe5 ! two precipitates does n ev5 take place1 dep5d+ on ! t5d5cy ( p]oxide ( manganese to behave t[>d bases1 z1 = in/ance1 hydrate ( lime z an acid4 ,h5ce x ?us foll[s t x ought to be arrang$ t a suffici5t quantity ( iron#a 7at lea/ ! same quantity z ( manganese7 be pres5t 9 ! liquid at titration1 also t "t be giv5 = ! precipitate to fall1 s t ! color ( ! solution may be obs]v$ betwe5 e addition ( *ameleon solution4 ,footnote #a3 ,= ?is 9 case ( ne$ a solution ( p]*loride ( iron free ( manganese may be employ$4 ,:5 ! cont5t ( manganese is l>ge1 x is sometimes r long be=e ! solution is ready = titration4 ,! reason ( ?is appe>s to be t a "p ( ! manganese is fir/ precipitat$ z hydrat$ sesquioxide1 :i* is aft]w>d oxidiz$ to hydrat$ p]oxide1 = ! upp] portion ( ! liquid may sometimes be color$ by *ameleon1 :ile ! l[] portion1 :i* is 9 clos] contact ) ! precipitate1 is less color$ or absolutely colorless4 ,f ?is we also see h[ advisable x is to /ir ! liquid frequ5tly dur+ titration4 ,t[>d ! close ( x1 x is also advantage\s1 :5 ! cont5ts ( manganese are l>ge1 to w>m ! solution to ab\t #ej ,c41 because ! removal ( color is !reby ha/5$4 ,:5 ! fluid1 :i* is well /irr$ aft] ea* addition ( *ameleon1 has obta9$ f x a p]ceptible color1 :i* does n disappe> aft] sev]al /irr+s1 ! :ole ( ! manganese is precipitat$ & ! color ( ! solution rema9s almo/ un*ang$ aft] ! lapse ( at lea/ twelve h\rs4 ,:5 ! cont5t ( manganese is l>ge ! solution may be divid$ into two equal portions1 "o ( :i* is fir/ to be r\ghly titrat$ to asc]ta9 its cont5t approximately1 aft] :i* ! :ole is to be mix$ toge!r & ! titration complet$1 :i* c ?us be p]=m$ ) great] spe$ & c]ta9ty4 ,if too mu* *ameleon has be5 add$1 "o may titrate back ) an accurately e/imat$ solution ( manganese1 :i* is prep>$ mo/ easily by evaporat+ fifte5 cubic c5timet]s *ameleon solution d[n to two or ?ree cubic c5timet]s1 boil+ ) two to ?ree cubic c5timet]s hydro*loric acid s long z ! smell ( *lor9e is obs]v$1 & !n dilut+ ! solution to t5 cubic c5timet]s1 :5 "o cubic c5timet] ( x corresponds to ! same measure ( *ameleon4 ,) respect to ! delay :i* mu/ take place dur+ ! titration 9 ord] to give ! precipitate "t to fall1 x is advantage\s1 9 ord] to save "t1 to "w ) sev]al samples2 b x is1 9 su* a case1 desirable to h a sep>ate burette = ea* sample1 9 ord] to avoid not+ e addition ( ! *ameleon solution & aft]w>d add+ !m up4 ,if burettes are want+1 & "o mu/ be us$ = sev]al samples1 a ,mohr's burette ) glass cock is ! mo/ conv5i5t to use4 ,= ! titration ( iron ) *ameleon solution1 ! latt] is commonly us$ ( su* a /r5g? t #j4ja gramme ( iron corresponds to ab\t "o cubic c5timet] ( *ameleon solution1 :i* is obta9$ by dissolv+ #e4ge grammes p]manganate ( pota% 9 #a1jjj cubic c5timet]s wat]4 ,! titration is det]m9$ by means ( iron1 a salt ( iron or oxalic acid4 ,a drop ( su* a solution1 correspond+ to ab\t "o-tw5tie? cubic c5timet]1 or #j4jjja gramme ,mn1 is suffici5t to give a p]ceptible r$di% color to #bjj cubic c5timet]s ( wat]4 ,z :at takes place 9 ! titration ( iron ) *ameleon is indicat$ by ! foll[+ =mula1 #aj;,fe,o #b,k,mn,o#d #e;,fe#b,o#c ,k#b,o #b,mn,o#b1 x appe>s1 on mak+ a comp>ison ) ! =mula giv5 above1 t t5 equival5ts ( iron correspond to ?ree equival5ts ( manganese1 & t !re is ?us requir$ = ?ree equival5ts manganese z mu* *ameleon solution z = t5 equival5ts iron4 ,:5 we "k ! titration ( ! *ameleon solution = iron1 t = manganese is obta9$ by multiply+ ! =m] by 7#c x #ee7_/7aj x #ef7 #j4bie4 ,if1 = in/ance1 "o cubic c5timet] *ameleon solution corresponds to #j4ja gramme iron1 ! figure = manganese is #j4ja x #j4bie #j4jjbie gramme p] cubic c5timet]4 ,we c ( c\rse also det]m9e ! titration = manganese 9 a *ameleon solution ) ! greate/ c]ta9ty by titrat+ a comp\nd ( manganese ) an accurately e/imat$ cont5t ( x1 = in/ance1 a spiegeleis5 or f]romanganese2 ! te/ is c>ri$ out 9 ! foll[+ way3 ,! sub/ance1 :i* is to be exam9$ = manganese1 is dissolv$ by means ( hydro*loric acid4 ,if ! manganese1 z 9 slags1 be comb9$ ) silica1 x is frequ5tly necess>y fir/ to fuse ! specim5 ) soda4 ,iron ores & ref9]y c9d]s may inde$1 if !y are r$uc$ to a v f9e /ate ( division1 be commonly decompos$ by boil+ ) hydro*loric acid ) or )\t ! addition ( sulphuric acid1 b ! undissolv$ silica is g5]ally r5d]$ impure by manganese1 :i* c only be remov$ by fusion ) soda4 ,! dissolv+ ( ! fus$ mass 9 hydro*loric acid does n ne$ to be c>ri$ to dryness = ! sep>ation ( ! soluble silica1 b ! boil+1 aft] ! addition ( a little nitric acid1 is only kept up until ! iron passes into p]*loride & ! manganese into proto*loride4 ,! quantity1 :i* ought to be tak5 = ! te/1 dep5ds on ! accuracy ) :i* x is desir$ to h ! manganese e/imat$4 ,( f]romanganese & o!r v manganif]\s sub/ances1 9 :i* ! manganese ne$ n be det]m9$ ) great] exactness ?an to #j4a p] c5t41 only #j4ja gram4 is tak5 = a te/2 b ( common pig1 wr\ght iron1 /eel1 iron ore1 slags1 etc41 !re is tak5 #j4e to #a gramme accord+ to ! suppos$ cont5t ( manganese & ! desir$ exactness ( ! e/imation4 ,= in/ance "o gramme iron1 :i* has pass$ ?r\gh a metal sieve ) holes half a millimet] 9 diamet]1 is plac$ 9 a beak] #abe mm4 9 height & #fj mm4 9 diamet]1 & has add$ to x tw5ty cubic c5timet]s ( hydro*loric acid ( #a4ab specific gravity1 :i*1 ) a well-fitt+ glass cov]1 is boil$ = half an h\r1 9 ord] t ! comb9$ c>bon may be driv5 (f 9 ! %ape ( gas4 ,aft] at lea/ ! half ( ! hydro*loric acid has be5 boil$ away1 !re are add$ at lea/ five cubic c5timet]s nitric acid ( #a4b specific gravity1 p>tly to br+ ! iron to p]oxide1 p>tly to de/roy ! organic matt]s =m$ f ! c>bon1 :i* might possibly be rema9+ & might t5d to remove ! color ( ! *ameleon solution4 ,! boil+ is n[ cont9u$ till ne> dryness1 :5 five cubic c5timet]s hydro*loric acid are add$1 aft] :i* ! solution is boil$ z long z any r$di%-yell[ vapors ( nitr\s acid are obs]v$4 ,:5 ^! h disappe>$ a drop ( ! liquid tak5 up on a small glass rod is te/$ ) an newly prep>$ solution ( r$ prussiate ( pota% 7#b grammes 9 #ajj cubic c5timet]s wat]71 to asc]ta9 :e!r !re is any protoxide ( iron rema9+4 ,fir/1 :5 no indication ( blue or gre5 is visible1 ! te/ %[s a pure yell[1 x is c]ta9 t !re are no r$uc+ sub/ances 9 ! solution4 ,if a trace ( protoxide ( iron rema9s 9 ! solution ano!r cubic c5timet] ( nitric acid ought to be add$ & ! boil+ cont9u$ s long z any r$di%-yell[ vapors are visible1 m hydro*loric acid also be+ add$ to keep ! solution f be+ dri$ up4 ,! process is cont9u$ 9 ?is way until two te/s h giv5 no reaction ( protoxide ( iron1 :5 ! solution is dilut$ ) wat]2 b no dilution %\ld take place until ! oxidation is complete1 because 9 ! c\rse ( x ! solution ought to be kept z conc5trat$ z possible4 ,silica1 & graphite :5 x is pres5t1 ne$ n be remov$ by filtration1 if x is n int5d$ to e/imate !m1 or !re be no fe> t ! graphite is accompani$ by any hum\s sub/ance1 or t any oily1 visc\s comp\nd has be5 deposit$ on ! sides ( ! beak]4 ,9 ! la/ m5tion$ case ! solution %\ld be transf]r$ into ano!r beak]1 & filt]$1 if graphite be pres5t4 ,:5 ! solution is evaporat$ to dryness1 ! rema9d] has five cubic c5timet]s hydro*loric acid add$ to x1 & ! liquid is !n br\ght to boil+ 9 ord] t ! p]*loride ( manganese possibly =m$ dur+ ! evaporation to dryness may be r$uc$ to proto*loride1 aft] :i* ! solution is dilut$ ) wat] till x measures ab\t #ajj cubic c5timet]s4 ,to ?is is n[ add$ 9 small portions & ) con/ant /irr+ z mu* ( a saturat$ solution ( bic>bonate ( soda 7?irte5 p>ts wat] dissolve "o "p salt71 t all ! iron is precipitat$1 aft] :i*1 :5 ! escape ( c>bonic acid has ceas$1 ! solution is dilut$ ) wat] till x measures #bjj cubic c5timet]s & is !n ready = titration4 ,a l>ge excess ( bic>bonate ought to be avoid$1 because 9 a solution ( pure proto*loride ( manganese x r5d]s ! liquid milky & turbid2 ! addition ( m wat]1 h[ev]1 makes x cle>4 ,! solution ( bic>bonate mu/ be free f organic sub/ances :i* may t5d to remove ! color ( ! *ameleon solution4 ,to asc]ta9 ?is1 ! latt] is add$ to ! =m] drop by drop s long z ! color is remov$4 ,if x be desir$ to e/imate ! silica 9 ! same te/1 ! iron1 z :5 x is analyz$ = silica1 may be also dissolv$ 9 sulphuric acid1 & aft]w>d oxidiz$ ) nitric acid1 aft] :i* ! solution is boil$ to ne> dryness1 s t ! organic sub/ances are completely de/roy$4 ,9 ord] aft]w>d1 to drive (f ! nitric acid & get ! manganese ) c]ta9ty r$uc$ to protoxide1 ! solution is boil$ ) a little hydro*loric acid4 ,9 ?is way ! solution goes on rapidly & conv5i5tly1 b ! titration takes long] "t ?an :5 ! iron is dissolv$ 9 hydro*loric acid1 because ! iron precipitate is m volum9\s1 &1 9 consequ5ce1 long] 9 be+ deposit$4 ,to dim9i% ?is inconv5i5ce ! solution ought to be made l>g]4 ,9 su* a case ! rule = dissolv+ is1 "o gramme iron 7m if ! cont5t ( silica is small7 is dissolv$ 9 a mixture ( two cubic c5timet]s sulphuric acid ( #a4hc specific gravity & twelve cubic c5timet]s ( wat] 9 ! way describ$ above1 & boil$ until salt ( iron beg9s to be deposit$ on ! bottom ( ! beak]4 ,five cubic c5timet]s hydro*loric acid are n[ add$1 & ! solution te/$ ) r$ prussiate ( pota% = protoxide ( iron1 & ! boil+ cont9u$ till ne> dryness1 :5 all ! nitric acid is commonly driv5 (f4 ,%\ld nitr\s acid /ill %[ itself1 "s m hydro*loric acid is add$ & ! boil+ cont9u$4 ,z 9 dissolv+ 9 hydro*loric acid & oxidiz+ ) nitric acid ! solution ought to be twice te/$ = protoxide ( iron1 ev5 al?\gh at ! fir/ te/ none c be discov]$4 ,! silica is tak5 ^u a filt]1 dri$1 ignit$1 & weigh$4 ,! filtrate is treat$ ) bic>bonate ( soda1 & titrat$ ) *ameleon solution 9 ! way describ$ above4 ,if ! cont5t ( manganese is small 7"u #j4e p] c5t47 x is n necess>y to w>m ! liquid be=e titration2 b 9 proportion z ! cont5t ( manganese is l>g] !re is s mu* great] reason to ha/5 ! removal ( color by w>m+ & con/ant /irr+ t[>d ! close ( ! titration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,on ,,! ,,e/imation ,,& ,,sep>ation ,,( ,,manganese4 ,footnote3 ,read be=e ! ,am]ican ,*emical ,society1 ,dec4 #af1 #ahha ,by ,,nelson ,h4 ,,d>ton4 ,! elem5t manganese hav+ _m peculi>ities 9 its reactions ) ! o!r elem5ts1 is n[ ext5sively us$ 9 ! arts1 its comb9ations ent]+ into & are us$ 9 _m ( ! important processes2 x is consequ5tly (t5 br\ght be=e ! *emi/ 9 8 analysis1 & has to be det]m9$ 9 mo/ cases ) consid]able accuracy4 ,_m me?ods h be5 propos$ = ?is1 all ( !m ( m or less value2 ^? yield+ ! be/ results1 h[ev]1 requir+ a consid]able l5g? ( "t = _! execution1 & involv+ s l>ge an am\nt ( manipulatory skill z to r5d] !m fairly impracticable to a *emi/ at all press$ = "t1 & receiv+ b a m]e trifle = ! results4 ,z ,i h _h to make num]\s e/imations ( manganese 9 v>i\s comp\nds1 z a public analy/1 ,i h be5 induc$ to inve/igate ! volumetric me?ods at pres5t 9 use to f9d _! comp>ative values1 & if possible to "w out a new "o1 sett+ aside "o or m ( ! difficulties met ) 9 ! use ( ! old] ones4 ,?is pap] is a "p summ>y ( ! results4 ,fir/1 ,i w detail my process ( e/imation1 !n on ! sep>ation4 ,f all comp\nds ( manganese1 except+ ^? conta9+ cobalt & nickel1 ! manganese is precipitat$ z b9oxide2 ^? conta9+ ^! two elem5ts are treat$ ) phosphoric acid1 or z not$ "u ,sep>ation4 ,a4--,! ,e/imation4 ,! b9oxide ( comm]ce1 z tak5 f ! m9e1 is well sampl$1 p[d]$1 & dri$ at #ajj;,c4 #j4e gramme ( ?is is tak5 & plac$ 9 a #bej c4c4 flask2 9 analysis ! b9oxide on ! filt]1 f ! treatm5ts not$ "u sep>ation is ?or\ghly wa%$ ) w>m wat]2 x is !n wa%$ d[n 9 a flask1 z above1 aft] break+ ! filt] pap]2 suffici5t wat] is add$ to "o-?ird fill ! flask1 & ab\t twice ! approximate weight ( ! b9oxide 9 ! flask ( oxalate ( potassa2 ^! are agitat$ toge!r4 ,a twice p]=at$ /opp] is fitt$ to ?is flask1 c>ry+ ?r\gh "o op5+ a #be c c4 pipette ne>ly fill$ ) sulphuric acid1 sp4 gr4 #a4d1 ! l[] po9t ( :i* j dips bel[ ! mixture 9 ! flask1 & ! upp] end1 c>ry+ a rubb] tube & p9* cock to control ! fl[ ( acid4 ,?r\gh ! o!r op5+ passes a glass tube b5t at an acute angle & connect$ by a %ort rubb] tube to an adjo9+ flask1 two-?irds fill$ ) dec9ormal b>yta solutions4 ,^! connections are all made air tight4 ,sulphuric acid is all[$ 9 small portions at a "t to fl[ into ! mixture4 ,c>bonic acid is evolv$1 &1 pass+ into ! adjo9+ flask1 is absorb$ by ! b>yta1 precipitat+ x z c>bonate4 ,to prev5t ! precipitate =m+ ar\nd or *ok+ up ! entrance tube1 ! flask mu/ be agitat$ at %ort int]vals to break x (f4 ,! reaction s famili> to u 9 o!r det]m9ations is express$ ?us3 ,mn,o#b,,ko1,c#b,o#cb,,s#c ,mn,o1,,s#c,,ko4,,s#cb;,,co#b1 ,:5 no m c>bonic acid is evolv$1 ano!r tube f ?is la/ flask is connect$ ) ! aspirator1 ! p9*-cock ( ! pipette op51 & air drawn ?r\gh ! app>atus = ab\t half a m9ute1 & ?us all ! c>bonic acid evolv$ absorb$1 or ! flasks may be slightly heat$4 ,if dang] ( m c>bonic acid be+ absorb$ f ! air is fe>$1 & always 9 v accurate analysis1 a potassa tube may be connect$ to ! pipette be=e draw+ ! air ?r\gh4 ,! precipitate =m$ is all[$ to settle1 #ej c4c4 ( ! sup]natant solution is remov$ ) a pipette & transf]r$ to a beak]2 #ej c4c4 ( dec9ormal nitric acid & "s wat] is add$ ) suffici5t co*9eal t9cture4 ,x is !n titrat$ back ) dec9ormal soda2 f ?is is n[ readily d$uct$ ! am\nt ( c>bonic acid1 & f t ! ,mn,o#b1 hold+ 9 view t #dd p>ts ( c>bonic acid is equival5t to #dc4e ( ,mn,o#b or #ih4hg p] c5t1 & t #a c4c4 ( ! ,n_/#aj b>yta solution is equival5t to #j4jjbb grm4 ( ,,co#b4 ,if a c>bonate1 *loride1 or nitrate1 be pres5t 9 ! native b9oxide1 x mu/ be remov$ ) "s sulphuric acid4 ,?is is aft]w>d neutraliz$ ) a little cau/ic soda4 ,?is me?od yields ! foll[+ results = its value 9 am\nt ( manganese to #ajj3 #ii4ia-ii4ijb-ii4hie1 & c be execut$ 9 ab\t tw5ty m9utes4 ,fifte5 det]m9ations c be c>ri$ on at once )\t loss ( "t1 ?is1 h[ev]1 dep5d+ on ! op]ator's skill4 ,i h made _m assays1 & assays by ?is me?od ) simil>ly excell5t results4 ,( ! o!r me?ods1 ,buns5's is ackn[l$g$ to be ! mo/ accurate1 b is1 ( c\rse1 too tr\blesome to be us$ 9 te*nical "w1 al?\gh x is us$ 9 sci5tific analysis4 ,ord9>y samples are n suffici5tly accurate to all[ ! use ( ?is me?od4 ,! me?ods ( r$uc+ ) iron & titrat+ ?is ) *romate ( potassa1 etc41 h giv5 a con/ant av]age ( f #ih4fj-ii4ja4 ,^! results are fair1 b h>d to obta9 exp$iti\sly4 ,( ! me?ods ( precipitat+ ! comp\nds ( ! protoxide & e/imat+ ! acid1 t ( ! phosphate is by f> ! mo/ accurate1 titrat+ ) uranium solution2 #ii4hb is a ne>ly con/ant av]age ) me1 mu* dep5d+ on ! op]ator's famili>ity ) ! uranium process4 ,! me?ods ( ,l5ss51 or f]ricyanide ( potassium me?od1 yields v widely diff]+ results4 ,i h f\nd ! figures ( ,fres5ius ab\t ! same z my own 9 ?is case2 t is f #ih4jj-ajj4aj4 ,b4--,on ! ,sep>ation4 ,fir/1 f its soluble simple comb9ations ) ! acids or bases conta9+ no iron or cobalt2 if !y are pres5t1 x is treat$ z is not$ lat]4 ,if sulphuric acid is pres5t x mu/ be sep>at$ by treat+ ! solution ( ! comp\nd ) b>ium *loride & filt]+4 ,a ne>ly neutral solution is prep>$ 9 wat] or hydro*loric acid & plac$ 9 a flask4 ,"h x is treat$ ) *lor9e by pass+ a curr5t ( t gas ?r\gh x z long z x causes a precipitate & = "s "t aft]w>d4 ,x is !n discont9u$1 ! mixture all[$ to deposit = a few mom5ts1 & ab\t two-?irds ( ! sup]natant solution decant$2 x is mix$ ) "s m wat]1 & ^! decantations repeat$ until !y pass away )\t reaction1 or by filt]+ x & wa%+ on ! filt]2 x is !n dissolv$ 9 hot hydro*loric acid1 ?is ne>ly neutraliz$1 a solution ( sesqui*loride ( iron is add$1 & aga9 treat$ ) an excess ( *lor9e4 ,aft] wa%+ x is transf]r$ to ! flasks ( ! app>atus m5tion$ 9 ! fir/ "p ( ?is pap]1 & e/imat$4 ,myself & sev]al o!rs h f\nd ?is always to be a true ,mn,o#b1 & n a v>y+ mixture ( protosesquioxide & b9oxide1 & w ?us yield accurate results4 ,?is reprecipitation may sometimes be disp5s$ ) by add+ ! iron salt be=e ! fir/ precipitation1 b x ( c\rse dep5ds ^u ! o!r elem5ts pres5t4 ,f ,comp\nds conta9+ ,cobalt1 ,cobalt & ,nickel1 ,iron & gr\p ,,iii41 toge!r or ) o!r elem5ts4--,gr\p ,,iii4 & sesqui4 iron are sep>at$ by agitation ) b>yta c>bonate1 "s *loride ( ammonia be+ add$ to prev5t nickel & cobalt precipitation traces1 & filt]+4 ,if cobalt is pres5t we treat ?is filtrate ) nitrite ( potassa1 etc41 to sep>ate x 7t is1 if x & nickel are to be sep>at$ & e/imat$ 9 ! same sample2 b if !y are to be e/imat$ z "o1 or n sep>at$1 ! treatm5t ) nitrite1 etc41 is n us$74 ,! filtrate f ?is la/ is directly treat$ ) *lor9e4 ,if nickel & cobalt are n to be e/imat$ 9 ?is sample1 ! solution1 z *lorides1 is mix$ ) "s *loride ( ammonium & ammonia1 !n ) a fair excess ( phosphoric acid1 a suffici5t quantity m ( ammonia to r5d] ! mixture alkal9e4 ,! precipitate =m$ is transf]r$ to ! filt] & well wa%$ ) wat] conta9+ ,,nh#c;,cl & ,,nh#d,o1 !n dissolv$ 9 hydro*loric acid & reprecipitat$ ) ammonia1 filt]+ & wa%+ z be=e4 ,x is aga9 dissolv$ 9 ,h,cl & titrat$ ) uranium solution1 or decompos$ by t91 z not$ bel[1 & ! manganese precipitat$ z b9oxide ) *lor9e1 & det]m9$4 ,! latt] me?od is h>dly practicable1 & ,i nev] h "t to use x1 z ! titration & all toge!r yields a value ( #ii4hj 9 mo/ cases1 if accurately execut$4 ,f ! bases ( gr\ps ,v4 & ,,vi4 ^! are sep>at$ by hydrog5 sulphide1 f iron 9 alloys1 ores1 etc41 & 9 g5]al ! iron is sep>at$ z basic acetate1 & ! manganese aft]w>d precipitat$ ) *lor9e4 ,brom9e is g5]ally us$ 9 place ( *lor9e1 ! use ( :i* *emi/s claim z tr\blesome2 b 9 a numb] ( exam9ations ,i h f\nd x to yield m satisfactory results ?an brom9e1 :i* is mu* m exp5sive4 ,f ! acids 9 insoluble & a few o!r comp\nds1 *romic1 ars5ic1 & ars5i\s acids1 by fusion ) c>bonate ( soda 9 pres5ce ( c>bonic acid gas2 borate ( manganese is readily decompos$ :5 ! boracic acid is to be det]m9$ by boil+ ) solution ( potassa1 dissolv+ ! residue 9 hydro*loric acid & precipitat+ ! manganese z b9oxide4 ,?is boil+1 h[ev]1 is seldom ne$$1 z ! borate is soluble 9 ,h,cl4 ,f phosphoric acid ,i always use ,gir>d's me?od ( treatm5t ) t91 us+ x rasp$1 & x yields mu* m accurate results ) b little manipulation4 ,:5 ! o!r acids m5tion$ above are pres5t 9 ! comp\nd1 we treat x z direct$ !re4 ,f silicic acid1 by evaporation ) hydro*loric acid4 ,f sulphur or iod9e1 by decompos+ ) sulphuric acid & sep>at+ ?is ) b>yta *loride4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,rese>*es ,,on ,,animals ,,conta9+ ,,*lorophyl4 ,footnote3 ,ab/ract ( a pap] ,on ! ,nature & ,functions ( ! ',yell[ ,cells' ( ,radiol>ians & ,coel5t]ates1 read to ! ,royal ,society ( ,ed9burgh1 on ,janu>y #ad1 #ahhb1 & publi%$ by p]mission ( ! ,c\ncil4--,nature4 ,x is n[ ne>ly =ty ye>s s9ce ! pres5ce ( *lorophyl 9 c]ta9 species ( plan>ian worms 0 recogniz$ by ,s*ultze4 ,lat] obs]v]s conclud$ t ! gre5 color ( c]ta9 infusorians1 ( ! common fre% wat] hydra & ( ! fre% wat] sponge1 0 due to ! same pigm5t1 b little m att5tion 0 paid to ! subject until #ahgj1 :5 ,ray ,lanke/] appli$ ! spectroscope to its inve/igation4 ,he ?us consid]ably ext5d$ ! li/ ( *lorophyl conta9+ animals1 & 8 results are summ>iz$ 9 ,sa*s' ,botany 7,eng4 ed474 ,8 li/ includes1 besides ! animals already m5tion$1 two species ( ,radiol>ians1 ! common gre5 sea anemone 7,an!a c]eus1 v>4 ,sm>agd9a71 ! rem>kable ,gephyrean1 ,bonellia viridis1 a ,poly*te worm1 ,*top]us1 & ev5 a ,cru/acean1 ,idotea viridis4 ,! ma9 int]e/ ( ! "q ( c\rse lies 9 its be>+ on ! long-disput$ relations betwe5 plants & animals2 =1 s9ce nei!r locomotion nor irritability is peculi> to animals2 s9ce _m insectivor\s plants habitually dige/ solid food2 s9ce cellulose1 t mo/ *>act]i/ic ( vegetable products1 is practically id5tical ) ! tunic9 ( ,ascidians1 x becomes ( ! greate/ int]e/ to "k :e!r ! *lorophyl ( animals pres]ves its ord9>y vegetable function ( effect+ or aid+ ! decomposition ( c>bonic anhydride & ! syn!tic production ( />*4 ,= al?\gh x _h long be5 kn[n t ,eugl5a evolv$ oxyg5 9 sunlight1 ! animal nature ( su* an organism 0 m]ely !reby r5d]$ m d\btful ?an ev]4 ,9 #ahgh ,i _h ! good =tune to f9d at ,rosc(f ! mat]ial = ! solution ( ! problem 9 ! grass-gre5 plan>ian1 ,convoluta s*ultzii1 ( :i* multitudes are to be f\nd 9 c]ta9 localities on ! coa/1 ly+ on ! s&1 cov]$ only by an in* or two ( wat]1 & app>5tly bask+ 9 ! sun4 ,x 0 only necess>y to expose a quantity ( ^! animals to direct sunlight to obs]ve ! rapid evolution ( bubbles ( gas1 :i*1 :5 collect$ & analyz$1 yield$ f #de to #ee p] c5t4 ( oxyg54 ,bo? *emical & hi/ological obs]vations %[$ ! abundant pres5ce ( />* 9 ! gre5 cells1 & ?us ^! plan>ians1 & presumably also ,hydra spongilla1 etc41 7 prov$ to be truly vegetat+ animals4 ,be+ at ,naples e>ly 9 ! spr+ ( #ahgi1 ,i expos$ to sunlight "s ( ! reput$ly *lorophyl conta9+ animals to be obta9$ !re1 namely1 ,bonellia viridis & ,idotea viridis1 :ile ,kruk5b]g _h mean:ile be5 mak+ ! same exp]im5t ) ,bonellia & ,an!a at ,trie/e4 ,our results 7 totally negative1 b s f> z ,bonellia 0 conc]n$ ?is 0 n to be wond]$ at s9ce ! lat] spectroscopic inve/igations ( ,sorby & ,s*5k _h fully confirm$ ! op9ion ( ,lacaze-,du?i]s z to ! complete di/9ctness ( its pigm5t f *lorophyl4 ,kruk5b]g1 too1 :o foll[s ^! inve/igators 9 t]m+ x bonelle91 has rec5tly figur$ ! spectra ( ,an!a-gre51 & ?is also seems to diff] consid]ably f *lorophyl1 :ile ,i am /rongly ( ! op9ion t ! pigm5t ( ! gre5 cru/aceans is1 if possible1 ev5 m di/9ct1 hav+ n improbably a m]ely protective resemblance4 ,x is n[ necess>y to pass to ! discussion ( a widely di/9ct subject--! long out/&+ enigma ( ! nature & functions ( ! yell[ cells ( ,radiol>ians4 ,^! bodies 7 fir/ s call$ by ,huxley 9 8 description ( ,?allassicolla1 & are small bodies ( di/9ctly cellul> nature1 ) a cell wall1 well def9$ nucleus1 & protoplasmic cont5ts saturat$ by a yell[ pigm5t4 ,!y multiply rapidly by transv]se division1 & are pres5t 9 almo/ all ,radiol>ians1 b 9 v v>iable numb]4 ,johnnes ,mull] at fir/ suppos$ !m to be conc]n$ ) reproduction1 b aft]w>d gave up ?is view4 ,9 8 fam\s monograph ( ! ,radiol>ians1 ,haeckel sugge/s t !y are probably secret+ cells or dige/ive gl&s 9 ! simple/ =m1 & comp>es !m to ! liv]-cells ( ,amphioxus1 & ! liv]-cells describ$ by ,vogt 9 ,velella & ,porpita4 ,lat] he made ! rem>kable discov]y t />* 0 pres5t 9 notable quantity 9 ^! yell[ cells1 & consid]$ ?is z confirm+ 8 view t ^! cells 7 9 "s way relat$ to ! function ( nutrition4 ,9 #ahga a v rem>kable contribution to our k ( ! ,radiol>ians 0 publi%$ by ,ci5k[ski1 :o /rongly express$ ! op9ion t ^! yell[ cells 7 p>asitic alg1 po9t+ out t our only evid5ce ( _! ,radiol>ian nature 0 furni%$ by _! con/ant occurr5ce 9 mo/ memb]s ( ! gr\p4 ,he %[$ t !y 7 capable n only ( surviv+ ! dea? ( ! ,radiol>ian1 b ev5 ( multipy+1 & ( pass+ ?r\gh an ency/$ & an amoeboid /ate1 & urg$ _! mode ( developm5t & ! great v>iability ( _! numb]s )9 ! same species z fur!r evid5ce ( 8 view4 ,! next important "w 0 t ( ,ri*>d ,h]twig1 :o incl9$ to ?9k t ^! cells sometimes develop$ f ! protoplasm ( ! ,radiol>ian1 & fail+ to v]ify ! obs]vations ( ,ci5k[ski1 ma9ta9$ ! op9ion ( ,haeckel t ! yell[ cells fur d5 ,/(fwe*sel d] ,radiol>i5 von ,b$eutung s9d4 ,9 a lat] publication 7#ahgi7 he1 h[ev]1 hesitates to decide z to ! nature ( ! yell[ cells1 b sugge/s two consid]ations z favor+ ! view ( _! p>asitic nature--fir/1 t yell[ cells are to be f\nd 9 ,radiol>ians :i* possess only a s+le nucleus1 & secondly1 t !y are abs5t 9 a good _m species altoge!r4 ,a lat] inve/igator1 ,dr4 ,br&t1 ( ,b]l91 al?\gh fail+ to confirm ,haeckel's obs]vations z to ! pres5ce ( />*1 has completely corroborat$ ! ma9 discov]y ( ,ci5k[ski1 s9ce he f9ds ! yell[ cells to survive = no less ?an two mon?s aft] ! dea? ( ! ,radiol>ian1 & ev5 to cont9ue to live 9 ! gelat9\s inve/m5t f :i* ! protoplasm _h long dep>t$ 9 ! =m ( sw>m-spores4 ,he sum up ! evid5ce /rongly 9 favor ( _! p>asitic nature4 ,mean:ile simil> bodies 7 be+ describ$ by ! inve/igators ( o!r gr\ps4 ,haeckel _h already comp>$ ! yell[ cells ( ,radiol>ians to ! s-call$ liv]-cells ( ,velella2 b ! bro!rs ,h]twig fir/ recall$ att5tion to ! subject 9 #ahgi by express+ _! op9ion t ! well-kn[n pigm5t bodies :i* occur 9 ! endod]m cells ( ! t5tacles ( _m sea-anemones 7 also p>asitic alg4 ,?is op9ion 0 f\nd$ on _! occasional occurr5ce outside ! body ( ! anemone1 on _! irregul> di/ribution 9 v>i\s species1 & on _! resemblance to ! yell[ cells ( ,radiol>ians4 ,b !y did n succe$ 9 demon/rat+ ! pres5ce ( />*1 cellulose1 or *lorophyl4 ,! la/ ( ?is long s]ies ( rese>*es is t ( ,hamann 7#ahha71 :o inve/igates ! simil> /ructures :i* occur 9 ! oral region ( ! ,rhizo/ome jelly-fi%es4 ,:ile agree+ ) ,ci5k[ski z to ! p>asitic nature ( ! yell[ cells ( ,radiol>ians1 he holds /rongly t ^? ( anemones & jelly-fi%es are unicellul> gl&s4 ,9 ! hope ( cle>+ up ^! contradictions1 ,i return$ to ,naples 9 ,octob] la/1 & fir/ conv9c$ myself ( ! accuracy ( ! obs]vation ( ,ci5k[ski & ,br&t z to ! survival ( ! yell[ cells 9 ! bodies ( dead ,radiol>ians1 & _! assumption ( ! ency/$ & ! amoeboid /ates4 ,_! mode ( division1 too1 is ?or\ghly algoid4 ,"o f9ds1 n unfrequ5tly1 gr\ps ( ?ree & f\r closely resembl+ ,protococcus4 ,/>* is inv>iably pres5t2 ! wall is true plant-cellulose1 yield+ a magnific5t blue ) iod9e & sulphuric acid1 & ! yell[ color+ matt] is id5tical ) t ( diatoms1 & yields ! same gre5i% residue aft] treatm5t ) alcohol4 ,s1 too1 9 ,velella1 9 sea-anemones1 & 9 m$us2 9 all cases ! protoplasm & nucleus1 ! cellulose1 />*1 & *lorophyl1 c be made out 9 ! mo/ p]fectly di/9ct way4 ,! failure ( =m] obs]v]s ) ^! reactions1 9 :i* ,i at fir/ also %>$1 has be5 simply due to neglect ( ! ord9>y botanical precautions4 ,su* reactions w n succe$ until ! animal tissue has be5 treat$ ) alcohol & mac]at$ = "s h\rs 9 a weak solution ( cau/ic pota%4 ,!n1 aft] neutraliz+ ! alkali by means ( dilute acetic acid1 & add+ a weak solution ( iod9e1 foll[$ by /rong sulphuric acid1 ! pres5ce ( />* & cellulose c be successively demon/rat$4 ,?us1 !n1 ! *emical composition1 z well z ! /ructure & mode ( division ( ^! yell[ cells1 are ^? ( unicellul> alg1 & ,i accord+ly propose ! g5]ic "n ( ,philozoon1 & di/+ui% f\r species1 diff]+ slightly 9 size1 color1 mode ( division1 behavior ) reag5ts1 etc41 = :i* ! "n ( ,p4 radiol>um1 ,p4 siphonophorum1 ,p4 act9i>um1 & ,p4 m$us>um1 accord+ to _! habitat1 may be conv5i5tly adopt$4 ,x n[ rema9s to inquire :at is _! mode ( life1 & :at _! function4 ,i next expos$ a quantity ( ,radiol>ians 7*iefly ,colloz\m7 to sun%9e1 & 0 delight$ to f9d !m soon /udd$ ) t9y gas-bubbles4 ,?\gh x 0 n possible to obta9 en\gh = a quantitative analysis1 ,i 0 able to satisfy myself t ! gas 0 n absorb$ by cau/ic pota%1 b 0 p>tly tak5 up by pyrogallic acid1 t is to say1 t little or no c>bonic acid 0 pres5t1 b t a fair am\nt ( oxyg5 0 pres5t1 dilut$ ( c\rse by nitrog54 ,! exposure ( a %oal ( ! beautiful blue pelagic ,siphonophore1 ,velella1 = a few h\rs1 enabl$ me to collect a l>ge quantity ( gas1 :i* yield$ f #bd to #be p] c5t4 ( oxyg51 t subsequ5tly squeez$ out f ! int]ior ( ! *amb]$ c>tilag9\s float1 giv+ only #e p] c5t4 ,b ! mo/ />tl+ result 0 obta9$ by ! exposure ( ! common ,an!a c]eus1 :i* yield$ great quantities ( gas conta9+ on an av]age f #cb to #ch p] c5t4 ( oxyg54 ,at fir/ sight x might seem impossible to reconcile ?is copi\s evolution ( oxyg5 ) ! completely negative results obta9$ f ! same animal by s c>eful an exp]im5t] z ,kruk5b]g1 yet ! difficulty is m app>5t ?an real4 ,aft] consid]able difficulty ,i 0 able to obta9 a l>ge & beautiful specim5 ( ,an!a c]eus1 v>4 sm>agd9a1 :i* is a f> m beautiful gre5 ?an t ) :i* ,i _h be5 be=e op]at+--! d+y br[ni%-olive v>iety1 plumosa4 ,! =m] owes its color to a gre5 pigm5t diffus$ *iefly ?r\gh ! ectod]m1 b has comp>atively few alg 9 its endod]m2 :ile 9 ! latt] ! pigm5t is pres5t 9 mu* small] quantity2 b ! endod]m cells are cr[d$ by alg4 ,an ord9>y specim5 ( plumosa 0 also tak51 & ! two 7 plac$ 9 simil> vessels side by side1 & expos$ to full sun%9e2 by aft]noon ! specim5 ( plumosa _h yield$ gas en\gh = an analysis1 :ile ! l>g] & f9] sm>agd9a _h sc>cely produc$ a bubble4 ,two v>ieties ( ,c]iactis aurantiaca1 "o )1 ! o!r )\t1 yell[ cells1 7 next expos$1 ) a precisely simil> result4 ,! complete dep5d5ce ( ! evolution ( oxyg5 ^u ! pres5ce ( alg1 & its complete indep5d5ce ( ! pigm5t prop] to ! animal1 7 /ill fur!r demon/rat$ by expos+ z _m z possible ( ^? anemones kn[n to conta9 yell[ cells 7,aiptasia *amleon1 ,helian?us troglodytes1 etc47 side by side ) a l>ge numb] ( =ms f :i* ^! are abs5t 7,act9ia mesembryan!mum1 ,saga/ia p>asitica1 ,c]ian?us1 etc474 ,! =m] nev] fail$ to yield abundant gas ri* 9 oxyg51 :ile 9 ! latt] s]ies n a s+le bubble ev] appe>$4 ,?us1 !n1 ! color+ matt] describ$ z *lorophyl by ,lanke/] has really be5 ma9ly d]iv$ f t ( ! endod]mal alg ( ! v>iety plumosa1 :i* pr$om9ates at ,naples2 :ile ! an!a-gre5 ( ,kruk5b]g mu/ ma9ly consi/ ( ! gre5 pigm5t ( ! ectod]m1 s9ce ! ,trie/e v>iety evid5tly does n conta9 alg 9 any great quantity4 ,b s9ce ! ,naples v>iety conta9s a c]ta9 am\nt ( ord9>y gre5 pigm5t1 & s9ce ! ,trie/e v>iety is tol]ably sure to conta9 "s alg1 bo? spectroscopi/s h be5 op]at+ on a mixture ( two :olly di/9ct pigm5ts--diatom-yell[ & an!a-gre54 ,b :at is ! physiological relation%ip ( ! plants & animal ?us s curi\sly & intimately associat$8 ,e "o kn[s t all ! colorless cells ( a plant %>e ! />* =m$ by ! gre5 cells2 & x seems impossible to d\bt t ! endod]m cell or ! ,radiol>ian1 :i* actually incloses ! vegetable cell1 mu/ simil>ly pr(it by its labors4 ,9 o!r words1 :5 ! vegetable cell dissolves its own />*1 "s mu/ ne$s pass out by osmose into ! surr\nd+ animal cell2 nor mu/ x be =gott5 t ! latt] possesses abundance ( amylolytic f]m5t4 ,!n1 too1 ! ,philozoon is subs]vi5t 9 ano!r way to ! nutritive function ( ! animal1 = aft] its %ort life x dies & is dige/$2 ! yell[ bodies suppos$ by v>i\s obs]v]s to be develop+ cells be+ no?+ b dead alg 9 progress ( solution & disappe>ance4 ,aga91 ! animal cell is con/antly produc+ c>bonic acid & nitrog5\s wa/e1 b ^! are ! fir/ necessities ( life to our alga1 :i* removes !m1 s p]=m+ an intracellul> r5al function1 & ( c\rse reap+ an abundant rew>d1 z its rapid rate ( multiplication %[s4 ,nor d ! s]vices ( ! ,philozoon end "h2 = dur+ sunlight x is con/antly evolv+ nasc5t oxyg5 directly into ! surr\nd+ animal protoplasm1 & ?us we h actually =eign *lorophyl p]=m+ ! respiratory function ( native hmoglob96 ,& ! resemblance becomes clos] :5 we be> 9 m9d t hmoglob9 sometimes lies z a /ation>y deposit 9 c]ta9 tissues1 l ! tongue muscles ( c]ta9 mollusks1 or ! n]ve cord ( ,aphrodite & ,nem]teans4 ,! importance ( ?is respiratory function is be/ se5 by comp>+ z specim5s ! common r$ & :ite ,gorgonia1 :i* are usually consid]$ z be+ m]e v>ieties ( ! same species1 ,g4 v]rucosa4 ,! r$ v>iety is absolutely free f ,philozoon1 :i* c\ld n exi/ 9 su* deeply color$ light1 :ile ! :ite v>iety1 :i* ,i am incl9$ to ?9k is usually ! l>g] & bett] gr[n ( ! two1 is p]fectly cramm$4 ,j z ) ! anemones above ref]r$ to1 ! r$ v>iety evolves no oxyg5 9 sunlight1 :ile ! :ite yields an abundance1 & we h ?us two widely contra/$ physiological v>ieties1 z ,i may call !m1 )\t ! lea/ morphological diff]5ce4 ,! :ite specim51 plac$ 9 _s1 yields a /rong solution ( *lorophyl2 ! r$1 aga91 yields a r$ solution1 :i* 0 at once recogniz$ z be+ tetron]y?r9 by my fri5d ,m4 ,m]ejk[sky1 :o 0 at ! same "t inve/igat+ ! di/ribution & prop]ties ( t rem>kable pigm5t1 s widely di/ribut$ 9 ! animal k+dom4 ,?is sub/ance1 :i* 0 fir/ discov]$ 9 ! r$ spots :i* decorate ! heads ( c]ta9 birds1 has rec5tly be5 %[n by ,kruk5b]g to be "o ( ! mo/ important ( ! color+ matt] ( sponges1 :ile ,m]ejk[sky n[ f9ds x 9 fi%es & 9 almo/ all classes ( inv]tebrate animals4 ,x has be5 /rongly suspect$ to be an oxyg5-c>ry+ pigm5t1 an idea to :i* ! pres5t obs]vation seems to me to yield consid]able support4 ,x is moreov] readily blea*$ by light1 ano!r analogy to *lorophyl1 z we "k f ,pr+%eim's rese>*es4 ,:5 "o exposes an aqu>ium full ( ,an!a to sunlight1 ! creatures1 hi!rto almo/ motionless1 beg9 to wave _! arms1 z if pleasantly /imulat$ by ! oxyg5 :i* is be+ develop$ 9 _! tissues4 ,specim5s :i* ,i kept expos$ to direct sun%9e = days toge!r 9 a %all[ vessel plac$ on a :ite slab1 soon acquir$ a d>k1 unheal?y hue1 z if be+ oxyg5at$ too rapidly1 al?\gh ,i protect$ !m f any undue rise ( temp]ature by keep+ up a fl[ ( cold wat]4 ,s1 too1 ,i f\nd t ,radiol>ians 7 kill$ by a day's exposure to sun%9e1 ev5 9 cool wat]1 & x is to ! ne$ = escap+ ?is too rapid oxidation t ,i ascribe _! rem>kable habit ( leav+ ! surface & s9k+ into deep wat] e>ly 9 ! day4 ,x is easy1 too1 to obta9 direct pro( ( ?is absorption ( a great "p ( ! evolv$ oxyg5 by ! animal tissues ?r\gh :i* x has to pass4 ,! gas evolv$ by a gre5 alga 7,ulva7 9 sunlight may conta9 z mu* z #gj p] c5t4 ( oxyg51 t evolv$ by br[n algae 7,halis]is7 #de p] c5t41 t f diatoms ab\t #db p] c5t42 t1 h[ev]1 obta9$ f ! animals conta9+ ,philozoon yield$ a v mu* l[] p]c5tage ( oxyg51 e4g4 ,velella #bd p] c5t41 :ite ,gorgonia #bd p] c5t41 ,c]iactis #ba p] c5t41 :ile ,an!a1 :i* conta9s mo/ alg1 gave f #cb to #ch p] c5t4 ,?is diff]5ce is naturally to be acc\nt$ = by ! avidity = oxyg5 ( ! animal cells4 ,?us1 !n1 = a vegetable cell no m ideal exi/5ce c be imag9$ ?an t )9 ! body ( an animal cell ( suffici5t active vitality to manure x ) c>bonic acid & nitrog5 wa/e1 yet ( suffici5t transp>5cy to all[ ! free entrance ( ! necess>y light4 ,& conv]sely1 = an animal cell !re c be no m ideal exi/5ce ?an to conta9 a vegetable cell1 con/antly remov+ its wa/e products1 supply+ x ) oxyg5 & />*1 & be+ dige/ible aft] dea?4 ,= our pres5t k ( ! p[] ( intracellul> dige/ion possess$ by ! endod]m cells ( ! l[] inv]tebrates removes all difficulties bo? z to ! mode ( entrance ( ! alg1 & its fate :5 dead4 ,9 %ort1 we h "h ! relation ( ! animal & ! vegetable _w r$uc$ to ! simple/ & close/ conceivable =m4 ,x mu/ be by ?is "t suffici5tly obvi\s t ?is rem>kable association ( plant & animal is by no means to be t]m$ a case ( p>asitism4 ,if s1 ! animals s infe/$ w\ld be weak5$1 :]eas _! exceptional success 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce is evid5t4 ,an!a c]eus1 :i* conta9s mo/ alg1 probably f> outnumb]s all ! o!r species ( sea-anemones put toge!r1 & ! ,radiol>ians :i* conta9 yell[ cells are f> m abundant ?an ^? :i* are de/itute ( !m4 ,s1 too1 ! "y gonophores ( ,velella1 :i* bud (f f ! p>5t colony & />t 9 life ) a provision ( ,philozoon 7f> bett] ?an a yolk-sac7 survive a =tnight or m 9 a small bottle--f> long] ?an ! o!r small pelagic animals4 ,su* in/ances1 :i* might easily be multipli$1 %[ t ! association is b5eficial to ! animals conc]n$4 ,! ne>e/ analogue to ?is rem>kable p>tn]%ip is to be f\nd 9 ! vegetable k+dom1 :]e1 z ! rese>*es ( ,s*w5d5]1 ,bornet1 & ,/ahl h %[n1 we h c]ta9 alg & fungi associat+ !mselves into ! colonies we are accu/om$ to call li*5s1 s t we may n unfairly call our agricultural ,radiol>ians & anemones animal li*5s4 ,& if !re be any p>asitism 9 ! matt]1 x is by no means ( ! alga ^u ! animal1 b ( ! animal1 l ! fungus1 ^u ! alga4 ,su* an association is f> m complex ?an t ( ! fungus & alga 9 ! li*51 & inde$ /&s unique 9 physiology z ! highe/ developm5t1 n ( p>asitism1 b ( ! reciprocity betwe5 ! animal & vegetable k+doms4 ,?us1 !n1 ! li/ ( suppos$ *lorophyl conta9+ animals ) :i* we />t$1 breaks up into ?ree categories2 fir/ ^? :i* d n conta9 *lorophyl at all1 b gre5 pigm5ts ( unkn[n function 7,bonelia1 ,idotea1 etc472 secondly1 ^? vegetat+ by _! own intr9sic *lorophyl 7,convoluta1 ,hydra1 ,spongilia72 ?irdly1 ^? vegetat+ by proxy1 if "o may s speak1 re>+ copi\s algae 9 _! own tissues1 & pr(it+ 9 e way by ! vital activities ( ^!4 ,,patrick ,,g$des4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,compress$ ,,oil ,,gas ,,= ,,light+ ,,c>s1 ,,/eamboats1 ,,& ,,buoys4 ,we give 9 ! accompany+ figures ! arrangem5t ( ! diff]5t app>atus necess>y = ! manufacture & compression ( illum9at+ gas on ! sy/em ( ,mr4 ,p9ts*1 z well z ! arrangem5ts adopt$ by ! inv5tor = ! light+ ( railway c>s & buoys4 ,?is sy/em has be5 adopt$ to "s ext5t 9 bo? ,g]many & ,engl&1 & is also be+ introduc$ into ,france4 ,illu/ration3 ,,works ,,= ,,! ,,manufacture ,,( ,,oil ,,gas4--,,elevation ,,& ,,plan4 ,! ,p9ts* gas is prep>$ by ! di/illation ( heavy oils 9 a furnace compos$ ( two sup]pos$ retorts4 ,! oil to be volatiliz$ is conta9$ 9 a v]tical res]voir ,b1 :i* c>ries a b5t pipe t ent]s ! upp] retort1 ,a4 ,! fl[ ( ! oil is regulat$ 9 ?is conduit by means ( a micromet] screw :i* p]mits ( v>y+ ! supply accord+ to ! temp]ature ( ! retorts4 ,9 ord] to facilitate ! vaporization1 ! fl[ ( oil />ts f a ca/-iron tr\gh1 ,c1 & f !nce spreads 9 a ?9 & uni=m lay] 9 ! retort4 ,! residua ( di/illation rema9 almo/ entirely 9 ! res]voir1 ,o1 f :5ce !y are easily remov$4 ,! vapor f ! oil :i* is dis5gag$ 9 ! vessel1 ,a1 goes to ! l[] retort1 ,d1 9 :i* ! trans=mation ( ! matt] is ?or\ghly complet$4 ,on leav+ ! latt]1 ! gas ent]s ! drum1 ,e1 at ! l[] "p ( ! furnace4 ,to prev5t ! *ok+ up ( ! pipe1 ,r1 ! latt] is provid$ ) a jo9t p]mitt+ ( dilatation4 ,! gas on leav+ ,e goes to ! cond5s]1 ,g ,g1 :]e x is fre$ f its t>4 ,! latt] fl[s out1 & ! gas proce$s to ! wa%]1 ,j1 & ! purifi]s1 ,i & ,i1 to be purifi$4 ,! am\nt ( production is regi/]$ by ! met]1 ,l4 ,:5 ! gas is to be utiliz$ = light+ railway c>s or buoys1 x is compress$ 9 ! accumulators1 ,t1 :i* are l>ge cyl9drical res]voirs ( rivet$ or weld$ iron plate4 ,compression is effect$ by means ( a pump1 ,f or ,f'1 :i* sucks ! gas into a desiccat+ cyl9d]1 ,m1 connect$ ) ! gasomet] ( ! works ,! pump1 ,f1 :i* is us$ :5 ! production is l>g] ?an usual1 has two compress+ cyl9d]s ( diff]5t diamet]s1 "o measur+ #agj millimet]s & ! o!r #ajj4 ,! pi/on has a /roke ( #cbj millimet]s4 ,! two compress+ cyl9d]s are d\ble act+1 & communicate ) ea* o!r by valves s arrang$ z to prev5t injuri\s spaces4 ,! gas drawn f ! gasomet] is fir/ compress$ 9 ! l>g] cyl9d] to a pressure ( ab\t #d atmosph]es2 !n x passes into ! second cyl9d]1 :5ce x is =c$ into ! accumulators "u a pressure v>y+ f #aj to #ab atmosph]es4 ,= a n v l>ge production1 ! small pump suffices4 ,?is has a s+le compress+ cyl9d] connect$ directly ) ! pi/on rod1 ^u :i* acts ! /eam com+ f ! boil]1 ,k4 ,?is pump compresses ! gas to a pressure ( #aj atmosph]es1 & is capable ( /or+ sev5 cubic met]s ( x p] h\r4 ,! c>burets ( hydrog5 :i* sep>ate 9 a liquid /ate ?r\gh ! effect ( ! compression ( ! gas are reta9$ 9 a cyl9drical receptacle1 ,v1 :i* is locat$ betwe5 ! pump & ! accumulators1 ,t4 ,besides ! necess>y safety app>atus1 !re is dispos$ 9 front ( ! cond5s]s a special valve1 ,n1 :i* all[s ! gas to escape into ! air if ! retorts or ! purify+ app>atus get *ok$ up4 ,:5 ! oil gas is n compress$ x possesses an illum9at+ p[] f\r times great] ?an t obta9$ f coal gas2 &1 :ile ! latt] loses ! great] "p ( its lum9\s p[] by compression1 ! =m] loses only an eigh?4 ,x is ?is prop]ty t r5d]s ! oil gas em95tly fitt$ = light+ c>s1 & x is = ?is reason t sev]al l>ge ,european railway companies h adopt$ x4 ,,application ,,to ,,c>s4 ,we %[ 9 ! accompany+ engrav+s ! mode ( in/allation t ! inv5tor has f9ally adopt$ = railway purposes4 ,ea* c> is furni%$1 p]p5dicul>ly to its l5g?1 ) a res]voir1 a1 conta9+ ! supply ( gas "u a pressure ( #f or #g atmosph]es4 ,! gas is introduc$ into ?is res]voir by means ( a valve1 :i* is put 9 communication ) ! m\?s ( supply pipes plac$ along a plat=m4 ,! pipes are provid$ ) a /opcock & _! m\?s are clos$ by a cap4 ,to fill ! c> res]voir x is only necess>y to connect ! m\?s ( ! supply pipes ) ! valves ( ! c>s by means ( rubb] tub+--an op]ation :i* takes ab\t "o m9ute = ea* c>4 ,illu/ration3 ,,light+ ,,( ,,raiway ,,c>s ,:5 x is necess>y to supply c>s at c]ta9 po9ts :]e !re are no gas works1 !re is atta*$ to ! tra9 a special c> on :i* are plac$ two or ?ree accumulators1 :i* ?us transport a supply ( ! compress$ gas to di/ances t are (t5 v f> remov$ f ! s\rce ( supply4 ,! res]voir ( ea* c>1 conta9+ a c]ta9 supply ( gas1 communicates ) a regulator1 b1 ! importance ( :i* we sc>cely ne$ po9t out4 ,?is app>atus consi/s3 7#a7 ( a ca/-iron cup1 ,a1 clos$ at ! top by a membrane1 ,b1 :i* is imp]vi\s to gas2 7#b7 ( a rod1 ,c1 connect$ at "o end ) ! membrane1 & at ! o!r ) a lev]1 ,d2 7#c7 ( a regulat+ valve re/+ on ! lev]1 & ( a spr+1 ,e1 :i* r5d]s ! int]nal me*anism indep5d5t ( ! motions ( ! c>4 ,! lev]1 act+ = ! op5+ & clos+ ( ! valve1 s]ves to admit gas into ! regulator ?r\gh ! ap]ture1 ,f4 ,?is latt] is s calculat$ z to all[ ! passage ( a quantity ( gas correspond+ to a pressure ( #af millimet]s4 ,z soon z su* a pressure is rea*$ 9 ! regulator1 ! membrane rises & acts on ! lev]1 & ! latt] closes ! valve4 ,:5 ! pressure dim9i%es1 z a consequ5ce ( ! consumption ( gas1 ! spr+1 ,e1 c>ries ! lev] to its initial position & ano!r admission ( gas takes place4 ,communication betwe5 ! regulator & ! lamps is effect$ by means ( a pipe1 z1 ( #g millimet]s diamet] 7provid$ ) a cock1 d1 :i* p]mits ( ext+ui%+ all ! lamps at once1 & by special bran*es = ea* lamp4 ,! lamps us$ diff] little 9 ext]nal =m f ^? at pres5t employ$4 ,! body is ( ca/-iron2 ! cov]1 funnel1 & *imney are ( t92 & ! burn] is ( /eatite4 ,! products ( combu/ion are l$ outside ?r\gh a flatt5$ *imney1 t1 re/+ at o on ! c5t] ( ! reflector4 ,! air ent]s ?r\gh ! cov] ( ! lamp & rea*es ! int]ior ?r\gh a s]ies ( ap]tures 9 ! circumf]5ce ( ! ca/-iron bell :i* supports ! reflector4 ,!re is no communication :atev] betwe5 ! int]ior ( ! lamp & ! int]ior ( ! c>1 & ?us !re is no dang] ( pass5g]s be+ annoy$ by ! odor ( gas4 ,by means ( a peculi> app>atus1 f1 ! flame may be r$uc$ to a m9imum )\t be+ ext+ui%$4 ,?is arrangem5t is at ! disposition ( ! conductor or )9 rea* ( ! pass5g]s4 ,= facilitat+ clean+1 ! lamps are arrang$ s z to turn on a h+e-jo9t1 m2 s t1 on remov+ ! reflector1 o1 x is only necess>y to raise ! arm t c>ries ! burn]1 r 9 ord] to clean ! base1 s1 )\t any difficulty4 ,on sev]al railways bo? ! palace & po/als c>s are also heat$ by compress$ oil gas2 & lately an application has be5 made ( ! gas = supply+ ! headlights ( locomotives 7see figure71 & = ! signals plac$ at ! re> ( tra9s4 ,b "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ applications ( oil is t ( ,,light+ ,,buoys1 9 :i* case x is compress$ into l>ge res]voirs plac$ on a boat4 ,! buoys employ$ are g5]ally ( f #ij to #bhe cubic feet capacity1 af=d+ a light+ = f #ce to #ajj days4 ,to ! upp] "p ( ! buoy !re is affix$ a firmly support$ tube c>ry+ at its extremity ! lant]n1 c4 ,! gas compress$ to #f or #g atmosph]es 9 ! body ( ! buoy passes1 be=e rea*+ ! burn]1 into a regulator analog\s to ! "o in/all$ on railway c>s1 b modifi$ 9 su* a way z to op]ate ) regul>ity :atev] be ! incl9ation ( ! buoy4 ,9 ! section %[+ ! details ( ! lant]n on a l>ge scale ! direction tak5 by ! air is indicat$ by arr[s1 z is also ! direction tak5 by ! products ( combu/ion4 ,^! latt] escape at m1 ?r\gh ap]tures 9 ! cap ( ! app>atus4 ,illu/ration3 ,,compress$ ,,oil ,,gas ,,= ,,light+ ,,c>s ,,/eambots1 ,,& ,,buoys4 ,! regulator1 ,b1 9 ! int]ior ( ! lant]n1 br+s to a uni=m pressure ! inclos$ gas1 ^: pressure cont9ues dim9i%+ z a consequ5ce ( ! consumption4 ,! lant]n is protect$ aga9/ w9d & waves by v ?ick convex glasses set into metallic cross-b>s1 c4 ,! flame is locat$ 9 ! focus ( a ,fresnel l5s1 b1 consi/+ ( sup]pos$ prismatic r+s1 & adju/$ at its l[] "p ) a circle1 d1 :ile a conical r+1 e makes a jo9t at its o!r extremity4 ,?is r+ is held by ! top piece ( ! lant]n ?r\gh ! int]m$ium ( six spiral spr+s1 c' c''4 ,"u ! focus ( ! flame !re is plac$ a conical reflector ( ,g]man silv]1 t4 ,! buoy is fill$ ?r\gh an ap]ture1 k1 9 ! side ( ! upp] tube4 ,?is ap]ture is provid$ ) a valve :i* all[s ( ! buoy be+ *>g$ by connect+ x ) ! accumulators locat$ on a boat built especially = ?is s]vice4 ,z soon z ! gas rea*es #f or #g atmosph]es ! cocks ( ! buoy & res]voir are clos$1 & ! connect+ tube is remov$4 ,! consumption ( gas 9 ! lant]n is4 #a1bcj cubic in*es p] h\r4 ,?is be+ kn[n x is v easy to calculate f ! capacity ( ! buoy h[ (t5 x is necess>y to *>ge x4 ,a l>ge numb] ( buoys on ! ,p9ts* sy/em are already 9 use4 ,! oil gas is likewise applicable to ! illum9ation ( ligh?\ses1 & among ^? t are n[ be+ light$ 9 t way we may cite ! "o 9 ! port ( ,pillau1 ne> ,knigsb]g4 ,sev]al l>ge /eam]s are likewise be+ light$ on ?is plan4 ,9 su* an application ( oil gas ! managem5t ( ! app>atus is v easy1 & ! p]man5ce ( ! illum9at+ p[] ( ! gas gives e facility = ! light+ ( ! boat1 :atev] be ! duration ( ! trip4 ,al?\gh ,mr4 ,p9ts*'s process ( manufacture has be5 b rec5tly introduc$ into ,france1 x has receiv$ a numb] ( applications t p]mits u to =esee ! future t is 9 /ore = x4 ,! ,railway ,company ( ! ,we/ has contract$ = ! light+ ( #bej fir/-class c>s t run )9 ! prec9cts ( ! city2 ! ,/ate ,railways h #ef c>s light$ 9 ?is way runn+ betwe5 ,nantes & ,bordeaux & betwe5 ,sa9tes & ,limoges2 & ! ,l9e ( ! ,ea/ has j appli$ ! sy/em to #hj ( its c>s4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,delicate ,,te/ ,,= ,,oxyg54 ,t4 ,w4 ,engelmann proposes1 9 ! ,botanis*e ,zeitung1 a new te/1 ( an extremely delicate nature1 = det]m9+ ! pres5ce ( v m9ute quantities ( oxyg51 namely3 its p[] ( excit+ ! motility ( bact]ia4 ,if any ( ! small] species1 especially ,bact]ium t]mo1 are br\ght to re/1 & !n introduc$ into a fluid 9 :i* !re is ! m9ute/ trace ( free oxyg51 !y w imm$iately beg9 to move ab\t freely2 & if ! oxyg5 is gradually introduc$1 _! motion w be set up only 9 ^? p>ts ( ! drop :i* ! oxyg5 rea*es4 ,9 ?is way ,engelmann 0 able to det]m9e ! evolution ( oxyg5 by ,eugl5a & by *lorophyl granules4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,det]m9ation ,,( ,,small ,,quantities ,,( ,,ars5ic ,,9 ,,sulphur4 ,by ,h ,,s*,,ppi4 ,t5 grms4 ( sulphur1 pulv]iz$ z f9ely z possible1 are cov]$ ) hot wat] & a few drops ( nitric acid dige/$ = "s "t1 filt]$1 & wa%$ till ! wa%+s h no long] an acid reaction4 ,?us calcium *loride & sulphate are remov$1 & calcium sulphide1 if pres5t1 is de/roy$4 ,! sulphur ?us prep>$ is cov]$ ) wat] at #gj to #hj1 a few drops ( ammonia are add$1 & ! mixture is dige/$ = a qu>t] ( an h\r4 ,all ! ars5ic pres5t z sulphide is dissolv$1 & ! ammoniacal liquid is v>i\sly treat$ accord+ to ! degree ( accuracy requir$4 ,= p]fectly accurate det]m9ations ! ammoniacal solution is mix$ ) silv] nitrate1 & all ! sulphur pres5t 9 ! /ate ( ars5ic sulphide is ?r[n d[n z silv] sulphide1 acidifi$ ) nitric acid1 filt]$1 & wa%$4 ,! precipitate ( silv] sulphide is dissolv$ 9 hot nitric acid & det]m9$ z silv] *loride4 ,f ! weight ( ! latt] ! ars5ic sulphide is calculat$4 ,z a less accurate b m rapid me?od1 ! ammoniacal solution ( ars5ic sulphide is cauti\sly neutraliz$ ) pure dilute nitric acid & consid]ably dilut$4 ,x is !n titrat$ ) dec9ormal silv] nitrate till a drop ( ! solution is turn$ br[n ) neutral *romate4 ,! ars5ic is easily calculat$ f ! quantity ( silv] nitrate consum$4 ,= v r\gh det]m9ations x is suffici5t to treat t5 grms4 ( f9ely-gr\nd sulphur ) nitric acid1 to extract ) ammonia1 & to add silv] nitrate4 ,f ! int5sity ( ! color1 or ! quantity ( ! precipitate ( silv] sulphide1 x may be judg$ if ! sulphur is approximately free f ars5ic or /rongly contam9at$4 ,! au?or /ates t1 contr>y to ! g5]al belief1 r$di% yell[ sulphur is m free f ars5ic ?an su* z is ( a full yell[ color4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,h[ ,,to ,,plant ,,trees4 ,by ,n4 ,,rob]tson1 ,gov]nm5t ,gr\nds1 ,ottawa4 ,a great deal has be5 writt5 & said ab\t tree plant+4 ,"s advise "o way1 "s ano!r4 ,i w give y my me?od1 ) :i* ,i h be5 v successful1 &1 z x diff]s some:at f ! usual mode1 may be int]e/+ to "s ( y\r read]s4 ,i g into ! woods1 select a place :]e x is ?ick ) /rong1 "y1 heal?y1 rapid gr[+ trees4 ,i comm5ce by mak+ a tr5* across s z ,i w get z _m z ,i want4 ,i may h to de/roy "s until ,i get a "r />t4 ,i !n und]m9e1 tak+ out ! trees z ,i advance2 ?is gives me a *ance n to de/roy ! roots4 ,i c>e no?+ ab\t ! top1 because ,i cut !m into :at is call$ poles eight or t5 feet long4 ,sometimes ,i draw !m out by hit*+ a team :5 ,i c get !m s f> excavat$ t ,i c turn !m d[n en\gh to hit* above :]e ,i int5d to cut !m (f2 by ?is me?od ,i (t5 get almo/ ! entire root4 ,i h ?ree p>ticul> po9ts 9 ?is2 good root1 a /em )\t any blemi%1 & a rapid gr[+ tree4 ,?is is seldom to be got :]e mo/ p recomm5d trees to be tak5 f--isolat$ ones on ! outside ( ! woods2 !y are g5]ally scraggy & /unt$2 & to get _! roots y w\ld h to foll[ along way to get at ! fib]s on _! po9ts1 )\t :i* !y w h a h>d /ruggle to live4 ,ano!r po9t recomm5d$ is to plant s t ! tree w /& 9 ! direction x 0 be=e be+ mov$2 t ,i nev] ?9k ab\t1 b always /udy to h ! longe/ & mo/ roots on ! side :]e ! w9d w be /ronge/1 :i* is g5]ally ! we/1 on an op5 exposure4 ,= ye>s ,i 0 mu* aga9/ ?is sy/em ( cutt+ trees into poles1 & f\ght h>d aga9/ "o ( ! mo/ successful tree plant]s 9 ,canada ab\t ?is pole bus9ess4 ,i h trees plant$ "u ! sy/em describ$ t h _m /rong %oots six & eight feet long--h>d maple1 elm1 etc41 "u ! mo/ unfavorable circum/ances4 ,9 plant+1 be p>ticul> to h ! hole into :i* y plant mu* l>g] ?an y\r roots2 & be sure y draw out all y\r roots to _! l5g? be=e y put on y\r soil2 clean away all ! black1 leafy soil ab\t !m1 = if t is left1 & gets once dry1 y w n easily wet x aga94 ,break d[n ! edges ( y\r holes z y progress1 n to leave !m z if !y 7 conf9$ 9 a fl[] pot2 & :5 f9i%$1 put ar\nd !m a good heavy mul*1 ,i d n c>e :at (--sawdu/1 manure1 or /raw4 ,?is la/ y c keep by ?r[+ a few spadefuls ( soil ov]2 let x pass out ov] ! edges ( y\r holes at lea/ "o foot4 ,i h no d\bt t ! be/ "t to plant is ! fall1 z1 if left till spr+1 ! trees are too f> advanc$ be=e ! fro/ is put ( ! gr\nd2 & by fall plant+ ! soil gets settl$ ab\t ! roots1 & !y g on ) ! season4 ,trees cut l poles h ano!r great advantage4 ,= ! fir/ season !y require no /akes to gu>d aga9/ ! w9d %ak+ !m1 :i* is a necessity ) a top2 = dep5d ^u x1 if y\r tree is all[$ to sway ) ! w9d1 y\r roots w take v little hold t season1 & may die1 (t5 ! second ye>1 f ?is v cause4 ,all :o try ?is sy/em w f9d out t !y w get a mu* pretti] head$ tree1 & mu* soon] see a tree ( beauty ?an by any o!r1 z1 :5 y\r roots h pl5ty ( fibr\s roots1 & are 9 vigor\s heal?1 ?ree ye>s w give y nice trees4--,! ,canadian ,horticulturi/4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,gr[? ,,( ,,palms4 ,9 a pap] 7,russian7 rec5tly read be=e ! ,botanical ,section ( ! ,/4 ,pet]sburg ,natural ,hi/ory ,society1 ,mr4 ,k4 ,frid]i* describes 9 detail ! anatomical /ructures to be met ) 9 ! a]ial roots ( ,acan?orhiza aculeata1 ^! roots pres5t+ a rem>kable example ( roots be+ metamorphos$ into sp9es4 ,supplem5t+ ?is1 ,e4 ,regel made ! foll[+ rem>ks3 ,palm trees1 gr[n f se$1 ?ick5 _! /ems = a succession ( ye>s1 l bulbs1 only at ! base4 ,_m palms cont9ue ?is prim>y gr[? 7i4e41 ! gr[? !y fir/ />t$ )7 = fifty to sixty ye>s be=e !y =m _! trunk4 ,dur+ ?is "t new roots are always be+ develop$ at ! base ( ! /em1 9 :orls1 & ^! always above ! old roots4 ,?is ev5 takes place 9 old specim5s1 especially 9 ^? plant$ 9 ! op5 gr\nd :i* h already =m$ a trunk1 ,9 su* cases ! cortex lay]1 :]e ! roots break ?r\gh1 is sprung (f4 ,9 cons]vatories1 "u ! influ5ce ( ! damp air1 ?is root =mation1 on :i* inde$ ! fur!r normal gr[? ( ! palm dep5ds1 takes place )\t any special assi/ance4 ,:5 ! palm is gr[n 9 a sitt+ room1 "o mu/ surr\nd ! base ( ! trunk ) moss1 :i* is to be kept damp1 9 ord] to favor ! developm5t ( ! roots4 ,:5 ! base ( ! palm trunk has almo/ rea*$ its normal ?ickness1 !n beg9s ! upw>d developm5t ( ! trunk1 :i* takes place m sl[ly 9 ^? species ^: leaves gr[ close toge!r ?an 9 ^? ^: leaves are fur!r ap>t4 ,9 specim5s ( _m species ( ,cocos & ,syagrus1 ^: leaves are p>ticul>ly f> ap>t1 ! /ems gr[ s quickly :5 plant$ 9 ! op5 gr\nd t !y increase by five to six feet 9 height p] annum4 ,! /em ( ^? palms :i* develop a t]m9al infloresc5ce h end$ _! apical gr[? by do+ s1 & )] gradually1 ,9 addition to ?is 7)]+7 9 ! case1 e4g4 ( ,ar5ga sac*>if]a1 new infloresc5ces are develop$ f ! orig9al axils 7,blatta*seln7 f above d[nw>d1 s t "o sees at la/ ! already leafless trunk /ill develop+ infloresc5ces 9 ! direction t[>d ! base ( ! trunk4 ,almo/ all palms ) ?is latt] k9d ( gr[? develop (f%oots 9 _! y\? at ! base ( _! trunks1 :i* %oot up aga9 into trunks aft] ! dea? ( ! prim>y trunk1 if !y are n tak5 (f be=e4 ,z to ! /ructure ( ! palm trunks out ( unconnect$ wood bundles1 ! ass]tion has be5 made t ! palm /em does n gr[ ?ick] 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 & t ?is is ! explanation ( ! column> almo/ ev5ly ?ick trunk4 ,b c>eful measurem5ts t 7 made = ye>s h l$ ,regel to ! conclusion t a ?ick5+ ( ! trunk actually takes place1 :i* probably am\nts to an increase ( ab\t a ?ird ov] ! orig9al circumf]5ce ( ! trunk4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,future ,,( ,,silk ,,culture ,,9 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates4 ,report by ,,consul ,,peixotto1 ( ,lyons4 ,9 my dispat*1 ,no4 #adj1 dat$ ,septemb] #a1 #ahhj1 ,i ref]r$ to ! fact t new ma*9]y = reel+ silk _h be5 inv5t$1 :i*1 9 my op9ion1 0 de/9$ to be ( great importance1 & to make ?is indu/ry extremely valuable & pr(itable 9 our c\ntry4 ,i beg n[ to submit "s additional obs]vations ^u ?is subject1 & = ! purpose ( be+ def9ite1 to entitle !m ,,! ,,future ,,( ,,silk ,,culture ,,9 ,,! ,,unit$ ,,/ates4 ,silk reel+ is at pres5t accompli%$ by ! use ( appliances :i* diff] only 9 detail f ^? 9 use _m c5turies ago1 & :i* c sc>cely be call$ ma*9es1 be+ r ( ! nature ( app>atus dep5d+ entirely ^u ! skill & k ( ! op]ative = ! results produc$4 ,9 fact1 ev5 ! mo/ p]fect ( ,fr5* & ,italian reels be> ab\t ! same relation to automatic ma*9]y t an old-fa%ion$ sp9n+ :eel does to our mod]n sp9n+ ma*9es4 ,s9ce ! date ( my previ\s dispat* ^u ?is subject1 ! new reel+ ma*9e ( ,mr4 ,e4 ,w4 ,s]rell1 jr41 ( ,new ,york 7:o /ill cont9ues 9 ,lyons71 has be5 und]go+ improvem5t & developm5t1 & x is ) ! hope ( facilitat+ ! introduction & culture ( silk1 & ( enabl+ our p to adopt ! be/ means to t end1 & to avoid errors :i* h be5 disa/r\s 9 ! pa/ & are likely to be extremely exp5sive 9 ! ne> future1 t ,i n[ communicate ) ! dep>tm5t1 :i* is equally int]e/$ 9 secur+ new s\rces ( indu/ry & weal? = our p at home z = ! promotion & ext5sion ( _! comm]ce abroad4 ,x w be recollect$ t f ab\t #ahcd to #ahci !re rag$ a great speculation 9 mulb]ry trees ( a c]ta9 species 7,morus multicaulis7 de/9$ = fe$+ silk worms4 ,?is speculation l$ to a total loss ( all ! "t & money devot$ to x1 p>tly because ( its wild & utt]ly uns\nd "*1 & p>tly because ! little silk :i* 0 actually produc$ c\ld n be reel$ to advantage4 ,z a result1 silk culture fell into utt] disrepute & = ne>ly a g5]ation 0 sc>cely ?\ght ( z a practical ?+ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,"t1 h[ev]1 %[$ cle>ly :]e ! great ob/acle lay1 & al?\gh _m may h imag9$ t o!r difficulties l$ to its ab&onm5t 9 #ahci-dj1 ^? :o h /udi$ ! matt] are unanim\sly ( ! op9ion t ! want ( reel+ ma*9]y has alone prev5t$ ! success ( s]iculture 9 ^? p>ts ( ! ,union :i* are suitable = x4 ,believ+ ?is ob/acle to be remov$1 x rema9s to set =? 9 a brief mann] "s ( ! po9ts ^u :i*1 x appe>s to me1 ! successful introduction ( silk rais+ w dep5d4 ,= ! success ( silk culture 9 our c\ntry two ?+s are n[ requisite--! acquisition on ! "p ( ^? ab\t to engage 9 x ( s\nd k ( its processes & requirem5ts1 & prop] organization4 ,! details ( ! "w ( silk culture are ( su* a nature t !y may be readily und]/ood1 & ,i appreh5d t !re w be little difficulty f\nd by ^? :o engage 9 x 9 ma/]+ !m1 aft] "s little exp]i5ce4 ,! po9t at :i* x seems to me t !re is ! mo/ dang] is at ! v beg9n+4 ,9 ord] to avoid delays & losses1 ! p]son :o beg9s silk culture %\ld h a pretty cle> idea ( ! scale ( op]ations :i* are likely to be mo/ pr(itable2 ( ! trees1 or r %rubs1 :i* mu/ be obta9$2 ( ! app>atus & fixtures necess>y1 & ( ! results :i* may be reasonably expect$ f ! labor & exp5se requir$4 ,all ( ^! items w be f\nd to v>y 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! c\ntry1 & ,i fe> t g5]al rules1 broad d$uctions1 & su* in=mation z w\ld apply "u all circum/ances & 9 all places w\ld be extremely difficult to =mulate1 & too vague = practical use at any giv5 po9t4 ,9 fact1 z f> z in=mation :i* may be consid]$ p]fectly g5]al is conc]n$1 ,i h1 = ! "t be+1 only "o po9t to put =w>d 9 addition to :at has already be5 publi%$ 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 :i* is to repeat & %[ z emphatically z possible t ! use ( ! reels at pres5t employ$ = ! filature ( silk is entirely impracticable 9 our c\ntry1 & t ! rais] mu/ sell 8 cocoons4 ,?is has be5 s (t5 said & s cle>ly %[n t ,i %\ld consid] x unnecess>y to repeat x _h n my att5tion be5 call$ to ! fact t ! success ( sev]al p & associations 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates 9 rais+ cocoons has aga9 made x a temptation to endeavor to reel silk1 & dur+ ! pa/ ye> ,i h receiv$ applications f p 9 diff]5t ,/ates = in=mation z to ! k9d ( silk reel employ$ "h :i* w\ld be mo/ suitable = use by !m4 ,i am aw>e1 also1 t e/imates h be5 made & publi%$ by "s em95t au?orities t5d+ to %[ t ?is "w c\ld be done on a pay+ basis 9 "s places 9 ,am]ica4 ,s f> z ,i h se5 !m1 h[ev]1 ^! e/imates are fatally defective 9 t !y d n all[ = diff]5ces 9 quality ( silk reel$ by compet5t or incompet5t p1 & "u circum/ances favorable or o!rwise1 b seem to assume t any silk reel$ 9 our c\ntry w\ld be a fir/ rate article1 & paid = accord+ly4 ,:ile ?is might be true 9 isolat$ cases1 x c\ld n be true 9 g5]al1 z ) pres5t appliances ! art ( reel+ good silk is only to be acquir$ & reta9$ by ye>s ( appr5tice%ip & con/ant practice jo9$ to a natural tal5t = ! "w4 ,s true is ?is1 t ev5 9 di/ricts :]e ! "w has be5 l>gely c>ri$ on = _m g5]ations1 q a l>ge proportion ( wom5 :o try = ye>s f9d x impossible to become good reel]s4 ,n[1 !re is a consid]able diff]5ce 9 price betwe5 well reel$ & poorly reel$ silk--a diff]5ce s great t silk n well reel$ 9 e way is n wor? z mu* z ! cocoons f :i* x is d]iv$4 ,x is1 !re=e1 q a hopeless task to reel silk unless ! reel] is skill$4 ,ev5 if x c\ld be done to advantage--:i* ,i d n ?9k x c\ld--!re exi/s 9 ,am]ica no means ( tra9+ reel]s4 ,9 ,europe !y are taught by degrees 9 ! filatures1 work+ fir/ at ! easi] /ages ( ! op]ations1 & aft]w>d be+ help$ =w>d "u ! eyes & guidance ( exp]i5c$ op]atives4 ,ano!r grave defect 9 ! e/imates allud$ to is t all ! pr(it is assum$ to be paid to ! reel]4 ,?is c evid5tly only be ! case :5 ea* reel] runs h] own reel1 owns & c>es = h] own cocoons1 sells h] own silk1 & furni%es h] own capital4 ,n[1 ev5 suppos+ t p]sons s =tunately plac$ z to be able to fulfill all ^! conditions %\ld wi% to engage 9 silk reel+1 :i* is 9 ! highe/ degree improbable1 !re exi/s an almo/ insup]able ob/acle to ! production ( good silk except by an e/abli%m5t l>ge en\gh to use ! cocoons ( _m produc]s4 ,ne>ly e silk crop z rais$ by ! individual gr[]s conta9s ?ree or f\r grades ( cocoons1 & to produce good & uni=m silk1 ^! mu/ be sep>at$ & ea* sort reel$ by itself1 produc+ sev]al grades ( silk4 ,)\t go+ into detail1 x is en\gh to say t ?is is n practical = ^? :o attempt to reel _! own cocoons1 & t = ?is reason1 & _m o!rs1 h& reels & s+le bas9s h be5 ne>ly ab&on$ ev5 9 ,italy2 ! wom5 f9d+ s mu* difficulty t !y pref] to sell _! cocoons & "w 9 l>ge e/abli%m5ts :]e ! "w is done to m advantage4 ,x is evid5t1 !re=e1 t1 f ! e/imates made1 !re %\ld be a consid]able d$uction = poor workman%ip1 & ano!r = use ( capital1 organization1 sell+ exp5ses1 sup]9t5d5ce1 insurance1 repairs1 det]ioration1 etc4 ,9 fact1 ,i d n see 9 :at way ! reel+ ( silk 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 by ! ord9>y me?od1 c\ld be made to be> a mu* high] *>ge = labor ?an t borne by ,european filatures1 :i* b>ely pay ) labor at "o franc p] diem ( ?irte5 h\rs4 ,to be able1 !n1 to reel silk by ! ord9>y reels1 x w\ld fir/ be necess>y to f9d a suffici5cy ( highly skill$ op]atives will+ to labor 9 a factory ?irte5 h\rs p] day = tw5ty c5ts ea*4 ,i s9c]ely believe & hope t ?is c nev] be done4 ,i h enl>g$ some:at ^u ?is difficulty = ! purpose ( %[+ t ! gr[]s1 or at any rate individual gr[]s ( cocoons1 %\ld n attempt to d ! reel+1 b by no means ) an idea ( disc\rag+ ! rais+ ( silk worms1 :i* is & %\ld be an entirely sep>ate matt]4 ,to use a r\gh comp>ison1 ,i %\ld e/eem x z wa/eful1 ev5 if possible1 = ea* gr[] to attempt to reel 8 own cocoons z = ea* f>m] to gr9d 8 own :eat ^u 8 f>m & endeavor to sell ! fl\r4 ,x is1 !re=e1 cle> t ! object ( ! s]iculturi/ %\ld be to raise & m>ket z good a crop ( cocoons z possible to ! be/ advantage1 & ) ! lea/ possible exp5se & risk4 ,aft] :at has be5 said1 x may be v prop]ly ask$1 if1 see+ t ! hopes :i* h be5 ent]ta9$ ( reel+ by ! usual me?od h prov$ fallaci\s1 & z no radically new sy/em ( rais+ silk worms is "u consid]ation1 x is n v possible t all hopes ( pr(it f re>+ ! worm may prove fallaci\s also4 ,9 fact1 n only has ! "q be5 ask$1 b an argum5t ( great app>5t /r5g? & mu* plausibility has be5 =mulat$ & ext5sively circulat$1 t5d+ to %[ t ! difficulty ( *eap labor1 :i* x has be5 %[n /ood 9 ! way ( reel+ )\t improv$ ma*9]y1 w make ! rais+ ( cocoons also a hopelessly unpr(itable task4 ,briefly summ>iz$1 ?is argum5t may be /at$ z foll[s3 ,fir/4 ,to raise silk worms to advantage mu* "t & att5tion are requir$4 ,second4 ,"t & att5tion are m co/ly 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates ?an 9 o!r c\ntries4 ,?ird4 ,consequ5tly1 cocoons c be m *eaply rais$ 9 o!r c\ntries ?an 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates4 ,f\r?4 ,! ,unit$ ,/ates possess no special advantages z a m>ket = cocoons1 & !re=e !y mu/ be sold z *eaply z else:]e1 & ! labor co/+ m1 !re is less pr(it4 ,fif?4 ,! pr(its made by rais]s 9 ,europe are n v great1 & z !y w\ld be less 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates1 x is n wor? :ile to try to raise cocoons 9 t c\ntry4 ,x mu/ be ackn[l$g$ t ^u ! surface ?is all appe>s to be v s\nd & almo/ unansw]able1 b ,i hope to be able to %[ t !re is 9 reality n ! slighte/ real f\ndation = ! conclusion to :i* ?is argum5t po9ts4 ,tak+ ! po9ts cit$ 9 ord]1 ,i w\ld say1 z reg>ds ! fir/ & second1 t al?\gh labor & "t are requir$ to raise cocoons1 ,i am conv9c$ t ! labor & "t ( ! k9d necess>y w n be f\nd m exp5sive 9 our c\ntry ?an 9 ,europe1 = ! foll[+ reasons3 ,! "w is a home indu/ry4 ,x c be c>ri$ on )\t sev]e manual labor except = a few days1 at ! end ( ! season1 :5 l>ge crops are rais$4 ,n[1 no?+ is bett] kn[n ?an t !re exi/s 9 _m ( our ,/ates an enorm\s numb] ( wives & daught]s ( c\ntry p ( a class entirely diff]5t f any to be f\nd else:]e1 except1 p]haps1 to a limit$ ext5t1 9 ,engl&4 ,i ref] to ! well-to-d b n weal?y agricultural & manufactur+ classes 9 small villages4 ,"o or two g5]ations ago ! f>m]s' & me*anics' wives & daught]s f\nd pl5ty ( "w 9 sp9n+1 weav+1 dye+1 cutt+1 & mak+ ! l95 & clo!s ( ! family4 ,?is has entirely ceas$ z a dome/ic indu/ry ) ! exception ( ! sew+ ( ! wom5's clo!s & m5's und]we>4 ,z a consequ5ce1 ! wom5 ( ! family are condemn$ to idl5ess1 or to ! drudg]y ( ! :ole h\sehold "w4 ,^u a prop] occasion ,i ?9k t mu* might be said ( ! evils & dang]s :i* are likely )9 a %ort "t to arise f ! fact t p]haps a l>ge majority ( ,am]ican wom5 f9d !mselves1 because ( ! pres5t organization ( society & indu/ry1 almo/ unable to contribute to ! family income except by go+ away f home1 or 9 do+ ! mo/ m5ial & sev]e labor z h\sehold work]s f "o end ( ! ye> to ! o!r4 ,i %all at pres5t1 h[ev]1 only po9t out t 9 hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( homes 9 ! c\ntry an opportunity ( ga9+ a v mod]ate sum 9 addition to ! pres5t income by ! exp5diture ( "s weeks ( c>e & light "w w\ld be hail$ z a ,gods5d1 & t1 too1 9 families :]e ! feel+ ( self-respect & ! desire to keep ! family toge!r are f> too /rong to p]mit ! wom5 to g away f home 9 any way to e>n money4 ,let any "o :o d\bts ?is consid] ! dairy "w & simil> indu/ries1 & try to calculate h[ mu* p] diem ! wom5 ?us occupi$ at home ga9 9 money4 ,x may be said ) entire accuracy t1 z a rule1 any?+ 9 :i* ! wom5 c engage at home1 by :i* some?+ may be e>n$1 w 9 g5]al be reg>d$ z net pr(it ?r\gh out _m sections ( ! l&4 ,9 ! silk di/ricts ( ,europe1 agricultural ma*9]y is v mu* less employ$ ?an ) u1 & 9 g5]al e woman :o c possibly be sp>$ f o!r "w is a field labor] & valuable z su*4 ,s t "t tak5 = rais+ silk mu/ be d$uct$ f h] o!r productive "w & *>g$ to ! co/ ( ! silk crop4 ,i ?9k t !re c be no d\bt t ?is "o fact is q suffici5t to make ! "q ( ! co/ ( c>+ = ! worms really z mu* 9 favor ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates z at fir/ glance x appe>s to be ! o!r way2 x be+ ! case t 9 our c\ntry _m :o w\ld be glad to d ! "w h sp>e "t to give to x1 :]eas 9 ,europe e h\r t is giv5 to silk worms w\ld o!rwise be sp5t 9 ! field4 ,9 ! ,s\? !re are v l>ge masses ( inhabitants :o are unable to "w 9 ! fields1 bo? m5 & wom51 & :o w\ld also f9d 9 a ye>ly crop ( silk worms a v com=table addition to _! ye>ly ga9s1 & "o :i* c\ld be d]iv$ f "t n o!rwise conv]tible into money4 ,l& is v mu* de>]1 & taxes are high] 9 ! ,european silk di/ricts ?an ) u1 & e little crop ( cocoons has to pay its %>e1 :i* adds a consid]able p]c5tage to its co/4 ,! build+s possess$ by peasants & us$ = ! rais+ ( silk worms are1 9 g5]al1 small1 close1 & mis]able4 ,?r\gh\t ,am]ica ! roomy b>ns :i* are empty at ! cocoon season1 w1 ) little prep>ation1 be mu* pref]able1 & enable ! rais]s to "w to v mu* bett] advantage4 ,9 ,europe diseases ( sev]al k9ds h become m or less preval5t1 & 9 "s cases h dim9i%$ ! production ( :ole di/ricts4 ,not)/&+ ! fact t _m exp]im5ts h be5 made 9 ,am]ica1 & 9 ,georgia p>ticul>ly1 & silk has be5 rais$ cont9u\sly = ov] a c5tury1 ^! diseases 7maladies des v]s a soile7 h nev] made _! appe>ance4 ,! p ( our c\ntry are1 z a rule1 mu* bett] educat$ ?an ^? 9 ,s\!rn ,france & ,italy1 & w und\bt$ly use _! intellig5ce 9 su* a way z to d]ive a b5efit f x1 & economize _! labor by prop] appliances1 etc4 ,tak+ all ^! facts into consid]ation1 ,i am conv9c$ t t !re w be no difficulty 9 rais+ cocoons = ! same co/ 9 labor 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates z 9 ,europe1 & ,i am incl9$ to ?9k t ! "w c be mu* m *eaply done4 ,x is true t ! ,unit$ ,/ates is n an especially good m>ket = cocoons2 9 fact up to ?is "t !re has be5 sc>cely any m>ket at all = !m2 b ) ! organization ( ! indu/ry & ! introduction ( reel+ ma*9]y1 ! m>ket w be at lea/ z good !re z else:]e4 ,z to :e!r x w be wor? :ile = our p to raise silk worms1 ,i w\ld say t ?\gh ! am\nt ( money to be paid by any "o family is c]ta9ly n v l>ge1 x is ne>ly all cle> pr(it1 & "u ! circum/ances :i* ,i h above po9t$ out1 & :i* exi/ s g5]ally1 ,i am sure t ! sum to be realiz$ w be reg>d$ z v important by a va/ numb] ( p4 ,z 9 o!r po9ts1 x is extremely difficult to make any exact e/imates on su* a subject :i* w\ld be g5]ally applicable to a c\ntry s l>ge & s v>i\s 9 climate1 soil1 & social habit z ours4 ,i am incl9$ to ?9k1 h[ev]1 t 7 ! memb]s ( an av]age family1 "u av]age circum/ances1 to raise a crop ( cocoons1 ! am\nt :i* c\ld be advantage\sly re>$ %\ld produce1 accord+ to circum/ances1 f sev5ty-five to two hundr$ doll>s4 ,sc>cely any pay+ result c be hop$ =1 h[ev]1 )\t m or less organization ( ! "w1 z s]iculture is an indu/ry :i* is v s5sitive to ! evils ( a want ( prop] co-op]ation among ^? :o c>ry on its v>i\s processes4 ,aft] "s reflection1 ,i am ( ! op9ion t individual gr[]s w h great difficulty 9 sell+ cocoons if !y are isolat$ f o!rs1 & ,i !re=e d\bt ! wisdom ( enc\rag+ sporadic & ill-direct$ ef=ts1 :i*1 h[ev] well meant & e>ne/ly pursu$1 are mu* m apt to end 9 disappo9tm5t1 disc\ragem5t1 & discr$it to ! newly develop+ indu/ry ?an 9 any?+ else4 ,x seems to me to be nei!r wise nor fair to furni% e/imates ( returns1 :i* presuppose an organization ( ! indu/ry1 )\t m5tion+ ! difficulties :i* mu/ be enc\nt]$ :]e ! organization is lack+4 ,! great difficulty is 9 sell+ ! cocoons aft] !y are rais$1 & ?is c only be practically ov]come by su* a developm5t ( ! culture z w result 9 ! production1 )9 ! limits ( a giv5 neighborhood1 ( suffici5t quantities ( cocoons to make x practicable to prep>e & =w>d !m to m>ket4 ,x is z well kn[n z any o!r fact 9 trade1 t small transactions are mu* m co/ly 9 proportion ?an l>ge ones1 & ?is g5]al rule is especially applicable to ! cocoon m>ket4 ,! product ( two or ?ree isolat$ families 9 ! int]ior ( our c\ntry c\ld n be m>ket$ to advantage4 ,:]eas1 7 sev]al hundr$s engag$ on ! "w 9 ! same vic9ity ! *>ge ( m>ket+ _! jo9t crop w\ld be only a small p]c5tage ( its value4 ,silk rais+ is ! "w ( an organiz$ p1 & be=e x c become successful 9 our c\ntry mu/ possess prop] *annels = its trade1 j z mu* z wool1 or cotton1 or :eat4 ,! ma*9]y ( ?is organization1 h[ev]1 ne$ n be ei!r complicat$ or exp5sive4 ,:at is requir$ is a sy/em ( nuclei 9 t[ns or l>ge villages1 :i* may s]ve z c5t]s ( in=mation & z ga!r+ receptacles = ! crops ( surr\nd+ produc]s4 ,! details ( organization mu/ be left1 & ,i ?9k may safely be left to ! good s5se ( ! p ( diff]5t sections1 :o w "w out ! problem 9 diff]5t ways1 accord+ to _! diff]5t circum/ances4 ,ev5 7 ! ne$ ( organization n made evid5t to ^? und]tak+ s]iculture 9 ! beg9n+1 x w\ld soon become s1 z x has1 9 fact1 9 sev]al p>ts ( ! c\ntry4 ,i h !re=e deem$ x prop] to call att5tion to ?is matt]1 on ! pr9ciple t a /it* 9 "t saves n9e4 ,i am in=m$ t !re exi/ already 9 ! ,unit$ ,/ates sev]al associations devot$ to acquir+ & dissem9at+ k ( ! art ( s]iculture4 ,?is is a v great /ep 9 ! "r direction1 & _c be too he>tily comm5d$4 ,if conduct$ ) prud5ce & wisdom ^! societies w be ( great s]vice1 & ,i w\ld respectfully sugge/ t any enc\ragem5t :i* ! gov]nm5t may ?9k prop] to af=d w\ld 9 all probability be extremely useful & pr(itable to ! c\ntry 9 ! future4 ,provid$1 always1 t su* societies are really devot$ to ! dissem9ation ( in=mation & ! c>eful organization ( ! indu/ry1 & are n m]ely vision>y & impractical cultivators ( misappli$ en?usiasm4 ,x w\ld1 ,i ?9k1 be ( importance s f> z possible1 to direct ! att5tion ( c\nty & ,/ate agricultural societies1 village improvem5t clubs1 & 9 g5]al ! intellig5t & c>eful portion ( our rural population to ?is matt]4 ,x is beyond d\bt t ! "t :5 s]iculture c be begun & c>ri$ on pr(itably 9 our c\ntry has arriv$4 ,its successful introduction w\ld result 9 a v important ye>ly rev5ue & increase 9 ! public weal?1 = ,i ?9k t )9 a comp>atively few ye>s x c\ld be made to be wor? at lea/ fifty or sixty millions ( doll>s p] annum1 & p]haps mu* m4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is a less advantage ?an ! fact t by supply+ a new home indu/ry x w\ld d mu* t[>d cons]v+ home ties & int]e/s1 & !reby help to /r5g!n & p]petuate good morals & home liv+ among our p4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,hib]nation ,,( ,,animals4 ,don't black be>s sleep ?r\gh ! w9t]8 que/ion$ ! writ] ( an att5dant :o 0 deal+ out mid-day rations ( bread & milk at ! p>k4 ,t's ! g5]al impression1 0 ! rejo9d]1 b we h nev] notic$ any attempts at hib]nation "h4 ,be>s are unusually lively dur+ ! cold mon?s1 & dem& _! food z regul>ly z d ! lions & o!r fel9e animals4 ,i don't "k t any obs]vations ( value on ?is "q h ev] be5 made on animals 9 conf9em5t4 ,i h _h "s exp]i5ce ) outside animals1 & a great _m g ?r\gh :at is call$ a w9t]'s sleep2 & 9 w>m c\ntries !re is :at might be call$ a summ] sleep4 ,be>s beg9 9 ! fall to look out = a s(t ne/2 & if x's possible = !m to eat m at "o "t ?an ano!r !y d x !n1 & :5 ! cold wea!r sets 9 !y are fat & 9 prime condition4 ,accord+ to "s au?orities1 ! fat produces ! c>bon t 9 "s way t5ds to induce somnol5cy4 ,! /oma* ( a be> at ?is "t becomes empty1 & naturally %rivels or draws into a v small space1 & is r5d]$ totally useless by a sub/ance call$ 'tapp5' t clogs x & ! inte/9es2 ?is is =m$ ( p9e leaves & o!r mat]ial t ! animal takes f ants' ne/ & ! trunks ( trees 9 its se>* aft] honey4 ,!y lie asleep 9 ?is condition = ab\t six mon?s1 g5]ally sn[$ 92 b y c tell ! place1 z ! heat ( ! be>1 :at !re is left1 keeps an air hole up ?r\gh ! sn[4 ,! be> seems to live on its fat1 ! tapp5 prev5t+ its too rapid consumption2 & if y run across !m dur+ ?is "t--ev5 along 9 ,m>* j be=e !y wake up--!y are ab\t z fat z :5 !y w5t 94 ,i h tak5 a slice ( fat f a black be> six in*es ?ick--regul> blubb]4 ,i rememb]1 cont9u$ ! man1 "o w9t] ,i 0 'log haul+' 9 ! we/]n "p ( ?is ,/ate4 ,we _h our eyes on a big tree1 & "o morn+ :5 x 0 ab\t t5 degrees bel[ z]o ,i tackl$ x to w>m up4 ,i hamm]$ away = ab\t five h\rs at x & f9ally />t$ h]1 & ov] %e came--sl[ly at fir/1 & !n z if %e 0 go+ "r ?r\gh4 ,! sn[ 0 ne>ly ?ree feet deep1 & z ! tree /ruck x flew up = ab\t tw5ty feet & half bl9d$ me1 & :5 ,i came to !re 0 ! bigge/ black be> ,i ev] saw /&+ along side ( me1 look+ ab\t z mix$ z ,i did4 ,i _h lo/ my ax1 & ! fir/ move ,i made %e />t$1 & on tak+ a look ,i f\nd t %e _h a ne/ 9 ! trunk & _h probably turn$ 9 = ! w9t]4 ,x 0 ab\t tw5ty feet f ! gr\nd1 & 0 built ) moss1 leaves1 & all k9ds ( truck1 & z w>m & z snug z y please--a good place to sp5d a w9t] 94 ,! br[n & pol> be>s h ! same habit ( ly+ up = ! w9t]4 ,an ,esquimau in=m$ ,capta9 ,lyon t 9 ! fir/ ( ! w9t] ! pregnant be>s are always fat & solit>y4 ,:5 a heavy fall ( sn[ sets 9 ! animal seeks "s holl[ place 9 :i* %e c lie d[n1 & rema9s quiet :ile ! sn[ cov]s h]4 ,sometimes %e w wait until a quantity ( sn[ has fall5 & !n digs h]self a cave2 at all ev5ts x seems necess>y t %e %\ld be cov]$ up by ! sn[4 ,%e n[ goes to sleep & does n wake until ! spr+ sun is pretty high1 :5 %e br+s =? two cubs4 ,! cave by ?is "t has become mu* l>g] by ! effect ( ! animal's w>m? & brea?1 s t ! cubs h room en\gh to move1 & !y acquire consid]able /r5g? by cont9ually suck+4 ,! dam at l5g? becomes s ?9 & weak t x is ) great difficulty %e extricates h]self1 :i* %e does :5 ! sun is p[]ful en\gh to ?r[ a /rong gl>e ?r\gh ! sn[ :i* ro(s ! d54 ,!n ! family comes out1 & w take any?+ t comes along 9 ! way ( food4 ,dur+ ! long sleep ! temp]ature ( ! be>'s blood is r$uc$ to almo/ t ( ! surr\nd+ air4 ,! p[] ( w ov] ! muscles seems to be susp5d$1 respiration is h>dly noticeable1 & mo/ ( ! vital functions are at a complete /&/ill--! entire body sleep+1 z x 74 ,! male grizzly be> nev] hib]nates4 ,! "y & ! females1 h[ev]1 build ne/s1 "o ( :i* measur$ t5 feet high1 five feet long1 & six feet wide4 ,bats are great w9t] sleep]s1 & 9 mo/ ( ! kn[n caves !y c be f\nd dur+ ! cold mon?s cl++ to ! walls & to ea* o!r4 ,dur+ hib]nation _! respiration ceases almo/ entirely1 & only ! mo/ c>eful use ( a /e?oscope c reveal x4 ,! air t has surr\nd$ numb]s ( !m has be5 c>efully exam9$ & n ! slighte/ evid5ce f\nd ( its hav+ be5 brea!d2 &1 /rang] yet1 !y c exi/ 9 ?is condition 9 gas1 t1 7 !y awake1 w\ld prove in/antly fatal4 ,a ma*9e has be5 inv5t$ to exam9e ^! & o!r animals :ile 9 ?is condition4 ,a delicate index records ! slighte/ pulsation1 :ile a !rmomet] %[s ! rise & fall ( ! temp]ature at e mom5t dur+ ! p]iod2 & by an arrangem5t ( ! w+1 ! circulation ( ! blood is record$4 ,a m delicate exp]im5t c h>dly be imag9$1 z a /rong brea?1 a sneeze1 or a footfall w cause ! subject ( ! exp]im5t to recov] en\gh to respire sev]al times2 & ! effect ( ?is on ! ma*9e c be imag9$ :5 x is kn[n t ?\gh1 :ile 9 ?is condition1 !y produce no effect ^u ! oxyg5 ( ! air ab\t !m1 !y consume :5 respir+ m ?an f\r cubic in*es ( oxyg5 an h\r4 ,! common m>mot is a great und]gr\nd sleep]4 ,!y build l>ge /oreh\ses1 sometimes eight feet 9 diamet]1 & f ! latt] "p ( ,septemb] to ,april !y lie 9 !m1 &1 l ! be>s1 give bir? to _! "y dur+ ?is p]iod4 ,! dorm\se is a rem>kable sleep]4 ,ev5 9 _! ord9>y sleep !y c be tak5 f ! ne/ & h&l$ )\t wak+ !m4 ,t[>d w9t] !y acquire a great deal ( fat1 & /[ away a va/ am\nt ( provision ar\nd ab\t _! ne/1 & !n g to sleep )92 b !y r>ely awake to use ?is food unless a v w>m p]iod comes ar\nd be=e ! regul> break+ up ( cold wea!r4 ,! h$gehog is a s\nd w9t] sleep]1 & has be5 ! subject ( an inf9ite numb] ( exp]im5ts :ile 9 ?is condition4 ,"o exp]im5tali/1 believ+ t cold 0 ! cause ( _! curi\s condition1 surr\nd$ "o ) a freez+ mixture1 & froze x to dea?4 ,by increas+ ! cold ab\t ano!r t 0 already hib]nat+1 x 0 made to wake up2 & walk$ (f4 ,if an animal is sudd5ly decapitat$ :ile 9 ?is hib]nat+ condition1 ! action ( ! he>t is n affect$ = "s "t1 a second life seem+ to outlive ! "o tak54 ,an exp]im5t has be5 made 9 :i* ! bra9 ( ! sleep] 0 remov$1 !n ! entire sp9al cord1 b = two h\rs h>dly any *ange 0 noticeable ^u ! action ( ! he>t2 & a day aft] t organ contract$ :5 t\*$ by ! op]ator4 ,! writ] has ! w9t] ne/ ( a family ( ants4 ,a piece ( f5ce rail 0 f\nd b5ea? an old pile ( bo>ds & br\ght into a w>m room = ! sake ( a ri* fungus gr[+ ^u x1 & sev]al h\rs aft] ! table & *airs 7 f\nd to be cov]$ ) ants4 ,:]e !y came f 0 a my/]y1 until ! old rail 0 accid5tally j>r$ & a numb] fell f x4 ,a section 0 cut d[n ?r\gh x1 & ! w9t] home ( ! tribe de/roy$--probably ! "w ( weeks1 p]haps mon?s4 ,! int]ior ( ! wood 0 completely riddl$ by tunnels & passages1 "s be+ l>ge & hold+ sev]al hundr$ ants1 :ile o!rs conta9$ only a few4 ,9 "s ( ! int]ior passages ! ants _h n be5 affect$ by ! heat1 & 7 pack$ 9 great masses & evid5tly fa/ asleep2 !y soon recov]$1 h[ev]1 & walk$ (f sl[ly 9 diff]5t directions1 z if wond]+ if an e>?quake or spr+ _h come4 ,a great numb] ( insects g ?r\gh a p]iod ( hib]nation1 especially spid]s4 ,! "y ( ! latt] are (t5 cov]$ by ! p>5t2 fir/1 by co>se /r+s ( silk1 z if to hold !m 9 place1 & !n by a :ite1 silv]y web work$ ov] !m1 :i* =ms probably a sure protection f w9d & wea!r4 ,! writ] has a *]ry-/one 9 :i* is coil$ up an insect1 be/ kn[n z ! s[bug4 ,a squirrel _h probably eat5 out ! meat & op5$ ! way1 & 9 ?is snug retreat we f\nd ! little hib]nat] snugly roll$ up1 z is also its habit :5 al>m$4 ,! m\? ( ! hole 0 /opp$ by black soil1 b :e!r f accid5t or by ! animal itself we c\ld n tell4 ,"s fi%es & reptiles are hib]nat]s4 ,frogs & toads sleep out ! w9t] at ! bottom ( ponds or 9 holes 9 ! gr\nd4 ,tree toads1 if kept 9 a cage 9 ! w9t] & provid$ ) soil1 w endeavor to cov] !mselves ) x1 %[+ h[ /rong ! in/9ct or habit is4 ,"s fi%es are s ins5sible to heat or cold t :5 9 ?is condition !y c be froz5 & c>ri$ = a numb] ( days & !n be br\ght back to an active condition4 ,! pond snail passes into a w9t] sleep z soon z ! temp]ature ( ! wat] is bel[ #ad ,c5t41 t is1 !y w n dige/ food or gr[ until ! temp]ature ( ! wat] is at lea/ up to #ae ,c5t4 ,^? :o h wat*$ ! ,h>lem ,riv] f ,mc,comb's ,dam ,bridge _c h fail$ to notice ! curi\s appe>ance ( ! muddy %ores ( ! riv] & creeks at l[ tide4 ,if ! sun %9es brightly1 ! dismal bea* seems to quiv] & sc9tillate 9 a mo/ beautiful mann]1 reflect+ ! light l s _m diamonds4 ,if we draw ne>]1 ?is %ore is se5 to be entirely cov]$ 9 places ) little snails1 t1 left by ! tide1 are =g+ ?r\gh ! mud to rega9 ! wat]1 & ! sunlight /rik+ on !m is reflect$ by ! glass-l secretion ) :i* !y are cov]$1 produc+ ! curi\s effect notic$4 ,?is c\ld be se5 9 ! w>m mon?s1 b n[1 n a snail ( ! c\ntless millions c be se54 ,!y h gone d[n 9 se>* ( h>d-pan1 !re to hib]nate until next ,april4 ,! l& snail 7,helix pomatia7 sleeps f\r mon?s dur+ ! ye>1 & does n ?r[ (f ! calc>e\s lid t protects x dur+ ?is "t until ! day temp]ature has rea*$ #ab ,c5t4 ,prairie dogs feel ! effect ( temp]ature z l[ z ?is4 ,9 ,cuba reptiles hib]nate betwe5 #g & #bd ,c5t41 accord+ to ! species4 ,9 w>m] c\ntries1 snakes1 liz>ds1 frogs1 etc41 fall into a /ate call$ *ill coma t precisely resembles w9t] sleep1 b _! temp]ature is f> above t at :i* hib]nat+ animals ( ! nor? are /ill active4 ,! /ate ( hib]nation is n ! direct result ( an extreme ( heat or cold1 b r is caus$ by a dep>ture f ! optimum4 ,9 ! snail its normal temp]ature is ab\t ! same z ! wat]1 & be+ a poor heat produc] x is n surpris+ t :5 ! wat] gr[s cold] ! animal is =c$ to succumb2 b x is a rem>kable fact t w>m-blood$ animals l _m ( ! above-m5tion$1 ^: bodies are ma9ta9$ by int]nal processes at a high temp]ature ( #bf to #ch1 are incapable ( resi/+ ! l[]+ influ5ce ( cold4 ,! fall 9 temp]ature 9 "s is wond]ful2 z an example1 ! high body temp]ature ( w>m-blood$ animals may be said to oscillate betwe5 #cf & #dc ,c5t4 7?is includes man74 ,exp]im5ts made ) ! zizel %[ t dur+ hib]nation ?is animal's temp]ature is only #b ,c5t41 ! l[e/ kn[n2 & a !rmomet] introduc$ into ! animal indicat$ ! same1 %[+ t w>m-blood$ animals 9 hib]nat+ become truly cold blood$ animals4 ,if a rabbit's temp]ature rea*es #ae ,c5t41 x w die4 ,! g]ms ( bryozoa or ( ! fre% wat] sponges resi/ any am\nt ( cold1 b ! full gr[n =ms die at ! fir/ cold turn4 ,insects are de/roy$1 b _! eggs live1 ?\gh ( ! greate/ possible delicacy4 ,salmon eggs h be5 c>ri$ f ?is ,/ate to ,au/ralia1 & !re hat*$4 ,9 fact1 "s animals live 9 ! ice1 z ! glaci] flea & sev]al o!rs4 ,z x is n ! direct result ( extremes ( heat or cold t produces sleep1 nei!r is ! awak5+ f hib]nation directly caus$ by a rise ( temp]ature4 ,9 exp]im5ts made ^u weasels1 :i* are sometimes caught asleep1 "o came to life 9 ab\t ?ree h\rs1 dur+ :i* ! temp]ature ( ! room rema9$ ! same z x _h be5 dur+ ! entire hib]nation1 viz41 #aj ,c5t4 ,9 ano!r weasel1 dur+ ! awak5+1 ! body temp]ature rose v rapidly--& m s 9 ! second "p ( ! p]iod ?an 9 ! fir/4 ,9 ! fir/ h\r & fifty-five m9utes ( ! awak5+ ! body temp]ature rose #f4f ,c5t1 & 9 ! foll[+ fifty m9utes x rose #ag ,c5t4 ,?is rem>kable increase took place )\t any vigor\s movem5ts on ! "p ( ! weasel4 ,ev5 its brea?+ %[$ no increase 9 proportion to ! rise4 ,^! cases %[ t ?\gh1 at c]ta9 seasons1 animals relax z x 7 & lie dormant1 & recov]1 seem+ly at ! w ( ! wea!r1 yet1 9 po9t ( fact1 ! rise & fall ( temp]ature has no direct effect ^u !m4 ,! cause is an int]nal "o1 await+ discov]y4--,c4 ,f4 ,,hold]1 9 ,=e/ & ,/ream4 99 99 99 99 99 ,:at is describ$ z ! l>ge/ /eel sail+ %ip afloat 0 lately laun*$ at ,belfa/1 ,irel&4 ,x regi/]s #b1bbj tons1 & has be5 nam$ ! ,g>field4 ,x w be employ$ 9 ! ,au/ralian & ,cali=nia trade4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,tides4 ,london ,nature1 9 a rec5t issue1 says3 ,f a sci5tific po9t ( view1 ! "w done by ! tides is ( unspeakable importance4 ,:5ce is ?is en]gy d]iv$ ) :i* ! tides d _! "w8 ,if ! tides are caus$ by ! moon1 ! en]gy !y possess mu/ also be d]iv$ f ! moon4 ,?is looks pla9 en\gh1 b un=tunately x is n true4 ,w\ld x be true to ass]t t ! f+] ( ! rifleman :i* pulls ! trigg] supplies ! en]gy ) :i* ! rifle bullet is animat$8 ,( c\rse x w\ld n4 ,! en]gy is d]iv$ f ! explosion ( gunp[d]1 & ! pull+ ( ! trigg] is m]ely ! means by :i* t en]gy is lib]at$4 ,9 some:at simil> mann] ! tidal wave produc$ by ! moon is ! means :]eby a "p ( ! en]gy /or$ 9 ! e>? is compell$ to exp5d itself 9 "w4 ,let me illu/rate ?is by a comp>ison betwe5 ! e>? rotat+ on its axis & ! fly-:eel ( an eng9e3 ,! fly :eel is a sort ( res]voir1 into :i* ! eng9e p\rs its p[] at ea* /roke ( ! pi/on4 ,! v>i\s ma*9es 9 ! mill m]ely draw (f ! p[] f ! /ore accumulat$ 9 ! fly-:eel4 ,! e>? is l a gigantic fly-:eel deta*$ f ! eng9e1 ?\gh /ill connect$ ) ! ma*9es 9 ! mill4 ,9 t mighty fly-:eel a /up5d\s quantity ( en]gy is /or$ up1 & a /up5d\s quantity ( en]gy w\ld be giv5 out be=e t fly-:eel w\ld come to re/4 ,! e>?'s rotation is a res]voir f :5ce ! tides draw ! en]gy !y require = do+ "w4 ,h5ce x is t ?\gh ! tides are caus$ by ! moon1 yet :5ev] !y require en]gy !y draw on ! supply ready to h& 9 ! rotation ( ! e>?4 ,! e>? diff]s f ! fly-:eel ( an eng9e 9 a v important po9t4 ,z ! en]gy is )drawn f ! fly-:eel by ! ma*9es 9 ! mill1 s x is re/or$ !reto by ! p[] ( ! /eam eng9e1 & ! fly runs uni=mly4 ,b ! e>? is m]ely ! fly-:eel )\t ! eng9e4 ,:5 ! "w by ! tides )draws en]gy f ! e>?1 t en]gy is nev] re/or$4 ,x1 !re=e1 foll[s t ! e>?'s rotation mu/ be decreas+4 ,?is leads to a consequ5ce ( ! mo/ wond]ful importance4 ,x tells u t ! spe$ ) :i* ! e>? rotates on its axis is dim9i%+4 ,we c /ate ! result 9 a mann] :i* has ! m]its ( simplicity & brevity4 ,! tides are increas+ ! l5g? ( ! day4 ,at pres5t1 no d\bt1 ! effect ( ! tides 9 *ang+ ! l5g? ( ! day is v small4 ,a day n[ is n appreciably long] ?an a day a hundr$ ye>s ago4 ,ev5 9 a ?\s& ye>s ! *ange 9 ! l5g? ( ! day is only a fraction ( a second4 ,b ! importance arises f ! fact t ! *ange1 sl[ ?\gh x is1 lies always 9 "o direction4 ,! day is cont9ually increas+4 ,9 millions ( ye>s ! accumulat$ effect becomes n only appreciable1 b ev5 ( />tl+ magnitude4 ,! *ange 9 ! l5g? ( ! day mu/ involve a correspond+ *ange 9 ! motion ( ! moon4 ,if ! moon acts on ! e>? & ret>ds ! rotation ( ! e>?1 s1 conv]sely1 does ! e>? react ^u ! moon4 ,! e>? is torm5t$ by ! moon1 s x /rives to drive away its p]secutor4 ,at pres5t ! moon revolves ar\nd ! e>? at a di/ance ( ab\t #bdj1jjj miles4 ,! reaction ( ! e>? t5ds to increase ?is di/ance1 & to =ce ! moon to revolve 9 an orbit :i* is cont9ually gr[+ l>g] & l>g]4 ,z ?\s&s ( ye>s roll on1 ! l5g? ( ! day increases second by second1 & ! di/ance ( ! moon increases mile by mile4 ,a million ye>s ago ! day1 probably1 conta9$ "s m9utes less ?an our pres5t day ( tw5ty-f\r h\rs4 ,our retrospect does n halt "h2 we at once project our view back to an incr$ibly remote epo* :i* 0 a crisis 9 ! hi/ory ( our sy/em4 ,x mu/ h be5 at lea/ #ej1jjj1jjj ye>s ago4 ,x may h be5 v mu* e>li]4 ,?is crisis 0 ! int]e/+ occasion :5 ! moon 0 born4 ,! l5g? ( ! day 0 only a v few h\rs4 ,if we call x ?ree h\rs we %all n be f> f ! tru?4 ,purhaps y may ?9k t if we look$ back to a /ill e>li] epo*1 ! day w\ld become /ill less1 & f9ally disappe> altoge!r4 ,?is is1 h[ev]1 n ! case4 ,! day c nev] h be5 mu* less ?an ?ree h\rs 9 ! pres5t ord] ( ?+s4 ,ev]ybody kn[s t ! e>? is n a sph]e1 b !re is a protub]ance at ! equator1 s t1 z our s*ool books tell u1 ! e>? is %ap$ l an orange4 ,x is well kn[n t ?is protub]ance is due to ! rotation ( ! e>? on its axis1 by :i* ! equatorial p>ts bulge out by c5trifugal =ce4 ,! quick] ! e>? rotates ! great] is ! protub]ance4 ,if1 h[ev]1 ! rate ( rotation exce$s a c]ta9 limit1 ! equatorial portion ( ! e>? c\ld no long] cl+ toge!r4 ,! attraction :i* unites !m w\ld be ov]come by c5trifugal =ce1 & a g5]al break up w\ld occur4 ,x c be %[n t ! rotation ( ! e>?1 :5 on ! po9t ( rupture1 corresponds to a l5g? ( ! day some:]e ab\t ! critical value ( ?ree h\rs1 :i* we h already adopt$4 ,x is1 !re=e1 impossible = u to suppose a day mu* %ort] ?an ?ree h\rs4 ,let u leave ! e>? = a few m9utes & exam9e ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! moon4 ,we h se5 ! moon revolve ar\nd ! e>? 9 an ev]-wid5+ orbit1 & consequ5tly ! moon mu/1 9 anci5t times1 h be5 ne>] ! e>? ?an x is n[4 ,no d\bt ! *ange is sl[4 ,!re is n mu* diff]5ce betwe5 ! orbit ( ! moon a ?\s& ye>s ago & ! orbit 9 :i* ! moon is n[ mov+4 ,b :5 we rise to millions ( ye>s1 ! diff]5ce becomes v appreciable4 ,?irty or =ty millions ( ye>s ago ! moon 0 mu* clos] to ! e>? ?an x is at pres5t2 v possibly ! moon 0 !n only half its pres5t di/ance4 ,we mu/1 h[ev]1 look /ill e>li]1 to a c]ta9 epo* n less ?an fifty million ( ye>s ago4 ,at t epo* ! moon mu/ h be5 s close to ! e>? t ! two bodies 7 almo/ t\*+4 ,ev]ybody kn[s t ! moon revolves n[ ar\nd ! e>? 9 a p]iod ( tw5ty-sev5 days4 ,! p]iod dep5ds ^u ! di/ance betwe5 ! e>? & ! moon4 ,9 e>li] times ! mon? mu/ h be5 %ort] ?an our pres5t mon?4 ,"s millions ( ye>s ago ! moon complet$ its j\rney 9 a week in/ead ( tak+ tw5ty-eight days z at pres5t4 ,look+ back e>li] /ill1 we f9d ! mon? has dw9dl$ d[n to a day1 !n d[n to a few h\rs1 until at t wondr\s epo* :5 ! moon 0 almo/ t\*+ ! e>?1 ! moon spun ar\nd ! e>? once e ?ree h\rs4 ,9 ^? anci5t times ,i see our e>? to be a noble globe1 z x is z pres5t4 ,yet x is n p>tly cov]$ ) oceans & p>tly clo!d ) v]dure4 ,! primeval e>? seems r a fi]y & half-molt5 mass1 :]e no organic life c dwell4 ,in/ead ( ! atmosph]e :i* we n[ h1 ,i see a d5se mass ( vapors 9 :i* p]haps1 all ! oceans ( ! e>? are susp5d$ z cl\ds4 ,i see t ! sun /ill rises & sets to give ! succession ( day & ( night1 b ! day & ! night toge!r only am\nt$ to ?ree h\rs1 in/ead ( tw5ty-f\r4 ,almo/ t\*+ ! *aotic mass ( ! e>? is ano!r mu* small] & equally *aotic body4 ,ar\nd ! e>? ,i see ?is small body rapidly rotat+1 ! two revolv+ toge!r1 z if !y 7 b\nd by invisible b&s4 ,! small] body is ! moon4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,drill+ ,,glass4 ,! ,revue ,indu/rielle gives ! foll[+ me?od ( drill+ holes 9 glass3 ,fir/1 prep>e a saturat$ solution ( gum camphor 9 oil ( turp5t9e4 ,!n take a lance-%ap$ drill1 heat x to a :ite heat1 & dip x into a ba? ( m]cury1 :i* w r5d] x extremely h>d4 ,:5 %>p5$ & dipp$ into ! above-nam$ camphor solution1 ! tool w ent] ! glass z if ! latt] 7 z s(t z wood4 ,if c>e be tak5 to keep ! spot be+ drill$ con/antly wet ) ! solution1 ! op]ation w proce$ rapidly1 & !re w r>ely be any ne$ ( %>p5+ ! tool4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a catalogue1 conta9+ brief notices ( _m important sci5tific pap]s h]et(ore publi%$ 9 ! ,,supplem5t1 may be _h gratis at ?is (fice4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ,,supplem5t4 ,,publi%$ ,,weekly4 ,,t]ms ,,( ,,subscription1 #e ,a ,,ye>4 ,s5t by mail1 po/age prepaid1 to subscrib]s 9 any "p ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates or ,canada4 ,six doll>s a ye>1 s5t1 prepaid1 to any =eign c\ntry4 ,all ! back numb]s ( ,,! ,,supplem5t1 f ! comm5cem5t1 ,janu>y #a1 #ahgf1 c be _h4 ,price1 #aj c5ts ea*4 ,all ! back volumes ( ,,! ,,supplem5t c likewise be suppli$4 ,two volumes are issu$ ye>ly4 ,price ( ea* volume1 #b4ej1 /it*$ 9 pap]1 or #c4ej1 b\nd 9 /iff cov]s4 ,,comb9$ ,,rates--,"o copy ( ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican & "o copy ( ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ,,supplem5t1 "o ye>1 po/paid1 #g4jj4 ,a lib]al disc\nt to booksell]s1 news ag5ts1 & canvass]s4 ,,munn ,,co41 ,,publi%]s1 #bfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york1 ,n4 ,y4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,pat5ts4 ,9 connection ) ! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican1 ,messrs4 ,,munn ,co4 are ,solicitors ( ,am]ican & ,=eign ,pat5ts1 h _h #ce ye>s' exp]i5ce1 & n[ h ! l>ge/ e/abli%m5t 9 ! _w4 ,pat5ts are obta9$ on ! be/ t]ms4 ,a special notice is made 9 ! ,,sci5tific ,,am]ican ( all ,inv5tions pat5t$ ?r\gh ?is ,ag5cy1 ) ! "n & resid5ce ( ! ,pat5tee4 ,by ! imm5se circulation ?us giv51 public att5tion is direct$ to ! m]its ( ! new pat5t1 & sales or introduction (t5 easily effect$4 ,any p]son :o has made a new discov]y or inv5tion c asc]ta91 free ( *>ge1 :e!r a pat5t c probably be obta9$1 by writ+ to ,,munn ,co4 ,we also s5d free our ,h& ,book ab\t ! ,pat5t ,laws1 ,pat5ts1 ,caveats4 ,trade ,m>ks1 _! co/s1 & h[ procur$1 ) h9ts = procur+ advances on inv5tions4 ,address ,,munn ,,co41 #bfa ,,broadway1 ,,new ,,york4 ,bran* ,(fice1 cor4 ,f & #g? ,/s41 ,wa%+ton1 ,d4 ,c4